,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,by ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hegel ,,translated1 ,,with ,,notes1 ,,by ,f4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,osmaston1 ,b4,a4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,and ,,genius ,,of ,,tintoret1 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,poetry1 ,,and ,,other ,,works ,,vol ,,ii ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,second ,,part ,,introduction ,evolution of the ,ideal in the ,particular ,types of ,fine ,art1 namely1 the ,symbolic1 the ,classical1 and the ,romantic4 ,symbolic ,art seeks after that unity of ideal significance and external form1 which ,classical art in its representation of substantive individuality succeeds in securing to sensuous perception1 and which ,romantic art passes beyond1 owing to its excessive insistence on the claims of ,spirit ,,subsection ,i ,,the ,,symbolic ,,type ,,of ,,art ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,symbol ,,generally #a4 ,symbol as a sign simply in language1 colours1 etc4 #h #b4 ,not a mere sign to represent something else1 but a significant fact which presents the idea or quality it symbolizes #i #c4 ,thing symbolized must have other qualities than that accepted as symbol4 ,term symbol necessarily open to ambiguity #aj 7a7 ,ambiguity in particular case whether the concrete fact is set before us as a symbol4 ,difference between a symbol and a simile4 ,illustrations #aj 7b7 ,ambiguity extends to-entire worlds of ,art1 e4g1 ,oriental art4 ,two theories with regard to mythos discussed and contrasted #ad 7c7 ,the problems of mythology in the present treatise limited to the question1 ,how far symbolism is entitled to rank as a form of ,art8 ,will only consider symbol in so far as it belongs to ,art in its own right and itself proceeds from the notion of the ,ideal1 the unfolding of which it commences #ai ,,division ,,of ,,subject #a4 ,the artistic consciousness originates in wonder4 ,the effects that result from such a state4 ,art the first interpreter of the religious consciousness4 ,conceptions envisaged in plastic forms of natural objects #bc #b4 ,the final aim of symbolic art is classical art4 ,here it is dissolved4 ,the ,sublime lies between the two extremes #bf #c4 ,the stages of symbolical art classified according to their subdivisions in the chapters of this4 ,second ,part of the entire treatise #bi ,,chapter ,i ,,unconscious ,,symbolism ,a4 ,unity of ,significance and ,form in its immediacy #cf #a4 ,the religion of ,zoroaster #cg #b4 ,no true symbolical significance in the above #db #c4 ,equally destitute of an artistic character #dd ,b4 ,fantastic ,symbolism #dg #a4 ,the ,hindoo conception of ,brahm #ej #b4 ,sensuousness1 measurelessness1 and personifying activity of ,hindoo imagination #ea #c4 ,conception of purification and penance #fd ,c4 ,genuine ,symbolism #fe #a4 ,nature no longer accepted in its immediate sensuous existence as adequate to the significance4 ,art and general outlook of ancient ,egypt #ge 7a7 ,the inward import held independent of immediate existence in the embalmed corpse #gf 7b7 ,doctrine of immortality of the soul as held by ,egyptians #gf 7c7 ,superterranean and subterranean modes of ,egyptian art4 ,the ,pyramids #gg #b4 ,worship of animals1 as the vision of a secreted soul4 ,symbolical and non-symbolical aspects of this cult #gh #c4 ,works of ,egyptian art are objective riddles4 ,the ,sphinx symbolic of the genius of ,egypt4 ,memnons1 ,isis1 and ,osiris #gi ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,sublime ,a4 ,pantheism of ,art #hi #a4 ,hindoo poetry #ij #b4 ,persian and ,mohammedan poetry4 ,modern reflections of such poetry as in ,goethe #ib #c4 ,christian ,mysticism #ig ,b4 ,the ,art of the ,sublime #ig #a4 ,god as ,creator and ,lord of a subject ,world4 ,he is ,creator1 not ,generator4 ,his ,dwelling not in ,nature #ajj #b4 ,nature and the human form cut off from the ,divine 7entgttert7 #aja #c4 ,nullity of objective fact a source of the enhanced self-respect of man4 ,man's finiteness and immeasurable transcendency of ,god4 ,no place for immortality4 ,the ,law #ajc ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,conscious ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,comparative ,,type ,,of ,,art ,a4 ,modes of ,comparison originating from the side of externality #aaj #a4 ,the ,fable4 ,aesop #aac #b4 ,the ,parable1 ,proverb1 and ,apologue #abb #c4 ,the ,metamorphosis #abe ,b4 ,comparisons1 which in their imaginative presentation originate in the ,significance #abh #a4 ,the ,riddle #acj #b4 ,the ,allegory #acb #c4 ,the ,metaphor1 ,image1 and ,simile #acg ,c4 ,the ,disappearance of the ,symbolic ,type of ,art #afa #a4 ,the ,didactic ,poem #afc #b4 ,descriptive ,poetry #afe #c4 ,relation of both aspects of internal feeling and external object in the ancient ,epigram #afe ,,subsection ,,ii ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,of ,,art ,,introduction ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,in ,,general #a4 ,self-subsistency of the ,classical type viewed as the interfusion of the spiritual and its natural form #age 7a7 ,no return of the ideal principle upon itself4 ,no separation of opposed aspects of inward and external #age 7b7 ,symbolism absent from this type except incidentally #agf 7c7 ,reproach of anthropomorphism #agi #b4 ,greek art as the realized existence of the classical type #aha #c4 ,position of the creative artist under such a type #ahc 7a7 ,his freedom no result of a restless process of fermentation4 ,receives his material as something assured in history or belief #ahc 7b7 ,his plastic purpose is clearly defined #ahd 7c7 ,high level of technical ability #ahe ,classification of subject-matter #ahf ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,formative ,,process ,,of ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,of ,,art ,introduction and ,division of subject #ahi #a4 ,the ,degradation of ,animalism as such #aia 7a7 ,the sacrifice of animals4 ,how regarded by the ,greeks #aib 7b7 ,the ,chase1 or examples of such in heroic times #aid 7c7 ,tales of metamorphosis4 ,illustrations both from ,greek and ,egyptian traditions #aid #b4 ,the ,contest between the older and later ,dynasties of ,gods #bja 7a7 ,the oracles whereby the gods attest their presence through natural existences #bje 7b7 ,the ancient gods in contradistinction from the new #bjh 77 ,the ,titan natural potences included among the older rgime #bjh 77 ,they are the powers of ,earth and the stars #bjh without spiritual or ethical content4 ,prometheus4 ,the ,erinnyes #bji 77 ,the order of these gods is a succession #bae 7c7 ,the conquest of the older rgime of gods #bag #c4 ,the ,positive ,conservation of the conditions set up by ,negation #bbj 7a7 ,the ,mysteries #bbj 7b7 ,preservation of old rgime still more obvious in artistic creations4 ,illustrations from ,greek poetry #bba 7c7 ,the ,nature-basis of the later gods4 ,nature not in itself divine to the ,greek4 ,illustrations of both points of view #bbc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,of ,,art ,introduction and ,division of subject-matter #bbi #a4 ,the ,ideal of ,classical ,art generally #bcj 7a7 ,the ,classical ,ideal is a creation of free artistic activity1 though it reposes on earlier historical elements #bcj 77 ,the ,greek gods are neither the appearance of mere external ,nature1 nor the abstraction from one ,godhead #bcb 77 ,the ,greek artist is a poet4 ,but his productive power is concretely spiritual1 not merely capricious #bcc 77 ,the relation of the ,greek gods to human life4 ,illustrations from ,homer1 etc4 #bcc 7b7 ,what is the type of the new gods of ,greek art8 #bce 77 ,their concentrated individuality1 or substantive characterization #bcf 77 ,their beauty not merely spiritual1 but also plastic #bcg 77 ,removal of them from all that is purely finite into a sphere of lofty blessedness exalted above mere sensuous shape #bch 7c7 ,the nature of the external representation4 ,sculpture1 in its secure self-possession1 most suited as the medium #bda #b4 ,the ,sphere or ,cycle of the ,individual ,gods #bdb 7a7 ,what is called the divine ,universum is here broken up into particular deities #bdb 7b7 ,absence of an articulate system #bdc 7c7 ,the general character of their distinguishing attributes #bdd #c4 ,the particular ,individuality of the ,gods #bdf 7a7 ,the appropriate material for such individualization 77 ,the natural religions of symbolism a primary source4 ,illustrations #bdg 77 ,that of local conditions #bej 77 ,that of the world of concrete fact4 ,illustrations from ,homer1 etc4 #bed 7b7 ,retention of a fundamental ethical basis #beh 7c7 ,advance in the direction of grace and charm #bei ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,dissolution ,,of ,,the ,,classical ,,type #a4 ,fate or ,destiny #bfa #b4 ,dissolution through the nature of the anthropomorphism of the gods #bfc 7a7 ,absence or defect of the principle of subjectivity as here asserted #bfc 7b7 ,the transition to ,christian conceptions only found in more modern art4 ,the prosaic art of the ,aufklrung4 ,illustrations #bff 7c7 ,the dissolution of classical art in its own province #bgj #c4 ,satire #bgc 7a7 ,distinction between the dissolution of classical and symbolic art #bgd 7b7 ,the ,satire #bgf 7c7 ,the ,roman world as the basis of the satire with illustrations ancient and modern #bgg ,,subsection ,,iii ,,the ,,romantic ,,type ,,of ,,art ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,romantic ,,in ,,general #a4 ,the ,principle of inward ,subjectivity #bhb #b4 ,the steps in the ,evolution of the content and form of the ,romantic ,principle #bhc 7a7 ,point of departure deduced from the ,absolute viewed as the determinate existence of a self-knowing subject of thought and volition4 ,man viewed as self-possessed ,divine4 ,history of ,christ #bhf 7b7 ,this process of self-recognition and reconcilement viewed as a process in which strain and conflict arise4 ,death as viewed by ,christian and ,greek art contrasted #bhg 7c7 ,the finite aspect of subjective life in the secular interests1 the passions1 collisions1 and suffering1 or enjoyment of the earthly life #bij #c4 ,the romantic mode of exposition in relation to its content #bia 7a7 ,the content of romantic viewed relatively to the ,divine extremely restricted4 ,nature divested of its association1 symbolic or otherwise1 with ,divinity #bia 7b7 ,religion the premiss of romantic art in a far more enhanced degree than in symbolic art4 ,influence of the romantic principle on the medium adopted #bic 7c7 ,two worlds covered by the romantic principle1 viz41 the soul-kingdom of ,spirit reconciled therein1 and the realm of external ,nature from which even the aspect of ugliness is not excluded4 ,latter world only portrayed in so far as soul finds a home therein #bic ,division of subject-matter #bie ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,religious ,,domain ,,of ,,romantic ,,art #a4 ,the ,redemption history of ,christ #cjb 7a7 ,the principle of ,love as paramount in this religious sphere4 ,how far ,art in such a sphere is a superfluity #cjc 7b7 ,from a certain aspect the appearance of ,art is necessary #cjc 7c7 ,the aspect of contingency in the particularity of an individual ,person as such ,divine #cjd 77 ,the presentment by artists of the exterior personality of ,christ #cjd 77 ,the conflict inherent in the religious growth1 viewed as a process1 though determining that process universally1 is concentrated in the history of one person in the first instance #cjf 77 ,the feature of death only regarded here as a point of transition to self-reconcilement #cjh #b4 ,religious ,love #cji 7a7 ,conception of the ,absolute as ,love #cji 7b7 ,form of ,love as self-concentrated emotion4 ,affiliation of such with sensuous presentment #caj 7c7 ,love as the ,ideal of romantic art #caj 77 ,christ as ,divine ,love #caa 77 ,form most compatible with ,art the love of mother4 ,mary1 mother of ,jesus #caa 77 ,love of ,christ's disciples and the ,christian community #cac #c4 ,the ,spirit of the ,community #cac 7a7 ,the ,martyrs #cae 7b7 ,penance and conversion within the soul #cbj 7c7 ,miracles and ,legends #cbc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,chivalry ,introduction #cbe #a4 ,honour #ccb 7a7 ,notion of same4 ,contrast between ,greek and modern art in this respect #ccb 7b7 ,vulnerability of same #cce 7c7 ,reparation demanded4 ,honour a mode of self-subsistency which is self-reflective #ccf #b4 ,love #ccg 7a7 ,fundamental conception of4 ,illustrations from poetry #ccg 7b7 ,collisions of the same #cda 77 ,that between honour and love #cda 77 ,that between the supreme spiritual forces of state1 family1 etc41 and love #cdb 77 ,opposition between love and external conditions in the prose of life and the prejudice of others #cdb 7c7 ,limitation of contingency inherent in the conception itself #cdc #c4 ,fidelity #cde 7a7 ,loyalty of service #cdf 7b7 ,the nature of its co-ordination with a social order either in the world of ,chivalry or the modern #cdg 7c7 ,nature of its collisions4 ,illustrations4 ,the ,cid1 etc4 #cdh ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,formal ,,self-,,stability ,,of ,,particular ,,individualities ,introduction #cej #a4 ,the ,self-subsistence of individual ,character #ced 7a7 ,the formal stability of character #cee 7b7 ,character viewed as an inward but undisclosed totality4 ,illustrations from ,shakespeare #cei 7c7 ,the substantial interest in the display of such formal character4 ,shakespeare's vulgar characters1 and the geniality of their presentment #cfe #b4 ,the ,spirit of ,adventure #cfg 7a7 ,the contingent nature of ends and collisions #cfh 77 ,christian ,chivalry in its conflict with ,moors1 ,arabs1 and ,mohammedans4 ,crusades4 ,holy ,grail #cfi 77 ,the universal spirit of adventure in the personal experience of individuals4 ,dante and the ,divine ,comedy #cga 77 ,the contingency within the soul due to love1 honour1 and fidelity #cga 7b7 ,the comic treatment of such contingency4 ,ariosto and ,cervantes1 contrast between #cgb 7c7 ,the spirit of the novel or romance #cge #c4 ,the ,dissolution of the ,romantic type #cgg 7a7 ,the artistic imitation of what is directly presented by ,nature #cgi 77 ,naturalism in poetry4 ,diderot1 ,goethe1 and ,schiller #cha 77 ,dutch genre painting #chb 77 ,interest in objects delineated related to artistic personality #che 7b7 ,individual ,humour #chf 7c7 ,the end of the romantic type of ,art #chh 77 ,conditions under which it is possible for the artist to bring the ,absolute before the aesthetic sense #chi 77 ,the position of ,art at the present day4 ,analogous position of modern artist and dramatist #cia 77 ,general review of previously evolved process of ,art's typical structure4 ,what is possible for modern art and the conditions necessary4 ,illustration of the terminus of romantic art with the nature of the ,epigram4 ,supreme function of ,art #cid ,,second ,,part ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,ideal ,,in ,,the ,,particular ,,types ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,fine ,,art ,,introduction ,all that has hitherto been the object of our examination in the first part of this inquiry referred to the reality of the ,idea of the beautiful as ,ideal of art4 ,in whatever direction1 however1 we developed the notion of the ideal art-product1 we throughout applied to it a meaning of purely general signification4 ,but the idea of the beautiful implies a totality likewise of essential differences1 which as such must in veritable form assert themselves4 ,these differences we may broadly describe as the particular modes of art1 as the evolved content of that which is implied in the notion of the ,ideal1 and which secures actual form through art4 ,when1 however1 we speak of these forms of art as of distinct species or grades#a of the ,ideal1 we do not accept the term in the ordinary usage of it as though we found here in external guise particular classes of objects related to and modifying the ,ideal respectively as their common genus4 ,species in the sense used here simply expresses the various and continuously expanding determination of the idea of the beautiful and the ,ideal of art itself4 ,the universality of the ideal representation is in the case posited not determined on the side of external existence1 but is assumed to be the closer determination of itself in the explication of its own notion2 or1 in other words1 it is the notion itself which unfolds itself in a totality of particular types of art4 ,more closely regarded1 then1 the specific types of art have their origin1 as the unfolded realization of the ,idea of the beautiful1 in the very nature of the ,idea itself1 which by means of them presses forward to real and concrete appearance4 ,moreover1 just in so far as it ceases to expand#b in the abstract determination or concrete fulness of any one of them1 it manifests itself in some other form of realized expression4 ,for the ,idea is only ,idea in its essential truth in so far as it proceeds in this self-evolution by means of its own activity4 ,and inasmuch as it is1 as ,ideal1 immediate appearance1 and moreover with each mode thereof is still identical as the idea of the beautiful1 we find that in every particular phase which reveals the ,ideal in its process of self-explication we have another actual manifestation which is immediately related to the essential characterization of those diverse types of yet further expansion4 ,it really is a matter of no consequence whether we regard this process as a process of the ,idea within its own substance1 or that of the form under which it attains determinate existence1 inasmuch as both aspects are immediately bound up with each other1 and the perfecting of the ,idea as content1 and the perfecting of its form are but two ways of expressing the same process4 ,or1 to put the matter in the reverse way1 the defects of a given form of art of this kind betray themselves as a defect of the ,idea1 in so far as such defects give a limited significance to the essential nature of the ,idea in external form1 and as such invest it with reality4 ,when we consequently compare such still inadequate forms of art with what most obviously presents itself for comparison1 that is1 the true ,ideal1 we must be careful not to use expressions commonly applicable to works of art that are failures1 which either express nothing at all1 or have discovered an incompetence to express what ought to have been expressed4 ,rather for every form of the ,idea there is a definite mode of appearance1 which clothes it precisely in one of those particular forms of art to which we have adverted1 adequate in every respect thereto1 and the defective or perfected character of which consists entirely in the relative truth or untruth of the determinate form1 under which and through which the ,idea is actually realized4 ,for the content must first be clothed with reality and concreteness before it can attain to the form wholly adequate to its essential truth4 ,as we have already indicated in the previous division of our subject-matter1 we have three fundamental forms or types of art to examine4 ,first1 we have the symbolical4 ,in this the ,idea is still seeking for its true artistic expression1 because it is here still essentially abstract and undetermined1 and consequently has not mastered for itself the external appearance adequate to its own substance1 but rather finds itself in unresolved opposition to the external objects in physical ,nature and the world of mankind4 ,and inasmuch as in this crude relation to objective existence it immediately surmises its own isolation1 or is carried into some form of concrete existence by means1 of universal characteristics which are void of all true definition1 it vitiates and falsifies the actual forms of reality which it has found1 and which it seizes in a wholly capricious way#c4 ,and1 consequently1 instead of being able to identify itself completely with the object1 it can only assert a kind of accord1 or rather a still abstract reflection of significance and figure1 a mode of representation which1 being neither complete in its artistic fusion1 nor capable of being completed1 suffers the object to emerge as reciprocally external1 strange1 and inadequate to itself as it was before4 ,secondly1 we have the form in which the ,idea1 here in accordance with its true notional activity1 is carried beyond the abstraction and indeterminacy of general characterization#d1 is conscious of itself as free and infinite subjectivity1 and grasps that self-conscious life in its real existence as ,spirit 7,mind74 ,spirit1 as the free subject of consciousness1 is self-determined through its own resources1 and even in this its conscious grasp of self-determination possesses a form of externality adequate to express it1 and one in which the essential import of that consciousness can be united with an explicit reality entirely appropriate4 ,this second type of art1 the classical1 is based upon such absolutely homogeneous unity of content and form4 ,in order1 however1 to make this unity complete the human spirit1 in so far as it makes itself the object of art1 must not be taken as ,spirit in the absolute significance we refer to it1 where it discovers its adequate subsistence wholly in the spiritual resources of its own essential domain1 but rather as a still individualized spirit1 and as such charged with a certain aspect of isolation4 ,in other words1 the free individual which classical art unites to its forms appears1 it is true1 as essentially universal1 and consequently freed from all the mere contingence and particularity both of the subjective world of mind and the external world of ,nature4 ,but it is at the same time permeated by a universality which is itself essentially individualized4 ,for the external form is necessarily both defined and singular by virtue of its externality1 which it is only capable of completely fusing with an artistic content by representing that content as itself defined1 and consequently of a limited character2 and1 moreover1 it is only ,spirit that is thus particularized which can pass into an objective shape and unite itself with the same in an inseparable unity4 ,in this form ,art has reached the fulness of its own notion to this extent1 namely1 that the ,idea1 which is here spiritual individuality1 brought into immediate accord with itself in the form of its bodily presence1 receives from it a presentation so complete1 that external existence is no longer able to preserve its consistency as against the ideal significance which it serves to express2 or1 to put it in the reverse way1 the spiritual content is exclusively manifested in the elaborated form within which ,art clothes it for sensuous perception1 and thereby affirmatively asserts itself in the same4 ,thirdly1 we have the form in which the ,idea of beauty grasps its own being as absolute ,spirit1 ,spirit1 that is to say1 in the full consciousness of its untrammelled freedom4 ,but for this very reason it is unable any more to obtain complete realization in forms which are external2 its true determinate existence is now that which it possesses in itself as ,spirit4 ,that unity of the life of ,spirit and its external appearance which we find in classical art is unbound1 and it flees from the same once more into itself4 ,it is this recoil which presents to us the fundamental type of the romantic type of art4 ,here we find1 by reason of the free spirituality which pervades the content1 such content makes a more ideal demand upon expression than the mere representation through an external or physical medium is able to supply2 the form on its external side sinks therefore to a relation of indifference2 and in the romantic form of art we consequently meet with a separation between content and form as we previously found it in the symbolic form1 with this difference that it is now due to the subordination of matter to spiritual expression rather than the predominance of externality over ideal significance4 ,it is in this way that symbolic art seeks after that perfected unity of ideal significance and external form1 which classical art in its representation of substantive individuality succeeds in communicating to sensuous perception1 and which romantic art passes over and beyond through its overwhelming insistence on the claims of ,spirit4 ,footnote #a3 ,art4 ,hegel takes the ordinary scientific sense to describe the meaning4 ,the word type would more truly express it4 ,footnote #b3 ,fr sich selber ist4 ,that is1 having arrived at one form of determination1 returns upon itself and throws off another form1 just as the plant germ after arriving at the leaf expands into the bud1 and so on4 ,footnote #c3 ,that is1 with no reference to intelligent principle4 ,footnote #d3 ,allgemeiner ,gedanken4 ,hegel means the bare generalizations or abstract conceptions of thought4 ,,subsection ,i ,,the ,,symbolic ,,type ,,of ,,art ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,symbol ,,generally ,symbol1 in the signification we here attach to the word1 is not merely the beginning of art from the point of view of its notional development1 but marks also its first appearance in history4 ,we may consequently regard it as only the forecourt of art1 which is principally the possession of the ,east1 and through which1 after a variety of transitional steps and mediating passages1 we are at last introduced to the genuine realization of the ,ideal in the classical type of art4 ,we must therefore from the very first take care to distinguish symbol where its unique characteristics provide it with an independent sphere of its own1 in which it determines the radical and effective type of a certain form of art's exposition and presentment from that kind of symbolic expression which amounts to no more than a purely external aspect of form entirely without such independent significance4 ,in the latter sense we1 in fact1 come across it in the classical and romantic forms of art just as certain aspects of symbolical art are not wholly without the characteristic features of the classical ,ideal1 or present to us the origins of romantic art4 ,such reciprocal interplay between the fundamental forms of art attaches1 however1 merely to subsidiary images or isolated traits2 it has no power whatever to modify1 still less to expunge1 the animating principle which essentially determines the character of the entire work of art4 ,in such cases where we find symbol elaborated in its entirely unique and independent form it is as a general rule characterized by the quality of the sublime1 because its main impression is to show us the ,idea still united to measureless dimension rather than rounded in a free and self-defined content2 it would fain clothe itself with form1 and yet is unable to secure in the substantial appearances of the world a definite form which is entirely adequate to express the abstractness and universality of its longing4 ,on account of this inability to attain its purpose the ,idea passes over and beyond the external existence which surrounds it instead of penetrating to the core or completely making its home therein4 ,and this flight beyond the limits of the finite and visible world is precisely that which constitutes the general character of the sublime4 ,but before we proceed further it will be convenient1 by way of elucidating the formal aspect of our subject1 to explain at once1 if in quite general terms1 what we understand by the expression symbol4 ,generally speaking1 symbol is some form of external existence immediately presented to the senses1 which1 however1 is not accepted for its own worth1 as it lies thus before us in its immediacy1 but for the wider and more general significance which it offers to our reflection4 ,we may consequently distinguish between two points of view equally applicable to the term2 first1 the significance1 and1 secondly1 the mode in which such significance is expressed4 ,the first is a conception of the mind1 or an object which stands wholly indifferent to any particular content1 the latter is a form of sensuous existence or a representation of some kind or other4 #a4 ,symbol1 then1 is in the first place a sign4 ,when we speak of the significant and nothing more there is no necessary connection between the thing signified and its modus of expression whatever4 ,this manner of its expression1 this sensuous thing or image1 so far from being immediately called up by that for which it is the sign1 rather presents itself to the imagination as a wholly foreign content to it1 by no means necessarily associated with it in a unique way4 ,so1 for example1 in language tones are signs of specific conditions of idea or emotion4 ,by far the greater number of the tones of any language are1 however1 associated with the ideas1 which are thereby expressed entirely by chance1 so far as the content of those ideas is concerned1 even though the history of the development of language may show us that the original connection between the two was of a different nature1 and that an essential element in the difference between one language and another consists in this1 that the same idea is expressed through a different sound4 ,another example of such bare signs are colours#e1 which we used in cockades or flags in order to express the nationality of an individual or vessel4 ,such colours by themselves alone carry no particular quality which can be immediately related to the thing they signify1 that is1 the nation which they represent4 ,in a sense such as this1 where the bond between the signification and the sign is one of indifference1 symbol must not be understood when we connect the expression with art4 ,for art consists precisely in the reciprocal relation1 affinity1 and substantive fusion of significance and form4 #b4 ,we must consequently interpret sign in a different sense when we speak of it as equivalent to symbol4 ,the lion is1 for example1 a symbol of magnanimity1 the fox symbolizes cunning1 the circle eternity1 the triangle the ,triune ,god4 ,here we find that the lion and the fox themselves possess the qualities whose import they serve to express4 ,in the same way the circle points beyond the mere indefinite extension1 or the capriciously fixed limit of a straight line1 or any other line that does not return upon itself1 and which at the same time is suitable as the expression of a definite period of time2 and the triangle regarded as a totality possesses the same number of sides and angles as is involved in the idea of ,god1 when the determinations under which the religious consciousness defines the ,supreme ,being are expressed numerically4 ,in the latter forms of symbol therefore the objects presented to the senses have already in their own existence that significance1 to represent and express which they are used2 symbol as employed in this expanded sense is consequently no purely indifferent mark for something other than itself1 but a significant fact which in its own external form already presents the content of the idea which it symbolizes4 ,at the same time it is not the concrete thing it is itself1 which it should bring before the imagination1 but simply that general quality of significance which attaches to it4 #c4 ,we would1 thirdly1 draw attention to the fact that although symbol may not1 as is the case with the purely external and formal sign1 be wholly inadequate to the significance derived from it1 yet1 in order that it may retain its character as symbol1 it must on the other hand present an aspect which is strange to it4 ,in other words1 though the content which is significant1 and the form which is used to typify it in respect to a single quality1 unite in agreement1 none the less the symbolical form must possess at the same time still other qualities entirely independent of that one which is shared by it1 and is once for all marked as significant1 just as the content#f need not necessarily be a bare abstract quality such as strength or cunning1 but rather a concrete substance1 which on its side1 too1 possesses a variety of characteristics which distinguish it from the primary quality in which its symbolic character consists1 and in the same way1 but to a still greater degree1 from everything else that characterizes the symbolical form4 ,the lion1 for example1 possesses other qualities than mere strength1 the fox than mere cunning1 and the apprehension of ,god is not necessarily bound up with conceptions which imply number4 ,the content1 therefore1 as thus viewed1 is also placed in a relation of indifference to the symbolical form1 which represents it1 and the abstract quality which it typifies may quite possibly be present in countless other existing objects4 ,in the same way a content which is thus varied in its composition may possess many qualities1 to symbolize any of which other forms will equally serve where a similar correspondence with such is apparent4 ,the same reasoning is also applicable to the external object in which any particular content#g is symbolically expressed4 ,such an object1 in its concrete natural existence1 possesses a number of characteristics for all of which it may stand as the symbol4 ,the most obvious symbol for strength is unquestionably the lion1 but the ox and the horn of the ox may equally serve as such1 and from other points of view the ox possesses many other qualities as significant4 ,but few objects1 if any1 have been brought home to the imagination with such a prodigal wealth of symbolic form and imagery as that of the ,supreme ,being4 ,we may conclude1 then1 from the above remarks that the use of the term symbol is necessarily#h and essentially open to ambiguity4 7a7 ,for1 in the first place1 no sooner do we look for some symbol than the doubt almost invariably arises whether a particular form is to be accepted as a symbol or no2 and this is so1 though we set on one side the further ambiguity with reference to the particular nature of the content1 which a given form under all the variety of its aspects may be held to symbolize1 many of which may be employed symbolically through associating links that do not appear on the surface#i4 ,now what a symbol primarily offers us is generally speaking a form1 an image1 which of itself is the presentment of an immediate fact4 ,such immediate existence1 or its image1 a lion for example1 an eagle1 or a particular colour1 stands there before us as it is1 a valid existing fact4 ,the question consequently arises whether a lion1 whose image is set before us1 merely is set there to express the natural fact1 or whether in addition to this it carries a further significance1 that is the more abstract connotation of mere strength1 or the more concrete one of a hero or a period of the year1 husbandry and anything else we choose to infer from it2 whether in fact1 as we say1 the image is to be taken literally1 or with a further ideal significance1 or possibly only with the latter4 ,the last case finds its illustration in symbolical expressions of speech and particular words such as comprehension1 conclusion#aj and others of the same kind4 ,when such signify mental activities we have simply set before us the immediate import of a mental activity and no more without any recall to our memory of the material acts1 which originally were implied in the meaning of these words4 ,when on the contrary the picture of a lion is presented us we have not merely the significance to consider which it may bear as symbol1 but also the bodily shape and presence of the king of beasts before our eyes4 ,an ambiguity of this nature can only fully disappear when the sense attached to both aspects1 namely1 symbolical import1 and its external form1 is expressly stated1 and we learn by this means the exact relation which exists between them4 ,in that case1 however1 the concrete fact which is set before us ceases to be a symbol in the real meaning of the term1 and becomes simply an image1 the relation of which to significance is expressed by the well-known form of comparison1 namely1 simile4 ,in the simile1 that is to say1 both factors are immediately presented to us1 the general conception and its concrete image4 ,when on the contrary reflection has not proceeded so far as to hold general conceptions in assured independence1 and consequently to set them forth by themselves1 in that case we find that the sensuous image to which they are cognate1 and in which a significance of more general#aa import is able to find its expression is not yet conceived as separate from such a significance1 but both are still immediately held together in unity4 ,and this it is which1 as we shall see more closely as we proceed1 constitutes the distinction between symbol and comparison4 ,an illustration of the latter kind may be found in that exclamation of ,karl ,moor1 as he gazes on the setting sun3 ,thus dies a hero6 ,here we see that the ideal significance is expressly separated from the sensuous impression while at the same time it is associated with the picture4 ,in other cases1 it is true even of similes this act of separation in relation is not so clearly marked1 and the association appears to be more immediate2 in such cases it must already appear manifest from the general content of the narrative1 from the position assigned to the picture1 or other circumstances1 that viewed as merely a statement of fact1 such an image is not justified1 but that some special significance or other1 which cannot fail to arrest our attention1 is intended by it4 ,when1 for example1 ,luther says3 _/ ,a steadfast stronghold is our ,god4 _/ or we read3 _/ ,in den ,ocean schifft mit tausend ,masten der ,jungling1 ,still auf geretteten ,boot treibt in den ,hafen der ,greis#ab4 _/ we can have no doubt whatever upon the implied significance1 whether it be of a protection suggested by stronghold1 the world of hopes and life-plans symbolized in the picture of the ocean and the thousand masts2 or the narrowed aims and possessions with the assured plot of ground at the end1 which is reflected from the boat and the haven4 ,in the same way when we read in the ,old ,testament3 ,may ,god break their teeth in their mouth1 may the ,lord shatter the hindermost teeth of the young lions1 it is obvious that neither the words mouth1 teeth1 nor hindermost teeth of the young lions are used in the literal sense1 but are utilized as images and sensuous ideas1 which carry a significance only present to the mind1 and that such significance is all that matters4 ,this ambiguity1 then1 is all the more conspicuous in the case of symbolical representation for the reason that an image1 which carries a particular significance1 only receives the descriptive name of symbol when such significance ceases to be expressly marked by itself1 or is otherwise clearly emphasized as it is in the case of the simile4 ,no doubt the ambiguity of the genuine symbol is to this extent removed in that by virtue of this very uncertainty the fusion of the sensuous image and its significance becomes a matter more or less of convention and custom1 a feature which is indispensably necessary in the case where mere signs are used1 while on the other hand the simile asserts itself as something individual1 discovered on the spur of the moment to assist the meaning1 and is independently clear1 because it emphasizes the significance alongside of that independence4 ,at the same time1 though no doubt the symbol may be clear enough to those who are habituated to its use1 and whose imaginative life is at home in such a conventional atmosphere1 it is a very different matter with all who are outside this native circle1 or for whom it is now a thing of the ,past2 for such it is only the immediate sensuous representation which is in the first instance seized1 and it remains for these in every way a question of doubt1 whether they are to rest satisfied with that which lies openly before their eyes1 or are to accept these as indicators to yet further imagery or ideas4 ,when1 for example1 we gaze in ,christian churches upon the triangle in some conspicuous position on the walls1 we at once recognize that the intention is not to place before the view this geometrical figure simply as such1 but rather to draw our attention to its spiritual significance4 ,if1 however1 we were to find it elsewhere we should probably feel equally certain that such a figure had no reference whatever1 either as sign or symbol1 to the ,trinity4 ,on the other hand a folk strange to the ideas which have grown up in ,christian countries might easily feel doubts in both cases1 and it is by no means easy for ourselves to determine with equal certainty in all cases1 whether a figure of this kind is to be understood as presenting us with its literal or symbolical interpretation4 7b7 ,moreover this ambiguity does not merely apply to isolated cases1 but extends to vast areas of the entire domain of art1 to the content of an almost unlimited material open to our inspection1 to the content in full of all that ,oriental art has ever produced4 ,for this reason1 as we enter for the first time the world of ancient ,persian1 ,indian1 or ,egyptian figures and imaginative conceptions we experience a certain feeling of uncanniness1 we wander at any rate in a world of problems4 ,these fantastic images do not at once respond to our own world2 we are neither pleased nor satisfied with the immediate impression they produce on us2 rather we are instinctively carried forward by it to probe yet further into their significance1 and to inquire what wider and profounder truths may lie concealed behind such representations4 ,in other productions of the same kind it is apparent at the first glance that they are1 just like so many fairy tales of children1 merely an interplay of pictorial fancy1 a strange texture of curiosities woven together at haphazard4 ,for children delight in just such an even surface of pictures1 a play of the fancy which makes no demand on effort or intelligence1 but is simply a collection tumbled together4 ,nations on the contrary1 even in their childhood1 require as the food of their imaginative life a more essential content2 and this is just what in fact we find in the figures of ,indian and ,egyptian art1 although the interpretation of such problematical pictures is only dimly suggested1 and we experience great difficulty in deciphering it4 ,even in the province of classical art we meet now and again with a like uncertainty1 though it is the essence of classical art to be throughout clear and intelligible on its own surface without the use of symbolism of any kind4 ,and this clarity of classical art consists in this that it comprehends the true content of ,art1 in other words substantive#ac subjectivity1 and thereby discovers at the same time the true form1 which essentially expresses nothing less than this genuine content1 so that what it appears to mind1 the significance that is of it is just that1 which is veritably expressed in the external form1 both the ideal aspect and the plastic shape being entirely adequate to each other2 in symbolical art1 the simile1 and other forms of that kind1 the image always brings before perception something in addition to that significance1 for which it merely serves as the picture4 ,at the same time classical art1 too1 presents us with an aspect of ambiguity4 ,in considering the mythological phantasies of antique art it is frequently a matter most difficult to decide1 whether we do rightly in taking such plastic figures simply for what they are1 contenting ourselves with mere wonder over the wealth and charm1 which this happy play of imaginative vigour offers us1 for the reason of course that mythology is generally accepted as nothing but an idle collection of fairy tales1 or whether on the contrary we have still to seek for a significance of wider range and greater depth4 ,we shall feel the insistence of such a doubt in exceptional force where the content of these fables refers directly to the life and activity of the ,divine1 in cases1 that is1 where the stories handed down to us can only be regarded as utterly unworthy of the ,supreme ,being1 indicative of an invention as entirely inadequate as it is in the worst possible taste4 ,when we read1 for example1 the twelve labours of ,hercules1 or1 to take a stronger case1 are informed that ,zeus hurled ,hephaestus from ,olympus on to the island of ,lemnos1 with the result that ,vulcan remained lame ever after1 we are no doubt ready to believe that the entire story is nothing but a fairy tale of the imagination4 ,it is just as possible to believe that all the love affairs of ,zeus are mere freaks of a prodigal fancy4 ,but1 on the other hand1 for the very reason that such stories are told about the ,supreme ,divinity1 it is quite equally credible that meaning of more universal import is hidden under that which such myths immediately transmit to us4 ,with regard to such facts as those above stated1 there are two theories current of exceptional importance and contradictory to each other4 ,the one accepts mythology as a collection of stories of purely external significance1 which as such could not fail to be unworthy presentations of the ,divine nature1 though able1 when regarded apart from such associations1 to reveal to us much that is finely conceived1 delightful1 interesting1 nay1 even of great beauty4 ,they offer us1 however1 no ground whatever for attempting to enlarge their significance4 ,in this view mythology is in the form in which it is presented purely historical3 under one aspect1 that is1 treating it as art1 in its shapes1 pictures1 gods1 together with all the practical activities and events it describes1 it is amply self-sufficient1 or rather by the way it brings before us that which is significant supplies its own elucidation2 from another point of view1 that is to say1 its origin in history1 we have to regard it as built up from local claims1 no less than the chance caprice of priest1 artist1 and poet1 the facts of history1 foreign legends and traditions4 ,the theory which is opposed to the above is unable to rest satisfied with the purely external husk of mythological form and narration1 and insists on discovering beneath it a meaning of more universal and profounder import1 to master which1 as it breaks upon the surface1 it conceives to be the main object of mythological inquiry regarded as the scientific examination of the mythos4 ,in this view mythology must necessarily be apprehended as bound up with symbolism4 ,and by symbolism all that is meant here is just this1 that however bizarre1 ridiculous1 grotesque such myths appear to be1 however much the adventitious caprice of a plastic imagination may contribute to their form1 they are essentially a birth of ,spirit2 and in spite of it all contain in them significant ideas1 that is1 thoughts of universal significance upon the nature of ,god2 they are1 in short1 ,philosophemes4#ad ,in this latter sense the recent work of ,creuzer on symbolism is particularly noteworthy2 this writer has once more taken up the review of the mythological conceptions of the ancient world1 not1 as is so frequently the fashion1 from the external and prosaic standpoint1 or simply with the object of determining this artistic merit1 but rather expressly to elucidate the intrinsic rationality of their substance4 ,such an inquiry proceeds from the presupposition that myths and fabulous tales have their origin in the human spirit1 which is capable1 no doubt1 of playing freely with its notions of gods1 but in its religious interest marks the point where it enters a more exalted sphere1 in which reason itself is the discoverer of form1 albeit it is charged with the defect of being unable at this early stage to exhibit the core from which it grows with commensurate power4 ,and this assumption is essentially just4 ,religion discovers its fountain-head in ,spirit1 which seeks after its truth1 dimly discovers it1 bringing the same to consciousness by means of any form1 which displays an affinity with this form of truth1 be it a form of narrower or wider borders4 ,but once grant that it is reason which seeks after such forms1 and the necessity is obvious to recognize the work of reason4 ,such a recognition is alone truly worthy of human inquiry4 ,whoever shelves this problem makes himself master of nothing but a motley show of unrelated learning4 ,if we1 on the other hand1 probe into1 the truth of mythological conceptions as it presents itself to mind1 without at the same time excluding from our grasp that other aspect of them1 that is1 the haphazard caprice therein exercised by the imagination1 and all the external influences1 local or otherwise1 which have contributed to this creation1 we shall then be in a position to justify the various systems of mythology4 ,to justify the work of man in the imagery and forms that are the product of his spirit is a noble enterprise1 of rarer worth than the mere heaping together of the external facts of history4 ,the objection has no doubt been pressed against ,creuzer that here1 treading in the steps of the new ,platonists#ae1 the wider significance he elucidates from the myths is a creation he attaches to them himself2 that1 in short1 he discovers conceptions in them which are not merely without any historical basis to uphold them1 but which it can be positively shown he must have first introduced before he could have found them2 in other words it is asserted that neither the people of such times nor the poets or priests--although from another point of view emphasis is frequently laid on the occult wisdom of the priesthood--could have possessed any knowledge of such ideas1 which would have been wholly incompatible with the prevailing culture4 ,such objections1 of course1 are entitled to their full weight4 ,these peoples1 poets1 and priests have not1 in fact1 been conscious of universal conceptions in the particular form of universality which the human mind now discovers at the root of their mythological ideas1 in the sense that they could have deliberately clothed such conceptions in the forms of symbolism4 ,and as a matter of fact this is never maintained even by ,creuzer4 ,but however true it may be that the reflections of the ancient world over its mythology were entirely different from those of the modern1 we are by no means therefore entitled to conclude that the conceptions of its mythology are not essentially symbolical1 and as such must be fully accepted2 rather our inference should be that in the times when these peoples created the poetry of their myths1 from the midst of a life itself steeped in poetry1 they would instinctively bring home to consciousness all that was most spiritual and profound in that life in the forms of the imagination rather than that of reflection1 and fail to separate conceptions which were more universal or abstract from the concrete creations of their phantasy4 ,that this really was the case is a fact which we have in this inquiry to accept as fundamentally established2 we may1 nevertheless1 be equally prepared to admit that1 in such a form of interpretation as the symbolical1 theories are apt to slip in which are merely the product of artifice and ingenuity1 much as is the case with etymological science4 7c7 ,at the same time1 however much we may find ourselves in general agreement with the view that mythology1 with its tales of the gods and its circumstantial pictures of a persistently poetic imagination1 includes within its borders a content1 that is to say rational and profound religious conceptions1 it is still open to us to ask in our examination of the symbolical form of art whether for the same reason all mythology and art is to be interpreted in a symbolical sense1 in accordance with that typical assertion of ,friedrich von ,schlegel1 to the effect that we are bound to look for an allegory in every artistic representation4 ,the symbolical or allegorical is then understood in the sense that a general conception#af is assumed to underlie every work of art as its motive principle and every mythological form1 by bringing the universal character of which into prominence it should then be possible to expound the real significance of such a work or imaginative creation4 ,this mode of treatment is1 moreover1 very commonly adopted in our own days4 ,we find1 for instance1 in the more recent editions of ,dante a marked tendency to interpret every canto in an exclusively allegorical sense1 and no doubt the poetry of ,dante contains many examples of such allegories4 ,in the same way ,heyne's editions of the classical poets evince the same disposition in their commentaries to elucidate the general significance of every metaphorical expression by means of the abstract conceptions of the understanding4 ,nor is this to be wondered at2 for it is just this faculty which is most ready to seize upon symbol and allegory1 while at the same time it separates the sensuous image from its significance1 and by so doing destroys the unity of the artistic form1 an aspect over which it is1 in its zeal for a symbolical interpretation1 which aims exclusively at setting the universal characteristic as such in relief1 wholly indifferent4 ,such an extension of symbolism over every province of mythology and art is by no means that which we have in view in our present consideration of the symbolical form of art4 ,it is not any part of our labours to ascertain to what extent a symbolical or allegorical significance1 in this enlarged use of the term1 is applicable to the forms of art4 ,on the contrary we shall restrict ourselves entirely to the question how far symbolism itself is entitled to rank as a form of art2 and the question is raised in order that we may finally determine the precise relation which subsists between artistic significance and artistic form in so far as such a relation is symbolical and stands in contrast to other modes of artistic presentation1 in particular those of the classical and romantic art-forms4 ,we must consequently endeavour before everything else expressly to limit the field of our review to that portion where we find the symbolical is independently portrayed in its essential character and is open to our consideration as such1 rather than attempt to make a symbolical interpretation co-extensive with the entire domain of art4 ,and it is consistently with such a purpose that we have already subdivided the ,ideal of art under its respective symbolical1 classical1 and romantic forms4 ,in the signification we give to the expression the symbolical disappears at the point where we find that a free subjectivity rather than purely abstract conceptions determines the content of the artistic product4 ,in this case the conscious subject is his own self-assured significance1 his own self-manifestation4 ,all that he feels1 conceives1 does1 and perfects1 his qualities1 his actions1 and his character1 all this he actually is himself2 the entire gamut of his spiritual and sensuous manifestation has no further significance than that of declaring his subjective unity1 which1 in this process of expansion and development of its own wealth1 brings before the eyes of all the man himself as master over the entire field of objective reality thus presented to him1 the world in which he discovers his existence4 ,significance and sensuous presentment1 inward and outward reality1 fact and picture1 are here no longer separate from each other1 assert themselves here no longer as merely cognate1 the characteristic distinction of the symbolic relation1 but rather as a totality1 in which the manifestation possesses no other reality1 the reality no other manifestation either outside of or alongside with itself4 ,that which declares itself and that which is declared is here posited#ag in its concrete unity4 ,in this sense the gods of ,greece1 in so far1 that is to say1 as the art of ,greece was able to represent them as free1 self-subsistent1 and unique types of personality1 are to be accepted from no symbolical point of view1 but as self-sufficient in their own persons4 ,the actions of ,zeus1 for example1 of ,apollo or ,athene are actions appropriated by ,art to themselves and only themselves1 and must not be allowed to stand for anything but the might and passion of such personages4 ,if we once attempt to abstract from free individualities of this kind some general conception as the essential core of their significance1 setting it alongside their concrete particularity as an interpretation of their entire and individual manifestation1 we let fall or annihilate all that we have failed to observe1 and it is precisely all in these figures which art seeks most to secure4 ,for this reason artists have been unable to take kindly to such symbolical interpretations of all works of art and the mythological figures we find in them4 ,for all that is left us in the sphere of art we have just been considering which is really compatible with an interpretation based on symbolism or allegory only affects subsidiary aspects1 and is for that reason expressly limited to the attribute and the representative signs2 the eagle1 for example1 stands by ,zeus1 an ox is the companion of the evangelist ,luke2 the ,egyptians1 on the contrary1 beheld in the form of ,apis the ,divine itself4 ,the point so difficult to decide in connection with this manifestation of self-conscious freedom1 otherwise so appropriate to artistic presentment1 is just this1 whether that which is placed before us as such a subject really possesses a subjective individuality of the above quality1 or only carries the mere semblance of it in the form of a personified shadow#ah4 ,in this latter case personality is nothing but a superficial form1 which fails to express its vital substance in particular acts no less than bodily form1 which would otherwise enable it to penetrate through all that is external in its appearance as its own possession1 and instead of this still retains another inwardness for the external reality as its significance1 which is not either true personality or subjective freedom4 ,it is precisely at this point that we find the boundary which includes or excludes symbolic art4 ,our interest1 then1 in the consideration of the symbol consists in this1 that we recognize thereby that process within itself where we find the beginnings of art1 in so far as the same proceeds from the notion of that ,ideal which unfolds itself gradually as art in its truth1 and while doing so recognizes each stage of symbolical art as successive steps which conduct us to the same consummation4 ,however intimate the connection between religion and art may be we are not here concerned to pass in review either symbols or religion under the range which is co-extensive with the wider signification of the word symbol or emblematical conceptions2 we have exclusively to consider that aspect of them1 according to which they belong to art in its own right1 handing over their religious aspect to the historian of mythology and symbolism4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,in proceeding now to a closer determination of the several divisions of symbolic art it will be necessary1 in the first place1 to fix the boundary lines within which the development of the successive grades of this type moves forward4 ,speaking generally1 as we have already observed1 the entire sphere we have now to define is in principle a forecourt of art4 ,we have here1 in the first instance1 significant conceptions which are purely abstract1 which are still in themselves destitute of essential individuality1 the immediate artistic presentment of which may be as truly described either as adequate or inadequate#ai4 ,our first definition of boundary consists1 therefore1 in determining generally the earliest modes under which artistic perception and representation work themselves out#bj into actuality2 on the further side of the line at the other extreme we have real art1 in the direction of which symbolic art uplifts itself as to its truth4 #a4 ,in discussing the origins of this appearance of symbolic art from the subjective point of view1 we may draw attention to an observation made previously1 that the artistic consciousness1 no less than the religious1 or rather we should say both in their essential unity1 and we may even include the impulse of scientific inquiry1 have originated in wonder4 ,the man who is still unable to wonder at anything lives in a condition of crassness and obtuseness which is devoid of all interest1 in which for him everything is as naught for the reason that he fails as yet to separate or unravel himself from objects around him and their own immediate and independent existence4 ,the man1 however1 at the opposite extreme1 whose wonder is no longer excited1 is the man who contemplates the entire external world as somewhat which he has made himself clear about4 ,it may be under the abstract conceptions of the commonsense understanding resulting in some general survey of knowledge attainable by the average mind1 or it may be in the noble or profounder consciousness of his own absolute spiritual freedom and universality4 ,in either case he has converted the bare fact of such objects and their existence into some spiritual insight of their truth brought home to himself4 ,we may conclude1 then1 that wonder originates in the condition where we find that man1 as conscious ,spirit1 torn away from his first most immediate association with ,nature1 and from his earliest and entirely active#ba relation to desire1 steps back from ,nature and his own individual existence1 and seeks after and finds in the objects which surround him a universal1 an essential and permanent principle4 ,then for the first time the facts of ,nature astonish him1 they become for him an other-than-himself he would fain appropriate1 and within which he strives to rediscover his own substance1 that is the universal1 thoughts1 reason4 ,for the dim foretaste here of a higher and the consciousness of the external are still unsevered1 and this though a contradiction between the objects of ,nature and the ,spirit which perceives them is already present1 a contradiction in which these objects appear to repel him quite as much as they attract1 and the feeling of which1 in the force wherewith they thrust him away1 is1 in fact1 the birth-pang of his very wonder4 ,the earliest result of this condition of wonder in man's vision of ,nature is that on the one hand he sets himself in opposition to ,nature and her objective world as a principle#bb1 and adores her as ,power2 on the other he is equally possessed with a desire1 which craves satisfaction1 to render objective to himself his intuition of a higher1 essential1 and universal somewhat1 and to look upon its rehabilitated presence4 ,in this two-fold aspect of his conscious life he is confronted by reality in the following way4 ,the particular objects of ,nature1 and above all those elementary facts1 sea1 rivers1 mountains1 and constellations1 are not received by him in the singularity of their immediate presentment to sense1 but1 carried up into the sphere of imaginative conception1 assume for that faculty the form of universal and essentially self-subsistent existence4 ,and we may trace the beginning of art in this1 that it reflects these ideas of the imagination thus universalized and essentially independent1 in visible representation for immediate perception1 and sets them forth for mind in the individual form of the same as objects4 ,the mere adoration of external facts1 with its ,nature-cult and fetish-cult1 is not as yet on this account an art of any kind4 ,under the aspect in which it is related to the objective world1 the beginnings of art are more intimately associated with religion4 ,the earliest works of art are of the mythological order4 ,in religion it is nothing less than the ,absolute1 which breaks to consciousness through its own impulse#bc1 though the determinating factors of that consciousness be the most abstract and jejune conceivable4 ,and the earliest phase in this evolution of the ,absolute is the phenomenal presence of ,nature1 in whose existence man dimly forebodes the ,absolute1 and envisages the same for himself in the semblance of natural objects4 ,in this striving ,art discovers its source4 ,we shall find1 however1 in this very effort art first made visible1 not so much where the ,absolute is descried by human eyes in the external world which immediately confronts them1 a mode of ,divine reality in which they rest content1 but rather where man's consciousness evolves from its own substance a mode of apprehending what it conceives as the ,absolute in the form of a self-subsistent externality1 no less than that objective presentation which he unites with it in more or less adequate fashion4 ,for we must remember that ,art possesses a substantial content which is grasped by mind 7spirit71 and which1 it is true1 appears in external guise1 but for all that in a form of externality1 which is not merely immediately visible to sense1 but is primarily the product of mind regarded as the existing fact which intrinsically comprehends that content as a whole and then expresses it4 ,art is consequently and by virtue of its power to create forms cognate with its own substance the first interpreter of the religious consciousness2 it1 in fact1 is the first to make the prosaic view of the objective world a thing valid to itself#bd1 when our humanity has fought itself essentially free as the self-consciousness of ,spirit from the immediacy of sense1 and sets itself over against the same in the strength of the same freedom with which it accepts and understands that objectivity as simply external fact and no more4 ,this complete separation of the subject and object of sense-perception is1 however1 indicative of a considerably later phase of man's spiritual history4 ,the first knowledge of truth1 on the contrary1 declares itself as an intermediate state between the purely unintelligent absorption of the individual in ,nature and that spiritual condition which is entirely released from it4 ,this intermediate state1 however1 in which ,spirit merely envisages for itself its conceptions in the plastic forms of ,nature's objects because it still fails to master any form of higher significance1 although it strives through such association to bring the two aspects of its experience into one homogeneous whole1 is1 to put it in its general terms1 the attitude of art and poetry as contrasted with that of the prosaic understanding4 ,and for this reason we find that the prosaic consciousness declares itself first in its full bloom1 where1 as is the case in the ,roman and in later times throughout our own ,christian world1 the principle of the subjective freedom of ,spirit is realized in its abstract and actually concrete form4 #b4 ,and1 secondly1 the final aim toward which the effort of symbolic art is directed1 and with the attainment of which the symbolic type is dissolved1 is classical art4 ,but although we find in this latter form the true manifestation of art's essence first elaborated1 it is not the first type of art4 ,rather it presupposes within its content all the various mediating and transitional stages of the symbolic form itself4 ,it is quite true that the essential aim of that content is to reveal the notion as a rounded and self-defined totality1 that is in its concreteness and actuality as the individuality of ,spirit2 but the notion is only then able to declare itself in such concrete form to conscious life after it has passed through a variety of mediatory stages forced upon it by the abstract conceptions which the nature of its own initial impulse presupposes4 ,it is classical art1 however1 which brings to a close all the mere preliminary experiments of art in the direction of symbolism and the sublime#be4 ,and it is able to do this inasmuch as the subjective spirit finds in it1 as its essential possession1 a form truly adequate to its substance1 and in the same way that the self-determining notion creates from its own potency the individual existence that fully expresses it4 ,when once ,art has discovered its true content1 and by doing so found its true form1 its search and striving after both1 wherein the defect of symbolical art consists1 is therewith at an end4 ,if we seek further for a closer principle of division of symbolic art within the limits of the boundaries on either extreme hitherto discussed1 we shall find the same generally under the modes in accordance with which it contends with the genuine significances of art and their truly appropriate forms1 the battle that is apparent in a content which is still striving in opposition to the truth of art1 no less than in a form that is equally inadequate to express it4 ,for both aspects1 although externally united in the identity of one creation1 are neither brought completely together themselves1 nor permeated throughout with the notion of art in its truth2 and for this reason they appear quite as much as contestants struggling to be free from the defects of their union4 ,we may1 in short1 describe symbolic art throughout as a continuous war carried on between the comparative adequacy and inadequacy of its import and form#bf2 and the varied gradations of symbolic art are not so much kinds of specific difference as they are stages and phases of one and the same incongruity between the spiritual idea and its sensuous medium4 ,at first1 however1 this contention is only potentially present1 that is to say the incompatibility of these two sides1 whose union is thus affirmed and enforced1 is not yet openly present to consciousness4 ,and this is so for the reason that it neither recognizes for itself in its universal nature the import which it seizes1 nor is able to comprehend the realized form in its self-subsistent and self-exclusive existence2 consequently1 instead of representing to the senses both aspects in their difference1 it is content to proceed upon the immediate appearance of identity which it enforces4 ,in this original point of departure we have before us the as yet inseparable unity of the art-form and the symbolical expression it seeks after1 fermenting1 as it were1 beneath the association of contradictory elements in mysterious guise--the unity1 that is1 of the real and primordial symbolism1 whose plastic shapes are as yet not posited as symbols at all4 ,the termination of this process#bg1 on the other hand1 is the disappearance and dissolution of the symbolic type altogether4 ,the strife which has hitherto been merely implied in it is now brought home to the artistic consciousness4 ,the act of symbolization in consequence becomes the conscious severation of the transparent significance1 which is now recognized for what it is from the sensuous image cognate with it4 ,in this severation1 however1 there still remains an express relation of reciprocity1 which1 however1 declares itself as such no longer in the mode of immediate identity1 but rather as a mere comparison between the two1 in which that differentiation and separation which in the previous type was not brought clearly to consciousness still remains as conspicuous a factor4 ,and this is the sphere of that symbolism where the symbol is recognized as such4 ,here we find the artistic import recognized and presented in its independent universality1 whose concrete embodiment is expressly placed in subordination as an image of that presentment1 and no more1 and as such a comparative medium is utilized for the purpose of artistic representation4 ,halfway between that starting-point above described and this termination of the symbolic type we find the art of the sublime4 ,in this the essential import1 posited as the universality of ,spirit in its absolute self-exclusion1 disengages itself in the first place from concrete existence1 permitting the same to appear as a mere negative1 external and subservient factor beside it1 which it is unable to leave1 in order that it may express itself in it1 standing in its native self-subsistency4 ,rather it finds it necessary to declare it as that which is essentially defective and self-dissolving1 and this1 moreover1 although it has naught beside as means for its expression than just this to which it opposes itself as external and nugatory4 ,the splendour of this import of the sublime may be accepted in the order of the notional process as previous to that of the mode of genuine comparison for this reason1 that the concrete particularity of natural and any other phenomena must necessarily be treated in the first place negatively1 merely appropriated1 that is to say1 as the adornment and embellishment of the unreachable might of ,spirit's absolute significance1 before that express severation and discriminating comparison of external shapes cognate with1 and yet at the same time distinct from1 the import1 whose image they reproduce1 can assert itself4 #c4 ,the three principal stages#bh above indicated break up naturally on closer inspection into the following subdivisions we now summarize in the chapters which include them4 ,,first ,,chapter ,a4 ,the first stage which presents itself in this portion of our subject-matter is as yet neither to be described strictly as symbolical1 nor as belonging strictly to art2 it rather clears the road to both4 ,it is the sphere of the immediately cognized and substantive unity of the ,absolute regarded as spiritual significance with its unsevered sensuous existence in a form presented by ,nature4 ,b4 ,in the second stage we pass to the symbol in its real sense2 the dissolution of the first unity above described here commences1 and while1 on the one hand1 the significances assert themselves in their independent universality above the particular phenomena of ,nature1 on the other they are necessarily forced with a like insistency to present themselves to consciousness together with this preconceived universality in the concrete form of natural objects4 ,in this primary and twofold struggle to spiritualize ,nature1 and to present that which is born of ,spirit to sense1 at this stage of the conflict between them1 we meet with all the ferment and wild1 tossed hither and thither medley1 the entire fantastic and confused world that is to say of symbolic art1 which half surmises1 it is true1 the incongruity of its manner of shaping1 yet is unable to remedy the same save through the distortion of its figures1 while straining after a purely quantitative sublimity that would fain devour all limits4 ,in this phase consequently we find ourselves in a world steeped with poetic phantasies1 incredibilities and miracle1 yet fail to encounter one work of genuine beauty4 ,c4 ,owing to this strife between the spiritual significance and its sensuous presentation1 we are conducted thirdly to the stage we may describe as that of the true symbol1 on which the symbolic work of art for the first time appears in its complete character4 ,the forms and shapes are here no longer those present to sense1 which1 as we saw on the first mentioned stage1 were immediately coincident with the ,absolute as their positive existence1 without any further modification at the hands of art2 neither1 as in the second phase1 are they intent on asserting their unreconciled material against the universality of the significance merely through extensions of the quantitative limits of ,nature's objects1 the ebullitions of a rioting fancy4 ,rather the symbolic form1 which is here throughout apparent1 is ,art's own creation1 a work not merely capable of expressing its own individuality1 but from another point of view possessed with the power of presenting at the same time both the particular object that it is and the further universal significance with which it is associated1 and which it thereby discloses to the mind1 so that these very shapes stand before us as problems which we are imperatively called upon to unriddle and probe to the inward charge which they carry4 ,we may at once further venture the general remark with reference to these more clearly defined types of a symbolism still to be ranked as elementary that they spring from the religious attitude to existence of entire nations2 for which reason it will form part of our plan to recall their position in history4 ,not that complete identification of specific types with a given period is wholly feasible4 ,rather it would be truer to say that particular modes of conception and presentation1 when we refer them generally to some kind of artistic type1 are mingled up together1 so that we find the specific type1 which we have reason to regard as the fundamental one in any particular nation's general view of existence1 exemplified both in earlier and later peoples#bi1 though its repetition may only be discovered in subordinate and isolated cases4 ,in general1 however1 we may say that we possess the more concrete manifestations and visible proofs of the first stage in the ancient ,persian religion of the second in the ,indian1 of the third in that of ,egypt4 ,,second ,,chapter ,in the second chapter that significance1 which has hitherto been more or less obscured by its particular sensuous form1 has at last wrested its way to freedom1 and its independent character is brought clearly to consciousness4 ,with this victory the relation of real symbolism is dissolved2 we have instead1 through the way in which the absolute significance#cj is cognized as the universal substance interpenetrating the entire extension of the visible world1 the art of the absolute essence#ca in the form of a symbolism of the sublime2 and this now takes the place of purely symbolical and fantastic suggestions1 deformities1 and riddles4 ,we have here mainly two points of view to distinguish which are based upon differences in the relation of the substantive essence1 that is the ,absolute and ,divine1 to the finitude of the apparent4 ,or rather we may say that this relation is capable of being twofold1 both positive and negative1 although in both forms1 inasmuch as it is in either case universal substance1 which has to appear1 it is not the particular form and import of the objective facts1 but their general principle of animation and their position relatively to this substance which is made visible to sense4 ,a4 ,in the first phase or type this relation is so conceived1 that substance1 here the ,all and the ,one delivered from every form of particularity1 is immanent in the determinate phenomena as the animating principle which brings them into being and is their life2 and moreover1 it is affirmatively and immediately present to the vision in this immanence1 and is comprehended1 and made the object of representation by the individual who surrenders himself to its presence through the adoring self-absorption in this indwelling essence of the entire world of contingent and material things4 ,in this point of view we have the art of the ,pantheism which possesses the ,sublime as its inherent principle1 an art such as we find it in its elementary stage in ,india1 then elaborated in all its splendour in ,mohammedanism and its artistic mysticism1 and finally with still profounder significance reappearing in certain manifestations of ,christian mysticism4 ,b4 ,the negative relation on the other hand of true ,sublimity we must look for in ,hebraic poetry4 ,in this poetry of the ,glorious1 which is only concerned to celebrate and exalt the unimaginable ,lord of the heavens and the earth that it may employ ,his entire creation as the passing instrument of ,his ,power1 as the messengers of ,his ,glory1 as the delight and ornament of ,his ,greatness1 this service of ,his ,creation1 be it never so magnificent#cb1 is deliberately posited as negative1 and this for the reason that it is unable to discover any adequate or positively sufficient expression for the ,power and ,dominion of the ,highest1 and is only able to attain a genuine satisfaction by means of the subjection of the creature1 which in the feeling and admission of its unworthiness is alone able with adequacy to express its insignificance#cc4 ,,third ,,chapter ,through this independent self-assertion of significance1 made thus transparent to consciousness in its isolated simplicity1 the severation of the same from the imaged appearance1 whose incommensurability over against it has already been accepted1 is now essentially complete2 and albeit1 along with the fact of this conscious separation1 both form and import may still persist in the relation of an intimate affinity1 a necessity which is implied in the fact of their being symbolical art1 yet this relation no longer attaches to either import or form1 but is placed now in a third mode of conception1 which according to its own point of view1 carries relations of similarity with both these sides#cd1 and in reliance on these relations makes visible and declares the independently transparent significance by means of the cognate and particular image4 ,owing to this change the image1 instead of remaining as it was previously the unique expression of the ,absolute1 becomes now merely an ornament1 and we thereby discover a relation which ceases to correspond with the notion of beauty4 ,in other words image and significance1 instead of being moulded one within the other1 confront each other as opposites1 precisely1 in fact1 as was the case in genuine symbolism1 though then the process remained incomplete4 ,consequently works of art which are based on this form are of subordinate rank1 and their content is unable to comprise the ,absolute itself1 and is necessarily restricted to circumstances and occurrences of narrower range4 ,for this reason the forms which are now under discussion are for the most part merely used occasionally and by way of diversion4 ,more closely considered we have in this chapter to distinguish between three principal stages of our process4 ,a4 ,to the first we appropriate those types of presentation commonly known as ,fable1 ,parable1 and ,apologue4 ,in these the severation of form and significance1 which constitutes the characteristic trait of the entire sphere to which this chapter refers1 is not as yet expressly recognized2 that is to say1 the subjective aspect of the comparison is not yet fully emphasized2 consequently also the representation of the particular and concrete phenomenon1 through which the universal significance is finally to declare itself1 still remains the predominant factor4 ,b4 ,in the second stage1 on the contrary1 the universal import asserts its independent mastery over the elucidating form1 which now appears merely as attribute1 or1 under the guise of an image1 capriciously selected by the mind which makes the contrast4 ,to this type belong the ,allegory1 ,metaphor1 and ,simile4 ,c4 ,in the third stage we meet with the visible and complete collapse of those related aspects in the symbol which previously had either been immediately joined in union1 despite the fact of their relative incongruity1 or in their independent severation had still persisted under a relation of affinity#ce4 ,out of this arises that form of content which is cognized as independent in its prosaic#cf universality1 to which the art-form has become wholly an external relation2 on the one hand we find it represented by the didactic poem1 on the other that very aspect of its external form is accepted for what it is1 and exemplified in so-called descriptive poetry4 ,here we find that every association and relation of symbolism has vanished2 we have to look round us for some more comprehensive union of form and content1 and one more truly adequate to the notion of art4 ,footnote #e3 ,so the ,french expression des couleurs1 and our ,english the colours4 ,footnote #f3 ,hegel uses the 'technical term ,inhalt in this passage to signify either 7a7 the quality of significance1 or 7b7 the object which is symbolized by virtue of some selected quality4 ,the use of it in both senses makes the passage somewhat difficult to follow4 ,footnote #g3 ,inhalt here evidently is the abstract quality4 ,footnote #h3 ,necessarily because such ambiguity is implied in the idea 7seinem ,begriff nach74 ,footnote #i3 ,this1 ,i think1 is the sense4 ,the language literally is1 ,which a form under several possible significations1 as symbol of any of which 7deren7 it can be employed often through connecting links 7,zusammenhnge7 more remote1 may be taken to symbolize4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the ,german words are ,begreifen and ,schliessen1 which in their original sense are to grasp with the hand 7prehendo7 and to shut or lock up4 ,the ,english words in a still fainter form carry the same significance through the ,latin language4 ,the symbolism of language at this stage is obviously only apparent to the student of language4 ,footnote #aa3 ,that is1 more abstract4 ,footnote #ab3 ,or in ,english3 _/ ,forth on the ocean is shipped ,youth with his thousand sails3 ,silent in bark barely saved steals into harbour old age4 _/ ,footnote #ac3 ,substantielle1 that is1 an artistic consciousness which is aware of its own essential nature--,spirit1 and the object of pure intelligence--the ,ideal4 ,footnote #ad3 ,perhaps we should rather say a ,theosophy4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the ,alexandrine ,school1 of which ,plotinus and ,philo are leading names4 ,footnote #af3 ,ein allgemeiner ,gedanke4 ,the reference throughout this paragraph to the universality of the ideas of reflection as contrasted with the sensuous image is rather a reference to the abstract conceptions of the analytical mind1 that is1 which are usually understood as universals in the sense of generic conceptions1 than any fuller grasp of concrete reality such as possesses a truly ideal significance4 ,so in its application to the metaphor ,i imagine what is meant is that we have here the process of dry analysis which merely destroys its significance as metaphor1 that is1 its synthetic unity for our aesthetic sense4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ist aufgehoben1 here not in the sense of being cancelled1 but raised to the expression of concrete unity4 ,footnote #ah3 ,als blosse ,personification1 that is1 an individualization which impersonates the subjective identity without possessing its concrete substance1 a personified shadow like the sphinx4 ,such appears to be the sense4 ,footnote #ai3 ,because the content for which such shapes 7,gestaltung7 are given is itself incoherent1 and therefore incompatible with adequate expression4 ,footnote #bj3 ,sichhervorarbeiten4 ,our word elaborate is here insufficient4 ,hegel means the mode in which the ,idea of art works itself free from entirely potential obscurity into a living force1 a real energeia4 ,we cannot say emerges into daylight1 however1 because the highest grasp of symbolic art is still only a twilight4 ,it is like the growth of the plant-germ1 still underground1 or partially so4 ,footnote #ba3 ,pracktischen4 ,not matter-of-fact relation1 but rather a relation that asserts itself exclusively in action4 ,footnote #bb3 ,als ,grund1 that is1 as a fundamental unity of the real4 ,footnote #bc3 ,die erste nher gestaltende ,dollmetcherin1 lit41 the first interpreter which supplies forms more nearly cognate with itself4 ,footnote #bd3 ,it is valid 7geltend7 because it introduces there its own spiritual nature4 ,footnote #be3 ,the previous statement of ,hegel must not be overlooked1 however1 and it may be considerably amplified1 that there is much in romantic art which is related to symbolism and the sublime4 ,take the case of the celebrated sculpture of ,michael ,angelo typifying ,night1 ,day1 ,dawn1 and ,twilight1 or such modern pictures as those of ,watts's ,the ,minotaur and ,the ,spirit of ,christianity4 ,footnote #bf3 ,or rather between those aspects of its import and form which are reciprocally homogeneous and those which are not4 ,footnote #bg3 ,this process of symbolic art4 ,footnote #bh3 ,hauptstufen4 ,the word signifies either the phase or grade of a process of development1 or to take the metaphor used by ,hegel above 7,stadien7 may perhaps be better translated by stage1 as though indicating the successive stages of a journey4 ,footnote #bi3 ,i think ,vlkern rather than ,zeiten must be here understood1 and the sense appears to be that the confusion indicated refers to a mingling of forms appropriate to a nation in one historical period with those that are more cognate with a people at any earlier or it may be later period4 ,but unquestionably this attempt to identify a type as between different nations with historical periods that will harmonize with ,hegel's own classification is a difficult matter as we may see by the fact that ,egypt1 the oldest example of all1 represents the third stage4 ,on the other hand1 if the confusion referred to is applied to the particular development of any one people1 the examples given by ,hegel do not bear on the difficulty they illustrate4 ,footnote #cj3 ,or rather the import of the ,absolute4 ,footnote #ca3 ,substantiality1 called below die ,substanz2 the word signifies the real essence of the ,absolute4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the principal clause of this sentence has no end as printed4 ,the auxiliary must be omitted either before in diesem ,dienste or eine positive4 ,i prefer the first alternative4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the relative here agrees1 ,i think1 with die ,dienstbarkeit rather than die ,kreatur or die ,poesie4 ,hegel says compatible with itself and its significance1 we should rather say its sense of its own insignificance4 ,footnote #cd3 ,hegel's words are sondern in einem subjectiven ,dritten1 welches in beiden ,seiten nach seiner subjectiven ,anschauung1 etc4 ,this subjective third is1 as explained below1 the way in which the relation between the image and the absolute significance ceases to be regarded as identical4 ,footnote #ce3 ,this sentence as it stands is ungrammatical2 there is a change in the construction as it proceeds4 ,footnote #cf3 ,the prosaic universality is the prose of its form separated from content4 ,it is prosaic because it is unrelated to the vitality of the notion4 ,,chapter ,i ,,unconscious ,,symbolism ,now that we pass to the consideration of the several distinctions of symbolical art in more detail1 we have to make a beginning with the identical beginning of art as it proceeds out of the notion of art itself4 ,this commencement1 as we have seen1 is the symbolical form of art in its still immediate form wherein the appearance1 as purely image or likeness1 is neither brought to consciousness nor presupposed--unconscious symbolism1 that is to say4 ,before1 however1 we shall be in a position to consider this form in its genuine symbolical character1 it will be necessary to review several presuppositions which the notion of symbolism itself determines in order that we may utilize them for the basis upon which the symbol may unfold itself for scientific apprehension4 ,the point from which we make a start may be defined more closely as follows3 ,the fundamental root of the symbol is1 regarding it from one aspect1 the immediate union of the universal and thereby spiritual significance with the form which may at the same time be described as adequate and inadequate1 an inadequacy1 however1 which is as yet unperceived4 ,this association1 however1 must1 on the other hand1 receive a form from the imagination and art1 and must not merely be conceived as a ,divine reality exclusively immediate to sense4 ,by this means the symbolical originates in the first instance with the severation of a universal import from the immediate presence of ,nature1 in whose existence the ,absolute is contemplated as actually present4 ,these two aspects supply us with the preliminary stages for the genuine forms of symbolic art4 ,the first presupposition consequently--we may call it the coming into being of the symbolical--is not that union which is the product of art1 but rather just that immediate unity of the ,absolute and ,true and its existence1 which is discovered in the visible world apart from art's mediation4 ,a4 ,,immediate ,,unity ,,of ,,significance ,,and ,,form ,in this identity of the ,divine immediately envisualized1 a ,divine1 which is brought home to consciousness as the union of its determinate existence in ,nature and humanity1 ,nature is neither taken simply for that which it is in isolation by itself1 nor is the ,absolute severed from it and posited in an independent self-subsistence4 ,consequently it is wholly beside the point to speak of a distinction here between the ,inward and the ,external1 the significance and the form1 and this for the reason that the ,inward is not as yet released in its independence as significance from its immediate reality in the object of sense4 ,when we apply here the expression import#cg1 such merely emphasizes our own reflection upon it1 which is due to the necessity for ourselves personally to regard the form1 which contains that which is spiritual and inward under the mode of sense-perception1 generally as something external to us1 through which we are desirous of penetrating into the ,inward1 that is1 its animating life and significance1 in order that we may understand it4 ,for this reason we are under the necessity from the very first1 when dealing with such general impressions of sense-perception1 of making an essential demarcation between those cases in which the peoples1 who in the first instance experienced them1 themselves were clearly conscious of this ,inward itself as such1 that is1 as a spiritual significance1 and those in which the use of such expressions is only applicable to ourselves1 who now and only now recognize an import of this kind in the content of that external expression of sense-envisagement4 ,in this primary unity such as the latter cases involve1 there is no such distinction between soul and body1 notion and reality1 as is implied in the former4 ,that which we describe as corporeal and sensuous1 natural and human1 is not merely an expression for a significance which proceeds at the same time to a point of distinction from it#ch2 but the phenomenon is itself conceived as the immediate reality and presence of the ,absolute1 which does not in addition possess some other mode of self-subsistent existence1 but is confined exclusively to the immediate presence of an object of sense1 which is ,god or the ,divine4 ,in the service of the ,lama1 for example1 this particular1 actual human being is immediately known and adored as ,god1 just as in other natural religions the sun1 mountains1 rivers1 the moon1 particular animals1 such as the bull1 ape1 and so on1 are looked upon as immediately ,divine existences and worshipped as sacred4 ,we may observe a similar directness1 if under a mode of profounder application1 even now in many aspects of the ,christian consciousness4 ,according to ,catholic doctrine1 for example1 the consecrated bread is the real body1 and the wine the real blood of ,god1 and ,christ is immediately present therein2 nay1 even according to the ,lutheran faith1 both bread and wine are converted into such real body and blood by virtue of the faith of the recipient4 ,in this mystical union it is not merely a symbolism which is expressed1 a point of view which comes into prominence as the result of it for the first time in later doctrines of the reformed ,church1 where we find as a result the spiritual significance is expressly severed from the sensuous object1 and the external medium is then accepted as merely pointing to an import which is distinct from itself4 ,in the same way the power of this ,divine is held to operate in the miracle-working images of the ,virgin as a ,divine force that is immediately present within them1 and not merely under symbolical guise through the significant import of such pictures4 ,we find1 however1 the most thorough and universal exemplification of this absolute and immediate unity of sense-perception in the life and religion of the ancient ,zend-people1 whose conceptions and institutions are preserved for us in the ,zend-,avesta4 #a4 ,in other words the religion of ,zoroaster beholds ,light in the form of its natural existence1 the sun1 stars1 and fire in the luminous activity and flames which proceed from them1 actually as the ,absolute1 without separating this ,divine independently from that ,light either as its expression and image or the sensuous medium thereof4 ,the ,divine1 the significance1 is not thus severed from its determinate existence in the form of lights1 however displayed4 ,for even when light is accepted here in the sense of ,goodness and ,justice1 and through such significance is extended to all that is rich in blessing1 support1 and life1 it is still not taken as the mere image of such things1 but ,light is itself the ,good4 ,and the same view applies to the opposite of light1 namely1 obscurity and darkness when identified with that which is unclean1 hurtful1 evil1 destructive1 and deadly4 ,this point of view may be more closely defined and considered as follows3 7a7 ,in the first instance the ,divine1 as the essential purity of ,light#ci1 and the ,darkness and ,unclean are1 it is true1 personified under the names of ,ormuzd and ,ahriman respectively4 ,this personification is1 however1 throughout entirely superficial4 ,ormuzd is no essentially free individuality devoid of all relation to external objects#dj as was the ,god of the ,jews1 or truly spiritual and personal as is the ,god of ,christianity when conceived as truly personal and self-conscious ,spirit2 rather ,ormuzd1 despite the fact that he is described also as king1 great spirit and judge1 remains inseparable from such external existence as ,light and its illuminations4 ,he is exclusively this universal characteristic of all particular existences1 in which light and thereby the ,divine and ,pure are realized1 without any additional power to withdraw himself in a spiritual universality and independence into his own substance from that which is thus immediately presented4 ,his consistence rests in the particular facts of existence precisely in an analogous way to that of the genus in the species4 ,it is true that regarded as this universal he is superior to all that is wholly particular1 and is the first1 most supreme1 the kings of kings glorious in his gold1 the purest and so forth2 but he retains his existence none the less exclusively in all that is luminous and pure as ,ahriman in all that is obscure1 evil1 destructive1 and charged with disease4 7b7 ,as a result this mode of vision is at the same time extended to the conception of an empire of light and darkness1 and the strife between these forces4 ,in the empire of ,ormuzd it is in the first place the ,amschaspands1 as the seven principal lights of heaven1 which receive adoration as ,divinity1 inasmuch as they are the essential particular existences of ,light1 and for this reason constitute as a pure and spacious empeopled heaven1 the existence of the ,divine itself4 ,every ,amschaspand1 to which ,ormuzd belongs1 has assigned to it days of precedence1 blessing1 and beneficence4 ,the ,izeds and ,ferners carry the conception still further into specification1 which it is probable enough are personifications of ,ormuzd himself1 albeit they add to him no further shape that we may envisage as human1 so that neither the spiritual nor the bodily mode of subjectivity1 but simply the existence as light1 appearance1 illumination1 splendour1 remains the essential characteristic of the object envisaged4 ,in the same way also the particular objects of ,nature1 which themselves do not exist in external form as lights and luminous bodies1 such as animals1 plants1 and so forth1 no less than the forms which characterize the human world1 whether we view it under its spiritual or bodily presentment1 in other words the particular activities and conditions of it1 the entire life of the state1 the king with the seven great men who support him1 the division of classes1 cities1 the various provinces with their governors1 all that is warranted by experience as typical of the best and purest for the protection of the rest--the entire reality1 in fact1 of this life is regarded as an existence of ,ormuzd4 ,for everything that carries within itself and promulgates what has solidity1 life1 and substance is an existence of ,light and ,purity1 and consequently an existence of ,ormuzd2 every particular truth1 excellence1 love1 justness1 every individual example of life1 beneficence1 protection1 spiritual power and enjoyment or benignity is1 according to ,zoroaster1 regarded as essentially ,light and ,divine4 ,the empire of ,ormuzd is the ,pure and ,illuminating of visible reality2 and conformably to this there is no distinction between the phenomena of ,nature or ,spirit1 just as ,light and ,goodness1 the spiritual and the sensuous quality1 are inseparably blended in the conception of ,ormuzd himself4 ,the splendour of a creature is consequently for ,zoroaster the very substance of spirit1 force1 and life-exhalations of every kind1 in so far1 that is1 as they tend to actual conservation and to the removal of everything positively evil and hurtful1 for that which is the ,real and the ,good1 whether in beast1 man1 or vegetable life1 is ,light1 and it is according to the measure and mode of display of this luminousness that the relative power or weakness of the splendour of all objects is determined4 ,an articulation and graduated division of similar character is found in the empire of ,ahriman1 merely with the difference that what is spiritually or naturally evil1 and generally the destructive and actively negative principle asserts itself in actual masterdom4 ,but the might of ,ahriman must not be suffered to spread2 the aim of the entire world is consequently assumed to be that of annihilating the ,empire of ,ahriman1 in order that the life1 presence1 and dominion of ,ormuzd may prevail throughout creation4 7c7 ,to this exclusive object the entire life of humanity is consecrate4 ,the life-task of every man consists exclusively in a purification of soul and body1 and in the extension of this blessing and this conflict with ,ahriman throughout all the conditions and activities of the life of man or ,nature4 ,the highest and most sacred duty is consequently to glorify ,ormuzd in his creation1 and to love1 honour1 and conform oneself to all that proceeds from his ,light and is essentially pure4 ,ormuzd is the beginning and end of all adoration4 ,above all else the ,parsee is moved to summon the life of ,ormuzd in thought and speech2 he is the main object of his prayers4 ,and in the exaltation of him1 from whom the entire world of the ,pure has streamed in its splendour1 the devotee is in duty bound to accommodate his adoration of particular objects according to the measure in which they proclaim his majesty1 worth1 and perfection4 ,so far as they are good and ring sound1 to that extent1 the ,parsee reasons with himself1 is ,ormuzd alive within them2 he loves them as the children of his purity1 yea1 rejoices over them as in the beginning of his substance1 forasmuch as through him was everything brought forth in newness and purity4 ,and for the same reason is all prayer directed first and foremost to the ,amschaspands as the most intimate reflections of ,ormuzd1 as the primates of supreme splendour who surround his throne and advance his dominion4 ,such prayer to these heavenly spirits is immediately directed to their qualities and activities1 and in the case of stars at the time of their uprising4 ,the sun is invoked by day1 and always with the changes appropriate to his own motion through sunrise1 noonday1 or sunset4 ,from morning till noonday the devotion of the ,parsee centres in this that ,ormuzd may exalt his splendour2 at evening he prays that the sun may through ,ormuzd and the protecting care of every ,tzed perfect the course of his life4 ,but principally we find honour paid to ,mithras1 who1 as the fruit-bringer to the ,earth and the wilderness1 pours forth the fermenting sap over all ,nature1 and as mighty champion against all the ,devas of contention1 war1 confusion1 and destruction1 is the author of peace4 ,in addition to this the ,parsee1 in his generally single-toned songs of praise1 exalts his ideals1 that is1 the purest and most veritable examples of human life1 the ,ferver conceived as pure human spirits1 on whatever portion of the ,earth's surface they live or have lived4 ,in the chief place prayer is offered to the pure spirit of ,zoroaster1 and after him to the leading lights of all classes1 cities1 and provinces2 and already in this religion1 we find that the spirits of all mankind are contemplated as united together with a sufficient bond in that they are members in the living association of ,light1 which hereafter in ,gorotman shall receive a yet more perfect union4 ,finally1 not even the animals1 mountains1 and vegetable world are forgotten1 but are appealed to as embodiments of ,ormuzd2 all that is good and serviceable in them to mankind is extolled1 and especially the first and most excellent of its kind is adored as the present existence of ,deity4 ,and over and above this worship of ,ormuzd and of every form of selected excellence among the pure and beneficent objects of his creation the ,zend-,avesta is insistent upon the practice of goodness and the purity of thought1 word1 and deed4 ,the ,parsee is to be in the entire display of his external and inward man as ,light1 as ,ormuzd1 the ,amschaspands1 and the ,izeds1 as ,zoroaster and all good men live and do4 ,such live and have lived in the ,light1 and all their deeds are ,light2 therefore shall every man make them an example to his eyes and follow after the same4 ,the more purity of light and goodness man expresses in his life and accomplishment1 the nearer he stands to those spirits of heaven4 ,as the ,izeds throw the blessing of their beneficence over everything1 are a source of life and fruitfulness and friendship1 so1 too1 he must seek to purify ,nature1 to ennoble her1 and to reach abroad the light of life and the joy of plenteousness4 ,in accordance therewith he shall feed the hungry1 tend the sick1 offer the drink of consolation to the thirsty1 give roof and shelter to the wanderer1 provide pure seed for the ,earth1 delve clean channels of water1 plant the waste with trees1 nourish to the best of his power their growth1 care for the sustenance and fructification of things alive1 keep pure the lambency of fire1 remove from sight the dead and unclean beast1 establish marriages1 and in the doing thereof the holy ,sapandomad1 the ,ized of the ,earth1 herself rejoices1 averting the harm which the ,devas and the ,darvands are busy to prepare4 #b4 ,if we ask ourselves once more1 after this delineation in outline of the fundamental conceptions of this system1 what is the symbolical character of the same there can be but one reply1 namely1 that there is no trace here of anything we have previously described as symbolical4 ,on the one side1 no doubt1 we have light in its obvious natural form1 and on the other it possesses the further significance of all that is rich in goodness1 blessing1 and permanence4 ,it is1 therefore1 possible to contend that the actual existence of light is merely an image cognate with this universal significance1 which interpenetrates every part of the world of ,nature and mankind4 ,if we apply such an interpretation to the conception of ,parsees themselves we shall find such a separation of existence and its import to be false2 for these the ,light as ,light is actually the ,good1 and is so apprehended that it is in the form of light present and active in everything that is good1 vital1 and positive4 ,the universal and ,divine is carried no doubt through the distinctions of the world of particular objects1 but in this its differentiated and particularized existence1 the substantial and inseparable unity of import and form remains constant1 and the distinctions that are involved in this unity do not affect the difference of significance qu significance1 and its manifestation1 but only the distinguishing features of particular objects1 such as stars1 organic life1 human opinions and actions1 in which the ,divine as ,light or ,darkness is immediately open to sense4 ,in the further embrace of such conceptions there are no doubt points of connection with incipient symbolism1 but we get out of them no real type of that mode of viewing things in its completeness2 they will only pass muster as isolated traits in its direction4 ,to such effect ,ormuzd is on one occasion made to say of his beloved one ,dschemschid3 ,the holy ,ferver of ,dschemschid1 the son of ,vivengham1 was great before me4 ,his hand received from me a dagger1 whose sharpness was gold1 and whose shaft was gold4 ,therewith ,dschemschid marked out three hundred portions of the ,earth4 ,he split up the ,earth-realm with his gold-plate1 yea1 with his dagger and spake3 ',let ,sapandomad rejoice4' ,he spake the holy word with prayer to the tame cattle and the wild and unto men4 ,so his passing through was happiness and blessing for these lands and animals of the home and the field1 and men ran together into great dwellings4 ,here we find in the dagger1 and the cleaving of the ,earth-soil an image which may be interpreted as significant of agriculture4 ,agriculture is still no essentially spiritual activity1 and just as little is it a purely natural one2 it is rather a universal occupation of mankind1 which results from reflective thought and experience1 and which has point of association with all the relations of life4 ,it is no doubt never expressly stated in this conception of the passing of ,dschemschid that this splitting of the ,earth with the dagger indicates agriculture2 nor is there a single word added of any increase of the fruits of the field by virtue of this division2 for the reason1 however1 that in this particular act more appears to be included than the mere turning over and loosening of the soil1 we are led to look for a further significance beneath it4 ,the same observations apply to more recent conceptions1 such as we find exemplified in the later elaboration of the worship of ,mithras1 where ,mithras is represented as a youth who in the dusk of a grotto raises on high the bull's head and plunges a dagger in his neck1 whereon a serpent licks up the blood1 and a scorpion gnaws his genitals4 ,this symbolical account has received an astronomical and other interpretations4 ,we may1 however1 find in it a still more universal and profounder meaning1 and take the bull generally to personify the principle of ,nature1 over which man1 as essentially spirit1 secures the victory1 and this though astronomical associations may also be implied in it4 ,that1 however1 such a revolution as the victory of ,spirit over ,nature is contained in it is also suggested by the name of ,mithras1 or mediator1 more especially if we refer it to a later period when such uplifting over ,nature was already a necessity present to the national consciousness4 ,symbols such as the above1 however1 as already observed1 only incidentally come to the fore in the conceptions of the ancient ,parsees1 and do not in any way constitute a principle for their fundamental type of thought4 ,still less can we describe the cultus1 which the ,zend-,avesta inculcates1 as one of symbolical tendency4 ,we find no trace here1 for example1 of symbolical dances in celebration or imitation of the interlaced revolutions of the stars2 as little any other forms of activity which may pass as the suggestive counterfeit of universal conceptions2 rather all actions which are prescribed to the ,parsee as imperative in a religious sense are matters directly concerned with the actual enlargement of his purity1 either of soul or body1 and appear as directed with one intent and one object of realization1 namely1 that of increasing the actual dominion of ,ormuzd over men and the objects of ,nature1 an object consequently which is not merely symbolized in such activity1 but entirely carried out4 #c4 ,for the reason1 then1 that a genuine symbolic type fails absolutely when applied to this religious system1 it is equally destitute of a true artistic character4 ,no doubt we may generally describe its mode of conception as poetical for the particular facts of ,nature are just as little as the particular sentiments1 circumstances1 acts1 and affairs of men treated in their immediate and consequently haphazard and prosaic relation which is void of all significance1 and are rather contemplated essentially in the ,absolute as very ,light2 or to put it the other way1 the universal essence of the concrete reality of ,nature and mankind is not conceived in the universality which is without existence or form1 but this universal and that particular is envisaged and expressed in immediate union4 ,such a mode of viewing existence may possibly claim a certain beauty1 breadth1 and largeness of its own1 and in contrast to gross and senseless idols ,light is no doubt as the essentially pure and universal element1 an adequate image of ,goodness and ,truth4 ,but for all that we find that poetry here fails to pass beyond a general conception2 it never reaches either art or the works of art4 ,for the ,good and the ,divine are neither essentially defined1 nor is the consistency and form of this content a creation of mind 7,spirit72 but rather1 as we have already found1 the thing which is immediately present to sense1 namely1 the actual sun1 stars1 fire1 organic nature1 throughout its vegetation1 animal and human life1 is conceived as the appropriate form of the ,absolute in this its existent and immediate shape4 ,the sensuous representation is not1 as ,art requires1 the plastic product of mind1 shaped and discovered by the same1 but immediately identified with and expressed by the external existent shape as its appropriate counterfeit4 ,it is quite true1 in another aspect1 the particular thing is1 by means of the imagination1 also fixed in an independent relation to its reality1 as1 for instance1 in the ,izeds and ,fervers1 that is1 in the genii of particular men2 the poetic invention1 however1 discovered in this incipient severation is of the weakest kind for the reason that the distinction remains entirely of a formal character1 so that the genius1 ,ized or ,ferver1 neither includes nor is able to include any real characteristic content of its own1 but1 instead of this1 either repeats one identical content or possesses nothing more than the purely empty form of the subjectivity1 which the existing individual already possesses4 ,the product of the imagination here is consequently neither an other and profounder significance nor the self-subsistent form of an essentially richer individuality4 ,and when we moreover find particular objects envisaged on the wider plane of general conceptions and generic types1 to which1 as appropriate to such types1 the imagination vouchsafes a real existence1 even here also this uplifting of multiplicity into the sphere of an all-comprehending and essential unity1 regarded as the basic core and substance of the individuals that constitute the same species and genus1 can only in a yet more indefinite sense be accepted as an activity of the imagination1 no real exemplification of either poetry or art4 ,so we have1 for instance1 in the holy fire of ,behram the essence of fire2 and in the same way there is a water that underlies all existent water4 ,so1 too1 ,horn is esteemed as the first1 purest1 and most stalwart among trees1 the primordial tree from which the life-sap full of immortality flows2 and among all mountains ,albordsch1 the sacred mountain1 is set before us as the primaeval root of the ,earth1 erect in the splendour of the ,light1 from which the good deeds of all men proceed1 who have possessed the knowledge of ,light1 and on whom the sun1 moon1 and stars repose4 ,in general1 however1 we may affirm that the universal is visibly known in immediate union with the actual objects of sense1 and it is merely now and again that universal conceptions are embodied in the particular image4 ,in yet more prosaic fashion does the cultus of this religion make as its principal object the dominion of ,ormuzd a reality which interpenetrates all things1 merely requiring this one essential condition to the adequacy of every object1 namely1 its purity1 and without attempting therewith to construct from such any existent form of art that is based upon immediate life1 as1 for example1 the warriors and wrestlers of ,greece were so ready to do in their artistic elaboration of physical perfection4 ,from whatever side1 then1 or whatever may be the point of view from which we regard this first unity of spiritual universality and sensuous reality1 we only get from it the basis of symbolical art2 it still fails to possess a real symbolism of its own1 and is unable to produce works of art4 ,in order that we may attain this object1 which is the next in view1 we must pass away from the union we have just considered1 and examine modes of conception where the difference and conflict between significance and form is more really emphasized4 ,b4 ,,fantastic ,,symbolism ,quitting now the sphere of thought in which the identity of the ,absolute and its externally envisaged existence is immediately cognized1 we have1 as an essential determination to start from1 the severation of these two aspects hitherto united1 a cleavage which stimulates the effort to restore once more the visible breach by means of an elaborate fusing together of the whole thus divided by a rich use of the images of phantasy4 ,with this attempt the essential need for art is felt for the first time4 ,no sooner has the imagination succeeded in holding fast its envisaged content1 which is no longer grasped in immediate union with the objects of sense1 in isolated separation from that existence1 than for the first time spirit is confronted with the task of reclothing with the material of phantasy for sensuous perception1 that is1 under the renewed mode of a spiritual product1 these general conceptions and of creating through this activity the shapes of art4 ,and for the reason that in the stage of our process where we now find ourselves1 this task is capable of only a symbolic solution1 we may easily fall under the impression that we stand already in the sphere of genuine symbolism4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,what immediately faces us here are the forms of a fermenting phantasy#da1 which in the restlessness of its fantastic dreams merely indicates the path which conducts us to the real centre of symbolical art4 ,in the first appearance of the distinguishing relation between significance and the mode of its presentation1 both the severation and the association are still grasped in a confused manner4 ,this confusion is necessitated by the fact that neither of the parted aspects of difference have as yet attained a totality1 capable of emphasizing the precise point in the process1 which will serve as the fundamental determination of the opposed side in it1 and by means of which for the first1time a really adequate union and reconciliation is rendered possible4 ,spirit 7mind71 to illustrate our difficulty further1 determines by virtue of its own totality the side of the external phenomenon out of its own essential substance quite as really as it does its own spiritual content for the obvious reason that the essentially complete and independent phenomenon only receives its adequate form as the external existence of that which is spiritual4 ,in the case1 however1 of this primary severation of the significances apprehended by mind1 and the existent world of phenomena such aspects of significance are not those of concrete spiritual life1 but abstractions1 and this expression also is entirely destitute of spiritual intension1 and is consequently1 in an abstract sense1 purely external and sensuous4 ,this twofold impulse in the direction of disunion and union is for the same reason an unsteady gait#db1 which ranges from the objects of sense in undefined and unmeasured waste immediately to the aspects of universal import1 and is only able to discover for the inward content of consciousness the absolutely opposed form of sensuous shapes4 ,and it is this very contradiction which is set forth as a means of really uniting elements which contradict each other4 ,the result is that instead of so doing it is first driven from one side of the opposition into the other1 and then again is hurled in its ceaselessly alternating dance into the former extreme1 while it believes that in this rocking to and fro of its strain it has found the means to lull itself to repose4 ,instead of getting1 therefore1 a true satisfaction we have the contradiction merely affirmed as its genuine resolution1 and in addition the union most incomplete of all is set forth as that which art really requires4 ,we must not therefore expect to find in such a field of confusion worse confounded the true forms of beauty4 ,in this restless leap from one opposed extreme to the other all that we find from one point of view in the sensuous material that is absorbed1 regarding the same in its singularity no less than as it constitutes its elementary appearance to sense1 is that the breadth and potency of every import of universality is associated therewith in what must consequently be a wholly inadequate way4 ,from another aspect that which is most universal1 as soon as the process has passed from the same1 is shamelessly plunged under the reverse treatment into the very heart of the sensuous present2 and if any feeling of the incompatibility of such an effort is consciously perceived1 the imagination here is only capable of rendering assistance by means of distortions which carry the particular shapes over and beyond their own secure boundaries1 adding to their extension1 making them ever more indefinite1 by an imaginative leap which mounts to the immeasurable1 breaks up every bond of union1 and in its very strain after reconciliation reveals each opposing factor in its most unmitigated hostility#dc4 ,these earliest and still most uncontrolled attempts of imagination and art we meet most signally among the ancient races of ,india1 the main defect of whose productions1 when viewed relatively to their particular position at this stage of our classification1 consists in this1 that they are neither able to seize the profounder aspects of significance in independent clarity1 nor grasp the reality of sense-perception in its characteristic form and meaning4 ,the ,hindoo race has consequently proved itself unable to comprehend either persons or events as parts of continuous history1 because to any historical treatment a certain soberness is essential of accepting and understanding facts in their true and independent form1 and subject to their mediating links1 grounds1 causes1 and objects1 being empirically ascertained4 ,the natural impulse to refer all and everything back to the ,divine is hostile to this prosaic reasonableness1 no less than its tendency to prefigure for itself in the most ordinary or most sensuous of objects a presence and reality of godhead created by its own imagination4 ,these peoples consequently1 through their confused intermingling of the ,finite and the ,absolute1 in which the logical order and permanence of the prosaic facts of ordinary consciousness are disregarded altogether1 despite all the profusion and extraordinary boldness of their conceptions1 fall into a levity of fantastic mirage which is quite as remarkable1 a flightiness which dances from the most spiritual and profoundest matters to the meanest trifle of present experience1 in order that it may interchange and confuse immediately the one extreme with the other4 ,if we concentrate our attention more closely upon the more conspicuous features of this continuous bout of intoxication1 this craze and condition of craze1 what we are concerned with is not to trace religious conceptions as such1 but merely to emphasize the points of prominence which relate such modes of conception with art4 ,these may be indicated as follows3 #a4 ,one extreme of the consciousness of the ,hindoo is the consciousness of the ,absolute1 here regarded as the essentially and absolutely ,universal1 undifferentiated and consequently wholly indefinite4 ,this supreme of abstractions1 inasmuch as it is neither in possession of a particular content1 nor is conceived under the mode of concrete personality1 is1 from whatever side you may look at it1 no object at all that the imagination acting through the senses can reclothe for art4 ,brahman#dd1 taken in a general sense as this supreme ,godhead1 is absolutely removed from the sensuous and sense-perception1 or rather is not even an object for ,thought4 ,for self-consciousness is inseparable from thought1 which posits itself as an object of ,thought1 in order that it may thus come to self-knowledge4 ,every act of intelligence is an identification of the ego and object1 a reconciliation of that which is severed outside from this relation of recognition2 what ,i do not understand remains as something strange and foreign to myself4 ,the mode of union1 under the ,hindoo conception1 of human personality with ,brahman is nothing more nor less than a continually ascending process of exhaustion#de in the direction of this supreme of abstractions1 in which not merely the entire concrete content1 but also self-consciousness itself1 must be eliminated before the final consummation is realized4 ,or1 to put the same thing another way1 the ,hindoo recognizes no reconciliation and identity with ,brahman in the sense that the spirit of humanity becomes conscious of this union4 ,the unity rather consists in this1 that both consciousness and self-consciousness1 and with them the entire content of the objective world and personality totally disappears4 ,this emptying and annihilation to the point of absolute vacuity is treated as the supreme condition under which man is capable of identity with highest ,divinity1 that is ,brahman4 ,an abstraction of this sort1 one of the barest it is possible to imagine1 whether we consider it from the point of view of the ,absolute1 as ,brahman1 or from the human aspect of a purely theoretically conceived cultus that consists in man's self-evaporation#df and self-annihilation1 is in itself no object either for the imagination or art2 all the latter can do is to profit by such opportunity as various imaginary representations of what happens by the way to this goal may offer for their exercise4 #b4 ,conversely the ,hindoo view of existence launches itself with just the same immediacy over this very abstraction from all sense into the wildest flood of it4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as the immediate and consequently unbroken identity of both sides is in this view cancelled1 and instead of this the element of difference within this identity has become the basic principle of the type itself1 this very contradiction plunges us with no mediating connections from the ,finite into the ,divine1 and again from this latter into what is most transitory of all2 and we live and move among simulacra1 which rise up entirely as the growth of this alternating process1 a kind of witches' world1 where the definition of every shape eludes our grasp as we endeavour to seize it1 is converted all at once into its opposite1 or straddles away into mere inflated enormities4 ,the general modes under which ,hindoo art manifests itself may be summarized under the three following points of view3 7a7 ,in the first place we find the full hugeness of the content of the ,absolute is imposed by the imagination upon the sensuous in its aspect of singularity in such a way that this particular thing is itself1 in its own form and station1 taken completely to represent such a content and to exist as such for the imaginative sense4 ,in the ,rmyana1 for example1 the friend of ,rma1 namely1 the prince of apes ,hanuman1 is a principal personage1 and he accomplishes the bravest of exploits4 ,and generally we may observe that among the ,hindoos the ape is revered as ,divine1 and we find1 in fact1 an entire city of apes4 ,in the ape1 as this point of singularity1 the infinite content of the ,absolute is envisaged and adored4 ,it is just the same with the cow1 ,sabal1 which in the ,rmyana during the episodic treatment of the expiations of ,visvamitra1 appears clothed with immeasurable power4 ,if we take a glance on higher planes we find entire families in ,india--even though the individual here be merely a vacant and monotonously vegetating life-unit--in whom the ,absolute itself1 as this concrete reality1 is adored in its immediate life and presence as ,god4 ,this same coincidence is found in ,lamaism4 ,here1 too1 a single individual receives the highest worship due to the present ,god4 ,in ,india1 however1 this honour is not exclusively paid to one man4 ,every ,brahmin proves at once his claim from the day of his birth in his own caste to be ranked as ,brahman1 and possesses that second birth of the ,spirit which identifies his humanity with ,god1 in the way of ,nature through his actual bodily birth1 so that the crown of the most ,divine itself is immediately referred back upon the entirely commonplace fact of physical existence4 ,for although the ,brahmin is under the most sacred obligation to read the ,veds1 and attain by this means an insight into the secrets of ,deity1 this duty can be actually carried out in the most perfunctory way without detracting in the least from the ,brahmin's own divinity4 ,in a similar manner it is one of the modes most common to the representations of ,hindooism to have the primordial ,god set forth as the procreator or begetter1 as we find ,eros is in the case of ,greek mythology4 ,this procreation as ,divine activity is further worked into all kinds of representations in a wholly material way1 and the private parts1 both male and female1 are treated as sacred in the highest sense4 ,and in a reverse way1 and to no less extent1 the ,divine1 when it passes over in its independent ,divinity to the plane of existing reality1 is suffered in a wholly trivial manner to get mixed up with everyday details4 ,we may take an example of this from the commencement of the ,rmyana1 where ,brahm has come on a visit to ,vlmkis1 the mythical bard of the ,rmyana4 ,vlmkis receives him entirely in the common ,hindoo fashion1 pays him a compliment or two1 places a stool before him1 and supplies him with water and fruits4 ,brahm sits down just like anybody else and constrains his host to do likewise3 and there they sit on and sit on until at last ,brahm orders ,vlmkis to compose the poem of the ,rmyana4 ,modes of conception such as these are still not symbolic in the strict sense2 for although we find that here1 as the symbol requires1 forms are taken from the material of sense and diverted to the use of conceptions of more universal import1 we still find the further condition of this requirement wanting1 namely1 that the particular existences must not actually exist for sense-perception as this absolute significance1 but merely suggest the same4 ,for the ,hindoo imagination the ape1 the cow1 and the particular ,brahmin are not merely a cognate symbol of the ,divine1 but are contemplated and represented as the ,godhead itself1 as existences adequate to that ,godhead4 ,it is the contradiction inherent in this immediacy which is the motive force of another feature in the conceptions of ,hindoo art4 ,for while1 on the one hand1 that which is absolutely severed from sense1 the spiritual significance out and out1 is conceived as the actually ,divine1 yet1 on the other1 the particular facts of concrete reality are immediately envisaged by the imagination1 even in their sensuous existence1 as ,divine manifestations4 ,they are no doubt partly only taken to represent particular aspects of the ,absolute2 but even so the particular thing in its immediacy is still incompatible with the universality1 which it is1 as adequate to the same1 introduced to express2 and it appears in all the more glaring contradiction to it for the reason that the significance is here already conceived in its universality1 yet1 despite of this1 an express relation of identity is immediately set up by the imagination between it and the most particular of material facts4 7b7 ,the most obvious way in which ,hindoo art endeavours to mitigate this disunion is1 as we have already suggested1 by the measureless extension of its images4 ,particular shapes are drawn out into colossal and grotesque proportions in order that they may1 as forms of sense1 attain to universality4 ,the particular form of sense1 which is taken to express not itself and its own characteristic meaning as a fact of external existence1 but a universal significance which lies outside it1 fails to satisfy the imagination until it has been torn out itself into vastness which knows neither measure nor limit4 ,this is the cause of all that extravagant exaggeration of size1 not merely in the case of spatial dimension1 but also of measurelessness of time-durations1 or the reduplication of particular determinations1 as in figures with many heads1 arms1 and so on1 by means of which this art strains to compass the breadth and universality of the significance it assumes4 ,the egg1 for example1 contains the bird within it4 ,this particular fact is enlarged to the measureless conception of a world-egg secreting the universal life of all creation1 and in which ,brahm1 the procreating ,god1 accomplishes without effort the year of creation1 until by virtue of his thought alone the the two halves of the egg fall asunder4 ,and1 in addition to natural objects1 human individuals and events are exalted that they may express the significance of truly ,divine action in such a way that we can neither hold fast the ,divine or the human in their independence1 but both seem to run in a continual confusion backwards and forwards into one another4 ,as a striking illustration of such a mode of conception1 we have the incarnations of certain ,hindoo gods1 principally ,vishnu1 the conserver of life1 whose exploits figure largely in the great epic poems4 ,rmas is1 for instance1 himself the seventh incarnation of ,vishnu 7,rmatshandra74 ,from a review of particular demands1 actions1 circumstances1 modes of appearance1 and traits of demeanour1 we are led to infer from these poems that this content is in great measure borrowed from actual events1 that is from the exploits of ancient kings who exercised a powerful influence in creating new conditions of law and order2 we find ourselves surrounded by a thoroughly human atmosphere and on the firm ground of reality4 ,but then again1 in a converse direction1 the entire scene expands1 reaches out into the nebulous1 playing over and beyond it with universal conceptions1 so that we lose the vantage ground we had gained and are robbed of all our bearings4 ,we are treated in just the same way in the ,sakuntala4 ,at first we have set before us the most gentle and odorous realm of ,love1 in which everything goes on its way in an entirely human fashion2 and then we are all at once snatched from the wealth of this genuine world1 and transported into the clouds of the heaven of ,indra1 where everything suffers change1 and our formerly circumscribed sphere is inflated to the measure of the universal import of ,nature's life in its relation to the ,brahmin and the power of ,nature's gods1 which is vouchsafed to man in return for his severe self-mortifications4 ,such modes of representation are also not to be termed in a strict sense symbolical4 ,that is to say the true symbol suffers the determinate shape1 which it applies1 to remain under that original definition1 because its purpose is not to envisage therein the immediate existent of the significance in its universality1 but to point to that import merely through the qualities of the object which are cognate to it4 ,hindoo art1 however1 although it severs universality from the singular existing fact1 still adds the further requirement that both sides shall be immediately united through the imagination1 and is consequently forced to divest determinate existence of its specific limitations1 and1 albeit in a material fashion1 to enlarge in the direction of indefiniteness and generally to change and reconstitute4 ,in this melting down of all clear definition1 and in the confusion which results from it1 so that that form is always set down as highest for everything1 whether phenomena1 events1 or actions1 which in the mode of their figuration can neither for themselves assert nor intrinsically possess and express any control over such content1 we may rather seek for features analogous to the type of the sublime than see any illustration of real symbolism4 ,for in the ,sublime1 as we shall see for ourselves further on1 the finite phenomenon only expresses the ,absolute1 which it would previsage for conscious sense to the extent that in so doing it escapes from the world of appearance1 which fails to comprehend its content4 ,this is just its treatment of eternity4 ,its idea of it is sublime when it has to be expressed in terms of time-duration1 precisely through the emphasis it lays on the fact that no number1 however great1 is sufficient4 ,in this strain runs the text3 ,a thousand years in ,thy sight are even as a day4 ,hindoo art contains much of the same or similar nature4 ,it strikes the opening notes of the ,sublime symphony4 ,the main difference1 however1 between it and the true ,sublimity consists in this1 that the ,hindoo imagination does not in the wild exuberance of its images bring about the essential nothingness of the phenomena which it makes use of1 but rather through just this very measurelessness and unlimited range of its visions believes that it has annihilated and made to vanish all difference and opposition between the ,absolute and its mode of configuration4 ,in this extreme type of exaggeration1 then1 there is ultimately little of real kinship with either true symbolism or ,sublimity3 it is equally remote from the true sphere of beauty4 ,it offers us no doubt1 more particularly in its more sober delineation of that which is exclusively human1 much that is endearing and benign1 many gracious pictures and tender emotions1 the most splendid and seductive descriptions of ,nature1 the most childlike traits of ,love and nave innocence1 and withal much too that is magnanimous and noble2 but1 none the less1 if we review it generally according to the fundamental import of all it expresses1 we shall find that the spiritual is throughout rooted in sense1 the meanest objects are placed on the same plane as the highest1 true definition is wrecked1 the ,sublime is lowered to the conception of mere immeasurability1 and that which is the original material of mythos for the most part vanishes before our eyes in the fantastic dreams of a restless and inquisitive imaginative power1 and modes of shaping the same devoid of all intelligent purpose4 7c7 ,in conclusion1 the purest form of representation which we meet with at this stage of imaginative conception is that of personification1 as it generally applies to the human figure4 ,for the reason1 however1 that the significance on this plane is not as yet grasped as the free subjectivity of ,spirit1 but rather either under a determination of abstract universality or as a mode of natural existence1 one that contains1 for example1 the life of rivers1 mountains1 stars1 or sun1 for this reason it is only employed as means of expression for this kind of content under a mode which really detracts from the full worth of the human form4 ,for the human body1 if we view it in its true definition1 no less than the form of human activities and events1 expresses simply concrete ,spirit and a spiritual content1 which is self-contained and subsistent in this its reality1 and possesses therewith no mere symbol or external sign4 ,from one point of view consequently this personification1 albeit the significance1 which it is invoked to represent1 is taken to belong to the spiritual no less than the natural1 yet1 on account of the abstractness which clings to this form of significance1 is on this stage of thought still of a superficial nature1 and needs yet many other modes of representation to be rendered clear to the closer inspection1 forms with which it is here confusedly mingled and thereby itself made obscure4 ,and1 moreover1 taking it under another aspect1 it is not the subjectivity here and its form which supplies the characterization1 but rather its expressions1 actions1 and so forth2 for it is in deed and action that the more defined line of severation first asserts itself1 which can be brought into relation with the specific content of the universal significances4 ,in that case1 however1 we are again face to face with the defect that it is not the conscious subject1 but merely its means of expression1 which supply the signification1 no less than the confusion of thought1 that events and deeds1 instead of constituting the reality and the existence of the subject as determinately self-realized1 preserve its content and significance elsewhere4 ,a series of such actions is able therefore very possibly to carry with it a certain result and consequence1 which is derived from the content which such a series subserves as its expression4 ,this consequent result is1 however1 to an extent equally great1 liable again to be interrupted and in part suspended by that which is central in the personification and the man#dg1 because subjective activity is also a stimulus to capricious action and its manifestation1 so that both that which is significant and that which is destitute of this quality keep up their varied and irregular interplay just in so far as the imagination is unable to unite their significant characteristics and the forms which are appropriate to them in one substantial and secure mode of association4 ,and1 moreover1 if it is the purely natural aspect of such facts which is exclusively accepted as the unified content1 in that case the material must inevitably prove itself inadequate to support the human form1 just as this1 being only fully adapted as a means of expressing ,spirit1 is on its side incapable of representing what is wholly natural4 ,in all these respects such a mode of personification as the one we are examining fails to express a true mode2 for the truth of art requires1 as the truth universally requires1 that there should be a complete concordance between the inward and the outward1 that is1 the notion and its reality4 ,greek mythology1 for example1 personified the ,pontine sea2 ,scamander possesses its river gods1 nymphs1 dryads1 and so forth4 ,in other words it builds up ,nature in the most various forms as the content of its human divinities4 ,it does not1 however1 suffer its personification to remain purely formal and superficial1 but creates thereby real individuals1 in whom the purely natural significance fades into the background1 and the human element1 on the contrary1 which has taken up and absorbed such material out of ,nature1 becomes the prominent factor4 ,hindoo art1 on the other hand1 is unable to advance beyond a grotesque intermingling of these two sides of ,nature and humanity1 so that neither is treated according to its rightful claim1 and both are merely given the forms which are appropriate to the other4 ,speaking in a general way we cannot consider even these personifications to be as yet strictly symbolical1 for the reason that owing to their formal superficiality they do not stand in any essential relation to or mode of association more truly intimate with the more determinate form which they are presumed to express4 ,at the same time we may note here1 with respect to other particular modifications and attributes1 with which such personifications appear to be intermingled1 and which are taken to express the more defined qualities generally attached to ,divinities1 an impulse in the direction of symbolic representation1 for which the personification then stands merely as the universal type of widest connotation4 ,if we turn now to the more important examples of the imaginative sense on the plane we are now considering1 we have first to draw attention to ,trimrtis1 the triformed ,godhead4 ,this ,deity includes in the first place ,brahm1 the activity which brings forth and procreates1 the creator of the world1 ,lord of all the gods and much more beside4 ,on the one hand he is to be kept distinct from ,brahman 7as ,neuter71 that is from the ultimate ,being1 and is the first-born of such4 ,in another aspect1 however1 he again seems to fall into union with this abstract ,godhead1 as generally happens with ,hindoo thought where the lines of difference are rarely held secure1 and part are allowed to vanish and the rest simply to get confused with each other4 ,the form with which he is most closely identified has much that is symbolical about it2 he is formed with four heads and four hands1 and with the latter are his sceptre and ring#dh4 ,he is of a red colour1 an obvious suggestion of sunlight1 since these ,divinities invariably carry qualities which are of universal significance in ,nature and which are thus personified in them4 ,the second ,deity of this triune ,trimrtis1 is ,vishnu1 the preserving ,godhead1 the third ,sivas1 the destructive ,power4 ,the symbols employed to represent these gods are countless4 ,for by reason of the universality of the significances they express they comprehend an infinite number of varied activities4 ,in part these are related to particular phenomena of ,nature1 mainly the elementary1 such as1 for example1 the quality of fiery1#di which is an attribute of ,vishnu1 and frequently we have set before us shapes of the most antagonistic description4 ,in the conception of this triform god we have the fact at once brought home to us in the clearest way that the form of ,spirit is not yet able to assert itself in its ,truth if for no other reason than this1 that here it is not the spiritual which constitutes the truly permeating significance4 ,that is to say1 this trinity of gods would only be ,spirit if the third god were an essentially concrete unity1 a unity which returned upon itself from the differentiation and reduplication of its substance4 ,for ,god1 according to the true conception of ,godhead1 is ,spirit as this active and absolute self-differentiation and ,unity1 a conception which is generally what constitutes the notion of ,spirit4 ,in this ,trimrtis1 however1 the triune ,god is not by any means such a concrete totality1 but merely a passage from this to that1 a metamorphosis1 a procreator1 a destroyer1 and so forth4 ,we must be accordingly very careful not to imagine that we have discovered the highest ,truth in these most primordial gropings of man's reason1 and in this one note of concord which1 no doubt1 as mere rhythmic expression#ej1 contains the triune form of ,deity1 that is1 the fundamental conception of ,christian theology1 believe that we already have before us a recognition of the ,christian doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,starting from such fundamental conceptions as those of ,brahman and ,trimrtis1 ,hindoo imagination expatiates still further without let in a countless number of the most varied formed ,divinities4 ,for those primary significances of universal application which are apprehended as essential ,deity are of such a kind that they may be rediscovered in an infinite number of phenomena1 which are again personified and symbolized as gods1 and each and all combine in throwing the greatest obstacles in the way of any intelligible system by reason of the indefinite character and confusing volubility#ea of this type of imagination1 which fails utterly to grasp the real nature of anything that it discovers1 and merely wrests everything that it touches from its own appropriate sphere4 ,for these gods of subordinate rank1 at the head of which we may place such a ,divinity as ,indrus1 who represents the ,air and the ,heavens1 the chief material is furnished by the general forces of ,nature1 such as stars1 rivers1 and mountains conceived in the various phases of their activity1 their change1 their influence on mankind1 whether beneficent or hurtful1 preservative or destructive4 ,one of the most important subjects1 however1 of ,hindoo imagination and art is the origin of gods and the rest of creation1 in other words its ,theogony and ,cosmogony4 ,for this type of imagination is generally rooted in the continual effort to carry over that which is most removed from sense into the very heart of the external world1 or in the reverse process once more to expunge that which stands nearest to sense and ,nature by means of the barest abstraction4 ,consequently the origin of the gods is referred back to the primordial ,godhead#eb1 and at the same time the workings and existence of ,brahm1 ,vishnu1 and ,sivas are represented as actual in mountains1 streams1 and human events4 ,a cosmological content of this kind can1 on the one hand1 contain an independent and specific order of ,deities1 while on the other these gods are made to merge in those universal significances of the supremest type of ,godhead4 ,such theogonies and cosmogonies are numerous and of every conceivable variety4 ,when anyone ventures1 therefore1 to say that the ,hindoos have thus or thus portrayed the creation of the world or the origin of ,nature1 such a statement can only be taken to apply to a particular sect or book2 you can very easily find a perfectly different account of these events elsewhere4 ,the imagination of this people in the pictures and images they have created is exhaustless4 ,a mode of conception which is conspicuous throughout the entire series of these creation stories is the constantly repeated presentation of the creative act not in the form of spiritual fiat1 but of a purely natural process of generation4 ,only after having made ourselves thoroughly conversant with this mode of imaginative vision shall we discover the key to unlock the meaning of many representations which at first totally confound all our feelings of shame1 shamelessness being here apparently driven to its furthest limits1 and in its utter sensuousness carried beyond all belief4 ,a striking example of this mode of imaginative treatment is offered us by the notoriously popular episode from the ,rmyana1 known as the descent of ,gang4 ,this tale is narrated on the occasion when ,rmas happens by chance to come to the ,ganges4 ,the wintry and ice-covered ,himavn1 the prince of the mountains1 was father by the slender ,men of two daughters1 ,gang1 the elder1 and the beautiful ,um the younger one4 ,certain gods1 more particularly ,indras1 beseech the father to send them ,gang1 in order that they may institute the sacred rites1 and as ,himavat proves himself quite ready to accede to their request ,gang mounts on high to the blessed gods4 ,after this follows the further story of ,um1 who after accomplishing wonderful actions of humility and penitence1 is espoused to ,rudras1 that is1 ,sivas4 ,from this union spring up wild and unfruitful mountains4 ,for a hundred years long ,sivas lay with ,um in the bridal embrace1 without intermission1 so that the gods aghast at the procreative power of ,sivas1 and full of anxiety for the productive child1 beseech him that he will divert the stream of his strength on the ,earth4 ,this passage the ,english translator has not ventured to translate literally1 for the reason that it flings too much for him every shred of shame or modesty to the winds4 ,sivas hearkens to the beseechings of the gods1 and staying his former procreative ardour1 that he may not utterly confound the universe1 he loosens the seminal flood over the ,earth4 ,out of this1 transpierced with fire1 rises up the white mountain which separates ,india from ,tartary4 ,um1 however1 falls into scorn and anger at this complaisance1 and thereon curses all wedlock4 ,in this section of the tale we have what are mainly fearful and distorted pictures which run so entirely counter to our ordinary notions of imagination and intelligent senses that the most we can do is to observe what they would appear to offer in default of either4 ,schlegel has omitted to translate this section of the episode and merely added in his own words how ,gang descends once more on the ,earth4 ,and this took place in the following way4 ,a certain forebear of ,rmas1 ,sagaras1 was father of a bad son1 and by a second wife he was father of no less than #fj1jjj sons1 who came into the world in a pumpkin1 were1 however1 raised up into stalwart men on clarified butter in pitchers#ec4 ,now it chanced one day that ,sagaras was of a mind to sacrifice a steed1 which was1 however1 seized from him by ,vishnu in the form of a serpent4 ,on this ,sagaras sends forth his #fj1jjj sons4 ,but no sooner had they come to ,vishnu after great hardships and a long searching than a breath of hers burns them all to ashes4 ,after a weary waiting a certain grandson of ,sagaras1 by name ,ansumn the ,shining1 son of ,asamaschas1 set forth to find his #fj1jjj uncles and the sacrificial steed4 ,he actually comes upon both the steed ,siwas and the heap of ashes4 ,the king of birds1 ,garudas1 however1 notifies to him the fact that unless the stream of the holy ,gang flows down from heaven over the heap of ashes his relations will be unable to return to life4 ,whereupon the stalwart ,ansumn endures for #cb1jjj years on the mountain-top of ,himavn the sternest mortifications4 ,all in vain4 ,neither his own chastisements nor those of yet another #cj1jjj years of his son ,dwilipas are of the slightest avail4 ,at last the son of ,dwilipas1 the glorious ,bhagrathas1 succeeds in accomplishing the feat1 but only after mortifications which last #a1jjj years4 ,then the ,gang plunges down2 but in order that the ,earth may not thereby shiver in pieces1 ,siwas now bows his head so that the water runs into his mane4 ,thereupon yet further mortifications are enjoined upon ,bhagrathas1 in order that ,gang may be free to stream forth from these locks4 ,finally she is poured forth in six streams2 the seventh ,bhagrathas conducts after mighty privations to the place of the #fj1jjj1 who mount up to heaven1 and therewith ,bhagrathas rules for yet many a year over his people in peace4 ,other theogonies such as the ,scandinavian and the ,greek are very similar in type to the ,hindoo4 ,the principal feature of them all is this of physical generation and production2 but not one of them plunges so headlong into the subject or in general displays such caprice and impropriety in the images of its invention as the ,hindoo4 ,the theogony of ,hesiod is in particular far more intelligible and succinct1 so that at least one knows where one is1 and is clear as to the general significance2 and this is so because the impression is far more pronounced that the form and external embodiment of the myth is set forth by the narrator as something external4 ,the mythos starts in this case#ed with ,chaos1 ,erebos1 ,eros1 and ,gaia4 ,the ,earth 7,gaia7 brings forth ,uranos of her own accord1 and then is mother by him of the mountains1 sea1 and so forth1 also of ,cronos and the ,cyclops1 ,centimani#ee1 whom ,uranos1 however1 shortly after birth incarcerates in ,tartaros4 ,gaia thereupon induces ,cronos to castrate ,uranos4 ,the deed is accomplished4 ,and from the blood that falls on the ,earth spring to life the ,erinnyes and the ,giants4 ,the castrated member is caught by the sea1 and from the sea's foam arises ,cytherea4 ,in all this description the outlines are more clearly and decisively drawn4 ,and we are thereby carried beyond the circle of mere gods of ,nature4 #c4 ,if we endeavour now to seize some point where the transition is emphasized to the stage of real symbolism1 we shall find the same already in the first beginnings of ,hindoo imagination4 ,that is to say1 however preoccupied the ,hindoo imagination may be in its efforts to contort the sensuous phenomenon into a plurality of ,divinities1 a preoccupation which no other people has displayed with anything like the same exhaustless scope and countless transformations1 yet from another point of view in many of its visions and narratives it remains throughout constant to that spiritual abstraction of a ,god supreme over all1 in contrast with whom the particular1 sensuous1 and phenomenal is undivine1 inadequate1 and consequently is apprehended as something negative1 something which has finally to be cancelled4 ,for1 as we have from the first noticed1 it is precisely this continual involution of one side on the other which constitutes the fundamental type of the ,hindoo imagination1 and makes it for ever incapable of finding a true principle of reconciliation4 ,the art is consequently never tired of representing1 in every imaginable way1 the surrender of the sensuous and the power of spiritual abstraction and self-absorption4 ,of this kind are the representations of toilsome mortifications and profound meditations1 of which not merely the most ancient epical poems1 such as the ,rmyana and the ,mahbhrata1 but also many other works of art furnish most important examples4 ,no doubt many of these self-chastisements are undergone on grounds of ambition1 or at least with a view to definite objects1 which do conduct the devotee to the highest and most final union with ,brahman1 and to the mortification of everything carnal and finite4 ,an object of this kind is the endeavour to secure the power of a ,brahmin2 but even in this there is always the fact present to consciousness that the expiation and the continuance of a meditation that is ever more and more diverted from the objects of sense will raise the devotee over his birth-place in a particular caste1 no less than help him resist the power of ,nature and the gods of ,nature4 ,for this reason1 that prince of ,divinities of this class1 ,indras1 opposes most signally strenuous aspirants1 and strives to entice them away2 or1 in the case where all his seductions fail1 he invokes assistance from the supreme gods lest the entire heaven fall into confusion4 ,in the representation of mortifications of this kind and the several kinds and grades according to which they are ranked1 ,hindoo art is almost as fertile in its invention as in its system of ,divinities1 and it pursues the theme with the most thorough earnestness4 ,this1 then1 is the point from which we may now extend our survey in a forward direction4 ,c4 ,,real ,,symbolism ,in the case of symbolical1 no less than that of ,fine ,art1 it is necessary that the significance which it seeks to embody should not merely be set forth1 as is the case in ,hindoo art1 from the first immediate unity of the same with its objective existence1 such as obtains before any severation or distinction has as yet been emphasized1 but that this significance should itself be independent and free from the immediate sensuous content4 ,this deliverance can only so far assert itself as the sensuous and natural medium is both grasped and envisaged as itself essentially negative1 as that which has to be and has been absorbed4 ,it is a further requirement1 moreover1 that the negativity1 which is successful in making its appearance as the passing off and the self-dissolution of the ,natural1 should be accepted and receive embodiment as the absolute import of the object generally1 as a phase1 that is to say1 of the ,divine4 ,but with a fulfilment of such claims we are already beyond the limits of ,hindoo art4 ,it is true that the consciousness of this negative side is not wholly absent from the ,hindoo imagination4 ,sivas is the destroyer no less than the producer4 ,indras dies1 nay1 more1 the ,destroyer ,time1 personified as ,kla the terrible giant1 confounds the entire universe and all gods1 even ,trimrtis1 who passes away at the same time in ,brahman1 just as the individual in his self-identification with the highest form of ,divinity suffers his ,ego and all his wisdom and will to vanish away4 ,in these conceptions1 however1 the negative element is in part merely a transformation and change1 in part only an abstraction1 which allows all definition to drop away1 in order that it may thrust its path to an indefinite and consequently vacuous and content-less universality4 ,the substance of the ,divine on the other hand persists through change of form1 passage over and advance to a system of many ,deities1 and the abrogation of that system once more in the one highest form of ,god unalterably one and the same4 ,it is not that conception of the one ,god1 which itself essentially possesses1 as this unity1 the negative aspect as its own determination1 both necessary and appropriate to its own essential notion4 ,in an analogous way the destructive and hurtful element is placed according to the ,parsee view of existence outside the personality of ,ormuzd in ,ahriman1 and consequently only makes a contradiction and conflict manifest belonging under no form of relation to ,ormuzd1 as a distinct phase of his own substance4 ,the actual point in the advance which we have now to make consists1 therefore1 in this that1 on the one hand1 the negative aspect1 fixed by consciousness in an independent relation as the ,absolute1 is1 however1 on the other1 merely regarded as a phase of the ,divine1 as a phase1 however1 which is not only as outside the true ,absolute incidental to another ,godhead#ef1 but is to be so ascribed to the ,absolute1 that the true ,god appears as a process in which ,he negates ,himself1 and thereby contains this negative element as an inherent self-determination of ,his own substance4 ,through this enlarged conception the ,absolute is for the first time essentially concrete1 that is self-determination1 and thereby essential unity1 whose particular antitheses1 as parts of a process1 appear to consciousness as the different determinations of one and the same ,god4 ,for the necessity of giving essential definition to the absolute significance is just that which at this stage it is felt to be of first importance to satisfy4 ,all the significances up to this point persisted by virtue of their abstract character as absolutely undefined and consequently void of content1 or were merged1 when in a converse direction they tended to clear distinction1 immediately in the ,being of ,nature1 or fell into a conflict in respect to their configuration which gave them no repose and reconciliation4 ,this twofold defect we have now to remove1 both by showing the advance of ,thought regarded as itself an ideal process1 and by illustrating that advance by means of particular facts of the mind and institutions of nations on the objective plane of history4 ,and in the first place we may observe a more intimate bond of association is set up between the ,inward and ,outward aspect of consciousness in the increased recognition that every determination of the ,absolute is already essentially an inchoate movement in the direction of expression4 ,for every determination is essentially distinction#eg4 ,the ,external1 however1 is as such always defined and distinct1 and consequently there is thus an aspect immediately presented1 according to which the ,external is manifested in a form more adequate to the significance than was possible under the modes of conception as yet examined4 ,the first definition1 however1 and essential negation of the ,absolute inevitably falls short of the free self-determination of ,spirit as ,spirit4 ,it is merely the immediate negation of itself4 ,this immediate and consequently natural negation in its most comprehensive form of statement is ,death4 ,the ,absolute is consequently apprehended now in a way that it is compelled to submit itself to this form of negation as a part of the essential determination of its own notion1 in other words it is obliged to enter the path of extinction1 and we observe consequently the glorification of ,death and grief in the first instance made present to the national consciousness as the death of the dying sensuous material4 ,the death of ,nature is cognized as a necessary part#eh of the life of the ,absolute4 ,the ,absolute1 however1 on the one hand1 in order to be subject to this phase of ,death1 must be posited already as determinate existence2 and1 equally from another point of view1 must not be suffered to remain in the annihilation of ,death1 but must be held to re-establish itself in an essentially positive unity on a yet higher plane of existence4 ,death is consequently not accepted here as constituting the entire significance1 but merely one aspect of the same4 ,and though no doubt the ,absolute is in one sense viewed as a cessation of its immediate existence1 a passage over and beyond and a passing away1 yet it is quite as much in the reverse sense conceived as a return upon itself1 as a resurrection1 as an eternal process of ,divine realization rendered possible by virtue of this evolutional principle of negation4 ,for ,death is capable of a twofold meaning4 ,under the first it is the immediate passing away of the natural2 under the second ,death is the extinction of the exclusively natural and thereby the birth of a higher type1 that is1 spiritual1 from which the merely natural falls away in the sense1 that ,spirit possesses in itself this phase as an essential phase of its own substance4 ,for this reason1 secondly1 the form of ,nature can no longer be accepted in the immediacy of sensuous existence as adequate to the significance referred to it1 because the significance of the ,external consists just in this1 that it must die in the form of its real existence and rise again4 ,on the same ground1 thirdly1 the mere conflict between significance and form and that ferment of the imagination1 which was the fantastic product of ,hindoo conceptions1 drop away4 ,the significance is1 it is true1 even now not yet fully and with absolute clarity cognized in its pure unity free from all sense-presented reality1 so that it could be set forth in real contrast with the form of its actual embodiment2 conversely1 however1 the form itself1 this particular1 object1 that is1 whether in its glorified shape of grandiosity or in any other more conspicuous form of caricature1 as an image of animal life1 a human personification1 event or action1 is not taken to envisage for immediate sense an adequate existence of the ,absolute4 ,this corrupt form of identity is already surpassed as fully to the extent that it still falls behind that other complete deliverance4 ,and in the place of both of these extremes we have asserted that kind of representation1 which we have above already described as the real symbolical4 ,on the one hand it is now able to appear for the reason that the ,inward1 or that which is conceived as significance1 is no longer something which merely1 as in ,hindoo conceptions1 comes and passes away1 at one moment is absorbed immediately in externality1 at another is withdrawn from the same into the solitude of abstraction1 but it begins to make itself independently secure against the mere reality of ,nature4 ,and on the other hand the symbol is now forced to seek some form of plastic shape4 ,that is to say1 although the significance1 identical in every way with that which has hitherto obtained1 possesses as a phasal condition of its content the negation of the ,natural1 yet the true ,inward now for the first time shows a definite tendency to wrest its way from that ,natural1 and is consequently itself still swallowed up within the external mode of appearance1 so that it is unable independently to be brought home to consciousness in its clear universality without having previously had to comply with the form of external reality4 ,now the kind of configuration which is implied by the notion of that which generally constitutes the fundamental significance in symbolism1 may be described in the following terms1 namely1 we find in it that the definite forms of ,nature1 human activities and so forth1 neither--to express one aspect of it--represent or signify merely themselves severally in their isolated natural characteristics1 nor--to emphasize the other aspect--bring their immediate form to consciousness as the ,divine actually visible to sense4 ,they are rather employed to suggest that same ,divine through qualities which they possess cognate with a significance of more comprehensive range4 ,for this reason it is just that universal dialectic of ,life1 its origin1 growth1 collapse in and awakening from ,death1 which also in this connection supplies the appropriate content for the true symbolic type2 and this is so because we find in almost every province of natural and spiritual life certain phenomena1 which presuppose this process as the basis of their existence1 and consequently can be utilized as means of giving a visible body to such significant aspects and of pointing by suggestion to the same1 a real affinity being actually inherent between the two sides4 ,thus plants spring from their seed1 sprout1 grow1 bring forth fruit2 the fruit corrupts and produces fresh seed4 ,in the same way the sun rises to a low elevation in winter2 in ,spring he mounts on high1 until we have his meridian reached in summer2 it is then that he pours forth his richest blessing or exerts the greatest destructive force2 after that he inclines once more towards the horizon4 ,the various stages of human life1 too1 childhood1 youth1 maturity1 and old age1 illustrate precisely the same universal process4 ,but in a special sense specific localities such as the ,nile-valley are adapted to the closer particularization in the direction indicated4 ,in so far1 then1 as that which is purely fantastic is displaced by these more fundamental traits of affinity and the more intimate applicability of the expression to the import it expresses there arises a thoughtful process of selection with reference to the comparative congruity or incongruity of the symbolizing forms1 and the intoxicated eddy to and fro which prevailed is laid to rest in a more intelligent circumspection4 ,we consequently observe that a union more at one with itself reappears in the place of that which we found in the first stage of our process1 subject1 however1 to this characteristic difference1 that the identity of the significance with its objectively real existence is no longer one immediately envisaged1 but one that is set up out of the difference and consequently not one previously discovered1 rather we should say a mode of union that is the product of mind 7,spirit74 ,that which1 in its most general terms1 we call the ,inward begins at this point to assume the solidity of self-subsistence1 to be conscious of itself2 it seeks for its counterfeit in the objects of ,nature1 which on their part possess a similar reflection in the life and destinies of ,spirit4 ,out of this eager movement to recognize the one side in the other1 and by means of the external to bring for itself visibly to sense and the imaginative faculty the significance1 as also to envisage by virtue of that ,inward the significance of the external shapes through a union in which both sides are associated1 we get that vast impulse of art which finds its satisfaction through means which are purely symbolical4 ,only when the ,inward is free and is driven forward to make clear to the imaginative vision in real form what it essentially is1 and to have before itself this very vision1 moreover1 in the form of an external work1 do we find that the genuine impulse of art1 and the particularly plastic arts1 begins to be a living fact4 ,then it is that the necessity is felt to clothe the ,inward with a form not merely previously discovered from the resources of spiritual activity1 but rather one that is minted out of spirit 7mind7 for the first time4 ,in the symbol1 then1 there is a second form created1 which1 however1 is not independently valid for itself as its main purpose1 but is rather employed to envisage the significance1 and stands consequently in a dependent relation to the same4 ,it were possible to apprehend the above relation in such a way as though the significance were that point from which the artistic consciousness starts on its journey1 and that only after having found this it begins to look round for means to express its universal conceptions through external phenomena cognate in their affinity to such conceptions4 ,this1 however1 is not the way that real symbolic art proceeds4 ,for its characteristic distinction consists in this1 that its penetration fails as yet to grasp the significances in their independent consistency1 independent1 that is1 from every mode of externality4 ,for this reason its point of departure is rather from that which is immediately presented and its concrete existence in ,nature and ,spirit4 ,this it thereupon1 in the first instance1 expands to the measure of the universality of such significances1 whose determination such objective real existence contains only under more restricted conditions1 adding this wider range in order that it may create a form from ,spirit1 which is to make that universality visible to consciousness in this particular reality when once it is set forth clearly before perception4 ,regarded as symbolical forms1 therefore1 the images of art have not as yet attained a form truly adequate to ,spirit1 inasmuch as ,spirit itself is not as yet at this stage essentially clear and thereby free ,spirit2 but we have at least here embodiments1 which essentially proclaim the fact to us1 that they are not merely selected to represent simply themselves1 but are intended to point to significances of profounder intension and more--comprehensive range4 ,that which is purely natural and sensuous asserts itself as fact and nothing beside2 the symbolical work of art1 however1 whether it be the phenomena of ,nature or the human figure that it makes visible to the eye1 points at the same time over and outside such facts to something further1 which1 however1 must possess an intimate root of affinity with the images that are thus displayed1 and an essential bond of relation with them4 ,this association between the concrete form and its universal significance may conceivably be present in many different ways4 ,at one time the emphasis will be laid on the external aspect1 and it will consequently be more obscure2 at another1 however1 the basis of affinity will be more pronounced as in the case when the universality1 which is to be symbolized1 constitutes1 in fact1 the essential content of the concrete phenomenon4 ,in this case naturally it is a much simpler matter to grasp the symbolic character of the object4 ,the most abstract mode of expression in this respect is number1 which1 however1 it is only possible to use as an indication of a further meaning beyond that it ordinarily elucidates when this significance is itself1 essentially numerical4 ,the numbers seven and twelve are frequently met with in ,egyptian architecture1 because seven is the number of the planets1 and twelve is that of the lunar revolutions or the number of feet that the water of the ,nile must necessarily rise in order to fructify the land4 ,such a number is then regarded as sacred in so far as it is present as a determinant in the great elementary relations1 which are revered as forces in the whole life of ,nature4 ,twelve steps or seven pillars are to this extent symbolical4 ,the same kind of numerical symbolism has an extensive influence upon the form of widely famous mythologies4 ,the twelve labours of ,hercules1 for example1 appear to contain a reference to the twelve months of the year2 for if ,hercules under one aspect of the myth is no doubt presented to us as the thoroughly human impersonation of a hero1 in another he unquestionably indicates a significance of ,nature under a symbolized form1 and1 in fact1 is a personification of the course of the sun4 ,in a further and more complete sense symbolical configurations of space1 labyrinthine passages1 and such like carry a symbolical image of the course of the planets1 just as dances1 too1 in virtue of their complex evolutions symbolically express the motion of the great elementary bodies4 ,and further1 on a higher plane1 the bodies of animals are utilized as symbols1 but most succinctly of all the human figure1 which1 even at this stage1 as we shall see later on1 appears to be elaborated in modes more compatible with its intrinsic worth for the reason that even now ,spirit in general makes a real movement to embody itself from out the mere swaddling clothes of ,nature in a shape more adequate to its own self-subsistent personality4 ,such1 then1 constitutes our general concept of the true form of symbolism and the necessity under which art labours to express the same4 ,and in order that we may discuss the more concrete exemplifications of this type of symbolism1 it will be necessary in dealing with this first plunge of ,spirit into the wealth of its own resources to leave the ,east and direct our attention mainly on the ,west4 ,as a symbol of universal import to indicate the point of view where we now stand1 we may perhaps first and foremost fix before our eyes the image of the ,phoenix1 which is its own funeral pile1 yet ever is rejuvenated out of the flames of its death and rises from the ashes4 ,herodotus informs us 7,,ii1 #gc7 that at least in representations he saw this bird in ,egypt1 and1 in fact1 it is the ,egyptian people who also supply us with a focus for the type of symbolical art4 ,before1 however1 we proceed to the closer consideration of ,egyptian art we will mention several other myths1 which form1 as it were1 the passage to that national symbolism which we find most elaborate1 no matter from what direction we approach it4 ,such are the myths of ,adonis1 that of his death1 and the lament of ,aphrodite over him1 the funeral festivals1 etc41 conceptions and rites which find their original home on the ,syrian coast4 ,the service of ,cybele among the ,phrygians possesses the same significance1 which also finds its echo in the myths of ,castor and ,pollux1 ,ceres and ,proserpina4 ,as the essence of such significance we find in the above quoted examples1 before everything else1 that phasal condition of negation we have already alluded to1 the death1 that is1 of the natural regarded as a basic and absolute condition of the ,divine process1 emphasized as such1 and made visible in its independence4 ,it is in this sense that we can explain the funeral festivals that celebrate the death of the god1 the excessive lamentations over his loss1 which is once more made good through his rediscovery1 resurrection1 and rejuvenescence1 making it possible for the festivals of joy to follow4 ,this universal significance contains further its more definite relation to ,nature4 ,in winter the sun loses his force1 while in spring he returns once more1 and with that ,nature regains her youth1 she dies and is reborn4 ,in examples such as these the ,divine1 personified as a human event1 discovers its significance in the life of ,nature1 which then from a further point of view becomes a symbol for the essential character of the negative condition generally1 in spiritual things no less than natural4 ,it is in ,egypt1 however1 that we have to look for the perfect example of symbolical representation in its systematic elaboration of characteristic content and form4 ,egypt is the land of symbol1 which proposes to itself the spiritual problem of the self-interpretation of ,spirit1 without being able successfully to solve it4 ,the problems remain without an answer2 and such solution as we are able to supply consists therefore merely in this1 that we grasp these riddles of ,egyptian art and its symbolical productions as this very problem which ,egypt propounds for herself but is unable to solve4 ,for the reason that we find that ,spirit here still endeavours in the external objects of sense1 from which again it strains to free itself1 and further labours with unwearied assiduity1 to evolve from itself its essential substance by means of natural phenomena no less than to embody the same in the form of spirit for the vision of the senses1 rather than as the pure content of mind1 this ,egyptian people may1 in contrast to all the instances previously examined1 be described as the nation ,art claims for herself#ei4 ,its works of art1 however1 remain full of mystery and silence1 without music or motion2 and this is so because ,spirit here has not yet truly found its own life1 nor has learned how to utter the clear and luminous speech of mind4 ,in the unsatisfied stress and impulse1 to bring before the vision through her art1 albeit in so voiceless a way1 this wrestle of herself with herself1 to give shape to the ,inward of her life1 but only to become conscious of her own ,inward1 no less than that which universally prevails#fj1 through external forms which are cognate with it--we have in a sentence the characterization of ,egypt4 ,the people of this wonderful land was not merely agricultural1 but also constructive1 a folk which tossed up the soil in every direction1 delved lakes and canals1 and exercised their artistic instincts not merely in giving visible shape to buildings of enormous solidity1 but in carrying works themselves of vast dimension to a like extent into the bowels of the earth4 ,to erect buildings of this kind was1 as we have long ago learned from ,herodotus1 a principal occupation of this people1 and one of the chief exploits of their kings4 ,the buildings of the ,hindoo race are also unquestionably of colossal size2 we shall1 however1 find nowhere else a variety which can compare with that of ,egypt4 #a4 ,reviewing now the general conceptions of ,egyptian art with a closer attention to particular aspects of it1 we may in the first place define the fundamental principle of so much of it as follows1 that we find here the ,inward is securely held in its independent opposition to the immediacy of external existence4 ,and what is more1 this ,inward is conceived as the negation of ,life1 in other words the dead thing1 not as the abstract negation of the evil and hurtful thing1 such as ,ahriman in contrast to ,ormuzd1 but as form essentially substantive4 7a7 ,to illustrate this thought further1 the ,hindoo merely subtilizes his life to the most empty of abstractions1 that is in result one that therewith negates every form of concrete content4 ,such a ,brahm-becoming process is not to be found in ,egypt2 rather we find here that the invisible possesses a fuller significance2 the corpse secures the content of the living body itself1 which1 however1 as torn away from immediate existence1 in its retirement from actual life#fa1 still possesses its relation to that which is alive1 and in this concrete form is maintained as self-subsistent4 ,it is a well-known fact that the ,egyptians embalmed and revered cats1 dogs1 hawks1 ichneumons1 bears1 and wolves 7,herod41 ,,ii1 #fg71 but most of all the dead human body 7,herod41 ,,ii1 #hf-ij74 ,by them the honour paid to the dead is not that of burial1 but its preservation from age to age as a corpse4 7b7 ,and moreover we may observe that the ,egyptians do not merely remain constant to this immediate and still wholly natural permanency of the dead4 ,that which is preserved in its physical or natural aspect is also conceived to endure in a form present to the imagination4 ,herodotus informs us that the ,egyptians were the first who held the doctrine that the human soul is immortal4 ,we consequently find that they are the first who present to us a more exalted mode of this resolution of the natural and spiritual1 a mode that is to say1 under which it is not merely the natural body which secures an independent self-subsistence4 ,the immortality of the soul is a conception which borders closely upon the freedom of ,spirit4 ,the ,ego is here apprehended as removed from the purely natural mode of its existence1 reposing on its own substance4 ,this knowledge of itself1 however1 is the principle of freedom4 ,no doubt we are not justified in asserting that the ,egyptians grasped the notion of spiritual freedom in its profoundest sense4 ,we must not imagine that their belief in the immortality of the soul is identical with our own form of that belief2 but they already possessed the power to retain securely that which was separated from ,life under a form of existence visible only to the imagination1 no less than one in which it was identical with the bodily material4 ,they have thereby made possible the passage to the full emancipation of ,spirit1 albeit it was but the threshold of the temple of freedom that they passed over4 ,this fundamental conception of theirs is further expanded to a unified and substantial ,kingdom of the ,departed set up in contrast to the immediate presence of the real4 ,a ,court of ,justice of the ,dead is held in this invisible state over which ,osiris as ,amenthes presides4 ,one of similar character is also instituted in the sphere of immediate reality1 justice being executed even among men over the dead1 and after the decease of a king every one was entitled to submit his grievances to that court4 7c7 ,if we now proceed to inquire what is the symbolical form of art1 which is given to such conceptions1 we must look for this among the characteristic features of ,egyptian architecture4 ,the form of this architecture is twofold2 there is one type that is superterraneous1 while the other is subterraneous4 ,on the one hand we find underground labyrinths1 gorgeous and extensive excavations1 passages half a mile in length1 dwellings covered with hieroglyphics elaborated with every possible care4 ,on the other we have piled above their level those amazing constructions among which we may first and foremost reckon the pyramids4 ,for centuries men have ventilated various notions as to the precise meaning and significance of these pyramids4 ,it is now1 however1 assured beyond dispute that they are nothing more or less than the enclosures of the graves of kings or sacred animals1 such as the ,apis1 the ,cat1 or the ,ibis4 ,in this way we have before our eyes in the pyramids the simple prototype of symbolical art4 ,they are enormous crystals which secrete an ,inward within them2 and they so enclose an external form which is the product of art1 that we are at the same time made aware they stand there for this very ,inward in its severation from the mere actuality of ,nature1 and that their entire significance depends on that relation4 ,but this kingdom of ,death and the ,invisible1 which here constitutes the significance1 possesses merely the one and1 what is more1 the formal aspect appropriate to the true type of art1 that is its dissociation from immediate existence2 it is for this reason primarily but a ,hades1 not yet a ,life1 which1 although raised above sensuous existence as such1 is none the less at the same time essentially a defined existence1 and thereby intrinsically free and living ,spirit4 ,consequently the embodiment for such an ,inward still remains in relation to the determinacy of the same's content quite as much a wholly external form and envelopment4 ,such an external environment1 in which an ,inward reposes under a veil1 are the pyramids4 #b4 ,in so far1 then1 as the ,inward can be generally envisaged as an external object to immediate perception1 the ,egyptians in their relation to the aspect opposed to this externality have come to worship a ,divine existence in living animals1 such as the bull1 the cat1 and various others4 ,that which is alive is on a higher plane than the purely inorganic object1 inasmuch as the living organism possesses an ,inward1 to which the external shape points1 which1 however1 persists as an ,inward and consequently a realm of mystery4 ,this sacred cult of animals must consequently be understood as the vision of a secreted soul#fb1 which as ,life is a power superior to that which is merely external4 ,to us no doubt it can only appear as a repugnant fact that animals1 dogs and cats1 are held sacred instead of that which is truly spiritual4 ,this worship1 moreover1 has nothing symbolical in it viewed simply as such2 for it is the actual living animal1 ,apis or the like1 which is here itself revered as the existence of ,god4 ,the ,egyptians1 however1 have used the shapes of animals in a symbolical way4 ,in that case they are no longer valid1 simply for what they are1 but it is further assumed that they express a more universal import4 ,we find the most ingenuous illustration of this in the use of animal masks1 which we find more particularly under representations of embalming1 at which process certain individuals1 who take an active part1 either in opening the corpse or removing the intestines1 are depicted wearing such masks4 ,it is obvious that the animal's head is not taken to present the animal itself1 but a significance at the same time distinct from it and more universal4 ,the forms of animals are also utilized in other ways than this in admixture with the human form4 ,human figures are to be found with heads of lions1 which have been interpreted as images of ,minerva2 then there are heads of the hawk1 and in the heads of ,ammon we find the horns still retained4 ,examples such as the above obviously imply symbolical relations4 ,in a like sense the hieroglyphical writing of the ,egyptians is in great measure symbolical1 for it either endeavours to make its meaning comprehensible through the images of real objects which do not stand for themselves1 but a universality which is cognate with them1 or1 as is still more frequently the case1 in the so-called phonetic aspect of this style of writing1 it signifies particular letters by means of the specific mark of some external object1 whose initial letter possesses in speech the same tone as that which it is the intention to express4 #c4 ,and generally it is the fact that in ,egypt pretty nearly every conformation is symbolical and hieroglyphical1 expressing not itself but indicative of something more1 with which it possesses affinity1 or in other words a cognate relation4 ,the truest forms of the symbol1 however1 are only completely illustrated in such cases where we find that this relation is of a more profound and fundamental character than those we have just adverted to4 ,we will now briefly enumerate a few constantly recurring examples of this more important type of affiliation4 7a7 ,precisely as ,egyptian belief#fc surmises a mysterious ,inwardness of content in the animal form1 we find the human figure represented in such a way that the most characteristic intension#fd of subjectivity is still asserted through an external relation1 and consequently is unable to unfold into the freedom of ,beauty4 ,particularly remarkable in this respect are those colossal figures of ,memnon which1 reposing on themselves1 motionless1 with arms glued to the body1 feet close together1 inflexible1 stiff and lifeless1 are set up face to face with the sun1 waiting for his ray to strike them1 animate them1 and make them resonant4 ,herodotus1 at any rate1 informs us that these ,memnonic figures emitted a musical note on the sun's rising4 ,the higher criticism has no doubt expressed itself as sceptical on the latter point2 the fact1 however1 of a distinct note has recently been once more established both by ,frenchmen and ,englishmen2 and though it appears that this echo is no result of previous mechanical ingenuity1 we have an explanation of it in the fact that1 as sometimes happens with minerals which make a crackling noise in water1 the tone of these images of stone is actually produced by the collective action of the dew1 the morning cool1 and the subsequent impact of the sun's rays1 to the extent1 that is1 that tiny fractures appear in the stone which then again disappear4 ,in any case we may attribute to these colossal shapes the symbolical import1 that they do not possess the spiritual principle of ,life free in themselves1 and consequently require that their animation should be brought to them externally by ,light1 which alone is able to unbar the music of their life1 instead of having the power to accept the same from that real soul of ,inwardness1 which essentially carries with it measure and beauty4 ,in contrast to them the human voice is the echo of personal feeling and the soul's self1 without any external stimulant1 just as the height of human art generally consists in the fact that the ,inward of ,spirit supplies the form thereof from its own substance4 ,the ,inward or soul of the human form is in ,egypt still a mute1 and in its animation it is the relation to external nature which alone commands attention4 7b7 ,a further type of symbolical conception is to be found in ,isis and ,osiris4 ,osiris is an object of procreation and birth1 and is done to death by ,typhon4 ,isis seeks for the scattered members1 finds1 collects1 and buries them4 ,this mythos of the god has1 then1 in the first place as its content purely natural significance4 ,from one point of view1 that is to say1 ,osiris is the sun1 and his life-history stands as symbolic for his yearly course2 from another1 however1 he signifies the rise and fall of the ,nile1 which is necessarily the source of all fruitfulness in ,egypt4 ,for in ,egypt there may not be a drop of rain for years together1 and it is the ,nile which primarily waters the land by its floods4 ,in winter time it flows but a shallow stream within its bed2 then1 however1 with the summer-solstice 7,herod41 ,,ii1 #ai7 it begins for a hundred days to rise1 pours over its banks and streams far and wide over the land4 ,finally the water dries up beneath the sun's heat and the scorching desert winds1 and once more retires to its course4 ,under such conditions the tillage of the soil is carried out with ease2 the most luxurious vegetation springs up4 ,everything buds and ripens4 ,the sun and ,nile1 and the way both of them become weak or strong1 these are the conspicuous forces of ,nature in this land1 which the ,egyptian has symbolically depicted under a human form in the myths of ,isis and ,osiris4 ,to this type of symbolism1 too1 belongs the symbolical representation of the zodiac1 which is associated with the year's course1 just as the number of the twelve gods is bound up with the months4 ,conversely1 however1 ,osiris typifies under another aspect the entirely human4 ,he is held sacred as the founder of agriculture1 of the division of the soil1 property and laws1 and his worship is consequently to an equal extent related to human activities1 which are connected in the closest manner with ethical and judicial functions4 ,in the same way he is judge of the ,dead1 and secures as such a significance wholly released from the mere life of ,nature1 an import under which the symbolical tends to pass away for the reason that here the ,inward and ,spiritual is of itself content of the human form1 which1 under such a mode of relation1 begins to conserve the ,inward essentially belonging to it1 one1 that is1 which through its external form signifies merely its own substance4 ,this spiritual process1 however1 assumes again in equal measure as its content the external life of ,nature1 and1 for example1 in temples1 number of steps1 floors1 and pillars1 in labyrinths and their passages1 windings and chambers1 represents the same in an external manner4 ,osiris is thus quite as much the natural as he is the spiritual life in the different phases of his process#fe and its transformations2 and his symbolical embodiments are partly symbolic of the elements of ,nature2 while again in part these changes of ,nature are themselves merely symbols of spiritual activities and their various phases4 ,for this reason1 too1 the human form persists here as no mere personification1 such as we found to be the-case previously1 because here the natural aspect1 albeit from one point of view it appears as the real significance1 yet from another is itself merely asserted as a symbol of the ,spirit2 and1 generally speaking1 at this stage of conception1 where we find that the ,inward struggles to come forth from the sense-vision of ,nature1 it is in a position of subordinance4 ,for the same reason we find here that the human figure already receives an entirely different type of elaboration1 attesting thereby a real effort to penetrate the arcana of true ,inwardness and ,spirit1 though this endeavour also fails as yet to attain its object1 that is1 the essential freedom of the ,spiritual4 ,and it is by reason of this very defect that the human figure remains before us with neither freedom nor serene clarity1 colossal1 brooding1 petrified1 legs1 arms1 and head glued straitened and tight to the rest of the body1 without the grace or motion of ,life4 ,thus it is that art is first ascribed to ,daedalus1 in that he loosed arms and feet from their fetters1 and endowed the body with movement4 ,on account of this alternative aspect of symbolism above referred to symbolism in ,egypt is1 in addition to its other characteristics1 a totality of symbols in the sense that what in one respect is asserted as significance is employed as symbol in a sphere cognate with it4 ,this ambiguous association of a symbolism which makes significance and form intertwine1 which is further actually typical or suggestive of much1 and thereby is already concurrent with that inward subjective sense1 which alone is capable of following such indications in a variety of directions#ff1 is the characteristic distinction of these images1 albeit by reason of this ambiguity the difficulty of interpreting them is of course increased4 ,a significance of this type--attempts at deciphering which are unquestionably nowadays carried too far for the reason that pretty nearly every kind of form is virtually set before us as symbolical in some relation--may very possibly from the point of view of the ,egyptians themselves have been clear and intelligible as significance4 ,but1 as we insisted at the very entrance of our inquiry1 the appropriate motto for the interpretation of ,egyptian symbolism is implicite multum nihil explicite4 ,there is a type of workmanship undertaken with the express endeavour that it shall carry its own interpretation on the forehead1 but we only find there evidence of the effort2 it stops short of the essential point of self-illumination4 ,it is in this sense that we must fix our eyes on the works of ,egyptian art4 ,they contain riddles1 the full solution of which is not merely withheld from ourselves1 but was equally beyond the reach of the great majority of the artists who created them4 7c7 ,the works of ,egyptian art in their excessively mysterious symbolism are therefore riddles1 let us rather say the objective riddle's self4 ,and we may summarily define the ,sphinx as symbol of the real significance of the genius of ,egypt4 ,it stands as a symbol for symbolism itself4 ,in countless numbers1 set forth in rows of a hundred at a time1 we come across these ,sphinx-forms on ,egyptian soil2 they are hewn from the hardest stone1 polished1 covered with hieroglyphics1 and in the vicinity of ,cairo of such colossal dimensions that their lion-claws alone measure a man's height4 ,their animal bodies lie in repose1 above which as bust a human body rears itself2 now and again we find the head of a ram1 but in the most common case it is that of a woman4 ,out of the obtuse strength and robustness of animality the spirit of man is fain to press forward1 albeit still unable to attain the perfect representation of his own freedom1 or a counterfeit of his body in motion2 and this is inevitable1 for he is still forced to remain blended in the company of that ,other which confronts himself4 ,this straining after self-conscious spirituality1 which fails to grasp itself from the truth of its own substance in a form of external reality which is alone adequate to express it1 and instead envisages and brings the same home to consciousness in that which is merely cognate with it1 but also that which is equally foreign to it1 is1 in its general terms1 the symbolical2 and we find it here concentrated to a point as the riddle4 ,it is in this sense that the ,sphinx in the ,greek mythos1 which itself again is open to symbolic interpretation1 appears as the monster which propounds its riddle4 ,the sphinx asked here the famous and problematical question3 ,who is it1 who walks in the morning on four legs1 at noon upon two legs1 and in the evening on three8 ,oedipus discovered the simple answer that it was man himself1 and hurled the sphinx from the rocks4 ,the resolution of the symbol consists in the illumination of all that is implied in the significance of one word1 ,spirit1 just as the famous ,greek inscription cries out to mankind3 ,know thyself4 ,the light of consciousness is that clarity1 which suffers its concrete content to shine all luminous through the form which is wholly adapted to unfold it1 and in its positive form of existence simply reveals that which it is in truth4 ,footnote #cg3 ,bedeutung4 ,footnote #ch3 ,what ,hegel means is that calling an aspect of sense bodily or natural itself implies a distinction from that which is spiritual1 or only cognized by mind1 and this distinction is not present to the earliest human cognition of ,divine reality4 ,footnote #ci3 ,das ,lichtreine4 ,footnote #dj3 ,except in the conceptions of the ,hebrew prophets this is only true subject to qualification even of the ,god of ,israel4 ,for he was evidently associated with the thunder1 to take but one case--the deliverance of the tables of stone on ,sinai4 ,footnote #da3 ,phantasie may often be translated by the word imagination1 but here the element of caprice and dependence on sensuous image rather than creative impulse directed by a principle of selection is to be emphasized4 ,footnote #db3 ,ein ,taumel1 i4e41 the dance as of intoxication4 ,footnote #dc3 ,this is obviously a difficult passage to follow4 ,the main thing to remember is that ,hegel is here describing the movement of a dialectical process1 that is the purely objective1 rather than the point of view of personal or even national experience4 ,such vivid expressions as ,taumel and schamlos hineinrcken remind one of the ,platonic dialectic4 ,footnote #dd3 ,hegel's editor has ,brahman here1 but according to a passage lower down 7p4 #ei7 it should rather be ,brahm4 ,footnote #de3 ,hinaufschrauben1 lit41 a screwing up to--a screwing that in fact crews the head off4 ,footnote #df3 ,verdumpfens4 ,either ,hegel wrote ,verdummens1 or more probably ,verdampfens4 ,the idea of becoming mouldy makes no sense4 ,footnote #dg3 ,this ,i think is the sense1 though ,hegel expresses it by using words such as das ,personificieren und ,vermenschlichen1 and lower down das ,subjektiviren4 ,but previously he has rather contrasted that false kind of personification which seeks for the significant in the expression of the subject1 his deeds and acts1 rather than in grasping the motive centre of personality1 the subjective principle itself1 and it appears more intelligible in a passage1 which is sufficiently hard to follow in any ease1 to preserve that contrast4 ,footnote #dh3 ,there is apparently only one ring and sceptre1 but the words used are capable of the interpretation that would attach one for each of the hands4 ,footnote #di3 ,hegel cites ,wilson's ,lexicon1 s4v4 #b4 ,footnote #ej3 ,dem ,rhythmus nach1 that is1 the ,hindoo conception is entirely superficial1 and expresses rather a rhythmic order than a profound spiritual truth which this number expresses1 a truth which as ,hegel has previously observed may be expressed under other determinations than the numerical4 ,footnote #ea3 ,unsttigkeit1 instability1 flightiness1 detachment from a fundamental principle4 ,footnote #eb3 ,that is ,brahm apparently4 ,footnote #ec3 ,the order of the words would strictly mean that the sons were in the pitchers and it is quite possible that this is the meaning4 ,footnote #ed3 ,that is1 in ,greek cosmogony4 ,footnote #ee3 ,what3 ,centimanen refers to ,i do not know1 possibly a name for ,arges1 ,ceropes1 and ,brontes4 ,footnote #ef3 ,the sense is which is not merely 7to take the obvious case of opposition which is1 however1 not the one here described7 totally outside the ,absolute and incidental to1 etc4 ,hegel's words would admit of the interpretation that this was part of the conception he is describing4 ,but this is obviously not so1 for1 in that case1 the negative would be ascribed to both the ,absolute and the other ,god4 ,footnote #eg3 ,ist ,unterscheiden1 is that which involves differentiation4 ,to posit a quality is to distinguish from other qualities4 ,a fundamental1 aspect of ,hegelian logic4 ,footnote #eh3 ,glied1 part of one organic totality4 ,footnote #ei3 ,hegel uses an expression somewhat similar to ,milton's ,among the faithless faithful only he4 ,den ,bisherigen refers primarily1 of course1 to the ,persian and ,hindoo peoples4 ,footnote #fj3 ,wie des ,innern berhaupt1 i4e41 the ,inward with its significance as the ,absolute4 ,footnote #fa3 ,in seiner ,abgeschiedenheit vom ,leben4 ,in other words the corpse was preserved as still the only appropriate external form of ,life4 ,though ,hegel separates the two aspects of ,egyptian belief they were necessary concomitants of each other4 ,footnote #fb3 ,i have translated ,innerem here by soul1 but it expresses of course too much if taken strictly in its most personal sense4 ,footnote #fc3 ,aberglaube1 not superstition so much as belief that is intuitive1 not rationally deduced4 ,the emphasis is on ahnt4 ,footnote #fd3 ,hegel puts it in the rather obscure and contradictory way that the human figure is represented as still having the most unique form of subjective intensity 7,das eigenste ,innre der ,subjectivitt7 outside it4 ,footnote #fe3 ,that is1 the mythological history of the ,god4 ,footnote #ff3 ,lit41 ,which alone is able to apply itself 7that is1 to the work of interpretation7 in a variety of directions4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,sublime ,the perspicuity that has no riddles to expound1 which is the object of symbolic art and veritably the mark of ,spirit self-clothed to the perfect measure of its own substance1 can only be attained on condition that first and foremost the significance be presented to consciousness distinct and separate from all the phenomena of external existence4 ,to the union of both immediately envisaged we have traced the absence of art among the ancient ,parsees4 ,the contradiction involved in their severation1 followed by the association which it then stimulated under the mode of immediacy1 was the source of the fantastic type of ,hindoo symbolism4 ,finally1 we have seen that in ,egypt1 too1 the free and unfettered recognition of the ,inward principle and a significance essentially independent from the phenomenon was lacking2 and this resulted in the mystery and obscurity of a symbolism still more complete4 ,the first decisive act of purification1 or1 in other words1 express separation of the essential substance#fg from the sensuous present1 that is from the empirical facts of external appearance1 we must accordingly seek for in the ,sublime1 which exalts the ,absolute above every form of immediate existence1 and thereby effects that initiatory mode of its abstract liberation which is the basis of the spiritual content4 ,as ,spirit in its concreteness the significance is not yet apprehended2 but it is1 however1 conceived as an ,inwardness essentially existent1 reposing on its own resources1 and of such a nature that purely finite phenomena are alone inadequate to express its truth4 ,kant has raised a very interesting distinction between the idea of the sublime and the beautiful2 and indeed all that he discusses in the first part of his critique of the ,judgment from the twentieth section to the end--in spite of its considerable prolixity and its reduction of every form of determination to a fundamentally subjective principle1 whether it be the content of feeling1 imagination1 or reason--still possesses a real interest4 ,we may in fact recognize this very reduction on the ground of its general principle of relation to be just#fh2 in other words1 to borrow ,kant's own expressions1 if the matter of our consideration is primarily the ,sublime in ,nature1 it is not in any fact of ,nature1 but only in the content of our emotional life that such a ,sublime is to be discovered1 and1 further1 only in so far as we are conscious of a ,nature peculiar to ourselves which involves the added assumption of one that lies outside of us4 ,the statement of ,kant is to be taken in this sense where he says3 ,the true sublime cannot be enclosed in any sensuous form2 it is only referable to the ideas of reason1 which1 albeit no truly adequate representation can be given them1 are excited and awakened to life within the human soul by just this very incompatibility of the permissibly sensuous representation with its object#fi4 ,the sublime is1 in short1 generally the attempt to express the infinite1 without being able to find an object in the realm of phenomenal existence such as is clearly fitted for its representation4 ,the infinite1 for the very reason that it is posited independently as invisible and formless significance in contrast to the complex manifold of objective fact1 and is conceived under the mode of inwardness1 so long as it remains infinite remains indefinable in speech and sublimely unaffected by every expression of the finite categories4 ,the earliest content1 then1 which the significance secures at this stage consists in this1 that in contrast to the totality of the phenomenal it is the essentially substantive ,one1 which itself being pure ,thought is only present to thought in its purity4 ,consequently it is no longer possible to inform this substance under the mode of externality1 and to that extent all real symbolical character disappears4 ,if1 however1 an attempt is made to envisage this essential unity for sense-perception1 such is only possible under a mode of relation according to which1 while retaining its substantive character1 it is further apprehended as the creative force of everything external1 in which it therefore discovers a means of revelation and appearance1 and with which it is accordingly joined in a positive relation4 ,at the same time it is an essential feature in the expressed content of this relation that this substance is asserted above all particular phenomena as such1 no less than above their united manifold2 from which it then follows as a still more consequential result that the positive relation is deposed for one that is negative2 and the negative consists in this that a purification of the substance is thus effected from the phenomenal taken as any particular thing1 that is1 in other words1 that which is also not appropriate to it and which vanishes within it4 ,this mode of giving form1 which is annihilated by the very thing which it would set forth1 so that it comes about that the exposition of content affirms itself as that which renders the exposition null and void is in fact the ,sublime4 ,we have therefore not1 as we found to be the view of ,kant1 to refer the ,sublime exclusively to the subjective content of the soul1 and the ideas of reason which belong to it1 but rather form our conception of it as having its fundamental source in the significance represented1 in other words the one absolute substance4 ,we must1 then1 further deduce our classification of the art-type of the ,sublime from this twofold relation of the substantive unity regarded as significance to the phenomenal world4 ,the characteristic which is held in common by both aspects of this relation1 whether we view it positively or negatively1 consists in this that the substance is posited above the particular appearance1 in which it is assumed to have found a representation1 although it can only be declared thereby under the form of a relation to the phenomenal in its general terms1 for the reason that as substance and ultimate essence it is itself essentially without form and out of the reach of concrete external existence4 ,we may describe pantheistic art as the first or affirmative mode of conception at this stage1 a type of conception which we come across partly in ,india1 and also to some extent in the liberal atmosphere and mysticism of the more modern poets of ,persian ,mohammedanism1 and finally in the still profounder intensity of thought and emotion which characterizes it when it reappears in western ,christianity4 ,generally1 defined substance is cognized at this stage as immanent in all its created accidents1 which for this reason are not as yet deposed to a mere relation of service1 viewed simply1 that is1 as an ornament of glory to the ,absolute1 but are affirmatively conserved by virtue of the indwelling substance2 and this is so albeit it is the ,one and the ,divine alone which is set forth and exalted in all particularity4 ,by this means the poet1 who contemplates and reveres this unity in all things1 and sinks his own individuality1 no less than every other object in this contemplation1 is able to maintain a positive relation to the substance1 with which he associates all other objects4 ,the second or negative celebration of the ,power and ,glory of the one ,god is that genuine type of ,sublimity which we find in ,hebrew poetry4 ,in this the positive immanence of the ,absolute in the created phenomena is done away with1 and in place thereof we have the one substance independently affirmed as sovereign ,lord of the world1 who subsists over against the universe of ,his creations1 which are posited under a relation to this ,supreme ,being of essential and evanescent powerlessness4 ,if under such a view any representation is attempted of the ,power and ,wisdom of this ,unity under the form of the finite objects of ,nature and human destinies1 we find nothing here that resembles the ,hindoo's distortion of such objects by the unlimited accretion to their measure4 ,the ,sublimity of ,god is rather brought home to our senses by means of a representation whose entire object is to show us that all that exists in definite guise1 with all its splendour1 embellishment and glory1 is a loyal accident in ,his service1 a show that vanishes before the ,divine essence and consistency4 ,a4 ,,the ,,pantheism ,,of ,,art ,anyone who makes use of the word pantheism nowadays exposes himself thereby to the grossest misunderstanding4 ,for1 to take but one aspect of the difficulty1 this word all signifies generally in our modern acceptation of the term all1 and everything in its wholly empirical particularity4 ,we have at once recalled to us1 for example1 this particular box with all its attributes1 its specific colour1 size1 form and weight1 or that particular house1 book1 animal1 table1 stool1 oven1 streak of cloud and so on1 to the end of the list4 ,when we consequently find the charge advanced by not a few of our modern theologians against philosophy1 that it makes a ,god of everything in general1 it is quite obvious that this everything is taken in the sense we have just adverted to1 and this it is which is thus bodily thrust upon her shoulders4 ,in one word the complaint which attaches to it is absolutely unwarranted4 ,such a conception of pantheism only exists in the heads of stupidity1 and is not discoverable in any form of religion whatever1 not even in those of the ,iroquois and ,esquimaux1 to say nothing of any philosophy4 ,the ,everything in what has been termed pantheism is therefore neither this nor that particular thing1 but rather ,everything in the sense of the ,all1 that is the ,one substantive essence1 which no doubt is immanent in particular things1 but is cognized in abstraction from their singularity and its empirical reality1 so that it is not the particular as such1 but the universal animating essence or soul1 or to adopt a more popular way of speaking1 it is the true and the excellent1 both equally a real presence in this particular thing1 which are here affirmed and indicated4 ,this it is which constitutes the real meaning of pantheism1 and we shall only have occasion now to employ the expression in this sense4 ,it applies first and foremost to the ,orient1 whose type of conception is based on the thought of an absolute unity of ,godhead and of everything else as subsisting in this ,unity4 ,as such ,unity and ,all the ,divine can only be presented to consciousness by means of the ever recurrent evanescence of the limited number of particular objects1 in which its ,presence is expressed4 ,on the one hand we have here the ,divine envisaged as immanent in the most diverse objects1 whether it be life or death1 mountain or sea1 and with still closer intimacy no doubt as the most excellent and pre-eminent among and in all determinate existence4 ,on the other hand1 inasmuch as the ,one is this and again that other and that other beyond it1 and in short is discharged into everything1 all particular existence appears for that reason to be a thing which is cancelled and vanishes1 for no particular is alone this ,one1 but this ,one is this manifold of particulars which pass away before semi-perception1 as such particulars into the universe which comprises them4 ,for if the ,one is ,life1 it is also at another point ,death1 and is to that extent not merely life1 so that it is neither as life nor the sun nor the sea that these or any other objective realities constitute the ,divine and ,one4 ,at the same time we do not find here1 as in the genuine type of the ,sublime1 that the accidental is expressly posited in the negative relation of mere service4 ,so far from this being so1 substance is essentially identified with one particular and accidental existence1 inasmuch as it is this ,one in everything4 ,conversely1 however1 this very particular1 because it is equally subject to change1 and the imagination does not restrict substance to one definite existence1 but moves over every definition1 letting it fall that it may advance to another1 is thereby relegated in its turn to the accidental1 over which the ,one is superposed in the sublimity thus conjoined with it4 ,such a way of viewing existence therefore can only be expressed in art through poetry2 the plastic arts are closed to it1 inasmuch as they bring before the vision the definite and particular1 which in their contrast to the substance present in the objects of ,nature has to be given up in a determinate and persistent form4 ,where we find pantheism in its purity no plastic art is found as a mode of its presentation4 #a4 ,once more we may adduce1 as a first example of such pantheistic poetry1 the literature of the ,hindoos1 which along with its fantastic symbolism has also elaborated the type of art under discussion with distinction4 ,in other words the ,hindoo race1 as we have seen1 proceed in their conceptions from the point of most abstract universality and unity1 which is then carried forward to the specific shaping of gods such as ,trimrtis1 ,indras1 and the rest4 ,this process of definition1 however1 is not adhered to with constancy2 but to a like extent is suffered once more to break up1 so that we find inferior gods are absorbed in superior gods1 and the highest of all in ,brahman4 ,from this it is sufficiently obvious that this ,universal constitutes the one persistent and unalterable basis of all4 ,and if1 as we freely admit1 the ,hindoos evince the twofold impulse in their poetry1 namely1 either to exaggerate the particular existence1 in order that it may appear to the senses compatible with the significance of the ,absolute1 or1 in the converse case1 to suffer every form of definition to pass as mere negation when contrasted with the one abstraction of ,being1 yet at the same time there is another aspect of their literature1 in which we also find artistic representation under the purer mode of imaginative pantheism we have just described1 a mode in which the immanence of the ,divine is exalted above all particular existence in which it is presented to sense and which as such disappears4 ,we may no doubt be rather inclined to recognize in this later mode of conception a certain similarity with that type of the immediate unity of pure thought which we found to be characteristic of the religious consciousness of the ,parsees4 ,among the ,parsees1 however1 the ,one and ,excellent is conserved in its independence as itself a fact of ,nature1 that is1 ,light4 ,with the ,hindoos1 on the contrary1 the ,one1 or ,brahman1 is merely the formless ,one2 and this it is which in its transformations through the infinite variety of the phenomenal world1 first gives rise to the pantheistic mode of representation4 ,so we read of ,krishna 7,bhagavad-,gita1 ,lect4 ,,vii1 ,,ii4 #d et seq473 ,earth1 water and wind1 air and fire1 reason and egoity are the eight pieces of my essential force2 yet knowest thou somewhat more in me1 a more exalted essence1 which animates the earthly and supports the world4 ,in it all existences have their origin4 ,ay1 verily1 thou knowest ,i am the origin of the entire universe as also its annihilation4 ,aught higher than myself is not2 in me is this ,all conjoined together1 as a chaplet of pearls on a thread4 ,i am the taste of sweetness in all that flows2 ,i am the splendour in the sun and moon1 the mystic ,word in the sacred writings1 manhood in man1 the clean savour in the ,earth1 brightness in flame1 in all ,being ,life1 meditation in all who repent4 ,in that which has ,life the ,power of ,life1 in the wise ,wisdom1 in the glorious ,glory4 ,everything that is true of its kind1 and everything that is specious and obscure proceeds out of me4 ,i am not in them1 but they are in me4 ,through the illusion of these three qualities all the world is made foolish1 and knows me not who am unalterable4 ,moreover also the ,divine illusion1 even ,mya1 is my own illusion1 which is hard indeed to surpass1 albeit all who follow after me step over this illusion4 ,in this passage we have indicated in the most striking terms just such a substantive unity as the one above discussed1 not merely from the point of view of its immanence in immediate sense1 but also from that of its advance beyond and over all singularity4 ,in a similar manner ,krishna affirms of himself that ,he is the most ,excellent among all the different forms of existence 7,lect4 ,x1 #ba73 ,among the star's ,i am the radiant sun1 among the human signs the moon1 among the sacred ,books the ,book of ,hymns1 among the senses the spiritual1 ,meru among the tops of the mountains1 the lion among animals1 the vowel ,a among all letters1 among the seasons of the year the blooming spring-time1 etc4 ,this enumeration1 however1 of superlative excellence1 and we may add the description of that which is merely a change of forms1 among which it is always one and the same thing that is envisaged1 despite any superficial appearance such may give us at first of a prodigal imagination1 is none the less1 by reason of this very equality of content1 extremely monotonous and in general empty and tedious4 #b4 ,under a higher mode and in a freer manner from the subjective point of view we find1 secondly1 oriental pantheism is elaborated in ,mohammedanism more particularly among the ,persians4 ,and here we are confronted with a relation of some singularity when we direct our attention expressly to the point of view of the individual poet4 7a7 ,to explain this more fully we would point out that so long as the poet yearns to behold the ,divine in everything1 and really so beholds it1 he also surrenders his own personality2 but1 while doing so1 he realizes quite as vividly the immanence of the ,divine in his spiritual world thus expanded and delivered2 and consequently there grows up within him that joyful ardour of the soul1 that liberal happiness1 that revel of bliss1 which is so peculiar to the ,oriental1 who in freeing himself from his own particularity seems wholly to sink himself in the ,eternal and ,absolute1 and henceforth to know and feel the image and presence of the ,divine in all things4 ,such a self-absorption in the ,divine1 such an intoxicated life of bliss in ,god borders closely on mysticism4 ,under this aspect no volume is more famous than the ,oschelaleddin-,rumi1 of which ,rckert1 with the help of his marvellous powers of expression1 which enable him to make light of both words and rhymes with all the wealth and freedom of the phantasy that comes so natural to the ,persian poet1 has supplied us with the fairest examples4 ,love to ,god1 with whom man identifies himself in most boundless surrender1 beholding ,him as the ,one through every part of ,his ,universe1 with whom and to whom every and each thing is related and referred--this it is that gives us the focus of this type of thought1 a centre which radiates in every direction4 7b7 ,and1 further1 while in the true type of the sublime1 as will appear shortly1 the most excellent objects and the most glorious shapes are employed merely as the ornament of ,god1 and as servants to celebrate the splendour and majesty of the ,one1 being set before our eyes to do ,him honour as ,lord of all creation1 in pantheism1 on the contrary1 it is the immanence of the ,divine in external fact which exalts the determinate existence itself of the world1 ,nature1 and humanity to its own self-substantial glory4 ,the identical ,life of ,spirit in the phenomena of ,nature and all human relations animates and spiritualizes the same in their own nature1 and is further the source of that characteristic attitude of subjective feeling in the soul of the poet toward the objects he celebrates in his song4 ,suffused with the animating influx of this glory the soul is essentially serene1 independent1 free1 secure in its comprehension and greatness2 and in this positive identification of itself with such qualities it penetrates imaginatively with its life into the very heart of objective existence1 sharing the restful unity that it finds there1 and grows up in most blissful1 most blithesome intimacy with the natural world and its munificence1 with the drinking-booth no less than the beloved1 and1 in short1 all that is held worthy of praise or affection4 ,we find1 no doubt1 the same kind of self-absorption in the romantic temperament of the ,west4 ,generally speaking1 however1 and more particularly in the ,north1 it is not so gladsome1 spontaneous1 or free from yearning2 or1 at least1 it remains more exclusively shut up in itself1 and is consequently selfish and sentimental4 ,a spiritual mood of this type1 in its depression and gloom1 finds its most forceful outlet in the popular songs of barbarous peoples4 ,the spontaneous and joyful emotional atmosphere is1 on the contrary1 congenial to the ,east1 and particularly characteristic of the ,mohammedan ,persians1 who openly and gladly surrender themselves with all their soul to the ,divine influence1 and indeed to everything that appears to merit such devotion1 while they do not fail to retain the freedom of independence in such surrender1 and consciously to preserve the same in their attitude to the world and all that surrounds them4 ,we may1 in fact1 observe in the ardour of this passion1 the most expansive ecstasy and parrhesia#gj of the emotional life1 through which1 in its inexhaustible wealth of gorgeous and splendid images1 one emphatic note of joy1 beauty1 and happiness rings again and again4 ,if the ,oriental suffers or is unfortunate he takes his reverses as the unalterable fiat of ,destiny1 and falls back upon the strength of his own resources without any increase of depression1 sensitiveness1 or vexation of spirit4 ,in the poetry of ,hafis we hear often enough of the lover's woes and laments#ga1 as of many another kind1 but our poet persists through grief1 no less than in happiness1 as free of care as ever4 ,this is the mood of that sometime refrain3 _/ ,for thanks1 in that the present glow ,of friendship circles thee1 ,light strong the taper e'en in woe1 ,and joyful be4 _/ ,the taper teaches us both to laugh and to weep2 it laughs through the flame of shining merriment1 albeit it melts at the same time in hot tears2 in the act of consumption it spreads wide the brightness of joviality4 ,this is also the general character throughout of this type of poetry4 ,among the objects frequently referred to in ,persian poetry we may mention flowers and jewels1 and1 above all1 the rose and the nightingale4 ,it is a matter of frequent occurrence to represent the nightingale as bridegroom of the rose4 ,this gift of personality to the rose and love to the nightingale may be abundantly illustrated from ,hafis4 ,out of gratefulness1 ,o rose1 he sings1 that thou art the sultana of ,beauty1 see to it that thou settest not a proud face to the love of the nightingale4 ,the poet himself speaks of the nightingale of his own soul4 ,when we of the ,west1 on the contrary1 refer in our poetry to roses1 nightingales1 or wine1 and such matters1 we do so in a wise much nearer to prose4 ,the rose merely serves us for ornament1 as in the expression1 among others1 garlanded with roses4 ,if we listen to the nightingale it is but to follow the bird with our own emotions2 we think of the grape-juice1 and call it the breaker of our cares4 ,among the ,persians1 however1 the rose is no mere image or ornament1 no symbol1 but itself appears to the poet as possessed with a soul1 as loving bride1 and he transpierces with his spirit the rose's very heart4 ,precisely the same character of a gorgeous ,pantheism is still impressed on the most modern ,persian poems4 ,herr von ,hammer1 for instance1 has given us a description of a poem which was forwarded1 among other gifts of the ,shah1 to the ,emperor ,francis in the year #ahai4 ,it contains an account of the exploits of the ,shah in #cc1jjj distiches1 who made a present of his own name to the ,court poet in question4 7c7 ,goethe1 too--here in contrast with the more perturbed atmosphere and the concentrated emotion of the poetry of his youth--was carried away in advanced age by the breadth of this careless and blithesome spirit2 and though already a veteran1 swept through by the breath of the ,east1 dedicated the evening glow of his poetic passion1 in a flood of extraordinary fervour to this freedom of emotion which1 even where controversy is the sub ect-matter1 still retains the beauty of its careless temper4 ,the songs of his ,weststlicher ,divan1 are by no means the mere play of trivial social urbanities1 but originate in a precisely similar spirit of free and unrestrained emotion4 ,in a song of his to ,suleica they are thus described by himself3 _/ ,pearls from the poet1 ,thine is the treasure1 ,thine was the big swell ,of passion tumultuous1 ,which strewed them on desolate ,strand of his life4 ,gold-tips ,i call it1 ,pierced with bright jewels1 ,tenderly conned o'er ,by tapering fingers4 _/ ,take them1 he exclaims to his beloved3 _/ ,circle thy neck with them1 ,close1 close to thy breast6 ,these raindrops of ,allah ,the meek shell hath ripened4 _/ ,poetry such as this is the product of an experience of the widest range1 a sense which has held its own in many storms1 a depth and also1 too1 a youth of the heart--in other words3 _/ ,world of ,life's own drift of forces1 ,world1 the wealth of whose wave-roll ,caught afar the bulbul's passion1 ,won the song which shook the soul4 _/ #c4 ,in this unity of pantheism1 moreover1 if emphasized in its relation to personal life1 which feels itself united with ,god thereby1 and the ,divine as this presence intuitively cognized1 we have1 speaking generally1 that type of mysticism which1 under this more intimate mode1 has also been elaborated in the pale of ,christendom4 ,we will adduce but one example1 namely1 that of ,angelus ,silecius1 who1 with the greatest audacity and depth of conception and emotional fervour1 has expressed the essential presence of ,god in objective ,nature1 the union of the self with ,god1 and the ,divine with human personality1 with an extraordinary power of mystical presentment4 ,the more genuine type of ,oriental pantheism1 on the contrary1 is inclined to insist more upon the vision of the ,one substance in all phenomena and the self-surrender of the individual1 who thereby secures the most supreme expansion of conscious life no less than the bliss of absorption into all that is most noble and excellent by virtue of the absolute release from all finitude4 ,b4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,sublimity ,the ,one substance1 however1 which is here conceived as the real significance of the entire universe1 is only truly posited as substance where we find it suffered to retire into itself as pure ,inwardness and substantive ,power out of its presence and realization beneath the shifting forms of the phenomenal1 and thereby is set forth in self-consistency as against all finitude4 ,it is not till we come to this intuitive vision of the essence of ,god as absolutely ,spiritual and apart from all image1 and thus opposed to the things of the ,world and ,nature1 that the ,spiritual is completely wrested from all that pertains to mere sense-perception and ,nature1 and delivered from determinate existence in the finite4 ,while conversely1 however1 the absolute substance still maintains a relation to the phenomenal world from which it is reflected back upon itself4 ,in this relation is now asserted that negative aspect already adverted to1 which consists in this1 that the entire universe1 despite all the fulness1 power1 and glory of its phenomenal contents1 is expressly affirmed in its relation to substance as that which is essentially of a purely negative subsistence1 a creation of ,god1 subject to ,his power and service4 ,the world is therefore envisaged as the revelation of ,god1 and ,he is the ,goodness which permits the created thing that has no essential claim to exist1 none the less to exist in relation to ,himself1 nay1 further to have independent existence and thereby freely to conserve ,him4 ,this conservation on the part of the finitude1 however1 is without real substance1 and in opposition to ,god the creature is here assumed to be that which passes away and is powerless1 so that at the same time its claim to existence#gb is exhibited as a part of the goodness of the ,creator1 which not only veritably affirms the impotence of that which is essentially nothing apart from ,himself1 but thereby asserts ,his substance as the source of all ,power4 ,it is this relation1 so far as it is set forth by art as the fundamental relation1 both of content and form1 which brings before us the art-type of the real ,sublime4 ,the ,beauty of the ,ideal and ,sublimity no doubt present features of contrast4 ,in the ,ideal the ,inward transpierces external reality1 whose inward essence it really is under the mode at least1 that both aspects are adequate to each other1 and consequently appear to be in perfect fusion with one another4 ,in the ,sublime1 on the contrary1 the external existence1 in which substance is envisaged for sense1 is deposed in its opposition to that substance1 such deposition and vassalage constituting the only mode1 by means of which the ,god who is in ,his own seclusion without form1 and in ,his positive essence incapable of being expressed by aught that is of the world and finite1 can be envisualized by artistic means4 ,the ,sublime pre-supposes the significance in the self-subsistence of ,one1 in relation to which externality is defined as in subjection1 in so far as that ,inward substance fails to appear1 but its transcendent character is so asserted1 that in the end nothing can be represented save just this essential and active transcendency#gc4 ,in the symbol the mode of the external form was the main point emphasized4 ,it must possess a significance1 and yet fail completely to express it4 ,in contrast to symbol of this kind and its obscure content we have now a significance in the absolute sense of the term conjoined with its full recognition4 ,a work of art is now the actual discharge of pure essence conceived as the intensive purport of everything1 of an essence1 however1 which deliberately affirms that very incompatibility of form to significance1 which was only implicitly present in the symbol1 to be the actually transcendent significance of ,god ,himself within the sphere of worldly existence1 and above all that is contained therein4 ,it is a significance which is therefore sublime in the work of art1 which is exclusively concerned to express the same as thus explicitly declared4 ,we may no doubt with justice accept the description of sacred1 as applicable generally to symbolical art1 in so far as it accepts the ,divine as comprised in the content of its productions2 but the art of the ,sublime alone can make good its claim to the distinction without any deduction1 for it is here alone that ,god receives all the honour4 ,in this sphere1 owing to the fundamental character of the significance implied1 the content is generally of a more restricted nature than that we find in genuine symbolism1 whose relation to the ,spiritual is that of an effort and nothing more1 and which in the continuously shifting nature of its relations to to the world offers such a wide field1 either for transformations of that which is spiritual into natural images1 or of that which is essentially material under accordant fusion with the ,spirit4 ,we find as nowhere else this art of the ,sublime1 as a mode of its original appearance1 in the religious conceptions of the ,hebrew race and their sacred poetry4 ,we say poetry advisedly1 because plastic art cannot possibly be in question here1 where it is assumed that no image whatever is adequate to express the nature of the ,divine1 and that the part of poetry alone by means of the spoken or written word can be employed for such a purpose4 ,a closer examination of this type of religious conception will secure to us the following points of view most worthy of our general attention4 #a4 ,if we look at the content of this poetry under the aspect of its most universal import1 one of our first conclusions will be that ,god1 as ,lord of a world created to serve ,him1 is not conceived as incarnated in any form of the external1 but rather as personality withdrawn from all determinate and worldly existence into the solitude of ,his pure ,unity4 ,for this reason that#gd which in genuine symbolism was still associated with supreme ,unity1 falls apart under the view we are considering into its twofold aspect1 on one side the abstract subsistency of ,god1 on the other the concrete existence of the world4 7a7 ,now ,god ,himself as this pure self-subsistency of the ,one substance is essentially without form1 and under this abstract conception cannot be brought closer to the envisagement of sense4 ,that which therefore the imagination is able to seize at this stage is not the ,divine content viewed under the aspect of its pure essence1 inasmuch as this latter precludes the possibility of artistic representation under any form adequate to it whatever4 ,the only content therefore that is left open to it is that of the relation of ,god to ,his created world4 7b7 ,god is the creator of the universe4 ,this is the purest expression of the ,sublime itself4 ,in other words we find that here for the first time all those fanciful conceptions of generation and purely physical procreation of external fact by ,god disappear4 ,each and all give place to the thought of creation by virtue of spiritual power and activity4 ,god spake3 ,let there be ,light1 and there was ,light4 ,a sentence dong ago cited1 as a striking illustration of the ,sublime by ,longinus4 ,and such indeed it is4 ,the ,lord of all1 the ,one substance1 proceeds1 it is true1 under the mode of self-expression2 but the type of this bringing forth is the purest1 nay1 a mode of expression1 aetherial so to speak1 and without material form1 the ,word that is to say1 the medium of thought as the ideal ,power1 in conjunction with whose mandate that it shall exist1 the existing thing is veritably and immediately posited under the relation of tacit obedience4 7c7 ,into this created world1 however1 ,god is not conceived to pass over as into ,his reality2 rather ,he abides withdrawn behind ,himself1 albeit this opposition supplies no secure ground for a logically developed dualism4 ,for that which has been brought into being is ,his work1 possesses no self-consistency as apart from ,him4 ,it is solely a witness to ,his ,wisdom1 ,goodness1 and ,justice in general1 just that and no more4 ,the ,one is ,lord over all2 ,his dwelling is not in the facts of ,nature4 ,they are solely the accidents of ,his ,greatness1 without potency in themselves1 which can indeed suffer the show of ,his essence to appear1 but are unable to make the reality of it visible#ge4 ,and this it is which constitutes the ,sublime in its reference to the ,divine4 #b4 ,moreover1 inasmuch as the one ,god is thus severed from the concreteness of the phenomenal world and posited in isolated fixity1 while the externality of determinate existence is on its side defined and placed in subordination as the finite1 both natural and human existence are now viewed under the novel aspect that they cannot be conceived as manifesting the ,divine without at the same time making visible their essential finiteness4 7a7 ,the most direct way of bringing home to ourselves the significance of the above contrasted relations may be expressed in the statement that here for the first time we have ,nature and the human form set before us cut off from the ,divine1 prosaic fact in short4 ,it is a ,greek tale that when the heroes of the ,argonautic ,expedition passed in their ships through the straits of the ,hellespont1 the rocks which hitherto had crashed open and shut like shears suddenly came to a standstill rooted firmly for evermore in the ground4 ,in a manner somewhat similar the process of the finite toward stability in intelligible definition1 as contrasted with the infinite essence1 moves onward in the sacred poetry of the ,sublime1 while in the conceptions of symbolism1 where we have the finite overturned in the ,divine and the latter quite as frequently thrust forth from its own substance into temporal existence1 nothing is permitted to keep its due position4 ,if we turn1 for example1 from ancient ,hindoo poetry to the ,old ,testament we find ourselves at once in a totally different atmosphere1 one in which we feel ourselves thoroughly at home1 however much we may discover in the circumstances1 events1 actions1 and characters an environment either alien or different to that in which we live4 ,from a world of tumble and confusion we are transported to another1 and have human figures presented to us1 which appear as natural as those we see with our eyes1 characters with the stable outlines of patriarchal life1 which in the truth of their delineation stand so near that they receive an immediate assent from our intelligence4 7b7 ,in a general view of existence such as the above which is able to grasp the natural process of life and to accept as valid the claim of natural laws1 wonder for the first time is a really active force4 ,in ,hindooism everything is a wonder and consequently is no longer wonderful4 ,no wonder can enter a world where the intelligible connection of facts is invariably broken1 where everything is wrested from its place and turned topsy-turvy4 ,for the wonderful presupposes the rational sequence of events no less than the clear perceptions of ordinary consciousness which1 when it meets with some example of causal effect produced by a higher law breaking the customary chain of events now for the first time notifies the exception as a wonder4 ,wonders of this kind1 however1 are no real or specific expression of the ,sublime1 for the reason that the ordinary course of natural phenomena is conceived as quite as much the product of the ,will of ,god and evidence of ,nature's submission as such interruption of the same4 7c7 ,we must rather look for the real ,sublime in the fact that under this view the entire created world is limited in time and space1 with no independent stability or consistency1 and as such an adventitious product which exists solely to celebrate the praise of ,almighty ,god4 #c4 ,this recognition of the nullity of objective fact and the exaltation and extolment of ,god are at this stage the source of man's own self-respect1 and in these he looks for his own consolation and satisfaction4 7a7 ,in this connection the ,psalms supply us with classical examples of the genuine ,sublime1 and are set forth as a precedent for all times of what our humanity at the highest point of its spiritual exultation has superbly expressed as the reflection of its religious consciousness4 ,nothing in the world can here make good its claim to independent subsistence1 inasmuch as everything exists and subsists simply through the ,power of ,god1 and only exists as in duty bound to extol ,his mightiness no less than to acknowledge its own essential nothingness4 ,in the imagination of pantheism1 which mainly unfolded in the direction of material substance an infinite extension of range was most remarkable3 what we most are amazed at here is the power of spiritual exaltation which suffers everything else to fall away that it may declare the unique ,almightiness of ,god4 ,an extraordinarily forceful illustration of this temper is the #ajdth ,psalm1 ,the ,light is ,thy mantle which ,thou wearest2 ,thou spreadest out the heavens like a carpet1 etc4 ,light1 heavens1 clouds1 the pinions of the winds1 each and all are here nothing by themselves1 merely an external vesture1 the chariot or messenger in the service of ,god4 ,a further expansion of the same idea is the extolment of the ,wisdom of ,god1 which has ordained all things4 ,the springs1 which leap from their sources1 the waters1 which flow between the hills1 by the banks of which the birds of the air sit and carol among the branches2 the grassy vine1 which gladdens the heart of men and the cedars of ,lebanon which the ,lord hath planted2 the sea1 and its swarms without number2 the whales which sport therein1 all these hath the ,lord made4 ,and all that ,god has created ,he also preserves4 ,thou hidest ,thy ,face1 and they are affrighted2 ,thou takest their breath away and they are gone and become again as dust4 ,the #ijth ,psalm1 that prayer of ,moses1 the man of ,god1 insists expressly on the nothingness of man1 where we read3 ,thou sufferest them to pass away like a brook2 they are like as a sleep1 even as the grass1 which is soon withered1 and in the evening is cut down and dried up4 ,thy scorn maketh us to pass away2 ,thou showest ,thine anger and we are gone4 7b7 ,two ideas are therefore associated together with the ,sublime1 if viewed in its relation to the human soul1 first1 that of man's finiteness1 and secondly1 that of the insurmountable aloofness of ,god4 77 ,for this reason the idea of immortality is not to be found where this mode of conception obtains in its original purity2 for this idea involves the assumption that the individual self1 the soul1 the spirit of man is essentially a self-subsistent entity4 ,in the religion of the ,sublime it is only the ,one that is apprehended as imperishable2 opposed to that all else merely subsists and passes away1 is neither essentially free nor infinite4 77 ,and1 further1 on a similar ground man is conceived in his absolute unworthiness before ,god2 his exaltation consists in the fear of the ,lord1 in a trembling before ,his scorn4 ,over and over again1 with a directness which tears aside every veil and opens the very depths1 we have the cry of the soul to ,god depicted1 the sorrow over the sense of its nothingness1 increasing lament and groanings unutterable4 77 ,on the other hand if the individual persist in his finiteness of opposition to ,god1 this deliberately willed persistence is wickedness1 which as evil and sin belongs only to the natural and human condition1 and is conceived as remote from the ,one undifferentiated substance as pain and everything else that is essentially negative4 7c7 ,thirdly1 however1 within this very condition of spiritual nakedness1 and1 in despite of it1 man secures a freer and more independent position4 ,on the one hand out of the fundamental repose and constancy of ,god viewed in reference to ,his ,will and the commands which that ,will imposes upon humanity1 arises the ,law2 while under another point of view the wholly unambiguous distinction between that which is human and that which is ,divine1 between the finite and the ,absolute1 is implied in this type of human exaltation4 ,therewith the judgment upon good and evil1 and the onus of decision in respect to either the one or the other is transferred to the individual soul itself4 ,this relation to the ,absolute1 and the question it involves as to the fittingness or unfittingness of man over against the same presents1 therefore1 also an aspect1 which applies to the individual himself1 his own behaviour and action4 ,in other words we may trace in man's rightful acts and his following of the ,law a relation to ,god which is1 side by side with the former one1 an affirmative relation1 a relation which has to bring generally the external condition of his existence1 whether it be positive or negative1 weal1 enjoyment and satisfaction1 or pain1 unhappiness and oppression into union with the obedience of his heart or his stubbornness of spirit against the ,law1 and accept the same in the one case as favour and reward1 in the other as trial and punishment4 ,footnote #fg3 ,des ,an-und-fr-sich-seyenden1 i4e41 the explicit content of all that is implied in actuality cognized as an object in itself4 ,footnote #fh3 ,according to ,hegel the conception of ,kant is right in that 7a7 ,he makes the ,sublime to consist in a relation between the phenomenal fact and something which it is not2 and 7b7 that he lays it down that no mere representation by means of phenomenal form can adequately express it4 ,he is wrong1 however1 in that he refers the ,sublime for its source wholly to the subjective content1 i4e41 that ,nature which is peculiar to ourselves 7in uns47 ,footnote #fi3 ,critique of the ,judgment1 #crd ed41 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #gj3 ,parrhesia1 i4e41 1--speaking freely or beyond ordinary bound4 ,footnote #ga3 ,den ,schenken should be die ,schenken1 and a few lines below der ,kerze should be die ,kerze4 ,i omit the ,schenken altogether4 ,of course it is possible der ,kerze is ,genitive1 in the woe of the taper1 and the verb intransitive2 but this is very harsh4 ,footnote #gb3 ,this appears to be the meaning of ,garechtigkeit4 ,footnote #gc3 ,sondern so darber hinausgeht1 dass eben nichts als dieses ,hinauseyn und ,hinausgehen zur ,darstellung kommen kann4 ,that is1 the art of the ,sublime is based essentially on a contradiction1 for while it assumes the ,one substance to be the significance of the external world1 it is the truth of that significance that it points to that which transcends externality4 ,footnote #gd3 ,the thought here is not strictly logical4 ,what is associated by symbolism with ,unity is the external ,other1 what is divided by ,hebraic conception is the entire content of the ,real both in its spiritual and external aspect4 ,but the general sense is sufficiently clear4 ,footnote #ge3 ,this ,i take to be the point of the contrast between the words scheinen and erscheinen4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,conscious ,,symbolism ,,of ,,the ,,comparative ,,type ,,of ,,art ,the result we have now arrived at in the above consideration of the ,sublime1 and in contradistinction to the strictly unpremeditated type of symbolization1 consists partly in the separation of its own independent ,inwardness1 consciously apprehended in its quality of significance1 from the concrete appearance that is thereby distinguished from it1 partly also in the direct or indirect affirmation of the incompatibility of the two above mentioned aspects to one another1 by which it appears that the significance as the universal passes beyond the particular fact and its singularity4 ,but in the imagination of pantheism1 no less than in the type of the ,sublime1 the real content1 that is the ,one universal substance of all concrete existence1 was unable to be presented to imaginative vision or sense-perception without some relation to created existence1 albeit created under a mode inadequate to express the essence of that ,unity4 ,this relation1 however1 was attached to the substance itself1 which1 in the negativity of its accidents1 supplied the proof of its ,wisdom1 ,goodness1 ,power1 and ,justice#gf4 ,for this reason the relation between significance and content is also in the case of the ,sublime1 at least in a general way1 of a kind that is both essential and necessary1 and the two sides thus linked with each other are not yet1 in the strict sense of the term1 external to each other4 ,it is1 however1 inevitable1 for the reason that it is implicitly present in symbolism1 that this externality should come to be directly posited and appear in the forms we have now to consider in this concluding chapter on the art of symbolism4 ,we may summarily describe them as conscious#gg symbolism1 or1 in a still more direct way1 the comparative type of art4 ,in other words1 what we understand by conscious symbolism is this1 that the significance is not merely independently cognized1 but is expressly set forth as distinct from the external mode1 in which it is represented4 ,the significance then appears1 as in the case of the ,sublime1 to receive an independent expression which is not essentially in the actual embodiment given to it under the mode employed#gh4 ,the relation1 however1 of both to one another no longer continues to be1 as in the type last examined1 a mode of relation which is fundamentally due to the significance itself1 but is a more or less haphazard association1 which may generally be expressed as the product of the subjectivity of the poet1 the absorption of his spirit in an external object1 the result of his wit or invention2 a mode1 in short1 which enables the poet at one time rather to make a beginning directly from a sensible phenomenon1 and to imagine for it from his own mind a spiritual significance cognate with it1 and at another to select in preference as his point of departure the real or only relatively personal idea1 with a view to embodying the same1 or even to do nothing more than relate one image with another1 which presents characteristic features of resemblance4 ,this kind of linking together must consequently be distinguished from that still nave and unconscious symbolism in virtue of the fact that now the individual recognizes the inward essence of the significances he adopts for the content of his creation no less than1 the positive nature of the external objects1 which he employs as means of comparison for the more direct presentment of the same1 placing both in this juxtaposition with clear intention owing to the similarity he has discovered between them4 ,the distinction1 on the other hand1 between the present type and that of the ,sublime is rather to be traced to the fact that though under one aspect it may be true that the separation and juxtaposition of the significances with their concrete shaping in the work of art is itself set forth in express relief to a less or higher degree1 yet1 on the other hand1 for the reason that it is no longer the ,absolute itself that is accepted as content1 but any defined and restricted significance whatever1 the typical relation of the ,sublime falls away1 and in its place a relation is set up within the act of severance thus intentionally made between the real significance and its embodiment1 a relation which in effect produces the very result in the sphere of premeditated comparison that we found unconscious symbolism in its own way proposed as an object4 ,in one word1 so far as content is here concerned1 the ,absolute itself1 the ,lord of creation1 can no longer be conceived as the significance which ,art seeks after4 ,that this is so is rendered inevitable by the already obvious fact that on account of the severation of more concrete existence from the notion1 and further1 if only under the mode of comparison1 the juxtaposition of both sides thus separated1 the category offinitude is there and then accepted by the artistic consciousness1 in so far as it conceives this form as the real and ultimate one2 and for this reason1 moreover1 the imagined significances1 being selected wholly from the sphere of the finite1 have no further association whatever with the ,absolute as the fundamental significance of all created things4 ,sacred poetry stands out in entire contrast to this1 for in this ,god is the exclusive significance of all things2 as set over against ,him1 they have no stability at all1 but vanish or are nothing4 ,if1 however1 the significance is able to discover its image and parallel of resemblance in that which is itself essentially restricted and finite1 it follows that it must itself to that extent be limited in its range1 as1 in fact1 it is in the type of symbolic conception which now occupies our attention1 where that which is found is nothing more than an image1 necessarily external to the content1 selected purely at random by the poet for the sake of the similarity it presents to the content1 and as such regarded as relatively adequate thereto4 ,for this reason there is but one trait left us in the comparative type of art1 which is also shared by that of the ,sublime1 and it is this that every image1 instead of embodying the fact and significance directly under a mode adequate to their full reality1 is only taken to present an image and similitude of either4 ,for these reasons this kind of symbolization is1 if we conceive it apart as an independent whole1 a generic class of subordinate rank4 ,the form which it supplies is merely the descriptive selection of a portion of sensuous existence immediately perceived1 or of a prosaic idea of the mind#gi1 in other words1 the significance is expressly to be distinguished from it4 ,and1 further1 in a measure such an employment of comparison in works of art1 which are shaped out of homogeneous material1 and in their specific form constitute an indivisible whole1 can only assert itself as relatively valid1 that is1 as mere ornament and accessory1 such as we find it1 in fact1 in the genuine products of classic and romantic art4 ,it is a further consequence that if we regard the entire sphere of this type as the union of the two stages which preceded it on the ground that it not merely comprehends within itself the separation of significance from external reality1 which is the fundamental causa rationis of the ,sublime1 but also includes the reference of a concrete phenomenon to a universal import cognate with it1 as we have seen was asserted in the real type of symbolism1 such a union is notwithstanding in no way a higher type of art2 it is1 in truth1 despite its very clearness1 a superficial way of apprehending things1 limited in its content and formally more or less prosaic1 which falls away into the consciousness of commonsense as fully remote from the secretly fermenting depth of genuine symbolism as it is from the height of the ,sublime4 ,so far as the classification of our present subject-matter is concerned we may observe1 first1 that in this act of comparative differentiation1 which presupposes the significance independently1 and affirms either a sensuous or imaginary form in a relation of opposition to it1 there is the aspect held constantly throughout that the significance is here accepted as of most importance1 and the form is solely the embodiment of the same and external to it2 but along with this the further difference makes its appearance1 namely1 that it is sometimes the one aspect of this opposition which is first pre-eminently emphasized1 and made the significant point of departure1 while at other times it is the other4 ,and owing to this fact we have either the embodiment presented us as an independently external1 immediate fact or phenomenon of ,nature1 which is then related by comparison to a significance of a more general bearing1 or the significance is independently come by in another way1 and only afterwards a mode of embodying it is selected from some external source1 it matters not what4 ,relatively to the above distinctions we may classify our material under the two first fundamental and a third and other supplementary divisions as follows3 ,a4 ,in the first it is the concrete phenomenon1 whether the selection be made from ,nature or human events1 incidents1 and actions1 which constitutes both the point of departure in the process of artistic conception1 and the substance of essential weight in the reproduction4 ,it is no doubt exhibited solely on account of the more general significance1 which it contains and signifies1 and is only so far unfolded1 that it may contribute to the object of embodying this significance in a specific occurrence or condition cognate with it4 ,the comparison1 however1 of the general significance and the particular case is not as yet expressly set forth as subjective activity1 and the entire reproduction will not merely be the embellishment of a work which actually possesses a substantive position without it1 but is set forth as itself claiming to give the character of an independent whole4 ,the types of this class are the fable1 the parable1 the apologue1 the proverb1 and the metamorphosis4 ,b4 ,in the second phase the significance on the contrary is that which is first presented to consciousness1 and the concrete embodiment is that which is merely incidental or accessory to it1 possessing no independent subsistency of its own1 but appearing as wholly subordinate to the significance1 so that we are now also made more immediately aware of the element of personal caprice in the selection of this rather than any other image4 ,this mode of production is unable in the great majority of cases to reach the point of a fully perfected work of art1 and is consequently forced to leave the forms it supplies as appurtenant to other artistic images4 ,the important types of this class are the riddle1 the allegory1 the metaphor1 the image1 and the simile4 ,c4 ,thirdly1 and in conclusion1 if rather by way of supplement1 we have yet further to include within our list the didactic poem1 and purely descriptive poetry1 inasmuch as in these types of poetry we find1 on the one hand1 that the presentment of the general character of the objects in the clearness under which they are made intelligible to commonsense#hj1 no less than on the other that the exhibition of their concrete appearance receives a substantially independent form1 and by doing so effects with elaborate completeness the severation of that which only in its union and really reciprocal fusion is capable of giving us a genuine work of art4 ,this separation of the two phases essential to the process of art-production carries with it the result that the various forms which find their place in the entire subject-matter under discussion have merely a claim to fall in as part of an inquiry into the modes of art in virtue of the fact that poetry1 and only poetry1 is in a position to express such a relation of self-contained independence as between significance and form4 ,as opposed to this it is the very problem of the plastic arts to manifest such significant content in and through their external form and viewed thus externally4 ,a4 ,,modes ,,of ,,comparison1 ,,which ,,have ,,their ,,origin ,,upon ,,the ,,side ,,of ,,externality ,the attempt to arrange the several kinds of poetic production which are apportioned to this first stage of the comparative type of art carries with it no little difficulty1 and is a fruitful source of embarrassment4 ,they are1 that is to say1 hybrid species of a subordinate rank1 which in no way whatever mark out any necessary aspect of art ,they stand in the domain of ,aesthetic presenting features analogous to certain animal types1 and other exceptional phenomena in natural science4 ,in both spheres the difficulty consists in this that in either case it is the notion of the science itself1 which is the ground of its classification and specific differences4 ,as differentia of the notion these are also at the same time distinctions really adequate to the notional process1 and intelligible as such2 with these latter such transitional modes are unable fully to conform for the reason that they are merely defective types1 which proceed from a previous phase that is fundamental without being able to reach the next one4 ,this is no fault of the notion1 nay1 supposing that we preferred to make such ancillary types the basis of our classification1 instead of pointing out their relation to the specific phases of the notional process of our subject-matter1 we should have presented us precisely that aspect of them which was inadequate to this process as the irreproachable mode of their development4 ,a true principle of classification1 on the contrary1 is compelled to proceed from the true notion1 and such hybrid types as those now discussed can only be suitably placed where the genuine and independently stable ones show a tendency to dissolve and pass over into others4 ,apart from such considerations1 however1 the artistic types referred to belong to the forecourt of artistic symbolism1 inasmuch as they are generally incomplete1 and to that extent merely a search after art in its truth4 ,such a movement no doubt presents the essential ingredients of a genuine mode of configuration1 but it lays hold of them in their aspect of finitude1 separation1 and purely relative propinquity2 it fails consequently to rank on the same level4 ,when we discuss1 therefore1 the fable1 apologue1 and the rest we must treat these forms not as though they belonged to poetry in the specific sense1 as it differs among other things from music no less than the plastic arts1 but only with the view of pointing out the relation in which they stand to the generic types of art4 ,it is only thus their specific character can be elucidated4 ,to such an object the notion of the genuine types of the art of poetry1 whether epic1 lyric1 or dramatic1 will not assist us4 ,we propose now to differentiate these forms in the following order2 we shall begin with the fable1 proceed after that to discuss the parable1 apologue1 and proverb1 and conclude our inquiry with the metamorphosis4 #a4 ,,the ,,fable ,hitherto we have throughout merely dwelt upon the formal aspect of the relation of an expressed significance to its embodiment2 we have now furthermore to elucidate the content1 which declares its suitability for such a mode4 ,in our previous consideration of the various aspects of the ,sublime we saw that at the point where we have now arrived1 it is no longer a matter of any importance to envisualize the ,absolute and ,one in its indivisible ,power by means of the nothingness and impotency of the created thing to rise up to that infinite transcendency4 ,we are now on the plane of the finite consciousness1 and have only to concern ourselves with a finite content4 ,if we direct our attention conversely to the genuine symbolical type1 to which the comparative is under a certain aspect equally related1 we find that here that inward aspect1 which stands in opposition to the form up to this point always immediately presented1 the natural shape1 that is to say1 is the spiritual1 a truth that even in ,egyptian symbolism received ample illustration4 ,to the extent1 however1 that everything natural is left standing1 and preconceived in its position of isolated solidarity1 the spiritual is also something both finite and defined1 that is to say man and his finite aims and the natural maintains a certain1 albeit theoretical#ha1 relationship to these objects1 a significant suggestion and revelation of the same to the use and weal of mankind4 ,the phenomena of ,nature1 storms1 flight of birds1 the constitution of the intestines of animals and so forth1 in the significance they possess for human interests1 are now accepted in a totally different sense to that they figured in the conceptions of ,parsees1 ,hindoos1 or ,egyptians1 for whom the ,divine is still linked to the ,natural under the mode that man1 as an integral part of ,nature1 moves to and fro in a world full of gods1 and his personal action consists in the display through his activities of this very identity of ,life1 whereby this doing of his1 in so far as it is compatible with the natural existence of the ,divine1 appears itself as a revelation and bringing forth of the ,divine in mankind4 ,when1 however1 man is withdrawn into himself1 and intuitively seeks for his freedom within the closed doors of his own substance#hb1 he becomes intrinsically the object of his own personality2 he acts1 transacts his affairs1 and works as he himself wills2 he possesses a personal life of his own1 and feels the essential character of his aims as part of himself1 to which the natural is only related as something outside him4 ,consequently ,nature becomes insulated around him1 serves him under such an aspect that in his attitude to the ,divine he no longer secures an envisagement of the ,absolute in her1 but simply regards her as a means1 through which the gods enable him to discover such a knowledge of themselves as may contribute most to his advantage1 unveiling their will to the human spirit through the medium of ,nature and suffering the purpose thereof to declare itself through mankind4 ,an identity of the ,absolute and ,nature is here presupposed1 an identity in which human aims are pre-eminently emphasized4 ,a type of symbolism such as this1 however1 is not within the province of art1 but that of religion4 ,that is to say1 the vates or prophet subordinates every significant relation of natural events1 pre-eminently to the service of practical ends1 whether it be in the interest of the particular designs of individuals1 or in that of the common action of an entire people4 ,poetry1 on the contrary1 is bound to recognize and express even the practical situations and relations in a more universal form adapted to contemplation4 ,what we have1 however1 to deal with now is a natural phenomenon1 an occurrence1 which1 in its passage1 exhibits a particular relation1 which maybe accepted as symbol for a general significance in the circle of human deeds and dealings1 in other words for an ethical maxim1 a saw1 for a significance1 therefore1 whose content unfolds a reflection over the nature of the course which either is taken or ought to be taken in human matters1 that is1 facts which are related to volition4 ,here it is no longer the ,divine will1 which is self-revealed in its essential nature to mankind through natural events1 and their religious import4 ,we have nothing more than a quite ordinary course of everyday occurrences1 from the isolated reproduction of which we are able to abstract in a way commonly intelligible an ethical dictum1 a warning1 ensample1 or rule of prudence1 by whatever name we choose to call it1 which is set before us in a form that appeals to our imagination for the sake of the reflection it carries with it4 ,and this is just the way in which we ought to regard the fables of ,aesop4 7a7 ,in other words1 the fables of ,aesop in their original form are just such a mode of conceiving a natural relation or event between single natural objects generally1 mainly between animals1 whose intercourse with one another is based on the same practical necessities of life that are the motive force in that of humanity4 ,this relation or occurrence1 as viewed in its more general characters1 is consequently of a kind that may happen in the sphere of human life1 and as such carries with it a significance for man4 ,as thus explained the genuine fable of ,aesop is therefore the reproduction of a condition of animate or inanimate life1 of some occurrence in the animal world for example1 which is not by any means composed at haphazard1 but is put together in conformity with natural fact and genuine observation1 and so reproduced in the form of narrative that1 in its relation to human existence1 and particularly the practical aspect of the same1 a general maxim may be deduced from it4 ,the requirement of primary importance that it implies1 therefore1 is that the particular case in question1 which is to supply the so-called moral1 must not be purely imaginary1 that is to say1 first and foremost the substance of the composition must not present facts which run counter to the mode of their appearance in real life4 ,the narrative may be further and yet more clearly characterized in this that it does not record the particular case itself in its universality1 but rather the mode under which this1 taken in its concrete singularity and as a real fact1 is in such external reality the type for all action based upon analogous circumstances4 ,this original form of the fable leaves upon it1 and this is the third point to which we direct attention1 the impress of most navet1 because in it the didactic aim and the deduction of general significances of utilitarian colour do not appear to be that which was the original intention of the narrator1 but rather something which turned up afterwards4 ,for this reason the most attractive among the so-called fables of ,aesop will be those which correspond most emphatically with this nave tone and narrate actions1 if such an expression may here be used1 or at least relations and events1 which in part are founded upon animal instinct1 partly are the expression of some other natural relation and partly are generally put together for their own sake rather than exclusively composed as the fancy of the moment happened to dictate4 ,for this reason it is further sufficiently obvious that the motto fabula docet1 which has attached itself to these fables as we now have them presented us1 either takes the true spirit out of them1 or frequently is something like a fist in our eyes#hc1 so that quite as often as not we are inclined to deduce the intended maxim's opposite1 or one or two as good if not better4 ,in further elucidation of this conception of these ,greek fables we propose now to offer a few illustrations4 ,the oak and the reed stand in the teeth of the storm-wind4 ,the slender reed merely bows before it1 the stubborn oak snaps4 ,this is a frequent enough occurrence in a great storm4 ,in its ethical suggestion what we have here is some man of high position and inflexible temper as opposed to one of more modest station who1 through his natural pliancy1 is able in misfortune to keep himself secure on such ordinary levels1 while the great man goes to ground through his pride and obstinacy4 ,an analogous case is the fable of the swallows which we find in the ,phaedrus4 ,the swallows and other birds with them see a rustic sowing the flax seed1 from the growth of which the bird-snare is to be made4 ,the provident swallows fly away1 the other birds think nothing of the morrow2 they abide at home and are caught4 ,a real phenomenon of ,nature is also at the bottom of this fable4 ,it is a notorious fact that in autumn swallows are off to southerly climes1 and consequently are absent when birds are snared4 ,the same thing may be said of the fable about the bat1 which is despised by day and night1 because it belongs to neither the one nor the other4 ,a more general human significance is attributed to real prosaic incidents of this class1 much as pious people are only too ready nowadays to interpret everything that occurs in a sense that is edifying or useful4 ,it is1 however1 not essential to such a purpose that in every case the true fact of ,nature should appear at once as obvious4 ,in the fable1 for instance1 of the fox and the raven we are unable at first blush to recognize the natural fact1 although it is not wholly absent4 ,it is1 in truth1 a genuine characteristic both of ravens and crows that they set about cawing when they happen to catch sight of strange objects1 whatever they may be1 whether man or beast1 in sudden motion4 ,natural relations of a similar kind lie at the root of the fable of the thorn-bush1 which plucks the wool off the passer-by1 or wounds the fox that seeks refuge there1 or that of the countryman who warms a snake in his bosom4 ,others set forth occurrences which may naturally form part of animal experience2 take1 for instance1 the first example of the fables of ,aesop where the eagle devours the cubs of the fox and carries off a hot coal attached to the sacrificial flesh which sets his nest on fire4 ,and1 in conclusion1 we find that others contain traits of old myths1 such as the fable of the dung-beetle1 eagle1 and ,jupiter1 where the circumstance borrowed from natural history--we will pass it by for what it is worth--appears to be referable to the different seasons of the year when the eagle and dung-beetle respectively lay their eggs2 at the same time we may observe a clear intimation here of the traditional importance of the scarab1 which1 however1 even in our present example1 is already treated with an inclination toward comedy1 an inclination still more pronounced in ,aristophanes4 ,as an excuse for not entering more fully here into the question how many of these fables can actually be traced to ,aesop we mention the already well-established fact that only of quite a small minority--the last-cited one of dung-beetle and the eagle is among them--can it be shown that they date from ,aesop's time1 or that in general terms there is any flavour of antiquity about them to support the view that ,aesop is in fact their author4 ,of ,aesop himself we are informed that he was a deformed and humpbacked slave2 and for his place of residence we are transported into ,phrygia1 the very land1 that is1 which marks the passage from the immediately symbolical and the existence still fettered on ,nature1 to a land in which man begins to take real hold of the spiritual and himself as the source of the same4 ,in our present connection1 no doubt1 he does not behold the animal and natural world in the way the ,hindoos and ,egyptians beheld it1 that is1 as something of itself1 superior and ,divine4 ,he regards it with prosaic vision as something whose relations are only of service in the presentment of a picture of human act and avoidance4 ,his conceits are further merely the reflections of wit1 without real energy of soul or depth of insight and a fundamental grasp of reality1 without poetry and philosophy1 in fact4 ,his opinions and maxims are1 in consequence1 fairly rich in sensuous image and traits of cleverness1 but we never get beyond the digging away into mere trifles1 which1 instead of creating free shapes from the unfettered life of spirit1 is contented to discover some additional aspect that is new in material already close at hand1 such as the specific instincts and habits of animals or other daily occurrences of little moment2 and this is so because that which he would teach he is still afraid to express freely1 and is only able to make it intelligible in a kind of riddle which is at the same time always being solved4 ,prose has its origin in the slave1 and in the same way prose clings to the entire type of conception with which we are now concerned4 ,despite this fact1 however1 the experience of almost all nations and times has in one form or another run through these old tales2 and however much any particular people whose literature is generally well versed in fable may pride itself as possessing more than one fabulist of distinction1 we shall find that their poetry is for the most part merely a reflection of these primary sallies of invention1 merely translated into the vernacular of the age4 ,all that has since been added to the general heritage of such conceits falls far behind the original legacy in real merit4 7b7 ,there are1 however1 among these fables of ,greek descent a number which betray the greatest poverty of invention and execution1 being mere pegs on which to hang the instructive moral1 so that the contents1 whether they refer to gods or animals1 have merely a formal significance4 ,yet even these are far enough removed from the modern tendency of doing violence to the animal world as we find it in ,nature4 ,an example of this tendency is that fable of ,pfeffel about a marmot which collected provisions in autumn1 an act of foresight which another marmot neglected1 and so was brought to the condition of beggary and starvation4 ,or there is that other of the fox1 the bloodhound1 and the lynx1 of whom it is narrated that they presented themselves before ,jupiter1 together with the talents which exclusively belonged to them of cunning1 keen scent1 and clear sight1 and requested that these gifts should be equally divided between them2 the fable goes on that they obtained such consent under these rather surprising terms3 ,the fox gets a blow on the forehead1 the bloodhound is good for no more hunting1 the ,argus ,lynx receives a cataract4 ,that a marmot should cease to make provision for its wants1 or that the three animals above mentioned should ever incidentally meet with1 or be naturally capable of receiving1 a proportionate division of their respective gifts is contrary to all reason and consequently meaningless4 ,a better fable than those above cited is that of the ant and the grasshopper1 or that other of the deer with the beautiful horns and the slender legs4 ,conformably to the tenor of fables of this kind we have grown1 as a rule1 accustomed to accept the moral of the fable as that which is of first importance1 and to regard the narrative as merely an external form1 and consequently an event entirely composed with a view to expound that moral4 ,embodiments of this sort1 however1 more particularly when the occurrence described is wholly at variance with the natural character of specific animals1 are in the highest degree insipid1 attempts at invention which mean less than nothing4 ,the real ingenuity of a fable consists exclusively in this that it is able to impart to that which already exists in determinate form a further and more universal significance than that which is immediately presented4 ,the question has further been raised1 in reference to the general assumption that the essence of a fable consists in setting before us the actions and speech of animals rather than those of mankind1 as to what it is precisely which attracts us in this allusion4 ,we cannot suppose1 however1 that there is after all much that is attractive in such a furbishing up of our humanity in animal form1 even though it should exceed or at least differ from that of a comedy of apes and dogs1 where1 apart from the sight of the general cleverness of the dressing up1 the entire interest consists rather in the deliberate contrast between animal nature as it really is and appears1 and that represented as taking part in human affairs4 ,on grounds of this sort ,breitinger finds the attraction to consist entirely in the element of the marvellous4 ,in the original type of the fable1 however1 the appearance of animals endowed with speech is not put before us as anything uncommon or surprising4 ,and for this very reason ,lessing is of the opinion that the introduction of animals is really of great use in helping us to understand and assisting the poet to abridge his exposition2 in other words we are well acquainted with the qualities of animals1 the cuteness of the fox1 the magnanimity of the lion1 the voracity and violence of the wolf1 and are consequently able to set before our minds a concrete image in place of such abstract qualities4 ,an advantage of this kind1 however1 in no essential degree mitigates the triviality of the relation when it has become one purely of form1 and generally it is even a disadvantage to place animals thus before us instead of men1 for the reason that the animal form remains a mask1 which1 so far as intelligibility is concerned1 veils fully as much as it declares the significance4 ,the most important fable of this kind should be in that case the old history of ,reinecke1 the fox1 which is notwithstanding strictly speaking no fable at all4 7c7 ,in other words we may in conclusion add a third type of the fable1 in which we find that there is already a tendency to pass beyond the real boundaries of the type4 ,the ingenuity of a fable consists1 as already pointed out1 in the discovery of particular cases among the variety of natural phenomena1 which we are able to use as evidential support of general reflections upon human action and behaviour1 without essentially displacing the animal and natural world from its own native mode of existence4 ,for the rest this general application or adaptation of the particular case to the so-called moral is an exercise of personal caprice1 or shall we say native wit1 and is therefore to all intents and purposes an affair of pleasantry4 ,it is this aspect which receives the main emphasis in the type of fable now before us4 ,the fable is in fact accepted as a witty jest4 ,goethe has written many a delightful and ingenious poem in this vein4 ,the following lines occur in one of them1 which is entitled ,the ,barking ,dog3 _/ ,down every road afield we ride ,on business bent or pleasure2 ,and ever in our wake full-cry ,a hound's bark beats the measure4 ,loosed from our horse's stable he ,will always gallop beside us3 ,and this is what his clamour proves6 ,we ride1 are with the riders4 _/ ,it is equally necessary here1 as in the case of ,aesop's fables1 that objects which are borrowed from ,nature should receive their native aspect1 and only bring before us in their action and habits human circumstances1 passions1 and traits1 which have a close affinity to those of the animal world4 ,the story of ,reinecke is one of this kind1 and is really more a fairy-tale than a fable in the strict sense4 ,we find in the content of this the reflection of an age of disorder and lawlessness1 of evil generally1 weakness1 baseness1 violence1 and shamelessness1 of unbelief in religion1 that merely retains the appearance of a mastery1 or indeed an established position in the world-drama2 and the result is that craft1 cunning1 and selfishness have it all their own way4 ,it is1 in fact1 the condition of the ,middle ,ages1 more especially as developed in ,germany4 ,the powerful vassals pay1 it is true1 some appearance of respect to the king2 but practically every man does as he pleases--robs1 murders1 oppresses the weak1 betrays the king1 finds a way somehow to the favours of the queen1 so that if the community just holds together that is about all4 ,such is the human content1 which by this fable is preserved1 not in a mere abstract proposition but in an entire complexus of conditions and characters1 and by reason of its baseness fits in with the animal nature exactly1 under the forms of which it is unfolded4 ,for this reason we find nothing embarrassing in the fact that it is without any reserves transferred to the animal realm2 and for the same reason the particular form it takes does not so much appear as an exceptional case cognate with it2 rather we are inclined to feel the singularity of it make way for a certain breadth of universality1 a vision emphasizing the general truth3 ,such is the way things happen in the world4 ,the comical side consists in the forms under which the whole is put together1 drollery and jest being freely mingled with the bitter earnestness of the situation2 the general effect of which is that we not only have human meanness admirably depicted through that of animals1 but we are further made a present of the most entertaining traits1 and most characteristic anecdotes wholly peculiar to animal life1 so that1 despite all tartness to the palate1 our final view is that of a comedy whose main intention is neither bad nor purely capricious1 but one that has genuine earnestness to support it4 #b4 ,,parable1 ,,proverb1 ,,apologue 7a7 ,the ,parable ,parable has this general affinity with fable1 that it accepts events from the circle of common life1 but also makes them the depositors of a higher and more universal significance1 expressly with a view that the same shall become intelligible and objective by means of that daily occurrence in its ordinary guise4 ,a difference1 however1 at once asserts itself between the parable and fable1 and it is this1 that the former selects such occurrences in human action and habits1 as we have them every day before our eyes1 rather than in ,nature and the animal world2 it then expands the particular case selected1 which appears trite enough at first as such a particular1 to the range of wider interest1 by suggesting through it a higher kind of significance4 ,for this reason the range and the importance of the significances in wealth of content can materially be increased and deepened#hd1 while1 if we take the point of view of form1 it is clear that the subjective process of intentional comparison and setting out of a generally instructive reflection already marks the acceptance and appearance of a more advanced type4 ,as a parable1 still united to a wholly practical end1 we may view the means of persuasion used by ,cyrus to induce the ,persians to rebel 7,herod41 ,i1 cap4 #abf74 ,his letter to the ,persians advised them to betake themselves to a certain spot provided with sickles4 ,when there he set them all on the first day to clear with hard labour a certain field overgrown with thistles4 ,on the following day1 however1 after they had rested and bathed1 he conducted them to a meadow and supplied them with ample cheer in the shape of food and wine4 ,finally1 at the close of the feast1 he asked of them which of the two days had proved the most enjoyable4 ,all voted naturally for to-day rather than yesterday2 the former had brought them only good things1 while the latter had been a day of weariness and toil4 ,on this ,cyrus exclaimed3 ,follow me1 and many will be the good days such as the present has brought you4 ,refuse to follow me1 and countless labours are in store quite a match for those of yesterday4 ,of a type akin to the above1 though of profoundest interest and the widest range considered relatively to their significance1 are the parables we meet with in the ,gospels4 ,take1 for example1 that of the sower1 a narrative which as such possesses the most unimportant subject-matter1 and whose significance centres throughout in the comparison it supplies to the preaching of the kingdom of heaven4 ,the significance in these parables is wholly a religious gospel1 to which the human occurrences1 wherein such is imaginatively presented1 stand in a relation similar to that between the animal and human world in the fables of ,aesop1 where the former elicits the meaning of the latter4 ,of a like breadth of content is the famous story of ,boccaccio1 which ,lessing converted in his ,natham into the parable of the three rings4 ,the substance of the narrative is also in this case taken by itself nothing remarkable2 the extraordinarily wide1 reach of its content arises wholly from the way the differences between and the relative validity of the three religions1 namely1 the ,jewish1 the ,mohammedan1 and the ,christian1 are suggested by it4 ,the same thing may be said of the latest novelties in this type of art1 the parables of ,goethe for example4 ,take that of the cat-pasty4 ,in this a famous chef1 in order to prove himself hunter no less than cook1 went out hunting1 but shot a tom-cat instead of a hare1 which he then served up to the company sauced with his most consummate art4 ,this is no doubt a reference to the ,light theory of ,newton4 ,we have here under the guise of the hare-pie which the cook tried in vain to elaborate out of a cat a reflection of that abortive type of physical science which the mathematician will assume to be something better than it is4 ,these parables of ,goethe frequently have a strong touch of drollery about them1 an aspect which they share with his fables by the help of which he was wont to shed himself of life's disappointments4 7b7 ,the ,proverb ,the proverb forms as it were the middle point of this sphere4 ,in the form of their execution1 that is to say1 proverbs lean at one time in the direction of the fable1 at another to that of the apologue4 ,they give us a particular case selected for the most part from the daily walk of mankind1 which1 however1 is to be interpreted universally4 ,take the example1 ,one hand washes the other1 or those others1 ,every one wheels before his own door1 ,who digs a grave for another1 falls into it himself1 ,bake a pudding for me and ,i will staunch your thirst1 and others like them4 ,to wise saws of this type belong the many apophthegems that ,goethe has contributed to modern literature1 often of exquisite grace and profound to a degree4 ,these are not modes of comparison of the type that the general significance and the concrete phenomenon are opposed to one another in separation1 but the former is immediately expressed with the latter4 7c7 ,the ,apologue ,the apologue may be regarded as a parable1 which not only serves in the way of comparison to render visible a general significance1 but rather in this its very form reproduces and expresses the general moral1 the same being actually included in the particular case1 which is1 however1 related as only a single example4 ,conformably to this definition we may call ,goethe's ,der ,gott und die ,bajadere an apologue4 ,here we find the ,christian tale of the repentant ,magdalene reclothed in accordance with ,hindoo ideas4 ,the ,bajadere#he exemplifies the same humility1 a like strength of love and faith2 ,god puts her to the proof1 an ordeal she completely sustains1 and her exaltation and reconciliation follows4 ,in the apologue also narrative is so extended that the outcome of it furnishes the moral itself1 bare of any parallel to support it1 as may be illustrated from ,the ,treasure-,finder3 _/ ,work by day and guests at night1 ,weeks of moil1 feasts of delight1 ,such the ,future's spell for thee4 _/ #c4 ,,the ,,metamorphosis#hf ,the third mode we have to discuss in its contrast to the fable1 parable1 proverb1 and apologue1 is the metamorphosis4 ,this is no doubt of a kind which is both symbolical and mythological2 it sets forth1 however1 expressly furthermore the natural in its opposition to the spiritual4 ,that is to say1 it confers on an object immediately present to sense such as a rock1 animal1 flower1 or spring the peculiar significance of being a delapsus and a punishment of spiritual existences4 ,such are the examples of ,philomela1 the ,pieredes1 ,narcissus1 and ,arethusa1 all of whom1 through some false step1 passion1 transgression or the like1 became subject to irreparable guilt or pain1 and for this reason were deprived of the freedom of spiritual life1 and united to the substance of physical nature4 ,from one point of view ,nature is not regarded merely under its external and prosaic aspect1 simply1 that is1 as mountain1 river-source1 tree and so forth1 but it further receives a content which is bound up with some action or event of spiritual life4 ,the rock is not simply stone1 but ,niobe herself1 who weeps for her children4 ,from the other point of view this human action implies guilt of some kind1 and this metamorphosis into the physical phenomenon is accepted as a degradation of ,spirit4 ,it is therefore necessary to distinguish these metamorphoses of human individuals or gods very sharply from the genuine type of unconscious symbolism4 ,to return to ,egypt1 for example1 the ,divine is here in part immediately envisaged in the mysterious and secluded intension of animal life1 partly1 too1 the real symbol is here a natural form which is immediately associated with a wider significance cognate to it1 despite the fact that this form is unable to supply the determinate existence fully commensurate with it2 and this is so for the reason that neither in respect to its form or its content has unconscious symbolism arrived at the free outlook of ,spirit4 ,metamorphosis1 on the contrary1 emphasizes the essential distinction between ,nature and ,spirit1 and by doing so marks the passage from that which is both symbolical and mythological to that which is in the strict sense mythological1 under1 that is to say1 a conception of the latter1 which1 albeit that it proceeds in its myths from a concrete fact of ,nature such as sun1 sea1 rivers1 trees1 earth1 and the like1 nevertheless1 further and expressly sets this purely natural aspect on one side and apart1 divesting such natural phenomena of their inner content and individualizing the same as a spiritual ,power in the adequate artistic form of gods clothed in the lineaments of humanity1 whether we regard them as external shape or spiritual activity4 ,in this sense ,homer and ,hesiod have given to the ,greeks their mythology1 a mythology which by no means merely consists in the revelation of the significance of such gods1 by no means is merely an exposition of moral1 physical1 theological1 or speculative doctrine1 but one that is a mythology in the strict sense1 that is the origin of a spiritual religion under the genuine guise of our humanity4 ,in the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid the most heterogeneous material is brought together quite apart from the entirely modern spirit in which myth is treated4 ,beside the mere aspect of metamorphosis1 which could here in general terms only be conceived as a kind of mythical representation1 we have the specific character#hg of this type raised in an exceptional way in these narrations1 in which embodiments of this sort1 which are commonly accepted as symbolical1 or are already received in their entirely mythical character1 appear to have been converted into metamorphoses1 and that which is elsewhere united is so presented as to assert an opposition between its significance and form1 and the passage of the one into the other4 ,in this way1 for instance1 the ,phrygian or ,egyptian symbol1 the wolf1 is so separated from its intrinsic significance1 that the same is converted into a previous existence if not actually into the kingship of the ,sun1 and the existence of the wolf is conceived as resulting from an act of that human existence4 ,in the same way in the song of the ,pierides the ,egyptian gods1 the ram1 the cat1 and so forth are imaged as such animal forms1 in which the mythical gods of ,greece1 ,jupiter1 ,venus1 and the rest have concealed themselves from sheer fright4 ,the ,pierides themselves1 however1 by way of punishment1 in that they dared to rival the ,muses with their singing1 are changed into woodpeckers4 ,looked at from another side it is equally necessary1 with a view to securing the more accurate definition1 which the content wherein the significance consists essentially carries1 that we distinguish the metamorphosis from the fable4 ,that is to say in the fable the binding together of the moral with the natural fact is an association that is harmless2 for in this the thing of ,nature1 regarded under the mode in which it differs in its natural aspect from ,spirit1 does not affect the significance1 although there are certainly single examples of the fables of ,aesop1 which1 with but slight alteration1 would be instances of metamorphosis4 ,as such may be cited the forty-second fable of the bat1 the thorn-bush1 and the diver1 whose instincts are explained as due to the ill-luck of former experiences4 ,and here we must end our passage through this the first circle of the comparative type of art4 ,it started from that which was immediately present to sense1 that is1 the concrete phenomenon4 ,we proceed now from the point we have arrived at to examine a further kind of significance which the type unfolds4 ,b4 ,,comparisons1 ,,which ,,in ,,their ,,imaginative ,,presentment ,,have ,,their ,,origin ,,in ,,the ,,significance4 ,forasmuch as the severation of significance from embodiment is the hypostasized form for consciousness1 within which the relation of both originates independently1 it is both possible and inevitable that in the articulation of the self-subsistency of one side no less than the other a start should be made not only from external existence1 but conversely and as emphatically from that which is immediately present to the conscious subject1 in other words general conceptions1 reflections1 emotions1 and principles of thought4 ,for this inward aspect is equally with the images of external objects a subject-matter present to consciousness and in its independence of that which is external proceeds on its way from its own resources4 ,in the case1 then1 where we find the significance is the point of departure1 the expression1 that is1 the reality1 appears as the modus formulandi1 which is abstracted from the concrete world in order to give a visible and sensuously defined shape to the significance regarded as abstract content4 ,owing1 however1 to the reciprocally indifferent relation under which both sides confront each other1 this association which binds the two sides together is1 as we have already seen1 no essentially explicit and necessary union2 consequently the relation1 such as it is1 that is no actual reflection of objective fact1 is rather a product of active mind1 which no longer even disguises this its fundamental character1 but rather deliberately exposes it in the form of its representation4 ,the very embodiment possesses this binding together of form and content1 soul and body1 under the guise of concrete animation#hh1 as essentially and explicitly the substantial union of both sides in the soul as in the body1 in the content as in the form4 ,in the case before us1 however1 what is presupposed by consciousness is the dislocation of the two sides1 and consequently their association is the vivification of the significance simply for consciousness by means of a shape external to it1 and an indication of a real existence1 equally subjective in its character through the relation of the same to the general conceptions1 emotions1 and thoughts common to humanity4 ,for this reason what is mainly emphasized in these forms of comparative art is the subjective art of the poet in his creative capacity1 and in complete works of art we have mainly in our attitude to this particular aspect of them to separate that which strictly is appurtenant to their subject-matter and its necessary embodiment from that which is attached to them by the poet as mere ornament and embellishment4 ,such accessory detail1 which we cannot fail to distinguish1 that is1 consisting mainly of images1 similes1 allegories1 and metaphor1 is precisely that part of his work in virtue of which he earns his title to fame with most people1 a tendency which is all the more common because it indirectly bears witness to the insight and subtlety which enables such critics to discover our poet and draw attention to that aspect of his invention which is so entirely his own4 ,but for all that1 as we have already observed1 in genuine works of art such forms as those we are discussing can only be regarded as accessory1 although we doubtless do find in previous works on ,poetics such incidental features treated as precisely those which go to make the poet4 ,furthermore however1 though unquestionably in the first instance the two sides which have to be associated stand in a relation of indifference to one another1 yet in order to justify the subjective relation and comparison1 the embodiments must also in the character of its content itself include the same relations and qualities under a cognate mode to that which the significance intrinsically possesses2 the grasp of this similarity is1 in fact1 the one sure ground upon which the setting forth of the significance in union with this specific form rather than any other1 and the envisagement of such import by its means is based4 ,lastly1 inasmuch as we begin here1 not from the concrete phenomenon1 by the abstraction of a general characteristic from that1 but conversely from this universal itself1 which the intention is to have reflected in an image1 the significance secures the position which makes it stand out actually as the real object1 and as such is predominant over the sensuous picture which is the modus of its envisagement4 ,the series in which we propose now to examine the particular types we have mentioned as belonging to this phase of comparative art may be indicated as follows3 ,first in order1 as most cognate to the previous stage1 the riddle will enlist our attention4 ,secondly1 we have to examine the allegory1 in which as the main feature we shall find the abstract significance assert a mastery over the external form4 ,thirdly1 we have the class of the comparison in its strict sense2 metaphor1 image1 and simile4 #a4 ,,the ,,riddle ,the true symbol is essentially enigmatical in so far as the externality1 by means of which a general significance is made apparent1 still differs from the import it is intended to express3 in other words it thereby raises the doubt as to what is the exact signification applicable to the form4 ,the riddle1 however1 appertains to conscious symbolism1 and an obvious distinction between it and the genuine symbol is to be found in the fact that in the former case the meaning is clearly and fully recognized by the propounder of it1 and the form which veils that which is to be interpreted by it is therefore intentionally selected for this very purpose4 ,the genuine symbol is both before and after the act of selection an unsolved problem1 the riddle1 on the contrary1 is essentially a problem that is solved4 ,it is therefore with very good reason that ,sancho ,panza exclaims3 ,i should much prefer to hear the solution first and the riddle afterwards4 7a7 ,first1 then1 in the invention of the riddle1 the point from which the process starts1 is the apprehended meaning1 the signification of it4 7b7 ,the second step consists in the intentional selection of traits of character and other qualities from the common experience of the external world1 which--such is always the aspect of ,nature and external objects of every kind--are placed relatively to one another in piecemeal fashion1 and in thus setting them forth in disparate contiguity1 which makes their singularity the more striking4 ,and inasmuch as they are so placed they are without the enfolding unity of mind1 and their array and association intentionally distract has so far no intrinsic significance whatever4 ,and yet for all that1 and this is the other aspect of the riddle1 they do expressly point to a unity in relation to which even traits to all appearance most heterogeneous contain1 notwithstanding1 both a real sense and significance4 7c7 ,this unity1 which may be styled the subject of these distract predicates1 is just the simple preconception1 the word that solves our riddle1 to discover or divine which from the apparently confused medley of the mode under which it is propounded is the riddle's problem4 ,thus interpreted we may call the riddle the facetiousness of symbolism1 aware that it is such which puts to the proof acuteness of insight and aptness at putting things together1 and finally1 by stimulating the zest of solution1 breaks into and destroys the very mode of presentation it has itself set up4 ,in the main we shall find this1 form1 therefore1 most employed in human speech1 though we may find exceptional examples of it also in the plastic arts#hi1 architecture1 horticulture1 and painting4 ,with regard to its historical appearance the ,east is first and foremost responsible1 and we may date its advent in that intermediate and transitional period out of the more obtuse type of symbolism into one of more intelligent knowledge and comprehension4 ,entire peoples and historical epochs have taken delight in the solution of such problems4 ,it also plays an important part in the ,middle ,ages among the ,arabs and the ,scandinavians1 and as a particular example it is much in evidence in the minstrel tourneys on the ,wartburg4 ,in modern times it is mainly under the more modest guise of recreation and purely social pleasantry that we cross it4 ,in the riddle we have opened a practically limitless field for witty and striking conceits1 which in their reference to any given circumstance1 occurrence1 or object take the form of a play upon words or an epigrammatical sentence4 ,on the one hand we have presented an object trite to a degree1 on the other some conceit of the mind which emphasizes unexpectedly with conspicuous force some aspect or relation1 which we failed to perceive in that object on first confronting it1 and which now attaches to it the light of a new significance4 #b4 ,,the ,,allegory ,the counterpart to the riddle in this sphere of comparative art1 where the point of departure is from the generality of the significance1 is the allegory4 ,from a certain point of view this form1 no less than the former1 endeavours to make more visible to us the definite qualities of a general conception through qualities in materially concrete objects which are cognate therewith2 but in contrast to that form this is not done in the interest of a partial concealment and a mysterious problem2 rather it is now quite the other way with the express object of absolute revealment2 to an extent1 in fact1 that all which is external1 and is as such utilized by it1 must become through and through transpicuous with the significance which has to make its appearance therein4 7a7 ,it is therefore in the first place concerned to personify abstract conditions of a general character or similar qualities both from the human and the natural world1 such as religion1 love1 justice1 strife1 fame1 war1 peace1 the seasons1 death1 and the like1 and conceive them under the mode of personality4 ,this subjective aspect1 however1 is neither in respect to its content nor its external form in itself either a real subject or individual1 but persists as the abstraction of a general conception1 whose content is merely the barren form of subjectivity which may be called as truly a grammatical subject#ij4 ,in other words an allegorical being1 despite every attempt to clothe it in the lineaments of humanity1 entirely falls short of concrete individuality1 whether it be a ,greek god1 a saint1 or any other genuine example4 ,it is1 in fact1 so forced to pare away#ia from the substance of subjectivity1 in order to make it conform with the abstract character of its significance1 that all the true definition of individuality disappears4 ,it is therefore only a just criticism of allegory to say that it is frosty and cold1 and1 having regard to the abstract quality of its significances1 even in the point of invention1 that it is rather the result of the matter-of-fact understanding than that of the complete vision and emotional depth of genuine imagination4 ,poets1 such as ,virgil1 for example1 are particularly ready to give us examples of allegorical individualization simply because they are unable to create gods of the ,homeric type of personality4 7b7 ,secondly1 however1 the significant character of allegorical material is at once defined in its abstraction1 and only by means of such definition is it intelligible2 the expression of such particular aspects1 for the reason that it is not immediately unfolded in that which is in the first instance a purely generalized conception of personality1 is consequently forced to appear alongside of the subject1 simply as the predicates which elucidate the same4 ,this separation of subject from predicate1 generality from particularity1 is the second feature of the frostlike appearance of the allegory4 ,the envisagement of the determinate and specific qualities is borrowed from the modes of expression1 activity1 and resultant effects which make their appearance in virtue of the significance1 when that secures its realized form in concrete existence1 or from the various means which subserve it in its true realization4 ,for example1 war is delineated through weapons1 cannons1 drums1 and standards1 etc42 the yearly seasons1 by an enumeration of the flowers and fruits1 which pre-eminently spring up under the favouring influence of the particular seasons4 ,objects of this kind may further receive purely symbolical relations1 as1 for instance1 ,justice may be brought home to our minds by means of the scales and fillet1 ,death by that of the hour-glass and scythe4 ,for the reason1 however1 that the significance in allegory is the dominant factor1 and the more specialized presentment is subordinate to it under an equally abstract form1 for it is1 after all1 itself merely an abstraction1 the embodiment of such definable characteristics only secures the validity of an attribute pure and simple4 7c7 ,in this way the allegory is under both these aspects without vital warmth4 ,its general personification is empty1 the definite mode of its externalization is only a sign1 which taken independently has no longer any meaning1 and the centrum1 which is thus constrained to gather up the variety of the attributes into a focus does not possess the potency of a truly subjective unity which is itself self-embodied in its real and determinate existence inter-related throughout1 but is rather a purely abstract form1 for which the substantial filling-up with particular traits1 which1 as we have seen1 never succeed in rising above the rank of the formal attribute1 remains as something external4 ,consequently we may say that in so far as the allegory sets up any claim to real self-consistency1 in which it personifies its abstraction and their delineation1 it is not to be taken seriously4 ,in other words1 that which is both implicitly and explicitly self-substantive is unable really to conform with an allegorical being4 ,the ,dik of the ancients1 for instance1 is not on all fours with allegorical individualization4 ,she is universal ,necessity personified1 eternal ,justice1 the universally potent subject1 the absolute substantivity of the relations which co-ordinate ,nature and spiritual ,life1 that is1 she is the absolute ,self-subsistent itself1 in the train of whom all other individuals are bound1 whether gods or men4 ,herr ,frederick von ,schlegel has1 it is true--we have already referred to the fact--ventured the opinion that every work of art must of necessity be an allegory4 ,such an expression of opinion is only true if limited to the sense that every work of art must contain a general idea and a significance which is itself essentially true4 ,what we have above1 on the contrary1 included under the term allegory is a mode of presentation which only conforms to the notion of art incompletely1 being itself no less in content than in form subordinate to it4 ,every human event and development1 every relation in which life is concerned1 possesses no doubt intrinsically an aspect of universality1 which may be emphasized as such1 but abstractions of this kind are already to be found in the general contents of consciousness1 and merely to assert them in their prosaic aspect of generality and external delineation1 which is the point where the allegory halts1 is still to fall short of the true sphere of art4 ,winckelmann has also written an immature work on allegory1 in which he has ranged together a large number of examples1 but failed for the most part to distinguish those which exemplify the symbol and allegory respectively4 ,among the particular arts within which we find examples of the allegory1 poetry is really acting contrary to its laws when it takes refuge in such a mode of presentment2 sculpture on the contrary is in most directions barely complete without it1 more especially modern sculputure1 which freely admits of that which is native to portraiture1 and so must avail itself of allegorical figures in order to delineate more closely the relative aspects under which the individual presentment is posed4 ,on ,blucher's monument1 for example1 which has been raised to him here in ,berlin1 we find both the genius of ,fame and ,victory1 although1 having regard to the general treatment of the war of liberation1 this allegorical aspect is once more set aside by means of a series of particular scenes such as the departure of the army1 its march1 and victorious return4 ,generally speaking1 however1 where the subject of sculpture is portraiture the sculptor will avail himself gladly of allegorical representation as offering to the simplicity of his central figure the contrast of environment and variety4 ,the ancients on the other hand1 on their sarcophagi for example1 more frequently made use of general mythological representations of such figures as ,sleep1 ,death1 and the like4 ,allegory generally is far less common in the antique than it is in the romantic art of the ,middle ,ages1 although it must be added that such romance as it possesses is not really referable to allegory4 ,the frequent appearance of allegorical conception at this particular epoch of human history is to be thus explained4 ,from a certain point of view we find that the content of the ,middle ,ages is preoccupied with particular types of individuality and the personal aims1 generally focussed in love and honour1 and resulting in vows1 wanderings1 and adventures1 which are common to them4 ,individuals of this type and the events of such lives invariably offer the imagination a wide scope for the inventive faculties1 and the composition of accidental and capriciously imagined collisions and their resolution4 ,on the other hand1 in direct contrast to this motley show of worldly adventure we have the universal1 taking it here as the stability of the ordinary relations and conditions of life1 a universal which is not1 as was the case in the ancient world1 individualized in the figures of self-subsistent gods2 consequently we find it freely and naturally emphasized in independent isolation as such universality alongside of these particular types of personality and their specific modes of appearance and activity4 ,if the artist therefore happens to have before his mind the general conditions of life we have adverted to1 and assuming that he is desirous of giving artistic embodiment to them in some form other than the accidental mode common to his age1 that he wishes1 in short1 to emphasize their universality1 he has no other alternative than to accept the allegorical type of presentment4 ,this is precisely what we find in the sphere of religion4 ,the ,virgin ,mary1 ,christ1 the actions and dramatic events of apostolic history1 the saints with their penances and martyrdoms1 are1 it is true1 even here individualities in the full sense2 but ,christendom is also to an equal extent concerned with the general conceptions of abstract spiritual qualities1 such as will not comply with the concrete definition of actual persons inasmuch as the relation of universality is precisely the mode under which they are presented1 of which examples are ,love1 ,faith1 and ,hope4 ,and generally the truths and dogmas of ,christendom are independently cognized by the religious consciousness1 and a main interest even of their poetry consists in this that these doctrines are emphasized in their universal aspect1 that ,truth is known and believed in as universal truth4 ,in that case1 however1 it is necessary that the concrete presentation should remain a subordinate factor1 itself external to the content1 and allegory is just the form which satisfies this want in the easiest and most sufficient way4 ,conformably to this the divine comedy of ,dante is full of allegorical matter4 ,theology1 for example1 in this poem is run together in fusion with the image of his beloved lady ,beatrice4 ,this personification1 however1 wavers in the lines of its delineation2 and this uncertainty of outline is that which constitutes the beauty of it1 and places it halfway between genuine allegory and a vision of his youthful love4 ,in the ninth year of his life he looked on her for the first time3 she appeared to him no daughter of mortal men1 but of ,god4 ,his fiery ,italian nature conceived a passion for her1 which the years failed to extinguish4 ,and conscious that it was she who awoke in him the genius of poetry he finally sets himself the task1 after he had lost in her that which was most loved in the fairest flower of its promise1 of composing that wonderful monument of the most intimate and personal religion of his heart in the poetic masterpiece of his life4 #c4 ,,metaphor1 ,,image1 ,,simile ,the third sphere of content attached to the riddle and the allegory consists in the imaged thing generally4 ,the riddle veiled the still independently cognized significance and the mode of its shaping in cognate1 albeit heterogeneous and distantly placed traits of definition was still of most importance4 ,allegory on the contrary emphasized the perspicuity of the significance so strongly as the predominant aim1 that the personification and its attributes appear deposed to the rank of mere signs4 ,the imaged thing now connects this clarity of allegorical expression with that impulse of the riddle to envisage the significance which stands out clearly before the mind in the form of an externality cognate with it2 the result1 however1 is not that it gives rise to problems which have first of all to be solved1 but rather that the imaged shape appears1 by means of which the preconceived conception is revealed with absolute transparency1 notifying itself as that which it really is4 7a7 ,the ,metaphor ,the first point we have to draw attention to in the metaphor is this1 that it may be accepted at once as essentially a simile1 in so far as it expresses clear and self-subsistent significance in a similar phenomenon of reality comparable with it4 ,in the comparison as such1 however1 both sides of the comparison1 that is the real meaning and the image1 are definitely kept apart from each other1 while on the contrary in the metaphor this separation1 albeit it is essentially present1 is not as yet clearly posited4 ,for this reason ,aristotle long ago distinguished comparison and metaphor by his statement that a how is added to the former which is absent from the latter4 ,in other words the metaphorical expression specifies but one aspect1 the image4 ,in the context1 however1 to which the image is attached1 the real significance which is intended lies so near that it is at the same time immediately asserted without any direct separation of it from the image4 ,when it is said1 for example3 the ,spring-time of these cheeks1 or a sea of tears1 we are inevitably forced to accept such an expression as an image rather than an actual fact1 an image whose significance the context at the same time expressly designates4 ,in the symbol and allegory the relation of actual meaning to external form is not asserted either so immediately or necessarily4 ,from the fact that an ,egyptian staircase consists of nine stages1 and a hundred other circumstances of similar pregnancy1 it is only the adept1 the connoisseur1 and the professor who will derive a symbolical significance1 and doubtless will scent out and discover much that is both mystical and symbolical into the bargain1 which is so much ingenuity of research thrown away for the reason that what is discovered is not there4 ,this may have happened often enough to my honoured friend ,creutzer1 no less than our latter-day ,platonists and the commentators of ,dante4 7a7 ,in range and variety of form it is impossible to exhaust the resources of metaphor2 its definition1 however1 is simple4 ,it is a wholly abbreviated comparison1 in which we find1 as a fact1 image and significance are not as yet set in opposition to one another1 but only the image is introduced by it2 at the same time1 however1 the meaning which is thus attached to the image is not its real meaning2 this is as it were effaced1 and by virtue of the content in which it is set we are enabled to recognize the significance which is really intended in the image itself1 albeit that meaning is not expressly asserted4 ,for the reason1 however1 that the meaning that is thus rendered intelligible under the image only comes to light by virtue of the context1 the significance which is expressed in metaphor cannot claim the importance of an independent artistic presentation2 their mode of appearance is purely incidental1 so that metaphors1 in a still more emphatic degree1 can only be employed as the external embellishment of an essentially independent work of art4 77 ,the metaphor is mainly used in the expressions of speech1 which we may usefully consider in this relation under the following aspects4 77 ,in the first place every language includes within its own compass a host of metaphors4 ,they arise from the fact that a word1 which in the first instance merely designates something entirely sensuous1 is carried over into a spiritual sphere4 ,grasp1 comprehend#ib1 and generally a number of words connected with the processes of thought1 have in regard to their original meaning a content that is wholly sensuous1 which is consequently abandoned and exchanged for the meaning applicable to mind2 the first meaning is sensuous1 the second spiritual4 77 ,by degrees1 however1 the metaphorical aspect disappears in the general use of such a word1 which as the current coin of language is converted from an expression which is not strictly accurate to one that is so1 the effect of this process being that image and import1 owing to the habitual frequency with which the latter is only conceived in the former1 cease to differ from one another1 and the image merely immediately presents the abstract significance itself instead of a concrete mode of vision#ic4 ,when we take1 for example1 the word grasp in the sense applicable to mental life it entirely escapes us that there is any sensuous relation implied between the hand and external objects#id4 ,in living languages this distinction between genuine metaphor and words which already through usage have fallen to the level of a mere means of expression is readily established2 the reverse is the case with dead languages1 for the reason that here mere etymology is unable finally to bring our minds to a decision1 inasmuch and in so far as the question does not depend on the original source of that word1 and its general development in speech1 but first and foremost on the fact whether a word which has all the appearance of being used in a picturesque and metaphorical sense had or had not already lost by habitual usage under a meaning applying exclusively to spirit1 and in the speech when alive1 its first sensuous significance and been absorbed wholly in that higher sense4 77 ,when this takes place the invention of new metaphors1 which are the exclusive product of the poetical imagination becomes for the first time a vital necessity4 ,that in which this invention is mainly concerned consists first in transferring the phenomena1 activities1 and conditions of a higher level of fact in a way that illustrates the content of less important material1 and in bringing to light significances of such inferior matter in the form and image which stands above them4 ,the organic1 for example1 is by itself essentially of higher importance than the inorganic1 and to carry forward that which has no life within1 the range of vital phenomenal enhances its expression4 ,we may illustrate this with the saying of ,ferdusi3 ,the keenness of my sword devours the brain of the lion1 and drinks the dark blood of the courageous4 ,in a yet more enhanced degree we find the same result when that which is of ,nature and sensuous is imaged1 and thereby raised and ennobled in the form of spiritual phenomena4 ,so we have such common turns of speech as smiling fields1 and angry flood1 or in the language of ,calderon3 ,the waves sigh beneath the burden of ships4 ,in these examples that which exclusively applies to humanity is diverted to the expression of ,nature4 ,the ,latin poets use such metaphorical language often enough1 as we may find in our ,virgil1 take the example3 ,quum graviter tunsis gemit area frugibus 7,georg41 ,,iii1 #acb74 ,conversely and in the second place that which pertains to mind is brought in the same way more close to our powers of vision through the image of natural objects4 ,such fanciful presentations1 however1 can very readily degenerate into mere trifling and far-fetched conceits1 when that which is essentially without life receives notwithstanding every appearance of individuality1 and really spiritual activities are assigned to it with perfect seriousness4 ,the ,italians more especially have given themselves over to illusive trickery of this kind1 and even ,shakespeare is not wholly free from them1 as in that passage from ,richard ,,ii 7,act ,v1 sc4 ,i71 where he makes the ,king say to the ,queen on parting3 _/ ,for why1 the senseless brands will sympathize ,the heavy accent of thy moving tongue ,and in compassion weep the fire out2 ,and some will mourn in ashes1 some coal-black ,for the deposing of a rightful king4 _/ 77 ,finally1 if we look at the aim and interest of that which is metaphorical1 the first thing which strikes us is that a word in the strict sense is an independently intelligible expression1 the metaphor otherwise4 ,the question consequently presents itself1 what is the reason of this twofold means of expression1 or1 to put it another way1 why is it that we have the metaphorical which essentially implies this division8 ,the common explanation is that metaphors are used to give vivacity to poetical composition1 and this animating effect is the ground in virtue of which ,heyne1 in particular1 insists on their value4 ,the vivacity consists in the support they offer to imaginative vision in the direction of clear definition1 divesting the word1 which is always something generalized1 of its purely indefinite character1 and bringing it home to sense by means of an image4 ,no doubt a greater degree of vivacity is to be found in metaphors than in the strict expressions of ordinary speech2 genuine vitality1 however1 is not to be sought for in metaphors1 whether in isolation or combination1 whose figurative plasticity1 it is true1 may frequently include a relation1 which by good chance attaches at the same time to the expression an increased perspicuity and a higher definition1 but quite as often1 if every detail of the process of thought is thus figuratively emphasized in isolation1 makes the whole unwieldy1 overloading it thus with its emphasis on singular aspects4 ,the genius of metaphorical diction is consequently1 as we shall have to elucidate more closely in our consideration of simile1 to be regarded as responding to a need and potency of mind and the emotional life1 which will not rest satisfied with that which is entirely simple1 ordinary1 and homely1 but make an effort beyond this and over into something more recondite under the attraction which distinction offers and the impulse to co-ordinate contrasted effects4 ,this binding together has itself again various causes1 which may be notified as follows4 77 ,first1 we have it for the sake of reinforcing an effect4 ,the emotional life1 under the pressure and movement of its passions1 gives visible utterance to these forces by means of the piling up of sensuous image4 ,more than this1 it strives to express its own whirl and tumble1 or persistence in the ideas which crowd upon it by means of a similar letting itself go into phenomena cognate with such a condition1 and its own free movement among images of the greatest variety4 ,in ,calderon's supplication to the ,cross ,julia utters the following words when she looks upon the dead body of her only just deceased brother1 and her lover1 ,eusebio1 the man who has killed ,lisardo1 stands before her3 _/ ,o that ,i might close for ever ,eyes before this blood here guiltless1 ,blood which cries for vengeance with its ,flooding stream of purple flowers6 ,would that ,i could deem thee pardoned ,in the rush of tears that blind thee3 ,wounds and eyes are mouths which swallow ,lies which seek admittance never1 etc4 _/ ,with a still more vehement burst of passion ,eusebio starts back from the sight of her1 when ,julia finally is for surrendering herself to him1 as he exclaims3 _/ ,flaming sparks thine eyeballs scatter2 ,every sigh is breath that scorches2 ,every word is a volcano1 ,every hair a scribbled lightning1 ,every word is ,death1 and every ,soft caress is ,hell's own anguish2 ,such the horror stirs within me ,as ,i see--,o awful symbol1 ,crucifix thy bosom carries4 _/ ,the human soul on the swell of its emotion keeps adding image on image to that immediately confronting it1 and with all this impetuous seeking to and fro for new means of expression barely lays to rest its own tumult4 77 ,a second rationale of the metaphorical consists in this that the human soul1 after adding to its own depth by this the motion of its own life into the varied survey of objects cognate with it1 is stirred at the same time to cast itself free of the externality of such objects1 to the extent that it seeks to rediscover itself in what is external2 it transmutes that external in its own free activity1 and by clothing both itself and its passions in the forms of beauty1 proclaims furthermore its power to present in visible semblance its own exaltation above the bare fact4 77 ,a third ground of figurative expression1 and one of at least equal force1 may be found in the purely ribald exuberance of the phantasy1 which is unable to set before us an object in its own outlines for what they are worth1 or a significance in its unadorned simplicity1 but on all occasions hankers after some concrete embodiment cognate with it1 or is overmastered by the ingenuity of a personal caprice1 which1 in order to escape the commonplace1 abandons itself to the charms of the piquant novelty1 a caprice that is never satisfied until it has discovered for us points of affinity in material the most remote apparently from that before us1 and has thereby related the same to the most distant objects4 ,and we may here observe that it is not so much the prosaic and poetic style generally as the style of the classic world in contrast with that of later periods which presents such a marked difference in the pre-eminent importance they attach to genuine or metaphorical expression respectively4 ,it is not merely the ,greek philosophers1 such as ,plato and ,aristotle1 or the great historians and orators1 such as ,thucydides and ,demosthenes1 but also the great poets1 ,homer and ,sophocles1 who1 albeit we find examples of the simile in all them1 remain on the whole1 and without exception1 constant in the use of their direct form of expression#ie4 ,their plastic severity and sterling substance will not permit them such a multifarious product1 as is bound up with the use of metaphor1 nor will it suffer them1 even for the sake of gathering the so-called flowers of expression1 to waver fitfully in devious ways from their ideal mintage of the completely simple and co-ordinate result as of one metal cast in one mould4 ,the metaphor1 in fact1 is always an interruption to the logical course of conception and invariably to that extent a distraction1 because it starts images and brings them together1 which are not immediately connected with the subject and its significance1 and for this reason tend to a like extent to divert the attention from the same to matter cognate with themselves1 but strange to both4 ,the prose of ancient writers in the extraordinary clarity and flexibility of its utterance and their poetry in the repose of its completely unfolded content#if1 are equally removed from the frequent use of metaphor by modern writers4 ,on the other hand it is particularly in the ,east1 and above all the later literature of ,mohammedan poetry1 which makes use of the indirect or figurative modes of expression1 and1 indeed1 finds them essential4 ,the same thing may be said1 if less emphatically1 of modern ,european literature4 ,the diction of ,shakespeare1 for instance1 is full of metaphor4 ,the ,spaniards1 too1 are very fond of this flowery region1 and1 indeed1 have wandered off into it to the point of the most tasteless exaggeration and superfluity4 ,jean ,paul falls under the same charge4 ,goethe by virtue of the equal strength and clarity of his vision to a less extent4 ,schiller1 however1 is even in his prose exceedingly rich both in image and metaphor2 in his case this is rather due to his effort to bring really profound ideas within the range of the imaginative vision without being forced to expound all they imply for the mind in the technical language of philosophy4 ,we behold and find there the essential unity of the speculative reason reflected on the mirror of ,life as it stands before us4 7b7 ,the ,image ,we may place the image midway between the metaphor and the simile4 ,it has1 in fact1 so close an affinity with the metaphor that we may regard it as merely a metaphor fully amplified#ig1 an aspect which at the same time marks its very close resemblance to the simile2 there is1 however1 this distinction1 that in the case of the image as such the significance is not set forth in its independent opposition to the concrete external object expressly compared with it4 ,that which we term the image arises when two phenomena or conditions1 which by themselves stand substantially apart1 are placed in concurrence so that one condition supplies the significance which is made intelligible by means of the other4 ,the first1 that is to say1 the fundamental modus of the definition constitutes here the relation of independent consistency#ih1 and is the line of division of the spheres in their separation1 from which both the significance and its image are deduced2 and that which is common to them1 the qualities and relations and so forth1 are not1 as in the symbol1 the indefinite universal and substantive itself1 but the self-defined concrete existence on the one side no less than on the other#ii4 7a7 ,under a relation such as this the image may possess as its significance a whole series of conditions1 activities1 contrasts1 and modes of existence1 and manifest the same through a series of a similar nature from an independent if cognate source1 without emphasizing in so many words the significance as such within the limits of the image4 ,the poem of ,goethe1 entitled ,the ,song of ,mahomet1 is of this kind4 ,it is merely the title here which shows us that in the image of a rocky water-spring which1 in the freshness of youth1 leaps over the cliff's edge into the abyss1 and which then spreads away with the rush of tributary springs down the plain1 ever and anon taking up fraternal rivers1 which gives further a name to localities1 and sees whole towns subject to its glory1 until it finally bears in the tumultuous folds of its rapturous heart all these splendours1 the brothers1 its possessions1 its children1 to the great source that awaits them--it is1 we repeat1 merely the title which explains to us that in this comprehensive and radiant image of a mighty river we have the first bold appearance of ,mahomet1 then the rapid spread of his teaching1 and1 finally1 the deliberately planned attempt to bring all nations to the one faith set forth with such singular directness4 ,we may view in a similar way many of the ,xenien of ,goethe and ,schiller1 those sentences edged in part with scorn1 but as often the mere vehicle of good spirits1 which were flung at the public and its weak authors in particular4 ,take the pair of distiches which follow1 as an example3 _/ ,stille kneteten wir ,salpeter1 ,kohlen und ,sewefel1 ,bohrten ,rhren1 gefall' nun auch das ,feuer work euch6 ,einige steigen als leuchtende kugeln und andere znden1 ,manche auch werfen wir nur spielend das ,aug' zu erfreun#ajj4 _/ ,ay1 we have in truth seen not a few rockets of this order changed to dull ash1 to the exceeding entertainment of the better half of public opinion1 only too delighted when the rabble of commonplace and miserable quality1 which had for a long time spreadeagled it far and wide and laid down the law1 received a genuine smack in the mouth and a bucket of cold water over its precious body into the bargain4 77 ,in these last examples there is1 however1 already a second aspect brought to view1 which in our consideration of the image should be emphasized4 ,in other words the content is in these cases an individual which acts1 brings before us objects1 experiences specific states1 etc41 and then is reflected in the image not as such a subject1 but merely with a reference to his particular actions1 workings1 and experiences4 ,the individual himself as subject is1 on the contrary1 introduced without an image1 and it is only his actions and relations strictly viewed which contain the form of indirect expression4 ,here1 too1 as in the case of the image generally1 it is not the entire significance which is separated from its mode of embodiment1 but the subject is alone set forth independently1 while the definite content of that subject receives at the same time the form of an image2 and the result is that the subject is imagined in such a way as though it was itself the means which supplied the imaged form of their existence to the objects and actions in question4 ,the metaphorical relation is1 in fact1 ascribed to the individual subject expressly named4 ,this confusion1 or at least interfusion of the direct and indirect modes of expression has frequently been the subject of adverse criticism1 but we do not find very solid ground to support it#aja4 77 ,orientals are to an extraordinary degree distinguished by the bold use they make of this type of imagery4 ,they will unite together and intertwine in one image entirely independent forms of existence4 ,take for example this sentence of ,hafiz3 ,the life-course of the world is a bloodstained dagger1 and the drops which fall therefrom are crowns4 ,or that other3 ,the sword of the sun drips in the red of morning with the blood of ,night1 over which it has won the victory4 ,or again this3 ,no one has yet drawn aside the veil from the cheeks of thought as ,hafis since the day when the tips of the locks of the ,word's bride were curled4 ,the meaning of this image may be apparently thus expanded4 ,thought is the bride of the word2 so ,klopstock calls the word the twin-brother of ,thought1 and since this bride has been adorned by man with delicately turned words1 no one is likely to be more competent than ,hafis to suffer the thought thus adorned to appear in the clarity of its unveiled beauty4 7c7 ,the ,simile ,from this last type of imagery we may proceed without a break to the consideration of simile4 ,for in the image we already find the initial appearance of the independent and imageless expression of this significance1 the subject of the image being here designated4 ,the two types are1 however1 distinguished by this that in the simile everything which exclusively manifests the image in a figurative form is furthermore able to receive an independently subsistent mode of expression as significance1 which thereby appears alongside of its image and is placed in comparison with the same4 ,the metaphor and image declare the significances without making that declaration explicit1 so that it is only the context1 in which either metaphor or image occur1 which shows without disguise what their meaning veritably is intended to be4 ,in the simile1 on the contrary1 both aspects1 image and significance1 albeit no doubt we find at one time it is the image1 and at another the significance which is most clearly and fully emphasized1 are kept completely apart and set forth each in its isolation1 and only then1 and in such severation are related to one another in virtue of the similarity of their content4 ,viewed in this relation it is possible to characterize the simile as to some extent merely a vain repetition1 in so far1 that is1 as one and the same content is reproduced in a twofold1 or it may be threefold or fourfold form4 ,in part1 too1 we may even see in it a frequently wearisome superfluity1 for the reason that the significance is already there as an independent factor1 and requires no further mode of figuration to render it intelligible4 ,the question consequently presses upon us here with even more insistence than in the case of the image and metaphor1 what essential interest and object there may be in the employment of isolated examples or a whole number of similes4 ,for their use is not to be justified on the commonly received ground of mere vivacity1 and the contention that they increase the lucidity of expression will assist us just as little4 ,on the contrary similes make a poem only too frequently insipid and overweighted1 and an image or metaphor by itself can possess a clarity fully as pronounced without there being any previous necessity to attach the significance to either as something still outside4 ,we must consequently conceive the object of the simile to consist in this1 that the subjective#ajb imagination of the poet1 however much it has brought home to the artist's consciousness the content1 which it seeks to express1 with distinctive emphasis according to its more abstract generality and expresses it in this universal aspect1 yet it finds itself equally under a constraint to seek out a concrete form for it1 and to envisualize for itself in the phenomena of sense that which already is clearly before the mind as its significance4 ,looked at in this way we shall find that the simile is1 no less than the image and the metaphor1 indicative of the bravery which invariably distinguishes imaginative power when it faces its object1 it matters not what1 it may be a single object of sense-perception1 a definite condition1 or a general significance--the enterprise1 that is1 to bind together with its own activity that which lies remote from it in its external environment1 and by so doing to carry away by force objects of the greatest variety1 and unite them to the interest which its unified content possesses1 and generally to annex to the matter in hand a whole world of diversified phenomena4 ,and this power of the imagination continually to find out the new plastic shape1 and cement together heterogeneous material by means of the relations and associations of sense is1 in general terms1 also the rational basis of the simile4 77 ,in the first place1 then1 this impulse to compare can find satisfaction simply by virtue of the demand which it satisfies1 without bringing to light1 that is to say1 anything else in the brilliancy of its images than the bravery of the imagination itself4 ,and this is but the same thing as that revelry#ajc of imaginative power1 which1 more particularly in the ,east1 with all the easy-going tranquillity of the ,south regales itself in the wealth and splendour of its images nor seeks any other object1 while it seduces the hearer to give himself up to the same spirit4 ,at the same time we are frequently astounded by the amazing force1 with which the poet surrenders himself to ideas of the most startling contrasts1 and displays a cunning of combination which far exceeds all the effort of mere wittiness as an indication of genius4 ,calderon1 too1 supplies us with many comparisons of this type1 more particularly in his pictures of important and splendid pageants and festive processions1 in his descriptions of chargers and cavaliers1 or in his reference to ships1 which on one occasion he calls birds without pinions1 and fish without fins4 77 ,a second and more intimate aspect of these comparisons is that in virtue of which we find them to be a tarrying by one and the same object1 which becomes thereby the substantial centre of a series of other ideas remote from it1 by pointing to or illuminating which the interest of the content compared receives a tangible increase4 ,this protraction of the interest round one centre may be explained in several ways4 77 ,as the first we may draw attention to the absorption of the soul in the content1 which is the source of its animation1 and which attaches itself so intimately to it1 that it is unable to detach itself from the permanent interest thus excited4 ,we may at the same time observe that a fundamental difference once more asserts itself in this respect between the poetry of the ,east and the ,west resembling that we have already adverted to our discussion of ,pantheism4 ,in other words the ,oriental is in his absorption less dominated by the personal relation1 and consequently without the languish and yearning of self-interest3 his longing1 such as it is1 remains a more impersonal delight in the object under comparison1 and consequently more of a contemplation4 ,he looks about him with a free mind1 sees in everything which surrounds him1 everything which stirs either his mental faculties or his heart1 an existing image of that which actively concerns his sense-life and his spiritual forces1 and with which he abounds4 ,this type of the imagination which is free from all mere self-obsession1 delivered1 ,i mean1 from all morbid introspection discovers its satisfaction in the figurative conception of the object itself1 and most of all when that object1 by virtue of the comparison instituted1 is extolled1 exalted1 and declared in line with that which is most glorious and beautiful4 ,the ,west is in its general contrast more remote from this impersonal spirit1 and in its grief and pain more inclined to languish and yearn itself away4 ,this dallying1 as we may call it1 is then pre-eminently an interest of the emotional life1 more particularly of love1 which delights to take refuge in the objects of its suffering and its raptures2 and as often as it finds itself unable to break loose from such feelings finds naught that is wearisome in the task of repainting the object ever anew4 ,the lover is above all things the prodigal in wishes1 hopes1 and ever changing conceits4 ,among such conceits we have to reckon the simile1 to which love and the emotions generally have recourse1 all the more readily for the reason that they take up and absorb the entire soul1 and are themselves the independently motive source of comparison4 ,whatever is their immediate content1 is1 that is to say1 a beautiful object arrested in its singularity1 whether it be the mouth1 the eye1 or the hair of the beloved4 ,in such a state the human soul is active1 restless1 and the states of joy and pain are neither without life nor in repose1 but full of activity and motion1 are up and down1 which at least is continuous in this that it is for ever bringing all material of whatever kind into relation with the one emotional centre of the world of the heart4 ,in other words the interest of comparison has its root in the feeling itself1 which is insistently conscious of the fact1 for example1 that there are other objects in ,nature which are beautiful1 or have given rise to pain and so on4 ,consequently love draws these objects with the aid of the simile into the sphere of its own content1 and makes the same wider and more universal thereby4 ,if the object of the simile is1 however1 entirely isolated in its material form1 and brought into juxtaposition with objects of a similar nature1 we shall find1 and particularly so where similes of this sort are piled one on the top of another1 that such a composition is due to emotion of a still rather superficial order1 and to reflection equally wanting in depth2 the result will be that the variety which merely plays round an external material will readily appear to us insipid and of no vital interest1 because we have here no spiritual relation interpenetrating it4 ,we may illustrate such an effect from the fourth chapter of the ,song of ,solomon where we find the words3 ,behold thou art fair1 my love2 behold1 thou art fair2 thou hast doves' eyes within thy locks2 thy hair is as a flock of goats1 that appear from mount ,gilead4 ,thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn1 which came up from the washing1 whereof everyone bear twins1 and none is barren among them4 ,thy lips are like a thread of scarlet1 and thy speech is comely3 thy temples are like a piece of pomegranate within thy locks4 ,thy neck is like a tower of ,david builded for an armoury1 whereon there hang a thousand bucklers1 all shields of mighty men4 ,thy two breasts are like two young roes that are twins1 which feed among the lilies#ajd4 ,until the day break and the shadows flee away4 ,this navet is to be met with in many of the comparisons of ,ossian4 ,take for example the words3 ,thou art as snow on the heather2 thine hair is as mist on the kromla1 when he curls himself up on the rock1 and glistens toward the gleam in the ,west2 thine arms are as two arrows in the halls of the mighty ,fingal4 ,of the same kind1 only here in wholly a rhetorical way1 are the following words ,ovid places in the mouth of ,polyphemus 7,met4 ,,xiii1 vv4 #ghi-hjg73 ,thou art more white1 ,o ,galatea1 than the leaf of the snow-white meadowland2 more blooming than the fields1 more slender than the elm2 more brilliant than glass1 more arch than the tender little roebuck2 smoother than the shell ever-polished by the sea2 more dear than ,winter's sun1 or the shade in ,summer2 nobler than the fruit-tree1 more comely than the lofty plane4 ,and so on through all the nineteen hexameters1 a description not wanting in rhetorical beauty1 but as the presentation of an emotion1 which rouses little interest1 itself equally lacking in interest4 ,we may find many examples of this style of comparison in ,calderon1 although a halt1 by the way1 of this kind is more suitable to lyrical emotion simply1 and fetters the march of drama far too insistently1 if it is not actually motived by the subject-matter4 ,don ,juan1 for instance1 during the progress of the action1 describes at length in this way the beauty of a veiled lady whom he had followed4 ,this is what he says to a third person3 _/ ,natheless in despite and often ,through the gross and barriered darkness ,of that intranslucent veil1 ,flashed a hand of sheen most splendid1 ,mistress pure of rose and lily1 ,princess1 to whose matchless glory ,e'en the snow's gleam paid obeisance1 ,slave all murk of ,aethiop moulding4 _/ ,the matter is wholly different1 however1 when any one capable of profound emotion1 expresses his life through images and similes1 in which the most secret folds of spiritual feeling are unveiled1 the soul here either identifying itself with some scene of external ,nature1 or making such a scene the counterfeit of a spiritual content4 ,we may cite ,ossian once again in illustration of this better use of image and comparison1 although the range of objects which serve him in such similitude is jejune1 mainly restricted to clouds1 mists1 storms1 trees1 streams1 thistles1 grasses1 and other facts equally obvious4 ,here is one of them3 ,the ,present#aje brings joy to us1 ,o ,fingal2 it is as the sun on ,kromla1 when the hunter has mourned its absence a whole year long and now it breaks forth from the clouds4 ,in another passage of the same writer we find these words3 ,did not ,ossian hearken but now to a voice8 ,is it then the voice of the days that are no longer8 ,ofttimes1 oft as the evening suns1 comes the memory of times that are gone into my soul4 ,and for another instance take this bit of narration3 ,pleasant are the words of song1 saith ,kuchullin1 and dear to the heart are the tales of times far away4 ,they are as the quiet dew of the morning on the hill of the roe-deer1 when the sun trembles faintly on his flank1 and the pool lies motionless and blue in the dale4 ,in the case of ,ossian this halting by the same emotions1 and their similitudes expresses the attitude of an old age which out of weariness and exhaustion turns to sorrowful and painful memories4 ,and generally a recourse to comparisons is evidence of an inclination to melancholy and effeminate emotion4 ,the desire and interest of such a soul lies far away and foregone2 and for this reason we find as a rule that1 instead of bracing itself up manfully1 it yields to its longing to lose itself in something else4 ,many of the figurative expressions of ,ossian consequently are quite as much a response to this wholly personal mood as they are a reflection of ideas mostly of a mournful colour1 and of the restricted circle beyond which he is unable to pass4 ,but1 conversely1 it is quite possible that passion1 in so far as it is able to concentrate its forces on one content1 despite its own unrest1 with the object of finding a counterfeit of the soul in the natural world around it1 may fluctuate to and fro in a variety of images and similitudes1 which are all purely conceits of the fancy over one and the same object4 ,a fine example of this we have in that monologue of ,juliet from ,romeo and ,juliet1 in which she apostrophizes the night as follows3 _/ ,come1 night2 come ,romeo2 come1 thou day in night2 ,for thou wilt lie upon the wings of night ,whiter than new snow on a raven's back3 ,come1 gentle night1 come1 loving1 black-brow'd night1 ,give me my ,romeo2 and when he shall die1 ,take him and cut him out in little stars1 ,and he will make the face of heaven so fine ,that all the world will be in love with night ,and pay no worship to the garish sun4 _/ 77 ,the similes of epic poetry as they come before us over and over again in ,homer stand out in a marked contrast to the above type of almost purely lyrical simile in which sentiment is absorbed in the heart of its content4 ,in the former case the aim of the poet1 when he may by any chance wish to dally with the comparative mode around some specific object1 is1 on the one hand1 interested in raising us over the active curiosity1 expectancy1 hope1 and fear1 by which we are moved relatively to the several situations and exploits of his heroes during the actual progress of events over1 that is to say1 the general concurrencies of cause1 action1 and consequence1 and in fixing our attention upon the images which he places before us in their plastic repose1 purely for our contemplation1 serene as the works of sculpture4 ,this repose1 this absolution from the merely practical interest that we may enter into that which he places visibly before our eyes comes upon us with all the more force in so far as everything with which he compares the object is taken from a field entirely remote from it4 ,moreover1 this halting round the simile possesses the further significance that by virtue of this kind of twofold painting of the same object its importance is emphasized1 and is thus not permitted to be whirled away in the mere shifting stream of the song and the events it celebrates4 ,take1 for example1 what ,homer says of ,achilles1 when that hero1 fired with anger1 confronts ,aeneas 7,iliad1 ,,xx1 vv4 #afd-age73 _/ ,as when the harmful king of beasts 7sore threatened to be slain ,by all the country up in arms7 at first makes coy disdain ,prepare resistance1 but at last when anyone hath led ,bold charge upon him with his dart1 he then turns yawning head1 ,fell anger lathers in his jaws1 his great heart swells1 his stern ,lasheth his strength up1 sides and thighs waddle with stripes to learn ,their own power1 his eyes glow1 he roars1 he leaps to kill1 ,secure of killing3 so his power then rous'd up to his will ,matchless ,achilles1 coming on to meet ,anchises' son#ajf4 _/ ,much in the same spirit he speaks of ,pallas1 when she averted the arrow which ,pandaros had let fly against ,menelaus 7,iliad1 ,,iv1 vv4 #acj-aca73 ,she did not forget him1 and warded off the arrow e'en as a mother flicks away some fly from her son1 as he lies in sweet slumber4 ,and again further on when the arrow1 notwithstanding1 wounds ,menelaus 7vv4 #ada-adf73 _/ ,yet forth the blood flow'd1 which did much his royal person grace1 ,and show'd upon his ivory skin1 as doth a purple dye ,laid1 by a dame of ,cara1 or lovely ,maeony1 ,on ivory1 wrought in ornaments to deck the cheeks of horse2 ,which in her marriage room must lie2 whose beauties have such force1 ,that they are wish'd of many knights1 but are such precious things1 ,that they are kept for horse that draw the chariots of kings2 ,which horse1 so deck'd1 the charioteer esteems a grace to him2 ,like these1 in grace1 the blood upon thy solid thighs did swim1 ,o ,menelaus1 etc#ajg4 _/ 77 ,a third motive cause of similes1 quite distinct from that of purely imaginative riot as also the self-absorbed sentiment or1 under its other aspect1 the dallying round important objects with the figurative power of the fancy1 we have now to emphasize with particular reference to dramatic poetry4 ,the content of the drama is made up of the conflict of passions1 activities1 pathos1 actions1 and the accomplishment of the thing willed by the soul1 a content which does not1 as in the case of the epic1 take the form of a narrative of past events1 but the dramatic poet places the individuals themselves before our eyes and makes them unfold their emotions personally in an objective form1 and their actions as taking place in the present3 his mediate position between ourselves and the objects represented therefore ceases4 ,looked at from this point of view it would appear as though in order to make this presence in ,nature clear to us a primary requirement of drama would be that the expression of passions and the vehemence of their grief1 consternation1 and delight should be painted as naturally as it was possible to paint it1 and consequently the simile would be here out of place4 ,to let individuals1 on the very plane of their action1 in the full storm of emotion1 and in the continuous strain of the busy world1 speak much in the language of metaphor or image is obviously1 from the commonsense point of view1 an unnatural proceeding and injurious to the directness aimed at4 ,we are by the simile diverted from the immediate situation1 and the characters1 whose actions and emotions are involved in it1 to something external and strange to it1 which in short does not strictly belong to it1 as part of its own present2 consequently the general course of the dialogue must unavoidably appear to lag under the interruption thus imposed4 ,and for this reason it came about also in ,germany when at last our young bloods were all for freeing themselves from the fetters of ,french rhetorical taste1 that the ,spaniards1 ,italians1 and ,french were regarded as artists who did nothing more than place their own personal flights of fancy or witticism1 their own conventional attitude to society and elegance of speech in the mouth of their dramatic characters in situations1 too1 when the very tempest of emotion cried out for ,nature's most direct expression to the exclusion of all other4 ,we find as a result of such an insistence on the principle of realism that in many dramas1 which hail from this time1 the outcry of emotion1 with all the exclamatory signs and hyphens which may render its nudity more visible1 takes the place of a noble and dignified diction1 rich in image and simile4 ,in much the same sense even ,english critics have often charged ,shakespeare with a superabundant and too varied recourse to the simile1 some of which he not unfrequently will attach to characters in the full strain of personal bereavement1 where the stress of emotion least of all admits of the tranquillity necessary to reflection1 the attitude of mind which is indispensable to this type of comparison4 ,we may no doubt admit that now and again we meet with in ,shakespeare an exaggerated tendency to pile up image upon image1 and that his diction is thereby overweighted4 ,at the same time we shall see1 if we examine the matter in all its bearings1 that even in drama the simile is entitled to a position essential to this form of poetry and vital to its action4 ,in other words if the emotion makes a pause in similes for the reason that it is absorbed in its object and is unable to free itself therefrom1 there is also on the plane of active life a distinct purpose subserved by it1 namely1 to indicate that the individual is not thus so exclusively preoccupied with the particular situation or state of the emotions then uppermost1 but possesses a fine and noble nature superior to such conditions and able to assert its independence4 ,in passion soul-life is restricted and fettered to its own seclusion1 narrowed down to the point of concentrated heat1 either thereby a mute1 an ejaculation of monosyllables1 or the rage that vents itself at random4 ,greatness of soul and intellectual power alike refuse to submit to such limitations3 they are wings which carry the soul in a fine tranquillity over and above the storm of pathos that moves it4 ,it is this deliverance of the soul1 which the simile primarily expresses by the very mode under which it is asserted4 ,in other words it is only a really profound composure and strength which is able to make itself the object of its pain and suffering1 to compare itself with something else1 and by doing so to view itself impartially#ajh in a strange material2 or it may be in a mood of the most terrible scorn to set forth in the external thing the confronting image of its own annihilation1 and still persist in the repose of its own obdurate forces4 ,in epical poetry1 as we before observed1 it was the poet's undoubted function to transmit to his audience1 by means of those halts by the way which his picturesque similitudes offered1 that sense of tranquillity which is essential to fine art4 ,in dramatic art1 on the contrary1 the dramatis personae appear as themselves the poets and artists4 ,here it is the characters who objectify their own soul-life in that which they are powerful enough to imagine and inform1 thereby further manifesting to us the nobility of their receptive faculties and the inherent force of their emotional resources#aji4 ,for this absorption into something else that is external is now#aaj the deliverance of the world within from a purely practical interest1 or at least is that which lifts the immediacy of emotion to the level of forms the soul may contemplate in freedom2 and for this reason every comparison instituted simply for the comparison's sake in the way we have already observed it under the first aspect of the simile discussed1 is vindicated now in a much profounder sense than was then possible2 it can now only appear as a victory over the exclusive obsession of passion and the release from its masterdom4 ,in following up the course of this liberating process we will now emphasize several important distinctions to illustrate which we shall borrow exclusively from ,shakespeare4 77 ,now in the first place we would observe that when we have a soul set before us about to meet with a grave misfortune1 by which it will be shaken to its depths1 and the pain of this inevitable cataclysm is at length actually entered upon1 it would be nothing less than an indication of a nature essentially commonplace if it were there and then to break out into the cry of horror1 pain1 and desperation1 and so make a clean breast of it4 ,a strong and noble spirit on the contrary holds its lamentation as such in reserve1 keeps a hand of iron upon its pain1 and by this means preserves a free power to embody in far-distant material imaginatively presented the profound sense of its anguish1 and to express its own tragic state under the image of that which is remote4 ,thus man rises superior to his suffering2 he is not utterly with all that is in him bondman to it2 rather he is as wholly distinct from it as he is one with it2 and consequently he can still pause before that which is outside and beyond him1 which he relates to his emotion as an independent force cognate with his own4 ,this will explain to us those words of the old ,northumberland in ,shakespeare's ,henry ,,iv1 when he inquires of the messenger who comes to inform him of the death of ,percy1 what news he brings him of his son and his brother1 and1 on receiving no reply1 gives utterance to the composure of the most poignant grief as follows3 _/ ,thou tremblest2 and the whiteness of thy cheek ,is apter than thy tongue to tell thy errand4 ,even such a man1 so faint1 so spiritless1 ,so dull1 so dead in look1 so woe-begone1 ,drew ,priam's curtain in the dead of night1 ,and would have told him half his ,troy was burnt2 ,but ,priam found the fire ere he his tongue1 ,and ,i my ,percy's death ere thou report'st it#aaa4 _/ ,this attitude of the soul1 which spins about itself as it were the garments of its pain1 and yet retains the power throughout to image itself under new modes of comparison1 receives a particularly striking illustration in the character of ,richard ,,ii1 where we find him repentant over the youthful frivolity of his days of prosperity4 ,in fact there is no trait in this royal grief that is more touching or suggestive of a child's simplicity than the fact that he always expresses himself under the objective form of most pertinent images1 and in the play of this type of self-expression preserves his suffering all the more profoundly4 ,when1 for example1 ,henry demands of him the crown1 he replies3 _/ ,give me the crown4 ,here1 cousin1 seize the crown2 ,here cousin2 ,on this side my hand1 and on that side yours4 ,now is this golden crown like a deep well ,that owes two buckets1 filling one another1 ,the emptier ever dancing in the air1 ,the other down1 unseen and full of water4 ,that bucket down and full of tears am ,i1 ,drinking my griefs while you mount up on high#aab4 _/ 77 ,the other aspect to which we would now draw attention is this1 namely1 that a character which is already made one with its interests1 its sorrow1 and its destiny1 endeavours by means of the simile to release itself from this immediate union1 and makes this deliverance obvious to us by the very fact that it shows itself still able to deduce such similitudes4 ,in ,henry ,,viii1#aac for instance1 the ,queen ,katherine1 on being forsaken by her royal consort1 expresses the depth of her desolation in the words3 _/ ,i am the most unhappy woman living6 ,alas1 poor wenches1 where are now your fortunes8 ,shipwreck'd upon a kingdom1 where no pity1 ,no friends1 no hope2 no kindred weep for me2 ,almost no grave allow'd me3 like the lily1 ,that once was mistress of the field and flourish'd1 ,i'll hang my head and perish4 _/ ,in a still more admirable manner in ,julius ,caesar#aad ,brutus exclaims to ,cassius1 to whose want of spirit he has vainly striven to give the spur3 _/ ,o ,cassius1 you are yoked with a lamb ,that carries anger as the flint bears fire2 ,who1 much enforced1 shows a hasty spark1 ,and straight is cool again4 _/ ,that ,brutus in such a situation can find room for a simile is already an excellent proof that he himself has thrust his scorn into the background1 and has begun to assert himself as master of it4 ,for the most part ,shakespeare1 by endowing his criminal characters with greatness of soul in crime no less than in misfortune1 exalts them before he leaves them above their own evil passions3 he will not let them rest in the purely abstract assertion of crimes they are for ever going to do1 but never really commit1 as is the ,french style1 but actually infuses them with the imaginative power1 by means of which they stand out before us as distinctly as any other personification that is new to us4 ,macbeth1 for instance1 when his last hour has struck#aae1 exclaims in the well-known words3 _/ ,out1 out1 brief candle6 ,life's but a walking shadow1 a poor player ,that struts and frets his hour upon the stage ,and then is heard no more3 it is a tale ,told by an idiot1 full of sound and fury ,signifying nothing4 _/ ,the same thing may be said of those last words of ,cardinal ,wolsey in ,henry ,,viii1#aaf uttered at the close of his career when struck down from the summit of his greatness3 _/ ,farewell6 a long farewell to all my greatness6 ,this is the state of man3 to-day he puts forth ,the tender leaves of hopes3 to-morrow blossoms1 ,and bears his blushing honours thick upon him2 ,the third day comes a frost1 a killing frost2 ,and when he thinks1 good easy man1 full surely ,his greatness is a-ripening1 nips his root1 ,and then he falls1 as ,i do4 _/ 77 ,in this impersonal relation of objective fact and its expression of the comparative mode1 the repose and substantial self-command of character returns to itself2 it is the means whereby the pain of a great downfall is softened4 ,so ,cleopatra exclaims#aag to ,charmian1 after she has already put the mortal aspic to her breast3 _/ ,peace1 peace6 ,dost thou not see my baby at my breast1 ,that sucks the nurse asleep8 ,as sweet as balm1 as soft as air1 as gentle-- _/ ,the bite of the serpent relaxes her members so gently that ,death is himself deceived and holds himself to be ,sleep4 ,and this image may well pass as itself a counterfeit of the mild and allaying influence of such similitudes4 ,c4 ,,the ,,disappearance ,,of ,,the ,,symbolic ,,type ,,of ,,art ,didactic1 descriptive poetry and the ancient epigram4 ,the conception we have in general terms formed of the symbolic type of art is such that within it significance and expression are unable to unite sufficiently to appear in complete and reciprocal fusion4 ,in unconscious symbolism the incompatibility of these two aspects remained a fact throughout1 if not actually declared as such2 in the ,sublime on the contrary this inadequacy was explicitly asserted3 the absolute significance1 ,god1 no less than ,his external reality1 the world1 are expressly represented in this excluding relation to one another4 ,on the other hand1 however1 in all these types that further aspect of symbolism1 namely1 the affinity which obtains between the significance and the external form1 in which it is visibly manifested1 still retained its importance4 ,in the original type of symbolism this was exclusively the case1 a type which did not as yet set forth the significance in contrast to its concrete existence4 ,but in the ,sublime1 too1 it remained an essential relation1 a type which1 in order to express the ,supreme ,being1 if here under a wholly inadequate mode1 required as its means the phenomena of ,nature1 and the events and exploits of ,god's chosen people4 ,and finally it reappears in the comparative type of art a personal relation and one that is consequently amenable to caprice4 ,this element of caprice1 however1 albeit it is an entirely present fact and particularly so in the case of the metaphor1 image1 and simile1 is notwithstanding still hidden away behind the affinity between the significance and the image utilized to express it1 in so far as it selects the comparison simply out of a regard for their mutual resemblance1 a fundamental aspect of which is not so much the external form as just this relation set up between them by the activity of the soul and consisting in subjective emotions1 points of view and ideas and their cognate modes of configuration#aah4 ,when1 however1 it is not the notion of the material itself1 but simply a capricious use of the judgment1 which brings together the content and its artistic form1 both can only be conceived as posited in an entirely external relation to one another2 their association is now a juxtaposition without essential relation1 simply a dressing up1 that is to say1 of the one side by the other4 ,for this reason we have here to treat these last-mentioned and subordinate types of art by way of supplement4 ,they arise from the absolute collapse of the essential phases in all true art-production2 they bring before us1 in short1 by their independence of the principle of relativity the suicide of the symbolic type4 ,if we view this stage generally as a whole we find on the one hand already as wholly independent the elaborate but formless significance1 for the artistic shaping of which all that we can now supply is an external ornament selected at caprice to set it off4 ,on the other side we have the external mode pure and simple4 ,that is to say1 instead of being mediated in its identity with that on which it is imposed by the fact that this is its own essentially cognate significance it can now only be accepted and described in the aspect of its self-subsistence over against this centrum of significance1 and consequently only as mere externality4 ,from the above contrasted aspects we may differentiate in abstract terms didactic from descriptive poetry1 a distinction which so far at least as the didactic is concerned is only to be made good under the poetic type for the reason that this alone is able to bring before us the significance in its abstract universality4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as the notion of art does not consist in the dissociation1 but the identification of significance and form we find even at this stage not only a complete separation1 but also in line with that1 a relation asserted between the sides thus opposed4 ,this relation1 however1 now that the partition line of symbolism has already been crossed1 is no longer of a symbolic nature1 and is therefore an attempt to abolish the fundamental characteristics of that type1 namely1 the incompatibility1 and at the same time the self-subsistence of form and content1 a position that all the previous types were unable to transcend4 ,owing1 however1 to the separation of the two sides1 which thus make for unity1 being already presupposed by this type this attempt can only be looked upon as a mere aspiration#aai1 to completely satisfy which in all that it involves is reserved for a more perfect type of art1 namely1 the classical4 ,we will now briefly glance at these supplementary forms1 in order to make our passage from them to the real type above mentioned more fully intelligible4 #a4 ,,the ,,didactic ,,poem ,when a significance1 which as such co-ordinates a homogeneous complexus of relations1 is apprehended exclusively as significance1 yet does not receive the form strictly adequate to this content1 but is merely invested with the external ornamentation of art1 then we have before us the didactic poem4 ,the didactic poem does not figure among the genuine types of art4 ,for in it we find on the one hand a content already completely elaborated under a mode that is thereby necessarily prosaic1 while on the other we have the artistic form1 which is merely tacked to it in an external way1 for this very reason that it had already been accepted by the mind in a form stamped with prose throughout1 and is merely exhibited to our common sense or reflective faculties as instruction under this prosaic aspect1 that is to say1 with an exclusive reference to the significance embodied in its abstract and general terms4 ,consequently art1 in this its external relation to a content so essentially foreign to its real informing process1 can only recognize in the didactic poem its external aspects1 such as metre1 exalted language1 episodic matter1 images1 similes1 ebullitions of sentiment1 points of acceleration and transition in the march of ideas1 aspects in short which do not give us the heart of the content as such1 but rather surround it as an incidental accretion1 with the object of alleviating and making more enjoyable the serious and dry tone of the didactic material by means of their more inspiriting atmosphere4 ,that which is intrinsically1 in the fundamental conception of it1 relegated to prose1 cannot receive the poet's mintage1 though it may be the peg on which he may hang his mantle#abj4 ,just as we find1 for example1 that the art of gardening is in great measure a purely external rearrangement of what is already presented us by ,nature1 but not necessarily of that which is itself a truly lovely locality2 or as the art of building ameliorates by its ornament and external decoration a locality which has been expressly devoted to prosaic purposes and affairs4 ,in this way ,greek ,philosophy made a start under the mode of the didactic poem4 ,we may even adduce ,hesiod as an example1 albeit a prosaic treatment of this kind in its strict sense is only fully assured when the understanding is undisputed master of the subject with its train of reflections1 consequences1 and classifications1 and instructs us from this standpoint alone in as pleasing and elegant a way as it can4 ,lucretius1 too1 in his relations to the philosophy of ,epicurus1 and ,vergil1 with the information he supplies on agriculture1 are in part examples of the same type4 ,despite all their artistic adroitness they are unable to give their versification the genuine spontaneity of the artistic form4 ,in ,germany the didactic poem is new out of fashion2 in ,france ,delille1 in addition to his previous efforts entitled ,les jardins1 ou l'art d'embellir les paysages1 and his ,homme des champs1 has presented his compatriots with a further example of the didactic poem1 in which he has treated physical science as compendiously through its forms of magnetism1 electricity and the rest4 #b4 ,,descriptive ,,poetry ,the second type which we have to examine stands out in direct contrast to the previous one4 ,the point of departure here is not from a significance already present before the mind in an independent form of its own1 but from external objects simply such as natural localities1 buildings1 seasons of the year or periods of time1 and the modes under which they are presented to sense4 ,but as we found in the didactic poem the content persisted in formless generality so far as its essential character was concerned1 so here1 if in a converse manner1 the external material is independently set forth in the singularity which pertains to it simply as phenomenon without being drawn within the circle of the significances apparent to mind2 and it is this particularity which is depicted and described in its external aspect precisely as it appears to the matter-of-fact consciousness4 ,such a sensuous content has no relation to true art whatever1 except under the one feature1 namely1 that of its external existence2 and this can only claim art's recognition in so far as it represents the natural basis of spiritual life and individuality1 its actions and events1 the facts1 that is to say1 which constitute an environing world2 as merely external form separated by itself from all that pertains to such life it has no such claim4 #c4 ,,relation ,,of ,,both ,,aspects ,on grounds deducible from the above1 neither the instructive nor the descriptive type is secured in the exclusive one-sidedness which would obliterate every vestige of art1 and we find in the one case that the external reality is brought into appreciable relation with that which is seized by mind as significance1 just as conversely in the other the abstract universal is related to its concrete mode of appearance4 7a7 ,we have already explained how this is so in the case of the didactic poem4 ,without depicting external conditions and particular phenomena1 without the episodical narration of mythological and other illustrations we shall rarely find a genuine example of it4 ,by means1 however1 of a parallel series of this character in which the universal for mind is thus laid alongside of the particular object of sense we have merely a quite collateral relation set up instead of a union carried out in every detail1 a parallelogism1 moreover1 which does not affect the entire content and its all-embracing artistic form1 but merely isolated aspects and traits4 7b7 ,such a modicum of true relation is particularly conspicuous in the case of descriptive poetry1 in so far as its delineations are accompanied with such emotions as the sight of natural landscape1 the course of the days and seasons1 a wooded hill1 a lake1 a babbling brook1 a church1 a picturesquely situated village and the poor man's peaceful cottage are likely to arouse4 ,we find consequently in descriptive poetry much as we do in the didactic poem episodes which1 although merely accessory1 animate us1 in particular through the reflection of affecting emotions1 such as a tender melancholy or little touches of occasional experience taken from the more homely levels of life4 ,such an association of spiritual feeling with the external facts of ,nature can still only too easily in this type of poetry remain wholly external in its presentation4 ,for the natural or local condition is here assumed to be something which quite independently confronts us4 ,man no doubt draws near to it2 under its influence he entertains this or that feeling1 but there is nothing which essentially unites moonlight1 forests1 valleys1 landscape1 and so on1 with the emotions of the soul they excite4 ,i am not here either the interpreter or the animating focus of ,nature1 but feel1 as each happens to confront me1 a wholly indefinite kind of harmonious reciprocity establish itself between the objects ,i face and the emotional life which they stimulate4 ,most of all are we ,germans devoted to this type of picturesque description1 and along with it to every variety of exquisite feeling and heart effervescence such natural scenery can possibly evoke4 ,it is a public high-road over which all may march in line4 ,even some of the odes of ,klopstock are tuned to its key4 7c7 ,but thirdly1 if we inquire whether there is not a profounder relation between these opposed aspects of the internal feeling and external object1 we shall find our nearest approach to an answer in the ancient epigram4 77 ,the very name of the epigram already expresses the original gist of it4 ,it is an inscription4 ,unquestionably we find1 also here on the one hand an object1 and on the other we have a definite statement propounded as to this object2 but in the most ancient epigrams1 among which ,hesiod has preserved a few examples1 we do not have the picture of an object accompanied by any reaction of feeling1 rather we find1 the matter of fact put before us in two distinct ways4 ,in the one the external existence1 and with it the meaning thereof and explanation1 is concentrated in its form as epigram on the keenest and most forcible of its characteristics4 ,this original characterization of the epigram1 however1 even among the ,greeks1 later examples have already lost2 and we find an increasing tendency both to secure and apply the passing conceits of fancy1 whether ingenious1 witty1 or merely entertaining1 to particular incidents1 works of art1 people and so on1 ideas in short which do not so much set forth the object itself1 as illustrate the condition of personal feeling in reference to the same4 77 ,the main point to observe here is this that1 just in proportion as the object itself fails as such to become the predominant factor in this type of presentment to that extent it becomes less complete4 ,in this connection we may also in passing mention a few more modern examples of an analogous nature4 ,the novels of ,tieck1 for instance1 not unfrequently have to deal with specific works of art or artists1 or a definite gallery of pictures1 composition of music and so forth1 and they have then some nice little romance attached4 ,these particular pictures1 however1 which the reader has never seen1 these compositions1 which he has never heard1 the poet obviously can neither bring before our eyes nor ears4 ,from this point of view the entire expression of his art1 in so far as it depends on objects of this nature1 must remain subject to this defect4 ,in the same way in yet more important romances writers have sought to embody as the real content of their work entire arts1 and their finest productions as ,heinse1 for instance1 did with that of music in his ,hildegard von ,hohenthal4 ,but in every case where we find that a work of art throughout is unable to reproduce with essential adequacy its fundamental subject-matter1 we can only conclude that the primary cause of this defect arises from the inadequacy of the type of art selected4 77 ,to remove the defects above adverted to two things are clearly essential2 the objective fact and the explanation of it which is offered to mind must not be suffered to fall into absolute severation as was the case in the type last considered1 nor must the union when effected1 an equally important point1 assume a character identical with either the symbolical1 sublime or purely comparative types4 ,a yet more genuine form of presentment must be sought for under a condition in which we find that the fact in question supplies an elucidation of its ideal content by means of its external mode of appearance1 and actually in this mode1 a condition under which that which is of spirit unfolds itself completely in the form of its reality1 and the corporeal and external presence is simply the adequate explication of the spiritual and ideal4 ,in order1 however1 to follow up this problem to its complete fulfilment we must bid farewell to the symbolic types of art4 ,for the essential character of symbolism consisted precisely in this that the union of the animating principle of the significance with its spatial embodiment always stopped short of such completeness4 ,footnote #gf3 ,in other words everything created being posited as unsubstantial apart from the ,one necessitated the conclusion that all the ,goodness1 etc41 there divulged was referable to that ,supreme ,source4 ,footnote #gg3 ,bewussten1 that is a symbolism conscious of its typical character4 ,i have above used the expression premeditated1 but conscious is perhaps sufficient4 ,footnote #gh3 ,i understand auf solche ,weise1 under such a mode as expressed either by ,symbolism or the ,sublime4 ,footnote #gi3 ,it is prosaic because it has no absolute root in reality4 ,footnote #hj3 ,lit41 ,as consciousness lays hold of the same in the clear light of ordinary reason 7seiner verstndigen ,klarheit47 ,footnote #ha3 ,theoretische1 that is personal1 contemplative rather than practical4 ,footnote #hb3 ,lit41 and his freedom secludes itself with a prophetic instinct 7ahndend7 in itself4 ,footnote #hc3 ,wie die ,faust auf das ,auge passt4 ,a proverbial expression unknown to me4 ,we should rather say a beam in our eyes4 ,footnote #hd3 ,as contrasted1 that is1 with the fable4 ,footnote #he3 ,an ,indian dancing girl4 ,footnote #hf3 ,hegel uses the term in the plural1 ,die ,verwandlungen1 possibly with reference to ,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 ,footnote #hg3 ,standpunkt1 i4e41 the form viewed relatively to the general type4 ,footnote #hh3 ,beseelung4 ,footnote #hi3 ,plastic must be taken here in the very loose and pregnant sense of any art that deals with external material4 ,footnote #ij3 ,ein grammatisches ,subject4 ,hegel presumably means that it is merely subject under the mode of literary expression without possessing the true determination of personality4 ,footnote #ia3 ,aushhlen muss4 ,we should rather say that the allegorist is forced to attenuate 7lit4 hollow out7 the substance of subjectivity1 etc4 ,but ,i have left the more literal rendering4 ,footnote #ib3 ,in the ,german fassen1 begreifen4 ,footnote #ic3 ,einer konkreten ,anschauung4 ,that is1 a quality or feature that belongs to the phenomena of the concrete world of perception4 ,footnote #id3 ,of course this is not so in the ,english equivalent1 where the primary sense is still material4 ,footnote #ie3 ,lit41 ,of expressions in the strict sense of the term4 ,footnote #if3 ,ihr ruhiger vollstndig ausgestaltender ,sinn4 ,the meaning that declares itself completely through the form in classic repose4 ,footnote #ig3 ,ausfhrliche1 explicit in all its detail4 ,footnote #ih3 ,das ,fr-sich-seyn4 ,footnote #ii3 ,i give the literal translation4 ,i presume a more intelligible one would be but actual existence in its self-defined concreteness4 ,the passage is not easy to follow4 ,footnote #ajj3 _/ ,silent we pounded up carbon1 saltpeter1 and sulphur1 ,set the train going4 ,good friend6 ,how did our cracker find you8 ,some as illuminate balls soared prodigious while others exploded1 ,many we flashed in our fun simply the eye to delight4 _/ ,footnote #aja3 ,i find this analysis of the image more than usually difficult to follow1 ,i have therefore made my translation very literal4 ,i must confess that this distinction between the image and the metaphor appears to me rather an example of hyper-subtlety on ,hegel's part1 or as some might say1 an effort to make what is virtually only a verbal distinction correspond to a more real difference of idea4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,that is the emphatically personal4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,die ,schwelgerei4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,in the ,german the sentence is continuous4 ,our version clearly gives another reading to the ,hebrew4 ,footnote #aje3 ,may be a misprint for thy presence1 deine instead of die4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,chapman's translation4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,chapman's translation1 somewhat an extension of the ,greek it must be admitted4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,theoretisch1 i4e41 in contemplative repose4 ,footnote #aji3 ,such ,i take to be the contrast implied in the words den ,adel ihrer ,gesinnung and die ,macht ihrers ,gemths4 ,gesinnung is the sense-perception4 ,gemth includes the creative fertility4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,hier1 i4e41 as contrasted with the first stage of the discussion4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,henry ,,iv1 ,part ,,ii1 act i1 scene ,i4 ,footnote #aab3 ,king ,richard ,,ii1 act iv1 sc4 #a4 ,footnote #aac3 ,king ,henry ,,viii1 act iii1 sc4 #a4 ,footnote #aad3 ,julius ,caesar1 act iv1 sc4 #c4 ,footnote #aae3 ,macbeth1 act v1 sc4 #e4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,henry ,,viii1 act iii1 sc4 #b4 ,footnote #aag3 ,antony and ,cleopatra1 act ,v1 sc4 #b4 ,footnote #aah3 ,the meaning is that the selection is not made merely with reference to external resemblance1 but is also based on relations only existing in the soul of the artist and therefore to that extent capricious1 however much they appear to be essential4 ,footnote #aai3 ,ein blosses ,sollen1 lit41 a mere should1 a mere movement in a given direction4 ,footnote #abj3 ,this is implied in the contrast of the verbs umstalten and berkleiden4 ,,subsection ,,ii ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,of ,,art ,,introduction ,,the ,,classic ,,type ,,in ,,general ,thr central point#aba of art's evolution is the union1 in a self-integrated totality1 carried to the point of its freest expression1 of content and form wholly adequate thereto4 ,this realization1 coinciding as it does with the entire notional concept of the beautiful1 towards which the symbolic form of art strove in vain1 first becomes apparent in classical art4 ,we have already1 in our previous consideration of the ,idea of the beautiful and of art1 outlined the general character of classic art4 ,the ,ideal supplies a content and form to classical art1 which in this adequate mode in which it is embodied reveals that which true art is according to its notion4 ,to perfect this result1 however1 all the various phases of art1 whose evolution is the subject-matter of our previous investigations1 are contributive4 ,for classical beauty has for its ideal substance#abb free and independent significance1 that is to say1 not the significance of any particular thing1 but a significance which declares itself1 and thereby points to its substance4 ,this is the spiritual substance1 which in general terms is that which makes of itself an object4 ,in this objectification of itself it possesses the form of externality1 which1 as identical with its ideal character1 is consequently also on its own part the significance of itself1 and is made conscious of itself by this self-knowledge4 ,it is true that in our consideration of the symbolical our point of departure was that of the unity of the significance and its mode of envisagement in the art product2 but this unity was purely immediate1 and for this reason inadequate4 ,for the real content either remained essentially the natural according to its substance and abstract universality1 and consequently the isolated thing in the objective world of ,nature#abc1 although it was regarded as the real determination of that universality1 was not able to present the same in a mode adequate to it1 or that which is purely ideal1 and only to be apprehended by spirit1 in so far as it was received in the artistic content1 carried with it in that which was foreign to its essential nature1 namely the immediate individual and sensuous thing1 the mode of its appearance that was in fact incongruent with it4 ,and generally here significance and form only stood in the relation of mere affinity and suggestion2 and however much in certain respects they could be brought together homogeneously1 they as clearly fell apart again in other directions4 ,this original unity was therefore torn asunder2 this simple and abstract inwardness or ideality was imaged for the ,hindoo conception of the world on the one side in the manifold reality of ,nature1 and on the other in finite human existence2 and the imagination1 in the unrest of its impetuous motion1 was carried from the one to the other by turns1 without being either able to deliver the ideal in its essentially pure and absolute self-subsistency1 or to thoroughly infuse it with the phenomenal matter as it was presented and informed1 and so reproduce it throughout that material in undisturbed union4 ,the disorder and grotesque appearance1 which arose in the commingling of elements opposed to one another1 no doubt again vanished1 but only to make way for an enigmatical condition equally unsatisfying1 which1 instead of solving the problem1 was only able to prevent the problem's solution4 ,for here1 too1 still was lacking the freedom and self-subsistency of content1 which only thereby is rendered explicit in that the ,inward is presented to consciousness as in itself a whole1 and by this means as that which overlaps the externality which in the first instance is other than itself and foreign to itself4 ,this essential self-subsistency1 cognized as free and absolute significance1 is self-consciousness1 which has for its content the ,absolute1 and for its form the subjectivity of ,spirit4 ,in contradistinction to this self-determining1 thinking1 willing power everything else is self-subsistent in merely a relative and momentary sense4 ,the material phenomena of ,nature such as the sun1 the heavens1 stars1 plants1 animals1 stones1 streams and sea have only an abstract relation to themselves1 and are in the eternal process of ,nature bound up with other facts of natural existence1 so that they can only pass as self-subsistent for the finite perception4 ,the real significance of the ,absolute is not presented in them4 ,nature is indeed under a mode expressed#abd1 but only under the mode of what is outside itself2 its inwardness is not as such for itself1 but poured forth into the varied show of its appearances1 and consequently devoid of self subsistency4 ,only in ,spirit as the concrete1 free and1 infinite self-relation1 is the true and absolute significance actually disclosed1 and self-subsistent under the mode of its determinate existence4 ,on the way to this emancipation of the ,idea from the immediately sensuous medium and to its self-establishment we are confronted by the ,sublime and the consecration of the imagination4 ,the absolute significance is1 that is to say1 in the first instance the thinking1 absolute and senseless#abe ,one1 which is self-related as the ,absolute1 and in this relation affirms that which it creates2 ,nature and finitude generally1 as the negative1 thing1 that which is essentially in itself devoid of stability4 ,it is the explicit and essential ,universal1 conceived as the objective power over collective existence1 whether it be that this ,one be brought now to consciousness and represented in its expressly negative attitude to the created1 thing1 or in its positively pantheistic inherence in the same4 ,the twofold defect of this point of view1 so far as it is connected with art1 consists first in this that this ,one and ,universal which constitutes the fundamental significance has not yet in itself arrived at the closer determination and distinction1 and by this means just as little at the point of real individuality and personality in which it could be apprehended as ,spirit1 and could be set before the sensuous perception in a form which would be applicable to its spiritual content1 according to its own notion1 and duly conformable therewith4 ,the concrete idea of ,spirit on the contrary requires1 that it both defines and distinguishes itself in itself1 and by the very act of making itself an object discovers through this reduplication an external phenomenon1 which although material and present1 nevertheless is throughout permeated by ,spirit1 and consequently taken by itself expresses nothing at all1 simply permitting ,spirit to declare itself as its inner core1 the expression and reality of which it is4 ,secondly1 from the point of view of the objective world the defect is bound up with this abstraction of an ,absolute to which the principle of self-determination is lacking that now also the real phenomenon1 being that which is essentially without substance1 is unable to set forth under any true mode the ,absolute in concrete shape4 ,in contrast to those songs of praise and glory1 those celebrations of the abstract and universal majesty of ,god1 we have now in the passage we are making to a higher form of art to recall to our minds that phase of negativity1 change1 pain1 and progress through life and death1 which we discovered among other matter in the conceptions of the ,east4 ,we have here set before us the principle of self-distinction in its essential character under a mode which is unable to unite with its conception the unity and self-subsistency of that subjective principle4 ,both aspects1 however1 both the essential and self-substantive unity1 and the differentiation of that unity by virtue of a self-defined content1 are equally necessary to unfold a true and free self-subsistency in its concrete and mediate totality4 ,in this connection we may incidentally1 together with this reference to the ,sublime1 mention that further conception which at the same time entered on its process of explication in the ,east4 ,it is that apprehension1 in opposition to the substantiality of the one ,god1 of internal freedom1 self-subsistency and innate independence of the individual1 so far as the elaboration of this impulse was permitted to ,eastern nations4 ,the main source of this attitude we must seek for among the ,arabs1 who in their deserts1 upon the infinite sea of these expanses1 with the clear heavens over their heads1 in a nature such as this have emphasized their own courage and the bravery of their hand1 as also the means of their self-preservation1 whether it be camel1 horse1 lance1 or sword4 ,here we find the more stubborn independence of personal character asserting itself in its contrast to the ,hindoo softness and lack of individuality1 as also to the more recent pantheism of ,mohammedan poetry1 and opposing also to the objective world its circumscribed1 securely defined and immediate reality4 ,with this incipient stage of the independence of the individual we must also associate free friendship1 hospitality1 and august nobility1 but at the same time an insatiable lust of revenge and the inextinguishable memory of a hate1 which is insistent and will have satisfaction with an unsparing passion and an absolutely remorseless cruelty4 ,none the less all that happens on this soil is wholly within the circle of humanity4 ,we have here deeds of revenge1 conditions of love1 traits of self-sacrificing nobility from which the fantastic and the wonderful have vanished2 everything is carried forward in the secure and determinate shape which the causative connection of the facts necessitate4 ,a similar conception of real objects which are referred to their determinate basis of actuality#abf1 and are made visible in their free power1 not merely in that which conserves an exterior purpose#abg1 we discovered in an earlier stage of our investigations among the ,hebrews4 ,the more assured independence of character1 the savagery of revenge and hate lie1 too1 at the root of the original ,jewish nationality4 ,but the difference is at once pronounced1 that in this case even the most powerful images of ,nature are depicted less for their own sake than for that of the glory of ,god1 as related to which they at once again lose their self-subsistency2 and furthermore even hate and persecution are not merely a personal matter affecting persons1 but are embraced in the service of ,god as national vengeance against whole peoples4 ,as1 for example1 the later ,psalms and yet more the prophets frequently only are able to desire and plead for the misfortune and overthrow of other nations1 and not unfrequently find the main strength of their utterance in curses and imprecations4 ,no doubt the elements of true beauty and art are presented to each of these points of view above noticed2 but they are in the first instance brought together in haphazard and confused fashion1 and are set in a false relation to each other1 instead of being referred to a genuine principle of identity4 ,for this reason the purely ideal and abstract unity of the ,divine is unable to bring forth any entirely adequate art-product in the form that is characterized by real individuality2 and at the same time ,nature and human individuality either are manifestly not1 whether we consider their inward principle1 or their external mode of appearance1 permeated by the ,absolute1 or at least not positively pervaded by it4 ,this externality of significance1 which is thus made the essential content1 and the determinate mode of appearance under which it is generally reproduced is finally and in the third place exemplified in the comparative activity of art#abh4 ,in this type both sides have become wholly independent1 and the unity that binds them together is merely the invisible subjectivity which compares4 ,for this very reason that which is defective in such an external presentment returned in ever more emphatic degree and betrayed itself as that which was for the genuine art representation merely negative or1 rather1 entirely subversive4 ,and when this dissolution is really effected the significance can no longer remain the inherently abstract ideal1 but the inherently determinate and self-defined ideal principle1 which in this its concrete totality possesses quite as essentially the other aspect thereof1 that is1 the form of an inherently exclusive and determinate appearance2 and consequently in its external existence1 as that which is its very own1 merely expresses and signifies itself4 #a4 ,this essentially free totality which remains constant to itself throughout each successive self-determination in something other than itself1 this ideal principle1 which in its objectivity is self-related is the essentially true1 free1 and self-subsistent1 which in its determinate existence unfolds nothing other than itself4 ,in the realm of art1 however1 this form is not present in its form of infinitude1 is not1 that is1 the thinking of itself1 as the essential1 absolute1 which is made an object for itself in the form of ideal universality1 and makes itself1 wholly explicit1 but is still in immediate natural and sensuous existence4 ,in so far1 however1 as significance is self-substantive1 it must in art borrow its form from its own resources and inherently possess the principle of its externality4 ,it must consequently1 it is true1 repair to ,nature1 but as predominant over that which is external1 which1 in so far as it is itself an aspect of the totality of this ideal realm1 no longer exists as purely natural objectivity1 but being without its own self-subsistence1 simply serves as the expression of ,spirit4 ,in this interpenetration consequently the natural form and externality1 which is modified by ,spirit contains out and out on its part1 as immediately given1 its significance in itself1 and no longer points to this as to something separate and different from the corporeal appearance4 ,and this is that identification of the spiritual and natural which is appropriate to the notion of ,spirit1 which1 that is1 does not merely proceed no further than the neutralization of the two opposed aspects1 but raises that which is spiritual into the higher totality1 in which it is able to preserve itself in its own ,other1 to bring the natural within its own ideal range and to express itself in and relatively to the natural4 ,it is on this type of unity that the notion of classical art is based4 7a7 ,this identity of significance and bodily form may be approached yet more closely under the view of it that no separation of these opposed aspects#abi takes place within their consummated union2 and consequently the ideal principle does not1 as purely inward spirituality1 return upon itself from out of the corporeal and concrete reality1 under a process which would give us once more the distinction of these aspects in opposition4 ,and inasmuch as the objective and external1 in which ,spirit is made visible as an object of sense1 according to the very notion of it1 is at once throughout defined and separate1 mind which is free1 and which it is the function of art to elaborate in the form of reality truly commensurate with it1 can only be that spiritual individuality which is not merely defined but essentially self-consistent in its natural form4 ,for this reason it is the human which constitutes the centre and content of true beauty and art2 but as content of art--we have already developed the subject in discussing the notion of the ,ideal--it is brought under the essential determination of concrete individuality and the external appearance adequate thereto1 which in its objectivization has been thus purified from the imperfection of the finite condition4 7b7 ,under such a consideration of the matter it is at once obvious that the classical mode of representation1 if we take it for what it essentially is1 can no longer be of the symbolic type in the strict sense of the term1 however much now and again we may find along with it the play of that which belongs to symbolism4 ,greek mythology1 for example1 which1 in so far as art asserts its mastery over it1 belongs to the classical ,ideal1 is1 if we grasp it in its fundamental character1 not of a beauty which is symbolical1 but unfolded under the genuine character of the ,art-ideal1 albeit there may be certain remnants of symbolism which adhere to it1 as we shall shortly see4 ,if we now proceed to ask ourselves what1 then1 is the nature of the determinate form1 which can thus enter into this unity with ,spirit without offering merely the suggestion of its content1 we shall find it determined for us in the conception that in classical art both content and form must be adequate1 must1 that is1 in the aspect of form meet the demands of totality and essential self-subsistency4 ,for it is a prime condition of the free self-subsistence#acj of the whole1 which constitutes the fundamental determination of classical art1 that either of these aspects1 the ideal form no less than its external embodiment1 should be essentially a totality which goes to make the notion of the whole4 ,only by this means is either side essentially identical with the other1 and consequently their difference reduced to the purely formal differences of one and the same1 through which also the totality appears now as free1 the adequacy of both of its aspects being now fully displayed1 inasmuch as it declares itself in either of them and is one and the same in both4 ,the lack of this free reduplication of itself within the same unity carried with it in the symbolic type precisely this absence of freedom in the content and with it also in the form4 ,spirit was here not clear to itself1 and for this reason declared its external reality not as that which belonged to itself1 set forth in its explicit significance through and in it4 ,conversely the form had no doubt to be significant1 but its significance only lay partly and on one side in it4 ,the external existence gave here primarily to what passed for its ideal aspect1 though still under a mode that was external1 merely itself instead of a significance which declared an ideal content2 and in attempting to show that there was something further which it suggested its power was necessarily put under a constraint4 ,in this distortion it neither remained true to itself1 nor was it the ,other1 that is significance1 but declared nothing save that which was a problematical connection and confusion between incompatible things1 or tended to be the purely co-adjutant attire and external adornment of what was simply the glorification of the one absolute significance of all things whatever1 until it was finally obliged to surrender itself to the purely subjective caprice of comparison with a significance which was far removed from it and indifferent to it4 ,if this relation of unfreedom is to find a release the form must already inherently possess its significance1 or1 to speak more definitely1 must possess the significance of mind or ,spirit itself4 ,this form is essentially the human form because the externality of this form is alone capable of revealing the spiritual in sensuous guise4 ,human expression in countenance1 eye1 pose1 and carriage is1 it is true1 material and therein not that which the spirit is2 but within this corporeal frame itself the human exterior is not merely alive and a part of ,nature as the animal is1 but it is the bodily presence which reflects ,spirit to itself4 ,through the human eye we look into the soul of a man just as through the entire presentment of him his spiritual character is expressed4 ,when consequently the body belongs to ,spirit1 as its determinate presence1 ,spirit is also that ideal principle which is appropriate to the body1 and is no form of ideality which is foreign to the external form in the sense that materiality still inherently possesses a significance other than that to which it testifies or suggests4 ,it is quite true that the human form still carries within it much of the universal animal type1 but the fundamental distinction between the human and the animal body consists simply in this1 that the human is obviously1 by virtue of its entire conformation1 declared as the dwelling1 nay1 we may add the only possible dwelling-place of ,spirit4 ,and for this reason also it is only in the body that ,spirit is immediately present to others4 ,this is1 however1 not the place to discuss the necessity#aca of this association and the peculiar reciprocity of soul and body4 ,we must here assume this necessity4 ,we have1 of course1 many indications on the human figure of death and ugliness1 that is1 of other influences and defects which are traceable to their source4 ,when we find this to be the case it is the function of art to expunge the divergence between the purely natural and the spiritual1 to exalt the external bodily appearance to a form of beauty1 that is1 a form throughout dominated and suffused with the animation of ,spirit4 ,we have seen1 then1 that in this type of representation symbolism is no longer presented by the external relation1 and everything that partook of effort1 strain1 distortion1 and perversion is eliminated4 ,for when ,spirit has grasped itself as ,spirit it is at once explicit and clear2 and on the same ground is also its association with the form adequate to it from the side of externality1 something which is essentially ready to the hand and a free gift1 which does not require1 as a means for its declaration1 a bond of connection introduced by the imagination1 and contrasting with that which is immediately presented4 ,just as little is the classical form of art exhibited as a purely material and superficial personification4 ,it is ,spirit in its entirety1 in so far as it is intended to make it the content of the art-product1 which passes into that bodily shape1 and is able to identify itself completely with it4 ,from this point of view we may considerer the conception that art has followed the human figure by means of imitation4 ,according to the common view1 however1 this acceptance of the human figure as the model of imitation appears as a matter of accident1 whereas we should rather maintain the art which has arrived at its maturity is obliged to reveal its substance by a necessary law in the form of man as he appears to sense perception1 because ,spirit alone obtains in it the existence fitting to it in the sensuous material of ,nature4 ,all that we have here observed relatively to the human body and its expression applies also to human emotions1 impulses1 actions1 experiences1 and occupations4 ,the externalization of these is also1 in classical art1 not merely characterized as a part of ,nature's life1 but as that of ,spirit2 and this ideal aspect is brought into full and adequate identity with that which is external appearance4 7c7 ,inasmuch1 then1 as classical art comprehends free spirituality as determinate individuality1 and immediately envisages the same in its bodily presentment1 it frequently falls under the reproach of anthropomorphism4 ,even among the ,greeks1 to take an example1 ,xenophanes ridiculed the presentation of ,gods by means of the sensuous image in his famous remark1 that if lions had been sculptors they would have given their gods the external shape of lions4 ,of a similar tendency is that piece of ,french wit3 ,god made men according to ,his image1 but man has returned ,him the compliment by creating ,god in the image of man4 ,if we consider the matter relatively to the form of art that follows1 the romantic1 we may in this respect observe that the content of the classical form of beauty is no doubt defective precisely as the religion of art is so2 but so little does the defect consist in anthropomorphism as such1 that we may rather maintain1 on the contrary1 that though classical art is certainly sufficiently anthropomorphic for art1 for the higher form of religion it is not enough so4 ,christianity has carried anthropomorphism to far greater lengths2 for1 according to ,christian doctrine1 ,god is not merely individuality in a human form1 but a real and singular individual entirely ,god1 and entirely a real man who has entered into all conditions of existence1 and is no mere ,ideal of beauty and art created by man4 ,if our conception of the ,absolute is limited to an abstract ,being essentially without any characterization then1 no doubt1 every kind of representation vanishes1 but if ,god is ,spirit he must appear as man1 as individual subject1 not as ideal human being1 but as actual participator in the entire externality of temporal conditions#acb which pertain to immediate and natural existence4 ,in other words1 from the ,christian point of view1 the infinite movement is carried to the extremest verge of opposition1 and only returns to the absolute unity as the resolution of this separation4 ,the man-becoming of ,god is incident to this phase or significant moment of separation2 as real and individual subjectivity it is involved in the difference between unity and substance in its bare extension1 and in this common sphere of temporal and spatial condition creates the consciousness in and pain of division in order through the ultimate resolution of such contradiction by the same means to arrive at eternal reconciliation4 ,and this essential point of passage in the process1 according to the ,christian conception1 is inherent in the nature of ,god ,himself4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,god is here apprehended as absolute and free ,spirit1 in which ,nature and immediate singularity is indeed proferred us as a phasal moment of a process1 but1 at the same time1 as one which is necessarily transcended#acc4 ,in classical art1 on the contrary1 the material medium is neither killed nor suffers death1 but for this reason also we cannot wholly find in it the resurrection of ,spirit4 ,classical art and its religion of beauty does not consequently wholly satisfy the depths of ,spirit4 ,however essentially concrete it may be1 it still remains abstract for humanity because1 instead of movement and reconciliation obtained by the contradiction we have adverted to of that infinite subjective process1 it merely possesses as its life that undisturbed harmony of the free individuality determined in its adequate existence1 this repose in its reality1 this happiness1 this content and greatness in itself1 this eternal blitheness and bliss which even in unhappiness and pain does not lose its secure reliance on itself4 ,classical art has not worked its way to the full contradiction which is fundamentally involved in the notion of the ,absolute and overcome that contradiction4 ,for this reason it does not recognize the aspect which is in close relation to this contradiction1 that is the essential obduracy of the subject as opposed to that which is ethical and of absolute significance1 namely1 sin and evil1 no less than the waste of individual life in its own subjective aims1 the dissolution and incontinence of that world which we may summarily describe as that of the entire sphere of its divisions1 which is productive on the side both of sense and spirit of distortion1 ugliness1 and the repulsive4 ,classical art fails to cross the pure territory of the genuine ,ideal4 #b4 ,in so far as the historical realization of classical art is concerned1 it is hardly necessary to observe that we must seek for that among the ,greeks4 ,classical beauty1 with its infinite range of content1 material and form1 is the gift bestowed on the ,greek people2 and this folk is entitled to our respect on the ground that it has produced art in its highest form of vitality4 ,the ,greeks1 if we regard the form of their realized life immediately presented us1 lived in that happy middle sphere of self-conscious and subjective freedom and substantive ethical life4 ,they did not persist1 on the one hand1 in the unfree ,oriental unity1 which is necessarily bound up with a religious and political despotism for the reason that the individuality of the subject is overwhelmed in a universal substance1 or1 in some particular aspect of the same1 because it has essentially as personality no right1 and consequently no ground to stand on2 neither1 on the other1 did they pass beyond to that subjective penetration1 in which the particular subject separates itself from the whole and the universal1 in order to make itself more explicit in its ideality2 and only through a higher return to the ideal totality of a purely spiritual world1 succeeds in its final purification of the substantive and essential4 ,on the contrary1 in the ethical life of ,greece1 the individual was self-substantive and essentially free1 without disengaging himself from the general interests of the realized ,state immediately visible to him and the positive immanence of spiritual freedom in the temporal condition4 ,the universal of morality and the abstract freedom of personality1 both in its ideal and external aspect1 remains in accordance with the principle of ,greek life in undisturbed harmony1 and during the time in which1 even in real existence1 this principle asserted itself in still unimpaired purity1 the self-substantiality of the citizen did not stand forth in relief in contrast to a morality which was to be distinguished from it3 the substance of political life was so far merged in the individual1 as he on his part sought his own liberty absolutely in the universal ends of the entire civic life4 ,the feeling for beauty1 the significance and spirit of this joyous harmony interpenetrates all productions1 in which the freedom of ,greece is self-conscious1 and in which she has made visible to herself her being4 ,consequently her view of the world is just the midway ground on which beauty commences its true life and breaks open its serene dominion2 the intermediate realm1 that is1 of free vitality1 which is not merely a fact at once immediate and natural1 but one which is the creation of a spiritual point of view revealed by art1 the realm1 that is1 of a culture of reflection1 and at the same time of an absence of reflection1 which neither isolates the individual nor on the other hand is competent to bring back again its negativity1 pain1 and unhappiness to a positive unity and reconciliation--a realm1 however1 which1 just as in the case of ,life itself1 is at the same time only a point of passage1 however true it be that it scales at this point the summit of beauty1 and in the form of its plastic individuality is so spiritually concrete and rich1 that all tones have their interplay within it1 and also1 too1 that which is for its own standpoint what lies behind it1 albeit it is no longer present as an absolute and unqualified principle1 is nevertheless felt as that which accompanies it--a kind of background to it4 ,in this sense the ,greek nation has also1 in the representation of its gods1 made its spirit visible to the perceptions and the imaginative consciousness1 and bestowed on them1 by means of art a determinate existence1 which is entirely conformable with their true content4 ,by virtue of this homogeneous form1 which is alike consistent with the fundamental notion of ,greek art and ,greek mythology1 art became in ,greece the highest expression for the ,absolute1 and ,greek religion is the religion of art itself1 whereas romantic art1 which appeared later1 although it is undoubtedly art1 suggests a more exalted form of consciousness than art is in a position to supply4 #c4 ,in establishing the position1 as we have just done1 on the one hand1 that essentially free individuality is the content of classical art1 and1 on the other1 that a like freedom is the equally requisite determinant of the form1 we have already assumed that the entire blending of both together1 however much it may be presented in the immediate form1 is nevertheless no original unity such as ,nature's1 but is necessarily an artificial association made possible by the subjective spirit4 ,classical art1 in so far as its content and its form is spontaneity#acd1 originates in the freedom of the ,spirit that is clear to itself4 ,and for this reason also we may say that in the third place the artist occupies a position different from that of his predecessors4 ,that is to say his production declares itself as the spontaneous product of a man in the full possession of his senses#ace1 who as truly knows what he wills as he is able to accomplish such a purpose2 who is consequently obscure to himself neither in respect to the significance and substantive content of that which he has resolved to make visible in the form of art1 nor finds himself hindered by any defects of technique from executing the result aimed after4 7a7 ,if we look more closely at this change in the position of the artist we shall in the first place find this freedom announced to us relatively to the content in this way1 that he does not feel compelled to seek for it with the restless process of symbolical fermentation4 ,symbolic art remains the captive of its travail to bring to birth and make clear its form to its own vision1 and this embodiment is itself only the original form#acf1 that is1 on the one side ,being in the immediate guise of ,nature1 and on the other the ideal abstraction of the universal1 unity1 conversion1 change1 becoming1 origination1 and passing away4 ,in this original form of the artistic process1 however1 art does not come to its rightful possessions4 ,consequently1 these representations of symbolic art1 which should be expositions of content1 remain still themselves riddles and problems1 and merely testify to the struggle after clarity and the effort of ,spirit1 which on and on seeks to discover without obtaining the rest and repose of discovery4 ,in contrast to this troublous search the content must for the classic artist be presented him as something already there in the sense that as a thing essentially positive1 as belief1 popular opinion1 or as an actual event either of myth or tradition1 it is determined for his imagination in all its essential character4 ,relatively to this objectively determined material the artist is placed in the freer relation that he does not himself undertake the process of production and fermentation1 and pass no further than the impulse after the real significances of his art1 but rather that for him a completely explicit and unfolded content lies before him which he accepts and freely reproduces from himself4 ,the ,greek artists received their material from the popular religion in which already that which had been brought over to ,greece from the ,orient had begun to receive a form of its own4 ,pheidias borrowed his ,zeus from ,homer1 and other tragedians also did not create the fundamental groundwork of that they represented4 ,in the same way the artists of ,christianity1 ,dante and ,raphael1 have only reclothed what was already to hand in the doctrines of their faith and their religious conceptions4 ,this is also1 it is true1 from a certain point of view in like manner the case in the art of the ,sublime1 but with this difference1 that here the relation to the content1 as the one substance1 does not permit subjectivity to come by its just claims1 and allows to it no self-substantive finality4 ,the comparative form of art1 on the other hand1 no doubt starts with the selection of significances as images which it makes use of1 but this initiative of selection remains at the disposition of subjective caprice1 and on its part dispenses with all substantive individuality1 which constitutes the notion of classical art1 and for this reason must rest with the personality which creates it4 7b7 ,the more1 however1 an explicitly unfolded content is present for the artist in popular beliefs1 myth1 and other actual facts1 the more his energy is concentrated upon the object of endowing such a content with the external embodiment of art fitting to it4 ,while in this respect symbolic art dissipates its resources in a thousand forms1 and with unbridled imaginative power lays about it for material that it fails either to measure or define in order to adapt forms that are never really conformable to the significance it is seeking after1 the classical artist in this respect is possessed of an aim that is at once resolute and definite4 ,that is to say1 the free form is with the content itself defined through that content1 and is essentially pertinent to such content1 so that the artist only appears to execute what is already accordant with the fundamental conception of what is presented him4 ,while1 therefore1 the symbolic artist strives in his imagination1 to suit the form to significance or vice versa1 the classic artist adapts significance to plastic shape by means of the process of freeing the external phenomena which are already presented from that part of them which is merely an incidental product4 ,in this activity1 however1 although all that is purely his caprice is excluded1 his productive power not merely follows or is not merely limited to a bare type1 but is at the same time creative throughout the whole4 ,art which1 to start with1 is forced to seek out and discover its true form neglects for that reason the very aspect of form2 but where1 on the contrary1 the building up of form is made the essential interest and the main task there we find the content also receives its plastic shape by imperceptible degrees through the process of the reproduction1 precisely as we have hitherto found in a general way that form and content proceed hand in hand during the process1 wherein they are completed4 ,in this respect the classic artist elaborates the result also where it is a religious world that is presented him2 he throughout develops in the free and buoyant medium of his art the material and mythological ideas which he receives4 7c7 ,the same applies to the technique of art4 ,in the case of the classic artist the ingredients must be already to hand2 the sensuous material through which the artist labours must already be disengaged from all brittleness and extreme stubbornness1 and yield directly to the aims of the artist1 in order that the content1 conformably to the notion of the classic type1 may make its free and unfettered way through this external medium4 ,to classical art1 consequently1 belongs from the first a high level of technical ability1 which has subjected the sensuous material to an apt subservience4 ,such a technical perfection1 if it is really to carry out all that is required of ,spirit and its conceptions1 is presupposed by the complete elaboration of all that pertains to craftsmanship in art1 that is1 in especial degree of that which makes itself visible within the plastic forms of the religion to which we now refer4 ,the religious view of things1 such as the ,egyptian1 for example1 discovers1 that is1 definite external forms1 idols1 colossal constructions whose type remains fixed1 and1 further1 in the usual similarity of forms and shapes1 supplies a considerable field for elaboration in the treatment of it by the steadily progressive executive powers4 ,this adaptability to the talents of the craftsman must already have been presented in that which is of an inferior and distorted type before the genius of classical beauty can associate these powers of mechanical facility with the forms of technical perfection4 ,then1 at last1 when that which is purely mechanical work is confronted with no further insuperable difficulty1 is art enabled to proceed in the elaboration of a form1 the practice in working out which is at the same time an elaboration which is in the closest relationship to the progressive advance of both content and form4 ,so far as the division of classical art is concerned it is usual in the more general sense of the term to call every complete work of art classic1 whatever the particular character it may otherwise carry1 whether symbolic or romantic4 ,we have no doubt thus accepted it in the particular sense of art perfection1 but with this important qualification1 that this perfection must be based on the thorough interpenetration of ideal and free individuality and external definition4 ,we consequently differentiate the classic form expressly from the symbolic and romantic1 whose beauty in content and form is entirely of another kind4 ,and along with the classic1 regarded in its usual and more indefinite significance1 we have as little to do here at this early stage with the particular arts in which the classical ideal is represented1 as1 for example1 sculpture1 the ,epic1 definite forms of lyrical poetry and specific types of tragedy and comedy4 ,these particular types of art1 although classic art is imprinted upon them1 will be first discussed in the third portion of the division of our subject in the explication of the several arts and their grades#acg4 ,what we approach more immediately now is the classic in the sense we have secured for the term1 and as bases of our subdivision we can only therefore seek out the grades of evolution1 which proceed from this notion of the classical ideal itself4 ,the essential phases of this development are as follows4 ,the first point to which we would direct our attention is this1 that the classical type of art is not to be apprehended as was the case with the symbolic type as immediately primary1 as art's commencement1 but1 on the contrary1 as its result4 ,we have evolved it1 consequently1 in the first instance from the course of the symbolic modes of representation1 which it presupposes4 ,the essential feature on which this process turned was the concentration of content in the elucidation of an essentially self-conscious individuality1 which can neither employ for its expression the mere natural form1 whether it be that of the elements or animals1 nor the defective and confused personification of the human figure with it1 but receives its expression in the animation of the human body permeated throughout with the breath of ,spirit4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as the essence of freedom consists in this1 to be that which it is through its own resources1 that which in the first place appeared purely as the presupposition and condition of its origin outside the sphere of classical art must take its place within the circle peculiar to the same in order to make really visible the true content and the genuine form by means of the subjection of what is unconformable to and the negation of the ,ideal4 ,this process of conformation through negation1 this process by means of which1 whether we view it relatively to content or form1 the genuine type of classical beauty begets itself from its own substance is consequently our point of departure1 and we shall treat of that in our first chapter4 ,in the second chapter1 on the other hand1 we have reached by means of this process the true ,ideal of the classical type of art4 ,we find here as the central fact the fair and novel world of the gods of ,greece1 which it will be incumbent on us to develop exhaustively from within1 both in its aspects of spiritual individualization1 and those which are related to the bodily form with which such individuality is immediately associated4 ,in the third place1 however1 the notion of classical art implies conversely1 along with this becoming of the beauty which springs from itself1 also the dissolution of that creation1 which will carry us into a further sphere1 namely1 that of the romantic type of art4 ,the gods and human individuals of classic beauty just as they rise so1 too1 pass away once more from the art-consciousness1 which in part turns round in opposition to the aspect of ,nature that still persists1 in which ,greek art1 in fact1 had elaborated itself in the full perfection of beauty1 in part transcends an undeific#ach1 defective1 and vulgar mode of reality in order to reveal that which is false and purely negative therein4 ,in this dissolution1 whose artistic activity we shall take as the material of our third chapter1 the specific phases in the process1 which created the truly classical type in that harmony presented by the perfect fusion of immediate beauty1 fall apart4 ,the ideal essence is made explicit on the one side in its independence of the external mode of its existence on the other4 ,subjectivity withdraws into itself1 for the reason that it fails now to find an adequate realization in the forms hitherto employed1 and is constrained to enlarge itself with the fuller content of a new spiritual world of absolute freedom and infinity1 looking about for novel means of expressing this profounder grasp of its substance4 ,footnote #aba3 ,the central point1 that is1 in the entire evolution of the types of art1 classical art being intermediate between symbolic and romantic art and in a certain sense marking a point of culmination4 ,footnote #abb3 ,zu ihrem ,inneren1 i4 e41 that which unites it as a whole rather than is the purely external form4 ,the ,inward of man is the notion of man1 not the mere fact that he has a head and arms1 etc4 ,footnote #abc3 ,the ,nature-existence1 as ,hegel calls it4 ,footnote #abd3 ,die ,natur ist freilich heraus4 ,nature is there explicitly before us1 but not all that is implied in ,nature is made explicit in the material world4 ,footnote #abe3 ,sinnlichkeitslos1 senseless as devoid of or abstracted from all sense4 ,footnote #abf3 ,auf ihr festes ,maas zurckgefhrt4 ,to their own proper standard or measure that strictly applies to them4 ,footnote #abg3 ,i think this must be the meaning of ntzlich here4 ,but the passage is not an easy one4 ,footnote #abh3 ,that is1 the comparative type of art discussed at the conclusion of the preceding section4 ,footnote #abi3 ,that is1 the ,inward or ideal principle and the natural externality4 ,footnote #acj3 ,selbststndigkeit4 ,self-consistency or independence are perhaps better words here4 ,footnote #aca3 ,that is1 ,i suppose1 the causal necessity as part of natural evolution4 ,footnote #acb3 ,bis zur zeitlichen gnzlichen uerlichkeit4 ,footnote #acc3 ,these words contain no doubt the epitome of ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,religion and are involved in its difficulties4 ,the reference to the historical facts of ,christianity under ideal conceptions is obvious4 ,i have translated the words das ,moment des ,natrlichen 444 zwar vorhanden seyn as a phasal moment of a process1 but ,i am well aware that no mere amplification of this sort can in itself make the words clear4 ,footnote #acd3 ,das ,freie4 ,footnote #ace3 ,des besonnenen ,menschen1 i4e41 the man of clear intelligence1 sound sense1 as we say4 ,footnote #acf3 ,the words dieser ,gehalt ist selber nur der ,erste would seem to refer back to the expressions ,keine ,erste und somit natrliche ,einheit4 ,but the sense is not very clear4 ,footnote #acg3 ,deren ,gattungen1 their specific types4 ,footnote #ach3 ,entgttert--a mode from which the ,divine is removed4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,coming ,,into ,,being ,,of ,,the ,,classic ,,ideal ,in the notion of free ,spirit is contained immediately that aspect of the process of intelligence we may describe as self-introspection1 return upon the self1 of being explicit as an object existing for the self and in a determinate place1 although this penetration into the realm of subjectivity1 as we have already observed1 does not either necessarily proceed to the length of making the subject essentially self-substantive in its negative aspect as against all that is concrete in ,spirit and presented us as the stability of ,nature1 nor to that absolute reconciliation which constitutes1 the freedom of the infinite subjectivity in truth4 ,with the freedom of ,spirit1 however1 in whatever form it may appear1 is generally associated the elimination of that which is purely natural1 regarded as that which is the ,other in contrast to ,spirit4 ,spirit must in the first instance essentially withdraw itself from ,nature1 uplift itself over1 her boundaries and overcome them1 ere it can prevail with unfettered movement within those bounds as within an element that is opposed to it1 and can build itself up in a positive mode of existence truly indicative of its own freedom4 ,if we further ask for a closer definition of the object through the transcendence of which ,spirit attains to its self-substantive form in classical art we shall find this object is not ,nature merely as such1 but rather a ,nature that is already throughout suffused with the significations of ,spirit1 in other words the symbolic type of art1 which made use of the immediately natural form as a means of expressing the ,absolute1 its artistic consciousness either seeing in animals and so forth the presence of gods1 or striving vainly under false modes toward the true unity of the spiritual and the natural4 ,it is through the removal and reformation of this defective association that the ,ideal for the first time presents itself as the ,ideal1 and is forced to develop consequently this process of transcendence within its own sphere as a phase of its own necessary evolution4 ,such a consideration at once enables us to dispose of the question whether the ,greeks received this religion from extraneous sources or no4 ,we have already seen that subordinate conceptions are necessarily presupposed in the very notion of classical art4 ,these1 in so far as they in truth appear and are presented as factors of human history1 are1 as opposed to the higher form1 which strives to pass beyond them1 the actual starting-point of the new self-evolving art4 ,and this is so1 though in the particular case of ,greek mythology there is not throughout historical evidence for these preliminary data4 ,the relation1 however1 of the ,greek spirit to these presupposed data is essentially a relation of construction and in the first instance of transformation4 ,if this were not so the conceptions and forms of the same had remained as they were4 ,it is true that ,herodotus says1 in a passage already cited1 of ,homer and ,hesiod1 that they had created their gods for the ,greeks1 but he also speaks expressly of particular gods1 how this or that one was ,egyptian or some other form3 the poetic activity does not therefore exclude the reception of material from other sources1 but merely suggests an essential transformation4 ,for the ,greeks possessed mythological conceptions before the time in which ,herodotus places those original poets4 ,if we inquire further into the more obvious aspects of this necessary transformation of that which is undoubtedly involved with1 but at first still alien from1 the ,ideal1 we find it set before us in nave form as content of mythology itself4 ,the main fact of ,greek theology is this1 that it creates itself and constitutes itself from that which has gone before1 which takes its place in the origins and process of its own generic history4 ,incidental to this origination1 in so far as the gods are taken to be spiritual individualities in determinate bodily shape1 we find1 on the one hand1 that ,spirit1 instead of giving visibility to its essence in that which is purely vital and animal1 regards life rather as an attribute which is insufficient#aci1 as its unhappiness and death1 and1 on the other1 that it is in the living thing that it triumphs over the elements of ,nature and its confused reproduction4 ,conversely1 however1 it is equally necessary for the ,ideal of the classic gods1 not merely to stand over against ,nature and its elemental powers as individual spirit in its finite and abstract seclusion1 but to possess itself the elements of the universal natural life notionally as a phasal moment in the vital constitution of ,spirit4 ,as the essence of the gods is essentially universal1 and in this very universality they are defined as individuals1 it follows also that the aspect of their bodily presence must essentially include at the same time the natural as the essential and wide-reaching power of ,nature1 and as vital activity intertwined with spirituality itself4 ,in this respect we may differentiate the process of embodiment followed by the classical art-form under the following points of view4 ,the first concerns the degradation of that which is purely animal1 and the removal of the same from the sphere of free and pure ,beauty4 ,the second more important aspect is related to the elemental itself1 in the first instance conceived as gods put before us as powers of ,nature1 through whose conquest alone the genuine race of gods can attain to undisputed mastery1 that is in the war between the ancient and new gods4 ,but this negative tendency becomes1 then1 in the third place1 after ,spirit has secured its free right1 to the same extent once again an affirmative force1 and elemental ,nature constitutes an aspect of godhead permeated with individualized spirituality in order to re-establish even the animal organism1 though here only of an attributive and external sign4 ,following the above points of view we will now1 if still at no great length1 endeavour to emphasize the more definite traits1 which here come under consideration4 #a4 ,,the ,,degradation ,,of ,,animalism#adj ,among the ,indians and ,egyptians1 among ,asiatics generally we find animalism1 or at any rate specific kinds of animals regarded as sacred and worshipped1 because in them the ,divine itself is taken to be visible to sense4 ,the animal form is consequently also a main feature of their artistic representations1 albeit they are in addition merely used as symbolic and in association with human forms1 in the stage previous to that where we find the human1 and only the human1 apprehended by consciousness as that which is alone true4 ,it is only in virtue of the self-consciousness of the spiritual that the respect for the obscure and gloomy ideality of animal life disappears4 ,this has already taken place among the ancient ,hebrews who regard1 as we have already observed1 the whole of ,nature neither as symbol nor as the presence of ,god1 and attach to external objects merely the powers and vitality which in fact dwell within them4 ,at the same time there still remains even among them1 if in accidental fashion1 at least a vestige of reverence for the living thing as such4 ,we may illustrate this with the fact that ,moses forbids the use of animal blood as food for the reason that life is centred in the blood4 ,man1 however1 is really under a necessity to eat that which is his natural food4 ,the next step which we must draw attention to in this passage to classical art consists in lowering the high worth and position of what is animal1 and making this degradation itself the content of religious conceptions and artistic productions4 ,and illustrative of this we find abundant examples from which ,i shall merely offer the following selections4 7a7 ,we find that among the ,greeks certain animals appear conspicuous among others1 as the snake1 for example1 is presented us in the sacrifices of ,homer as an exceptionally beloved genius#ada1 and before all others it is this species which is offered to one god1 while others are appropriated to some other4 ,we find1 further that the hare1 which runs across the way1 birds observed in their flight to right hand or left1 and entrails are investigated as fruitful in prophetic significance4 ,all this1 it is true1 indicates a real reverence for the animal type1 since the gods communicate through them and speak to men by means of omens4 ,if we look at the heart of the matter1 however1 we shall find these to be merely isolated revelations1 suggestive of superstition no doubt1 but merely momentary hints of the ,divine4 ,on the other hand1 it is an important fact that animals are sacrificed and the sacrificial flesh eaten4 ,among the ,indians sacred animals are on the contrary preserved alive as such1 and taken care of1 and among the ,egyptians they are even preserved after their death4 ,for the ,greek it is the sacrifice which is sacred4 ,in the sacrifice man demonstrates that he is willing to give up a consecrated thing to his gods1 and to deprive himself wholly of the use of the same4 ,and in this connection we may observe a characteristic trait in the ,greek rite1 among which people the sacrifice was observed as at the same time a hospitable feast#adb1 only a part of the same being dedicate to the gods1 that is1 the portion which it was assumed they alone could enjoy1 while the ,greek himself retained and feasted upon the flesh4 ,out of this circumstance originated a mythical tale in ,greece4 ,the ancient ,greeks1 it is said1 sacrificed with the greatest solemnity to the gods1 and suffered the entirety of the sacrificial animal to be consumed in the flames4 ,not even the poorer suppliants dared contest this great waste4 ,so ,prometheus endeavoured to obtain by request from ,zeus1 that they were merely under an obligation to sacrifice a portion1 and could devote the remainder to their own uses4 ,he slew two oxen1 burnt the liver of both1 converted1 however1 all the bones into one1 the flesh into the remaining hide of the animals1 and presented ,zeus the choice4 ,zeus1 deceived by appearances1 selected the bones because they were a larger portion and left the flesh in this way for human consumption4 ,for this reason1 when the flesh of sacrificial animals was consumed1 the remaining portions1 which were devoted to the gods1 were burnt up in the same fire4 ,zeus1 however1 took away fire from men because by so doing he made it impossible for them to celebrate their feast4 ,little help the ruse gave him4 ,prometheus robbed him of the fire and in the excess of his joy flew back faster than he sped thither2 for which cause1 so the tale goes1 the bringer of good news invariably brings speed with him4 ,in this way the ,greeks have directed attention to this progress in human culture and preserved and reclothed the same in myth for the mind4 7b7 ,we may connect with the above as a similar example of a yet further degradation of animalism the traditions of famous huntings1 such as we find ascribed to heroes1 and handed down as sacred to grateful memory4 ,in these the slaying of animals which appear as injurious foes1 such as the strangling of the ,numean lion by ,heracles1 the slaying of the ,lernean hydra1 the hunting of the ,caledonian boar are set forth as something famous1 by means of which the heroes contended for godlike rank1 whereas the ,hindoos punished with death as a crime the slaughter of certain animals4 ,unquestionably there is a further interplay of symbolism in deeds of this kind or they lie at the base of them4 ,in the case of ,hercules there is the fact of the sun and its course1 so that such heroic actions supply an essential aspect of symbolical interpretation4 ,these myths are1 however1 at the same time accepted in their express significance as beneficial hunts and were consciously recognized as such by the ,greeks4 ,we must here again in a similar relation recall certain fables of ,aesop1 especially those already referred to of the dung beetle4 ,the dung beetle1 that primitive ,egyptian symbol1 in whose balls of dung the ,egyptians or the interpreters of their religious conceptions saw the world balls1 comes in ,aesop again before ,jupiter1 and with the important change that the eagle does not respect his protector the hare4 ,aristophanes1 on the other hand1 has wholly made fun of him4 7c7 ,thirdly1 the degradation of the animal is directly indicated in many of the tales of metamorphosis as ,ovid has delineated them for us in detail with grace and talent and fine traits of feeling and intuition1 but also composed in a rambling way without their great and commanding ideal significance1 treating them merely as the sport of mythos and external fact and failing to recognize a deeper significance4 ,such a deeper significance is1 however1 there1 and we will consequently1 now we mention the subject1 make further allusion to it4 ,for the most part the particular narratives are if we look at this material1 quaint and primitive1 not so much on account of the depraved condition of the culture1 but rather1 as in the ,nibelungenlied1 on account of the condition of a still raw nature4 ,as far as the thirteenth book1 according to their content1 they are older than the ,homeric tales2 add to this they are a medley of cosmogony and heterogeneous elements of ,phoenician1 ,phrygian1 ,egyptian symbolism1 treated no doubt in a human way1 but in such wise that the uncouth stock still remains1 whereas the metamorphoses which enumerate tales of a later period subsequent to the ,trojan war1 although their material is also borrowed from fabulous times1 clash awkwardly with the names of ,ajax and ,aeneas4 77 ,generally speaking1 we may regard the metamorphoses as a contrast to the conception and worship implied in animalism4 ,looked at from the ethical side of ,spirit they include essentially the negative attitude toward ,nature1 making the animal and other inorganic forms a phase of human degradation4 ,consequently1 if among the ,egyptians the gods of ,nature's elements are exalted and made vital in animals1 here conversely1 as we have already intimated1 the natural form appears before us as an easier or difficult lapse and a monstrous crime1 as the existence of an ungod-like1 unfortunate thing1 and as the embodiment of pain1 in which the human is no longer able to remain self-contained4 ,for this reason they have not the significance of the migration of souls in the ,egyptian sense of that expression2 this is a migration which does not imply guilt1 but rather is on the contrary1 if we take the case of the passage of the human soul into the animal1 regarded as an exaltation4 ,as a whole1 however1 this is no severely exclusive circle of myths1 however different the objects of ,nature may be1 into which that which is spiritual is banished4 ,a few examples will sufficiently elucidate the point4 ,among the ,egyptians the wolf plays a part of great importance1 as1 for example1 in the case where ,osiris appears as beneficent protector of his son ,horus in the latter's conflict with ,typhon1 and in a whole series of ,egyptian coins is represented as the assister of ,horus4 ,and speaking generally the association of the wolf and the sun-god is a primitive one4 ,in the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid1 on the other hand1 the conversion of ,lycaon into the form of a wolf is presented us as a punishment for his impiety4 ,after the subjugation of the giants1 we are told#adc1 and after the annihilation of their bodily shapes the ,earth1 warmed by the blood of its sons which had been scattered in all directions1 revitalized the warm blood1 and1 in order that no vestige of the former wild stock should remain1 brought into being a race of men4 ,yet for all that was this after-birth contemptuous of the gods1 eager for savage deeds and murder4 ,then ,jupiter called the gods into conclave with a view to destroy this mortal race4 ,he informed them how ,lycaon had cunningly formed stratagems against himself1 the wielder of the lightning and their sovereign lord4 ,when1 such is the story1 the worthlessness of the times was apparent to him1 he descended from ,olympus1 and came to ,arcadia4 ,i furnished signs1 the narration continues1 that a god had drawn nigh and the people began to supplicate4 ,first1 to make merry over these pious prayers was ,lycaon1 who forthwith cried out3 ,i will make experiment whether this indeed be a god or mortality1 and the truth shall not remain in doubt4 ,he made preparation1 continued ,jupiter1 to slay me when oppressed with slumber2 he was possessed with the passion for discovering the truth4 ,and not contented with this1 he made an incision with his sword in the throat of a goat of ,molassian pedigree and boiled as to one part the only partially dead members2 and as to the rest baked them on the fire1 and placed both portions before me to eat4 ,wherefore ,i1 with avenging flame1 have laid his homestead in ashes4 ,affrighted he fled forth from thence1 and when he reached the silent field he broke forth3 in howls and strove in vain to utter speech4 ,with rage in his jaws and in the eagerness of his animal lust for murder he turned against the cattle1 and rejoices even now in their blood2 his garments have become the hairy hide1 and his arms have turned into thighs4 ,he is a wolf1 and preserves the signs of the primitive shape4 ,the tale of ,procne1 who was changed into a swallow1 sets before us the gravity of the committed abomination with a like emphasis4 ,when1 so the tale runs#add1 ,procne begs of her husband1 ,tereus--she happened at the time to stand in his favour--that he will1 forthwith let her go to see her sister or suffer her sister to visit her1 ,tereus hastens to launch his vessel on the sea and quickly reaches the harbour of ,piraeus with his seamanship4 ,he1 however1 barely catches sight of ,philomela before he is violently enamoured of her4 ,at his departure ,pandion1 the father1 binds him on oath to protect her with the love of a father1 and to send back as soon as possible the alleviation of his old age4 ,the voyage1 however1 is hardly over when the barbarous man deprives her--pale1 trembling1 already fearful of the worst1 and beseeching with tears to know where her sister is--of liberty1 and as twin-consort forces her to be his concubine along with her sister4 ,overcome with anger and thrusting all sense of shame on one side1 ,philomela threatens of her own accord to betray the deed4 ,tereus on this draws his sword1 seizes and binds her and cuts off her tongue1 informs1 however1 his wife by way of evasion of the death of her sister4 ,thereupon the sorrowing ,procne tears off the fine linen from her shoulders and puts on mourning apparel2 she raises an empty tomb and in a mode somewhat out of place1 as it happens1 laments the lamentable fate of her sister4 ,how then does ,philomela meet this8 ,a prisoner1 robbed of all speech1 of her voice1 she bethinks her of craft4 ,with threads of purple she works the news of the crime upon a white texture1 and sends the raiment secretly to ,procne4 ,the wife reads the heartrending news of her sister2 she neither speaks nor weeps2 she lives wholly in the image of revenge4 ,it was the time of the festival of ,bacchus4 ,driven forth by the furies of her passionate grief she forces her way to her sister2 she tears her from her chamber and carries her off with her away4 ,then in her own house1 while she still is in doubt what terrible act of vengeance she shall exact on ,tereus1 ,itys appears before his mother4 ,she stares upon him with eyes of wildness4 ,how like he is to his father6 ,no further word she utters1 but consummates at once the doleful deed4 ,they slay the boy and serve him on his father's table1 who partakes eagerly of his own flesh and blood4 ,he then calls for his son1 and ,procne exclaims that he carries within him that which he calls for2 and1 as he still looks about him and seeks after him and again asks and calls for him1 ,philomela sets before his face the bloody head4 ,then he breaks away from table with an awful cry of anguish1 and weeps and calls himself his son's sepulchre1 and forthwith makes after the daughters of ,pandion with the naked steel4 ,but now supplied with wings they float away from thence1 the one into the forest1 the other into the roof2 and ,tereus also1 despite all the energy of his sorrow and desire of revenge1 is changed into the bird which rears on its crest the comb of feathers1 and carries a beak of immoderate projection4 ,the name of the bird is the hoopoe4 ,on the other hand1 we have changes which proceed from a guilt of less significance4 ,as examples1 there is ,cygnus who became a swan1 and ,daphne1 the first love of ,apollo#ade1 who was changed into the laurel1 ,clyde into the heliotrope1 ,narcissus1 who despised in his vanity maidens1 and sees himself in the watery mirror1 and ,biblis#adf1 who was enamoured of her brother1 and is1 when he scorns her1 changed into the spring which even now bears her name and flows beneath the shading oak4 ,however1 we must not lose ourselves in further digression through particular examples1 and ,i will merely1 by way of passage1 and the one further reference to the change of the ,pierides1 who1 according to ,ovid#adg1 were the daughters of ,pieros and challenged the ,muses to a match of rivalry4 ,for ourselves the distinction of importance is the nature of the songs which the combatants sang respectively4 ,the ,pierides celebrate the battles of the gods#adh and honour the giants unduly while they depreciate the deeds of the great gods4 ,rising up from the depths of ,earth1 ,typhoeus filled heaven with fear2 in a body the gods take flight from thence until1 wearied out1 they rest on ,egyptian soil4 ,but here1 too1 so sang the ,pierides1 ,typhoeus arrives1 and the high gods are fain to hide themselves in illusive shapes4 ,jupiter was leader of the army1 and for this reason1 so ran their refrain1 the ,lybian ,ammon to this day is figured with crooked horns2 and in like manner the scion of ,semele is changed into a ram1 the sister of ,phoebus into a cat1 ,juno into a snow-white cow1 ,venus is concealed in a fish1 ,mercury in the feathers of ,ibis4 ,here we find therefore the gods suffer reproach in their change to animal form4 ,although their translation is not presented as a punishment for a wrong or a crime1 it is their cowardice which is held forth to us as the reason of this self-imposed metamorphosis4 ,calliope1 on the other hand1 exalts in song the good deeds and history of ,ceres4 ,ceres was the first1 so ran the strain1 to scour through the fields with the crook-backed ploughshare2 first was she to give fruits and fruitful means of nourishment to the ploughed fields4 ,first was she to lay down laws for our guidance2 we are collectively but a gift of her wisdom4 ,ah1 she exclaims1 my task is to celebrate her1 and yet how shall ,i tune my strain worthy of such a goddess6 ,assuredly the goddess is worthy of the singer's best4 ,when she has finished1 the ,pierides adjudge themselves victors in the contest3 but even as they endeavour to speak1 and with loud cries1 so ,ovid informs us 7v4 #fgj71 are flourishing about with their hands1 they perceive their nails passing away into feathers1 their arms become covered with down1 while each is aware that the mouth of the other is closing up into the stiff bill of a bird3 and while they are all for deploring their lot1 they are carried up on the waves of their wings1 they float away1 the screamers of the woods1 and as waifs of the air4 ,and even unto this day1 adds our poet1 they still retain their own glibness of tongue and excited chatter1 and infinite desire to gossip4 ,in this way we find again also here that metamorphosis is presented us as punishment1 and1 what is more1 is presented1 as is so frequently the case with such stories1 as punishment due to religious impiety4 77 ,if we consider further examples of still well recognized metamorphoses of men and gods into animals1 we shall find that1 although they do not directly imply any transgression as the cause of such a change1 as1 for example1 in the case where ,circe possessed the power to change men into animals1 yet1 for all that1 the animal condition is at least indicative of a misfortune and a humiliation1 such as brings no honour even to the person who makes such a change subservient to private ends4 ,circe was quite a subordinate1 obscure type of goddess1 and her power appears as mere witchery1 and ,mercury assists ,odysseus1 when the latter contrives to free his comrades from the spell4 ,of much the same kind are the many shapes which ,zeus takes upon himself1 as1 for example1 when he is changed into a bull in his quest of ,europa1 or when he approaches ,leda in the form of a swan1 or fructifies the ,danae in a shower of gold4 ,in all these cases the object is one of deception1 directed by purposes of an inferior1 that is to say1 not spiritual1 but purely natural quality1 purposes which the ever constant jealousy of ,juno render unavoidable4 ,the conception of a universal procreative life of ,nature1 which in many of the more ancient mythologies constituted the leading motive1 is imaginatively reproduced in separate poetical tales about the easily enamoured disposition of the father of gods and men1 exploits1 however1 which he does not carry through in his own or1 for the most part1 in human shape1 but expressly either in the shape of animals1 or some other embodiment of ,nature4 77 ,and1 lastly1 we may add to our list those hybrid forms1 combining both humanity and animalism1 which are also not excluded from ,greek art1 though the animality is here accepted as something that degrades1 is unspiritual4 ,among the ,egyptians1 for example1 the he-goat1 ,mendes1 was revered#adi1 and1 according to the opinion of ,jablouski#aej1 in the sense of the procreative power of ,nature1 generally speaking1 as that of the sun1 and to such an outrageous excess that1 according to ,pindar1 even women sacrificed themselves to these creatures4 ,among the ,greeks1 ,pan1 on the contrary1 personifies the mysterious sense of the divine presence1 and later in the shape of fauns1 satyrs1 and ,pan-like figures1 the goat shape only appeared in a subordinate way1 such as in the feet1 and in the most beautiful representations was perhaps limited to the pointed ears and little horns4 ,the rest of the figure is shaped in human guise1 and the animal suggestion thrust back upon the barest detail4 ,yet1 for all that1 fauns were not recognized among the ,greeks as gods of any important rank or spiritual forces2 their fundamental characteristic remained that of a sensuous1 uncontrolled joviality4 ,it is true that they are also artistically represented with an expression of profounder significance1 as1 for instance1 that fine example of one in ,munich1 which holds the youthful ,bacchus in his arms1 and gazes down on him with a smile which is brimming over with love and tenderness4 ,he is not to be taken as the father of ,bacchus1 but merely the foster-parent1 and we find given him here the beautiful feeling of joy in the innocence of the child1 such as that which1 in the maternal devotion of ,mary for the ,christ babe1 is exalted in romantic art to so lofty a level of contemplation4 ,among the ,greeks1 however1 this most charming love still belongs to the subordinate sphere of fauns in order to indicate that its origin is traceable from animal1 that is natural1 life1 and consequently is entitled to rank with such a sphere#aea4 ,mediate shapes of a similar kind are the centaurs1 in which we may also observe that the ,nature-aspect of sensuality and desire is also supremely prominent to the suppression of the spiritual side4 ,cheiron1 no doubt1 is of a more noble type1 a clever physician1 and the tutor of ,achilles2 but this instructive rle1 as the teacher of a child1 is not appropriate to godhead strictly1 but is to be related with human ability and cleverness4 ,in this manner the relation of the animal shape receives a modification in classical art from whatever point of view we regard it4 ,its prevailing employment is to indicate that which is evil1 bad1 inferior1 merely natural and unspiritual1 whereas1 outside ,greece it was the expression of the positive and absolute4 #b4 ,,the ,,contest ,,between ,,the ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,divinities ,the second grade of more elevated rank we may contrast with the degradation of the animal condition consists in this1 that the genuine gods of classical art1 inasmuch as they possess for their content a free self-consciousness1 which we may define as the power of spiritual individuality reposing on its own resources1 are also able to be represented as subjects of knowledge and volition1 that is as spiritual potences4 ,for this reason the humanity1 in the bodily form of which they are presented us1 is not1 as one may say1 a mere form1 which is girt about this content by virtue of the imagination under a mode of purely external validity1 but is rooted in the significance1 content1 and ideal substance itself4 ,the divine1 however1 generally speaking1 is essentially to be apprehended us unity of the natural and spiritual2 both sides are involved in the conception of the ,absolute2 and it is merely the different mode1 under which this harmony is conceived1 which constitutes from our present point of view the respective grades of the various forms of art and historic religions4 ,according to our own ,christian way of looking at it1 ,god is the creator and lord of ,nature and the spiritual world1 and therewith1 no doubt1 exempted from the immediate and determinate existence of ,nature1 for the reason that1 before all else1 he is very ,god as the taking back into ,himself of his own fulness1 that is as absolute and self-dependent ,spirit2 it is only the finite and human spirit which stands in opposition to ,nature as a limit and a bound1 a limitation which such only thereby overcomes in his determinate existence1 and exalts himself intrinsically to the grade of infinity in so far as he grasps ,nature contemplatively in thought1 and in the actual world#aeb consummates the harmony between spiritual idea1 reason1 the ,good and ,nature4 ,this infinite actualization is1 however1 ,god1 in so far as the lordship over ,nature is strictly due to ,him1 and ,he ,himself is conceived as explicit in this infinite activity1 and the knowledge and volition of such realization4 ,in the religions of strictly symbolic art1 on the contrary1 as we have traced already1 the union of the ,inward and ,ideal with ,nature was an immediate association1 which consequently made use of ,nature both as regards its substance and form as its fundamental mode of determination4 ,in this sense the sun1 the ,nile1 the sea1 the ,earth1 the natural processes of birth1 death1 procreation1 and reproduction1 in short1 all the varied changes of the universal life of ,nature were revered as divine existence and life4 ,these ,nature-forces1 however1 were even in symbolic art personified1 and consequently set up in contrast to the spiritual4 ,if1 however1 and nothing less than this is the requirement of classical art1 the gods are to be spiritual individualities in harmony with ,nature1 mere personification is a conception insufficient for this result4 ,for personification1 in the case that its content is a purely universal force and activity of ,nature1 persists as a mere form1 unable to penetrate to the constituting substance1 and can neither give existence to the spiritual content in the same1 nor its individuality4 ,we find therefore necessarily in classical art a change of front#aec1 to the effect that1 in conformity with the degradation of the animal aspect we have just been considering1 the universal power of ,nature also in one aspect of it suffers humiliation1 and the spiritual is proportionally exalted in contrast to it4 ,and by this means we find that it is the principle of subjectivity1 rather than mere personification1 which becomes the main mode of definition4 ,from another point of view1 however1 the gods of classical art do not cease to be potences of ,nature1 because ,god here has not yet come to be represented as essentially absolute and free spirituality4 ,in the relation of a merely created and ministrant creature to a lord and creator separated from it1 ,nature stands1 however1 albeit deified1 either as we have it in the art of the ,sublime--conceived as an essentially abstract1 that is purely ideal masterdom of one supreme substance1 or--as in the case of ,christianity--exalted as concrete ,spirit to absolute freedom within the pure element of spiritual existence and personal actuality4 ,neither of these examples falls in with the point of view of classical art4 ,god here is not as yet lord of ,nature1 for the reason that he does not as yet possess absolute spirituality either if regarded relatively to what is contained in ,him1 or to the mode under which ,he is apprehended4 ,he is no longer lord of ,nature1 because the sublime relation of the deified natural thing and human individuality has ceased1 and taken upon itself the limitations of beauty1 in which their just due must be rendered for art's representation without any tittle of loss to both aspects1 the universal and the individual1 the spiritual and the natural4 ,consequently in the god of classical art the nature-potency is preserved1 but is conceived as such not in the sense of the universal and all-embracing ,nature1 but as the definable1 and consequently limited activity of the sun1 sea1 and so on1 generally speaking1 as a particular natural potency1 which is made visible as spiritual individuality1 and possesses this spiritual individuality as its essential being4 ,for the reason1 then1 as we have already made clear1 that the classical ,ideal is not immediately present1 but first makes its appearance through the process in which that which is negative to the formative content of spirit is resolved1 this transformation and building up into new forms of that which is raw1 unbeautiful1 wild1 grotesque1 purely natural1 or fantastic1 which originated in earlier religious conceptions and views of art1 will be a leading interest in ,greek mythology1 and consequently will necessarily reproduce a readily defined sphere#aed of particular significances4 ,in proceeding further to examine this fundamental aspect of our present subject ,i must at once give utterance to the preliminary caution that the historic investigation of the varied and multifold conceptions of ,greek mythology lies outside our present task4 ,all we are concerned to inquire into here are the essential phasal steps of this process of reconstruction1 in so far as the same notify themselves as phases of universal import in the new artistic configuration and its content4 ,as for that infinite mass of particular myths1 narrations1 histories1 things referable to a local origin and symbolism1 which collectively still assert their predominance in the world of later gods1 and incidentally appear in artistic production1 but for all that do not belong to the vital point of interest to which our own effort is directed--we must necessarily leave all this broad field of material on one side1 and can merely refer to an example or two by way of illustration4 ,speaking generally we may compare this road1 on which we now move forwards1 to the course of the history of sculpture4 ,for inasmuch as sculpture places before the observation of sense the gods in their real form it constitutes the peculiar centrum of classical art1 albeit also the better to make it wholly understood poetry expresses itself upon gods and mankind1 or passes in review the worlds of gods and men in their activity and movement in direct contrast to that objectivity self-contained in repose4 ,just as1 then1 in sculpture the moment of all importance in the beginning is the transformation of the formless1 the stone or block of wood that has fallen from heaven 7o7--as the the great goddess of ,pessinus in ,asia ,minor actually was1 which the ,romans directed by means of a solemn embassy to be transferred to ,rome--into the human form and so makes the statue1 so too we have here to make a beginning from the formless1 uncouth powers of ,nature1 and while doing so merely to indicate the stages1 in their passage through which they are exalted into spiritual individuality and are finally concentrated in shapes of fixity4 ,we may in this connection distinguish three separable aspects as of most importance4 ,the first1 which arrests our attention1 are the oracles in which the knowledge and volition of gods1 still under a formless mode1 gives witness to their presence through natural existences4 ,the second point of view to be noted is concerned with the universal forms of ,nature1 no less than the abstractions of ,right and so forth1 which lie at the root of the genuine spiritual and individual deities1 which are1 so to speak1 their birth-cradles and furnish us with the necessary conditions of their origin and activity3 they are the old gods in contradistinction to the new4 ,thirdly1 and finally1 we are made aware of the essentially necessary progress to the ,ideal in the fact that the primarily superficial personifications of the activities of ,nature and the most abstract spiritual conditions are contested and thrust from their prominence as something essentially subordinate and negative and1 by virtue of this debasement the self-sufficient spiritual individuality and its human form and action1 is suffered to attain an unchallenged masterdom4 ,this revolution1 which constitutes the real central position in the historical origins of the classic gods1 is in ,greek mythology placed before our imagination in the conflict--a mode of presentation as nave as it is astonishingly direct--between the old and new gods1 in the headlong fall of the ,titans1 and in the victory which the divine race of ,zeus secures4 7a7 ,to take1 then1 first in order the oracles1 it will not be necessary for us now to dilate on them to any considerable extent4 ,the essential point which concerns us here is merely due to this fact1 that in classical art the phenomena of ,nature are no longer revered as such--in the way that the ,parsees1 for example1 pray to naphthetic regions or fire1 or as among the ,egyptians1 gods remain inscrutable1 mysterious1 and mute riddles--but that the gods1 being themselves subjects of knowledge and volition1 do verily give to man by means of natural phenomena indications of their wisdom4 ,in this sense the ancient ,hellenes made inquiry at the oracle of ,dodona#aee1 whether they should accept the names of gods1 which have come to them from barbarians1 and the oracle replied3 ,use them4 77 ,the signs by means of which the gods thus made their revelations are for the most part of the simplest description4 ,at ,dodona such were the rustle and whisper of the sacred oak1 the murmur of the spring1 the tones of the brazen vessel1 which the wind made thus to reverberate4 ,in like manner at ,delos it was the laurel which rustled and at ,delphi1 too1 the sound of the wind on the brazen tripod was full of significance#aef4 ,over and above1 however1 such immediately natural sounds man is also the voice-piece of the oracle in so far as he is rendered deaf to and whirled away from the alert commonsense of his ordinary mind to a natural condition of enthusiasm2 as1 for example1 the ,pythia at ,delphi was wont1 stupefied by exhalations1 to deliver the oracular words1 or in the cave of ,trophonius the inquirer of the oracle met with faces1 from the interpretation of which an answer was delivered him4 77 ,there is1 however1 another aspect which we should set alongside of the purely external sign4 ,for in the oracles ,god is1 it is true1 accepted as ,he who knows1 and the oracle of most famed repute is dedicate to ,apollo1 the god of wisdom4 ,the form1 however1 in which he reveals his will1 remains the wholly indefinite voice of ,nature1 either a natural sound1 that is1 or the unconnected tones of words4 ,in this obscurity of form the spiritual content is itself equally obscure and requires interpretation and explanation4 77 ,this explanation1 albeit it brings under a mode of spiritual life the deliverance of the god which in the first instance is presented purely in the form of ,nature's own voice1 remains despite this fact obscure and equivocal4 ,for the god is in his knowledge and volition concrete universality4 ,and of the same type also must the advice or command unavoidably be which the oracle declares4 ,the universal1 however1 is not one-sided and abstract1 but as concrete universal contains the one side no less than the other4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as man stands over against the knowing god as one unknowing he accepts the oracular word itself in ignorance4 ,in other words1 the concrete universality of the same is not open to his intelligence1 and he can merely select from the equivocal word of the god1 assuming that he decides to act upon it1 one aspect thereof1 for the reason that every action under particular circumstances is unavoidably definite1 only1 that is to say1 giving a decisive impulse in one direction and shutting off another4 ,his action is barely accomplished1 and the deed--which consequently has become his own and for which he must now be answerable--really carried through when he finds a collision confronting him4 ,all in a moment he is aware that the other side1 which lay already folded in the oracular sentence1 is turned against himself and the fatality of his deed1 his knowledge and will notwithstanding1 has him in the toils2 a fatality which he may not know1 but of which we must suppose the gods are aware4 ,conversely again the gods are determinate potencies and their expressed will1 when it carries this character of essential determinacy1 as1 for example1 the bidding of ,apollo1 which drives ,orestes forward to his revenge1 brings about a collision of forces in the selfsame way4 ,for the reason1 then1 that in one aspect of it the form1 which the spiritual knowledge of the god assumes in the oracle1 is the wholly undefined external expression or the abstract ideality of the word1 and the form itself through the equivocal sense it contains includes the possibility of discord1 we find that in classical art it is not sculpture1 but poetry1 and pre-eminently dramatic poetry1 in which oracles contribute their share of the content and are of importance4 ,in classical art1 however1 they do essentially maintain a place1 because in it human individuality has not forced its way to the full height of spiritual attainment1 where the subject draws the determination of his actions without infringement from his own resources4 ,what we in our modern sense of the term call conscience1 has not as here secured its rightful place4 ,the ,greek acts often1 it is true1 at the beck of his passion1 bad no less than good2 the genuine pathos1 however1 which is here held to quicken him1 and does in fact so quicken him1 proceeds from the gods1 whose content and might is the universal of such a pathos2 and the heroes are either immediately instinct with the same1 or they interrogate oracles for advice1 when the gods do not present themselves openly to their vision1 by way of quickening the deed to be done4 7b7 ,moreover1 as in the oracle the content is to be found in the gods that know and willy while the form of the external phenomenon is the external which is abstract and a part of ,nature1 from the other point of view that which is natural1 if we look at it relatively to its universal forces and the activities which belong to these1 becomes the content1 from out of which the independent individuality has first to force its way up1 and receives as its original form merely the formal and superficial personification4 ,the thrusting back of these purely natural forces1 the opposition and contention through which they are overcome is just the significant centre1 for which we are indebted primarily to classical art1 and which we must consequently submit to a closer examination4 77 ,the first thing we would remark in this connection is attributable to the circumstance that we are not here concerned--as in that view of the world which belongs to the ,sublime1 or in part even that appropriate to ,hindoo doctrines--with ,god already essentially devoid of any relation to sense1 when regarded as the starting point of all creation1 but rather with that in which ,nature's gods1 and we may add in the first instance the more universal forces of ,nature such as ,chaos1 ,tartarus1 ,erebus1 the entire savage and subterranean substance1 and1 furthermore1 ,uranos1 ,gaia1 the ,titan ,eros1 ,kronos1 and the rest1 supply the beginning#aeg4 ,it is from out of these1 then1 that the better defined powers1 such as ,helios1 ,oceanos1 and others like them first have their being2 while they1 in their turn1 become the natural cradle for the later spiritual and individualized divinities4 ,we find1 therefore1 again here another theogony and cosmogony which is the work of the imagination1 whose earliest gods1 however1 still remain for the observer under one aspect of an undefined character1 or vaguely extend beyond all reasonable limit2 and1 if viewed from another standpoint1 still carry with them much that is essentially symbolical4 77 ,the more detailed distinctions among these ,titan potencies may be thus indicated3 77 ,first1 we have those powers of the ,earth and the stars1 without spiritual and ethical content1 consequently dissolute1 a raw1 savage race1 gigantic and formless1 as though they were scions of ,hindoo or ,egyptian imagination4 ,they are to be classed with other individualities of ,nature such as ,brontes1 ,steropes1 and again with the hundred-handed ,kottos1 ,briareus1 and ,gyges1 the giants and the rest standing in the first instance beneath the lordship of ,uranos1 then of ,kronos1 that chief of the ,titans1 who obviously is a kind of personified ,time1 devouring all his children1 just as ,time eventually annihilates everything that it has brought to birth4 ,this myth is not without a symbolical significance4 ,for the life of ,nature is1 in fact1 subjugate to ,time1 and brings only the ,past into existence1 just as in the same way the prehistoric times of some people1 which is only one nation1 one stock1 yet constitutes no genuine ,state1 and pursues no definite objects essentially made clear to itself1 becomes the sport of the power of a ,time1 which is destitute of history4 ,we touch solid ground for the first time when we come to law1 morality1 and the ,state1 something permanent which remains though races pass away1 as it is said that the ,muses give permanence and a defence to everything1 which1 as the life of ,nature and present action1 had only vanished swept away with ,time4 77 ,but1 further1 it is not only that the forces of ,nature belong to this sphere of the old gods1 but also the forces noted as earliest over the elements4 ,in particular the first active agency upon metal through the force of what is still raw1 and elementary ,nature1 that is air1 water1 fire1 is of importance4 ,we may mention in illustration the ,corybantes1 the ,telchines1 demons of both beneficent and evil influence1 the ,pataeci1 pygmies1 dwarfs1 cunning in the woodman's craft1 small1 with big paunches4#aeh ,more prominent notice should be taken of ,prometheus1 as illustrating in the chief place a fundamental point of new departure4 ,prometheus is a ,titan of exceptional type and deserves exceptional attention4 ,together with his brother ,epimetheus he appears in the first instance as favourable to the young gods2 then he stands out as the benefactor of men1 who in other respects have no defined relation with the new gods or the ,titans4 ,he brings fire to man1 and thereby supplies them with the means of satisfying their needs and working the technical arts1 which are no longer1 however1 regarded as natural products1 and consequently it would appear do not stand in any closer association with ,titan workmanship4 ,for this interference ,zeus punishes ,prometheus until ,hercules finally releases him from suffering4 ,at the first glance there would appear to be nothing strictly ,titanesque in these main features of the story2 nay1 it would not be difficult to point out an inconsequence in the fact that ,prometheus1 just as ,ceres1 is a benefactor of mankind1 and is none the less numbered among the old ,titanic potencies4 ,if we look at the matter more closely1 however1 this inconsequence will at once disappear4 ,in this connection several passages from ,plato's works will help us sufficiently to clear the difficulty4 ,there is the myth in which the guest-friend recites to the younger ,socrates that in the time of ,kronos men originated from the ,earth1 while the god1 on his part1 devoted his attention to the whole#aei4 ,after this step a movement of opposite tendency sprang up1 and the ,earth was left to itself#afj1 so that now the beasts became savage1 and mankind1 whose means of nourishment and all their other needs had hitherto passed immediately into their hands1 were left alone without advice or assistance4 ,well1 according to this myth1 it was in such a condition#afa that fire was brought to mankind by ,prometheus1 all other accessories of craftsmanship being communicated by ,hephaestos and his companion in craftsmanship1 ,athene4 ,here we have notified expressly a distinction between fire and the thing which artistic ability produces by working on the raw material2 and only the gift of fire is ascribed to ,prometheus4 ,plato narrates the myth of ,prometheus at greater length in the ,protagoras4 ,there we read#afb3 ,there was once a time when gods indeed existed1 but mortal beings had not appeared4 ,when the foreordained time of their birth also had come1 the gods created them in the inward parts of the ,earth1 composing their substance of ,earth and fire and that which is the union of both these elements4 ,when the gods were desirous of bringing them into the light1 they handed them over to ,prometheus and ,epimetheus to apportion and arrange the energies of each singly as was right4 ,epimetheus1 however1 requested of ,prometheus that the apportionment might be left to him4 ,after ,i have done this1 quoth he1 you may mark and express an opinion4 ,epimetheus1 however1 by a blunder apportioned everything worth having to the animal world1 so that there was nothing left over for mankind2 and when ,prometheus made his inspection he found that though all other living things were wisely provided with all their needs mankind remained naked1 unprotected1 without covering or weapons4 ,but already the appointed day had appeared in which it was necessary that man should pass from the bowels of the ,earth into the light4 ,in the embarrassment in which he was placed to procure some assistance for mankind ,prometheus stole the wisdom that is shared by ,hephaestos and ,athene by taking fire--for without fire it would be impossible to possess it or make it of use--and made a present of this to men4 ,man now1 it is true1 possessed the wisdom necessary for the support of his life1 but he was still without political wisdom1 for this was still lodged with ,zeus4 ,entry1 however1 to the stronghold of ,zeus was no longer permitted ,prometheus1 and apart from this the awful watchers of ,zeus barred the way4 ,he passed1 however1 secretly into the chamber which ,hephaestos and ,athene shared in the practice of their art1 and having secured the forging-art of ,hephaestos he pilfered that other art 7the art of weaving7 which was possessed by ,athene and presented this to mankind4 ,out of these possessions the means of satisfying the needs of ,life is provided for man 7o o o74 ,prometheus receives1 however1 as already narrated1 punishment for the thefts he commits owing to the blunders of ,epimetheus4 ,plato further tells us in a passage which immediately follows the above that mankind was still destitute of the art of war for their protection against the animal world1 which was merely a part of the art of politics1 and consequently were collected into cities1 and would have so outraged each other and finally broken up such asylums for the reason that they were without all political organization1 that ,zeus found it necessary to send down to them under the escort of ,hermes ,shame and ,right4 ,in these passages the distinction between the immediate objects of life1 which are related to physical comfort1 that is1 the provision for the satisfaction of the most primary necessaries and political organization1 such as sets before itself as its object what is spiritual1 custom1 law1 right of property1 freedom1 and communal existence is expressly emphasized4 ,this principle of ethical life and right#afc1 ,prometheus did not give to men1 he merely taught them the cunning by means of which they might overcome natural objects and make them serviceable to their needs4 ,fire and the craftsmanship which makes use of fire have nothing ethical about them in themselves2 and it is just the same with the art of weaving2 in the first instance they are devoted to the exclusive service of private individuals1 without coming into any relation with that which is shared in human existence or with ,life in its public character4 ,for the reason1 then1 that ,prometheus was unable to furnish mankind with anything more spiritual or ethical1 he also does not belong to the race of new gods1 but to the ,titans#afd4 ,hephaestos1 it is true1 also possessed fire and the particular crafts to which it is essential as an instrument for his field of activity1 and is none the less accredited as a new god3 but ,zeus cast him from ,olympus1 and he continued to limp ever after4 ,just as little is it1 therefore1 an inconsequence when we find ,ceres placed among the younger gods1 who proved herself a benefactor of mankind just as ,prometheus did4 ,for that which ,ceres taught was agriculture1 with which at the same time property1 and yet more1 marriage1 social custom1 and law stand in close association4 77 ,a third class of the ancient gods contains1 it is true1 neither personified potencies of ,nature1 as such1 nor the might which next follows as lord over the particular elements of ,nature in the service of the more subordinate human necessities1 but is already contestant with that which is essentially in itself ideal1 universal1 and spiritual4 ,what1 however1 is none the less lacking in the powers we have here to reckon with is spiritual individuality and its appropriate form and manifestation1 so that they also more or less relatively to their operations keep a position which is more nearly akin to the necessity and essential being of ,nature4 ,in illustration of this type we may recall the conception of ,nemesis1 ,dike1 the ,erinnyes1 ,eumenides1 and ,moirai4 ,no doubt we find associated with these figures the determinate notions of right and justice2 but this inevitable right1 instead of being conceived and clothed in the essentially spiritual and substantive medium of social morality#afe1 remains either persistent in the universal abstract notion1 or is related to the obscure right of that which is natural within the circle of spiritual connections1 the love of kindred1 for example1 and its paramount claim1 which does not appertain to ,spirit in the open freedom of itself self-recognized2 and consequently also does not appear as lawful right1 but in opposition to this as the irreconcilable right of revenge4 ,to bring the view of the above nearer ,i will merely draw attention to one or two ideas bound up with it4 ,nemesis1 for example1 is the might to humiliate the exalted1 and to cast down the man all too fortunate from his lofty seat1 and consequently to restore equilibrium4 ,the claim or right of equilibrium is the purely abstract and external right1 which1 it is true1 certifies itself as operative in the range of spiritual circumstances1 and conditions1 without1 however1 making the ethical organization of the same the content of justice4 ,another aspect of importance attaches to this circumstance1 that the right of the family-condition is apportioned by the ancient gods1 in so far as these repose on a condition of ,nature1 and thereby are in antagonism with the public right and law of the community4 ,we may adduce the ,eumenides of ,aeschylus as the clearest illustration of this point4 ,the direful maidens pursue ,orestes on account of the murder of his mother1 a murder which ,apollo1 the younger god1 had directed1 in order that ,agamemnon1 the slaughtered spouse and king1 should not remain unavenged4 ,the entire drama consequently is concentrated in a conflict between these divine ,powers1 which confront each other in person4 ,on the one side we have the goddesses of revenge1 the ,eumenides2 but they are called here the beneficent1 and our ordinary conception of the ,furies1 into which we convert them1 is set before us as rude and uncouth4 ,for they possess an essential right thus to persecute1 and are therefore not merely hateful1 wild1 and ferocious in the torments which they impose4 ,the right1 however1 which they enforce as against ,orestes is only the family-right in so far as this is rooted in the blood relation4 ,the profoundest association of son and mother is the substantive fact which they represent4 ,apollo opposes to this natural ethical relation1 rooted as it is already both on the physical side and in feeling1 the right of the spouse and the chieftain who has been violated in respect to the highest right he can claim4 ,this distinction is in the first instance brought to our notice in an external way since both parties are champions for morality within one and the same sphere1 namely the family4 ,the sterling#aff imagination of ,aeschylus has1 however1 here--and we cannot sufficiently value it on this score--discovered for us a contradiction1 which is not by any means a superficial one1 but of fundamental significance4 ,that is to say1 the relation of children to parents reposes on the unity of the natural nexus2 the association of man and wife on the contrary must be accepted as marriage1 which does not merely proceed from purely natural love1 that is from the blood or natural affinity1 but originates out of a conscious inclination1 and for this reason belongs to the free ethical sphere of the self-conscious will4 ,however much1 therefore1 marriage is bound up with love and feeling it is none the less to be distinguished from the purely natural emotion of love1 because it also freely recognizes definite obligations quite independent of the same1 which persist when that feeling of love may have ceased4 ,the notion1 in short1 and the knowledge of the substantiality of marital life is something later and more profound than the purely natural connection between mother and son1 and constitutes the beginning of the ,state as the realization of the free and rational will4 ,in like manner we shall find resident in the relation of prince to citizen the association of a similar political right1 law1 and the self-conscious freedom and spirituality of similar social aims4 ,this is the reason why the ,eumenides1 the ancient goddesses1 pursue ,orestes with punishment1 whereas ,apollo--the clear1 knowing and self-consciously knowing ethical sense--defends the right of the spouse and the chief1 justly opposing the ,eumenides3 ,if the crime of ,clytemnestra were not scented out ,i should be in verity without honour and despised as nought by the consummator ,here and the ,councils of ,zeus#afg4 ,of still greater interest1 albeit wholly involved in human feeling and action1 is the contradiction which we have set before us in the ,antigone1 one of the most sublime1 and in every respect most consummate work of art human effort ever produced4 ,not a detail in this tragedy but is of consequence4 ,the public law of the ,state and the instinctive family-love and duty towards a brother are here set in conflict4 ,antigone1 the woman1 is pathetically possessed by the interest of family2 ,kreon1 the man1 by the welfare of the community4 ,polynices1 in war with his own father-city1 had fallen before the gates of ,thebes1 and ,kreon1 the lord thereof1 had by means of a public proclamation threatened everyone with death who should give this enemy of the city the right of burial4 ,antigone1 however1 refused to accept this command1 which merely concerned the public weal1 and1 constrained by her pious devotion for her brother1 carried out as sister the sacred duty of interment4 ,in doing this she relied on the law of the gods4 ,the gods1 however1 whom she thus revered1 are the ,dei inferi of ,hades#afh1 the instinctive ,powers of feeling1 ,love and kinship1 not the daylight gods of free and self-conscious1 social1 and political life4 77 ,the third point1 which we would advert to in connection with the theogony of the outlook of artists in the classic period1 has reference to the difference between individuals of the older gods relatively to their powers and the duration of their authority4 77 ,in the first place1 the origin of these gods is a succession4 ,from ,chaos1 according to ,hesiod1 proceeds ,gaia1 ,uranos1 and others1 after that ,kronos and his race1 finally ,zeus and his subjects4 ,this succession appears in one aspect of it as a rise from the more abstract and formless to the more concrete and already fairly defined powers of ,nature2 in another as the beginnings of the superiority of the spiritual over the natural4 ,thus in his ,eumenides ,aeschylus makes the ,pythia in the temple of ,delphi begin with the words3 ,first of all ,i revere in my prayer her who first gave us oracles1 ,gaia1 and after her ,themis1 who as second after her mother had her prophetic seat in this place4 ,pausanias1 on the other hand1 who also names the ,earth first as giver of oracles1 says that ,daphne was ordained by her afterwards in the prophetic office4 ,in another series again ,pindar places ,night in the first place1 after her he makes ,themis follow1 then comes ,phoebe1 and finally he closes the succession with ,phoebus4 ,it would be of interest to analyse more closely these particular differences2 such an inquiry1 however1 lies outside our present purpose4 77 ,this succession further1 in addition to its aspect of being an extension into essentially profounder conceptions of godhead1 possessing1 that is1 a fuller content1 also appears as the degradation of the earlier and more abstract type within the range of the older race of gods itself4 ,the primary and most ancient powers are robbed of their masterdom1 just as we find ,kronos dethroned ,uranos1 and the later representatives are set up in their place4 77 ,in this way the negative relation of the reformation#afi1 which we settled at once to be the essence of this first stage of the classic type of art1 becomes the proper centre of the same4 ,and it is so for the reason that personification is here the universal form1 in which the gods are presented to the imagination1 and the progressive movement comes into opposition with human and spiritual individuality4 ,and although this appears in the first instance still in a form indeterminate and formless1 we necessarily find that the imagination presents this negative attitude of the younger gods against the more ancient under the image of conflict and war4 ,the essential advance is1 however1 from ,nature to ,spirit1 implying by the latter the true content and the real form appropriate to classical art4 ,this progress and the conflicts by means of which we perceive that it is carried forward1 belong no longer exclusively to the sphere of the old gods1 but centre in the war through which the new gods lay the foundation of their enduring mastery over the ancient4 7c7 ,the opposition between ,nature and ,spirit is in the nature of the case inevitable4 ,for the notion of ,spirit1 as in very truth totality1 is1 as we have already seen1 essentially simply this1 to split itself in twain1 that is into its intrinsic constituents as objectivity and as subject1 in order that by means of this opposition it may emerge from ,nature and confront the same forthwith free and jubilant as vanquisher and superior might4 ,this fundamental phase1 rooted in the very essence of ,spirit1 is consequently a material aspect in the conception which it supplies to itself of that nature4 ,regarded historically1 that is on the plane of ordinary reality1 this passage asserts itself as the reconstruction through progressive steps of the natural man into the condition where right1 property1 laws1 constitution and political life are paramount4 ,regarded under a mode which relates this process to gods and sub specie eternitatis it becomes the conception of the victory over the natural ,powers by means of the spiritual and individual ,divinities4 77 ,this contest exposes an absolute catastrophe1 and is the essential deed of the gods1 by virtue of which the fundamental distinction between the old and new gods is first made visible4 ,consequently we ought not to point to the war1 which exposes this distinction as a mythical story in the same way we should point to any other myth2 rather we should regard it as the mythos1 which in fact punctuates a great moment of transition1 and expresses the creation of the later theogony4 77 ,the result of this violent strife among the gods is the ruin of the ,titans1 the unique victory of the new gods1 who forthwith receive in their assured dominion a plenitude of gifts in every direction from the imagination4 ,the ,titans1 on the other hand1 are banished1 and compelled to huddle in the hollows of the ,earth1 or1 like ,oceanos1 dally on the dark skirts of the clear1 joyful world1 or still endure many grievous punishments4 ,prometheus1 for example1 is fettered on the ,scythian mountains1 where an eagle insatiable devours the liver that ever renews itself4 ,in like manner an infinite and inexhaustible thirst torments ,tantalus in the lower world1 and ,sisyphus is for ever constrained to roll up hill in vain the rock that for ever rolls back again4 ,these punishments are1 in truth1 the false type of infinity1 the yearning of the indefinite aspiration or the unsatisfied craving of natural desires1 which in their eternal repetition fail to discover rest or final satisfaction4 ,for the truly godlike intuition of the ,greeks regarded the mere extension into space and the region of the indefinite1 not1 as some modern votaries of such longings do1 as the highest attainment of mankind1 but as a damnation which it relegates to ,tartarus4 77 ,if we ask ourselves in a general way1 what from this point must for classical art fall into the background1 failing1 that is1 to have any right to figure as its final form and adequate content1 we shall find at the earliest point of departure the elements of ,nature4 ,with them disappear from the world of the new gods all that is gloomy#agj1 fantastical1 void of clarity1 every wild confusion between ,nature and ,spirit1 between significances essentially substantive and the accidental incidents of externality4 ,in a world such as this the creations of an unrestricted imagination1 which has not yet for its principle the measure of spiritual proportion1 have no place1 and are compelled and justly so to vanish before the clear light of day4 ,we may furbish up the monstrous ,cabeiri#aga1 the ,corybantes1 these representatives of procreative force as much as we choose1 yet for all that such presentations in every trait of them--to say nothing of the ancient ,baubo1 whom ,goethe sets careering over the ,blocksberg on an old sow--belong to a greater or less degree to the twilight of consciousness4 ,only that which is spiritual imperatively demands the light2 and that which does not reveal itself and in itself expound its own interpretation is the unspiritual1 which fades again once more into ,night and obscurity4 ,that which is of ,spirit on the contrary reveals itself1 and purifies itself1 by itself defining its external form1 from the caprice of the imagination1 the flood of obstructing shapes1 and the otherwise perturbed accessories of symbolical sense4 ,for the same reasons we now find that human activity1 in so far as it is limited merely to ,nature's wants and their satisfaction1 falls into the background4 ,that old right1 ,themis1 ,dike and the rest1 as one not determinate through laws which originate in self-conscious ,spirit1 loses its unimpaired validity1 and in the same way1 if conversely1 that which is purely local1 albeit there is still room left for its play1 passes by incorporation into the universal figures of the gods2 in which we may still trace the lingering vestiges that remain of it4 ,for as in the ,trojan war the ,greeks fought and conquered as one people1 so1 too1 the ,homeric gods1 who already have their conflict with the ,titans behind them in the past1 are one essentially secure and defined god-world1 a world which is yet further with ever-increasing fulness made definite and unassailable by later poetry and the plastic arts4 ,this invincible consistency#agb is in its relation to the content of the ,greek world of gods ,spirit and only ,spirit2 but not ,spirit in its abstract ideality1 but as identified with its external and adequate existence1 just as with ,plato soul and body1 as in union brought into one nature and in this consolidation from one piece1 is at once the ,divine and ,eternal4 #c4 ,,the ,,positive ,,conservation ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,set ,,up ,,through ,,negation ,despite1 then1 the victory of the new gods that which came before them still remains in the classical type of art partly preserved and revered in the original form in which we have already recognized it1 partly under a transmuted mode4 ,it is only the limited ,jewish national god which is unable to tolerate other gods in its company for the reason that it purports as the one god to include everything1 although in regard to the definition of its form it fails to pass beyond its exclusiveness wherein the god is merely the ,god of ,his own people4 ,such a god manifests his universality in fact only through his creation of ,nature and as ,lord of the heavens and the earth4 ,for the rest he remains the god of ,abraham1 who led his people ,israel out of ,egypt1 gave them laws on ,sinai1 and divided the land of ,canaan among the ,jews4 ,and through this narrow identification of him with the ,jewish nation he is in a quite peculiar way the god of this folk2 and consequently1 speaking generally1 neither stands in positive consonance with ,nature1 nor appears truly as absolute ,spirit referable back from his determinate character and objectivity to his universality4 ,consequently this austere1 national god is so jealous1 and ordains in his jealousy that men shall see elsewhere merely false idols4 ,the ,greeks1 on the contrary1 discovered their gods among other nations and accepted what was foreign among themselves4 ,for the god of classical art has spiritual and bodily individuality and is for this reason not the one and only one1 but merely a particular godhead1 which1 as everything else that shares particularity1 has a circle of particularity which surrounds it or in opposition to it as its ,other1 from which it is the result1 and which is qualified to preserve its validity and worth4 ,the process here is analogous to that of the particular divisions of ,nature4 ,although the world of vegetation is the truth of the geological image of ,nature1 the animal again the higher truth of the vegetable1 yet the mountains and the flooded land persist as the solid basis of trees1 shrubs1 and flowers1 which in their turn do not lose their existence alongside the world of animals4 7a7 ,the earliest form under which among the ,greeks we come upon this ancient residue1 are the ,mysteries4 ,the ,greek ,mysteries were nothing secret in the sense that the ,greek nation was not in a general way aware of their content4 ,on the contrary1 the majority of the ,athenians and a large number of foreigners were among the initiated in the ,eleusinian mysteries2 but they were not permitted to speak of that in which they had been instructed through initiation4 ,in our own times people have been at great pains to discover more nearly the type of conceptions which prevailed in these mysteries1 and to investigate the kind of religious services which were used in their celebration4 ,it appears1 however1 that on the whole there was no extensive wisdom or profound knowledge concealed in the ,mysteries4 ,they merely preserved the old traditions1 the basis1 that is1 of what was latterly reconstructed by the genuine type of art1 and consequently1 so far from containing the true1 higher1 and more valuable content1 rather unfolded that which was of less significance and of inferior rank4 ,whatever it was1 this holiness was not clearly expressed in the mysteries1 but merely handed down in its symbolical features4 ,and in fact this character of secrecy and reticence is bound up with the old telluric1 sidereal1 and ,titanic deposit2 ,spirit alone is the revealed and the self-revealer4 ,consonant1 too1 with this it is the symbolical mode of expression which constitutes the other aspect of secrecy in the mysteries1 because in symbolism the interpretation remains obscure1 and contains a something other than the external image1 which it purports to display1 in fact offers to the view4 ,in this sense1 for example1 the mysteries of ,demeter and ,bacchus were1 it is true1 spiritually interpreted1 and contained a profounder sense4 ,the form of the same remained quite externally isolate from this content1 so that it was impossible clearly to disengage it from it4 ,consequently the ,mysteries had very little influence over art2 for though we are told of ,aeschylus1 that he willfully betrayed something which attached to the ,demeter mysteries1 this merely amounts to an assertion on his part that ,artemis had been the daughter of ,ceres1 which is not very profound wisdom after all4 7b7 ,but1 secondly1 we find that the reverence and preservation of the old rgime is yet more clearly indicated in actual artistic representation4 ,we have already referred to ,prometheus as the chastised ,titan who appears in the stage immediately prior to that of genuine art4 ,we meet with him however again as delivered4 ,for as the ,earth and as the ,sun1 so also the fire1 which ,prometheus brought down to men1 that is1 the eating of flesh1 which he taught them1 is an essential feature of human life1 a necessary condition for the satisfaction of their needs2 and consequently ,prometheus is honoured with an enduring recognition#agc4 ,in the ,oedipus ,colonos of ,sophocles we have the words3 _/ o o ' oo e ,t o#agd _/ and the scholiast adds that ,prometheus was revered in the ,academy along with ,athene1 as ,hephaestos was1 and a temple was shown in a grove of the goddess1 and an ancient pedestal near the entrance1 where there was not only an image of ,hephaestos1 but also one of ,prometheus4 ,prometheus1 however1 according to the statement of ,lysimachides1 was represented as primary and more ancient1 and he held in his hand a sceptre2 ,hephaestos as the younger and in the second place1 and the altar on the pedestal was shared by both4 ,prometheus1 then1 according to the tale1 was not obliged to endure his chastisement for ever1 but was released from his fetters by ,hercules4 ,in this story of his liberation we come across certain remarkable traits4 ,in other words1 ,prometheus is delivered from his agony because he informs ,zeus of the danger which threatens his empire at the hands of the thirteenth descendant4 ,this descendant is ,hercules1 to whom1 we may add in illustration1 ,poseidon exclaims in the ,birds of ,aristophanes#age1 he will do himself an injury1 if he strike a bargain with reference to the transference of the divine headship1 for all that ,zeus leaves behind him on his decease will most assuredly take place4 ,and1 in fact1 ,hercules is the only man who passed over into ,olympus1 became a god after being a man1 and stands higher than ,prometheus1 who remained a ,titan4 ,moreover1 the overturning of the old race of tyrants is intimately connected with the name of ,hercules and the ,heraklidae4 ,the ,heraklidae break up the power of the old dynasties and royal houses1 in which we may remark the selfish desire of personal aggrandizement and lawlessness no less than disregard for their subjects admitted no judicial restraint1 and consequently was responsible for the grossest cruelties4 ,hercules1 though himself in the service of a superior lord1 overcame the savagery of this despotism4 ,in a similar way we may1 to linger once more for a moment by the illustrations we adduced on a former page1 recall again to our readers the ,eumenides of ,aeschylus4 ,the conflict between ,apollo and the ,eumenides is to be settled by the intervention of the ,areopagus4 ,in other words1 a human tribunal1 as a whole1 at whose head stands ,athene1 stands forth as the concrete spirit of the folk1 and is as such to terminate the collision4 ,the judges1 however1 give an equal number of votes for condemnation and acquittal1 having an equal reverence both for the ,eumenides and ,apollo2 the white pebble of ,athene1 however1 decides the conflict in favour of ,apollo4 ,the ,eumenides break out in indignation against this decision of ,athene2 she1 however1 allays their wrath by promising them worship and altars in the famous grove of ,colonos4 ,what the ,eumenides have to give in return to her people is a protection against the evils#agf which result from the elements of ,nature1 the earth1 the heavens1 the sea1 and the winds2 they have further to ward off unfruitfulness in the fields1 the failure of living seed1 and misbirths in all else that is procreated4 ,pallas1 on her part1 takes beneath her protection the strife of wars and sacred contests4 ,ina similar way ,sophocles#agg1 in his ,antigone1 not only makes ,antigone suffer and die1 but to a like extent we find that ,kreon is punished by the loss of his wife and the death of ,haemon1 both of whom perish through the death of ,antigone4 7c7 ,thirdly1 the ancient gods do not merely preserve their place in juxtaposition to the new1 but1 what is of more importance1 the natural basis itself is maintained by the new gods1 and receives1 continuing to made its echo sound in them1 if in conformity with the spiritual individuality of classical art1 a reverential acceptance4 77 ,and for this reason people are not unfrequently led into the error of conceiving the ,greek gods1 in respect to their human character and form1 as mere allegories of such natural elements4 ,this is not so4 ,in this sense we frequently hear it stated that ,helios is the god of the sun1 ,diana the goddess of the moon1 or ,neptune the god of the sea4 ,such a separation1 however1 between the natural element1 as content1 and the humanly shaped personification1 as form1 no less than the external association of both1 regarded merely as the masterdom of the god over the natural fact1 as we are accustomed to it in the ,old ,testament1 is quite inapplicable to ,greek conceptions4 ,we never find among the ,greeks such an expression as o o1 1 and so forth1 though it is quite certain they would have used with others such an expression for the relation in question1 had it been compatible with their point of view4 ,helios is the sun as god4 77 ,we must1 however1 at once insist on the further fact that the ,greeks never regarded mere ,nature as itself divine4 ,on the contrary1 they retained the definite conception that what was purely natural was not divine4 ,this is partly contained1 if unexpressed1 in what their gods actually are1 in part also it is expressly stated so by themselves4 ,plutarch1 for example1 in his essay upon ,isis and ,osiris1 refers incidentally to the modes of interpretation current of myths and divinities4 ,osiris and ,isis belong to the ,egyptian theogony1 and had yet more of the natural element for their content than the ,greek gods1 who correspond to them2 they merely express the longing and conflict to escape out of the circle of ,nature to that of ,spirit4 ,in later times they were very highly honoured in ,rome1 and the mysteries allied with them were of great importance4 ,yet for all that it is ,plutarch's view that it would be an interpretation beneath the level of the subject to think of explaining them as sun1 earth1 or water4 ,only that which in the sun1 ,earth1 and so forth1 is without measure or co-ordination1 defective or superfluous1 can strictly be referred to the natural elements1 and all that is good and conformable to order is as exclusively a work of ,isis1 and the rational principle1 the o1 a work of ,osiris4 ,it is not1 therefore1 the natural as such which is adduced as the substantive content of these gods1 but the spiritual principle1 the universal1 o1 reason1 conformity to law4 ,by virtue of this insight into the spiritual nature of the gods1 the more definite elements of ,nature1 then1 had also among the ,greeks been differentiated from the later gods4 ,we have1 it is true1 grown accustomed to associate ,helios and ,selene1 to take two examples1 with ,apollo and ,diana3 in ,homer1 however1 they are presented as distinct4 ,the same remark applies to ,oceanos and others4 77 ,but in the third place an echo still lingers in the new gods of the natural powers1 whose operative energies themselves belong to the spiritual individuality of the gods4 ,we have already indicated1 at an earlier stage1 the basis of this positive connection of the spiritual and natural in the ideal of classical art1 and may limit our observations here to a few illustrations4 77 ,in ,poseidon resides1 as in ,pontus and ,oceanus1 the might of the world-encircling sea1 but his power and activity extends further4 ,he built ,ilium and was a shield of ,athens4 ,generally he is revered as the founder of cities1 in so far as the sea is the element of sea-faring1 of commerce1 and a bond between mankind4 ,apollo1 in like manner1 is the light of knowledge1 of oracular speech1 and preserves1 moreover1 a distant relation with ,helios1 as the natural light of the sun4 ,critics differ1 no doubt--take ,voss and ,creuzer for examples--as to whether ,apollo is referable to the sun4 ,one may1 however1 in fact1 assert that he both is and is not the sun1 since he is not limited to its natural content1 but is raised thereby to the significance of a spiritual import4 ,it is impossible to escape the inevitable connection in which knowledge and light1 the light of ,nature and that of ,spirit1 if we regard their fundamental characteristics1 stand relatively to one another4 ,light regarded as a element of ,nature is that which manifests4 ,without our seeing ,light itself it makes visible to us the illuminated objects around4 ,by means of ,light everything grows on the plane of contemplation for something else4 ,spirit1 that is the free light of consciousness1 knowledge1 and cognition1 possesses just the same character of manifestation4 ,the distinction1 apart from the differences of the respective spheres1 in which these two modes of manifestation reveal themselves1 consists simply in this1 that ,spirit reveals itself1 and in that which it brings us1 or which it assimilates as content#agh1 remains constant to itself4 ,light1 however1 does not make itself apprehensible to itself1 but1 on the contrary1 makes that which is other and external to itself apprehensible2 and though1 no doubt1 we may say this is done from its own resources1 yet it cannot1 as the ,spirit can1 once more retire into itself4 ,for this reason it does not win the higher unity which finds itself constant by itself in another4 ,just as1 then1 light and knowledge are closely associated1 we find in ,apollo1 as spiritual god1 still a recollection of the light of the sun4 ,for this reason ,homer1 for example1 ascribes the plague in the camp of the ,greeks to ,apollo1 which1 in such a locality is in the summer solstice ascribable to the operation of the sun4 ,we may add that his deadly arrows have unquestionably a symbolical reference to the solar rays4 ,in the external representation it is external signs which more closely determine under what specific interpretation the god shall be mainly accepted4 ,more particularly when we follow up the origins of the later gods we are able to recognize the natural element1 which the gods of the classic ideal retain in themselves4 ,this is a point which ,creuzer in particular has made clear4 ,for example1 in the conception of ,jupiter there are many features which indicate a solar source4 ,the twelve labours of ,hercules1 the expedition1 for example1 in which he carries off the apples of the ,hesperides1 have relation both to the sun and the twelve months4 ,at the root of the conception of ,diana we have the distinct suggestion of the mother of ,nature1 just as the ,ephesian ,diana1 for example1 which floats between the old world and the new1 has for her fundamental content ,nature generally1 procreation and nutrition2 which latter feature is clearly indicated in a part of her external form1 namely the breasts4 ,if we consider the ,greek ,artemis1 on the other hand1 the huntress1 who slays wild animals1 we find that in her humanly beautiful and maiden form and self-continency1 this aspect falls entirely into the background1 although the half moon and the arrows still distinctly recall to us ,selene4 ,to take ,aphrodite in the same way1 the more we follow her back to her original source in ,asia the more she approaches a force of ,nature4 ,once arrived in ,greece1 the spiritual and more individual aspect of her grace1 charm1 and love1 passion is more emphasized1 albeit here1 too1 the natural basis is by no means entirely absent4 ,in the same way the productivity of ,nature is1 no doubt1 the original cradle which gives us ,ceres4 ,starting from that we proceed to the spiritual content1 whose relations are developed from agriculture1 property1 etc4 ,the source in ,nature of the ,muses is the murmur of the spring-water2 and ,zeus himself may be accepted under one aspect as the universal ,power of ,nature1 and is revered as the ,thunderer1 as with ,homer already thunder is the sign of misfortune or assistance1 is1 in short1 an omen1 and as such is relative to that which is human and spiritual4 ,juno1 too1 implies a natural association with the firmament of cloud and the heavenly sphere in which the gods move to and fro4 ,so we are told1 for example1 that ,zeus laid ,hercules on the breast of ,juno1 and from the milk which spouted thereout flashed into being the ,milky ,way4 77 ,just as1 then1 in the later gods1 from one point of view the universal elements of ,nature are dethroned1 while from another they are maintained1 we have the same process repeated in that which is1 more strictly speaking1 animal1 which we merely regarded in a former passage on the side of its degradation4 ,we are now able to point out a more positive aspect under which such may be considered4 ,since1 however1 in the classic gods the symbolic mode of configuration is abolished1 and they secure as their content the spirit that is self-luminous1 the symbolical significance of animals must tend to pass away precisely in proportion as the animal form has taken to itself the right to mingle with the human under a mode naturally alien to it4 ,it will therefore appear merely as a significant attribute1 and is established in juxtaposition to the human form of the gods4 ,thus we find the eagle as attendant on ,jupiter1 the peacock on ,juno1 the doves as accompanying ,aphrodite1 the hound1 ,anubis1 as watch-dog of the lower world1 and so forth4 ,if1 therefore1 there is still a symbolical aspect which attaches to the ideals of the spiritual gods1 yet1 if contrasted with the original significance1 it will appear of little importance2 and the natural significance1 if strictly regarded1 which previously constituted the essential content1 will merely persist as a residue1 and mere particular mode of externality1 which1 on account of its accidental character1 more often than not has a grotesque appearance1 for the reason that the former significance is no longer there4 ,inasmuch as the ideal content of these gods is that which partakes of ,spirit and humanity1 the externality pertinent to them approximates to a human contingency and weakness4 ,in this connection we may once more recall to memory the numerous love affairs of ,zeus4 ,according to their original symbolic significance1 they are related1 as we already have seen1 to the universal activity of generation1 that is1 the vitality of ,nature4 ,as the love affairs of ,zeus1 however1 which1 in so far as his marriage with ,here is to be regarded as the permanent and substantive sexual relation1 appear in the light of an infidelity towards his spouse1 they have the complexion of accidental adventures1 and exchange their symbolical sense for unconnected tales which possess the character of purely capricious invention4 ,with this degradation of the powers which are purely natural and of the animal aspect no less than of the abstract universality of spiritual relations1 and with the re-acceptance of the same within the spiritual individuality1 permeated and ,suffused as it is with ,nature1 we leave behind us the origins of classical art which are stamped with necessity and are presupposed by its essence1 inasmuch as it is on this path that the ,ideal evolves itself by its own agency with that which it is according to its notion4 ,this reality of the spiritual gods adequate to its notion carries us on to the genuine ,ideals of the classical type of art1 which1 in contrast to the old rgime which has been vanquished1 represent immortality#agi1 for mortality generally resides in the incompatibility of the notion to its determinate existence4 ,footnote #aci3 ,als eine ,unwrdigkeit4 ,as something unworthy of the full notion of its gods4 ,footnote #adj3 ,that is1 the relegation of it to a position of inferiority4 ,footnote #ada3 ,this is the ,german word4 ,by genius ,i presume ,hegel means the familiar spirit of a particular animal4 ,apparently this rather than kind4 ,iliad1 ,,ii1 #cjh2 ,,xii1 #bjh4 ,footnote #adb3 ,odyss4 ,,xiv1 #dad2 ,,xxiv1 #bae4 ,footnote #adc3 ,metam4 ,i1 vv4 #aej-bdc4 ,footnote #add3 ,metam4 ,,vi1 vv4 #ddj-fgf4 ,footnote #ade3 ,metam4 ,i1 vv4 #dea-efg4 ,footnote #adf3 ,ibid41 ,,ix1 vv4 #ded-fd4 ,footnote #adg3 ,ibid41 ,v1 v4 #cjb4 ,footnote #adh3 ,ibid41 vv4 #cai-ca4 ,footnote #adi3 ,herod4 ,,ii1 #df4 ,footnote #aej3 ,creuzer1 ,symb4 ,i1 #dgg4 ,footnote #aea3 ,that is1 the sphere of fauns as a part of ,nature4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,praktisch4 ,the contrast is between the philosophic contemplation and the world regarded as the sphere of human activity4 ,footnote #aec3 ,by ,umkehr ,hegel probably means a return in the direction of the art of the ,sublime4 ,footnote #aed3 ,einen bestimmten ,kreis4 ,the meaning seems to be that the circle of examples is here a clearly defined and limited one as contrasted with the vagueness of ,oriental ,pantheism4 ,footnote #aee3 ,herod4 ,,ii1 #eb4 ,footnote #aef3 ,war ein entscheidendes ,moment4 ,that is1 was part of the oracular reply4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,both wording and punctuation of this sentence are at fault1 but ,i give the sense no doubt intended4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,i am not sure what is referred to here by ,telchinen and ,ptaken4 ,footnote #aei3 ,das ,ganze1 means here1 ,i think1 the whole of ,creation4 ,footnote #afj3 ,that is1 took no further active interest in human life4 ,footnote #afa3 ,politicus ex rec4 ,bekk4 ,,ii1 #b1 p4 #bhc2 ,steph4 #bgd4 ,footnote #afb3 ,protag4 ,i1 #a1 pp4 #agj-d2 ,steph4 #cbj-c4 ,footnote #afc3 ,i have just above translated ,sitte with the word custom1 that is1 ethical custom4 ,but the contrast here is1 ,i think1 between morality generally 7sittlich7 and juridical right 7,rechtliche74 ,footnote #afd3 ,the argument of ,hegel is ingenious4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that in several accounts of ,prometheus1 notably that of ,aeschylus1 ,zeus is represented as hostile to human progress4 ,and it is rather a strain on the facts to trace1 in the case of ,ceres1 so much that is of an ethical colour to agriculture1 and limit the use of fire simply to the crafts of ,hephaestos1 ignoring1 that is to say1 its domestic use altogether4 ,footnote #afe3 ,der ,sittlichkeit4 ,footnote #aff3 ,gehaltvolle4 ,that is1 intrinsically sound and substantial4 ,footnote #afg3 ,eum4 vv4 #bjf-i4 ,footnote #afh3 ,soph41 ,ant4 v4 #dea3 oo 4 ,footnote #afi3 ,umgestaltung4 ,remodelling1 reorganization4 ,reformation in literal sense4 ,footnote #agj3 ,trbe4 ,troubled perhaps is better4 ,footnote #aga3 ,the ,cabeiri were mystic ,powers4 ,aeschylus wrote a drama under this title4 ,the ancients differ greatly as to their origin and nature1 ,herodotus assumes an ,egyptian origin4 ,footnote #agb3 ,feste is as a substantive a stronghold1 and this may be ,hegel's meaning1 but ,i think he uses it here for ,festigkeit1 consistency1 compact security4 ,footnote #agc3 ,the sentence is not very clear4 ,the sense is that ,prometheus is honoured as the ,earth and ,sun are honoured by his assistance of human needs4 ,footnote #agd3 ,vv4 #ed-f4 ,this entire spot is sacred2 awful ,poseidon holds it1 and therein is the fire bringing god1 the ,titan ,prometheus4 ,footnote #age3 ,vv4 #afde-h4 ,footnote #agf3 ,vv4 #ija et seq4 ,footnote #agg3 ,hegel means that in the suffering of ,kleon ,sophocles treats the natural law of ,antigone and the higher law of the king on the same terms4 ,footnote #agh3 ,lit41 what is made for it1 e4g41 the detail of objective experience4 ,footnote #agi3 ,unvergnglichkeit4 ,hegel no doubt refers to the epithet always applied by ,homer and other1 ,greek poets to the gods of ,olympus1 immortal4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,of ,,art ,we have already seen what the essence of the ,ideal is in our general consideration of the beauty of art4 ,here we are to take it merely in the special sense appropriate to the classic ,ideal1 whose notion has already presented itself in its general features in its association with the notion of the classical art-type4 ,for the ,ideal1 of which we have now to speak1 consists simply in this1 that classical art in very truth attains to and sets before us that which exposes its most intimate notion4 ,as content it grasps on this particular plane the spiritual1 in so far as this ,spirit attracts ,nature and her powers to its own appropriate realm1 and sets itself before us in exposition not as mere inwardness and dominion over ,nature1 but furthermore accepts as its proper form1 human shape1 deed1 and action1 through which the spiritual shines forth clearly in perfect freedom1 and the form penetrates with its life into the sensuous material not merely as into a mode of externality symbolically significant1 but as actually into a determinate existence1 which is the adequate existence of ,spirit4 ,we may divide up1 then1 the present chapter into the following sections3 ,we have in the first place to consider the general character of the classic ,ideal1 which possesses what is pertinent to humanity in its form no less than its content1 and elaborates both sides in the completest consistency one with the other4 ,secondly1 however1 forasmuch as here the human is absorbed wholly into the bodily shape and external appearance1 it becomes the definite external shape1 which in its conformity is merely a defined content4 ,since1 therefore1 we have the ,ideal before us at the same time as particularity1 there arises a definite number of particular gods and powers in the shape of human existence4 ,thirdly1 this particularity does not persist in the abstraction of one type of definition1 whose essential character would constitute the entire content and the one-sided principle for its representation2 but rather it is quite as much essentially a totality and the individual unity and congruity which is applicable to such4 ,without this repletion such particularity would remain cold and empty2 the vitality of ,life would fail it1 a contingency which is impossible to the ,ideal in any relation whatever4 ,we have now to consider more narrowly the ,ideal of classical art according to these three aspects of universality1 particularity1 and individual singularity4 #a4 ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,classical ,,art ,,generally ,the questions which arise relatively to the origins of the ,greek gods1 in so far as the real centre for ideal reproduction results from them1 we have already touched upon1 and seen that they belong to the elaborated tradition of art4 ,the modification that is incidental to that treatment can only proceed by means of the twofold degradation1 on the one hand1 of the universal powers of ,nature and their personification1 and1 on the other1 of the animal constituents and its form1 in order that thereby it may win the spiritual as its true determinate substance1 and also the human mode of appearance as its true form4 7a7 ,we have described how the classical ,ideal first really becomes actual through such a remodelling of that which came before the earliest aspect of it4 ,along with this we have above all to draw attention to just this fact1 that it is generated from mind 7,spirit71 and consequently has originated in the most intimate and personal resources of the poets and artists1 who brought it into the presence of conscious life with the aid of a thoughtful consideration as clear as it was unfettered and with the distinct object of artistic production4 ,in opposition to this creation we have1 however1 apparently the fact that ,greek mythology reposes on earlier traditions1 and contains distinct references to foreign1 that is ,oriental1 matter4 ,herodotus1 for example1 although specifically asserting in the passage already cited that ,homer and ,hesiod created for the ,greeks their gods1 nevertheless in other passages associates closely these very ,greek gods with other divinities such as those of ,egypt4 ,for in the second book#ahj he expressly narrates that ,melampus gave the name of ,dionysos to the ,greeks1 further introduced the ,phallus and the entire sacrificial festival1 adding1 however1 this discrepant detail1 that ,melampus had learnt the religious service from the ,tyrian ,kadmus and the ,phoenicians1 who came with ,kadmus to ,boeotia4 ,these contradictory statements have roused interest in our own times1 more particularly as associated with ,creuzer's researches1 who endeavours to discover in ,homer1 for example1 ancient mysteries and the sources which flowed in together towards ,greece1 whether they be ,asiatic1 ,pelasgian1 ,dodonian1 ,thracian1 ,samothracian1 ,phrygian1 ,indian1 ,buddhistic1 ,phoenician1 ,egyptian1 or ,orphic1 to say nothing of the infinitely varied peculiarities of specific localities and other details4 ,no doubt it appears at first sight wholly inconsistent with these many sources of tradition that those poets should have supplied either the names or the substantial form of the gods4 ,it is possible1 however1 to harmonize entirely both factors1 tradition1 and individual creation4 ,the tradition comes first2 it is the point of departure1 which hands down the mere ingredients2 but for all that it does not contribute the real content and the genuine form of the gods4 ,this substantive presence is the product of the genius of those poets1 who discovered by a process of free elaboration the true substantive form of these very gods and are consequently in fact become the creators of that mythology which awakes our admiration of ,greek art4 ,yet for this reason the ,homeric gods1 in one aspect of them1 are not to be taken as the result merely of the poetic phantasy1 or nothing more than capricious invention4 ,they have their roots in the genius and beliefs of the ,greek folk and the religious basis of that nation4 ,they are the absolute potencies and powers1 the highest stretch of the ,greek conception1 the central point of the beautiful regarded universally1 presented1 so to speak1 by the ,muses themselves to the poet4 ,in this free handling1 then1 the artist takes up an entirely different position from that he occupies in the ,east4 ,the ,hindoo poets and sages have also to begin with material ready to work upon1 such as the elements of ,nature1 the heavens1 animals1 streams1 and so forth1 or the pure abstraction of the formless and contentless ,brahman4 ,their enthusiasm1 however1 is a confusion of the ideal character#aha of the subjectivity which accepts the difficult task of elaborating such an external material to it1 an enthusiasm which1 in the unmeasured expansion of its imagination1 which excludes every secure and absolute#ahb direction1 is unable to mould its creations conformably to genuine freedom of expression and beauty1 and remains the slave of that material in uncontrolled and roving productive activity4 ,it resembles1 in fact1 a master-builder who has no firm foundation beneath him4 ,ancient ruins of half dismantled walls1 mounds1 and projecting rocks fetter him1 quite apart from the particular aims according to which he desires to construct his building2 and he can only create a wild1 inharmonious1 and fantastical fabric4 ,in other words1 that which he produces is not the result of his imagination freely acting under its own plastic genius4 ,conversely the ,hebrew poets present us with revelations which1 it is said1 they deliver as the ,lord's voice1 so that here again the creative source is an enthusiasm not fully self-conscious2 it is separated1 that is1 and distinct from individuality and the productive genius of the artist1 as in the wisdom of the ,sublime generally it is the abstract and eternal1 essentially in its relation to something other than it and external1 which is consciously or imaginatively conceived4 ,in classical art artists and poets are1 it is true1 also prophets and teachers1 who declare and reveal to mankind the nature of the ,absolute and ,divine4 ,but we must emphasize here the following distinctions3 77 ,in the first place the content of their gods is neither that appearance of ,nature which is external to humanity nor the mere abstraction of one ,godhead1 whereby merely a superficial formulation or an inwardness that is without content is preserved4 ,their content is1 on the contrary1 deduced from human life and existence1 and for this reason is that which is peculiar to the human breast2 a content1 in short1 with which man himself can freely coalesce as at home with himself1 while that which he thus produces is the fairest product of his own activity4 77 ,secondly1 these artists are at the same time poets1 that is1 men of creative talent who work the aforesaid material and its content into a free and substantially independent form4 ,as thus regarded ,greek artists are in all essential respects creative poets4 ,they have brought together all the varied original ingredients into the melting-pot1 but they have produced thereby no mere broth1 such as might come from a witches' cauldron2 rather they did away with all that is troubled1 purely natural1 unclean1 foreign1 and without rational measure in the pure flame of this more profound spirit2 they made all glow together and permitted the form to appear at last purified1 albeit it still retained a distant accord with the ruder material from which it was fashioned4 ,what mainly concerned them in this work consisted partly in the winnowing away of all that was in their inherited material destitute of form and beauty1 distorted and symbolical1 and partly in the prominence they gave to what was really spiritual1 which they set themselves to render under modes of individuality1 and in the interest of which they had to discover gradually the external appearance most appropriate4 ,here for the first time we find that it is the human form and human actions and events1 not merely made use of under the mode of personification1 which1 as we have already seen1 necessarily stand forth as the uniquely adequate reality4 ,no doubt the artist discovers these forms1 too1 in the real world2 but he has at the same time to eradicate all that is accidental and incongruent in them1 before they are entitled to appear as commensurable with that humanity1 which1 as essentially apprehended1 shall offer to us the image of the eternal powers and gods4 ,and this is what we call the free and spiritual1 and not merely capricious production of the artist4 77 ,and1 thirdly1 for the reason that the gods are not merely stable existences in their own world1 but also are active within the concrete reality of ,nature and human1 events1 the poet is further concerned to recognize the presence and activity of the gods in this relation to human1 fact1 to interpret1 that is1 the particularity of natural event and human actions and destiny wherein the divine powers are apparently interfused1 and to share thus the duties of the priest and the seer4 ,we1 from the point of view of our everyday prosaic reflection1 explain the phenomena of ,nature according to universal laws and forces1 and interpret the actions of mankind as the product of their subjective intentions and self-proposed aims4 ,the ,greek poets1 however1 have their eyes everywhere directed toward the ,divine1 and create1 by giving to human activities the loftier colour and habit of divine actions1 and by means of such interpretation1 the various aspects under which the power of the gods is made visible4 ,for a number of such interpretations results in a number of actions1 in which we are made aware of the character of this or that god4 ,we have but to open1 for example1 the ,homeric poems1 and we shall scarcely meet with a single event of importance which is not more closely elucidated as proceeding from the volition or actual assistance of the gods4 ,these expositions are1 in fact1 the insight1 the independently created belief1 the intuitive conceptions of the poet1 just as ,homer often1 too1 gives expression to them in his own name1 and in part also places such in the mouth of his characters1 whether priest or hero4 ,quite at the opening of the ,iliad1 for example1 he has himself explained the pestilence in the ,greek camp as the result of the indignation of ,apollo over ,agamemnon1 who refused to release to ,chryses his daughters#ahc2 and1 in a passage that follows1 he makes ,calchas transmit this very interpretation to the ,greeks#ahd4 ,in a similar way ,homer informs us in the concluding canto of the ,odyssey--on the occasion when ,hermes conducted the shades of the inanimate suitors to the meadows of ,asphodel1 and they find there ,achilles and the other deceased heroes1 who fought before ,troy1 and finally1 too1 ,agamemnon joins them--how the last-mentioned describes the death of ,achilles#ahe3 ,the whole day long had the ,greeks fought2 and when at last ,zeus separated the combatants1 they carried the noble body to the ships1 and washed it1 weeping often the while1 and embalmed it4 ,then there arose a divine uproar on the sea1 and the affrighted ,achaeans would have been flung headlong into their hollow ships1 had not an aged and much knowing man1 ,nestor to wit1 restrained them1 whose advice had also proved the wisest on former occasion4 ,nestor then interprets for them the phenomenon in the following terms3 ,the mother#ahf comes forth from the sea with the immortal sea-goddesses1 in order to meet her deceased son4 ,and the great-hearted ,achaeans at this word let their fear depart from them4 ,that is to say1 they knew then of what kind it was--of human origin--the mother in her grief comes toward him2 what they shall see and hear is that which finds its response in themselves4 ,achilles is her son1 she is herself full of grief4 ,and in this vein ,agamemnon1 turning towards ,achilles1 continues his narrative with a description of the universal sorrow3 ,and around thee stood the daughters of the ancient of the sea1 lamenting1 and they robed themselves in ambrosial garments2 and the ,muses also1 the nine in conclave1 wailed by turns in beautiful song2 and there was ,i ween no man of the ,argives to be seen without tears1 so greatly did the clear-toned song move all4 ,it is1 however1 another divine apparition in the ,odyssey which has always in this connection most particularly fascinated me in my study of it4 ,odysseus in his sea-wanderings1 insulted among the ,phaeacians during the sports over which ,euryalos presides1 because he refused to take part in the rival throwing of the discus1 makes answer indignantly with dark looks and hard words4 ,he then stands up1 seizes a disk1 larger and heavier than the rest1 and hurls it far and away over the mark4 ,one of the ,phaeacians marks down the throw and calls out3 ,even a blind man could see the stone2 it does not lie within the medley of the rest1 but far beyond4 ,thou hast nothing to fear in this contest2 there is no ,phaeacian who will reach or surpass such a throw as thine is4 ,so he spake2 but the much-enduring divine ,odysseus rejoiced to see a well-disposed friend in the lists4 ,and this word1 this friendly nod of the ,phaeacian ,homer interprets as the friendly apparition of ,athene4 7b7 ,of what kind1 then1 we may further ask1 are the products of this classical mode of artistic activity1 of what type are the new gods of ,greek art8 77 ,it is their concentrated individuality which presents to us the most general and at the same time most complete idea of their intrinsic character1 in so far1 that is1 as this individuality is brought together out of the variety of accidental traits1 isolated actions1 and events into the one focus of their simple and self-exclusive unity4 77 ,what appeals to us in these gods is first of all the spiritual and substantive individuality1 which1 withdrawn into itself as it is out of the motley show of the particular medium of necessity1 and1 the many-purposed unrest of the finite condition1 reposes on its own inviolable universality1 as on an eternal and intelligible foundation4 ,it is only thus that the gods appear as the imperishable powers1 whose untroubled rule is made visible to us not in the particular event in its evolution with somewhat else and external to it1 but freely in its own unchangeableness and intrinsic worth4 77 ,conversely1 however1 they are not by any means the bare abstraction of spiritual generalities1 and thereby so-called general ,ideals1 but in so far as they are individuals they appear as one ,ideal1 an essentially of itself determinate existence1 and consequently one that is defined1 in other words one that as ,spirit possesses characterization4 ,without character we can have no individuality4 ,from this point of view we find1 as we have already indicated previously1 that there is at the root of these spiritual gods a definite natural force1 with which a definite ethical consistency#ahg is blended1 such as imposes on every particular god distinct bounds to the sphere of his activity4 ,the manifold aspects and traits which are forthcoming by reason of this characterization as particular persons1 being in this way concentrated in the point of a true self-identity1 constitute the characters of the gods4 77 ,in the true ,ideal1 however1 this definition ought just as little to terminate in the blunt restriction of pure one sidedness1 but must at the same time appear as withdrawn into the universality of the godhead4 ,in just such a way1 then1 every god1 by carrying in his own person this defined character as divine and as bound up with that as universal individuality1 is in part of a definite type1 and in part is all in all1 and floats1 as it were1 precisely midway between mere universality and equally abstract singularity4 ,and this is what gives to the genuine ,ideal of classical art its infinite security and repose1 its untroubled blessedness and unimpaired freedom4 77 ,add to this that as beauty of classical art the essentially self-articulate divine character is not only spiritual1 but fully as much plastic form which appears externally in its bodily presence to the eye no less than to the mind4 77 ,this beauty1 inasmuch as it possesses not merely the natural or animal aspect in its spiritual personification1 but includes as its content that which is spiritual in its adequate mode of existence1 can only take up what is symbolical in its incidental aspect and under those relations in which it appears as purely natural4 ,its real external expression is the form that is peculiar to mind and only mind1 in so far as its ideal character reveals itself as existent truth1 and pours itself wholly through that form4 77 ,from another point of view classical beauty is debarred from giving expression to the ,sublime4 ,for it is only the abstract universal1 which attaches to itself no inclusion such as is self-defined1 but merely a negative determinacy relatively to particularity in general1 and along with this is resolute in its antagonism to every form of embodiment which presents us with the aspect of the ,sublime4 ,classical beauty1 on the contrary1 carries spiritual individuality into the very heart of what is at the same time its natural existence1 and elucidates the ideal content wholly in the material of its external appearance4 77 ,for this very reason1 however1 it is essential that the external form quite as much as the spiritual1 which creates for itself therein its home and dwelling1 should be liberated from all dependence on ,nature and derangement1 all finitude1 all that is of fleeting character1 all that is exclusively concerned with the sensuous presence1 and should purify and exalt that definition of it which discloses affinity with the determinate character of the god into free commerce with the universal forms of the human figure4 ,the stainless externality alone1 from which every hint of weakness and relativity has been removed1 and every flick of capricious particularity wiped off1 is able to represent the ,spirit's ideality1 which should sink itself in it and secure an embodiment from it4 77 ,for the reason1 however1 that the gods are forced once more from the defined limits of character into the universal wave1 the self-subsistency of ,spirit as repose on itself1 and as the security of itself in its external form has to discover a real reflection also in its manifestation4 77 ,consequently we observe in the concrete individuality of the gods--when we have before us the genuine classic ,ideal1 on equal terms with all else--this nobility and loftiness of ,spirit1 in which1 despite the entire absorption within the bodily and sensuous presence1 we are made conscious of the absolute removal of all the indigence of what is wholly finite4 ,pure self-absorption#ahh and the abstract liberation from every kind of determinacy is the highway to the ,ideal of the ,sublime4 ,the classical ,ideal1 on the contrary1 is made visible in an existence which entirely is its own1 that is1 the specific manifestation of ,spirit itself2 yet for all that we shall find that here1 too1 the ,sublimity of the same is blended with the beauty1 and that the one aspect passes over immediately into the other4 ,and this it is which constitutes the expression of loftiness in these figures of the gods1 making inevitable the ,sublime of classical beauty4 ,an immortal seriousness#ahi makes its throne on the forehead of these gods1 and is poured forth over their entire presentment4 77 ,in their beauty these gods appear1 therefore1 as exalted over their individual bodily shape2 we have consequently a kind contradiction or contention between their lofty blessedness1 which is1 in fact1 their spiritual self-exclusiveness and their beauty1 which pertains to their external bodily presence4 ,spirit appears wholly lost in its external form1 and yet for all that appears quite as much absorbed in itself from out that form4 ,it is precisely as though we had the moving to and fro of an immortal god among mortal men4 ,in this relation the ,greek gods make on us an impression which1 despite all difference1 resembles that which the bust of ,goethe by ,rauch made upon me when ,i first saw it4 ,many will have doubtless seen it1 the high brow1 the powerful1 commanding nose1 the free eye1 the round chin1 the affable1 finely-cut lips1 the pose of the head1 so suggestive of genius1 with its glance a bit on one side and uplifted3 add to this the entire fulness and breadth of an emotional and genial humanity1 and further1 those carefully articulated muscles of the forehead1 of the entire countenance1 of all that gives evidence of passion and emotion2 and in all this house of ,life1 the repose1 stillness1 and loftiness of advanced age2 and we may add withal the fading ebb of the lips1 which retreat back into the teethless mouth1 the slackness of the neck and cheeks1 whereby the bridge of the nose appears yet more dominant1 and the reach of the forehead yet more towering4 ,the force of this firmly set figure1 which to an extraordinary degree brings before us the notion of immutability1 appears all the more so in the loose environment which surrounds it#aij1 just as the sublime head and form of the ,oriental in his wide turban1 but flapping over-garment and trailing slippers4 ,it is the secure1 powerful1 timeless spirit1 which1 in the mask of encircling mortality1 is just ready to let this husk fall away1 and yet suffers it to linger around it freely and without restraint4 ,in much the same way the gods appear to us in their aspect of lofty freedom and spiritual repose to be exalted over their bodily presence1 so that they seem to feel their form1 their limbs1 despite all the beauty that is there1 as at the same time a superfluous appanage4 ,and yet withal the entire presentment is suffused with vitality1 identical with their spiritual being1 inseparable1 without the disunion of what is essentially subsistent1 and those parts which are more loosely put together1 the spirit in short neither escaping nor coming forth from the body1 but both firmly moulded together into a whole1 out of which1 and in no other way1 the self-absorption of ,spirit looks forth in silence in its amazing and secure self-possession4 77 ,for the reason1 then1 that the contention we have indicated is present1 without appearing1 however1 as a difference or separation of the ideal spirituality from its external form1 the negative which is therein contained1 is for this very reason immanent in this inseparable totality and is thereby expressed4 ,this is within the sphere of this spiritual loftiness the breath and atmosphere of melancholy1 which men of genius have felt in the godlike figures of antique art even where the beauty of the external presentment is consummate4 ,the repose of divine blessedness#aia is unable to split itself up into the passions of joy1 pleasure1 and satisfaction1 and the peace of immortality stands aloof from the smile of self-satisfaction and genial contentedness4 ,contentment is the emotion of the agreement of our singular subjectivity with the condition of that environment which is defined for or given to us or brought about through our own agency4 ,napoleon1 for example1 never expressed more thorough contentment than when he happened to obtain some success at the cost of making all the world discontented4 ,for contentment is only the approval of my own being1 action1 and engagements1 and the extreme of it is readily recognizable in that state of feeling of the ,philistine to which every man of practical ability necessarily extends it4 ,this feeling and its expression is1 however1 no expression appropriate to the prefigured immortal gods4 ,free and perfected beauty is not satisfied with joining the concordant temper of a particular finite existence2 rather its individuality1 in its aspect as ,spirit no less than in that of form1 albeit it is self-defined with characterization1 only finds itself fully in union with its true nature when it is at the same time free universality and spirituality in repose upon itself4 ,this universality is just that which people are wont to point to as the frigidity of the ,greek gods4 ,they are only cold1 however1 to our modern intimacy with the temporal4 ,independently regarded they possess warmth and life2 that peaceful blessedness1 which is reflected in their external presentment1 is essentially an abstraction from particularity1 a mode of being indifferent to the ,past1 a surrender of that which is external1 a giving up which1 albeit neither full of trouble nor pain1 is for all that a giving up of what is earthly and evanescent1 just as their cheerfulness of spirit looks far away and over death1 the grave1 loss and temporality1 and for the very reason that it is profound inherently contains this negative we are discussing4 ,and the more this earnestness and spiritual freedom is prominent in the vision of these godlike figures the more we feel the contrast between this loftiness and the determinate corporality in which they are enclosed4 ,the blessed gods mourn quite as much over their blessedness as their bodily environment4 ,in the letters of their form we read the destiny which lies before them1 and whose development1 as actual manifestation of that contradiction between this very loftiness and that particularity1 spirituality1 and sensuous existence classical art itself sets face to face with its final overthrow4 7c7 ,if we ask ourselves1 then1 thirdly1 what is the nature of the external representation1 which is adequate to this notion of the classic ,ideal we have just indicated1 we shall find in this connection1 too1 that the essential points of view have already in our general consideration of the ,ideal been furnished us with considerable detail4 ,we have consequently here only further to remark1 that in the genuine classic ,ideal the spiritual individuality of the gods is not conceived in their relation to something else1 or brought about by virtue of their particularity in conflict1 and battle1 but rather is made visible in their eternal self-tranquillity1 in this painfulness of the godlike peace itself4 ,the determinate character is not1 therefore1 made active in the way that it stimulated the gods to the sense of particular emotions and passions1 or compelled them to adopt specific aims of conduct4 ,on the contrary1 it is precisely out of that collision and development1 nay1 out of that very relation to the finite and all that is essentially discordant that they are brought back to that condition of pure self-absorption4 ,this repose in its most austere severity1 not inflexible1 cold1 or dead1 but sensitive and immutable1 is the highest and most adequate form of representation for the classic gods4 ,when they make their appearance consequently in specific situations1 it is not necessary that there should be conditions or actions which give rise to conflicts1 but rather such which1 as themselves harmless1 so1 too1 leave the gods in a like condition4 ,it is1 therefore1 sculpture which among the arts is above all adapted to portray the classic ,ideal in its simple self-possession1 in which what is rather the universal divinity receives more obvious emphasis than the particular character4 ,chiefly it is the more ancient and more austere type of sculpture which maintains its firm hold of this aspect of the ,ideal1 and only in the later forms we find a movement towards increased dramatic vividness of situations and characterization4 ,poetry1 on the contrary1 ranges the gods in vigorous action1 that is1 in an attitude of negation to a definite mode of life1 and brings them thereby into conflict and strife4 ,the repose of plastic art1 where it remains in the sphere which is uniquely its own1 can only express the aforesaid negative phase of spirit face to face with particular facts in that serious strain of melancholy1 which we have already attempted to define more nearly4 #b4 ,,the ,,sphere ,,of ,,the ,,particular ,,gods ,as individuality in visible form1 represented under the mode of immediate existence1 and withal both definite and particular1 godhead necessarily is divided into a number of figures4 ,in other words1 ,polytheism is unquestionably essential as the principle of classical art1 and it would be the undertaking of a fool to think of embodying the one ,god of the ,sublime and of ,pantheism or the absolute religion1 which comprehends ,god purely as ,spirit and essential personality1 in the plastic type of beauty1 or to entertain the idea that the classical forms could have arisen among the ,jews1 ,mohammedans1 or ,christians1 as adapted to the content of their religious beliefs1 from their own original views of the world1 as they did in the case of the ,greeks4 7a7 ,in this multiplicity the divine universe#aib at this stage is broken up into a sphere of particular gods1 of which each individual stands by himself alone in contrast to all the others4 ,these individualities are not1 however1 of the kind that they can be taken merely as allegorical presentations of universal qualities1 as if ,apollo1 for example1 were the god of wisdom1 ,zeus of dominion4 ,zeus is also quite as much wisdom1 and in the ,eumenides ,apollo1 as we have seen1 protects ,orestes1 the son and the royal son to boot1 whom he himself has stimulated to an act of vengeance4 ,the sphere of the ,greek gods is a multiplicity of individuals1 of which every particular god1 albeit also in the specific character of a particular person1 is at the same time a self-exclusive totality1 which itself possesses essentially also the quality of another god4 ,for every such presentment1 viewed as divine1 is always1 too1 a whole4 ,it is only by this means that the divine personalities of ,greek religion include an abundance of traits2 and although their blessedness consists in their universal and spiritual self-repose no less than in their abstraction from the direct movement which ,time is for ever defeating in the sphere of the disintegrating manifold of natural fact and condition1 yet for all that they possess the power in a like degree to assert themselves as energetic and active in many of its aspects4 ,they are neither the abstract particular nor the abstract universal1 but the universal which is the source of particularity4 7b7 ,on account of this type of individuality1 however1 ,greek polytheism is unable to make up an essentially systematic and self-integrated totality4 ,at the first glance1 it is true1 it appears imperative to require of the ,olympus of the gods1 that the numerous gods that are there assembled1 should1 as thus collected together1 and if their separable unities have real truth in them1 and their content is to be classic in the true sense1 also express essentially the totality of the ,idea1 should exhaust the entire sphere of the necessary forces of ,nature and ,spirit1 and give to themselves therefore constructive completeness1 in other words1 manifest themselves as subject to a principle of necessity4 ,this demand1 however1 would be liable from the first to the qualification that those forces present in the emotions and1 generally speaking1 assertive in the sphere of spiritual life in the absolute significance#aic which becomes operative first in the later and higher religion1 must remain excluded from the sphere of the classic gods1 so that the range of content1 the particular aspects of which succeed in making an appearance in ,greek mythology1 would be already thereby curtailed4 ,moreover1 apart from this1 we have also on the one hand1 necessarily introduced by virtue of the essentially varied character of this individuality1 the accidental incidents of a definition1 which avoids the rigorous articulation of the differences inherent in the notion1 and does not suffer these divinities to maintain the abstraction of merely one mode of determination4 ,and1 on the other hand1 the universality1 in the elemental medium of which the divine personalities secure their blessed state1 abolishes any hard and fast particularity1 and the loftiness of the eternal powers exalts itself jubilant over the cold seriousness of finite fact1 wherein1 if this inconsequence did not prevail1 the divine presences would be evolved through the medium of their limitations4 ,however much1 therefore1 even the principal forces of the world1 as the totality of ,nature and ,spirit1 are reproduced in ,greek mythology1 this aggregation1 quite as much in the interests of the universal ,divine as in those of the individuality of particular gods1 cannot assert itself as a systematic whole4 ,if this were not so1 instead of individual characters the gods would approximate rather to allegorical beings1 and instead of being divine personalities would be characters wholly limited to finite and abstract modes4 7c7 ,when we consequently consider the circle of the ,greek divinities--that is all within the range of the so-called presiding divinities--more nearly according to their fundamental character1 inquiring how that character appears firmly delineated by sculpture in its most general and at the same time sensuously concrete presentment1 we find no doubt the essential distinctions and their totality explicitly set before us1 but also in their detail also ever again obliterated1 and the severity of the execution tempered to a result which is inconsistent with either their beauty or their individuality4 ,so for example ,zeus bears in his hands the dominion over gods and men1 without1 however1 thereby essentially endangering the free independence of the other gods4 ,he is the supreme god2 his power1 however1 does not absorb that of the others4 ,we find in the conception of him no doubt an association with the heavens1 with lightning and thunder1 and the generative vitality of ,nature2 but he is yet more truly the might of the ,state1 of the order of fact which is conformable to law1 the binding nexus in contracts1 oaths1 and hospitality1 and generally the substantial bond that gives subsistence to the human condition1 whether in its practical or ethical aspect1 the potency1 in short1 both of knowledge and spirit4 ,the dominion of his brothers is directed toward the sea or the lower world4 ,apollo is known as the god of knowledge1 as the mouthpiece and fair presentment of spiritual interests1 as the teacher of the ,muses4 ,know thyself is the inscription over his temple at ,delphi1 a behest which is not so much concerned with the failings and defects1 as the essential import of spirit1 that is with art and the truth of consciousness4 ,subtlety and eloquence1 mediation in fact generally as we also find it in subordinate spheres1 which1 albeit immoral elements are therein commingled1 nevertheless are appurtenant to the complete range of spiritual life--such is the most important province of the activity of ,hermes1 who also leads the shades of the dead to the underworld4 ,the might of war is what mainly distinguishes ,ares4 ,hephaestos is conspicuously capable in the technical crafts4 ,the enthusiasm which still carries with it a natural element1 the strong emotions which wine1 sport1 and dramatic performances naturally produce are the native province of ,dionysos4 ,the spheres allotted to the feminine divinities very much correspond to the above series4 ,in ,here the ethical bond of marriage is the most dominant trait4 ,ceres is the instructress and developer of agriculture1 and as such has presented mankind with both those adjuncts to its cultivation1 that is to say1 first1 the care for the nurture of natural products1 which satisfy man's immediate wants1 and1 secondly1 the spiritual accessories of property1 marriage1 right1 the beginnings of civilization and moral order4 ,in the same way ,athene is the representative of moderation1 good sense#aid1 legality1 the power of wisdom1 technical capacity in the arts and courageousness1 and comprises within her intelligent and warlike maidenhood the concrete spirit of the folk1 the free and substantive spirit which uniquely belongs to the ,athenian state1 and places the same before us in positive shape as sovereign and godlike power to be revered4 ,artemis on the contrary1 wholly distinct from the ,ephesian ,diana1 possesses the more inflexible independence of maiden modesty for her most essential characteristic4 ,she loves the chase1 and is generally not so much the quietly pensive1 as the severe and eager-striving maiden4 ,aphrodite1 together with the charming ,cupid1 who in his descent from the ancient ,titan ,eros became a boy1 is the interpreter of all that the attractions and sexual passion effect in our humanity4 ,this1 then1 is the kind of content of the spiritually informed individual gods4 ,in so far as we are concerned with their external representation we can only repeat that sculpture is the most important art in this respect1 and it is carried to the point of this detail of their particularity4 ,if1 however1 it is permitted to express that individuality in its more specific determination1 it at once passes beyond its primary severe loftiness1 although even in that case it unites the variety and wealth of such individuality under one mode of definition1 namely that which we distinguish as character1 and establishes this character in its more simple clarity for the envisagement of the senses1 in other words for the completest and most final determination of the external presentment of these divinities4 ,for the imagination always remains relatively to the external and real existence less distinct1 when it elaborates1 as it also does1 as poetry the same content in a number of tales1 occurrences1 and events which concern the gods4 ,for this reason sculpture is on the one hand more ideal1 while on the other it individualizes the character of the gods in perfectly clear human outlines1 and perfects the anthropomorphism of the classic ,ideal4 ,as this presentation of the ,ideal in its mode of externality1 entirely adequate as it unquestionably is to the essentially ideal content it declares1 these figures of ,greek sculpture are the ,ideals in their absolutely explicit realization2 they are the self-subsistent1 eternal forms1 the centre of the plastic beauty of classical art1 whose type persists as the foundation1 even there too1 where these figures step forth on the planes of definite activity1 and appear as affected by the revolutions of particular events4 #c4 ,,the ,,particular ,,individuality ,,of ,,the ,,gods ,individuality and its representation is1 however1 unable to acquiesce in that which is still an ever relative and abstract articulation of character4 ,a star is exhaustively summarized in the simple laws that control it4 ,a few definite traits may sufficiently characterize the external formation of the world of rocks2 but already in the vegetable world we are aware of an infinite variety of manifold structure1 transition1 interfusion1 and anomaly4 ,animal organizations are distinguished by a still greater range of difference1 and constantly shifting interaction with the external environment to which they are related4 ,and finally1 as we rise to the spiritual realm and its manifestation1 we are conscious of a yet more infinitely embracing multiplicity1 both of its internal and external existence4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as the classic ,ideal does not rest content with purely self-possessed individuality1 but is further concerned to place the same in motion1 to bring the same into relation with something else1 and to exhibit it as active in such relation--for these reasons the character of the gods does not rest stationary in the possession of what itself is an essentially still substantive determination1 but secures further particular traits of wider extension4 ,the self-exclusive movement in the direction of external existence1 and the change which is inseparable from it supplies the more intimate traits that constitute the singularity of any particular god1 as is meet and fit and withal necessary to complete a living personality4 ,the accidental nature of these particular traits is1 however1 associated at the same time with such a type of singularity1 traits1 that is1 we are no longer able to refer back to the universal aspect of the substantive significance4 ,for this reason this particular aspect of the separate divinities approximates to something positive1 which can consequently also merely stand about it and continue to resound as an external accessory4 7a7 ,we are therefore at once confronted with the question3 ,from what source is the material secured for this mode of the appearance of singularity1 and in what manner is this forward process of particularization maintained8 ,for the ordinary individual man1 for his character out of which he brings his actions to a conclusion1 for the events in which he is involved1 for the destiny which awaits him1 this closest and more positive material is supplied by his external conditions1 such as the date of his birth1 the situation he inherits1 parents1 education1 environment1 temporal relations1 the entire province1 that is1 of the conditions of his life as they affect his spiritual nature or bodily existence4 ,the present world contains this material1 and the records of life furnished by different individuals are from this point of view characterized by every conceivable difference4 ,it is another matter altogether1 however1 with the free shapes of godlike individuality1 which possess no determinate existence in the concrete world of ,nature1 but have their birth in the cradle of the imagination4 ,for this very reason it is an obvious assumption that poets and artists1 who1 speaking in general terms1 have created the ,ideal out of their free spiritual bounty1 have merely borrowed the material for these accidental particular traits from the caprice of their own innate powers of imagination4 ,this assumption is1 however1 false4 ,for we assigned in general terms to classical art1 the position that its construction in the first instance is1 by means of the reaction active in its opposition to the assumptions necessarily requisite to its own peculiar province1 carried forward to that which as genuine ,ideal it is4 ,it is from these presuppositions as their source that the specific traits of particularity are to be looked for1 which supply to the gods their closer individual vitality4 ,the fundamental features of these assumptions have already been submitted1 and we have only here to remind our readers shortly of what has been already advanced4 77 ,it is the symbolical natural religions which constitute in the first instance the abundant source which supplies ,greek mythology with the primary substratum that we find then modified within it4 ,but inasmuch as the traits that are borrowed from such a source have to be distributed among gods that are represented as individuals possessing the life of ,spirit1 they inevitably lose the essential feature of their character1 in which they passed as symbolical2 they have now no longer to retain a significance1 which would differ from that which the individual himself presents and makes visible4 ,the previous symbolical content becomes now1 therefore1 converted into the content of a divine subject itself1 and for the reason that it implies no substantive relation of the god1 but is merely an incidental feature1 material of this sort falls together into an external tale1 some deed or event1 which is ascribed to the gods in this or that particular situation4 ,consequently we find under this head all the symbolical traditions of the earlier sacred poems1 which receive1 under the modified shape of actions proper to a truly self-conscious individuality1 the form of human events and histories1 which purport to be accomplished in concert with the gods1 and are not merely the inventions of poets as the mood dictates4 ,when ,homer tells us1 for instance1 that the gods went off on a journey to feast for twelve days among the blameless ,ethiopians1 such would be a poor enough example of inventiveness regarded as the poet's invention alone4 ,it is much the same with the tale of the birth of ,zeus4 ,kronos1 we are told1 had devoured all his sons2 for this reason ,rhea1 his spouse1 when she was big with her youngest child ,zeus1 went off to ,crete1 where she brought forth her son1 presenting to ,kronos a stone to devour instead of her child1 whom she swaddled in fur4 ,later on ,kronos brought up again all his children1 his daughters1 and along with them ,poseidon4 ,this story1 regarded as mere invention1 would be foolish enough4 ,the remnants of symbolical significance still peer1 however1 through it1 albeit on account of their having lost their original character1 they come down to us in the guise of external history4 ,the history of ,ceres and ,proserpina is on similar lines4 ,here we have the ancient symbolic significance of the disappearance and budding forth of the seed of corn4 ,the myth presents this to us under the image as though ,proserpina played one day in a valley with flowers1 and plucked the fragrant narcissus1 which from one root opened in a hundred blossoms4 ,then the ,earth thunders2 ,pluto ascends from the depths1 lifts the lamenting maiden into his golden car1 and bears her off to the underworld4 ,thereon ,ceres wandered over the ,earth for a long time vainly stricken with a mother's sorrow4 ,finally ,proserpina returned to the upper world2 ,zeus1 however1 had only suffered her to do this subject to the command that she must never partake of the food of the gods4 ,unfortunately she had on one occasion tasted a pomegranate1 and was therefore only able to remain in the upper world during spring and summer4 ,in this tale1 too1 we find that the symbolical content has not been retained1 but has been converted into a human event1 which suffers only the more general sense to penetrate through many external traits4 ,in the same way the supplementary names of the gods point frequently to symbolical ground-strata of a similar character1 from which1 however1 the symbolical form has vanished1 and which only serve now to give individuality a more complete characterization4 77 ,local conditions supply a further source for the positive particularities of individual divinities1 no less by presenting us with the origin of the conceptions of godhead1 than by pointing to the modes under which their services were originally obtained and secured1 and the particular places which were in a special sense devoted to their worship4 77 ,although1 however1 the demonstration of the ,ideal and its universal beauty is exalted over the particular locality and its unique claims for recognition1 and1 moreover1 has drawn together the specific external aspects in the more general range of the artistic imagination into one comprehensive picture which is throughout adequate to the substantive significance1 yet for all that1 when the art of sculpture associates the gods1 regarded as individuals1 with isolated relations and conditions1 these particular traits and local colours come frequently also to the fore1 in order to reproduce something of that individuality1 although it is only thus more defined in its external aspect4 ,an illustration of this is the way ,pausanias adduces a mass of ideas1 images1 pictures1 and myths1 which he met with in temples1 public places1 temple treasuries1 in any place where anything of importance was to be found or otherwise was in the range of his experience4 ,in the same way and on the same lines the ancient traditions and local suggestions which have been borrowed from foreign sources run along with the home ones in ,greek myth2 and to all of them more or less a relation has been attached which unites them to the history1 creation1 and foundations of ,states1 more particularly by means of colonization4 ,forasmuch1 however1 as this many-sided and specific material in the universality of the gods has lost its original significance1 we necessarily come across stories1 which in their motley and intricate character fail to convey any meaning whatever4 ,as an example we may instance the case where ,aeschylus in his ,prometheus presents to us the wanderings of ,io in all their severity and external garb without admitting the least suggestion of an ethical or traditional story1 or a natural significance4 ,we find just the same difficulty when we approach the stories of ,perseus1 ,dionysos1 and others4 ,the most varied and confused kind of material is also run into the tales about ,hercules1 which forthwith1 in such tales1 assume an entirely human aspect under the guise of chance events1 exploits1 passions1 misfortunes1 and other untoward occurrences4 77 ,in addition to all this the eternal powers of classical art are the universal constituents of the actual embodiment of the existence and actions of ,greek humanity1 from whose national origins consequently in their earliest form1 that is1 out of the heroic times and other traditions1 still a very considerable residue of detail remains appendant to the gods even in later days4 ,in this way1 too1 many characteristic features in the intricate tales of their gods unquestionably must be referred to historic personages1 heroes1 older folk-races1 natural facts and circumstances attributable to wars1 battles1 and other matters of a public character4 ,and just as the family and the distinction of clans is the point of departure of the ,state1 the ,greeks possessed also their family gods1 penates1 clan-gods1 and furthermore the guardian divinities of particular cities and states4 ,in this excessive leaning towards the point of view of history the thesis1 however1 is apt to be maintained that the origin of the ,greek gods generally is deducible from such historical facts1 heroes1 and earlier kings4 ,this is a plausible but none the less superficial view4 ,heyne quite in recent times has also given currency to it4 ,in a way analogous to this a ,frenchman1 by name ,nicholas ,frret1 has1 for example1 accepted the quarrels of different priestly guilds as the general principle underlying the war of the gods4 ,that such a historical phase in the life of a people may contribute something1 that definite clans may have given some effect to their peculiar notions of deity1 that likewise different local aspects may have afforded further matter in the process of divine individualization--all this may be admitted1 no doubt4 ,the real origin of the gods is for all that not to be traced to such external material of history1 but resides in the spiritual potencies of ,life1 under the guise of which they were conceived4 ,we are consequently only entitled to accept the more extensive play of all that is positive1 local1 and historical1 in so far as it makes more definite the formal presentation of each particular individuality4 77 ,inasmuch as1 further1 the god passes into the sphere of the human imagination1 and1 still more important1 is represented in real bodily shape1 into close relations with which again man is placed by his cultus in the activities of divine worship1 a fresh material is here1 too1 presented by such relations for the extension of all that is positive and accidental4 ,what animals have to be sacrificed to any god1 what vestments the priesthood or the worshipper must appear in1 what particular sequence must be adopted in any ceremonial--by all such matters the most varied and particular incidents are accumulated4 ,for every activity of this kind implies an indefinite number of aspects and modes of arrangement1 which may accidentally fall out in this way or that1 but which1 as appurtenant to a sacred rite1 should be something settled1 and not fixed by caprice1 and which necessarily tend to pass into the sphere of symbolism4 ,the colour of the vestments is an example of this2 in the ritual of ,bacchus we have the colour of wine1 in like manner the doe-skin in which those initiated in the mysteries were enwrapped4 ,the same thing applies to the drapery and attributes of the gods1 the bow of ,pythian ,apollo1 the whip1 the staff1 and numberless other accessories4 ,such things become1 however1 gradually a custom and nothing more2 no one in the practice of the same thinks any longer of their birth history2 and all that we now by dint of our research point out as their significance1 has in the performance of them grown to something quite external1 which mankind associates himself with on account of the immediate interest1 that is1 from mere sense of fun1 delight in the present1 devotion1 or simply because it is just a custom and is so fixed for his active senses1 and is done in like manner by others4 ,as an example from our own life1 when we see our ,german youth light the ,johannis fire in summer time1 or play antics elsewhere1 and throw it at the windows1 such is for us a purely formal custom1 in which the original significance fades as much into the background as at the festal dances of ,greek youths and maidens the revolutions of the dance do in their imitative 7like the twists and turns of some labyrinth7 significance of the spiral motions of the planets4 ,youth does not dance in order to entertain ideas of such things1 but the interest limits itself naturally to the dancing and the tasteful and graceful festivity of its beautiful motion4 ,the entire significance1 which was created by the original stimulus1 and of which the reproduction was for the imagination and sensuous perception of symbolical character1 is throughout an imaginative conception1 whose singular traits we suffer to pass from us like a fairy story1 or as in historical narrative as external detail relative to ,time and ,space1 and of which we can only say3 ,it is so1 or1 ,such is the tale1 and so forth4 ,the interest of art can consequently only consist in this1 namely1 that it borrow one aspect from the material which has passed into the condition of positive externality1 and make the best of this one for an example1 which sets the gods before us as concrete1 living individuals1 merely retaining a distant echo of any profounder significance4 ,this positive aspect is precisely that which endows the ,greek gods with the charm of living humanity when the imagination elaborates it anew4 ,it is by this latter process that what is otherwise merely of substantive import1 or that of power1 is thereby carried into the individual present1 which1 speaking in general terms1 is concentrated to a point out of that which is truly explicit or independently actual1 and which is external and accidental1 and thereby the indefinite1 which otherwise is always present in the conception of the gods1 is limited in its range and filled out in its content4 ,we are unable to attach any additional value to specific tales and particular traits of characterization1 for this material1 which1 in its earlier stage is1 when we look at its primary source1 the symbolically significant1 has now only remaining the task to perfect the spiritual individuality of the gods in their positive sensuous definition in contrast to the human and to attach to it by virtue of a material which1 in respect to its content and envisagement1 is undivine1 the aspect of caprice and chance1 characteristics inseparable from concrete individuality4 ,sculpture1 in so far as it presents to our senses the pure ideals of the gods1 and is concerned to set before us character and expression solely under the mode of living bodies1 can least of all with clearness make visible the final result of individualization4 ,it does nevertheless give real effect to it within the limits of its own province1 as we may see1 for example1 in the different treatment of headdress1 the mode in which the folds or locks of hair are arranged in each particular case2 and this is done not merely with a view to symbolical interpretation but in order to individualize4 ,in this way ,hercules has short locks1 ,zeus an abundant growth which rises above the forehead1 ,diana quite a different folding of the hair to that of ,venus4 ,pallas1 too1 is distinguished by the ,gorgo on the helmet1 and the like result is obtained by means of weapons1 girdle1 fillets1 bracelets1 and all the variety of other external adornment4 77 ,we find as a third and final source of the closer definition of divine personality the relation which this occupies to the concrete actual world and its numerous natural phenomena1 human deeds and events4 ,for however much we have seen that this spiritual individuality is in part respectively to their universal essence1 and partly in respect to their particular singularity1 the visible result of earlier natural foundations which have symbolical significance1 yet it also persists1 if regarded as a spiritually self-subsistent personality1 in a relation of continuous1 vitality with ,nature and human existence4 ,it is under this point of view1 as we have already intimated at length1 that we have before us the imaginative flow of the poet1 an ever fertile source of particular tales1 traits of character and exploits1 such as are related us about the gods4 ,the artistic aspect of this stage of the process consists in this1 that the divine personalities are made to blend in a vital way with human affairs1 and that the isolated nature of events are without exception conceived in association with the universality of the divine1 just as we ourselves1 for example1 are wont to say1 if in another sense1 of course1 that this or that eventuality comes from ,god4 ,even in the reality of everyday life1 in the natural process of his existence1 in his daily wants1 fears1 and hopes1 the ,greek took refuge in his gods4 ,at first it was external accidents1 which the priesthood accepted as omens1 and interpreted relatively to his objects and circumstances4 ,if distress and misfortune appeared1 the priest had to explain the cause of the affliction1 to recognize the anger and disposition of the gods1 and to suggest the means by which the misfortune might be faced4 ,the poets proceed yet further in their interpretations for this reason1 namely1 that they ascribe everything1 which is related to a pathos universal and essential1 that is1 the moving force in human resolve and action1 to the gods themselves and their activity2 so that the activity of mankind appears likewise as the act of the gods1 who fulfil their own counsels by means of their instrument1 man4 ,the material in these poetical expositions is taken from the circumstances of ordinary life1 in respect to which the poet lays it down1 whether this or that god has expressed his purpose in the event which he is expounding and asserted himself actively therein4 ,for this reason poetry to an exceptional extent enlarges the range of many specific stories1 which have the gods for their principal subject-matter4 ,we may in this connection recall to our memories several examples which we have already used as illustrations when considering another aspect of our subject1 namely1 the relation of the universal powers to the practical pursuits of human personality4 ,homer places ,achilles before us as the bravest among the ,greeks before ,troy4 ,this pre-eminence of his hero he expresses by means of the statement that ,achilles is invulnerable in every portion of his body with the single exception of his heel1 which his mother was compelled to take hold of when she dipped him in the ,styx4 ,this tale has its origin in the imagination of the poet who thus interprets the external fact4 ,if we accept this bluntly as though an actual fact purported to be expressed therein which the ancients would have believed in the same sense that we believe in any fact on the evidence of our senses such a conclusion is a very crude one indeed4 ,it in short amounts to this1 that ,homer no less than all the ,greeks and ,alexander with them who admired ,achilles and praised his fortunes1 which were the main theme of the song of ,homer1 were simpletons4 ,such a glorification must inevitably carry such a consequence if the reflection is to hold good that the bravery of ,achilles was no difficult matter since he was aware of his invulnerability4 ,but the bravery is1 in truth1 thereby in no way abridged1 because he is equally aware of his early death1 and notwithstanding never evades danger1 however it may arise4 ,the like relation is put before us in a very different way in the ,niebelungenlied4 ,in that the horned ,siegfried is likewise invulnerable1 but he has also in addition to this his cap which makes him invisible4 ,when he assists ,king ,gunther thus invisible in the fight of the latter with ,brunhilde it becomes simply an affair of barbaric sorcery which does not enhance very much our opinion either of the bravery of ,siegfried or ,king ,gunther4 ,no doubt in ,homer the gods frequently lend assistance to particular heroes2 but the gods merely appear on such occasions as the universal concept of that which man as an individual himself is and carries out1 and to carry out which he must actively employ the entire strength of his heroic endowment4 ,if it had been otherwise the gods would have only found it necessary to decimate en masse the ,trojan host in battle in order to complete at once the triumph of the ,greeks4 ,homer gives us a picture just the reverse of this when he describes the main fight as essentially a contest between individuals1 and it is only when the press and medley in general1 when the entire mass of combatants1 the collective heart of the host clashes in fury1 that ,ares at length storms over the field and gods war against gods4 ,and this is not only generally fine and splendid as an enhancement of the effect1 but we may find in it the profounder significance that ,homer recognizes the particular heroes in what is singular and exceptional and the universal potencies and forces in the collective effect and the general aspect4 ,in another connection ,homer permits ,apollo to appear on the scene1 when the moment arrives which is fatal to ,patroclus who is bearing the invincible armour of ,achilles#aie4 ,three times had ,patroclus plunged into the crowded host of the ,trojans1 mighty as ,ares1 and three times he had already slain nine men4 ,when he stormed there for the fourth time then it was that the god1 enveloped in obscure night1 made toward him among the medley and smote him on the back and the shoulders1 tore away from him his helmet1 so that it rolled on the ground1 and rang out sharply as it struck the hoofs of the chargers2 and the plumes of it were besmirched with blood and dust1 which none ever wot of before4 ,apollo also breaks the brazen spear in his hands1 the shield drops from his shoulders1 and his armour is loosened on him by the god4 ,this interference of ,apollo we may accept as the poetic explanation of the circumstance1 that it is exhaustion no less than natural death which seizes upon and subdues ,patroclus in the turmoil and heat of battle at the fourth encounter4 ,then it was that ,euphorbus was able to thrust his spear into his back between the shoulders4 ,yet one more time ,patroclus endeavoured to withdraw from the battle2 but ,hector had already hastened to meet him1 and thrust his spear deep into his side4 ,then ,hector rejoiced and mocked the sinking hero4 ,but ,patroclus1 speaking in low tones1 replied that it was ,zeus and ,apollo who had mastered him1 and withal with no trouble1 because they had taken his weapons from off his shoulders4 ,twenty men such as thou art1 he exclaims1 ,i could have laid low with my spear1 but ,i am slain by fateful necessity and the hand of ,apollo4 ,thou1 ,euphorbus1 hast but slain me the second time1 and thou1 ,hector1 but the third4 ,here1 too1 we may remark that the appearance of the gods simply points to the fact that ,patroclus1 albeit protected by the armour of ,achilles1 becomes faint1 confounded1 and despite of it slain4 ,and this is not by any means a superstitious freak or empty play of the imagination1 or rather a statement which amounts to this#aif1 that ,hector's fame will be detracted from by this interposition of ,apollo1 and that even ,apollo does not play in the entire affair a part which entirely redounds to his honour1 since we necessarily take into account the might of the god--speculations of this kind merely betray a superstition of the prosaic mind as destitute of taste as it is devoid of reason4 ,for in every case where ,homer explains specific events by means of such appearances of the gods the gods use that which is already immanent in the conscious life of men1 the power1 that is1 of their own passion and observation1 or the potentialities of the general condition in which the man is placed1 the force and the foundation of that which befalls and happens to anyone as a consequence of such conditions ,if it is true that at times traits that are wholly external and absolutely positive assert themselves in the appearance of the gods these in their turn have a comic aspect2 as in the case when the lame ,hephaestos goes round as cup-bearer4 ,and generally we may say that ,homer never treats the reality of such appearances from first to last seriously4 ,at one time we see the gods in action1 at another they occupy a station of complete tranquillity4 ,the ,greeks were fully conscious that it was the poets who were responsible for such apparitions2 and if they believed in them their belief was connected directly with that spiritual aspect which is equally the possession of mankind1 forasmuch as it is the universal1 the very active and motive principle in the events thus presented4 ,from whatever point of view1 therefore1 we consider the matter it is clear that it is totally unnecessary to import superstition either in our own views or in those of the ,greeks before we can enjoy such poetical representations of their gods4 7b7 ,such1 then1 is the general character of the classical ,ideal1 whose broader development we shall have to consider more succinctly when we examine the particular arts4 ,here we have only to add the observation that to whatever extent either gods or men are carried in their positive opposition to the particular and external1 yet in classical art the affirmative ethical substratum must assert itself as maintained4 ,the subjectivity remains throughout in union with the substantive content of its powers4 ,just as in ,greek art the natural element is preserved in harmony with the spiritual and is likewise subordinated to the ideal content1 though it be as adequate existence1 the inward heart of our humanity ever presents itself also in a thorough identity with the genuine objectivity of ,spirit1 in other words1 with the essential content of what is moral and true4 ,regarded from this point of view1 the classic ,ideal is unaware of the separation of ideality from external presentment and of the rending of the subjective and consequently abstract individual caprice in its various objects and passions1 and it is no less so1 on the other hand1 of the abstract universal as thereby created4 ,the foundations of character must1 consequently1 always be the substantive1 and what is bad1 sinful and evil in the self-housed dwelling of subjectivity is excluded from classical representations4 ,and above all else the harshness1 wickedness1 meanness1 and hideousness which finds a place in romantic art1 will be wholly alien to it4 ,it is true1 we find many instances of transgression1 matricide1 patricide and other crimes against the love of family and piety treated as the subject-matter of ,greek art2 but they are not here regarded simply as atrocities1 or1 as a little while since it was the fashion among ourselves1 as brought about by the inscrutability of a so-called fatality which imports the appearance of a necessary result4 ,rather1 if such transgressions are committed by mankind and in part ordered and defended by the gods themselves1 such actions are on every occasion presented to us from some point of view at least in a light which declares a certain justification truly arising out of the subject-matter itself4 7c7 ,despite this substantive foundation we have seen the general elaboration of the gods of classical art manifest itself out of the repose of the ,ideal within the variety of the individual and external embodiment1 in all the detail of events1 occurrences1 and actions1 which become ever and ever more human4 ,by this means classical art finally1 if we consider its content1 carries yet further the process of articulating the accidental individualization1 when we consider it as a mode of making the same pleasurable and attractive4 ,in other words that which pleases is the elaboration of the particular aspect of the external phenomenon at every point of the same2 by this means the work of art no longer arrests the spectator merely in its connection with his own concrete soul-life1 but also contains many affiliating links with the finite aspect of his subjectivity4 ,for it is precisely in the finiteness of the art-creation that the closer association subsists with that aspect of the individual which is itself finite1 and which rediscovers itself once more with satisfaction in every respect as mobile and stable existence in the art-product4 ,the seriousness of the gods becomes a grace1 which does not agitate with violence or lift a man over his ordinary existence1 but suffers him to persist there tranquil1 and simply claims to bring him content4 ,just as we generally find that the imagination when it masters religious conceptions1 and endows them with a form appropriate to its notions of beauty1 has a tendency to make the earnest character of devotion disappear1 and in this respect destroys religion strictly as religion2 so1 too1 this very process moves forward at the stage we are discussing for the most part by the addition of that which is agreeable and pleases4 ,for it is not by any means the substantial aspect1 the significance of the gods1 or their universal character1 which is evolved by virtue of what delights4 ,rather it is the finite side1 their sensuous existence and subjective inward life1 which purports to awake interest and provide satisfaction4 ,the more1 therefore1 the charm of the existence reproduced is the dominant factor in its beauty to that extent the gracefulness is disentwined from the embrace of the universal and removed from the content1 through which alone the profounder penetration could rest satisfied4 ,the transition to another province of the forms of art is closely united with this externality and articulate definition4 ,for under the mode of externality reposes the manifold of the finite condition2 a manifold which1 so soon as it secures a free field1 asserts itself finally in opposition to the spiritual ,idea1 its universality and truth1 and begins to rouse up the dissatisfaction of thought in a reality which is no longer adequate to express it4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,chapter ,,xlix4 ,footnote #aha3 ,i presume this is the sense of that difficult word des ,inneren here4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,by absolute ,i presume ,hegel means here absolute in the sense of predominant1 masterful--activity such as the ,greek artist possessed4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,iliad1 ,i1 vv4 #i-ab4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,ibid4 vv4 #id-ajj4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,odyssey1 ,,xxiv1 vv4 #da-fc4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,that is1 ,thetis4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,bestimmte sittliche ,substanz4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,das reine ,insichseyn4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,ein ewiger ,ernst4 ,footnote #aij3 ,i presume this refers to some drapery or curtains round the bust as exhibited4 ,footnote #aia3 ,this is the meaning of ,heiterkeit here rather than cheerfulness1 though ,seligkeit is the usual word4 ,footnote #aib3 ,gttliche ,universum4 ,a rather curious expression for1 ,i presume1 the ideal totality of the ,divine ,being4 ,footnote #aic3 ,der geistigen absoluten ,innerlichkeit4 ,lit41 the spiritual and absolute mode of the inward life4 ,he refers1 of course1 to ,christianity1 with its life of the pure in heart and the pure reason4 ,footnote #aid3 ,besonnenheit4 ,footnote #aie3 ,iliad1 ,,xvi1 vv4 #ghc-hdi4 ,footnote #aif3 ,i very much doubt whether the words ,sondern das ,gerede allein can have this meaning1 but the obvious meaning1 but only the gossip1 hardly makes sense4 ,i think the sentence requires revision4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,dissolution ,,of ,,the ,,classical ,,type ,,of ,,art ,the gods of classical art contain in themselves the germ of their overthrow2 consequently1 when this fatal defect which they include is brought to consciousness through the elaboration of art itself1 they bring about the dissolution of the classical ,ideal at the same time4 ,we established as the principle of this1 so far as we have here to deal with it1 that kind of spiritual individuality which secures in every respect an adequate expression in bodily or external existence immediate to our senses4 ,this individuality was enclosed within a complex of divine personalities1 whose definition is not essentially and withal from the first given up to the contingent condition in which the everlasting gods receive the appearance of dissolution for man's conscious life no less than for his artistic creation4 #a4 ,,fate ,,or ,,destiny ,it is true that sculpture in its complete plastic perfection accepts the gods as substantive potencies1 and endows them with a form in whose beauty they in the first instance repose in security1 for the reason that the accidental character1 of their external envisagement is to the least extent emphasized4 ,their multiplicity and distinction does in fact1 however1 constitute this element of contingency1 and thought annuls this in the determinate conception of one divinity1 through whose inevitable power they are mutually at war with and to the detriment of each other4 ,for however universal the power of every particular god is conceived as specific individuality1 such is of a restricted range4 ,add to this the fact that the gods do not continue in their eternal repose2 they are self-determined relatively to particular aims in actual movement through their being drawn hither and thither by the pre-existing conditions and collisions of concrete reality1 in order at one time to afford assistance and at another to obstruct or destroy4 ,these isolated relations in which the gods as active individuals participate contain within them an element of contingency1 which impairs the substantive nature of the divine1 however much the same may persist as the predominant substratum1 and involves the gods in the contradictions and conflicts of a limited finitude4 ,by reason of this finiteness immanent in the gods themselves they fall into contradiction with the loftiness1 worth1 and beauty of their existence1 through which1 too1 they are eventually brought down to the level of mere caprice and chance4 ,the genuine ,ideal evades the complete appearance of this contradiction simply and in so far as--this is preeminently the case in true sculpture and its particular creations as we find them in temples--the divine personalities are represented as explicitly alone in the repose of blessedness1 yet retain1 as we have already above indicated1 a certain aspect of lifelessness1 somewhat aloof from all emotion1 and withal that quiet characteristic of pathetic lament4 ,it is just this mournfulness which exposes their fate by demonstrating that something of higher import stands above them1 and the passage from the particularities of form to their comprehending unity is a necessary one4 ,if1 however1 we fix our attention on the type and configuration of this loftier unity we shall find that it is1 as contrasted with the individuality and relative determination of the gods1 the essentially abstract and formless--the necessity1 the fate1 which under this mode of abstraction the higher can only in general terms be1 and which constrains both gods and men1 while remaining in itself incomprehensible and inconceivable4 ,fate is not as yet absolute and self-subsistent end1 and thereby at the same time subjective1 personal1 divine purpose1 but merely the one and universal ,power which transcends the particularity of the different gods1 and consequently is unable to be presented itself as individual entity2 because otherwise it would simply appear as one among many individuals1 and would stand above them4 ,for this reason it remains without form and individuality1 and is in this abstraction merely necessity and nothing more2 with which gods no less than men1 when they differentiate themselves as separate from one another1 contend4 ,and thus they give effect to their individual power condemned though it be to limitations1 and would fain exalt themselves over the bounds and warrant of ,fate1 though they are1 in fact1 its subjects1 and are forced to hearken to all that unalterably befalls them4 #b4 ,,the ,,dissolution ,,of ,,the ,,gods ,,through ,,their ,,anthropomorphism ,for the reason1 then1 that the principle of self-determinate ,necessity#aig does not appertain to the particular gods1 does not supply in other words the content of their self-determination1 and only floats over them as an undefined abstraction1 the aspect of their insularity as individuals has consequently free play and is unable to escape from ,destiny1 is moreover at liberty to branch out into the external fabric of the human condition1 into the finite consistency of anthropomorphism1 possibilities which convert the gods into the reverse of that condition which truly constitutes the notion of what they are essentially and in virtue of their divine nature4 ,the overthrow of these gods of beauty is consequently quite inevitably brought about for art through their own nature4 ,the human consciousness is at last quite unable to find repose in them1 and is fain compelled to take leave of them4 ,and1 moreover1 if we look more closely we shall find that the mode and type of ,greek anthropomorphism supplies us with a general example of how the gods vanish away from the faiths of religion no less than those of poetry4 7a7 ,spiritual individuality here makes its appearance in the human form1 it is true1 as ,ideal2 but for all that it is in the immediately visible1 that is1 the bodily presence1 not within humanity in all its essential explication1 under the mode in which it is conscious of itself in its own self-conscious world as distinct from ,god1 while in the same breath it annuls the distinction1 and is1 by its own act1 as one with ,god1 essentially infinite and absolute self-consciousness4 77 ,for this reason the plastic ,ideal is unable to present itself as infinite self-conscious spirituality4 ,these plastic shapes of beauty are not merely stone and bronze1 but also the infinite form of subjective life vanishes from them in their content and expression4 ,we may become as enthusiastic as we please over their beauty and art1 but for all that our enthusiasm is and remains something native to our own souls2 it is not really at home in the objects which it thus contemplates1 that is in the gods themselves4 ,to complete the true totality a real reciprocity is required on this side also of the subjective1 self-knowing unity and infinity2 it is this1 and only this1 that unfolds our conception of a living ,god of knowledge1 and of men who thus apprehend ,him4 ,if this totality is not also essentially and with adequacy conformable to the content and nature of the ,absolute1 then the ,absolute will itself appear not as truly a subject of spiritual being1 and its presentment will confront us merely in its objective form without the possession of self-conscious ,spirit4 ,it is quite true1 no doubt1 that the individuality of the gods retains the content of subjectivity1 but merely under modes that are contingent1 and in a process of development1' which moves independently outside that substantive repose and blessedness of the gods4 77 ,on the other hand1 the subjectivity which is opposed to the gods of plastic art is also not the form of conscious life which is essentially eternal and true4 ,in other words1 this latter is--as we shall see for ourselves more clearly in our consideration of the third type of art1 the romantic--that which has before it the objectivity to which it is conformable under the mode of an essentially infinite and self-knowing ,god4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as the knowing subject1 at the stage we are now discussing1 does not consciously conceive itself as present in the perfections of these godlike figures1 nor even in its contemplation of such objects is aware of itself as circumstantially objective1 it is still wholly distinct and separate from its absolute object1 and is consequently a purely contingent and finite subjectivity4 77 ,we might possibly suppose that the passage into a higher sphere of reality would have been emphasized by the imagination and art as a further war among the gods1 in a way analogous1 in fact1 to the first transition from the symbolism of the gods of ,nature to the spiritual ,ideals of classical art4 ,this is by no means the case4 ,on the contrary1 this translation is carried forward in a wholly different field1 as a conflict brought home to consciousness between absolute reality and the present world4 ,for this reason art1 in its relation to the higher content1 which it has to seize under new modes1 occupies an entirely altered position4 ,this new configuration does not assert its importance as revelation by means of ,art1 but is made manifest independently without it1 and appears on the prosaic ground of controversial and rational discussion1 and from thence is within the soul and its religious emotions1 mainly by means of miracle1 martyrdoms1 and so on1 carried into the world of subjective knowledge1 together with a consciousness of the contradiction between all that is finite and the ,absolute1 which unfolds itself in actual history as the process of events toward a ,present which is not merely imagined1 but is the fact we have before us4 ,the ,divine1 ,god ,himself1 becomes flesh1 is born1 lives1 suffers1 dies1 and rises from the dead4 ,this is a content which heart did not discover1 but which1 quite apart from it1 was a present fact1 and which consequently it has not borrowed from its own domain1 but merely supplies a form to it4 ,that old transition and war of the gods1 on the contrary1 discovered its origins in the artistic or imaginative view of the world simply1 which created its wisdom and plastic shapes from its inner life1 and gave to astonished mankind his new gods4 ,for this reason the classic gods also have only received their existence through the fiat of the imagination1 and merely exist as such in stone and bronze1 or in the world open to the senses1 not1 however1 in flesh and blood1 or in very and actual ,spirit4 ,the anthropomorphism of the ,greek gods is therefore without real human existence1 that of body no less than that of ,spirit4 ,it is ,christianity which first introduces us to this reality in flesh and blood as the determinate existence1 life1 and activity of ,god ,himself4 ,consequently this bodily form1 this flesh1 however much also the purely natural and sensuous is recognized as a negation therein1 receives its due and honour1 and that which partakes of anthropomorphism here is sanctified4 ,even as man originally was made in the image of ,god1 ,god is an image of man2 whoso beholdeth the ,son beholdeth the ,father1 and whoso loveth the ,son loveth the ,father4 ,in a word1 ,god is acknowledged as present in the actual world4 ,this new content1 then1 is not brought home to consciousness by means of the conceptions of art1 but is presented from an exterior source as an actual occurrence1 as the history of the ,god who became flesh4 ,a transition such as this could not take its point of departure from ,art2 the contrast between the old and the new would have been too disparate4 ,the ,god of revealed religion1 in respect to content and form1 is very ,god in truth1 in contrast with whom all rivals would become mere creations of the imagination1 whom it would be quite impossible to compare with ,him on equal terms4 ,the old and new gods of classical art1 on the contrary1 originate in both cases independently from the ground of the imagination4 ,they have only such reality from the finite ,spirit as enables them to be conceived and represented as potencies of ,nature and ,spirit2 the contradiction and conflict they declare1 is taken seriously4 ,if1 however1 the transition from the ,greek gods to the ,god of ,christendom were portrayed in the first instance by ,art1 the representation of such a war of gods could not in this direct form be enforced in all seriousness4 7b7 ,consequently this strife and transition becomes also1 in more recent times1 primarily an accidental1 isolated subject-matter of art1 which can claim to create no true epoch1 and has been able in this form to embody no fundamental phase in the line of the entire development of art4 ,we will recall here in this connection1 if incidentally1 a few of the more famous examples of this nature4 ,we frequently hear in more recent times the lament over the submergence of ,greek art1 and a yearning towards ,greek gods and heroes is not infrequently the theme of our poets#aih4 ,this lamentation is expressed emphatically as in direct opposition to ,christendom2 and though it is1 no doubt1 generally granted that it contains the higher truth1 the qualification is added that1 so far as art is concerned1 the transition is only to be regretted4 ,this is the theme of ,schiller's ,gods of ,greece2 and it is worth our while1 even in the present inquiry1 to consider this poem1 not merely as poetry in the beauty of its exposition1 its musical rhythm1 its vivid pictures1 or in the charm of its regretful mood1 which was the motive force in its creation1 but also in order to examine the content4 ,schiller's pathos is always true1 no less than poignant1 and the result of profound reflection4 ,it is perfectly true that the ,christian religion contains1 and may justly claim to accentuate1 a certain phase of art2 but in the due course of its development1 at the time of the ,aufklrung#aii1 it has also reached a point where we find that thought1 or rather the ,understanding#bjj1 has driven into the background that element1 which art pre-eminently requires1 the actual human envisagement and revelation of ,god4 ,for the human form and all that it expresses and declares1 human events1 actions1 feeling1 is the form under which art is forced to conceive and represent the content of ,spirit4 ,inasmuch as the ,understanding has converted ,god into a mere fact of thought1 no longer crediting the appearance of ,his ,spirit in concrete reality1 and thus has alienated the ,god of ,thought from all actual existence1 this type of religious ,illumination has necessarily accepted conceptions and requirements which are intolerable to ,art4 ,when1 however1 the ,understanding is raised once more from the region of these abstractions into that of ,reason1 the need at once asserts itself for something more concrete1 and withal for that kind of concreteness which ,art itself unfolds4 ,the period of the illuminating ,understanding has1 no doubt1 possessed an art of its own1 but only of very prosaic type1 as we may even find it in ,schiller1 whose point of departure was precisely that of such a period of criticism2 later on1 however1 owing to his realization how little reason1 imagination1 and passion were satisfied by the critical ,understanding1 he experienced a deep longing for art1 in the fullest sense of the term1 and primarily for the classical art of the ,greeks and their gods1 and general views of the world4 ,it is from this kind of yearning1 a reaction1 in short1 from the mere abstractions of the mind1 that the poem referred to originated4 ,according to the original draft of the poem1 ,schiller's attitude to ,christianity is entirely polemical2 afterwards he modified it considerably1 no doubt realizing that its animus was only directed against the critical aspect of the ,illumination1 which at a later time itself began to lose its importance4 ,in the first instance he praises the ,greek point of view as fortunate in that the whole of ,nature was a thing of ,life to it1 and full of divinities4 ,after that he reviews the ,present and its prosaic conception of natural law1 and the position man here takes relatively to ,god3 _/ ,diese traur'ge ,stille ,kndigt sie mir meinen ,schpfer an8 ,finster wie er selbst ist seine ,hlle1 ,mein ,entsagen1 was ihn feiern kann#bja4 _/ ,no doubt resignation is an essential characteristic in the evolution of the ,christian life2 but it is only in the monkish conception of it that it requires he should cut off from himself his soul1 his emotions1 the so-called impulses of his ,nature1 and should not incorporate his life in the moral1 rational1 actual world1 the family and the ,state2 and it does so precisely as the ,illumination and its ,deism1 which presupposes that ,god is unknowable1 imposes on mankind the extremest form of resignation1 namely1 that of abandoning all effort either to know or conceive ,him4 ,in any true exposition of ,christian doctrine1 resignation is1 on the contrary1 merely a phasal moment of mediation1 a point of transition1 in which that which is purely natural1 sensuous1 and in general terms finite1 strips off this its incompatible nature in order to permit ,spirit to attain the loftier freedom and reconciliation of its own possessions1 a freedom and blessedness which was unknown to the ,greeks4 ,in ,christianity as thus understood we are not entitled to speak of the celebration of the one ,god1 of the bare seclusion of ,himself1 and the cutting ourselves adrift from an ungodly world1 for it is precisely in this spiritual freedom and reconciliation of ,spirit that ,god is immanent1 and from this point of view the famous lines of ,schiller3 _/ ,da die ,gttes menschlicher noch waren1 ,waren ,menschen gttlicher#bjb4 _/ is absolutely false4 ,we must for this very reason emphasize the later alteration made in the concluding lines which refer thus to the ,greek gods3 _/ ,aus der ,zeitfluh weggerissen schweben ,sie gerettet auf des ,pindus ,hhn2 ,was unsterblich im ,gesang soll leben1 ,muss im ,leben untergehn#bjc4 _/ ,these words support entirely the assertion we have made above that the ,greek gods could only be localized in the mental conception and imagination2 they were neither able to affirm such a position in the reality of life1 nor satisfy in the long run finite spirit4 ,of another sort is the opposition of ,parny to ,christianity--a poet named the ,french ,tibullus on account of his successful elegies--which is conspicuous in a prolix poem of ten cantos1 a kind of epic poem entitled ,la ,guerre des ,dieux1 as an attempt made to bring ridicule upon ,christian conceptions in the interests of jest and comedy carried out in a tone of unrestrained frivolity1 yet withal marked by good humour and considerable talent4 ,the sallies of wit here are not1 however1 carried beyond the point of levity2 we have few traces of the wanton disregard of things that are sacred and of the highest excellence such as marks the period of ,frederick von ,schlegel's ,lucinde4 ,the ,virgin ,mary no doubt is treated very badly in this poem4 ,the monks1 ,dominicans and ,franciscans1 yield to the seductions of wine and ,bacchanals1 and the nuns do much the same with ,fauns1 and the result is sufficiently shocking4 ,finally1 however1 the gods of the old world are vanquished and withdraw from ,olympus to ,parnassus4 ,as a concluding illustration ,goethe in his ,bride of ,corinth has more profoundly depicted in a vivacious picture the banishment of love1 not so much as the result of any true principle of ,christianity as the misconceived interpretation of resignation and sacrifice4 ,the poet here contrasts that false asceticism which seeks to condemn the determination of a woman to be wife and rates that enforced celibacy as something more holy than marriage with the natural feelings of mankind4 ,just as we find in ,schiller the opposition between the ,greek imagination and the critical abstractions of our modern ,enlightenment1 so we may detect here the ,hellenistic ethical and sensuous justifications in the matter of love and marriage1 placed in direct contrast to ideas which can only claim to belong to the ,christian religion when regarded from a wholly one-sided and therefore incorrect point of view4 ,with the greatest art a really horrible tone dominates the entire work2 and the principal reason is this1 that it remains quite uncertain whether the action has reference to a real maiden1 or a dead one1 a living reality or a ghost2 and in the metre of the verse itself in an equally masterly way the threads of light foolery and seriousness are so interwoven as to make the uncanniness still more effective4 7c7 ,before1 however1 we attempt to gauge in its profundity the new type of art1 whose opposition to the old does not come into the course of ,art's development1 so far1 at least1 as we here have undertaken to follow it along its fundamental lines1 we must in the first instance make clear for ourselves that other transition in its earliest form1 which attaches to antique art itself4 ,the principle of this transition consists in this1 that the ,spirit whose individuality hitherto has been contemplated as in harmony with the true subsistency of ,nature and human life1 and which1 in respect to its own life1 volition1 and acts1 was consciously at home in that accord1 begins now to withdraw itself into the infinite subjectivity of its essence1 but instead of the true infinity is only able to secure a purely formal and indeed still finite return upon itself4 ,if we look more closely at the concrete conditions which correspond to the principle indicated1 we shall see1 we have already done so1 that the ,greek gods possess as their content the substantive materiae of real human life and action4 ,over and above the vision of the gods we have now the highest mode of determination1 the universal interest and the end in determinate life1 that is to say1 presented at the same time as an existing fact4 ,just as it was essential to the spiritual configuration of ,greek art to appear both as external and real1 so1 too1 the spiritual growth of mankind in its absolute significance has elaborated itself in a reality that both externally appears and is real1 with whose substance and universality the individual has put forward a claim to be in accordant fusion4 ,this highest end was in ,greece the life of the ,state1 the collective body of citizens and their morality and living patriotism4 ,outside this supreme interest there was no other more lofty or true4 ,the life of the ,state1 however1 as an external phenomenon of the world1 fades into the ,past1 as do the conditions of the entire reality of the outside world4 ,it is not difficult to demonstrate that a ,state under the type of such a freedom1 so immediately identical with all its citizens1 which as such already possess in their grasp the highest activity in all public transactions1 is inevitably small and weak1 and in part must prove suicidal to itself1 in part fall into ruins in the natural course of the history of nations4 ,in other words1 by reason of this immediate coalescence of individual life with the universality of ,state-life1 on the one hand we find that the peculiar idiosyncrasies of spiritual experience and its particular aspects as private life do not receive their full dues1 nor do they receive sufficient opportunity for a development innocuous to society at large4 ,rather1 as distinct from the concrete substance1 into which it has not been accepted1 such a nature remains simply the limited and natural egoism1 which goes on its own way independently1 pursues its interests however much they are alien to the true interest of the whole1 and1 consequently1 is an instrument to the ruin of the ,state1 against which1 in the last resort1 it strains to oppose its individual forces4 ,on the other hand within the circle of this freedom itself the need of a higher personal liberty is roused1 which not merely in the ,state1 as the substantive totality1 nor merely in the accepted code of morals and law1 but in the very soul of the man himself asserts its claim to exist1 in so far as he is ready to give life to goodness and rectitude out of the wealth of his own nature and in the light of his own personal knowledge1 and to recognize the same at its real worth4 ,the individual subject demands of consciousness that it should be1 in virtue of its claim as self-identity1 a substantive whole4 ,consequently there arises in this freedom a new breach between the end of the ,state and that of the man's own personal welfare as essentially free himself4 ,such a conflict as this had already begun in the time of ,socrates1 while on the other side the vanity1 self-seeking and unbridled character of democracy and demagogy corrupted the true ,state to such a degree that men like ,plato and ,xenophon experienced a loathing for the internal condition of their mother-city1 where the direction of all public transactions lay in the hands of those who were either frivolous1 or those who sought nothing but personal aims4 ,the spirit of this transition1 therefore1 depends in the first instance on the general line of severation between ,spirit in its unfolded self-subsistency and external existence4 ,the spiritual in this separation from its reality1 in which it no longer finds itself reflected1 is then the abstract mode of ,spirit2 it is not1 however1 the one ,oriental god1 but on the contrary the actual self-knowing conscious subject1 which brings to the fore and retains within the clasp of its ideal subjectivity all that is universal in thought1 truth1 goodness1 and morality1 and possesses therein not so much the knowledge of a pre-existing reality as simply the content of its thoughts and convictions4 ,this relation1 in so far as it persists in this opposition1 and sets up the two aspects of the same as purely opposites to one another1 would be of an entirely prosaic character4 ,we do not1 however1 at this stage as yet arrive at this point of bare prose4 ,in other words it is true that on the one hand we have a consciousness present1 which as self-secure1 wills the ,good1 the fulfilment of its desires1 conceives the reality of its notion in the virtue of its emotional life1 much as we find it thus imaged in the ancient gods1 morals1 and laws4 ,at the same time1 however1 this consciousness is split up in opposition to its existence as part of existing ,life1 in other words the actual political life of the time1 the dissolution of the old modes of conception1 the former type of patriotism and political wisdom1 and adheres thereby unquestionably to that opposition between the inward life of soul and the real environment outside it4 ,and the reason of this hesitancy is this that the bare conceptions of genuine ethical truth which it derives from its own inner world are unable to fully satisfy it2 it consequently faces that which is exterior to this1 to which it relates itself in a negative and hostile spirit with the object of changing it4 ,this consciousness is1 as already stated1 on the one hand no doubt an inward and present content1 which1 self-determined and at the same time deliberately articulate1 is concerned with a world that confronts it1 to which this content is opposed1 and which receives the task to depict this same reality in the semblance of the very traits of the corruption peculiar to that world1 and which form such a contrast with its own ideas of goodness and truth4 ,from another point of view this very contrast is cancelled by art itself4 ,in other words1 another type of art arises1 in which the conflict of this opposition is not emphasized through the medium of mere thoughts1 remaining thus in its disunion2 but this reality in the very folly of its corruption is itself submitted to a mode of artistic presentation1 which exposes it as self-destructive1 and exposes it in such a way that it is precisely in and through this self-destructive process of what is of no weight that truth is enabled to assert itself upon this mirror as the secure and endurable power1 and thereby all the force of a direct opposition to what is essentially true is removed from that side represented by folly and unreasonableness4 ,this art is comedy1 of the type ,aristophanes dramatized for his fellow-citizens1 connecting it closely with all that was essential in the world around him1 and doing so with equanimity#bjd1 in a mood of pure and hearty joviality4 #c4 ,,satire ,we may1 however1 observe that this resolution of art1 despite its adequacy1 tends to disappear to this extent1 that the contradictory antithesis persists in the form of its opposition1 and1 consequently1 instead of the poetic reconciliation a prosaic relation is imported1 by means of which the classical type of art appears to be annulled1 and the gods of plastic shape no less than the entire world of human beauty vanish with it4 ,we have1 then1 now to look about us for a form of art1 which is able to reclothe itself from the ruins of this overthrow in a loftier configuration and to extract the real significance which it implies4 ,we discovered as the terminating point of symbolic art in the same way that the separation of pure form from its significance was emphasized in a variety of modes such as simile1 fable1 parable1 riddle1 and the like4 ,inasmuch as the severation above adverted to is causally responsible for the dissolution of that art-type1 in a similar way the question arises what is the nature of the distinction between our present example of transition as contrasted with the previous one4 ,the distinction is as follows3 7a7 ,in the truly symbolic and comparative type of art the form and significance are from the very first1 despite the affinity of their relationship1 alien to one another2 they are placed1 however1 in no mere negative1 but rather in amicable relationship2 for it is precisely the qualities and traits which are identical to or resemble each other on the two sides which assert themselves as the causal basis of their conjunction and comparison4 ,their persistent separation and hostility is consequently within the bounds of this union neither1 relatively to the separated aspects1 of a hostile character1 nor is a blending of the same1 within essentially narrow limits1 thereby removed from them4 ,the ,ideal of classical art1 on the contrary1 proceeds from the perfect interfusion of significance and form1 the ideal individuality of spirit and its external conformation2 and when the composite aspects which have been brought together in such a consummated unity are disrupted1 this disruption takes place simply because they are unable any longer to cohere one with the other1 and are absolutely compelled to start forth from their peaceful state of harmony in disunion and hostility4 7b7 ,together with this way of looking at the relation in contrast to that of symbolic art we may add that the content of both sides is altered1 as they now stand in opposition4 ,to put it thus we may say that1 in the symbolic type of art1 it is abstractions more or less1 general thoughts1 or at least definite phrases in the form of generalities peculiar to reflective thought1 which1 by means of the symbolic type of art1 receive a sensuous embodiment replete with suggestion4 ,in the form1 however1 which makes itself predominant in this transition to romantic art the content1 it is true1 is made up of a similar abstraction of general thoughts1 opinions1 and maxims of reflective reason1 but in this case it is not these abstractions in themselves1 but rather their presence in the individual's mind and his self-subsistent identity which furnish the content for one side of the opposition4 ,for the primary requirement of this mediating stage consists in this1 that the spiritual which has attained the ,ideal1 shall stand forth in its entire independence4 ,already in classical art we found that spiritual individuality was of chief importance1 albeit on the side of its realization it remained reconciled with a determinate existence as immediately presented4 ,what is of importance now is to declare a mode of subjectivity which strives to acquire the mastery over the form that is no longer adequate to it1 in a word1 over external reality4 ,in this way the world of ,spirit becomes liberated as independent4 ,it recovers itself from bondage to the sensuous material and manifests itself thereby through this return upon its own resources as the subject of a self-consciousness which only finds contentment in the secret wealth of its own domain4 ,this subject1 however1 which repels externality from itself1 is not in respect to its ideal aspect yet the truly concrete totality which encloses as content the ,absolute under the mode of self-conscious spiritual life2 rather it is1 as still fettered by its opposition to reality1 a purely abstract1 finite1 and unsatisfied form of subjectivity4 ,in opposition to this we have confronting it an equally finite mode of reality1 which on its part is also independent1 but just for that very reason--forasmuch1 that is1 as the truth of ,spirit has withdrawn from it into its own ideality and henceforward neither will nor can identity itself with it1 appears as a reality void of all gods and an existence fallen into rottenness4 ,in this manner and at this point art brings forward a ,spirit that thinks1 that is1 to repeat our former analysis1 the individual consciousness of our humanity1 which1 supporting itself on its own possession of the abstract knowledge and volition of goodness and virtue1 confronts with hostility therewith the corruption of its present environment4 ,that aspect of this opposition which remains unresolved1 and in which the ideal and external modes of its antithesis persist in their disruption1 constitutes the element of prose in the mutual relation of the two sides4 ,a noble mind or a virtuous soul to whom the realization of self-conscious life is denied in a world of vice and folly1 turns away from the existence which thus confronts him with passionate indignation1 or more subtle wit and more frosty bitterness1 and either is wroth with or scorns a world which gives the lie direct to his abstract notions of virtue and truth4 ,the type of art which accepts this sudden outburst of opposition between a subjectivity still finite in its mode and a degenerate world outside it as its matter is the ,satire1 the ordinary theories as to which have little to commend them1 for the simple reason that they break down precisely where we look for their assistance4 ,satire has nothing to do with epic poetry1 and it has just as little affinity with lyric4 ,in the ,satire it is not the life of the emotional nature which is expressed2 rather the general conception of goodness and what is essentially needful1 which it no doubt blends with the particular aspect of soul-life#bje1 appears as the virtuousness of this or that individual2 but this does not suffer itself to be enjoyed in the open and unhampered beauty of imaginative conception or let that enjoyment issue freely4 ,rather with discontent it retains the existing discord between the writer's own state of mind and its abstract principles and the empirical reality which mocks them4 ,to this extent satire is neither a genuine creation of the poet nor a real work of art4 ,for these reasons the point of view of the satirical poem can never be reached satisfactorily through those other types of poetry just mentioned2 it must be apprehended in a more general way as the example of this very transitional form we referred to from the classic ,ideal4 7c7 ,inasmuch1 then1 as it is1 relatively to its ideal content1 the prosaic resolution of the ,ideal1 which asserts itself mainly in satire1 we do not find that ,greece1 which is pre-eminently the native land of ,beauty1 is the place where we must look for it4 ,satirical poems of the nature above described are the characteristic possession of ,rome4 ,the spirit of the ,roman world is the sovereignty of the abstract ,ideal1 the law that is dead1 the shipwreck of beauty and of the joyousness of civic life1 the suppression of the family in the sense that it is the immediate and most natural form of morality1 and generally the sacrifice of individuality1 which surrenders itself wholly to the ,state1 and in obedience to the abstract law is satisfied with the frost-like sense of political worth and critical satisfaction which it supplies4 ,the principle of this civic virtue1 the cold-blooded harshness of which subjects to its pleasure all alien peoples1 while the formal rectitude of the personal life is elaborated to the furthest point of consistency on equally rigid lines1 is wholly inconsonant with genuine art4 ,we find1 therefore1 even in ,rome no art that is at once conspicuous in its beauty1 freedom1 and greatness4 ,it is from the ,greeks that the ,romans borrowed all that they mastered whether in sculpture or painting1 epic1 lyric1 or dramatic poetry4 ,it is a remarkable fact that all that we can point to as the native product of ,latin art is comic farces1 whereas the more cultivated types of comedy1 not excluding those of ,plautus and ,terence1 are borrowed from ,greece1 and are rather an affair of imitation than independent production4 ,even ,ennius first exhausted the sources of ,greek poetry before he made mythology prosaic4 ,that type of art is alone native to the ,latin genius1 which was essentially itself prosaic1 the didactic poem1 for example1 more particularly when it contains an ethical content1 and endows its general reflections with the purely exterior adornment of metre1 images1 similes1 and a rhetorically beautiful diction4 ,but above all other forms thus excepted we place the satire4 ,here we find it is the mood of virtuous exasperation over the surrounding world which strives to air itself in what is1 in some measure1 hollow declamations4 ,we can only call this essentially prosaic type of art poetical in so far as it brings before the vision the corrupted nature of real life in such a way that this corruption practically falls to pieces as the result of its own folly4 ,just as ,horace1 who as a lyric poet entirely identified himself by study with the artistic type and manner of ,greece1 in his epistles and satires--where we have his originality more emphasized--traces for us a living picture of the morals of his age1 by depicting follies which are self-destructive by virtue of the stupidity1 that carries them into effect4 ,nevertheless1 even this example only presents us with a kind of merriment that for all its keen and educated sense can barely be classed as poetry1 the object in the main being to make ridicule out of that which is bad4 ,among others1 on the contrary1 we find that the abstract conception of rectitude and virtue is deliberately contrasted with vice2 and in this case it is exasperation1 anger1 hate1 and scorn1 which in some measure expatiate in formal eloquence over virtue and wisdom1 and in part give full rein to the indignation of a soul of more nobility against the dissolution and servility of the times1 or hold up before the vices of the day the mirror of the old morality1 the former liberty1 the virtues of a state of the world which has passed away1 without any genuine hope and belief in their recovery2 or rather one which has nothing to oppose to the tottering gait1 the dilemmas1 the need and danger of an ignominious present1 save a stoical equanimity and the unshakable conscience of a virtuous soul4 ,roman history and philosophy not unfrequently receive something of the same tone from a mood of this kind4 ,sallust must needs express himself strongly against the corruptions of morals1 being himself very considerably affected by them4 ,livy1 despite his rhetorical elegance1 seeks for comfort and satisfaction in his picture of the good old days4 ,above all we have ,tacitus1 who1 with a severe melancholy as grand in its scope as it was profound1 without the baldness of declamation1 indignantly exposes in the clearest relief the evils of his time4 ,among the satirists ,persius is remarkable for his acerbity1 with a bitter edge more keen than that of ,juvenal4 ,later on we find bringing up the rear the ,greek ,syrian ,lucian giving free vent to his witticisms and pleasantry against all things1 whether heroes1 philosophers1 or gods2 and with exceptional prominence passing in review the ancient gods of ,greece on the score of their humanity and individuality4 ,however1 only too often he goes no further in his tittle-tattle than the mere external aspect of these godlike figures and their actions1 and is for that reason wearisome to modern readers4 ,for1 on the one hand1 so far as our convictions are concerned1 we have already disposed of all that he would destroy1 and on the other we are aware that1 despite all his jests and mockery1 these characteristic traits of ,greek divinities1 when contemplated under the aspect of beauty1 still retain their eternal significance4 ,nowadays satirical poems are not likely to prove a success4 ,cotta and ,goethe have proposed competitions in this form of composition1 but no poems of note are forthcoming4 ,certain fixed principles are bound up with it1 with which the present age is not in harmony2 a wisdom which is devoid of content1 a virtue which adheres with inflexible obstinacy to its own resources and nothing beyond1 may very possibly contrast itself with the actual world1 but is quite unable to bring about the truly poetical resolution of what is false and repugnant1 and effect the genuine reconciliation in the truth4 ,in one word1 ,art is unable to persist in this breach between the abstract conceptions of the inward life and the objective world around1 without proving itself false to its own principle4 ,the subjective realm of the soul must be conceived as that which is itself an essentially infinite and independent existence1 which1 albeit it is unable to suffer the finite reality to subsist as ,truth itself1 nevertheless does not merely assert itself negatively toward the same in a bare contradiction1 but proceeds all the while on the path of reconciliation1 and for the first time1 in its opposition to the ideal individualities of the classical art-form1 declares this very activity1 being in fact the presentment of the absolute mode of self-conscious life4 ,footnote #aig3 ,lit4 the essentially-and-for-itself-necessary4 ,footnote #aih3 ,hlderlin1 and of course ,goethe no less than ,schiller1 would be included4 ,with our moderns such as ,swinburne the admission is less obvious than the qualification4 ,footnote #aii3 ,die ,aufklrung4 ,that is1 the end of the eighteenth century2 usually translated as illumination or enlightenment4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,verstand1 the faculty of science and common sense4 ,footnote #bja3 _/ ,what6 doth this same stillness tell me sadly ,all ,i know of ,him who voiced creation8 ,dark as e'en the veil that hides ,him from me ,is my heart's salute of resignation4 _/ ,footnote #bjb3 _/ ,since the gods were then more human ,men were more in image godlike4 _/ ,footnote #bjc3 _/ ,wrested from the flood of ,time's abysses ,saved they float above high ,pindus now2 ,all that was immortal life within them ,lives in song1 all other life must go4 _/ ,footnote #bjd3 ,zornlos lit41 without anger4 ,footnote #bje3 ,i think this is the meaning of the words mit subjectiver ,besonderheit1 but the interpretation with other material peculiar to the writer is not impossible4 ,,subsection ,,iii ,,the ,,romantic ,,type ,,of ,,art ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,romantic ,,generally ,the type of romantic art receives its definition1 as we have hitherto throughout the present inquiry seen was always the case1 from the ideal notion of the content1 which it is the function of art to declare4 ,we must consequently in the first place attempt to elucidate the distinctive principle of the new content1 a content which now1 in its significance as the absolute content of truth1 opens up to our minds a new vision of the world no less than a novel configuration of art4 ,in the first stage of our inquiry1 the entrance chamber of art1 the impulse of imagination consisted in the struggle from ,nature to spiritual expression4 ,in this strain ,spirit never reached beyond what was still only an effort to find1 an effort which1 in so far as it was not yet able to supply a genuine content for art1 could only maintain its position as an external embodiment of the significant aspects of ,nature1 or those abstractions of the ideal inwardness of substance which were destitute of a subjective character in the strict sense1 and in which this type of art found its real centre4 ,the reverse of this point of view we discovered in classical art4 ,here it is spirituality--albeit it is only by virtue of the abrogation of the significances of ,nature that it is enabled to struggle forth in its independent self-identity--which is the basis and principle of the content1 with the natural phenomenon in the bodily or sensuous material for its external form4 ,this embodiment1 however1 did not1 as was the case in the first stage1 remain superficial1 indefinite1 and unsuffused by its content2 but the perfection of art attained its culminating point by precisely this means1 namely1 that ,spirit completely transpierced its exterior appearance1 idealized the shell of ,nature in this union of beauty1 and drew round itself a reality adequate to its own nature as mind under the mode of substantive individuality4 ,by this means classical art was a presentation of the ,ideal which completely satisfied its notion1 the consummation of the realm of beauty4 ,more beautiful art than this can neither exist now nor hereafter4 ,but for all that we may have an art that is more lofty in its aim than this lovely revelation of ,spirit in its immediate sensuous form1 if at the same time one that is created by the mind as adequate to its own nature4 ,for this coalition1 which perfects itself in the medium of what is external1 and thereby makes sensible reality its adequate and determinate existence1 necessarily runs counter to the true notion of ,spirit1 and drives it forth from its reconciliation in the bodily shape upon its own essential substance to seek further reconciliation in that alone4 ,the simple and unriven totality of the ,ideal is dissolved1 and breaks up into one of twofold aspect1 namely1 that of the essentially subjective life and its exterior semblance1 in order to enable mind1 by means of this severation1 to win the profounder reconciliation in its own most proper element4 ,in one word1 ,spirit1 which has for its principle the mode of entire self-sufficiency1 the union of its notion with its reality--is only able to discover an existence that wholly corresponds to such a principle in its own spiritual world of emotion1 soul1 that is to say1 in the inward life where it feels at home4 ,the human spirit becomes aware that it must possess its ,other1 its existence1 as ,spirit1 which it appropriates as its own and what it verily is1 and by doing so at length enjoys its own infinity and freedom4 #a4 ,this elevation of ,spirit to its own substance1 through which it attains its objectivity--which it would otherwise be obliged to seek for in the external environment of its existence within its own self and in this union with itself both feels and knows itself--is what constitutes the fundamental principle of romantic art4 ,with this truth we may join as a corollary thereto that for this concluding stage the beauty of the classic ,ideal1 or in other words beauty in its most uniquely consonant form and its most conformable content1 is no longer regarded as ultimate4 ,for in arriving at the point of romantic art1 ,spirit#bjf becomes aware that its truth is not fully attained by a self-absorption in the material of sense4 ,on the contrary1 it only comes fully to the knowledge of that truth by withdrawing itself out of that medium into the inward being of its own substance1 whereby it deliberately affirms the inadequacy of external reality as a mode of its existence4 ,it is owing to this that when this new content is set the essential task of making itself an object of beauty1 the beauty1 in the meaning of the terms under which we have met with it before1 only persists as a subordinate mode1 and the new conception of it becomes the spiritual beauty of what is its own ideality made fully explicit1 in other words1 the subjectivity of ,spirit essentially infinite in its mode4 ,in order1 however1 that mind may attain the infinity which belongs to it it must transcend at the same time purely formal and finite personality and rise into the measure of the ,absolute4 ,that is to say1 ,spirit must declare itself as fulfilled with that which is out and out substantive1 and in doing so proclaim itself as a self-knowing and self-willing subject4 ,conversely1 therefore1 what is substantive and true is no longer to be apprehended as a mere beyond relatively to our humanity1 and the anthropomorphism of the ,greek view of things can be struck out2 and in the place of this we have humanity as very and real subjectivity affirmed as the principle1 and by virtue of this change1 as we have already seen1 anthropomorphism for the first time reflects a truth of complete and final validity4 #b4 ,we have now in a general way to develop the range of subject-matter1 no less than its form1 from the earliest phases in the evolution of this principle1 whose configuration1 as it thus changes1 is conditioned by the new content of romantic art4 ,the true principle of the romantic content is absolute inwardness#bjg1 and the form which corresponds to it1 the subjectivity of mind1 meaning by this the comprehension of its self-subsistence and freedom4 ,this intrinsically infinite principle and explicitly enunciated universal is the absolute negation of all particularity#bjh2 it is simple unity at home with itself1 which consumes all that is separable1 all processes of ,nature and its succession of birth1 passing away1 and reappearance1 all the limitations of spiritual existence1 and dissolves all particular gods in its pure and infinite self-identity4 ,in this ,pantheon all gods are dethroned2 the flame of the subjective essence has destroyed them2 instead of the plastic polytheism art recognizes now one ,god only1 one ,spirit1 one absolute self-subsistence1 which as the absolute knowledge and volition of itself remains in free union with it1 and no longer falls to pieces in the particular characters and functions we have reviewed above1 whose single unit of cohesion was the force of an obscure ,necessity4 ,absolute subjectivity1 however1 in its purity would escape from art altogether1 and only be present in the apprehension of ,thought1 unless it could enter into external existence in order that it might be a subjectivity which was actual if also conformable to its notion1 and further could recollect itself in its own province from out of this reality4 ,and1 what is more1 this moment of reality is pertinent to the ,absolute1 because the ,absolute1 as infinite negativity1 contains this self-relation--as simple unity of knowledge at home with itself1 and therewith as immediacy--for the final consummation of its activity4 ,on account also of this its immediate existence1 which is rooted in the ,absolute itself1 the ,absolute declares itself not as the one jealous ,god1 who merely annuls the aspect of ,nature and finite human existence1 without revealing itself verily therein under the mode of actual divine subjectivity2 rather the very ,absolute unfolds itself1 and takes to itself an aspect1 relatively to which it is also within the grasp and presentation of art4 ,the determinate existence of ,god1 however1 is not the natural and sensuous in its simplicity1 but the sensuous as brought home to that which is not sensuous1 in other words to the subjectivity of mind which1 instead of losing the certainty of its own presence as the ,absolute1 in its external envisagement1 for the first time1 and by no other means than this its reality1 is made aware of its actual presence as such4 ,god in ,his ,truth is consequently no mere ,ideal begotten of the imagination1 but ,he declares ,himself in the heart of finite condition and the external mode of contingent existence1 and is1 moreover1 made known to ,himself therein as divine subjective life1 which maintains itself there as essentially infinite and creating this infinity for itself4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as the actual subject#bji is the manifestation of ,god1 ,art for the first time secures the superior right to apply the human figure and its mode of externality generally as a means to express the ,absolute1 although the new function of art can only consist in making the external form not a means whereby the ideality of man's inward condition is absorbed in exterior bodily shape1 but rather conversely to make the consciousness of the ,divine mind visible in the subject of consciousness4 ,the distinguishable phases1 which combine to make up the totality of this apprehension of the world-condition as1 that is to say1 the concrete totality of truth1 are consequently made manifest to mankind from this point onwards under such a mode that it is neither the ,natural in its simplicity1 such as sun1 heavens1 stars1 and so forth1 nor the ,greek conclave of the gods of beauty1 nor the heroes and practical exploits in the field of the family cultus and political life--it is neither one nor any of these which supplies us with either content or form4 ,rather it is the actual and isolated individual subject who receives in the inward#baj substance of his living experience this infinite worth1 for it is in him alone that the eternal characters of absolute ,truth--which is made actual only as ,spirit--expand out of their fulness within1 and are concentrated to the point of determinate existence4 ,if we contrast this definition of romantic art with that which was proposed to the classical--that is to say1 as ,greek sculpture completed the latter under the mode most conformable to it--it is obvious that the plastic figure of the god does not express the motion and activity of ,spirit1 in so far as the same has retired from its actual bodily shape1 and has penetrated to the inner shrine of independent self-identity4 ,that which is mutable and contingent in the empirical aspect of individuality is no doubt removed from those lofty1 godlike figures3 what1 however1 fails them is the actualization of the subjective condition in its self-subsistent being as shown in self-knowledge and self-volition4 ,this defect makes itself felt on the exterior side in the notable fact that the direct expression of soul in its simplicity1 the light of the eye1 is absent from the sculptured figure4 ,the most exalted works of beautiful sculpture are sightless4 ,the inward life does not look forth from them as self-conscious inwardness such as this concentration of ,spirit to the point of light made visible in the human eye offers us4 ,this light of the soul falls outside of them1 and is the possession of the beholder alone3 he is unable to look through these figures as soul direct to soul1 and eye to eye4 ,the ,god of romantic art1 however1 is made known with sight1 that is1 self-knowing1 subjective on the side of soul1 and that soul or divine intimacy disclosing itself to soul4 ,for the infinite negativity1 the withdrawal of the spiritual into itself1 cancels its discharge in the bodily frame4 ,this subjectivity is the light of ,spirit1 which reveals itself in its own domain1 in the place which was previously obscure1 whereas the natural light can only give light on the face of an object1 is in fact this terrain and object1 upon which it appears1 and which it is aware of as itself#baa4 ,inasmuch as1 however1 this absolute intimacy of the soul expresses itself at the same time as the mode of human envisagement in its actual existing shape1 and our humanity is bound up with the entire natural world1 we shall find that there is no less a wide field of variety in the contents of the subjective world of mind than there is in that external appearance1 to which ,spirit is related as to its own dwelling-place4 ,the reality of absolute subjectivity1 as above described1 in the mode of its visible manifestation1 possesses the following modes of content and appearance4 7a7 ,our first point of departure we must deduce from the ,absolute itself1 which as very and actual mind endows itself with determinate existence1 is self-knowing in its thought and activity4 ,here we find the human form so represented that it is known immediately as the wholly self-possessed ,divine4 ,man does not appear as man in his solely human character1 in the constraint of his passions1 finite aims1 and achievements1 or as merely conscious of ,god1 but rather as the self-knowing one and only universal ,god ,himself1 in whose life and sufferings1 birth1 death1 and resurrection ,he reveals openly also to finite consciousness1 what ,spirit1 what the ,eternal and ,infinite in their veritable truth are#bab4 ,romantic art presents this content in the history of ,christ1 his mother1 and his disciples1 with all the rest of those in whom the ,holy ,spirit and the perfected ,divine is manifested4 ,for in so far as ,god1 who is above all the essential ,universal1 exists in the manifestation of human existence1 this reality is not1 in the ,divine figure of ,christ1 limited to isolate and immediate existence1 but unfolds itself throughout the entire range of that humanity1 in which the ,spirit of ,god is made present1 and in this actuality continues in unity with itself4 ,the diffusion of this self-contemplation1 this essential self-possession of mind#bac1 is peace1 in other words the reconciled state of ,spirit with its own dominion in the mode of its objective presence--a divine world1 a kingdom of ,god1 in which the ,divine1 which has for its substantive notion from the first reconciliation with itself1 consummates this result in such a condition1 and thereby secures its freedom4 7b7 ,however much1 we must fain add1 this identification asserts itself as grounded in the essence of the ,absolute itself1 as spiritual freedom and infinity it is no reconciliation which immediately is visible from the first in either the real worlds of ,nature or ,spirit2 on the contrary1 it is only accomplished as the elevation of ,spirit from the finitude of its immediate existence to its truth4 ,as a corollary of this it follows that ,spirit1 in order to secure its totality and freedom1 must effect an act of self-severation1 and set up on the one side itself as the finitude of ,nature and ,spirit to its opposed self on the other as that which is essentially infinite4 ,conversely with this act of disruption the necessity is conjoined that from out of this retirement from its unity--within the bounds of which the finite and purely natural1 the immediacy of existence1 the natural heart in the sense of the negative1 evil and bad1 one and all are defined--a way is at last found by virtue of the subjugation of all that has no substantive worth within the kingdom of truth and consolation4 ,in this wise the reconcilement of ,spirit can only be conceived as an activity1 a movement of the same1 can only be presented as a process1 in whose course arise both strain and conflict1 and the appearance and reappearance1 as an essential feature of it1 of pain1 death1 the mournful sense of non-reality1 the agony of the soul and its bodily tenement4 ,for just as ,god in the first instance disparts finite reality from ,himself1 so1 too1 finite man1 who starts on his journey outside the divine kingdom1 receives the task to exalt himself to ,god1 to let loose from him the finite1 to do away with the nothing-worth1 and by means of this decease of his immediate reality to become that which ,god in ,his manifestation as man accomplished as very truth in the actual world4 ,the infinite pain of this sacrifice of the most personal subjectivity1 sufferings1 and death1 which for the most part were excluded from the representation of classical art1 or rather only are presented there as natural suffering1 receive their adequate treatment necessarily for the first time in romantic art4 ,it is1 for example1 impossible to affirm that among the ,greeks death was ever conceived in its full and essential significance4 ,neither that which was purely natural1 nor the immediacy of ,spirit in its union with the bodily presence1 was held by the ,greeks as something in itself essentially negative4 ,death was consequently to them purely an abstract passing over1 unaccompanied by horror or fearsomeness1 a cessation without further immeasurable consequences for the deceased4 ,if1 however1 conscious life in its spiritual self-possession is of infinite worth then the negation1 which death enfolds1 is a negation of this exaltation and worth1 and it is consequently fearful1 a death of the soul1 which is in the position of finding itself thereby as itself now this negative in explicit appearance1 excluded for evermore from happiness1 absolutely unhappy1 delivered over to eternal damnation#bad4 ,greek individuality1 on the contrary1 does not1 regarded as spiritual self-consciousness1 attach this worth to itself2 it is able1 consequently1 to surround death with more cheerful images4 ,man only fears the loss of that which is of great worth to him#bae4 ,life possesses1 however1 only this infinite worth for mind if the subject thereof1 as spiritual and self-conscious1 is reality in its absolute unity1 and is compelled with an apprehension1 in this way justified1 to image itself as doomed to negation by death4 ,from another point of view1 however1 death also fails to secure from classical art the positive significance which it receives from romantic art4 ,the ,greeks never treated with real seriousness what we understand by immortality4 ,it was only in later times that the doctrine of immortality received at the hands of ,socrates a profounder significance for the introspective reflection of human intelligence4 ,when1 for example1 ,odysseus#baf praises the happiness of ,achilles in the lower world as one excelling that of all others who were before or came after him on the ground that he1 once revered as a god1 is now greatest chief among the dead1 ,achilles in the well-known words rates this fortune at a very low rank indeed1 and makes answer that ,odysseus had better utter no word of comfort to him on the score of death2 nay1 he would rather be a mere serf of the soil1 and poor enough serve a poor man for wage1 than rule as lord over all the ghosts of the dead who have vanished to ,hades4 ,in romantic art1 on the contrary1 death is merely a decease of the natural soul and finite consciousness1 a decease1 which only proclaims itself as negative as against that which is itself essentially negative and abolishes what has no real substance1 and is consequently the deliverance of ,spirit from its finitude and division1 mediating at the same time the spiritual reconciliation of the individual subject with the ,absolute#bag4 ,among the ,greeks life in its union with the existence of ,nature and the external world was the only life about which you could affirm anything1 and death was consequently pure negation1 the dissolution of immediate reality4 ,in the romantic view of the world1 however1 death receives the significance due to its negativity1 in other words the negation of the negative#bah1 and returns back to us thereby equally as the affirmative1 as the resurrection of ,spirit from the bare husk of ,nature and the finiteness which it has outgrown4 ,the pain and death of the extinguished light of individual being awakes again in its return upon itself in fruition1 blessedness1 and in short that reconciled existence which ,spirit is unable to attain to save through the dying of its negative state1 in which it is shut off from its most veritable truth and life4 ,this fundamental principle does not therefore merely affect the fact of death as it approaches man in his relation to the world of ,nature1 but it is bound up with a process1 which ,spirit has to sustain in itself1 quite independently of this external aspect of negation1 if life and truth are to join hands4 7c7 ,the third presentment of this absolute world of ,spirit is co-ordinated by man1 in so far as he neither makes manifest the ,absolute and ,divine in its immediate and essential mode as such ,divine1 nor declares positively the process in which he is exalted to the ,supreme ,being1 and reconciled with ,him1 but rather continues within the ordinary sphere of his human life4 ,here it is the purely finite aspect of that existence which constitutes the content1 whether we regard it in the light of its spiritual purposes1 its worldly interests1 passions1 collisions1 suffering1 and enjoyments1 or from that point of view which is wholly external1 that of ,nature1 its kingdom1 and all its detailed phenomena4 ,in order to apprehend this content with adequacy1 however1 we must take up two distinct positions relatively to it4 ,in other words1 it is true that ,spirit1 for the reason that it has secured the principle of self-affirmation1 expatiates in this province1 as one on which it has a just claim1 and one which1 as native to it1 provides satisfaction1 an element from which it merely extracts this positive character#bai1 and is permitted thereby itself to be reflected in its positive satisfaction and intimacy2 yet1 on the other hand1 we have the fact that this content is brought down to the level of pure contingency1 a contingency which is unable to claim any independent validity1 for the reason that mind cannot discover therein it veritable existence1 and consequently only preserves its substantial unity by independently on its own account breaking up again this finite aspect of ,spirit and ,nature as a thing of finitude and negation4 #c4 ,in conclusion1 then1 so far as the relation of this content in its entirety to its mode of presentation is concerned1 it would appear1 in the first place1 agreeably to what we have above stated1 that the content of romantic art1 relatively to the ,divine1 at any rate1 is very limited4 7a7 ,for1 first1 as we have already indicated1 ,nature is divested of the ,divine principle2 in other words1 the sea and mountains1 valleys1 ,time1 and ,night1 briefly all the general processes of ,nature1 have here lost the worth which they carry when related to the presentation and content of the ,absolute4 ,the images of ,nature receive no further expansion in a symbolic significance4 ,the thesis that their shapes and activities might possibly sustain traits of ,divine import is taken away from them4 ,for all the mighty questions in regard to the origin of the world1 in regard to the ,whence1 ,wherefore1 and ,whither1 of created ,nature and humanity1 and all the symbolical and plastic experiments in the resolution and exposition of these problems disappear at once in the revelation of ,god in ,spirit2 and we may add that also in the spiritual sphere the world of variety and colour1 with the characters1 actions1 and events1 as they were envisaged by classical art1 are now concentrated in one single light-focus of the ,absolute and its eternal history of redemption4 ,the whole content meets1 therefore1 at this single point of the ,inmost of ,spirit#bbj--that is1 of feeling1 imagination1 soul--all that strains after a union with truth1 that seeks and wrestles to bring to birth the ,divine in consciousness1 and to maintain it2 and1 furthermore1 is constrained to execute the world's aims and undertakings1 not so much for the world's sake as to further the unique and essential undertaking of its heart by means of the spiritual conflict of man's inward nature and his reconciliation with ,god1 presenting personality and its conservation no less than all that paves the way to them for this object1 and this alone4 ,the heroism1 which makes its appearance as the result of such aspirations1 is not the kind of heroism which prescribes laws by its own fiat1 establishes new systems1 creates and informs circumstances1 but rather a heroism of submission1 which accepts everything as predetermined and ordered above it1 and whose energies are now wholly restricted to the task of regulating temporal events in line with such direction1 and making that which is in keeping with the higher order and of independent stability a valid factor in the world as if is and in the ,time-process4 ,for the reason1 however1 that this absolute content appears as concentrated to a focus in the inward life of the soul1 and the entire process is imported into the life of mankind1 the range of this content is thereby also infinitely extended4 ,it expands1 in fact1 to a manifold variety practically without limit4 ,for although every objective history supplies what is substantive in that self-concrete soul-life1 yet for all that the subject of the same reviews it in all its aspects1 presents isolated features taken from it1 or unfolds it as it appears in continually novel human traits by way of addition1 and may very well into the bargain both import the entire expanse of ,nature1 as environment and locale of ,spirit1 and divert them to the one single object referred to4 ,by this means the history of soul-life is infinitely rich1 and can adapt its form to ever shifting conditions and situations in every possible way4 ,and1 further1 if the individual at last steps forth from this absolute sphere and actively engages in worldly affairs1 the range of interests1 objects1 and emotions will be difficult to count on the score in proportion as the spiritual self-possession is profound1 agreeably to the principle in its fullest application2 man is consequently distracted by an infinitely multiplied profusion of interior and exterior collisions1 revolutions1 and gradations of passion1 and the most manifold degrees of satisfaction4 ,the ,absolute in its unqualified and essential universality1 in so far1 that is1 as it is unfolded in the conscious life of the human soul1 constitutes the spiritual content of romantic art2 and for this reason his collective humanity1 no less than its entire evolution1 becomes its inexhaustible material4 7b7 ,romantic art does not1 however1 as art educe this content in the way we found was the case for the most part in symbolic art1 and1 above all1 in the classical type and its ideal gods4 ,romantic art1 as we have seen already1 is not1 in its specific capacity1 the instructive revelation1 which1 merely in the form of art1 makes the content of truth visible to the senses4 ,the content is already present in the conceptive mind1 and the emotions independently and outside the sphere of art4 ,religion1 as the consciousness of truth in its universality1 is here an essential premiss of art to a degree totally different from what it was in the previous cases2 and1 even if we look at the position in its wholly exterior aspect for the consciousness that is actual in the reality of the material world1 it lies before us as the prosaic fact of the very present4 ,that is to say1 inasmuch as the content of revelation to mind is the eternal absolute nature of mind#bba itself1 which breaks itself loose from ,nature in its bareness and subordinates the same1 its manifestation in the immediacy of present life is such that the external material1 in so far as it consists and is existent1 only continues as a contingent world1 out of which the ,absolute recollects itself in the secret wealth of ,spirit1 and only by such means attains independence and truth4 ,the external show receives thus the imprimatur of an indifferent medium1 in which ,spirit can repose no ultimate trust1 and in which it can find no dwelling-place4 ,the more it conceives the conformation of external reality as unworthy of its fulness the less it becomes able to seek consolation therein1 or to discover its task of self-reconcilement consummated by a union therewith4 7c7 ,the manner in which1 therefore1 romantic art gives to itself a real embodiment agreeably to the spirit of the principle above indicated1 and on the side of its external appearance1 is not one which essentially overleaps the ordinary presentment of reality3 it is by no means averse to accept as cover for itself real existence in its finite defects and definition4 ,that beauty therefore disappears from it1 which tended to raise the outside envisagement above the soilure of ,time1 and the traces that unite it with a ,past1 in order to declare the beauty of existence in its blossom in the room of what had otherwise been a dismantled image4 ,romantic art has no longer for its aim the freedom and life of existence in its infinite tranquillity and absorption of the soul in the bodily presence2 no more a life such as this arrests it4 ,it turns its back on this pinnacle of beauty4 ,it interweaves the threads of its soul experience with the contingent material of ,nature's workshop1 and gives unfettered play to the emphatic features of ugliness itself4 ,we have1 in short1 two worlds included in the ,romantic1 a spiritual realm essentially complete in itself1 the soul-kingdom1 which finds reconciliation in its own sphere1 and therewith the otherwise straightforward repetition of birth1 death1 and resurrection now for the first time perfected in the true circular orbit1 doubled back in the return upon itself1 the genuine ,phoenix life of ,spirit4 ,on the other hand1 there is the realm of external ,nature simply as such1 which1 released as it is from its secure association and union with ,spirit1 becomes now a completely empirical reality1 concerning the form of which the soul cares little or nothing4 ,in classical art ,spirit controlled the empirical phenomenon and transpierced it through and through1 because it was the very thing which it had to accept as its completed reality4 ,but now the ideal kingdom is indifferent to the mode of configuration in the world of immediate sense1 because this immediacy is beneath the sphere of the blessedness of essential soul-life4 ,the external phenomenon is no longer able to express this inward life2 and if any call is made upon it for this purpose1 it merely is utilized to make plain that the external show is an existence which does not satisfy1 and is forced to point back by suggestion to the spiritual content1 the soul and its emotions1 as the truly essential medium4 ,precisely for the same reason romantic art suffers externality on its own part to go on its way freely2 and in this respect permits all and every material1 flowers1 trees1 and so on1 down to the most ordinary domestic utensils1 to appear in its productions just as they are1 and as the chance of natural circumstance may arrange them4 ,such a content as this1 however1 carries at the same time with it the result1 that as purely exterior matter1 its worth is of no validity and insignificant2 it only receives its genuine worth when the soul has made itself a home in it1 and it is taken to express not merely the ideal1 but spiritual inwardness#bbb itself1 which1 instead of blending itself with the exterior thing1 appears simply to have attained its own reconciliation with itself4 ,the ideality thus brought home to a point is that mode of expression which is without externality1 invisibly declaring itself1 and only itself1 in other words1 a tone of music simply1 which is neither an object nor possesses form1 a wavelet over waters#bbc1 a ringing sound over a world1 which1 in sounds such as this1 and the varied phenomena which are united with it1 can only receive and reflect one reverberation of this self-absorption of the soul4 ,to sum up1 then1 in a word1 this relation of content and form in the romantic type1 where it remains true to its distinctive character1 we may affirm that the fundamental note of the same1 for this very reason that its principle constitutes an ever expanding universality and the restlessly active depths of heart and mind1 is that of music1 and when combined with the definite content of imagination1 lyrical4 ,this lyrical aspect is likewise the primary characteristic of romantic art1 a tone which gives the key-note also to the epic poem and drama1 and which is wafted as a breath of soul even around the works of the plastic arts1 since here1 too1 spirit and soul are desirous of speaking by means of the plastic shape to soul and mind4 ,as regards the division of our subject1 which we must now in conclusion determine for the examination of this our third extensive domain of artistic production on the lines of its development1 we shall find that the basic notion of the romantic relatively to its substantive and progressive articulation is comprised most conveniently in three branches of division we may define as follows4 ,the first sphere is the province of religion strictly1 in which the redemption history1 the life1 death1 and resurrection of ,christ constitute the central interest4 ,the principle which is emphasized as all-important here is that self-involution which mind accomplishes by negating its immediacy and finitude1 overcoming the same1 and by means of this liberation secures its own self-possessed infinity and absolute self-subsistence in its own kingdom4 ,this self-subsistence passes1 then1 in the second place from the ,divine dwelling of essential ,spirit1 surrenders its pure exaltation of finite man to ,god1 in order to enter the temporal world4 ,here it is1 in the first instance1 the subject of consciousness simply1 which has become self-affirmative1 and which possesses as the substantive material of its content1 no less than as the interest of its existence1 the virtues of this positive subjectivity1 such as honour1 love1 fidelity1 and bravery1 the aims and obligations1 in short1 of romantic chivalry4 ,the content and form of the third chapter may be generally indicated as the formal consistency of character4 ,in other words1 if the subjective life has been so far concentrated1 that spiritual independence is its essential characteristic1 it follows also that the particular content1 with which such independence is associated as with what is strictly its own1 will also partake of such a character2 this self-subsistence1 however1 inasmuch as it does not1 as was the case in the sphere appertinent to essential and explicit religious truth1 repose in the substantive core of its life1 is only able to reach a formal type4 ,conversely the configuration of external conditions1 situations1 and events is now also independently free1 and is involved consequently in every sort of capricious adventure4 ,for this reason we find1 to put it in general terms1 as the termination of the romantic1 the contingency of the exterior condition and internal life1 and a falling asunder of the two aspects1 by reason of which ,art commits an act of suicide1 and betrays the fact that conscious life must now secure forms of loftier significance1 than ,art alone is able to offer1 in which to grasp and retain truth4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,throughout1 of course1 the ,german word translated in these paragraphs as mind or spirit is ,geist4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,absolute ideality may perhaps interpret the text more intelligibly4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,it is so because as self-identity it distinguishes itself from everything to which it is related4 ,footnote #bji3 ,das wirkliche ,subjekt1 ,hegel means1 of course1 individual man4 ,footnote #baj3 ,most intimate would perhaps express the meaning more clearly4 ,footnote #baa3 ,hegel here gives expression to what is perhaps not wholly defensible logic1 though it may be truly poetic mysticism4 ,footnote #bab3 ,i would refer any reader who is inclined to gasp at this interpretation of ,christian revelation to some useful remarks of ,professor ,bosanquet in his ,preface to his translation1 p4 ,,xxviii4 ,footnote #bac3 ,die ,ausbreitung dieses ,selbstanschauens1 ,in-sich-und-,bei-sich-seyns des ,geistes ist der ,frieden4 ,one of ,hegel's terrors for the translator1 though the sense is obvious enough4 ,footnote #bad3 ,the analysis no doubt has its interest4 ,but among other difficulties it is not easy to see how the argument1 based as it is on rational grounds1 makes for anything but annihilation4 ,death is a negation--it1 according to the argument1 puts an end to the process--what remains then is apparently the evanescence of the finite spirit4 ,this reference to happiness assumes that conscious individual life continues1 which is a mere pelitio principii4 ,if it continues the former dual aspect would seem to be implied in it4 ,the analysis of the actual significance of death for ,christendom and ,greek paganism retains1 of course1 its validity4 ,footnote #bae3 ,but surely in a sense personal life1 if only limited to ,earth's existence1 may be1 ,i do not say necessarily is1 all the more valuable4 ,this is an important aspect of the matter which is not here adequately answered1 and it suggests a real grievance against the extravagant follies of a certain type of ,christendom4 ,the present feeling of the wisest minds of our own time will be inclined to regard a good deal of ,hegel's remarks here as insufficient or lacking directness4 ,one recalls those significant lines of a great writer but recently taken from us3 _/ ,sensation is a gracious gift ,but were it cramped in station1 ,the prayer to have it cast adrift ,would spout from all sensation4 _/ ,hegel's point of view seems neither to be that of mysticism nor mere absorption4 ,footnote #baf3 ,odyssey1 ,,xi1 vv4 #dha-ia4 ,but this illustration is at least evidence of the high value a ,greek attached to life on ,earth4 ,footnote #bag3 ,true enough as an analysis of the ,christian consciousness2 but the difficulty above pointed out remains so far as the writer refers to a future life1 which he sometimes appears to do1 sometimes not4 ,conditions are assumed for human personality of which we can form no conception4 ,footnote #bah3 ,he means it is the negation of that which is itself a negation1 finite existence4 ,the conclusion is of course1 as above suggested1 replete with difficulty4 ,footnote #bai3 ,that is1 ,i presume1 the positive character of natural conditions2 but it may mean its own affirmative relation4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,auf die ,innerlichkeit des ,geistes4 ,footnote #bba3 ,reason or ,spirit are perhaps preferable4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,the ,german words are das ,innerliche and die ,innigkeit4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,this is obviously not wholly independent of form4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,religious ,,domain ,,of ,,romantic ,,art ,inasmuch as romantic art1 in the representation of the consciousness of absolute subjectivity1 understanding this as the comprehension of all truth1 the coalescence of mind with its essence--receives its substantive content in the satisfaction of soul-life1 in other words the reconciliation of ,god with the world and therein with ,himself1 it follows that at this stage the ,ideal for the first time is completely at home4 ,for it was blessedness and self-subsistency1 contentment1 repose1 and freedom which we declared as most fundamentally defining the ,ideal4 ,of course1 we cannot therefore on this account deduce the ,ideal simply from the notion and reality of romantic art2 but relatively to the classic ,ideal the form it receives is entirely altered4 ,this relation1 already in general terms indicated1 we must now before everything else establish in its fully concrete significance1 in order to elucidate the fundamental type of the romantic mode of presentation4 ,in the classical ,ideal the ,divine is in one aspect of it restricted to pure individuality2 in another aspect the soul and spiritual blessedness of particular gods find their exclusive discharge through the physical medium2 and as a third characteristic1 for the reason that the inseparable unity of each individual both essentially and in its exterior form supplies the principle of the same1 the negativity of the dismemberment implied in human life1 that is the pain of both body and soul1 sacrifice1 and resignation are unable to appear as essentially pertinent to these godlike figures4 ,the ,divine of classical art falls1 it is true1 into an aggregation of gods1 but there is no organic and essential self-division1 no universally proclaimed essence such as we find in the particular presentment of man whether in form and spirit1 whether empirically or subjectively considered2 and just as little has it confronting it1 as being itself the ,absolute in invisible form1 a world of evil1 sin1 and ignorance1 together with the task of resolving such contradictions in harmony1 and only by thus growing on level terms with the very truth and divine out of this reconciliation4 ,in the notion of the absolute subjectivity1 on the contrary1 this opposition between substantive universality and personality is inherent1 an opposition1 whose consummated mediation the subjective ideality perfects with its substance1 exalting thereby the substantive presence to the articulate and absolute subject of self-knowledge and volition4 ,but there is1 secondly1 appertinent to the reality of the subjective condition conceived as mind the profounder contradiction of a finite world1 through whose abrogation as finite1 and by whose resultant reconciliation with the ,absolute the ,infinite by virtue of its own absolute activity makes its proper being self-subsistent1 and so for the first time exists as absolute ,spirit4 ,the appearance of this actuality on the terrain1 and in the configuration of the human spirit receives consequently1 in respect to its beauty1 a totally different mode of relation to that presented by classical art4 ,greek beauty unfolds the inward aspect of spiritual individuality solely as it is envisaged by means of its bodily shape1 actions1 and events1 wholly expressed in what is exterior1 and living wholly therein4 ,for romantic art1 on the contrary1 it is absolutely necessary that the soul1 albeit envisaged in the exterior medium1 should at the same time demonstrate its capacity of self-withdrawal from the tenement of the body and self-substantive life4 ,the bodily frame can therefore now only express the inwardness of mind1 in so far as it makes it plain that it is not in this material existence1 but in itself1 that the soul discovers its congruent reality4 ,on account of this beauty is now no longer an idealization in respect to the objective form1 but rather the ideal and essential configuration of the soul itself2 it is in short a beauty of spiritual ideality1 that is the specific mode of such1 as every content is informed and elaborated within the temple of the subjective world1 and without retaining the external medium in this its permeation with ,spirit4 ,for the reason1 then1 that by this means the interest disappears1 which consists in clarifying real existence to the point of our classical unity1 and is concentrated in the contrary direction of wafting a new breath of beauty through the unseen content of the spiritual itself1 art ceases to retain the old solicitude for what is exterior at all4 ,it accepts the same directly as it may chance to find it1 leaving it to take whatever form may happen to please it4 ,the reconciliation with the ,absolute is in the ,romantic an act of the inward life1 which no doubt is embodied externally1 but which does not retain that exterior in its material realization as its essential content and object4 ,we may observe that in close association with this indifference towards the idealizing union of soul and body1 and in its relation to the external treatment of the more predominant individuality of a sitter1 we find the art of portraiture1 which does not entirely erase particular traits and lines1 as they are found in ,nature1 and her inevitable deficiencies--defects inseparable from finite effects--in order to replace them with something more adequate4 ,generally speaking even here there is a certain limit to the licence given to ,nature in this respect2 but to the general aspect of form in the first instance it is quite indifferent2 and no attempt is made to exclude wholly from it the accidental impurities of finite and sensuous existence4 ,we may adjoin a further quite sufficient reason for the imperative character of this radical definition of romantic art from another point of view4 ,the classic ,ideal1 where we find it at the culminating point of its very truth1 is self-exclusive1 self-subsistent1 retiring and not susceptible#bbd in its nature1 an orbed individual totality1 which repels all else from itself4 ,its conformation is uniquely its own2 its life is bound up in that and that exclusively1 and it will harbour no affinity with what is purely empirical and contingent4 ,whoever1 therefore1 approaches an ideal such as this as spectator1 is unable to appropriate its existence as an embodiment strictly akin to that of his own presence4 ,the figures of the eternal gods1 albeit human1 do not belong to our mortality1 for these gods have not themselves experienced the infirmities of finite existence1 but are directly exalted above them4 ,their affinity with what is empirical and relative is interrupted4 ,the infinite subjectivity1 what we call the ,absolute of romantic art1 is on the contrary not absorbed in its presentment2 it is rather carried into its own domain1 and for this very reason retains such external aspect as it possesses not so much for itself as for the contemplation of others1 as1 in short1 an exterior presence which is freely offered for this purpose4 ,this externality must further appear in the form of common fact1 the human as our senses perceive it1 since it is through that that ,god ,himself descends to the level of finite and temporal existence1 in order to mediate and reconcile the absolute antithesis1 which is inherent in the notion of the ,absolute4 ,for this reason our empirical humanity also contains in its bodily presence an aspect1 which unfolds to man a bond of affinity and kinship1 by virtue whereof he is able to contemplate even his direct natural presence with assurance2 and he can do so because the ,divine incarnation does not1 with the severity of the classical type1 thrust on one side the particular and contingent1 but presents to his vision that which he himself possesses1 or that which he recognizes and loves in others around him4 ,it is just this homeliness incidental to what we ordinarily meet with which attracts and enables romantic art to entrust itself to the external aspect of reality4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as the externality which is turned adrift is called upon1 through this very abandonment1 to suggest the beauty of soul1 the lofty pretension of its spirituality and the sacred colour of the emotional life1 so1 too1 at the same time1 it is a condition of its doing so that it be absorbed itself within the ideal realm of mind and its absolute content1 and that it appropriate the same4 ,to sum up finally what is implied in this act of surrender we may assert that it consists in the general conception1 that in romantic art the infinite subjectivity does not abide in solitary self-sufficiency1 as the ,greek god did1 living in the full perfection and blessedness of his self-exclusion2 rather it moves out of itself in relation to somewhat else1 which1 however1 is its own substance1 in which it discovers itself again and continues all the time in union with itself4 ,this condition of self-unity in some other that is yet its own is the real form of beauty appropriate to romantic art1 the ,ideal of the same1 which receives for its mode and envisagement what is1 in its essence1 subjective ideality or inwardness1 soul-life and its attendant emotions4 ,the romantic ,ideal expresses1 therefore1 the relation to another spiritual correlative1 which is so closely associated with the ideal possessions of the first one1 that it is only by virtue of this further one that the soul lives in the complete wealth of its own kingdom4 ,this essential life of the soul in another is1 when expressed in terms of emotion1 the inwardness of love4 ,we may consequently affirm lave to be the general content of the romantic1 so far as the sphere of religion is concerned4 ,love1 however1 only receives its truly ideal configuration when it expresses the positive reconcilement of ,spirit in its immediacy4 ,before1 however1 we shall be in a position to examine this stage of the fairest and most ideal spiritual satisfaction1 we must first pass in review the process of negation1 which the absolute ,subject enters in overcoming the finiteness and immediacy of its human envisagement1 a process which is divulged in the life1 death1 and suffering of ,god for the world and humanity1 and its possible reconcilement with ,god4 ,and1 secondly1 we have on the other side1 humanity1 which is called upon conversely on its own account to pass through the very same process in order to make actual the reconciliation which is implicitly contained in its nature4 ,midway within the steps of this process1 in which the negative aspect of the sensuous and spiritual passage #jaa to death and the grave constitutes the central act of achievement1 we shall find that the expression of affirmative blessedness is conspicuous1 which in this sphere characterizes art's most beautiful creations4 ,for the better division of this first chapter we may examine its subject-matter as it falls into three distinct heads of inquiry4 ,first1 we have the redemption-history of ,christ2 the phasal moments of absolute ,spirit presented in the person of ,god ,himself1 in so far as ,he becomes man1 and takes to ,himself an actual existence in the world of finitude and its concrete conditions1 and in this to start with isolated existence gives visible shape to the ,absolute itself4 ,secondly1 we shall consider love in its positive presentment as the feeling of reconciliation between the human and the ,divine2 in other words the ,holy ,family1 the maternal love of ,mary1 the love of ,christ and that of his disciples4 ,thirdly1 we have the community before us4 ,here it is the ,spirit of ,god as present by virtue of the conversion of soul and the mortification of the natural and finite sense1 in short1 the return of man to ,god1 a return in which penances and pains mediate in the first instance this union of ,god and man4 #a4 ,,the ,,redemption-,,history ,,of ,,christ ,the reconciliation of ,god with ,his own substance1 history in its absolute significance1 or1 in one word1 the process of realization1 is made visible to our senses and assured to our minds by the revelation of ,god in the world4 ,the content of this reconcilement as expressed in the most direct way is the coalescence in unity of the absolute essence of reality with the individual subject of human consciousness4 ,an individual man is ,god and ,god is an individual man4 ,in this truth is implied the fact that the human spirit intrinsically1 that is1 relatively to its notion and essence1 is ,spirit in truth2 and every particular individual in virtue of the humanity he connotes possesses the infinite vocation no less than the infinite significance of being an object of ,god and in union with ,god4 ,but along with this and of a like importance the obligation is imposed on man to realize this notion1 which1 in the first instance1 he merely possesses under the implication of his nature4 ,in other words1 he has to place before himself and attain to this union with ,god as the seal of his existence4 ,only when he has thus consummated his proper destiny does he become essentially free and infinite ,spirit4 ,this he can only do in so far as that unity is itself the origination1 the eternal ground-root of the human and ,divine nature4 ,the goal is here the explicit beginning of the process1 namely1 the presupposition for the religious consciousness exhibited in romantic art1 that ,god is ,himself man and flesh1 that ,he has become this particular human individual1 in whom the reconciliation consequently no longer remains as only implicit1 so that it is merely to be inferred from its notional existence1 but asserts itself in objective existence also before the perception of human sense as this particular and actually existing man4 ,the importance of this aspect of particularity consists in this that it enables all other individuals to find in the same the picture of his own reconcilement with ,god2 it is now no longer a mere possibility1 but a fact which has on this very account appeared as really accomplished in this one person4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as this unity1 conceived as the ideal reconciliation of opposed factors of one process1 is no immediately unified mode of being1 it is inevitable1 in the second place1 that the process of ,spirit as exemplified in this one individual--the process1 that is1 by means of which consciousness is for the first time ,spirit in ,truth--should receive the form of its existence in the history of this very person4 ,this history of ,spirit attaining its consummation in one personal life consists simply in all that we have already adverted to2 that is to say1 the particular man casts on one side his singularity both in its bodily and spiritual presence1 in other words he suffers and dies1 but furthermore through the agony of death rises again out of death and ascends as glorified ,god1 very and real ,spirit1 who now1 it is true1 has entered actual existence as this particular person1 yet is with equal truth only very ,god as ,spirit in ,his community4 7a7 ,this history furnishes the fundamental material for the romantic art of the religious consciousness1 in its attitude to which1 however1 art1 taken simply as ,art1 is to some extent a superfluity4 ,for the main thing here is spiritual conviction1 the feeling and conception of this eternal truth1 and the faith which is essential evidence to itself of the truth1 and becomes in consequence a vital possession of the ideality of that conception4 ,in other words1 faith in its developed condition consists in the immediate conviction that it has confronting soul1 in the organic movement of this history1 the truth itself4 ,if1 however1 the consciousness of truth is the main point of importance it follows that the beauty of the artistic reflection and presentation is of incidental value to which we may be comparatively indifferent1 for the truth is present to mind quite independently of art4 7b7 ,from another point of view1 however1 the religious content comprises at the same time within its compass a certain aspect of this process1 by virtue of which it not merely admits of artistic treatment1 but1 in a specific relation1 admits of it as necessary4 ,in the religious conception of romantic art1 as we have more than once explained it1 it is an inseparable concomitant of the content that it carries anthropomorphism to the verge of an extreme2 and this is so because it is precisely this content which possesses for its main centrum the complete coalescence of the ,absolute and ,divine with the human consciousness as a visible part of sensuous reality1 in other words1 as envisaged in the external bodily frame of man1 and further1 is compelled to represent the ,divine in the form of individuality such as is associated with the deficiencies of ,nature and the mode of finite phenomena4 ,in this respect ,art supplies to the consciousness which seeks to envisage the ,divine manifestation1 the definite presence of an individual and real human figure1 a concrete image1 moreover1 of the exterior traits of events1 in which the birth1 life1 sufferings1 death1 resurrection and ascension of ,christ are more widely circulated to the glory of ,god2 so that it is exclusively by ,art that the real and visible presence of the ,divine is for ever renewed over again in a permanent form4 7c7 ,in so far as1 in this ,divine manifestation1 an emphasis is laid on this1 namely1 that ,god is essentially a particular individual to the exclusion of others1 and does not merely present to us the union of ,divine and human consciousness in its universal significance1 but rather as that of this particular man1 to that extent1 the very nature of the content makes it inevitable that all the features of contingency and particularity incidental to finite existence assert themselves1 from which the beauty which characterized the consummation of the classic ,ideal had purified itself4 ,that which the free notion of beauty had removed from itself as unfitting1 in other words1 the non-ideal1 is in the present case accepted as a necessary aspect1 which actually originates in the movement of the content itself and is consequently made explicit4 77 ,and it follows from this that when the person of ,christ is selected for the object of art1 as so frequently occurs1 artists1 no matter when or where1 have taken the very worst course of all who create in their presentment of ,christ an ,ideal in the meaning and mode of the classical ,ideal4 ,such heads or figures of ,christ may no doubt display earnestness1 repose1 and ethical worth3 but the true ,christ presentment should rather possess on the one hand soul-intensity and pre-eminently spirituality in its widest comprehension1 on the other1 intimate personality and individual distinction4 ,both these contrasted aspects are inconsistent with that blissful repose in the sensuous environment of our humanity4 ,to combine these two termini of artistic reproduction1 expression and form1 as above defined1 is a matter of the greatest difficulty1 and painters especially have almost always got themselves into difficulties when they diverged from the traditional type#bbe4 ,earnestness and depth of consciousness should no doubt be prominent in the expression of such heads1 but the specific features and lines both of countenance and figure ought as little to be of a simply ideal beauty as they are entitled to fall short in the direction of the commonplace and the ugly1 or erroneously to aspire after the bare pretensions of the ,sublime4 ,the truest success in respect to the external figure will be found in a mean between the directness of ,nature's detail and the ideal of beauty4 ,rightly to hit on this just mean is difficult4 ,it is pre-eminently in this that the ability1 taste1 and genius of an artist will assert itself4 ,and in general we may assert that in all artistic execution of this character--putting on one side entirely the different nature of the content1 which is inseparable from religious faith--there is more scope offered for the exercise of the artist's private judgment than is the case when dealing with the classic ,ideal4 ,in classical art the artist seeks to present the spiritual and ,divine immediately in the lines of the bodily shape itself1 in the organism of the human figure2 the lines of the human form1 therefore1 in this ideal divergence from what is ordinarily met with in finite existence1 are fundamentally necessary to the interest4 ,in the kind of art we are now discussing the configuration remains that of ordinary experience2 its specific lines are up to a certain point unessential1 detail1 in short1 that may indifferently be treated in divers ways and with greater artistic licence4 ,the supreme interest1 therefore1 is concentrated1 on the one hand1 in the mode and manner whereby our artist makes that which is spiritual and ideal within the content under the mode of ,spirit itself shine forth through this envisagement of ordinary experience2 and1 on the other hand1 in the individual discretion exercised in the execution1 the technical means and shifts employed1 by virtue of which he is able to impart to his creations the breath of spiritual life and to bring home this finer essence to our hearts and senses4 77 ,with regard to the further aspect of the content we have already pointed out that it is referable to the history of the ,absolute under the mode that the same is deducible from the notion of ,spirit itself2 a history which makes objective in the real world bodily and spiritual singularity as infused with its own essential and universal nature4 ,for the reconciliation of our individual consciousness with ,god does not immediately appear as an original harmony1 but rather as a harmony which only is modulated from infinite pain1 from resignation1 sacrifice1 and the mortification of the finite1 sensuous1 and particular4 ,we see here the finite and the infinite brought into unity2 and this reconciliation only asserts itself in its true profundity1 intimacy1 and power by means of the grossness and severity of the contradiction which yearns for resolution4 ,we may therefore without fear assert that the entire asperity and dissonance of the suffering1 torture1 and agony1 which such a contradiction brings in its train1 is inseparable from the very nature of spiritual life1 whose final consolation constitutes here the content4 ,this process of ,spirit is1 if accepted frankly for all it implies and unfolds1 the essence1 the notion of ,spirit absolutely4 ,it consequently determines for conscious life that universal history#bbf which is for ever repeated in every individual consciousness4 ,for it is nothing less or more than this consciousness as the universal mind or ,spirit is explicated in the multiplicity of individual life1 reality and existence4 ,in the first instance1 however1 for the reason that the essential significance of the spiritual process is concentrated in that mode of reality which is purely individual1 this universal history comes before us itself merely in the form of one person1 to which it is conjoined as its own1 as the history1 that is1 of his birth1 his suffering1 death1 and return from death2 at the same time there is the further significance attached to this personal history1 namely1 that it is the history of universal and absolute ,spirit itself4 ,the supreme turning-point of this life of ,god is the putting aside of individual existence as the life of a particular man simply--the story of the ,passion1 the suffering on the ,cross1 the ,calvary of ,spirit1 the agony of death4 ,in so far as the content here comprises the fact that the external and bodily form--immediate existence in its personal mode--is1 in the pain of its inherent contradiction1 propounded in this aspect of negation in order that ,spirit may secure its truth and its blessedness by the sacrifice of the sensuous and its individual singularity1 to that extent we reach the extreme line of division between it as an artistic creation and the classic or plastic ,ideal4 ,from one point of view no doubt the earthly body and the frailty of human ,nature is expressly exalted and honoured in the fact that it is ,god ,himself who is made manifest within it4 ,on the other hand1 however1 it is just this human and bodily side which is posited as negative1 and declares itself in its pain4 ,in the classic ,ideal the undisturbed harmony in no way vanishes before the co-essential ,spirit4 ,the main incidents of that ,passion1 the mocking of ,christ1 the crowning with thorns1 the carrying of the cross1 the final death on the same in the agony of a torturing and tedious death1 are wholly incompatible with the presentment of the ,greek type of beauty4 ,the lofty aspect in such situations as these is the essential holiness implied in them1 the depth of the ,spirit's inmost1 the eternal significance of the agony in its relation to the spiritual process1 the endurance and ,divine repose4 ,the personal environment of this sublime figure is in part composed of friends and in part of enemies4 ,the friends are throughout no ideal creations1 but relatively to the notion#bbg1 particular individualities typical of ordinary men1 which the impulse of ,spirit attaches to ,christ3 the enemies1 on the other hand1 by virtue of the fact that they place themselves in hostility to ,god1 judge1 mock1 put to torture1 and crucify ,him1 are presented to us as spiritually evil1 and this conception of their wickedness of heart and enmity to ,god brings in its train on its exterior side ugliness1 grossness1 barbarity1 the rage and distortion of ,spirit4 ,in all these respects1 in contrast with the classical beauty we have before us in such representations the non-beautiful as an inevitable concomitant4 77 ,the process of death1 however1 in the ,divine nature is only to be regarded as a point of transition1 by means of which the self-reconcilement of ,spirit is effected2 and the aspects of the ,divine and human1 the out and out universal and the phenomenal individuality1 to mediate the division of which is the main object in view1 are positively suffered to coalesce4 ,this positive affirmation1 which is the underlying root and origination of the process1 is consequently also forced to exhibit itself in a like positive way4 ,as emphatic situations in the ,christ-history the resurrection and ascension supply conspicuously the very means to put that affirmation in the clearest light4 ,in more isolated fashion we have over and above this for the same purpose those occasions in which ,christ appears to ,his own as teacher4 ,here1 however1 plastic art is confronted with an exceptional situation of difficulty4 ,for in a measure it is ,spirit in its purity1 which is to be presented in this very impalpable ideality1 and in a measure1 too1 it is nothing less than absolute ,spirit1 which in the full pregnancy of its infinitude and universality is affirmatively propounded in union with an individual consciousness and exalted above immediate existence2 and yet notwithstanding such preconceptions it has undertaken the task to envisage for sense in the bodily configuration of this person the entire expression of the infinite and innermost spiritual profundity which it refers to him#bbh4 #b4 ,,religious ,,love ,mind in its ultimate and most complete explication as reason is1 as such1 not the immediate object of art4 ,its highest and most essentially realized reconciliation can only find such satisfied consummation in the intellectual medium as such1 that is to say1 the ideal medium which is withdrawn from the reach of artistic expression2 for absolute ,truth stands on a higher level than the show of beauty1 which is unable to break away from the sensuous and phenomenal4 ,if1 then1 ,spirit is to receive an existence as ,spirit in its positive reconciliation through the medium of art1 an existence which is apprehended not merely as ideal1 in other words1 as pure thought1 but can be felt and envisaged1 it follows that the only mode left to us1 which supplies this two-fold condition of spirituality on the one hand and of its capability of being conceived and presented by art on the other1 is that of the inner realm of ,spirit itself1 what we understand by the soul and its emotional experience4 ,and the condition of that kingdom which alone fully answers to the notion of free ,spirit brought into peace and joy with itself is ,love4 7a7 ,in other words1 if we look at the content1 we shall see that its articulation is in its important features similar to the fundamental notion of absolute ,spirit1 the return of a reconciled presence from its ,other to itself4 ,this ,other in the sense of the ,other1 in which ,spirit continues by itself1 can only be itself something spiritual1 or rather a spiritual personality4 ,the true essence of love consists in the surrender of the self-consciousness1 in the forgetting oneself in another self1 yet for all that to have and possess oneself for the first time in this very act of surrender and oblivion4 ,this mediation of ,spirit with itself and surcharge of its own to the unit of totality is the ,absolute1 not1 however1 of course1 under the mode in which the ,absolute coalesces with itself as merely singular and thereby finite individuality in another finite subject2 rather the content of the spiritual individuality which is here self-mediated in another is the ,absolute itself4 ,it is1 in short1 ,spirit which is only the knowledge and volition of its own substance as the ,absolute by being in another1 and which receives therewith the fruition of such knowledge4 7b7 ,more closely regarded this content as love has the form of self-concentrated emotion1 which1 instead of making its content more explicit1 that is to say1 presenting it to consciousness in its definite terms and universality1 rather converges the infinite breadth of the same directly to one focus in the clear profundity of the soul1 without further unfolding in other directions for the imagination the wealth which it essentially includes4 ,by this means a content of equal significance1 which would be inconformable to artistic presentation1 is fresh from the mint of its pure and ideal universality1 is none the less capable of being the subject-matter of art in this individual existence of subjective emotion2 for while under a mode such as this it is not on the one hand compelled to accept an articulation of perfect clarity by reason of its still undisclosed depth1 which is the obvious characteristic of soul-life1 yet on the other hand it receives under this mode a medium that it is possible for art to make use of4 ,for soul-life1 heart1 feeling1 however self-contained and spiritual they may remain1 have none the less a bond of affiliation with the sensuous and material1 so that they are able also on the outside show of things through the bodily members themselves1 through a look1 the facial expression1 or in a still more spiritual way through the voice tones or a word to disclose the inmost life and existence of ,spirit4 ,but this exterior medium is in such a case only acceptable in so far as it strictly expresses this most intimate life of soul in ways that reflect the inward nature of the soul itself4 7c7 ,we defined the notion of the ,ideal to be the reconciliation of the inward life with its reality2 we may now in like manner point to the emotion of love as the ,ideal of romantic art in the sphere of the religious consciousness4 ,it is spiritual beauty in its pure emanation4 ,the classic ,ideal also exhibited the mediation and reconcilement of ,spirit with its ,other4 ,but here the opposing factor of ,spirit was the exterior medium suffused with that ,spirit1 it was its bodily organism4 ,in love1 on the contrary1 the opposing presence of that which is spiritual is not the phenomenon of ,nature1 but a spiritual consciousness itself1 another subject of such2 and the realization of ,spirit is consequently effected by ,spirit itself in its own kingdom1 in that medium which is uniquely its own4 ,it follows from this that love in this its positive self-fruition and essentially tranquillized and blessed realization is ideal1 but before everything else spiritual beauty1 which can only be expressed for the sake of the ideal virtue it possesses and further only in and as a part of the inmost shrine of the soul4 ,for that ,spirit1 which is present in spirit to itself and is immediately aware of its own1 which withal possesses what is spiritual for the substance and bottom of its very existence1 abides in intimacy with itself1 and1 best definition of all1 is the inward being of ,love4 77 ,god is ,love2 and consequently it is this most profound essence which1 in this form native to artistic presentation1 is thus apprehended and presented in the person of ,christ4 ,christ is1 however1 ,divine love in the sense that from one aspect of it declares ,god ,himself as its object1 that is1 ,god in the mode of ,his invisible essence1 and from another it as truly reveals humanity under the seal of its redemption2 and for this reason it is not so much in ,him#bbi that the passage of one individual into another particular individual is made manifest in ,his love1 as the fact that we have here the idea of ,love itself in its universality1 in other words1 the ,absolute1 the spirit of ,truth in the medium and mode of emotion4 ,with the universality of its object the expression of ,love is also universalized in pursuance of which the purely individual concentration of heart and soul is not made the important point1 just as among the ,greeks in the ancient ,titan ,eros and ,venus ,urania we find1 though1 of course1 in an entirely different connection1 that it is the universal idea rather than the individual side of personal form and feeling which is the factor emphasized4 ,only when ,christ is1 in the presentation of romantic art1 rather conceived as at the same time the isolate self-absorbed personality himself1 is the expression of love clothed in the form of individual inwardness1 and even then it is1 of course1 always exalted and uplifted by the universality of the content4 77 ,the kind of love1 however1 which in this sphere of art is most within its reach and is generally the most successful object of the romantic and religious imagination1 is the love of ,mary1 the mother's love4 ,it stands closest to ,nature's reality1 is very human1 and yet entirely spiritual1 without either the interest or the egotism of sensual desire1 not sensuous and yet present inward bliss in its absolute condition of fruition4 ,it is a love that has no longing in it1 not friendship1 for friendship1 albeit also so rich in soul quality1 requires a substantive content1 an essential material as the associating object4 ,a mother's love1 on the contrary1 possesses without any mutuality#bcj of aim or interests an immediate basis in the natural maternal bond4 ,but in this particular case the mother's love is just as little restricted to the purely natural affiliation4 ,mary possesses in the child which she has carried under her heart and borne with travail the perfected knowledge and feeling of her very self1 and this selfsame child1 the blood of her blood1 is also in equal degree exalted above her1 and yet for all that she is conscious that this higher belongs to herself1 and is precisely that she gains in her act of self-oblivion and possession4 ,the natural intimacy of the mother's love is absolutely spiritualized1 it receives for its very embodiment the ,divine2 but this spiritual coherence remains lowly and unaware1 permeated in a wonderful manner with the unity of ,nature and the emotion of womanhood4 ,it is the blessed mother's love1 and pertains only to the one mother1 who first was recipient of its joy#bca4 ,it is quite true that even this love is not without its pain1 but the pain is merely the grief of loss1 the lament over the suffering1 dying1 and dead son1 and1 as we shall find it at a later stage#bcb1 has nothing to do with the injustice and torture suffered from a force without1 or with the infinite conflict with sin1 still less with agonies and pangs that arise in the soul4 ,the inwardness of soul such as we have analysed is the beauty of ,spirit1 the ,ideal1 the human identification of man with ,god1 with ,spirit1 with ,truth2 oblivion in its pure selflessness1 the surrender of the ego1 which1 however1 in this surrender1 is from beginning to end at unity with that in which it is absorbed1 and it is in this coalescence that the feeling of blessedness is consummated4 ,under such a fair aspect we have maternal love embodied in romantic art1 and it is at the same time a picture of ,spirit itself1 because ,spirit is only apprehensible by art in the form of feeling2 and the feeling of that union of the individual with ,god in its most original1 most real1 and most vivid form is only present in the mother's love of the ,madonna4 ,it must inevitably form the subject-matter of art1 if in the representation of this1 the sphere of the religious imagination1 the ,ideal1 the affirmative reconciliation in its joy is not to fall short of its aim4 ,there has consequently been a time when the maternal love of the ,blessed ,virgin has been placed as the highest and holiest of ,earth's possessions1 and as such has been revered and presented to mankind4 ,when1 however1 ,spirit is brought before the human consciousness in its own native element1 separated1 that is1 from all underlying emotion1 the free mediation of ,spirit that is built up on such a foundation can alone be regarded as the free road to ,truth2 and consequently we find that in ,protestantism1 as contrasted to this worship of ,mary whether in art or belief1 it is the ,holy ,spirit1 and the inmost mediation of ,spirit which has become the loftier truth4 77 ,thirdly1 and in conclusion1 the positive reconciliation of spiritual life is embodied in the feelings of ,christ's own disciples1 the women and friends who follow him4 ,such are for the most part characters who have personally taken on themselves the severity of the idea of ,christianity1 hand iii hand with their ,divine friend1 by virtue of the friendship1 teaching1 and sermons of ,christ1 without passing through the external and inward pangs of spiritual conversion1 who have carried it forward1 made themselves masters both of it and themselves1 and in the depth of their hearts remain strong in the same4 ,from such1 no doubt1 the immediate unity and intimacy of that mother's love in a measure vanishes2 but they still possess as the bond which unites them the presence of ,christ1 the common service to a great life which they share1 and the direct impulse of ,spirit#bcc4 #c4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,community ,in making our passage over to a concluding stage of the subject under discussion we can hardly do better than associate it with that which we have already touched upon in connection with the history of ,christ4 ,the immediate existence of ,christ1 as this particular man1 who is ,god1 is assumed to be wiped out1 in other words1 the truth itself asserts itself that in the manifestation of ,god as man1 the true reality of ,god thus envisaged is not immediate sensuous existence but ,spirit4 ,the reality of the ,absolute regarded as infinite subjectivity#bcd is simply ,spirit itself2 ,god is in knowledge1 in the element of the inner life1 and only there4 ,this absolute existence of ,god1 as absolutely ideal to the same extent as it is subjective#bce universality1 does not therefore admit of the limitations of this particular individual1 who has in the story of his life made manifest the reconciliation between the ,divine and human self-consciousness1 but on the contrary is enlarged to the full measure of the human consciousness which is reconciled to ,god1 that is1 in general terms to our humanity1 which exists as an aggregate of many individuals4 ,in his independence1 however1 taken1 that is1 as a specific personality1 man is not under any immediate mode the ,divine1 but on the contrary finite and human1 which only in so far as it really propounds itself as a negation1 which it essentially is1 and thereby annuls itself in this negative aspect1 can attain to the reconcilement with ,god4 ,it is only by virtue of this deliverance from the frailty of finitude that our humanity declares itself as the vehicle of the existence of the absolute ,spirit1 as the spirit of the community1 in which the union of the human and ,divine ,spirit within the bounds of human reality itself1 in the sense of its realized mediation1 carries into fulfilment what essentially1 if we look at it in the light of the notion of ,spirit1 it is from the first in that very union4 ,the principal modes which are of importance in respect to this new content of romantic art may be distinguished as follows3 ,the individual1 who in his separation from ,god lives in a condition of sinfulness and conflict with the immediacy and frailty of finite existence1 possesses the eternal destiny to come into reconciliation with himself and ,god4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as we find that in the redemption-history of ,christ the negative relation of immediate singularity is affirmed and declared an essential feature in the spiritual process1 so1 too1 every particular individual is only through a conversion from the natural state and his finite personality uplifted to the free condition and into the peace of ,god4 ,this abrogation of finitude asserts itself in a threefold manner as follows3 ,first1 as the repetition in actual life of the history of the ,passion1 a repetition of real bodily suffering--martyrdom4 ,secondly1 the above conversion is removed to the inmost life of soul1 as spiritual mediation by means of repentance1 penance1 and conversion4 ,thirdly1 and finally the manifestation of the ,divine is so conceived in the world of ,nature's reality that the ordinary course of ,nature and the natural mode of occurrences as they otherwise take place is arrested1 in order to display the might and presence of the ,divine4 ,wonder or miracle is consequently the form of presentation4 7a7 ,the ,martyrs ,the earliest mode under which the spirit of the community makes itself actively present in the human consciousness is effected when man forms a mirror in himself of the ,divine process and so makes himself a new form of existence for the eternal ,life#bcf of ,god4 ,here we find once more that the expression of that immediate and positive reconciliation disappears1 inasmuch as man can only attain to this by abrogating his finite existence4 ,everything1 therefore1 that was of central importance in the first stage returns to us again here only in an aggravated degree1 because the incompatibility and unworthiness of our humanity is here presupposed1 and to remedy this defect is assumed to be man's supreme and unique duty4 77 ,the specific content of this phase is consequently the endurance of torments1 and along with such the individual's willing renunciation1 sacrifice1 and self-imposed renunciation with the express aim of arousing sufferings1 tortures1 and anguish of every kind in order that ,spirit may reveal itself therein1 and feel itself in union with the fruition and blessedness of its heaven#bcg4 ,the negative aspect of pain is an object in itself for the true martyr1 and the greatness of the revelation is such that it can treat with indifference the awful aspect of that which man has thus suffered1 and the dreadful nature of that to which he submits himself4 ,the first thing1 then1 which will be brought beneath the ruthless mace of negation in order that the individual who still experiences this drought of the soul may wean himself from the world and become sanctified1 will be his natural existence1 his life1 the satisfaction of the most essential necessaries of his bodily existence4 ,the main subject-matter therefore of the type we are now dealing with will be torments of the body1 sufferings which have been perpetrated on the believer either by his enemies and persecutors out of hatred and persecution1 or have been deliberately accepted by himself on principle by way of expiation4 ,in both cases the individual accepts them in the full fanaticism of his readiness to endure1 not1 that is to say1 as an injustice to himself1 but as a blessing through which alone he is enabled to break down the walls of what he feels to be his sinful flesh1 heart1 and soul1 and so obtain reconcilement with his ,god4 ,in so far1 however1 as this conversion of the soul can only manifest itself in such situations1 in atrocities and awful treatment of the bodily frame the beauty of the presentation of such subjects may be very readily impaired2 and1 in fact1 we may say that the treatment of all subjects of this kind is a perilous undertaking for art4 ,for1 on the one hand1 it is obvious that individuals here1 impressed as they are wholly with the hall-mark of finite existence1 and its inevitable blemishes and defects1 will have to be represented in an entirely different atmosphere from that we claimed for the history of ,christ's ,passion2 and1 from a further point of view1 we unfortunately meet with unheard of agonies and horrors in such cases1 distortion1 and dislocation of limbs1 bodily torments1 scaffolds1 decapitation1 burning or roasting in oil1 flaying alive1 and every other sort of frightful1 repugnant1 and loathsome abuse of the body1 such as lie much too remote from beauty for any sane art to think of selecting them for its subject-matter4 ,the artistic dexterity of the artist may1 in such cases1 no doubt1 so far as execution is concerned1 be of the highest class2 but1 at best1 such manual dexterity will merely possess a personal interest1 we may indeed find before us the technique of an admirable painter2 but it will be equally obvious that all his efforts have been unable to produce out of such material a harmonious work of art4 77 ,for these reasons it will be necessary that the artistic presentation of this negative process should emphasize another aspect of it1 which stands out thereby above this agony of the body and soul1 and establishes in relief the positive presence of reconciliation4 ,this is just that essential reconcilement of ,spirit which is finally won as the result sought for of the pain suffered4 ,under an aspect such as this the martyrs may be depicted as the guardians of the ,divine in conflict with the grossness of material force and barbarism of unbelief4 ,for the sake of their heavenly treasure they endure pain and death1 and this courage1 steadfastness1 endurance1 and consolation must consequently1 with equal truth1 appear upon them4 ,and yet for all that this intimate possession of their faith and love in its spiritual beauty is no sanity of soul which brings to them a sense of the sanity of their body2 rather it is a sense of inward life1 which has worked its way through their pain itself1 or at least is made manifest in their suffering1 and which1 even in the moment of their ecstasy1 retains the experience of pain as an essential condition of their beatitude4 ,the art of painting has1 in particular1 made this attitude of saintly humiliation the object of its efforts4 ,what this art mainly should strive after here is to delineate the bliss of such torments in the pure and simple lines of the countenance and its expression1 as contrasted with the offensive laceration of the flesh2 and to present such an ecstasy as may reflect the surrender and victory over pain1 the fruition1 in short1 of the ,divine ,presence in the temple of the soul4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the art of sculpture seeks to give a visible form to such a content1 it will inevitably find itself less qualified to depict this ecstasy of soul-life at this strain of its intensity with such a concentrated power1 and will consequently be compelled to emphasize that aspect of pain and laceration in so far as it declares itself in its full force on the bodily frame4 77 ,thirdly1 it is to be observed that in the kind of examples with which we are now dealing it is not merely the existence of ,nature and immediate finite conditions which is affected by this attitude of self-abnegation and endurance1 but the impulse of the soul is transported by such feelings to an extreme point of this heavenly rapture to such an extent1 in fact1 that what is merely human and of the world1 even when it is essentially beyond reproach on ethical or rational grounds1 is none the less thrust behind and scorned4 ,in other words1 just in proportion as the ,spirit1 which here makes vivid to itself the idea of its conversion1 is in the first instance deficient in an educated sense1 to that extent it will with so much the more uncontrollable and logical frenzy--the entire force of its piety being concentrated on this one object--turn its back on everything which as finite opposes this bare and abstract infinitude of its religious fanaticism1 that is to say1 on every definite human emotion1 all the manifold ethical impulses1 relations1 and obligations of the heart4 ,for the moral life of the family1 the bonds of friendship1 of blood1 of love1 of the ,state1 and a man's calling1 every one of them belong to the things of the world2 and all that is of the world1 in so far as it is not as yet suffused with the absolute conceptions of faith and developed in unity and harmony with the same1 appears to this form of abstract spiritual intensity of the soul of faith so far from being something acceptable to its emotional life and sense of obligation1 that it is1 on the contrary1 a thing of no worth at all1 and therefore both hostile and hurtful to its religious state4 ,the moral organism of the human world is consequently not as yet respected1 because its significant features and duties are not as yet recognized as necessary1 integrated members in the concatenation of an essentially rational reality1 in which nothing1 it is true1 ought to assert itself in a one-sided and independent isolation1 yet1 none the less1 as an essential factor in the organic process1 must be maintained as such and not be sacrificed4 ,in this respect the religious reconciliation remains itself one-sided1 and declares itself in the truly simple heart as an intensity of belief which is deficient in comprehensiveness1 that is1 as the piety of the self-secluded soul1 which has not yet attained in its growth to the fully expanded self-reliance of maturity1 and to conviction based on genuine insight and circumspection4 ,when the force of a soul deficient in these qualities maintains its opposition to the world which is thus treated in a purely negative way1 and forcefully breaks loose from all human ties1 even though they may originally be the very closest1 we can only characterize such conduct as the rawness of ,spirit and a barbaric result of the power of abstraction1 which is simply repulsive4 ,so we may say that though from the point of view of the religious consciousness1 as we find it to-day1 it is indeed possible to honour1 and to honour highly1 this opening germ of religiosity in such representations1 if1 however1 such a pious tendency proceeds to such lengths that we find it advancing to lay siege to what is both essentially rational and moral1 then1 so far from sympathizing with such a fanaticism of sanctity1 we can only protest that a kind of abnegation such as this1 which casts off from itself1 shatters and treads upon that which is independently justifiable1 and even sacred1 appears to us both immoral in itself and subversive of the very type of religion it represents4 ,there are many legends1 tales1 and poems which deal with this extreme form of the pious craze4 ,we have1 for example1 the tale of a man who1 though full of tenderness for his wife and family1 and1 moreover1 beloved by all his friends1 leaves his home and makes a pilgrimage4 ,when at last he returns home in the guise of a beggar he refuses to disclose his identity4 ,alms are given him1 and out of compassion a permanent lodging provided under the stairs4 ,in this plight he lives for twenty years2 he sees the grief of his family on his account1 and only declares who he is on his death-bed4 ,this kind of thing1 which we are asked to revere as sanctity1 is1 of course1 merely the egotism of a fanatic which revolts us4 ,this long endurance of renunciation may remind us of the distrait nature of those penances1 which the ,hindoos voluntarily impose on themselves on religious grounds4 ,but the endurance of the ,hindoo has a very different significance4 ,in that case a man deliberately places himself in a condition of vacuum and unconsciousness2 in the case which we are now considering the pain1 and the deliberate consciousness and feeling of the same is the real object1 which it is assumed will be attained with just so much more purity as the suffering is associated with the consciousness of the value of and devotion to the severities which are accepted1 and is1 moreover1 united with a vision for ever concentrated on the renunciation thus made4 ,the richer the heart which takes on itself the burden of such ordeals1 the nobler the content of its own possessions1 and yet withal believes that it is bound to condemn them as of no merit1 just so much the more difficult grows the task of reconciliation1 and the more prone it is to bring about the most terrible convulsions and the most raving distraction4 ,indeed1 to our vision1 it is clear enough that a soul such as this1 which is only at home in a world which1 however full of ideas1 is not the world of common experience1 and which consequently only feels its grasp slipping from the stable and paramount centres of activity and aims of this our actual world1 ay1 and although it be with heart and soul held in and associated with that world1 yet regards all that is moral there simply as something which contradicts its absolute destination--we can only say that such a soul1 both in its self-inflicted sufferings and its renunciations1 is from the rational point of view simply mad1 so mad that we can neither feel any profound compassion for it1 nor propose any means of liberation4 ,what is lamentably lacking to a mode of life of this kind is an object of real substance and valid significance2 what it proposes to secure is an aim wholly personal1 an object sought for by the individual for himself alone1 for the salvation of his own soul1 for his own blessedness4 ,few are likely to concern themselves very deeply whether an individual1 at any rate one of this type1 is or ever will be happy#bch4 7b7 ,the inward ,penance and ,conversion ,the kind of representation1 in the same general class of cases which we shall now contrast with the one above examined1 turns aside from the extremity of merely bodily suffering1 as it is also from a further point of view more indifferent to the purely negative impulse directed against what is essentially just and right in the actual conditions of the world2 the material of such representations consequently1 both in respect to its content and its form1 opens up a ground which is more conformable with ideal art4 ,and this ground is the conversion of the inner life of the soul1 which only here seeks to express itself in its spiritual pain1 and its change of heart4 ,here1 therefore1 we find in the first place that we have no more of those ever repeated horrors and barbarities of pain inflicted on man's poor body3 and1 secondly1 that which we have referred to as the barbarian religiosity of the soul no longer holds fast to its antagonism as against the purely ethical aspects of humanity in order to trample under iron foot in the abstraction of its purely conceptive satisfaction#bci1 and in the pain of an absolute renunciation that other kind of sensuous enjoyment2 for the most part its attention is now solely directed against what is in fact sinful1 criminal1 and evil in human ,nature4 ,we find here a lofty assurance that faith1 this spiritual impulse towards ,god1 is capable of converting the past action1 even though it be a sin or a crime1 into something alien to the man who perpetrated it1 washing it away in fact4 ,this withdrawal out of evil1 that wholly negative condition1 which is realized in the individual by the subjective volition and spirit at once scorning and confounding itself under its former state of evil--this return to the positive which is now self-established as the only real in contrast to the former state of sinfulness1 is the truly infinite content of religious love1 the presence and actuality of absolute ,spirit in the individual soul itself4 ,the feeling of the stability and endurability of the personal existence1 which through ,god1 to which it addresses itself1 triumphs over evil1 and in so far as it is thus mediated with ,him is aware of itself as one with ,him1 produces as its effect the fruition and blessedness of contemplating ,god1 it is true1 in the first instance as the absolute ,other in ,his opposition to the sin inherent in finite existence1 but further of knowing this ,infinite ,presence as identical with me as this particular person1 of knowing1 in short1 that ,i carry this self-consciousness of ,god1 as the seat of my own personality1 that is to say1 my own self-consciousness1 as certainly as ,i carry the sense of my own self-identity4 ,such a revolution takes place no doubt entirely within the shrine of the soul1 and belongs1 therefore1 rather to religion than art3 for the reason1 however1 that it is the intimate movement of the soul1 which pre-eminently makes itself master of this act of conversion1 and also is able to throw a gleam of light through the external embodiment1 a plastic art such as painting can also claim to make visible the history of such conversions4 ,if it attempts1 however1 to depict the entire course of events which belong to such a transition1 much that is very far from being beautiful may readily appear in the result1 because in such a case both that which is sinful and repulsive requires to be depicted1 as1 for example1 in the story of the prodigal son4 ,painting1 therefore1 achieves its greatest success when it concentrates the act of conversion into one picture where that is the prevailing motive1 and pays little or no attention to the previous course of events4 ,the ordinary presentations of ,mary ,magdelene may be noted as an admirable example of this kind of work1 and particularly in the hands of the old ,italian masters has been treated in a way both excellent in itself and throughout consistently with fine ,art4 ,she is depicted here both in the characterization of her soul and her external presence as the fair sinner1 in whom the sin no less than the sanctity is intended to exercise a sort of fascination on the spectator4 ,but at the same time neither sin nor sanctity are treated with any great intensity4 ,she is forgiven much because she has loved much1 and her forgiveness is in a measure the portion both of her love and her beauty4 ,and what affects us most of all in this picture is this1 that she makes for herself a conscience as it were out of her love1 and robed in the beauty of her sensitive soul pours forth her sorrow in a flood of tears4 ,we are not led to feel that the fact that she has loved so much is her error1 but rather that her fair and fascinating folly is this1 namely1 that she believes herself to be a sinner1#bdj for her exquisitely sensitive beauty only leaves us the impression that in her love she is both noble and profound4 7c7 ,miracles and ,legends ,the final aspect1 which is closely associated with the two above considered1 and is frequently asserted as a concomitant of both1 is that of miracle4 ,it plays in fact an important part throughout this stage of our inquiry4 ,in this connection we may define miracle as the conversion-history of the immediate existence of ,nature4 ,such reality lies before us as a commonplace1 contingent existence4 ,this finite substance is touched by the hand of ,god1 which1 in so far as it strikes upon what is purely external and particular1 breaks it up1 transmutes it into something entirely different1 interrupting what in ordinary parlance we call the natural course of things4 ,to bring before us the soul arrested by such inexplicable phenomena1 in which it imagines it recognizes the presence of the ,divine1 vanquished1 in short1 in its ordinary view of finite events1 this is the main subject-matter of a host of legends4 ,in fact1 however1 the ,divine can only touch and dominate ,nature as ,reason1 that is1 in the unalterable laws of ,nature herself1 as implanted therein by ,god1 and the ,divine has no occasion to exploit ,himself in the supreme sense of this term in particular circumstances and modes of causation which run contrary to these laws of ,nature1 for it is only the eternal laws and determinations of reason which apply in any real sense to ,nature4 ,from another point of view legends frequently carry with them quite unnecessarily an amount of matter which is abstruse1 out of taste1 senseless1 and ridiculous1 inasmuch as the intention is that both intellect and heart should be stimulated to believe in the presence and activity of ,god by precisely those things which are essentially irrational1 false1 and heathenish4 ,the consequent emotion1 piety1 and conversion of the soul may even then awake our interest1 but in that case it is only on the one side1 namely1 that of the soul3 so soon as that enters into relation with somewhat else outside it1 and the idea is that this external correlative shall effect the conversion of the heart1 then we inevitably require that such should not be wholly a meaningless and irrational sequence of events4 ,such1 then1 would be the fundamental divisions of the substantive content at this particular stage of our inquiry1 regarding that content as the self-subsistent ,nature of ,god1 or in its aspect as a spiritual process1 through which and in which ,he is ,spirit4 ,we have here the absolute object1 which art neither creates nor reveals out of itself1 but which it has received from religion which it approaches with the conviction that it is essentially true that it may express and represent the same conformably to its modes4 ,it is the content of the believing1 yearning soul1 which is intrinsically the infinite totality itself1 so that for it the external medium remains to a more or less degree outside it1 or a matter of indifference1 and is unable to be brought completely into harmony with that inner life4 ,and for this reason it frequently presents a repellent material which art finds itself unable wholly to subdue to its aims4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,nicht aufnehmend4 ,not ready to absorb extraneous matter4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,this of course is an opinion which may be strongly contested in its application to particular artists4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,hegel means not so much the history in which the whole totality of events is comprised as that aspect of human history which declares its universal significance as infinite spirit4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,that is1 of self-consciousness in all that it implies--the personality of ,christ1 for example4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,hegel does not further dwell upon this relativity4 ,but the next paragraph explains what is really in his mind4 ,the important question1 however1 how far such events are worthy of credence as objective history1 to say nothing of the inadequacy of their artistic presentation1 one cannot but feel is deliberately evaded4 ,what ,hegel would say no doubt was that the bare historical aspect was only of relative importance4 ,the main question was their significance in the spiritual process4 ,it is in this direction that much of our noblest modern thought finds a certain indissoluble unreality of statement4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,that is in ,christ4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,gleichkeit4 ,equality1 reciprocity4 ,footnote #bca3 ,we are reminded of our treasures in ,christian art such as the ,virgin and ,child in ,tintoret's ,flight into ,egypt1 ,rafael's ,san1 ,sisto ,madonna and the rest4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,in other words as regarded at a later date by the ,church4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,this statement hardly does justice to the profound idealism of the epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,perhaps the infinite form of subjectivity is better4 ,he means the infinite form of individual self-consciousness4 ,footnote #bce3 ,that is1 characterized by personality4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,geschichte4 ,life as an evolved ,process4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,compare the poem of ,meredith1 ,theodolinda1 in his ballads of the ,tragic ,life4 ,it is1 in another aspect1 that iron crown which that thoughtful contemporary writer1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,nevinson1 refers to in his ,essays on ,rebellion4 ,footnote #bch3 ,the elimination even of sympathy with such fanaticism where it is quite sincere1 a rare case no doubt1 seems severe4 ,the best illustration in modern literature ,i know of the principle all or nothing1 is ,ibsen's great drama ,brandt4 ,readers of ,carlyle will doubtless recall from ,past and ,present and elsewhere that prophet's repeated denunciations of the craze for personal happiness4 ,footnote #bci3 ,by intellectuellen ,befriedigung ,hegel does not mean intellectual in a good sense1 but merely that the man imagines his happiness in his mind rather than feels it through the senses4 ,the psychology of religious ecstasy1 however1 is a rather involved problem4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,this analysis is rather surprising4 ,did ,hegel1 the robust ,swabian1 really think the above the finest type of art's presentations of the ,magdalene8 ,does it not lean very closely to that soft sentimentalism which a ,carlo ,dolci gives us in its decadence8 ,at any rate the idea that the ,magdalene was not really a sinner flatly contradicts the original references to her in the gospels1 and to my mind at any rate seems from the artistic point of view also to destroy half the rare beauty of her repentance4 ,the principle of such an interpretation is surely the entirely pagan one1 whether ,greek or ,french1 that a great passion is its own justification quite irrespective of moral considerations4 ,she is the historical impersonation of the frailty of a love too dependent on the senses1 not of one in which either nobility of bearing or extreme selflessness is conspicuous4 ,hegel's analysis may be true enough of certain pictures--but do they really present us the ideal2 most assuredly not4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,chivalry ,the principle of the essentially infinite subjective consciousness possesses for the content of faith and art in the first instance1 as we have already discovered1 the ,absolute itself1 in other words the ,spirit of ,god as it is mediated and reconciled with the conscious spirit of man and thereby is first itself independently free4 ,this romantic mysticism in its self-limitation to the sense of blessedness in the ,absolute ,presence remains a mode of spiritual inwardness which is abstract1 because it confronts the things of the world in opposition and rejects the same4 ,faith is1 in an abstraction of this kind1 alienated from life1 from the concrete reality of human existence1 removed from the positive relations of mankind to one another1 who only know and love each other in faith1 and for the sake of their belief as completely bound together in yet a third association1 namely1 the spirit of the ,christ community4 ,this association is alone the clear spring in which the image of that blessedness is reflected1 without it being necessary for man to look his brother first in the face1 to enter into any direct relation with another1 or to experience the unity of love1 of trust1 of confidence1 of mutual aims and actions in contact with the living concrete presence4 ,that which constitutes the hope and yearning of the inner life man here1 in this sense of exclusive religious intimacy1 can only discover as actual life in the kingdom of ,god1 in the society of the ,church4 ,he has not as yet#bda withdrawn this single identity in a third factor from his conscious life in order that he may possess all that he is really himself in his entire spiritual concreteness no less before his eyes directly in the knowledge and volition of that other whole4 ,the collective religious content1 it is true1 assumes the mode of real existence1 but it is still an existence which is located in the ideal world of an imagination which consumes the expanding boundaries of actual life4 ,it is still far away from attempting to satisfy its own life also in that abundance which it receives from the world and its realization in the world as the higher demand in the medium of life itself4 ,it follows that the soul which found its initial consummation in the simple feeling of ,divine blessedness must step forth from this heavenly kingdom peculiar to the religious sphere1 must undertake the effort of self-introspection and assimilate a content which is1 as vitally present1 adequate to the demands of the individual consciousness in its fullest extension4 ,and in this process that which was before a religious coalescence of soul is changed to one of secular type4 ,christ indeed said2 ,ye must leave father and mother1 and follow ,me4 ,and in the like spirit3 ,brother shall hate brother2 men shall crucify you and persecute you4 ,but as soon as the kingdom of ,god has secured a foothold in the world1 and is actively employed in transfusing with its spirit and illumining the aims and interests of that world2 when father1 mother1 and brother are already numbered in the community1 then the things of the world on their side commence to assert their just claim to recognition and furtherance4 ,if this claim is not merely fought for but vindicated then also the negative attitude of the religious spirit1 which was at first exclusively hostile to all that was merely human1 vanishes2 the spirit of man enlarges1 it explores the full scope of its actual presence1 and unfolds its heart in the entire world of reality#bdb4 ,the fundamental principle suffers no alteration2 the substantive and infinite self-consciousness merely directs its attention to another province of its own kingdom4 ,we may perhaps define this transition in the statement that the individual singularity is now as such singularity independent of its mediation with ,god and self-subsistently free4 ,for precisely in that mediation1 whereby it divested itself of its purely finite limitation and natural life1 it has passed over the path of mere negation1 and reappears after having thus secured an essentially affirmative position1 in the condition of a consciousness that is free and as such makes the demand that it shall1 in virtue of its own infinitude1 though the infinitude is here only in the first instance one of pure form1 secure complete recognition both for itself and others4 ,in this the religious mode of the individual consciousness is reposed the entire spiritual wealth of the infinite soul1 which it has hitherto filled up with ,god4 ,if we1 however1 made the inquiry1 of what material the heart of man is suffused in this its inward repletion1 such a content merely concerns the infinite relation of the subjective consciousness in its active self-relation2 it is simply replete with its own formal medium1 that is1 as essentially infinite singularity without further and more concrete expansion and significance as a content of interests1 aims1 and actions which is itself essentially objective and substantive#bdc4 ,if we further examine the matter1 however1 more closely we shall see there are in the main three emotions1 which in their independence rise up in the individual soul to the level of this infinite mode1 namely personal honour1 love1 and fidelity4 ,they are not so much moral qualities and virtues as simply modes which inform the intimate presence of the individual soul when fulfilled with its own self-relation as such is recognized by romance4 ,for the personal self-subsistency for which honour contends does not assert itself as intrepitude on behalf of a communal weal1 and the repute of thoroughness in relation to it and integrity of private life4 ,on the contrary it contends simply for the recognition and formal inviolability of the individual person4 ,the same principle applies to love1 which forms the central subject-matter of this sphere4 ,it is merely the adventitious passion of one individual for another2 and however much it may expand under the wand of imagination or may be deepened by excess of emotion1 it is for all that neither the ethical relation of marriage or family4 ,fidelity possesses no doubt more the appearance of a moral character1 inasmuch as it does not merely will its own but holds fast to something higher1 something shared with itself1 surrenders itself to another's will1 whether it be the wish or behest of a master1 and thereby renounces the personal desire and independence of its own particular volition4 ,but the feeling of loyalty does not concern the objective interest of the social weal in its independent form1 that is1 in the concrete freedom of the developed state life1 but associates itself merely with the person of a master1 who1 in his own fashion1 acts with independence1 or concentrates himself in more general relations and is active on their behalf#bdd4 ,these three modes of feeling taken together and as they reciprocally affect one another constitute with the exception of the religious relation1 which also has its part to play here1 the principal content of chivalry1 and furnish the necessary steps of advance from the principle of purely religious enthusiasm to the entrance of the individual soul into the concrete social life of the world1 in the kingdom of which romantic art now secures a platform on which it can from its own resources work out its independence1 and at the same time embody a freer type of beauty4 ,it stands here1 so to speak1 in the free room midway between the absolute content of the independently stable religious conceptions and the varied particularity and restricted boundaries of the finite world4 ,among the various arts it is pre-eminently poetry which has shown itself most qualified to master such a material1 its modes of expression being directed to the life of the soul as wholly occupied with its own domain and as realized in its aims and events4 ,inasmuch as we now have before us a material which man takes possession of in his own spiritual life1 or rather1 from the world of his pure humanity1 we might at first suppose that romantic art occupied the same ground as that of classic art4 ,this1 therefore1 is an excellent opportunity for placing them together both in comparison and contrast4 ,we have already defined classical art the ,ideal of humanity certified as true in its objective self-subsistence4 ,its imaginative vitality requires as its core a content which is substantive in type and excludes an ethical pathos4 ,the ,homeric poems1 the tragedies of ,sophocles and ,aeschylus1 are in the main concerned with interests of an absolutely factual content1 an austere treatment of the passions reflected therein1 a solid style of speech and execution in conformity with the nature of the ideas expressed1 and above this domain of heroes and other figures which alone are in their individual self-concentration at home in such an atmosphere of pathos we have the realm of the gods at a still more advanced stage of objective presentment4 ,even in the case where art1 in more introspective fashion1 is occupied with the infinite experiments of sculpture1 bas-reliefs and similar forms1 or the later elegies1 epigrams1 and other diversions of lyrical poetry1 we still have the same type before us1 that is to say1 the type which portrays the object more or less as it finds it1 and obedient to the claim that it already has secured its constructive presentment4 ,we have1 in short1 represented figures of the imagination already established and defined in their characterization such as ,venus1 ,bacchus1 or the ,muses4 ,it is just the same with the later epigrams1 where we get the description of a material already to hand or1 as in the case of ,meleager1 a posy of well-known flowers1 bound together with the cords of exquisite feeling and taste4 ,it is1 in short1 an exhilarating mode of activity carried on in a wealthily furnished house overflowing in its stores with every kind of bounty1 image and provision for every conceivable object4 ,the poet and the artist is simply the magician1 who wafts them into use1 collects and groups them4 ,it is wholly different in romantic poetry4 ,in so far as it is of the world worldly1 and is not directly associated with the story of our ,lord1 the virtues and objects of its heroism are not those of the ,greek heroes1 whose type of morality ,christendom in its early days simply regarded as a brilliant enormity4 ,greek morality presupposes the presence of humanity in its complete configuration1 in which the volition then and there as it ought to act conformably to its essential notion of independence has received a definite content and the actual conditions of freedom imperatively valid such as belong to that content4 ,such are the relations of parents and children1 married persons1 or of citizens of city or ,state in the realized liberty of such4 ,now inasmuch as this objective content of human affairs belongs to the evolution of man's spirit on the basis of ,nature cognized and insured as actual fact1 it is unable any longer to satisfy that self-absorbed introspection of the religious life1 which seeks to destroy the natural aspect of human life1 and must deviate considerably from the virtue of humility which opposes it1 and the surrender of human freedom and its staunch self-dependence4 ,the virtues of ,christian piety simply prove the death of such a world-attitude if held in their extreme of abstraction1 and only make the individual free1 when he absolutely denies the human part of him4 ,the individual freedom of our present sphere is no doubt no longer conditioned by mere endurance and self-sacrifice but essentially positive in the world arena2 that infinite self-relation of the individual has1 however1 as we have already discovered1 the inward realm of the soul as its content and only that1 the subjective soul1 that is1 whose movement is in its own peculiar medium1 as the secular ground of its own domain4 ,in this connection poetry does not draw from any objective material already presented it1 no mythology1 for instance1 no imaginative pictures and embodiments1 which already lie ready waiting for its expression4 ,it stands there wholly free1 without any extraneous matter1 purely creative and productive4 ,it is free as a bird that sings straight from its breast4 ,it follows1 then1 if this subjective activity proceeds also from a noble will and a profound soul1 we shall merely have in its workings and relations and existence the evidence of caprice and contingency1 for the reason that freedom and its aims proceed1 relatively to a content which is throughout immaterial1 from internal self-reflection4 ,and1 consequently1 we do not find so much in individuals a particular pathos in the ,greek conception of the term and a vital self-subsistency of character associated with it by the closest bonds1 as that which is simply a grade of heroic conception in its connection with love1 honour1 bravery1 and fidelity2 a grade into which it is mainly the nobility or depravity of soul which imports the distinguishing features4 ,the characteristic trait1 however1 which the heroes of the ,middle ,ages possess in common with those of antiquity is that of bravery4 ,yet even this receives a totally different complexion4 ,it is not so much a natural courage1 which reposes on the character that is sane and sound1 and flows forth from the growth of an unimpaired robustness of body and will1 assisting the execution of objective interests4 ,rather it is the outcome of the secret wealth of the soul1 its honour and chivalry1 and is in the main a creation of the phantasy1 which undertakes adventures that have their origin in individual caprice and the chance intricacies of external circumstance or the impulses of mystical piety1 and we may add generally the personal attitude of the individual4 ,this romantic type of art finds a home1 then1 in two hemispheres1 in the ,western world as this penetration into the more intimate shrine of ,spirit1 in the ,eastern this its first expansion of the self-absorbed consciousness as it frees itself from the finite environment4 ,in the ,west poetry reposes on a soul which is withdrawn upon its resources1 which has become the centre of its activity1 yet possesses this flavour of secularly merely as one part of its complexion1 as one aspect1 over which is superposed a yet loftier world of belief4 ,in the ,east it is the ,arab above all1 who as a solitary1#bde who in the first instance has nothing before his eyes but his dried-up desert and his heavens1 stands forth in the full strength of life as the proclaimer of the splendour and primary extension of the world of ,nature1 and thereby still preserves at the same time the freedom of his soul4 ,and generally we may say that in the ,orient it is the ,mohammedan religion1 which has cleared the ground1 made an end of all idolatry in the service of finite things or the imagination1 and given the soul at the same time the personal freedom1 which wholly floods the same1 so that the secularity does not here only constitute another province1 but runs beyond it into the universal licence1 where heart and mind1 without ascribing any objective reality to ,god1 find their reconciliation in the jubilant lust of living just like beggars by throwing the glory of their fancy on the objects around them3 enjoy their loves and are happy1 blessed1 and contented4 #a4 ,,honour ,the motive of honour was unknown to ancient classic art4 ,in the ,iliad it is quite true that the wrath of ,achilles constitutes both the content and the motive principle1 so that the entire series of events is dependent upon it2 but what we moderns understand by the term honour is not grasped here at all4 ,achilles believes himself to be insulted to all intents and purposes only in the fact that the share in the booty which he considers justly to belong to him and the reward of his personal merits1 his 1 has been taken away by ,agamemnon4 ,the insult here has a direct reference to something actual1 a bounty1 in which no doubt a privilege1 a recognition of fame and bravery was reposed1 and ,achilles is enraged because ,agamemnon meets him unworthily and lets the ,greeks know that they are not to pay any attention to him4 ,an insult of this kind is not driven home to the real centre of personality in its abstract purity2 in fact ,achilles expresses himself satisfied with the restitution of the abducted slave and the addition of other goods and bounties1 and ,agamemnon finally makes this reparation although from our point of view they have both insulted one another in the grossest fashion4 ,maledictions of this kind1 however1 have only made them angry2 and1 after all1 the particular insult1 which has reference to a matter of fact1 is done away with in the same matter of fact fashion4 7a7 ,the honour of romance is1 on the contrary1 of another kind4 ,insult has no reference here to the factual values of real things1 property1 status1 obligation1 etc41 but to personality simply1 and its idea of its own importance1 the work which the individual claims as his right4 ,this worth is in the cases we are now discussing of an infinite significance equal to that of personality itself4 ,in honour1 therefore1 man possesses the earliest positive consciousness of his infinite spiritual medium1 independent of the content4 ,what the individual has1 what in him something peculiar creates1 after the loss of which it may yet subsist precisely as it did before--in this elusive something the absolute validity of the entire subjective life is reposed and apprehended in it both for itself and others4 ,the determining measure of honour therefore does not depend on what the individual really is1 but on what is contained in this personal self-regard4 ,this regard1 however1 raises all particularity to the level of the universal conception that the personal core in its full significance resides in this particularity which it claims as its own4 ,honour is merely an outward show it is sometimes said4 ,no doubt this is so3 but from our present point of view we must1 if we look at it more narrowly1 accept it as the appearance and reappearance of the personal medium self-reflected1 which as the semblance of an entity essentially infinite is itself infinite4 ,and through this infinitude it is just this show or semblance of honour which is the real existence of the individual1 its highest actuality2 and every particular quality1 into which honour is reflected and appropriates as its own is by virtue of this show exalted itself to an infinite worth4 ,this type of honour constitutes a fundamental determinant in the romantic world1 and presupposes that man has not merely passed beyond the limits of purely religious conception and inward life1 but actually entered the arena of the great world and makes itself vital in the material of the same simply by virtue of the pure medium of its personal self-subsistence and absolute intension#bdf4 ,the content of honour may be of the most varied kind4 ,for everything that ,i am1 do1 or is done to me by others affects my honour4 ,we may consequently reckon within its boundaries the out and out substantive itself1 loyalty towards princes1 fatherland1 a man's profession1 fulfilment of obligations1 marital fidelity1 integrity in business affairs and conscientiousness in scientific research4 ,for the point of view of honour1 however1 all these essentially valid and veritable relations are neither sanctioned nor recognized in and through themselves1 but only so far as the individual reposes in them his personal relation and makes them thereby matters affecting his honour4 ,a man of honour consequently always thinks first of all about himself1 and the question for him is not if anything is on principle right or not1 but whether it is the right thing for him to do1 whether it becomes him then as a man of honour to make himself master in it and to stand by it4 ,and consequently he may also perpetrate the worst actions and still be a man of honour4 ,he creates at the same time objects at will1 imagines himself of a specific character1 and appropriates to himself1 both as he sees himself and is seen by others1 that which in the natural order of things has nothing to do with him at all4 ,even then it is not the natural fact1 but the personal view of it which places difficulties and devolutions in the path1 because it has become an affair of honour to maintain that character4 ,so1 to take an example1 ,donna ,diana conceives it to be derogatory to her honour to confess in any way the love she feels1 because she has pledged herself not to listen to love4 ,in general we may say1 then1 that the content of love is at the mercy of accident1 because its validity depends purely on the personal attitude1 and is not directed by that which is the essential mode of the inner life itself4 ,for this reason we may observe that in romantic representations on the one hand that which is on principle justifiable is expressed as the law of honour1 the individual associating with the consciousness of right at the same time the infinite self-conscious unit of his personality4 ,what is then expressed by the statement that honour makes such and such a demand1 or forbids it1 is this that the entire personal attitude of consciousness implants itself within the content of such a demand or prohibition so that no trespass in any transaction can fail to attract its attention without a repair and restoration being effected2 and we may add the individual is unable to attend to any other content4 ,conversely1 however1 honour may resolve itself into something wholly formal and contentless1 in so far as it contains nothing but the shell of the ,ego1 which is formally infinite1 or only accepts an entirely bad content as obligatory upon it4 ,in this case1 more particularly in dramatic representations1 honour remains but a wholly frosty and unvitalized object3 its aims express no longer an essential content but simply an abstract form of consciousness4 ,but it is only an essentially substantive content which possesses the contingency of law1 and is capable of explication in its multifold environment1 and can be apprehended in its imperative sequence of consequences4 ,this defect in profound content especially rises to the surface when casuistry of reflection includes within the embrace of honour matter which is purely accidental and insignificant which the individual comes in contact with4 ,there is never a lack of material1 because this casuistical tendency analyses with great subtlety in its modes of distinction1 and many aspects may be elicited and made the subject of honour which in themselves are quite unimportant ,above all the ,spaniards have elaborated this casuistry of reflection over matters of honour in their dramatic poetry1 and made their particular heroes of honour deduce all their consequences in their speeches4 ,in this way the fidelity of the married woman may form a subject of investigation into the minutest details1 and the mere suspicion of another1 nay1 the possibility of such even when the husband is aware that the suspicion is false may be an affair of honour4 ,if this leads to collisions we can derive no real satisfaction from the process1 because we have nothing of material moment to arrest us1 and consequently instead of the resolution of an antagonism which is causally inevitable we can only extract from it a painfully contracted feeling4 ,also in ,french plays we frequently find that it is an honour which is barren1 that is entirely abstract1 which is made the essential fulcrum of interest ,still more extreme is this essentially frostlike and lifeless type of it apparent in the drama ,alarcos of ,herr ,friedrich von ,schlegel4 ,the hero here murders his noble and loving wife4 ,and we ask why4 ,simply for honour's sake2 and this honour consists in this that he may marry the king's daughter1 for whom he entertains no affection1 and thus become the king's son-in-law4 ,such a pattern is of course contemptible and an ignoble conception which merely prides itself as something lofty and of infinite intension4 7b7 ,inasmuch1 then1 as honour is not only a semblance in me myself1 but must also exist in the mind and recognition of another1 which again on its part makes a claim to a similar honourable recognition1 honour is the extreme embodiment of vulnerability4 ,for it is purely a matter of personal caprice how far ,i choose to extend the claim and to what material ,i care to relate it4 ,the smallest offence may be in this respect of significance2 and inasmuch as man is placed relatively to concrete reality in the most manifold relations with a thousand things1 and is able to extend practically without limit the sphere of that which he conceives to affect him1 and to which he is placed in the relation of honour it follows that when we come to deal with the independence of mankind and the obstinate isolation of their units1 aspects for which the principle of honour is in the main responsible1 there is no end to the strife and contention to which they give rise4 ,moreover1 in the case of insult also no less than in that of honour generally1 the important matter is not the content1 in which ,i necessarily feel myself insulted2 for that which is negated has reference to the personality which has appropriated such a content as its own1 and now conceives itself as this ideal centrum of infinity attacked4 7c7 ,for such reasons every insult to honour is regarded as essentially of an infinite significance4 ,it can consequently only be repaired by means which possess that character4 ,no doubt we may have many degrees of insult1 and as many modes of satisfaction2 what however at the stage we are now considering any man may take as an insult1 how far he will feel himself as insulted and claim satisfaction therefore1 such considerations depend once more wholly on the personal caprice of the particular person1 which is justified in pursuing its object to the utmost point of scrupulosity and outraged feeling4 ,in this process of satisfaction1 which is here claimed1 it is essential that the man who delivers the insult no less than he who receives it should be recognized as a man of honour4 ,for the latter requires the free recognition of his honour from the former2 but in order to have honour in his eyes and through his action that man must appear to the recipient of insult as a man of honour1 in other words he must substantiate by virtue of his personality the infinite character of the insult which he has laid upon the outraged man and despite his personal enmity that is thereby directed against him4 ,it is1 then1 a fundamental determinant in the general principle of honour that no one through his actions can give to any one a right over himself2 and consequently all that he has done and may have initiated will be regarded both previous to its commencement and after its conclusion as unalterably affiliated to infinity1 and will be accepted and treated under such a qualitative relation4 ,moreover1 since honour1 in its conflicts and its satisfaction in this respect1 depends on personal independence1 which is conscious of itself as subject to no limitation1 but acts directly from its own resources1 we find a fact recur to our attention1 which we previously observed fundamentally characterized the heroic figures of the ,ideal1 namely the self-subsistence of individuality4 ,in honour1 however1 we have not merely the secure self-dependence and action from personal resources1 but this self-subsistence is in this case united with the idea of itself2 and it is just this preconception which constitutes the real content of honour in the sense that it perceives what is its own in that which is presented exterior to it1 and envisages itself therein to the full extent of its personal life4 ,honour is consequently a self-subsistence1 which is a self reflection1 and possesses in such a reflection its exclusive essence1 and moreover leaves it wholly to accident whether its content be that which is essentially moral and necessary1 or contingent and insignificant4 #b4 ,,love ,the second emotional source which plays a predominant part in the productions of romantic art is love4 7a7 ,we have found in honour that the individual conscious life1 as it prefigures itself in its absolute independence1 forms the fundamental determinant2 in a similar way the highest attitude of love is the surrender of the personal life to some object of the opposed sex1 a sacrifice of its independent consciousness and its personal isolation1 which for the first time in the consciousness of another1 is aware emotionally that it has thoroughly brought home to itself its own self-knowledge4 ,in this respect we may contrast love and honour4 ,conversely1 however1 we are entitled to regard love as the realization of that which was already inherent in honour1 in so far as honour claims recognition#bdg that it should be received in another as the infinite significance of personality4 ,this recognition is only true and complete when it is not merely my personality in the abstract1 or in a concrete and consequently restricted case1 is respected by another1 but when ,i1 in the' entire significance of my personal resources1 with everything this either emphasizes or includes1 as this particular person in all my past1 present1 and future relations1 both penetrate the conscious life of another1 and1 in fact1 constitute the object of his real volition and knowledge1 his effort and his property4 ,in this respect it is this same inward infinitude of the individual which makes love of such importance to romantic art1 an importance which is materially enhanced by the exalted character of the wealth which the notion of love itself carries4 ,more closely1 then1 love does not subsist1 as may frequently happen in the case of honour1 upon the subject-matter of the mind and the casuistry of reflection1 but originates in the emotions1 and for the reason that here the distinctions of sex play an important part1 possesses at the same time for its basis natural conditions as already related to spirit life4 ,this basis is1 however1 only present in the sense that the individual comes into relation with such conditions by way of his soul-life1 that essentially infinite aspect of himself4 ,this state of a man's losing his own consciousness in another1 this appearance of disinterestedness and unselfishness1 by virtue of which a man first really finds himself and comes to himself--this oblivion of his own1 so that the lover no longer exists1 or is careful for himself1 but discovers the roots of that life in another1 and yet only comes into the full enjoyment of himself in that other is what gives us the infinite relation of love2 and we must look for beauty mainly in so far as this feeling does not persist as mere impulse and emotion1 but through the imagination makes its world conform to such a condition1 exalts everything which otherwise belongs by virtue of its interest1 circumstances1 and objects to real existence and life1 into an adornment of this feeling1 bears away all else into the charmed circle1 and only attaches a value to it in this relation4 ,more particularly it is in female characters that love appears in most beautiful guise because this sacrifice1 this surrender1 is with them as the culmination of everything else4 ,it is these qualities1 in fact1 which concentrate and extend life in its spiritual breadth and reality to the wealth of this emotion1 which alone discover within it a stay for existence1 and if any misfortune sweeps across the path1 vanish like a light which is extinguished by the first rude breath#bdh4 ,in this personal and intimate sense of feeling love is not presented in classical art1 and only appears as a feature of quite secondary importance for the representation1 or is only conspicuous under its aspect of physical enjoyment4 ,in ,homer1 either we find it is not emphasized at all1 or love appears in its most respected type as wedded love in the sphere of the domestic state1 exemplified in the figure of ,penelope1 or as solicitude of wife and mother1 exemplified in the case of ,andromache1 or in other ethical relations of a similar character4 ,the tie1 on the other hand1 which unites ,paris to ,helen is recognized as immoral1 and the cause of the horror and fatal course of the ,trojan war4 ,the love1 too1 of ,achilles for ,briseis has little depth of sentiment or spiritual flavour1 for ,briseis is a slave entirely at his disposition4 ,in the odes of ,sappho it is true that the language of love receives the dramatic emphasis of lyrical enthusiasm2 yet it is rather the insinuating and devouring flame of the blood which is here expressed than the profound emotion of the singer's heart and soul4 ,from another aspect we find in the short and charming odes of ,anacreon a wider and more jovial sense of enjoyment1 which sports with delight on the immediate sense of enjoyment as over something to be simply accepted as it falls without troubling itself with infinite heartaches1 without this overmastering of the entire life or the pious submission of a burdened1 yearning1 and yielding soul2 in this type the point of infinite importance whether it is precisely this or that girl which you possess is as absolutely disregarded as the monkish notion that you should shun maidenhood altogether4 ,the lofty tragedy of the ancients does not recognize the passion of love in its romantic significance4 ,pre-eminently in the case of both ,aeschylus and ,sophocles we find that it makes no pretension to contribute to the main interest of the drama4 ,for although ,antigone is the accepted lover of ,haemon1 and ,haemon claims her before his father1 nay1 goes to the length of committing suicide because he is unable to deliver her1 yet it is the external aspects of the case rather than the power of his own personal passion1 which1 we may also note1 is not that of a modern lover1 which he emphasizes before ,creon4 ,as a more essential type of pathos love is treated by ,euripides in the ,phaedra4 ,but here1 too1 it rather makes itself felt as a criminal aberration of the blood1 as a passion of the senses1 initiated by ,aphrodite1 who is desirous of slaying ,hippolytus1 because he refuses to sacrifice to her4 ,in the same way we have1 no doubt1 in the ,medicean ,aphrodite a plastic figure of love1 whose exquisite pose and lovely elaboration of bodily form is quite consummate2 but any profound expression of soul-life such as romantic art demands is wholly absent4 ,on the other hand1 the immortality of ,petrarca1 although he himself treated his sonnets in the light of recreation1 and it was rather through his ,latin poems and other works that he appealed to posterity1 is due to this very love of the fancy which1 under an ,italian sky1 joined sisterly hands with religion in the medium of a somewhat artificial outpouring of the heart4 ,dante's exaltation1 too1 originated in his love for ,beatrice1 which was transfigured in his soul to the white fervour of religious ecstasy1 while the courage and boldness of his genius created energetically a religious outlook on the world1 in which he dared1 an attempt impossible without such gifts1 to constitute himself the judge of mankind1 and to apportion to individuals hell1 purgatory1 or paradise4 ,in contrast to an exaltation of this kind love is placed before us by ,boccaccio in those romances of his1 in which he brings before our eyes the morals and life of his country1 partly in all its impetuosity of passion1 partly1 too1 in the spirit of frivolity without any ethical aim whatever4 ,in the songs of the ,german ,minnesingers we find a type of love1 sensitive1 tender1 without much generosity of imagination1 sportive1 melancholy1 and monotonous4 ,among the ,spaniards it is copious in imaginative expression1 chivalrous1 somewhat casuistical in its discovery and defence of rights and duties1 so far as they relate to private affairs of honour2 and in this respect also possesses all the richest splendour of enthusiasm4 ,in contrast to this among ,frenchmen of more modern times love is more an affair of gallantry with a distinct bias toward vanity1 an artificial state of feeling converted to the uses of poetry with a kind of sophistry of the senses often marked with the finest wit1 at one time expressing a kind of sensuous enjoyment which is devoid of passion1 at another a passion that brings with it no enjoyment1 a sublimated condition of feeling and sensibility which feeds upon the maxims of reflection4 ,but ,i must here break off these general indications which our subject does not permit me now to carry further4 7b7 ,more closely looked at the secular interest may be treated under two general divisions4 ,we have on the one side secularity as actually organized1 such as family life1 the tie of citizenship and politics1 law1 justice1 morality1 and the rest2 and in opposition to this#bdi independent and assured existence love springs up in noble and impetuous spirits2 this world-religion of hearts1 which at one time we find joining hands with religion in every respect1 while at another it supersedes it1 forgets it1 and by constituting itself the single essential1 or rather the unique and supreme condition of life1 is not only prepared to renounce all else1 and to fly for refuge to a desert with the beloved1 but proceeds in this extremity of its passion1 which we can only exclude from the domain of beauty1 to sacrifice all the worth of humanity in a manner at once servile1 degrading1 and despicable4 ,an example of this we have in ,ktchen von ,heilbronn4 ,on account of this cataclysm of life's essential interests the objects of love cannot be realized without collisions in the theatre of the world4 ,for despite of love the general conditions of life make their demand and assert their claims and the despotism of love's passion is unable to maintain itself against them with impunity4 77 ,the first and most frequently exemplified type of collision we may draw attention to is that between honour and love4 ,in other words1 honour possesses just as love possesses in its own right this infinitude of claim1 and may accept a content1 which may confront love as a positive obstacle in its path4 ,the obligations of honour may require the sacrifice of love4 ,from a certain point of view it would be1 for example1 dishonourable for a man of high rank to wed one of the lower classes4 ,the distinction between class and class is a necessary fact of natural condition as ordinarily presented#bej4 ,and so long as our secular life has not been emancipated through the infinite notion of true freedom1 whatever may be the class or profession from which that life in the particular individual and his free choice takes its rise1 to that extent it will always be ,nature1 that is1 the birth condition1 which to a greater or less degree will1 on the one hand1 determine the social position2 and1 on the other1 these distinctions of status1 as they thus originate1 and quite independently of general grounds of honour1 in so far as social position is made an affair of honour1 will maintain themselves as of absolute and infinite stability4 77 ,quite apart1 however1 from questions of honour we must add as a further example of collision that the eternal and substantive powers themselves1 the interests of the ,state1 love of country1 family obligations1 and the rest1 come into conflict with love and preclude its realization4 ,particularly in modern representations1 in which the objective conditions of life have been already elaborated in all their available stringency1 this is a favourite type of collision4 ,love is in such cases1 as itself an important right of the personal soul1 either set forth in opposition to other rights and duties1 or despite of its own recognition of such it enters upon a conflict with them reliant upon itself and with the power of its private passion4 ,the ,maid of ,orleans#bea is an example of a drama which rests upon a collision of this kind4 77 ,and in the third case we may find in a general way that external condition and its impediments oppose obstacles in the path of love4 ,such are the ordinary course of events1 the prose of ordinary existence1 misfortunes1 passion1 prejudice1 follies1 the selfishness of others1 occurrences of every conceivable complexity and kind4 ,much will here present itself that is hateful1 terrible1 and mean1 for it is mainly the evil1 ruthless1 and savage aspects of other forms of human passion which work contrary to the tender spiritual beauty of love4 ,more particularly in later times we frequently come across external collisions of this sort in dramas1 narratives1 and romances1 works whose main interest centres in a sympathy for the sufferings1 expectations1 and ruined prospects of unhappy lovers and affect or satisfy us by means of their bad or happy endings1 or merely provide entertainment4 ,this type of conflict1 however1 on the ground that it merely depends upon accidental matters1 is a subordinate one4 7c7 ,no doubt love1 from whatever of these points of view you choose to regard it1 possesses a lofty quality1 in so far as it does not merely remain an impulse of sex-attraction1 but emphasizes the bounty of a really rich1 beautiful1 and noble soul1 and is a living1 active1 courageous1 and disinterested bond of union between one person and another4 ,but romantic love is also not without its limitation4 ,that which disappears from its content is the essentially realized universality4#beb ,it is merely the personal feeling of one particular individual1 which does not attest itself as fulfilled with interest of eternal import and the actual content of organic human life1 as made up of family1 political aims1 one's own country1 obligations of profession1 status1 freedom1 and religion1 but merely with the personal consideration which is intent upon receiving again such private feeling as reflected back from some one else4 ,such a content of what is itself still but a formal mode of spiritual life does not correspond in full truth to the totality1 which the essentially complete personality#bec ought to be4 ,in the family1 marriage1 duty1 and the ,state the personal feeling simply as such and the unity which issues from it with some particular person and no other is not the main point of interest4 ,in the love of romance1 however1 all centres in the fact that this man or woman loves that woman or man and no one else4 ,yet it is precisely this fact that it is only this or that person1 which is solely based upon personal idiosyncracy1 in other words1 the contingency of caprice4 ,there is no lover who does not think his beloved1 no maiden who does not fancy her lover1 as the fairest and most supreme1 to the exclusion of all others1 although they may appear very ordinary mortals in the eyes of other folk4 ,but in just this fact that all the world or1 let us say1 a large number1 act thus exclusively1 and will not make an exception in favour of the unique ,aphrodite herself1 but rather possess an ,aphrodite of their own1 and very easily somewhat more than ,aphrodite1 we can only very obviously conclude that there are many who pass for the same fairy ,princess1 as no doubt every one knows well enough1 that there are a whole bevy of pretty or good and excellent girls in the world1 all of whom1 or let us hope the majority1 will secure their own lovers1 adorers1 and husbands1 to whom they doubtless appear as gifted in like manner with all the beauty and virtue of ,christendom4 ,to bestow in every case our preference on one1 and only one1 is obviously a wholly private affair of the heart and of the separate individuality of each person1 and the incommensurable obstinacy in discovering as though by a law of necessity one's life and supremest sense of such in just that one individual is proof that it is a caprice no less infinite in its significance than it is inevitable4 ,we have without question in this attitude the loftier freedom of the personal life and its absolute power of choice recognized1 the power to be1 not merely as we find in the ,phaedra of ,euripides1 under the constraint of a pathos1 a divinity2 but in regard to the absolutely individual volition1 from which such a liberty proceeds1 such a choice appears at the same time to be a mere idiosyncrasy1 an inflexibility of that which is wholly self-exclusive4 ,for this reason the collisions of love1 more particularly when it is set in hostile opposition to substantive interests1 retain an aspect of contingency and lack of authorization1 because it is the personal life as such which confronts in opposition with a demand not independently justifiable that which for its own essential sake has a claim to recognition4 ,the personalities in the lofty tragedy of the ancients such as ,agamemnon1 ,clytemnestra1 ,orestes1 ,oedipus1 ,antigone1 and ,creon have1 it is true1 among other things a personal object2 but the substantive thing1 the pathos1 which as the content of their action is the compelling force behind them1 is of absolute authority1 and for this very reason1 is also itself essentially of universal interest4 ,the destiny which affects them on account of their action does not therefore move us on the ground that it is a fate of misfortune1 but because it is a misfortune which affects or redounds to their honour4 ,in other words the pathos1 which will not rest until it is satisfied1 possesses an essentially necessary content4 ,when the guilt of ,clytemnestra1 in this concrete case of it1 receives no punishment1 when the insult which ,antigone receives as sister#bed is not removed1 in both cases we have a substantial wrong4 ,these sufferings of love1 however1 these shattered hopes1 this being in love generally1 these infinite pains experienced by lovers1 this measureless happiness and bliss which such imagine1 are no such essential interest but rather something that merely affects themselves4 ,all men1 it is true1 should be sensitive to love and may claim satisfaction in this respect4 ,but when a man fails to secure that object in some particular place1 in precisely this or that association1 under just these circumstances and in respect to one unique maiden we can admit no absolute wrong4 ,there is nothing essentially inevitable in the fact that a man should capriciously select any particular young woman1 and that we should interest ourselves consequently for that which is in the highest degree accidental1 a caprice of his own conscious life1 which carries with it no impersonal expansion or universal significance4 ,we have here the source of that tendency to cool which we cannot help feeling in the representation of the passion of romantic love however that passion may be emphasized4 #c4 ,,fidelity ,the third type of soul-life which is of importance to the romantic consciousness on the field of its activity in the world is fidelity4 ,by fidelity in the sense we are now using it we do not mean either the permanent adherence to the avowal of love once given1 nor yet the stability of friendship in the beautiful image of the same such as we have left us by the ancients in that of ,achilles and ,patroclus1 or with yet more intimacy1 that of ,orestes and ,pylades4 ,youth is pre-eminently both the soil and the occasion from which friendship of this latter type originates4 ,every man has to construct his path of life independently1 to work out and sustain a given mode of realization4 ,the time of youth1 when individuals still live in an undefined atmosphere of external relations which they share1 is the one in which they associate closely1 and are bound together so nearly in one mode of thought1 volition1 and activity1 that everything that any one of them undertakes becomes at the same time the undertaking of another4 ,when men attain maturity this is no longer the case4 ,the circumstantial life of the grown man pursues its independent course and will not admit of so close an affiliation with that of another that we can affirm of it that one cannot accomplish it without the other4 ,men make acquaintances and then separate2 their interests and business are at one time disjoined1 at another they coalesce2 friendship1 intimacy of mutual opinions1 of principles1 and the general trend of their life may remain2 but this is not the friendship of youth1 in which no individual unit either makes a decision or carries it into effect without inevitably making it a matter in which another is concerned4 ,it is an essential principle at the very root of our life that in general every man must look after himself1 must1 in other words1 prove by himself his capacity to confront the reality which affects him4 7a7 ,fidelity in friendship and love1 then1 subsists solely between equals4 ,the fidelity which we have now to consider is relative to a superior1 one more highly placed1 a master4 ,a fidelity of this type is to be found even among the ancients in that of servants to the family1 the house of their lord4 ,the most beautiful example of such a relation is supplied us by the swine-herd of ,odysseus1 who sweats by night and through tempest in order that he may look after his swine2 who is full of anxiety on his master's account1 to whom he finally gives loyal assistance against the suitors4 ,shakespeare offers us a picture of fidelity no less moving1 though it is here shown entirely on the side of the feelings1 in his ,king ,lear4#bee ,lear asks ,kent1 ,dost thou know me1 fellow8 ,and ,kent replies3 ,no1 sir2 but you have that in your countenance which ,i would fain call master4 ,this borders as close as possible on that which we would make clear as romantic fidelity4 ,fidelity at this stage is not the loyalty of slaves and churls1 however true and pathetic such unquestionably may be1 which is none the less devoid of the free independence of individuality and its unrestricted aims and actions1 and is consequently of subordinate rank4 ,what we1 in short1 have before us is the liege-service of chivalry1 in which each vassal preserves intact his own free self-dependence as an essential element in the attitude of subordination to one of higher rank1 whether lord1 king1 or emperor4 ,this type of fidelity1 however1 is a principle of supreme importance in chivalry for the reason that it forms the fundamental bond of union in a common society and its social co-ordination at least in the original form of its appearance4 7b7 ,the object which thus receives a fuller content and is made apparent in this new type of association between individuals is not1 however1 by any means patriotism regarding that as an objective and universal interest1 but a bond merely with one person1 the lord1 and for this reason conditioned by private honour1 personal advantage and opinion4 ,in its fullest brilliancy we find fidelity of this kind in a surrounding world that is unregulated and uncouth1 beyond the control of right and law4 ,within a lawless reality of this kind the most powerful and commanding spirits stand out as fixed points of attraction1 as leaders and nobles1 and the rest rally round them of their own free will4 ,such a condition is later on elaborated into a legalized co-ordination of fealty1 in which every vassal has his own claim to rights and privilege4 ,the fundamental principle1 however1 upon which the entire system reposes is in its primary origins free choice1 no less in relation to the dependent vassal than to the conditions under which he remains faithful to his vassalage4 ,for this reason the fidelity of chivalry is quite prepared to maintain property1 right1 and personal independence and honour1 and is on this account not simply recognized as an obligation which may be enforced to the entire disregard of the private inclinations of the vassal however they may arise4 ,quite the contrary4 ,every subordinate unit only continues there and helps to establish the general social order so long as the same falls in with his own wishes1 inclinations1 and opinions4 7c7 ,on this account fidelity and obedience to the feudal lord can very readily clash with private feelings1 an exasperated sense of honour1 sensitiveness to insult1 love1 and many other chance incidents of the personal or external life4 ,it is consequently of a highly precarious character4 ,a knight1 for example1 is loyal to his lord1 but a friend of his happens to quarrel with him4 ,he has now to choose between the two objects of his fidelity1 and1 chief of all1 he has to consider himself1 the claims of his personal honour and advantage4 ,the most beautiful example of such a conflict we have in the ,cid4 ,he remains as true to himself as he is to his king4 ,if the king acts wisely he assists him with his arm's strength2 if his feudal lord acts wrongly or the ,cid feels touched on the point of honour this powerful support is withdrawn4 ,the paladins of ,charles the ,great exhibit much the same attitude4 ,it is a tie of chieftainship and obedience not unlike that which we have already observed between ,zeus and the other gods4 ,the superior lord commands1 blusters1 and scolds1 but the independent and powerful individualities resist him precisely when and as they please4 ,we find the most consistent and charming picture of the conditional and easy terms under which this bond is maintained in the ,reinecke ,fuchs4 ,just as the magnates in this kingdom are most really true to their own aims and independence1 we find that the ,german barons and knights in the ,middle ,ages were not at home when called upon to act for the sake of the general weal and their emperor2 and it really looks as though our chief praise of the ,middle ,ages must consist in this that no man is in such a period justified in his own eyes or a man of honour1 except in so far as he runs after his own inclinations1 in other words1 does precisely that which he is not suffered to do in a ,state which is organized on a rational basis4 ,in all these three stages of honour1 love1 and fidelity1 we shall find the soil on which the self-subsistency of personality1 the soul1 is supported1 an independence which1 however1 constantly unfolds in a wider and more affluent content1 remaining in the same self-reconciled4 ,here stretches before us in romantic art the fairest strip of country which we can find anywhere outside the enclosure of religion in its strict sense1 ,its objects are concerned with that which is simply human1 a relation with which we can at least from one aspect of it1 namely1 that of personal freedom1 absolutely sympathize1 and we do not find here1 as we do now and again in the religious field1 both a material and modes of representation which clash with our modern notions4 ,but at the same time we must add that our present subject matter may very frequently be brought into direct relation to religion so that religious interests are interwoven with those of the world of chivalry2 as1 for example1 was the case in the adventures of the knights of the round table in their quest of the ,holy ,grail4 ,in this interfusion we find not only much that is mystical and fantastical1 but also much that is allegorical added to the poetry of chivalry4 ,and conversely this secular sphere of the interests of love1 honour1 and fidelity may also be totally unconnected with the deepening of their content with religious aims and opinions1 and only bring to view the earliest movement of soul-life in the secular aspect of its spiritual intensity4 ,that which1 however1 drops away from the present levels is the repletion of this inner life with the concrete content of human conditions1 characters1 passions1 and realized existence generally4 ,in contrast to this variety the essentially infinite soul still remains abstract and formal1 and has therefore in front of it the task1 to accept as part of its own this further material with what it held before1 and to exhibit the same in the forms congenial to artistic composition4 ,footnote #bda3 ,he has not in this exclusive sense of religiosity identified himself with the spirit of the ,christian community4 ,der ,anderen refers to ,gemeinschaft4 ,such appears to me the sense4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,zur ,wirklichkeit entfaltetes ,leben4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,put more simply we may say in popular terminology that it is filled up or amplified by virtue of the sense of individual personality4 ,this ,hegel himself further elucidates below4 ,falstaff undoubtedly possessed a strong personality1 but in his famous soliloquy on honour he deliberately emptied himself of any sense of it by refusing to view himself under the self-relation1 that is self-respect4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,i fail to appreciate this distinction1 except in a very qualified form4 ,even in the ,middle ,ages when the feudal relation was in full force1 the relation between the master and the servant was surely one of the institutions of the ,state1 though no doubt the rights of the dependent were not always very readily enforced4 ,even in the case of slavery in the ,southern ,states of ,america the relation between master and slave carried with it quite definite ethical obligations--there was in general at least quite a distinct social if not actually political status4 ,footnote #bde3 ,i suppose ,hegel means by ein ,punkt a centre or point of life4 ,the expression is rather unusual4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,absoluten ,geltung1 that is its absolute validity in its ideal character4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,the punctuation in text is defective4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,so runs the text4 ,it comes from such a writer with a shock4 ,why such qualities should vanish 7schwinden7 in the presence of unhappiness it is not easy to see4 ,it would rather appear that such was the condition to evoke them4 ,what is meant is1 ,i suppose1 that the failure of reciprocity1 especially in the love of women1 often brings complete collapse4 ,we may illustrate it in several of ,meredith's novels such as ,diana and ,sandra ,belloni4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,the two sides would appear to be the secularity of the social organism and free love4 ,footnote #bej3 ,this ,i think is the meaning4 ,until the full notion of liberty is apprehended the divisions of class will have the appearance of natural necessity4 ,footnote #bea3 ,schiller's drama of that name4 ,footnote #beb3 ,die an und fr sich seyende ,allgemeinheit4 ,the universal notion as explicitly made actual in life4 ,footnote #bec3 ,ein in sich konkretes ,individuum4 ,the whole of this analysis appears to me a rather abstract and professorial consideration of romantic attachment1 separating love from its reality of association and relation in actual life4 ,in so far as it is true it is purely abstract truth1 and must be regarded as such4 ,in actual life it is no more true that even in the average case misfortune blights the blossom than it is true that the love of the individual concentrates itself solely on the mere attachment between two persons4 ,it is bound up with the idea of family and continuation of the race1 and so indirectly with the ,state4 ,footnote #bed3 ,as sister of her violated brother ,polyneices4 ,footnote #bee3 ,act ,i1 sc4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,formal ,,self-,,subsistency ,,of ,,individual ,,particularities ,if we take a glance back on the territory we have passed through1 we see in the first instance that the object of our investigation was the life of the soul#bef in its most absolute capacity1 in other words1 consciousness in its mediation with ,god1 the universal process of the self-reconciling spirit4 ,the abstraction of this point of view consisted in this that the soul by an effort of abnegation withdrew itself from all that was secular1 purely natural and human--even when the same had ethical features1 and for this reason possessed a claim upon us--into its own distinctive domain in order to satisfy its yearning for the pure heaven of spirit4 ,secondly1 we found ourselves able1 it is true1 to bring into view the human consciousness without this factor of abstract negation which was included in that mediation1 in other words1 positively in its independence and as related to others#beg1 but the content of this secular infinitude as such was none the less only the personal self-subsistency of honour1 the intensiveness#beh of love and the vassalage of fidelity1 a content which1 no doubt1 may appear before us in many relations1 in a many-folded variety and many gradations of feeling and passion1 subject to the most extensive changes of external condition1 yet for all that only propounds just this personal independence and inwardness within such examples4 ,the third aspect1 then1 which we have now left us to examine is the mode and manner in which that further material of human existence1 both on the side of its inward and its external life1 that is to say1 ,nature and its apprehension and significance for soul-life1 is able to enter into the romantic type of art4 ,we have here to deal with the world of particular objects1 determinate existence generally1 regarded in its unfettered independence1 and which1 in so far as it does not appear transparent to religion and spiritual synthesis1 bringing it into unity with the ,absolute1 asserts itself on its own foothold and declares its self-subsistence in its own kingdom4 ,in this third province of the romantic type of art consequently the purely religious material and chivalry with those lofty views and aims that we found it brings to birth from its spiritual womb#bei1 but which were not directly concordant with anything visible in the reality of the existing world1 have vanished4 ,the new object of satisfaction is a thirst for this actual presence itself1 a delight in the facts of existence1 a contentment of the soul with the dwelling that confronts it1 with the finitude of our humanity1 and what is finite1 particular1 and the true counterfeit of such generally4 ,man is intent to recreate for his own world the world as he actually finds it1 although such may imply a sacrifice of the ,beauty and ideality of the content and manifestation will reflect it as it stands before him endowed with life in his art1 will have that present life before his eyes as the work of his own mind4 ,the religion of ,christianity as we have already seen has not sprung up from the soil of the imagination as was the case with the divinities of the ,east and ,greece1 whether we consider them relatively to form or content4 ,it is the imagination which fashions the vital significance out of its own resources in order to promote the unity between the reality of soul life with the perfected embodiment of the same4 ,in classical art this complete coalescence is actually attained4 ,in the ,christian religion1 on the other hand1 the secular aspect in its exclusive character is from the first accepted for just that which it really is as an essential factor of the ,ideal2 and the soul of man finds satisfaction in the ordinary and contingent presence of the external world without the necessary interposition of beauty4 ,but man is nevertheless in the first instance reconciled to ,god only by implication1 and as a possible result4 ,all men are called to the blessed condition1 but few are chosen2 and the soul for which both the kingdom of heaven and that of this world still remain as a beyond is constrained to renounce both that which is spiritual in the external world and its own presence therein4 ,the point of departure is from a distance infinitely remote from that world2 and to make this reality1 which in the first instance is simply surrendered1 a positive constituent of that which is man's own1 in other words to bring about this rediscovery of himself and his volition in his own present life1 from which all takes its rise1 this it is which supplies us first with a terminating point in the elaboration of romantic art1 and is the final outlook to which the spiritual penetration of man is carried and on which it is concentrated4 ,in so far as the form of this new content is concerned we have already observed that romantic art from its first initiation was infected with the contradiction that the essentially infinite mode of the self-conscious life is1 in its independence1 incapable of being united with the external material1 and is bound to remain in such separation4 ,this independent opposition of both aspects and the withdrawal of the inwardness of spirit into its own domain is that which constitutes the content of romance4 ,these two aspects are continually separated anew by self-rehabilitation#bfj1 until at length they fall entirely apart1 and thereby demonstrate that we must search for some other field than ,art to secure their absolute union4 ,and by this falling apart we find that these aspects in their relation to art are formal2 in other words they fail to appear as a totality in that complete type of unity which was secured to them by the ,classic ,ideal4 ,classical art is placed in a region of stable figures1 that is in the midst of a mythology and its irresoluble types perfected by art4 ,the resolution of the classical form is consequently brought about--as we found in discussing its transition to the romantic form--leaving out of our present consideration the generally more restricted territory of the comic and satyric modes--by an over-elaboration in the direction of all that pleases the senses or an imitation which loses itself in the deadly frost of a pedantic learning1 till it at length entirely degenerates into a negligent and inferior technique4 ,the objects of art remain1 however1 the same throughout the process1 and merely play truant to the earlier intelligent mode of production with a presentation that is increasingly more spiritless and a purely traditional and mechanical technique4 ,the progress and conclusion of romantic art on the contrary is the resolution of the material of art within its own boundaries#bfa altogether1 a material which falls apart into its elements1 an increase of freedom in the several parts1 along with which process and in contrast to the previous case1 the individual craftsmanship and artistic mode of presentment is enhanced2 and in proportion as the substantive content tends to break up to that extent attains a fuller perfection4 ,we may now attempt a more specific subdivision of this the final chapter of this part of our subject in the following terms4 ,in the first place we have before us the self-subsistency of character1 which is1 however1 a particular one1 that is1 a definite individual self-absorbed in its world1 its specific qualities and aims4 ,in opposition to this formal particularity of character we have the external conformation of situations1 events1 and actions4 ,for the reason1 moreover1 that the inward spirituality of romance stands generally in an indifferent relation to that which is external the actual phenomenon#bfb appears in the present case independently free1 that is as neither permeated by the spiritual content of human aims and actions nor clothed in modes adequate to retain them4 ,by reason of its unrelated and loose mode of manifestation it therefore enforces the contingency of natural processes#bfc1 circumstances1 the sequence of events1 and manner of its realization as the unexpected4#bfd ,in the third place1 and finally1 the severation of the two factors asserts itself1 the complete identity of which supplies us with the real notion of art4 ,this is consequently the dismemberment and dissolution of art itself4 ,on the one hand we find that art passes to a representation of wholly commonplace reality1 to the reflection of objects precisely as they appear in their contingent isolation and its equally singular characteristics4 ,its interest is now wholly absorbed in reproducing this objective existence by means of the technical ability of the artist4 ,on the other hand we have1 in what is a mode of conception and representation entirely dependent on the accidental idiosyncracy of the artist himself1 that is in humour1 a complete reversal of the pictorial style above mentioned4 ,for in humour we meet with the perversion and overthrow of all that is objectively solid in reality2 it works through the wit and play of wholly personal points of view1 and if carried to an extreme amounts to the triumph of the creative power of the artist's soul over every content and every form4 #a4 ,,the ,,self-,,subsistency ,,or ,,independence ,,of ,,individual ,,character ,the fundamental determinant of our present subject-matter is once again that infinitude implied in the very nature of the human consciousness which was our point of departure in the romantic type of art4 ,the new accretions we have now1 however1 to add to our conception of this mode of self-subsistent infinity consist partly in the particularity of content1 which constitutes the world of the individual mind1 as to a further aspect of it in the immediate coalescence of the ego with this its particularity1 its wishes and objects1 and thirdly1 in the living individuality1 in which the substantive character is self-determined4 ,we are not1 therefore1 entitled to understand under the expression character as now employed that which the ,italians represented in their masks4 ,the ,italian masks are also no doubt definite characters1 but this definition is only presented by them in its abstraction and generality1 without a personal individuality4 ,the characters1 on the other hand1 of the type under discussion are each of them a character unique in itself1 an independent whole1 an individual person#bfe4 ,if we have1 therefore1 occasion here to refer to the formalism and abstraction of character1 such an expression is entirely relative to the fact that the fundamental content1 the world of such a character appears1 on the one hand1 as restricted and to that extent abstract1 and1 on the other1 as qualified by accidental causes4 ,what the individual is is not carried or sustained by virtue of what is substantive or essentially self-accredited#bff in its content1 but through the naked personality asserted by the character1 which consequently reposes formally on its own individual self-subsistency rather than on its content and its independently secured pathos4 ,within the limits of this formalism we may now observe two main lines of distinction4 ,on the one hand we have the stability of character in the energy of its executive power1 which restricts its line of action to specific aims1 and entrusts the concentrated force of individuality thus restricted to the realization of such objects4 ,on the other hand we have character under the aspect of a totality that is personal1 which1 however1 persists not wholly articulated throughout the content of that inward life and in the unsounded#bfg depths of the soul1 and is unable to unravel itself wholly1 or express itself with absolute clarity4 7a7 ,what we have therefore before us1 in the first instance1 is the particular character which wills to be that its immediate presence proposes1 ,just as animals differ from each other and discover themselves as independent creatures in this difference1 so1 too1 here we have different characters whose range and idiosyncracy remains subject to the element of contingency#bfh1 and is not to be accurately determined by the mere notion4 77 ,an individuality of this kind built up entirely on itself consequently has no ready thought-out opinions and objects1 which it has associated with any universal principle of pathos3 all that it-possesses1 does1 and accomplishes it creates right away with no further reflection out of its own specific nature2 which is just what it happens to be1 and has no wish to be rooted in anything more exalted1 to be resolved in that and to find its justification in something substantive4 ,rather it reposes unyielding and unmalleable on itself1 and in this stability either goes on its way or goes to ground4 ,a self-subsistency of character of this kind is only able to appear1 where the secular or natural man#bfi1 in other words1 humanity in its particularity has secured its fullest claim4 ,pre-eminently the characters of ,shakespeare are of this type4 ,it is just this iron#bgj steadfastness and exclusiveness which constitutes the aspect of them which most excites our wonder4 ,we have no word here of religion for religion's sake1 or action as the embodiment of human reconciliation1 in the unqualified religious sense1 or of morality pure and simple4 ,on the contrary we are presented with individuals1 conceived as dependent solely on themselves1 possessed with aims that are their own exclusively1 exclusively deducible from their individuality1 and which they carry through as best satisfies them with the unmitigated consequences of passion1 and with no incidental reflection on the principles involved4 ,in particular the tragedies1 such as ,macbeth1 ,othello1 ,richard ,,iii and others contain one character of this type for their main interest surrounded by others less pre-eminent for such elemental energy4 ,macbeth is forced by his character1 for example1 into the fetters of his ambitious passion4 ,at first he hesitates1 then he stretches his hand to seize the crown2 he commits a murder in order to secure it1 and in order to maintain it storms on through the tale of horror4 ,this regardless tenacity1 this identity of the man with himself1 and the object which his own personality brings to birth is the source to him of an abiding interest4 ,nothing makes him budge1 neither the respect for the sacredness of kingship1 nor the madness of his wife1 nor the rout of his vassals1 nor destruction as it rushes upon him1 neither divine nor human claims--he withdraws from them all into himself and persists4 ,lady ,macbeth is a character of the same mould1 and it is merely the chatter of our latter-day tasteless criticism which can find in her the least flavour of affection4 ,at her very first entrance1 on reading ,macbeth's letter reporting his meeting with the witches and their prophecy in the words#bga3 ,hail to thee1 thane of ,cawdor6 ,hail to thee king that shall be6 she exclaims1 ,glamis thou art and ,cawdor2 and shall be what thou art promised4 ,yet do ,i fear thy nature2 it is too full o' the milk of human kindness1 to catch the nearest way4 ,she shows no affectionate trait1 no joy over the happiness of her husband1 no moral emotion1 no sympathy1 no pity of a noble soul2 she simply fears lest the character of her husband will stand in the path of his ambition4 ,she regards him simply as a means4 ,with her there is no recoil1 no uncertainty1 no consideration1 no retreating1 as we find is at first the case with ,macbeth1 no repentance1 but the pure abstraction and rigour of character1 which perpetrates that which falls in with it1 until it finally breaks4 ,this collapse which comes in a tempest on ,macbeth from the outside as he executes his object1 becomes madness of the mind in ,lady ,macbeth4 ,of the same type is ,richard ,,iii1 ,othello1 the old ,margaret and many another also4 ,we have its opposite in the wretched coherence#bgb of modern characters1 such as those of ,kotzebue1 which are outwardly noble in the highest degree1 great and excellent1 yet in their soul-force are all rags and tatters4 ,later writers have done no better in other relations1 despite their supreme contempt for ,kotzebue4 ,heinrich von ,kleish is an example with his ,ktchen and ,prince von ,homburg#bgc1 characters in which1 in contrast to the alert condition of real causal effect1 magnetism1 somnambulism1 and sleep-walking are depicted as that which is of highest and most effective moment4 ,this ,prince von ,homburg is a most pitiable exhibition of a general2 he is distracted when he makes his military dispositions1 writes out his orders in a way none can decipher them1 is engaged in the night previous to the battle with morbid forebodings1 and acts on the day of battle like a fool4 ,and despite such duality1 raggedness1 and lack of harmony in their characters these writers imagine that they tread in the footsteps of ,shakespeare4 ,wide indeed is the distance which separates them1 for the characters of ,shakespeare are essentially consequent in what they do2 they remain staunch to their master passion2 in what they are and in what confronts them1 nothing makes them veer round but what is in strict accord with their rigidly determinate character4 77 ,the more particular1 then1 the character is1 which relies purely on itself1 and consequently readily approaches evil1 to that extent it is forced in the concrete world of reality to maintain itself1 not merely against the obstacles which lie in its path and prevent the realization of life's aims1 but so much more by this very realization such is driven headlong to its downfall4 ,in other words1 on account of the fact that it achieves its object1 the fate that has its origin in the specific nature of its character itself1 deals it a blow in a mode of destruction it has itself prepared4 ,the development of this fatality is1 however1 not merely a development from the action of the particular personality1 but quite as much a growth of the soul#bgd1 a development of the character itself in its headlong movement1 its running wild1 its shattering in pieces or exhaustion4 ,among the ,greeks1 for whom pathos1 the substantive content of action1 rather than the personal character1 is the important feature1 a destiny affects the character that is thus sharply defined to a less degree for this reason1 that it is not further evolved within the sphere of its activities1 but remains at their conclusion what it was at the start4 ,in the compass of our present subject-matter1 however1 by the carrying through of the action itself1 the inner life of the personality is evolved quite as much as the progress of the action2 the advance is not simply on the outside4 ,the action of ,macbeth appears at the same time a descent of the soul into savagery1 accompanied by a result which1 when all irresolution is thrown to the winds1 and the dice is cast1 leaves nothing further able to restrain it4 ,his wife is from the very first decided3 development is shown here merely as the anxiety of the soul1 which is carried to the point of physical and spiritual ruin1 the madness1 in short1 which strikes her down4 ,and this is the kind of process which we can follow in the majority of ,shakespeare's characters1 whether important or unimportant4 ,the characters of ancient drama assert themselves1 no doubt1 also on fixed lines1 and we find them even face to face with opposed forces1 relief from which is no longer possible except through the advent of a deus ex machina4 ,yet this stability1 as in the case of ,philoctetes1 is united to a content1 and1 on the whole1 penetrated with a pathos which may be vindicated on ethical grounds4 77 ,in the sphere of presentation we are now considering1 owing to the contingent nature of all that the characters which belong to it seize upon as their aim and the independence of their individuality1 no objective reconciliation is possible4 ,the environment of all that they are1 and what opposes their progress1 is in part without defined lines1 but also in part we see that there is neither a ,whence nor a ,whither unriddled for themselves4 ,here we have once more presented to us that ,fate which is the most abstract form of ,necessity4 ,the only reconciliation of the individual issues from the infinite mode of his soul-life1 his own steadfastness1 in which he stands supreme over his passion and his destiny4 ,thus it came to pass1#bge whatever falls in his way1 whether it be due to a controlling destiny1 necessity or accident1 there is his ,wherefore2 he accepts it at once without further reflection4 ,it is fact1 and man adjusts himself thereto1 and tries to make himself as stone toward its authority4 7b7 ,in absolute contrast to the above1 however1 there is a further or second mode in which the formal aspect of character may find its seat within the innermost of soul-life1 and in which the individual may remain fixed without being able to extend its range or execute its effects4 77 ,such are those spiritual natures of intrinsic substance1 who1 while self-absorbed in a complex whole1 are only able in the simplicity of their compactness#bgf to perfect that profound activity within the shrine of the soul without further development or explication in the world around them4 ,the formalism which we have hitherto been examining was relative to the defined character of the content1 the entire self-concentration#bgg of the individual upon one object1 which it makes to appear in all its unrelieved severity1 a concentration which expressed itself1 was carried out1 and in which1 just as circumstances fell out1 either collapsed or held on to the end4 ,this further mode of formalism is emphasized in a converse way by its undisclosed and formless character1 and by its defect of expression and expository power4 ,a soul of this type is like some precious jewel1 which is only visible at certain points1 a manifestation which is that of a lightning flash4 77 ,and the reason that such state of self-seclusion should still be of worth and interest to us is due to the fact that it presupposes a secret wealth of the soul1 which1 however1 only permits its infinite depth and fulness1 and precisely1 by means of this silence1 to show itself in a few and so to speak half-muted ways of expression4 ,such simple natures1 unconscious of what they possess1 and without speech1 may exercise an extraordinary fascination4 ,but that this may be so their silence must be like the unruffled stillness of the sea upon its surface1 over its unsounded depths1 not the silence of all that is shallow1 hollow1 and stupid4 ,it is quite possible sometimes for the dullest fellow to succeed by means of an external demeanour that manages very little to expose itself1 and merely presents now and again something that is but half intelligible1 to awake in others the opinion that it is the veil of a profound wisdom and spiritual depth1 so that people wonder what in the world lies hidden in such a heart and soul1 where we find in the end there is just nothing4 ,the infinite content and profundity of silent souls of the genuine type is made clear to us--and to declare it makes the greatest demand on the intuitive powers and executive ability of the artist--by means of isolated1 unrelated1 nave1 and involuntary expressions of soul-life1 which quite unintentionally make it plain to all who can grasp their significance that such a soul has seized upon the substantial import of all that confronts it with the richest quality of spiritual insight1 that its reflective capacity1 however1 is not carried further by positive expansion into the general environment of particular interests1 motives1 and finite aims1 but rather preserves its original purity that the fact it refuses to have its powers dissipated by the commonplace excitements of the heart and the serious quests and modes of sympathy which are thus inevitable1 may remain unknown to the world4 77 ,a time must1 however1 arrive for a soul of this type in which it becomes uniquely affected at one definite point of attachment in that inward worlds it concentrates the whole of its undivided powers in one supreme form of emotion that dominates its life-current2 it adheres to this with a force that refuses to be diverted1 and secures happiness therein1 or goes to ground from lack of support4 ,to retain a hold on life a man requires a constantly expanding breadth of ethical sustenance1 which alone supplies an objective stability4 ,to this type of character belong some of the most fascinating figures in romantic art1 whose full perfection of beauty we shall find among the creations of ,shakespeare4 ,as an illustration we may take the ,juliet in his ,romeo and ,juliet4 ,it is possible at this moment to see a reproduction of this play in this city#bgh4 ,it is well worth going to4 ,the picture we have given us there of this character is a moving1 lifelike1 passionate1 talented1 highly finished and noble one4 ,but for all that it is possible to entertain a somewhat different conception of the part4 ,in other words1 we may figure for ourselves a maiden in the first instance simple as a child1 of only fourteen or fifteen years of age1 who1 it is quite clear1 has as yet no self-knowledge or world wisdom1 no emotional activity1 no strong inclination or wishes of the heart1 but has rather glanced into the motley show of the world as into some laterna magica without learning anything from it1 or reflecting upon what is seen there4 ,all in a twinkling we behold the development of the entire strength of this soul1 of its artfulness#bgi1 its circumspection1 its force2 it is prepared to sacrifice everything and to submit itself to the severest ordeals1 so that in its entirety it now suddenly appears to be the first breaking forth of the full rose in all its petals and folds1 an infinite outburst of the innermost purity which gushes from the spring source of the soul1 in which it had held itself back previously as yet undiscerned1 unmoulded and undeveloped2 which moreover1 as the now existing creation of one awakened interest1 betrays itself unpremeditated in the fulness and strength of its beauty from the previous seclusion of spirit4 ,it is a brand which one spark has kindled1 a bud which at the first bare touch of love breaks unawares before us in full bloom4 ,and yet the faster it unfolds the more rapidly it also sinks1 and its petals fall from it4 ,an impetuous progress is still more conspicuous in the case of ,miranda4 ,brought up in seclusion we have her portrayed for us by ,shakespeare at the critical moment when she first makes the acquaintance of manhood#bhj4 ,he depicts her in a few scenes1 but in those we get a picture that is complete and unforgettable4 ,we may also include ,schiller's ,thecla under the same type1 despite the fact that it is rather the creation of a reflective kind of poetry#bha4 ,though placed in the midst of a life of such amplitude and richness she remains unaffected by it2 she remains within it without vanity1 without reflection1 purely absorbed by the one interest which alone dominates her soul4 ,and as a general rule it is chiefly the beautiful and noble natures of women1 in which the world and their own heart-life blossoms for the first time in love1 so that it is as though their spiritual birth here takes its rise4 ,under the same type of spiritual intensity1 which is unable fully to unfold itself1 we may for the most part classify those folksongs1 more particularly our ,german ones1 which1 in the copious compactness of the soul-life therein reflected1 and however much such is displayed to us as carried away by any one absorbing interest1 are yet unable to express the same except in broken flashes1 and thereby fully reveal just this very depth4 ,it is a mode of artistic presentment1 which in its reserve is apt to fall back on the effects of symbolism4 ,what it offers us is not so much the open1 transparent display of the entire inward life as it is purely a sign and indication of that life4 ,but we do not get1 however1 from it a symbol1 the significance of which1 as was the case previously1 remains a general abstraction1 but an expression the inward content of which is nothing more nor less than this personal1 living1 and actual soul4 ,in times like our own1 dominated by a critical reflectiveness1 which lies so far removed from a self-absorbed navet of this kind1 such presentations are of the greatest difficulty1 and if successful1 are a sure proof of an original creative genius4 ,we have already seen that ,goethe1 more particularly in his lyrics1 has shown himself a master in this respect1 namely1 that he can depict and unfold to us in a symbolical way1 in other words with a few simple1 apparently external and insignificant traits1 the entire truth and infinite wealth of a soul4 ,his poem1 ,the ,king of ,thule1 one of his most lovely bits of poetical work1 is of this class4 ,the king here makes us aware of his love by just one thing only1 namely1 the drinking cup which the old man preserved as a gift of his beloved4 ,the old carouser stands up there on the point of death in his lofty palace hall2 his knights1 his kingdom1 his possessions are around him2 and he bequeaths them all to his heir1 but the goblet he flings into the waves2 no one shall have that4 _/ ,er sah ihn strzen1 trinken1 ,und sinken tief in's ,meer1 ,die ,augen thten ihm sinken1 ,trank nie ein ,tropfen mehr#bhb4 _/ ,a soul1 however profound and still of this kind1 which retains its energy of spirit pent up like the spark in the flint1 unopened to form1 which does not elaborate its existence and reflection beyond its own boundaries1 has also failed to free itself by such expansion4 ,it remains exposed to the remorseless contradiction that1 if the false note of unhappiness ring through its life1 it possesses no remedial aptitude1 no bridge as a way of passage between the heart and reality2 it is equally unable to ward off external conditions from itself1 and by so doing to preserve an independent ground of vantage in its own self-reliance4 ,when the collision comes therefore it is helpless2 it acts hastily and without circumspection1 or bows passively to the movement of events4 ,so1 for example1 we have in ,hamlet a beautiful and noble soul2 one not so much spiritually weak1 but one that wanders astray without a strong grasp of life's realities1 moving in an atmosphere of dejection1 a sombre and half articulate melancholy4 ,gifted with a finely intuitive sense he feels that all is not well with him1 that things are not as they should be though he has no external sign1 no single ground for suspicion2 nevertheless he surmises the atrocious deed that has been perpetrated4 ,the ghost of his father gives yet closer embodiment to his feelings4 ,he is at once ready in spirit to revenge1 his sense of duty is always before him reflecting the innermost craving of his heart1 but he is not carried away with the flood1 as ,macbeth2 he cannot either kill1 rage1 or strike with the directness of a ,laertes2 he persists in the inactivity of a beautiful1 introspective soul1 which can neither realize its aims nor make itself at home in the conditions of actual life4 ,he dallies1 seeks for more positive certainty buoyed up by the fair integrity of his soul2 he can1 however1 come to no firm decision1 much as he has sought it1 and permits himself to follow the course of external events4 ,in this atmosphere of unreality he goes yet further astray in matters that lie directly in his path2 he kills the old ,polonius instead of the king2 he acts in a hurry where he should have been more circumspect1 yet persists in his self absorption1 where decided action is essential2 until at length1 without any action on his part1 the fated dnouement of the entire drama1 including that of his own persistently self-retiring personality1 has unravelled itself on the broad highway of ,life's external incidents and accidents4 ,we are particularly presented with this attitude in modern times among men of the lower levels of life1 who are without an education which extends to aims of universal significance1 or are devoid of the variety of objective interests4 ,consequently when some particular aim of their life fails they are unable to secure any further stay of their spiritual forces and a centre of control for their activities4 ,this lack of education tends to make reserved natures1 in proportion as it is undeveloped1 adhere with the more rigidness and obstinacy to that which1 through its appeal to their entire individuality1 makes a claim upon them however limited in its range it may be4 ,we find pre-eminently such a monotonous attitude incidental to this class of self-absorbed and speechless men among ,german characters1 who for this reason appear in their seclusion inclined to stubbornness1 ready to bristle up1 crabbed1 inaccessible1 and in their dealings and expressions wholly unreliable and contradictory4 ,as a master in the delineation and exposition of such obtuse characters of the poorer classes we will mention but one example1 ,hippel1 the author of ,life's ,careers in the ,line of ,ascent1#bhc one of our few ,german works stamped with original humour4 ,he keeps himself wholly removed from ,jean ,paul's sentimentality and want of taste in plot construction1 and possesses moreover an astonishing individuality1 freshness1 and vitality4 ,he understands1 in quite an exceptional way1 and one that seizes on our interest at once1 how to depict the thickset type of people who are unable to breathe freely and who consequently1 when they do give themselves the rein1 do so with a violence that is simply fearful4 ,they put an end of their own accord to the infinite contradiction of their spiritual life and the unhappy circumstances in which they are involved in an appalling manner2 and bring about by such means that which is otherwise the result of an external fate1 as we find1 for instance1 in ,romeo and ,juliet1 where external accidents mar all the wise and able offices of the holy father's intervention and cause the death of the lovers4 7c7 ,we find1 then1 that characters of this formal quality generally either expose merely the infinite volitional force of the individual's personality1 which asserts itself frankly just as it is and storms ahead in the bare impulse of the will2 or1 to take the further aspect1 present to us an essential self-contained#bhd1 if not wholly articulate soul1 which1 affected as it becomes by one specific aspect of its spiritual experience1 concentrates the entire breadth and depth of its personality on this point1 yet1 owing to the fact of its possessing no development externally1 is unable to find its proper place or to act with practical sense when it comes into collision with that world4 ,we have yet a third point#bhe to mention1 which consists in this1 that when characters of this type1 wholly one-sided and restricted as they are in respect to their aims if at the same time fully developed in mental power1 awake in us not merely a formal1 but also a substantial interest1 we cannot fail to receive the impression that this limitation of their personal life is itself only a condition that is inevitable2 in other words it is a result which grows out of the particular way in which their character is defined along with the profounder content of their personal life4 ,shakespeare in fact enables us to see this depth and wealth in such characters4 ,he presents them to us as men of imaginative power and genius by showing how their reflective faculty commands them and lifts them above that which their condition and definite purpose would make them1 so that they are all the while as it were forced by the misfortune of circumstances and the obstacles of their position into doing that which they accomplish4 ,at the same time we do not mean this to the extent of asserting1 for example1 that the bad witches were to blame for all that ,macbeth dared after consulting them4 ,these witches are rather to be looked at as the reflex of his own obstinate will4 ,all that the characters of ,shakespeare execute1 that is the particular purpose they propose1 originates and finds the taproot of its force in their own personality4 ,but along with this they maintain in one and the same individuality a loftiness1 which brushes aside that which they actually are1 so far as their aims1 interests1 and actions are concerned1 and which amplifies them and exalts them above themselves4 ,in like manner ,shakespeare's more vulgar characters1 such as ,stephano1 ,trinculo1 ,pistol1 and that hero among them all1 ,falstaff1 though saturated with their own debasement1 assert themselves as fellows of intelligence1 whose genial quality is able to take in everything1 to possess a large and open atmosphere of its own1 and in short makes them all that great men are4 ,in the tragedies of the ,french on the contrary even the greatest and most worthy characters only too frequently1 if viewed critically1 assert themselves as so many evil offshoots of the brute creation1 whose only intelligence consists in this that it can furnish dialectical arguments in its vindication4 ,in ,shakespeare we find neither vindication nor damnation1 but merely a review of the general condition of destiny1 which inevitably places such characters uncomplaining and unrepentant where they are1 and from the starting-point of which they see everything1 themselves included2 and yet as independent spectators of themselves decline and fall4 ,in all these respects the realm which is peopled by such individual characters is an infinitely rich one1 a kingdom1 however1 which very easily collapses in hollowness and dulness1 so that only quite a few masters have received the gifts of poetical and intuitional power sufficient to enable them to reveal its truth4 #b4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,adventure ,now that we have examined the aspect of the inward soul-life1 which may1 at this stage of our inquiry1 be presented by art1 we must direct our attention to that which lies without it1 to the particularity of circumstances and situations which affect character1 also to the collisions in which its development proceeds1 and finally review the entire collective form1 which this inward life assumes within the boundaries of concrete reality4 ,it is1 as we have more than once pointed out1 a fundamental determinant of romantic art1 that the spiritual sense1 in other words1 the soul in its aspect of self-reflection1 should constitute a whole1 and relates itself for this reason to the external world1 not1 in its own reality1 inter-penetrated by this world1 but as though related to something purely external and separated from it1 which goes on its way independently disjoined from ,spirit1 is thus evolved1 and thus disposes of itself as a finite and continuously fluid1 changing1 and complicate object of contingent causality#bhf4 ,to the self-absorbed soul it is as wholly a matter of indifference what particular circumstances it confronts1 as it is an affair of chance what those circumstances are which appear before it4 ,for in its action it is less a matter of importance that it should carry out a work whose essential basis is rooted in itself and owes its subsistency to its own character than that it should generally make itself effective in action4 7a7 ,we have1 in short1 before us here a process which we may from one point of view describe as the rejection of the ,divine from ,nature4 ,spirit has here withdrawn itself from the externality of phenomena1 which1 for the reason that the inward life no longer sees itself reflected in this sphere#bhg1 is now independently clothed on its part under a relation of indifference exterior to the subject of consciousness4 ,relatively to its truth ,spirit is1 no doubt1 in its own medium mediated and reconciled with the ,absolute3 but in so far as we now take up our position on the ground of self-subsistent individuality1 which proceeds from itself as it discovers itself in its immediacy1 this divesting of the ,divine#bhh affects character in its active capacity4 ,it moves forward1 that is to say1 with its own contingent aims into a world equally subject to chance1 with which it fails to unite itself in an essentially harmonious whole4 ,this relative character of purpose in an environment which is relative1 whose determination and development does not subsist in the individual mind1 but is defined externally and contingently and is responsible for collisions equally adventitious1 which appear as offshoots that are unexpectedly interwoven with it1 creates that to which we give the name of the adventurous1 which supplies the fundamental type of romance for the mode of its events and actions4 ,it is necessary that the action and dramatic event in so far as they apply strictly to the ,ideal and classic art1 should be referable to an essentially true or1 in other words1 independently explicit and necessary end1 in whose conformation that which is also the determinating factor for the external form1 for the particular type and mode of execution1 is an object of real existence4 ,in the case of the acts and events of romantic art this is not the case4 ,for1 although essentially universal and substantive ends are also presented in their manner of realization by this type1 the definition of the action which is referable to such ends1 and the principle of co-ordination and articulation which appears in its progress on its spiritual side#bhi is not the direct result of those ends themselves2 this aspect of realization is inevitably left independent and subject to the operation of contingency4 77 ,the romantic world had one and only one absolute work to accomplish1 namely1 the extension of ,christendom1 and the bringing into manifest performance the spirit of the community#bij4 ,situated in the midst of a hostile world consisting in part of the unbelieving ancient rgime1 and in part of a human life which was barbarous and coarse1 the character of its actual accomplishment1 in so far as it passed from mere theory to deeds1 was1 in the main1 the passive endurance of pain and torture1 the sacrifice of its own temporal existence for the eternal salvation of the soul4 ,a further product of its energies1 which is equally a portion of the same essential content1 is1 in the ,middle ,ages1 that carried out by ,christian ,chivalry1 the driving forth of the ,moors1 ,arabs1 and ,mohammedans generally from ,christian countries1 and1 above all1 along with it1 the conquest of the ,holy ,sepulchre in the ,crusades4 ,this1 however1 was not an object which affected man simply as human#bia1 but one which a mere collection of isolated individuals had to accomplish under conditions in which the individuals which composed it streamed together at their own free will and pleasure as such4 ,from such a point of view we may call the ,crusades the collective adventure of the ,christian ,middle ,ages2 an adventure1 which was essentially subject to lapses#bib1 and fantastical1 of a spiritual tendency1 and yet devoid of a truly spiritual aim1 and in its relation to action and character delusive4 ,for in its relation to the processes of religion1 the supreme object of the ,crusades is in the highest degree empty and external4 ,christianity purported to secure its salvation solely in ,spirit1 in ,christ1 who is raised to the right hand of ,god2 it finds its living reality and stay in ,spirit1 not in the grave of ,spirit1 or in the sensuous1 immediately present localities of its former temporal abiding-place4 ,the impulse and religious yearning of the ,middle ,ages1 however1 was centred on the spot1 the external locality of the ,passion and the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,in just the same direct contradiction with the religious object we find that wholly worldly one which was bound up with conquest2 a possession1 which in its relation to the secular world1 carried a totally different character to that of a truly religious purpose4 ,men would fain win for themselves what was spiritual and health to their souls1 and they set before them as an aim a purely material locality1 from which ,spirit had vanished2 they strained after a gain that was temporal1 and united this which was of the world to the pure substance of religion4 ,it is this distraction which gives us the discordant and fantastic note in such enterprises in which we find that which is of the world confound the life of soul1 or the latter prove the confounding of the former instead of a harmony which is the result of both4 ,and for the same reason much that is contradictory appears in the execution unresolved4 ,piety is carried to the point of rawness and barbarous cruelty4 ,and this rawness permits every kind of selfishness and passion to break forth1 or casts itself conversely once more upon the eternal depths which either move or bruise the human spirit1 and which are1 in truth1 the heart and substance of the matter4 ,in the medley of elements so discrepant1 there is also an absence of all unity in the object proposed by the exploits and events themselves1 or in the consequential power of authority4 ,the host of men is diverted and split up in single adventures1 victories1 defeats1 and a variety of accidents2 and the outcome of it all fails to correspond to the means and enormous preparations which were involved4 ,nay1 the object itself is stultified in the execution4 ,for the ,crusades would once again bring truth to the sentence3 ,thou couldst not leave him in peace in the grave1 thou didst not suffer thy holy one to see corruption4 ,but it is precisely this longing to find ,christ and spiritual content in such places and spaces1 even the grave itself1 the place of death1 which is itself1 whatever essential worth even a ,chateaubriand may make out of it1 a corruption of ,spirit1 out of which ,christianity must rise in resurrection in order to return once more to the fresh and abundant life of the concrete world4 ,an object of much the same kind1 mystical from one point of view1 equally fantastical from another1 and adventurous in its undertaking1 is the search of the ,holy ,grail4 77 ,a more exalted emprise is that which every man has to go through in his own domain1 his life1 in the course of which he determines his eternal destiny4 ,it is this object which ,dante has1 consistently with the catholic standpoint1 seized upon in his ,divine ,comedy as he conducts us in turn through hell1 purgatory1 and paradise4 ,in this poem1 too1 despite the strenuous co-ordination of the whole1 we have abundant evidence of conceptions which are fantastic#bic1 aspects that are suffused with the spirit of adventure1 in so far1 at any rate1 as this work in its blessing and cursing is not carried through merely in the explicit form of universal statement1 but as referable to an almost innumerable company of distinct personalities1 not to mention the fact that the poet takes upon himself the fiat of his church1 seizes the keys of heaven in his hand1 adjudicates both bliss and damnation1 and so constitutes himself the judge of the v world1 who places the best known individuals both of the ancient and ,christian eras1 whether poets1 citizens1 cardinals1 or popes1 respectively in hell1 purgatory1 or paradise4 77 ,the remaining material1 on the basis of the worldly life1 which leads up to action and event1 consists in the infinitely manifold and venturesome experiments of imaginative idea1 all that element of chance in what arises either without or within the soul from love1 honour1 and fidelity4 ,at one time we may see men thus affected box the compass for their own reputation's sake1 at another leap to help persecuted innocence1 carry out amazing exploits in defence of the honour of their lady1 or vindicate some right that is invaded with the strength of their own arm1 and the able use of their own weapons2 and this albeit the innocence which is delivered prove only a company of knaves4 ,in the majority of such cases there is absolutely no condition1 no situation1 no conflict before us in virtue of which we can assert that action follows as a necessary result4 ,the soul simply wills it and intentionally looks out for adventure4 ,the exploits of love1 for instance1 in such cases have for the most part1 if we look at their more specific content1 no other real principle of determination beyond the effort to give proof of the steadfastness1 fidelity1 and constancy of love1 to testify that all the surrounding world1 together with the entire complexus of its relations1 is merely of value as so much material in which love may be brought to light4 ,for this reason the specific act of such manifestation1 since the only thing that matters is the proof1 is not determined by its own course1 but is left dependent on a freak of chance1 the mood of the lady1 the caprice of external accidents4 ,the same principle holds where the objects are honour or bravery4 ,they are proper to an individual who holds himself far aloof from all further content of a more substantive character1 who is perfectly able to enter into any and every content as it may chance to occur1 to find himself the object of insult therein1 or to look for an opportunity in which he may display his courage and shrewdness4 ,as we have here absolutely no criterion as to what should or what should not form part of this content1 in the same way also we have no principle in accordance with which we can fix what in each case is really an attack upon honour or the true subject-matter of bravery4 ,it is just the same with the treatment of right1 which is likewise an object of chivalry4 ,in other words1 right and law are here not as yet asserted as a condition and object which is of essentially independent stability1 or as a system which is continuously made more perfect in accordance with law and its necessary content1 but as themselves purely the product of individual caprice1 so that their interposition1 no less than the judgment passed upon that which in every particular case is held to be right or wrong1 is throughout relegated to the entirely haphazard criteria of individual judgment4 7b7 ,what we have before us generally1 more particularly on the secular field1 in chivalry and the formalism of character above indicated1 is not merely1 to a more or less degree1 the contingency of the circumstantial conditions of human action1 but also that of the soul in its attitude of volition4 ,for individuals of this one-sided characterization are capable of accepting as the substance of their life that which is wholly contingent1 conduct that is only sustained by virtue of the energy of their character1 and is carried out1 or fails in its contact with the inevitable collisions which the condition of the world opposes to it4 ,the same thing is true of the chivalry which receives in honour1 love1 and fidelity a more lofty ground of justification1 and one entitled to rank with a truly ethical basis4 ,on the one hand1 it is still emphatically a matter of chance on account of the particular aspect of the circumstances on which it reacts2 we find that here the object is to carry out aims peculiar to some particular person1 instead of some work of general significance1 and the modes of its attachment with the rest of life fail to possess independent stability4 ,on the other hand1 precisely at the point where we consider such action as part of the personal life of individuals1 we are aware of the presence of caprice and illusion in respect to all that it either projects1 originates1 or undertakes4 ,the net result of such a spirit of enterprise consequently1 through all that it performs or enters upon1 no less than in its ultimate effects1 is no other than a world of events and fatalities which is self-dissolvent1 a world of comedy for this very reason4 ,this self-dissolution of ,chivalry we find set before us and artistically reproduced1 pre-eminently and with unsurpassed adequacy1 by ,ariosto and ,cervantes1 and1 so far as it affects the fate of such highly individual characters as those above described in their isolation1 by ,shakespeare4 77 ,in ,ariosto1 more particularly1 an attempt is made to delight the reader with the infinitely varied developments of personal destiny and aims1 the fabulous complexity of fantastic relations and ludicrous situations over which the adventurous fancy of the poet plays to the point of absolute frivolity4 ,the heroes of these dramas are seriously engaged in what is often unadulterated folly and the wildest eccentricity4 ,and1 to note especial points1 love is frequently degraded from the ,divine love of a ,dante1 or the romantic tenderness of a ,petrarca1 to sensual tales and ludicrous collisions2 or heroism appears to be screwed up to a pitch that is so incredible it ceases to amaze1 and merely excites a smile over the fabulousness of such exploits4 ,by virtue1 however1 of this indifference in respect to the particular manner in which dramatic situations are brought about1 astonishing complications and conflicts are introduced1 broken off and once more interwoven1 chopped about1 and finally resolved in a surprising way2 yet1 despite his ludicrous treatment of chivalry1 ,ariosto is as able to secure and display to us the true nobility and greatness which we may find in chivalry1 or the exhibition of courage1 love1 honour1 and bravery1 as he can on occasion excellently depict other passions1 cunning1 subtlety1 presence of mind1 and much else4 77 ,just as ,ariosto inclines more to the fabulous element in this spirit of adventure1 ,cervantes develops that aspect of it which is appropriate to romantic fiction4 ,we find in his ,don ,quixote a noble nature in whose adventures chivalry goes mad1 the substance of such adventures being placed as the centre of a stable and well-defined state of things whose external character is copied with exactness from nature4 ,this produces the humorous contradiction of a rationally constituted world on the one hand1 and an isolated soul on the other1 which seeks to create the same order and stability entirely through his own exertions and the knight-errantry which could only destroy it4 ,despite1 however1 this ludicrous confusion we have still in ,don ,quixote that which we have already eulogized in ,shakespeare4 ,cervantes has created in his hero an original figure of noble nature endowed with varied spiritual qualities1 and one which at the same time throughout retains our full interest4 ,in all the madness of his mind and his enterprise he is a completely consistent#bid soul1 or rather his madness lies in this1 that he is and remains securely rooted in himself and his enterprise4 ,without this unreflecting equanimity respectively to the content and result of his actions he would fail to be a truly romantic figure2 and this self-assuredness1 if we look at the substantive character of his opinions1 is throughout great and indicative of his genius1 adorned as it is with the finest traits of character4 ,and1 further1 the entire work is a satire upon the chivalry of romance1 ironical from beginning to end in the truest sense4 ,in ,ariosto this genius of adventure is merely the butt of frivolous jest4 ,from another point of view1 however1 the exploits of ,don ,quixote are merely the central thread around which a succession of genuinely romantic tales are intertwined in the most charming way1 in order to unfold the true worth of that which the romance in other respects scatters to the winds with the genius of comedy4 77 ,in somewhat the same way as we thus have seen chivalry1 even in respect to its most momentous interests1 overturned in comedy1 ,shakespeare1 too1 either places the characters and scenes of comedy in juxtaposition to his downright and stable individualities1 and tragic situations and conflicts1 or exalts the essential figures of his drama through a profound humour above themselves and their uncouth1 limited1 and false purposes4 ,falstaff1 the fool in ,lear1 the musician scene in ,romeo and ,juliet1 will sufficiently illustrate the first alternative1 and ,richard ,,iii the second4 7c7 ,the dissolution of romance1 in the sense we have hitherto regarded it1 introduces us finally and in the third place to the spirit of the novel#bie1 in our modern sense of the term1 which historically the knight-errantry and pastoral romances precede4 ,this spirit of modern fiction is1 in fact1 that of chivalry1 once more taken seriously and receiving a true content4 ,the contingent character of external existence has changed to a stable1 secure order of civic society and state-life1 so that now police administration1 tribunals of justice1 the army and political government generally take the place of those chimerical objects which the knight of chivalry proposed to himself4 ,for this reason the knightly character of the heroes who play their parts in our modern novels is altered4 ,confronted by the existing order and the ordinary prose of life they appear before us as individuals with personal aims of love1 honour1 ambition1 and ideals of world reform1 ideals in the path of which that order presents obstacles on every side4 ,the result is that personal desires and demands unroll themselves#bif before this opposition to unfathomable heights4 ,every man finds himself face to face with an enchanted world that is by no means all that he asks for1 which he must contend with for the reason that it contends with himself1 and in its tenacious stability refuses to give way before his passions1 but interposes as an obstacle the will of some one else whoever it may be1 his father's1 his aunt's1 or social conditions generally4 ,for the most part such a knighthood will consist of young people1 who feel it incumbent upon them to hew their way through a world which makes for its own realization rather than that of their ideals1 and who hold it a misfortune that there should be family ties1 civic society1 state laws1 professions1 and all the rest of such things at all1 because conditions of such solidity and so inevitably restricted are so cruelly opposed to their ideal dreams and the infinite claims of their souls4 ,the main object now is to drive a breach through this wall of facts1 to change1 to improve1 or at least carve for themselves in despite of it some little heaven on earth such as they seek for1 their ideal maiden1 discover her1 win her from the clutches of her wicked relations or her evil circumstances1 carry her off and lay the balm of love on her wounds4 ,conflicts of this kind1 however1 in our modern world are the apprentice years1 the education of individuality in the actual world2 they have no further significance1 but the significance has1 nevertheless1 a real value4 ,the object and consummation of such apprenticeship consists in this1 that the individual drops his horns and finds his own place1 together with his wishes and opinions in social conditions as they are and the rational order which belongs to them1 that he enters1 in short1 upon the varied field of life1 and secures that position within it which is appropriate to his powers4 ,however soundly he may have rated the world and have been shoved on one side1 the day comes at last with the most of us when the maiden is discovered and some kind of place in the world1 he marries1 and is as much a ,philistine as the rest of his neighbours4 ,his wife takes charge of his domestic arrangements2 children do not fail to put in an appearance2 the adorable wife who was so unique1 an angel1 acts very much as other wives do2 the profession supplies its toils and vexations1 the married tie its domestic sorrows1 and1 in short1 we have the entire process of marital caterwauling once more illustrated4 ,in this history we may see the same old type of the adventurous spirit with this distinction1 that here that spirit discovers its real significance1 and all that is wholly fantastic in it receives its necessary correction4 #c4 ,,the ,,dissolution ,,of ,,the ,,romantic ,,type ,,of ,,art ,the last point which we have to establish still more closely is that relatively to which the romantic spirit1 for the reason that it already is intrinsically the principle of the dissolution of the classic ,ideal1 manifests1 in fact1 this dissolution clearly as such a process4 ,in this connection it is of the first importance to consider the ultimately complete contingent and external character of the material1 which the activity of the artist seizes on and informs4 ,in the plastic material of the plastic arts the spiritual conception is so related to the external medium that this external show is the embodiment which uniquely belongs to that spiritual significance itself1 and possesses no real independence apart from it4 ,in romantic art1 on the contrary1 in which we find the inwardness of ,spirit withdraws within its own domain1 the entire content of the external world secures the freedom of unfettered independence and the assured subsistency of its own peculiar character and particularity4 ,conversely1 as we have seen1 if the personal life of soul forms the essential feature in the artistic product1 it is a question of similar indifference with what specific content of external reality and the spiritual world the soul is vitally connected4 ,the romantic ,idea can therefore assert itself through every sort of condition2 can embrace every conceivable position1 circumstance1 relation1 aberration1 confusion1 conflict1 and means of satisfaction2 it is simply its own personal and self-subsistent mode of conformation1 the expression and receptive form of the soul rather than any objective independently valid form which is the object of search and is made good4 ,in the representation of romantic art therefore everything has its due place1 all the departments and phenomena of life1 the greatest and the least1 the highest and most insignificant1 what is moral with that which is immoral and evil4 ,and we may further note in particular that the more secular the art becomes1 the more it amasses the finite wealth of the world1 the more it takes to it with1 delight1 bestows upon it a validity that is without reserve and exists for the artist in such a world under the sole condition that it is reproduced in its naked reality1 so much the more is art at home with itself4 ,thus we may observe in ,shakespeare1 on account of the fact that with him the action as a rule runs its course in the most realistic association with objective life1 and is isolated and broken up in a mass of purely accidental relations1 and conditions of every kind1 the least important and most incidental no less than the most sovereign flights and most weighty interests of poetry are each and all substantiated4 ,so in ,hamlet we have the sentry on watch no less than the royal court2 in ,romeo and ,juliet the domestic mnage2 in other pieces1 not to mention clowns1 swashbucklers1 and all the vulgarities of ordinary life1 we have pot-houses1 carriers1 chamber-pots and fleas1 much as in the representations by romantic art of the birth of ,christ and the adoration of the kings we do not fail to find oxen and asses1 mangers and straw#big4 ,and this is the kind of thing throughout1 that the scriptural text may receive its fulfilment1 too1 in art1 they that are of low estate shall be exalted4 ,it is from out this contingent sphere of its subject-matter1 which in a measure asserts itself as merely the environment of a content intrinsically more important and in part also in absolute independence1 that the downfall of romantic art issues1 to which we have already above adverted4 ,in other words we have1 on the one hand1 objective reality placed before us in what is from the point of view of the ,ideal its prosaic objectivity1 that is1 the content of everyday life1 which is not grasped in the substantive form in which it adumbrates what is both moral and divine1 but rather in that which is for ever changing and which as temporal passes away4 ,and1 in the further aspect of it1 it is also the subjective condition1 which1 with its emotion and insight1 with the principle and authority of its wit or humour1 is able to exalt itself in mastery over the entire world of the real1 a mastery which leaves nothing in the ordinary connections and significance where the commonsense consciousness finds it1 and is not fully satisfied until it has proved that everything which is a part of that world is1 by virtue of the form and relative position which it receives from the view of it1 mood and supreme gifts of the artist#bih1 itself intrinsically capable of being broken up1 and1 as such1 is for the artistic vision and feeling dissolved4 ,we have now1 in this connection1 first1 to add a few words on the principle contained in those very varied works of art whose level of representation approximates closely to the ordinary appearance of objective or external reality1 what in common parlance is called the imitation of ,nature4 ,secondly1 we shall have to discuss humour as a personal quality in the artist4 ,it plays a very considerable part in modern art1 and is that which in the case of many poets distinctively supplies the fundamental character of their work4 ,thirdly1 it remains for us to offer a few suggestions1 in conclusion1 on the point of view from which it is still possible for the art of to-day to find a field for its activities4 7a7 ,the ,artistic ,imitation of what is ,immediately presented by ,nature ,the realm of subjects which may be included in this sphere v of artistic activity may be extended indefinitely for the reason that ,art takes for its content here not that which is by its own inherent law necessary#bii1 the range of which is essentially self-contained1 but the contingent phenomena of reality in their unlimited modifications of form and relation1 ,nature and her kaleidoscopic play of separate pictures1 the everyday action and affairs of man in his dependence on natural conditions and their means of his satisfaction1 in his accidental habits also1 attitudes1 activities of family life1 his business as a citizen1 and1 generally1 the incalculable variety of all that shifts and changes in the world around us4 ,and for this reason this art is not merely1 in the broad sense that applies more or less to the romantic spirit in all its manifestations1 a type of portraiture3 rather it tends to lose itself completely in the mode of its portrayal1 whether it be in sculpture1 painting1 or in the descriptions of poetry4 ,the tendency is to return to the exact imitation of ,nature1 in other words1 to the intentional approach to the contingent aspects of what is immediately before the vision and independently thus presented1 prosaic existence in all its ugliness no less than its beauty4 ,the question1 therefore1 at once suggests itself whether productions of this character have any right to be called art at all4 ,no doubt1 if we simply fix before our attention the notion of artistic work which fully corresponds to the ,ideal1 work which from one point of view it is of the first importance that their content shall not be thus intrinsically accidental or evanescent1 and from another point of view that their mode of presentation must be adequate in all respects to such a content1 then such artistic productions as we are now considering will unquestionably appear to fall short4 ,on the other hand1 there is another fundamental aspect of art which assumes here an exceptional importance4 ,this is the conception and execution of a work of art which are personal to the artist1 the aspect1 that is1 of an individual talent1 which is able to remain true to the inherently substantive life of ,nature no less than the embodiments of spiritual experience though carried to the very limits of contingent condition with which they may be involved1 and which is further competent through the vividness of its truth to import a significance into that which is by itself insignificant1 no less than by the amazing ability of the technical execution itself4 ,we have consequently to consider here the degree in which the soul1 that is1 the genius and vitality of the artist1 is able to enter into the very being of such objects--whether we consider their dominant idea#cjj1 or the purely external form of their appearance--and thus makes them visible in his art to our eyes4 ,and if we look at it from this point of view it will be found impossible to deny that such creations have a genuine claim to the name of art-products4 ,if we approach such more closely we shall find that among the particular arts poetry and painting are the ones which are most occupied with their subject-matter4 ,for1 on the one hand1 we see here that it is that which is itself essentially particular which supplies their content1 and on the other hand it is the accidental though in this type of art the genuine peculiarities of the objective appearance which is sought for as the mode of the reproduction4 ,neither the arts of architecture1 sculpture1 or music are adapted to the fulfilment of such a task4 77 ,in poetry it is ordinary domestic life--the main source1 that is1 of the probity1 commonsense spirit1 and the morality of everyday#cja life--which is presented by art in the usual developments of civic life1 in scenes and characters selected from the middle and lower classes4 ,among the ,french ,diderot stands out conspicuous for the way in which he has thus insisted on natural effects and the imitation of the bluntness of fact4 ,among ,germans it was ,goethe and ,schiller who1 with more lofty aim1 struck out a path somewhat similar in their youth1 but rather1 within this naturalness of life itself and its particular detail1 sought after a profounder content and conflicts of essential significance4 ,and in contrast to them we have ,kotzebue and ,iffland1 both of whom1 in their several ways1 the first with a superficial rapidity of conception and execution1 the second with a more conscientious accuracy of detail and a homely kind of morality1 gave us the counterfeit of the daily life of their time in the prosaic picture of its more limited aspects1 with but a limited sense1 either of them1 for genuine poetry4 ,and generally1 we may say1 that it is ,german art more than any other1 and particularly that of our own times1 which has fastened with delight on this kind of treatment till it has reached a sort of4 virtuosity in it4 ,in fact for a long period back ,art was more or less something of a stranger and a guest in our country1 not the child of our own loins4 ,further1 we may observe that in this attraction to the reality that lies actually before us it is essential that the material assimilated by such an art be cognate with such reality and at home in it#cjb2 it must be the national life of the poet and his immediate public4 ,it is on this very point of the kind of appropriation suited to an art such as our own1 which carried the purpose both in its content and its methods of representation of making us feel at home in it1 even to the extent of sacrificing both beauty and ideality1 that the impulse originated which led to such a type of artistic production4 ,other nations have been inclined to reject such material with scorn1 or only in more recent times have taken a more vital interest in such opportunities as the ordinary course of human life offers4 77 ,if we desire1 however1 to see what is most worthy of our admiration in such productions1 we must turn our attention to the later genre-painting of the ,dutch4 ,we have already in the first part of this work1 when examining the intrinsic character of the ,ideal1 indicated1 so far as the general spirit of it is concerned1 what we take to be the substantial basis of such work#cjc4 ,that contentment in life under its presentment of direct experience down to the most ordinary and most insignificant detail is mainly due to the fact that this people was obliged to work out for itself only after severe struggles and hard labour that which ,nature supplies with far less reserve to other peoples4 ,further1 circumscribed as it is by local conditions1 it has become great in this very concern for and appreciation of the least things4 ,from another point of view it is a people of fishermen1 sailors1 citizens1 and peasants1 and for this reason is forced from the start to rate highly all that may be useful and necessary both in matters of greatest and least importance which it knows how to secure with the most assiduous industry4 ,as a further essential feature of its development the religion of this ,dutch folk was ,protestantism1 and it is an exclusive characteristic of this form of religion that it seeks to find a home in the prose of life and suffers the same to remain just as it is by itself1 and independently of religious associations1 and to retain its forms of growth in unrestricted freedom4 ,it would be quite impossible for any other nation1 situated in other external conditions1 to create works of art of such pre-eminent quality from the kind of material which we have placed before us in the ,dutch school of painting4 ,and1 moreover1 despite the peculiar nature of this artistic interest1 the ,dutch have not by any means discovered their whole life-in what was necessitous or barren in the conditions of their existence and what tended to oppress their vitality3 on the contrary1 they have reformed their church itself1 have overcome a religious despotism precisely as they overcame the world-power and majesty of ,spain1 and have finally through their exertions1 their industry1 their bravery and thrift secured for themselves1 in the consciousness of their self-attained liberty1 prosperity1 comfort1 rectitude1 courage1 joviality1 nay1 even a superabundant sense of the joys of ordinary existence4 ,herein lies the vindication of the typical subject-matter of their art4 ,the material of such an art will not1 however1 satisfy that profounder significance which is due to a content that is essentially true4 ,if1 however1 neither our emotional nor our critical faculties are wholly content with it the more we consider it closely the more we shall feel reconciled to such defects4 ,it is an essential part of the art of painting and the man who paints that they should please and carry us away with that sense of pleasure4 ,and1 to put it bluntly1 if we would really know what painting is1 in looking at any particular canvas we must be1 at least1 able to say of the master in question3 ,ah1 this man can paint4 ,the main point1 therefore1 does not turn on the question how far the artist in his work is able to give us an exact transcription of the object he presents before us4 ,we have already the completest vision of grapes1 flowers1 stags1 sand-hills1 sea1 sun1 sky1 the finery and decoration of ordinary life1 horses1 warriors1 peasants1 smokers1 teeth-extraction1 and every kind of domestic scene4 ,we have only to go to ,nature for such things and others like them4 ,what ought to captivate us is not the content in its bare reality4 ,rather it is the appearance1 which in comparison with the object is wholly without interest#cjd4 ,this appearance is1 moreover1 by itself fixed independently of the beautiful#cje1 and art consists in the mastery of its reproduction of all the mysteries of the ever self-deepening appearance of external phenomena#cjf4 ,and1 above all1 the function of art consists in this that1 armed with an exceptionally fine sense for such things1 it lies in ambush for the momentary and wholly transient traits which it finds upon the surrounding world observed in its individual aspects of life1 aspects which1 however1 completely coincide with the universal laws that dominate the appearance1 and can retain true and secure the most fading apparition4 ,a tree1 a landscape1 is something of independent and permanent stability4 ,but to seize upon the flash of a metal1 the gleam of light through the grape1 a vanishing glance of the moon or the sun1 a smile1 the expressions of spiritual life which are no sooner seen than they vanish1 or ludicrous movements1 situations1 and attitudes1 to master such evanescent material as this is the difficult task of this type of work4 ,if classic art in its ,ideal has essentially confined its embodiment to that which is purely substantive so here we have opened to our vision the changes of ,nature in their fleeting forms of expression1 a stream of water1 a waterfall1 waves of foam on the sea1 still life with the accidental flashes of glass1 plate1 and things of like nature1 the outward appearance of man in the most exceptional situations1 a wife1 for instance1 threading her needle by candle-light1 a halt of robbers suddenly surprised1 the most instantaneous fraction of some human posture1 the smile or sneer of a peasant1 all the things1 in fact1 in which men like ,ostade1 ,teniers1 or ,steen are masters4 ,it is the triumph of art over the ,past1 in which the substantive is likewise filched of its power over that which is accidental and transitory4 ,and just as the appearance simply as such reflects the real content of objects1 so we may say that ,art1 in giving a permanent form to the evanescent show of things1 goes a step further4 ,in other words1 quite apart from the objective realization1 the means adopted in the reproduction are themselves independently an end1 in the sense that the individual ability of the artist1 and his use of the means his art supplies1 may itself rank as one of the objects aimed at by the art product4 ,in quite the early days of the school the artists of the ,netherlands studied profoundly the qualities of colour in its relation to material substances#cjg4 ,van ,eyck1 ,hemling1 and ,schoreel#cjh were all of them capable of imitating in the most realistic way the sheen of gold and silver1 the varied light effects of jewels1 silk1 velvet1 and fur-stuffs4 ,a mastery of this kind which1 by the magic of colour and the mysteries of its enchantment1 is able to bring about artistic results so entirely surprising requires no further vindication2 it justifies itself4 ,as ,spirit in thought and in its grasp of the world by means of ideas and thoughts reproduces itself1 so what is most important here is the individual recreation of the external world1 independently of the bare object itself1 in the sensuous medium1 of colours under effects of light and shade4 ,it is in fact a kind of objective music1 a system of colour tones4 ,in music the single tone is of no value and only produces the musical effect in its relation to some other1 in its opposition1 concord1 modulation1 and unison4 ,it is precisely the same thing with the music of colour4 ,if we consider the appearance of painted colour closely such as the gleam of gold or the flash from the steel of battle we shall only see a number of white or yellow dashes1 points1 coloured surfaces4 ,the single colour alone does not possess this gleam which we gather from the picture4 ,it is only by its association with other tints that we get the effect of glitter and flash4 ,take for example the ,atlas of ,terburg2 every individual strip of colour here alone is simply a dull gray1 more or less whitish1 bluish1 or inclining to yellow3 only when we take in the entire effect from a distance1 which gives us the relative contrast of each part to the rest1 dawns upon us the beautiful soft sheen which is true of the genuine ,atlas4 ,and it is just the same with our velvet effect1 play of light1 exhalation of cloud and so on through all pictorial effect whatsoever4 ,it is not so much the reflex of the artist's mood#cji1 which1 as is no doubt frequently the case with landscape1 transfers itself to the objects delineated1 as it is the entire ability of the artist1 which seeks to make itself felt in this objective way as the use of the means at his disposal in such a vital interaction that they themselves straightway of their own cunning bring to birth a world of objects4 77 ,and consequently the interest in the objects delineated tends to revert to the fact that it is the unique powers of the artist himself which are thus consciously displayed1 and for which the embodiment of a work of art1 independently complete and self-composed1 is not of so much importance as a production in which the creative artist unveils to us simply his genius4 ,in so far as this personal aspect is no longer concerned with the external means of presentation but affects the content itself of the work1 the art becomes thereby the art of caprice and humour4 7b7 ,the ,humour of ,personality#caj ,in humour it is the personality of the artist1 which so reproduces itself both in its particular idiosyncrasies and profounder content1 that the main thing of importance is the spiritual value of this personality4 77 ,inasmuch as humour does not so much propose to itself the task of unfolding and informing an objective content according to its own essential character1 and1 by artistic means1 of articulating and rounding it off in such a self-evolved process1 as it consists in the artist's own self-manifestation in the material1 he will be mainly concerned to let everything which tends to become an object and to secure the rigid lines of reality1 or which appears in the external world1 fall away and dissolve under the powerful solvent of his own fancies1 flashes of thought and arresting modes of conception4 ,by this means every appearance of self-subsistency in such a content1 the embodiment of which is secured in its coalescence through means of a given fact1 is entirely destroyed1 and the product is now simply a play with certain objects1 a derangement or a turning upside down of a given material1 the enterprise of a rover throughout such1 the interwoven woof of the artist's own expression2 views and moods1 through which he gives free scope to himself quite as much as to his immediate subject-matter4 77 ,the illusion which readily springs from such a type of art consists in this1 that though it is a very easy matter to make either oneself or the object given the butt of drollery and wit1 and for this reason the form of humorous composition is that frequently adopted1 yet quite as often as not we find that the humour is dull enough when our artist gives free rein to any chance conceits or jest which may occur1 which in their loose and patchy connections range to excess beyond all reasonable limits1 and with intentional eccentricity bind up frequently together the most alien matter4 ,some nations have proved themselves indulgent to such artistic experiments1 others are more severe4 ,among the ,french such attempts at humorous composition have not as a rule been successful2 we ,germans have done better1 and we are more tolerant to the defects of such a style4 ,jean ,paul1 for instance1 is a much admired humourist among us2 and yet it would be difficult to point to any writer who is more eccentric in the way he brings to the common fund what is most remote from his subject1 and patches together an incredibly motley assemblage of subjects1 whose sole bond of relationship is one of the artist's own fancy4 ,the story1 the matter and progress of events are the features of least interest in his romances4 ,the main attraction throughout is the sportive procession of his humour which uses everything in its course as a means to establish his own triumph as a humourist4 ,in this subordination to itself and concatenation of every conceivable stuff that can be raked out of the four quarters of the world1 or the realm of the real1 the material of humour approximates once more to that of symbolism1 wherein significance and conformity likewise are disjoined1 with this difference1 however1 that in the former it is purely the personality of the poet which commands the material no less than the significance1 co-ordinating them according to his own caprice#caa4 ,such a series of freaks and fancies soon tires us1 more particularly when we are expected to live as best we can in the not unfrequently barely decipherable combinations which have passed somehow or another in the clouds of the poet's brain4 ,with ,jean ,paul1 as with scarce another1 one metaphor1 sally of wit1 drollery1 or simile proves the death of its neighbour4 ,nothing grows2 there is an explosion1 that is all4 ,a plot1 however1 which purports to have a dnouement must first be unfolded and prepared for such solution4 ,from another point of view1 when the artist in question is essentially devoid of the solid core and support of a mind and heart overflowing with the real actualities of existence1 his humour very readily lapses into what is sentimental and morbid4 ,and in this respect ,jean ,paul is no less an example4 77 ,in a humour of the best kind1 which keeps itself aloof from such excrescences1 we must therefore have a genuinely spiritual depth and wealth1 able to exalt that which issues as the emanation of a personality to the rank of real expression1 and capable of making that which is truly substantive arise from that which the chance suggestions1 the mere caprices of the artist1 dictate4 ,the self-abandonment of the poet in the course of his exposition must be1 as it is with humourists such as ,sterne or ,hippel1 a wholly unembarrassed1 easy-going1 scarce perceptible kind of saunter#cab1 which1 insignificant though it appear1 manages precisely by that means to strike at the root of the main idea2 and1 for the reason that what thus bubbles up in haphazard fashion are matters of detail1 it is essential that the conception1 which binds the whole ideally together1 should have the deeper foundation1 and that such detail should simply flash forth the focal spark of genius4 ,we have now arrived at the point where romantic art itself for the present terminates4 ,it is the standpoint of our most modern outlook1 whose distinctive characteristic we shall find to be mainly this1 that the individual personality#cac of the artist stands supreme above both the material he informs and his creation4 ,he is no longer dominated by the conditions of an essentially restricted sphere1 in which he must accept as given both the content and form of his work2 it now lies in his power to choose either as he wills1 and to retain both on similar terms4 7c7 ,the ,end of the ,romantic ,type of ,art ,art1 in so far as it has hitherto been the subject of our inquiry1 had for its fundamental basis the unity of significance and form1 and1 as a further type of it1 the unity of the personality of the artist with the work he embodies and creates#cac4 ,more closely defined we may say that it was the specific type of this union1 which supplied the content and its appropriate artistic presentment with the substantive and directive principle running through all the images therein4 ,we found at the commencement of our inquiry with reference to the origins of art that in the ,eastern world ,spirit was not as yet independently free4 ,it still sought that which it conceived to be the ,absolute in the domain of ,nature1 and apprehended the natural as itself essentially ,divine4 ,at a further stage the outlook of classical art set before itself the vision of the ,greek ,pantheon as unconstrained and inspired beings1 but still in all essential features formed as our humanity1 as individuals charged with a positive physical process#cad4 ,finally it was romantic art which first permitted ,spirit to penetrate the depths of its own world1 in contrast to which flesh1 the external reality and frame of this world generally1 albeit the fact that the spiritual and absolute could alone manifest itself in this world1 in the first instance was divested of all claim to reality#cae1 but for all that afterwards asserted such a positive claim with increasing strength and urgency4 77 ,these distinctive views of the world process constitute religion1 the substantive ,spirit or genius of peoples and eras2 they not merely influence art1 but are threads of life which permeate every other domain or province of the living present to which they belong4 ,as every man1 in every sphere of activity1 whether it be on the field of politics1 religion1 art1 or science1 is a child of his own age1 and receives the task to elaborate the essential content and consequently the inevitable plastic form of that age1 so1 too1 the aim that determines the content of art is no other than that of finding in its own medium and resources some adequate expression for the spirit of a nation4 ,so long as the artist is in immediate identity and unshaken faith inextricably one with the determinate content of such a view of the world and the religion where it culminates1 to that extent this content and the mode of its presentation will call forth his most serious powers2 in other words this content remains for him the infinite substance and truth of his own consciousness1 a content1 with which he lives1 down to the inmost recesses of his spiritual nature1 in original unity2 and1 moreover1 the embodied presence in which he reveals the same is for him as such an artist#caf the final1 necessary1 and highest type of such a form1 namely that of bringing before the aesthetic sense the absolute being#cag and the ideal significance#cah of the subject-matter of his art4 ,it is through that aspect of his material which is no other than his own immanent substance#cai that he finds that which binds him to the specific mode of his exposition4 ,for the material1 and with it the form that appertains to it1 carries the artist directly into himself#cbj1 as being the real essence of his determinate being1 which he does not imagine but rather actually is1 and consequently has only to make this essential part of him an objective fact to himself1 to conceive and elaborate such in a vital form from his own resources4 ,only under such conditions is the enthusiasm of the artist fully awakened for either the content or manifestation of his art2 only thus his creations become no mere product of caprice1 but spring up within him1 out of him1 out of this living field of his substance1 this spiritual capital1 whose content never ceases to be active1 until1 through the efforts of the master1 it has attained a defined form adequate to its own ideal notion4 ,when1 however1 we of to-day would seek to make a ,greek god or1 as our own ,protestants try to do1 a ,virgin ,mary the object of a piece of sculpture or a picture1 it is impossible for us to treat such a material with entire seriousness4 ,it is the faith of our inmost heart which fails us here1 albeit even in ages of absolute belief the artist was by no means necessarily what is commonly understood as a pious mart1 any more than at any time artists generally come in an exceptional sense under that category4 ,the demand is rather simply this that in the view of the artist his content should be no other than the substantive significance1 the most spiritual truth of its own conscious life1 and that it should unfold the necessary laws of its mode of presentation4 ,for an artist is1 in his creative activity1 a child of ,nature2 his ability is in one aspect a talent he receives from her4 ,his method of working is not the pure activity of rational apprehension1 which places itself in direct opposition to its material1 and unites with it in the medium of free thoughts and pure thinking4 ,rather1 as one not yet released from the natural aspect1 it#cba coalesces immediately with the object1 in full faith1 and is identical with it heart and soul4 ,the artistic personality reposes frankly in the object1 the work of art proceeds in like manner absolutely from the unimpaired spiritual depth and power of genius2 the product is ferme1 unwavering1 and its entire intensive effect preserved4 ,and this it is which supplies the fundamental condition of the final demand that ,art be presented us in its flawless totality4 77 ,the situation1 however1 has entirely changed in view of the position we have been forced to indicate as that occupied by ,art in this its final stage of evolution4 ,we have1 however1 no reason to regard this simply as a misfortune which the chance of events has made inevitable1 one1 that is to say1 by which art has been overtaken through the pressure of the times1 the prosaic outlook and the dearth of genuine interests4 ,rather it is the realization and progress of art itself1 which1 by envisaging for present life the material in which it actually dwells1 itself materially assists on this very path1 in each step of its advance1 to make itself free of the content that is presented4 ,in the very fact that we have an object set before our ocular or spiritual vision1 whether it be by ,art or the medium of ,thought1 with a completeness which practically exhausts it1 so that we have emptied it1 and nothing further remains for our eyes to discover or our souls to explore1 in that alone the vital interest disappears4 ,our interest only continues where our faculties are kept fresh and alive4 ,spirit only concerns itself actively with objects so long as there is still a mystery unsolved1 a something unrevealed4 ,and this is so so long as the material remains identical with our own substance4 ,a time comes1 however1 when ,art has displayed1 in all their many aspects1 these fundamental views of the world1 which are involved in its own notion1 no less than every province of the content that is bound up with such world-views3 when that time arrives such art is necessarily cast loose of that which has been its previous specific content for any particular people or age2 in such a case the renewed craving for material to work upon only fully awakes when it is accepted as inevitable that we must first bid farewell to all that its activity has previously substantiated3 just as in ,greece1 for example1 ,aristophanes opposed a resolute face to his age1 and ,lucian to the entire historical ,past of his country2 or in ,italy and ,spain1 in the decline of the ,middle ,ages1 both ,ariosto and ,cervantes opened the attack on ,chivalry4 ,in opposition to the age1 then1 in which the artist1 by virtue of the concrete content of his nationality and times1 stands within a definite outlook upon the world and its modes of embodiment1 we become aware of a point of view diametrically antagonistic1 which1 so far as its complete enunciation is concerned1 has only in the most modern times received its due significance4 ,it is only in our own days that we find the artist no less than the man of science among pretty nearly all civilized nations1 has mastered the cultivation of his reflective faculty1 the art of criticism1 and among us ,germans the absolute freedom of thought1 and has made this critical apparatus1 both relatively to the material and the form of its production1 having already run through all the necessary phases or types of romantic art1 a kind of tabula rasa4#cbb ,the specific mode of association for any particular context1 and a manner of presentment exclusively pertinent to that and no other material1 are things which the artist of to-day looks upon as obsolete4 ,art has become a free instrument which is qualified to exercise itself relatively to every content1 no matter what kind it may be1 agreeably to the principles or criteria of the artist's own peculiar craftsmanship4 ,the artist stands superior to all specific modes and conformations1 however much hallowed in the usage1 and moves forward free and independent1 untrammelled by either form or presentment such as previously have brought before man's vision and mind the one holy and eternal substance4 ,no content1 no form is any longer identical directly with the inmost soul of the artist#cbc1 his nature1 his unaware#cbd and substantive essence2 every material he may treat with indifference1 if he only keep true to the formal principle that he make his work consonant with beauty and a really artistic execution4 ,there is1 in short1 no material nowadays which we can place on its own independent merits as superior to this law of relativity2 and even if there is one thus sublimely placed beyond it there is at least no absolute necessity that it should be the object of artistic presentation4 ,for these reasons the artist is situated relatively to the content of his work much as the dramatist who places before us and develops other and alien characters4 ,it is quite true that even our poet of to-day interposes the atmosphere of his genius within his delineations1 and the warp that he weaves is in fact that of his own substance2 but this only applies to what is universal there or wholly accidental4 ,the closer traits of individualization are not his own1 but rather he makes use of in this respect his stores of images1 modes of metaphor1 earlier types of art1 which by themselves he does not care for1 and whose significance is exclusively dependent on the fact that they turn out to be the most suitable for this or that matter in hand4 ,in most of the arts1 and particularly in the plastic types1 the subject-matter is1 apart from this1 supplied from outside to the artist4 ,he works to order1 and when occupied with whatever tales1 scenes1 and portraits thus come in his way1 whether sacred or profane1 has merely to look to it that he can make something out of them4 ,for1 however much he leaves the impress of his genius on a given content1 it remains throughout for all that a material which is not itself directly the substance of his own conscious life4 ,nor is it of any real assistance to him1 that he further appropriates1 so to speak1 with his soul and substance views of the world that belong to the ,past1 in other words1 tries to root himself in one of such1 and1 let us say1 turns ,roman ,catholic1 as not a few have done in recent times for ,art's sake1 in order to give their soul some secure foundation1 and enable the definite lines of their artistic product to become themselves something which shall appear to have an independently valid growth4 ,it is not a prime condition of the artistic state that the artist should come completely to terms with his own soul1 or should be obliged to look after his own salvation4 ,what is important is that his soul in its greatness and freedom should from the first1 before it thinks of creating1 both know and possess that whereof it is1 should stand fast by it and reliant within it2 and1 above all1 is it indispensable that the spirit and mind of the great artist of to-day should have a liberal education1 one in which every kind of superstition and belief which remains limited to circumscribed forms of outlook and presentment1 should receive their proper subordination as merely aspects or phasal moments of a larger process2 aspects which the free human spirit has already mastered when it once for all sees that they can furnish it with no conditions of exposition and creative effort which are1 independently for their own sake1 sacrosanct2 and only ascribes to them value in virtue of the loftier content1 which itself1 as creator and worker1 he reposes in them1 making them thus what they ought to be#cbe4 ,it is somewhat in this way nowadays that any and every form and material may prove of service to and under the control of the artist whose executive talents and genius have been liberated in their independence from the former limitation to a specific mode of artistic work4 77 ,if we ask1 then1 in conclusion what are the content and the modes which may be considered peculiar to the present sphere of our inquiry1 the result will be approximately as follows4 ,the universal types of art were pre-eminently related to the absolute truth to which ,art attains1 and they discovered the source of their differentiation in the specific grasp they respectively supplied of that which passed for the ,absolute in the human consciousness1 and which itself carried the principle of its manner of embodiment4 ,in this respect we have already seen in symbolism ,nature's significances pass before us as content1 and her facts and human personification as the mode of presentation2 similarly in the classical type1 we have passed in review spiritual individuality1 but as bodily presence which carried no memory with it#cbf1 and over which the abstract necessity of ,fate stood paramount4 ,in the romantic the intellectual being of the personal consciousness was asserted inherent in its own substance1 and for the inmost content of which the external form remained entirely contingent4 ,in this concluding type as in the earlier ones the object of art was the ,divine in its explicitly unfolded nature4 ,this ,divine had however to make itself an object1 to define itself1 and in the process to pass from its own immediate substance to the secular content of the personal consciousness4 ,in the first instance the infinite essence of personality was reposed in honour1 love1 and fidelity2 after that in the particular individuality1 the specific character which happened to coalesce with the particular mode of human life in question4 ,this coalescence1 together with the specific limitation of content appropriate to such1 was finally put an end to by humour1 which proved itself capable of dissolving or making pliable to its purpose any or every line of stable definition1 and by so doing made it possible for art to transcend its own limitations4 ,in this passing away of ,art beyond itself1 however1 ,art is quite as truly the return of man upon himself1 a descent into his own soul-depths1 by which process art strips off from itself every secure barrier set up by a determinate range of content and conception1 and unfolds within our common humanity#cbg its new holy of holies1 in other words the depths and heights of the human soul simply1 the universal shared of all men in joy and suffering1 in endeavour1 action1 and destiny4 ,from this point onwards it is from himself that the artist receives his content1 is in truth the ,spirit of man assigning to himself his own boundaries1 contemplating1 experiencing and giving utterance to the infinitude of his emotions and situations1 a spirit to which nothing is any more alien which can possibly emanate as life from the human soul4 ,a content of this nature is one which cannot persist under the defined modes of art independent and apart from the activity of the artist4 ,rather the definition of content and its elaboration is transferred by it to the caprice of his invention4 ,but1 despite of this1 it excludes no vital interest1 because ,art is no longer under constraint to represent that1 and only that1 which is completely at home in one of its specific grades4 ,everything is now possible as its subject-matter1 in which man1 on whatever plane of life he may be1 possesses either the need or the capacity of making his abode4 ,confronted with a material of such a wide range and multiplicity1 it is above all of first importance that in respect to the mode of artistic treatment the ,spirit that is now active in our present life should throughout declare itself as such4 ,our modern artist may no doubt join the company of ancients and elders4 ,it is a fine thing to be one of the ,homerides1 though we stand last of the line2 pictures1 too1 that reflect for us once again the atmosphere of romantic art in the ,middle ,ages will have a worth of their own4 ,but this universal sufficiency1 depth1 and unique suitability of a given material such as we above described is another thing altogether1 and equally so its mode of presentation4 ,neither ,homer1 ,sophocles1 ,dante1 ,ariosto1 nor ,shakespeare can reappear in our times4 ,what has been sung so greatly1 what has been expressed with such freedom1 has been sung and expressed once for all4 ,only the ,present blows fresh2 all else is faded and more faded4 ,in the matter of history we must fain make it something of a reproach to the ,french1 and we may add to it a criticism on the score of beauty1 that they have presented on their stage ,greek and ,roman heroes1 ,chinese1 and ,peruvians as so many ,french princes and princesses1 and moreover have given them the motives and views peculiar to the age of ,louis ,,xiv or ,louis ,,xv4 ,yet1 after all1 had these very motives and opinions only been intrinsically deeper and more beautiful than they are we should have had little fault to find in the fact that the ,past is here translated into ,art's present life4 ,on the contrary all material whatsoever1 it matters not from what age or nation it hails1 only retains its truth for art as part of this vital and actual ,present1 in which it floods the human heart with the reflected image of its own life1 and brings truth home to man's senses and mind4 ,it is just this revelation and renewed activity of that humanity which is immortal in all its varied significance and infinite reconstruction1 which1 in this its receptacle of human situations and emotions1 forms the possible no less than the absolute content of the art of our time4 ,if we now take a glance back1 having established in a general way the content which distinguishes the subject-matter of this portion of our inquiry1 at that which we finally considered to be the modes of romantic art's dissolution1 we may recall the fact that we then defined them under a term applicable to all1 as the falling to pieces of ,art1 a process which1 in one of its aspects1 was due to an imitation of the objects of ,nature in all the detail of their contingent appearance1 and in another was referable to humour1 that unfettered activity of the individual soul in all its capricious mastery4 ,in conclusion1 we may still draw attention to a further way of fixing on our minds that terminus of romantic art without prejudice to our previous remarks upon it4 ,in other words1 just as in our advance from symbolism to classical art1 we considered the transitional forms of image1 simile1 and epigram1 we have also here in romantic art a form somewhat similar worthy of attention4 ,in those previous modes of conception the important thing was the falling asunder of the spiritual significance and the external form1 a severation which in part was cancelled by the activity of the artist's own mind1 and in the exceptional case of the epigram could possibly be converted into complete identity4 ,romantic art was from the beginning the profounder disunion of that inmost soul-life which finds its satisfaction in its own wealth1 which1 moreover1 for the reason that generally the objective world does not completely satisfy the demand of ,spirit essentially as such1 persisted in its discordance with or indifference to it4 ,this opposition in the evolution of romantic art finally led us perforce to the point where we found that the interest was exclusively centered on the contingent aspects of externality1 or the equally capricious activity of the soul4 ,when1 however1 this exclusive attention to either side1 whether it be the externality or purely personal presentment1 agreeably to the main principle of romantic art1 is carried so far that it becomes a real penetration of the soul within the object1 and the aspect of humour in its relation to the object and its embodiment within the sphere of its own individual reaction#cbh assumes a real importance1 in that case we are face to face with what is a coalescence#cbi with the object1 and is nothing less than an objective humour4 ,such a coalescence1 however1 can only be of limited range1 and find expression merely1 say1 within a lyric1 or at most in but a portion of a larger composition4 ,for if its boundaries widened1 and it was carried throughout the object-matter in question1 it would necessarily become identical with the action and event1 become1 in short1 a completely objective representation4 ,what we have to consider here is rather a sensitive self-abandonment of the artist's soul in his object1 which no doubt is unfolded in some kind of process1 but nevertheless remains a movement of the imagination and heart indicative rather of individual genius2 a caprice in some sort1 and yet not entirely capricious or intentional1 but rather a sympathetic expansion of the artist's genius1 which devotes itself solely to its subject-matter1 and makes it exclusively its interest and content4 ,we may usefully compare with such a spirit the last blooms of the ancient ,greek epigram1 in which this type appears in its first and simplest features4 ,the mode we have here in our mind is in the first instance apparent when the reference to the object is not a mere statement of fact1 is not merely an inscription or transcript which states what the object is1 but is associated with a deeper emotion1 a sleight of witticism1 an ingenious fancy1 or a real flash of imaginative power1 any or all of which through their poetical grasp give life to and expand the minutest detail4 ,poems of this description1 it matters little what their subject-matter may be1 whether a tree1 a mill-stream1 spring1 dead things or alive1 are of infinite variety and may be found in the literature of all nations4 ,they are1 however1 a subordinate grade of poetry1 and very readily come off halting4 ,for at least in a country of cultivated speech and reflection there are few objects and conditions1 indeed1 which will not offer some further link of association to every man4 ,and just as the average man thinks himself qualified to write a letter he will rate his capacity to express such ideas4 ,one is very easily tired of a universal spirit of sing-song such as this1 even though a stray novelty of touch may be here and there thrown in4 ,the importance of such a class of composition1 therefore1 depends almost entirely on the question how far the artist's soul1 with its full intensity of life1 and with a spiritual and intellectual wealth that is both profound and extensive1 has without reserve entered vitally into such conditions1 situations1 and so forth2 has made a home there1 and from the object in question created something unseen before1 something beautiful1 something essentially worth our attention4 ,to this end the ,persians and ,arabians pre-eminently in the oriental splendour of their images1 in the unfettered enjoyment of their imagination1 which enters into the being of its subject-matter in the purest spirit of contemplation1 offer1 even for present times and our own intensity of spiritual penetration1 a glorious exemplar4 ,both the ,spaniards and ,italians1 too1 have done excellent things in the same direction4 ,it is true that ,klopstock says of ,petrarch3 _/ --,laura besang ,petrarca in ,liedern1 ,zwar dem ,bewunderer schn1 aber dem ,liebenden nicht#ccj4 _/ but ,klopstock's own love-odes are themselves full of moral reflections1 troubled yearning and passion that is for ever writhing after immortality of happiness4 ,what we admire most in ,petrarch is the free atmosphere of essentially noble emotion1 which1 however much it expresses the longing for the beloved1 can none the less repose on its own heart4 ,for this kind of longing1 indeed sensual desire itself1 is far from being absent in the range of the art we now are considering1 when the subject is restricted to wine and love1 the tavern and the glass2 the excessive voluptuousness of the images of ,persian writers themselves are in fact an illustration of this2 but in this case the imagination1 in the interest it possesses for the intelligence1 removes the object entirely from the sphere of desire which has a practical aim4 ,it possesses an interest merely in the realm of its own exuberant activity1 finding its delight freely in its own countless freaks and fancies1 and making joys and griefs alike the subject of its sport ,among our modern poets the two who preeminently combine a similar buoyancy of genius with a more intimate and spiritually searching depth of imagination are ,goethe in his ,weststlicher ,divan and ,rckert4 ,the essential contrast between ,goethe's poetry in the ,divan and his more early efforts is quite remarkable4 ,in his ,welcome and ,farewell1 for instance1 the language and description are no doubt fine in their way1 true feeling is there4 ,in other respects the situation is commonplace1 the climax is poor1 and of imagination in the full and free sense there is no further trace4 ,the poem in the ,divan entitled ,recovery#cca is composed in a totally different spirit4 ,love is here wholly absorbed in the imagination1 and the movement1 happiness1 and bliss of the latter are throughout predominant4 ,and1 to speak generally of artistic productions of this class1 we may affirm that we find in them no personal craving1 no indications of enamourment1 no mere desire1 but a pure delight in the objects delineated1 an inexhaustible self-absorption of imagination1 an innocent play1 a free surrender to the coquettish humours even of rhyme and ingenious versification2 and withal an intense jubilation of the soul in its own free movement1 a spirit1 which1 by means of this very exhilaration induced by artistic form#ccb lifts the soul high above all its painful perplexity into the ordered limits of the real4 ,and here we must close our consideration of the particular types according to which the ,ideal of art throughout its process is self-differentiated4 ,we have made these several modes the subject of a more extensive inquiry1 with a view to unfolding the content of the same1 a content from which the proper modes of artistic presentment are themselves also deducible4 ,for in ,art1 too1 as in all other human production1 it is the content which is finally decisive4 ,in fact ,art1 if we consider the true notion of it1 has one and only one supreme function4 ,it has to set forth in adequate form1 within the grasp of our actual senses1 what is itself essential content2 and the ,philosophy of ,art should consequently regard it as its main business to comprehend in ,thought what this abundance of content and its beautiful mode of manifestation verily is4 ,footnote #bef3 ,subjektivitt4 ,footnote #beg3 ,fr andere1 that is for other spiritual beings than the absolute ,spirit as such4 ,footnote #beh3 ,die ,innigkeit4 ,footnote #bei3 ,aus dem ,innern exzeugten4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,sich in sich hineinbildend4 ,that is by continually supplying new modes to the subjective spiritual content--until we arrive at the almost purely spiritual mode of music4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,die innere ,auflsung4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,the phenomenal world of ,nature4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,die ,verwickelungen4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,die ,abentheuerlichkeit4 ,hegel means that it is like the result of an adventure--unforeseen rather than fantastic4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,ein individuelles ,subjekt4 ,footnote #bff3 ,that which supplies its own justification4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,lit41 unenclosed1 that is open indefinitely and so undefined1 unsounded4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,that is1 it is open to extraneous causes that cannot be predicted from the mere essential notion of them4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,i presume this is the meaning of the expression das ,aussergttliche and das partikulr ,menschliche4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,pralle--stiff1 metallic in its steeply rigidity4 ,footnote #bga3 ,act ,i1 sc4 #e4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,miserabilitt4 ,one of ,hegel's own coinage4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,an unknown work to me4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,ein inneres ,werden4 ,footnote #bge3 ,one is reminded of the ,mohammedan fatalism4 ,it is ,allah4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,in einfacher ,gedrungenheit4 ,hegel means that it is tightly self-sealed1 that and nothing more4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,hineingelegtseyn4 ,the reference of the whole being to one object4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,this was the representation which took place in ,berlin in #ahbj1 with ,mademoiselle ,erelinger as ,juliet4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,list1 usually in depreciatory sense1 here otherwise4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,with the exception1 of course1 of her presumed father ,prospero4 ,footnote #bha3 ,that is1 a poetry based rather on the reflective faculty than the creative imagination4 ,footnote #bhb3 _/ ,he saw it plunge1 drink boldly1 ,then sink in sea-depths lost2 ,and what his eyes saw loosed him1 ,no drop the king drank more4 _/ ,footnote #bhc3 ,lebenslufe in aufsteigender ,linie4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,in sich totales1 unbeschrnktes ,gemth4 ,the expressions would appear to contradict one another1 but the emphasis is on the unity of a whole which is itself not fully defined4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,it is not so much a third type as a way of looking at the previous ones4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,it is contingent1 of course1 to the individual4 ,hegel does not mean that it is without causality4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,the sphere of objective fact4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,from ,nature1 that is4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,ihres inneren ,verlaufs4 ,i suppose ,hegel means action under the aspect in which it forms a part of the individual development--regarded in its relation to will and consciousness4 ,footnote #bij3 ,that is1 the ,christian community4 ,footnote #bia3 ,den ,menschen als ,menschheit1 that is in his generally secular aspect4 ,footnote #bib3 ,i presume this is the sense of gebrochen here4 ,but lower down it would mean apparently discordant4 ,footnote #bic3 ,by fantastic ,hegel seems to me to mean that which is based on a fancy or imagination that is wholly personal to the artist1 and so adventitious in its results4 ,footnote #bid3 ,sicheres ,gemth--consistent both in its literal and metaphorical senses--one that holds together and is thus self-assured4 ,footnote #bie3 ,das ,romanhafte4 ,i cannot think of an ,english expression which exactly corresponds4 ,footnote #bif3 ,sich schrauben1 like the winding smoke from a bottle--the corkscrew---ironical of course4 ,footnote #big3 ,one of the finest illustrations of such a universality of interest may be found in ,ruskin's description of ,tintoret's ,adoration of the ,magi4 ,footnote #bih3 ,genialitt and genial mean a good deal more than our ,english words geniality and genial--they refer directly to genius4 ,footnote #bii3 ,das in sich ,nothwendige4 ,the reference is mainly to the stricter principles of classical art4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,nach ihrer ganzen ,inneren4 ,footnote #cja3 ,lit41 ,which possesses for its substantial content 7,substanz7 the integrity 7,rechtschaffenheit71 world-wisdom here ,i think no more is meant than good sense and the morale of daily life 7des ,tages74 ,footnote #cjb3 ,lit41 ,that the material1 so far as art appropriates it1 be immanent and at home in that reality4 ,immanent must ,i think refer back to die vorliegende ,werklichkeit4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,that is it has no interest qu a natural object4 ,footnote #cje3 ,scheinen must mean here natural rather than artistic appearance4 ,natural appearance is not necessarily beautiful4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,des sick in sich vertiefenden ,scheinens4 ,it is self-deepening in proportion to the feiner ,sinn below mentioned4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,i think this is the meaning of the expression das ,physikalische der ,farbe--not so much the material constituents of colour as the effect of colour on physical substances4 ,but either interpretation makes sense4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,an artist unknown to me4 ,footnote #cji3 ,gemth4 ,i think ,hegel uses the word here in the narrower sense rather than soul generally4 ,footnote #caj3 ,der subjektive ,humor4 ,footnote #caa3 ,lit41 ,and arranges them side by side in an alien order4 ,that is1 under a principle of co-ordination which does not lie in the subject-matter4 ,footnote #cab3 ,unscheinbares ,fortschlendern4 ,footnote #cac3 ,die ,subjektivitt des ,kunstlers4 ,the expression as used here and below implies1 of course1 not so much the formal personality or character as the individual spirit and its resources4 ,footnote #cad3 ,i presume this is the meaning of von einem affirmativen ,momente4 ,footnote #cae3 ,lit41 ,was at first posited as naught4 ,footnote #caf3 ,that is1 as an artist for whom it is wahrhafter ,ernst4 ,footnote #cag3 ,das ,absolute here is1 ,i think1 referable to the subject-matter of art rather than to be taken as the ,absolute simply4 ,footnote #cah3 ,die ,seele4 ,perhaps vital principle would be better4 ,footnote #cai3 ,that is1 ,spirit or mind4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,there is an uncorrected misprint here1 der should be den and tragen would be an improvement on trgt4 ,footnote #cba3 ,i am not certain whether the subject is here the artist himself1 or his mode of working4 ,the context would suggest the latter1 the better sense the former4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,reflection has destroyed the necessity of any particular form4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,that is the life of ,spirit4 ,das ,heilige und ,ewige4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,bewusstlosen4 ,his spiritual nature in its unexplored universality is1 ,i presume1 the sense4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,als ihnen gemss4 ,as adequate to their completely explicit nature4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,aber als leibliche unerinnerte ,gegenwart4 ,i am not sure that ,i know precisely the sense here1 unless it amounts to this that the ,greek gods were without an historical memory4 ,their immortality swallowed up in its repose the sense of beings in time1 and assumed to be in human bodily shape4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,zu ihrem neuen ,heiligen den ,humanus macht1 an uncommon phrase4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,innerhalt seines subjektiven ,reflexes4 ,that is1 the synthetic activity of humour's reflection4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,verinnigung1 a stronger word than ,vereinigung4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,petrarch sang songs of his ,laura4 ,to him who wonders at beautiful songs they are beautiful1 to the lover they are not so4 ,footnote #cca3 ,wiederfinden4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,i am not quite sure that die ,heiterkeit des ,gestaltens does not mean the buoyancy of the created form4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii