,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,,am]ican ,,high-,,pressure ,,eng9e ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,,famili>ly ,,expla9$ ,,& ,,illu/rat$2 ,,) ,,an ,,hi/orical ,,sket* ,,( ,,its ,,inv5tion ,,& ,,progressive ,,improvem5t2 ,,its ,,applications ,,to ,,navigation ,,& ,,railways2 ,,) ,,pla9 ,,maxims ,,= ,,railway ,,speculators4 ,,by ,,! ,,rev4 ,,dionysius ,,l>dn]1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,society ,,( ,,ed9burgh2 ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,iri% ,,academy2 ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,a/ronomical ,,society2 ,,( ,,! ,,cambridge ,,philosophical ,,society2 ,,( ,,! ,,/ati/ical ,,society ,,( ,,p>is2 ,,( ,,! ,,l9n,,an ,,& ,,zoological ,,societies2 ,,( ,,! ,,society ,,= ,,promot+ ,,useful ,,arts ,,9 ,,scotl&1 ,,etc4 ,,) ,,additions ,,& ,,notes1 ,,by ,,james ,,r5wick1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,natural ,,exp]im5tal ,,philosophy ,,& ,,*emi/ry ,,9 ,,columbia ,,college1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,engrav+s ,,& ,,woodcuts4 ,,second ,,am]ican1 ,,f ,,! ,,fif? ,,london1 ,,edition1 ,,consid]ably ,,enl>g$4 ,,philadelphia3 ,e4 ,l4 ,,c>ey ,a4 ,,h>t4 #ahcf ,ent]$1 accord+ to ! ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahcf1 by ,e4 ,l4 ,,c>ey ,a4 ,,h>t1 9 ! ,cl]k's (fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt = ! ,ea/]n ,di/rict ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,,preface ,,( ,,! ,,am]ican ,,editor4 ,sev]al ( ! additions1 :i* 7 made by ! ,editor to ! fir/ ,am]ican edition1 h be5 sup]s$$ by ! great ext5sion1 :i* ! orig9al has f "t to "t receiv$ f its au?or4 ,?is is m p>ticul>ly ! case1 ) ! sections :i* _h ref]5ce to ! "* ( /eam at temp]atures o!r ?an t ( boil+ wat]1 to ! use ( /eam 9 navigation1 & to its application to locomotion4 ,^! sections h ( c\rse be5 omitt$4 ,a few new sections1 & sev]al notes h be5 add$1 illu/rative ( su* po9ts z may be mo/ int]e/+ to ! ,am]ican read]4 ,,columbia ,,college1 ,new ,york1 ,m>*1 #ahcf4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fif? ,,edition4 ,?is volume %\ld m prop]ly be call$ a new "w ?an a new edition ( ! =m] "o4 ,9 fact ! book has be5 almo/ rewritt54 ,! *ange :i* has tak5 place1 ev5 9 ! %ort p]iod :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! publication ( ! fir/ edition1 9 ! relation ( ! /eam eng9e to ! useful arts1 has be5 s consid]able z to r5d] ?is inevitable4 ,! great ext5sion ( railroads1 & ! increas+ numb] ( projects :i* h be5 br\ght =w>d = new l9es connect+ v>i\s po9ts ( ! k+dom1 z well z ! ext5sion ( /eam navigation1 n only ?r\gh ! seas & *annels surr\nd+ & int]sect+ ^! isl&s1 & ?r\gh\t o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 b ?r\gh ! l>g] wat]s :i* are int]pos$ betwe5 our dom9ions 9 ! ,ea/ & ! c\ntries ( ,egypt & ,syria1 h conf]r$ s mu* int]e/ on ! application ( /eam to transport1 t ,i h ?\ght x adviseable to ext5d ! limits ( ! pres5t edition consid]ably beyond ^? ( ! la/4 ,! *apt] on railroads has be5 enl>g$ & improv$4 ,?ree *apt]s h be5 add$4 ,! twelf? *apt] conta9s a view ( /eam navigation2 ! ?irte5? conta9s sev]al important po9ts connect$ ) ! economy ( /eam p[]1 :i*1 :5 ?is "w 0 fir/ publi%$1 w\ld n h (f]$ suffici5t int]e/ to ju/ify _! admission into a popul> treatise2 & ! f\rte5? *apt] conta9s a s]ies ( comp5di\s maxims1 = ! in/ruction & guidance ( p]sons desir\s ( mak+ inve/m5ts or speculat+ 9 railway prop]ty4 ,london1 ,decemb]1 #ahce4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,!re are two classes ( p]sons ^: att5tion may be attract$ by a treatise on su* a subject z ! ,/eam ,eng9e4 ,"o consi/s ( ^? :o1 by trade or pr(ession1 are int]e/$ 9 me*anical sci5ce1 & :o !re=e seek in=mation on ! subject ( :i* x treats1 z a matt] ( necessity1 & a wi% to acquire x 9 a mann] & to an ext5t :i* may be practically available 9 _! avocations4 ,! o!r & m num]\s class is t "p ( ! public 9 g5]al1 :o1 impell$ by *oice r ?an necessity1 ?9k ! int]e/ ( ! subject itself1 & ! pleasure d]ivable f ! in/ances ( +5uity :i* x unfolds1 motives suffici5tly /rong to induce !m to und]take ! /udy ( x4 ,)\t leav+ ! =m] class altoge!r out ( view1 x is = ! use ( ! latt] pr9cipally t ! foll[+ lectures are design$4 ,to ?is class ( read]s ! ,/eam ,eng9e is a subject :i*1 if prop]ly treat$ (1 mu/ pres5t /rong & peculi> attractions4 ,:e!r we consid] ! hi/ory ( its inv5tion z to "t & place1 ! effects :i* x has produc$1 or ! means by :i* x has caus$ ^! effects1 we f9d ev]y?+ to gratify our national pride1 /imulate our curiosity1 excite our wond]1 & comm& our admiration4 ,! inv5tion & progressive improvem5t ( ?is extraord9>y ma*9e1 is ! "w ( our own "t & our own c\ntry2 x has be5 produc$ & br\ght to p]fection almo/ )9 ! la/ c5tury1 & is ! exclusive (fspr+ ( ,briti% g5ius fo/]$ & support$ by ,briti% capital4 ,to enum]ate ! effects ( ?is inv5tion1 w\ld be to c\nt e com=t & luxury ( life4 ,x has increas$ ! sum ( human happ9ess1 n only by call+ new pleasures into exi/5ce1 b by s *eap5+ =m] enjoym5ts z to r5d] !m atta9able by ^? :o be=e nev] c\ld h hop$ to %>e !m4 ,nor are its effects conf9$ to ,engl& alone3 !y ext5d ov] ! :ole civiliz$ _w2 & ! savage tribes ( ,am]ica1 ,asia1 & ,africa1 mu/ ere long feel ! b5efits1 remote or imm$iate1 ( ?is all-p[]ful ag5t4 ,if ! effect :i* ?is ma*9e has _h on comm]ce & ! weal? ( nations raise our a/oni%m5t1 ! means by :i* ?is effect has be5 produc$ w n less excite our admiration4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e pres5ts a s]ies ( contrivances1 :i*1 = exquisite & ref9$ +5uity1 /& )\t a p>allel 9 ! annals ( human inv5tion4 ,^! admirable contrivances1 unlike o!r results ( sci5tific inve/igation1 h also ?is peculi>ity1 t to und]/& & appreciate _! excell5ce requires little previ\s or subsidi>y k4 ,a simple & cle> explanation1 dive/$ z f> z possible ( te*nicalities1 & assi/$ by well select$ diagrams1 is all t is necess>y to r5d] ! pr9ciples ( ! con/ruction & op]ation ( ! ,/eam ,eng9e intelligible to a p]son ( pla9 und]/&+ & mod]ate in=mation4 ,! purpose = :i* ?is volume is design$1 z already expla9$1 has r5d]$ necess>y ! omission ( _m p>ticul>s :i*1 h[ev] int]e/+ & in/ructive to ! practical me*anic or pr(essional eng9e]1 w\ld h little attraction = ! g5]al read]4 ,our read]s require to be in=m$ ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! con/ruction & op]ation ( ,/eam ,eng9es1 r ?an ( _! practical details4 ,= ! same reasons we h conf9$ ourselves to ! m /rik+ & important circum/ances 9 ! hi/ory ( ! inv5tion & progressive improvem5t ( ?is ma*9e1 exclud+ _m petty disputes :i* arose f "t to "t respect+ ! rights ( inv5tion1 ! int]e/ ( :i* is buri$ 9 ! graves ( _! respective claimants4 ,9 ! descriptive p>ts ( ! "w we h be5 gov]n$ by ! same consid]ations4 ,! application ( ! =ce ( /eam to me*anical purposes has be5 propos$ on v>i\s occasions1 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 & "u a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,! li/ ( ,briti% pat5ts alone w\ld furni% an au?or ( common indu/ry & application ) matt] to swell 8 book to _m times ! bulk ( ?is volume4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( ^! projects h1 h[ev]1 prov$ abortive4 ,descriptions ( su* unsuccessful1 ?\gh frequ5tly +5i\s ma*9es1 we h ?\ght x adviseable to exclude f our pages1 z n possess+ suffici5t int]e/ = ! read]s to ^: use ?is volume is d$icat$4 ,we h !re=e /rictly conf9$ our descriptions ei!r to ^? ,/eam ,eng9es :i* h come into g5]al use1 or to ^? :i* =m an important l9k 9 ! *a9 ( inv5tion4 ,decemb] #bf1 #ahbg4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,matt]4 ,motion ! ,ag5t 9 ,manufactures4 -- ,animal ,p[]4 -- ,p[] dep5d+ on physical ,ph5om5a4 -- ,purpose ( a ,ma*9e4 -- ,prime ,mov]4 -- ,me*anical qualities ( ! ,atmosph]e4 -- ,its ,weight4 -- ,! ,b>omet]4 -- ,fluid ,pressure4 -- ,pressure ( r>efi$ ,air4 -- ,ela/icity ( ,air4 -- ,bell[s4 -- ,effects ( ,heat4 -- ,!rmomet]4 -- ,me?od ( mak+ "o4 -- ,freez+ & ,boil+ ,po9ts4 -- ,degrees4 -- ,dilatation ( bodies4 -- ,liquefaction & ,solidification4 -- ,vaporisation & ,cond5sation4 -- ,lat5t ,heat ( ,/eam4 -- ,expansion ( ,wat] 9 ,evaporat+4 -- ,effects ( ,repulsion & ,cohesion4 -- ,effect ( ,pressure ^u ,boil+ ,po9t4 -- ,=mation ( a ,vacuum by ,cond5sation4 ,page #ag ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,fir/ ,,/eps ,,9 ,,! ,,inv5tion4 ,futility ( e>ly ,claims4 -- ,watt ! real ,inv5tor4 -- ,h]o ( ,alex&ria4 -- ,blasco ,g>ay4 -- ,solomon ,de ,caus4 -- ,giovanni ,branca4 -- ,m>quis ( ,worce/]4 -- ,sir ,samuel ,morl&4 -- ,d5is ,pap94 -- ,?omas ,sav]y4 #ch ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,eng9es ,,( ,,sav]y ,,& ,,newcom54 ,sav]y's ,eng9e4 -- ,boil]s & _! ,app5dages4 -- ,work+ ,app>atus4 -- ,mode ( ,op]ation4 -- ,defects ( ! ,eng9e4 -- ,newcom5 & ,cawley4 -- ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e4 -- ,accid5tal discov]y ( ,cond5sation by ,jet4 -- ,pott]'s discov]y ( ! ,me?od ( work+ ! ,valves4 #ea ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,eng9e ,,( ,,james ,,watt4 ,advantages ( ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e ov] t ( ,capta9 ,sav]y4 -- ,x conta9$ no new ,pr9ciple4 -- ,pap9's ,eng9e4 -- ,james ,watt4 -- ,p>ticul>s ( 8 ,life4 -- ,8 fir/ conceptions ( ! ,means ( economis+ ,heat4 -- ,pr9ciple ( 8 project$ ,improvem5ts4 #fi ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,watt',s ,,s+le-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,expansive ,pr9ciple appli$4 -- ,failure ( ,roebuck1 & p>tn]%ip ) ,bolton4 -- ,pat5t ext5d$ to #ahjj4 -- ,c\nt]4 -- ,difficulties 9 gett+ ! ,eng9es into ,use4 #hj ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,! ,s+le-act+ ,eng9e unfit to impel ,ma*9]y4 -- ,v>i\s ,contrivances to adapt x to ?is ,purpose4 -- ,d\ble-,cyl9d]4 -- ,d\ble-act+ ,cyl9d]4 -- ,v>i\s modes ( connect+ ! ,pi/on ) ! ,beam4 -- ,rack & ,sector4 -- ,d\ble ,*a94 -- ,p>allel ,motion4 -- ,crank4 -- ,sun & ,planet ,motion4 -- ,fly ,:eel4 -- ,gov]nor4 #ia ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e1 cont9u$4 ,on ! ,valves ( ! ,d\ble-act+ ,/eam ,eng9e4 -- ,orig9al ,valves4 -- ,sp9dle ,valves4 -- ,slid+ ,valve4 -- ,d ,valve4 -- ,f\r-,way ,cock4 #ajh ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,boil] ,,& ,,its ,,app5dages4 ,level ,gauges4 -- ,fe$+ app>atus4 -- ,/eam ,gauge4 -- ,b>omet] ,gauge4 -- ,safety ,valves4 -- ,self-regulat+ ,damp]4 -- ,edelcrantz's ,valve4 -- ,furnace4 -- ,smoke-consum+ ,furnace4 -- ,brunton's ,self-regulat+ ,furnace4 -- ,oldham's ,modification4 #aag ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,d\ble-,,cyl9d] ,,eng9es4 ,hornbl[]'s ,eng9e4 -- ,woolf's ,eng9e4 -- ,c>twright's ,eng9e4 #acd ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,railways4 ,high-pressure ,eng9es4 -- ,leupold's ,eng9e4 -- ,trevi?ick & ,vivian4 -- ,effects ( ,improvem5t 9 ,locomotion4 -- ,hi/orical ,acc\nt ( ! ,locomotive ,eng9e4 -- ,bl5k9sop's ,pat5t4 -- ,*apman's ,improvem5t4 -- ,walk+ ,eng9e4 -- ,/eph5son's ,fir/ ,eng9es4 -- ,8 ,improvem5ts4 -- ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway ,company4 -- ,_! ,prelim9>y ,proce$+s4 -- ,! ,great ,competition ( #ahbi4 -- ,! ,rocket4 -- ,! ,sansp>eil4 -- ,! ,novelty4 -- ,qualities ( ! ,rocket4 -- ,successive ,improvem5ts4 -- ,exp]im5ts4 -- ,defects ( ! ,pres5t ,eng9es4 -- ,incl9$ ,planes4 -- ,me?ods ( surm\nt+ !m4 -- ,circum/ances ( ! ,man*e/] ,railway ,company4 -- ,probable ,improvem5ts 9 ,locomotives4 -- ,_! capabilities ) respect to spe$4 -- ,probable ,effects ( ! ,project$ ,railroads4 -- ,/eam ,p[] comp>$ ) ,horse ,p[]4 -- ,railroads comp>$ ) ,canals4 #ade ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,turnpike ,,roads4 ,railway & ,turnpike ,roads comp>$4 -- ,mr4 ,gurney's inv5tions4 -- ,8 ,locomotive ,/eam ,eng9e4 -- ,its p]=mances4 -- ,prejudices & errors4 -- ,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 -- ,conv5i5ce & safety ( ,/eam ,c>riages4 -- ,hancock's ,/eam ,c>riage4 -- ,mr4 ,n4 ,ogle4 -- ,trevi?ick's inv5tion4 -- ,proce$+s aga9/ ,/eam ,c>riages4 -- ,turnpike ,bills4 -- ,/eam ,c>riage betwe5 ,gl\ce/] & ,*elt5ham4 -- ,its discont9uance4 -- ,report ( ! ,committee ( ! ,commons4 -- ,pres5t ,/ate & ,prospects ( ,/eam ,c>riages4 #bac ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,/eam ,,navigation4 ,propulsion by paddle-:eels4 -- ,mann] ( driv+ !m4 -- ,m>9e ,eng9e4 -- ,its =m & arrangem5t4 -- ,proportion ( its cyl9d]4 -- ,injury to boil]s by deposites & incru/ation4 -- ,n effectually remov$ by bl[+ out4 -- ,mr4 ,samuel ,hall's cond5s]4 -- ,its advantages4 -- ,orig9ally sugge/$ by ,watt4 -- ,hall's /eam sav]4 -- ,h[>d's vap\r eng9e4 -- ,morgan's paddle-:eels4 -- ,limits ( /eam navigation4 -- ,proportion ( tonnage to p[]4 -- ,av]age spe$4 -- ,consumption ( fuel4 -- ,iron ,/eam]s4 -- ,am]ican /eam raft4 -- ,/eam navigation to ,india4 -- ,by ,egypt & ! ,r$ ,sea to ,bombay4 -- ,by same r\te to ,calcutta4 -- ,by ,syria & ! ,euphrates to ,bombay4 -- ,/eam communication ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ! we/ coa/ ( ,irel& to ,/4 ,johns1 ,halifax1 & ,new ,york4 #bda ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,g5]al ,,economy ,,( ,,/eam ,,p[]4 ,me*anical efficacy ( /eam -- proportional to ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$1 & to ! fuel consum$4 -- ,indep5d5t ( ! pressure4 -- ,its me*anical efficacy by cond5sation alone4 -- ,by cond5sation & expansion comb9$ -- by direct pressure & expansion -- by direct pressure & cond5sation -- by direct pressure1 cond5sation1 & expansion4 -- ,! p[] ( eng9es4 -- ,! duty ( eng9es4 -- ,mean+ ( horse p[]4 -- ,to compute ! p[] ( an eng9e4 -- ,( ! p[] ( boil]s4 -- ,! /ructure ( ! grate-b>s4 -- ,quantity ( wat] & /eam room4 -- ,fire surface & flue surface4 -- ,dim5sions ( /eam pipes4 -- ,velocity ( pi/on4 -- ,economy ( fuel4 -- ,corni% duty reports4 #bgg ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,pla9 ,rules = ,railway ,speculators4 #cjg ,,! ,,/eam ,,eng9e ,,expla9$ ,,& ,,illu/rat$4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,matt]4 ,motion ! ,ag5t 9 ,manufactures4 -- ,animal ,p[]4 -- ,p[] dep5d+ on ,physical ,ph5om5a4 -- ,purpose ( a ,ma*9e4 -- ,prime ,mov]4 -- ,me*anical qualities ( ! ,atmosph]e4 -- ,its ,weight4 -- ,! ,b>omet]4 -- ,fluid ,pressure4 -- ,pressure ( ,r>efi$ ,air4 -- ,ela/icity ( ,air4 -- ,bell[s4 -- ,effects ( ,heat4 -- ,!rmomet]4 -- ,me?od ( mak+ "o4 -- ,freez+ & ,boil+ ,po9ts4 -- ,degrees4 -- ,dilatation ( ,bodies4 -- ,liquefaction & ,solidification4 -- ,vaporisation & ,cond5sation4 -- ,lat5t heat ( ,/eam4 -- ,expansion ( ,wat] 9 ,evaporat+4 -- ,effects ( ,repulsion & ,cohesion4 -- ,effect ( ,pressure ^u ,boil+-,po9t4 -- ,=mation ( a ,vacuum by ,cond5sation4 7#a47 ,( ! v>i\s productions design$ by nature to supply ! wants ( man1 !re are few :i* are suit$ to 8 necessities 9 ! /ate 9 :i* ! e>? spontane\sly (f]s !m3 if we except atmosph]ic air1 we %all sc>cely f9d ano!r in/ance3 ev5 wat]1 9 mo/ cases1 requires to be transport$ f its /reams or res]voirs2 & food itself1 9 almo/ e =m1 requires culture & prep>ation4 ,b if1 f ! m]e necessities ( physical exi/5ce 9 a primitive /ate1 we rise to ! dem&s ( civil & social life1--to say no?+ ( luxuries & ref9em5ts1--we %all f9d t ev]y?+ :i* contributes to our conv5i5ce1 or m9i/]s to our pleasure1 requires a previ\s & ext5sive exp5diture ( lab\r4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! objects ( our enjoym5t d]ive all _! excell5ces1 n f any qualities orig9ally inh]5t 9 ! natural sub/ances out ( :i* !y are =m$1 b f ^? qualities :i* h be5 be/[$ ^u !m by ! application ( human lab\r & human skill4 ,9 all ^? *anges to :i* ! raw productions ( ! e>? are submitt$ 9 ord] to adapt !m to our wants1 "o ( ! pr9cipal ag5ts is motion4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! prep>ation ( clo?+ = our bodies1 ! v>i\s processes necess>y = ! culture ( ! cotton require ! application ( mov+ p[]1 fir/ to ! soil1 & subsequ5tly to ! plant f :i* ! raw mat]ial is obta9$3 ! wool mu/ aft]w>ds be pick$ & cleans$1 twi/$ into ?reads1 & wov5 into clo?4 ,9 all ^! processes motion is ! ag5t3 to cleanse ! wool & arrange ! fibres ( ! cotton1 ! wool mu/ be beat51 teas$1 c>d$1 & submitt$ to o!r processes1 by :i* all ! =eign & co>s] matt] may be sep>at$1 & ! fibres or ?reads arrang$ ev5ly1 side by side4 ,! ?reads mu/ !n receive a rotatory motion1 by :i* !y may be twi/$ into ! requir$ =m2 & f9ally peculi> motions mu/ be giv5 to !m 9 ord] to produce among !m t arrangem5t :i* *>act]ises ! clo? :i* x is our f9al purpose to produce4 ,9 a rude /ate ( society1 ! motions requir$ 9 ! infant manufactures are communicat$ by ! imm$iate application ( ! h&4 ,obs]vation & reflection1 h[ev]1 soon sugge/ m easy & effectual means ( atta9+ ^! ends3 ! /r5g? ( animals is fir/ resort$ to = ! relief ( human lab\r4 ,fur!r reflection & inquiry sugge/ /ill bett] exp$i5ts4 ,:5 we look ar\nd u 9 ! natural _w1 we p]ceive inanimate matt] und]go+ v>i\s effects 9 :i* motion plays a conspicu\s "p3 we see ! falls ( cat>acts1 ! curr5ts ( riv]s1 ! elevation & depression ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 ! curr5ts ( ! atmosph]e2 & ! "q in/antly arises1 :e!r1 )\t %>+ our own means ( subsi/5ce ) ! animals ^: =ce we use1 we may n equally1 or m effectually1 d]ive ! p[]s requir$ f ^! v>i\s ph5om5a ( nature8 ,a difficulty1 h[ev]1 imm$iately pres5ts itself3 we require motion ( a p>ticul> k9d2 b w9d w n bl[1 nor wat] fall z we please1 nor z suits our peculi> wants1 b accord+ to ! fix$ laws ( nature4 ,we want an upw>d motion2 wat] falls d[nw>ds3 we want a circul> motion2 w9d bl[s 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! motions1 !re=e1 :i* are 9 actual exi/5ce mu/ be modifi$ to suit our purposes3 ! means :]eby ^! modifications are produc$1 are call$ ma*9es4 ,a ma*9e1 !re=e1 is an in/rum5t int]pos$ betwe5 "s natural =ce or motion1 & ! object to :i* =ce or motion is desir$ to be transmitt$4 ,! con/ruction ( ! ma*9e is su* z to modify ! natural motion :i* is impress$ ^u x1 s t x may transmit to ! object to be mov$ t peculi> species ( motion :i* x is requir$ to h4 ,to give a v obvi\s example1 let u suppose t a circul> or rotatory motion is requir$ to be produc$1 & t ! only natural s\rce ( motion at our comm& is a p]p5dicul> fall ( wat]3 a :eel is provid$1 plac$ ^u ! axle de/9$ to receive ! rotatory motion2 ?is :eel is furni%$ ) cavities 9 its rim2 ! wat] is conduct$ into ! cavities ne> ! top ( ! :eel on "o side2 & be+ caught by ^!1 its weight be>s d[n t side ( ! :eel1 ! cavities on ! opposite side be+ empty & 9 an inv]t$ position4 ,z ! :eel turns1 ! cavities on ! desc5d+ side dis*>ge _! cont5ts z !y arrive ne> ! l[e/ po9t1 & asc5d empty on ! o!r side4 ,?us a load ( wat] is cont9ually press+ d[n "o side ( ! :eel1 f :i* ! o!r side is free1 & a cont9u$ motion ( rotation is produc$4 ,9 e ma*9e1 !re=e1 !re are ?ree objects dem&+ att5tion3--fir/1 ,! p[] :i* imp>ts motion to x1 ?is is call$ ! prime mov]2 secondly1 ,! nature ( ! ma*9e itself2 & ?irdly1 ,! object to :i* ! motion is to be convey$4 ,9 ! /eam eng9e ! fir/ mov] arises f c]ta9 ph5om5a :i* are exhibit$ :5 heat is appli$ to liquids2 b 9 ! details ( ! ma*9e & 9 its application !re are sev]al physical effects br\ght into play1 :i* x is necess>y p]fectly to und]/& be=e ! nature ( ! ma*9e or its mode ( op]ation c be r5d]$ intelligible4 ,we propose !re=e to devote ! pres5t *apt] to ! explanation & illu/ration ( ^! ph5om5a4 7#b47 ,! physical effects mo/ intimately connect$ ) ! op]ations ( /eam eng9es are "s ( ! me*anical prop]ties ( atmosph]ic air4 ,! atmosph]e is ! ?9 transp>5t fluid 9 :i* we live & move1 & :i*1 by respiration1 supports animal life4 ,?is fluid is app>5tly s light & att5uat$1 t x might be at fir/ d\bt$ :e!r x be really a body at all4 ,x may !re=e excite "s surprise :5 we ass]t1 n only t x is a body1 b also t x is "o ( consid]able weight4 ,we %all be able to prove t x presses on e squ>e in*#a ( surface ) a weight ( ab\t #aelb4 avoirdupois4 ,footnote #a3 ,z we %all h frequ5t occasion to m5tion ?is magnitude1 x w\ld be well t ! read] %\ld be famili> ) x4 ,x is a squ>e1 ea* side ( :i* is an in*4 ,su* z ,a ,b ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #a4 7#c47 ,take a glass tube ,a ,b 7fig4 #b47 m ?an #cb in*es long1 op5 at "o end ,a1 & clos$ at ! o!r end ,b1 & let x be fill$ ) m]cury 7quicksilv]47 ,let a glass vessel or ci/]n ,c1 conta9+ a quantity ( m]cury1 be also provid$4 ,apply+ ! f+] at ,a s z to prev5t ! m]cury 9 ! tube f fall+ out1 let ! tube be inv]t$1 & ! end1 /opp$ by ! f+]1 plung$ into ! m]cury 9 ,c4 ,:5 ! end ( ! tube is bel[ ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ,c 7fig4 #c47 let ! f+] be remov$4 ,x w be f\nd t ! m]cury 9 ! tube w n1 z might be expect$1 fall to ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n ,c1 :i* x w\ld d 7 ! end ,b op5 s z to admit ! air into ! upp] "p ( ! tube4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! level ,d ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube w be ab\t #cj in*es above ! level ,c ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n4 7#d47 ,! cause ( ?is effect is1 t ! weight ( ! atmosph]e re/s on ! surface ,c ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n1 & t5ds !reby to press x up1 or r to resi/ its fall 9 ! tube2 & z ! fall is n assi/$ by ! weight ( ! atmosph]e on ! surface ,d 7s9ce ,b is clos$71 x foll[s1 t z mu* m]cury rema9s susp5d$ 9 ! tube above ! level ,c z ! weight ( ! atmosph]e is able to support4 ,if we suppose ! section ( ! tube to be equal to ! magnitude ( a squ>e in*1 ! weight ( ! column ( m]cury 9 ! tube above ! level ,c w be exactly equal to ! weight ( ! atmosph]e on ea* squ>e in* ( ! surface ,c4 ,! height ( ! level ,d above ,c be+ ab\t #cj in*es1 & a column ( m]cury two in*es 9 height1 & hav+ a base ( a squ>e in*1 weigh+ ab\t "o p\nd avoirdupois1 x foll[s t ! weight ) :i* ! atmosph]e presses on ea* squ>e in* ( a level surface is ab\t #aelb4 avoirdupois4 ,an app>atus ?us con/ruct$1 & furni%$ ) a scale to indicate ! height ( ! level ,d above ! level ,c1 is ! common b>omet]4 ,! diff]5ce ( ^! levels is subject to a small v>iation1 :i* indicates a correspond+ *ange 9 ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,b we take #cj in*es z a /&>d or av]age4 7#e47 ,x is an e/abli%$ prop]ty ( fluids t !y press equally 9 all directions2 & air1 l e o!r fluid1 p>ticipates 9 ?is quality4 ,h5ce x foll[s1 t s9ce ! d[nw>d pressure or weight ( ! atmosph]e is ab\t #aelb4 on ! squ>e in*1 ! lat]al1 upw>d1 & oblique pressures are ( ! same am\nt4 ,b1 indep5d5tly ( ! g5]al pr9ciple1 x may be satisfactory to give exp]im5tal pro( ( ?is4 ,let f\r glass tubes ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 7fig4 #d47 be con/ruct$ ( suffici5t l5g?1 clos$ at "o end ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & op5 at ! o!r4 ,let ! op5 ends ( ?ree ( !m be b5t1 z repres5t$ 9 ! tubes ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,be+ previ\sly fill$ ) m]cury1 let !m all be g5tly inv]t$ s z to h _! clos$ ends up z "h repres5t$4 ,x w be f\nd t ! m]cury w be su/a9$ 9 all1#b & t ! diff]5ce ( ! levels 9 all w be ! same4 ,?us ! m]cury is su/a9$ 9 ,a by ! upw>d pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 9 ,b by its horizontal or lat]al pressure1 9 ,c by its d[nw>d pressure1 & 9 ,d by its oblique pressure2 & z ! diff]5ce ( ! levels is ! same 9 all1 ^! pressures are exactly equal4 ,footnote #b3 ,?is exp]im5t ) ! tube ,a requires to be v c>efully execut$1 & ! tube %\ld be "o ( small bore4 7#f47 ,9 ! exp]im5t describ$ 9 7#c47 ! space ,b ,d 7fig4 #c47 at ! top ( ! tube f :i* ! m]cury has fall5 is p]fectly void & empty1 conta9+ nei!r air nor any o!r fluid3 x is call$ !re=e a vacuum4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a small quantity ( air be introduc$ into t space1 x w imm$iately beg9 to ex]t a pressure on ,d1 :i* w cause ! surface ,d to desc5d1 & x w cont9ue to desc5d until ! column ( m]cury ,c ,d is s f> dim9i%$ t ! weight ( ! atmosph]e is suffici5t to su/a9 x1 z well z ! pressure ex]t$ ^u x by ! air 9 ! space ,b ,d4 ,! quantity ( m]cury :i* falls f ! tube 9 ?is case is necess>ily an equival5t = ! pressure ( ! air introduc$1 s t ! pressure ( ?is air may be exactly asc]ta9$ by all[+ ab\t "o p\nd p] squ>e in* = e two in*es ( m]cury :i* has fall5 f ! tube4 ,! pressure ( ! air or any o!r fluid above ! m]cury 9 ! tube1 may at once be asc]ta9$ by comp>+ ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube ) ! height ( ! b>omet]2 ! diff]5ce ( ! heights w always det]m9e ! pressure on ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube4 ,?is pr9ciple w be f\nd ( "s importance 9 consid]+ ! action ( ! mod]n /eam eng9es4 ,! air :i* we h suppos$ to be introduc$ into ! upp] "p ( ! tube1 presses on ! surface ( ! m]cury ) a =ce mu* great] ?an its weight4 ,= example1 if ! space ,b ,d 7fig4 #c47 7 fill$ ) atmosph]ic air 9 its ord9>y /ate1 x w\ld ex]t a pressure on ! surface ,d equal to ! :ole pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 al?\gh its weight might n am\nt to a s+le gra94 ,! prop]ty 9 virtue ( :i* ! air ex]ts ?is pressure is its ela/icity1 & ?is =ce is dim9i%$ 9 precisely ! proportion 9 :i* ! space :i* ! air occupies is increas$4 ,?us x is kn[n t atmosph]ic air 9 its ord9>y /ate ex]ts a pressure on ! surface ( any vessel 9 :i* x is conf9$1 am\nt+ to ab\t #aelb4 on e squ>e in*4 ,if ! capacity ( ! vessel :i* conta9s x be d\bl$1 x imm$iately exp&s & fills ! d\ble space1 b 9 do+ s x loses half its ela/ic =ce1 & presses only ) ! =ce ( #g-a_/blb4 on e squ>e in*4 ,if ! capacity ( ! vessel _h be5 enl>g$ five times1 ! air w\ld /ill h exp&$ s z to fill x1 b w\ld ex]t only a fif? "p ( its fir/ pressure1 or #clb4 on e squ>e in*4 ,?is prop]ty ( los+ its ela/ic =ce z its volume or bulk is increas$1 is n peculi> to air4 ,x is common to all ela/ic fluids1 & we accord+ly f9d x 9 /eam2 & x is absolutely necess>y to take acc\nt ( x 9 e/imat+ ! effects ( t ag5t4 7#g47 ,!re are num]\s in/ances ( ! effects ( ^! prop]ties ( atmosph]ic air :i* cont9ually fall "u our obs]vation4 ,if ! nozzle & valve-hole ( a pair ( bell[s be /opp$1 x w require a v consid]able =ce to sep>ate ! bo>ds4 ,?is effect is produc$ by ! dim9i%$ ela/ic =ce ( ! air rema9+ betwe5 ! bo>ds ^u ! lea/ increase ( ! space )9 ! bell[s1 :ile ! atmosph]e presses1 ) undim9i%$ =ce1 on ! ext]nal surfaces ( ! bo>ds4 ,if ! bo>ds be sep>at$ s z to d\ble ! space )91 ! ela/ic =ce ( ! includ$ air w be ab\t #g-a_/blb4 on e squ>e in*1 :ile ! pressure on ! ext]nal surfaces w be #aelb4 on e squ>e in*2 consequ5tly1 x w require z great a =ce to su/a9 ! bo>ds 9 su* a position1 z x w\ld to sep>ate !m if ea* bo>d 7 =c$ aga9/ ! o!r1 ) a pressure ( #g-a_/blb4 p] squ>e in* on _! ext]nal surfaces4 ,:5 boys apply a piece ( moi/5$ lea!r to a /one1 s z to exclude ! air f betwe5 !m1 ! /one1 ?\gh x be ( consid]able weight1 may be lift$ by a /r+ atta*$ to ! lea!r3 ! cause ( :i* is ! atmosph]ic pressure1 :i* keeps ! lea!r & ! /one 9 close contact4 7#h47 ,! next class ( physical effects :i* x is necess>y to expla91 are ^? :i* are produc$ :5 heat is imp>t$ or ab/ract$ f bodies4 ,9 g5]al1 :5 heat is imp>t$ to a body1 an enl>gem5t ( bulk w be ! imm$iate consequ5ce1 & at ! same "t ! body w become w>m] to ! t\*4 ,^! two effects ( expansion & increase ( w>m? go+ on always toge!r1 ! "o has be5 tak5 z a measure ( ! o!r2 & ^u ?is pr9ciple ! common !rmomet] is con/ruct$4 ,t in/rum5t consi/s ( a tube ( glass1 t]m9at$ 9 a bulb1 ! magnitude ( :i* is consid]able1 comp>$ ) ! bore ( ! tube4 ,! bulb & "p ( ! tube are fill$ ) m]cury1 or "s o!r liquid4 ,:5 ! bulb is expos$ to any s\rce ( heat1 ! m]cury conta9$ 9 x1 be+ w>m$ or increas$ 9 temp]ature1 is at ! same "t increas$ 9 bulk1 or exp&$ or dilat$1 z x is call$4 ,! bulb n hav+ suffici5t capacity to conta9 ! increas$ bulk ( m]cury1 ! liquid is =c$ up 9 ! tube1 & ! quantity ( expansion is det]m9$ by obs]v+ ! asc5t ( ! column 9 ! tube4 ,an in/rum5t ( ?is k9d1 expos$ to heat or cold1 w fluctuate accord+ly1 ! m]cury ris+ z ! heat to :i* x is expos$ is increas$1 & fall+ by exposure to cold4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to r5d] x an accurate measure ( temp]ature1 x is necess>y to connect ) x a scale by :i* ! elevation or depression ( ! m]cury 9 ! tube may be measur$4 ,su* a scale is con/ruct$ = !rmomet]s 9 ?is c\ntry 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,let u suppose ! in/rum5t imm]s$ 9 a vessel ( melt+ ice3 ! column ( m]cury 9 ! tube w be obs]v$ to fall to a c]ta9 po9t1 & !re ma9ta9 its position unalt]$3 let t po9t be m>k$ ^u ! tube4 ,let ! in/rum5t be n[ transf]r$ to a vessel ( boil+ wat] at a "t :5 ! b>omet] /&s at ! altitude ( #cj in*es3 ! m]cury 9 ! tube w be obs]v$ to rise until x atta9 a c]ta9 elevation1 & w !re ma9ta9 its position4 ,x w be f\nd1 t ?\gh ! wat] cont9ue to be expos$ to ! action ( ! fire1 & cont9ue to boil1 ! m]cury 9 ! tube w n cont9ue to rise1 b w ma9ta9 a fix$ position3 let ! po9t to :i* ! m]cury has ris51 9 ?is case1 be likewise m>k$ ^u ! tube4 ,! two po9ts1 ?us det]m9$1 are call$ ! freez+ & ! boil+ po9ts4 ,if ! di/ance ^u ! tube betwe5 ^! two po9ts be divid$ into #ahj equal p>ts1 ea* ( ^! p>ts is call$ a degree2 & if ?is division be cont9u$1 by tak+ equal divisions bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 until #cb divisions be tak51 ! la/ division is call$ ! z]o1 or n\ght ( ! !rmomet]4 ,x is ! po9t to :i* ! m]cury w\ld fall1 if ! !rmomet] 7 imm]s$ 9 a c]ta9 mixture ( sn[ & salt4 ,:5 !rmomet]s 7 fir/ inv5t$1 ?is po9t 0 tak5 z ! z]o po9t1 f an errone\s supposition t ! temp]ature ( su* a mixture 0 ! l[e/ possible temp]ature4 ,! degrees ^u ! in/rum5t ?us divid$ are c\nt$ upw>ds f ! z]o1 & are express$1 l ! degrees ( a circle1 by plac+ a small ov] ! numb]4 ,?us x w be p]ceiv$ t ! freez+ po9t is #cb ( our !rmomet]1 & ! boil+-po9t w be f\nd by add+ #ahj to #cb2 x is !re=e #bab4 ,! temp]ature ( a body is t elevation to :i* ! !rmomet] w\ld rise :5 ! m]cury enclos$ 9 x w\ld acquire ! same temp]ature4 ,?us1 if we %\ld imm]se ! !rmomet]1 & %\ld f9d t ! m]cury w\ld rise to ! division m>k$ #ajj1 we %\ld !n affirm t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 #ajj4 7#i47 ,! dilatation :i* att5ds an increase ( temp]ature is "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal effects ( heat4 ,x v>ies1 h[ev]1 9 diff]5t bodies3 x is lea/ 9 solid bodies2 great] 9 liquids2 & greate/ ( all 9 bodies 9 ! a]i=m /ate4 ,aga91 diff]5t solids are diff]5tly susceptible ( ?is expansion4 ,metals are ! mo/ susceptible ( x2 b metals ( diff]5t k9ds are diff]5tly expansible4 ,z an increase ( temp]ature causes an increase ( bulk1 s a dim9ution ( temp]ature causes a correspond+ dim9ution ( bulk1 & ! same body always has ! same bulk at ! same temp]ature4 ,a flaccid bladd]1 conta9+ a small quantity ( air1 w1 :5 heat$1 become q di/5d$2 b x w aga9 resume its flaccid appe>ance :5 cold4 ,a cork$ bottle ( f]m5t$ liquor1 plac$ be=e ! fire1 w bur/ by ! ef=t ( ! air conta9$ 9 x to exp& :5 heat$4 ,let ! tube ,a ,b 7fig4 #e47 op5 at bo? ends1 h "o end ins]t$ 9 ! neck ( a vessel ,c ,d1 conta9+ a col\r$ liquid1 ) common air above x2 & let ! tube be fix$ s z to be air-tight 9 ! neck3 ^u heat+ ! vessel1 ! w>m air inclos$ 9 ! vessel ,c ,d above ! liquid w beg9 to exp&1 & w press ^u ! surface ( ! liquid1 s z to =ce x up 9 ! tube ,a ,b4 ,9 bridges & o!r /ructures1 =m$ ( iron1 me*anical provisions are introduc$ to prev5t ! fracture or /ra9 :i* w\ld take place by ! expansion & contraction :i* ! metal mu/ und]go by ! *anges ( temp]ature at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>1 & ev5 at diff]5t h\rs ( ! day4 ,?us all nature1 animate & inanimate1 organiz$ & unorganiz$1 may be consid]$ to be incessantly brea?+ heat2 at "o mom5t draw+ 9 t pr9ciple ?r\gh all its dim5sions1 & at ano!r mom5t dismiss+ x4 7#aj47 ,*ange ( bulk1 h[ev]1 is n ! only nor ! mo/ /rik+ effect :i* att5ds ! increase or dim9ution ( ! quantity ( heat 9 a body4 ,9 "s cases1 a total *ange ( =m & ( me*anical qualities is effect$ by x4 ,if heat be imp>t$ 9 suffici5t quantity to a solid body1 t body1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 w be conv]t$ into a liquid4 ,& aga91 if heat be imp>t$ 9 suffici5t quantity to ?is liquid1 x w cease to exi/ 9 ! liquid /ate1 & pass into ! =m ( vap\r4 ,by ! ab/raction ( heat1 a s]ies ( *anges w be produc$ 9 ! opposite ord]4 ,if f ! vap\r produc$ 9 ?is case1 a suffici5t quantity ( heat be tak51 x w return to ! liquid /ate2 & if aga9 f ?is liquid heat be fur!r ab/ract$1 x w at l5g? resume its orig9al solid /ate4 ,! transmission ( a body f ! solid to ! liquid /ate1 by ! application ( heat1 is call$ fusion or liquefaction1 & ! body is said to be fus$1 liquefi$1 or melt$4 ,! reciprocal transmission f ! liquid to ! solid /ate1 is call$ congelation1 or solidification2 & ! liquid is said to be congeal$ or solidifi$4 ,! transmission ( a body f ! liquid to ! vapor\s or a]i=m /ate1 is call$ vaporization1 & ! liquid is said to be vaporiz$ or evaporat$4 ,! reciprocal transmission ( vap\r to ! liquid /ate is call$ cond5sation1 & ! vap\r is said to be cond5s$4 ,we %all n[ exam9e m m9utely ! circum/ances :i* att5d ^! rem>kable & important *anges 9 ! /ate ( body4 7#aa47 ,let u suppose t a !rmomet] is imb$d$ 9 any solid body2 = example1 9 a mass ( sulphur2 & t x /&s at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( #fj degrees3 let ! sulphur be plac$ 9 a vessel1 & expos$ to ! action ( fire4 ,! !rmomet] w n[ be obs]v$ gradually to rise1 & x w cont9ue to rise until x exhibit ! temp]ature ( #bah4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 not)/&+ ! cont9u$ action ( ! fire ^u ! sulphur1 ! !rmomet] w become /ation>y2 prov+1 t not)/&+ ! supply ( heat receiv$ f ! fire1 ! sulphur has ceas$ to become hott]4 ,at ! mom5t t ! !rmomet] atta9s ?is /ation>y po9t1 x w be obs]v$ t ! sulphur has comm5c$ ! process ( fusion2 & ?is process w be cont9u$1 ! !rmomet] be+ /ation>y1 until ! :ole mass has be5 liquefi$4 ,! mom5t ! liquefaction is complete1 ! !rmomet] w be obs]v$ aga9 to rise1 & x w cont9ue to rise until x atta9 ! elevation ( #egj4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x w once m become /ation>y2 & not)/&+ ! heat suppli$ to ! sulphur by ! fire1 ! liquid w cease to become hott]3 :5 ?is happ5s1 ! sulphur w boil2 & if x cont9ue to be expos$ to ! fire a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 x w be f\nd t its quantity w gradually dim9i%1 until at l5g? x w all disappe> f ! vessel :i* conta9$ x4 ,! sulphur w1 9 fact1 be conv]t$ into vap\r4 ,f ?is process we inf]1 t all ! heat suppli$ dur+ ! processes ( liquefaction & vaporization is consum$ 9 effect+ ^! *anges 9 ! /ate ( ! body2 & t "u su* circum/ances1 x does n increase ! temp]ature ( ! body on :i* ! *ange is produc$4 ,^! effects are g5]al3 all solid bodies w\ld pass into ! liquid /ate by a suffici5t application ( heat2 & all liquid bodies w\ld pass into ! vapor\s /ate by ! same means4 ,9 all cases ! !rmomet] w\ld be /ation>y dur+ ^! *anges1 & consequ5tly ! temp]ature ( ! body1 9 ^? p]iods1 w\ld be ma9ta9$ unalt]$4 7#ab47 ,solids diff] f "o ano!r 9 ! temp]atures at :i* !y become liquid4 ,^! temp]atures are call$ _! melt+ po9ts4 ,?us ! melt+ po9t ( ice is #cb2 t ( lead #fab2 t ( gold #ebcg4c ,! heat :i* is suppli$ to a body dur+ ! processes ( fusion or vaporization1 & :i* does n affect ! !rmomet]1 or increase ! temp]ature ( ! body fus$ or vaporiz$1 is said to become lat5t4 ,x c be prov$ to exi/ 9 ! body fus$ or vaporiz$1 & may ev5 be tak5 f t body4 ,9 p>t+ ) x ! body does n fall 9 temp]ature1 & consequ5tly ! loss ( ?is heat is n indicat$ by ! !rmomet] any m ?an its reception4 ,! t]m lat5t heat is m]ely int5d$ to express ?is fact1 ( ! !rmomet] be+ ins5sible to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ?is portion ( heat1 & is n int5d$ to express any !oretical notions conc]n+ x4 ,footnote #c3 ,temp]atures above #fej _c be measur$ by ! m]curial !rmomet]4 ,!y c be inf]r$ only ) probability by pyromet]s4 7#ac47 ,9 expla9+ ! con/ruction & op]ation ( ! /eam eng9e1 al?\gh x is necess>y occasionally to ref] to ! effects ( heat ^u bodies 9 g5]al1 yet ! body1 :i* is by f> ! mo/ important to be att5d$ to1 s f> z ! effects ( heat ^u x are conc]n$1 is wat]4 ,?is body is obs]v$ to exi/ 9 ! ?ree diff]5t /ates1 ! solid1 ! liquid1 & ! vapor\s1 accord+ to ! v>y+ temp]ature to :i* x is expos$4 ,all ! circum/ances :i* h be5 expla9$ 9 ref]5ce to metals1 & ! sub/ance sulphur 9 p>ticul>1 w1 mutatis mut&is1 be applicable to wat]4 ,b 9 ord] p]fectly to compreh5d ! prop]ties ( ! /eam eng9e1 x is necess>y to r5d] a m rigor\s & exact acc\nt ( ^! ph5om5a1 s f> z !y apply to ! *anges produc$ ^u wat] by ! effects ( heat4 ,let u suppose a mass ( ice imm]s$ 9 ! mixture ( sn[ & salt :i* det]m9es ! z]o po9t ( ! !rmomet]3 ?is mass1 if all[$ to cont9ue a suffici5t l5g? ( "t subm]g$ 9 ! mixture1 w necess>ily acquire its temp]ature1 & ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 x w /& at z]o4 ,let ! ice be n[ )drawn f ! mixture1 /ill keep+ ! !rmomet] imm]s$ 9 x1 & let x be expos$ to ! atmosph]e at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 say #fj4 ,at fir/ ! !rmomet] w be obs]v$ gradually & cont9u\sly to rise until x atta9 ! elevation ( #cb2 x w !n become /ation>y1 & ! ice w beg9 to melt3 ! !rmomet] w cont9ue /&+ at #cb until ! ice %all be completely liquefi$4 ,! liquid ice & ! !rmomet] be+ conta9$ 9 ! same vessel1 x w be f\nd1 :5 ! liquefaction is complet$1 t ! !rmomet] w aga9 beg9 to rise1 & w cont9ue to rise until x atta9 ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 viz4 #fj4 ,hi!rto ! ice or wat] has receiv$ a supply ( heat f ! surr\nd+ air2 b n[ an equilibrium ( temp]ature hav+ be5 e/abli%$1 no fur!r supply ( heat c be receiv$2 & if we w\ld inve/igate ! fur!r effects ( increas$ heat1 x w be necess>y to expose ! liquid to fire1 or "s o!r s\rce ( heat4 ,b previ\s to ?is1 let u obs]ve ! "t :i* ! !rmomet] rema9s /ation>y dur+ ! liquefaction ( ! ice3 if not$ by a *ronomet]1 x w\ld be f\nd to be a hundr$ & =ty times ! "t dur+ :i* ! wat] 9 ! liquid /ate 0 elevat$ "o degree2 ! inf]5ce f :i* is1 t 9 ord] to conv]t ! solid ice into liquid wat]1 x 0 necess>y to receive f ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e "o hundr$ & =ty times z mu* heat z w\ld elevate ! liquid wat] "o degree 9 temp]ature2 or1 9 o!r words1 t to liquefy a giv5 weight ( ice requires z mu* heat z w\ld raise ! same weight ( wat] #adj 9 temp]ature3 or f #cb to #agb4 ,! lat5t heat ( wat] acquir$ 9 liquefaction is !re=e #adj4 7#ad47 ,let u n[ suppose t1 a _s lamp be+ appli$ to ! wat] already rais$ to #fj1 ! effects ( a fur!r supply ( heat be obs]v$3 ! !rmomet] w cont9ue to rise until x atta9 ! elevation ( #bab1 ! b>omet] be+ suppos$ to /& at #cj in*es4 ,! !rmomet] hav+ atta9$ ?is elevation w cease to rise2 ! wat] w !re=e cease to become hott]1 & at ! same "t bubbles ( /eam w be obs]v$ to be =m$ at ! bottom ( ! vessel conta9+ ! wat]1 ne> ! flame ( ! _s lamp4 ,^! bubbles w rise ?r\gh ! wat]1 & escape at ! surface1 exhibit+ ! ph5om5a ( ebullition1 & ! wat] w und]go ! process ( boil+4 ,dur+ ?is process1 ! !rmomet] w con/antly be ma9ta9$ at ! same elevation ( #bab2 b if ! "t be not$1 x w be f\nd t ! wat] w be altoge!r evaporat$1 if ! same s\rce ( heat be cont9u$ to be appli$ to x six & a half times z long z 0 necess>y to raise x f ! freez+ to ! boil+-po9t4 ,?us1 if ! application ( ! lamp to wat] at #cb1 be capable ( rais+ t wat] to #bab 9 "o h\r1 ! same lamp w require to be appli$ to ! boil+ wat] = six h\rs & a half1 9 ord] to conv]t ! :ole ( x into /eam4 ,n[ if ! /eam into :i* x is ?us conv]t$ 7 c>efully pres]v$ 9 a receiv]1 ma9ta9$ at ! temp]ature ( #bab1 ?is /eam w\ld be f\nd to h t temp]ature1 & n a great] "o2 b x w\ld be f\nd to fill a space ab\t #agjj times great] ?an ! space x occupi$ 9 ! liquid /ate1 & x w\ld possess an ela/ic =ce equal to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e "u :i* x 0 boil$2 t is to say1 x w\ld press ! sides ( ! vessel :i* conta9$ x ) a pressure equival5t to t ( a column ( m]cury ( #cj in*es 9 height2 or :at is ! same ?+1 at ! rate ( ab\t #aelb4 on e squ>e in* ( surface4 7#ae47 ,z ! quantity ( heat exp5d$ 9 rais+ ! wat] f #cb to #bab1 is #ahj2 & z ! quantity ( heat necess>y to conv]t ! same wat] into /eam is six & a half times ?is quantity1 x foll[s t ! quantity ( heat requisite = conv]t+ a giv5 weight ( wat] into /eam1 w be f\nd by multiply+ #ahj by #e-a_/b4 ,! product ( ^! numb]s be+ #iij1 x foll[s1 t1 to conv]t a giv5 weight ( wat] at #bab into /eam ( ! same temp]ature1 "u ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 :5 ! b>omet] /&s at #cj in*es1 requires z mu* heat z w\ld be necess>y to raise ! same wat] #iij high] 9 temp]ature4 ,! heat1 n be+ s5sible to ! !rmomet]1 is lat5t heat2 & accord+ly x may be /at$1 t ! lat5t heat1 necess>y to conv]t wat] into /eam "u ?is pressure is1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #ajjj4 7#af47 ,all ! effects ( heat :i* we h j describ$ may be satisfactorily acc\nt$ =1 by suppos+ t ! pr9ciple ( heat imp>ts to ! con/itu5t atoms ( bodies a =ce1 by virtue ( :i* !y acquire a t5d5cy to repel ea* o!r4 ,b 9 conjunction ) ?is1 x is necess>y to notice ano!r =ce1 :i* is kn[n to exi/ 9 nature3 !re is obs]vable among ! corpuscles ( bodies a =ce1 9 virtue ( :i* !y h a t5d5cy to coh]e1 & collect !mselves toge!r 9 solid concrete masses3 ?is =ce is call$ ! attraction ( cohesion4 ,^! two =ces--! natural cohesion ( ! p>ticles1 & ! repulsive en]gy introduc$ by heat--are directly oppos$ to "o ano!r1 & ! /ate ( ! body w be decid$ by ! pr$om9ance ( ! "o or ! o!r1 or _! mutual equilibrium4 ,if ! natural cohesion ( ! con/itu5t p>ticles ( ! body consid]ably pr$om9ate ov] ! repulsive en]gy introduc$ by ! heat1 !n ! cohesion w take effect2 ! p>ticles ( ! body w coalesce1 ! mass w become rigid & solid1 & ! p>ticles w hold toge!r 9 "o inv>iable mass1 s t !y _c drop asund] by ! m]e effect ( _! weight4 ,9 su* cases1 a m or less consid]able =ce mu/ be appli$1 9 ord] to break ! body1 or to te> its p>ts asund]4 ,su* is ! quality :i* *>act]ises ! /ate1 :i* 9 me*anics is call$ ! /ate ( solidity4 ,if ! repulsive en]gy introduc$ by ! application ( heat be equal1 or ne>ly equal1 to ! natural cohesion ) :i* ! p>ticles ( ! body are endu$1 !n ! pr$om9ance ( ! cohesive =ce may be insuffici5t to resi/ ! t5d5cy :i* ! p>ticles may h to drop asund] by _! weight4 ,9 su* a case1 ! con/itu5t p>ticles ( ! body _c coh]e 9 a solid mass1 b w sep>ate by _! weight1 fall asund]1 & drop into ! v>i\s corn]s1 & adapt !mselves to ! %ape ( any vessel 9 :i* ! body may be conta9$4 ,9 fact1 ! body w take ! liquid =m4 ,9 ?is /ate1 h[ev]1 x does n foll[ t ! cohesive pr9ciple w be altoge!r inop]ative3 x may1 & does1 9 "s cases1 exi/ 9 a p]ceptible degree1 ?\gh insuffici5t to resi/ ! sep>ate gravitation ( ! p>ticles4 ,! t5d5cy :i* p>ticles ( liquids h1 9 "s cases1 to collect 9 globules1 pla9ly indicates ! pr$om9ance ( ! cohesive pr9ciple3 drops ( wat] collect$ ^u ! w9d[ pane2 drops ( ra9 cond5s$ 9 ! atmosph]e2 ! te> :i* trickles on ! *eek2 drops ( m]cury1 :i* glide ov] any flat surface1 & :i* x is difficult to subdivide or scatt] into small] p>ts2 are all obvi\s indications ( ! pr$om9ance ( ! cohesive pr9ciple 9 liquids4 ,by ! due application ( heat1 ev5 ?is small degree ( cohesion may be conqu]$1 & a prepond]ance ( ! opposite pr9ciple ( repulsion may be creat$4 ,b ano!r physical influ5ce "h int]poses its aid1 & conspires ) cohesion 9 resi/+ ! transmission ( ! body f ! liquid to ! vapor\s /ate3 ?is =ce is no o!r ?an ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 already expla9$4 ,?is pressure has an obvi\s t5d5cy to re/ra9 ! p>ticles ( ! liquid1 to press !m toge!r1 & to resi/ _! sep>ation4 ,! repulsive pr9ciple ( ! heat introduc$ mu/ !re=e n only neutralize ! cohesion1 b mu/ also imp>t to ! atoms ( ! liquid a suffici5t ela/icity or repulsive en]gy to enable !m to fly asund]1 & assume ! vapor\s =m 9 spite ( ?is atmosph]ic resi/ance4 ,n[ x is cle>1 t if ?is atmosph]ic resi/ance be subject to any v>iation 9 its int5sity1 f causes :e!r natural or artificial1 ! repulsive en]gy necess>y to be introduc$ by ! heat1 w v>y proportionally3 if ! atmosph]ic pressure be dim9i%$1 !n less heat w be necess>y to vaporize ! liquid4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is pressure be increas$1 a great] quantity ( heat w be requir$ to imp>t ! necess>y ela/icity4 7#ag47 ,f ?is reason+ we mu/ expect t any cause1 :e!r natural or artificial1 :i* dim9i%es ! atmosph]ic pressure ^u ! surface ( a liquid1 w cause t liquid to boil at a l[] temp]ature3 & on ! o!r h&1 any cause :i* may increase ! atmosph]ic pressure ^u ! liquid1 w r5d] x necess>y to raise x to a high] temp]ature be=e x c boil4 ,^! inf]5ces we accord+ly f9d support$ by exp]i5ce4 ,"u a pressure ( #aelb4 on ! squ>e in*1 i4 e4 :5 ! b>omet] is at #cj in*es1 wat] boils at ! temp]ature ( #bab ( ! common !rmomet]4 ,b if wat] at a l[] temp]ature1 suppose #ahj1 be plac$ "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 &1 by ! process ( exhau/ion ! atmosph]ic pressure be remov$1 or v mu* dim9i%$1 ! wat] w boil1 al?\gh its temp]ature /ill rema9 at #ahj1 z may be indicat$ by a !rmomet] plac$ 9 x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if a !rmomet] be ins]t$ air-tight 9 ! lid ( a close dige/] conta9+ wat] ) common atmosph]ic air above x1 :5 ! vessel is heat$ ! air acquires an increas$ ela/icity2 & be+ conf9$ by ! cov]1 presses1 ) increas$ =ce1 on ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,by obs]v+ ! !rmomet] :ile ! vessel is expos$ to ! action ( heat1 x w be se5 to rise consid]ably above #bab1 suppose to #bcj1 & w\ld cont9ue s to rise until ! /r5g? ( ! vessel c\ld no long] resi/ ! pressure )9 x4 ,! temp]ature at :i* wat] boils is commonly said to be #bab1 :i* is call$ ! boil+-po9t ( ! !rmomet]2 b1 /rictly speak+1 ?is is only true :5 ! b>omet] /&s at #cj in*es4 ,if x be l[]1 wat] w boil at a l[] temp]ature1 because ! atmosph]ic pressure is less2 & if x be high]1 z at #ca1 wat] w n boil until x receives a high] temp]ature1 ! pressure be+ great]4 ,accord+ z ! cohesive =ces ( ! p>ticles ( liquids are m or less active1 !y boil at great] or less temp]atures4 ,9 g5]al ! light] liquids1 su* z alcohol & e!r1 boil at l[] temp]atures4 ,^! fluids1 9 fact1 w\ld boil by m]ely remov+ ! atmosph]ic pressure1 z may be prov$ by plac+ !m "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump1 & )draw+ ! air4 ,f ?is we may conclude t ^! & simil> sub/ances w\ld nev] exi/ 9 ! liquid /ate at all1 b = ! atmosph]ic pressure4 7#ah47 ,! ela/icity ( vap\r rais$ f a boil+ liquid1 is equal to ! pressure "u :i* x is produc$4 ,?us1 /eam rais$ f wat] at #bab1 &1 !re=e1 "u a pressure ( #aelb4 on ! squ>e in*1 is endu$ ) an ela/ic =ce :i* w\ld ex]t a pressure on ! sides ( any vessel :i* conf9es x1 also equal to #aelb4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,s9ce an increas$ pressure inf]s an increas$ temp]ature 9 boil+1 x foll[s1 t :]e /eam ( a high] pressure ?an ! atmosph]e is requir$1 x is necess>y t ! wat] %\ld be boil$ at a high] temp]ature4 7#ai47 ,we h already /at$ t !re is a c]ta9 po9t at :i* ! temp]ature ( a liquid w cease to rise1 & t all ! heat communicat$ to x beyond ?is is consum$ 9 ! =mation ( vap\r4 ,x has be5 asc]ta9$1 t :5 wat] boils at #bab1 "u a pressure equal to #cj in*es ( m]cury1 a cubic in* ( wat] =ms a cubic foot#d ( /eam1 ! ela/ic =ce ( :i* is equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! temp]ature ( :i* is #bab4 ,s9ce !re are #agbh cubic in*es 9 a cubic foot1 x foll[s1 t :5 wat] at ?is temp]ature passes f ! liquid to ! vapor\s /ate1 x is dilat$ into #agbh times its bulk4 ,footnote #d3 ,! t]ms cubic in* & cubic foot are easily expla9$4 ,a common die1 us$ 9 games ( *ance1 has ! figure :i* is call$ a cube4 ,x is a solid hav+ twelve /raight edges equal to "o ano!r4 ,x has six sides1 ea* ( :i* is squ>e1 & :i* are also equal to "o ano!r4 ,if its edges be ea* "o in* 9 l5g?1 x is call$ a cubic in*1 if "o foot1 a cubic foot1 if "o y>d1 a cubic y>d1 c4 ,?is figure is repres5t$ 9 p]spective1 9 fig4 #f4 7#bj47 ,we h se5 t ab\t #ajjj degrees ( heat mu/ be communicat$ to any giv5 quantity ( wat] at #bab1 9 ord] to conv]t x into /eam ( ! same temp]ature1 & possess+ a pressure am\nt+ to ab\t #ae p\nds on ! squ>e in*1 & t su* /eam w occupy above #agjj times ! bulk ( ! wat] f :i* x 0 rais$4 ,n[ we might anticipate1 t by ab/ract+ ! heat ?us employ$ 9 conv]t+ ! liquid into vap\r1 a s]ies ( *anges w\ld be produc$ exactly ! rev]se ( ^? already describ$2 & su* is f\nd to be actually ! case4 ,let u suppose a vessel1 ! capacity ( :i* is #agbh cubic in*es1 to be fill$ ) /eam1 ( ! temp]ature ( #bab1 & ex]t+ a pressure ( #ae p\nds on ! squ>e in*2 let #e-a_/b cubic in*es ( wat]1 at ! temp]ature ( #cb1 be inject$ into ?is vessel1 imm$iately ! /eam w imp>t ! heat1 :i* x has absorb$ 9 ! process ( vaporisation to ! wat] ?us inject$1 & w itself resume ! liquid =m4 ,x w %r9k into its primitive dim5sions ( "o cubic in*1 & ! heat :i* x w dismiss w be suffici5t to raise ! #e-a_/b cubic in*es ( inject$ wat] to ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,! cont5ts ( ! vessel w ?us be #f-a_/b cubic in*es ( wat] at ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,"o ( ^! cubic in*es is 9 fact ! /eam :i* previ\sly fill$ ! vessel reconv]t$ into wat]1 ! o!r #e-a_/b are ! inject$ wat] :i* has be5 rais$ f ! temp]ature ( #cb to #bab by ! heat :i* has be5 dismiss$ by ! /eam 9 resum+ ! liquid /ate4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ?is transmission no temp]ature is lo/1 s9ce ! cubic in* ( wat] into :i* ! /eam is conv]t$ has ! same temp]ature z ! /eam _h be=e ! cold wat] 0 inject$4 ,^! consequ5ces are 9 p]fect accordance ) ! results already obta9$ f obs]v+ ! "t necess>y to conv]t a giv5 quantity ( wat] into /eam by ! application ( heat4 ,f ! pres5t result x foll[s1 t 9 ! r$uction ( a giv5 quantity ( /eam to wat] x p>ts ) z mu* heat z is suffici5t to raise #e-a_/b cubic in*es f #cb to #bab1 t is1 #e-a_/b times #ahj or #iij4 7#ba47 ,!re is an effect produc$ 9 ?is process to :i* x is mat]ial t we %\ld att5d4 ,! /eam :i* fill$ ! space ( #agbh cubic in*es %r9ks :5 reconv]t$ into wat] into ! dim5sions ( #a cubic in*4 ,x !re=e leaves #agbg cubic in*es ( ! vessel x conta9s unoccupi$4 ,by ?is prop]ty /eam is r5d]$ in/rum5tal 9 ! =mation ( a vacuum4 ,by all[+ /eam to circulate ?r\gh a vessel1 ! air may be expell$ f x1 & its place fill$ by /eam4 ,if ! vessel be !n clos$ & cool$ ! /eam w be r$uc$ to wat]1 &1 fall+ 9 drops on ! bottom & sides ( ! vessel1 ! space :i* x fill$ w become a vacuum4 ,?is may be easily e/abli%$ by exp]im5t4 ,let a long glass tube be provid$ ) a holl[ ball at "o end1 & hav+ ! o!r end op54#e ,let a small quantity ( spirits be p\r$ 9 at ! op5 end1 & plac+ ! glass ball ov] ! flame ( a lamp1 let ! spirits be boil$4 ,aft] "s "t ! /eam w be obs]v$ to issue copi\sly f ! op5 end ( ! tube :i* is pres5t$ upw>ds4 ,:5 ?is takes place1 let ! tube be inv]t$1 & its op5 end plung$ 9 a bas9 ( cold wat]4 ,! heat be+ ?us remov$1 ! cool air w reconv]t ! /eam 9 ! tube into liquid1 & a vacuum w be produc$1 into :i* ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! bas9 w =ce ! wat] ?r\gh ! tube1 & x w ru% up ) consid]able =ce1 & fill ! glass ball4 ,footnote #e3 ,a common glass flask ) a long neck w answ] ! purpose4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t x is bett] to use spirits ?an wat]1 because !y boil at a l[] heat1 & expose ! glass to less liability to break1 & also ! tube may m easily be h&l$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,fir/ ,,/eps ,,9 ,,! ,,inv5tion4 ,futility ( e>ly claims4 -- ,watt1 ! real ,inv5tor4 -- ,h]o ( ,alex&ria4 -- ,blasco ,g>ay4 -- ,solomon de ,caus4 -- ,giovanni ,branca4 -- ,m>quis ( ,worce/]4 -- ,sir ,samuel ,morl&4 -- ,d5is ,pap94 -- ,?omas ,sav]y4 7#bb47 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( ! useful arts & manufactures1 !re is p]haps no example ( any inv5tion ! cr$it ( :i* has be5 s ke5ly conte/$ z t ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,claims to x h be5 advanc$ by diff]5t nations1 & by diff]5t individuals ( ! same nation4 ,! p>tisans ( ! competitors = ?is hon\r h argu$ _! pret5sions1 & press$ _! claims1 ) a zeal :i* has occasionally out/ripp$ ! b\nds ( discretion2 & ! conte/ has n unfrequ5tly be5 t+$ ) prejudices1 bo? national & p]sonal1 & m>k$ ) a degree ( asp]ity q unwor?y ( s noble a cause1 & altoge!r b5ea? ! dignity ( sci5ce4 ,! efficacy ( ! /eam eng9e consid]$ z a me*anical ag5t dep5ds1 fir/1 on ! sev]al physical prop]ties f :i* x d]ives its op]ation1 &1 secondly1 on ! v>i\s pieces ( me*anism & details ( me*anical arrangem5t by :i* ^! prop]ties are r5d]$ practically available4 ,if ! m]it ( ! inv5tion mu/ be ascrib$ to ! discov]] & contriv] ( ^!1 !n ! conte/ w be easily decid$1 because x w be obvi\s t ! prize is n due to any "o individual1 b mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 diff]5t proportions among sev]al4 ,if1 h[ev]1 he is be/ entitl$ to ! cr$it ( ! inv5tion1 :o has by ! p[]s ( 8 me*anical g5ius imp>t$ to ! ma*9e t =m & ^? qualities f :i* x has receiv$ its pres5t ext5sive utility1 & by :i* x has become an ag5t ( transc5d5t p[]1 :i* has spread its b5eficial effects ?r\gh\t e "p ( ! civiliz$ globe1 !n ! univ]sal cons5t ( mank9d w1 z x 7 by acclamation1 aw>d ! prize to "o individual1 ^: pre-em95t g5ius places him f> above all o!r competitors1 & f ! application ( ^: m5tal en]gies to ?is ma*9e may be dat$ ^? gr& effects :i* h r5d]$ x a topic ( int]e/ to e individual = :om ! progress ( human civilization has any attractions4 ,be=e ! era m>k$ by ! discov]ies ( ,,james ,,watt1 ! /eam eng9e1 :i* has s9ce become an object ( su* univ]sal int]e/1 0 a ma*9e ( extremely limit$ p[]1 greatly inf]ior 9 importance to mo/ o!r me*anical contrivances us$ z prime mov]s4 ,b f t "t x is sc>cely necess>y "h to /ate t x became a subject n ( ,briti% int]e/ only1 b "o ) :i* ! progress ( ! human race became intimately mix$ up4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! "q ( ! progressive developem5t ( ^? physical pr9ciples on :i* ! /eam eng9e dep5ds1 & ( _! me*anical application1 has ( late ye>s receiv$ "s importance1 z well f ! int]e/ :i* ! public manife/ t[>ds !m z f ! rank ( ! writ]s :o h inve/igat$ !m1 we h ?\ght x exp$i5t to /ate briefly1 b we tru/ ) c&\r & fairness1 ! successive /eps :i* appe> to h l$ to ?is inv5tion4 ,! eng9e z x exi/s at pres5t is n1 /rictly speak+1 ! exclusive inv5tion ( any "o individual3 x is ! result ( a s]ies ( discov]ies & inv5tions :i* h = ! la/ two c5turies be5 accumulat+4 ,:5 we attempt to trace back its hi/ory1 & to det]m9e its fir/ inv5tor1 we exp]i5ce ! same difficulty z is felt 9 trac+ ! head ( a great riv]3 z we asc5d its c\rse1 we are emb>rass$ by ! v>iety ( its tribut>y /reams1 & f9d x impossible to decide :i* ( ^? *annels into :i* x ramifies ought to be reg>d$ z ! pr9cipal /ream2 & x t]m9ates at l5g? 9 a numb] ( ?reads ( wat]1 ea* 9 itself s insignificant z to be unwor?y ( be+ reg>d$ z ! s\rce ( ! maje/ic object :i* has excit$ ! inquiry4 ,f a v e>ly p]iod ! effects ( heat ^u liquids1 & m especially ! production ( /eam or vap\r1 0 reg>d$ z a probable s\rce ( me*anical p[]1 & num]\s speculators direct$ _! att5tion to x1 & ex]t$ _! inv5tive faculties to d]ive f x an effective mov]4 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 until ! comm5cem5t ( ! eighte5? c5tury t any inv5tion 0 produc$ :i* 0 practically appli$1 ev5 unsuccessfully4 ,all ! attempts previ\s to t "t 7 ei!r sugge/ions :i* 7 limit$ to pap] or exp]im5ts conf9$ to models2 or1 if !y exce$$ ?is1 !y nev] outliv$ a s+le trial on a l>g] scale4 ,nev]!less _m ( ^! sugge/ions & exp]im5ts be+ record$ & accessible to future inquir]s d\btless (f]$ useful h9ts & "s practical aid to ^? m successful inve/igators :o subsequ5tly contriv$ eng9es 9 su* =ms z to be practically available on a l>ge scale = me*anical purposes4 ,x is "r & j1 !re=e--m]e sugge/ions & abortive exp]im5ts ?\gh !y may h be5--to record !m1 t ea* inv5tor & discov]] may receive ! j cr$it due to 8 %>e 9 ?is spl5did me*anical inv5tion4 ,we %all !n 9 ! pres5t *apt] briefly enum]ate1 9 *ronological ord]1 ! successive /eps s f> z !y h come to our k4 ,,h]o ,,( ,,alex&ria1 #abj ,b4 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 7#bc47 ,9 a "w entitl$ ,spiritalia seu ,pneumatica1 "o ( ! num]\s works ( ?is philosoph] :i* has rema9$ to u1 is conta9$ a description ( a ma*9e mov$ by vap\r ( wat]4 ,a holl[ sph]e1 ( :i* ,a ,b repres5ts a section1 is support$ on two pivots at ,a & ,b1 :i* are ! extremities ( tubes ,a ,c ,d & ,b ,e ,f1 :i* pass into a boil] :]e /eam is g5]at$4 ,?is /eam fl[s ?r\gh small ap]tures at ! extremities ,a & ,b1 & fills ! holl[ sph]e4 ,"o or m horizontal arms ,k ,g1 ,i ,h1 project f ?is sph]e1 & are likewise fill$ ) /eam1 b are clos$ at _! extremities4 ,conceive a small hole made ne> ! extremity ,g1 b at "o side ( "o ( ! tubes2 ! /eam conf9$ 9 ! tube & globe w\ld imm$iately ru% f ! hole ) a =ce proportionate to its pressure )9 ! globe4 ,on ! common pr9ciple ( me*anics a re-action w\ld be produc$1 & ! tube w\ld recoil 9 ! same mann] z a gun :5 dis*>g$4 ,! tubul> arm ,k ,g be+ ?us press$ 9 a direction oppos$ to t 9 :i* ! /eam issues1 ! sph]e w\ld revolve accord+ly1 & w\ld cont9ue to revolve s long z ! /eam w\ld cont9ue to fl[ f ! ap]ture4 ,! =ce ( recoil w\ld be increas$ by mak+ a simil> ap]ture 9 two or m arms1 c>e be+ tak5 t all ! ap]tures %\ld be plac$ s z to cause ! sph]e to revolve 9 ! same direction4 ,?is motion be+ once produc$ might be transmitt$ by ord9>y me*anical contrivance to any ma*9]y :i* its p[] might be adequate to move4 ,?is me?od ( us+ /eam is n adopt$ 9 any "p or any =m ( ! mod]n /eam eng9e4 ,,blasco ,,de ,,g>ay1 ,a4 ,d4 #aedc4 7#bd47 ,9 ! ye> #ahbf !re appe>$ 9 ,za*'s ,correspond5ce a communication f ,?omas ,gonsalez1 ,director ( ! ,royal ,ar*ives ( ,simancas1 giv+ an acc\nt ( an exp]im5t report$ to h be5 made 9 ! ye> #aedc by ord] ( ,*>les ,v4 9 ! port ( ,b>celona4 ,blasco de ,g>ay1 a sea capta91 _h contriv$ a ma*9e by :i* he propos$ to propel vessels )\t o>s or sails4 ,g>ay conceal$ altoge!r ! nature ( ! ma*9e :i* he us$3 all t 0 se5 dur+ ! exp]im5t 0 t x consi/$ ( a great boil] = wat]1 & t :eels 7 kept 9 revolution at ea* side ( ! vessel4 ,! exp]im5t 0 made ^u a vessel call$ ! ,tr9ity1 ( #bjj tons burd51 & 0 witness$ by sev]al (ficial p]sonages1 ^: pres5ce on ! occasion 0 comm&$ by ! k+4 ,"o ( ! witnesses report$ t x 0 capable ( mov+ ! vessel at ! rate ( two leagues 9 ?ree h\rs1 t ! ma*9e 0 too complicat$ & exp5sive1 & 0 expos$ to ! dang] ( explosion4 ,! o!r witnesses1 h[ev]1 report$ m fav\rably4 ,! result ( ! exp]im5t 0 ?\ght to be fav\rable3 ! inv5tor 0 promot$1 & receiv$ a pecuni>y rew>d1 besides hav+ all 8 exp5ses defray$4 ,f ! circum/ance ( ! nature ( ! impell+ p[] hav+ be5 conceal$ by ! inv5tor x is impossible to say 9 :at ?is ma*9e consi/$1 or ev5 :e!r /eam ex]t$ any ag5cy :atev] 9 x1 or1 if x did1 :e!r x might n h be51 z 0 mo/ probably ! case1 a reproduction ( ,h]o's contrivance4 ,x is r unfav\rable to ! claims advanc$ by ! advocates ( ! ,spani>d1 t al?\gh x is admitt$ t he 0 rew>d$ & promot$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! exp]im5t1 yet x does n appe> t x 0 aga9 tri$1 mu* less br\ght into practical use4 ,,solomon ,,de ,,caus1 #afae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 7#be47 ,a "w entitl$ ,les ,raisons des ,=ces ,m\vantes1 avec div]ses ,ma*9es tant utiles que plaisantes1 publi%$ at ,frank=t 9 #afae1 by ,solomon de ,caus1 a native ( ,france1 conta9s ! foll[+ !orem3-- ,wat] w m\nt by ! help ( fire high] ?an its level1 :i* is expla9$ & prov$ 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3-- ,! ?ird me?od ( rais+ wat] is by ! aid ( fire4 ,on ?is pr9ciple may be con/ruct$ v>i\s ma*9es3 ,i %all "h describe "o4 ,let a ball ( copp] m>k$ ,a1 well sold]$ 9 e "p1 to :i* is atta*$ a tube & /opcock m>k$ ,d1 by :i* wat] may be introduc$2 & also ano!r tube m>k$ ,b ,c1 :i* w be sold]$ into ! top ( ! ball1 & ! l[] end ,c ( :i* %all desc5d ne>ly to ! bottom ( ! ball )\t t\*+ x4 ,let ! said ball be fill$ ) wat] ?r\gh ! tube ,d1 !n %utt+ ! /opcock ,d1 & op5+ ! /opcock 9 ! v]tical tube ,b ,c1 let ! ball be plac$ ^u a fire1 ! heat act+ ^u ! said ball w cause ! wat] to rise 9 ! tube ,b ,c4 ,su* is ! description ( ! app>atus ( ,de ,caus z giv5 by himself2 & on ?is has be5 f\nd$ a claim to ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,x w be obs]v$1 t nei!r 9 ! orig9al !orem nor 9 ! description ( ! ma*9e :i* accompanies x1 is ! ^w /eam any:]e us$4 ,n[ x 0 well kn[n1 by all conv]sant 9 physics1 long be=e ! date ( ! publication conta9+ ?is description1 t atmosph]ic air :5 heat$ acquires an increas$ ela/ic =ce4 ,z ! exp]im5t is describ$1 ! o!r "p ( ! ball ,a is fill$ ) atmosph]ic air2 ! heat ( ! fire act+ ^u ! air ?r\gh ! ext]nal surface ( ! ball1 & likewise transmitt$ ?r\gh ! wat]1 w\ld ( c\rse raise ! temp]ature ( ! air conta9$ 9 ! vessel1 w\ld !reby increase its ela/icity1 & w\ld cause ! wat] to rise 9 ! tube ,b ,c1 ^u a physical pr9ciple altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! qualities ( /eam4 ,! effect produc$1 !re=e1 is j :at might h be5 expect$ by any "o acqua9t$ ) ! common prop]ties ( air1 ?\gh entirely ignorant ( ^? ( /eam2 &1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! pressure ( ! air is z mu* conc]n$ 9 ?is case 9 rais+ ! wat] z ! pressure ( ! /eam4 ,?is objection1 h[ev]1 is combat$ by ano!r !orem conta9$ 9 ! same "w1 9 :i* ,de ,caus speaks ( ! /r5g? ( ! vap\r produc$ by ! action ( ! fire1 :i* causes wat] to m\nt2 :i* vap\r w issue f ! /opcock ) great viol5ce aft] ! wat] has be5 expell$4 ,if ,de ,caus be admitt$ to h und]/ood ! ela/ic prop]ty ( ! vap\r ( wat]1 & to h attribut$ ! asc5t ( ! wat] 9 ! tube ,c ,b to ! pressure ( t vap\r ^u ! surface ( ! wat] conf9$ 9 ! copp] ball1 x mu/ be admitt$ t he sugge/$ "o ( ! ways ( us+ ! p[] ( /eam z a me*anical ag5t4 ,9 ! mod]n /eam eng9e ?is pressure is n n[ us$ aga9/ a liquid surface1 b aga9/ ! solid surface ( a pi/on4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 %\ld n take f ,de ,caus :atev] cr$it be due to ! sugge/ion ( ! physical prop]ty 9 "q4 ,,giovanni ,,branca1 #afbi4 7#bf47 ,9 a "w publi%$ at ,rome 9 #afbi1 entitl$ ,le ,ma*9e del ,g4 ,branca1 is conta9$ a description ( a ma*9e = propell+ a :eel by a bla/ ( /eam4 ,?is contrivance consi/s ( a :eel furni%$ ) flat vanes ^u its rim1 l ! bo>ds ( a paddle-:eel4 ,! /eam is produc$ 9 a close vessel1 & made to issue ) viol5ce f ! extremity ( a pipe4 ,be+ direct$ aga9/ ! vanes1 x causes ! :eel to revolve1 & ?is motion may be imp>t$ by ! usual me*anical contrivances to any ma*9]y :i* x 0 int5d$ to move4 ,?is contrivance has no analogy :atev] to any "p ( ! mod]n /eam eng9es 9 any ( _! v>i\s =ms4 ,,edw>d ,,som]set1 ,,m>quis ,,( ,,worce/]1 #affc4 7#bg47 ,( all ! individuals to :om ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e has be5 ascrib$ ! mo/ celebrat$ 0 ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 ! au?or ( a "w entitl$ ,! ,scantl+ ( ,"o ,hundr$ ,inv5tions1 b :i* is m commonly kn[n by ! title ,a ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions4 ,x is to him t by f> ! great] numb] ( writ]s & inquir]s on ?is subject ascribe ! m]it ( ! discov]y ( ! inv5tion4 ,?is contrivance is describ$ 9 ! foll[+ t]ms 9 ! sixty-eigh? inv5tion 9 ! "w above nam$3-- ,i h inv5t$ an admirable & =cible way to drive up wat] by fire2 n by draw+ or suck+ x upw>ds1 = t mu/ be1 z ! philosoph] t]ms x1 infra spram activitatis1 :i* is b at su* a di/ance4 ,b ?is way ha? no b\nd] if ! vessels be /rong en\gh4 ,= ,i h tak5 a piece ( :ole cannon :]e( ! end 0 bur/1 & fill$ x ?ree qu>t]s full ( wat]1 /opp+ & screw+ up ! brok5 end1 z also ! t\*-hole & mak+ a con/ant fire "u x2 )9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 x bur/ & made a great crack4 ,s t1 hav+ a way to make my vessels s t !y are /r5g!n$ by ! =ce )9 !m1 & ! "o to fill aft] ! o!r1 ,i h se5 ! wat] run l a con/ant f\nta9 /ream =ty feet high4 ,"o vessel ( wat] r>efi$ by fire drive? up =ty ( cold wat]1 & a man t t5ds ! "w has b to turn two cocks2 t "o vessel ( wat] be+ consum$1 ano!r beg9s to =ce & refill ) cold wat]1 & s successively2 ! fire be+ t5d$ & kept con/ant1 :i* ! self-same p]son may likewise abundantly p]=m 9 ! int]im betwe5 ! necessity ( turn+ ! said cocks4 ,^! exp]im5ts mu/ h be5 made be=e ! ye> #affc1 9 :i* ! ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions 0 publi%$4 ,! description ( ! ma*9e "h giv51 l o!r descriptions 9 ! same "w1 0 only int5d$ to express ! effects produc$1 & ! physical pr9ciple on :i* _! production dep5ds4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly explicit to enable any "o conv]sant ) ! subsequ5t contrivance ( ,sav]y1 to p]ceive t ,"l ,worce/] mu/ h contriv$ a ma*9e conta9+ all t "p ( ,sav]y's eng9e 9 :i* ! direct =ce ( /eam is employ$4 ,z 9 ! above description1 ! sep>ate boil] or g5]ator ( /eam is di/9ctly m5tion$2 t ! /eam f ?is is conduct$ into ano!r vessel conta9+ ! cold wat] to be rais$2 t ?is wat] is rais$ by ! pressure ( /eam act+ ^u its surface2 t :5 "o vessel ( wat] has ?us be5 dis*>g$1 ! /eam acts ^u ! wat] conta9$ 9 ano!r vessel1 :ile ! fir/ is be+ repl5i%$2 & t a cont9u$ upw>d curr5t ( wat] is ma9ta9$ by caus+ ! /eam to act alt]nately ^u two vessels1 employ+ ! int]val to fill "o :ile ! wat] is dis*>g$ f ! o!r4 ,on comp>+ ?is ) ! contrivance previ\sly sugge/$ by ,de ,caus1 x w be obs]v$1 t ev5 if ,de ,caus knew ! physical ag5t by :i* ! wat] 0 driv5 upw>ds 9 ! app>atus contriv$ by him1 /ill x 0 only a means ( caus+ a vessel ( boil+ wat] to empty itself2 & be=e a repetition ( ! process c\ld be obta9$1 ! vessel %\ld be refill$1 & aga9 boil$4 ,9 ! contrivance ( ,"l ,worce/]1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ag5cy ( ! /eam 0 employ$ 9 ! same mann] z x is 9 ! /eam eng9es ( ! pres5t day1 be+ g5]at$ 9 "o vessel1 & us$ = me*anical purposes 9 ano!r4 ,nor mu/ ?is di/9ction be reg>d$ z trifl+ & insignificant1 because on x dep5ds ! :ole practicability ( us+ /eam z a me*anical ag5t4 ,_h its action be5 conf9$ to ! vessel 9 :i* x 0 produc$1 x nev] c\ld h be5 employ$ = any useful purpose4 ,,sir ,,samuel ,,morl&1 #afhc4 7#bh47 ,x appe>s1 by a ,,ms4 9 ! ,h>leian ,collection 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 t a mode ( apply+ /eam to raise wat] 0 propos$ to ,l\is ,,xiv4 by ,sir ,samuel ,morl&4 ,x conta9s1 h[ev]1 no?+ m ?an might h be5 collect$ f ,"l ,worce/]'s description1 & is only curi\s1 because ( ! k ! writ] appe>s to h _h ( ! expansion :i* wat] und]goes 9 pass+ into /eam4 ,! foll[+ is extract$ f ! ,,ms43 ,! pr9ciples ( ! new =ce ( fire inv5t$ by ,*evali] ,morl& 9 #afhb1 & pres5t$ to 8 ,mo/ ,*ri/ian ,maje/y 9 #afhc3--',wat] be+ conv]t$ into vap\r by ! =ce ( fire1 ^! vap\rs %ortly require a great] space 7ab\t #bjjj times7 ?an ! wat] be=e occupi$1 & soon] ?an be con/antly conf9$ w\ld split a piece ( cannon4 ,b be+ duly regulat$ accord+ to ! rules ( /atics1 & by sci5ce r$uc$ to measure1 weight1 & balance1 !n !y be> _! load peaceably 7l good horses17 & ?us become ( great use to mank9d1 p>ticul>ly = rais+ wat]1 accord+ to ! foll[+ table1 :i* %[s ! numb] ( p\nds t may be rais$ #ahjj times p] h\r to a height ( six in*es by cyl9d]s half fill$ ) wat]1 z well z ! diff]5t diamet]s & dep?s ( ! said cyl9d]s4' ,,d5is ,,pap91 #afie4 7#bi47 ,d5is ,pap91 a native ( ,blois 9 ,france1 & pr(essor ( ma!matics at ,m>b\rg1 _h be5 engag$ ab\t ?is p]iod 9 ! contrivance ( a ma*9e 9 :i* ! atmosph]ic pressure %\ld be made available z a me*anical ag5t by creat+ a p>tial vacuum 9 a cyl9d] "u a pi/on4 ,8 fir/ attempts 7 direct$ to ! production ( ?is vacuum by me*anical means1 hav+ propos$ to apply a wat]-:eel to "w an air-pump1 & s ma9ta9 ! degree ( r>efaction requir$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld ev5tually h am\nt$ to no?+ m ?an a mode ( transmitt+ ! p[] ( ! wat]-:eel to ano!r eng9e1 s9ce ! vacuum produc$ 9 ?is way c\ld only give back ! p[] ex]t$ by ! wat]-:eel dim9i%$ by ! friction ( ! pumps2 /ill ?is w\ld atta9 ! end fir/ propos$ by ,pap91 :i* 0 m]ely to transmit ! =ce ( ! /ream ( a riv]1 or a fall ( wat]1 to a di/ant po9t1 by p>tially exhau/$ pipes or tubes4 ,he next1 h[ev]1 attempt$ to produce a p>tial vacuum by ! explosion ( gunp[d]2 b ?is 0 f\nd to be insuffici5t1 s9ce s mu* air rema9$ 9 ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on1 t at lea/ half ! p[] due to a vacuum w\ld h be5 lo/4 ,i h1 !re=e1 proce$s ,pap91 attempt$ to atta9 ?is end by ano!r me?od4 ,s9ce wat] be+ conv]t$ into /eam by heat acquires ! prop]ty ( ela/icity l air1 & may aft]w>ds be recond5s$ s p]fectly by cold t !re w no long] rema9 ! appe>ance ( ela/icity 9 x1 ,i h ?\ght t x w\ld n be difficult to con/ruct ma*9es 9 :i*1 by means ( a mod]ate heat1 & at a small exp5se1 wat] w\ld produce t p]fect vacuum :i* has be5 va9ly s\ght by means ( gunp[d]4 ,pap9 accord+ly con/ruct$ ! model ( a ma*9e1 consi/+ ( a small pump1 9 :i* 0 plac$ a solid pi/on1 & 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] "u ! pi/on 0 conta9$ a small quantity ( wat]4 ,! pi/on be+ 9 imm$iate contact ) ?is wat]1 s z to exclude ! atmosph]ic air1 on apply+ fire to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] /eam 0 produc$1 ! ela/ic =ce ( :i* rais$ ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d]3 ! fire be+ !n remov$1 & ! cyl9d] be+ cool$ by ! surr\nd+ air1 ! /eam 0 cond5s$ & reconv]t$ into wat]1 leav+ a vacuum 9 ! cyl9d] into :i* ! pi/on 0 press$ by ! =ce ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! fire be+ appli$ & subsequ5tly remov$1 ano!r asc5t & desc5t 7 accompli%$2 & 9 ! same mann] ! alt]nate motion ( ! pi/on might be cont9u$4 ,pap9 describ$ no o!r =m ( ma*9e by :i* ?is prop]ty c\ld be r5d]$ available 9 practice2 b he /ates g5]ally t ! same end may be atta9$ by v>i\s =ms ( ma*9es easy to be imag9$4#f ,footnote #f3 ,recueil de div]ses pices t\*ant quelques n\velles ma*9es1 p4 #ch4 ,,?omas ,,sav]y1 #afih4 7#cj47 ,! discov]y ( ! me?od ( produc+ a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam 0 reproduc$ be=e #afhh1 by ,capta9 ,?omas ,sav]y1 to :om a pat5t 0 grant$ 9 t ye> = a /eam eng9e to be appli$ to ! rais+ ( wat]1 c4 ,sav]y propos$ to comb9e ! ma*9e describ$ by ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 ) an app>atus = rais+ wat] by suction into a vacuum produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam4 ,sav]y appe>s to h be5 ignorant ( ! publication ( ,pap91 9 #afie1 & /ates t 8 discov]y ( ! cond5s+ pr9ciple arises f ! foll[+ circum/ance3-- ,hav+ drunk a flask ( ,flor5ce at a tav]n & flung ! empty flask on ! fire1 he call$ = a bas9 ( wat] to wa% 8 h&s4 ,a small quantity :i* rema9$ 9 ! flask began to boil & /eam issu$ f its m\?4 ,x occurr$ to him to try :at effect w\ld be produc$ by inv]t+ ! flask & plung+ its m\? 9 ! cold wat]4 ,putt+ on a ?ick glove to def5d 8 h& f ! heat1 he seiz$ ! flask1 & ! mom5t he plung$ its m\? 9 ! wat]1 ! liquid imm$iately ru%$ up into ! flask & fill$ x4 7#ba47 ,sav]y /at$ t ?is circum/ance imm$iately sugge/$ to him ! possibility ( giv+ effect to ! atmosph]ic pressure by creat+ a vacuum 9 ?is mann]4 ,he ?\ght t if1 in/ead ( exhau/+ ! b>rel ( a pump by ! usual labori\s me?od ( a pi/on & suck]1 x 0 exhau/$ by fir/ fill+ x ) /eam & !n cond5s+ ! same /eam1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w\ld =ce ! wat] f ! well into ! pump-b>rel & into any vessel connect$ ) x1 provid$ t vessel 7 n m ?an ab\t #cd feet above ! elevation ( ! wat] 9 ! well4 ,he p]ceiv$1 also1 t1 hav+ lift$ ! wat] to ?is height1 he might use ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam 9 ! mann] describ$ by ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/] to raise ! same wat] to a /ill great] elevation1 & t ! same /eam :i* accompli%$ ?is me*anical effect w\ld s]ve by its subsequ5t cond5sation to repeat ! vacuum & draw up m wat]4 ,x 0 on ?is pr9ciple t ,sav]y con/ruct$ ! fir/ eng9e 9 :i* /eam 0 ev] br\ght into practical op]ation4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,eng9es ,,( ,,sav]y ,,& ,,newcom54 ,sav]y's ,eng9e4 -- ,boil]s & _! app5dages4 -- ,work+ app>atus4 -- ,mode ( ,op]ation4 -- ,defects ( ! ,eng9e4 -- ,newcom5 & ,cawley4 -- ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e4 -- ,accid5tal ,discov]y ( ,cond5sation by ,jet4 -- ,pott]'s ,discov]y ( ! ,me?od ( ,work+ ! ,valves4 7#ca47 ,! /eam eng9e contriv$ by ,sav]y1 l e o!r :i* has s9ce be5 con/ruct$1 consi/s ( two p>ts ess5tially di/9ct4 ,! fir/ is t :i* is employ$ to g5]ate ! /eam1 :i* is call$ ! boil]1 & ! second1 t 9 :i* ! /eam is appli$ z a mov+ p[]4 ,! =m] app>atus 9 ,sav]y's eng9e consi/s ( two /rong boil]s1 sections ( :i* are repres5t$ at ,d & ,e 9 fig4 #g42 ,d ! great] boil]1 & ,e ! less4 ,! tubes ,t & ,t communicate ) ! work+ app>atus :i* we %all pres5tly describe4 ,a ?9 plate ( metal ,r is appli$ closely to ! top ( ! great] boil] ,d turn+ on a c5tre ,c1 s t by mov+ a lev] appli$ to ! axis ,c on ! outside ( ! top1 ! slid+ plate ,r c be br\ght f ! m\? ( ! "o tube to ! m\? ( ! o!r alt]nately4 ,?is slid+ valve is call$ ! regulator1 s9ce x is by x t ! communications betwe5 ! boil] & two /eam vessels 7h]eaft] describ$17 are alt]nately op5$ & clos$1 ! lev] :i* effects ?is be+ con/antly wr\ght by ! h& ( ! att5dant4 ,two gauge-pipes are repres5t$ at ,g1 ,g1 ! use ( :i* is to det]m9e ! dep? ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,"o ,g has its l[] ap]ture a little above ! prop] dep?1 & ! o!r ,g a little bel[ x4 ,cocks are atta*$ to ! upp] ends ,g1 ,g1 :i* c be op5$ or clos$ at pleasure4 ,! /eam collect$ 9 ! top ( ! boil] press+ on ! surface ( ! wat] =ces x up 9 ! tubes ,g1 ,g1 if _! l[] ends be imm]s$4 ,^u op5+ ! cocks ,g1 ,g1 if wat] be =c$ f !m1 !re is too mu* wat] 9 ! boil]1 s9ce ! m\? ( ,g is bel[ its level4 ,if /eam issue f bo? !re is too little wat] 9 ! boil]1 s9ce ! m\? ( ,g is above its level4 ,b if /eam issue f ,g & wat] f ,g ! wat] 9 ! boil] is at its prop] level4 ,?is +5i\s contrivance = det]m9+ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] is ! inv5tion ( ,sav]y1 & is us$ 9 _m in/ances at ! pres5t day4 ,! m\? ( ,g %\ld be at a level ( a little less ?an "o-?ird ( ! :ole dep?1 & ! m\? ( ,g at a level a little l[] ?an "o-?ird2 = x is requisite t ab\t two-?irds ( ! boil] %\ld be kept fill$ ) wat]4 ,! tube ,i =ms a communication betwe5 ! great] boil] ,d & ! less] or fe$+ boil] ,e1 desc5d+ ne>ly to ! bottom ( x4 ,?is communication c be op5$ & clos$ at pleasure by ! cock ,k4 ,a gauge pipe is ins]t$ simil> to ,g1 ,g1 b ext5d+ ne>ly to ! bottom4 ,f ?is boil] a tube ,f ext5ds :i* is cont9u$ to a ci/]n ,c 7fig4 #h47 & a cock is plac$ at ,m :i*1 :5 op5$1 all[s ! wat] f ! ci/]n to fl[ into ! fe$+ boil] ,e1 & :i* is clos$ :5 t boil] is fill$4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is ci/]n is suppli$ w be describ$ h]eaft]4 ,let u n[ suppose t ! pr9cipal boil] is fill$ to ! level betwe5 ! gauge-pipes1 & t ! subsidi>y boil] is ne>ly full ( wat]1 ! cock ,k & ! gauge cocks ,g1 ,g be+ all clos$4 ,! fire be+ light$ b5ea? ,d & ! wat] boil$1 /eam is produc$ & is transmitt$ ?r\gh "o or o!r ( ! tubes ,t ,t1 to ! work+ app>atus4 ,:5 evaporation has r$uc$ ! wat] 9 ,d bel[ ! level ( ,g x w be necess>y to repl5i% ! boil] ,d4 ,?is is effect$ ?us4 ,a fire be+ light$ b5ea? ! fe$+ boil] ,e1 /eam is produc$ 9 x above ! surface ( ! wat]1 :i* hav+ no escape presses on ! surface s z to =ce x up 9 ! pipe ,i4 ,! cock ,k be+ !n op5$1 ! boil+ wat] is =c$ into ! pr9cipal boil] ,d1 into :i* x is all[$ to fl[ until wat] issues f ! gauge cock ,g4 ,:5 ?is takes place1 ! cock ,k is clos$1 & ! fire remov$ f ,e until ! great boil] aga9 wants repl5i%+4 ,:5 ! fe$+ boil] ,e has be5 exhau/$1 x is repl5i%$ f ! ci/]n ,c 7fig4 #h47 ?r\gh ! pipe ,f by op5+ ! cock ,m4 7#cb47 ,we %all n[ describe ! work+ app>atus 9 :i* ! /eam is us$ z a mov+ p[]4 ,let ,v ,v 7fig4 #h47 be two /eam vessels communicat+ by ! tubes ,t ,t 7m>k$ by ! same lett]s 9 fig4 #g47 ) ! great] boil] ,d4 ,let ,s be a pipe1 call$ ! suction pipe1 desc5d+ into ! well or res]voir f :i* ! wat] is to be rais$1 & communicat+ ) ea* ( ! /eam vessels ?r\gh tubes ,d ,d by valves ,a ,a :i* op5 upw>ds4 ,let ,f be a pipe cont9u$ f ! level ( ! eng9e ( :atev] high] level x is int5d$ to elevate ! wat]4 ,! /eam vessels ,v ,v communicate ) ! =ce-pipe ,f by valves ,b ,b :i* op5 upw>d1 ?r\gh ! tubes ,e ,e4 ,ov] ! /eam vessels & on ! =ce-pipe is plac$ a small ci/]n ,c already m5tion$1 :i* is kept fill$ ) cold wat] f ! =ce-pipe1 & f ! bottom ( :i* proce$s a pipe t]m9at$ ) a cock ,g4 ,?is is call$ ! cond5s+ pipe1 & c be br\ght alt]nately ov] ea* /eam vessel4 ,f ?is ci/]n ano!r pipe communicates ) ! fe$+ boil] 7fig4 #g47 by ! cock ,m4#g ,footnote #g3 ,?is pipe 9 fig4 #i4 is repres5t$ z proce$+ f ! =ce-pipe above ! ci/]n ,c4 ,! communication ( ! pipes ,t ,t ) ! boil] c be op5$ & clos$1 alt]nately1 by ! regulator ,r1 7fig4 #g47 already describ$4 ,n[ suppose ! /eam vessels & tubes to be all fill$ ) common atmosph]ic air1 & t ! regulator be plac$ s t ! communication betwe5 ! tube ,t & ! boil] be op5$1 ! communication betwe5 ! o!r tube ,t & ! boil] be+ clos$1 /eam w fl[ into ,v ?r\gh ,t4 ,at fir/1 :ile ! vessel ,v is cold1 ! /eam w be cond5s$ & w fall 9 drops ( wat] on ! bottom & sides ( ! vessel4 ,! cont9u$ supply ( /eam f ! boil] w at l5g? imp>t su* a degree ( heat to ! vessel ,v t x w cease to cond5se x4 ,mix$ ) ! heat$ air conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,v1 x w h an ela/ic =ce great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & w !re=e =ce op5 ! valve ,b1 ?r\gh :i* a mixture ( air & /eam w be driv5 until all ! air 9 ! vessel ,v w h pass$ out1 & x w conta9 no?+ b ! pure vap\r ( wat]4 ,:5 ?is has tak5 place1 suppose ! regulator be mov$ s z to close ! communication betwe5 ! tube ,t & ! boil]1 & to /op ! fur!r supply ( /eam to ! vessel ,v2 & at ! same "t let ! cond5s+ pipe ,g be br\ght ov] ! vessel ,v & ! cock op5$ s z to let a /ream ( cold wat] fl[ ^u x4 ,?is w cool ! vessel ,v1 & ! /eam ) :i* x is fill$ w be cond5s$ & fall 9 a few drops ( wat]1 leav+ ! int]ior ( ! vessel a vacuum4 ,! valve ,b w be kept clos$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,b ! ela/ic =ce ( ! air betwe5 ! valve ,a & ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! well or res]voir1 w op5 ,a1 s t a "p ( ?is air w ru% 9 7#f47 & occupy ! vessel ,v4 ,! air 9 ! suction pipe ,s1 be+ ?us all[$ an increas$ space1 w be proportionably dim9i%$ 9 its ela/ic =ce 7#f471 & its pressure w no long] balance t ( ! atmosph]e act+ on ! ext]nal surface ,l#h ( ! wat] 9 ! res]voir4 ,?is pressure w1 !re=e1 =ce wat] up 9 ! tube ,s until its weight1 toge!r ) ! ela/ic =ce ( ! air above x1 balances ! atmosph]ic pressure on ,l 7#g474 ,:5 ?is has tak5 place1 ! wat] w cease to asc5d4 ,footnote #h3 ,n 9 ! diagram4 ,let u n[ suppose t1 by %ift+ ! regulator1 ! communication is op5$ betwe5 ,t & ! boil]1 s t /eam fl[s aga9 into ,v4 ,! cond5s+ cock ,g be+ remov$1 ! vessel w be aga9 heat$ z be=e1 ! air expell$1 & its place fill$ by ! /eam4 ,! cond5s+ pipe be+ aga9 all[$ to play ^u ! vessel ,v1 & ! fur!r supply ( /eam be+ /opp$1 a vacuum w be produc$ 9 ,v1 & ! atmosph]ic pressure on ,l w =ce ! wat] ?r\gh ! valve ,a into ! vessel ,v1 :i* x w ne>ly fill1 a small quantity ( air1 h[ev]1 rema9+ above x4 ,?us f> ! me*anical ag5cy employ$ 9 elevat+ ! wat] is ! atmosph]ic pressure2 & ! p[] ( /eam is no fur!r employ$ ?an 9 ! production ( a vacuum4 ,b1 9 ord] to cont9ue ! elevation ( ! wat] ?r\gh ! =ce-pipe ,f1 above ! level ( ! /eam vessel1 x w be necess>y to use ! ela/ic pressure ( ! /eam4 ,! vessel ,v is n[ ne>ly fill$ by ! wat] :i* has be5 =c$ into x by ! atmosph]e4 ,let u suppose t1 ! regulator be+ %ift$ aga91 ! communication betwe5 ! tube ,t & ! boil] is op5$1 ! cond5s+ cock remov$1 & t /eam fl[s into ,v4 ,at fir/ com+ 9 contact ) ! cold surface ( ! wat] & t ( ! vessel1 x is cond5s$2 b ! vessel is soon heat$1 & ! wat] =m$ by ! cond5s$ /eam collects 9 a %eet or film on ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ,v1 s z to =m a surface z hot z boil+ wat]4#i ,! /eam !n be+ no long] cond5s$1 presses on ! surface ( ! wat] ) its ela/ic =ce2 & :5 t pressure becomes great] ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 ! valve ,b is =c$ op5 & ! wat]1 issu+ ?r\gh x1 passes ?r\gh ,e into ! =ce-pipe ,f2 & ?is is cont9u$ until ! /eam has =c$ all ! wat] f ,v1 & occupies its place4 ,footnote #i3 ,hot wat] be+ light] ?an cold1 x floats on ! surface4 ,! fur!r admission ( /eam ?r\gh ,t is once m /opp$ by mov+ ! regulator2 & ! cond5s+ pipe be+ aga9 all[$ to play on ,v1 s z to cond5se ! /eam :i* fills x1 produces a vacuum4 ,into ?is vacuum1 z be=e1 ! atmosph]ic pressure on ,l w =ce ! wat]1 & fill ! vessel ,v4 ,! cond5s+ pipe be+ !n clos$ & /eam admitt$ ?r\gh ,t1 ! wat] 9 ,v w be =c$ by its pressure ?r\gh ! valve ,b & tube ,e into ,f1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,we h n yet notic$ ! o!r /eam vessel ,v1 :i* z f> z we h describ$1 w\ld h rema9$ fill$ ) common atmosph]ic air1 ! pressure ( :i*1 on ! valve ,a1 w\ld h prev5t$ ! wat] rais$ 9 ! suction pipe ,s f pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is n ! case2 =1 dur+ ! entire process :i* has be5 describ$ 9 ,v1 simil> effects h be5 produc$ 9 ,v1 :i* we h only omitt$ to notice1 to avoid ! confusion :i* ! two processes might produce4 ,x w be rememb]$1 t aft] ! /eam1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 hav+ fl[$ f ! boil] ?r\gh ,t1 has bl[n ! air out ( ,v ?r\gh ,b1 ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is clos$4 ,n[ ! same motion ( ! regulator :i* closes ?is op5s ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil]2 = ! slid+ plate ,r 7fig4 #g47 is mov$ f ! "o tube to ! o!r1 & at ! same "t1 z we h already /at$1 ! cond5s+ pipe is br\ght to play on ,v4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 a vacuum is be+ =m$ 9 ,v by cond5sation1 ! /eam1 fl[+ ?r\gh ,t1 bl[s out ! air ?r\gh ,b1 z already describ$ 9 ! o!r vessel ,v2 &1 :ile ! air 9 ,s is ru%+ up ?r\gh ,a into ,v foll[$ by ! wat] rais$ 9 ,s by ! atmosph]ic pressure on ,l1 ! vessel ,v is be+ fill$ ) /eam1 & ! air is completely expell$ f x4 ,! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is n[ aga9 op5$1 & ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] clos$ by mov+ ! regulator ,r 7fig4 #g47 f ! tube ,t to ,t2 at ! same "t ! cond5s+ pipe is remov$ f ov] ,v & br\ght to play ^u ,v4 ,:ile ! /eam once m expels ! air f ,v ?r\gh ,b1 a vacuum is =m$ by cond5sation 9 ,v1 into :i* ! wat] 9 ,s ru%es ?r\gh ! valve ,a4 ,9 ! mean "t ,v is aga9 fill$ ) /eam4 ,! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is n[ clos$1 & t betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is op5$1 & ! cond5s+ pipe remov$ f ,v & br\ght to play on ,v4 ,:ile ! /eam f ! boil] =ces ! wat] 9 ,v ?r\gh ,b into ! =ce-pipe ,f1 a vacuum is be+ produc$ 9 ,v into :i* wat] is rais$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure at ,l4 ,?us ea* ( ! vessels ,v ,v is alt]nately fill$ f ,s & ! wat] !nce =c$ into ,f4 ,! same /eam :i* =ces ! wat] f ! vessels into ,f1 hav+ done its duty1 is cond5s$1 & br+s up ! wat] f ,s by giv+ effect to ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,dur+ ?is process1 two alt]nate motions or adju/m5ts mu/ be con/antly made2 ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] mu/ be op5$1 & t betwe5 ,t & ! boil] clos$1 :i* is done by "o motion ( ! regulator4 ,! cond5s+ pipe at ! same "t mu/ be br\ght f ,v to play on ,v :i* is done by ! lev] plac$ ^u x4 ,aga9 ! communication betwe5 ,t & ! boil] is to be op5$1 & t betwe5 ,t & ! boil] clos$2 ?is is done by mov+ back ! regulator4 ,! cond5s+ pipe is br\ght f ,v to ,v by mov+ back ! o!r lev]1 & s on alt]nately4 ,= ! cle>ness & conv5i5ce ( description1 "s slight & o!rwise unimportant *anges h be5 made 9 ! position ( ! p>ts4#aj ,a p]spective view ( ?is eng9e is pres5t$ 9 fig4 #i4 ,! diff]5t p>ts already describ$ w easily be recognis$1 be+ m>k$ ) ! same lett]s z 9 figs4 #f1 #g4 ,footnote #aj3 ,9 ! diagrams us$ = expla9+ ! pr9ciples & op]ations ( ma*9es1 ,i h f\nd x contribute mu* to ! cle>ness ( ! description to adopt an arrangem5t ( p>ts some:at diff]5t f t ( ! real ma*9e4 ,:5 once ! nature & pr9ciples on :i* ! ma*9e acts are well und]/ood1 ! read] w f9d no difficulty 9 transf]r+ e "p to its prop] place1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ! p]spective draw+s4 7#cc47 ,9 ord] duly to appreciate ! value ( improvem5ts1 x is necess>y fir/ to p]ceive ! defects :i* ^! improvem5ts are design$ to remove4 ,sav]y's /eam eng9e1 consid]+ h[ little 0 kn[n ( ! value & prop]ties ( /eam1 & h[ l[ ! g5]al /&>d ( me*anical k 0 9 8 day1 is c]ta9ly highly cr$itable to 8 g5ius4 ,nev]!less x _h v consid]able defects1 & 0 f9ally f\nd to be ineffici5t = ! mo/ important purposes to :i* he propos$ apply+ x4 ,at ! "t ( ?is inv5tion1 ! m9es 9 ,engl& _h greatly increas$ 9 dep?1 & ! process ( dra9+ !m _h become bo? exp5sive & difficult2 s mu* s1 t x 0 f\nd 9 _m in/ances t _! produce did n cov] ! co/ ( work+ !m4 ,! dra9age ( ^! m9es 0 ! mo/ important purpose to :i* ,sav]y propos$ to apply 8 /eam eng9e4 ,x has be5 already /at$1 t ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e am\nts to ab\t #ae lbs4 7#c47 on e squ>e in*4 ,n[1 a column ( wat]1 ^: base is "o squ>e in*1 & ^: height is #cd feet1 weighs ab\t #aelbs4 ,if we suppose t a p]fect vacuum 7 produc$ 9 ! /eam-vessels ,v ,v 7fig4 #h47 by cond5sation1 ! atmosph]ic pressure on ,l w\ld fail to =ce up ! wat]1 if ! height ( ! top ( ^! vessels exce$$ #cd feet4 ,x is pla91 !re=e1 t ! eng9e _c be m ?an #cd feet above ! wat] :i* x is int5d$ to elevate4 ,b 9 fact x _c be s mu*2 = ! vacuum produc$ 9 ! /eam-vessels ,v ,v is nev] p]fect4 ,wat]1 :5 n submitt$ to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 w vaporise at a v l[ temp]ature 7#ag472 & x 0 f\nd t a vap\r possess+ a consid]able ela/icity w\ld1 not)/&+ ! cond5sation1 rema9 9 ! vessels ,v ,v & ! pipe ,s1 & w\ld oppose ! asc5t ( ! wat]4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 x 0 f\nd t ! eng9e c\ld nev] be plac$ ) practical advantage at a great] height ?an #bf feet above ! level ( ! wat] to be rais$4 7#cd47 ,:5 ! wat] is elevat$ to ! eng9e1 & ! /eam-vessels fill$1 if /eam be introduc$ above ! wat] 9 ,v1 x mu/ fir/ balance ! atmosph]ic pressure1 be=e x c =ce ! wat] ?r\gh ! valve ,b4 ,"h1 !n1 is a me*anical pressure ( #aelbs4 p] squ>e in* exp5d$1 )\t any wat] be+ rais$ by x4 ,if /eam ( twice t ela/ic =ce be us$1 x w elevate a column 9 ,f ( #cd feet 9 height2 & if /eam ( triple ! =ce be us$1 x w raise a column ( #fh feet high1 :i*1 add$ to #bf feet rais$ by ! atmosph]e1 gives a total lift ( #id feet4 ,9 effect+ ?is1 /eam ( a pressure equal to ?ree times t ( ! atmosph]e acts on ! inn] surface ( ! vessels ,v ,v4 ,"o ?ird ( ?is bur/+ ( ! pressure is balanc$ by ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! ext]nal surface ( ! vessels2 b an effective pressure ( #cjlbs4 p] squ>e in* /ill rema9s1 t5d+ to bur/ ! vessels4 ,x 0 f\nd1 t ! app>atus c\ld n be con/ruct$ to be> m ?an ?is ) safety2 &1 !re=e1 9 practice ! lift ( su* an eng9e 0 limit$ to ab\t #ij p]p5dicul> feet4 ,9 ord] to raise ! wat] f ! bottom ( ! m9e by ^! eng9es1 !re=e1 x 0 necess>y to place "o at e #ij feet ( ! dep?2 s t ! wat] rais$ by "o ?r\gh ! fir/ #ij feet %\ld be receiv$ 9 a res]voir1 f :i* x 0 to be elevat$ ! next #ij feet by ano!r1 & s on4 ,besides ?is1 x 0 f\nd t suffici5t /r5g? c\ld n be giv5 to ^? eng9es1 if con/ruct$ ^u a l>ge scale4 ,!y 71 !re=e1 necess>ily v limit$ 9 _! dim5sions1 & 7 incapable ( rais+ ! wat] ) suffici5t spe$4 ,h5ce arose a necessity = sev]al eng9es at ea* level1 :i* greatly enhanc$ ! exp5se4 7#ce47 ,^!1 h[ev]1 7 n ! only defects ( ,sav]y's eng9es4 ,! consumption ( fuel 0 enorm\s1 ! proportion ( heat wa/$ be+ mu* m ?an :at 0 us$ 9 ei!r =c+ up ! wat]1 or produc+ a vacuum4 ,?is w be v easily und]/ood by att5d+ to ! process ( work+ ! eng9e already describ$4 ,:5 ! /eam is fir/ introduc$ f ! boil] into ! /eam-vessels ,v ,v1 prep>atory to ! =mation ( a vacuum1 x is necess>y t x %\ld heat ^! vessels up to ! temp]ature ( ! /eam itself2 = until !n ! /eam w be cond5s$ ! mom5t x ent]s ! vessel by ! cool surface4 ,all ?is heat1 !re=e1 sp5t 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! /eam vessels is wa/$4 ,aga91 :5 ! wat] has asc5d$ & fill$ ! vessels ,v ,v1 & /eam is introduc$ to =ce ?is wat] ?r\gh ,b ,b into ,f1 x is imm$iately cond5s$ by ! cold surface 9 ,v ,v1 & does n beg9 to act until a quantity ( hot wat]1 =m$ by cond5s$ /eam1 is collect$ on ! surface ( ! cold wat] :i* fills ! vessel ,v ,v4 ,h5ce ano!r s\rce ( ! wa/e ( heat arises4 ,:5 ! /eam beg9s to act ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ,v ,v1 & to =ce x d[n1 ! cold surface ( ! vessel is gradually expos$ to ! /eam1 & mu/ be heat$ :ile ! /eam cont9ues its action2 & :5 ! wat] has be5 =c$ out ( ! vessel1 ! vessel itself has be5 heat$ to ! temp]ature ( ! /eam :i* fills x1 all :i* heat is dissipat$ by ! subsequ5t process ( cond5sation4 ,x mu/ ?us be evid5t t ! /eam us$ 9 =c+ up ! wat] 9 ,f1 & 9 produc+ a vacuum1 be>s a v small proportion inde$ to :at is consum$ 9 heat+ ! app>atus aft] cond5sation4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,i4 7#cf47 ,!re is also ano!r circum/ance :i* increases ! consumption ( fuel4 ,! wat] mu/ be =c$ ?r\gh b1 n only aga9/ ! atmosph]ic pressure1 b also aga9/ a column ( #fh feet ( wat]4 ,/eam is !re=e requir$ ( a pressure ( #delbs4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,consequ5tly ! wat] 9 ! boil] mu/ be boil$ "u ?is pressure4 ,t ?is %\ld take place1 x is necess>y t ! wat] %\ld be rais$ to a temp]ature consid]ably above #bab 7#ag471 ev5 s high z #bfg2 & ?us an increas$ heat mu/ be giv5 to ! boil]4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! o!r defects1 ?is int5se heat weak5$ & gradually de/roy$ ! app>atus4 ,besides ! dra9age ( m9es1 ,sav]y propos$ to apply 8 /eam eng9e to a v>iety ( o!r purposes2 su* z supply+ cities ) wat]1 =m+ ornam5tal wat]works 9 pleasure gr\nds1 turn+ mills1 c4 ,sav]y 0 ! fir/ :o sugge/$ ! me?od ( express+ ! p[] ( an eng9e ) ref]5ce to t ( horses4 ,9 ?is comp>ison1 h[ev]1 he suppos$ ea* horse to "w b #h h\rs a day1 :ile ! eng9e works = #bd h\rs4 ,?is me?od ( express+ ! p[] ( /eam eng9es w be expla9$ h]eaft]4 7#cg47 ,! failure ( ! eng9es propos$ by ,capta9 ,sav]y 9 ! great "w ( dra9age1 f ! causes :i* h be5 j m5tion$ & ! increas+ necessity = effect+ ?is object aris+ f ! circum/ance ( ! l>ge prop]ty 9 m9es1 :i* became e ye> unproductive by x1 /imulat$ ! +5uity ( me*anics to contrive "s means ( r5d]+ ^? p[]s ( /eam exhibit$ 9 ,sav]y's eng9e practically available4 ,among o!rs1 ,?omas ,newcom51 a blacksmi? ( ,d>tm\?1 & ,john ,cawley1 a plumb] ( ! same place1 turn$ _! att5tion to ?is inquiry4 ,newcom5 appe>s to h resum$ ! old me?od ( rais+ ! wat] f ! m9es by ord9>y pumps1 b conceiv$ ! idea ( work+ ^! pumps by "s mov+ p[] less exp5sive ?an t ( horses4 ,! means :]eby he propos$ effect+ ?is 0 by connect+ ! end ( a pump rod ,d 7fig4 #aj471 by a *a91 ) ! ar*-head ,a ( a work+ beam ,a ,b1 play+ on an axis ,c4 ,! o!r ar*-head ,b ( ?is beam 0 connect$ by a *a9 ) ! rod ,e ( a solid pi/on ,p1 :i* mov$ air-tight 9 a cyl9d] ,f4 ,if a vacuum be creat$ b5ea? ! pi/on ,p1 ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ ^u x w press x d[n ) a =ce ( #ae lbs4 p] squ>e in*2 & ! end ,a ( ! beam be+ ?us rais$1 ! pump-rod ,d w be drawn up4 ,if a pressure equival5t to ! atmosph]e be !n introduc$ bel[ ! pi/on1 s z to neutralize ! d[nw>d pressure1 ! pi/on w be 9 a /ate ( indiff]5ce z to ris+ or fall+2 & if 9 ?is case ! rod ,d be made heavi] ?an ! pi/on & its rod1 s z to ov]come ! friction1 c4 x w desc5d1 & elevate ! pi/on aga9 to ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! vacuum be+ aga9 produc$1 ano!r desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & consequ5t elevation ( ! pump-rod1 w take place2 & s ! process may be cont9u$4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,,sav]y',s ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,su* 0 ,newcom5's fir/ conception ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e2 & ! contrivance _h mu*1 ev5 at ! fir/ view1 to recomm5d x4 ,! p[] ( su* a ma*9e w\ld dep5d entirely on ! magnitude ( ! pi/on2 & be+ indep5d5t ( a highly ela/ic /eam1 w\ld n expose ! mat]ials to ! de/ructive heat :i* 0 necess>y = work+ ,sav]y's eng9e4 ,suppos+ a p]fect vacuum to be produc$ "u ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d]1 an effective d[nw>d pressure w\ld be obta9$1 am\nt+ to #ae times z _m p\nds z !re are squ>e in*es 9 ! section ( ! pi/on4#aa ,?us1 if ! base ( ! pi/on 7 #ajj squ>e in*es1 a pressure equal to #aejjlbs4 w\ld be obta9$4 ,footnote #aa3 ,z ! calculation ( ! p[] ( an eng9e dep5ds on ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 ! section ( ! pi/on1 x may be useful to give a rule = comput+ ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 a circle4 ,! foll[+ rule w always give ! dim5sions ) suffici5t accuracy3--,multiply ! numb] ( in*es 9 ! diamet] by itself2 divide ! product by #ad1 & multiply ! quoti5t ?us obta9$ by #aa1 & ! result w be ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 ! circle4 ,?us if !re be #ab in*es 9 ! diamet]1 ?is multipli$ by itself gives #add1 :i* divid$ by #ad gives #aj-d_/ad1 :i* multipli$ by #aa gives #aae1 neglect+ fractions4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 #aae squ>e in*es 9 a circle ^: diamet] is #ab in*es4 7#ch47 ,9 ord] to accompli% ?is design1 two ?+s 7 necess>y3 #a4 ,to make a spe$y & effectual vacuum bel[ ! pi/on 9 ! desc5t2 & #b4 ,to contrive a c\nt]poise = ! atmosph]e 9 ! asc5t4 ,! cond5sation ( /eam imm$iately pres5t$ itself z ! mo/ effectual means ( accompli%+ ! =m]2 & ! ela/ic =ce ( ! same /eam previ\s to cond5sation an obvi\s me?od ( effect+ ! latt]4 ,no?+ n[ rema9$ to c>ry ! design into execution1 b ! contrivance ( means = ! alt]nate introduction & cond5sation ( ! /eam2 & ,newcom5 & ,cawley 7 accord+ly grant$ a pat5t 9 #agjg1 9 :i* ,sav]y 0 unit$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( cond5sation = :i* he _h previ\sly receiv$ a pat5t be+ necess>y to ! project$ ma*9e4 ,we %all n[ describe ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 z fir/ con/ruct$ by ,newcom53-- ,! boil] ,k is plac$ ov] a furnace ,i1 ! flue ( :i* w9ds r\nd x1 s z to communicate heat to e "p ( ! bottom ( x4 ,9 ! top1 :i* is hemisph]ical1 two gauge-pipes ,g ,g are plac$1 z 9 ,sav]y's eng9e1 & a puppet valve ,v1 :i* op5s upw>d1 & is load$ at "o p\nd p] squ>e in*2 s t :5 ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] exce$s ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e by m ?an "o p\nd on ! squ>e in*1 ! valve ,v is lift$1 & ! /eam escapes ?r\gh x1 & cont9ues to escape until its pressure is suffici5tly dim9i%$1 :5 ! valve ,v aga9 falls into its seat4 ,! great /eam-tube is repres5t$ at ,s1 :i* conducts /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]2 & a fe$+ pipe ,t furni%$ ) a cock1 :i* is op5$ & clos$ at pleasure1 proce$s f a ci/]n ,l to ! boil]4 ,by ?is pipe ! boil] may be repl5i%$ f ! ci/]n1 :5 ! gauge cock ,g indicates t ! level has fall5 bel[ x4 ,! ci/]n ,l is suppli$ ) hot wat] by means :i* we %all pres5tly expla94 7#ci47 ,to und]/& ! me*anism necess>y to "w ! pi/on1 let u consid] h[ ! supply & cond5sation ( /eam mu/ be regulat$4 ,:5 ! pi/on has be5 =c$ to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] by ! atmosph]ic pressure act+ aga9/ a vacuum1 9 ord] to balance t pressure1 & enable x to be drawn up by ! weight ( ! pump-rod1 x is necess>y to introduce /eam f ! boil]4 ,?is is accompli%$ by op5+ ! cock ,r 9 ! /eam-pipe ,s4 ,! /eam be+ ?us introduc$ f ! boil]1 its pressure balances ! action ( ! atmosph]e ^u ! pi/on1 :i* is imm$iately drawn to ! top ( ! cyl9d] by ! weight ( ! pump-rod ,d4 ,x !n becomes necess>y to cond5se ?is /eam1 9 ord] to produce a vacuum4 ,to accompli% ?is ! fur!r supply ( /eam mu/ be cut (f1 :i* is done by clos+ ! cock ,r4 ,! supply ( /eam f ! boil] be+ ?us susp5d$1 ! diffusion ( cold wat] on ! ext]nal surface ( ! cyl9d] becomes necess>y to cond5se ! /eam )9 x4 ,?is 0 done by enclos+ ! cyl9d] )9 ano!r1 leav+ a space betwe5 !m4#ab ,into ?is space cold wat] is all[$ to fl[ f a cock ,m plac$ ov] x1 :i* is suppli$ by a pipe f ! ci/]n ,n4 ,?is ci/]n is suppli$ ) wat] by a pump ,o1 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e itself1 f ! beam above x4 ,footnote #ab3 ,! ext]nal cyl9d] is n repres5t$ 9 ! diagram4 ,! cold wat] suppli$ f ,m1 hav+ fill$ ! space betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s1 ab/racts ! heat f ! inn] "o2 & cond5s+ ! /eam1 produces a vacuum1 into :i* ! pi/on is imm$iately =c$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,prep>atory to ! next desc5t1 ! wat] :i* ?us fills ! space betwe5 ! cyl9d]s1 & :i* is w>m$ by ! heat x has ab/ract$ f ! /eam1 mu/ be dis*>g$1 9 ord] to give room = a fre% supply ( cold wat] f ,m4 ,an ap]ture1 furni%$ ) a cock1 is accord+ly provid$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is dis*>g$ into ! ci/]n ,l2 & be+ w>m1 is adapt$ = ! supply ( ! boil] ?r\gh ,t1 z already m5tion$4 ,! cock ,r be+ n[ aga9 op5$1 /eam is admitt$ bel[ ! pi/on1 :i*1 z be=e1 asc5ds1 & ! desc5t is aga9 accompli%$ by op5+ ! cock ,m1 admitt+ cold wat] betwe5 ! cyl9d]s1 & !reby cond5s+ ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! cond5s$ /eam1 ?us r$uc$ to wat]1 w collect 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to provide an exit = x1 :i* is done by a valve op5+ outw>ds into a tube :i* leads to ! fe$+ ci/]n ,l1 into :i* ! cond5s$ /eam is driv54 ,t ! pi/on %\ld cont9ue to be air-tight1 x 0 necess>y to keep a con/ant supply ( wat] ov] x2 ?is 0 done by a cock simil> to ,m1 :i* all[$ wat] to fl[ f ! pipe ,m on ! pi/on4 7#dj47 ,soon aft] ! fir/ con/ruction ( ^! eng9es1 an accid5tal circum/ance sugge/$ to ,newcom5 a mu* bett] me?od ( cond5sation ?an ! effusion ( cold wat] on ! ext]nal surface ( ! cyl9d]4 ,an eng9e 0 obs]v$ to "w sev]al /rokes ) unusual rapidity1 & )\t ! regul> supply ( ! cond5s+ wat]4 ,^u exam9+ ! pi/on1 a hole 0 f\nd 9 x1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat]1 :i* 0 p\r$ on to keep x air-tight1 fl[$1 & in/antly cond5s$ ! /eam "u x4 ,on ?is sugge/ion ,newcom5 ab&on$ ! ext]nal cyl9d]1 & introduc$ a pipe ,h furni%$ ) a cock ,q into ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 s t on turn+ ! cock ! pressure ( ! wat] 9 ! pipe ,h1 f ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n ,n1 w\ld =ce ! wat] to rise z a jet into ! cyl9d]1 & w\ld in/antly cond5se ! /eam4 ,?is me?od ( cond5s+ by a jet =m$ a v important improvem5t 9 ! eng9e1 & is ! me?od /ill us$4 7#da47 ,hav+ tak5 a g5]al view ( ! p>ts ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 let u n[ consid] m p>ticul>ly its op]ation4 ,:5 ! eng9e is n work+ ! weight ( ! pump-rod ,d draws d[n ! beam ,a1 & draws ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 :]e x re/s4 ,let u suppose all ! cocks & valves clos$1 & ! boil] fill$ to ! prop] dep?4 ,! fire be+ light$ b5ea? x1 ! wat] is boil$ until ! /eam acquires suffici5t =ce to lift ! valve ,v4 ,:5 ?is takes place1 ! eng9e may be />t$4 ,= ?is purpose ! regulat+ valve ,r is op5$4 ,! /eam ru%es 9 & is fir/ cond5s$ by ! cold cyl9d]4 ,aft] a %ort "t ! cyl9d] acquires ! temp]ature ( ! /eam1 :i* !n ceases to be cond5s$1 & mixes ) ! air :i* fill$ ! cyl9d]4 ,! /eam & heat$ air1 hav+ a great] =ce ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure1 w op5 a valve plac$ at ! end ,x ( a small tube 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & :i* op5s outw>ds4 ,f ?is 7:i* is call$ ! bl[+ valve#ac7 ! /eam & air ru% 9 a con/ant /ream until all ! air has be5 expell$1 & ! cyl9d] is fill$ ) ! pure vap\r ( wat]4 ,?is process is call$ bl[+ ! eng9e prep>atory to />t+ x4 ,footnote #ac3 ,also call$ ! snift+ valve1 f ! peculi> noise made by ! air & /eam escap+ f x4 ,:5 x is ab\t to be />t$1 ! eng9e-man closes ! regulator ,r1 & !reby susp5ds ! supply ( /eam f ! boil]4 ,at ! same "t he op5s ! cond5s+ valve ,h1#ad & !reby ?r[s up a jet ( cold wat] into ! cyl9d]4 ,?is imm$iately cond5ses ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! cyl9d]1 & produces ! vacuum4 7,! atmosph]e _c ent] ! bl[+ valve1 because x op5s outw>ds1 s t no air c ent] to vitiate ! vacuum47 ,! atmosph]ic pressure above ! pi/on n[ takes effect1 & =ces x d[n 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,! desc5t be+ complet$1 ! eng9e-man closes ! cond5s+ valve ,h1 & op5s ! regulator ,r4 ,by ?is means he /ops ! play ( ! jet )9 ! cyl9d]1 & admits ! /eam f ! boil]4 ,! fir/ effect ( ! /eam is to expel ! cond5s+ wat] & cond5s$ /eam :i* are collect$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! tube ,y1 conta9+ a valve :i* op5s outw>ds1 7call$ ! eduction valve17 :i* leads to ! hot ci/]n ,l1 into :i* ?is wat] is !re=e dis*>g$4 ,footnote #ad3 ,also call$ ! injection valve4 ,:5 ! /eam admitt$ ?r\gh ,r ceases to be cond5s$1 x balances ! atmosph]ic pressure above ! pi/on1 & ?us p]mits x to be drawn to ! top ( ! cyl9d] by ! weight ( ! rod ,d4 ,?is asc5t ( ! pi/on is also assi/$ by ! circum/ance ( ! /eam be+ some:at /rong] ?an ! atmosph]e4 ,:5 ! pi/on has rea*$ ! top1 ! regulat+ valve r is clos$1 & ! cond5s+ valve ,h op5$1 & ano!r desc5t produc$ z be=e1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,! manipulation necess>y 9 work+ ?is eng9e 01 !re=e1 ! alt]nate op5+ & clos+ ( two valves2 ! regulat+ & cond5s+ valves4 ,:5 ! pi/on rea*$ ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! =m] 0 to be clos$1 & ! latt] op5$2 &1 on rea*+ ! bottom1 ! =m] 0 to be op5$1 & ! latt] clos$4 7#db47 ,f ! imp]fect att5tion :i* ev5 an assidu\s att5dant c\ld give to ! managem5t ( ^! valves1 ! p]=mance ( ! eng9es 0 v irregul>1 & ! wa/e ( fuel v great1 until a boy nam$ ,humphrey ,pott] contriv$ means ( mak+ ! eng9e "w its own valves4 ,?is contrivance1 al?\gh made ) no o!r design ?an ! indulg5ce ( an idle disposition1 nev]!less con/itut$ a mo/ important /ep 9 ! progressive improvem5t ( ! /eam-eng9e2 = by its means1 n only ! irregul>ity aris+ f ! neglig5ce ( att5dants 0 avoid$1 b ! spe$ ( ! eng9e 0 d\bl$4 ,pott] atta*$ /r+s to ! lev]s :i* work$ ! valves1 & c>ry+ ^! /r+s to ! work+ beam1 fa/5$ !m ^u x 9 su* a mann] t z ! beam asc5d$ & desc5d$1 x pull$ ! /r+s s z to op5 & close ! prop] valves ) ! mo/ p]fect regul>ity & c]ta9ty4 ,?is contrivance 0 aft]w>ds mu* improv$ by an eng9e] nam$ ,beighton1 :o atta*$ to ! work+ beam a /raight beam call$ a plug frame1 c>ry+ p9s :i*1 9 ! asc5t & desc5t ( ! beam1 /ruck ! lev]s atta*$ to ! valves1 & op5$ & clos$ !m exactly at ! prop] mom5t4 ,! eng9e ?us improv$ requir$ no o!r att5dance except to fe$ ! boil] occasionally by ! cock ,t1 & to att5d ! furnace4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,,eng9e ,,( ,,james ,,watt4 ,advantages ( ! ,atmosph]ic ,eng9e ov] t ( ,capta9 ,sav]y4 -- ,x conta9$ no new ,pr9ciple4 -- ,pap9's ,eng9e4 -- ,james ,watt4 -- ,p>ticul>s ( 8 ,life4 -- ,8 fir/ conceptions ( ! means ( ,economis+ ,heat4 -- ,pr9ciple ( 8 project$ ,improvem5ts4 7#dc47 ,consid]$ practically1 ! eng9e describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt] possess$ consid]able advantages ov] t ( ,sav]y2 & ev5 at ! pres5t day ?is ma*9e is n unfrequ5tly us$ 9 di/ricts :]e fuel is v abundant & *eap1 ! fir/ co/ be+ consid]ably less ?an t ( a mod]n eng9e4 ,! l[ pressure ( ! /eam necess>y to "w x r5d]$ ! use ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e p]fectly safe2 !re be+ only a bur/+ pressure ( ab\t #alb4 p] in*1 :ile 9 ,sav]y's !re 0 a bur/+ pressure am\nt+ to #cjlbs4 ,! temp]ature ( ! /eam n exce$+ #baf1 did n weak5 or de/roy ! mat]ials2 :ile ,sav]y's eng9es requir$ /eam rais$ f wat] at #bfg1 :i* 9 a %ort "t r5d]$ ! eng9e unable to su/a9 ! pressure4 ,! p[] ( ,sav]y's eng9es 0 also v limit$1 bo? z to ! quantity ( wat] rais$1 & ! height to :i* x 0 elevat$ 7#cd474 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! atmosph]ic eng9e _h no o!r limit ?an ! dim5sions ( ! pi/on4 ,9 e/imat+ ! p[] ( ^! eng9es1 h[ev]1 we _c all[ ! full atmosph]ic pressure z an effective =ce4 ,! cond5s+ wat] be+ mix$ ) ! cond5s$ /eam1 =ms a quantity ( hot wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :i*1 n be+ submitt$ to ! atmosph]ic pressure 7#ag471 produces a vap\r :i* resi/s ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,9 practice we f9d t an all[ance ( at lea/ #clbs4 p] squ>e in* %\ld be made = ! resi/ance ( ?is vap\r1 & #alb4 p] squ>e in* = friction1 c42 s t ! effective =ce w be f\nd by subtract+ ^! #dlbs4 p] squ>e in* f ! atmosph]ic pressure2 :i*1 if e/imat$ at #aelbs41 leaves an effective work+ p[] ( ab\t #aalbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is r above :at is commonly obta9$4 ,ano!r advantage :i* ?is eng9e has ov] ^? ( ,sav]y1 is ! facility ) :i* x might be appli$ to drive ma*9]y by means ( ! work+ beam4 ,! m]it ( ?is eng9e z an inv5tion1 mu/ be ascrib$ pr9cipally to its me*anism & comb9ations4 ,we f9d 9 x no new pr9ciple2 ! ag5cy ( atmosph]ic pressure act+ aga9/ a vacuum1 or a p>tial vacuum1 0 long kn[n4 ,! =mation ( a vacuum by ! cond5sation ( /eam _h be5 sugge/$ by ,pap9 & ,sav]y1 & c>ri$ into practical effect by ! latt]4 ,! me*anical p[] d]ivable f ! direct pressure ( ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam 0 di/9ctly po9t$ out by ,"l ,worce/]1 & ev5 prior to 8 "t2 ! boil]1 gauge-pipes1 & regulator ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 7 evid5tly borr[$ f ,sav]y's eng9e4 ,! idea ( work+ a pi/on 9 a cyl9d] by ! atmosph]ic pressure aga9/ a vacuum bel[1 0 sugge/$ by ,otto ,gu]icke1 an +5i\s ,g]man philosoph]1 ! inv5tor ( ! air-pump1 & subsequ5tly by ,pap92 & ! use ( a work+ beam c\ld n h be5 unkn[n4 ,nev]!less1 consid]able cr$it mu/ be ackn[l$g$ to be due to ,newcom5 = ! judici\s comb9ation ( ^? scatt]$ pr9ciples4 ,! me*anism contriv$ by him1 says ,tr$gold1 produces all ! diff]5ce betwe5 an effici5t & ineffici5t eng9e1 & %\ld be m highly valu$ ?an ! =tuit\s discov]y ( a new pr9ciple4 ,! rapid cond5sation ( /eam by ! injection ( wat]1 ! me?od ( cle>+ ! cyl9d] ( air & wat] aft] ! /roke1 are two contrivances n be=e 9 use1 & :i* are q ess5tial to ! effective op]ation ( ! eng9e3 ^! are :olly due to ,newcom5 & 8 associates4 7#dd47 ,! pat5t ( ,newcom5 0 grant$ 9 #agje2 & 9 #agjg1 ,pap9 publi%$ a "w1 entitl$ ,a ,new ,me?od ( rais+ ,wat] by ,fire1 9 :i* a /eam eng9e is describ$1 :i* w\ld sc>cely m]it notice "h b = ! conte/s :i* h aris5 ^u ! claims ( diff]5t nations = a %>e 9 ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,! publication ( ?is "w ( ,pap9 0 n9e ye>s aft] ,sav]y's pat5t1 ) :i* he ackn[l$ges himself acqua9t$1 & two ye>s aft] ,newcom5's4 ,! foll[+ is a description ( ,pap9's /eam eng9e3-- ,an oval boil]1 ,a 7fig4 #aa471 is fill$ to ab\t two ?irds ( its entire capacity ) wat]1 ?r\gh a valve ,b 9 ! top1 :i* op5s upw>ds1 & is kept d[n by a lev] c>ry+ a slid+ weight4 ,! pressure on ! valve is regulat$ by mov+ ! weight to or f ,b1 l ! common /eely>d4 ,?is boil] communicates ) a cyl9d]1 ,c1 by a syphon tube furni%$ ) a /opcock at ,d4 ,! cyl9d] ,c has a valve ,f 9 ! top1 clos$ by a lev] & weight simil> to ,b1 & a tube ) a /opcock ,g op5+ into ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ?is cyl9d] is plac$ a holl[ copp] pi/on ,h1 :i* moves freely 9 x1 & floats ^u ! wat]4 ,ano!r tube =ms a communication betwe5 ! bottom ( ?is cyl9d] & ! bottom ( a close cyl9drical vessel ,i1 call$ ! air-vessel4 ,9 ?is tube is a valve at ,k1 op5+ upw>ds2 also a pipe t]m9at$ 9 a funnel1 & furni%$ ) a valve ,l1 :i* op5s d[nw>ds4 ,f ! l[] "p ( ! air-vessel a tube proce$s1 furni%$ also ) a /opcock ,m1 :i* is cont9u$ to :atev] height ! wat] is to be rais$4 ,wat] be+ p\r$ into ! funnel1 passes ?r\gh ! valve ,l1 :i* op5s d[nw>ds2 & fill+ ! tube1 asc5ds into ! cyl9d] ,c1 c>ry+ ! float+ pi/on ,h on its surface1 & ma9ta9s ! same level 9 ,c :i* x has 9 ! funnel4 ,9 ?is mann] ! cyl9d] ,c may be fill$ to ! level ( ! top ( ! funnel4 ,9 ?is process ! cock ,g %\ld be left op51 to all[ ! air 9 ! cyl9d] to escape z ! wat] rises4 ,let u n[ suppose t1 a fire be+ plac$ b5ea? ! boil]1 /eam is be+ produc$4 ,on op5+ ! cock ,d1 & clos+ ,g1 ! /eam1 fl[+ ?r\gh ! syphon tube into ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 presses d[n ! float+ pi/on1 & =ces ! wat] into ! l[] tube4 ,! passage at ,l be+ /opp$1 s9ce ,l op5s d[nw>ds1 ! wat] =ces op5 ! valve ,k1 & passes into ! air-vessel ,i4 ,:5 ! pi/on ,h has be5 =c$ to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! cock ,d is clos$1 & ,g is op5$1 & ! /eam all[$ to escape into ! atmosph]e4 ,! cyl9d] is !n repl5i%$ f ! funnel z be=e2 & ! cock ,g be+ clos$1 & ,d op5$1 ! process is repeat$1 & m wat] =c$ into ! air-vessel ,i4 ,by cont9u+ ?is process1 wat] is =c$ into ! air-vessel1 & ! air :i* orig9ally fill$ t vessel is compress$ into ! space above ! wat]2 & its ela/ic =ce increases exactly 9 ! same proportion z its bulk is dim9i%$4 7#f47 ,n[1 suppose t half ( ! vessel ,i has be5 fill$ by ! wat] :i* is =c$ 91 ! air above ! wat] be+ r$uc$ to half its bulk has acquir$ twice ! ela/ic =ce1 & !re=e presses on ! surface ( ! wat] ) twice ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,aga91 if two ?irds ( ! air-vessel be fill$ ) wat]1 ! air is compress$ into "o ?ird ( its bulk1 & presses on ! surface ( ! wat] ) ?ree times ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & s on4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,n[ if ! cock ,m be op5$1 ! pressure ( ! cond5s$ air w =ce ! wat] up 9 ! tube ,n1 & x w cont9ue to rise until ! column balances ! pressure ( ! cond5s$ air4 ,if1 :5 ! wat] is susp5d$ 9 ! tube1 & ! cock ,m op51 ! vessel ,i is half fill$1 ! height ( ! column 9 ,n w be #cd feet1 because #cd feet ( wat] has a pressure equal to ! atmosph]e2 & ?is1 add$ to ! atmosph]ic pressure on x1 gives a total pressure equal to twice t ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* balances ! pressure ( ! air 9 ,i r$uc$ to half its bulk4 ,if two ?irds ( ,i be fill$ ) wat]1 a column ( #fh feet w be support$ 9 ,n2 = su* a column1 unit$ ) ! atmosph]ic pressure on x1 gives a total pressure equal to ?ree times t ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* balances ! air 9 ,i compress$ into "o ?ird ( its orig9al bulk4 ,by omitt+ ! pr9ciple ( cond5sation1 ?is ma*9e loses #bf feet 9 ! p]p5dicul> lift4 ,b1 inde$1 9 e po9t ( view1 x is inf]ior to ! eng9es ( ,sav]y & ,newcom54 7#de47 ,f ! con/ruction ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e by ,newcom51 9 #agje1 = ab\t half a c5tury1 no v important /ep _h be5 made 9 ! improvem5t ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,dur+ ?is "t ! celebrat$ ,smeaton _h giv5 mu* att5tion to ! details ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 & br\ght t ma*9e to z high a /ate ( p]fection z its pr9ciple seem$ to admit1 & z x has ev] s9ce rea*$4 ,9 ! ye> #agfc1 ,,james ,,watt1 a "n illu/ri\s 9 ! hi/ory ( me*anical sci5ce1 comm5c$ 8 exp]im5ts on /eam4 ,he 0 born at ,gre5ock1 9 ! ye> #agcf2 & at ! age ( #af 0 appr5tic$ to a ma!matical in/rum5t-mak]1 ) :om he sp5t f\r ye>s4 ,at ! age ( #bj he remov$ to ,london1 :]e he /ill pursu$ ! same trade "u a ma!matical in/rum5t-mak] 9 t city4 ,aft] a %ort "t1 h[ev]1 f9d+ 8 heal? decl9+1 he return$ to ,scotl&1 & comm5c$ bus9ess on 8 own acc\nt at ,glasg[4 ,9 #ageg he 0 appo9t$ ma!matical in/rum5t-mak] to ! univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 :]e he resid$ & c>ri$ on bus9ess4 ,?is circum/ance produc$ an acqua9tance betwe5 him & ! celebrat$ ,dr4 ,robison1 !n a /ud5t 9 ,glasg[1 :o direct$ ,watt's att5tion to ! /eam eng9e4 ,9 8 fir/ exp]im5ts he us$ /eam ( a high-pressure2 b f\nd x att5d$ ) s mu* dang] ( bur/+ ! boil]1 & difficulty ( keep+ ! jo9ts tight1 & o!r objections1 t he rel9qui%$ ! inquiry at t "t4 7#df47 ,9 ! w9t] ( #agfc1 ,watt 0 employ$ to repair ! model ( an atmosph]ic eng9e1 belong+ to ! natural philosophy class 9 ! univ]sity--a circum/ance :i* aga9 turn$ 8 att5tion to ! subject ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,he f\nd ! consumption ( /eam 9 work+ ?is model s great1 t he inf]r$ t ! quantity wa/$1 mu/ h _h a v l>ge proportion to t us$ 9 work+ ! pi/on4 ,8 fir/ conclusion 01 t ! mat]ial ( ! cyl9d] 7brass7 0 too good a conductor ( heat1 & t mu* 0 !reby lo/4 ,he made "s exp]im5ts1 accord+ly1 ) wood5 cyl9d]s1 soak$ 9 l9se$ oil1 :i*1 h[ev]1 he soon laid aside4 ,fur!r consid]ation conv9c$ him t a prodigi\s wa/e ( /eam 0 ess5tial to ! v pr9ciple ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,?is w be easily und]/ood4 ,:5 ! /eam has fill$ ! cyl9d] s z to balance ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! pi/on1 ! cyl9d] mu/ h ! same temp]ature z ! /eam itself4 ,n[1 on introduc+ ! cond5s+ jet1 ! /eam mix$ ) ?is wat] =ms a mass ( hot wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is wat]1 n be+ "u ! atmosph]ic pressure1 boils at v l[ temp]atures1 & produces a vap\r :i* resi/s ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,! heat ( ! cyl9d] itself assi/s ?is process2 s t 9 ord] to produce a tol]ably p]fect vacuum1 x 0 f\nd necess>y to introduce a quantity ( cond5s+ wat]1 suffici5t to r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! cyl9d] l[] ?an #ajj1 & consequ5tly to cool ! cyl9d] itself to t temp]ature4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ! desc5t ( ! pi/on 0 f\nd to suff] v little resi/ance f any vap\r )9 ! cyl9d]3 b !n on ! subsequ5t asc5t1 an imm5se wa/e ( /eam ensu$2 = ! /eam1 on be+ admitt$ "u ! pi/on1 0 imm$iately cond5s$ by ! cold cyl9d] & wat] ( cond5sation1 & ?is cont9u$ until ! cyl9d] became aga9 heat$ up to #bab1 to :i* po9t ! :ole cyl9d] %\ld be heat$ be=e ! asc5t c\ld be complet$4 ,"h1 !n1 0 an obvi\s & an ext5sive cause ( ! wa/e ( heat4 ,at e desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! cyl9d] %\ld be cool$ bel[ #ajj2 & at e asc5t x %\ld be aga9 heat$ to #bab4 ,x1 !re=e1 became a "q :e!r ! =ce ga9$ by ! increas$ p]fection ( ! vacuum 0 adequate to ! wa/e ( fuel 9 produc+ ! vacuum2 & x 0 f\nd1 on ! :ole1 m pr(itable n to cool ! cyl9d] to s l[ a temp]ature1 & consequ5tly to "w ) a v imp]fect vacuum1 & a dim9i%$ p[]4 ,watt1 !re=e1 f\nd ! eng9e involv$ 9 ?is dilemma3 ei!r mu* or little cond5sation-wat] mu/ be us$4 ,if mu* 7 us$1 ! vacuum w\ld be p]fect2 b !n ! cyl9d] w\ld be cool$1 & w\ld entail an ext5sive wa/e ( fuel 9 heat+ x4 ,if little 7 us$1 a vap\r w\ld rema91 :i* w\ld resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & rob ! atmosph]e ( a "p ( its p[]4 ,! great problem !n press$ itself on 8 att5tion1 to cond5se ! /eam )\t cool+ ! cyl9d]4 ,f ! small quantity ( wat] 9 ! =m ( /eam :i* fill$ ! cyl9d]1 & ! l>ge quantity ( inject$ wat] to :i* ?is communicat$ heat1 ,watt 0 l$ to inquire :at proportion ! bulk ( wat] 9 ! liquid /ate bore to its bulk 9 ! vapor\s /ate2 & also :at proportion subsi/$ betwe5 ! heat :i* x conta9$ 9 ^! two /ates4 ,he f\nd by exp]im5t t a cubic in* ( wat] =m$ ab\t a cubic foot ( /eam2 & t ! cubic foot ( /eam conta9$ z mu* heat z w\ld raise a cubic in* ( wat] to ab\t #ajjj4 7#ae47 ,?is gave him "s surprise1 z ! !rmomet] indicat$ ! same temp]ature1 #bab1 = bo? ! /eam & ! wat] f :i* x 0 rais$4 ,:at !n became ( all ! additional heat :i* 0 conta9$ 9 ! /eam1 & n indicat$ by ! !rmomet]8 ,watt conclud$ t ?is heat mu/ be 9 "s way engag$ 9 ma9ta9+ ! wat] 9 its new =m4 ,/ruck ) ! s+ul>ity ( ?is circum/ance1 he communicat$ x to ,dr4 ,black1 :o !n expla9$ to ,watt 8 doctr9e ( lat5t heat1 :i* he _h be5 tea*+ = a %ort "t be=e t1 b ( :i* ,watt _h n previ\sly he>d2 & ?us1 says ,watt1 ,i /umbl$ ^u "o ( ! mat]ial facts on :i* t !ory is f\nd$4 7#dg47 ,watt n[ gave 8 :ole m9d to ! discov]y ( a me?od ( cond5s+ ! /eam )\t cool+ ! cyl9d]4 ,! idea occurr$ to him ( provid+ a vessel sep>ate f ! cyl9d]1 9 :i* a con/ant vacuum might be su/a9$4 ,if a communication c\ld be op5$ betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ?is vessel1 ! /eam1 by its expansive prop]ty1 w\ld ru% f ! cyl9d] to ?is vessel1 :]e1 be+ expos$ to cold1 x w\ld be imm$iately cond5s$1 ! cyl9d] mean:ile be+ su/a9$ at ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,?is happy conception =m$ ! fir/ /ep ( t brilliant c>e] :i* has immortaliz$ ! "n ( ,watt1 & :i* has spread 8 fame to ! v skirts ( civilization4 ,he /ates1 t ! mom5t ! notion ( sep>ate cond5sation /ruck him1 all ! o!r details ( 8 improv$ eng9e foll[$ 9 rapid & imm$iate succession1 s t 9 ! c\rse ( a day 8 inv5tion 0 s complete t he proce$$ to submit x to exp]im5t4 ,8 fir/ notion 01 z we h /at$1 to provide a sep>ate vessel1 call$ a cond5s]1 hav+ a pipe or tube communicat+ ) ! cyl9d]4 ,?is cond5s] he propos$ to keep cold by be+ imm]s$ 9 a ci/]n ( cold wat]1 & by provid+ a jet ( cold wat] to play )9 x4 ,:5 ! communication ) ! cyl9d] is op5$1 ! /eam1 ru%+ into ! cond5s]1 is imm$iately cond5s$ by ! jet & ! cold surface4 ,b "h a difficulty pres5t$ itself1 viz4 h[ to dispose ( ! cond5s+ wat]1 & cond5s$ /eam1 :i* w\ld collect 9 ! bottom ( ! cond5s]4 ,b besides ?is1 a quantity ( air or p]man5t uncond5sible gas w\ld collect f v>i\s s\rces4 ,wat] 9 its ord9>y /ate always holds m or less air 9 comb9ation ) x3 ! air ?us comb9$ ) ! wat] 9 ! boil] passes ?r\gh ! tubes & cyl9d] ) ! /eam1 & w\ld collect 9 ! cond5s]4 ,air also w\ld ent] 9 comb9ation ) ! cond5s+ wat]1 :i* w\ld be set free by ! heat x w\ld receive f admixture ) ! /eam4 ,! air proce$+ f ^! s\rces w\ld1 z ,watt =esaw1 accumulate 9 ! cond5s]1 ev5 ?\gh ! wat] might be )drawn f x1 & w\ld at l5g? resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,to rem$y ?is he propos$ to =m a communication betwe5 ! bottom ( ! cond5s] & a pump :i* he call$ ! ,,air ,,pump1 s t ! wat] & air :i* might be collect$ 9 ! cond5s] w\ld be drawn (f2 & x 0 easy to see h[ ?is pump c\ld be work$ by ! ma*9e itself4 ,?is con/itut$ ! second great /ep 9 ! inv5tion4 ,to make x air-tight 9 ! cyl9d]1 x _h be5 f\nd necess>y to keep a quantity ( wat] suppli$ above ! pi/on4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 any ( ?is wat] :i* might escape ?r\gh ! pi/on1 or betwe5 x & ! cyl9d]1 w\ld boil1 ! cyl9d] be+ kept at #bab2 & w\ld ?us1 by ! /eam x w\ld produce1 vitiate ! vacuum4 ,to avoid ?is inconv5i5ce1 ,watt propos$ to lubricate ! pi/on1 & keep x air-tight1 by employ+ melt$ wax & tall[4 ,ano!r inconv5i5ce 0 /ill to be remov$4 ,on ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! air :i* mu/ !n ent] ! cyl9d] w\ld l[] its temp]ature2 s t ^u ! next asc5t1 "s ( ! /eam :i* w\ld ent] x w\ld be cond5s$1 & h5ce w\ld arise a s\rce ( wa/e4 ,to remove ?is difficulty1 ,watt propos$ to close ! top ( ! cyl9d] altoge!r by an air-tight & /eam-tight cov]1 all[+ ! pi/on-rod to play ?r\gh a hole furni%$ ) a /uff+-box1 & to press d[n ! pi/on by /eam in/ead ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is 0 ! ?ird /ep 9 ?is great inv5tion1 & "o :i* totally *ang$ ! "* ( ! ma*9e4 ,x n[ became really a /eam eng9e 9 e s5se2 = ! pressure above ! pi/on 0 ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam1 & ! vacuum bel[ x 0 produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam2 s t /eam 0 us$ bo? directly & indirectly z a mov+ p[]2 :]eas1 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 ! indirect =ce ( /eam only 0 us$1 be+ adopt$ m]ely z an easy me?od ( produc+ a vacuum4 ,! la/ difficulty respect+ ! economy ( heat :i* rema9$ to be remov$1 0 ! circum/ance ( ! cyl9d] be+ liable to be cool$ on ! ext]nal surface by ! atmosph]e4 ,to obviate ?is1 he fir/ propos$ cas+ ! cyl9d] 9 wood1 t be+ a sub/ance :i* conduct$ heat sl[ly4 ,he subsequ5tly1 h[ev]1 adopt$ a diff]5t me?od1 & inclos$ "o cyl9d] )9 ano!r1 leav+ a space betwe5 !m1 :i* he kept con/antly suppli$ ) /eam4 ,?us ! inn] cyl9d] 0 kept cont9ually at ! temp]ature ( ! /eam :i* surr\nd$ x4 ,! out] cyl9d] 0 call$ ! jacket4#ae ,footnote #ae3 ,x is a rem>kable circum/ance1 t ,watt us$ ! same means = keep+ ! cyl9d] hot z ,newcom5 us$ 9 8 e>li] eng9es to cool x4 7#ch47 7#dh47 ,watt comput$ t 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e ?ree times z mu* heat 0 wa/$ 9 heat+ ! cyl9d]1 c4 z 0 sp5t 9 useful effect4 ,&1 z by ! improvem5ts propos$ by him ne>ly all ?is wa/e 0 remov$1 he contemplat$1 & aft]w>ds actually effect$1 a sav+ ( ?ree f\r?s ( ! fuel4 ,! hon\r due to ,watt = 8 discov]ies is enhanc$ by ! difficulties "u :i* he lab\r$ f contract$ circum/ances at ! "t he made !m4 ,he relates1 t :5 he 0 endeav\r+ to det]m9e ! heat consum$ 9 ! production ( /eam1 8 means did n p]mit him to use an effici5t & prop] app>atus1 :i* w\ld h be5 att5d$ ) exp5se2 & x 0 by exp]im5ts made ) apo!c>ies' phials1 t he discov]$ ! prop]ty already m5tion$1 :i* 0 "o ( ! facts on :i* ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat 0 f\nd$4 ,a l>ge %>e ( ! m]it ( ,watt's discov]ies has1 by "s writ]s1 be5 attribut$ to ,dr4 ,black1 to ^: in/ructions on ! subject ( lat5t heat x is said t ,watt ow$ ! k ( ^? facts :i* l$ to 8 improvem5ts4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 0 n ! case2 & ! mi/ake arose *iefly f "s passages respect+ ,watt 9 ! works ( ,dr4 ,robison1 9 "o ( :i* he /ates t ,watt _h be5 a pupil & intimate fri5d ( ,dr4 ,black2 & t he att5d$ two c\rses ( 8 lectures at college 9 ,glasg[4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 0 n ! case2 = ,un=tunately = me1 says ,watt 9 a lett] to ,dr4 ,brew/]1 ! necess>y avocations ( my bus9ess prev5t$ me f att5d+ 8 or any o!r lectures at college4 ,9 fur!r notic+ ,dr4 ,black's op9ion1 t 8 =tunate obs]vation ( :at happ5s 9 ! =mation & cond5sation ( ela/ic vap\r 'has contribut$ 9 no inconsid]able degree to ! public good1 by sugge/+ to my fri5d ,mr4 ,watt ( ,birm+ham1 !n ( ,glasg[1 8 improvem5ts on ! /eam-eng9e1' x is v pa9ful = me to controv]t any op9ion or ass]tion ( my rev]$ fri5d2 yet1 9 ! pres5t case1 ,i f9d x necess>y to say1 t he appe>s to me to h fall5 into an error4 ,^! improvem5ts proce$$ ^u ! e/abli%$ fact1 t /eam 0 cond5s$ by ! contact ( cold bodies1 & ! lat] kn[n "o1 t wat] boil$ at heats bel[ #ajj1 & consequ5tly t a vacuum c\ld n be obta9$ unless ! cyl9d] & its cont5ts 7 cool$ e /roke bel[ ! heat4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,watt',s ,,s+le-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,expansive ,pr9ciple appli$4 -- ,failure ( ,roebuck1 & ,p>tn]%ip ) ,bolton4 -- ,pat5t ext5d$ to #ahjj4 -- ,c\nt]4 -- ,difficulties 9 gett+ ! ,eng9es into use4 7#di47 ,! fir/ ma*9e 9 :i* ,watt realis$ ! conceptions :i* we m5tion$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 is t :i* 0 aft]w>ds call$ 8 ,s+le-act+ ,/eam ,eng9e4 ,we %all n[ describe ! work+ app>atus 9 ?is ma*9e4 ,! cyl9d] is repres5t$ at ,c 7fig4 #ab47--;9 :i* ! pi/on ,p moves /eam-tight4 ,x is clos$ at ! top1 & ! pi/on-rod be+ v accurately turn$1 runs 9 a /eam-tight coll> ,b furni%$ ) a /uff+-box1 & con/antly suppli$ ) melt$ tall[ or wax4 ,?r\gh a funnel 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 melt$ grease fl[s ^u ! pi/on s z to ma9ta9 x /eam-tight4 ,two boxes ,a ,a1 conta9+ ! valves = admitt+ & )draw+ ! /eam1 connect$ by a tube ( communication ,t1 are atta*$ to ! cyl9d]2 ! action ( ^! valves w be pres5tly describ$4 ,bel[ ! cyl9d]1 plac$ 9 a ci/]n ( cold wat]1 is a close cyl9drical vessel ,d1 call$ ! cond5s]1 communicat+ ) ! cyl9d] by a tube ,t1 lead+ to ! l[] valve-box ,a4 ,9 ! side ( ?is cond5s] is ins]t$ a tube1 ! inn] end ( :i* is pi]c$ ) holes l ! rose ( a wat]+-pot2 & a cock ,e 9 ! cold ci/]n is plac$ on ! outside1 ?r\gh :i*1 :5 op51 ! wat] pass+1 rises 9 a jet on ! inside4 ,! tube ,s1 :i* conducts /eam f ! boil]1 ent]s ! top ( ! upp] valve-box at ,f4 ,imm$iately "u x is plac$ a valve ,g1 :i* is op5$ & clos$ by a lev] or rod ,g4 ,?is valve1 :5 op51 admits /eam to ! top ( ! pi/on1 & also to ! tube ,t1 :i* communicates betwe5 ! two valve-boxes1 & :5 clos$ susp5ds ! admission ( /eam4 ,!re are two valves 9 ! l[] box1 "o ,h 9 ! top work$ by ! lev] ,h1 & "o ,i 9 ! bottom work$ by ! lev] ,i4 ,! valve ,h1 :5 op51 admits /eam to pass f ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on1 by ! tube ,t1 to ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on1 ! valve ,i be+ suppos$ 9 ?is case to be clos$4 ,?is valve ,i1 :5 op51 7! valve ,h be+ clos$17 admits /eam to pass f bel[ ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ,t to ! cond5s]4 ,?is /eam1 ent]+ ! cond5s]1 meets ! jet1 admitt$ to play by ! valve ,e1 & is cond5s$4 ,! valve ,g is call$ ! upp] /eam valve2 ,h1 l[] /eam valve2 ,i1 ! exhau/+-valve2 & ,e1 ! cond5s+ valve4 ,let u n[ consid] h[ ^! valves mu/ be work$ 9 ord] to produce ! alt]nate asc5t & desc5t ( ! pi/on4 ,x is 9 ! fir/ place necess>y t all ! air :i* fills ! cyl9d]1 tubes1 & cond5s] %\ld be expell$4 ,to accompli% ?is x is only necess>y to op5 at once ! valves ,g1 ,h1 & ,i4 ,! /eam !n ru%+ f ,f ?r\gh ! valve ,g w pass into ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d]1 & ?r\gh ! tube ,t & ! valve ,h into ! l[] "p1 & also ?r\gh ! valve ,i into ! cond5s]4 ,aft] ! /eam ceases to be cond5s$ by ! cold ( ! app>atus1 x w ru% out mix$ ) air ?r\gh ! valve ,m1 :i* op5s outw>d2 & ?is w cont9ue until all ! air has be5 expell$1 & ! app>atus fill$ ) pure /eam4 ,!n suppose all ! valves aga9 clos$4 ,! cyl9d] bo? above & bel[ ! pi/on is fill$ ) /eam2 & ! /eam :i* fill$ ! cond5s] be+ cool$ by ! cold surface1 a vacuum has be5 produc$ 9 t vessel4 ,! app>atus be+ 9 ?is /ate1 let ! upp] /eam valve ,g1 ! exhau/+-valve ,i1 & ! cond5s+ valve ,e be op5$4 ,/eam w ?us be admitt$ ?r\gh ,g to press on ! top ( ! pi/on2 & ?is /eam w be prev5t$ f circulat+ to ! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d] by ! l[] /eam-valve ,h be+ clos$4 ,also ! /eam :i* fill$ ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on ru%es ?r\gh ! op5 exhau/+-valve ,i to ! cond5s]1 :]e x meets ! jet all[$ to play by ! op5 cond5s+ valve ,e4 ,x is ?us in/antly cond5s$1 & a vacuum is left 9 ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on4 ,into ?is vacuum ! pi/on is press$ )\t resi/ance by ! /eam :i* is admitt$ ?r\gh ,g4 ,:5 ! pi/on has ?us be5 =c$ to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 let ! ?ree valves ,g1 ,i1 & ,e1 :i* 7 be=e op5$1 be clos$1 & let ! l[] /eam-valve ,h be op5$4 ,! effects ( ?is *ange are easily p]ceiv$4 ,by clos+ ! upp] /eam-valve ,g1 ! fur!r admission ( /eam to ! app>atus is /opp$4 ,by clos+ ! exhau/+-valve ,i1 all transmission ( /eam f ! cyl9d] to ! cond5s] is /opp$4 ,?us ! /eam :i* is 9 ! cyl9d]1 valve-boxes1 & tubes is %ut up 9 !m1 & no m admitt$1 nor any all[$ to escape4 ,by clos+ ! cond5s+ valve ,e1 ! play ( ! jet 9 ! cond5s] is susp5d$4 ,previ\sly to op5+ ! valve ,h1 ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! app>atus 0 conf9$ to ! "p ( ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on & ! tube ,t & ! valve-box ,a4 ,b on op5+ ?is valve1 ! /eam is all[$ to circulate above & bel[ ! pi/on2 & 9 fact ?r\gh e "p includ$ betwe5 ! upp] /eam valve ,g1 & ! exhau/+-valve ,i4 ,! same /eam circulat+ on bo? sides1 ! pi/on is ?us equally press$ upw>d & d[nw>d4 ,9 ?is case !re is no =ce t5d+ to reta9 ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] except its own weight4 ,its asc5t is produc$ 9 ! same mann] z ! asc5t ( ! pi/on 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 ,! pi/on-rod is connect$ by *a9s ,g to ! ar*-head ( ! beam1 & ! weight ( ! pump-rod ,r1 or any o!r c\nt]poise act+ on ! *a9s susp5d$ f ! o!r ar*-head1 draws ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 suppose ! ?ree valves ,g1 ,i1 & ,e to be aga9 op5$1 & ,h clos$4 ,/eam passes f ! /eam-pipe ,f ?r\gh ! upp] /eam-valve ,g to ! top ( ! pi/on1 & at ! same "t ! /eam :i* fill$ ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on is drawn (f ?r\gh ! op5 exhau/+-valve ,i into ! cond5s]1 :]e x is cond5s$ by ! jet all[$ to play by ! op5 cond5s+ valve ,e4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam above ! pi/on !n =ces x )\t resi/ance into ! vacuum bel[ x1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 t ( ! f\r valves necess>y to "w ! pi/on1 ?ree are to be op5$ ! mom5t ! pi/on rea*es ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! f\r? is to be clos$2 & on ! pi/on arriv+ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ^! ?ree are to be clos$ & ! f\r? op5$4 ,! ?ree valves :i* are ?us op5$ & clos$ toge!r are ! upp] /eam-valve1 ! exhau/+-valve1 & ! cond5s+ valve4 ,! l[] /eam-valve is to be op5$ at ! same in/ant t ^! are clos$1 & vice v]s4 ,! mann] ( work+ ^! valves we %all describe h]eaft]4 ,! process :i* has j be5 describ$1 if cont9u$ = any consid]able numb] ( reciprocations ( ! pi/on1 w\ld be att5d$ ) two v obvi\s effects :i* w\ld ob/ruct & f9ally de/roy ! action ( ! ma*9e4 ,fir/1 ! cond5s+ wat] & cond5s$ /eam w\ld collect 9 ! cond5s] ,d1 & fill x2 & secondly1 ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n 9 :i* ! cond5s] is plac$ w\ld gradually become heat$1 until at la/ x w\ld n be cold en\gh to cond5se ! /eam :5 introduc$ 9 ! jet4 ,besides ?is1 x w be recollect$ t wat] boils 9 a vacuum at a v l[ temp]ature 7#ag72 &1 !re=e1 ! hot wat] collect$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cond5s] w\ld produce /eam :i*1 ris+ into ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! exhau/+-valve1 w\ld resi/ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 & c\nt]act ! effects ( ! /eam above x4 ,a fur!r disadvantage arises f ! air or o!r p]man5tly ela/ic fluid :i* ent]s 9 comb9ation ) ! wat]1 bo? 9 ! boil] & cond5s+ jet1 & :i* is dis5gag$ by its own ela/icity4 ,to remove ^! difficulties1 a pump is plac$ ne> ! cond5s] communicat+ ) x by a valve ,m1 :i* op5s f ! cond5s] into ! pump4 ,9 ?is pump is plac$ a pi/on :i* moves air-tight1 & 9 :i* !re is a valve ,n1 :i* op5s upw>ds4 ,n[ suppose ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! pump4 ,z x rises1 s9ce ! valve 9 x op5s upw>ds1 no air c pass d[n ?r\gh x1 & consequ5tly x leaves a vacuum bel[ x4 ,! wat] & any air :i* may be collect$ 9 ! cond5s] op5 ! valve ,m1 & pass into ! l[] "p ( ! pump f :i* !y _c return 9 consequ5ce ( ! valve ,m op5+ outw>ds4 ,on ! desc5t ( ! pump-pi/on1 ! fluids :i* occupy ! l[] "p ( ! pump1 =ce op5 ! pi/on-valve ,n2 & pass+ ?r\gh x1 get above ! pi/on1 f :i* _! return is prev5t$ by ! valve ,n4 ,9 ! next asc5t1 ! pi/on lifts ^! fluids to ! top ( ! pump1 :5ce !y are dis*>g$ ?r\gh a conduit into a small ci/]n ,b by a valve ,k :i* op5s outw>ds4 ,! wat] :i* is ?us collect$ 9 ,b is heat$ by ! cond5s$ /eam1 & is res]v$ 9 ,b1 :i* is call$ ! hot well = fe$+ ! boil]1 :i* is effect$ by means :i* we %all pres5tly expla94 ,! pump :i* draws (f ! hot wat] & air f ! cond5s] is call$ ! air-pump4 7#ej47 ,we h n yet expla9$ ! mann] 9 :i* ! valves & ! air-pump pi/on are work$4 ,! rod ,q ( ! latt] is connect$ ) ! work+ beam1 & ! pump is !re=e wr\ght by ! eng9e itself4 ,x is n v mat]ial to :i* arm ( ! beam x is atta*$4 ,if x be on ! same side ( ! c5tre ( ! beam ) ! cyl9d]1 x rises & falls ) ! /eam-pi/on2 b if x be on ! opposite side1 ! pump-pi/on rises :5 ! /eam-pi/on falls1 & vice v]s4 ,9 ! s+le-eng9e !re are "s advantages 9 ! latt] arrangem5t4 ,z ! /eam-pi/on desc5ds1 ! /eam ru%es into ! cond5s]1 & ! jet is play+2 & ?is1 !re=e1 is ! mo/ fav\rable "t = draw+ out ! wat] & cond5s$ /eam f ! cond5s] by ! asc5t ( ! pump-pi/on1 s9ce by ?is means ! desc5t ( ! /eam-pi/on is assi/$2 an effect :i* w\ld n be produc$ if ! /eam-pi/on & pump-pi/on desc5d$ toge!r4 ,) respect to ! me?od ( op5+ & clos+ ! valves1 x is evid5t t ! ?ree valves :i* are simultane\sly op5$ & clos$ may be s connect$ z to be work$ by ! same lev]4 ,?is lev] may be /ruck by a p9 fix$ ^u ! rod ,q ( ! air-pump1 s t :5 ! pi/ons h arriv$ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]s ! p9 /rikes ! lev] & op5s ! ?ree valves4 ,a cat* or det5t is provid$ = keep+ !m op5 dur+ ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 f :i* !y are dis5gag$ 9 a simil> mann] on ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & !y close by _! own weight4 ,9 exactly ! same way ! l[] /eam-valve is op5$ on ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & clos$ on its arrival at ! top by ! action ( a p9 plac$ on ! pi/on-rod ( ! air-pump4 7#ea47 ,soon aft] ! inv5tion ( ^! eng9es1 ,watt f\nd t 9 "s in/ances inconv5i5ce arose f ! too rapid motion ( ! /eam-pi/on at ! end ( its /roke1 ow+ to its be+ mov$ ) an accel]at$ motion4 ,?is 0 ow+ to ! uni=m action ( ! /eam-pressure ^u x3 = ^u fir/ putt+ x 9 motion at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! motion 0 comp>atively sl[2 b f ! cont9uance ( ! same pressure ! velocity ) :i* ! pi/on desc5d$ 0 cont9ually increas+1 until x rea*$ ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 :]e x acquir$ its greate/ velocity4 ,to prev5t ?is1 & to r5d] ! desc5t z ne>ly z possible uni=m1 x 0 propos$ to cut (f ! /eam be=e ! desc5t 0 complet$1 s t ! rema9d] might be effect$ m]ely by ! expansion ( ! /eam :i* 0 admitt$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,to accompli% ?is1 he contriv$1 by means ( a p9 on ! rod ( ! air-pump1 to close ! upp] /eam-valve :5 ! /eam-pi/on _h complet$ "o-?ird ( its entire desc5t1 & to keep x clos$ dur+ ! rema9d] ( ! desc5t1 & until ! pi/on aga9 rea*$ ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! /eam press$ ! pi/on ) its full =ce ?r\gh "o-?ird ( ! desc5t1 & ?us put x into motion2 dur+ ! o!r two ?irds ! /eam ?us admitt$ act$ m]ely by its expansive =ce1 :i* became less 9 exactly ! same proportion z ! space giv5 to x by ! desc5t ( ! pi/on increas$4 ,?us1 dur+ ! la/ two ?irds ( ! desc5t ! pi/on is urg$ by a gradually decreas+ =ce1 :i* 9 practice 0 f\nd j suffici5t to su/a9 9 ! pi/on a uni=m velocity4 7#eb47 ,we h already m5tion$ ! difficulty aris+ f ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n1 9 :i* ! cond5s] & air-pump are plac$1 becom+ heat$1 & ! cond5sation !re=e be+ imp]fect4 ,to prev5t ?is1 a wa/e-pipe is plac$ 9 ?is ci/]n1 f :i* ! wat] is cont9ually dis*>g$1 & a pump ,l 7call$ ! cold-wat]-pump7 is work$ by ! eng9e itself1 :i* raises a supply ( cold wat] & s5ds x ?r\gh a pipe 9 a con/ant /ream into ! cold ci/]n4 ,! wa/e-pipe1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] fl[s f ! ci/]n1 is plac$ ne> ! top ( x1 s9ce ! heat$ wat]1 be+ light] ?an ! cold1 rema9s on ! top4 ,?us ! heat$ wat] is cont9ually fl[+ (f1 & a con/ant /ream ( cold wat] suppli$4 ,! pi/on-rod ( ! cold-wat]-pump is atta*$ to ! beam 7by :i* x is work$71 usually on ! opposite side f ! cyl9d]4 ,ano!r pump ,o 7call$ ! hot-wat]-pump7 ent]s ! hot well ,b2 & rais+ ! wat] f x1 =ces x ?r\gh a tube to ! boil] = ! purpose ( fe$+ x4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is is effect$ w be m p>ticul>ly describ$ h]eaft]4 ,a "p ( ! heat :i* w\ld o!rwise be lo/1 is ?us re/or$ to ! boil] to assi/ 9 ! production ( fre% /eam4 ,we may consid] a portion ( ! heat to be 9 ?is mann] circulat+ cont9ually ?r\gh ! ma*9e4 ,x proce$s f ! boil] 9 /eam1 works ! pi/on1 passes into ! cond5s]1 & is reconv]t$ into hot wat]2 !nce x is pass$ to ! hot well1 f :5ce x is pump$ back into ! boil]1 & is aga9 conv]t$ into /eam1 & s proce$s 9 con/ant circulation4 ,f :at has be5 describ$1 x appe>s t !re are f\r pi/ons atta*$ to ! great beam & work$ by ! pi/on ( ! /eam-cyl9d]4 ,on ! same side ( ! c5tre ) ! cyl9d] is ! pi/on-rod ( ! air-pump1 & on ! opposite side are ! pi/on-rods ( ! hot-wat] pump & ! cold-wat]-pump2 & la/ly1 at ! extremity ( ! beam opposite to t at :i* ! /eam-pi/on works1 is ! pi/on ( ! pump to be wr\ght by ! eng9e4 7#ec47 ,! position ( ^! pi/on-rods ) respect to ! c5tre ( ! beam dep5ds on ! play necess>y to be giv5 to ! pi/on4 ,if ! play ( ! pi/on be %ort1 its rod w be atta*$ to ! beam ne> ! c5tre2 & if long]1 m remote f ! c5tre4 ,! cyl9d] ( ! air-pump is commonly half ! l5g? ( ! /eam-cyl9d]1 & its pi/on-rod is atta*$ to ! beam at ! po9t exactly 9 ! middle betwe5 ! end ( ! beam & ! c5tre4 ,! hot-wat] pump n be+ requir$ to raise a consid]able quantity ( wat]1 its pi/on requires b little play1 & is !re=e plac$ ne> ! c5tre ( ! beam1 ! pi/on-rod ( ! cold-wat] pump be+ f>!r f ! c5tre4 7#ed47 ,x appe>s to h be5 ab\t ! ye> #agfc1 t ,watt made ^! improvem5ts 9 ! /eam eng9e1 & con/ruct$ a model :i* fully realiz$ 8 expectations4 ,ei!r f want ( influ5ce or ! fe> ( prejudice & opposition1 he did n make kn[n 8 discov]y or attempt to secure x by a pat5t at t "t4 ,hav+ adopt$ ! pr(ession ( a l& surveyor1 8 bus9ess br\ght him into communication ) ,dr4 ,roebuck1 at t "t ext5sively engag$ 9 m9+ speculations1 :o possess$ "s comm& ( capital1 & 0 ( a v ent]pris+ disposition4 ,by ,roebuck's assi/ance & c\nt5ance1 ,watt erect$ an eng9e ( ! new con/ruction at a coal m9e on ! e/ate ( ! ,duke ( ,hamilton1 at ,k9neil ne> ,burr[/oness4 ,?is eng9e be+ a k9d ( exp]im5tal "o1 0 improv$ f "t to "t z circum/ances sugge/$1 until x rea*$ consid]able p]fection4 ,:ile x 0 be+ erect$1 ,watt 9 conjunction ) ,roebuck appli$ = & obta9$ a pat5t to secure ! prop]ty 9 ! inv5tion4 ,?is pat5t 0 enroll$ 9 #agfi1 six ye>s aft] ,watt inv5t$ ! improv$ eng9e4 ,watt 0 n[ prep>+ to manufacture ! new eng9es on an ext5sive scale1 :5 8 p>tn] ,roebuck suff]$ a consid]able loss by ! failure ( a m9+ speculation 9 :i* he _h engag$1 & became involv$ 9 emb>rassm5ts1 s z to be unable to make ! pecuni>y advances necess>y to c>ry ,watt's designs into execution4 ,aga9 disappo9t$1 & h>ass$ by ! difficulties :i* he _h to enc\nt]1 ,watt 0 ab\t to rel9qui% ! fur!r prosecution ( 8 plans1 :5 ,mr4 ,mat!w ,bolton1 a g5tleman :o _h e/abli%$ a factory at ,birm+ham a %ort "t be=e1 made proposals to pur*ase ,dr4 ,roebuck's %>e 9 ! pat5t1 9 :i* he succe$$2 & 9 #aggc1 ,watt ent]$ into p>tn]%ip ) ,bolton4 ,8 situation 0 n[ completely *ang$4 ,bolton 0 n only a man ( ext5sive capital1 b also ( consid]able p]sonal influ5ce1 & _h a disposition :i* l$ him1 f ta/e1 to und]tak+s :i* 7 great & difficult1 & :i* he prosecut$ ) ! mo/ unremitt+ ard5cy & _s4 ,mr4 ,watt1 says ,playfair1 0 /udi\s & res]v$1 keep+ alo( f ! _w2 :ile ,mr4 ,bolton 0 a man ( address1 delight+ 9 society1 active1 & mix+ ) p ( all ranks ) great fre$om1 & )\t c]emony4 ,_h ,mr4 ,watt se>*$ all ,europe1 he probably w\ld n h f\nd ano!r p]son s fitt$ to br+ 8 inv5tion be=e ! public1 9 a mann] wor?y ( its m]it & importance2 & al?\gh ( mo/ opposite habits1 x =tunately s happ5$ t no two m5 ev] m cordially agre$ 9 _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r4 ,! delay 9 ! progress ( ! manufacture ( eng9es occasion$ by ! failure ( ,dr4 ,roebuck 0 su*1 t ,watt f\nd t ! duration ( 8 pat5t w\ld probably expire be=e he w\ld ev5 be reimburs$ ! necess>y exp5ses att5d+ ! v>i\s arrangem5ts = ! manufacture ( ! eng9es4 ,he !re=e1 ) ! advice & influ5ce ( ,bolton1 ,roebuck1 & o!r fri5ds1 9 #agge1 appli$ to p>liam5t = an ext5sion ( ! t]ms ( 8 pat5t1 :i* 0 grant$ = #be ye>s f ! date ( 8 application1 s t 8 exclusive privilege %\ld expire 9 #ahjj4 ,an eng9e 0 n[ erect$ at ,soho 7! "n ( ,bolton's factory7 z a specim5 = ! exam9ation ( m9+ speculators1 & ! eng9es 7 beg9n+ to come into dem&4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ,watt *ose to receive remun]ation f ^? :o us$ 8 eng9es 0 z rem>kable = its +5uity z = its fairness & lib]ality4 ,he requir$ t "o-?ird ( ! sav+ ( coals effect$ by 8 eng9es1 comp>$ ) ! atmosph]ic eng9es hi!rto us$1 %\ld be paid to him1 leav+ ! b5efit ( ! o!r two-?irds to ! public4 ,accurate exp]im5ts 7 made to asc]ta9 ! sav+ ( coals2 & z ! am\nt ( ?is sav+ 9 ea* eng9e dep5d$ on ! l5g? ( "t x 0 work$1 or r on ! numb] ( desc5ts ( ! pi/on1 ,watt inv5t$ a v +5i\s me?od ( det]m9+ ?is4 ,! vibrations ( ! great work+ beam 7 made to communicate ) a tra9 ( :eelwork1 9 ! same way z ^? ( a p5dulum communicate ) ! "w ( a clock4 ,ea* vibration ( ! beam mov$ "o too? ( a small :eel1 & ! motion 0 communicat$ to a h& or index1 :i* mov$ on a k9d ( graduat$ plate l ! dial plate ( a clock4 ,! position ( ?is h& m>k$ ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! beam4 ,?is app>atus1 :i* 0 call$ ! c\nt]1 0 lock$ up & secur$ by two diff]5t keys1 "o ( :i* 0 kept by ! proprietor1 & ! o!r by ,bolton & ,watt1 ^: ag5ts w5t r\nd p]iodically to exam9e ! eng9es1 :5 ! c\nt]s 7 op5$ by bo? p>ties & exam9$1 & ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! beam det]m9$1 & ! value ( ! pat5t ?ird f\nd4#af ,footnote #af3 ,! ext5t ( ! sav+ 9 fuel may be judg$ f ?is3 t = ?ree eng9es erect$ at ,*acewat] m9e 9 ,cornwall1 x 0 agre$ by ! proprietors t !y w\ld comp\nd = ! pat5t ?ird at #bdjjl4 p] annum2 s t ! :ole sav+ mu/ h exce$$ #gbjjl4 p] annum4 ,not)/&+ ! manife/ sup]iority ( ^! eng9es ov] ! old atmosph]ic eng9es2 yet su* 7 ! influ5ce ( prejudice & ! dislike ( :at is new1 t ,watt f\nd great difficulties 9 gett+ !m into g5]al use4 ,! comp>ative fir/ co/ also probably op]at$ aga9/ !m2 = x 0 necess>y t all ! p>ts %\ld be execut$ ) great accuracy1 :i* entail$ proportionally increas$ exp5se4 ,9 _m in/ances !y felt !mselves oblig$ to induce ! proprietors ( ! old atmosph]ic eng9es to replace !m by ! new ones1 by all[+ !m 9 ex*ange an exorbitant price = ! old eng9es2 & 9 "s cases !y 7 induc$ to erect eng9es at _! own exp5se1 ^u an agreem5t t !y %\ld only be paid if ! eng9es 7 f\nd to fulfil ! expectations1 & br\ght ! advantages :i* !y promis$4 ,x appe>$ s9ce1 t ,bolton & ,watt _h actually exp5d$ a sum ( ne>ly #ej1jjjl4 on ^! eng9es be=e !y began to receive any return4 ,:5 we contemplate ! imm5se advantages :i* ! comm]cial int]e/s ( ! c\ntry h ga9$ by ! improvem5ts 9 ! /eam eng9e1 we _c b look back ) disgu/ at ! influ5ce ( t fatal prejudice :i* opposes ! progress ( improvem5t "u ! pret5ce ( resi/+ innovation4 ,x w\ld be a problem ( curi\s calculation to det]m9e :at w\ld h be5 lo/ to ! res\rces ( ?is c\ntry1 if *ance _h n unit$ ! g5ius ( su* a man z ,watt ) ! _s1 ent]prise1 & capital1 ( su* a man z ,bolton6 ,! result w\ld reflect little cr$it on ^? :o ?9k novelty alone a suffici5t reason = opposition4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,! ,s+le-,act+ ,eng9e unfit to impel ,ma*9]y4 -- ,v>i\s contrivances to adapt x to ?is purpose4 -- ,d\ble-,cyl9d]4 -- ,d\ble-,act+ ,cyl9d]4 -- ,v>i\s mode ( connect+ ! ,pi/on ) ! ,beam4 -- ,rack & ,sector4 -- ,d\ble ,*a94 -- ,p>allel ,motion4 -- ,crank4 -- ,sun & ,planet ,motion4 -- ,fly ,:eel4 -- ,gov]nor4 ,9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e ( ,newcom51 & 9 ! improv$ /eam eng9e ( ,watt1 describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! action ( ! mov+ p[] is an int]mitt+ "o4 ,:ile ! pi/on desc5ds1 ! mov+ p[] is 9 action1 b its action is susp5d$ dur+ ! asc5t4 ,?us ! opposite or work+ end ( ! beam c only be appli$ 9 cases :]e a lift+ p[] is requir$4 ,?is action is q suitable to ! purposes ( pump+1 :i* 0 ! *ief or only object to :i* ! /eam eng9e _h hi!rto be5 appli$4 ,9 a m ext5d$ application ( ! ma*9e1 ?is int]mission ( ! mov+ p[] & its action tak+ place only 9 "o direction w\ld be inadmissible4 ,to drive ! ma*9]y g5]ally employ$ 9 manufactures a con/ant & uni=m =ce is requir$2 & to r5d] ! /eam eng9e available = ?is purpose1 x w\ld be necess>y t ! beam %\ld be driv5 by ! mov+ p[] z well 9 its asc5t z 9 its desc5t4 ,:5 ,watt fir/ conceiv$ ! notion ( ext5d+ ! application ( ! eng9e to manufactures g5]ally1 he propos$ to accompli% ?is d\ble action ^u ! beam by plac+ a /eam cyl9d] "u ea* end ( x1 s t :ile ea* pi/on w\ld be asc5d+1 & n impell$ by ! /eam1 ! o!r w\ld be desc5d+1 be+ urg$ d[nw>ds by ! /eam above x act+ aga9/ ! vacuum bel[4 ,?us1 ! p[] act+ on ea* dur+ ! "t :5 its action on ! o!r w\ld be susp5d$1 a con/ant =ce w\ld be ex]t$ ^u ! beam1 & ! uni=mity ( ! motion w\ld be produc$ by mak+ bo? cyl9d]s communicate ) ! same boil]1 s t bo? pi/ons w\ld be driv5 by /eam ( ! same pressure4 ,"o cond5s] might also be us$ = bo? cyl9d]s1 s t a simil> vacuum w\ld be produc$ "u ea*4 ,?is arrangem5t1 h[ev]1 0 soon laid aside = "o mu* m simple & obvi\s4 ,?is consi/$ 9 ! production ( exactly ! same effect by a s+le cyl9d] 9 :i* /eam 0 introduc$ alt]nately above & bel[ ! pi/on1 be+ at ! same "t )drawn by ! cond5s] at ! opposite side4 ,?us ! pi/on be+ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 /eam is introduc$ f ! boil] above x1 :ile ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d] bel[ x is drawn (f by ! cond5s]4 ,! pi/on1 !re=e1 is press$ f above into ! vacuum bel[1 & desc5ds to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,hav+ arriv$ !re1 ! top ( ! cyl9d] is cut (f f all communication ) ! boil]2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a communication is op5$ betwe5 x & ! cond5s]4 ,! /eam :i* has press$ ! pi/on d[n is !re=e drawn (f by ! cond5s]1 :ile a communication is op5$ betwe5 ! boil] & ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 s t /eam is admitt$ bel[ ! pi/on3 ! pi/on1 ?us press$ f bel[ into ! vacuum above1 asc5ds1 & 9 ! same way ! alt]nate motion is cont9u$4 ,su* is ! pr9ciple ( :at is call$ ! ,d\ble-act+ ,/eam ,eng9e1 9 contradi/9ction to t describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 9 :i* ! /eam acts only above ! pi/on :ile a vacuum is produc$ bel[ x4 ,x is evid5t t1 9 ! arrangem5t n[ describ$1 ! cond5s] mu/ be 9 con/ant action3 :ile ! pi/on is desc5d+ ! cond5s] mu/ draw (f ! /eam bel[ x1 & :ile x is asc5d+1 x mu/ draw (f ! /eam above x4 ,z /eam1 !re=e1 mu/ be con/antly drawn into ! cond5s]1 ! jet ( cold wat] :i* cond5ses ! /eam mu/ be kept con/antly play+4 ,?is jet1 !re=e1 w n be work$ by ! valve alt]nately op5+ & clos+1 z 9 ! s+le eng9e1 b w be work$ by a cock1 ! op5+ ( :i* w be adju/$ accord+ to ! quantity ( cold wat] necess>y to cond5se ! /eam4 ,:5 ! /eam is us$ at a l[ pressure1 &1 !re=e1 9 a less compress$ /ate1 less cond5s+ wat] w\ld be necess>y ?an :5 x is us$ at a high] pressure & 9 a m compress$ /ate4 ,9 ! "o case1 !re=e1 ! cond5s+ cock w\ld be less op5 ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,aga91 ! quantity ( cond5s+ wat] mu/ v>y ) ! spe$ ( ! eng9e1 because ! great] ! spe$ ( ! eng9e1 ! m rapidly w ! /eam fl[ f ! cyl9d] into ! cond5s]2 &1 z ! same quantity ( /eam requires ! same quantity ( cond5s+ wat]1 ! supply ( ! cond5s+ wat] mu/ be proportional to ! spe$ ( ! eng9e4 ,9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 !n1 ! jet cock is regulat$ by a lev] or index :i* moves ^u a graduat$ ar*1 & :i* is regulat$ by ! eng9e] accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* ! eng9e works4 ,?is *ange 9 ! action ( ! /eam ^u ! pi/on r5d]$ x necess>y to make a correspond+ *ange 9 ! me*anism by :i* ! pi/on-rod 0 connect$ ) ! beam4 ,9 ! s+le act+ eng9e1 ! pi/on-rod pull$ ! end ( ! beam d[n dur+ ! desc5t1 & 0 pull$ up by x 9 ! asc5t4 ,! connection by :i* ?is action 0 transmitt$ betwe5 ! beam & pi/on 01 z we h se51 a flexible *a9 pass+ f ! end ( ! pi/on & play+ ^u ! ar*-head ( ! beam4 ,n[1 :]e ! me*anical action to be transmitt$ is a pull1 & n a pu%1 a flexible *a91 or cord1 or /rap1 is always suffici5t2 b if a pu% or ?ru/ is requir$ to be transmitt$1 !n ! flexibility ( ! m$ium ( me*anical communication af=d$ by a *a91 r5d]s x inapplicable4 ,9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 dur+ ! desc5t1 ! pi/on-rod /ill pulls ! beam d[n1 & s f> a *a9 connect+ ! pi/on-rod ) ! beam w\ld be suffici5t to transmit ! action ( ! "o to ! o!r2 b 9 ! asc5t ! beam no long] pulls up ! pi/on-rod1 b is pu%$ up by x4 ,a *a9 f ! pi/on-rod to ! ar*-head1 z describ$ 9 ! s+le act+ eng9e1 w\ld fail to transmit ?is =ce4 ,if su* a *a9 7 us$ ) ! d\ble eng9e1 :]e !re is no c\nt] weight on ! opposite end ( ! beam1 ! consequ5ce w\ld be1 t 9 ! asc5t ( ! pi/on ! *a9 w\ld slack51 & ! beam w\ld /ill rema9 depress$4 ,x is !re=e necess>y t "s o!r me*anical connection be contriv$ betwe5 ! pi/on-rod & ! beam1 ( su* a nature t 9 ! desc5t ! pi/on-rod may pull ! beam d[n1 & may pu% x up 9 ! asc5t4 ,watt fir/ propos$ to effect ?is by atta*+ to ! end ( ! pi/on-rod a /raight rack1 fac$ ) tee?1 :i* %\ld "w 9 correspond+ tee? rais$ on ! ar*-head ( ! beam z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ac4 ,if 8 improv$ /eam eng9es requir$ no fur!r precision ( op]ation & con/ruction ?an ! atmosph]ic eng9es1 ?is might h be5 suffici5t2 b 9 ^! eng9es x 0 indisp5sably necess>y t ! pi/on-rod %\ld be guid$ ) a smoo? & ev5 motion ?r\gh ! /uff+-box 9 ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 o!rwise any %ake or irregul>ity w\ld cause x to "w loose 9 ! /uff+-box1 & ei!r to admit ! air1 or to let ! /eam escape4 ,9 fact1 x 0 necess>y to turn ^! pi/on-rods v accurately 9 ! la!1 s t !y may "w ) suffici5t precision 9 ! cyl9d]4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ! motion ( ! rack & too!d ar*-head 7 inadmissible1 s9ce x 0 impossible by su* means to imp>t to ! pi/on-rod t smoo? & equable motion :i* 0 requisite4 ,ano!r contrivance :i* occurr$ to ,watt 01 to atta* to ! top ( ! pi/on-rod a b> :i* %\ld ext5d above ! beam1 & to use two *a9s or /raps1 "o ext5d+ f ! top ( ! b> to ! l[] end ( ! ar*-head1 & ! o!r f ! bottom ( ! b> to ! upp] end ( ! ar*-head4 ,by su* means ! latt] /rap w\ld pull ! beam d[n :5 ! pi/on w\ld desc5d1 & ! =m] w\ld pull ! beam up :5 ! pi/on w\ld asc5d4 ,^! contrivances1 h[ev]1 7 sup]s$$ by ! celebrat$ me*anism1 s9ce call$ ! ,p>allel ,motion1 "o ( ! mo/ +5i\s me*anical comb9ations connect$ ) ! hi/ory ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! object 0 to connect by "s inflexible means ! end ( ! pi/on-rod ) ! extremity ( ! beam1 & s to contrive ! me*anism1 t :ile ! end ( ! beam w\ld move alt]nately up & d[n 9 a circle1 ! end ( ! pi/on-rod connect$ ) ! beam %\ld move exactly up & d[n 9 a /raight l9e4 ,if ! end ( ! pi/on-rod 7 fa/5$ ^u ! end ( ! beam by a pivot )\t any o!r connexion1 x is evid5t t1 be+ mov$ up & d[n 9 ! ar* ( a circle1 x w\ld be b5t to ! left & ! "r alt]nately1 & w\ld consequ5tly ei!r be brok51 or w\ld "w loose 9 ! /uff+ box4 ,in/ead ( connect+ ! end ( ! rod imm$iately ) ! end ( ! beam by a pivot1 ,watt propos$ to connect !m by c]ta9 moveable rods s arrang$ t1 z ! end ( ! beam w\ld move up & d[n 9 ! circul> ar*1 ! rods w\ld s accommodate !mselves to t motion1 t ! end connect$ ) ! pi/on-rod %\ld n be di/urb$ f its rectil9e> c\rse4 ,to accompli% ?is1 he conceiv$ ! notion ( connect+ ?ree rods 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,a ,b & ,c ,d 7fig4 #ad471 are two rods or lev]s turn+ on fix$ pivots or c5tres at ,a & ,c4 ,a ?ird rod1 ,b ,d1 is connect$ ) !m by pivots plac$ at _! extremities1 ,b & ,d1 & ! l5g?s ( ! rods are s adju/$ t :5 ,a ,b & ,c ,d are horizontal1 ,b ,d %all be p]p5dicul> or v]tical1 & t ,a ,b & ,c ,d %all be ( equal l5g?s4 ,n[1 let a p5cil be imag9$ to be plac$ at ,p1 exactly 9 ! middle ( ! rod ,b ,d3 if ! rod ,a ,b be caus$ to move up & d[n l ! beam ( ! /eam eng9e 9 ! ar* repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 x is cle>1 f ! mode ( _! connexion1 t ! rod ,c ,d w be mov$ up & d[n 9 ! o!r ar*4 ,n[ ,watt conceiv$ t1 "u su* circum/ances1 ! p5cil ,p w\ld be mov$ up & d[n 9 a p]p5dicul> /raight l9e4 ,h[ev] difficult ! fir/ conception ( ?is me*anism may h be51 x is easy to p]ceive :y ! desir$ effect w be produc$ by x4 ,:5 ! rod ,a ,b rises to ! upp] extremity ( ! ar*1 ! po9t ,b dep>ts a little to ! "r2 at ! same "t1 ! po9t ,d is mov$ a little to ! left4 ,n[ ! extremities ( ! rod ,b ,d be+ ?us at ! same "t1 c>ri$ slightly 9 opposite directions1 ! p5cil 9 ! middle ( x w asc5d directly upw>ds2 ! "o extremity ( ! rod hav+ a t5d5cy to draw x z mu* to ! "r z ! o!r has to draw x to ! left4 ,9 ! same mann]1 :5 ! rod ,a ,b moves to ! l[] extremity ( ! ar*1 ! rod ,c ,d w be likewise mov$ to ! l[] extremity ( its ar*4 ,! po9t ,b is ?us transf]r$ a little to ! "r1 & ! po9t ,d to ! left2 &1 = ! same reason z be=e1 ! po9t ,p 9 ! middle w move nei!r to ! "r nor to ! left1 b /raight d[nw>ds4#ag ,footnote #ag3 ,9 a /rict ma!matical s5se1 ! pa? ( ! po9t ,p is a curve ( a high ord]1 b 9 ! play :i* is giv5 to x 9 ! application us$ 9 ! /eam eng9e1 x describes only a "p ( its entire locus2 & ?is "p ext5d+ equally on ea* side ( a po9t ( inflection1 its radius ( curvature is inf9ite1 s t1 9 practice1 ! deviation f a /raight l9e1 :5 prop] proportions are obs]v$ 9 ! rods1 & too great a play n giv5 to !m1 is insignificant4 ,n[ ,watt conceiv$ t 8 object w\ld be atta9$ if he c\ld contrive to make ! beam p]=m ! "p ( ,a ,b 9 fig4 #ad41 & to connect ) x o!r two rods1 ,c ,d & ,d ,b1 atta*+ ! end ( ! pi/on to ! middle ( ! rod ,d ,b4 ,! practical application ( ?is pr9ciple requir$ "s modification1 b is z elegant z ! notion itself is +5i\s4 ,! app>atus adopt$ = c>ry+ x into effect is repres5t$ on ! arm :i* works ! pi/on 9 fig4 #ae4 ,! beam1 mov+ on its axis ,c1 e po9t 9 its arm moves 9 ! arc ( a circle ( :i* ,c is ! c5tre4 ,let ,b be ! po9t :i* divides ! arm ,a ,c into equal p>ts1 ,a ,b & ,b ,c2 & let ,d ,e be a /raight rod equal 9 l5g? to ,c ,b1 & play+ on ! fix$ c5tre or pivot ,d4 ,! end ,e ( ?is rod is connect$ by a /raight b>1 ,e ,b1 ) ! po9t ,b1 by pivots at ,b & ,e on :i* ! rod ,b ,e plays freely4 ,if ! beam be suppos$ to move alt]nately on its axis ,c1 ! po9t ,b w move up & d[n 9 a circul> arc1 ( :i* ,c is ! c5tre1 & at ! same "t ! po9t ,e w move 9 an equal circul> arc r\nd ! po9t ,d z a c5tre4 ,accord+ to :at we h j expla9$1 ! middle po9t ,f ( ! rod ,b ,e w move up & d[n 9 a /raight l9e4 ,also1 let a rod1 ,a ,g1 equal 9 l5g? to ,b ,e1 be atta*$ to ! end ,a ( ! beam by a pivot on :i* x moves freely1 & let its extremity ,g be connect$ ) ,e by a rod1 ,g ,e1 equal 9 l5g? to ,a ,b1 & play+ on pivots at ,g & ,e4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! jo9t ,a ,g be+ always p>allel to ,b ,e1 ! ?ree po9ts ,c1 ,a1 & ,g w be 9 circum/ances precisely simil> to ! po9ts ,c1 ,b1 & ,f1 except t ! sy/em ,c ,a ,g w be on a scale ( d\ble ! magnitude ( ,c ,b ,f3 ,c ,a be+ twice ,c ,b1 & ,a ,g twice ,b ,f1 x is cle>1 !n1 t :atev] c\rse ! po9t ,f may foll[1 ! po9t ,g mu/ foll[ a simil> l9e1#ah b w move twice z fa/4 ,b1 s9ce ! po9t ,f has be5 already %[n to move up & d[n 9 a /raight l9e1 ! po9t ,g mu/ also move up & d[n 9 a /raight l9e1 b ( d\ble ! l5g?4#ai ,footnote #ah3 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! pr9ciple ( ! pantograph4 ,! po9ts ,c1 ,f1 & ,g evid5tly lie 9 ! same /raight l9e1 s9ce ,c ,b 3 ,c ,a 33 ,b ,f 3 ,a ,g1 & ! latt] l9es are p>allel4 ,tak+ ,c z ! common pole ( ! loci ( ! po9ts ,f ,g1 ! radius vector ( ! "o w always be twice ! correspond+ radius vector ( ! o!r2 & !re=e ^! curves are simil>1 simil>ly plac$1 & p>allel4 ,h5ce1 by ! la/ note1 ! po9t ,g mu/ move 9 a l9e diff]+ imp]ceptibly f a "r l9e4 ,footnote #ai3 ,x is n necess>y t ! rods1 =m+ ! p>allel motion1 %\ld h ! proportions :i* we h assign$ to !m4 ,!re are v>i\s proportions :i* answ] ! purpose1 & :i* w be se5 by ref]5ce to practical works on ! /eam eng9e4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! pi/ons ( bo? ! /eam cyl9d] & air-pump are work$2 ! rod ( ! latt] be+ atta*$ to ! po9t ,f1 & t ( ! =m] to ! po9t ,g4 ,?is beautiful contrivance1 :i* is inconte/ably "o ( ! happie/ me*anical inv5tions ( ,watt1 af=ds an example ) :at facility ! m9d ( a m]e me*anician c p]ceive1 z x 7 in/9ctively1 a result to obta9 :i* by /rict reason+ w\ld require a v complicat$ ma!matical analysis4 ,watt1 :5 ask$1 by p]sons ^: admiration 0 ju/ly excit$ by ?is inv5tion1 to :at process ( reason+ he c\ld trace back 8 discov]y1 repli$ t he 0 aw>e ( none2 t ! conception fla%$ ^u 8 m9d )\t previ\s inve/igation1 & s z to excite 9 himself surprise at ! p]fection ( its action2 & t on look+ at x = ! fir/ "t1 he exp]i5c$ all t pleasurable s5se ( novelty :i* arises f ! fir/ contemplation ( ! results ( ! inv5tion ( o!rs4 ,?is & ! o!r inv5tions ( ,watt seem to h be5 ! pure creations ( 8 natural g5ius1 v little assi/$ by ! results ( practice1 & n at all by ! light ( education4 ,x does n ev5 appe> t he 0 a dext]\s me*anic2 = he nev] assi/$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! fir/ models ( 8 own inv5tions4 ,8 dwell+-h\se 0 two miles f ! factory1 to :i* he nev] w5t m ?an once 9 a week1 & !n did n /ay half an h\r4 7a7 ,h[ev] beautiful & +5i\s 9 pr9ciple ! p>allel motion may be1 x has rec5tly be5 %[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t mu* simpl] means are suffici5t to subs]ve ! same purpose4 ,9 ! eng9es con/ruct$ rec5tly1 "u ! direction ( ,mr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,/ev5s1 a sub/itute = ! p>allel motion has be5 introduc$ t p]=ms ! task equally well1 & is mu* less complex4 ,on ! head ( ! pi/on-rod a b> is fix$1 at "r angles to x1 & to ! longitud9al section ( ! eng9e4 ,! ends ( ?is b> "w 9 guides =m$ ( two p>allel & v]tical b>s ( iron1 by :i* ! upp] end ( ! pi/on-rod is con/ra9$ to move 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! cross-b> t moves 9 ! guides is connect$ ) ! end ( ! work+ beam by an inflexible b>1 hav+ a motion on two circul> gudgeons1 "o ( :i* is 9 ! work+ beam1 ! o!r 9 ! cross-b>4 ,?is is !re=e free to accommodate itself to ! *anges 9 ! respective position ( ! pi/on-rod & work+ beam1 & yet transmits ! p[] ex]t$ by ! /eam ^u ! =m] :e!r x be asc5d+ or desc5d+1 to ! latt] & ?r\gh x to ! o!r p>ts ( ! ma*9e4--,a4 ,e4 7b7 ,! mo/ improv$ =m ( ,watt's eng9e 0 rea*$ by successive additions to ! old atmosph]ic eng9e ( ,newcom5 & ,cawley4 ,h5ce1 ! work+-beam1 d]iv$ f ! pump brake ( t eng9e1 always =m$ a "p2 & ! p>allel motion1 or "s equival5t contrivance 0 absolutely necess>y4 ,9 _m ,am]ican eng9es1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ^? us$ 9 /eam boats1 ! work+ beam is no long] us$ = ! purpose ( transmitt+ motion to ! ma*9]y4 ,?is is effect$ by apply+ a b>1 call$ ! cross-head1 at "r angles to ! upp] ends ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,! ends ( ! cross-head "w 9 iron guides1 adapt$ to a gall[s-frame ( wood4 ,on ea* side ( ! cyl9d]1 connect+ rods are appli$1 :i* take hold ( ! cranks ( ! %afts ( ! wat]-:eel4 ,two o!r connect+ rods give motion to a %ort beam1 :i* works ! air & supply pumps4 ,! work+ beam is also suppress$ 9 eng9es :i* "w horizontally4 ,! connect+ rod is 9 !m m]ely a jo9t$ prolongation ( ! pi/on-rod1 ext5d+ to ! crank1 ^: axis lies 9 ! same horizontal plane ) & at "r angles to ! axis ( ! cyl9d]4--,a4 ,e4 7#ee47 ,a p]fect motion be+ ?us obta9$ ( convey+ ! alt]nate motion ( ! pi/on to ! work+ beam1 ! use ( a c\nt]poise to lift ! pi/on 0 discont9u$1 & ! beam 0 made to balance itself exactly on its c5tre4 ,! next end to be obta9$ 0 to adapt ! reciprocat+ motion ( ! work+ end ( ! beam to ma*9]y4 ,! motion mo/ g5]ally useful = ?is purpose is "o ( cont9u$ rotation4 ,! object1 !re=e1 0 by ! alt]nate motion ( ! end ( ! beam to transmit to a %aft or axis a cont9u$ circul> motion4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ,watt propos$ effect+ ?is by a crank1 connect$ ) ! work+ end ( ! beam by a metal connector or rod4 ,let ,k be ! c5tre or axis1 or %aft by :i* motion is giv5 to ! ma*9]y1 & to :i* rotation is to be imp>t$ by ! beam ,c ,h4 ,on ! axle ,k1 suppose a lev]1 ,k ,i1 fix$1 s t :5 ,k ,i is turn$ r\nd ! c5tre ,k1 ! :eel mu/ be turn$ ) x4 ,let a connector or rod1 ,h ,i1 be atta*$ to ! po9ts ,h & ,i1 play+ freely on pivots or jo9ts4 ,z ! end ,h is mov$ upw>ds & d[nw>ds1 ! lev] ,k ,i is turn$ r\nd ! c5tre ,k1 s z to give a cont9u$ rotatory motion to ! %aft :i* revolves on t c5tre4 ,! diff]5t positions :i* ! connector & lev] ,k ,i assume 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( a revolution are repres5t$ 9 fig4 #af4 7#ef47 ,?is 0 ! fir/ me?od :i* occurr$ to ,watt = produc+ a cont9u$ rotatory motion by means ( ! vibrat+ motion ( ! beam1 & is ! me?od n[ univ]sally us$4 ,a workman1 h[ev]1 f ,mr4 ,watt's factory1 :o 0 aw>e ( ! con/ruction ( a model ( ?is1 communicat$ ! me?od to ,mr4 ,wa%bor\gh ( ,bri/ol1 :o anticipat$ ,watt 9 tak+ out a pat5t2 & al?\gh x 0 9 8 p[] to h disput$ ! pat5t1 yet r ?an be involv$ 9 litigation1 he gave up ! po9t1 & contriv$ ano!r way ( produc+ ! same effect1 :i* he call$ ! sun & planet :eel1 & :i* he us$ until ! expiration ( ,wa%bor\gh's pat5t1 :5 ! crank 0 resum$4 ,! too!d :eel ,b 7fig4 #ag47 is fix$ on ! end ( ! connector1 s t x does n turn on its axis4 ,! tee? ( ?is :eel "w 9 ^? ( ano!r :eel1 ,a1 :i* is ! :eel to :i* rotation is to be imp>t$1 & :i* is turn$ by ! :eel ,b revolv+ r\nd x1 urg$ by ! rod ,h ,i1 :i* receives its motion f ! work+-beam4 ,! :eel ,a is call$ ! sun-:eel1 & ,b ! planet-:eel1 f ! obvi\s resemblance to ! motion ( ^! bodies4 ,?is contrivance1 al?\gh 9 ! ma9 inf]ior to ! m simple "o ( ! crank1 is n )\t "s advantages2 among o!rs1 x gives to ! sun-:eel d\ble ! velocity :i* w\ld be communicat$ by ! simple crank1 = 9 ! simple crank "o revolution only on ! axle is produc$ by "o revolution ( ! crank1 b 9 ! sun & planet-:eel two revolutions ( ! sun-:eel are produc$ by "o ( ! planet-:eel2 ?us a d\ble velocity is obta9$ f ! same motion ( ! beam4 ,?is w be evid5t f consid]+ t :5 ! planet-:eel is 9 its highe/ position1 its l[e/ too? is engag$ ) ! highe/ too? ( ! sun-:eel2 z ! planet-:eel passes f ! highe/ position1 its tee? drive ^? ( ! sun-:eel be=e !m1 & :5 x comes into ! l[e/ position1 ! highe/ too? ( ! planet-:eel is engag$ ) ! l[e/ ( ! sun-:eel3 b !n half ( ! sun-:eel has roll$ (f ! planet-:eel1 &1 !re=e1 ! too? :i* 0 engag$ ) x 9 its high] position1 mu/ n[ be di/ant f x by half ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 & mu/ !re=e be aga9 9 ! highe/ position1 s t :ile ! planet-:eel has be5 c>ri$ f ! top to ! bottom1 ! sun-:eel has made a complete revolution4 ,a little reflection1 h[ev]1 on ! nature ( ! motion1 w r5d] ?is pla9] ?an any description c4 ,?is advantage ( giv+ an increas$ velocity1 may be obta9$ also by ! simple crank1 by plac+ too!d :eels on its axle4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! great] exp5se att5d+ ! con/ruction ( ! sun & planet-:eel1 its liability to g out ( ord]1 & ! rapid we> ( ! tee?1 & o!r objections1 r5d]$ x decid$ly inf]ior to ! crank1 :i* has n[ entirely sup]s$$ x4 7#eh47 ,:e!r ! simple crank or ! sun & planet :eel be us$1 !re /ill rema9s a difficulty ( a peculi> nature att5d+ ! cont9uance ( ! rotatory motion4 ,!re are two positions 9 :i* ! eng9e c give no motion :atev] to ! crank4 ,^! are :5 ! end ( ! beam1 ! axle ( ! crank1 & ! pivot :i* jo9s ! connector ) ! crank1 are 9 ! same /raight l9e4 ,?is w be easily und]/ood4 ,suppose ! beam1 connector1 & crank to assume ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ae4 ,if /eam urge ! pi/on d[nw>ds1 ! po9t ,h & ! connector ,h ,i w be drawn directly upw>ds4 ,b x mu/ be v evid5t t 9 ! pres5t situation ( ! connector ,h ,i1 & ! lev] ,i ,k1 ! =ce :i* draws ! po9t ,i 9 ! direction ,i ,k c h no effect :atev] 9 turn+ ,i ,k r\nd ! c5tre ,k1 b w m]ely ex]t a pressure on ! axle or pivots ( ! :eel4 ,aga91 suppose ! crank & connector to be 9 ! position ,h ,i ,k 7fig4 #af471 ! pi/on be+ consequ5tly at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,if /eam n[ press ! pi/on upw>ds1 ! pivot ,h & ! connector ,h ,i w be press$ d[nw>ds1 & ?is pressure w urge ! crank ,i ,k 9 ! direction ,i ,k4 ,x is evid5t t su* a =ce _c turn ! crank r\nd ! c5tre ,k1 & c be att5d$ ) no o!r effect ?an a pressure on ! axle or pivots ( ! :eel4 ,h5ce 9 ^! two positions1 ! eng9e c h no effect :atev] 9 turn+ ! crank4 ,:at1 !n1 x may be ask$1 extricates ! ma*9e f ?is me*anical dilemma 9 :i* x is plac$ twice 9 e revolution1 on arriv+ at ^? positions 9 :i* ! crank escapes ! influ5ce ( ! p[]8 ,!re is a t5d5cy 9 bodies1 :5 once put 9 motion1 to cont9ue t motion until /opp$ by "s oppos+ =ce1 & ?is t5d5cy c>ries ! crank out ( ^? two critical situations4 ,! velocity :i* is giv5 to x1 :ile x is "u ! influ5ce ( ! impell+ =ce ( ! beam1 is reta9$ 9 a suffici5t degree to c>ry x ?r\gh t situation 9 :i* x is des]t$ by ?is impell+ =ce4 ,al?\gh ! rotatory motion int5d$ to be produc$ by ! crank is1 !re=e1 n absolutely de/roy$ by ?is circum/ance1 yet x is r5d]$ extremely irregul>1 s9ce1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! two positions already describ$1 :]e ! ma*9e loses its p[] ov] ! crank1 ! motion w be v sl[1 &1 9 ! positions ( ! crank mo/ remote f ^!1 :]e ! p[] ( ! beam ^u x is greate/1 ! motion w be v quick4 ,z ! crank revolves f ea* ( ^? positions :]e ! p[] ( ! ma*9e ov] x is greate/1 to :]e t p[] is altoge!r lo/1 x is cont9ually dim9i%$1 s t1 9 fact1 ! crank is driv5 by a v>y+ p[]1 & !re=e produces a v>y+ motion4 ,?is w be easily und]/ood by consid]+ ! successive positions ( ! crank & connector repres5t$ 9 fig4 #af4 ,?is v>iable motion becomes p>ticul>ly objectionable :5 ! eng9e is employ$ to drive ma*9]y4 ,to remove ?is defect1 we h rec\rse to ! prop]ty ( bodies j m5tion$1 viz4 _! t5d5cy to reta9 a motion :i* is communicat$ to !m4 ,a l>ge metal :eel call$ a fly-:eel is plac$ ^u ! axis ( ! crank 7fig4 #ae471 & is turn$ by x4 ,! effect ( ?is :eel is to equalize ! motion communicat$ by ! action ( ! beam on ! crank1 t action be+ j suffici5t to su/a9 9 ! fly-:eel a uni=m velocity1 & ! t5d5cy ( ?is :eel to reta9 ! velocity x receives1 r5d]s its rotation suffici5tly uni=m = all practical purposes4 ,?is uni=mity ( motion1 h[ev]1 w only be pres]v$ on two conditions2 fir/1 t ! supply ( /eam f ! boil] %all be uni=m2 & secondly1 t ! ma*9e h always ! same resi/ance to ov]come or be load$ equally4 ,if ! supply ( /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] be increas$1 ! motion ( ! pi/on w be r5d]$ m rapid1 &1 !re=e1 ! revolution ( ! fly-:eel w also be m rapid1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a dim9i%$ supply ( /eam w ret>d ! fly-:eel4 ,aga91 if ! resi/ance or load ^u ! eng9e be dim9i%$1 ! supply ( /eam rema9+ ! same1 ! velocity w be increas$1 s9ce a less resi/ance is oppos$ to ! en]gy ( ! mov+ p[]2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! resi/ance or load be increas$1 ! spe$ w be dim9i%$1 s9ce a great] resi/ance w be oppos$ to ! same mov+ p[]4 ,to insure a uni=m velocity1 9 :atev] mann] ! load or resi/ance may be *ang$1 x is necess>y to proportion ! supply ( /eam to ! resi/ance1 s t1 ^u ! lea/ v>iation 9 ! velocity1 ! supply ( /eam w be increas$ or dim9i%$1 s z to keep ! eng9e go+ at ! same rate4 7#ei47 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & elegant app5dages ( ! /eam eng9e is ! app>atus contriv$ by ,watt = effect+ ?is purpose4 ,an app>atus1 call$ a regulator or gov]nor1 _h be5 long kn[n to mill-wrights = r5d]+ uni=m ! action ( ! /ones 9 corn-mills1 & 0 us$ g5]ally 9 ma*9]y4 ,mr4 ,watt contriv$ a beautiful application ( ?is app>atus = ! regulation ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,9 ! pipe :i* conducts /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d] he plac$ a ?9 circul> plate1 s t :5 plac$ ) its face pres5t$ t[>ds ! l5g? ( ! pipe1 x ne>ly /opp$ x1 & all[$ little or no /eam to pass to ! cyl9d]1 b :5 its edge 0 plac$ 9 ! direction ( ! pipe1 x (f]$ no resi/ance :atev] to ! passage ( ! /eam4 ,?is circul> plate1 call$ ! ?rottle valve1 0 made to turn on a diamet] z an axis1 pass+ consequ5tly ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! tube1 & 0 work$ by a lev] outside ! tube4 ,accord+ to ! position giv5 to x1 x w\ld p]mit m or less /eam to pass4 ,if ! valve be plac$ ) its edge ne>ly 9 ! direction ( ! tube1 ! supply ( /eam is abundant2 if x be plac$ ) its face ne>ly 9 ! direction ( ! tube1 ! supply ( /eam is m limit$1 & x appe>s t1 by ! position giv5 to ?is valve1 ! /eam may be measur$ 9 any quantity to ! cyl9d]4 ,at fir/ x 0 propos$ t ! eng9e-man %\ld adju/ ?is valve ) 8 h&2 :5 ! eng9e 0 obs]v$ to increase its spe$ too mu*1 he w\ld *eck ! supply ( /eam by p>tially clos+ ! valve2 b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! motion 0 too sl[1 he w\ld op5 ! valve & let 9 a m abundant supply ( /eam4 ,watt1 h[ev]1 0 n cont5t ) ?is1 & desir$ to make ! eng9e itself dis*>ge ?is task ) m /ead9ess & regul>ity ?an any att5dant c\ld1 & = ?is purpose he appli$ ! gov]nor already allud$ to4 ,?is app>atus is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ae42 ,l is a p]p5dicul> %aft or axle to :i* a :eel1 ,m1 ) a groove is atta*$4 ,a /rap or rope1 :i* is roll$ ^u ! axle ( ! fly-:eel1 is pass$ r\nd ! groove 9 ! :eel ,m1 9 ! same mann] z ! /rap acts 9 a turn+ la!4 ,by means ( ?is /rap ! rotation ( ! fly-:eel w produce a rotation ( ! :eel ,m & ! %aft ,l1 & ! spe$ ( ! "o w always increase or dim9i% 9 ! same proportion z ! spe$ ( ! o!r4 ,n1 ,n are two heavy balls ( metal plac$ at ! ends ( rods1 :i* play on an axis fix$ on ! revolv+ %aft at ,o1 & ext5d beyond ! axis to ,q ,q4 ,connect$ ) ^! by jo9ts at ,q ,q are two o!r rods1 ,q ,r1 :i* are atta*$ to a broad r+ ( metal1 mov+ freely up & d[n ! revolv+ %aft4 ,?is r+ is atta*$ to a lev] ^: c5tre is ,s1 & is connect$ by a s]ies ( lev]s ) ! ?rottle-valve ,t4 ,:5 ! spe$ ( ! fly-:eel is mu* increas$1 ! sp9dle ,l is :irl$ r\nd ) consid]able rapidity1 & by _! natural t5d5cy#bj ! balls ,n ,n fly f ! c5tre4 ,! lev]s :i* play on ! axis ,o1 by ?is motion1 div]ge f ea* o!r1 & !reby depress ! jo9ts ,q ,q1 & draw d[n ! jo9ts ,r1 & ) !m ! r+ ( metal :i* slides ^u ! sp9dle4 ,by ^! means ! end ( ! lev] play+ on ,s is depress$1 & ! end ,v rais$1 & ! motion is transmitt$ to ! ?rottle-valve1 :i* is !reby p>tially clos$1 & ! supply ( /eam to ! cyl9d] *eck$4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! velocity ( ! fly-:eel be dim9i%$1 ! balls w fall t[>ds ! axis1 & ! opposite effects ensu+1 ! supply ( /eam w be increas$1 & ! velocity re/or$4 ,footnote #bj3 ,! c5trifugal =ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,,watt',s ,,s+le ,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,! peculi> beauty ( ?is app>atus is1 t 9 :atev] position ! balls settle !mselves1 ! velocity ) :i* ! gov]nor revolves mu/ be ! same1#ba & 9 ?is1 9 fact1 consi/s its :ole efficacy z a regulator4 ,its regulat+ p[] is limit$1 & x is only small *anges ( velocity t x w correct4 ,x is evid5t t su* a velocity z1 on ! "o h&1 w\ld cause ! balls to fly to ! extremity ( _! play1 or1 on ! o!r1 w\ld cause !m to fall d[n on _! re/s1 w\ld n be influ5c$ by ! gov]nor4 ,footnote #ba3 ,/rictly speak+1 ?is is only true :5 ! div]g5ce ( ! rods f ! sp9dle is n v great1 &1 9 practice1 ?is div]g5ce is nev] suffici5t to r5d] ! above ass]tion untrue4 ,?is prop]ty ( ! conical p5dulum arises f ! circum/ance ( ! c5trifugal =ce1 9 ?is in/ance1 v>y+ z ! radius ( ! circle 9 :i* ! balls are mov$2 & :5 ?is is ! case1 z is well kn[n1 ! p]iodic "t is con/ant4 ,! "t ( "o revolution ( ! balls is equal to twice ! "t 9 :i* ei!r ball1 z a common p5dulum1 w\ld vibrate on ! c5tre1 & z all its vibrations1 ?\gh ! arcs be unequal1 are equal 9 "t1 provid$ ^? arcs be small1 s also is ! p]iodic "t ( ! revolv+ ball inv>iable4 ,^! obs]vations1 h[ev]1 only apply :5 ! balls settle !mselves /eadily into a circul> motion2 = :ile !y are asc5d+ !y describe a spiral curve ) d\ble curvature1 & ! p]iod w v>y4 ,?is takes place dur+ ! mom5t>y *anges 9 ! velocity ( ! eng9e4 ,we h ?us describ$ ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! d\ble-act+ /eam eng9e4 ,! valves & ! me?ods ( work+ !m h be5 res]v$ = ! next *apt]1 z !y admit ( consid]able v>iety1 & w be bett] treat$ ( sep>ately4 ,we h also res]v$ ! consid]ation ( ! boil]1 :i* is f> f be+ ! lea/ int]e/+ "p ( ! mod]n /eam eng9e1 = a future *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e 7cont9u$47 ,on ! ,valves ( ! ,d\ble-,act+ ,/eam ,eng9e4 -- ,orig9al ,valves4 -- ,sp9dle ,valves4 -- ,slid+ ,valve4 -- ,d ,valve4 -- ,f\r-,way ,cock4 7#fj47 ,! v>i\s improvem5ts describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt] 7 secur$ to ,watt by pat5t 9 ! ye> #aghb4 ,! eng9e n[ acquir$ an enl>g$ sph]e ( action2 = its dom9ion ov] manufactures 0 decid$ by ! fly-:eel1 crank1 & gov]nor4 ,by means ( ^! app5dages1 its motions 7 regulat$ ) ! mo/ delicate precision2 s t :ile x reta9$ a p[] ^: magnitude 0 almo/ unlimit$1 t p[] 0 "u z exact regulation z ! motion ( a "t-piece4 ,!re is no species ( manufacture1 !re=e1 to :i* ?is ma*9e is n applicable1 f ! p[] :i* sp9s ! f9e/ ?read1 or produces ! mo/ delicate web1 to t :i* is necess>y to elevate ! mo/ enorm\s weights1 or ov]come ! mo/ unlimit$ resi/ances4 ,al?\gh x be true1 t 9 lat] times ! /eam eng9e has receiv$ _m improvem5ts1 "s ( :i* are v cr$itable to ! inv5tion & tal5ts ( _! projectors1 yet x is und5iable t all its great & lead+ p]fections1 all ^? qualities by :i* x has produc$ su* wond]ful effects on ! res\rces ( ^! c\ntries1 by ! ext5sion ( manufactures & comm]ce1--^? qualities by :i* its influ5ce is felt & ackn[l$g$ 9 e "p ( ! civiliz$ globe1 9 increas+ ! happ9ess1 9 multiply+ ! enjoym5ts1 & *eap5+ ! pleasures ( life1--t ^! qualities are due to ! pr$om9at+ p[]s ( "o man1 & t man "o :o possess$ nei!r ! influ5ce ( weal?1 rank1 nor education1 to give t fir/ impetus :i* is s (t5 necess>y to c>ry into circulation ! e>li] productions ( g5ius4 ,! me?od ( work+ ! valves ( ! d\ble-act+ /eam eng9e1 is a subject :i* has mu* ex]cis$ ! +5uity ( eng9e]s1 & _m elegant contrivances h be5 sugge/$1 "s ( :i* we %all n[ proce$ to describe4 ,b ev5 9 ?is ! inv5tion ( ,watt has anticipat$ 8 successors2 & ! contrivances sugge/$ by him are ^? :i* are n[ almo/ univ]sally us$4 ,9 ord] p]fectly to compreh5d ! action ( ! sev]al sy/ems ( valves :i* we are ab\t to describe1 x w be necess>y di/9ctly to rememb] ! mann] 9 :i* ! /eam is to be communicat$ to ! cyl9d]1 & )drawn f x4 ,:5 ! pi/on is at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! /eam bel[ x is to be drawn (f to ! cond5s]1 & ! /eam f ! boil] is to be admitt$ above x4 ,aga91 :5 x has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! /eam above is to be drawn (f to ! cond5s]1 & ! /eam f ! boil] is to be admitt$ bel[ x4 ,9 ! e>li] eng9es con/ruct$ by ,watt1 ?is 0 accompli%$ by f\r valves1 :i* 7 op5$ & clos$ 9 pairs4 ,valve boxes 7 plac$ at ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ea* ( :i* communicat$ by tubes bo? ) ! /eam-pipe f ! boil] & ! cond5s]4 ,ea* valve-box accord+ly conta9$ two valves1 "o to admit /eam f ! /eam-pipe to ! cyl9d]1 & ! o!r to all[ t /eam to pass into ! cond5s]4 ,?us ea* valve-box conta9$ a /eam valve & an exhau/+ valve4 ,! valves at ! top ( ! cyl9d] are call$ ! upp] /eam valve & ! upp] exhau/+-valve1 & ^? at ! bottom1 ! l[] /eam valve & ! l[] exhau/+-valve4 ,9 fig4 #ae4 ,a is ! upp] /eam valve1 :i*1 :5 op51 admits /eam above ! pi/on2 ,b is ! upp] exhau/+-valve1 :i*1 :5 op51 draws (f ! /eam f ! pi/on to ! cond5s]4 ,c is ! l[] /eam valve1 :i* admits /eam bel[ ! pi/on2 & ,d1 ! l[] exhau/+-valve1 :i* draws (f ! /eam f bel[ ! pi/on to ! cond5s]4 ,n[1 suppose ! pi/on to be at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! cyl9d] bel[ x be+ fill$ ) /eam1 :i* has j press$ x up4 ,let ! upp] /eam valve ,a1 & ! l[] exhau/+-valve ,d be op5$1 & ! o!r two valves clos$4 ,! /eam :i* fills ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on w imm$iately pass ?r\gh ! valve ,d into ! cond5s]1 & a vacuum w be produc$ bel[ ! pi/on4 ,at ! same "t1 /eam is admitt$ f ! /eam-pipe ?r\gh ! valve ,a above ! pi/on1 & its pressure w =ce ! pi/on to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! upp] /eam valve ,a1 & l[] exhau/+-valve ,d1 are clos$2 & ! l[] /eam valve ,c1 & upp] exhau/+-valve ,b are op5$4 ,! /eam :i* fills ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on n[ passes (f ?r\gh ,b into ! cond5s]1 & leaves a vacuum above ! pi/on4 ,at ! same "t1 /eam f ! boil] is admitt$ ?r\gh ! l[] /eam valve ,c1 bel[ ! pi/on1 s t x w press ! pi/on to ! top ( ! cyl9d]2 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! upp] /eam valve1 & ! l[] exhau/+-valve1 mu/ be op5$ toge!r1 on ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,to effect ?is1 "o lev]1 ,e1 is made to communicate by jo9t$ rods ) bo? ^! valves1 & ?is lev] is mov$ by a p9 plac$ on ! pi/on-rod ( ! air-pump2 & su* a position may be giv5 to ?is p9 z to produce ! desir$ effect exactly at ! prop] mom5t ( "t4 ,9 l mann]1 ano!r lev]1 ,f1 communicates by jo9t$ rods ) ! upp] exhau/+ valve & l[] /eam valve1 s z to op5 !m & close !m toge!r2 & ?is lev]1 9 l mann]1 is work$ by a p9 on ! pi/on-rod ( ! air-pump4 7#fa47 ,?is me?od ( connect+ ! valves1 & work+ !m1 has be5 sup]s$$ by ano!r1 = :i* ,mr4 ,,murray ( ,le$s obta9$ a pat5t1 :i* 01 h[ev]1 set aside by ,messrs4 ,bolton & ,watt1 :o %[$ t !y _h previ\sly practis$ x4 ,?is me?od is repres5t$ 9 figs4 #ah1 #ai4 ,! /ems ( ! valves are p]p5dicul>1 & move 9 /eam-tight sockets 9 ! top ( ! valve-boxes4 ,! /em ( ! upp] /eam valve ,a is a tube ?r\gh :i* ! /em ( ! upp] exhau/+-valve ,b passes1 & 9 :i* x moves /eam-tight2 bo? ^! /ems mov+ /eam-tight ?r\gh ! top ( ! valve-box4 ,! l[] /eam valve ,c1 & exhau/+-valve ,d1 are simil>ly circum/anc$2 ! /em ( ! =m] be+ a tube ?r\gh :i* ! /em ( ! latt] passes4 ,! /ems ( ! upp] /eam valve & l[] exhau/+-valve are !n connect$ by a rod1 ,e2 & ^? ( ! upp] exhau/+-valve & l[] /eam valve by ano!r rod1 ,f4 ,^! rods1 !re=e1 are capable ( mov+ ! valves 9 pairs1 :5 elevat$ & depress$4 ,! motion :i* works ! valves is1 h[ev]1 n communicat$ by ! rod ( ! air-pump1 b is receiv$ f ! axis ( ! fly-:eel4 ,?is axis works an app>atus call$ an ecc5tric2 ! pr9ciple :i* regulates ! motion ( ?is may be ?us expla9$3-- ,d ,e 7figs4 #bj1 #ba47 is a circul> metallic r+1 ! inn] surface ( :i* is p]fectly smoo?4 ,?is r+ is connect$ ) a %aft1 ,f ,b1 :i* communicates motion to ! valves by lev]s :i* are atta*$ to x at ,b4 ,a circul> metallic plate is fitt$ 9 ! r+ s z to be capable ( turn+ )9 x1 ! surfaces ( ! r+ & plate :i* are 9 contact be+ smoo? & lubricat$ ) oil or grease4 ,?is circul> plate revolves1 b n on its c5tre4 ,x turns on an axis ,c1 at "s di/ance f its c5tre ,a2 ! effect ( :i*1 evid5tly1 is t ! r+ )9 :i* x is turn$ is mov$ alt]nately 9 opposite directions1 & ?r\gh a space equal to twice ! di/ance 7,c ,a7 ( ! axis ( ! circul> plate f ! common c5tre ( x & ! r+4 ,! ecc5tric 9 its two extreme positions is repres5t$ 9 figs4 #bj1 #ba4 ,! plate & r+ ,d ,e are plac$ on ! axis ( ! fly-:eel1 or on ! axis ( "s o!r :eel :i* is work$ by ! fly-:eel4 ,s t ! motion ( cont9u$ rotation 9 ! fly-:eel is ?us made to produce an alt]nate motion 9 a /raight l9e 9 ! %aft ,f ,b4 ,?is rod is made to communicate by lev]s ) ! rods ,e & ,f 7figs4 #ah1 #ai471 :i* "w ! valves 9 su* a mann]1 t1 :5 ! ecc5tric is 9 ! position fig4 #bj41 "o pair ( valves are op5$1 & ! o!r pair clos$2 & :5 x is br\ght to ! position fig4 #ba41 ! o!r pair are op5$ & ! =m] clos$ & s on4 ,x is by means ( su* an app>atus z ?is t ! valves are work$ almo/ univ]sally at pres5t4 ,! pi/on be+ suppos$ to be at ! top ( ! cyl9d] 7fig4 #ah471 & ! rod ,e rais$1 ! valves ,a & ,d are op5$1 & ,b & ,c clos$4 ,! /eam ent]s f ! /eam-pipe at an ap]ture imm$iately above ! valve ,a1 &1 pass+ ?r\gh ! op5 valve1 ent]s ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on4 ,at ! same "t1 ! /eam :i* is bel[ ! pi/on1 & :i* has j press$ x up1 fl[s ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,d1 & ?r\gh a tube imm$iately "u x to ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum be+ ?us produc$ bel[ ! pi/on1 & /eam pressure act+ above x1 x desc5ds2 & :5 x arrives at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] 7fig4 #ai47 ! rod ,f is drawn d[n1 & ! valves ,a & ,d fall into _! seats1 & at ! same "t ! rod ,f is rais$1 & ! valves ,b & ,c are op5$4 ,/eam is n[ admitt$ ?r\gh an ap]ture above ! valve ,c1 & passes bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam above x passes ?r\gh ! op5 valve ,b into a tube imm$iately "u x1 :i* leads to ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum be+ ?us produc$ above ! pi/on1 & /eam pressure act+ bel[ x1 ! pi/on asc5ds1 & ?us ! alt]nate asc5t & desc5t is cont9u$ by ! motion communicat$ to ! rods ,e ,f f ! fly-:eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,v4 ,,watt',s ,,d\ble-,,act+ ,,/eam ,,eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,vi4 7c7 ,an improvem5t has be5 made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! mode ( work+ ! puppet valve4 ,x consi/s 9 plac+ !m by pairs 9 two diff]5t v]tical planes in/ead ( "o4 ,! rods !n "w ?r\gh f\r sep>ate /uff+ boxes1 & ! necessity ( mak+ two ( !m holl[ cyl9d]s is avoid$4--,a4 ,e4 7#fb47 ,!re are v>i\s o!r contrivances = regulat+ ! circulation ( /eam ?r\gh ! cyl9d]4 ,9 figs4 #bb1 #bc4 is repres5t$ a section ( a slide valve sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,murray ( ,le$s4 ,! /eam-pipe f ! boil] ent]s ! valve-box ,d ,e at ,s4 ,curv$ passages1 ,a ,a1 ,b ,b1 communicate betwe5 ?is valve-box & ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]2 & a f\r? passage leads to ! tube ,c1 :i* passes to ! cond5s]4 ,a slid+ piece )9 ! valve-box op5s a communication alt]nately betwe5 ea* end ( ! cyl9d] & ! tube ,c1 :i* leads to ! cond5s]4 ,9 ! position ( ! app>atus 9 fig4 #bb4 /eam is pass+ f ! /eam-pipes1 ?r\gh ! curv$ passage ,a ,a above ! pi/on1 & at ! same "t ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on is pass+ ?r\gh ! passage ,b ,b into ! tube ,c1 & !nce to ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum is ?us =m$ bel[ ! pi/on1 & /eam is introduc$ above x4 ,! pi/on1 !re=e1 desc5ds2 & :5 x arrives at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! slide is mov$ into ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bc4 ,/eam n[ passes f ,s ?r\gh ,b ,b bel[ ! pi/on1 & ! /eam above x passes ?r\gh ,a ,a & ,c to ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum is ?us produc$ above ! pi/on1 & /eam pressure is introduc$ bel[ x1 & ! pi/on asc5ds2 & 9 ?is way ! motion is cont9u$4 ,! slide is mov$ by a lev]1 :i* is work$ by ! ecc5tric f ! fly-:eel4 7#fc47 ,watt sugge/$ a me?od ( regulat+ ! circulation ( /eam1 :i* is call$ ! ,d valve1 f ! resemblance :i* ! horizontal section ( ! valve has to ! lett] ,d4 ,?is me?od1 :i* is v g5]ally us$1 is repres5t$ 9 section 9 figs4 #bd1 #be4 ,/eam f ! boil] ent]s ?r\gh ,s4 ,a rod ( metal connects two solid plugs1 ,a ,b1 :i* move /eam-tight 9 ! passage ,d4 ,9 ! position ( ! app>atus repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bd4 ! /eam passes f ,s ?r\gh ! passage ,d1 & ent]s ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on2 :ile ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on passes ?r\gh ! op5 passage by ! tube ,c to ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum is ?us =m$ bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! pressure ( /eam is introduc$ above x1 & x accord+ly desc5ds4 ,:5 x has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! plugs ,a ,b are mov$ into ! position 9 fig4 #be4 ,/eam n[ pass+ f ,s ?r\gh ,d1 ent]s ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on2 :ile ! /eam :i* is above ! pi/on1 & has j press$ x d[n1 passes ?r\gh ! op5 passage into ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum is ?us produc$ above ! pi/on1 & ! /eam pressure bel[ =ces x up4 ,:5 x has arriv$ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! position ( ! plugs ,a ,b is aga9 *ang$ to t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bd41 & a simil> effect to t already describ$ is produc$1 & ! pi/on is press$ d[n2 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,! plugs ,a ,b1 & ! rod :i* connects !m1 are mov$ up & d[n by prop] lev]s1 :i* receive _! motion f ! ecc5tric4 ,?is contrivance is frequ5tly modifi$1 by conduct+ ! /eam f above ! pi/on to ! cond5s]1 ?r\gh a tube 9 ! plugs ,a ,b1 & _! connect+ rod4 ,9 figs4 #bf1 #bg4 a tube passes ?r\gh ! plugs ,a ,b & ! rod :i* jo9s !m4 ,9 ! position fig4 #bf4 /eam ent]+ at ,s passes ?r\gh ! tube to ! cyl9d] above ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on passes ?r\gh ,c into ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum be+ ?us made bel[ ! pi/on1 & /eam press+ above x1 x desc5ds2 & :5 x has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! position ( ! plugs ,a ,b & ! tube is *ang$ to t repres5t$ at fig4 #bg4 ,! /eam n[ ent]+ at ,s passes to ! cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam above ! pi/on passes ?r\gh ,c into ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum is ?us produc$ above ! pi/on1 & /eam pressure introduc$ bel[ x1 s t x asc5ds4 ,:5 x has arriv$ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! plugs are mov$ into ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bf41 & simil> effects be+ produc$1 ! pi/on aga9 desc5ds2 & s ! motion is cont9u$4 ,! motion ( ! slid+ tube may be produc$ z 9 ! =m] contrivances1 by ! action ( ! ecc5tric4 ,x is also sometimes done by a bracket fa/5$ on ! pi/on-rod ( ! air-pump4 ,?is bracket1 9 ! desc5t ( ! pi/on1 /rikes a projection on ! valve-rod1 & drives x d[n2 & 9 ! asc5t meets a simil> projection1 & raises x4 7#fd47 ,ano!r me?od1 wor?y ( notice = its elegance & simplicity1 is ! f\r-way cock4 ,a section ( ?is contrivance is giv5 9 figs4 #bh1 #bi43 ,c ,t ,s ,b are f\r passages or tubes2 ,s leads f ! boil]1 & introduces /eam2 ,c1 opposite to x1 leads to ! cond5s]2 ,t is a tube :i* communicates ) ! top ( ! cyl9d]2 & ,b "o :i* communicates ) ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,^! f\r tubes communicate ) a cock1 :i* is furni%$ ) two curv$ passages1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figures2 & ^! passages are s =m$1 t1 accord+ to ! position giv5 to ! cock1 !y may be made to op5 a communication betwe5 any two adjac5t tubes ( ! f\r j m5tion$4 ,:5 ! cock is plac$ z 9 fig4 #bh4 communication is op5$ betwe5 ! /eam-pipe & ! top ( ! cyl9d] by "o ( ! curv$ passages1 & betwe5 ! cond5s] & ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] by ! o!r curv$ passage4 ,9 ?is case ! /eam passes f bel[ ! pi/on to ! cond5s]1 leav+ a vacuum "u x1 & /eam is introduc$ f ! boil] above ! pi/on4 ,! pi/on !re=e desc5ds2 & :5 x has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! position ( ! cock is *ang$ to t repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bi4 ,?is *ange is made by turn+ ! cock ?r\gh "o f\r? ( an entire revolution1 :i* may be done by a lev] mov$ by ! ecc5tric1 or by v>i\s o!r means4 ,"o ( ! curv$ passages 9 ! cock n[ op5s a communication betwe5 ! /eam-pipe & ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]2 :ile ! o!r op5s a communication betwe5 ! cond5s] & ! top ( ! cyl9d]4 ,by ^! means1 ! /eam f ! boil] is introduc$ bel[ ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam above ! pi/on is drawn (f to ! cond5s]4 ,a vacuum be+ ?us made above ! pi/on1 & /eam introduc$ bel[ x1 x asc5ds2 & :5 x has arriv$ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! cock be+ mov$ back1 x resumes ! position 9 fig4 #bh41 & ! same consequ5ces ensue1 ! pi/on desc5ds2 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,9 figs4 #cj1 #ca4 ! f\r-way cock ) ! passages to ! top & bottom ( ! cyl9d] is repres5t$ on a l>g] scale4 ,?is beautiful contrivance is n ( late inv5tion4 ,x 0 us$ by ,pap91 & is also describ$ by ,leupold 9 8 ,!atrum ,ma*9>um1 a "w publi%$ ab\t ! ye> #agbj1 9 :i* an eng9e is describ$ act+ ) /eam ( high pressure1 on a pr9ciple :i* we %all describe 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 ,! f\r-way cock is liable to "s practical objections4 ,! quantity ( /eam :i* fills ! tubes betwe5 ! cock & ! cyl9d]1 is wa/$ e /roke4 ,?is objection1 h[ev]1 also applies to ! slid+ valve 7figs4 #bb1 #bc471 & to ! slid+ tube or ,d valves 7figs4 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #bg474 ,9 fact1 x is applicable to e contrivance 9 :i* means ( %utt+ (f ! /eam are n plac$ at bo? top & bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,besides ?is1 h[ev]1 ! v>i\s passages & tubes _c be conv5i5tly made l>ge en\gh to supply /eam 9 suffici5t abundance2 & consequ5tly x becomes necess>y to produce /eam 9 ! boil] ( a m ?an ord9>y /r5g? to be> ! att5uation :i* x suff]s 9 its passage ?r\gh s _m n>r[ tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,"o ( ! greate/ objections1 h[ev]1 to ! use ( ! f\r-way cock1 p>ticul>ly 9 l>ge eng9es1 is its unequal we>4 ,! p>ts ( x ne> ! passages hav+ small] surfaces1 become m affect$ by ! friction1 & 9 a %ort "t ! /eam leaks betwe5 ! cock & its case1 & becomes wa/$1 & t5ds to vitiate ! vacuum4 ,^! cocks are seldom us$ 9 cond5s+ eng9es1 except !y be small eng9es1 b are frequ5tly adopt$ 9 high-pressure /eam-eng9es2 = 9 ^! ! leakage is n ( s mu* consequ5ce1 z w appe> h]eaft]4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,boil] ,,& ,,its ,,app5dages4--,,furnace4 ,! ,boil] & its ,app5dages4 -- ,level ,gauges4 -- ,fe$+ ,app>atus4 -- ,/eam ,gauge4 -- ,b>omet] ,gauge4 -- ,safety ,valves4 -- ,self-regulat+ ,damp]4 -- ,edelcrantz's ,valve4 -- ,furnace4 -- ,self-consum+ ,furnace4 -- ,brunton's ,self-regulat+ ,furnace4 -- ,oldham's ,modification4 7#fe47 ,! regul> action ( a /eam eng9e1 z well z ! economy ( fuel1 dep5ds 9 a great degree on ! con/ruction ( ! boil] or app>atus = g5]at+ ! /eam4 ,! boil] may be conceiv$ z a great magaz9e ( /eam = ! use ( ! eng9e2 & c>e mu/ be tak5 n only t a suffici5t quantity be always ready = ! supply ( ! ma*9e1 b also t x %all be ( ! prop] quality2 t is1 t its pressure %all n exce$ t :i* is requir$1 nor fall %ort ( x4 ,precautions %\ld1 !re=e1 be tak5 t ! production ( /eam %\ld be exactly proportion$ to ! "w to be done1 & t ! /eam s produc$ %all be admitt$ to ! cyl9d] 9 ! same proportion4 ,to accompli% ?is1 v>i\s contrivances1 em95tly rem>kable = _! +5uity1 h be5 resort$ to1 & :i* we %all n[ proce$ to describe4 7d7 ,x may be premis$ t boil]s h be5 made ( v>i\s figures1 ea* hav+ its own peculi> advantages & defects4 ,t :i* possesses ! greate/ degree ( /r5g?1 is "o ( ! %ape ( a cyl9d]4 ,?is =m 0 orig9ally introduc$ by ,oliv] ,evans1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x w h its entire sup]iority :5 ! fire is made b5ea? x 9 a furnace ( masonry4 ,b ?is me?od is n applicable to /eam boats or locomotive eng9es4 ,9 ^! in/ances ! weight ( ! sep>ate furnace is an objection2 :51 !re=e1 ?is =m is appli$ 9 !m1 ! fire is usually made 9 a *amb] ( cyl9dric %ape1 )9 ! boil]1 & ! smoke is convey$ to ! *imney by flues1 :i* pass ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,^! flues h1 9 "s cases1 be5 r$uc$ to ! size ( small tubes1 & ( ?is me?od an example w be f\nd 9 a subsequ5t "p ( ?is "w4--,a4 ,e4 7#ff47 ,diff]5t me?ods h be51 f "t to "t1 sugge/$ = indicat+ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! two gauge-pipes us$ 9 ! e>li] /eam eng9es 7#ca472 & :i* are /ill g5]ally cont9u$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s o!r me?ods :i* m]it our att5tion4 ,a weight1 ,f 7fig4 #cb471 half imm]s$ 9 ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 is support$ by a wire1 :i*1 pass+ /eam-tight ?r\gh a small hole 9 ! top1 is connect$ by a flexible /r+ or *a9 pass+ ov] a :eel1 ,w1 ) a c\nt]poise1 ,a1 :i* is j suffici5t to balance ,f1 :5 half imm]s$4 ,if ,f be rais$ above ! wat]1 ,a be+ light]1 w no long] balance x1 & ,f w desc5d1 pull+ up ,a1 & turn+ ! :eel ,w4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ,f be plung$ deep] 9 ! wat]1 ,a1 w m ?an balance x1 & w pull x up4 ,s t ! only position 9 :i* ,f & ,a w balance ea* o!r is :5 ,f is half imm]s$4 ,! :eel ,w is s adju/$1 t :5 two p9s1 plac$ on its rim1 are 9 ! horizontal position1 z 9 fig4 #cb41 ! wat] is at its prop] level4 ,consequ5tly x foll[s1 t if ! wat] rise above ?is level1 ! weight ,f is lift$1 & ,a falls1 s t ! p9s ,p ,p come into ! position 9 fig4 #cc4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! level ( ! wat] falls1 ,f falls & ,a rises1 s t ! p9s ,p ,p assume ! position 9 fig4 #cd4 ,?us1 9 g5]al1 ! position ( ! p9s ,p ,p becomes an indication ( ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,ano!r me?od is to place a glass tube 7fig4 #ce47 ) "o end1 ,t1 ent]+ ! boil] above ! prop] level1 & ! o!r end1 ,t1 ent]+ x bel[ ! prop] level4 ,x mu/ be evid5t t ! wat] 9 ! tube w always /& at ! same level z ! wat] 9 ! boil]2 s9ce ! l[] "p has a free communication ) t wat]1 :ile ! surface is submitt$ to ! pressure ( ! same /eam z ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,?is1 & ! la/-m5tion$ gauge1 h ! advantage ( address+ ! eye ( ! eng9e] at once1 )\t any adju/m5t2 :]eas ! gauge cocks mu/ be bo? op5$1 :5ev] ! dep? is to be asc]ta9$4 ,^! gauges1 h[ev]1 require ! frequ5t att5tion ( ! eng9e-man2 & x becomes desirable ei!r to f9d "s m effectual means ( awak5+ t att5tion1 or to r5d] ! supply ( ! boil] indep5d5t ( any att5tion4 ,9 ord] to en=ce ! att5tion ( ! eng9e-man to repl5i% ! boil] :5 p>tially exhau/$ by evaporation1 a tube 0 sometimes ins]t$ at ! l[e/ level to :i* x 0 int5d$ t ! wat] %\ld be p]mitt$ to fall4 ,?is tube 0 conduct$ f ! boil] into ! eng9e-h\se1 :]e x t]m9at$ 9 a m\?-piece or :i/le1 s t :5ev] ! wat] fell bel[ ! level at :i* ?is tube 0 ins]t$ 9 ! boil]1 ! /eam w\ld ru% ?r\gh x1 &1 issu+ ) great velocity at ! m\?-piece1 w\ld summon ! eng9e] to 8 duty ) a call t w\ld r\se him ev5 f sleep4 7#fg47 ,9 ! mo/ effectual ( ^! me?ods1 ! task ( repl5i%+ ! boil] %\ld /ill be execut$ by ! eng9e]2 & ! utmo/ t ! boil] itself 0 made to d 0 to give due notice ( ! necessity = ! supply ( wat]4 ,! consequ5ce 01 among o!r inconv5i5ces1 t ! level ( ! wat] 0 subject to con/ant v>iation4 ,to rem$y ?is1 a me?od has be5 inv5t$ by :i* ! eng9e is made to fe$ its own boil]4 ,! pipe ,g 7fig4 #ae471 :i* leads f ! hot wat] pump ,h1 t]m9ates 9 a small ci/]n1 ,c 7fig4 #cf471 9 :i* ! wat] is receiv$4 ,9 ! bottom ( ?is ci/]n a valve1 ,v1 is plac$1 :i* op5s upw>ds1 & communicates ) a fe$-pipe1 :i* desc5ds into ! boil] bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 x4 ,! /em ( ! valve ,v is connect$ ) a lev] turn+ on ! c5tre ,d1 & load$ ) a weight1 ,f1 dipp$ 9 ! wat] 9 ! boil] 9 a mann] simil> to t describ$ 9 fig4 #cb41 & balanc$ by a c\nt]poise1 ,a1 9 exactly ! same way4 ,:5 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] falls1 ! float ,f falls ) x1 &1 pull+ d[n ! arm ,e ( ! lev]1 raises ! valve ,v1 & lets ! wat] desc5d into ! boil] f ! ci/]n ,c4 ,:5 ! boil] has ?us be5 repl5i%$1 & ! level rais$ to its =m] place1 ,f w aga9 be rais$1 & ! valve ,v clos$ by ! weight ,a4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 ! valve ,v adju/s itself by means ( ! effect ( ! wat] on ! weight ,f1 s z to p]mit ! wat] f ! fe$+ ci/]n ,c to fl[ 9 a cont9u$ /ream1 j suffici5t 9 quantity to supply ! consumption f evaporation1 & to ma9ta9 ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] con/antly ! same4 ,by ?is s+ul>ly felicit\s arrangem5t1 ! boil] is made to repl5i% itself1 or1 m prop]ly speak+1 x is made to receive su* a supply z t x nev] wants repl5i%+1 an effect :i* no ef=t ( att5tion on ! "p ( an eng9e-man c\ld produce4 ,b ?is is n ! only good effect produc$ by ?is contrivance4 ,a "p ( ! /eam :i* orig9ally left ! boil]1 & hav+ dis*>g$ its duty 9 mov+ ! pi/on1 0 cond5s$ & reconv]t$ into wat]1 & lodg$ by ! air-pump 9 ! hot-well 7#dg471 is "h aga9 re/or$ to ! s\rce f :i* x came1 br++ back all ! unconsum$ portion ( its heat prep>atory to be+ once m put 9 circulation ?r\gh ! ma*9e4 ,! entire quantity ( hot wat] pump$ into ! ci/]n ,c is n always requir$ = ! boil]4 ,a wa/e-pipe may be provid$ = c>ry+ (f ! surplus1 :i* may be turn$ to any purpose = :i* x may be requir$2 or x may be dis*>g$ into a ci/]n to cool1 prep>atory to be+ re/or$ to ! cold ci/]n 7fig4 #ab471 9 case wat] = ! supply ( t ci/]n be n suffici5tly abundant4 ,9 cities & places 9 :i* x becomes an object to prev5t ! wa/e ( wat]1 ! wa/e-pipes proce$+ f ! fe$-ci/]n ,c 7fig4 #cf47 & f ! cold ci/]n conta9+ ! cond5s] & air-pump1 may be conduct$ to a ci/]n ,a ,b 7fig4 #cg474 ,let ,c be ! pipe f ! fe$+ ci/]n1 & ,d t f ! cold ci/]n2 by ^! pipes ! wa/e wat]1 f bo? ^! ci/]ns is deposit$ 9 ,a ,b4 ,9 ! bottom ( ,a ,b is a valve ,v1 op5+ upw>ds1 connect$ ) a float ,f4 ,:5 ! quantity ( wat] collect$ 9 ! ci/]n ,a ,b is su* t ! level rises consid]ably1 ! float ,f is rais$1 & lifts ! valve ,v1 & ! wat] fl[s into ! ma9 pipe1 :i* supplies wat] = work+ ! eng9e3 ,g is ! cold wat]-pump = ! supply ( ! cold ci/]n4 ,?is arrangem5t = sav+ ! wat] dis*>g$ f ! fe$+ & cond5s+ ci/]ns has be5 adopt$ 9 ! pr9t+ (fice ( ! ,bank ( ,irel&1 & a v consid]able wa/e ( wat] is !reby prev5t$4 7#fh47 ,x is necess>y to h a ready me?od ( asc]ta9+ at all times ! /r5g? ( ! /eam :i* is us$ 9 work+ ! eng9e4 ,= ?is purpose a b5t tube conta9+ m]cury is ins]t$ into "s "p ( ! app>atus :i* has free communication ) ! /eam4 ,x is usually ins]t$ 9 ! jacket ( ! cyl9d] 7#dd474 ,let ,a ,b ,c 7fig4 #ch47 be su* a tube4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam =ces ! m]cury d[n 9 ! leg ,a ,b1 & up 9 ! leg ,b ,c4 ,if ! m]cury 9 bo? legs be at exactly ! same level1 ! pressure ( ! /eam mu/ be exactly equal to t ( ! atmosph]e2 because ! /eam pressure on ! m]cury 9 ,a ,b balances ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! m]cury 9 ,b ,c4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ,b ,c be above ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ,b ,a1 ! pressure ( ! /eam w exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! excess ( its pressure above t ( ! atmosph]e may be f\nd by obs]v+ ! diff]5ce ( ! levels ( ! m]cury 9 ! tubes ,b ,c & ,b ,a2 all[+ a pressure ( "o p\nd on ea* squ>e in* = e two in*es 9 ! diff]5ce ( ! levels4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! level ( ! m]cury 9 ,b ,c %\ld fall bel[ its level 9 ,a ,b1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w exce$ t ( ! /eam1 & ! degree or quantity ( ! excess may be asc]ta9$ exactly 9 ! same way4 ,if ! tube be glass1 ! diff]5ce ( levels ( ! m]cury w\ld be visible3 b x is mo/ commonly made ( iron2 & 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! level1 a ?9 wood5 rod ) a float is ins]t$ 9 ! op5 end ( ,b ,c2 s t ! portion ( ! /ick )9 ! tube indicates ! di/ance ( ! level ( ! m]cury f its m\?4 ,a bulb or ci/]n ( m]cury might be sub/itut$ = ! leg ,a ,b1 z 9 ! common b>omet]4 ,?is in/rum5t is call$ ! ,,/eam-,,gauge4 ,if ! /eam-gauge be us$ z a measure ( ! /r5g? ( ! /eam :i* presses on ! pi/on1 x ought to be on ! same side ( ! ?rottle valve 7:i* is regulat$ by ! gov]nor7 z ! cyl9d]2 = if x 7 on ! same side ( ! ?rottle valve ) ! boil]1 x w\ld n be affect$ by ! *anges :i* ! /eam may und]go 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! ?rottle valve1 :5 p>tially clos$ by ! ag5cy ( ! gov]nor4 7#fi47 ,! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on is press$ dep5ds on two ?+s3 #a1 ! actual /r5g? ( ! /eam :i* presses on x2 & #b1 on ! actual /r5g? ( ! vap\r :i* resi/s x4 ,= al?\gh ! vacuum produc$ by ! me?od ( sep>ate cond5sation be mu* m p]fect ?an :at _h be5 produc$ 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9es1 yet /ill "s vap\r ( a small degree ( ela/icity is f\nd to be rais$ f ! hot wat] 9 ! bottom ( ! cond5s] be=e x c be extract$ by ! air-pump4 ,"o ( ^! pressures is indicat$ by ! /eam-gauge already describ$2 b /ill1 be=e we c e/imate ! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on desc5ds1 x is necess>y to asc]ta9 ! =ce ( ! vap\r :i* rema9s uncond5s$1 & resi/s ! motion ( ! pi/on4 ,ano!r gauge1 call$ ! b>omet]-gauge1 is provid$ = ?is purpose4 ,a glass tube ,a ,b 7fig4 #ci471 m ?an ?irty in*es long1 & op5 at bo? ends1 is plac$ 9 an upright or v]tical position1 hav+ ! l[] end ,b imm]s$ 9 a ci/]n ( m]cury ,c4 ,to ! upp] end is atta*$ a metal tube1 :i* communicates ) ! cond5s]1 9 :i* a con/ant vacuum1 or r high degree ( r>efaction1 is su/a9$4 ,! same vacuum mu/1 !re=e1 exi/ 9 ! tube ,a ,b1 above ! level ( ! m]cury2 & ! atmosph]ic pressure on ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n ,c w =ce ! m]cury up 9 ! tube ,a ,b1 until ! column :i* is susp5d$ 9 x is equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! atmosph]ic pressure & ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ /eam4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! column ( m]cury su/a9$ 9 ?is in/rum5t & 9 ! common b>omet] w det]m9e ! /r5g? ( ! uncond5s$ /eam1 all[+ a =ce proportional to "o p\nd p] squ>e in* = e two in*es ( m]cury 9 ! diff]5ce ( ! two columns4 ,9 a well-con/ruct$ eng9e1 :i* is 9 good ord]1 !re is v little diff]5ce betwe5 ! altitude 9 ! b>omet]-gauge & ! common b>omet]4 ,to compute ! =ce ) :i* ! pi/on desc5ds1 ?us becomes a v simple ari?metical process4 ,fir/ asc]ta9 ! diff]5ce ( ! levels ( ! m]cury 9 ! /eam-gauge4 ,?is gives ! excess ( ! /eam pressure above ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,!n f9d ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet]-gauge4 ,?is gives ! excess ( ! atmosph]ic pressure above ! uncond5s$ /eam4 ,h5ce1 if ^! two heights be add$ toge!r1 we %all obta9 ! excess ( ! impell+ =ce ( ! /eam f ! boil] on ! "o side ( ! pi/on1 above ! resi/ance ( ! uncond5s$ /eam on ! o!r side4 ,?is w give ! effective impell+ =ce4 ,n[1 if "o p\nd be all[$ = e two in*es ( m]cury 9 ! two columns j m5tion$1 we %all h ! numb] ( p\nds ( impell+ pressure on e squ>e in* ( ! pi/on4 ,!n if ! numb] ( squ>e in*es 9 ! section ( ! pi/on be f\nd1 & multipli$ by ! numb] ( p\nds on ea* squ>e in*1 ! :ole effective =ce ) :i* x moves w be obta9$4 ,9 ! computation ( ! p[] ( ! eng9e1 h[ev]1 all ?is =ce1 ?us comput$1 is n to be all[$ z ! effective work+ p[]4 ,= x requires "s =ce1 & by no means an inconsid]able portion1 to move ! eng9e itself1 ev5 :5 unload$2 all ?is1 !re=e1 :i* is sp5t 9 ov]com+ friction1 c4 is to be left out ( acc\nt1 & only ! balance set d[n z ! effective work+ p[]4 ,f :at we h /at$1 x appe>s t 9 ord] to e/imate ! effective =ce ) :i* ! pi/on is urg$1 x is necess>y to ref] to bo? ! b>omet] & ! /eam-gauge4 ,?is d\ble computation may be obviat$ by mak+ "o gauge s]ve bo? purposes4 ,if ! end ,c ( ! /eam-gauge 7fig4 #ch47 in/ead ( communicat+ ) ! atmosph]e1 7 cont9u$ to ! cond5s]1 we %\ld h ! pressure ( ! /eam act+ ^u ! m]cury 9 ! tube ,b ,a1 & ! pressure ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r :i* resi/s ! pi/on act+ on ! m]cury 9 ! tube ,b ,c4 ,h5ce ! diff]5ce ( ! levels ( ! m]cury 9 ! tubes w at once indicate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! =ce ( ! /eam & t ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r1 :i* is ! effective =ce ) :i* ! pi/on is urg$4 7#gj47 ,to secure ! boil] f accid5ts aris+ f ! /eam becom+ too /rong1 a safety valve is us$1 simil> to ^? describ$ 9 ,pap9's /eam eng9e1 load$ ) a weight equal to ! /r5g? :i* ! /eam is int5d$ to h above ! atmosph]ic pressure2 = x is f\nd exp$i5t1 ev5 9 cond5s+ eng9es1 to use ! /eam ( a pressure some:at above t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,besides ?is valve1 ano!r ( ! v opposite k9d is sometimes us$4 ,^u /opp+ ! eng9e1 & ext+ui%+ ! fire1 x is f\nd t ! /eam cond5s$ )9 ! boil] produces a vacuum2 s t ! atmosph]e1 press+ on ! ext]nal surface ( ! boil]1 has a t5d5cy to cru% x4 ,to prev5t ?is1 a safety valve is provid$1 :i* op5s inw>ds1 & :i* be+ =c$ op5 by ! atmosph]ic pressure :5 a vacuum is produc$ )91 ! air ru%es 91 & a balance is obta9$ betwe5 ! pressures )9 & )\t4 7#ga47 ,we h already expla9$ ! mann] 9 :i* ! gov]nor regulates ! supply ( /eam f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]1 proportion+ ! quantity to ! "w to be done1 & !reby su/a9+ a uni=m motion4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! consumption ( /eam 9 ! eng9e is subject to v>iation1 ow+ to ! v>i\s quantities ( "w x may h to p]=m1 x is evid5t t ! ,,production ( /eam 9 ! boil] %\ld be subject to a proportional v>iation4 ,=1 o!rwise1 "o ( two effects w\ld ensue3 ! boil] w\ld ei!r fail to supply ! eng9e ) /eam1 or /eam w\ld accumulate 9 ! boil]1 f be+ produc$ 9 too great abundance1 & w\ld escape at ! safety valve1 & ?us be wa/$4 ,9 ord] to v>y ! production ( /eam 9 proportion to ! dem&s ( ! eng9e1 x is necess>y to increase or mitigate ! furnace1 z production is to be augm5t$ or dim9i%$4 ,to effect ?is by any att5tion on ! "p ( ! eng9e-man w\ld be impossible2 b a mo/ +5i\s me?od has be5 contriv$1 ( mak+ ! boil] regulate itself 9 ^! respects4 ,let ,t 7fig4 #dj47 be a tube ins]t$ 9 ! top ( ! boil]1 & desc5d+ ne>ly to ! bottom4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam on ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] =ces wat] up 9 ! tube ,t1 until ! diff]5ce ( ! levels is equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! boil] & t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,a weight ,f1 half imm]s$ 9 ! wat] 9 ! tube1 is susp5d$ by a *a9 :i* passes ov] ! :eels ,p ,p1 & is balanc$ by a metal plate ,d1 9 ! same mann] z ! float 9 fig4 #cb4 is balanc$ by ! weight ,a4 ,! plate ,d passes ?r\gh ! m\? ( ! flue ,e1 z x issues f9ally f ! boil]2 s t :5 ! plate ,d falls1 x /ops ! flue & !reby susp5ds ! draught ( air ?r\gh ! furnace1 mitigates ! fire1 & dim9i%es ! production ( /eam4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! plate ,d be drawn up1 ! draught is increas$1 ! fire r5d]$ m effective1 & ! production ( /eam 9 ! boil] /imulat$4 ,n[ suppose t ! boil] is produc+ /eam fa/] ?an ! eng9e consumes x1 ei!r because ! load on ! eng9e has be5 dim9i%$1 & !re=e its consumption ( /eam proportionally dim9i%$1 or because ! fire has become too int5se4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t ! /eam beg9n+ to accumulate1 w press ^u ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! boil] ) increas$ =ce1 & ! wat] w rise 9 ! tube ,t4 ,! weight ,f w !re=e be lift$1 & ! plate ,d w desc5d1 /op ! draught1 mitigate ! fire1 & *eck ! production ( /eam2 & x w cont9ue s to d1 until ! production ( /eam becomes exactly equal to ! dem&s ( ! eng9e4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! production ( /eam be n equal to ! wants ( ! ma*9e1 ei!r because ( ! increas$ load1 or ! insuffici5cy ( ! fire1 ! /eam 9 ! boil] los+ its ela/icity1 ! surface ( ! wat] rises1 n su/a9+ a pressure suffici5t to keep x at its wont$ level4 ,!re=e1 ! surface 9 ! tube ,t falls1 & ! weight ,f falls1 & ! plate ,d rises4 ,! draught is ?us increas$1 by op5+ ! flue1 & ! fire r5d]$ m int5se2 & ?us ! production ( /eam is /imulat$1 until x is suffici5tly rapid = ! purposes ( ! eng9e4 ,?is app>atus is call$ ! self-act+ damp]4 7#gb47 ,x has be5 propos$ to connect ?is damp] ) ! safety-valve inv5t$ by ! ,*evali] ,edelcrantz4 ,a small brass cyl9d] is fix$ to ! boil]1 & is fitt$ ) a pi/on :i* moves 9 x1 )\t mu* friction1 & ne>ly /eam-tight4 ,! cyl9d] is clos$ at top1 hav+ a hole ?r\gh :i* ! pi/on-rod plays2 s t ! pi/on is ?us prev5t$ f be+ bl[n out ( ! cyl9d] by ! /eam4 ,! side ( ! cyl9d] is pi]c$ ) small holes op5+ into ! air1 & plac$ at %ort di/ances above ea* o!r4 ,let ! pi/on be load$ ) a weight proportional to ! pressure ( ! /eam int5d$ to be produc$4 ,:5 ! /eam has acquir$ a suffici5t ela/icity1 ! pi/on w be lift$1 & /eam w escape ?r\gh ! fir/ hole4 ,if ! production ( /eam be n too rapid1 & t its pressure be n increas+1 ! pi/on w rema9 susp5d$ 9 ?is mann]3 b if x increase1 ! pi/on w be rais$ above ! second hole1 & x w cont9ue to rise until ! escape ( ! /eam ?r\gh ! holes is suffici5t to r5d] ! weight ( ! pi/on a c\nt]poise = ! /eam4 ,?is safety valve is p>ticul>ly well adapt$ to cases :]e /eam ( an exactly uni=m pressure is requir$2 = ! pressure mu/ necess>ily be always equal to ! weight on ! pi/on4 ,?us1 suppose ! section ( ! pi/on be equal to a squ>e in*2 if x be load$ ) #aj lbs41 includ+ its own weight1 ! /eam :i* w su/a9 x 9 any position 9 ! cyl9d]1 :e!r ne> ! bottom or top1 mu/ always be exactly equal 9 pressure to #aj lbs4 p] in*4 ,9 ?is respect x resembles ! quality already expla9$ 9 ! gov]nor1 & r5d]s ! pressure ( ! /eam uni=m1 exactly 9 ! same mann] z ! gov]nor r5d]s ! velocity ( ! eng9e uni=m4 7#gc47 ,! economy ( fuel dep5ds1 9 a great degree1 on ! con/ruction ( ! furnace1 indep5d5tly ( ! effects ( ! arrangem5ts we h already describ$4 ,! grate or fire-place ( an ord9>y furnace is plac$ "u ! boil]2 & ! atmosph]ic air pass+ ?r\gh ! ignit$ fuel1 supplies suffici5t oxyg5 to support a l>ge volume ( flame1 :i* is c>ri$ by ! draught into a flue1 :i* circulates twice or (t5] r\nd ! boil]1 & 9 imm$iate contact ) x1 & f9ally issues into ! *imney4 ,?r\gh ?is flue ! flame circulates1 s z to act on e "p ( ! boil] ne> :i* ! flue passes2 & x is frequ5tly n until x passes into ! *imney1 & sometimes n until x leaves ! *imney1 t x ceases to exi/ 9 ! /ate ( flame4 ,! d5se black smoke :i* is obs]v$ to issue f ! *imneys ( furnaces is =m$ ( a quantity ( unconsum$ fuel1 & may be !re=e consid]$ z s mu* fuel wa/$4 ,besides ?is1 9 l>ge manufactur+ t[ns1 :]e a great numb] ( furnaces are employ$1 x is f\nd t ! quantity ( smoke :i* ?us becomes diffus$ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 r5d]s x p]nici\s to ! heal?1 & de/ructive to ! com=ts ( ! inhabitants4 ,^! circum/ances h direct$ ! att5tion ( eng9e]s to ! discov]y ( means :]eby ?is smoke or wa/$ fuel may be consum$ = ! use ( ! eng9e itself1 or = :atev] use ! furnace may be appli$ to4 ,! mo/ usual me?od ( accompli%+ ?is is by s arrang+ matt]s t fuel 9 a /ate ( high combu/ion1 &1 !re=e1 produc+ no smoke1 %all be always kept on t "p ( ! grate :i* is ne>e/ to ! m\? ( ! flue 7& :i* we %all call ! back72 by ?is means ! smoke :i* arises f ! imp]fectly ignit$ fuel :i* is ne>] to ! front ( ! grate mu/ pass ov] ! surface ( ! r$ fuel1 be=e x ent]s ! flue1 & is !reby ignit$1 & passes 9 a /ate ( flame into ! flue4 ,a passage call$ ! fe$+-m\? leads to ! front ( ! grate1 & bo? ?is passage & ! grate are g5]ally incl9$ at a small angle to ! horizon1 9 ord] to facilitate ! advance ( ! fuel accord+ z its combu/ion proce$s4 ,:5 fre% fuel = fe$+ ! boil] is fir/ introduc$1 x is m]ely laid 9 ! fe$+-m\?4 ,"h x is expos$ to ! action ( a "p ( ! heat ( ! burn+ fuel on ! grate1 & und]goes1 9 "s degree1 ! process ( cok+4 ,! door ( ! fe$+-m\? is furni%$ ) small ap]tures = ! admission ( a /ream ( air1 :i* c>ries ! smoke evolv$ by ! cok+ ( ! fre% fuel ov] ! burn+ fuel on ! grate1 by :i* ?is smoke is ignit$1 & becomes flame1 & 9 ?is /ate ent]s ! flue1 & circulates r\nd ! boil]4 ,:5 ! furnace is to be f$1 ! door ( ! fe$+-m\? is op5$1 & ! fuel :i* _h be5 laid 9 x1 & p>tially cok$1 is =c$ ^u ! front "p ( ! grate4 ,at fir/1 its combu/ion be+ imp]fect1 b proce$+ rapidly1 a d5se black smoke arises f x4 ,! curr5t ( air f ! op5 door ?r\gh ! fe$+-m\? c>ries ?is ov] ! vividly burn+ fuel 9 ! back "p ( ! grate1 by :i* ! smoke be+ ignit$1 passes 9 a /ate ( flame into ! flue4 ,:5 ! furnace aga9 requires fe$+1 e "p ( ?is fuel w be 9 a /ate ( active combu/ion1 & x is =c$ to ! back "p ( ! grate next ! flue1 prep>atory to ! introduction ( m fuel f ! fe$+-m\?4 ,! ap]tures 9 ! door ( ! fe$+-m\? are furni%$ ) cov]s1 s t ! quantity ( air admitt$ ?r\gh !m c be regulat$ by ! workm54 ,! effici5cy ( ^! furnaces 9 a great degree dep5ds on ! judici\s admission ( ! air ?r\gh ! fe$+-m\?3 = if less ?an ! quantity necess>y to support ! combu/ion ( ! fuel be admitt$1 a "p ( ! smoke w rema9 unconsum$2 & if m ?an ! prop] quantity be admitt$1 x w defeat ! effects ( ! fuel by cool+ ! boil]4 ,if ! process :i* we h j describ$ be consid]$1 x w n be difficult to p]ceive ! total impossibility 9 su* a furnace ( exactly regulat+ ! draught ( air1 s t too mu* %all n pass at "o "t1 & too little at ano!r4 ,:5 ! door is op5 to introduce fre% fuel into ! fe$+-m\?1 & advance t :i* occupi$ x ^u ! grate1 ! workman ceases to h any control :atev] ov] ! draught ( air2 & ev5 at o!r times :5 ! door is clos$1 8 discretion & att5tion _c be dep5d$ on4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t ) ^! defects ! proprietors ( /eam eng9es f\nd1 t 9 ! place ( economis+ ! fuel1 ! use ( ^! furnaces entail$ on !m su* an increas$ exp5se t !y 7 g5]ally oblig$ to lay !m aside4 7#gd47 ,mr4 ,brunton ( ,birm+ham hav+ turn$ 8 att5tion to ! subject1 has produc$ a furnace :i* seems to be free f ! objections aga9/ ^? we h j m5tion$4 ,! advantages ( 8 contrivance1 z /at$ by himself1 are z foll[3-- ,fir/1 ,i put ! coal ^u ! grate by small quantities1 & at v %ort int]vals1 say e two or ?ree seconds4 #b;dly1 ,i s dispose ( ! coals ^u ! grate1 t ! smoke evolv$ mu/ pass ov] t "p ( ! grate ^u :i* ! coal is 9 full combu/ion1 & is !reby consum$4 #c;dly1 ,z ! introduction ( coal is uni=m 9 %ort spaces ( "t1 ! introduction ( air is also uni=m1 & requires no att5tion f ! fireman4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,z x respects economy3 #a/1 ,! coal is put ^u ! fire by an app>atus driv5 by ! eng9e1 & s contriv$ t ! quantity ( coal is proportion$ to ! quantity ( "w :i* ! eng9e is p]=m+1 & ! quantity ( air admitt$ to consume ! smoke is regulat$ 9 ! same mann]4 #b;dly1 ,! fire-door is nev] op5$1 except+ to clean ! fire2 ! boil] ( c\rse is n expos$ to t cont9ual irregul>ity ( temp]ature :i* is unavoidable 9 ! common furnace1 & :i* is f\nd exce$+ly injuri\s to boil]s4 #c;dly1 ,! only att5tion requir$ is to fill ! coal receiv]1 e two or ?ree h\rs1 & clean ! fire :5 necess>y4 #d?ly1 ,! coal is m completely consum$ ?an by ! common furnace1 z all ! effect ( :at is t]m$ /irr+ up ! fire 7by :i* no inconsid]able quantity ( coal is pass$ into ! a%-pit7 is atta9$ )\t mov+ ! coal ^u ! grate4 ,! fire-place is a circul> grate plac$ on a v]tical %aft 9 a horizontal position4 ,x is capable ( revolv+1 & is made to d s by ! v]tical %aft1 :i* is turn$ by :eelwork1 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e itself2 or ?is %aft or sp9dle may be turn$ by a wat]-:eel1 on :i* a /ream ( wat] is all[$ to fl[ f a res]voir into :i* x is pump$ by ! p[] ( ! eng9e2 & by regulat+ ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! /ream1 ! grate may be made to revolve ) a great] or less spe$4 ,9 t "p ( ! boil] :i* is ov] ! grate1 !re is an ap]ture1 9 :i* is plac$ a hopp]1 ?r\gh :i* fuel is let d[n ^u ! grate at ! rate ( any quantity p] m9ute t may be requir$4 ,! app>atus :i* admits ! coals ?r\gh ?is hopp] is work$ by ! eng9e also1 & by ! same means z ! grate is turn$ s t ! grate revolves ) a spe$ proportional to ! rapidity ) :i* ! fuel is admitt$ ?r\gh ! hopp]1 & by ?is +5i\s arrangem5t ! fuel falls equally ?ick ^u ! grate4 ,! supply ( wat] :i* turns ! :eel :i* works ! grate & ! ma*9]y 9 ! hopp]1 is regulat$ by a cock connect$ ) ! self-regulat+ damp]2 s t :5 ! /eam is be+ produc$ too fa/1 ! supply ( wat] w be dim9i%$1 & by t means ! supply ( fuel to ! grate w be dim9i%$1 & ! grate w revolve less rapidly3 & :5 ! /eam is be+ produc$ too sl[ly = ! dem&s ( ! eng9e1 ! contr>y effects take place4 ,9 ?is way ! fuel :i* is introduc$ into ! furnace is exactly proportion$ to ! "w :i* ! eng9e has to p]=m4 ,! hopp] may be made l>ge en\gh to hold coals = a day's "w1 s t ! furnace requires no o!r att5dance ?an to deposite coals 9 ! hopp] ea* morn+4 ,! coals are let d[n f ! hopp] on ! grate at t "p :i* is mo/ remote f ! flue2 & z !y desc5d 9 v small quantities at a "t1 !y are almo/ imm$iately ignit$4 ,b until _! ignition is complete1 a smoke w arise1 :i*1 pass+ to ! flue ov] ! vividly burn+ fuel1 w be ignit$4 ,air is admitt$ ?r\gh prop] ap]tures1 & its quantity regulat$ by ! damp] 9 ! same mann] z ! supply ( fuel4 ,! sup]iority ( ?is beautiful inv5tion ov] ! common smoke-consum+ furnaces is v /rik+4 ,its pr9ciple ( self-adju/m5t z to ! supply ( coals & atmosph]ic air1 & ! proportion+ ( ^! to ! quantity ( "w to be p]=m$ by ! eng9e1 n only indep5d5t ( human lab\r1 b ) a great] degree ( accuracy ?an any human skill or att5tion c\ld possibly effect1 produces sav+ ( exp5se1 bo? 9 fuel & lab\r4 7#ge47 ,mr4 ,oldham1 eng9e] to ! ,bank ( ,irel&1 has propos$ ano!r modification ( ! self-regulat+ furnace1 :i* seems to possess sev]al advantages1 & ev9ces consid]able +5uity4 ,he uses a slightly incl9$ grate1 at ! back or l[] end ( :i* is ! flue1 & at ! front or high] end1 ! hopp] = admitt+ ! coals4 ,9 ! bottom or n>r[ end ( ! hopp] is a moveable %elf1 work$ by ! eng9e4 ,^u draw+ back ?is %elf1 a small quantity ( fuel is all[$ to desc5d ^u a fix$ %elf "u x2 & ^u ! return ( ! moveable %elf1 ?is fuel is protrud$ =w>d ^u ! grate4 ,e alt]nate b> ( ! grate is fix$1 b ! int]m$iate ones are connect$ ) lev]s1 by :i* !y are mov$ alt]nately up & d[n4#bb ,! effect is1 t ! coals ^u ! b>s are cont9ually /irr$1 & gradually advanc$ by _! own weight f ! front ( ! grate1 :]e !y fall f ! hopp]1 to ! back1 :]e !y are deposit$ 9 ! a%-pit4 ,by ! %ape & con/ruction ( ! b>s1 ! air is conduct$ upw>ds betwe5 !m1 & ru%es ?r\gh ! burn+ fuel1 s z to act 9 ! mann] ( a bl[pipe1 & ! entire surface ( ! fire pres5ts a %eet ( flame4 ,footnote #bb3 ,mr4 ,brunton us$ moveable b>s 9 a furnace con/ruct$ by him be=e he adopt$ ! horizontal revolv+ grate4 ,t plan1 h[ev]1 does n appe> to h be5 z successful z ! latt]1 z he has ab&on$ x4 ,mr4 ,oldham /ates t 8 furnace has be5 9 use = sev]al ye>s )\t any appe>ance ( d]angem5t 9 ! me*anism1 & ) a consid]able sav+ ( fuel4 ,we _c fail to be /ruck ) ! beauty ( all ^! contrivances1 by :i* ! eng9e is made to regulate itself1 & supply its own wants4 ,x is 9 fact1 all b alive4 ,x 0 obs]v$ by ,belidor1 long be=e ! /eam eng9e rea*$ ! p]fection :i* x has n[ acquir$1 t x resembl$ an animal1 & t no m]e "w ( man ev] approa*$ s ne> to actual life4 ,heat is ! pr9ciple ( its exi/5ce4 ,! boil] acts ! "p ( ! he>t1 f :i* its vivify+ fluid ru%es copi\sly ?r\gh all ! tubes1 :]e hav+ dis*>g$ ! v>i\s functions ( life1 & deposit$ its heat 9 ! prop] places1 x returns aga9 to ! s\rce x sprung f1 to be duly prep>$ = ano!r circulation4 ,! heal?fulness ( its action is indicat$ by ! regul>ity ( its pulsations2 x procures its own food by its own lab\r2 x selects ^? p>ts :i* are fit = its support1 bo? z to quantity & quality2 & has its natural evacuations1 by :i* all ! useless & innutriti\s p>ts are dis*>g$4 ,x frequ5tly cures its own diseases1 & corrects ! irregul>ity ( its own actions1 ex]t+ some?+ l moral faculties4 ,)\t design+ to c>ry on ! analogy1 ,mr4 ,f>ey1 9 speak+ ( ! v>iations incid5t to ! "w p]=m$ by diff]5t /eam eng9es1 /ates "s fur!r p>ticul>s 9 :i* x maybe curi\sly ext5d$4 ,we mu/ obs]ve1 says he1 t ! v>iation 9 ! p]=mance ( diff]5t /eam eng9es1 :i* are con/ruct$ on ! same pr9ciple1 work+ "u ! same advantages1 is ! same z w\ld be f\nd 9 ! produce ( ! lab\r ( s _m diff]5t horses or o!r animals :5 comp>$ ) _! consumption ( food2 = ! effects ( diff]5t /eam eng9es w v>y z mu* f small diff]5ces 9 ! proportion ( _! p>ts1 z ! /r5g? ( animals f ! vig\r ( _! con/itutions2 & aga91 !re w be z great diff]5ces 9 ! p]=mance ( ! same eng9e :5 9 good & bad ord]1 f all ! p>ts be+ tight & well oil$1 s z to move ) little friction1 z !re is 9 ! lab\r ( an animal f 8 be+ 9 good or bad heal?1 or excessively fatigu$3 b 9 all ^! cases !re w be a maximum :i* _c be exce$$1 & an av]age :i* we ought to expect to obta94 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,d\ble-,,cyl9d] ,,eng9es4 ,hornbl[]'s ,eng9e4 -- ,woolf's ,eng9e4 -- ,c>twright's ,eng9e4 7#gf47 ,! expansive prop]ty ( /eam1 ( :i* ,watt avail$ himself 9 8 s+le eng9e by cutt+ (f ! supply ( /eam be=e ! desc5t ( ! pi/on 0 complet$1 0 appli$ 9 a peculi> mann] by an eng9e] nam$ ,hornbl[]1 ab\t ! ye> #agha1 & at a lat] p]iod by ,woolf4 ,hornbl[] 0 ! fir/ :o conceiv$ ! idea ( work+ an eng9e ) two cyl9d]s ( diff]5t sizes1 by all[+ ! /eam to fl[ freely f ! boil] until x fills ! small] cyl9d]1 & !n p]mitt+ x to exp& into ! great] "o1 employ+ x ?us to press d[n two pi/ons 9 ! mann] :i* we %all pres5tly describe4 ,! cond5s+ app>atus ( ,hornbl[]1 z well z ! o!r app5dages ( ! eng9e1 d n diff] mat]ially f ^? ( ,watt2 s t x w be suffici5t = our pres5t purpose to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! /eam is made to act 9 mov+ ! pi/on4 ,let ,c1 fig4 #da41 be ! c5tre ( ! great work+ beam1 c>ry+ two ar* heads1 on :i* ! *a9s ( ! pi/on rods play4 ,! di/ances ( ^! ar* heads f ! c5tre ,c mu/ be 9 ! same proportion z ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d]s1 9 ord] t ! same play ( ! beam may correspond to ! plays ( bo? pi/ons4 ,let ,f be ! /eam-pipe f ! boil]1 & ,g a valve to admit ! /eam above ! less] pi/on1 ,h is a tube by :i* a communication may be op5$ by ! valve ,i betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! less] cyl9d] ,b4 ,k is a tube communicat+1 by ! valve ,l1 betwe5 ! bottom ( ! less] cyl9d] ,b & ! top ( ! great] cyl9d] ,a4 ,m is a tube communicat+1 by ! valve ,n1 betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! great] cyl9d] ,a2 & ,p a tube lead+ to ! cond5s] by ! exhau/+ valve ,o4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! op]ation1 suppose all ! valves op5$1 & /eam all[$ to fl[ ?r\gh ! entire eng9e until ! air be completely expell$1 & !n let all ! valves be clos$4 ,to />t ! eng9e1 let ! exhau/+ valve ,o & ! /eam valves ,g & ,l be op5$1 z 9 fig4 #da4 ,! /eam w fl[ freely f ! boil]1 & press ^u ! less] pi/on1 & at ! same "t ! /eam bel[ ! great] pi/on w fl[ into ! cond5s]1 leav+ a vacuum 9 ! great] cyl9d]4 ,! valve ,l be+ op5$1 ! /eam :i* is "u ! pi/on 9 ! less] cyl9d] w fl[ ?r\gh ,k1 & press on ! great] pi/on1 :i*1 hav+ a vacuum b5ea? x1 w consequ5tly desc5d4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! motion1 ! less] pi/on is z mu* resi/$ by ! /eam bel[ x z x is urg$ by ! /eam above x2 b aft] a "p ( ! desc5t has be5 effect$1 ! /eam bel[ ! less] pi/on pass+ into ! great]1 exp&s into an increas$ space1 & !re=e loses its ela/ic =ce proportionally4 ,! /eam above ! less] pi/on reta9+ its full =ce by hav+ a free communication ) ! boil] by ! valve ,g1 ! less] pi/on w be urg$ by a =ce equal to ! excess ( ! pressure ( ?is /eam above ! dim9i%$ pressure ( ! exp&$ /eam bel[ x4 ,z ! pi/ons desc5d1 ! /eam :i* is betwe5 x cont9ually increas+ 9 its bulk1 & !re=e decreas+ 9 its pressure1 f :5ce x foll[s1 t ! =ce :i* resi/s ! less] pi/on is cont9ually decreas+1 :ile t :i* presses x d[n rema9s ! same1 & !re=e ! effective =ce :i* impels x mu/ be cont9ually increas+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! =ce :i* urges ! great] pi/on is cont9ually decreas+1 s9ce !re is a vacuum bel[ x1 & ! /eam :i* presses x is cont9ually exp&+ into an increas$ bulk4 ,impell$ 9 ?is way1 let u suppose ! pi/ons to h arriv$ at ! bottoms ( ! cyl9d]s1 z 9 fig4 #db41 & let ! valves ,g1 ,l1 & ,o be clos$1 & ! valves ,i & ,n op5$4 ,no /eam is all[$ to fl[ f ! boil]1 ,g be+ clos$1 nor any all[$ to pass into ! cond5s]1 s9ce ,o is clos$1 & all communications betwe5 ! cyl9d]s is /opp$ by clos+ ,l4 ,by op5+ ! valve ,i1 a free communication is made betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! less] pi/on ?r\gh ! tube ,h1 s t ! /eam :i* presses above ! less] pi/on w ex]t ! same pressure bel[ x1 & ! pi/on is 9 a /ate ( indiff]5ce4 ,9 ! same mann] ! valve ,n be+ op51 a free communication is made betwe5 ! top & bottom ( ! great] pi/on1 & ! /eam circulates above & bel[ ! pi/on1 & leaves x free to rise4 ,a c\nt]poise atta*$ to ! pump-rods 9 ?is case1 draws up ! pi/on1 z 9 ,watt's s+le eng9e2 & :5 !y arrive at ! top1 ! valves ,i & ,n are clos$1 & ,g1 ,l1 & ,o op5$1 & ! next desc5t ( ! pi/ons is produc$ 9 ! mann] already describ$1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,! valves are work$ by ! eng9e itself1 by means simil> to "s ( ^? already describ$4 ,by computation1 we f9d ! p[] ( ?is eng9e to be ne>ly ! same z a simil> eng9e on ,watt's expansive pr9ciple4 ,x does n h[ev] appe>1 t any adequate advantage 0 ga9$ by ?is modification ( ! pr9ciple1 s9ce no eng9es ( ?is con/ruction are n[ made4 7#gg47 ,! use ( two cyl9d]s 0 reviv$ by ,ar?ur ,woolf1 9 #ahjd1 :o1 9 ?is & ! succe$+ ye>1 obta9$ pat5ts = ! application ( /eam rais$ "u a high pressure to d\ble-cyl9d] eng9es4 ,! specification ( 8 pat5t /ates1 t he has prov$ by exp]im5t t /eam rais$ "u a safety-valve load$ ) any giv5 numb] ( p\nds ^u ! squ>e in*1 w1 if all[$ to exp& into z _m times its bulk z !re are p\nds ( pressure on ! squ>e in*1 h a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?us1 if ! safety-valve be load$ ) f\r p\nds on ! squ>e in*1 ! /eam1 aft] exp&+ into f\r times its bulk1 w h ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,if x be load$ ) #e1 #f1 or #aj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 x w h ! atmosph]ic pressure :5 x has exp&$ into #e1 #f1 or #aj times its bulk1 & s on4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 und]/ood 9 ?is case1 t ! vessel into :i* x 0 all[$ to exp& %\ld h ! same temp]ature z ! /eam be=e x exp&s4 ,x is v unacc\ntable h[ a p]son ( ,mr4 ,woolf's exp]i5ce 9 ! practical application ( /eam c\ld be l$ into errors s gross z ^? involv$ 9 ! av]m5ts ( ?is pat5t2 & x is /ill m unacc\ntable h[ ! exp]im5ts c\ld h be5 conduct$ :i* l$ him to conclusions n only incompatible ) all ! e/abli%$ prop]ties ( ela/ic fluids--prop]ties :i* at t "t 7 p]fectly und]/ood--b ev5 involv+ 9 !mselves palpable contradiction & absurdity4 ,if x 7 admitt$ t e additional p\nd avoirdupois :i* %\ld be plac$ ^u ! safety-valve w\ld enable /eam1 by its expansion into a proportionally enl>g$ space1 to atta9 a pressure equal to ! atmosph]e1 ! obvi\s consequ5ce w\ld be1 t a physical relation w\ld subsi/ betwe5 ! atmosph]ic pressure & ! p\nd avoirdupois6 ,x is wond]ful t x did n occur to ,mr4 ,woolf1 t1 grant+ 8 pr9ciple to be true at any giv5 place1 x w\ld necess>ily be false at ano!r place :]e ! b>omet] w\ld /& at a diff]5t height4 ,?us if ! pr9ciple 7 true at ! foot ( a m\nta91 x w\ld be false at ! top ( x2 & if x 7 true 9 fair wea!r1 x w\ld be false 9 f\l wea!r1 s9ce ^! circum/ances w\ld be att5d$ by a *ange 9 ! atmosph]ic pressure1 )\t mak+ any *ange 9 ! p\nd avoirdupois4#bc ,footnote #bc3 ,x is /range t ?is absurdity has be5 repeat$ly giv5 z unque/ionable fact 9 v>i\s encyclopdias on ! article ,/eam ,eng9e1 z well z 9 by f> ! great] numb] ( treatises expressly on ! subject4 ,! me?od by :i* ,mr4 ,woolf propos$ to apply ! pr9ciple :i* he imag9$ himself to h discov]$ 0 by an arrangem5t ( cyl9d]s simil> to ^? ( ,hornbl[]1 b hav+ _! magnitudes proportion$ to ! great] ext5t ( expansion :i* he propos$ to use4 ,two cyl9d]s1 l ^? ( ,hornbl[]1 7 plac$ "u ! work+ beam1 hav+ _! pi/on-rods at di/ances f ! axis proportion$ to ! l5g?s ( _! respective /rokes4 ,! relative magnitudes ( ! cyl9d]s ,a & ,b mu/ be adju/$ accord+ to ! ext5t to :i* ! pr9ciple ( expansion is int5d$ to be us$4 ,! valves ,c ,c 7 plac$ at ea* end ( ! less] cyl9d] 9 tubes communicat+ ) ! boil]1 s z to admit /eam on ea* side ( ! less] pi/on1 & cut x (f at pleasure4 ,a tube1 ,d1 =m$ a communication betwe5 ! upp] end ( ! less] & l[] end ( ! great] cyl9d]1 :i* communication is op5$ & clos$ at pleasure by ! valve ,e4 ,9 l mann]1 ! tube ,d =ms a communication betwe5 ! l[] end ( ! less] cyl9d] & ! upp] end ( ! great]1 :i* may be op5$ & clos$ by ! valve ,e4 ,! top & bottom ( ! great] cyl9d] communicat$ ) ! cond5s] by valves ,f ,f4 ,let u suppose t ! air is bl[n f ! eng9e 9 ! usual way1 all ! valves clos$1 & ! eng9e ready to />t1 ! pi/ons be+ at ! top ( ! cyl9d]s4 ,op5 ! valves ,c1 ,e1 & ,f4 ,! /eam :i* occupies ! great] cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on w n[ pass into ! cond5s] ?r\gh ,f1 leav+ a vacuum bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! /eam :i* is 9 ! less] cyl9d] bel[ ! pi/on w pass ?r\gh ,d & op5 ! valve ,e1 & w press d[n ! great] pi/on4 ,! /eam f ! boil] w fl[ 9 at ,c1 & press on ! less] pi/on4 ,at fir/ ! :ole motion w proce$ f ! pressure ^u ! great] pi/on1 s9ce ! /eam1 bo? above & bel[ ! less] pi/on1 has ! same pressure4 ,b1 z ! pi/ons desc5d1 ! /eam bel[ ! less pass+ into ! great] cyl9d]1 exp&s into a great] space1 & consequ5tly ex]ts a dim9i%$ pressure1 &1 !re=e1 ! /eam on ! o!r side ex]t+ an undim9i%$ pressure1 acquires an impell+ =ce exactly equal to ! pressure lo/ 9 ! expansion ( ! /eam betwe5 ! two pi/ons4 ,?us bo? pi/ons w be press$ to ! bottoms ( _! respective cyl9d]s4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! desc5t ! great] pi/on is urg$ by a cont9ually decreas+ =ce1 :ile ! less] is urg$ by cont9ually increas+ =ce4 ,^u ! arrival ( ! pi/ons at ! bottoms ( ! cyl9d]s1 let ! valves1 ,c1 ,e1 ,f be clos$1 & ,c1 ,e1 ,f be op5$1 z 9 fig4 #dd4 ,! /eam :i* is above ! great] pi/on n[ fl[s ?r\gh ,f into ! cond5s]1 leav+ ! space above ! pi/on a vacuum4 ,! /eam :i* is above ! less] pi/on passes ?r\gh ,e & ,d bel[ ! great]1 :ile ! /eam f ! boil] is admitt$ ?r\gh ,c bel[ ! less] pi/on4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam ent]+ ?r\gh ,e bel[ ! great] pi/on1 press+ on x aga9/ ! vacuum above x1 comm5ces ! asc5t4 ,9 ! mean "t ! /eam above ! less] pi/on pass+ into ! enl>g$ space ( ! great] cyl9d]1 loses gradually its ela/ic =ce1 s t ! /eam ent]+ f ! boil] at ,c becomes 9 "p effective1 & ! asc5t is complet$ "u exactly ! same circum/ances z ! desc5t1 & 9 ?is way ! process is cont9u$4 ,x is evid5t t ! valves may be easily work$ by ! me*anism ( ! eng9e itself4 ,9 ?is arrangem5t ! pi/ons asc5d & desc5d toge!r1 & _! rods mu/ consequ5tly be atta*$ to ! beam at ! same side ( ! c5tre4 ,x is sometimes desirable t !y %\ld act on diff]5t sides ( ! c5tre ( ! beam1 & consequ5tly t "o %\ld asc5d :ile ! o!r desc5ds4 ,x is easy to arrange ! valves s z to effect ?is4 ,9 fig4 #de41 ! less] pi/on is at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & ! great] at ! top4 ,on op5+ ! valves ,c1 ,e1 ,f1 a vacuum is produc$ bel[ ! great] pi/on1 & /eam fl[s f ! less] cyl9d]1 ?r\gh ,e1 above ! great] pi/on1 & presses x d[n4 ,at ! same "t /eam be+ admitt$ f ! boil] ?r\gh ,c bel[ ! less] pi/on1 =ces x up aga9/ ! dim9i%+ =ce ( ! /eam above x1 :i* exp&s into ! great] cyl9d]4 ,?us z ! great] pi/on desc5ds ! less] asc5ds4 ,:5 ea* has trav]s$ its cyl9d]1 ! valves ,c1 ,e1 ,f be+ clos$1 & ,c1 ,e1 ,f op5$1 ! less] pi/on w desc5d1 & ! great] asc5d1 & s on4 7#gh47 ,! law accord+ to :i* ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam dim9i%es z x exp&s1 ( :i* ,mr4 ,woolf appe>s to h be5 entirely ignorant1 is precisely simil> to ! same prop]ty 9 air & o!r ela/ic fluids4 ,if /eam exp&s into twice or ?rice its volume1 x w lose its ela/ic =ce 9 precisely ! same proportion z x enl>ges its bulk2 & !re=e w h only a half or a ?ird ( its =m] pressure1 suppos+ t z x exp&s its temp]ature is kept up4 ,al?\gh ,mr4 ,woolf's pat5t conta9$ ! errone\s pr9ciple :i* we h notic$1 yet1 s f> z 8 inv5tion sugge/$ ! idea ( employ+ /eam at a v high-pressure1 & all[+ x to exp& 9 a mu* great] degree ?an 0 contemplat$ ei!r by ,watt or ,hornbl[]1 x became ! means ( effect+ a consid]able sav+ 9 fuel2 = eng9es us$ = pump+ on a l>ge scale1 ! /eam be+ produc$ "u a pressure ( =ty or fifty p\nds or m ^u ! squ>e in*1 might be work$ fir/ ?r\gh a small space ) int5se =ce1 & ! communication ) ! boil] be+ !n cut (f1 x might be all[$1 ) great advantage1 to exp& ?r\gh a v l>ge space4 ,"s d\ble-cyl9d] eng9es ^u ?is pr9ciple h be5 work$ 9 ,cornwall1 ) consid]able economy4 ,b ! =m 9 :i* ! expansive pr9ciple1 comb9$ ) high pressure1 is n[ appli$ 9 ! eng9es us$ = rais+ wat] f ! m9es1 is t 9 :i* x 0 orig9ally propos$ by ,watt4 ,a s+le cyl9d] ( consid]able l5g? is employ$2 ! pi/on is driv5 ?r\gh a small proportion ( ?is l5g? by /eam1 admitt$ f ! boil] at a v int5se pressure3 ! /eam be+ !n cut (f1 ! pi/on is urg$ by ! expansive =ce ( ! /eam :i* has be5 admitt$1 & is by t means br\ght to ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]4 ,x is evid5t1 "u su* circum/ances1 t ! pressure ( ! /eam admitt$ f ! boil] mu/ be mu* great] ?an ! resi/ance oppos$ to ! pi/on1 & t ! motion ( ! pi/on mu/1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 be accel]at$ & n uni=m4 ,if ! pi/on mov$ f ! comm5cem5t ) a uni=m motion1 ! pressure ( ! /eam urg+ x mu/ necess>ily be exactly equal to ! resi/ance oppos$ to x1 & !n cutt+ (f ! supply ( /eam f ! boil]1 ! pi/on c\ld only cont9ue its motion by in]tia1 ! /eam imm$iately becom+ ( less pressure ?an ! resi/ance2 & aft] advanc+ ?r\gh a v small space1 ! pi/on w\ld recoil ^u ! /eam1 & come to a /ate ( re/4 ,! /eam1 h[ev]1 at ! mom5t x is cut (f be+ ( mu* great] pressure ?an ! am\nt ( resi/ance ^u ! pi/on1 w cont9ue to drive ! pi/on =w>d1 until by its expansion its =ce is s f> dim9i%$ z to become equal to ! resi/ance ( ! pi/on4 ,f t po9t ! impell+ p[] ( ! /eam w cease1 & ! pi/on w move =w>d by its in]tia only4 ,! po9t at :i* ! /eam is cut (f %\ld !re=e be s regulat$ t x %all acquire a pressure equal to ! resi/ance on ! pi/on by its expansion1 j at su* a di/ance f ! end ( ! /roke z ! pi/on may be able to move ?r\gh by its in]tia4 ,x is evid5t ! adju/m5t ( ?is w require great c>e & nicety ( managem5t4 7#gi47 ,9 #agig a pat5t 0 grant$ to ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,c>twright1 a g5tleman well kn[n = o!r me*anical inv5tions1 = "s improvem5ts 9 ! /eam-eng9e4 ,8 contrivance is at once s elegant & simple1 t1 al?\gh x has n be5 c>ri$ into practice1 we _c "h pass x ov] )\t notice4 ,! /eam-pipe f ! boil] is repres5t$ cut (f at ,b 7fig4 #df472 ,t is a sp9dle-valve = admitt+ /eam above ! pi/on1 & ,r is a sp9dle-valve 9 ! pi/on2 ,d is a curv$ pipe =m+ a communication betwe5 ! cyl9d] & ! cond5s]1 :i* is ( v peculi> con/ruction4 ,c>twright propos$ effect+ a cond5sation )\t a jet1 by expos+ ! /eam to contact ) a v l>ge quantity ( cold surface4 ,= ?is purpose1 he =m$ 8 cond5s] by plac+ two cyl9d]s ne>ly equal 9 size "o )9 ! o!r1 all[+ ! wat] ( ! cold ci/]n 9 :i* !y 7 plac$ to fl[ ?r\gh ! inn] cyl9d]1 & to surr\nd ! out] "o4 ,?us ! ?9 space betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s =m$ ! cond5s]4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,x4 ,! air-pump is plac$ imm$iately "u ! cyl9d]1 & ! cont9uation ( ! pi/on-rod works its pi/on1 :i* is solid & )\t a valve3 ,f is ! pipe f ! cond5s] to ! air-pump1 ?r\gh :i* ! cond5s$ /eam is drawn (f ?r\gh ! valve ,g on ! asc5t ( ! pi/on1 & on ! desc5t1 ?is is =c$ ?r\gh a tube into a hot well1 ,h1 = ! purpose ( fe$+ ! boil] ?r\gh ! fe$-pipe ,i4 ,9 ! top ( ! hot well ,h is a valve :i* op5s inw>ds1 & is kept clos$ by a ball float+ on ! surface ( ! liquid4 ,! pressure ( ! cond5s$ air above ! surface ( ! liquid 9 ,h =ces x ?r\gh ,i into ! boil]4 ,:5 ! air accumulates 9 too great a degree 9 ,h1 ! surface ( ! liquid is press$ s l[ t ! ball falls & op5s ! valve1 & all[s x to escape4 ,! air 9 ,h is t :i* is pump$ f ! cond5s] ) ! liquid1 & :i* 0 dis5gag$ f x4 ,let u suppose ! pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d]2 x /rikes ! tail ( ! valve ,t1 & raises x1 :ile ! /em ( ! pi/on-valve ,r /rikes ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 & is press$ into its seat4 ,a free communication is at ! same "t op5 betwe5 ! cyl9d]1 bel[ ! pi/on & ! cond5s]1 ?r\gh ! tube ,d4 ,! pressure ( ! /eam ?us admitt$ above ! pi/on1 act+ aga9/ ! vacuum bel[ x1 w cause its desc5t4 ,on arriv+ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! tail ( ! pi/on-valve ,r w /rike ! bottom1 & x w be lift$ f its seat1 s t a communication w be op5$ ?r\gh x ) ! cond5s]4 ,at ! same mom5t a project+ spr+1 ,k1 atta*$ to ! pi/on-rod1 /rikes ! /em ( ! /eam-valve ,t1 & presses x into its seat4 ,?us1 :ile ! fur!r admission ( /eam is cut (f1 ! /eam above ! pi/on fl[s into ! cond5s]1 & ! pi/on be+ reliev$ f all pressure1 is drawn up by ! mom5tum ( ! fly-:eel1 :i* cont9ues ! motion x receiv$ f ! desc5d+ =ce4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on aga9 at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! valve ,t is op5$ & ,r clos$1 & ! pi/on desc5ds z be=e1 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,! me*anism by :i* motion is communicat$ f ! pi/on to ! fly-:eel is peculi>ly elegant4 ,on ! axis ( ! fly-:eel is a small :eel ) tee?1 :i* "w 9 ! tee? ( ano!r l>ge :eel ,l4 ,?is :eel is turn$ by a crank1 :i* is work$ by a cross-piece atta*$ to ! end ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,ano!r equal-too!d :eel1 ,m1 is turn$ by a crank1 :i* is work$ by ! o!r end ( ! cross-arm atta*$ to ! pi/on-rod4 ,"o ( ! peculi>ities ( ?is eng9e is1 t ! liquid :i* is us$ = ! production ( /eam 9 ! boil] circulates ?r\gh ! ma*9e )\t ei!r dim9ution or admixture ) any o!r fluid1 s t ! boil] nev] wants m fe$+ ?an :at c be suppli$ f ! hot-well ,h4 ,?is circum/ance =ms a mo/ important feature 9 ! ma*9e1 z x all[s ( ard5t spirits be+ us$ 9 ! boil] in/ead ( wat]1 :i*1 s9ce !y boil at l[ heats1 promis$ a sav+ ( half ! fuel4 ,! inv5tor ev5 propos$1 t ! eng9e %\ld be us$ z a /ill1 z well z a me*anical p[]1 9 :i* case ! :ole ( ! fuel w\ld be sav$4 ,9 ?is eng9e1 ! ord9>y me?od ( r5d]+ ! pi/on /eam-tight1 by oil or melt$ wax or tall[ p\r$ ^u x1 c\ld n be appli$1 s9ce ! /eam above ! pi/on mu/ always h a free passage ?r\gh ! pi/on-valve ,r4 ,! +5i\s inv5tor !re=e contriv$ a me?od ( mak+ ! pi/on /eam-tight 9 ! cyl9d]1 )\t oil or /uff+1 & 8 me?od has s9ce be5 adopt$ ) success 9 o!r eng9es4 ,a r+ ( metal is gr\nd into ! cyl9d]1 s z to fit x p]fectly1 & is !n cut into f\r equal segm5ts4 ,! inn] surface ( ?is r+ be+ slightly conical1 ano!r r+ is gr\nd into x1 s z to fit x p]fectly1 & ?is is also cut into f\r segm5ts1 & "o is plac$ )9 ! o!r1 b 9 su* a mann] t ! jo9ts or divisions d n co9cide4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! two r+s is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dg4 ,)9 ! inn] r+ are plac$ f\r spr+s1 :i* press ! pieces outw>d aga9/ ! sides ( ! cyl9d]1 & are repres5t$ 9 ! diagram4 ,f\r pairs ( ^! r+s are plac$ "o ov] ano!r1 s t _! jo9ts d n co9cide1 & ! :ole is screw$ toge!r by plates plac$ at top & bottom4 ,a v]tical section ( ! pi/on is giv5 9 fig4 #dh4 ,"o ( ! advantages ( ?is pi/on is1 t ! long] x is work$1 ! m accurately x fits ! cyl9d]1 s t1 z ! ma*9e we>s x improves4 ,metallic pi/ons h lately come into v g5]al use1 & su* contrivances diff] v little f ! above4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,railways4 ,high-pressure ,eng9es4 -- ,leupold's ,eng9e4 -- ,trevi?ick & ,vivian4 -- ,effects ( ,improvem5t 9 ,locomotion4 -- ,hi/orical ,acc\nt ( ! ,locomotive ,eng9e4 -- ,bl5k9sop's ,pat5t4 -- ,*apman's ,improvem5t4 -- ,walk+ ,eng9e4 -- ,/eph5son's ,fir/ ,eng9es4 -- ,8 ,improvem5ts4 -- ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway ,company4 -- ,_! ,prelim9>y ,proce$+s4 -- ,! ,great ,competition ( #ahbi4 -- ,! ,rocket4 -- ,! ,sansp>eil4 -- ,! ,novelty4 -- ,qualities ( ! ,rocket4 -- ,successive ,improvem5ts4 -- ,exp]im5ts4 -- ,defects ( ! ,pres5t ,eng9es4 -- ,incl9$ ,planes4 -- ,me?ods ( surm\nt+ !m4 -- ,circum/ances ( ! ,man*e/] ,railway ,company4 -- ,probable ,improvem5ts 9 ,locomotives4 -- ,_! capabilities ) respect to spe$4 -- ,probable ,effects ( ! ,project$ ,railroads4 -- ,/eam ,p[] comp>$ ) ,horse ,p[]4 -- ,railroads comp>$ ) ,canals4 7#hj47 ,9 ! v>i\s modifications ( ! /eam eng9e :i* we h hi!rto consid]$1 ! pressure introduc$ on "o side ( ! pi/on d]ives its efficacy ei!r :olly or p>tially f ! vacuum produc$ by cond5sation on ! o!r side4 ,?is always requires a cond5s+ app>atus1 & a con/ant & abundant supply ( cold wat]4 ,an eng9e ( ?is k9d mu/ !re=e necess>ily h consid]able dim5sions & weight1 & is inapplicable to uses 9 :i* a small & light ma*9e only is admissible4 ,if ! cond5s+ app>atus be disp5s$ )1 ! pi/on w always be resi/$ by a =ce equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! only "p ( ! /eam pressure :i* w be available z a mov+ p[]1 is t "p by :i* x exce$s ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,h5ce1 9 eng9es :i* d n "w by cond5sation1 /eam ( a mu* high] pressure ?an t ( ! atmosph]e is indisp5sably necess>y1 & su* eng9es are !re=e call$ high-pressure eng9es4 ,we are n1 h[ev]1 to und]/& t e eng9e1 9 :i* /eam is us$ ( a pressure exce$+ t ( ! atmosph]e1 is :at is meant by a high-pressure eng9e2 = 9 ! ord9>y eng9es 9 common use1 con/ruct$ on ,watt's pr9ciple1 ! safety-valve is load$ ) f #c to #e lbs4 on ! squ>e in*2 & 9 ,woolf's eng9es1 ! /eam is produc$ "u a pressure ( #dj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,^! w\ld !re=e be m prop]ly call$ cond5s+ eng9es ?an high-pressure eng9es2 a t]m q inapplicable to ^? ( ,woolf4 ,9 fact1 by high-pressure eng9es is meant eng9es 9 :i* no vacuum is produc$1 &1 !re=e1 9 :i* ! pi/on works aga9/ a pressure equal to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,9 ^! eng9es1 ! :ole ( ! cond5s+ app>atus1 viz4 ! cold-wat] ci/]n1 cond5s]1 air-pump1 cold-wat] pump1 c4 are disp5s$ )1 & no?+ is reta9$ except ! boil]1 cyl9d]1 pi/on1 & valves4 ,consequ5tly1 su* an eng9e is small1 light1 & *eap4 ,x is portable also1 & may be mov$1 if necess>y1 along ) its load1 & is !re=e well adapt$ to locomotive purposes4 7#ha47 ,high-pressure eng9es 7 "o ( ! e>lie/ modifications ( ! /eam eng9e4 ,! contrivance1 :i* is obscurely describ$ 9 ! article already quot$ 7#bg471 f ! ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions1 is a high-pressure eng9e2 = ! p[] !re allud$ to is ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam work+ aga9/ ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,newcom51 9 #agje1 appli$ ! work+-beam1 cyl9d]1 & pi/on to ! atmosph]ic eng9e2 & ,leupold1 ab\t #agbj1 comb9$ ! work+-beam & cyl9d] ) ! high-pressure pr9ciple1 & produc$ ! e>lie/ high-pressure eng9e work$ by a cyl9d] & pi/on4 ,! foll[+ is a description ( ,leupold's eng9e3-- ,a 7fig4 #di47 is ! boil]1 ) ! furnace b5ea? x2 ,c ,c are two cyl9d]s ) two solid pi/ons1 ,p ,p1 connect$ ) ! work+-beams ,b ,b1 to :i* are atta*$ ! pump-rods1 ,r ,r1 ( two =c+-pumps1 ,f ,f1 :i* communicate ) a great =ce-pipe ,s2 ,g is a f\r-way cock 7#ff47 already describ$4 ,9 ! position 9 :i* x /&s 9 ! figure1 ! /eam is issu+ f bel[ ! pi/on ,p into ! atmosph]e1 & ! pi/on is desc5d+ by its own weight2 /eam f ! boil] is at ! same "t press+ up ! pi/on ,p1 ) a =ce equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! pressure ( ! /eam & t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?us ! pi/on ,r ( ! =c+-pump is be+ drawn up1 & ! pi/on ,p is =c+ ! pi/on ,r d[n1 & !reby driv+ wat] into ! =ce-pipe ,s4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on ,p at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] ,c1 & ,p at ! top ( ! cyl9d] ,c1 ! position ( ! cock is *ang$ z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ej4 ,! /eam1 :i* has j press$ up ! pi/on ,p1 is all[$ to escape into ! atmosph]e1 :ile ! /eam1 pass+ f ! boil] bel[ ! pi/on ,p1 presses x up1 & ?us ,p asc5ds by ! /eam pressure1 & ,p desc5ds by its own weight4 ,by ^! means ! pi/on ,r is =c$ d[n1 driv+ be=e x ! wat] 9 ! pump cyl9d] into ! =ce-pipe ,s1 & ! pi/on ,r is drawn up to all[ ! o!r pump-cyl9d] to be re-fill$2 & s ! process is cont9u$4 ,a valve is plac$ 9 ! bottom ( ! =ce-pipes1 to prev5t ! wat] :i* has be5 driv5 into x f return+4 ,?is valve op5s upw>ds2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! weight ( ! wat] press+ ^u x only keeps x m effectually clos$4 ,on ea* desc5t ( ! pi/on1 ! pressure transmitt$ to ! valve act+ upw>ds be+ great] ?an ! weight ( ! wat] re/+ ^u x1 =ces x op51 & an increas$ quantity ( wat] is introduc$4 7#hb47 ,f ! date ( ! improvem5t ( ,watt until ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 high-pressure eng9es 7 altoge!r neglect$ 9 ^! c\ntries4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjb1 ,messrs4 ,trevi?ick & ,vivian con/ruct$ ! fir/ high-pressure eng9e :i* 0 ev] br\ght into ext5sive practical use 9 ?is k+dom4 ,a section ( ?is ma*9e1 made by a v]tical plane1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ea4 ,! boil] ,a ,b is a cyl9d] ) flat circul> ends4 ,! fire-place is con/ruct$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,a tube ent]s ! cyl9drical boil] at "o end2 &1 proce$+ onw>ds1 ne> ! o!r extremity1 is turn$ & recurv$1 s z to be c>ri$ back p>allel to ! direction 9 :i* x ent]$4 ,x is ?us conduct$ out ( ! boil]1 at ano!r "p ( ! same end at :i* x ent]$4 ,"o ( ! ends ( ?is tube communicates ) ! *imney ,e1 :i* is c>ri$ upw>ds1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,! o!r m\? is furni%$ ) a door2 & 9 x is plac$ ! grate1 :i* is =m$ ( horizontal b>s1 divid+ ! tube into two p>ts2 ! upp] "p =m+ ! fire-place1 & ! l[] ! a%-pit4 ,! fuel is ma9ta9$ 9 a /ate ( combu/ion1 on ! b>s1 9 t "p ( ! tube repres5t$ at ,c ,d2 & ! flame is c>ri$ by ! draft ( ! *imney r\nd ! curv$ flue1 & issues at ,e into ! *imney4 ,! flame is ?us conduct$ ?r\gh ! wat]1 s z to expose ! latt] to z mu* heat z possible4 ,a section ( ! cyl9d] is repres5t$ at ,f1 imm]s$ 9 ! boil]1 except a few in*es ( ! upp] end1 :]e ! f\r-way cock ,g is plac$ = regulat+ ! admission ( ! /eam4 ,a tube is repres5t$ at ,h1 :i* leads f ?is f\r-way cock into ! *imney2 s t ! wa/e /eam1 aft] work+ ! pi/on1 is c>ri$ (f ?r\gh ?is tube1 & passes into ! *imney4 ,! upp] end ( ! pi/on-rod is furni%$ ) a cross-b>1 :i* is plac$ 9 a direction at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! boil]1 & also to ! pi/on-rod4 ,?is b> is guid$ 9 its motion by slid+ on two iron p]p5dicul> rods fix$ to ! sides ( ! boil]1 & p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,to ! ends ( ?is cross-b> are jo9$ two connect+ rods1 ! l[] ends ( :i* "w two cranks fix$ on an axis ext5d+ across & b5ea? ! boil]1 & imm$iately "u ! c5tre ( ! cyl9d]4 ,?is axis is su/a9$ 9 be>+s =m$ 9 ! legs :i* support ! boil]1 & ^u its extremity is fix$ ! fly-:eel z repres5t$ at ,b4 ,a l>ge-too!d :eel is plac$ on ?is axis2 :i*1 be+ turn$ ) ! crank$ axle1 communicates motion to o!r :eels2 &1 ?r\gh !m1 to any ma*9]y :i* ! eng9e may be appli$ to move4 ,z ! f\r-way cock is repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 ! /eam passes f ! boil] ?r\gh ! curv$ passage ,g above ! pi/on1 :ile ! /eam bel[ ! pi/on is c>ri$ (f ?r\gh a tube :i* does n appe> 9 ! figure1 by :i* x is conduct$ to ! tube ,h1 & !nce to ! *imney4 ,! /eam1 !re=e1 :i* passes above ! pi/on presses x d[nw>ds2 :ile ! pressure upw>ds does n exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! pi/on w !re=e desc5d ) a =ce dep5d+ on ! excess ( ! pressure ( ! /eam produc$ 9 ! boil] above ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,:5 ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 ! cock is made to assume ! position repres5t$ 9 ! figure #eb4 ,?is effect is produc$ by ! motion ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,! /eam n[ passes f above ! pi/on1 ?r\gh ! tube ,h1 into ! *imney1 :ile ! /eam f ! boil] is conduct$ ?r\gh ano!r tube bel[ ! pi/on4 ,! pressure above ! pi/on1 9 ?is case1 does n exce$ t ( ! atmosph]e2 :ile ! pressure bel[ x w be t ( ! /eam 9 ! boil]4 ,! pi/on w !re=e asc5d ) ! diff]5ce ( ^! pressures4 ,on ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ! top ( ! cyl9d]1 ! f\r-way cock is aga9 turn$ to ! position repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ea41 & ! pi/on aga9 desc5ds2 & 9 ! same mann] ! process is cont9u$4 ,a safety-valve is plac$ on ! boil] at ,v1 load$ ) a weight ,w1 proportionate to ! /r5g? ( ! /eam ) :i* x is propos$ to "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,xi4 ,9 ! eng9es n[ describ$1 ?is valve 0 frequ5tly load$ at ! rate ( f #fj to #hj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*4 ,z ! boil]s ( high-pressure eng9es 7 consid]$ m liable to accid5ts f bur/+ ?an ^? 9 :i* /eam ( a l[] pressure 0 us$1 great] precautions 7 tak5 aga9/ su* effects4 ,a second safety-valve 0 provid$1 :i* 0 n left 9 ! p[] ( ! eng9e-man4 ,by ?is means he _h a p[] to dim9i% ! pressure ( ! /eam1 b c\ld n increase x beyond ! limit det]m9$ by ! valve :i* 0 remov$ f 8 int]f]5ce4 ,! greate/ cause ( dang]1 h[ev]1 arose f ! wat] 9 ! boil] be+ consum$ by evaporation fa/] ?an x 0 suppli$2 & !re=e fall+ bel[ ! level ( ! tube conta9+ ! furnace4 ,to gu>d aga9/ accid5ts aris+ f ?is circum/ance1 a hole 0 bor$ 9 ! boil]1 at a c]ta9 dep?1 bel[ :i* ! wat] %\ld n be all[$ to fall2 & 9 ?is hole a plug ( metal 0 sold]$ ) lead1 or ) "s o!r metal1 :i* w\ld fuse at t temp]ature :i* w\ld expose ! boil] to dang]4 ,?us1 9 ! ev5t ( ! wat] be+ exhau/$1 s t its level w\ld fall bel[ ! plug1 ! heat ( ! furnace w\ld imm$iately melt ! sold]1 & ! plug w\ld fall out1 af=d+ a v5t = ! /eam1 )\t all[+ ! boil] to bur/4 ,! m]curial /eam-gauge1 already describ$1 0 also us$ z an additional security4 ,:5 ! =ce ( ! /eam exce$$ ! l5g? ( ! column ( m]cury :i* ! tube w\ld conta91 ! m]cury w\ld be bl[n out1 & ! tube w\ld give v5t to ! /eam4 ,! wat] by :i* ! boil] 0 repl5i%$ 0 =c$ into x by a pump work$ by ! eng9e4 ,9 ord] to economise ! heat1 ?is wat] 0 conta9$ 9 a tube ,t1 :i* surr\nd$ ! pipe ,h4 ,z ! wa/e /eam1 aft] work+ ! pi/on1 pass$ (f ?r\gh ,h1 x imp>t$ a portion ( its heat to ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! tube ,t1 :i* 0 ?us w>m$ to a c]ta9 temp]ature be=e x 0 =c$ into ! boil] by ! pump4 ,?us a "p ( ! heat1 :i* 0 orig9ally c>ri$ f ! boil] 9 ! =m ( /eam1 0 return$ aga9 to ! boil] ) ! wat] ) :i* x 0 f$4 ,x is evid5t t eng9es con/ruct$ 9 ?is mann] may be appli$ to all ! purposes to :i* ! cond5s+ eng9es are applicable4 7e7 ,to ! plates ( ! ,engli% edition has be5 add$ "o1 7plate ,a7 repres5t+ a high-pressure eng9e z con/ruct$ by ! ,we/ ,po9t ,f\ndry 9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york4 ,! pr9cipal p>ts w be readily di/+ui%$ f _! resemblance to ! analog\s p>ts ( a cond5s+ eng9e4 ,! cond5s] & air-pump ( t eng9e1 x w be obs]v$1 are suppress$4 ,at v x & y z are =c+-pumps by :i* a supply ( wat] is inject$ into ! boil] at ea* motion ( ! eng9e4 ,= ! f\r-way cock1 us$ 9 ! ,engli% high-pressure eng9es1 a slide valve at r s1 is sub/itut$1 & is f\nd to "w to mu* great] advantage4 ,x is set 9 motion by an ecc5tric1 9 a mann] t w be m obvi\s f an inspection ( ! plate ?an f any description4--,a4 ,e4 7f7 ,a v safe & conv5i5t boil] = a high-pressure eng9e has be5 inv5t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,mr4 ,babcock4 ,! boil] consi/s ( small tubes1 into :i* wat] is fla%$ by a small =c+-pump at e /roke ( ! eng9e4 ,! tubes are kept s hot 9 a furnace1 z to g5]ate /eam ( ! requir$ temp]ature1 b n hot en\gh to cause any risk ( ! decomposition ( ! wat]4 ,! /r5g? ( ! app>atus is su*1 & ! quantity ( wat] expos$ to heat at "o "t s small1 z to leave h>dly any risk ( dang]4--,a4 ,e4 7#hc47 ,two ye>s aft] ! date ( ! pat5t ( ?is eng9e1 its inv5tor con/ruct$ a ma*9e ( ! same k9d = ! purpose ( mov+ c>riages on railroads2 & appli$ x successfully1 9 ! ye> #ahjd1 on ! railroad at ,m]?yr ,tydvil1 9 ,s\? ,wales4 ,x 0 9 pr9ciple ! same z t already describ$4 ,! cyl9d] h[ev] 0 9 a horizontal position1 ! pi/on-rod work+ 9 ! direction ( ! l9e ( road3 ! extremity ( ! pi/on-rod1 by means ( a connect+ rod1 work$ cranks plac$ on ! axletree1 on :i* 7 fix$ two cogg$ :eels3 ^! work$ 9 o!rs1 by :i* _! motion 0 communicat$ f9ally to cogg$ :eels fix$ on ! axle ( ! h9d :eels ( ! c>riage1 by :i* ?is axle 0 kept 9 a /ate ( revolution4 ,! h9d :eels be+ fix$ on ! axletree1 & turn+ ) x1 7 caus$ likewise to revolve2 & s long z ! weight ( ! c>riage did n exce$ t :i* ! friction ( ! road 0 capable ( propell+1 ! c>riage w\ld ?us be mov$ =w>ds4 ,on ?is axle 0 plac$ a fly-:eel to cont9ue ! rotatory motion at ! t]m9ation ( ea* /roke4 ,! =e :eels are describ$ z be+ capable ( turn+ l ! =e :eels ( a c>riage1 s z to guide ! vehicle4 ,! projectors appe> to h contemplat$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! use ( ?is c>riage on turnpike roads2 b t notion seems to h be5 ab&on$1 & its use 0 only adopt$ on ! railroad be=e m5tion$4 ,on ! occasion ( its fir/ trial1 x drew aft] x z _m c>riages z conta9$ #aj tons ( iron a di/ance ( n9e miles2 :i* /age x p]=m$ )\t any fre% supply ( wat]1 & travell$ at ! rate ( five miles an h\r4 7#hd47 ,capital & skill h ( late ye>s be5 direct$ ) extraord9>y en]gy to ! improvem5t ( inl& transport2 & ?is important in/rum5t ( national weal? & civilisation has receiv$ a proportionate impulse4 ,effects are n[ witness$1 :i*1 _h !y be5 n>rat$ a few ye>s s9ce1 c\ld only h be5 admitt$ into ! pages ( fiction or volumes ( romance4 ,:o c\ld h cr$it$ ! possibility ( a pond]\s eng9e ( iron1 load$ ) sev]al hundr$ pass5g]s1 9 a tra9 ( c>riages ( correspond+ magnitude1 & a l>ge quantity ( wat] & coal1 tak+ flight f ,man*e/] & arriv+ at ,liv]pool1 a di/ance ( ab\t ?irty miles1 9 little m ?an an h\r8 ,& yet ?is is a matt] ( daily & almo/ h\rly occurr5ce4 ,nei!r is ! road1 on :i* ?is wondr\s p]=mance is effect$1 ! mo/ fav\rable :i* c\ld be con/ruct$ = su* ma*9es4 ,x is subject to undulations & acclivities1 :i* r$uce ! rate ( spe$ mu* m ?an simil> inequalities affect ! velocity on common roads4 ,! rapidity ( transport ?us atta9$ is n less wond]ful ?an ! weights transport$4 ,its capabilities 9 ?is respect f> transc5d ! exig5cies ev5 ( ! two greate/ comm]cial m>ts 9 ,great ,brita94 ,loads1 v>y+ f #ej to #aej tons are transport$ at ! av]age rate ( #ae miles an h\r2 b ! eng9es 9 ?is case are load$ bel[ _! p[]2 & 9 "o in/ance we h se5 a load--we %\ld r say a c>go--( wagons1 convey+ m]*&ise to ! am\nt ( #bcj tons gross1 transport$ f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] at ! av]age rate ( #ab miles an h\r4 ,! a/oni%m5t ) :i* su* p]=mances mu/ be view$1 might be qualifi$1 if ! art ( transport by /eam on railways _h be5 matur$1 & _h atta9$ t full /ate ( p]fection :i* su* an art is always capable ( receiv+ f long exp]i5ce1 aid$ by great sci5tific k1 & ! unb\nd$ application ( capital4 ,b su* is n ! pres5t case4 ,! art ( con/ruct+ locomotive eng9es1 s f> f hav+ atta9$ a /ate ( maturity1 has n ev5 em]g$ f its infancy4 ,s complete 0 ! ignorance ( its p[]s :i* prevail$1 ev5 among eng9e]s1 previ\s to ! op5+ ( ! ,liv]pool railway1 t ! transport ( heavy goods 0 reg>d$ z ! *ief object ( ! und]tak+1 & its pr9cipal s\rce ( rev5ue4 ,! incr$ible spe$ ( transport1 effect$ ev5 9 ! v fir/ exp]im5ts 9 #ahcj1 bur/ ^u ! public1 & on ! sci5tific _w1 ) all ! effect ( a new & unlook$-= ph5om5on4 ,on ! un=tunate occasion :i* depriv$ ?is c\ntry ( ,mr4 ,huskisson1 ! w\nd$ body ( t /atesman 0 transport$ a di/ance ( ab\t fifte5 miles 9 tw5ty-five m9utes1 be+ at ! rate ( ?irty-six miles an h\r4 ,! rev5ue ( ! road aris+ f pass5g]s s9ce its op5+1 has1 contr>y to all t 0 =ese51 be5 ne>ly d\ble t :i* has be5 d]iv$ f m]*&ise4 ,s great 0 ! want ( exp]i5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( eng9es1 t ! company 0 at fir/ ignorant :e!r !y %\ld adopt l>ge /eam-eng9es fix$ at diff]5t /ations on ! l9e1 to pull ! c>riages f /ation to /ation1 or travell+ eng9es to drag ! loads ! entire di/ance4 ,hav+ decid$ on ! latt]1 !y h1 ev5 to ! pres5t mom5t1 lab\r$ "u ! disadvantage ( ! want ( t k :i* exp]i5ce alone c give4 ,! eng9es h be5 con/antly v>i$ 9 _! weight & proportions1 9 _! magnitude & =m1 z ! exp]i5ce ( ea* successive mon? has indicat$4 ,z defects became manife/ !y 7 rem$i$2 improvem5ts sugge/$ 7 adopt$2 & ea* qu>t] produc$ eng9es ( su* increas$ p[] & effici5cy1 t _! pr$ecessors 7 ab&on$1 n because !y 7 worn out1 b because !y _h be5 out/ripp$ 9 ! rapid m>* ( improvem5t4 ,add to ?is1 t only "o species ( travell+ eng9e has be5 effectively tri$2 ! capabilities ( o!rs rema9 /ill to be develop$2 & ev5 t =m ( eng9e :i* has receiv$ ! advantage ( a c\rse ( exp]im5ts on s gr& a scale to c>ry x t[>ds p]fection1 is f> %ort ( ?is po9t1 & /ill has defects1 _m ( :i*1 x is obvi\s1 "t & exp]i5ce w remove4 ,if !n travell+ /eam eng9es1 ) all ! imp]fections ( an incipi5t inv5tion--) ! want ( exp]i5ce1 ! great p>5t ( practical improvem5ts--) ! want ( ! common advantage ( ! full application ( ! skill & capital ( ! c\ntry--subject$ to b "o great exp]im5t1 & t exp]im5t limit$ to "o =m ( eng9e2 if1 "u su* disadvantages1 ! effects to :i* we h ref]r$ h be5 produc$1 :at may we n expect f ?is extraord9>y p[]1 :5 ! ent]prise ( ! c\ntry %all be unfett]$1 :5 great] fields ( exp]i5ce are op5$1 :5 "t1 +5uity1 & capital h remov$ ! exi/+ imp]fections1 & h br\ght to light new & m p[]ful pr9ciples8 ,?is is n m]e speculation on possibilities1 b ref]s to :at is 9 a /ate ( actual progression4 ,railways are 9 progress betwe5 ! po9ts ( greate/ int]c\rse 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 & travell+ /eam eng9es are 9 prep>ation = ! common turnpike roads2 ! practicability & utility ( t application ( ! /eam eng9e hav+ n only be5 e/abli%$ by exp]im5t to ! satisfaction ( _! projectors1 b prov$ be=e ! legislature 9 a committee ( inquiry on ! subject4 ,! important comm]cial & political effects att5d+ su* increas$ facility & spe$ 9 ! transport ( p]sons & goods1 are too obvi\s to require any v ext5d$ notice "h4 ,a "p ( ! price 7& 9 _m cases a consid]able "p7 ( e article ( necessity or luxury1 consi/s ( ! co/ ( transport+ x f ! produc] to ! consum]2 & consequ5tly e abatem5t or sav+ 9 ?is co/ mu/ produce a correspond+ r$uction 9 ! price ( e article transport$2 t is to say1 ( ev]y?+ :i* is necess>y = ! subsi/5ce ( ! poor1 or = ! enjoym5t ( ! ri*1 ( e com=t1 & ( e luxury ( life4 ,! b5efit ( ?is w ext5d1 n to ! consum] only1 b to ! produc]3 by l[]+ ! exp5se ( transport ( ! produce1 :e!r ( ! soil or ( ! loom1 a less quantity ( t produce w be sp5t 9 br++ ! rema9d] to m>ket1 & consequ5tly a great] surplus w rew>d ! lab\r ( ! produc]4 ,! b5efit ( ?is w be felt ev5 m by ! agriculturi/ ?an by ! manufactur]2 because ! proportional co/ ( transport ( ! produce ( ! soil is great] ?an t ( manufactures4 ,if #bjj qu>t]s ( corn be necess>y to raise #djj1 & #ajj m be requir$ to br+ ! #djj to m>ket1 !n ! net surplus w be #ajj4 ,b if by ! use ( /eam c>riages ! same quantity c be br\ght to m>ket ) an exp5diture ( #ej qu>t]s1 !n ! net surplus w be increas$ f #ajj to #aej qu>t]s2 & ei!r ! pr(it ( ! f>m]1 or ! r5t ( ! l&lord1 mu/ be increas$ by ! same am\nt4 ,b ! agriculturi/ w\ld n m]ely be b5efit$ by an increas$ return f ! soil already "u cultivation4 ,any r$uction 9 ! co/ ( transport+ ! produce to m>ket w\ld call into cultivation tracts ( inf]ior f]tility1 ! returns f :i* w\ld n at pres5t repay ! co/ ( cultivation & transport4 ,?us l& w\ld become productive :i* is n[ wa/e1 & an effect w\ld be produc$ equival5t to add+ s mu* f]tile soil to ! pres5t ext5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,x is well kn[n1 t l& ( a giv5 degree ( f]tility w yield increas$ produce by ! increas$ application ( capital & lab\r4 ,by a r$uction 9 ! co/ ( transport1 a sav+ w be made :i* may enable ! agriculturi/ to apply to tracts already "u cultivation ! capital ?us sav$1 & !reby increase _! actual production4 ,n only1 !re=e1 w\ld su* an effect be att5d$ ) an increas$ ext5t ( cultivat$ l&1 b also ) an increas$ degree ( cultivation 9 t :i* is already productive4 ,x has be5 said1 t 9 ,great ,brita9 !re are above a million ( horses engag$ 9 v>i\s ways 9 ! transport ( pass5g]s & goods1 & t to support ea* horse requires z mu* l& z w\ld1 ^u an av]age1 support eight m54 ,if ?is quantity ( animal p[] 7 displac$ by /eam eng9es1 & ! means ( transport drawn f ! b[els ( ! e>?1 in/ead ( be+ rais$ ^u its surface1 !n1 suppos+ ! above calculation correct1 z mu* l& w\ld become available = ! support ( human be+s z w\ld suffice = an additional population ( eight millions2 or1 :at am\nts to ! same1 w\ld increase ! means ( support ( ! pres5t population by ab\t "o-?ird ( ! pres5t available means4 ,! l& :i* n[ supports horses = transport w\ld !n support m51 or produce corn = food4 ,! objection t a quantity ( l& exi/s 9 ! c\ntry capable ( support+ horses alone1 & t su* l& w\ld be ?r[n out ( cultivation1 sc>cely des]ves notice "h4 ,! exi/5ce ( any consid]able quantity ( su* l& is extremely d\btful4 ,:at is ! soil :i* w fe$ a horse & n fe$ ox5 or %eep1 or produce food = man8 ,b ev5 if x be admitt$ t !re exi/s 9 ! c\ntry a small portion ( su* l&1 t portion _c exce$1 nor inde$ equal1 :at w\ld be suffici5t = ! numb] ( horses :i* mu/ aft] all cont9ue to be employ$ = ! purposes ( pleasure1 & 9 a v>iety ( cases :]e /eam mu/ necess>ily be inapplicable4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 also1 t ! displac+ ( horses 9 "o ext5sive occupation1 by dim9i%+ _! price mu/ necess>ily increase ! dem& = !m 9 o!rs4 ,! r$uction 9 ! co/ ( transport ( manufactur$ articles1 by l[]+ _! price 9 ! m>ket1 w /imulate _! consumption4 ,?is obs]vation applies ( c\rse n only to home b to =eign m>kets4 ,9 ! latt] we already 9 _m bran*es ( manufacture comm& a monopoly4 ,! r$uc$ price :i* we %all atta9 by *eapness & facility ( transport w /ill fur!r ext5d & increase our advantages4 ,! necess>y consequ5ce w be1 an increas$ dem& = manufactur+ population2 & ?is increas$ population aga9 react+ on ! agricultural int]e/s1 w =m an increas$ m>ket = t species ( produce4 ,s int]wov5 & complicat$ are ! fibres :i* =m ! texture ( ! highly civiliz$ & artificial community 9 :i* we live1 t an effect produc$ on any "o po9t is in/antly transmitt$ to ! mo/ remote & app>5tly unconnect$ p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,! two advantages ( increas$ *eapness & spe$1 besides ext5d+ ! am\nt ( exi/+ traffic1 call into exi/5ce new objects ( comm]cial int]c\rse4 ,= ! same reason t ! r$uc$ co/ ( transport1 z we h %[n1 calls new soils into cultivation1 x also calls into exi/5ce new m>kets = manufactur$ & agricultural produce4 ,! great spe$ ( transit :i* has be5 prov$ to be practicable1 mu/ op5 a comm]ce betwe5 di/ant po9ts 9 v>i\s articles1 ! nature ( :i* does n p]mit !m to be pres]v$ s z to be fit = use beyond a c]ta9 "t4 ,su* are1 = example1 _m species ( vegetable & animal food1 :i* at pres5t are conf9$ to m>kets at a v limit$ di/ance f ! gr[] or fe$]4 ,! tru? ( ?is obs]vation is manife/$ by ! effects :i* h foll[$ ! int]c\rse by /eam on ! ,iri% ,*annel4 ,! we/]n t[ns ( ,engl& h become m>kets = a prodigi\s quantity ( ,iri% produce1 :i* x _h be5 previ\sly impossible to export4 ,if animal food be transport$ alive f ! gr[] to ! consum]1 ! di/ance ( ! m>ket is limit$ by ! p[] ( ! animal to travel1 & ! co/ ( its support on ! road4 ,x is only p>ticul> species ( cattle :i* be> to be c>ri$ to m>ket on common roads & by horse c>riages4 ,b ! peculi> nature ( a railway1 ! magnitude & weight ( ! loads :i* may be transport$ on x1 & ! prodigi\s spe$ :i* may be atta9$1 r5d] ! transport ( cattle1 ( e species1 to almo/ any di/ance1 bo? easy & *eap4 ,9 process ( "t1 :5 ! railway sy/em becomes ext5d$1 ! metropolis & popul\s t[ns w !re=e become m>kets1 n z at pres5t to di/ricts )9 limit$ di/ances ( !m1 b to ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! moral & political consequ5ces ( s great a *ange 9 ! p[]s ( transition ( p]sons & intellig5ce f place to place are n easily calculat$4 ,! conc5tration ( m9d & ex]tion :i* a great metropolis always exhibits1 w be ext5d$ 9 a consid]able degree to ! :ole realm4 ,! same effect w be produc$ z if all di/ances 7 less5$ 9 ! proportion 9 :i* ! spe$ & *eapness ( transit are increas$4 ,t[ns1 at pres5t remov$ "s /ages f ! metropolis1 w become its suburbs2 o!rs1 n[ a day's j\rney1 w be remov$ to its imm$iate vic9ity2 bus9ess w be c>ri$ on ) z mu* ease betwe5 !m & ! metropolis1 z x is n[ betwe5 di/ant po9ts ( ! metropolis itself4 ,let ^? :o disc>d speculations l ^! z wild & improbable1 recur to ! /ate ( public op9ion1 at no v remote p]iod1 on ! subject ( /eam navigation4 ,)9 ! memory ( p]sons :o h n yet pass$ ! m]idian ( life1 ! possibility ( trav]s+ by ! /eam eng9e ! *annels & seas t surr\nd & int]sect ^! isl&s1 0 reg>d$ z ! dream ( en?usia/s4 ,nautical m5 & m5 ( sci5ce reject$ su* speculations ) equal incr$ulity1 & ) little less ?an scorn = ! und]/&+ ( ^? :o c\ld = a mom5t ent]ta9 !m4 ,yet we h witness$ /eam eng9es trav]s+ n ^! *annels & seas alone1 b sweep+ ! face ( ! wat]s r\nd e coa/ 9 ,europe4 ,! seas :i* int]pose betwe5 our ,asiatic dom9ions & ,egypt1 & ^? :i* sep>ate our own %ores f our ,we/ ,indian possessions1 h (f]$ an equally ineffectual b>ri] to its p[]s4 ,nor h ! t]rors ( ! ,pacific prev5t$ ! ,ent]prise f d\bl+ ! ,cape1 & rea*+ ! %ores ( ,india4 ,if /eam be n us$ z ! only means ( connect+ ! mo/ di/ant po9ts ( our planet1 x is n because x is inadequate to ! accompli%m5t ( t end1 b because ! supply ( ! mat]ial f :i* at ! pres5t mom5t x d]ives its p[]s1 is re/rict$ by local & accid5tal circum/ances4#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,"s ( ! prec$+ obs]vations on inl& transport1 z well z o!r p>ts ( ! pres5t *apt]1 appe>$ 9 articles writt5 by me 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review = ,octob]1 #ahcb1 & ,octob]1 #ahcd4 ,we propose 9 ! pres5t *apt] to lay be=e our read]s "s acc\nt ( ! means :]eby ! effects above ref]r$ to h be5 produc$2 ( ! mann] & degree 9 :i* ! public h avail$ !mselves ( ^! means2 & ( ! improvem5ts ( :i* !y seem to u to be susceptible4 7#he47 ,x is a s+ul> fact1 t 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is inv5tion consid]able "t & great +5uity 7 va9ly exp5d$ 9 attempt+ to ov]come a difficulty1 :i* 9 ! end turn$ out to be purely imag9>y4 ,to compreh5d di/9ctly ! mann] 9 :i* a :eel c>riage is propell$ by /eam1 suppose t a p9 or h&le is atta*$ to ! spoke ( ! :eel at "s di/ance f its c5tre1 & t a =ce is appli$ to ?is p9 9 su* a mann] z to make ! :eel revolve4 ,if ! face ( ! :eel & ! surface ( ! road 7 absolutely smoo? & free f friction1 s t ! face ( ! :eel w\ld slide )\t resi/ance ^u ! road1 !n ! effect ( ! =ce ?us appli$ w\ld be m]ely to cause ! :eel to turn r\nd1 ! c>riage be+ /ation>y1 ! surface ( ! :eel w\ld slip or slide ^u ! road z ! :eel is made to revolve4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! pressure ( ! face ( ! :eel ^u ! road is su* z to produce betwe5 !m su* a degree ( adhesion z w r5d] x impossible = ! :eel to slide or slip ^u ! road by ! =ce :i* is appli$ to x1 ! consequ5ce w be1 t ! :eel c only turn r\nd 9 ob$i5ce to ! =ce :i* moves x by caus+ ! c>riage to advance1 s t ! :eel w roll ^u ! road1 & ! c>riage w be mov$ =w>d1 ?r\gh a di/ance equal to ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 ea* "t x p]=ms a complete revolution4 ,x is obvi\s t bo? ( ^! effects may be p>tially produc$2 ! adhesion ( ! :eel to ! road may be insuffici5t to prev5t slipp+ altoge!r1 & yet x may be suffici5t to prev5t ! :eel f slipp+ z fa/ z x revolves4 ,"u su* circum/ances ! c>riage w\ld advance & ! :eel w\ld slip4 ,! progressive motion ( ! c>riage dur+ "o complete revolution ( ! :eel w\ld be equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! complete circumf]5ce ( ! :eel & ! portion ?r\gh :i* 9 "o revolution x has slipp$4 ,:5 ! con/ruction ( travell+ /eam eng9es fir/ engag$ ! att5tion ( eng9e]s1 & = a consid]able p]iod aft]w>ds1 a notion 0 impress$ ^u _! m9ds t ! adhesion betwe5 ! face ( ! :eel & ! surface ( ! road mu/ necess>ily be ( v small am\nt1 & t 9 e practical case ! :eels ?us driv5 w\ld ei!r slip altoge!r1 & produce no advance ( ! c>riage1 or t a consid]able portion ( ! impell+ p[] w\ld be lo/ by ! p>tial slipp+ or slid+ ( ! :eels4 ,x is s+ul> t x %\ld nev] h occurr$ to ! _m +5i\s p]sons :o = sev]al ye>s 7 engag$ 9 su* exp]im5ts & speculations1 to asc]ta9 by exp]im5t ! actual am\nt ( adhesion 9 any p>ticul> case betwe5 ! :eels & ! road4 ,_h !y done s1 we %\ld probably n[ h f\nd locomotive eng9es 9 a m advanc$ /ate ?an t to :i* !y h atta9$4 ,to rem$y ?is imag9>y difficulty1 ,messrs4 ,trevi?ick & ,vivian propos$ to make ! ext]nal rims ( ! :eels r\gh & unev51 by surr\nd+ !m ) project+ heads ( nails or bolts1 or by cutt+ transv]se grooves on !m4 ,!y propos$1 9 cases :]e consid]able elevations 7 to be asc5d$1 to cause claws or nails to project f ! surface dur+ ! asc5t1 s z to take hold ( ! road4 ,9 sev5 ye>s aft] ! con/ruction ( ! fir/ locomotive eng9e by ^! eng9e]s1 ano!r locomotive eng9e 0 con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,bl9k5sop1 ( ,middleton ,colli]y1 ne> ,le$s4 ,he obta9$ a pat5t1 9 #ahaa1 = ! application ( a rack-rail4 ,! railroad ?us1 in/ead ( be+ compos$ ( smoo? b>s ( iron1 pres5t$ a l9e ( project+ tee?1 l ^? ( a cog-:eel1 :i* /ret*$ along ! entire di/ance to be travell$4 ,! :eels on :i* ! eng9e roll$ 7 furni%$ ) correspond+ tee?1 :i* work$ 9 ! tee? ( ! railroad2 &1 9 ?is way1 produc$ a progressive motion 9 ! c>riage4 ,! next contrivance = ov]com+ ?is fictiti\s difficulty1 0 t ( ,messrs4 ,*apman1 :o1 9 ! ye> #ahab1 obta9$ a pat5t = work+ a locomotive eng9e by a *a9 ext5d+ along ! middle ( ! l9e ( railroad1 f ! "o end to ! o!r4 ,?is *a9 0 pass$ once r\nd a groov$ :eel "u ! c5tre ( ! c>riage2 s t1 :5 ?is groov$ :eel 0 turn$ by ! eng9e1 ! *a9 be+ incapable ( slipp+ ^u x1 ! c>riage 0 consequ5tly advanc$ on ! road4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ! /ra9 f act+ on ! :ole l5g? ( ! *a91 its l9ks 7 made to fall ^u upright =ks plac$ at c]ta9 int]vals1 :i* betwe5 ^? int]vals su/a9$ ! t5sion ( ! *a9 produc$ by ! eng9e4 ,friction-roll]s 7 us$ to press ! *a9 into ! groove ( ! :eel1 s z to prev5t x f slipp+4 ,?is contrivance 0 soon ab&on$1 = ! v obvi\s reason t a prodigi\s loss ( =ce 0 incurr$ by ! friction ( ! *a94 ,! foll[+ ye>1 #ahac1 produc$ a contrivance1 ( s+ul> +5uity1 = ov]com+ ! suppos$ difficulty aris+ f ! want ( adhesion betwe5 ! :eels & ! road4 ,?is 0 no o!r ?an a pair ( me*anical legs & feet1 :i* 7 made to walk & propel 9 a mann] some:at resembl+ ! feet ( an animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,a sket* ( ^! propell]s is giv5 9 fig4 #ec4 ,a is ! c>riage mov+ on ! railroad1 ,l & ,l are ! legs1 ,f & ,f ! feet4 ,! foot ,f has a jo9t at ,o1 :i* corresponds to ! ankle2 ano!r jo9t is plac$ at ,k1 :i* corresponds to ! knee2 & a ?ird is plac$ at ,l1 :i* corresponds to ! hip4 ,simil> jo9ts are plac$ at ! correspond+ lett]s 9 ! o!r leg4 ,! knee-jo9t ,k is atta*$ to ! end ( ! pi/on ( ! cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! pi/on1 :i* is horizontal1 is press$ outw>ds1 ! leg ,l presses ! foot ,f aga9/ ! gr\nd1 & ! resi/ance =ces ! c>riage ,a onw>ds4 ,z ! c>riage proce$s1 ! angle ,k at ! knee becomes l>g]1 s t ! leg & ?igh take a /raight] position2 & ?is cont9ues until ! pi/on has rea*$ ! end ( its /roke4 ,at ! hip ,l !re is a %ort lev]1 ,l ,m1 ! extremity ( :i* is connect$ by a cord or *a9 ) a po9t1 ,s1 plac$ ne> ! %9 ( ! leg4 ,:5 ! pi/on is press$ into ! cyl9d]1 ! knee1 ,k1 is drawn t[>ds ! eng9e1 & ! cord1 ,m ,s1 is made to lift ! foot1 ,f1 f ! gr\nd2 to :i* x does n return until ! pi/on has arriv$ at ! extremity ( ! cyl9d]4 ,on ! pi/on be+ aga9 driv5 out ( ! cyl9d]1 ! foot1 ,f1 be+ plac$ on ! road1 is press$ backw>ds by ! =ce ( ! pi/on-rod at ,k2 b ! friction ( ! gr\nd prev5t+ its backw>d motion1 ! re-action causes ! eng9e to advance3 & 9 ! same mann] ?is process is cont9u$4 ,atta*$ to ! ?igh1 at ,n1 above ! knee1 by a jo9t1 is a horizontal rod1 ,n ,r1 :i* works a rack1 ,r4 ,?is rack has b5ea? x a cog-:eel4 ,?is cog-:eel acts 9 ano!r rack bel[ x4 ,by ^! means1 :5 ! knee ,k is driv5 f ! eng9e1 ! rack ,r is mov$ backw>ds2 b ! cog-:eel1 act+ on ! o!r rack b5ea? x1 w move ! latt] 9 ! contr>y direction4 ,! rack ,r be+ !n mov$ 9 ! same direction ) ! knee1 ,k1 x foll[s t ! o!r rack w always be mov$ 9 a contr>y direction4 ,! l[] rack is connect$ by ano!r horizontal rod ) ! ?igh ( ! leg1 ,l ,f1 imm$iately above ! knee1 at ,n4 ,:5 ! pi/on is =c$ inw>ds1 ! knee1 ,k1 w ?us be =c$ backw>ds2 & :5 ! pi/on is =c$ outw>ds1 ! knee1 ,k1 w be drawn =w>ds4 ,x !re=e foll[s t ! two knees1 ,k & ,k1 are press$ alt]nately backw>ds & =w>ds4 ,! foot1 ,f1 :5 ! knee1 ,k1 is drawn =w>d1 is lift$ by ! means already describ$ = ! foot1 ,f4 ,x w be app>5t1 f ?is description1 t ! piece ( me*anism "h exhibit$ is a contrivance d]iv$ f ! motion ( ! legs ( an animal1 & resembl+ 9 all respects ! =e legs ( a horse4 ,x is h[ev] to be reg>d$ r z a specim5 ( great +5uity ?an z a contrivance ( practical utility4 7#hf47 ,x 0 ab\t ?is p]iod t ! important fact 0 fir/ asc]ta9$ t ! adhesion or friction ( ! :eels ) ! rails on :i* !y mov$ 0 amply suffici5t to propel ! eng9e1 ev5 :5 dragg+ aft] x a load ( great weight2 & t 9 su* case1 ! progressive motion w\ld be effect$ )\t any slipp+ ( ! :eels4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is fact r5d]$ totally useless all ! contrivances = giv+ :eels a pur*ase on ! road1 su* z racks1 *a9s1 feet1 c4 ,! exp]im5t by :i* ?is 0 det]m9$ appe>s to h be5 fir/ tri$ on ! ,wylam railroad2 :]e x 0 prov$1 t1 :5 ! road 0 level1 & ! rails clean1 ! adhesion ( ! :eels 0 suffici5t1 9 all k9d ( wea!r1 to propel consid]able loads4 ,by manual lab\r x 0 fir/ asc]ta9$ h[ mu* weight ! :eels ( a common c>riage w\ld ov]come )\t slipp+ r\nd on ! rail2 & hav+ f\nd ! proportion :i* t bore to ! weight1 !y !n asc]ta9$ t ! weight ( ! eng9e w\ld produce suffici5t adhesion to drag aft] x1 on ! railroad1 ! requisite numb] ( wagons4#be ,footnote #be3 ,wood on ,railroads1 #b;d edit4 ,9 #ahad1 an eng9e 0 con/ruct$ at ,kill+wor?1 by ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 hav+ two cyl9d]s ) a cyl9drical boil]1 & work+ two pair ( :eels1 by cranks plac$ at "r angles2 s t :5 ! "o 0 9 full op]ation1 ! o!r 0 at its dead po9ts4 ,by ^! means ! propell+ p[] 0 always 9 action4 ,! cranks 7 ma9ta9$ 9 ?is position by an endless *a91 :i* pass$ r\nd two cogg$ :eels plac$ "u ! eng9e1 & :i* 7 fix$ on ! same axles on :i* ! :eels 7 plac$4 ,! :eels 9 ?is case 7 fix$ on ! axles1 & turn$ ) !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,?is eng9e is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ed41 ! sides be+ op51 to r5d] ! int]ior me*anism visible4 ,a ,b is ! cyl9drical boil]2 ,c ,c are ! work+ cyl9d]s2 ,d ,e are ! cogg$ :eels fix$ on ! axle ( ! :eels ( ! eng9e1 & surr\nd$ by ! endless *a94 ,^! :eels be+ equal 9 magnitude1 p]=m _! revolutions 9 ! same "t2 s t1 :5 ! crank1 ,f1 desc5ds to ! l[e/ po9t1 ! crank1 ,g1 rises f ! l[e/ po9t to ! horizontal position1 ,d2 &1 aga91 :5 ! crank1 ,f1 rises f ! l[e/ po9t to ! horizontal position1 ,e1 ! o!r crank rises to ! highe/ po9t2 & s on4 ,a v beautiful contrivance 0 adopt$ 9 ?is eng9e1 by :i* x 0 susp5d$ on spr+s ( /eam4 ,small cyl9d]s1 repres5t$ at ,h1 are screw$ by flanges to "o side ( ! boil]1 & project )9 x a few in*es2 !y h free communication at ! top ) ! wat] or /eam ( ! boil]4 ,solid pi/ons are repres5t$ at ,i1 :i* move /eam-tight 9 ^! cyl9d]s2 ! cyl9d]s are op5 at ! bottom1 & ! pi/on-rods are screw$ on ! c>riage ( ! eng9e1 ov] ! axle ( ea* pair ( :eels1 ! pi/ons be+ pres5t$ upw>ds4 ,z ! eng9e is repres5t$ 9 ! figure1 x is support$ on f\r pi/ons1 two at ea* side4 ,! pi/ons are press$ ^u by ! wat] or /eam :i* occupies ! upp] *amb] ( ! cyl9d]2 & ! latt] be+ ela/ic 9 a high degree1 ! eng9e has all ! advantage ( spr+ susp5sion4 ,! defect ( ?is me?od ( support+ ! eng9e is1 t :5 ! /eam loses t am\nt ( ela/icity necess>y = ! support ( ! ma*9e1 ! pi/ons are =c$ into ! cyl9d]s1 & ! bottoms ( ! cyl9d]s be> ^u !m4 ,all spr+ susp5sion is !n lo/4 ,?is mode ( susp5sion has consequ5tly s9ce be5 laid aside4 ,9 an eng9e subsequ5tly con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son1 = ! ,kill+wor? railroad1 ! mode adopt$ ( connect+ ! :eels by an endless *a9 & cog-:eels 0 ab&on$2 & ! same effect 0 produc$ by connect+ ! two cranks by a /raight rod4 ,all su* contrivances1 h[ev]1 h ?is great defect1 t1 if ! =e & h9d :eels be n con/ruct$ ) dim5sions accurately equal1 !re mu/ necess>ily be a slipp+ or dragg+ on ! road4 ,! nature ( ! ma*9]y requires t ea* :eel %\ld p]=m its revolution exactly 9 ! same "t2 & consequ5tly1 9 do+ s1 mu/ pass ov] exactly equal l5g?s ( ! road4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eels be n accurately equal1 t :eel :i* has ! less] circumf]5ce mu/ be dragg$ along s mu* ( ! road z t by :i* x falls %ort ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! great] :eel2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 ! great] mu/ be dragg$ 9 ! opposite direction1 to comp5sate = ! same diff]5ce4 ,z no me*anism c accompli% a p]fect equality 9 f\r1 mu* less 9 six1 :eels1 x may be assum$ t a great portion ( t dragg+ effect is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( ?is ma*9e2 & ev5 7 ! :eels1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 accurately con/ruct$1 x is n possible t _! we> c\ld be s exactly uni=m z to cont9ue equal4 7#hg47 ,! next /imulus :i* ! progress ( ?is inv5tion receiv$1 proce$$ f ! great national "w und]tak5 at ,liv]pool1 by :i* t t[n & ! ext5sive comm]cial m>t ( ,man*e/] 7 connect$ by a d\ble l9e ( railway4 ,:5 ?is project 0 und]tak51 x 0 n decid$ :at mov+ p[] x might be mo/ exp$i5t to adopt z a means ( transport on ! propos$ road3 ! *oice lay betwe5 horse-p[]1 fix$ /eam eng9es1 & locomotive eng9es2 b ! fir/1 = _m obvi\s reasons1 0 at once reject$ 9 fav\r ( "o or o!r ( ! la/ two4 ,! /eam eng9e may be appli$1 by two di/9ct me?ods1 to move wagons ei!r on a turnpike road or on a railway4 ,by ! "o me?od ! /eam eng9e is fix$1 & draws ! c>riage or tra9 ( c>riages t[>ds x by a *a9 ext5d+ ! :ole l5g? ( road on :i* ! eng9e works4 ,by ?is me?od ! l9e ( road ov] :i* ! transport is conduct$ is divid$ into a numb] ( %ort int]vals1 at ! extremity ( ea* ( :i* an eng9e is plac$4 ,! wagons or c>riages1 :5 drawn by any eng9e to its own /ation1 or deta*$1 & connect$ ) ! extremity ( ! *a9 work$ by ! next /ation>y eng9e2 & ?us ! j\rney is p]=m$1 f /ation to /ation1 by sep>ate eng9es4 ,by ! o!r me?od ! same eng9e draws ! load ! :ole j\rney1 travell+ ) x4 ,! ,directors ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad1 :5 t "w 0 advanc$ t[>ds its completion1 employ$1 9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #ahbi1 ,messrs4 ,/eph5son & ,lock & ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 exp]i5c$ eng9e]s1 to visit ! diff]5t railways :]e practical in=mation respect+ ! comp>ative effects ( /ation>y & locomotive eng9es 0 likely to be obta9$2 & f ^! g5tlem5 !y receiv$ reports on ! relative m]its1 accord+ to _! judgm5t1 ( ! two me?ods4 ,! p>ticul>s ( _! calculations are giv5 at l>ge 9 ! valuable "w ( ,mr4 ,ni*olas ,wood on railways2 to :i* we ref] ! read]1 n only on ?is1 b on _m o!r subjects connect$ ) ! locomotive /eam eng9e into :i* x w\ld be =eign to our subject to ent]4 ,! result ( ! comp>ison ( ! two sy/ems 01 t ! capital necess>y to be advanc$ to e/abli% a l9e ( /ation>y eng9es 0 consid]ably great] ?an t :i* 0 necess>y to e/abli% an equival5t p[] 9 locomotive eng9es2 t ! annual exp5se by ! /ation>y eng9es 0 likewise great]2 & t1 consequ5tly1 ! exp5se ( transport by ! latt] 0 great]1 9 a l proportion4 ,! subjo9$ table exhibits ! results num]ically3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,annual ,exp5se ( ,capital4 ,exp5se4 tak+ a ,ton ( ,goods ,"o ,mile4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,locomotive ,eng9es #eh1jjj #j #j #be1eag #h #b #jafd ( a p5ny4 ,/ation>y ,eng9es #aba1dif #g #j #db1jca #af #e #jbfi ---------------------------------------- --- ,locomotive ,sy/em--less #fc1dif #g #j #af1ead #h #c #jaje ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,on ! score ( economy1 !re=e1 ! sy/em ( locomotive eng9es 0 entitl$ to a pref]5ce2 b !re 7 o!r consid]ations :i* conspir$ ) ?is to decide ! *oice ( ! ,directors 9 its fav\r4 ,an accid5t occurr+ 9 any "p ( a road work$ by /ation>y eng9es mu/ necess>ily produce a total susp5sion ( "w along ! entire l9e4 ,! mo/ vigilant & active att5tion on ! "p ( e workman1 h[ev] employ$1 9 e "p ( ! l9e1 w\ld !re=e be necess>y2 b1 indep5d5tly ( ?is1 accid5ts aris+ f ! fracture or d]angem5t ( any ( ! *a9s1 or f ! susp5sion ( ! work+ ( any ( ! fix$ eng9es1 w\ld be equally injuri\s1 & w\ld effectually /op ! int]c\rse along ! l9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 locomotive eng9es an accid5t c\ld only affect ! p>ticul> tra9 ( c>riages drawn by ! eng9e to :i* ! accid5t might occur2 & ev5 !n ! difficulty c\ld be rem$i$ by hav+ a supply ( sp>e eng9es at conv5i5t /ations along ! l9e4 ,x is true t ! probability ( accid5t is1 p]haps1 less 9 ! /ation>y ?an 9 ! locomotive sy/em2 b ! injuri\s consequ5ces1 :5 accid5t does happ51 are prodigi\sly great] 9 ! =m]4 ,! "o sy/em1 says ,mr4 ,walk]1 is l a *a9 ext5d+ f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/]1 ! failure ( a s+le l9k ( :i* w\ld de/roy ! :ole2 :ile ! o!r is l a numb] ( %ort & unconnect$ *a9s1 ! de/ruction ( any "o ( :i* does n int]f]e ) ! effect ( ! o!rs1 & ! loss ( :i* may be suppli$ ) facility4 ,! decision ( ! ,directors 01 !re=e1 9 fav\r ( locomotive eng9es2 & _! next measure 0 to devise "s means by :i* ! inv5tive g5ius ( ! c\ntry might be /imulat$ to supply !m ) ! be/ possible =m ( eng9es = ?is purpose4 ,) ?is view1 x 0 propos$ & c>ri$ into effect to (f] a prize = ! be/ locomotive eng9e :i* might be produc$ "u c]ta9 propos$ conditions1 & to appo9t a "t = a public trial ( ! claims ( ! c&idates4 ,a premium ( #ejjl4 0 accord+ly (f]$ = ! be/ locomotive eng9e to run on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway2 "u ! condition t x %\ld produce no smoke2 t ! pressure ( ! /eam %\ld be limit$ to #ej lbs4 on ! in*2 & t x %\ld draw at lea/ ?ree times its own weight1 at ! rate ( n less ?an t5 miles an h\r2 t ! eng9e %\ld be support$ on spr+s1 & %\ld n exce$ fifte5 feet 9 height4 ,precautions 7 also propos$ aga9/ ! consequ5ces ( ! boil] bur/+2 & o!r matt]s1 n necess>y to m5tion m p>ticul>ly "h4 ,?is proposal 0 ann\nc$ 9 ! spr+ ( #ahbi1 & ! "t ( trial 0 appo9t$ 9 ! foll[+ ,octob]4 ,! eng9es :i* und]w5t ! trial 71 ! ,rocket1 con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,/eph5son2 ! ,sansp>iel1 by ,hackwor?2 & ! ,novelty1 by ,messrs4 ,brai?wait & ,ericson4 ,( ^!1 ! ,rocket obta9$ ! premium4 ,a l9e ( railway 0 select$ = ! trial1 on a level piece ( road ab\t two miles 9 l5g?1 ne> a place call$ ,ra9hill1 betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]2 ! di/ance betwe5 ! two /ations 0 a mile & a half1 & ! eng9e _h to travel ?is di/ance backw>ds & =w>ds t5 times1 :i* made altoge!r a j\rney ( #cj miles4 ,! ,rocket p]=m$ ?is j\rney twice3 ! fir/ "t 9 #b h\rs #ad m9utes & #h seconds2 & ! second "t1 9 #b h\rs #f m9utes & #di seconds4 ,its spe$ at diff]5t p>ts ( ! j\rney v>i$3 its greate/ rate ( motion 0 r above #bi miles an h\r2 & its lea/1 ab\t #aa-a_/b miles an h\r4 ,! av]age rate ( ! "o j\rney 0 #ac-d_/aj miles an h\r2 & ( ! o!r1 #ad-b_/bj miles4 ,?is 0 ! only eng9e :i* p]=m$ ! complete j\rney propos$1 ! o!rs hav+ be5 /opp$ f accid5ts :i* occurr$ to !m 9 ! exp]im5t4 ,! ,sansp>iel p]=m$ ! di/ance betwe5 ! /ations eight times1 travell+ #bb-a_/b miles 9 #a h\r #cg m9utes & #af seconds4 ,! greate/ velocity to :i* ?is eng9e atta9$ 0 some?+ less ?an #bc miles p] h\r4 ,! ,novelty _h only pass$ twice betwe5 ! /ations :5 ! jo9ts ( ! boil] gave way1 & put an end to ! exp]im5t4 7#hh47 ,! great object to be atta9$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ^! eng9es 01 to comb9e ) suffici5t lightness ! greate/ possible heat+ p[]4 ,! fire necess>ily acts on ! wat] 9 two ways3 fir/1 by its radiant heat2 &1 second1 by ! curr5t ( heat$ air :i* is c>ri$ by ! draft ?r\gh ! fire1 & f9ally passes into ! *imney4 ,to accompli% ?is object1 !re=e1 x is necess>y to expose to bo? ^! s\rces ( heat ! greate/ possible quantity ( surface 9 contact ) ! wat]4 ,^! ends 7 atta9$ by ! foll[+ admirable arrangem5t 9 ! ,rocket3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,?is eng9e is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ee4 ,x is support$ on f\r :eels2 ! pr9cipal "p ( ! weight be+ ?r[n on "o pair1 :i* are work$ by ! eng9e4 ,! boil] consi/s ( a cyl9d] #f feet 9 l5g?1 ) flat ends2 ! *imney issues f "o end1 & to ! o!r end is atta*$ a squ>e box1 ,b1 ! bottom ( :i* is furni%$ ) ! grate on :i* ! fuel is plac$4 ,?is box is compos$ ( two cas+s ( iron1 "o conta9$ )9 ! o!r1 hav+ betwe5 !m a space ab\t #c in*es 9 bread?2 ! magnitude ( ! box be+ #c feet 9 l5g?1 #b feet 9 wid?1 & #c feet 9 dep?4 ,! cas+ :i* surr\nds ! box communicates ) ! l[] "p ( ! boil] by a pipe m>k$ ,c2 & ! same cas+ at ! top ( ! box communicates ) ! upp] "p ( ! boil] by ano!r pipe m>k$ ,d4 ,:5 wat] is admitt$ into ! boil]1 !re=e1 x fl[s freely ?r\gh ! pipe ,c1 into ! cas+ :i* surr\nds ! furnace or fire-box1 & fills ?is cas+ to ! same level z t :i* x has 9 ! boil]4 ,:5 ! eng9e is at "w1 ! boil] is kept ab\t half fill$ ) wat]2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! cas+ surr\nd+ ! furnace is completely fill$4 ,! /eam :i* is g5]at$ 9 ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! cas+ f9ds its exit ?r\gh ! pipe ,d1 & escapes into ! upp] "p ( ! boil]4 ,a section ( ! eng9e1 tak5 at "r angles to its l5g? is repres5t$ at fig4 #ef4 ,?r\gh ! l[] "p ( ! boil] pass a numb] ( copp] tubes ( small size1 :i* communicate at "o end ) ! fire-box1 & at ! o!r ) ! *imney1 & =m a passage = ! heat$ air f ! furnace to ! *imney4 ,! ignit$ fuel spread on ! grate at ! bottom ( ! fire-box disp]ses its heat by radiation1 & acts 9 ?is mann] on ! :ole surface ( ! cas+ surr\nd+ ! fire-box2 & ?us raises ! temp]ature ( ! ?9 %ell ( wat] conta9$ 9 t cas+4 ,! *ief "p ( ! wat] 9 ! cas+1 be+ l[] 9 its position ?an ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 acquires a t5d5cy to asc5d :5 heat$1 & passes into ! boil]2 s t a con/ant circulation ( ! heat$ wat] is ma9ta9$1 & ! wat] 9 ! boil] mu/ necess>ily be kept at ne>ly ! same temp]ature z ! wat] 9 ! cas+4 ,! air :i* passes ?r\gh ! burn+ fuel1 & :i* fills ! fire-box1 is c>ri$ by ! draft ?r\gh ! tubes :i* ext5d ?r\gh ! l[] "p ( ! boil]2 & z ^! tubes are surr\nd$ on e side ) ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! boil]1 ?is air transmits its heat ?r\gh ^! tubes to ! wat]4 ,x f9ally issues into ! *imney1 & rises by ! draft4 ,! p[] ( ?is furnace mu/ necess>ily dep5d on ! p[] ( draft 9 ! *imney2 & to increase ?is1 & at ! same "t to dispose ( ! wa/e /eam aft] x has work$ ! pi/on1 ?is /eam is c>ri$ (f by a pipe ,l1 :i* passes f ! cyl9d] to ! *imney1 & escapes !re 9 a jet :i* is turn$ upw>ds4 ,by ! velocity ) :i* x issues f ?is jet1 & by its great comp>ative levity1 x produces a /rong curr5t upw>ds 9 ! *imney1 & ?us gives =ce to ! draft ( ! furnace4 ,9 fig4 #ef4 ! grate-b>s are repres5t$ at ! bottom ( ! fire-box at ,f4 ,!re are two cyl9d]s1 "o ( :i* works ea* :eel2 "o only appe>+ 9 ! draw+1 fig4 #ee41 ! o!r be+ conceal$ by ! eng9e4 ,! spokes :i* ^! cyl9d]s "w are plac$ at "r angles on ! :eels2 ! :eels be+ fix$ on a common axle1 ) :i* !y turn4 ,9 ?is eng9e1 ! surface ( wat] surr\nd+ ! fire-box1 expos$ to ! action ( radiant heat1 am\nt$ to #bj squ>e feet1 :i* receiv$ heat f ! surface ( #f squ>e feet ( burn+ fuel on ! b>s4 ,! surface expos$ to ! action ( ! heat$ air am\nt$ to #aah squ>e feet4 ,! eng9e drew aft] x ano!r c>riage1 conta9+ fuel & wat]2 ! fuel us$ 0 coke1 = ! purpose ( avoid+ ! production ( smoke4 7#hi47 ,! ,sansp>eil ( ,mr4 ,hackwor? is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #eg42 ! horizontal section be+ exhibit$ 9 fig4 #eh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,! draft ( ! furnace is produc$ 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! ,rocket1 by eject+ ! wa/e /eam com+ f ! cyl9d] into ! *imney2 ! boil]1 h[ev]1 diff]s consid]ably f t ( ! ,rocket4 ,a recurv$ tube passes ?r\gh ! boil]1 some:at simil> to t already describ$ 9 ! e>ly eng9e ( ,messrs4 ,trevi?ick & ,vivian4 ,9 ! horizontal section 7fig4 #eh471 ,d expresses ! op5+ ( ! furnace at ! end ( ! boil]1 beside ! *imney4 ,! grate-b>s appe> at ,a1 support+ ! burn+ fuel2 & a curv$ tube pass+ ?r\gh ! boil]1 & t]m9at+ 9 ! *imney1 is express$ at ,b1 ! direction ( ! draft be+ indicat$ by ! arr[2 ,c is a section ( ! *imney4 ,! cyl9d]s are plac$1 z 9 ! ,rocket1 on ea* side ( ! boil]2 ea* work+ a sep>ate :eel1 b act+ on spokes plac$ at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! tube 9 :i* ! grate & flue are plac$ dim9i%es 9 diamet] z x approa*es ! *imney4 ,at ! m\? :]e ! grate 0 plac$1 its diamet] 0 #b feet2 & x 0 gradually r$uc$1 s t1 at ! *imney1 its diamet] 0 only #ae in*es4 ,! grate-b>s ext5d$ #e feet into ! tube4 ,! surface ( wat] expos$ to ! radiant heat ( ! fire 0 #af squ>e feet2 & t expos$ to ! action ( ! heat$ air & flame 0 ab\t #ge squ>e feet4 ,! magnitude ( ! grate or %eet ( burn+ fuel :i* radiat$ heat1 0 #aj squ>e feet4 7#ij47 ,! ,novelty1 ( ,messrs4 ,brai?wait & ,ericson1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ei42 & a section ( ! g5]ator & boil] is exhibit$ 9 fig4 #fj43 ! correspond+ p>ts 9 ! two figures are m>k$ by ! same lett]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,a is ! g5]ator or receiv]1 conta9+ ! /eam :i* works ! eng9e2 ?is communicates ) a l[] g5]ator1 ,b1 :i* ext5ds 9 a horizontal direction ! entire l5g? ( ! c>riage4 ,)9 ! g5]ator1 ,a1 is conta9$ ! furnace1 ,f1 :i* communicates 9 a tube1 ,c2 c>ri$ up ?r\gh ! g5]ator1 & t]m9at$ at ! top by slid+ %utt]s1 :i* exclude ! air1 & :i* are only op5$ to supply fuel to ! grate1 ,f4 ,bel[ ! grate ! furnace is n op51 z usual1 to ! atmosph]e1 b communicates by a tube1 ,e1 ) a bell[s1 ,d2 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e1 & :i* =ces a con/ant /ream ( air1 by ! tube ,e1 ?r\gh ! fuel on ,f1 s z to keep t fuel 9 vivid combu/ion4 ,! heat$ air1 conta9$ 9 ! furnace1 ,f1 is driv5 on1 by ! same =ce1 ?r\gh a small curv$ tube m>k$ e1 :i* circulates l a worm 7z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fj47 ?r\gh ! horizontal g5]ator or receiv]2 &1 tap]+ gradually1 until r$uc$ to v small dim5sions1 x f9ally issues into ! *imney1 ,g4 ,! air1 9 pass+ along ?is tube1 imp>ts its heat to ! wat] by :i* ! tube is surr\nd$1 & is br\ght to a consid]ably r$uc$ temp]ature :5 dis*>g$ into ! *imney4 ,! cyl9d]1 :i* is repres5t$ at ,k1 works "o pair ( :eels1 by means ( a bell-crank2 ! o!r pair1 :5 necess>y1 be+ connect$ ) !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,9 ?is eng9e1 ! magnitude ( ! surface ( burn+ fuel on ! grate-b>s is less ?an #b squ>e feet2 ! surface expos$ to radiant heat is #i-a_/b squ>e feet2 & ! surface ( wat] expos$ to heat$ air is ab\t #cc squ>e feet4 ,! sup]iority ( ! ,rocket may be attribut$ *iefly to ! great] quantity ( surface ( ! wat] :i* is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,) a less ext5t ( grate-b>s ?an ! ,sansp>eil1 9 ! proportion ( #c to #e1 x exposes a great] surface ( wat] to radiant heat1 9 ! proportion ( #d to #c2 & a great] surface ( wat] to heat$ air1 9 ! proportion ( m ?an #c to #b4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! ,rocket1 comp>$ ) ! ,sansp>eil1 consum$ fuel1 9 ! evaporation ( a giv5 quantity ( wat]1 9 ! proportion ( #aa to #bh4 ,! sugge/ion ( us+ ! tubes to conduct ?r\gh ! wat] ! heat$ air to ! *imney is due to ,mr4 ,boo?1 treasur] ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway ,company2 &1 c]ta9ly1 no?+ has be5 m conducive to ! effici5cy ( ! eng9es s9ce us$ ?an ?is improvem5t4 ,x is mu* to be regrett$ t ! +5i\s g5tleman :o sugge/$ ?is has reap$ none ( ! advantages to :i* a pat5tee w\ld be legally entitl$4#bf ,footnote #bf3 ,mr4 ,boo? receiv$ a "p ( ! premium ( #ejjl41 b has n p>ticipat$ 9 any degree 9 ! pr(its ( ! manufacture ( ! eng9es4 7#ia47 ,! great object to be effect$ 9 ! boil]s ( ^! eng9es is1 to keep a small quantity ( wat] at an excessive temp]ature1 by means ( a small quantity ( fuel kept 9 ! mo/ active /ate ( combu/ion4 ,to accompli% ?is1 x is necess>y1 fir/1 s to %ape ! boil]1 furnace1 & flues1 t ! wat] %all be 9 contact ) z ext5sive a surface z possible1 e "p ( :i* is act$ on ei!r imm$iately1 by ! heat radiat+ f ! fire1 or m$iately1 by ! air :i* has pass$ ?r\gh ! fire1 & :i* f9ally ru%es into ! *imney3 &1 secondly1 t su* a =cible draught %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ! furnace1 t a quantity ( heat %all be extricat$ f ! fuel1 by combu/ion1 suffici5t to ma9ta9 ! wat] at ! necess>y temp]ature1 & to produce ! /eam ) suffici5t rapidity4 ,to accompli% ^! objects1 !re=e1 ! *amb] conta9+ ! grate %\ld be completely surr\nd$ by wat]1 & %\ld be bel[ ! level ( ! wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,! magnitude ( ! surface expos$ to radiation %\ld be z great z is consi/5t ) ! :ole magnitude ( ! ma*9e4 ,! comp>ative advantage :i* ! ,rocket possess$ 9 ^! respects ov] ! o!r eng9es w be evid5t on inspection4 ,9 ! next place1 x is necess>y t ! heat1 :i* is absorb$ by ! air pass+ ?r\gh ! fuel1 & keep+ x 9 a /ate ( combu/ion1 %\ld be transf]r$ to ! wat] be=e ! air escapes into ! *imney4 ,air be+ a bad conductor ( heat1 to accompli% ?is x is necess>y t ! air 9 ! flues %\ld be expos$ to z great an ext5t ( surface 9 contact ) ! wat] z possible4 ,no contrivance c be less adapt$ = ! atta9m5t ( ?is end ?an "o or two l>ge tubes trav]s+ ! boil]1 z 9 ! e>lie/ locomotive eng9es3 ! body ( air :i* passes ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ^! tubes _h no contact ) _! surface1 &1 consequ5tly1 pass$ into ! *imney at ne>ly ! same temp]ature z t :i* x _h :5 x quitt$ ! fire4 ,! only portion ( air :i* imp>t$ its heat to ! wat] 0 t portion :i* pass$ next to ! surface ( ! tube4 ,sev]al me?ods sugge/ !mselves to increase ! surface ( wat] 9 contact ) a giv5 quantity ( air pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,?is w\ld be accompli%$ by caus+ ! air to pass betwe5 plates plac$ ne> ea* o!r1 s z to divide ! curr5t into ?9 /rata1 hav+ betwe5 !m /rata ( wat]1 or x might be made to pass betwe5 tubes diff]+ slightly 9 diamet]1 ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh an inn] tube1 & be+ also 9 contact ) ! ext]nal surface ( ! out] tube4 ,su* a me?od w\ld be simil> 9 pr9ciple to ! /eam-jacket us$ 9 ,watt's /eam eng9es1 or to ! cond5s] ( ,c>twright's eng9e already describ$4 ,b1 consid]+ ! facility ( con/ruct+ small tubes1 & ( plac+ !m 9 ! boil]1 t me?od1 p]haps1 is1 on ! :ole1 ! be/ 9 practice2 al?\gh ! %ape ( a tube1 geometrically consid]$1 is mo/ unfav\rable = ! exposure ( a fluid conta9$ 9 x to its surface4 ,! air :i* passes f ! fire-*amb]1 be+ subdivid$ z x passes ?r\gh ! boil] by a great numb] ( v small tubes1 may be made to imp>t all its excess ( heat to ! wat] be=e x issues into ! *imney4 ,?is is all :i* ! mo/ ref9$ contrivance c effect4 ,! ,rocket eng9e 0 trav]s$ by #be tubes1 ea* #c in*es 9 diamet]2 & ! pr9ciple has s9ce be5 c>ri$ to a mu* great] ext5t4 ,! ab/raction ( a great quantity ( heat f ! air be=e x rea*es ! *imney is att5d$ ) "o consequ5ce1 :i*1 at fir/ view1 w\ld pres5t a difficulty app>5tly insurm\ntable2 ! *imney w\ld1 9 fact1 lose its p[] ( draught4 ,?is difficulty1 h[ev]1 0 remov$ by us+ ! wa/e /eam1 :i* _h pass$ f ! cyl9d] aft] work+ ! eng9e1 = ! purpose ( produc+ a draught4 ,?is /eam 0 urg$ ?r\gh a jet pres5t$ upw>ds 9 ! *imney1 & driv5 out ) su* =ce 9 t direction z to create a suffici5t draught to "w ! furnace4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! pr9ciple ( draught 9 ! ,novelty is totally di/9ct f ?is3 9 t eng9e ! draught is produc$ by a bell[s work$ by ! eng9e4 ,! "q1 z f> z relates to ^! two me?ods1 is1 :e!r m p[] is lo/ 9 supply+ ! /eam ?r\gh ! jet1 z 9 ! ,rocket1 or 9 work+ ! bell[s1 z 9 ! ,novelty4 ,! =ce requisite to impel ! /eam ?r\gh ! jet mu/ be ex]t$ by ! return+ /roke ( ! pi/on1 &1 consequ5tly1 mu/ rob ! work+ effect to an equival5t am\nt4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p[] requisite to "w ! bell[s 9 ! ,novelty mu/ be subduct$ f ! available p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,! =m] me?od is f\nd to be ! m effectual & economical4 ,! importance ( ^! details w be und]/ood1 :5 x is consid]$ t ! only limit to ! atta9m5t ( spe$ by locomotive eng9es is ! p[] to produce 9 a giv5 "t a c]ta9 quantity ( /eam4 ,ea* /roke ( ! pi/on causes "o revolution ( ! :eels1 & consumes two cyl9d]s full ( /eam3 consequ5tly1 a cyl9d] ( /eam corresponds to a c]ta9 numb] ( feet ( road travell$ ov]3 h5ce x is t ! production ( a rapid & abundant supply ( heat1 & ! imp>t+ ( t heat quickly & effectually to ! wat]1 is ! key to ! solution ( ! problem to con/ruct an eng9e capable ( rapid motion4 ,! me?od ( subdivid+ ! flue into tubes 0 c>ri$ mu* fur!r by ,mr4 ,/eph5son aft] ! con/ruction ( ! ,rocket2 &1 inde$1 ! pr9ciple 0 s v obvi\s1 t x is only surpris+ t1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 tubes ( small] diamet] ?an #c in*es 7 n us$4 ,9 eng9es s9ce con/ruct$1 ! numb] ( tubes v>y f #ij to #abj1 ! diamet] be+ r$uc$ to #b in*es or less1 & 9 "s in/ances tubes h be5 introduc$1 ev5 to ! numb] ( #aej1 ( #a-a_/b in* diamet]4 ,9 ! ,meteor1 #bj squ>e feet are expos$ to radiation1 & #aci to ! contact ( heat$ air2 9 ! ,arr[1 #bj squ>e feet to radiation1 & #ade to ! contact ( heat$ air4 ,! sup]ior economy ( fuel ga9$ by ?is means w be app>5t by inspect+ ! foll[+ table1 :i* exhibits ! consumption ( fuel :i* 0 requisite to convey a ton weight a mile 9 ea* ( f\r eng9es1 express+ also ! rate ( ! motion3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,av]age rate (,consumption ( ,eng9es4 spe$ 9 miles,coke 9 p\nds p] h\r4 p] ton p] mile4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,no4 #a4 ,rocket #ad #bda #b4 ,sansp>eil #ae #bdg #c4 ,pho5ix #ab #adb #d4 ,arr[ #ab #abe ---------------------------------------- ---------- 7#ib47 ,s9ce ! p]iod at :i* ! railway 0 op5$ = ! actual purposes ( transport1 ! locomotive eng9es h be5 9 a /ate ( progressive improvem5t4 ,sc>cely a mon? has pass$ )\t sugge/+ "s *ange 9 ! details1 by :i* fuel might be economis$1 ! production ( /eam r5d]$ m rapid1 ! we> ( ! eng9e r5d]$ sl[]1 ! proportionate /r5g? ( ! diff]5t p>ts improv$1 or "s o!r desirable end obta9$4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is has be51 t ! p>ticul> eng9es to :i* we h allud$1 & o!rs ( ! same class1 )\t hav+1 z x 71 liv$ _! natural life1 or )\t hav+ be5 worn out by "w1 h be5 laid aside to give place to o!rs ( improv$ p[]s4 ,by ! exposure ( ! cyl9d]s to ! atmosph]e 9 ! ,rocket1 & eng9es ( a simil> =m1 a great wa/e ( heat 0 incurr$1 & x 0 accord+ly det]m9$ to remove !m f ! ext]ior ( ! boil]1 & to place !m )9 a cas+ imm$iately "u ! *imney3 ?is *amb] 0 necess>ily kept w>m by its proximity to ! end ( ! boil]1 b m by ! curr5t ( heat$ air :i* con/antly ru%$ into x f ! tubes4 ,?is *ange1 also1 r5d]$ necess>y ano!r1 :i* improv$ ! work+ ( ! eng9e4 ,9 ! e>li] eng9es ! motion ( ! pi/on 0 communicat$ to ! :eel by a connect+ rod atta*$ to "o ( ! spokes on ! ext]ior ( ! :eel1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ee4 ,by ! *ange to :i* we h j allud$1 ! cyl9d]s be+ plac$ betwe5 ! :eels "u ! *imney1 ?is mode ( work+ became inapplicable1 & x 0 consid]$ bett] to connect ! pi/on-rods ) two cranks plac$ at "r angles on ! axles ( ! great :eels4 ,by ?is means1 x 0 f\nd t ! work+ ( ! ma*9e 0 m ev51 & productive ( less /ra9 ?an 9 ! =m] arrangem5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a s]i\s disadvantage 0 incurr$ by ! adoption ( a crank$ axle4 ,! weakness necess>ily aris+ f su* a =m ( axle c\ld only be c\nt]balanc$ by great ?ickness & weight ( metal2 & ev5 ?is precaution does n prev5t ! occasional fracture ( su* axles at ! angles ( ! cranks4 ,! advantages1 h[ev]1 ( ?is plan1 on ! :ole1 are consid]$ to pr$om9ate4 ,9 ! mo/ improv$ eng9es 9 pres5t use two safety-valves are provid$1 ( :i* only "o is 9 ! p[] ( ! eng9e-man4 ,! tubes be+ small] & m num]\s ?an 9 ! e>li] eng9es1 ! heat is m completely extract$ f ! air be=e x ent]s ! *imney4 ,a p[]ful draft is r5d]$ /ill m necess>y by ! smallness ( ! tubes3 ?is is effect$ by =c+ ! /eam :i* has work$ ! pi/ons ?r\gh a contract$ orifice1 pres5t$ upw>ds 9 ! *imney1 by ! regulation ( :i* any degree ( draft may be obta9$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ improv$ eng9es at pres5t 9 use is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fa4 ,a repres5ts ! cyl9drical boil]1 ! l[] half ( :i* is trav]s$ by tubes1 z describ$ 9 ! ,rocket4 ,!y are usually f #hj to #ajj 9 numb]1 & ab\t #a-a_/b in* 9 diamet]2 ! boil] is ab\t #g feet 9 l5g?2 ! fire-*amb] is atta*$ to "o end ( x1 at ,f1 z 9 ! ,rocket1 & simil> 9 con/ruction2 ! cyl9d]s are ins]t$ 9 a *amb] at ! o!r end1 imm$iately "u ! *imney4 ,! pi/on-rods are support$ 9 ! horizontal position by guides2 & connect+ rods ext5d f !m1 "u ! eng9e1 to ! two cranks plac$ on ! axle ( ! l>ge :eels4 ,! effects ( any inequality 9 ! road are c\nt]act$ by spr+s1 on :i* ! eng9e re/s2 ! spr+s be+ bel[ ! axle ( ! great :eels1 & above t ( ! less4 ,! /eam is suppli$ to ! cyl9d]s1 & )drawn1 by means ( ! common slid+ valves1 :i* are work$ by an ecc5tric :eel plac$ on ! axle ( ! l>ge :eels ( ! c>riage4 ,! motion is communicat$ f ?is ecc5tric :eel to ! valve by slid+ rods4 ,! /& is plac$ = ! att5dant at ! end ( ! eng9e1 next ! fire-place1 ,f2 & two lev]s1 ,l1 project f ! end1 :i* communicate ) ! valves by means ( rods1 by :i* ! eng9e is gov]n$1 s z to /op or rev]se ! motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,! :eels ( ^! eng9es h be5 commonly con/ruct$ ( wood1 ) /rong iron tires1 furni%$ ) flanges adapt$ to ! rails4 ,b ,mr4 ,/eph5son has rec5tly sub/itut$1 9 "s in/ances1 :eels ( iron ) holl[ spokes4 ,! eng9e draws aft] x a t5d] c>riage conta9+ ! fuel & wat]2 &1 :5 c>ry+ a light load1 is capable ( p]=m+ ! :ole j\rney f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] )\t a fre% supply ( wat]4 ,:5 a heavy load ( m]*&ise is drawn1 x is usual to take 9 wat] at ! middle ( ! trip4 7#ic47 ,9 review+ all t has be5 /at$1 x w be p]ceiv$ t ! effici5cy ( ! locomotive eng9es us$ on ?is railway is ma9ly ow+ to ?ree circum/ances3 #a/1 ,! unlimit$ p[] ( draft 9 ! furnace1 by project+ ! wa/e /eam into ! *imney2 #b;d1 ,! unlimit$ ab/raction ( heat f ! air pass+ f ! furnace1 by ,mr4 ,boo?'s +5i\s arrangem5t ( tubes trav]s+ ! boil]2 &1 #c;d1 ,keep+ ! cyl9d]s w>m1 by imm]s+ !m 9 ! *amb] "u ! *imney4#bg ,!re are _m m9or details :i* might be notic$ ) approbation1 b ^! con/itute ! ma9 features ( ! improvem5ts1 & %\ld nev]1 = a mom5t1 be lo/ sight ( by projectors ( locomotive eng9es4 ,footnote #bg3 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,/eph5son1 ^: exp]i5ce & skill 9 ! con/ruction ( locomotives atta*es great importance to ?is condition4 ,x has lately1 h[ev]1 be5 ab&on$ by "s o!r eng9e-mak]s1 = ! purpose ( gett+ rid ( ! crank$ axle :i* mu/ accompany x4 ,! successive introduction ( improvem5ts 9 ! eng9es1 "s ( :i* we h m5tion$1 has be5 accompani$ by correspond+ accessions to _! practical p[]1 & to ! economy ( fuel2 & !y h n[ arriv$ at a po9t :i* is z f> beyond ! =m] expectations ( ! mo/ sangu9e locomotive projectors1 z x assur$ly is %ort ( ! p]fection ( :i* ^! wond]ful ma*9es are /ill susceptible4 ,9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #ahcb1 ,i made sev]al exp]im5ts on ! ,man*e/] railway1 ) a view to det]m9e1 9 ! actual /ate ( ! locomotive eng9es at t "t1 _! p[]s ) respect to ! am\nt ( load & ! economy ( fuel4 ,s9ce t "t ,i am n aw>e t1 9 ^! respects1 ! eng9e has receiv$ any mat]ial improvem5t4 ,! foll[+ are ! p>ticul>s ( ?ree exp]im5ts ?us made3-- ,i4 ,on ,saturday1 ! #e? ( ,may1 ! eng9e call$ ! ,victory took #bj wagons ( m]*&ise1 weigh+ gross #ib tons #ai cwt4 #a qr41 toge!r ) ! t5d] conta9+ fuel & wat]1 ( ! weight ( :i* ,i h no acc\nt1 f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] 7#cj miles17 9 #a h4 #cd m94 #de sec4 ,! tra9 /opp$ to take 9 wat] half-way1 = #aj m9utes1 n includ$ 9 ! above m5tion$ "t4 ,on ! incl9$ plane ris+ #a 9 #if1 & ext5d+ #a-a_/b mile1 ! eng9e 0 assi/$ by ano!r eng9e call$ ! ,samson1 & ! asc5t 0 p]=m$ 9 #i m9utes4 ,at />t+1 ! fire-place 0 well fill$ ) coke1 & ! coke suppli$ to ! t5d] accurately weigh$4 ,on arriv+ at ,man*e/] ! fire-place 0 aga9 fill$1 & ! coke rema9+ 9 ! t5d] weigh$4 ,! consumption 0 f\nd to am\nt to #ibi p\nds net weight1 be+ at ! rate ( "o ?ird ( a p\nd p] ton p] mile4 ,spe$ on ! level 0 #ah miles an h\r2 on a fall ( #d feet 9 a mile1 #ba-a_/b miles an h\r2 fall ( #f feet 9 a mile1 #be-a_/b miles an h\r2 on ! rise ov] ,*atmoss1 #h feet 9 a mile #ag-e_/h miles an h\r2 on level gr\nd %elt]$ f ! w9d1 #bj miles an h\r4 ,! w9d 0 mod]ate1 b direct ahead4 ,! work+ :eels slipp$ ?ree times on ,*atmoss1 & ! tra9 0 ret>d$ f #b to #c m9utes4 ,! eng9e1 on ?is occasion1 0 n exam9$ be=e or aft] ! j\rney1 b 0 presum$ to be 9 good work+ ord]4 ,,ii4 ,on ,tuesday1 ! #h? ( ,may1 ! same eng9e p]=m$ ! same j\rney1 ) #bj wagons1 weigh+ gross #ij tons #g cwt4 #b qrs41 exclusive ( ! unasc]ta9$ weight ( ! t5d]4 ,! "t ( ! j\rney 0 #a h4 #da m94 ,! consumption ( coke #ajdj lbs4 net weight1 e/imat$ z be=e4 ,rate ( spe$3-- ,level #ag-e_/h miles p] h\r4 ,fall ( #d feet 9 a mile #bb ---- #f #bb-a_/b ,rise ( #h #ae ,on ?is occasion !re 0 a high w9d ahead on ! qu>t]1 & ! connect+ rod work$ hot1 ow+ to hav+ be5 key$ too tight4 ,on arriv+ at ,man*e/]1 ,i caus$ ! cyl9d]s to be op5$1 & f\nd t ! pi/ons 7 s loose1 t ! /eam blew ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s ) great viol5ce4 ,by ?is cause1 !re=e1 ! ma*9e 0 robb$ ( a "p ( its p[] dur+ ! j\rney2 & ?is circum/ance may expla9 ! slight decrease 9 spe$1 & increase 9 ! consumption ( fuel1 ) a light] load 9 ?is j\rney comp>$ ) t p]=m$ on ! #e? ( ,may4 ,! ,victory weighs #h tons #b cwt41 ( :i* #e tons #d cwt4 re/ on ! draw+ :eels4 ,! cyl9d]s are #aa in*es diamet]1 & #af in*es /roke2 & ! diamet] ( ! draw+ :eels is #e feet4 ,,iii4 ,on ! #bi? ( ,may1 ! eng9e call$ ! ,samson1 7weigh+ #aj tons #b cwt41 ) #ad-;in* cyl9d]s1 & #af-;in* /roke2 :eels #d feet #f in*es diamet]1 bo? pairs be+ work$ by ! eng9e2 /eam #ej lbs4 pressure1 #acj tubes7 0 atta*$ to #ej wagons1 lad5 ) m]*&ise2 net weight ab\t #aej tons2 gross weight1 includ+ wagons1 t5d]1 c41 #bbc tons #f cwt4 ,! eng9e ) ?is load travell$ f ,liv]pool to ,man*e/] 7#cj miles7 9 #b h4 & #dj m941 exclusive ( delays ^u ! road = wat]+1 c41 be+ at ! rate ( ne>ly #ab miles an h\r4 ,! spe$ v>i$ accord+ to ! incl9ations ( ! road4 ,^u a level1 x 0 #ab miles an h\r2 ^u a desc5t ( #f feet 9 a mile1 x 0 #af miles an h\r3 ^u a rise ( #h feet 9 a mile1 x 0 ab\t #i miles an h\r4 ,! wea!r 0 calm1 ! rails v wet2 b ! :eels did n slip1 ev5 9 ! sl[e/ spe$1 except at />t+1 ! rails be+ at t place soil$ & greasy ) ! slime & dirt to :i* !y are always expos$ at ! /ations4 ,! coke consum$ 9 ?is j\rney1 exclusive ( :at 0 rais$ 9 gett+ up ! /eam1 0 #agfb lbs41 be+ at ! rate ( a qu>t] ( a p\nd p] ton p] mile4 7#id47 ,f ! above exp]im5ts x appe>s t a locomotive eng9e1 9 good work+ ord]1 ) its full complem5t ( load1 is capable ( transport+ weights at an exp5se 9 fuel am\nt+ to ab\t #d ounces ( coke p] ton p] mile4 ,! att5dance requir$ on ! j\rney is t ( an eng9e-man & a fire-boy2 ! =m] be+ paid #as4 #f;d4 = ea* trip ( #cj miles1 & ! latt] #as4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 we are to consid]1 t x r>ely happ5s t ! full complem5t ( load c be s5t ) ! eng9es2 & :5 less] loads are transport$1 ! proportionate exp5se mu/ = obvi\s reasons1 be great]4 ,! practical exp5diture ( fuel on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e may1 p]haps1 be fairly e/imat$ at half a p\nd ( coke p] ton p] mile4 7#ie47 ,hav+ expla9$ ! p[] & effici5cy ( ^! locomotive eng9es1 x is n[ "r to notice "s ( ! defects "u :i* !y lab\r4 ,! great orig9al co/1 & ! heavy exp5se ( keep+ ! eng9es us$ on ! railway 9 repair1 h press$ sev]ely on ! res\rces ( ! und]tak+4 ,"o ( ! be/ con/ruct$ ( ! lat] eng9es co/s orig9ally ab\t #hjjl4 ,x may be hop$ t1 by ! excitem5t ( competition1 ! facilities d]iv$ f practice1 & f ! manufacture ( a great] numb] ( eng9es ( ! same k9d1 "s r$uction ( ?is co/ may be effect$4 ,! orig9al co/1 h[ev]1 is f> f be+ ! pr9cipal s\rce ( exp5se3 ! we> & te> ( ^! ma*9es1 & ! occasional fracture ( ^? p>ts on :i* ! greate/ /ra9 has be5 laid1 h greatly exce$$ :at ! directors _h anticipat$4 ,al?\gh ?is s\rce ( exp5se mu/ be 9 "p attribut$ to ! eng9es n hav+ yet atta9$ t /ate ( p]fection1 9 ! proportion & adju/m5t ( _! p>ts1 ( :i* !y are susceptible1 & to :i* exp]i5ce alone c lead1 yet !re are "s obvi\s defects :i* dem& att5tion4 ,! heads ( ! boil]s are flat1 & =m$ ( iron1 simil> to ! mat]ial ( ! boil]s !mselves4 ,! tubes :i* trav]se ! boil] 71 until rec5tly1 copp]1 & s ins]t$ into ! flat head or ends z to be wat]-tight4 ,:5 ! boil] is heat$1 ! tubes are f\nd to exp& 9 a great] degree ?an ! o!r p>ts ( ! boil]2 :i* frequ5tly causes !m ei!r to be loos5$ at ! extremities1 s z to cause leakage1 or to b5d f want ( room = expansion4 ,! necessity ( remov+ & refa/5+ ! tubes causes1 !re=e1 a con/ant exp5se4 ,x w be recollect$ t ! fire-place is situat$ at "o end ( ! boil]1 imm$iately bel[ ! m\?s ( ! tubes3 a p[]ful draught ( air1 pass+ ?r\gh ! fire1 c>ries ) x a%es & c9d]s1 :i* are driv5 viol5tly ?r\gh ! tubes1 & especially ! l[] ones1 situat$ ne> ! fuel4 ,^! tubes are1 by ?is means1 subject to rapid we>1 ! c9d]s cont9ually act+ ^u _! int]ior surface4 ,aft] a %ort "t x becomes necess>y to replace s+le tubes1 accord+ z !y are f\nd to be worn1 by new ones2 & x n unfrequ5tly happ5s1 :5 ?is is neglect$1 t tubes bur/4 ,aft] a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t ! eng9es require new tub+1 :i* is done at ! exp5se ( ab\t #gjl41 all[+ = ! value ( ! old tubes4 ,?is we> ( ! tubes might possibly be avoid$ by con/ruct+ ! fire-place 9 a l[] position1 s z to be m remov$ f _! m\?s2 or1 /ill m effectually1 by int]pos+ a cas+ ( metal1 :i* might be fill$ ) wat]1 betwe5 ! fire-place & ^? tubes :i* are ! mo/ expos$ to ! c9d]s & a%es4 ,! unequal expansion ( ! tubes & boil]s appe>s to be an incurable defect1 if ! pres5t =m ( ! eng9e be reta9$4 ,if ! fire-place & *imney c\ld be plac$ at ! same end ( ! boil]1 s t ! tubes might be recurv$1 ! unequal expansion w\ld !n produce no injuri\s effect2 b x w\ld be difficult to clean ! tubes if !y 7 expos$1 z !y are at pres5t1 to ! c9d]s4 ,! next s\rce ( exp5se arises f ! we> ( ! boil]-head1 :i* is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,^! require con/ant pat*+ & frequ5t r5ewal4 ,a consid]able improvem5t has lately be5 introduc$ into ! me?od ( tub+1 by sub/itut+ brass = copp] tubes4 ,we are n aw>e t ! cause ( ?is improvem5t has be5 discov]$2 b x is c]ta91 :atev] be ! cause1 t brass tubes are subject to consid]ably sl[] we> ?an copp]4 ,x has be5 said by "s ^: op9ions are adv]se to ! advantage ( railways1 b m especially to ! p>ticul> species ( locomotive eng9es n[ "u consid]ation1 t ! repairs ( "o ( ^! eng9es co/ s great a sum z #aejjl4 p] annum1 & t ! directors n[ ?9k ( ab&on+ !m1 or adopt+ ei!r /ation>y eng9es or horse-p[]4 ,z to ! fir/ ( ^! /atem5ts ,i mu/ obs]ve1 t ! exp5se ( repairs ( su* ma*9es %\ld nev] be comput$ 9 ref]5ce to "t1 b r to ! "w done1 or ! di/ance travell$ ov]4 ,i h asc]ta9$ t eng9es frequ5tly travel a di/ance ( f #be1jjj to #cj1jjj miles be=e !y require new tub+4 ,dur+ t "w1 h[ev]1 s+le tubes are1 ( c\rse1 occasionally r5ew$1 & o!r repairs are made1 ! exp5se ( :i* may safely be /at$ z "u ! orig9al co/ ( ! eng9e4 ,! second /atem5t1 t ! company contemplate sub/itut+ /ation>y eng9es1 or horses1 = locomotives1 is altoge!r at v>iance ) ! tru?4 ,:atev] improvem5ts may be contemplat$ 9 locomotives1 ! directors assur$ly h n ! slighte/ int5tion ( go+ back 9 ! progress ( improvem5t1 9 ! mann] j m5tion$4 ,! exp5se ( locomotive p[] hav+ s f> exce$$ :at 0 anticipat$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! und]tak+1 x 0 ?\ght advisable1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #ahcd1 to in/itute an inquiry into ! causes :i* produc$ ! discrepancy betwe5 ! e/imat$ & actual exp5ses1 ) a view to ! discov]y ( "s practical means by :i* !y c\ld be r$uc$4 ,! directors ( ! company1 = ?is purpose1 appo9t$ a sub-committee ( _! own body1 assi/$ by ,mr4 ,boo?1 _! treasur]1 to inquire & report respect+ ! causes ( ! am\nt ( ?is item ( _! exp5diture1 & to asc]ta9 :e!r any & :at measures c\ld be devis$ = ! atta9m5t ( great] economy4 ,a v able & satisfactory report 0 made by ?is committee1 or1 to speak m correctly by ,mr4 ,boo?4 ,x appe>s t1 previ\s to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! railway1 ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 eng9e]s1 7 employ$ by ! company to visit v>i\s places :]e /eam p[] 0 appli$ on railways1 = ! purpose ( =m+ an e/imate ( ! probable exp5se ( work+ ! railway by locomotive & by fix$ p[]4 ,^! eng9e]s recomm5d$ ! adoption ( locomotive p[]1 & _! e/imate 01 t ! transport might be effect$ at ! rate ( 4#bgh ( a p5ny1 or v little m ?an a f>?+ p] ton p] mile4 ,9 ! ye> #ahcc1 five ye>s aft] ?is inve/igation took place1 x 0 f\nd t ! actual co/ 0 4#fbe ( a p5ny1 or some?+ m ?an a halfp5ny p] ton p] mile1 be+ consid]ably above d\ble ! e/imat$ rate4 ,mr4 ,boo? v prop]ly direct$ 8 inquiries to asc]ta9 ! cause ( ?is discrepancy1 by comp>+ ! v>i\s circum/ances assum$ by ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 9 mak+ _! e/imate1 ) ^? "u :i* ! transport 0 actually effect$4 ,! fir/ po9t ( diff]5ce :i* he obs]v$ 0 ! spe$ ( transport3 ! e/imate 0 f\nd$ on an assum$ spe$ ( t5 miles an h\r1 & x 0 /at$ t a f\rfold spe$ w\ld require an addition ( #ej p] c5t4 to ! p[]1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt we> & te>4 ,n[ ! actual spe$ ( transport be+ d\ble ! spe$ assum$ 9 ! /atem5t1 ,mr4 ,boo? holds x to be necess>y to add #be p] c5t4 on t score4 ,! next po9t ( diff]5ce is 9 ! am\nt ( ! loads3 ! e/imate is f\nd$ ^u ! assumption1 t e eng9e %all />t ) its full complem5t ( load1 & t ) ?is x %all g ! :ole di/ance4 ,! facts1 h[ev]1 are1 says ,mr4 ,boo?1 t1 in/ead ( a full load ( pr(itable c>riage f ,man*e/]1 ab\t half ! wagons come back empty1 &1 in/ead ( ! tonnage be+ convey$ ! :ole way1 _m ?\s& tons are convey$ only half ! way2 also1 in/ead ( ! daily "w be+ uni=m1 x is extremely fluctuat+4 ,x is fur!r rem>k$1 t 9 ord] to accompli% ! transport ( goods f ! bran*es & f int]m$iate places1 eng9es are despat*$ sev]al times a day1 f bo? ends ( ! l9e1 to cle> ! road2 ! object ( ?is arrangem5t be+ r to lay ! f\ndation ( a b5eficial int]c\rse 9 future1 ?an ) a view to any imm$iate pr(it4 ,mr4 ,boo? makes a r\gh e/imate ( ! disadvantages aris+ f ^! circum/ances by /at+ !m at #cc p] c5t4 9 addition to ! orig9al e/imate4 ,! next po9t ( diff]5ce is ! fuel4 ,9 ! orig9al e/imate coal is assum$ z ! fuel1 & x is tak5 at ! price ( five %ill+s & t5p5ce p] ton3 n[ ! act ( p>liam5t =bids ! use ( coal :i* w\ld produce smoke2 ! company h1 !re=e1 be5 oblig$ to use coke1 at sev5te5 %ill+s & sixp5ce a ton4 ,tak+ coke1 !n1 to be equival5t to coal1 ton = ton1 ?is w\ld add 4#afb to ! orig9al e/imate4 ,^! sev]al discrepancies be+ all[$ =1 & a proportional am\nt be+ add$ to ! orig9al e/imate1 ! am\nt w\ld be rais$ to 4#fja ( a p5ny p] ton p] mile1 :i* is )9 "o =tie? ( a p5ny ( ! actual co/4 ,?is diff]5ce is consid]$ to be suffici5tly acc\nt$ = by ! we> & te> produc$ by ! v rapid motion1 m especially :5 x is consid]$ t _m ( ! eng9es 7 con/ruct$ be=e ! eng9e] 0 aw>e ( ! great spe$ t w\ld be requir$4 ,:at !n1 says ,mr4 ,boo?1 9 ! ,report already allud$ to1 is ! result ( ^! opposite & mutually c\nt]act+ circum/ances8 & :at is ! pres5t position ( ! company 9 respect ( _! mov+ p[]8 ,simply1 t !y are /ill 9 a c\rse ( exp]im5t1 to asc]ta9 practically ! be/ con/ruction1 & ! mo/ durable mat]ials1 = eng9es requir$ to transport great] weights1 & at great] velocities1 ?an _h1 till v rec5tly1 be5 consid]$ possible2 & :i*1 a few ye>s ago1 x _h n ent]$ into ! imag9ation ( ! mo/ d>+ & sangu9e inv5tor to conceive3 &1 f>!r1 t ^! exp]im5ts h necess>ily be5 made1 n ) ! calm delib]ation & quiet pace :i* a salut>y caution recomm5ds1--mak+ good ea* /ep 9 ! progress ( discov]y be=e advanc+ ano!r /age1--b amid/ ! bu/le & responsibilities ( a l>ge & increas+ traffic2 ! directors be+ altoge!r ignorant ( ! "t ea* eng9e w\ld la/ be=e x w\ld be laid up z ineffici5t1 b compell$ to h eng9es1 :e!r good or bad2 be+ aw>e ( v>i\s defects & imp]fections1 :i* x 0 impossible at ! "t to rem$y1 yet oblig$ to keep ! ma*9es 9 motion1 "u all ! disadvantages ( heavy repairs1 con/antly go+ on dur+ ! night1 9 ord] t ! requisite numb] ( eng9es might be ready = ! morn+'s "w4 ,nei!r is ?is great exp]im5t yet complete2 x is /ill go+ =w>d4 ,b ! mo/ prom95t difficulties h be5 9 a great measure surm\nt$1 & y\r committee conceive1 t !y are w>rant$ 9 expect+1 t ! exp5diture 9 ?is dep>tm5t w1 ere long1 be mat]ially r$uc$1 m especially :5 !y consid] ! relative p]=mances ( ! eng9es at ! pres5t "t comp>$ ) :at x 0 two ye>s ago4 ,9 ! half ye> end+ #ca/ ,decemb]1 #ahca1 ! six be/ eng9es p]=m$ z foll[s3-- ,miles4 ,planet #i1ihf ,m]cury #aa1jdj ,jupit] #aa1fah ,saturn #aa1ghf ,v5us #ab1hej ,etna #h1gfd ------ ,mak+ 9 all #ff1jdd ------ ,9 ! half ye> end+ #ca/ ,decemb]1 #ahcc1 ! six be/ eng9es p]=m$ z foll[s3-- ,miles4 ,jupit] #af1egb ,saturn #ah1fgh ,sun #ae1eeb ,etna #ag1gfc ,ajax #aa1fgh ,firefly #ae1fjh ------ ,mak+ 9 all #ie1hea ------ 7#if47 ,! advantages d]ivable f railroads are greatly abridg$ by ! difficulty aris+ f ^? *anges ( level to :i* all roads are necess>ily liable2 b 9 ! case ( railroads1 f causes peculi> to !mselves1 ^! *anges ( level occasion great inconv5i5ce4 ,to expla9 ! nature ( ^! difficulties1 x w be necess>y to consid] ! relative proportion :i* mu/ subsi/ betwe5 ! p[] ( traction on a level & on an incl9$ plane4 ,on a level railroad ! =ce ( traction necess>y to propel any load1 plac$ on :eel c>riages ( ! con/ruction n[ commonly us$1 may p]haps be e/imat$ at #g-a_/b p\nds1#bh = e ton gross 9 ! load2 t is to say1 if a load ( "o ton gross 7 plac$ ^u :eel c>riages ^u a level railroad1 ! traces ( horses draw+ x w\ld be /ret*$ ) a =ce equival5t to #g-a_/b p\nds4 ,if ! load am\nt$ to two or ?ree tons1 ! t5sion ( ! traces w\ld be increas$ to #ae or #bb-a_/b p\nds1 & s on4 ,! necessity ( ?is =ce ( traction1 aris+ f ! want ( p]fect smoo?ness 9 ! road1 & f ! friction ( ! :eels & axles ( ! c>riages1 mu/ be ! same :e!r ! road be level or incl9$2 & consequ5tly1 9 asc5d+ an incl9$ plane1 ! same =ce ( traction w be necess>y 9 addition to t :i* arises f ! t5d5cy ( ! load to fall d[n ! plane4 ,?is latt] t5d5cy is always 9 ! proportion ( ! elevation ( ! plane to its l5g?2 t is to say1 a plane :i* rises #a foot 9 #ajj w give a weight ( #ajj tons a t5d5cy to fall d[n ! plane am\nt+ to #a ton1 & w\ld !re=e add #a ton to ! =ce ( traction necess>y = su* a load on a level4 ,footnote #bh3 ,! e/imate commonly adopt$ by eng9e]s at pres5t is #i p\nds p] ton4 ,i h no d\bt1 h[ev]1 t ?is is too high4 ,i am n[ 7,novemb]1 #ahce17 engag$ 9 an ext5sive c\rse ( exp]im5ts on diff]5t railways1 ) a view to det]m9e ) precision ?is & o!r po9ts connect$ ) ! full developem5t ( _! !ory2 & ,i h reason to believe1 f ! obs]vations ,i h already made1 t ev5 #g-a_/b p\nds p] ton is above ! av]age =ce ( traction ^u ! level4 ,n[ s9ce #g-a_/b p\nds is v ne>ly ! #cjj? "p ( a ton1 x foll[s t if an incl9ation ^u a railroad rises at ! rate ( #a foot 9 #cjj1 or1 :at is ! same1 #ag-a_/b feet 9 a mile1 su* an acclivity w add #g-a_/b p\nds p] ton to ! =ce ( traction4 ,?is acclivity !re=e w\ld require a =ce ( traction twice z great z a level4 ,9 l mann] a rise ( #ce feet 9 a mile w\ld require ?ree times ! =ce ( traction ( a level1 #eb-a_/b feet 9 a mile f\r times t =ce1 & s on4 ,9 fact1 = e #g feet 9 a mile :i* an acclivity rises1 #c p\nds p] ton w be add$ to ! =ce ( traction4 ,if we w\ld !n asc]ta9 ! p[] necess>y to pull a load up any giv5 acclivity ^u a railroad1 we mu/ fir/ take #g-a_/b p\nds z ! =ce necess>y to ov]come ! common resi/ance ( ! road1 & !n add #c p\nds = e #g feet :i* ! acclivity rises p] mile4 ,= example1 suppose an acclivity to rise at ! rate ( #gj feet 9 a mile1 ! =ce ( traction necess>y to draw a ton up x w\ld be ?us calculat$3-- ,friction #g-a_/b lbs4 #gj feet #aj times #c lbs4 #cj ------ ,total =ce #cg-a_/b ,x w be app>5t1 !re=e1 t if a railroad undulates by incl9$ planes1 ev5 ( ! mo/ mod]ate incl9ations1 ! propell+ p[] to be us$ ^u x mu/ be ( su* a nature z to be capable ( increas+ its int5sity 9 a great degree1 accord+ to ! elevation ( ! planes :i* x has to enc\nt]4 ,a plane :i* rises #eb-a_/b feet p] mile pres5ts to ! eye sc>cely ! appe>ance ( an asc5t1 & yet requires ! p[] ( traction to be increas$ 9 a f\rfold proportion4 ,x is ! prop]ty ( animal p[]1 t )9 c]ta9 limits its en]gy c be put =? at w1 accord+ to ! exig5cy ( ! occasion2 b ! int5sity ( me*anical p[]1 9 ! in/ance n[ consid]$1 _c s conv5i5tly be v>i$1 except inde$ )9 n>r[ limits4 ,9 ! application ( locomotive eng9es ^u railways ! difficulty aris+ f incl9$ planes has be5 attempt$ to be surm\nt$ by sev]al me?ods1 :i* we %all n[ expla94 #a4 ,^u arriv+ at ! foot ( ! plane ! load is divid$1 & ! eng9e c>ries x up 9 sev]al successive trips1 desc5d+ ! plane unload$ aft] ea* trip4 ,! objection to ?is me?od is ! delay :i* x occasions1--a circum/ance :i* is incompatible ) a l>ge transport ( pass5g]s4 ,f :at has be5 /at$1 x w\ld be necess>y1 :5 ! eng9e is fully load$ on a level1 to divide its load into f\r p>ts1 to be successively c>ri$ up :5 ! incl9e rises #eb feet p] mile4 ,?is me?od has be5 practis$ 9 ! transport ( m]*&ise occasionally1 :5 heavy loads 7 c>ri$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e1 ^u ! ,ra9hill incl9e4 #b4 ,a subsidi>y or assi/ant locomotive eng9e may be kept 9 con/ant read9ess at ! foot ( ea* incl9e1 = ! purpose ( aid+ ! diff]5t tra9s1 z !y arrive1 9 asc5d+4 ,! objection to ?is mode is ! co/ ( keep+ su* an eng9e ) its boil] cont9ually prep>$1 & its /eam up4 ,x w\ld be necess>y to keep its fire cont9ually light$1 :e!r employ$ or n2 o!rwise1 :5 ! tra9 w\ld arrive at ! foot ( ! incl9e1 x %\ld wait until ! subsidi>y eng9e 0 prep>$ = "w4 ,9 cases :]e tra9s w\ld />t & arrive at /at$ times1 ?is objection1 h[ev]1 w\ld h less =ce4 ,?is me?od is at pres5t g5]ally adopt$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 _c be pr(itably appli$ to planes ( any consid]able l5g?4 #c4 ,a fix$ /eam eng9e may be erect$ on ! cre/ ( ! incl9e1 s z to communicate by ropes ) ! tra9 at ! foot4 ,su* an eng9e w\ld be capable ( draw+ up "o or two tra9s toge!r1 ) _! locomotives1 accord+ z !y w\ld arrive1 & no delay ne$ be occasion$4 ,?is me?od requires t ! fix$ eng9e %\ld be kept con/antly prep>$ = "w1 & ! /eam cont9ually up 9 ! boil]4 ,?is exp$i5t is sc>cely compatible ) a l>ge transit ( pass5g]s1 except at ! t]m9us ( a l9e4 #d4 ,9 work+ on ! level1 ! communication betwe5 ! boil] & ! cyl9d] 9 ! locomotives may be s re/ra9$ by p>tially clos+ ! ?rottle valve1 z to cause ! pressure ^u ! pi/on to be less 9 a consid]able degree ?an ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]4 ,if "u su* circum/ances a suffici5t pressure ^u ! pi/on c be obta9$ to draw ! load on ! level1 ! ?rottle valve may be op5$ on approa*+ ! incl9$ plane1 s z to ?r[ on ! pi/on a pressure increas$ 9 ! same proportion z ! previ\s pressure 9 ! boil] 0 great] ?an t ^u ! pi/on4 ,if ! fire be suffici5tly active to keep up ! supply ( /eam 9 ?is mann] dur+ ! asc5t1 & if ! rise be n great] 9 proportion ?an ! p[] ?us obta9$1 ! locomotive w draw ! load up ! incl9e )\t fur!r assi/ance4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to be obs]v$1 t 9 ?is case ! load ^u ! eng9e mu/ be less ?an ! am\nt :i* ! adhesion ( its work+ :eels ) ! railroad is capable ( draw+2 = ?is adhesion mu/ be adequate to ! traction ( ! same load up ! incl9e1 o!rwise :atev] increase ( p[] might be obta9$ by op5+ ! ?rottle valve1 ! draw+ :eels w\ld revolve )\t caus+ ! load to advance4 ,?is me?od has be5 g5]ally practis$ ^u ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e 9 ! transport ( pass5g]s2 &1 inde$1 x is ! only me?od yet discov]$1 :i* is consi/5t ) ! exp$ition necess>y = t species ( traffic4 ,! objections to ?is me?od are1 ! necessity ( ma9ta9+ a mu* high] pressure 9 ! boil] ?an is suffici5t = ! purposes ( ! load ^u m level p>ts ( ! l9e4 ,9 ! practice ( ?is me?od consid]able aid may be d]iv$ also by susp5d+ ! supply ( fe$+ wat] dur+ ! asc5t4 ,x w be recollect$ t a res]voir ( cold wat] is plac$ 9 ! t5d] :i* foll[s ! eng9e1 & t ! wat] is driv5 f ?is res]voir into ! boil] by a =c+-pump1 :i* is work$ by ! eng9e itself4 ,?is pump is s con/ruct$ t x w supply z mu* cold wat] z is equal to ! evaporation1 s z to ma9ta9 con/antly ! same quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]4 ,b x is evid5t1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! supply ( ?is wat] has a t5d5cy to *eck ! rate ( evaporation1 s9ce 9 be+ rais$ to ! temp]ature ( ! wat] ) :i* x mixes1 x mu/ absorb a consid]able portion ( ! heat suppli$ by ! fire4 ,) a view to accel]ate ! production ( /eam1 !re=e1 9 asc5d+ ! incl9es1 ! eng9e-man may susp5d ! action ( ! =c+-pump1 & !reby /op ! supply ( cold wat] to ! boil]2 ! evaporation w g on ) increas$ rapidity1 & ! exhau/ion ( wat] produc$ by x w be repaid by ! =c+-pump on ! next level1 or /ill m effectually on ! next desc5d+ incl9e4 ,inde$ ! fe$+ pump may be made to act 9 desc5d+ an incl9e if necess>y1 :5 ! action ( ! eng9e itself is susp5d$1 & :5 ! tra9 desc5ds by its own gravity1 9 :i* case x w p]=m ! "p ( a brake ^u ! desc5d+ tra94 ,?is me?od1 on railroads int5d$ = pass5g]s1 may be successfully appli$ on incl9es :i* d n exce$ #ah feet 9 a mile2 &1 ) a sacrifice ( ! exp5se ( locomotive p[]1 incl9es s /eep z #cf feet 9 a mile may be work$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! sacrifice is consid]able1 x w1 p]haps1 be always bett] to "w ! m /eep incl9es by assi/ant eng9es4 #e4 ,! me*anical connexion betwe5 ! pi/on ( ! cyl9d] & ! po9ts ( contact ( ! work+ :eels ) ! road may be s alt]$1 ^u arriv+ at ! incl9e1 z to give ! pi/on a great] p[] ov] ! work+ :eels4 ,?is may be done 9 an inf9ite v>iety ( ways1 b hi!rto no me?od has be5 sugge/$ suffici5tly simple to be applicable 9 practice2 & ev5 7 any means sugge/$ :i* w\ld accompli% ?is1 unless ! int5sity ( ! impell+ p[] 7 at ! same "t increas$1 x w\ld necess>ily foll[ t ! spe$ ( ! motion w\ld be dim9i%$ 9 exactly ! same proportion z ! p[] ( ! pi/on ov] ! work+ :eels w\ld be increas$4 ,?us1 on ! incl9$ plane1 :i* rises #ee feet p] mile1 ^u ! ,liv]pool l9e1 ! spe$ w\ld be dim9i%$ to ne>ly "o f\r? ( its am\nt ^u ! level4 ,:atev] be ! me?od adopt$ to surm\nt incl9$ planes ^u a railway1 inconv5i5ce att5ds ! desc5t ^u !m4 ,! motion d[n ! incl9e by ! =ce ( gravity is accel]at$2 & if ! tra9 be n ret>d$1 a desc5t ( any consid]able l5g?1 ev5 at a small elevation1 w\ld produce a velocity :i* w\ld be att5d$ ) great dang]4 ,! %oe us$ to ret>d ! desc5t d[n hills on turnpike roads _c be us$ ^u railroads1 & ! application ( brakes to ! faces ( ! :eels is likewise att5d$ ) "s unc]ta9ty4 ,! friction produc$ by ! rapid motion ( ! :eel sometimes sets fire to wood1 & iron w\ld be inadmissible4 ,! action ( ! /eam on ! pi/on may be rev]s$1 s z to oppose ! motion ( ! :eels2 b ev5 ?is is att5d$ ) peculi> difficulty4 ,f all t has be5 /at$1 x w be app>5t t1 ) our pres5t k1 consid]able incl9es are fatal to ! pr(itable p]=mance on a railway1 & ev5 small incl9ations are att5d$ ) great inconv5i5ce4#bi ,footnote #bi3 ,a contrivance might be appli$ 9 *anges ( level 9 railroads some:at simil> to locks 9 a canal4 ,! tra9 might be roll$ ^u a plat=m :i* might be rais$ by ma*9]y2 & ?us at ! *ange ( level !re w\ld be z x 7 /eps f "o level to ano!r1 up :i* ! loads w\ld be lift$ by any p[] appli$ to "w ! ma*9]y4 ,! advantage 9 ?is case w\ld be1 t ! tra9s might be adapt$ to "w always ^u a level4 7#ig47 ,to obta9 f ! locomotive /eam eng9es n[ us$ on ! railway ! mo/ p[]ful effects1 x is necess>y t ! load plac$ on ea* eng9e %\ld be v consid]able4 ,x is n possible1 ) our pres5t k1 to con/ruct & "w ?ree locomotive eng9es ( ?is k9d1 ea* draw+ a load ( #cj tons1 at ! same exp5se & ) ! same effect z "o locomotive eng9e draw+ #ij tons4 ,h5ce arises :at mu/ appe> an inconv5i5ce & difficulty 9 apply+ ^! eng9es to "o ( ! mo/ pr(itable species ( transport--! transport ( pass5g]s4 ,x is impracticable1 ev5 betwe5 places ( ! mo/ consid]able int]c\rse to obta9 loads ( pass5g]s suffici5tly great at ea* trip to ma9ta9 su* an eng9e work+ on a railway4#cj ,! difficulty ( collect+ s consid]able a numb] ( p]sons1 at any /at$ h\r1 to p]=m ! j\rney1 is obvi\s2 & !re=e1 ! only me?od ( remov+ ! inconv5i5ce is to cause ! same eng9e :i* transports pass5g]s also to transport goods1 s t ! goods may make up ! requisite supplem5t to ! load ( pass5g]s4 ,9 ?is way1 provid$ ! traffic 9 goods be suffici5t1 su* eng9es may />t ) _! full complem5t ( load1 :atev] be ! numb] ( pass5g]s4 ,footnote #cj3 ,on ! occasion ( races held at ,newton1 a place ab\t #ae miles f ,liv]pool1 two eng9es 7 s5t1 ) tra9s ( c>riages1 to take back to ,liv]pool ! visitors to ! races4 ,"s accid5t prev5t$ "o ( ! eng9es f work+ on ! occasion1 & bo? tra9s 7 atta*$ to ! same eng9e3 #hjj p]sons 7 on ?is occasion drawn by ! s+le eng9e to ,liv]pool 9 ! space ( ab\t an h\r4 7#ih47 ,9 comp>+ ! ext5t ( capital1 & ! annual exp5diture ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e1 & adopt+ x z a modulus 9 e/imat+ ! exp5ses ( simil> und]tak+s project$ else:]e1 !re are sev]al circum/ances to :i* x is important to att5d4 ,i h already obs]v$ on ! l>ge wa/e ( capital 9 ! item ( locomotive eng9es :i* ought to be reg>d$ z little m ?an exp]im5tal ma*9es1 lead+ to a rapid succession ( improvem5ts4 ,mo/ ( ^! eng9es are /ill 9 good work+ ord]1 b h be5 ab&on$ = ! reasons already assign$4 ,o!r companies w1 ( c\rse1 pr(it by ! exp]i5ce :i* has be5 ?us pur*as$ at a high price by ! ,liv]pool ,company4 ,?is advantage 9 fav\r ( future companies w g on increas+ until su* companies h _! works complet$4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! curr5t exp5se ( a l9e ( railway is indep5d5t ( its l5g?2 & is little less = ! l9e connect+ ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]1 ?an x w\ld be = a l9e connect+ ,birm+ham ) ,liv]pool or ,london4 ,! e/abli%m5ts ( resid5t eng9e]s1 coa* & wagon y>ds1 c4 at ! extremities ( ! l9e1 w\ld be little increas$ by a v great increase 9 ! l5g? ( ! railway2 & ! same obs]vation w apply to o!r heads ( exp5diture4 ,x has be5 ! practice ( ! canal companies betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] to w>eh\se ! goods transport$ betwe5 ^! t[ns1 )\t any additional *>ge beyond ! price ( transport4 ,! ,railway ,company1 9 compet+ ) ! canals1 71 ( c\rse1 oblig$ to (f] l advantages3 ?is compell$ !m to inve/ a consid]able am\nt ( capital 9 ! build+ ( ext5sive w>eh\ses1 & to incur ! annual exp5se ( port]age1 sal>ies1 c4 connect$ ) ! ma9t5ance ( su* /orage4 ,9 a long] l9e ( railway su* exp5ses 7if necess>y at all7 w\ld n be proportionally increas$4 7#ii47 ,! comp>ison ( /eam-transport ) ! transport by horses1 ev5 :5 work+ on a railway1 exhibits ! advantage ( ?is new p[] 9 a mo/ /rik+ po9t ( view4 ,to compreh5d ^! advantages fully1 x w be necess>y to consid] ! mann] 9 :i* animal p[] is exp5d$ z a means ( transport4 ,! portion ( ! /r5g? ( a horse available = ! purpose ( a load dep5ds on ! spe$ ( a horse's motion4 ,to ?is spe$ !re is a c]ta9 limit1 at :i* ! :ole p[] ( ! horse w be necess>y to move 8 own body1 & at :i*1 !re=e1 he is incapable ( c>ry+ any load2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is a c]ta9 load :i* ! horse is b>ely able to support1 b incapable ( mov+ ) any useful spe$4 ,betwe5 ^! two limits !re is a c]ta9 rate ( motion at :i* ! useful effect ( ! animal is greate/4 ,9 horses ( ! heavi] class1 ?is rate ( motion may be tak5 on ! av]age z t ( #b miles an h\r2 & 9 ! light] description ( horses1 #b-a_/b miles an h\r4 ,beyond ?is spe$1 ! load :i* !y are capable ( transport+ dim9i%es 9 a v rapid ratio z ! spe$ increases3 ?us1 if #aba express ! load :i* a horse is able to transport a giv5 di/ance 9 a day1 work+ at ! rate ( f\r miles an h\r1 ! same horse w n be able to transport m ?an ! load express$ by #fd1 ! same di/ance1 at #g miles an h\r2 &1 at #aj miles an h\r1 ! load :i* he c transport w be r$uc$ to #be4 ,! mo/ advantage\s spe$ at :i* a horse c "w be+ #b miles an h\r1 x is f\nd t1 at ?is rate1 work+ = #aj h\rs daily1 he c transport #ab tons1 on a level railway1 a di/ance ( #bj miles2 s t ! :ole effect ( a day's "w may be express$ by #bdj tons c>ri$ #a mile4 ,b ?is rate ( transport is inapplicable to ! purposes ( travell+2 & !re=e x becomes necess>y1 :5 horses are ! mov+ p[]1 to h c>riages = pass5g]s di/9ct f ^? int5d$ = ! conveyance ( goods2 s t ! goods may be convey$ at t rate ( spe$ at :i* ! :ole effect ( ! horse w be ! greate/ possible2 :ile ! pass5g]s are convey$ at t spe$ :i*1 :atev] ! co/1 is indisp5sably necess>y4 ,! weight ( an ord9>y mail-coa* is ab\t two tons2 &1 on a tol]ably level turnpike road1 x travels at ! rate ( #aj miles an h\r4 ,at ?is rate1 ! numb] ( horses necess>y to keep x con/antly at "w1 includ+ ! sp>e horses indisp5sably necess>y to be kept at ! sev]al /ages1 is comput$ at ! rate ( a horse p] mile4 ,assum+ ! di/ance betwe5 ,london & ,birm+ham at #ajj miles1 a mail-coa* runn+ betwe5 ^! two places w\ld require #ajj horses2 mak+ ! j\rney to & f ,birm+ham daily4 ,! p]=mance1 !re=e1 ( a horse work+ at ?is rate may be e/imat$ at #b tons c>ri$ #b miles p] day1 or #d tons c>ri$ #a mile 9 a day4 ,! =ce ( traction on a good turnpike road is at lea/ #bj times its am\nt on a level railroad4 ,x !re=e foll[s1 t ! p]=mance ( a horse on a railroad w be #bj times ! am\nt ( its p]=mance on a common road "u simil> circum/ances4 ,we may1 !re=e1 take ! p]=mance ( a horse work+ at #aj miles an h\r1 on a level railroad1 at #hj tons convey$ #a mile daily4 ,! be/ locomotive eng9es us$ on ! ,liv]pool railway are capable ( transport+ #aej tons on a level railroad at ! same rate2 &1 all[+ ! same "t = /oppage1 its "w p] day w\ld be #aej tons convey$ #bjj miles1 or #cj1jjj tons convey$ #a mile2 f :i* x foll[s1 t ! p]=mance ( "o locomotive eng9e ( ?is k9d is equival5t to t ( #gejj horses work+ on a good turnpike road1 or to #cge horses work+ on a railway4 ,! consumption ( fuel requisite = ?is p]=mance1 ) ! mo/ improv$ eng9es us$ at pres5t on ! ,man*e/] & ,liv]pool l9e1 w\ld be at ! rate ( eight#ca ounces ( coke p] ton p] mile1 includ+ ! wa/e ( fuel incurr$ by ! /oppages4 ,?us ! daily consumption ( fuel1 "u su* circum/ances1 w\ld am\nt to #aejjj lbs4 ( coke2 & #b lbs4 ( coke daily w\ld p]=m ! "w ( "o horse on a good turnpike road2 & #dj lbs4 ( coke daily w\ld p]=m ! "w ( "o horse on a railway4 ,footnote #ca3 ,9 an exp]im5tal trip ) a heavy tra9 at #ab miles an h\r1 ,i f\nd ! consumption ( coke to be only f\r ounces p] ton p] h\r4 ,i believe1 h[ev]1 ! practical consumption 9 ord9>y "w to be v ne>ly eight ounces4 ,9 ?is comp>ison1 ! eng9e is tak5 at its mo/ advantage\s spe$1 :ile horse-p[] is tak5 at its lea/ advantage\s spe$1 if reg>d be only _h to ! total quantity ( weight transport$ to a giv5 di/ance4 ,b1 9 ! case above allud$ to1 spe$ is an indisp5sable elem5t2 & /eam1 !re=e1 possesses ?is great advantage ov] horse p[]1 t its mo/ advantage\s spe$ is t :i* is at once adapt$ to all ! purposes ( transport1 :e!r ( pass5g]s or ( goods4 7#ajj47 ,! effects ( /eam comp>$ ) horse-p[]1 at l[] rates ( motion1 w exhibit ! advantages ( ! =m]1 ?\gh 9 a less /rik+ degree4 ,an eight-horse wagon commonly weighs #h tons1 & travels at ! rate ( #b-a_/b miles an h\r4 ,/rong horses work+ 9 ?is way c travel #h h\rs daily2 ?us ea* horse p]=ms #bj miles a day4 ,! p]=mance1 !re=e1 ( ea* horse may be tak5 z equival5t to #bj tons transport$ #a mile2 & 8 p]=mance on a railway be+ #bj times ?is am\nt1 may be tak5 z equival5t to #djj tons transport$ #a mile a day4 ,! p]=mance ( a horse work+ 9 ?is mann] is1 !re=e1 #e times ! p]=mance ( a horse work+ at #aj miles an h\r2 ! latt] effect+ only ! p]=mance ( #d tons transport$ #a mile p] day on a good turnpike road1 or #hj tons on a railway4 ,we %all h5ce obta9 ! proportion ( ! p]=mance ( horses work+ 9 wagons to t ( a locomotive /eam eng9e4 ,s9ce #b lbs4 ( coke are equival5t to ! daily p]=mance ( a horse 9 a mail-coa*1 & #dj lbs4 on a railway1 at #aj miles an h\r1 x foll[s t #aj lbs4 w be equival5t to ! p]=mance ( a horse on a turnpike road1 & #bjj lbs4 on a railway1 at #b-a_/b miles an h\r4 ,s9ce a locomotive eng9e c p]=m ! daily "w ( #gejj mail-coa* horses1 x foll[s t x p]=ms ! "w ( #aejj wagon horses4 ,^! results mu/ be und]/ood to be subject to modifications 9 p>ticul> cases1 & to be only av]age calculations4 ,diff]5t /eam-eng9es1 z well z diff]5t horses1 v>y+ 9 _! p]=mance to a consid]able ext5t2 & ! roads on :i* horses "w be+ 9 diff]5t /ates ( p]fection1 & subject to diff]5t declivities1 ! p]=mance mu/ v>y accord+ly4 ,9 ! practical comp>ison1 also1 ( ! results ( s p[]ful an ag5t z /eam appli$ on railways1 ) s slight a p[] z t ( horses on common roads1 x mu/ be consid]$ t ! great subdivision ( load1 & frequ5t times ( />t+1 op]ate 9 fav\r ( ! p]=mance ( horses2 inasmu* z x w\ld (t5] occur t eng9es capable ( transport+ enorm\s weights w\ld />t ) loads inf]ior to _! p[]1 ?an w\ld happ5 9 ! application ( horse-p[]1 :]e small loads may />t at %ort int]vals4 ,?is1 9 fact1 con/itutes a practical difficulty 9 ! application ( /eam eng9es on railroads2 & w1 p]haps1 = ! pres5t1 limit _! application to l9es connect+ places ( great int]c\rse4 ,! mo/ /rik+ effect ( /eam p[]1 appli$ on a railroad1 is ! extreme spe$ ( transport :i* is atta9$ by x2 & x is ! m rem>kable1 z ?is advantage nev] 0 =ese5 be=e exp]i5ce prov$ x4 ,:5 ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e 0 project$1 ! transport ( heavy goods 0 ! object *iefly contemplat$2 & al?\gh an int]c\rse 9 pass5g]s 0 expect$1 x 0 n =ese5 t ?is w\ld be ! greate/ s\rce ( rev5ue to ! proprietors4 ,! calculations ( future projectors w1 !re=e1 be mat]ially alt]$1 & a great int]c\rse 9 pass5g]s w be reg>d$ z a necess>y condition = ! prosp]ity ( su* an und]tak+4 ,if ?is advantage ( spe$ be tak5 into acc\nt1 horse-p[] c sc>cely admit ( any comp>ison :atev] ) /eam-p[] on a railway4 ,9 ! exp]im5ts :i* ,i h already detail$1 x appe>s t a /eam eng9e is capable ( draw+ #ij tons at ! rate ( ab\t #bj miles an h\r1 & t x c\ld transport t weight twice betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] 9 ab\t #c h\rs4 ,two hundr$ & sev5ty horses work+ 9 wagons w\ld be necess>y to transport ! same load ! same di/ance 9 a day4 ,x may be object$1 t ?is 0 an exp]im5t p]=m$ "u fav\rable circum/ances1 & t assi/ance 0 obta9$ at ! difficult po9t ( ! incl9$ plane4 ,9 ! ord9>y p]=mance1 h[ev]1 ( ! eng9es draw+ m]*&ise1 :]e great spe$ is n attempt$1 ! rate ( motion is n less ?an #ae miles an h\r4 ,9 ! tra9s :i* draw pass5g]s1 ! *ief difficulty ( ma9ta9+ a great spe$ arises f ! /oppages on ! road to take up & let d[n pass5g]s4 ,!re are two classes ( c>riages at pres5t us$3 ! fir/ class /ops b once1 at a po9t half-way betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]1 = ! space ( a few m9utes4 ,?is class p]=ms ! ?irty miles 9 an h\r & a half1 & sometimes 9 #a h\r & #aj m9utes4 ,on ! level "p ( ! road its common rate ( motion is #bg miles an h\r2 & ,i h occasionally m>k$ its rate1 & f\nd x above #cj miles an h\r4 ,b ^!1 :i* are velocities obta9$ 9 ! regul> work+ ( ! eng9es = ! transport ( pass5g]s & goods1 are consid]ably inf]ior to ! p[] ( ! pres5t locomotives ) respect to spe$4 ,i h made "s exp]im5tal trips1 9 :i* m limit$ loads 7 plac$ ^u ! eng9es1 by :i* ,i h asc]ta9$ t v consid]ably increas$ rates ( motion are q practicable4 ,9 "o exp]im5t ,i plac$ a c>riage conta9+ #cf p]sons ^u an eng9e1 ) :i* ,i succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! velocity ( ab\t #dh miles an h\r1 & ,i believe t an eng9e load$ only ) its own t5d] has mov$ ov] #ae miles 9 #ae m9utes4 ,x w !n p]haps be ask$1 if ! eng9es possess ^! great capabilities ( spe$1 :y !y h n be5 br\ght into practical op]ation on ! railroad1 :]e1 on ! o!r h&1 ! av]age spe$ :5 actually 9 motion1 does n exce$ #be miles an h\r8 ,9 answ] to ?is x may be /at$1 t ! di/ance ( #cj miles betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] is p]=m$ 9 an h\r & a half1 & t #aj tra9s ( pass5g]s pass daily betwe5 ^! places3 ! mail1 also1 is transmitt$ ?ree times a day betwe5 !m4 ,x is obvi\s t any great] spe$ ?an ?is1 9 s %ort a di/ance1 w\ld be q ne$less4 ,:51 h[ev]1 m ext5d$ l9es ( road %all be complet$1 ! circum/ances w be o!rwise1 & ! despat* ( mails especially w dem& att5tion4 ,full tra9s ( pass5g]s1 commonly transport$ ^u ! ,man*e/] railroad1 weigh ab\t #ej tons gross3 ) a light] load1 a light] & m exp$iti\s eng9e might be us$4 ,! exp5se ( transport ) su* an eng9e w\ld ( c\rse be increas$2 b = ?is ! increas$ exp$ition !re w\ld be ample comp5sation4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,london %all h be5 connect$ ) ,liv]pool1 by a l9e ( railroad ?r\gh ,birm+ham1 ! comm]cial int]e/ ( ^! places w naturally direct att5tion to ! greate/ possible exp$ition ( int]communication4 ,= ! transmission ( mails1 d\btless1 peculi> eng9es w be built1 adapt$ to light] loads & great] spe$4 ,) su* eng9es1 ! mails1 ) a limit$ numb] ( pass5g]s1 w be despat*$2 &1 ap>t f any possible improvem5t :i* ! eng9es may h]eaft] receive1 & look+ only at _! pres5t capabilities1 ,i _c hesitate to express my conviction t su* a load may be transport$ at ! rate ( above #fj miles an h\r4 ,if we may indulge 9 expectations ( :at ! probable improvem5ts ( locomotive /eam eng9es may effect1 ,i d n ?9k t ev5 d\ble t spe$ is beyond ! limits ( me*anical probability4 ,on ! completion ( ! l9e ( road f ! metropolis to ,liv]pool we may1 !re=e1 expect to witness ! transport ( mails & pass5g]s 9 ! %ort space ( ?ree h\rs4 ,!re w probably be ab\t ?ree po/s a day betwe5 ^! & int]m$iate places4 ,! great ext5sion :i* ! application ( /eam to ! purpose ( inl& transport is ab\t to receive f ! num]\s railroads :i* are already 9 progress1 & f a /ill great] numb] ( o!rs :i* are h\rly project$1 imp>t to ^! subjects ( inquiry consid]able int]e/4 ,nei!r ! wisdom ( ! philosoph]1 nor ! skill ( ! /ati/ician1 nor ! =esight ( ! /atesman is suffici5t to det]m9e ! important consequ5ces by :i* ! realization ( ^! s*emes mu/ affect ! progress ( ! human race4 ,h[ mu* ! spread ( civilization1 ! diffusion ( k1 ! cultivation ( ta/e1 & ! ref9em5t ( habits & mann]s dep5d ^u ! easy & rapid int]-mixture ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( society1 x is ne$less to po9t out4 ,:il/ population exi/s 9 deta*$ & indep5d5t masses1 incapable ( transfusion among/ ea* o!r1 _! dormant aff9ities are nev] call$ into action1 & ! mo/ preci\s qualities ( ea* are nev] imp>t$ to ! o!r4 ,l solids 9 physics1 !y are sl[ to =m comb9ations2 b :5 ! quality ( fluidity has be5 imp>t$ to !m1 :5 _! con/itu5t atoms are loos5$ by fusion1 & ! p>ticles ( ea* fl[ freely ?r\gh & among ^? ( ! o!r1 !n ! aff9ities are awak5$1 new comb9ations are =m$1 a mutual int]*ange ( qualities takes place1 & comp\nds ( value f> exce$+ ^? ( ! orig9al elem5ts are produc$4 ,extreme facility ( int]c\rse is ! fluidity & fusion ( ! social masses1 f :5ce su* an activity ( ! aff9ities results1 & f :5ce su* an ine/imable int]*ange ( preci\s qualities mu/ foll[4 ,we h1 accord+ly1 obs]v$1 t ! advancem5t 9 civilization & ! promotion ( int]c\rse betwe5 di/ant masses ( p h ev] gone on ) contemporane\s progress1 ea* appe>+ occasionally to be ! cause or ! consequ5ce ( ! o!r4 ,h5ce x is t ! urban population is ev] 9 advance ( ! rural 9 its intellectual "*4 ,b1 )\t sacrific+ ! peculi> advantages ( ei!r1 ! b5efits ( int]c\rse may be ext5d$ to bo?1 by ! extraord9>y facilities :i* mu/ be ! consequ5ce ( ! locomotive projects n[ 9 progress4 ,by ! great l9e ( railroad :i* is 9 progress f ,london to ,birm+ham1 ! "t & exp5se ( pass+ betwe5 ^! places w probably be halv$1 & ! quantity ( int]c\rse at lea/ quadrupl$1 if we consid] only ! direct transit betwe5 ! t]m9al po9ts ( ! l9e2 b if ! innum]able tribut>y /reams :i* w fl[ f e adjac5t po9t be consid]$1 we h no analogies on :i* to build a calculation ( ! enorm\s increase ( int]communication :i* mu/ ensue4 ,p]i%able vegetable productions necess>y = ! wants ( t[ns mu/ at pres5t be rais$ 9 _! imm$iate suburbs2 ^!1 h[ev]1 :]e !y c be transport$ ) a p]fectly smoo? motion at ! rate ( tw5ty miles an h\r1 w be suppli$ by ! agricultural lab\r] ( m di/ant po9ts4 ,! population engag$ 9 t[ns1 no long] limit$ to _! n>r[ /reets1 & pil$ /ory ov] /ory 9 conf9$ habitations1 w be free to reside at di/ances :i* w\ld n[ place !m f> beyond rea* ( _! daily occupations4 ,! salubrity ( cities & t[ns w ?us be increas$ by spread+ ! population ov] a l>g] ext5t ( surface1 )\t incurr+ ! inconv5i5ce ( di/ance4 ,?us ! advantages ( ! c\ntry w be conf]r$ ^u ! t[n1 & ! ref9em5t & civilization ( ! t[n w spread _! b5efits among ! rural population4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,"s ( ! prec$+ obs]vations appe>$ 9 an article contribut$ by me to ! ,briti% & ,=eign ,review4 7#aja47 ,! quantity ( canal prop]ty 9 ^! c\ntries gives consid]able int]e/ to e inquiry :i* has = its object ! relative advantage ( ?is mode ( transport1 comp>$ ) t ( railways1 :e!r work$ by horses or by /eam-p[]2 & ?is int]e/ has be5 greatly increas$ by ! rec5t ext5sion ( railway projects4 ,?is is a subject :i* ,i %all h occasion1 9 ano!r "w1 to exam9e 9 all its details2 &1 !re=e1 9 ?is place ,i %all adv]t to x b v briefly4 ,:5 a float+ body is mov$ on a liquid1 x w suff] a resi/ance1 :i* w dep5d p>tly ^u ! transv]se section ( ! "p imm]s$1 & p>tly on ! spe$ ) :i* x is mov$4 ,x is evid5t t ! quantity ( ! liquid :i* x mu/ drive be=e x w dep5d ^u t transv]se section1 & ! velocity ) :i* x w impel ! liquid w dep5d ^u its own spe$4 ,n[1 s long z ! dep? ( its imm]sion rema9s ! same1 x is demon/rable t ! resi/ance w increase 9 proportion to ! squ>e ( ! spe$2 t is1 ) a d\ble velocity !re w be a f\rfold resi/ance1 ) a triple velocity a n9efold resi/ance1 & s on4 ,aga91 if ! "p imm]s$ %\ld be increas$ or dim9i%$ by any cause1 ! resi/ance1 on t acc\nt alone1 w be increas$ or dim9i%$ 9 ! same proportion4 ,f ^! circum/ances x w be app>5t t a vessel float+ on wat]1 if mov$ ) a c]ta9 spe$1 w require f\r times ! impell+ =ce to c>ry x =w>d ) d\ble ! spe$1 unless ! dep? ( its imm]sion be dim9i%$ z its spe$ is increas$4 ,"s exp]im5ts :i* h be5 made ^u canals ) boats ( a peculi> con/ruction1 drawn by horses1 h l$ to ! unexpect$ conclusion1 t1 aft] a c]ta9 spe$ has be5 atta9$1 ! resi/ance1 in/ead ( be+ increas$1 has be5 dim9i%$4 ,?is fact is n at v>iance ) ! law ( resi/ance already expla9$4 ,! cause ( ! ph5om5on is f\nd 9 ! fact1 t :5 ! velocity has atta9$ a c]ta9 po9t1 ! boat gradually rises out ( ! wat]2 s t1 9 fact1 ! imm]s$ "p is dim9i%$4 ,! two conditions1 !re=e1 :i* det]m9e ! resi/ance1 ?us modify ea* o!r3 :ile ! resi/ance is1 on ! "o h&1 increas$ 9 proportion to ! squ>e ( ! spe$1 x is1 on ! o!r h&1 dim9i%$ 9 proportion to ! dim9ution ( ! transv]se section ( ! imm]s$ "p ( ! vessel4 ,x w\ld appe> t1 at a c]ta9 velocity1 ^! two effects neutralise ea* o!r2 &1 probably1 at high] velocities ! imm]s$ "p may be s mu* dim9i%$ z to dim9i% ! resi/ance 9 a great] degree ?an x is increas$ by ! spe$1 & ?us actually to dim9i% ! p[] ( traction4 ,x is kn[n t boats are work$ on "s ( ! ,scotti% canals1 & also on ! canal :i* connects ,k5dal ) ,pre/on1 by :i* pass5g]s are transport$1 at ! rate ( ab\t t5 miles an h\r1 exclusive ( ! /oppages at ! locks1 c4 ,! p[] ( horses1 ex]t$ 9 ?is way1 is1 ( c\rse1 ex]t$ m economically ?an !y c\ld be work$ at ! same spe$ on common roads2 &1 probably1 x is z economical z !y w\ld be work$ by railroad4 ,x is1 probably1 m economical ?an ! transport ( pass5g]s by /eam ^u railroads2 b ! spe$ is consid]ably less1 nor1 f ! nature ( ! impell+ p[]1 is x possible t x c be increas$4 ,!re is reason to suppose t a l effect takes place ) /eam vessels4 ,^u increas+ ! p[] ( ! eng9es 9 "s ( ! ,po/ ,(fice /eam packets1 x has be5 f\nd1 t1 :ile ! "t ( p]=m+ ! same voyage is dim9i%$1 ! consumption ( fuel is also dim9i%$4 ,n[1 s9ce ! consumption ( fuel is 9 ! direct ratio ( ! mov+ p[]1 & ! latt] 9 ! direct ratio ( ! resi/ance1 x foll[s t ! resi/ance mu/ 9 ?is case be likewise dim9i%$4 7#ajb47 ,:5 a v sl[ rate ( travell+ is consid]$1 ! useful effects ( horse-p[] appli$ on canals is some:at great] ?an ! effect ( ! same p[] appli$ on railways2 b at all spe$s above ?ree miles an h\r1 ! effect on railways is great]2 & :5 ! spe$ is consid]able1 ! canal becomes :olly inapplicable1 :ile ! railway loses none ( its advantages4 ,at ?ree miles an h\r1 ! p]=mance ( a horse on a canal & a railway is 9 ! proportion ( f\r to ?ree to ! advantage ( ! canal2 b at f\r miles an h\r 8 p]=mance on a railway has ! advantage 9 v ne>ly ! same proportion4 ,at six miles an h\r1 a horse w p]=m ?ree times m "w on a railway ?an on a canal4 ,at eight miles an h\r1 he w p]=m ne>ly five times m "w4 ,b ! circum/ance :i*1 s f> z respects pass5g]s1 mu/ give railways1 z comp>$ ) canals1 an advantage :i* _c be consid]$ z less ?an fatal to ! latt]1 is ! fact1 t ! great spe$ & *eapness ( transit atta9able ^u a railway by ! aid ( /eam-p[] w always secure to su* l9es n only a monopoly ( ! travell+1 b w increase ! actual am\nt ( t s\rce ( pr(it 9 an enorm\s proportion1 z has be5 already made manife/ betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]4 ,be=e ! op5+ ( ! railway !re 7 ab\t tw5ty-five coa*es daily runn+ betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]4 ,if we assume ^! coa*es on ! av]age to take t5 p]sons at ea* trip1 x w foll[ t ! numb] ( p]sons pass+ daily betwe5 ^! t[ns 0 ab\t #ejj4 ,let u1 !n1 assume t #cjjj p]sons pass$ weekly4 ,?is gives 9 six mon?s #gh1jjj4 ,9 ! six mon?s :i* t]m9at$ on ! #ca/ ( ,decemb] #ahca1 ! numb] ( pass5g]s betwe5 ! same t[ns1 exclusive ( any tak5 up on ! road1 0 #bef1cba2 & if "s all[ance be made = ^? tak5 up on ! road1 ! numb] may be fairly /at$ at #cjj1jjj4 ,at pres5t !re is b "o coa* on ! road betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]2 & x foll[s1 !re=e1 t1 besides tak+ ! monopoly ( ! transit 9 travell]s1 ! actual numb] has be5 already increas$ 9 a f\rfold proportion4 ,! monopoly ( ! transit ( pass5g]s ?us secur$ to ! l9e ( communication by railroad w always yield s l>ge a pr(it z to enable m]*&ise to be c>ri$ at a comp>atively l[ rate4 ,9 light goods1 :i* require despat*1 x is obvi\s t ! railroad w always comm& ! pref]5ce2 & ! "q betwe5 t mode ( communication & canals is circumscrib$ to ! transit ( ^? classes ( heavy goods 9 :i* ev5 a small sav+ 9 ! co/ ( transport is a great] object ?an despat*4 7#ajc47 ,! fir/ effect :i* ! ,liv]pool railroad produc$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] canals 0 a fall 9 ! price ( transport2 & at ?is "t1 ,i believe1 ! co/ ( transport p] ton on ! railroads & on ! canals is ! same4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be naturally ask$1 ?is be+ ! case1 :y ! great] spe$ & c]ta9ty ( ! railroad does n 9 e in/ance give x ! pref]5ce1 & altoge!r deprive ! canals ( transport8 ,?is effect1 h[ev]1 is prev5t$ by sev]al local & accid5tal causes1 z well z by direct influ5ce & individual int]e/4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! comm]cial & manufactur+ population ( ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] h prop]ty inve/$ 9 ! canals1 & are deeply int]e/$ to su/a9 !m 9 opposition to ! railway4 ,su* p]sons w give ! pref]5ce to ! canals 9 _! own bus9ess1 & w induce ^? ov] :om !y h influ5ce to d s 9 e case :]e spe$ ( transport is n absolutely indisp5sable4 ,besides ^! circum/ances1 ! canal communicates imm$iately ) ! %ipp+ at ,liv]pool1 & x ramifies 9 v>i\s directions ?r\gh ,man*e/]1 wa%+ ! walls ( _m ( ! w>eh\ses & factories = :i* ! goods transport$ are de/9$4 ,! m]*&ise is ?us transf]r$ f ! %ipp+ to ! boat1 & br\ght directly to ! door ( its own]1 or vice v]s4 ,if transport$ by ! railway1 on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ be c>ri$ to ! /ation at "o extremity2 &1 :5 transport$ to ! /ation at ! o!r1 x has /ill to be c>ri$ to its de/9ation 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! t[n4 ,^! circum/ances w suffici5tly expla9 :y ! canals /ill reta91 & may probably cont9ue to reta91 a %>e ( ! traffic betwe5 ^! great m>ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,locomotive ,,eng9es ,,on ,,turnpike ,,roads4 ,railways & ,turnpike ,roads comp>$4 -- ,mr4 ,gurney's inv5tions4 -- ,8 ,locomotive ,/eam ,eng9e4 -- ,its p]=mances4 -- ,prejudices & errors4 -- ,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 -- ,conv5i5ce & safety ( ,/eam ,c>riages4 -- ,hancock's ,/eam ,c>riage4 -- ,mr4 ,n4 ,ogle4 -- ,trevi?ick's inv5tion4 -- ,proce$+s aga9/ ,/eam ,c>riages4 -- ,turnpike ,bills4 -- ,/eam ,c>riage betwe5 ,gl\ce/] & ,*elt5ham4 -- ,its discont9uance4 -- ,report ( ! ,committee ( ! ,commons4 -- ,pres5t ,/ate & ,prospects ( ,/eam ,c>riages4 7#ajd47 ,we h hi!rto conf9$ our obs]vations to /eam-p[] z a means ( transport appli$ on railways1 b mod]n speculation has n /opp$ "h4 ,sev]al attempts h be5 made1 & "s ( !m att5d$ ) consid]able success1 to "w /eam-c>riages on turnpike roads4 ,! practicability ( ?is project has be5 hi!rto g5]ally consid]$ to be v que/ionable2 b if we c>ry back our view to ! v>i\s epo*s 9 ! hi/ory ( ! inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e1 we %all f9d ! same d\bt1 & ! same difficulty1 />t$ at almo/ e important /ep 9 its progress4 ,9 comp>+ ! effect ( a turnpike road ) t ( a railway1 !re are two circum/ances :i* obvi\sly give facility & advantage to ! railway4 ,"o is1 t ! ob/ructions to ! roll+ motion ( ! :eels1 produc$ by ! inequalities ( ! surface1 are v consid]ably less on a railway ?an on a road2 less 9 ! proportion ( at lea/ #a to #bj4 ,?is proportion1 h[ev]1 mu/ dep5d mu* on ! nature ( ! road ) :i* ! railway is comp>$4 ,x is obvi\s t a well-con/ruct$ road w (f] less resi/ance ?an "o ill con/ruct$2 & x is asc]ta9$ t ! resi/ance ( a ,macadamis$ road is consid]ably m ?an t ( a road well pav$ ) /ones3 ! decision ( ?is "q1 !re=e1 mu/ involve ! consid]ation ( ano!r1 viz4 :e!r roads may n be con/ruct$ by pavem5t or o!rwise1 smoo!r & bett] adapt$ to c>riages mov$ 9 ! mann] ( /eam-c>riages ?an ! roads n[ us$ = horse-p[]8 ,b besides ! great] smoo?ness ( railroads comp>$ ) turnpike roads1 !y h ano!r advantage1 :i* we suspect to h be5 consid]ably exagg]at$ by ^? :o h oppos$ ! project = /eam-c>riages on turnpike roads4 ,"o ( ! laws ( adhesion1 long s9ce develop$ by exp]im5t1 & kn[n to sci5tific m51 is1 t x is great] betwe5 ! surfaces ( bodies ( ! same nature ?an betwe5 ^? ( a diff]5t nature4 ,?us betwe5 two metals ( ! same k9d x is great] ?an betwe5 two metals ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,betwe5 two metals ( any k9d x is great] ?an betwe5 metal & /one1 or betwe5 metal & wood4 ,h5ce1 ! :eels ( /eam-c>riages runn+ on a railroad h a great] adhesion ) ! road1 & !re=e (f] a great] resi/ance to slip r\nd )\t ! advance ( ! c>riage1 ?an :eels w\ld (f] on a turnpike road2 = on a railroad ! iron tire ( ! :eel re/s 9 contact ) ! iron rail1 :ile on a common road ! iron tire re/s 9 contact ) ! surface ( /one1 or :atev] mat]ial ! road may be compos$ (4 ,besides ?is1 ! du/ & loose matt] :i* necess>ily collect on a common road1 :5 press$ betwe5 ! :eels & ! solid base ( ! road act some:at 9 ! mann] ( roll]s1 & give ! :eels a great] facility to slip ?an if ! road 7 swept clean1 & ! :eels re/$ 9 imm$iate contact ) its h>d surface4 ,! tru? ( ?is obs]vation is illu/rat$ on ! railroads !mselves1 :]e ! adhesion is f\nd to be dim9i%$ :5ev] ! rails are cov]$ ) any extrane\s matt]1 su* z du/ or moi/ clay4 ,al?\gh ! adhesion ( ! :eels ( a c>riage ) a common road1 h[ev]1 be less ?an ^? ( ! :eels ( a /eam-c>riage ) a railroad1 yet /ill ! actual adhesion on turnpike roads is great] 9 am\nt ?an has be5 g5]ally suppos$1 & is q suffici5t to propel c>riages dragg+ aft] !m loads ( l>ge am\nt4 ,! relative facility ) :i* c>riages are propell$ on railroads & turnpike roads equally affects any mov+ p[]1 :e!r t ( horses or /eam eng9es2 & :e!r loads be propell$ by ! "o p[] or ! o!r1 ! railroad1 z comp>$ ) ! turnpike road1 w always possess ! same proportionate advantage2 & a giv5 am\nt ( p[]1 :e!r ( ! "o k9d or ! o!r1 w always p]=m a quantity ( "w less 9 ! same proportion on a turnpike road ?an on a railroad4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! exp5se ( orig9al con/ruction1 & ( ma9ta9+ ! repairs ( a railroad1 is to be plac$ aga9/ ! c]ta9 facility :i* x (f]s to draught4 ,9 ! attempts :i* h be5 made to adapt locomotive eng9es to turnpike roads1 ! projectors h aim$ at ! accompli%m5t ( two objects3 fir/1 ! con/ruction ( light] & small] eng9es2 &1 secondly1 increas$ p[]4 ,^! ends1 x is pla91 c only be atta9$1 ) our pres5t k1 by ! production ( /eam ( v high temp]ature & pressure1 s t ! smalle/ volume ( /eam %all produce ! greate/ possible me*anical effect4 ,! me?ods ( propell+ ! c>riage h be5 9 g5]al simil> to t us$ 9 ! railroad eng9es1 viz4 ei!r by cranks plac$ on ! axles1 ! :eels be+ fix$ ^u ! same axles1 or by connect+ ! pi/on-rods ) ! spokes ( ! :eels1 z 9 ! eng9e repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ee4 ,9 "s c>riages1 ! boil] & mov+ p[]1 & ! body ( ! c>riage :i* be>s ! pass5g]s1 are plac$ on ! same :eels4 ,9 o!rs1 ! eng9e is plac$ on a sep>ate c>riage1 & draws aft] x ! c>riage :i* transports ! pass5g]s1 z is always ! case on railways4 ,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ! /eam eng9es us$ on railways1 & ^? adapt$ to propel c>riages on turnpike roads1 is 9 ! /ructure ( ! boil]4 ,9 ! latt] x is ess5tial t1 :ile ! p[] rema9s undim9i%$1 ! boil] %\ld be light] & small]4 ,! accompli%m5t ( ?is has be5 attempt$ by v>i\s contrivances = s di/ribut+ ! wat]1 z to expose a consid]able quantity ( surface 9 contact ) x to ! action ( ! fire2 spread+ x 9 ?9 lay]s on flat plates2 ins]t+ x betwe5 plates ( iron plac$ at a small di/ance asund]1 ! fire be+ admitt$ betwe5 ! int]m$iate plates2 divid+ x into small tubes1 r\nd :i* ! fire has play2 introduc+ x betwe5 ! surfaces ( cyl9d]s plac$ "o )9 ano!r1 ! fire be+ admitt$ betwe5 ! alt]nate cyl9d]s1--h all be5 resort$ to by diff]5t projectors4 7#aje47 ,fir/ & mo/ prom95t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! application ( /eam to ! propell+ ( c>riages on turnpike roads1 /&s ! "n ( ,mr4 ,,goldswor?y ,,gurney1 a m$ical g5tleman & sci5tific *emi/1 ( ,cornwall4 ,9 #ahbb1 ,mr4 ,gurney succe$$ ,dr4 ,?ompson z lectur] on *emi/ry at ! ,surrey ,in/itution2 &1 9 consequ5ce ( ! results ( "s exp]im5ts on heat1 8 att5tion 0 direct$ to ! project ( work+ /eam c>riages on common roads2 & s9ce #ahbe he has devot$ 8 ex]tions 9 p]fect+ a /eam eng9e capable ( atta9+ ! end he _h 9 view4 ,num]\s o!r projectors1 z might h be5 expect$1 h foll[$ 9 8 wake4 ,:e!r !y1 or any ( !m1 by bett] =tune1 great] public support1 or m p[]ful g5ius1 may out/rip him 9 ! c>e] on :i* he has v5tur$1 x w\ld n1 p]haps1 at pres5t1 be easy to pr$ict4 ,b :atev] be ! ev5t1 to ,mr4 ,gurney is due1 & w be paid1 ! hon\r ( fir/ prov+ ! practicability ( ! project2 & 9 ! hi/ory ( ! adaptation ( ! locomotive eng9e to common roads1 8 "n w /& be=e all o!rs 9 po9t ( "t1 & ! success ( 8 attempts w be record$ z ! orig9 & cause ( ! success ( o!rs 9 ! same race4 ,! incr$ulity1 opposition1 & ev5 ridicule1 ) :i* ! project ( ,mr4 ,gurney 0 met1 are v rem>kable4 ,8 views 7 f ! fir/ oppos$ by eng9e]s1 )\t "o exception4 ,! contract$ habit ( m9d1 sometimes produc$ by an education *iefly1 if n exclusively1 direct$ to a m]ely practical object1 subsequ5tly confirm$ by exclusively practical pursuits1 may1 p]haps1 9 "s degree1 acc\nt = ?is4 ,b1 ,i confess1 x has n be5 )\t surprise t ,i h obs]v$1 dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s1 ! utt] incr$ulity :i* has prevail$ among m5 ( g5]al sci5ce on ?is subject1--an incr$ulity :i* ! mo/ unequivocal practical pro( has sc>cely yet dispell$4 ,among sci5tific m51 says ,mr4 ,gurney1 my op9ion _h n a s+le support]1 ) ! exception ( ! late ,dr4 ,wolla/on4 ,! mi/ake :i* s long prevail$ 9 ! application ( locomotives on railroads1 & :i*1 z we h %[n1 mat]ially ret>d$ ! progress ( t inv5tion1 0 %>$ by ,mr4 ,gurney4 ,)\t r$uc+ ! "q to ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 he took = grant$1 9 8 fir/ attempts1 t ! adhesion ( ! :eels ) ! road 0 too slight to propel ! c>riage4 ,he 0 assur$1 he says1 by em95t eng9e]s1 t ?is 0 a po9t settl$ by actual exp]im5t4 ,x is /range1 h[ev]1 t a p]son ( 8 quickness & sagacity did n inquire aft] ! p>ticul>s ( ^! actual exp]im5ts4 ,s1 h[ev]1 x 02 &1 tak+ = grant$ ! inability ( ! :eels to propel1 he wa/$ mu* lab\r & skill 9 ! contrivance ( lev]s & propell]s1 :i* act$ on ! gr\nd 9 a mann] some:at resembl+ ! feet ( horses1 to drive ! c>riage =w>d4 ,aft] v>i\s fruitless attempts ( ?is k9d1 ! exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 ! trials to :i* !y gave rise at la/ =c$ ! tru? ^u 8 notice1 & he f\nd t ! adhesion ( ! :eels 0 n only suffici5t to propel ! c>riage heavily lad5 on level roads1 b 0 capable ( caus+ x to asc5d all ! hills :i* occur on ord9>y turnpike roads4 ,9 ?is mann] x asc5d$ all ! hills betwe5 ,london & ,b>net1 ,london & ,/anmore1 ,/anmore ,hill1 ,brockley ,hill1 & m\nt$ ,old ,highgate ,hill1 ! la/ at "o po9t ris+ "o foot 9 n9e4 ,x w\ld be =eign to my pres5t object to detail m9utely all ! /eps by :i* ,mr4 ,gurney gradually improv$ 8 contrivance4 ,?is1 l o!r inv5tions1 has advanc$ by a s]ies ( p>tial failures2 b x has at l5g? atta9$ t /ate1 9 :i*1 by practice alone1 on a m ext5sive scale1 a fur!r degree ( p]fection c be obta9$4 7#ajf47 ,! boil] ( ?is eng9e is s con/ruct$ t !re is no "p ( x1 n ev5 except+ ! grate-b>s1 9 :i* metal expos$ to ! action ( ! fire is out ( contact ) wat]4 ,if x be consid]$ h[ rapidly ! action ( an int5se furnace de/roys metal :5 wat] is n pres5t to prev5t ! heat f accumulat+1 ! advantage ( ?is circum/ance w be appreciat$4 ,i h se5 ! b>s ( a new grate1 nev] be=e us$1 melt$ 9 a s+le trip betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]2 & ! inv5tor ( ano!r =m ( locomotive eng9e has admitt$ to me t 8 grate-b>s1 ?\gh ( a consid]able ?ickness1 w\ld n la/ m ?an a week4 ,9 ! boil] ( ,mr4 ,gurney1 ! grate-b>s !mselves are tubes fill$ ) wat]1 & =m1 9 fact1 a "p ( ! boil] itself4 ,?is boil] consi/s ( ?ree /rong metal cyl9d]s plac$ 9 a horizontal position "o above ! o!r4 ,a section1 made by a p]p5dicul> or v]tical plane1 is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fb4 ,! ends ( ! ?ree cyl9d]s1 j m5tion$1 are repres5t$ at ,d1 ,h1 & ,i4 ,9 ! side ( ! l[e/ cyl9d] ,d are ins]t$ a r[ ( tubes1 a gr\nd plan ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fc4 ,^! tubes1 proce$+ f ! side ( ! l[e/ cyl9d] ,d1 are incl9$ slightly upw>ds1 = a reason :i* ,i %all pres5tly expla94 ,f ! nature ( ! section1 only "o ( ^! tubes is visible 9 fig4 #fb4 at ,c4 ,! o!r extremities ( ^! tubes at ,a are connect$ ) ! same numb] ( upright tubes1 "o ( :i* is express$ at ,e4 ,! upp] extremities ,g ( ^! upright tubes are connect$ ) ano!r set ( tubes ,k1 equal 9 numb]1 proce$+ f ,g1 incl9+ slightly upw>ds1 & t]m9at+ 9 ! second cyl9d] ,h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,an end view ( ! boil] is exhibit$ 9 fig4 #fd41 :]e ! ?ree cyl9d]s are express$ by ! same lett]s4 ,betwe5 ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h !re are two tubes ( communication ,b1 & two simil> tubes betwe5 ! cyl9d]s ,h & ,i4 ,f ! nature ( ! section ^! appe> only z a s+le tube 9 fig4 #fb4 ,f ! top ( ! cyl9d] ,i proce$s a tube ,n1 by :i* /eam is conduct$ to ! eng9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ! space ,f is enclos$ on e side by a grat+ ( tubes1 :i* h free communication ) ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h1 :i* cyl9d]s h also a free communication ) ea* o!r by ! tubes ,b4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t if wat] be suppli$ to ! cyl9d] ,i1 x w desc5d ?r\gh ! tubes1 & fir/ fill+ ! cyl9d] ,d & ! tubes ,c1 w gradually rise 9 ! tubes ,b & ,e1 w next fill ! tubes ,k & ! cyl9d] ,h4 ,! grat+ ( wat] pipes ,c ,e ,k =ms ! furnace1 ! pipes ,c be+ ! fire-b>s1 & ! pipes ,e & ,k be+ ! back & ro( ( ! /ove4 ,! fire-door1 = ! supply ( fuel1 appe>s at ,m1 fig4 #fd4 ,! flue issu+ betwe5 ! tubes ,f is conduct$ ov] ! tubes ,k1 & ! flame & hot air are c>ri$ (f ?r\gh a *imney4 ,t portion ( ! heat ( ! burn+ fuel1 :i* 9 o!r furnaces de/roys ! b>s ( ! grate1 is "h exp5d$ 9 heat+ ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! tubes ,c4 ,! radiant heat ( ! fire acts ^u ! tubes ,k1 =m+ ! ro( ( ! furnace1 on ! tube ,e at ! back ( x1 & p>tially on ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h1 & ! tubes ,b4 ,! draft ( hot air & flame pass+ into ! flue at ,a1 acts ^u ! po/]ior surfaces ( ! tubes ,e1 & ! upp] sides ( ! tubes ,k1 & f9ally passes into ! *imney4 ,z ! wat] 9 ! tubes ,c ,e ,k is heat$1 x becomes specifically light] ?an wat] ( a less temp]ature1 & consequ5tly acquires a t5d5cy to asc5d4 ,x passes1 !re=e1 rapidly into ,h4 ,mean:ile ! cold] portions desc5d1 & ! incl9$ positions ( ! tubes ,c & ,k give play to ?is t5d5cy ( ! heat$ wat]1 s t a prodigi\sly rapid circulation is produc$1 :5 ! fire beg9s to act ^u ! tubes4 ,:5 ! wat] acquires su* a temp]ature t /eam is rapidly produc$1 /eam bubbles are con/antly =m$ 9 ! tubes surr\nd+ ! fire2 & if ^! rema9$ /ation>y 9 ! tubes1 ! action ( ! fire w\ld n only decompose ! /eam1 b r5d] ! tubes r$ hot1 ! wat] n pass+ ?r\gh !m to c>ry (f ! heat4 ,b ! incl9$ position ( ! tubes1 already notic$1 effectually prev5ts ?is injuri\s consequ5ce4 ,a /eam bubble :i* is =m$ ei!r 9 ! tubes ,c or ,k1 hav+ a t5d5cy to asc5d proportional to its lightness z comp>$ ) wat]1 necess>ily ru%es upw>ds2 if 9 ,c t[>ds ,a1 & if 9 ,k t[>ds ,h4 ,b ?is motion ( ! /eam is also aid$ by ! rapid circulation ( ! wat] :i* is cont9ually ma9ta9$ 9 ! tubes1 z already expla9$1 o!rwise x might be possible1 not)/&+ ! levity ( /eam comp>$ ) wat]1 t a bubble might rema9 9 a n>r[ tube )\t ris+4 ,i notice ?is m p>ticul>ly1 because ! burn+ ( ! tubes is a defect :i* has be5 errone\sly1 9 my op9ion1 attribut$ to ?is boil]4 ,to br+ ! matt] to ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 ,i h connect$ two cyl9d]s1 su* z ,d & ,h1 by a sy/em ( glass tubes1 su* z repres5t$ at ,c ,e ,k4 ,! rapid & con/ant circulation ( ! wat] 0 !n made evid5t3 bubbles ( /eam 7 =m$ 9 ! tubes1 x is true2 b !y pass$ ) great rapidity into ! upp] cyl9d]1 & rose to ! surface1 s t ! glass tubes nev] acquir$ a high] temp]ature ?an t ( ! wat] :i* pass$ ?r\gh !m4 ,?is ,i conceive to be ! *ief excell5ce ( ,mr4 ,gurney's boil]4 ,x is impossible t any "p ( ! metal ( :i* x is =m$ c receive a great] temp]ature ?an t ( ! wat] :i* x conta9s2 & t temp]ature1 z is obvi\s1 c be regulat$ ) ! mo/ p]fect c]ta9ty & precision4 ,i h se5 ! tubes ( ?is boil]1 :ile expos$ to ! action ( ! furnace1 aft] t action has cont9u$ = a long p]iod ( "t1 & ,i h nev] obs]v$ ! soot :i* cov]s !m to r$d51 z x w\ld d if ! tube atta9$ a c]ta9 temp]ature4 ,e "p ( ! boil] be+ cyl9drical1 x has ! =m :i*1 me*anically consid]$1 is mo/ fav\rable to /r5g?1 & :i*1 )9 giv5 dim5sions1 conta9s ! greate/ quantity ( wat]4 ,x is also free f ! defects aris+ f unequal expansion1 :i* are f\nd to be mo/ injuri\s 9 tubul> boil]s4 ,! tubes ,c & ,k c freely exp& 9 ! direction ( _! l5g?1 )\t be+ loos5$ at _! jo9ts1 & )\t /ra9+ any "p ( ! app>atus2 ! tubes ,e1 be+ %ort1 are subject to a v slight degree ( expansion2 & x is obvi\s t ! long tubes1 ) :i* !y are connect$1 w yield to ?is )\t suff]+ a /ra91 & )\t caus+ any "p ( ! app>atus to be loos5$4 ,:5 wat] is conv]t$ into /eam1 any =eign matt] :i* may be comb9$ ) x is dis5gag$1 & is deposit$ on ! bottom ( ! vessel 9 :i* ! wat] is evaporat$4 ,all boil]s1 !re=e1 require occasional cleans+1 to prev5t ! cru/ ?us =m$ f accumulat+2 & ?is op]ation1 = obvi\s reasons1 is att5d$ ) peculi> difficulty 9 tubul> boil]s4 ,9 ! case be=e u1 ! cru/ ( deposit$ matt] w\ld ga!r & ?ick5 9 ! tubes ,c & ,k1 & if n remov$1 w\ld at l5g? *oke !m4 ,b besides ?is1 x w\ld be att5d$ ) a /ill worse effect2 =1 be+ a bad conductor1 x w\ld int]cept ! heat 9 its transit f ! fire to ! wat] & w\ld cause ! metal ( ! tube to become unduly heat$4 ,mr4 ,gurney ( c\rse =esaw ?is inconv5i5ce1 & contriv$ an +5i\s *emical me?od ( remov+ x by occasionally inject+ ?r\gh ! tubes su* an acid z w\ld comb9e ) ! deposite1 & c>ry x away4 ,?is me?od 0 p]fectly effectual2 & al?\gh its practical application 0 f\nd to be att5d$ ) difficulty 9 ! h&s ( common workm51 ,mr4 ,gurney 0 p]suad$ to adh]e to x by ! late ,dr4 ,wolla/on1 until exp]i5ce prov$ ! impossibility ( gett+ x effectually p]=m$1 "u ! circum/ances 9 :i* boil]s are commonly us$4 ,mr4 ,gurney !n adopt$ ! m simple1 b n less effectual1 me?od ( remov+ ! deposite by me*anical means4 ,opposite ! m\?s ( ! tubes1 & on ! o!r side ( ! cyl9d]s ,d & ,h1 are plac$ a numb] ( holes1 :i*1 :5 ! boil] is 9 use1 are /opp$ by pieces ( metal screw$ into !m4 ,:5 ! tubes require to be clean$ ^! /opp]s are remov$1 & an iron scrap] is introduc$ ?r\gh ! holes into ! tubes1 :i* be+ pass$ backw>ds & =w>ds1 removes ! deposite4 ,! boil] may be ?us clean$ by a common lab\r] 9 half a day1 at an exp5se ( ab\t #as4 #f;d4 ,! frequ5cy ( ! p]iods at :i* a boil] ( ?is k9d requires clean+ mu/ dep5d1 9 a great degree1 on ! nature ( ! wat] :i* is us$2 "o 9 daily use ) ! wat] ( ! riv] ,?ames w\ld n require clean+ m ?an once 9 a mon?4 ,mr4 ,gurney /ates t ) wat] ( ! mo/ unfav\rable description1 once a =tnight w\ld be suffici5t4 7#ajg47 ,9 ! m rec5t boil]s con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,gurney1 he has ma9ta9$ ! draught ?r\gh ! furnace1 by ! me?od ( project+ ! wa/e /eam into ! *imneys2 a me?od s p]fectly effectual1 t x is unlikely to be sup]s$$ by any o!r4 ,! objection :i* has be5 urg$ aga9/ x 9 locomotive eng9es1 work+ on turnpike roads1 is1 t ! noise :i* x produces has a t5d5cy to fright5 horses4 ,9 ! eng9es on ! ,liv]pool road1 ! /eam is all[$ to pass directly f ! eduction pipe ( ! cyl9d] to ! *imney1 & x !re escapes 9 puffs correspond+ ) ! alt]nate motion ( ! pi/ons1 & produces a noise1 :i*1 al?\gh att5d$ ) no inconv5i5ce on ! railroad1 w\ld c]ta9ly be objectionable on turnpike roads4 ,9 ! eng9e us$ 9 ,mr4 ,gurney's /eam-c>riage1 ! /eam :i* passes f ! cyl9d]s is conduct$ to a receptacle1 :i* he calls a bl[+ box4 ,?is box s]ves ! same purpose z ! upp] *amb] ( a smi?'s bell[s4 ,x receives ! /eam f ! cyl9d]s 9 alt]nate puffs1 b lets x escape into ! *imney 9 a cont9u$ /ream by a numb] ( small jets4 ,regul> draught is by ?is means produc$1 & no noise is p]ceiv$4 ,ano!r exit = ! /eam is also provid$1 by :i* ! conductor is enabl$ to increase or dim9i%1 or to susp5d altoge!r1 ! draught 9 ! *imney1 s z to adapt ! int5sity ( ! fire to ! exig5cies ( ! road4 ,?is is a great conv5i5ce 9 practice2 because1 on "s roads1 a draught is sc>cely requir$1 :ile on o!rs a p[]ful bla/ is indisp5sable4 ,connect$ ) ?is bl[+ box1 is ano!r +5i\s app>atus ( consid]able practical importance4 ,! pipe ?r\gh :i* ! wat] :i* fe$s ! boil] is conduct$ to x f ! tank is c>ri$ ?r\gh ?is bl[+ box1 )9 :i* x is coil$ 9 a spiral =m1 s t an ext5sive ?read ( ! fe$+ wat] is expos$ to ! heat ( ! wa/e /eam :i* has escap$ f ! cyl9d]s1 & :i* is enclos$ 9 ?is bl[+ box4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh ?is pipe ! fe$+ wat] is rais$ f ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ab\t #fj to ! temp]ature ( #bab4 ,! fuel necess>y to accompli% ?is is1 !re=e1 sav$1 & ! am\nt ( ?is is calculat$ at #a_/f? ( all t is necess>y to evaporate ! wat]4 ,?us1 #a_/f? ( ! exp5se ( fuel is sav$4 ,b1 :at is mu* m important 9 a locomotive eng9e1 a portion ( ! weight ( ! eng9e is sav$ )\t any sacrifice ( its p[]4 ,!re is /ill ano!r great advantage att5d+ ?is process4 ,! fe$+ wat] 9 ! worm j m5tion$1 :ile x takes up ! heat f ! surr\nd+ /eam 9 ! bl[+ box1 cond5ses #a_/f? ( ! wa/e /eam1 :i* is !nce conduct$ to ! tank1 f :i* ! fe$+ wat] is pump$1 sav+ 9 ?is mann] #a_/f? 9 weight & room ( ! wat] necess>y to be c>ri$ 9 ! c>riage = fe$+ ! boil]4#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,9 boil]s con/ruct$ = /ation>y purposes1 or = /eam navigation1 ! /eam-pipe1 aft] x has pass$ ?r\gh ! bl[+ box1 is cont9u$ & made to =m a s]ies ( return$ flues ov] ! boil]1 s z to take up ! wa/e heat aft] x has pass$ ! boil]1 & be=e x rea*es ! *imney4 ,b 9 locomotive eng9es = common roads1 x has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce1 t ! p[] ga9$ by ! wa/e heat is n suffici5t to propel ! weight ( ! mat]ial necess>y = tak+ x up4 ,s f> z ! removal ( all inconv5i5ce aris+ f noise1 ?is contrivance has be5 prov$ by exp]i5ce to be p]fectly effectual4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,see ,report ( ! ,commons4 ,9 all boil]s1 ! process ( viol5t ebullition causes a /ate ( agitation 9 ! wat]1 & a numb] ( c\nt] curr5ts1 by :i*1 z ! /eam is dis5gag$ f ! surface ( ! wat]1 x takes ) x a consid]able quantity ( wat] 9 me*anical mixture4 ,if ?is be c>ri$ ?r\gh ! cyl9d]s1 s9ce x possesses none ( ! qualities ( /eam1 & adds no?+ to ! p[] ( ! vap\r ) :i* x is comb9$1 x causes an ext5sive wa/e ( heat & wat]1 & produces o!r injuri\s effects4 ,9 e boil] !re=e1 "s means %\ld be provid$ = ! sep>ation ( ! wat] ?us susp5d$ 9 ! /eam1 be=e ! /eam is conduct$ to ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ord9>y plate boil]s1 ! l>ge space :i* rema9s above ! surface ( ! wat] s]ves ?is purpose4 ,! /eam be+ !re subject to no agitation or di/urbance1 ! wat] me*anically susp5d$ 9 x desc5ds by its own gravity1 & leaves pure /eam 9 ! upp] "p4 ,9 ! small tubul> boil]s1 ?is has be5 a matt]1 h[ev]1 ( great] difficulty4 ,! contract$ spaces 9 :i* ! ebullition takes place1 causes ! wat] to be mix$ ) ! /eam 9 a great] quantity ?an c\ld happ5 9 common plate boil]s3 & ! want ( ! same /eam-room r5d]s ! sep>ation ( ! wat] f ! /eam a matt] ( "s difficulty4 ,^! inconv5i5ces h be5 ov]come by a succession ( contrivances ( great +5uity4 ,i h already describ$ ! rapid & regul> circulation effect$ by ! arrangem5t ( ! tubes4 ,by ?is a regul>ity 9 ! curr5ts is e/abli%$1 :i* alone has a t5d5cy to dim9i% ! mixture ( wat] ) ! /eam4 ,b 9 addition to ?is1 a mo/ effectual me?od ( sep>ation is provid$ 9 ! vessel ,i1 :i* is a /rong iron cyl9d] ( "s magnitude1 plac$ out ( ! imm$iate influ5ce ( ! fire4 ,a p>tial sep>ation ( ! /eam f ! wat] takes place 9 ! cyl9d] ,h2 & ! /eam ) ! wat] me*anically susp5d$ 9 x1 te*nically call$ moi/ /eam1 rises into ! sep>ator ,i4 ,"h1 be+ free f all agitation & curr5ts1 & be+1 9 fact1 quiesc5t1 ! p>ticles ( wat] fall to ! bottom1 :ile ! pure /eam rema9s at ! top4 ,?is sep>ator1 !re=e1 s]ves all ! purposes ( ! /eam-room above ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! l>ge plate boil]s4 ,! dry /eam is ?us collect$ & ready = ! supply ( ! eng9e ?r\gh ! tube ,n1 :ile ! wat]1 :i* is dis5gag$ f x1 is collect$ at ! bottom ( ! sep>ator1 & is conduct$ ?r\gh ! tube ,t to ! l[e/ vessel ,d1 to be aga9 circulat$ ?r\gh ! boil]4 ,! pi/ons ( ! eng9e "w on ! axles ( ! h9d :eels ( ! c>riage :i* be>s ! eng9e1 by cranks1 z 9 ! locomotives on ! ,man*e/] railway1 s t ! axle is kept 9 a con/ant /ate ( rotation :ile ! eng9e is at "w4 ,! :eels plac$ on ?is axle are n p]man5tly fix$ or key$ ^u x1 z 9 ! ,man*e/] locomotives2 b !y are capable ( turn+ ^u x 9 ! same mann] z ord9>y c>riage :eels4 ,imm$iately )9 ^! :eels !re are fix$ ^u ! axles two project+ spokes or lev]s1 :i* revolve ) ! axle1 & :i* take ! position ( two opposite spokes ( ! :eel4 ,^! may be occasionally atta*$ to ! :eel or deta*$ f x2 s t !y are capable ( compell+ ! :eels to turn ) ! axle1 or leav+ ! axle free to turn indep5d5t ( ! :eel1 or ! :eel indep5d5t ( ! axle1 at ! pleasure ( ! conductor4 ,x is by ^! lev]s t ! eng9e is made to propel ei!r or bo? ( ! :eels4 ,if bo? pairs ( spokes are ?r[n into connexion ) ! :eels1 ! crank %aft or axle w cause bo? :eels to turn ) x1 & 9 t case ! op]ation ( ! c>riage is precisely ! same z ^? ( ! locomotives already describ$ ^u ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] l9e2 b ?is is r>ely f\nd to be necess>y1 s9ce ! adhesion ( "o :eel ) ! road is g5]ally suffici5t to propel ! c>riage1 & consequ5tly only "o pair ( ^! fix$ lev]s are g5]ally us$1 & ! c>riage propell$ by only "o ( ! two h9d :eels4 ,! =e :eels ( ! c>riage turn ^u a pivot simil> to ^? ( a f\r-:eel$ coa*4 ,! position ( ^! :eels is *ang$ at pleasure by a simple p9ion & circul> rack1 :i* is mov$ by ! conductor1 & 9 ?is mann] ! c>riage is guid$ ) precision & facility4 ,! =ce ( traction necess>y to propel a c>riage ^u common roads mu/ v>y ) ! v>iable quality ( ! road1 & consequ5tly ! propell+ p[]1 or ! pressure ^u ! pi/ons ( ! eng9e1 mu/ be susceptible ( a correspond+ v>iation2 b a /ill great] v>iation becomes necess>y f ! undulations & hills :i* are ^u all ord9>y roads4 ,?is necess>y *ange 9 ! int5sity ( ! impell+ p[] is obta9$ by re/ra9+ ! /eam 9 ! boil] by ! ?rottle valve1 z already describ$ 9 ! locomotive eng9es on ! railroad4 ,?is pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 is c>ri$ mu* fur!r 9 ! pres5t case4 ,! /eam 9 ! boil] may be at a pressure ( f #ajj to #bjj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*2 :ile ! /eam on ! work+ pi/on may n exce$ #cj or #dj lbs4 on ! in*4 ,?us an imm5se increase ( p[] is always at ! comm& ( ! conductor2 s t :5 a hill is enc\nt]$1 or a r\gh piece ( road1 he is enabl$ to lay on p[] suffici5t to meet ! exig5cy ( ! occasion4 ,! two difficulties :i* h be5 always appreh5d$ 9 ! practical work+ ( /eam c>riages ^u common roads are1 fir/1 ! comm& ( suffici5t p[] = hills & r\gh pieces ( road2 &1 secondly1 ! appreh5d$ insuffici5cy ( ! adhesion ( ! :eels ) ! road to propel ! c>riage4 ,! =m] ( ^! difficulties has be5 met by all[+ /eam ( a v great pressure to be con/antly ma9ta9$ 9 ! boil] ) p]fect safety4 ,z to ! second1 all exp]im5ts t5d to %[ t !re is no gr\nd = ! supposition t ! adhesion ( ! :eels is 9 any case insuffici5t = ! purposes ( propulsion4 ,mr4 ,gurney /ates1 t he has succe$$ 9 driv+ c>riages ?us propell$ up consid]able hills on ! turnpike roads ab\t ,london4 ,he made a j\rney to ,b>net ) only "o :eel atta*$ to ! axle1 :i* 0 f\nd suffici5t to propel ! c>riage up all ! hills ^u t road4 ,! same c>riage1 ) only "o propell+ :eel1 also w5t to ,ba?1 & surm\nt$ all ! hills betwe5 ,cran=d ,bridge & ,ba?1 go+ & return+4 ,a d\ble /roke ( ! pi/on produces "o revolution ( ! propell+ :eels1 & causes ! c>riage to move ?r\gh a space equal to ! circumf]5ce ( ^? :eels4 ,x w !re=e be obvi\s1 t ! great] ! diamet] ( ! :eels1 ! bett] adapt$ ! c>riage is = spe$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :eels ( small] diamet] are bett] adapt$ = p[]4 ,9 fact1 ! propell+ p[] ( an eng9e on ! :eels w be 9 ! inv]se proportion to _! diamet]4 ,9 c>riages design$ to c>ry great weights at a mod]ate spe$1 small] :eels w be us$2 :ile 9 ^? int5d$ = ! transport ( pass5g]s at consid]able velocities1 :eels ( at lea/ #e feet 9 diamet] are mo/ advantage\s4 ,among ! num]\s popul> prejudices to :i* ?is new inv5tion has giv5 rise1 "o ( ! mo/ mis*iev\s 9 its effects1 & mo/ gl>+ 9 its falsehood1 is ! notion t c>riages ?us propell$ are m injuri\s to roads ?an c>riages drawn by horses4 ,?is error has be5 mo/ cle>ly & successfully expos$ 9 ! evid5ce tak5 be=e ! committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons ^u /eam c>riages4 ,x is !re fully demon/rat$1 n only t c>riages ?us propell$ did n we> a turnpike road m rapidly ?an ^? drawn by horses1 b t1 on ! o!r h&1 ! we> by ! feet ( horses is f> m rapid & de/ructive ?an any :i* c\ld be produc$ by ! :eels ( c>riages4 ,/eam c>riages admit ( hav+ ! tires ( ! :eels broad1 s z to act ^u ! road m 9 ! mann] ( roll]s1 & !reby to give consi/5cy & firmness to ! mat]ial ( :i* ! road is compos$4 ,! driv+ :eels1 be+ fully prov$ n to slip ^u ! road1 d n produce any effects m injuri\s ?an ! ord9>y roll+ :eels2 consequ5tly ! we> occasion$ by a /eam c>riage ^u a road is n m ?an t produc$ by a c>riage drawn by horses ( an equival5t weight & ! same or equal tires2 b ! we> produc$ by ! p\nd+ & digg+ ( horses' feet 9 draught is _m times great] ?an t produc$ by ! we> ( any c>riage4 ,^? :o /ill h d\bts ^u ?is subject1 if !re be any su* p]sons1 w be fully satisfi$ by ref]r+ to ! evid5ce :i* accompanies ! report ( ! committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 pr9t$ 9 ,octob]1 #ahca4 ,9 t report !y w n only f9d demon/rative evid5ce t ! introduction ( /eam c>riages w mat]ially contribute to ! sav+ 9 ! we> ( turnpike roads1 b also t ! practicability ( work+ su* c>riages ) a great sav+ to ! public--) great increase ( spe$ & o!r conv5i5ces to ! travell]--is fully e/abli%$4 ,! weight ( ma*9]y necess>y = /eam c>riages is sometimes urg$ z an objection to _! practical utility4 ,mr4 ,gurney /ates1 t1 by successive improvem5ts 9 ! details ( ! ma*9]y1 ! weight ( 8 c>riages1 )\t los+ any ( ! propell+ p[]1 may be r$uc$ to #ce cwt41 exclusive ( ! load & fuel & wat]3 b ?9ks t x is possible to r$uce ! weight /ill fur!r4 ,a /eam c>riage con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,gurney1 weigh+ #ce cwt41 work+ = #h h\rs1 is f\nd1 accord+ to 8 /atem5t1 to d ! "w ( ab\t #cj horses4 ,he calculates t ! weight ( 8 propell+ c>riage1 :i* w\ld be capable ( draw+ #ah p]sons1 w\ld be equal to ! weight ( #d horses2 & ! c>riage 9 :i* ^! p]sons w\ld be drawn w\ld h ! same weight z a common /age coa* capable ( c>ry+ ! same numb] ( p]sons4 ,?us ! weight ( ! :ole--! propell+ c>riage & ! c>riage = pass5g]s tak5 toge!r--w\ld be ! same ) ! weight ( a common /age coa*1 ) #d horses inclusive4 7#ajh47 ,!re are two me?ods ( apply+ locomotives ^u common roads to ! transport ( pass5g]s or goods2 ! "o is by caus+ ! locomotive to c>ry1 & ! o!r to draw ! load2 & diff]5t projectors h adopt$ ! "o & ! o!r me?od4 ,ea* is att5d$ ) its advantages & disadvantages4 ,if ! same c>riage transport ! eng9e & ! load1 ! weight ( ! :ole w be less 9 proportion to ! load c>ri$2 also a great] pressure may be produc$ on ! :eels by :i* ! load is propell$4 ,x is also ?\ght t a great] facility 9 turn+ & guid+ ! vehicle1 great] safety 9 desc5d+ ! hills1 & a sav+ 9 ! orig9al co/1 w be obta9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! pass5g]s are plac$ 9 ! same c>riage ) ! eng9e1 !y are necess>ily m expos$ to ! noise ( ! ma*9]y & to ! heat ( ! boil] & furnace4 ,! dang] ( explosion is s slight1 t1 p]haps1 x sc>cely des]ves to be m5tion$2 b /ill ! appreh5sion ( dang] on ! "p ( ! pass5g]s1 ev5 ?\gh gr\ndless1 %\ld n be disreg>d$4 ,?is appreh5sion w be obvi\sly remov$ or dim9i%$ by transf]r+ ! pass5g]s into a c>riage sep>ate f ! eng9e2 b ! greate/ advantage ( keep+ ! eng9e sep>ate f ! pass5g]s is ! facility :i* x af=ds ( *ang+ "o eng9e = ano!r 9 case ( accid5t or d]angem5t on ! road1 9 ! same mann] z horses are *ang$ at ! diff]5t /ages3 or1 if su* an accid5t occur 9 a place :]e a new eng9e _c be procur$1 ! load ( pass5g]s may be c>ri$ =w>d by horses1 until x is br\ght to "s /ation :]e a locomotive may be obta9$4 ,!re is also an advantage aris+ f ! circum/ance t :5 ! eng9es are "u repair1 or 9 process ( clean+1 ! c>riages = pass5g]s are n necess>ily idle4 ,?us ! same numb] ( c>riages = pass5g]s w n be requir$ :5 ! eng9e is us$ to draw z :5 x is us$ to c>ry4 ,9 case ( a v p[]ful eng9e be+ us$ to c>ry great loads1 x w\ld be q impracticable to place ! eng9e & loads on f\r :eels1 ! pressure be+ su* z no turnpike road c\ld be>4 ,9 ?is case x w\ld be indisp5sably necess>y to place a "p ( ! load at lea/ ^u sep>ate c>riages to be drawn by ! eng9e4 ,9 ! comp>ison ( c>riages propell$ by /eam ) c>riages drawn by horses1 !re is no respect 9 :i* ! advantage ( ! =m] is s app>5t z ! safety af=d$ to ! pass5g]4 ,/eam p[] is "u ! mo/ p]fect control1 & a c>riage ?us propell$ is capable ( be+ guid$ ) ! mo/ admirable precision4 ,x is also capable ( be+ /opp$ almo/ sudd5ly1 :atev] be its spe$2 x is capable ( be+ turn$ )9 a space consid]ably less ?an t :i* w\ld be necess>y = f\r-horse coa*es4 ,9 turn+ %>p corn]s1 !re is no dang]1 ) ! mo/ ord9>y c>e on ! "p ( ! conductor4 ,on ! o!r h&1 horse-p[]1 z is well kn[n1 is "u v imp]fect control1 especially :5 horses are us$1 adapt$ to t spe$ :i* at pres5t is g5]ally consid]$ necess>y = ! purpose ( travell+4 ,! dang] ( be+ run away ) & ov]turn$1 says ,mr4 ,f>ey1 9 8 evid5ce be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 is greatly dim9i%$ 9 a /eam coa*4 ,x is v difficult to control f\r su* horses z c draw a heavy /age coa* t5 miles an h\r1 9 case !y are fright5$ or *oose to run away2 &1 = su* quick travell+1 !y mu/ be kept 9 t /ate ( c\rage t !y are always incl9$ to run away1 p>ticul>ly d[n hill1 & at %>p turns 9 ! road4 ,/eam p[] has v little correspond+ dang]1 be+ p]fectly controllable1 & capable ( hav+ its p[] rev]s$ to ret>d 9 go+ d[n hill4 ,x mu/ be c>elessness t w\ld occasion ! ov]turn+ ( a /eam c>riage4 ,! *ance ( break+ d[n has be5 hi!rto consid]able1 b x w n be m ?an 9 /age coa*es :5 ! "w is truly proportion$ & prop]ly execut$4 ,! risk f explosion ( ! boil] is ! only new cause ( dang]1 & t ,i consid] n equival5t to ! dang] f horses4 ,t ! risk ( accid5t f explosion is v slight inde$1 if any su* risk exi/s1 may be prov$ f ! fact t ! boil]s us$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad be+ mu* l>g]1 &1 9 proportion1 inf]ior 9 /r5g? to ^? ( ,mr4 ,gurney1 & o!r /eam c>riage projectors1 h nev] yet be5 productive ( any injuri\s consequ5ces by explosion1 al?\gh !y h frequ5tly bur/4 ,i h /ood close to a locomotive on ! railroad :5 ! boil] bur/4 ,! effect 0 t ! wat] pass$ ?r\gh ! tubes into ! fire & ext+ui%$ x1 b no o!r consequ5ce ensu$4 ,9 fig4 #fe4 is repres5t$ ! appe>ance ( a locomotive ( ,mr4 ,gurney's draw+ aft] x a c>riage = pass5g]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 7#aji47 ,"o ( ! greate/ difficulties :i* locomotives ^u a turnpike road h to enc\nt] is ! asc5t ( v /eep hills1 = x is agre$ ^u all h&s t hills ( v mod]ate incl9ations pres5t no difficulty :i* may n be easily ov]come1 ev5 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k4 ,! fact ( ,mr4 ,gurney hav+ propell$ 8 c>riage up ,old ,highgate ,hill1 :5 ! app>atus 0 9 a a mu* m imp]fect /ate ?an t to :i* x has n[ atta9$1 e/abli%es ! m]e "q ( ! possibility ( ov]com+ ! difficulty2 b x rema9s /ill to be decid$ :e!r ! inconv5i5ce caus$ by provid+ means ( meet+ ! exig5cy ( v /eep hills may n be great] ?an ! advantage ( be+ able to surm\nt !m c comp5sate =3 & ,mr4 ,f>ey1 ^: au?ority ^u subjects ( ?is k9d is entitl$ to ! highe/ respect1 ?9ks t x is ^u ! :ole m advantage\s to provide1 at v /eep hills1 po/ horses to assi/ ! /eam c>riage up !m1 ?an to incur ! inconv5i5ce ( provid+ ! necess>y p[] & /r5g? ( ma*9]y = occasions :i* at be/ b r>ely occur4 ,if ! "q m]ely ref]r$ to ! comm& ( motive p[]1 x appe>s to me t ,mr4 ,gurney's boil] w\ld be amply suffici5t to supply all t c\ld be requir$ = any hills :i* occur ^u turnpike roads2 b x is n to be =gott51 t n m]ely an ample supply ( motive p[]1 b also a /r5g? & weight 9 ! ma*9]y proportionate to ! p[] to be ex]t$1 is indisp5sably necess>y4 ,! /r5g? & weight necess>y to asc5d a v /eep hill w be consid]ably great] ?an t :i* is necess>y = a level road1 or = hills ( mod]ate incl9ations2 & x foll[s t if we asc5d ^? /eep hills by ! unaid$ p[] ( ! locomotive1 we mu/ load ! eng9e ) all ! weight ( ma*9]y requisite = su* em]g5cies1 su* additional weight be+ altoge!r unnecess>y1 & !re=e a s]i\s imp$im5t ^u all o!r p>ts ( ! road1 inasmu* z x mu/ exclude an equival5t weight ( goods or pass5g]s1 :i* might o!rwise be transport$1 & !reby 9 fact dim9i% proportionally ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e4 ,x is "r1 h[ev]1 to obs]ve1 t ?is is a po9t ^u :i* a diff]5ce ( op9ion is ent]ta9$ by p]sons equally compet5t to =m a judgm5t1 & t "s consid] t x is practicable to con/ruct an eng9e )\t inconv5i5t weight :i* w asc5d all ! hills :i* occur ^u turnpike roads4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! difficulty is "o :i* ! improv$ sy/em ( roads 9 ,engl& r5d]s ( a comp>atively trifl+ nature4 ,if horses 7 resort$ to z ! means ( assi/ance up su* hills z ! eng9e w\ld be incapable ( surm\nt+1 su* aid w\ld n be requisite m ?an twice or ?rice ^u ! mail-coa* road betwe5 ,london & ,holyhead2 & ! same may be said ( ! roads connect+ ! greate/ po9ts ( int]c\rse 9 ! k+dom4 ,su* hills z ! asc5t at ,p5tonville ^u ! ,new ,road1 ! asc5t 9 ,/4 ,james's ,/reet1 ! asc5t f ,wat]loo ,place to ! ,c\nty ,fire ,(fice1 ! asc5t at ,highgate ,ar*way1 pres5t no difficulty :atev]4 ,x is only ,old ,highgate ,hill1 & hills ( a simil> k9d1 :i* w\ld ev] require a supply ( horses 9 aid ( ! eng9e4 ,i !re=e incl9e to agree ) ,mr4 ,f>ey1 t1 at lea/ = ! pres5t1 x w be m exp$i5t to con/ruct c>riages adapt$ to surm\nt mod]ate hills only1 & to provide po/ horses 9 aid ( ! extreme em]g5cies to :i* ,i h j allud$4 7#aaj47 ,9 ! boil] to be us$ 9 ! /eam c>riage project$ by ,mr4 ,walt] ,hancock1 ! subdivision ( ! wat] is accompli%$ by divid+ a case or box by a numb] ( ?9 plates ( metal l a galvanic batt]y1 ! wat] be+ all[$ to fl[ betwe5 e alt]nate pair ( plates1 at ,e1 fig4 #ff41 & ! int]m$iate spaces ,h =m+ ! flue ?r\gh :i* ! flame & hot air are propell$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,9 fact1 a numb] ( ?9 plates ( wat] are expos$ on bo? sides to ! mo/ int5se action ( flame & heat$ air2 s t /eam ( a high-pressure is produc$ 9 great abundance & ) consid]able rapidity4 ,! plates =m+ ! boil] are bolt$ toge!r by /rong iron ties1 ext5d+ across ! boil]1 at "r angles to ! plates1 z repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! plates is two in*es4 ,!re are t5 flat *amb]s ( ?is k9d = wat]1 & int]m$iately betwe5 !m t5 flues4 ,"u ! flues is ! fire-place1 or grate2 conta9+ six squ>e feet ( fuel 9 vivid combu/ion4 ,! *amb]s are all fill$ to ab\t two ?irds ( _! dep? ) wat]1 & ! o!r ?ird is left = /eam4 ,! wat]-*amb]s1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole s]ies1 communicate ) ea* o!r bo? at top & bottom1 & are held toge!r by two l>ge bolts4 ,by releas+ ^! bolts1 at any "t1 ! *amb]s fall asund]2 & by screw+ !m up !y may be all made tight aga94 ,! wat] is suppli$ to ! boil] by a =c+-pump1 & ! /eam issues f ! c5tre ( "o ( ! flues at ! top4 ,^! boil]s are con/ruct$ to be> a pressure ( #djj or #ejj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*2 b ! av]age pressure ( ! /eam on ! safety valve is f #fj to #ajj4 ,!re are #ajj squ>e feet ( surface 9 contact ) ! wat] expos$ to ! fire4 ,! /ages :i* su* an eng9e p]=ms are eight miles1 at ! end ( :i* a fre% supply ( fuel & wat] are tak5 94 ,x requires ab\t two bu%els ( coke = ea* /age4 ,! /eam c>riage ( ,mr4 ,hancock diff]s f t ( ,mr4 ,gurney 9 ?is1--t 9 ! =m] ! pass5g]s & eng9e are all plac$ on ! same c>riage4 ,! boil] is plac$ beh9d ! c>riage2 & !re is an eng9e-h\se betwe5 ! boil] & ! pass5g]s1 :o are plac$ on ! =e "p ( ! vehicle2 s t all ! ma*9]y is beh9d !m4 ,! c>riages are adapt$ to c>ry #ad pass5g]s1 & weigh1 exclusive ( _! load1 ab\t #c-a_/b tons1 ! tires ( ! :eels be+ ab\t #c-a_/b in*es 9 bread?4 ,mr4 ,hancock /ates1 t ! con/ruction ( 8 boil] is ( su* a nature1 t1 ev5 9 ! case ( bur/+1 no dang] is to be appreh5d$1 nor any o!r inconv5i5ce ?an ! /oppage ( ! c>riage4 ,he /ates t1 :ile travell+ ab\t #i miles an h\r1 & work+ ) a pressure ( ab\t #ajj lbs4 on ! squ>e in*1 load$ ) #ac pass5g]s1 ! c>riage 0 sudd5ly /opp$4 ,at fir/ ! cause ( ! accid5t 0 n app>5t2 b1 on op5+ "o ( ! cocks ( ! boil]1 x 0 f\nd t x conta9$ nei!r /eam nor wat]4 ,fur!r exam9ation prov$ t ! boil] _h bur/4 ,on unscrew+ ! bolts1 x 0 f\nd !re 7 sev]al l>ge holes 9 ! plates ( ! wat]-*amb]1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] _h fl[$ on ! fire2 b nei!r noise nor explosion1 nor any dang]\s consequ5ces ensu$4 ,?is boil] has "s obvi\s defects4 ,x is evid5t t ?9 flat plates are ! =m :i*1 me*anically consid]$1 is lea/ fav\rable to /r5g?2 nor does x appe> t any mat]ial advantage is ga9$ to comp5sate = ?is by ! magnitude ( ! surface expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,x is a great defect t a "p ( ! surface ( ea* ( ! plates is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire :ile x is out ( contact ) ! wat]2 9 fact1 9 ! upp] "p ( ! spaces m>k$ ,e1 fig4 #ff41 /eam only is conta9$4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ by eng9e]s1 & usually %[n by exp]im5t1 t if /eam be heat$ on ! surface ( wat] x w be decompos$1 & its ela/icity de/roy$2 ?is is n ! only evil connect$ ) ! arrangem5t1 = on ?is "p ( ! metal1 nev]!less1 ! fire acts1--) less int5sity1 x is true1 ?an on t "p :i* conta9s ! wat]1--b /ill ) suffici5t int5sity to de/roy ! metal4 ,mr4 ,hancock appe>s to h attempt$ to rem$y ?is defect by occasionally inv]t+ ! position ( ! flat *amb]s1 plac+ t :i* at "o "t 0 at ! bottom at ! top1 & vice v]s4 ,?is may equalise ! we> produc$ by ! action ( ! fire ^u ! metal out ( contact ) wat]1 b /ill ! we> on ! :ole w n be less rapid4 ,!re appe>s to be no provision or space = sep>at+ ! /eam f ! wat] ) :i* x is *>g$2 9 fact1 !re are no means 9 ?is eng9e ( dis*>g+ ! function ( ,mr4 ,gurney's sep>ator4 ,?is w be f\nd to produce consid]able wa/e & loss ( p[] 9 practice4 ,! b>s ^u :i* ! fire re/s are ( solid metal2 & su* is ! int5se heat to :i* !y are subject1 t1 9 an eng9e con/antly at "w1 x is unlikely t !y w la/1 )\t be+ r5ew$1 m ?an ab\t a week1 if s mu*4 ,! draft is ma9ta9$ 9 ?is eng9e by means ( a revolv+ fan work$ by ! eng9e4 ,?is1 p]haps1 is "o ( ! greate/ defects z comp>$ ) o!r locomotives4 ,! quantity ( p[] requisite to "w ?is bell[s1 & ( :i* ! eng9e is robb$1 is v great4 ,?is defect is s fatal1 t ,i consid] x is q impossible t ! +5i\s inv5tor c p]sev]e 9 ! use ( x4 ,mr4 ,hancock has ab&on$ ! use ( ! cranks ^u 8 work+ axle1 & has sub/itut$ an endless *a9 & rag-:eels4 ,?is also appe>s to me defective1 & a s\rce by :i* consid]able p[] is lo/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ev]1 ! weakness ( ! axle :i* is always produc$ by cranks is avoid$4 7#aaa47 ,mr4 ,na?aniel ,ogle ( ,s\?ampton obta9$ a pat5t = a locomotive c>riage1 & work$ x = "s "t exp]im5tally2 b z 8 op]ations d n appe> to h be5 cont9u$1 ,i suppose he 0 unsuccessful 9 fulfill+ ^? conditions1 )\t :i* ! ma*9e c\ld n be work$ ) economy & pr(it4 ,9 8 evid5ce be=e a committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 he has ?us describ$ 8 contrivance3-- ,! base ( ! boil] & ! summit are compos$ ( cross pieces1 cyl9drical )9 & squ>e )\t2 !re are holes bor$ ?r\gh ^! cross pieces1 & ins]t$ ?r\gh ! :ole is an air tube4 ,! inn] hole ( ! l[] surface1 & ! "u hole ( ! upp] surface1 are r l>g] ?an ! o!r ones4 ,r\nd ! air tube is plac$ a small cyl9d]1 ! coll> ( :i* fits r\nd ! l>g] ap]ture on ! inn] surface ( ! l[] frame1 & ! "u surface ( ! upp] frame-"w4 ,^! are bo? drawn toge!r by screws f ! top2 ^! cross pieces are unit$ by connect+ pieces1 ! :ole /rongly bolt$ toge!r2 s t we obta91 9 "o t5? ( ! space1 & ) "o t5? ( ! weight1 ! same heat+ surface & p[] z is n[ obta9$ 9 o!r & l[-pressure boil]s1 ) incalculably great] safety4 ,our pres5t exp]im5tal boil] conta9s #bej sup]ficial feet ( heat+ surface 9 ! space ( #c feet #h in*es high1 #c feet long1 & #b feet #d in*es broad1 & weighs ab\t #h cwt4 ,we supply ! two cyl9d]s ) /eam1 communicat+ by _! pi/ons ) a crank axle1 to ! ends ( :i* ei!r "o or bo? :eels are affix$1 z may be requir$4 ,"o :eel is f\nd to be suffici5t1 except "u v difficult circum/ances1 & :5 ! elevation is ab\t "o foot 9 six1 to impel ! vehicle =w>d4 ,! cyl9d]s ( :i* ! boil] is compos$ are s small z to be> a great] pressure ?an c\ld be produc$ by ! quantity ( fire b5ea? ! boil]2 & if any "o ( ^! cyl9d]s %\ld be injur$ by viol5ce1 or any o!r way1 x w\ld become m]ely a safety valve to ! re/4 ,we nev]1 ) ! greate/ pressure1 bur/1 r5t1 or injur$ our boil]2 & x has n once requir$ clean+1 aft] hav+ be5 9 use twelve mon?s4 7#aab47 ,dr4 ,*ur* ( ,birm+ham has obta9$ a succession ( pat5ts = contrivances connect$ ) a locomotive eng9e = /one roads2 & a company1 consi/+ ( a consid]able numb] ( individuals1 possess+ suffici5t capital1 has be5 =m$ 9 ,birm+ham = c>ry+ into effect 8 designs1 & work+ c>riages on 8 pr9ciple4 ,! pres5t boil] ( ,dr4 ,*ur* is =m$ ( copp]4 ,! wat] is conta9$ betwe5 two %eets ( copp]1 unit$ toge!r by copp] nails1 9 a mann] resembl+ ! way 9 :i* ! clo? =m+ ! top ( a mattress or cu%ion is unit$ ) ! clo? :i* =ms ! bottom ( x1 except t ! nails or p9s1 :i* b9d ! %eets ( copp]1 are mu* clos] toge!r4 ,! wat]1 9 fact1 seems to be quilt$ or padd$1 9 betwe5 two %eets ( ?9 copp]4 ,?is d\ble %eet ( copp] is =m$ into an oblong rectangul> box1 ! int]ior ( :i* is ! fire-place & a%-pit1 & ov] ! end ( :i* is ! /eam-*e/4 ,! great ext5t ( surface expos$ to ! imm$iate action ( ! fire causes /eam to be produc$ ) great rapidity4 ,an obvi\s defect :i* su* a boil] pres5ts is ! difficulty ( remov+ f x any deposite or incru/ation1 :i* may collect betwe5 ! %eets ( copp] s closely & intricately connect$4 ,dr4 ,*ur* proposes to effect ?is1 :5 x is requir$1 by ! use ( an acid1 :i* w comb9e readily ) ! incru/ation1 & by :i* ! boil] may !re=e be wa%$4 ,?is me?od ( cleans+ boil]s 0 recomm5d$ by ,dr4 ,wolla/on to ,mr4 ,gurney1 :o in=m$ me1 h[ev]1 t he f\nd t x 0 n practicable 9 ! way 9 :i* boil]s mu/ commonly be us$4 ,i appreh5d1 also1 t ! spaces betwe5 ! %eets ( copp]1 9 ,dr4 ,*ur*'s boil] j describ$1 w h>dly p]mit ! /eam bubbles :i* w be =m$ to escape ) suffici5t facility into ! /eam-*e/2 & be+ reta9$ 9 t "p ( ! boil] :i* is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire1 ! metal w be liable to receive an undue temp]ature4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 se5 ?is eng9e work+1 & its p]=mance 0 v satisfactory4 7#aac47 ,v>i\s o!r projects = /eam c>riages on common roads are 9 v>i\s degrees ( advancem5t1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ^? ( ,messrs4 ,maudslay & ,field1 ,col4 ,mac]one1 & ,mr4 ,russell ( ,ed9burgh2 b our limits compel u to omit any detail$ acc\nt ( !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,/eam ,,navigation4 ,propulsion by paddle-:eels4 -- ,mann] ( driv+ !m4 -- ,m>9e ,eng9e4 -- ,its =m & arrangem5t4 -- ,proportion ( its cyl9d]4 -- ,injury to boil]s by deposites & incru/ation4 -- ,n effectually remov$ by bl[+ out4 -- ,mr4 ,samuel ,hall's cond5s]4 -- ,its advantages4 -- ,orig9ally sugge/$ by ,watt4 -- ,hall's /eam sav]4 -- ,h[>d's vap\r eng9e4 -- ,morgan's paddle-:eels4 -- ,limits ( /eam navigation4 -- ,proportion ( tonnage to p[]4 -- ,av]age spe$4 -- ,consumption ( fuel4 -- ,iron /eam]s4 -- ,am]ican /eam raft4 -- ,/eam navigation to ,india4 -- ,by ,egypt & ! ,r$ ,sea to ,bombay4 -- ,by same r\te to ,calcutta4 -- ,by ,syria & ! ,euphrates to ,bombay4 -- ,/eam communication ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ! we/ coa/ ( ,irel& to ,/4 ,john's1 ,halifax1 & ,new ,york4 7#aad47 ,among ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! /eam eng9e has m9i/]$ to ! social progress ( our race1 none is m important & int]e/+ ?an ! aid x has af=d$ to navigation4 ,be=e x l5t its giant p[]s to t art1 locomotion ov] ! wat]s ( ! deep 0 att5d$ ) a degree ( dang] & unc]ta9ty1 :i* seem$ s necess>y & s inevitable1 t1 z a common prov]b1 x became ! type & repres5tative ( ev]y?+ else :i* 0 prec>i\s & p]il\s4 ,! application1 h[ev]1 ( /eam to navigation has rescu$ ! m>9] f mu* ( ! p]ils ( ! w9ds & waves2 & ev5 9 its actual /ate1 ap>t f ! improvem5ts :i* x is /ill likely to receive1 x has r5d]$ all voyages ( mod]ate l5g? z safe & z regul> z j\rneys ov] l&4 ,we are ev5 n[ ^u ! br9k ( su* improvem5ts z w probably s ext5d ! p[]s ( ! /eam eng9e1 z to r5d] x available z ! means ( connect+ ! mo/ di/ant po9ts ( ! e>?4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! /eam eng9e is commonly appli$ to propel vessels mu/ be s famili> z to require b %ort explanation4 ,a pair ( :eels1 l common "u-%ot wat]-:eels1 be>+ on _! rims a numb] ( flat bo>ds call$ paddle bo>ds1 are plac$ "o at ea* side ( ! vessel1 9 su* a position t :5 ! vessel is imm]s$ to h] ord9>y dep? ! l[e/ paddle bo>ds %all be subm]g$4 ,^! :eels are fix$ ^u a %aft1 :i* is made to revolve by cranks plac$ ^u x1 9 ! same mann] z ! fly-:eel ( a common /eam eng9e is turn$4 ,x is n[ ! inv>iable cu/om to place 9 /eam vessels two eng9es1 ea* ( :i* works a crank3 ^! two cranks are plac$ at "r angles to ea* o!r1 9 ! same mann] z ! cranks already describ$ ^u ! work+ axles ( locomotive eng9es4 ,:5 ei!r crank is at its dead po9t1 ! o!r is 9 full activity1 s t ! necessity = a fly :eel is sup]s$$4 ,! eng9es may be ei!r cond5s+ or high-pressure eng9es2 b 9 ,europe ! l[-pressure cond5s+ eng9e has be5 inv>iably us$ = nautical purposes4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e /eam navigation _h its orig91 & :]e x 01 until a rec5t p]iod1 mu* m ext5sively practis$ ?an 9 ,europe1 less objection 0 felt to ! use ( high-pressure eng9es2 & _! limit$ bulk1 _! small orig9al co/1 & simplicity ( /ructure1 /rongly recomm5d$ !m1 m especially = ! purposes ( riv] navigation4 7g47 ,! orig9al type ( ne>ly all ! eng9es us$ 9 /eam navigation 0 t con/ruct$ at ,soho by ,watt & ,bolton = ,mr4 ,fulton1 & fir/ us$ by him ^u ! ,hudson riv]4 ,?is _h ! beam bel[ ! pi/on-rod z 9 ! ,engli% boat-eng9es1 b ! cyl9d] above deck1 z 9 ! ,am]ican4 ,f ?is primitive =m1 ! two nations h div]g$ 9 opposite directions4 ,! ,am]icans1 navigat+ riv]s1 & hav+ spe$ = _! pr9cipal object1 h n hesitat$ to keep ! cyl9d] above deck1 & h l5g!n$ ! /roke ( ! pi/on 9 ord] to make ! p[] cut on a m advantage\s po9t ( ! :eel4 ,compactness has be5 ga9$ by ! suppression ( ! work+ beam4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,engli%1 hav+ ! safe navigation ( /ormy seas z _! m important object1 h %ort5$ ! cyl9d] 9 ord] t ! pi/on-rod may "w :olly "u ! deck1 & ! arrangem5t ( ,fulton's work+ beam has be5 reta9$ by !m4 ,9 ?is way !re c be no d\bt1 t !y h lo/ ! p[] ( obta9+ equal spe$ f a giv5 exp5diture ( p[]1 & ^? conv]sant 9 ! practice & !ory ( /[+ %ips may well d\bt :e!r security is n also sacrific$4--,a4 ,e4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! m>itime eng9e diff]s 9 "s respects1 f t ( ! l& eng9e4 ,want ( room r5d]s great] compactness necess>y2 & 9 ord] to dim9i% ! height ( ! ma*9e1 ! work+ beam is transf]r$ f above ! cyl9d] to bel[ x4 ,9 fact1 !re are two beams1 "o at ea* side ( ! eng9e1 :i* are connect$ by a p>allel motion ) ! pi/on1 ! rods ( ! p>allel motion ext5d+ f ! l[] "p ( ! eng9e to ! top ( ! pi/on-rod4 ,! work+ end ( ! beam is connect$ ) ! crank by a connect+ rod1 pres5t$ upw>ds in/ead ( d[nw>ds1 z 9 ! l& eng9e4 ,! proportion ( ! l5g? & diamet]s ( ! cyl9d]s diff] f ^? ( l& eng9es = a l reason3 to save height1 %ort cyl9d]s ) l>ge diamet]s are us$4 ,?us1 9 an eng9e ( #bjj horse-p[]1 ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] is sometimes #fj in*es1 & its diamet] #ec in*es3 ! valves & ! ge>+ :i* "w !m1 ! air-pump1 cond5s]1 & o!r p>ts ( ! ma*9e1 d n diff] mat]ially f ^? already describ$ 9 ! l& eng9es4 7h47 ,! action ( ma*9]y may be r5d]$ m equable by us+ two eng9es1 ea* ( half ! p[]1 in/ead ( a s+le "o4 ,if "o ( ^! be work+ ) its maximum =ce :5 ! o!r is *ang+ ! direction ( its motion1 ! result ( _! jo9t action w be a =ce ne>ly con/ant4 ,su* a comb9ation 0 inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,francis ,ogd51 & has be5 us$ 9 sev]al /eam boats con/ruct$ "u 8 directions4 ,x w\ld h[ev] be f> m valuable 9 o!r cases1 p>ticul>ly :]e great uni=mity 9 ! velocity is indisp5sable4 ,?is me?od has n[ become almo/ univ]sal 9 ! eng9es us$ 9 ! ,engli% /eam boats1 ea* ( :i* has usually two1 bo? appli$ to ! same %aft1 & !re=e capable ( be+ us$ s+ly or toge!r to turn ! paddle :eels4 ,9 ! ,am]ican /eam boats1 al?\gh two eng9es h be5 (t5 appli$1 ea* usually acts ^u no m ?an "o ( ! :eels4 ,we c see no o!r good reason = ?is1 ?an t our eng9e]s d n wi% to be ?\ght to copy ,mr4 ,ogd54--,a4 ,e4 ,! nature ( ! "w :i* ! m>9e eng9e has to p]=m1 is su*1 t great regul>ity ( action is nei!r necess>y nor possible4 ,! agitation ( ! surface ( ! sea w cause ! imm]sion ( ! paddle-:eels to v>y v mu*1 & ! resi/ance to ! eng9e w und]go a correspond+ *ange3 ! gov]nor1 & o!r p>ts ( ! app>atus already describ$1 contriv$ = imp>t+ to ! eng9e t extreme regul>ity :i* is indisp5sable 9 its application to manufactures1 are !re=e "h omitt$2 & no?+ is introduc$ except :at is necess>y to ma9ta9 ! eng9e 9 its full work+ p[]4 ,x is evid5t t x mu/ be a matt] ( consid]able importance to r$uce ! space occupi$ by ! ma*9]y on bo>d a vessel to ! lea/ possible dim5sions4 ,! m>9e boil]s1 !re=e1 are con/ruct$ s z to yield ! necess>y quantity ( /eam ) ! smalle/ practical dim5sions4 ,) ?is view a mu* m ext5sive surface 9 proportion to ! size ( ! boil] is expos$ to ! action ( ! fire4 ,9 fact1 ! flues :i* c>ry (f ! heat$ air to ! *imney are conduct$ ?r\gh ! boil]1 s z to act ^u ! wat] on e side 9 ?9 oblong %ells1 :i* trav]se ! boil] backw>d & =w>d repeat$ly1 until f9ally !y t]m9ate 9 ! *imney4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! orig9al exp5se ( ! boil]s is v consid]ably increas$2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 _! /eam-produc+ p[] is also greatly augm5t$2 & f exp]im5ts lately made by ,mr4 ,watt at ,birm+ham1 x appe>s t !y "w ) an economy ( fuel comp>$ ) common l& boil]s 9 ! proportion ( ab\t two to ?ree4 ,?us !y h ! additional advantage ( sav+ ! tonnage z well z ! exp5se ( "o ?ird ( ! fuel4 ,"o ( ! mo/ =midable difficulties :i* has be5 enc\nt]$ 9 apply+ ! /eam eng9e to ! purposes ( navigation has aris5 f ! necessity ( supply+ ! boil] ) sea wat]1 in/ead ( pure fre% wat]4 ,?is wat] 7also us$ = ! purpose ( cond5sation7 be+ inject$ into ! cond5s] & mix$ ) ! cond5s$ /eam1 is conduct$ z fe$+ wat] into ! boil]4 ,! salt conta9$ 9 ! sea wat]1 n be+ evaporat$1 rema9s 9 ! boil]4 ,9 fact1 x is sep>at$ f ! wat] 9 ! same mann] z by ! process ( di/illation4 ,z ! evaporation 9 ! boil] is cont9u$1 ! proportion ( salt conta9$ 9 ! wat] is1 !re=e1 con/antly increas$1 until a great] proportion is accumulat$ ?an ! wat] is capable ( hold+ 9 solution2 a deposition ( salt !n comm5ces1 & is lodg$ 9 ! cavities at ! bottom ( ! boil]4 ,! cont9uance ( ?is process1 x is evid5t1 w\ld at l5g? fill ! boil] ) salt4 ,b besides ?is1 "u "s circum/ances1 a deposition ( lime#ce is made1 & a h>d incru/ation is =m$ on ! inn] surface ( ! boil]4 ,9 "s situations1 also1 s& & mud are receiv$ into ! boil]1 be+ susp5d$ 9 ! wat] pump$ 9 = fe$+ x4 ,all ^! sub/ances1 :e!r deposit$ 9 a loose =m 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! boil] or collect$ 9 a cru/ on its inn] surface1 =m ob/ructions to ! passage ( heat f ! fire to ! wat]4 ,! cru/ ?us =m$ is n unfrequ5tly an in* or m 9 ?ickness1 & s h>d t good *isels are brok5 9 remov+ x4 ,! heat m or less int]cept$ by ^! sub/ances collects 9 ! metal ( ! boil]1 & raises x to a temp]ature f> exce$+ t ( ! wat] )94 ,x may ev51 if ! incru/ation be great1 be suffici5t to r5d] ! boil] r$-hot4 ,^! circum/ances occasion ! rapid we> ( ! boil]1 & endang] its safety by s(t5+ x4 ,footnote #ce3 ,t5 ?\s& gra9s ( pure sea wat] conta9 muriate ( soda #bbj grs41 sulphate ( soda #cc grs41 muriate ( magnesia #db grs41 & muriate ( lime #h grs4 ,! rem$y :i* has g5]ally be5 adopt$ to remove or dim9i% ^! injuri\s effects consi/s 9 all[+ a /ream ( hot wat] cont9ually to fl[ f ! boil]1 & supply+ f ! fe$-pipe a correspond+ portion ( cold wat]4 ,:ile ! hot wat] :i* fl[s f ! boil] 9 ?is case conta9s1 besides its j proportion ( salt1 t portion :i* has be5 lib]at$ f ! wat] conv]t$ into vap\r1 ! cold wat] :i* is suppli$ ?r\gh ! fe$-pipe conta9s less ?an its j proportion ( salt1 s9ce x is compos$ ( ! natural sea wat]1 mix$ ) ! cond5s$ /eam1 :i* latt] conta9s no salt4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! proportion ( ! salt 9 ! boil] may be prev5t$ f accumulat+2 b ?is is att5d$ ) consid]able inconv5i5ce & loss4 ,x is evid5t t ! dis*>ge ( ! hot wat]1 & ! introduction ( s consid]able a quantity ( cold wat]1 entails ^u ! ma*9e a great wa/e ( fuel1 &1 consequ5tly1 r5d]s x necess>y t ! vessel %\ld be suppli$ ) a mu* l>g] quantity ( coals ?an are m]ely necess>y = propell+ x4 ,9 long voyages1 :]e ?is inconv5i5ce is mo/ felt1 ?is is a circum/ance ( obvi\s importance4 ,b besides ! wa/e ( fuel1 ! spe$ ( ! vessel is dim9i%$ by ! rate ( evaporation 9 ! boil] be+ *eck$ by ! con/ant /ream ( cold wat] fl[+ into x4 ,?is process ( dis*>g+ ! wat]1 :i* is call$ bl[+ out1 is only practis$ occasionally4 ,9 ! ,admiralty /eam]s1 ! eng9e]s are ord]$ to bl[ out e two h\rs4 ,b x is m usual to d s only once a day4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 ( bl[+ out furni%es b a p>tial rem$y = ! evils we h allud$ to3 a loose deposite w p]haps be remov$ by su* means1 b an incru/ation1 m or less accord+ to ! circum/ances & quality ( ! wat]1 w be =m$2 besides :i*1 ! temptation to "w ! vessel ) effici5cy = ! mom5t influ5ces ! eng9e m5 to neglect bl[+ out2 & x is f\nd t ?is class ( p]sons c r>ely be reli$ ^u to resort to ?is rem$y ) t con/ancy & regul>ity :i* are ess5tial = ! due pres]vation ( ! boil]s4 ,! class ( /eam vessels :i*1 at pres5t1 are expos$ to ! greate/ injury f ^! causes are ! sea-go+ /eam]s employ$ by ! ,admiralty2 & we f9d1 by a report made by ,messrs4 ,lloyd & ,k+/on to ! ,admiralty1 9 ,augu/1 #ahcd1 t x is admitt$ t ! me?od ( bl[+ out is1 ev5 :5 daily att5d$ to1 ineffectual4 ,! wat] 9 ! boil]1 ^! g5tlem5 obs]ve1 is kept f exce$+ a c]ta9 degree ( saltness1 by p]iodically bl[+ a portion ( x into ! sea2 b :atev] c>e is tak51 9 long voyages especially1 salt w accumulate1 & sometimes 9 great quantities & ( great h>dness1 s t x is ) difficulty x c be remov$4 ,boil]s are ?us (t5 injur$ z mu* 9 a few mon?s z !y w\ld o!rwise be 9 z _m ye>s4 ,! o!r evil necess>ily result+ f ?is /ate ( ?+s is1 besides ! rapid de/ruction ( ! boil]s1 a great wa/e ( fuel1 occasion$ by ! difficulty ) :i* ! heat passes ?r\gh ! incru/ation on ! inside1 by ! leaks :i* are !reby caus$1 & by ! practice ( bl[+ out p]iodically1 z be=e m5tion$1 a consid]able portion ( ! boil+ wat]4 ,x w\ld be impracticable to c>ry on bo>d ! vessel a suffici5t quantity ( pure fre% wat] to "w ! eng9e exclusively by its means4 ,to accompli% ?is1 x w\ld be necess>y to h a suffici5t supply ( cold wat] to keep ! cond5s+ ci/]n cold1 to supply ! jet 9 ! cond5s]1 & to h a res]voir 9 :i* ! w>m wat] com+ f ! wa/e pipe ( ! cold ci/]n might be all[$ to cool4 ,eng9e]s h !re=e direct$ _! att5tion to "s me?od by :i* ! /eam may be cond5s$ )\t a jet1 & aft] cond5sation be pres]v$ = ! purpose ( fe$+ ! boil]4 ,if ?is c\ld be accompli%$1 x w\ld n be necess>y to provide a great] quantity ( pure wat] ?an w\ld be suffici5t to make up ! small portion ( wa/e :i* might proce$ f leakage & f o!r causes2 & x is evid5t t ?is portion might always be readily obta9$ by ! di/illation ( sea wat]1 :i* might be effect$ by a small vessel expos$ to ! same fire :i* acts ^u ! boil]4 7#aae47 ,mr4 ,samuel ,hall ( ,bas=d1 ne> ,nott+ham1 has tak5 out pat5ts = a new =m ( cond5s]1 contriv$ = ! atta9m5t ( ^! ends1 besides "s o!r improvem5ts 9 ! eng9e4 ,! cond5s] ( ,mr4 ,hall consi/s ( a great numb] ( n>r[ tubes imm]s$ 9 a ci/]n ( cold wat]3 ! /eam z x passes f ! cyl9d]1 aft] hav+ work$ ! pi/on1 ent]s ^! tubes1 & is imm$iately cond5s$ by _! cold surfaces4 ,x fl[s 9 ! =m ( wat] f _! remote extremities1 & is drawn (f by ! air-pump1 & conduct$ 9 ! usual way to a ci/]n f :i* ! boil] is f$4 ,9 ! m>9e eng9es con/ruct$ "u ,mr4 ,hall's pat5ts1 ! tubes ( ! cond5s] be+ 9 an upright or v]tical position1 ! /eam fl[s f ! cyl9d] into ! upp] "p ( ! cond5s]1 :i* is a l[ flat *amb]1 9 ! bottom ( :i* is ins]t$ ! upp] extremities ( ! tubes1 ?r\gh :i* ! /eam passes d[nw>ds1 & z x passes is cond5s$4 ,x fl[s !nce into a simil> *amb] bel[1 f :5ce x is drawn (f by ! air-pump4 ,x is evid5t t at sea an unlimit$ supply ( cold wat] may be obta9$ to keep ! cond5s+ ci/]n cold1 s t a p]fect cond5sation may always be effect$ by ^! tubes1 if !y be made suffici5tly small4 ,! wat] =m$ by ! cond5s$ /eam w be pure di/ill$ wat]2 & if ! boil] be orig9ally fill$ ) wat] :i* does n hold 9 solution any e>?y or o!r matt] :i* might be deposit$ or encru/$1 x may be work$ = any l5g? ( "t )\t injury4 ,! small quantity ( wa/e f leakage is suppli$ 9 ,mr4 ,hall's eng9e by a simple app>atus 9 :i* a suffici5t quantity ( sea wat] may be di/ill$4 ,! foll[+ are ! advantages1 z /at$ by ,mr4 ,hall1 to be ga9$ by 8 cond5s]3-- #a4 ,a sav+ ( fuel1 am\nt+ 9 "s cases to s mu* z a ?ird ( ! ord9>y consumption4 #b4 ,! pres]vation ( ! boil]s f ! de/ruction produc$ 9 common eng9es by ! corrosive action ( sea or o!r impure wat]1 & by encru/ations ( e>?y matt]4 #c4 ,! sav+ ( ! "t sp5t 9 clean+ ! boil]s4 #d4 ,a consid]able increase ( p[]1 ow+ to ! cleanness ( ! boil]s2 ! abs5ce ( inject$ wat] to be pump$ out ( a vacuum2 ! great] p]fection ( ! vacuum2 ! bett] pres]vation ( ! pi/on & valves ( ! air-pump2 & 7by ano!r contrivance ( 87 ! m p]fect lubrication ( ! p>ts ( ! eng9e4 #e4 ,! wat] 9 ! boil] be+ con/antly ma9ta9$ at ! same height by self-act+ arrangem5t4 #f4 ,! size ( a boil] ex]t+ a giv5 p[]1 be+ mu* small] ?an ! common k9d1 ow+ to its m p]fect action4 ,messrs4 ,lloyd & ,k+/on 7 employ$ by gov]nm5t to exam9e & report ! effects ( ,mr4 ,hall's boil]s1 & !y /at$ 9 _! report1 already ref]r$ to1 t ! result is s successful z to leave no?+ to be wi%$ =4 ,among ! advantages :i* !y enum]ate are ! increas$ durability ( ! eng9es2 ! prev5tion ( accid5ts ?r\gh c>elessness1 or o!rwise1 aris+ f ! cond5s] & air-pump becom+ *ok$ ) injection wat]2 & ! additional security aga9/ ! boil]s be+ burnt 9 consequ5ce ( ! wat] be+ suff]$ to get too l[4 ,b ! greate/ advantages1 comp>$ ) :i* !y consid] all o!rs to be ( second>y importance1 are ! increas$ durability ( ! boil]s & ! sav+ ( fuel4 ,ab\t #af eng9es1 built ei!r :olly ^u ,mr4 ,hall's pr9ciple or hav+ 8 cond5s] atta*$ to !m1 h n[ 7,octob]1 #ahce7 be5 work+ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,engl&1 & on bo>d diff]5t vessels = v>i\s p]iods1 f ?ree ye>s to ?ree mon?s2 & x appe>s f ! concurr5t te/imony ( ! proprietors & manag]s ( !m1 t !y are att5d$ ) all ! advantages :i* ! pat5tee engag$ =4 ,! "p ( ! contrivance ! p]=mance ( :i* w\ld h appe>$ mo/ d\btful w\ld h be5 ! ma9t5ance ( a suffici5tly good vacuum 9 ! cond5s]1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! usual me?od ( cond5sation by ! injection ( cold wat]2 nev]!less x appe>s t a bett] vacuum is su/a9$ 9 ^! eng9es ?an 9 ! ord9>y eng9es :i* cond5se by jet4 ,! b>omet]-gauge v>ies f #bi to #bi-a_/b in*es1 & 9 "s cases comes up to #cj in*es1 accord+ to ! /ate ( ! b>omet]3 ?is is a vacuum v ne>ly p]fect1 & inde$ may be said to be s = all practical purposes4 ,! ,pr9ce ,llewellyn & ! ,air /eam packets1 belong+ to ! ,/4 ,george ,/eam ,packet ,company1 h work$ su* a pair ( ^! eng9es = ab\t a ye>4 ,! ,city ( ,london /eam packet1 ! prop]ty ( ! ,g5]al ,/eam ,navigation ,company1 has be5 furni%$ ) two fifty-horse eng9es1 & has work$ !m dur+ ! same p]iod4 ,9 all cases ! boil]s h be5 f\nd p]fectly free f scale or incru/ation2 & ! deposite is ei!r absolutely no?+ or v trifl+1 requir+ ! boil] to be swept ab\t once 9 half a ye>1 & sometimes n s (t54 ,! trial :i* has be5 made ( ^! eng9es 9 ! navy has prov$ satisfactory1 s f> z x has be5 c>ri$4 ,! ,lords ( ! ,admiralty h lately ord]$ a pair ( sev5ty-horse eng9es to be con/ruct$ on ?is pr9ciple = a vessel n[ 7,octob]1 #ahce7 9 process ( con/ruction2#cf & ano!r vessel 9 all respects simil>1 except hav+ copp] boil]s1 is likewise ord]$2 s t a j comp>ison may be made4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 h be5 m fair if bo? vessels _h be5 provid$ ) iron boil]s1 s9ce copp] does n receive incru/ation z readily z iron4 ,footnote #cf3 ,?is ord] has1 z ,mr4 ,hall in=ms me1 be5 giv5 )\t requir+ any gu>antee z to ! p]=mance ( ! eng9es4 ,x w\ld seem t ! advantages ( ^! boil]s 9 ! vessels ( ! ,/4 ,george ,/eam ,packet ,company 7 reg>d$ by ! directors z suffici5tly evid5t1 s9ce1 aft] m ?an a ye>'s exp]i5ce1 !y are ab\t to place a pair ( n9ety-horse eng9es ( ?is k9d 9 a new & p[]ful /eam] call$ ! ,h]cules4 ,eng9es furni%$ ) ,mr4 ,hall's app>atus h n yet1 s f> z ,i am in=m$1 be5 tri$ ) ref]5ce to ! p[] ex]t$ by ! consumption ( a giv5 quantity ( fuel4 ,! m]e fact ( a good vacuum be+ su/a9$ 9 ! cond5s] _c by itself be reg>d$ z a conclusive pro( ( ! effici5cy ( ! eng9e1 )\t ! wat] or air introduc$ by a cond5s+ jet4 ,mr4 ,hall1 nev]!less1 uses z l>ge an air-pump z t ( an ord9>y cond5s+ eng9e1 & recomm5ds ev5 a l>g] "o4 ,= :at purpose1 x may be ask$1 is su* an app5dage introduc$8 ,if !re be no?+ to be remov$ b ! cond5s$ /eam1 a v small pump ought to be suffici5t4 ,x is n wond]ful t a good vacuum is su/a9$ 9 ! cond5s]1 if ! p[] exp5d$ on ! air-pump is employ$ 9 pump+ away uncond5s$ /eam4 ,su* a contrivance w\ld be m]ely a deception1 giv+ an app>5t b no real advantage to ! eng9e4 ,hav+ m5tion$ ^! advantages1 :i* are said to arise f ,mr4 ,hall's cond5s]1 x is "r to /ate t x is 9 fact a reproduction ( an e>ly inv5tion ( ,mr4 ,watt4 ,!re is 9 possession ( ,james ,watt1 esquire1 a draw+ ( a cond5s] laid be=e p>liam5t 9 #aggf1 9 :i* ! same me?od ( cond5s+ )\t a jet is propos$4 ,mr4 ,watt1 h[ev]1 f9d+ t he c\ld n procure by t means s sudd5 or s p]fect a vacuum z by injection1 ab&on$ x4 ,i believe he also f\nd t ! tubes ( ! cond5s] became furr$ ) a deposite :i* imp$$ ! process ( cond5sation4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 t ,mr4 ,hall has f\nd means to obviate ^! effects4 ,x is "r to add1 t ,mr4 ,hall1 9 8 specification1 di/9ctly disclaims all claim to ! me?od ( cond5s+ by tubes )\t jet4 ,!re is ano!r "p ( ,mr4 ,hall's contrivance :i* m]its notice4 ,9 all eng9es1 a consid]able quantity ( /eam is all[$ to escape f ! safety valve4 ,:5ev] ! vessel /ops1 ! /eam1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be tak5 f ! boil] by ! cyl9d]s1 passes out ?r\gh ?is valve into ! atmosph]e4 ,also1 :5ev] ! cyl9d]s "w at "u-p[]1 & d n consume ! /eam z fa/ z x is produc$ by ! boil]1 ! surplus /eam escapes ?r\gh ! valve4 ,n[1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,mr4 ,hall's me?od1 x is necess>y to save ! wat] :i* ?us escapes 9 vap\r1 s9ce o!rwise ! pure wat] ( ! boil] w\ld be m rapidly wa/$4 ,mr4 ,hall accord+ly places a safety valve ( peculi> con/ruction 9 communication ) a tube :i* leads to ! cond5s]1 s t :5ev]1 ei!r by /opp+ ! eng9e or dim9i%+ its work+ p[]1 /eam accumulates 9 ! boil]1 its increas$ pressure op5s ! safety valve1 & x passes ?r\gh ?is pipe to ! cond5s]1 :]e x is reconv]t$ into wat]1 & pump$ (f by ! air-pump into ! ci/]n f :i* ! boil] is f$4 ,! atta9m5t ( an object s advantage\s z to ext5d ! p[]s ( /eam navigation1 & to r5d] ! p]=mance ( voyages ( any l5g? practicable1 s f> z ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9]y is conc]n$1 has naturally /imulat$ ! inv5tive g5ius ( ! c\ntry4 ,! pres]vation ( ! boil] by ! prev5tion ( deposite & incru/ation is an object ( p>am\nt importance2 & its atta9m5t necess>ily involves1 to a c]ta9 degree1 ano!r condition on :i* ! ext5sion ( /eam voyages mu/ dep5d1 viz4 ! economy ( fuel4 ,9 proportion z ! economy ( fuel is increas$1 9 ! same proportion w ! limit to :i* /eam navigation may be c>ri$ be ext5d$4 7#aaf47 ,a pat5t has be5 obta9$ by ,mr4 ,?omas ,h[>d ( ,london = a =m ( eng9e possess+ mu* novelty & +5uity1 & hav+ pret5sions to ! atta9m5t ( a v extraord9>y economy ( fuel1 9 addition to ^? advantages :i* h be5 already expla9$ z att5d+ ,mr4 ,hall's eng9es4 ,9 ^! eng9es1 z 9 ,mr4 ,hall's1 ! /eam is con/antly reproduc$ f ! same wat]1 s t pure or di/ill$ wat] may be us$2 b ,mr4 ,h[>d disp5ses ) ! use ( a boil] altoge!r4 ,! /eam also ) :i* he works is 9 a /ate ess5tially diff]5t f ! /eam us$ 9 ord9>y eng9es4 ,9 ^!1 ! vap\r is rais$ directly f ! wat] 9 a boil+ /ate1 & x conta9s z mu* wat] z x is capable ( hold+ at its temp]ature4 ,?us1 at ! temp]ature ( #bab1 a cubic foot ( /eam us$ 9 common eng9es w conta9 ab\t a cubic in* ( wat]2 b 9 ! contrivance ( ,mr4 ,h[>d1 a consid]able quantity ( heat is imp>t$ to ! /eam be=e x passes into ! cyl9d] 9 addition to :at is necess>y to ma9ta9 x 9 ! vapor\s =m4 ,a quantity ( m]cury is plac$ 9 a %all[ wr\ght-iron vessel ov] a coke fire1 by :i* x is ma9ta9$ at ! temp]ature ( f #djj to #ejj4 ,! surface expos$ to ! fire is ?ree f\r?s ( a squ>e foot = ea* horse-p[]4 ,! upp] surface ( ! m]cury is cov]$ by a v ?9 plate ( iron1 :i* re/s 9 contact ) x1 & :i* is s contriv$ z to pres5t ab\t f\r times z mu* surface z t expos$ b5ea? to ! fire4 ,adjac5t to ?is a vessel ( wat] is plac$1 kept heat$ ne>ly to ! boil+-po9t1 :i* communicates by a nozzle & valve ) ! *amb] or vessel imm$iately above ! m]cury4 ,at int]vals correspond+ to ! motion ( ! pi/on1 a small quantity ( wat] is inject$ f ?is vessel1 & ?r[n ^u ! plate ( iron :i* re/s ^u ! hot m]cury3 f ?is x receives ! heat necess>y n only to conv]t x into /eam1 b to exp& t /eam1 & raise x to a temp]ature above ! temp]ature x w\ld receive if rais$ 9 imm$iate contact ) wat]4 ,9 fact1 ! /eam ?us produc$ w h a temp]ature n correspond+ to its pressure1 b consid]ably above t po9t1 & x w !re=e be 9 circum/ances "u :i* x w "p ) m or less ( its heat1 & all[ its temp]ature to be l[]$ )\t be+ ev5 p>tially cond5s$1 :]eas /eam us$ 9 ! ord9>y /eam eng9es mu/ be m or less cond5s$ by ! slighte/ dim9ution ( its temp]ature4 ,! quantity ( liquid inject$ into ! /eam *amb] mu/ be regulat$ by ! p[] at :i* ! eng9e is int5d$ to "w4 ,! fire is suppli$ ) air by a bl[+ ma*9e1 :i* is subject to exact regulation4 ,! /eam1 produc$ 9 ! mann] already expla9$1 passes into a *amb] :i* surr\nds ! work+ cyl9d]2 & ?is *amb] itself is enclos$ by ano!r space1 ?r\gh :i* ! air f ! furnace mu/ pass be=e x rea*es ! flue4 ,9 ?is way x imp>ts its r$undant heat to ! /eam :i* is ab\t to "w ! cyl9d]1 & raises x to a temp]ature ( ab\t #djj2 ! pressure1 h[ev]1 n exce$+ #be lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! arrangem5t ( valves = ! admission ( ! /eam to ! cyl9d] is su* z to cause ! /eam to act expansively4 ,! vacuum on ! opposite side ( ! pi/on is ma9ta9$ by cond5sation 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,! cond5s] is a copp] vessel plac$ 9 a ci/]n con/antly suppli$ ) cold wat]1 & ! /eam fl[s to x f ! cyl9d] by an eduction pipe 9 ! usual way3 a jet is admitt$ to x f an adjac5t vessel1 :i*1 be=e ! eng9e comm5ces "w1 is fill$ ) di/ill$ wat]2 ! cond5s+ wat] & cond5s$ /eam are pump$ f ! cond5s] by air-pumps ( ! usual con/ruction1 b small]1 inasmu* z !re is no air to be )drawn1 z 9 common eng9es4 ,! w>m wat] ?us pump$ out ( ! cond5s] is driv5 into a copp] pipe or worm1 :i* is c>ri$ ) _m coils ?r\gh a ci/]n ( cold wat]1 s t :5 x arrives at ! end ( ?is pipe x is r$uc$ to ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! pipe is !n conduct$ into ! vessel ( di/ill$ wat] already m5tion$1 & ! wat] fl[+ f x cont9ually replaces ! wat] :i* fl[s into ! cond5s] ?r\gh ! cond5s+ jet4 ,! cond5s+ wat] be+ purg$ ( air1 a v small air-pump is suffici5t2 s9ce x has only to exhau/ ! cond5s] & tubes at />t+1 & to remove :atev] air may ent] by casual leakage4 ,! pat5tee /ates t ! cond5sation takes place z rapidly & z p]fectly z 9 ! be/ /eam eng9e1 & x is evid5t t ?is me?od ( cond5sation is applicable ev5 :]e ! m]curial g5]ator already describ$ may n be employ$4 ,! vessel f :i* ! wat] is inject$ into ! m]curial g5]ator is likewise f$ by ! air-pump connect$ ) ! cond5s]4 ,!re is ano!r pipe besides ! copp] worm already describ$1 :i* is c>ri$ f ! hot well to ?is vessel1 & ! wat] is ( c\rse return$ ?r\gh x )\t be+ cool$4 ,?is vessel is likewise suffici5tly expos$ to ! action ( ! fire to ma9ta9 x at a temp]ature some:at bel[ ! boil+ po9t4 ,an app>atus ( ?is con/ruction 0 9 ! spr+ ( ! pres5t ye> 7#ahce7 plac$ 9 ! ,admiralty /eam] call$ ! ,,comet1 9 connexion ) a pair ( #dj-;horse eng9es4 ,! pat5tee /ates t ^! eng9es 7 ill adapt$ to ! contrivance2 nev]!less1 ! vessel 0 successfully work$ 9 ! ,?ames = #hjj miles3 %e also p]=m$ a voyage f ,falm\? to ,lisbon1 b 0 prev5t$ f return+ by an accid5t :i* occurr$ to ! ma*9]y ne> ! latt] port4 ,9 ?is exp]im5tal voyage1 ! consumption ( fuel is /at$ nev] to h exce$$ a ?ird ( h] =m] consumption1 :5 work$ by ,bolton & ,watt's eng9es2 ! =m] consumption ( coals be+ ab\t #hjj lbs4 p] h\r1 & ! consumption ) ,mr4 ,h[>d's eng9e be+ "u #bej lbs4 ( coke p] h\r4 ,aft] ?is failure 7:i*1 h[ev]1 0 admitt$ to be "o ( accid5t & n ( pr9ciple7 ! gov]nm5t did n consid] itself ju/ifi$ 9 be/[+ fur!r "t or incurr+ great] exp5se 9 try+ ?is eng9e4 ,mr4 ,h[>d1 h[ev]1 has himself built a new vessel1 9 :i* he is ab\t to place a pair ( =ty-horse eng9es4 ,?is vessel is n[ 7,decemb]1 #ahce7 ne>ly ready1 & w br+ ! "q to issue by a fair exp]im5t4 ,! advantages ( ! contrivance z enum]at$ by ! pat5tee are3-- ,fir/1 ,! small space & weight occupi$ by ! ma*9]y1 aris+ f ! abs5ce ( a boil]4 ,secondly1 ,! dim9i%$ consumption ( fuel4 ,?irdly1 ,! r$uc$ size ( ! flues4 ,f\r?ly1 ,! removal ( ! injuri\s effects aris+ f deposite & incru/ation4 ,fif?ly1 ,! abs5ce ( smoke4 ,"s ( ^! improvem5ts1 if realiz$1 w be att5d$ ) important advantages 9 /eam navigation4 ,/eam]s ( a giv5 tonnage & p[] w h m disposable space = lad+ & fuel1 & 9 %ort voyages may c>ry great] freight1 or an increas$ numb] ( pass5g]s2 or by tak+ a l>g] quantity ( fuel1#cg may make great] runs ?an are n[ atta9able2 or1 f9ally1 ) ! same tonnage & ! same lad+1 !y may be suppli$ ) m p[]ful ma*9]y4 ,footnote #cg3 ,! fuel us$ 9 ?is =m ( eng9e is coke1 & n coal4 ,a ton ( coke occupies ! same space z two tons ( coal2 ! sav+ ( tonnage1 !re=e1 by ! increas$ economy ( fuel w n be 9 s great a proportion z ! sav+ ( fuel4 ,a quantity ( fuel ( equival5t p[] w occupy ab\t half ! pres5t space1 b ! displacem5t or imm]sion :i* x produces w be only "o f\r? ( its pres5t effect4 7#aag47 ,to obta9 f ! mov+ p[] its full am\nt ( me*anical effect 9 propell+ ! vessel1 x w\ld be necess>y t its =ce %\ld propel1 by con/antly act+ aga9/ ! wat] 9 a horizontal direction1 & ) a motion contr>y to ! c\rse ( ! vessel4 ,no sy/em ( me*anical propell]s has1 h[ev]1 yet be5 contriv$ capable ( p]fectly atta9+ ?is end4 ,pat5ts h be5 grant$ = _m +5i\s me*anical comb9ations to imp>t to ! propell+ surfaces su* angles z appe>$ to ! respective contriv]s mo/ advantage\s4 ,9 mo/ ( ^!1 h[ev]1 ! me*anical complexity has =m$ a fatal objection4 ,no "p ( ! ma*9]y ( a /eam vessel is s liable to become d]ang$ at sea z ! paddle-:eels2 &1 !re=e1 su* simplicity ( con/ruction z is compatible ) ^? repairs :i* are possible on su* em]g5cies is q ess5tial = safe practical use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,! ord9>y paddle-:eel1 z ,i h already /at$1 is a :eel revolv+ ^u a %aft driv5 by ! eng9e1 & c>ry+ ^u its circumf]5ce a numb] ( flat bo>ds1 call$ paddle bo>ds1 :i* are secur$ by nuts or braces 9 a fix$ position2 & t position is su* t ! planes ( ! paddle bo>ds div]ge ne>ly f ! c5tre ( ! %aft on :i* ! :eel turns4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is arrangem5t is t ea* paddle bo>d c only act 9 t direction :i* is mo/ advantage\s = ! propulsion ( ! vessel :5 x arrives ne> ! l[e/ po9t ( ! :eel4 ,9 figure #fg4 let o be ! %aft on :i* ! common paddle :eel revolves2 ! position ( ! paddle bo>ds are repres5t$ at ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c42 ,x1 ,y repres5ts ! wat] l9e1 ! c\rse ( ! vessel be+ suppos$ to be f ,x to ,y2 ! arr[s repres5t ! direction 9 :i* ! paddle-:eel revolves4 ,! :eel is imm]s$ to ! dep? ( ! l[e/ paddle bo>d1 s9ce a less degree ( imm]sion w\ld r5d] a portion ( ! surface ( ea* paddle bo>d me*anically useless4 ,9 ! position ,a ! :ole =ce ( ! paddle bo>d is effici5t = propell+ ! vessel2 b1 z ! paddle ent]s ! wat] 9 ! position ,h1 its action ^u ! wat]1 n be+ horizontal1 is only p>tially effective = propulsion3 a "p ( ! =ce :i* drives ! paddle is exp5d$ 9 depress+ ! wat]1 & ! rema9d] 9 driv+ x contr>y to ! c\rse ( ! vessel1 &1 !re=e1 by its reaction produc+ a c]ta9 propell+ effect4 ,! t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 ( ! paddle ent]+ ! wat] at ,h1 is to =m a holl[ or tr\gh1 :i* ! wat]1 by its ord9>y prop]ty1 has a cont9ual t5d5cy to fill up4 ,aft] pass+ ! l[e/ po9t ,a1 z ! paddle approa*es ! position ,b1 :]e x em]ges f ! wat]1 its action aga9 becomes oblique1 a "p only hav+ a propell+ effect1 & ! rema9d] hav+ a t5d5cy to raise ! wat]1 & ?r[ up a wave & spray beh9d ! paddle-:eel4 ,x is evid5t t ! m deeply ! paddle-:eel becomes imm]s$ ! great] w be ! proportion ( ! propell+ p[] ?us wa/$ 9 elevat+ & depress+ ! wat]2 &1 if ! :eel 7 imm]s$ to its axis1 ! :ole =ce ( ! paddle bo>ds1 on ent]+ & leav+ ! wat]1 w\ld be lo/1 no "p ( x hav+ a t5d5cy to propel4 ,if a /ill deep] imm]sion takes place1 ! paddle bo>ds above ! axis w\ld h a t5d5cy to ret>d ! c\rse ( ! vessel4 ,:5 ! vessel is1 !re=e1 9 prop] trim1 ! imm]sion %\ld n exce$ nor fall %ort ( ! dep? ( ! l[e/ paddle2 b = v>i\s reasons x is impossible 9 practice to ma9ta9 ?is fix$ imm]sion3 ! agitation ( ! surface ( ! sea1 caus+ ! vessel to roll1 w necess>ily produce a great v>iation 9 ! imm]sion ( ! paddle-:eels1 "o becom+ frequ5tly imm]s$ to its axle1 :ile ! o!r is rais$ altoge!r out ( ! wat]4 ,also ! draught ( wat] ( ! vessel is liable to *ange1 by ! v>iation 9 h] c>go3 ?is w necess>ily happ5 9 /eam]s :i* take long voyages4 ,at />t+ !y are heavily lad5 ) fuel1 :i* z !y proce$ is gradually consum$1 :]eby ! vessel is light5$2 & x does n appe> t x is practicable to use sea wat] z balla/ to re/ore ! prop] degree ( imm]sion4 7#aah47 ,among ! contrivances :i* h be5 propos$ = rem$y+ ^! defects ( ! common paddle :eel by introduc+ paddle bo>ds capable ( %ift+ _! position z !y revolve ) ! circumf]5ce ( ! :eel1 ! only "o :i* has be5 adopt$ to any consid]able ext5t 9 practice is t :i* is commonly kn[n z ,morgan's ,paddle ,:eel4 ,! orig9al pat5t = ?is contrivance 0 grant$ to ,elijah ,gall[ay1 & sold by him to ,mr4 ,william ,morgan4 ,subsequ5tly to ! pur*ase "s improvem5ts 9 its /ructure & arrangem5ts 7 introduc$1 & x is n[ ext5sively adopt$ by ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,admiralty /eam]s4 ,x 0 fir/ tri$ on bo>d ,8 ,maje/y's /eam] ! ,,confiance2 & aft] sev]al successful exp]im5ts 0 ord]$ by ! ,lords ( ! ,admiralty to be introduc$ on bo>d ! ,,flam]1 ! ,,firebr&1 ! ,,columbia1 ! ,,spitfire1 ! ,,lightn+1 a l>ge w> /eam] call$ ! ,,m$ea1#ch ! ,,t>t>us1 ! ,,blaz]1 c4 ,x has be5 tri$ by ,gov]nm5t 9 sev]al well-conduct$ exp]im5ts1 :]e two vessels ( precisely ! same model1 suppli$ ) simil> eng9es ( equal p[]1 & propell$1 "o by ,morgan's paddle-:eels1 & ! o!r by ! common paddle-:eels2 :5 x 0 f\nd t ! advantage ( ! =m]1 :e!r 9 smoo? or 9 r\gh wat]1 0 q app>5t4 ,"o ( ! comm&]s 9 ^! exp]im5ts 7,lieut5ant ,belson7 /ates t ! improvem5t 9 ! spe$ ( ! ,,confiance1 aft] be+ suppli$ ) ^! :eels1 0 proportionately great] 9 a sea way ?an 9 smoo? wat]2 t _! action 0 n imp$$ by ! waves1 s9ce ! v>iation ( ! velocity ( ! eng9e did n exce$ "o or two revolutions p] m9ute3 ! vessel's way 0 nev] /opp$1 & !re 0 no s5sible increase ( vibration on ! paddle boxes dur+ ! gale4 ,ano!r comm&] report$ t on a comp>ison ( ! ,,confiance & a simil> & equally p[]ful vessel1 ! ,,c>ron1 ! ,,confiance p]=m$ 9 fifty-f\r h\rs ! voyage :i* occupi$ ! ,,c>ron eighty-f\r h\rs 9 runn+4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! great sav+ ( fuel effect$ 7namely1 t5 bu%els p] h\r#ci71 or ! "t sav$ 9 runn+ ! same di/ance1 o!r advantages h be5 secur$ by ! modification 9 "q4 ,on a comp>ison ( ! respective logs ( ! two vessels1 x appe>$ t ! ,,confiance _h ga9$ by ! alt]ation 9 h] :eels an increase ( spe$ am\nt+ to #b knots on #g 9 smoo? wat]1 & #b-a_/b knots on #d to #d-a_/b knots 9 r\gh wea!r2 t ! action ( ! paddles did n br+ up ! eng9e or ret>d _! velocity 9 a head sea2 t 9 roll+ _! action assi/$ 9 right+ ! vessel2 & t ! we> & /ra91 z well on ! vessel z on ! eng9es1 7 mat]ially r$uc$4 ,) respect to ! durability ( ^! :eels1 ! comm&] ( ! ,,flam] report$ 9 ,janu>y1 #ahcd1 t 9 six weeks ( ! mo/ tempe/u\s wea!r !y f\nd !m to act rem>kably well1 )\t ev5 a s+le float be+ %ift$4#dj ,footnote #ch3 ,?is spl5did %ip is #hfj tons burd51 ) eng9es ( #bbj horse p[]4 ,footnote #ci3 ,see ,report quot$ 9 ,me*anic's ,magaz9e1 vol4 xxii4 p4 #bge4 ,?is sav+ _c am\nt to less ?an #dj p] c5t4 ^u ! :ole consumption ( fuel2 x c]ta9ly is consid]ably beyond :at ,i %\ld h conceiv$ to be possible2 b ,i h no reason to d\bt ! accuracy ( ! ,report4 ,i e/imate ! =m] consumption at #aj p\nds p] horse p[] p] h\r1 :i* on #bbj horse-p[] w\ld be #bbjj p\nds1 ( :i* #hdj p\nds #aj bu%els1 w\ld be ab\t #d-aj?s4 ,footnote #dj3 ,see a m detail$ acc\nt ( ^! reports 9 ! ,me*anic's ,magaz9e1 vol4 xxii4 p4 #bgd41 f :i* ,i h tak5 ! draw+ ( ?is paddle-:eel2 & also see ,report ( ! ,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons on ,/eam ,navigation to ,india1 ,evid5ce ( ,william ,morgan1 p4 #ie4 ,?is paddle-:eel is repres5t$ 9 figure #fh4 ,! contrivance may be %ortly /at$ to consi/ 9 caus+ ! :eel :i* be>s ! paddles to revolve on "o c5tre1 & ! radial arms :i* move ! paddles to revolve on ano!r c5tre4 ,let ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i be ! polygonal circumf]5ce ( ! paddle-:eel1 =m$ ( /raight b>s1 securely connect$ toge!r at ! extremities ( ! spokes or radii ( ! :eel :i* turns on ! %aft :i* is work$ by ! eng9e2 ! c5tre ( ?is :eel be+ at ,o4 ,s f> ?is :eel is simil> to ! common paddle-:eel2 b ! paddle bo>ds are n1 z 9 ! common :eel1 fix$ at ,a ,b ,c1 c41 s z to be always direct$ to ! c5tre ,o1 b are s plac$ t !y are capable ( turn+ on axles :i* are always horizontal1 s t !y c take any angle ) respect to ! wat] :i* may be giv5 to !m4 ,f ! c5tres1 or ! l9e jo9+ ! pivots on :i* ^! paddle bo>ds turn1 !re proce$ %ort arms ,k1 firmly fix$ to ! paddle bo>ds at an angle ( ab\t #abj4 ,on a motion giv5 to ?is arm ,k1 x w !re=e give a correspond+ angul> motion to ! paddle bo>d1 s z to make x turn on its pivots4 ,at ! extremities ( ! sev]al arms m>k$ ,k is a p9 or pivot1 to :i* ! extremities ( ! radial arms ,l are sev]ally atta*$1 s t ! angle betwe5 ea* radial arm ,l & ! %ort paddle arm ,k is capable ( be+ *ang$ by any motion imp>t$ to ,l2 ! radial arms ,l are connect$ at ! o!r end ) a c5tre ,p1 r\nd :i* !y are capable ( revolv+4 ,n[ s9ce ! po9ts ,a ,b ,c1 c41 :i* are ! pivots on :i* ! paddle bo>ds turn1 are mov$ 9 ! circumf]5ce ( a circle1 ( :i* ! c5tre is ,o1 !y are always at ! same di/ance f t po9t2 consequ5tly !y w cont9ually v>y _! di/ance f ! o!r c5tre ,p4 ,?us1 :5 a paddle bo>d arrives at t po9t ( its revolution at :i* ! c5tre ,p lies precisely betwe5 x & ! c5tre ,o1 its di/ance f ,p is less ?an 9 any o!r position4 ,z x dep>ts f t po9t1 its di/ance f ! c5tre ,p gradually increases until x arrives at ! opposite po9t ( its revolution1 :]e ! c5tre ,o is exactly betwe5 x & ! c5tre ,p2 !n ! di/ance ( ! paddle bo>d f ! c5tre ,p is greate/4 ,?is con/ant *ange ( di/ance betwe5 ea* paddle bo>d & ! c5tre ,p is accommodat$ by ! v>iation ( ! angle betwe5 ! radial arm ,l & ! %ort paddle bo>d arm ,k2 z ! paddle bo>d approa*es ! c5tre ,p ?is gradually dim9i%es2 & z ! di/ance ( ! paddle bo>d f ,p increases1 ! angle is likewise augm5t$4 ,?is *ange 9 ! magnitude ( ! angle1 :i* ?us accommodates ! v>y+ position ( ! paddle bo>d ) respect to ! c5tre ,p1 w be obs]v$ 9 ! figure4 ,! paddle bo>d ,d is ne>e/ to ,p2 & x w be obs]v$ t ! angle conta9$ betwe5 ,l & ,k is !re v acute2 at ,e ! angle betwe5 ,l & ,k increases1 b is /ill acute2 at ,f x increases to a "r angle2 at ,g x becomes obtuse2 & at ,k1 :]e x is mo/ di/ant f ! c5tre ,p1 x becomes mo/ obtuse4 ,x aga9 dim9i%es at ,i1 & becomes a "r angle betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,n[ ?is cont9ual %ift+ ( ! direction ( ! %ort arm ,k is necess>ily accompani$ by an equival5t *ange ( position 9 ! paddle bo>d to :i* x is atta*$2 & ! position ( ! second c5tre ,p is1 or may be1 s adju/$ t ?is paddle bo>d1 z x ent]s ! wat] & em]ges f x1 %all be su* z %all be mo/ advantage\s = propell+ ! vessel1 & !re=e att5d$ ) less ( t vibration :i* arises *iefly f ! alt]nate depression & elevation ( ! wat]1 ow+ to ! oblique action ( ! paddle bo>ds4#da ,footnote #da3 ,a paddle-:eel resembl+ ?is has lately be5 con/ruct$ by ,messrs4 ,seaw>ds4 ,x has be5 *>g$ by ,mr4 ,morgan z be+ a col\rable invasion ( 8 pat5t1 & ! dispute has be5 br\ght into ! c\rts ( law4 7i7 ,! relative value ( ! two :eels1 namely1 ! common paddle-:eel1 & t ( ,morgan has be5 inve/igat$ by ,pr(essor ,b>l[ ( ! ,milit>y ,s*ool1 at ,woolwi*1 & ! results publi%$ 9 a pap] ( mu* ability 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahcd4 ,by ?is pap] x appe>s1 t1 :5 ! paddles are n :olly imm]s$1 ! :eel ( ,morgan has no important advantage ov] ! o!r1 & only acquires "o :5 ! :eel wall[s4 ,b ! mo/ important ( 8 inf]5ces is t ! common paddle is lea/ effici5t :5 9 a v]tical position1 contr>y to ! usual op9ion4 ,f ?is we h a "r to inf] t ! se>* = a =m ( :eel :i* %all always keep ! paddle v]tical is "o ^: success ne$ n be att5d$ ) any important consequ5ce4 ,! sup]ior qualities ( ,morgan's :eel :5 ! paddles are deeply imm]s$ is ascrib$ by ,b>l[ to ! less5+ ( ! %ock su/a9$ by ! common paddle-:eel :5 x /rikes ! wat]4 ,?is be+ ! case1 ! triple :eel ( ,/ev5s is probably sup]ior to t ( ,morgan 9 its effici5cy1 :ile x has ! advantage ( be+ f> simpl] & less liable to be put out ( ord]4--,a4 ,e4 7#aai47 ,to =m an approximate e/imate ( ! limit ( ! pres5t p[]s ( /eam navigation1 x w be necess>y to consid] ! mutual relation ( ! capacity or tonnage ( ! vessel2 ! magnitude1 weight1 & p[] ( ! ma*9]y2 ! available /[age = fuel2 & ! av]age spe$ atta9able 9 all wea!rs1 z well z ! g5]al purposes to :i* ! vessel is to be appropriat$1 :e!r = ! transport ( goods & m]*&ise1 or m]ely ( despat*es & pass5g]s4 ,t portion ( ! capacity ( ! vessel :i* is appropriat$ to ! mov+ p[] consi/s ( ! space occupi$ by ! ma*9]y & ! space occupi$ by ! fuel2 ! magnitude ( ! latt] w necess>ily dep5d ^u ! l5g? ( ! voyage :i* ! vessel mu/ make )\t receiv+ a fre% supply ( coals4 ,if ! voyage be %ort1 ?is space may be proportionally limit$1 & a great] portion ( room w be left = ! ma*9]y4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! voyage be long]1 a great] /ock ( coals w be necess>y1 & a less space w rema9 = ! ma*9]y4 ,m p[]ful vessels1 !re=e1 9 proportion to _! tonnage1 may be us$ = %ort ?an = long voyages4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,tak+ an av]age ( fifty-"o voyages made by ! ,admiralty /eam]s1 f ,falm\? to ,corfu & back dur+ f\r ye>s end+ ,june1 #ahcd1 x 0 f\nd t ! av]age rate ( /eam+1 exclusive ( /oppages1 0 #g-a_/d miles p] h\r1 tak5 9 a direct l9e betwe5 ! places1 & )\t all[+ = ! necess>y deviations 9 ! c\rse ( ! vessel4 ,! vessels :i* p]=m$ ?is voyage v>i$ f #cej to #gjj tons bur!n by measurem5t1 & 7 provid$ ) eng9es v>y+ f #ajj horse to #bjj horse-p[]1 ) /[age = coals v>y+ f #hj to #bdj tons4 ,! proportion ( ! p[] to ! tonnage v>i$ f #a horse to #c tons to #a horse to #d tons2 ?us1 ! ,,mess5g] _h a p[] ( #bjj horses1 & measur$ #gcj tons2 ! ,,flam] _h a p[] ( #abj horses1 & measur$ #ejj tons2 ! ,,columbia _h #abj horses1 & measur$ #cfj tons4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be assum$ t = ! %orte/ class ( trips1 su* z ^? ( ! ,m>gate /eam]s1 & ! packets betwe5 ,liv]pool or ,holyhead & ,dubl91 ! proportion ( ! p[] to ! tonnage %\ld be t ( #a horse-p[] to e #b tons by measure2 :ile = ! longe/ voyages ! proportion w\ld be r$uc$ to #a horse to #d tons1 voyages ( int]m$iate l5g?s hav+ e v>iety ( int]m$iate proportion4 ,/eam]s ?us proportion$ 9 _! p[] & tonnage may !n1 on an av]age ( wea!rs1 be expect$ to make #g-a_/d miles an h\r :ile /eam+1 :i* is equival5t to #agd miles p] day ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,b1 9 v long voyages1 x r>ely happ5s t a /eam] c "w con/antly )\t int]ruption4 ,besides /ress ( wea!r1 9 :i* %e mu/ sometimes lie-to1 %e is liable to occasional d]angem5ts ( h] ma*9]y1 & m especially ( h] paddles4 ,9 almo/ e long voyage hi!rto attempt$1 "s "t has be5 lo/ 9 occasional repairs ( ?is nature :ile at sea4 ,we %all p]haps1 !re=e1 = long voyages1 arrive at a m correct e/imate ( ! daily run ( a /eam] by tak+ x at #afj miles4#db ,footnote #db3 ,! ,am]ican read] w h>dly be able to refra9 f a smile at ?is e/imate ( ,dr4 ,l>dn] ( ! spe$ ( /eamboats1 f\nd$ ^u ! mo/ improv$ practice ( ,europe at ! close ( ! ye> #ahce4 ,! boats on ! ,hudson ,riv] h = ye>s pa/ av]ag$ a spe$ ( #ae miles p] h\r1 & ! ,lex+ton1 :i* 0 con/ruct$ = a navigation "p ( :i* is p]=m$ 9 ! op5 ocean1 c\ld probably keep up a spe$ ( ! same am\nt1 except 9 sev]e /orms4 ,) boats1 con/ruct$ on ! pr9ciples ( ^? :i* navigate ,long ,isl& ,s\nd & ! ,*esapeake1 we %\ld n fe> to assume #ab miles p] h\r1 or1 upw>ds ( #bhj miles p] day z _! av]age rate ( cross+ ! ocean4--,a4 ,e4 ,by a s]ies ( c>efully conduct$ exp]im5ts on ! consumption ( coals1 "u m>9e boil]s & common l& boil]s1 :i* h be5 lately made at ! works ( ,mr4 ,watt1 ne> ,birm+ham1 x has be5 prov$ t ! consumption ( fuel "u m>9e boil]s is less ?an "u l& boil]s1 9 ! proportion ( #b to #c v ne>ly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i h asc]ta9$ f g5]al obs]vation ?r\gh\t ! manufactur+ di/ricts 9 ! ,nor? ( ,engl&1 t ! av]age consumption ( coals "u l& boil]s ( all p[]s above ! v smalle/ class is at ! rate ( #ae p\nds ( coals p] horse-p[] p] h\r4 ,f ?is result1 ! accuracy ( :i* may be fully reli$ ^u1 comb9$ ) ! result ( ! exp]im5ts j m5tion$ at ,soho1 we may conclude t ! av]age consumption ( m>9e boil]s w be at ! rate ( #aj lbs4 ( coal p] horse p[] p] h\r4 ,mr4 ,field1 ( ! firm ( ,maudslay & ,field1 9 8 evid5ce be=e a ,select ,committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons on ,/eam ,navigation to ,india1 has /at$ f 8 obs]vation1 & f exp]im5ts made at diff]5t p]iods1 t ! consumption is only #h lbs4 p] horse-p[] p] h\r4 ,9 ! evid5ce ( ,mr4 ,william ,morgan1 h[ev]1 be=e ! same committee1 ! actual consumption ( fuel on bo>d ! ,m$it]ranean packets is e/imat$ at #af cwt4 p] h\r = eng9es ( #bjj horse p[]1 & #h-a_/d cwt4 = eng9es ( #ajj horse-p[]4 ,f my own obs]vation1 :i* has be5 r ext5sive bo? ) respect to l& & m>9e boil]s1 ,i feel assur$ t #aj lbs4 p] h\r m ne>ly repres5ts ! practical consumption ?an ! l[] e/imate ( ,mr4 ,field4 ,we may !n assume ! daily consumption ( coal by m>9e boil]s1 all[+ !m to "w ^u an av]age = #bb h\rs1 ! rema9d] ( ! "t be+ left = casual /oppages1 at #bbj lbs4 ( coal p] horse-p[]1 or v ne>ly #a ton = e t5 horses' p[]4 ,9 %ort voyages1 :]e !re w be no /oppage1 ! daily consumption w a little exce$ ?is2 b ! di/ance trav]s$ w be proportionally great]4 ,:5 ! proportion ( ! p[] to ! tonnage rema9s unalt]$1 ! spe$ ( ! vessel does n mat]ially *ange4 ,we may !re=e assume t #aj p\nds ( coal p] horse p[] w c>ry a sea-go+ /eam] adapt$ = long voyages #g-a_/d miles direct di/ance2 & !re=e to c>ry h] #ajj miles w require #ach p\nds1 or ! #a_/af? "p ( a ton ne>ly4 ,n[1 ! ,m$it]ranean /eam]s are capable ( tak+ a quantity ( fuel at ! rate ( #a-a_/d tons p] horse p[]2 b ! proportion ( _! p[] to _! tonnage is great] ?an t :i* w\ld probably be adapt$ = long] runs4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 p]haps be w>rant$ 9 assum+ t x is practicable to con/ruct a /eam] capable ( tak+ #a-a_/b tons ( fuel p] horse-p[]4 ,at ! rate ( consumption j m5tion$1 ?is w\ld be suffici5t to c>ry h] #bdjj miles 9 av]age wea!r2 b z an all[ance ( fuel mu/ always be made = em]g5cies1 we _c suppose x possible = h] to enc\nt] ?is extreme run4 ,all[+1 !n1 sp>e fuel to ! ext5t ( a qu>t] ( a ton p] horse-p[]1 we %\ld h z an extreme limit ( a /eam]'s practicable voyage1 )\t receiv+ a relay ( coals1 a run ( ab\t #bjjj miles4 7#abj47 ,?is computation is f\nd$ ^u results obta9$ f ! use *iefly ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl& coal4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 /at$ 9 evid5ce be=e ! select committee above m5tion$1 t ! ,llang5ne* coal ( ,wales is consid]ably m p[]ful4 ,capta9 ,wilson1 :o comm&$ ! ,,hugh ,,l9dsay /eam] 9 ,india1 has /at$ t ?is coal is m p[]ful ?an ,newca/le1 9 ! proportion ( #i to #f-a_/b4dc ,"s ( ! comm&]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean packets h likewise /at$ t ! /r5g? ( ?is coal is great] ?an t ( ,newca/le 9 ! proportion ( #af to #aa4dd ,s f> !n z relates to ?is coal1 ! above e/imate mu/ be modifi$1 by r$uc+ ! consumption ne>ly 9 ! proportion ( #c to #b4 ,footnote #dc3 ,vide ,report ( ,select ,committee on ,/eam ,navigation1 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #dd3 ,ibid4 p4 #g4 ,! class ( vessels be/ fitt$ = und]tak+ long voyages1 )\t relays ( coal1 w\ld be "o f ab\t #hjj to #ajjj tons measurem5t furni%$ ) eng9es f #bjj to #bej horse-p[]4#de ,su* vessels c\ld take a supply ( f #cjj to #djj tons ( coals1 :i* be+ consum$ at ! rate ( f #bj to #be tons p] day1 w\ld la/ ab\t fifte5 days4 ,footnote #de3 ,eng9es 9 /eam vessels g5]ally "w consid]ably above _! nom9al p[]4 ,! p[]1 h[ev]1 to :i* we uni=mly ref] is ! nom9al p[]1 or t p[] at :i* !y w\ld "w ) /eam ( ! ord9>y pressure4 ,apply+ ^! results1 h[ev]1 to p>ticul> cases1 x w be necess>y to rememb] t !y are av]age calculations1 & mu/ be subject to su* modifications z ! circum/ances may sugge/ 9 ! p>ticul> in/ances3 ?us1 if a voyage is contemplat$ "u circum/ances 9 :i* an adv]se w9d g5]ally prevails1 less ?an ! av]age spe$ mu/ be all[$1 or1 :at is ! same1 a great] consumption ( fuel = a giv5 di/ance4 ,aga9/ a /rong head w9d1 9 :i* a sail+ vessel w\ld d\ble-reef h] top-sails1 ev5 a p[]ful /eam] _c make m ?an f #b to #c miles an h\r1 especially if %e has a head sea to enc\nt]4 7#aba47 ,9 consid]+ ! g5]al economy ( fuel1 x may be "r to /ate1 t ! results ( exp]i5ce obta9$ 9 ! /eam navigation ( our *annels1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( ! ,po/ ,(fice packets on ! ,liv]pool /ation1 h cle>ly e/abli%$ ! fact1 t by increas+ ! ratio ( ! p[] to ! tonnage1 an actual sav+ ( fuel 9 a giv5 di/ance is effect$1 :ile at ! same "t ! spe$ ( ! vessel is increas$4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,po/ ,(fice /eam]s call$ ! ,,dolph9 & ! ,,!tis 7,liv]pool /ation17 ! p[] has be5 successively increas$1 & ! spe$ proportionably augm5t$2 b ! consumption ( fuel p] voyage betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,dubl9 has be5 dim9i%$4 ,?is1 at fir/ view1 appe>s inconsi/5t ) ! kn[n !ory ( ! resi/ance ( solids mov+ ?r\gh fluids2 s9ce ?is resi/ance increases 9 ! same proportion z ! squ>e ( ! spe$4 ,b ?is physical pr9ciple is f\nd$ on ! supposition t ! imm]s$ "p ( ! float+ body rema9s ! same4 ,n[ ,i h myself prov$ by exp]im5ts on canals1 t :5 ! spe$ ( ! boat is increas$ beyond a c]ta9 limit1 its draught ( wat] is rapidly dim9i%$2 & 9 ! case ( a l>ge /eam raft con/ruct$ ^u ! riv] ,hudson1 x 0 f\nd t :5 ! spe$ 0 rais$ to #bj miles an h\r1 ! draught ( wat] 0 dim9i%$ by #g in*es4 ,i h !re=e no d\bt t ! increas$ spe$ ( /eam]s is att5d$ ) a l effect2 t1 9 fact1 !y rise out ( ! wat]2 s t1 al?\gh ! resi/ance is increas$ by reason ( _! increas$ spe$1 x is dim9i%$ 9 a /ill great] proportion by reason ( _! dim9i%$ imm]sion4 ,mean:ile1 :atev] be ! cause1 x is q c]ta9 t ! resi/ance 9 mov+ ?r\gh ! wat] mu/ be dim9i%$1 because ! mov+ p[] is always 9 proportion to ! quantity ( coals consum$1 & at ! same "t 9 ! proportion to ! resi/ance ov]come4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! quantity ( coals consum$ 9 a giv5 di/ance is dim9i%$ :ile ! spe$ is increas$1 ! resi/ance enc\nt]$ ?r\gh\t ! same di/ance mu/ be proportionally dim9i%$4 7#abb47 ,increas$ facility 9 ! ext5sion & application ( /eam navigation is expect$ to arise f ! sub/itution ( iron = wood1 9 ! con/ruction ( vessels4 ,hi!rto iron /eam]s h be5 *iefly conf9$ to riv] navigation2 b !re appe>s no suffici5t reason :y _! use %\ld be ?us limit$4 ,= sea voyages !y (f] _m advantages2 !y are n half ! weight ( vessels ( equal tonnage con/ruct$ ( wood2 &1 consequ5tly1 ) ! same tonnage !y w h less draught ( wat]1 & !re=e less resi/ance to ! propell+ p[]2 or1 ) ! same draught ( wat] & ! same resi/ance1 !y w c>ry a proportionally heavi] c>go4 ,! nature ( _! mat]ial r5d]s !m m /iff & unyield+ ?an timb]2 & !y d n suff] t effect :i* is call$ hogg+1 :i* arises f a slight alt]ation :i* takes place 9 ! figure ( a timb] vessel 9 roll+1 accompani$ by an alt]nate op5+ & clos+ ( ! seams4 ,iron vessels h ! fur!r advantage ( be+ m pro( aga9/ fracture ^u rocks4 ,if a timb] vessel /rike1 a plank is brok51 & a *asm op5$ 9 h] _m times great] ?an ! po9t ( rock :i* produces ! concussion4 ,if an iron vessel /rike %e w ei!r m]ely receive a d+e1 or be pi]c$ by a hole equal 9 size to ! po9t ( rock :i* %e enc\nt]s4 ,"s examples ( ! /r5g? ( iron vessels 0 giv5 by ,mr4 ,macgregor ,laird1 9 8 evid5ce be=e ! ,committee ( ! ,commons on ,/eam ,navigation1 among :i* ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3--,an iron vessel1 call$ ! ,,alburkah1 9 "o ( _! exp]im5tal trials got agr\nd1 & lay ^u h] an*or3 9 a wood5 vessel ! an*or w\ld probably h pi]c$ h] bottom2 9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! bottom 0 only d+$4 ,an iron vessel1 built = ! ,iri% ,inl& ,navigation ,company1 0 be+ t[$ across ,l\gh ,d]g 9 a gale ( w9d1 :5 ! t[+ rope broke1 & %e 0 driv5 ^u rocks1 on :i* %e bump$ = a consid]able "t )\t any injury4 ,a wood5 vessel w\ld 9 ?is case h gone to pieces4 ,a fur!r advantage ( iron vessels 7:i* 9 w>m climates is des]v+ ( consid]ation7 is _! great] coolness & p]fect fre$om f v]m94 7#abc47 ,! greate/ spe$ :i* has yet be5 atta9$ ^u wat] by ! application ( /eam has be5 accompli%$ 9 ! case ( a riv] /eam] ( peculi> =m1 :i* has be5 con/ruct$ ^u ! riv] ,hudson4 ,?is boat1 or r raft1 consi/$ ( two holl[ vessels =m$ ( ?9 %eet iron1 some:at 9 ! %ape ( sp9dles or cig>s 7f :5ce x 0 call$ ! cig> boat47 ,9 ! ?icke/ "p ^! floats 7 eight feet 9 diamet]1 tap]+ t[>ds ! ends1 & ab\t #cjj feet long3 ^! floats or buoys1 be+ plac$ p>allel to ea* o!r1 hav+ a di/ance ( m ?an #af feet betwe5 !m1 support$ a deck or raft #cjj feet long1 & #cb feet wide4 ,a paddle-:eel #cj feet 9 diamet] & #af feet broad revolv$ betwe5 ! sp9dles1 impell$ by a /eam eng9e plac$ ^u ! deck4 ,?is vessel drew ab\t #cj in*es ( wat]1 & atta9$ a spe$ ( f #bj to #be miles an h\r3 %e ran ^u a bank 9 ! riv] ,hudson1 & 0 lo/4 ,! projector is n[ employ$ 9 con/ruct+ ano!r vessel ( /ill l>g] dim5sions4 ,x is evid5t t su* a /ructure is altoge!r unfitt$ = sea navigation4 ,9 ! case ( a wide navigable riv]1 h[ev]1 su* z ! ,hudson1 x w no d\bt be att5d$ ) ! advantage ( great] exp$ition4 7#abd47 ,sev]al projects = ! ext5sion ( /eam navigation to voyages ( consid]able l5g? h lately be5 ent]ta9$ bo? by ! public & by ! legislature1 & h imp>t$ to e attempt to improve /eam navigation increas$ int]e/4 ,a committee ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons collect$ evid5ce & made a report 9 ! la/ session 9 fav\r ( an exp]im5t to e/abli% a l9e ( /eam communication betwe5 ,great ,brita9 & ,india4 ,two r\tes h be5 sugge/$ by ! committee1 ea* be+ a cont9uation ( ! l9e ( ,admiralty /eam packets already e/abli%$ to ,malta & ! ,ionian ,isles4 ,"o ( ! r\tes propos$ is ?r\gh ,egypt1 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & across ! ,indian ,ocean to ,bombay1 or "s ( ! o!r ,presid5cies2 ! o!r across ! nor? "p ( ,syria to ! banks ( ! ,euphrates1 by t riv] to ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 & f !nce to ,bombay4 ,ea* ( ^! r\tes w be att5d$ ) peculi> difficulties1 & 9 bo? a long sea voyage w be enc\nt]$4 ,9 ! r\te by ! ,r$ ,sea1 x is propos$ to e/abli% /eam]s betwe5 ,malta & ,alex&ria 7#hfj miles74 ,a /eam] ( #djj tons bur!n & #ajj horse-p[] w\ld p]=m ?is voyage1 ^u an av]age ( all wea!rs incid5t to ! situation1 9 f #e to #f days1 consum+ #aj tons ( coal p] day4 ,b x is probable t x might be f\nd m advantage\s to e/abli% a high] ratio betwe5 ! p[] & ! tonnage4 ,f ,alex&ria1 ! transit might be effect$ by l& across ! ,i/hmus to ,suez--a j\rney ( f #d to #e days--by c>avan & camels2 or ! transit might be made ei!r by l& or wat] f ,alex&ria to ,cairo1 a di/ance ( #agc miles2 & f ,cairo to ,suez1 #ic miles1 across ! des]t1 9 ab\t #e days4 ,at ,suez w\ld be a /ation = /eam]s1 & ! ,r$ ,sea w\ld be trav]s$ 9 #c runs or m4 ,if necess>y1 /ations = coals might be e/abli%$ at ,cosseir1 ,judda1 ,mo*a1 & f9ally at ,socatra--an isl& imm$iately beyond ! m\? ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean3 ! run f ,suez to ,cosseir w\ld be #cjj miles--some:at m ?an twice ! di/ance f ,liv]pool to ,dubl94 ,f ,cosseir to ,judda1 #dej miles2 f ,judda to ,mo*a1 #eag miles2 & f ,mo*a to ,socatra1 #fcb miles4 ,x is evid5t t all ?is w\ld1 )\t difficulty1 9 ! mo/ unfav\rable wea!r1 fall )9 ! pres5t p[]s ( /eam navigation4 ,if ! t]m9us ( ! passage be ,bombay1 ! run f ,socatra to ,bombay w be #abjj miles1 :i* w\ld be1 ^u an av]age ( wea!r1 ab\t #h days' /eam+4 ,! :ole passage f ,alex&ria to ,bombay1 all[+ #c days = delay betwe5 ,suez & ,bombay1 w\ld be #bf days3 ! "t f ,bombay to ,malta w\ld !re=e be ab\t #cc days2 & add+ #ad days to ?is = ! transit f ,malta to ,engl&1 we %\ld h a total ( #dg days f ,london to ,bombay1 or ab\t #g weeks4 ,if ! t]m9us propos$ 7 ,calcutta1 ! c\rse f ,socatra w\ld be #abej miles s\?-ea/ to ! ,maldives1 :]e a /ation = coals w\ld be e/abli%$4 ,?is di/ance w\ld be equal to t f ,socatra to ,bombay4 ,f ! ,maldives1 a run ( #djj miles w\ld rea* ! s\!rn po9t ( ,ceylon1 call$ ! ,po9t de ,galle1 :i* is ! be/ h>b\r 7,bombay except$7 9 ,briti% ,india3 f ! ,po9t de ,galle1 a run ( #fjj miles w rea* ,madras2 & f ,madras to ,calcutta w\ld be a run ( ab\t #fjj miles4 ,! voyage f ,london to ,calcutta w\ld be p]=m$ 9 ab\t #fj days4 ,at a c]ta9 season ( ! ye> !re exi/s a p[]ful physical oppon5t to ! transit f ,india to ,suez3 f ! middle ( ,june until ! end ( ,septemb]1 ! s\?-we/ monsoon bl[s ) unabat$ =ce across ! ,indian ,ocean1 & m p>ticul>ly betwe5 ,socatra & ,bombay4 ,?is w9d is s viol5t z to leave x b>ely possible = ! mo/ p[]ful /eam packet to make head aga9/ x1 & ! voyage c\ld n be accompli%$ )\t s]i\s we> & te> ^u ! vessels dur+ ^! mon?s--if inde$ x w\ld be practicable at all = any cont9uance 9 t season4 ,! att5tion ( p>liam5t has !re=e be5 direct$ to ano!r l9e ( communication1 n liable to ?is difficulty3 x is propos$ to e/abli% a l9e ( /eam]s f ,bombay ?r\gh ! ,p]sian ,gulf to ! ,euphrates4 ,! run f ,bombay to a place call$ ,muscat1 on ! s\!rn %ore ( ! ,gulf1 w\ld be #hdj miles 9 a nor?-we/ direction1 & !re=e n oppos$ to ! s\?-we/ monsoon4 ,f ,muscat to ,bassidore1 a po9t ^u ! nor!rn coa/ ( ! /rait at ! m\? ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 w\ld be a run ( #bee miles2 f ,bassidore to ,bu%ire1 ano!r po9t on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 w\ld be a run ( #cjj miles2 & f ,bu%ire to ! m\? ( ! ,euphrates1 w\ld be #abj miles4 ,x is evid5t t ! longe/ ( ^! runs w\ld (f] no m difficulty ?an ! passage f ,malta to ,alex&ria4 ,f ,bussora ne> ! m\? ( ! ,euphrates1 to ,bir1 a t[n ^u its left bank ne> ,aleppo1 w\ld be #aadc miles1 ?r\gh\t :i* !re are no physical ob/acles to ! riv] navigation :i* may n be ov]come4 ,"s difficulties arise f ! wild & savage "* ( ! tribes :o occupy its banks4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ?\ght t by prop] measures1 & secur+ ! co-op]ation ( ! ,pa*a ( ,egypt1 any s]i\s ob/ruction f ?is cause may be remov$4 ,f ,bir1 by ,aleppo1 to ,sc&]oon1 a port ^u ! ,m$it]ranean1 opposite ,cyprus1 is a l& j\rney1 said to be att5d$ ) "s difficulty b n ( great l5g?2 & f ,sc&>oon to ,malta is ab\t ! same di/ance z betwe5 ! latt] place & ,alex&ria4 ,x is calculat$ t ! "t f ,london to ,bombay by ! ,euphrates--suppos+ ! passage to be successfully e/abli%$--w\ld be a few days %ort] ?an by ,egypt & ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,:i*ev] ( ^! c\rses may be adopt$1 x is cle> t ! difficulties1 s f> z ! p[]s ( ! /eam eng9e are conc]n$1 lie 9 ! "o case betwe5 ,socatra & ,bombay1 or betwe5 ,socatra & ! ,maldives1 & 9 ! o!r case betwe5 ,bombay & ,muscat4 ,ev5 ! run f ,malta to ,alex&ria or ,sc&>oon is liable to objection1 f ! liability ( ! boil] to deposite & incru/ation1 unless "s effectual me?od be tak5 to remove ?is s\rce ( injury4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! contrivance ( ,mr4 ,hall1 or ( ,mr4 ,h[>d1 or any o!r exp$i5t = a l object1 be successful1 ! difficulty w !n be limit$ to ! necess>y supply ( coals = s long a voyage4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has already be5 enc\nt]$ & ov]come on f\r sev]al voyages by ! ,,hugh ,,l9dsay /eam] f ,bombay to ,suez3 t vessel enc\nt]$ a /ill long] run on ^! sev]al trips1 by go+1 n to ,socatra b to ,ad51 a po9t on ! coa/ ( ,arabia ne> ! ,/raits ( ,babel ,m&eb1 be+ a run ( #afda miles1 :i* %e p]=m$ 9 #aj days & #ai h\rs4 ,! entire di/ance f ,bombay to ,suez 0 9 "o case p]=m$ 9 #af days & #af h\rs2 & "u ! mo/ unfav\rable circum/ances1 9 #bc days4 ,! av]age 0 #ba days = ea* trip4 7#abe47 ,ano!r project$ l9e ( /eam communication1 :i* (f]s circum/ances ( equal int]e/ to ! p ( ^! c\ntries & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is t :i* is propos$ to be e/abli%$ betwe5 ,london & ,new ,york4 ,on ! completion ( ! ,london & ,liv]pool railroad1 ,dubl9 w be connect$ ) ,london1 by a cont9u\s l9e ( /eam transport4 ,x is propos$ to cont9ue ?is l9e by a railroad f ,dubl9 to "s po9t on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,irel&2 among o!rs1 ! h>b\r ( ,,val5tia has be5 m5tion$4 ,! ne>e/ po9t ( ! we/]n cont95t is ,/4 ,john's1 ,newf\ndl&1 ! di/ance ( :i* f ,val5tia is #aijj miles2 ! di/ance f ,/4 ,john's to ,new ,york is ab\t #abjj miles1 ,halifax 7,nova ,scotia7 be+ a conv5i5t int]m$iate /ation4 ,! di/ance f ,val5tia to ,/4 ,john's comes v ne> ! po9t :i* we h already assign$ z ! probable pres5t limit ( /eam navigation4 ,! ,atlantic ,ocean also (f]s a =midable oppon5t 9 ! we/]ly w9ds :i* almo/ con/antly prevail 9 x4 ,^! w9ds are1 9 fact1 ! reaction ( ! trades1 :i* bl[ ne> ! equator 9 a contr>y direction1 & are produc$ by ^? portions ( ! equatorial atmosph]e :i*1 ru%+ d[n ! nor!rn latitudes1 c>ry ) !m ! velocity f we/ to ea/ prop] to ! equator4 ,besides ?is difficulty1 ,/4 ,john's & ,halifax are bo? inaccessible1 by reason ( ! climate1 dur+ c]ta9 mon?s ( ! ye>4 ,%\ld ^! causes prev5t ?is project f be+ realiz$1 ano!r c\rse may be adopt$4 ,we may proce$ f ! s\!rn po9t ( ,irel& or ,engl& to ! ,azores1 a di/ance ( ab\t #ahjj miles3 f ! ,azores to ,new ,york w\ld be a di/ance ( ab\t #bjjj miles1 or f ! ,azores to ,/4 ,john's w\ld be #afjj miles4#df ,footnote #df3 ,a treatise on ! ,/eam ,eng9e is n ! place to ent] into discussion on ! causes ( ! sev]al con/ant1 p]iodic1 & prevail+ w9ds1 o!rwise we %\ld feel x our duty to correct ! op9ion adopt$ by ,dr4 ,l>dn] f ! old] au?orities1 9 relation to ! c\rse ( ! we/]ly w9ds4 ,^! w9ds are1 9 ! ,s\? ,atlantic1 & 9 bo? ,s\? & ,nor? ,pacific1 con/ant w9ds4 ,9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic betwe5 ! latitudes1 ( #ce & #de1 &1 !re=e1 9 ! track ( ! vessels :i* navigate betwe5 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,great ,brita91 !y are ! mo/ frequ5t prevail+ w9ds1 except 9 ! mon?s ( ,april & ,octob]4 ,!y are c]ta9ly n ! reaction ( ! trade w9ds1 :i* is 9 a well kn[n zone1 to ! s\? ( ! region 9 :i* ^! we/]ly w9ds prevail1 "u ! "n ( ! ,horse latitudes ( our navigations1 & ! ,grassy sea ( ! ,spani>ds4 ,^? :o wi% to /udy ! true !ory ( ^! w9ds w f9d x 9 ,daniell's le>n$ & +5i\s "w1 ,on ,atmosph]ic ,ph5om5a1 or 9 ! analysis ( t "w 9 ! ,am]ican ,qu>t]ly ,review4 7k7 ,:ile ! inhabitants ( ,great ,brita9 are discuss+ ! project ( ! communication ) ,new ,york1 by means ( ! /ations describ$ by ,dr4 ,l>dn]1 ^? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates appe> to be s]i\sly occupi$ 9 c>ry+ into effect a direct communication f ,new ,york to ,liv]pool4 ,at ! spe$ :i* has be5 giv5 to ! ,am]ican /eam boats1 ?is pres5ts no great] difficulties ?an ! voyage f ! ,azores to ,new ,york1 w\ld1 to "o hav+ ! spe$ ( no m ?an #g-a_/d miles p] h\r4 ,z ?is attempt is beyond ! limit ( individual ent]prise1 !re is1 at ! pres5t mom5t1 an application be=e ! ,legislature ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york = a *>t] to c>ry ?is project into effect4 ,x w be difficult to e/imate ! results ( ?is ent]prise1 :i* w br+ ! old & new _w )9 #ab or #ae days voyage ( ea* o!r4--,a4 ,e4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,dr4 ,l>dn] appe>s purposely to h omitt$ any detail ( ! hi/ory ( ,/eam ,navigation4 ,x w\ld be an invidi\s task on ! "p ( a m]e editor to attempt to supply :at he has ?\ght prop] to avoid4 ,we !re=e m]ely ref] to ?is subject = ! purpose ( express+ ! hope1 t ?is sil5ce is an e>ne/ t ! writ]s ( ,europe are ab\t to ab&on ! claims !y h set up = _! c\ntrym5 to ! m]it ( introduc+ ! successful practice ( ,/eam navigation1 & t ! respective s]vices ( ,fit*1 ,evans1 ,fulton1 & ! eld] ,/ev5s w soon be univ]sally ackn[l$g$4--,a4 ,e4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,g5]al ,,economy ,,( ,,/eam ,,p[]4 ,me*anical efficacy ( /eam -- proportional to ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$1 & to ! fuel consum$ -- ,indep5d5t ( ! pressure4 -- ,its me*anical efficacy by cond5sation alone4 -- ,by cond5sation & expansion comb9$ -- by direct pressure & expansion -- by direct pressure & cond5sation -- by direct pressure1 cond5sation1 & expansion4 -- ,! p[] ( eng9es4 -- ,! duty ( eng9es4 -- ,mean+ ( horse p[]4 -- ,to compute ! p[] ( an eng9e4 -- ,( ! p[] ( boil]s4 -- ,! /ructure ( ! grate-b>s4 -- ,quantity ( wat] & /eam room4 -- ,fire surface & flue surface4 -- ,dim5sions ( /eam pipes4 -- ,velocity ( pi/on4 -- ,economy ( fuel4 -- ,corni% duty reports4 7#acj47 ,hav+ expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ! mo/ important circum/ances connect$ ) ! pr9cipal v>ieties ( /eam eng9es1 x rema9s n[ to expla9 "s matt]s ( detail connect$ ) ! p[]1 effici5cy1 & economy ( ^! ma*9es1 :i*1 ?\gh p]haps less /rik+ & attractive ?an ! subjects :i* h hi!rto engag$ u1 are /ill n undes]v+ ( att5tion4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 t wat] expos$ to ! ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure 7! am\nt ( :i* may be express$ by a column ( #cj in*es ( m]cury7 w pass f ! liquid into ! vapor\s /ate :5 x arrives at ! temp]ature ( #bab2 & ! vap\r ?us produc$ f x w h an ela/ic =ce equal to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ! wat]1 h[ev]1 to :i* heat is appli$1 be submitt$ to a great] or less pressure ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 x w boil at a great] or less temp]ature1 & w always produce /eam ( an ela/ic =ce equal to ! pressure "u :i* x boils4 ,n[ x is a fact z rem>kable z x is important1 t to conv]t a giv5 weight ( wat] into vap\r w require ! same quantity ( heat1 "u :atev] pressure1 & at :atev] temp]ature ! wat] may boil4 ,let u suppose a tube1 ! base ( :i* is equal to a squ>e foot1 9 :i* a pi/on fits air-tight & /eam-tight4 ,imm$iately "u ! pi/on1 let a cubic in* ( wat] be plac$1 :i* w be spread 9 a ?9 lay] ov] ! bottom ( ! tube4 ,let ! pi/on be c\nt]balanc$ by a weight 7act+ ov] a pulley7 :i* w be equival5t to ! weight ( ! pi/on1 s t x %all be free to asc5d by ! application ( any pressure bel[ x4 ,n[ let ! flame ( a lamp be appli$ at ! bottom ( ! tube3 ! wat] "u ! pi/on be+ affect$ by no pressure f above1 except t ( ! atmosph]e act+ ^u ! pi/on1 w boil at ! temp]ature ( #bab1 & by ! cont9u$ application ( ! lamp x w at l5g? be conv]t$ into /eam4 ,! /eam into :i* ! cubic in* ( wat] is conv]t$ w exp& into ! magnitude ( a cubic foot1 ex]t+ an ela/ic =ce equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure2 consequ5tly ! pi/on w be rais$ "o foot above its fir/ position 9 ! tube1 & ! cubic foot b5ea? x w be completely fill$ ) /eam4 ,let u suppose1 t to produce ?is effect requir$ ! lamp to be appli$ to ! tube = ! space ( fifte5 m9utes4 ,! wat] be+ aga9 suppos$ at its orig9al temp]ature1 & ! pi/on 9 its fir/ position1 let a weight be plac$ ^u ! pi/on equal to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 s t ! wat] b5ea? ! pi/on w be press$ d[n by d\ble ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,if ! lamp be once m appli$1 ! wat] w1 z be=e1 be conv]t$ into vap\r2 b ! pi/on w n[ be rais$ to ! height ( only six in*es#dh f ! bottom1 ! /eam exp&+ into only half its =m] bulk4 ,! temp]ature at :i* ! wat] w\ld comm5ce to be conv]t$ into vap\r1 in/ead ( be+ #bab1 w\ld be #bej2 b ! "t elaps$ betwe5 ! mom5t ( ! fir/ application ( ! lamp1 & ! complete conv]sion ( ! wat] into /eam1 w /ill be fifte5 m9utes4 ,footnote #dh3 ,/rictly speak+1 ! height to :i* ! pi/on w\ld be rais$ w\ld n dim9i% 9 s great a proportion z ! pressure is increas$1 because ! increase ( pressure be+ necess>ily accompani$ by an increase ( temp]ature1 a correspond+ expansion w\ld be produc$4 ,!re=e !re w be a slight increase 9 ! total me*anical effect ( ! /eam4 ,! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 is n v important 9 practice1 & x is usual to consid] ! d5sity ( /eam z proportional to ! pressure4 ,aga91 if ! pi/on be load$ ) a weight equal to d\ble ! atmosph]ic pressure1 ! wat] w be press$ d[n by ! =ce ( ?ree atmosph]es4 ,if ! lamp be appli$ z be=e1 ! wat] w\ld be conv]t$ into /eam 9 ! same "t2 b ! pi/on w n[ be rais$ only f\r in*es above its fir/ position1 & ! /eam w consequ5tly be ?ree times z d5se z :5 ! pi/on 0 press$ d[n only by ! atmosph]e4 ,f ^! & simil> exp]im5ts we inf]3-- ,fir/1 ,t ! ela/ic pressure ( /eam is equal to ! me*anical pressure "u :i* ! wat] produc+ ! /eam has be5 boil$4 ,secondly1 ,t ! bulk :i* /eam fills is dim9i%$ 9 ! same proportion z ! pressure ( ! /eam is increas$2 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! d5sity ( /eam is always 9 ! same proportion z its pressure4 ,?irdly1 ,t ! same quantity ( heat is suffici5t to conv]t ! same weight ( wat] into /eam1 :atev] be ! pressure "u :i* ! wat] is boil$1 or :atev] be ! d5sity & pressure ( ! /eam produc$4 ,f\r?ly1 ,t ! same quantity ( wat] be+ conv]t$ into /eam1 produces ! same me*anical effect1 :atev] be ! pressure or ! d5sity ( ! /eam4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ case1 ! weight ( "o atmosph]e 0 rais$ a foot high2 9 ! second case1 ! weight ( two atmosph]es 0 rais$ ?r\gh half a foot2 &1 9 ! ?ird case1 ! weight ( ?ree atmosph]es 0 rais$ ?r\gh ! ?ird ( a foot2 ! weight rais$ be+ 9 e case increas$ 9 ! same proportion z ! height ?r\gh :i* x is elevat$ is dim9i%$4 ,e increase ( ! weight is1 !re=e1 comp5sat$ by a proportionate dim9ution ( ! height ?r\gh :i* x is rais$1 & ! me*anical effect is consequ5tly ! same4 ,fif?ly1 ,t ! same quantity ( heat or fuel is necess>y & suffici5t to produce ! same me*anical effect1 :atev] be ! pressure ( ! /eam :i* x produces4 ,if /eam be us$ to raise a pi/on aga9/ ! atmosph]ic pressure only1 al?\gh a def9ite physical =ce w be ex]t$ by x1 & a me*anical effect produc$1 yet "u su* circum/ances x w ex]t no directly useful effici5cy2 b aft] ! pi/on has be5 rais$1 & ! tube b5ea? x fill$ ) /eam balanc+ ! atmosph]e above x1 a useful effect to ! same am\nt may be obta9$ by cool+ ! tube1 & !reby reconv]t+ ! /eam into wat]4 ,! pi/on w ?us be urg$ d[nw>ds by ! unresi/$ =ce ( ! atmosph]e1 & any *a9 or rod atta*$ to x w be drawn d[nw>ds ) a correspond+ =ce4 ,if ! area ( ! pi/on be1 z already suppos$1 equal to ! magnitude ( "o squ>e foot1 ! atmosph]ic pressure ^u x1 be+ #ae p\nds = ea* squ>e in*1 w am\nt to #add times #ae p\nds1 or #bafj p\nds4 ,by draw+ d[n a *a9 or rope act+ ov] a pulley1 ! pi/on w\ld 9 its desc5t 7omitt+ ! consid]ation ( friction1 c47 raise a weight ( #bafj p\nds a foot high4 ,s9ce #bafj p\nds are ne>ly equal to "o ton1 x may1 = ! sake ( r\nd numb]s be /at$ ?us3-- ,a cubic in* ( wat]1 be+ conv]t$ into /eam1 w1 by ! cond5sation ( t /eam1 raise a ton weight a foot high4 ,su* is ! way 9 :i* ! =ce ( /eam is r5d]$ practically available 9 ! atmosph]ic eng9e4 7#aca47 ,! me?od by :i* /eam is us$ 9 ! s+le-act+ /eam eng9e ( ,watt is1 9 all respects1 simil>1 except t ! pi/on1 in/ead ( be+ urg$ d[nw>ds by ! =ce ( ! atmosph]e1 is press$ by /eam ( a =ce equal to ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ?is does n alt] ! me*anical result4 ,we h /at$ t a consid]able increase ( p[]1 f a giv5 quantity ( /eam1 0 produc$ by cutt+ (f ! /eam aft] ! pi/on _h made a "p ( its desc5t1 & all[+ ! rema9d] ( ! desc5t to be produc$ by ! expansive =ce ( ! /eam already admitt$4 ,we %all n[ m fully expla9 ! pr9ciple on :i* ?is increase ( p[] dep5ds4 ,let ,a ,b 7fig4 #fi417 z be=e1 repres5t a tube1 ! bottom ( :i* is equal to a squ>e foot1 & let ,p be a pi/on 9 x1 re/+ ^u a cubic in* ( wat] spread ov] ! bottom2 & let w be an empty vessel1 ! weight ( :i* exactly c\nt]poises ! pi/on4 ,by ! application ( ! lamp1 ! wat] w be conv]t$ into /eam ( ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! pi/on w be rais$ f ,p to ,p1 ?r\gh ! height ( "o foot1 ! space 9 ! tube b5ea? x be+ fill$ ) /eam1 & ! vessel w w h desc5d$ ?r\gh "o foot4 ,let half a ton ( wat] be n[ p\r$ into ! vessel ,w2 its weight w draw ! pi/on ,p upw>ds1 s t ! /eam bel[ x w exp& into a l>g] space4 ,:5 ! pi/on ,p 0 only balanc$ by ! empty vessel ,w1 x 0 press$ d[nw>ds by ! :ole weight ( ! atmosph]e above1 :i* am\nts to ab\t "o ton3 n[1 h[ev]1 half ( ?is pressure is balanc$ by ! half ton ( wat] p\r$ into ! vessel ,w2 consequ5tly ! effective d[nw>d pressure on ! pi/on ,p w be only half a ton1 or half its =m] am\nt4 ,! pi/on w !re=e rise1 until ! pressure ( ! /eam bel[ x is dim9i%$ to ! same ext5t4 ,by :at has be5 already expla9$1 ?is w take place :5 ! /eam is all[$ to exp& into d\ble its =m] bulk2 consequ5tly1 :5 ! pi/on has ris5 to ,p1 "o foot high]1 or two feet f ! bottom ( ! tube1 ! /eam w !n exactly balance ! d[nw>d pressure on ! pi/on1 & ! latt] w rema9 /ation>y2 ! vessel ,w1 ) ! half ton ( wat] x conta9s1 w h desc5d$ "o foot l[]1 or two feet bel[ its fir/ position4 ,let ! /eam n[ be cool$ & reconv]t$ into wat]1 & at ! same "t let ano!r half ton ( wat] be suppli$ to ! vessel ,w2 ! pressure bel[ ! pi/on be+ entirely remov$1 ! atmosph]ic pressure w act above x ) undim9i%$ =ce2 & ?is =ce1 am\nt+ to "o ton1 w draw up ! vessel ,w1 ) its cont5ts4 ,:5 ! pi/on desc5ds1 z x w d1 to ! bottom ( ! tube1 ! ton ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,w w be rais$ ?r\gh two p]p5dicul> feet4#di ,footnote #di3 ,/rictly speak+1 ! quantity ( wat] suppos$ 9 ^! cases to be plac$ 9 ! vessel ,w w\ld j balance ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,a slight prepond]ance mu/ !re=e be giv5 to ! pi/on1 to produce ! motion4 ,n[1 9 ?is process x w be obs]v$ t ! quantity ( /eam consum$ is n m ?an 9 ! =m] case1 viz4 ! vap\r produc$ by boil+ "o cubic in* ( wat]4 ,let u consid]1 h[ev]1 ! me*anical effect :i* has result$ f x2 half a ton ( wat] has be5 all[$ to desc5d ?r\gh "o foot1 :ile a ton has be5 rais$ ?r\gh two feet3 d$uct+ ! =ce lo/ by ! desc5t ( half a ton ?r\gh "o foot f ! =ce obta9$ by ! asc5t ( "o ton ?r\gh ! two feet1 we obta9 = ! :ole me*anical effect "o ton & a half rais$ ?r\gh "o foot2 = x is evid5t t half a ton has be5 rais$ f ! l[e/ po9t to :i* ! vessel ,w desc5d$ "o foot above t po9t1 & "o ton has be5 rais$ ?r\gh ! o!r foot1 :i* is equival5t to "o ton & a half ?r\gh "o foot4 ,comp>+ ?is ) ! effect produc$ 9 ! fir/ case1 :]e ! /eam 0 cond5s$ )\t caus+ its expansion1 x w be evid5t t !re is an increase ( #ej p] c5t4 ^u ! :ole me*anical effect produc$4 ,b ?is is n ! limit ( ! increase ( p[] by expansion4 ,in/ead ( cond5s+ ! /eam :5 ! pi/on _h arriv$ at ,p1 let a fur!r quantity ( wat] am\nt+ to "o six? ( a ton be p\r$ into ! vessel ,w1 9 addition to ! half ton :i* x previ\sly conta9$2 ! effective pressure on ! pi/on ,p1 be+ only half a ton1 w be ov]balanc$ by ! prepond]at+ weight 9 ! vessel w1 & ! pi/on w consequ5tly asc5d4 ,x w become /ation>y :5 ! /eam by expansion loses a quantity ( =ce equal to ! additional weight :i* ! vessel ,w has receiv$3 n[1 t vessel1 hav+ successively receiv$ a half & a six? ( a ton w conta9 two ?irds ( a ton2 consequ5tly ! effective d[nw>d pressure on ! pi/on w be only a ?ird ( a ton1 & ! /eam to balance ?is mu/ exp& into ?ree times ! space x occupi$ :5 equal1 to ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x mu/ !re=e asc5d to ,p1 ?ree feet above ! bottom ( ! tube4 ,if ! /eam 9 ! tube be n[ cond5s$1 & at ! same "t "o ?ird ( a ton ( wat] be suppli$ to ! vessel ,w1 s z to make its total cont5ts am\nt to "o ton1 ! pi/on w desc5d1 be+ urg$ d[nw>ds by ! unresi/$ atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! ton ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! vessel ,w w be rais$ ?r\gh ?ree p]p5dicul> feet4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! =m]1 ! total quantity ( /eam consum$ is t ( "o cubic in* ( wat]2 b ! me*anical effect x produces is /ill fur!r increas$4 ,to calculate its am\nt1 we mu/ consid] t half a ton ( wat] has fall5 ?r\gh two feet1 :i* is equival5t to a ton fall+ ?r\gh "o foot1 besides :i* ! six? "p ( a ton has fall5 ?r\gh "o foot4 ,! total loss1 !re=e1 by ! fall ( wat] has be5 "o ton & "o six? ?r\gh "o foot1 :ile ! =ce ga9$ by ! asc5t ( wat] has be5 "o ton rais$ ?r\gh ?ree feet1 :i* is equival5t to ?ree tons ?r\gh "o foot4 ,if1 !n1 f ?ree tons we d$uct "o & "o six?1 ! rema9d] w be "o ton & five six?s rais$ ?r\gh "o foot2 ?is effect be+ above #hj p] c5t4 m ?an t :i* is produc$ 9 ! fir/ case1 :]e ! /eam 0 n all[$ to exp&4 ,to c>ry ! inquiry "o /ep fur!r3 ,let u suppose t1 ^u ! arrival ( ! pi/on at ,p1 a fur!r addition ( wat] to ! am\nt ( "o twelf? ( a ton be add$ to x3 ?is1 ) ! wat] x already conta9$1 w\ld make ! total cont5ts ?ree f\r?s ( a ton2 consequ5tly1 ! effective pressure ^u ! pi/on w\ld n[ be r$uc$ to "o f\r? ( ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! atmosph]ic /eam w\ld balance ?is :5 exp&$ into f\r times its orig9al volume3 consequ5tly1 ! pi/on w\ld come to a /ate ( re/ at ,p1 f\r feet above ! bottom ( ! tube1 & ! vessel ,w w\ld consequ5tly h desc5d$ ?r\gh f\r p]p5dicul> feet4 ,if ! /eam 9 ! tube be n[ cond5s$ z 9 ! =m] cases1 & at ! same "t a qu>t] ( a ton ( wat] be add$ to ! vessel ,w1 ! pi/on w desc5d to ! bottom ( ! tube1 & ! ton ( wat] 9 ! vessel ,w w be rais$ ?r\gh f\r p]p5dicul> feet4 ,to e/imate ! me*anical effect ?us produc$1 we h1 z be=e1 to d$uct ! total =ce lo/ by ! fall ( wat] f ! =ce ga9$ by its elevation3 ! wat] has fall5 9 ?ree di/9ct portions3 fir/1 half a ton has fall5 ?r\gh ?ree p]p5dicul> feet1 :i* is equival5t to "o ton & a half ?r\gh "o foot2 secondly1 "o six? ( a ton has fall5 ?r\gh two p]p5dicul> feet1 :i* is equival5t to "o ?ird ( a ton ?r\gh "o foot2 & ?irdly1 "o twelf? ( a ton has fall5 ?r\gh "o foot3 ^! add$ toge!r w be equival5t to "o ton & elev5 twelf?s ?r\gh "o foot4 ,"o ton has be5 rais$ ?r\gh f\r feet1 :i* is equival5t to f\r tons ?r\gh "o foot3 d$uct+ f ?is ! =ce lo/ by ! desc5t1 ! surplus ga9$ w be two tons & "o twelf? ?r\gh "o foot1 be+ ab\t #ajh p] c5t4 m ?an ! =ce result+ f ! cond5sation ( /eam )\t expansion4 ,to ! increase ( me*anical effect to be produc$ 9 ?is way1 !re is no !oretical limit4 ,accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* we h "h expla9$ x1 to produce ! greate/ possible effect by a giv5 ext5t ( expansion1 x w\ld be necess>y to supply ! wat] or o!r c\nt]poise to ! vessel ,w1 n 9 sep>ate masses1 z we h "h suppos$1 b cont9u\sly1 s z to produce a regul> motion ( ! pi/on upw>ds4 ,su* is ! pr9ciple on :i* ! advantages ( ! expansive eng9e ( ,watt & ,hornbl[] dep5d1 expla9$ s f> z x c be )\t ! aid ( ! language & reason+ ( analysis4#ej ,footnote #ej3 ,a /rict inve/igation ( ?is important prop]ty1 z well z ( ! o!r consequ5ces ( ! quality ( expansion1 w\ld require m ab/ruse ma!matical processes ?an w\ld be consi/5t ) ! nature ( ?is "w4 7#acb47 ,we h "h1 h[ev]1 only consid]$ ! me*anical effect produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam4 ,let u n[ exam9e its direct action4 ,let ! pi/on ,p be suppos$ to be connect$ by a rod ) a load or resi/ance :i* x is int5d$ to raise1 & let ! load plac$ ^u x be suppos$ to am\nt to "o ton1 ! total pressure on ! pi/on w !n be two tons2 "o due to ! atmosph]ic pressure1 & ! o!r to ! am\nt ( ! load4 ,^u apply+ heat to ! wat]1 /eam w be produc$2 & :5 ! wat] has be5 completely evaporat$1 ! pi/on w rise to ! height ( six in*es f ! bottom ( ! tube4 ,! total me*anical effect ?us produc$ w be "o ton weight rais$ ?r\gh six p]p5dicul> in*es1 :i* is equival5t to half a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot4 ,aga91 let ! load ^u ! pi/on be two tons2 ?is w produce a total pressure ^u ! wat] bel[ x am\nt+ to ?ree tons1 includ+ ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,! wat]1 :5 conv]t$ into vap\r "u ?is pressure1 w raise ! pi/on & its load ?r\gh f\r p]p5dicul> in*es3 ! useful me*anical effect w !n be two tons rais$ ?r\gh ! ?ird ( a foot1 :i* is equival5t to two ?irds ( a ton rais$ "o foot4 ,9 ! same mann]1 if ! pi/on 7 load$ ) ?ree tons1 ! me*anical effect w\ld be equival5t to ?ree f\r?s ( a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot1 & s on4 ,x appe>s !re=e f ?is reason+1 t :5 ! direct =ce ( /eam ( great] pressure ?an ! atmosph]e is us$ )\t cond5sation1 ! total me*anical effect is always less ?an t produc$ by ! cond5sation ( atmosph]ic /eam )\t expansion2 b t ! great] ! pressure "u :i* ! /eam is produc$1 ! less w be ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! effects4 ,9 g5]al1 ! proportion ( ! me*anical effect ( high-pressure /eam to ! effect produc$ by ! cond5sation ( atmosph]ic /eam1 w be z ! numb] ( atmosph]es express+ ! pressure ( ! /eam to ! same numb] increas$ by "o4 ,?us1 if /eam be produc$ "u ! pressure ( six atmosph]es1 ! proportion ( its effect to t ( ! cond5sation ( atmosph]ic /eam w be z six to sev54 7#acc47 ,ano!r me?od ( apply+ ! p[] ( /eam me*anically is1 to comb9e its direct action ) cond5sation b )\t expansion4 ,! pi/on be+1 z be=e1 load$ ) "o ton1 ! evaporation ( ! wat] w raise x ?r\gh six p]p5dicul> in*es1 & ! result s f> w be equival5t to a ton rais$ half a foot2 b if ! pi/on-rod be suppos$ also to act by a *a9 or cord ov] a :eel1 s z to pull a weight up1 ! /eam :i* has j rais$ ! ton weight ?r\gh six in*es1 may be cond5s$1 & ! pi/on w desc5d ) a =ce ( "o ton into ! vacuum ?us produc$1 & ano!r ton may be ?us rais$ ?r\gh half a foot4 ,! total me*anical p[] ?us yield$ by ! /eam1 add+ to its direct action its effect by cond5sation1 w !n be "o ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot1 be+ an effect exactly equal to t obta9$ by ! cond5sation ( atmosph]ic /eam4 ,if ! pi/on be load$ ) two tons1 its direct action w1 z we h %[n1 raise ^! two tons ?r\gh f\r in*es1 :i* is equival5t to two ?irds ( a ton rais$ a foot4 ,by cond5s+ ?is /eam a ton weight may be rais$ 9 ! same mann]1 by ! desc5t ( ! pi/on ?r\gh a ?ird ( a foot1 :i* is equival5t to ! ?ird ( a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot4 ,by pursu+ l reason+1 x w appe> t1 if ! direct =ce ( high-pressure /eam be comb9$ ) ! indirect =ce produc$ by its cond5sation1 ! total me*anical effect w be precisely equal to ! me*anical effect by ! m]e cond5sation ( atmosph]ic /eam4 7#acd47 ,9 apply+ ! pr9ciple ( expansion to ! direct action ( high-pressure /eam1 advantages are ga9$ analog\s to ^? already expla9$ ) ref]5ce to ! me?od ( cond5sation4 ,let ! pi/on be suppos$ to be load$ ) ?ree tons3 ! evaporation ( ! wat] b5ea? x w raise ?is weight1 includ+ ! atmosph]ic pressure1 ?r\gh ?ree p]p5dicul> in*es4 ,let "o ton be n[ remov$1 & ! rema9+ two tons w be rais$1 by ! expansion ( ! /eam1 ?r\gh ano!r p]p5dicul> in*4 ,let ! second ton be n[ remov$1 & ! pi/on load$ ) ! rema9+ ton w rise1 by ! expansion ( ! /eam1 to ! height ( six in*es f ! bottom4 ,^! consequ5ces foll[ imm$iately f ! pr9ciple t /eam w exp& 9 proportion z ! pressure ^u x is dim9i%$1 obs]v+ t 9 ?is case ! atmosph]ic pressure1 am\nt+ to "o ton1 mu/ always be add$ to ! load4 ,9 ?is process ?ree sep>ate effects are produc$3 "o ton is rais$ ?r\gh ?ree in*es1 :i* is equival5t to a qu>t] ( a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot2 ano!r ton is rais$ ?r\gh f\r in*es1 :i* is equival5t to a ?ird ( a ton ?r\gh a foot1 & ! ?ird ton is rais$ ?r\gh six in*es1 :i* is equival5t to half a ton rais$ ?r\gh a foot4 ,! total ( ^! effects am\nts to "o & "o-twelf? ( a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot1 :ile ! same load1 rais$ by ! high-pressure /eam )\t expansion1 w\ld be equival5t to only half a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot4 ,aga91 let ! load plac$ ^u ! pi/on be five tons3 ! evaporation ( ! wat] w raise ?is ?r\gh ! six? "p ( a foot2 if "o ton be n[ remov$1 ! o!r f\r tons w be rais$ to a height above ! bottom ( ! tube equal to a fif? "p ( a foot2 ano!r ton be+ remov$1 ! rema9+ ?ree w be rais$ to a height f ! bottom equal to a f\r? ( a foot2 & s on1 ! la/ ton be+ rais$ ?r\gh half a foot4 ,to e/imate ! total me*anical effect ?us produc$1 we are to consid] t ! sev]al tons rais$ f _! fir/ position are rais$ ?r\gh ! six?1 fif?1 f\r?1 ?ird1 & half ( a p]p5dicul> foot1 giv+ a total effect equal to ! six?1 fif?1 f\r?1 ?ird1 & half ( a ton sev]ally rais$ ?r\gh "o foot2 ^!1 !re=e1 add$ toge!r1 w give a total ( n9ete5 tw5tie?s ( a ton rais$ ?r\gh "o foot4 ,9 g5]al1 ! expansive =ce appli$ to ! direct action ( high-pressure /eam1 !re=e1 w increase its effect accord+ to ! same law1 & subject to ! same pr9ciples z 7 %[n ) respect to ! me?od ( cond5sation accompani$ ) expansion4 ,! expansive action ( high-pressure /eam may be accompani$ ) cond5sation1 s z consid]ably to increase ! me*anical effect produc$2 =1 aft] ! weights ) :i* ! pi/on is load$ h be5 successively rais$ to ! ext5t p]mitt$ by ! ela/ic =ce ( ! /eam1 & are remov$ f ! pi/on1 ! /eam w exp& until x balances ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,x may aft]w>ds be made fur!r to exp&1 by add+ weights to ! c\nt]poise ,w 9 ! mann] already expla9$2 &1 ! /eam be+ subsequ5tly cond5s$1 all ! effects w be produc$ ^u ! desc5t ( ! pi/on :i* we h be=e notic$4 ,x is evid5t t by ?is means ! me*anical effect admits ( v consid]able increase4 7#ace47 ,we h hi!rto consid]$ ! pi/on to be resi/$ by ! atmosph]ic pressure above x2 b1 z is %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 9 ! mod]n /eam eng9es1 ! atmosph]e is expell$ f ! int]ior ( ! ma*9e by all[+ ! /eam to pass freely ?r\gh all its cavities 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & to escape at "s conv5i5t ap]ture1 :i*1 op5+ outw>ds1 w effectually prev5t ! subsequ5t re-admission ( air4 ,! pi/on-rod & o!r p>ts :i* pass f ! ext]nal atmosph]e to ! int]ior ( ! ma*9e1 are likewise s con/ruct$ & s suppli$ ) oil or o!r lubricat+ matt] t nei!r ! escape ( /eam nor ! entrance ( air is p]mitt$4 ,we are !re=e n[ to consid] ! effect ( ! action ( /eam aga9/ ! pi/on ,p1 :5 subject$ to a resi/ance :i* may be less 9 am\nt1 to any ext5t1 ?an ! atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 su* ma*9es ! /eam always acts bo? directly by its p[]1 & indirectly by its cond5sation4 ,9 calculat+ its effects1 exclud+ friction1 c41 we h !re=e only to e/imate its total =ce ^u ! pi/on1 & to d$uct ! =ce ( ! uncond5s$ vap\r :i* w resi/ ! motion ( ! pi/on4 ,suppos+1 !n1 ! total =ce ex]t$ ^u ! pi/on1 aft] d$uct+ ! resi/ance f ! uncond5s$ vap\r1 to be "o ton1 & ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] to be "o foot1 ea* motion ( ! pi/on f end to end ( ! cyl9d] w produce a me*anical =ce equival5t to a ton weight rais$ "o foot high4 ,if 9 ?is case ! magnitude ( ! pi/on be equival5t to "o squ>e foot1 ! pressure ( ! /eam w be equal to t ( ! atmosph]e1 & ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! =m ( /eam :i* ! cyl9d] w conta9 w be a cubic in*1 :ile ! quantity ( /eam 9 x w be a cubic foot4 ,9 proportion z ! area ( ! pi/on is enl>g$ ! pressure ( ! /eam w be dim9i%$1 if ! mov+ =ce is requir$ to rema9 ! same2 b ) e dim9ution ( pressure ! d5sity ( ! /eam w be dim9i%$ 9 ! same proportion1 & ! cyl9d] w /ill conta9 ! same quantity ( wat] 9 ! =m ( vap\r4 ,9 ?is way /eam may be us$1 z a me*anical ag5t1 ) a pressure to almo/ any ext5t less ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 & at temp]atures consid]ably l[] ?an #bab4 ,to obta9 ! same me*anical =ce1 x is only necess>y to enl>ge ! pi/on 9 ! same proportion z ! pressure ( ! /eam is dim9i%$4 ,by a due att5tion to ?is circum/ance1 ! expansive p[] ( /eam1 bo? 9 its direct action & by cond5sation1 may be us$ ) v mu* increas$ advantage2 & su* is ! pr9ciple on :i* ! b5efits d]iv$ f ,woolf's contrivances dep5d4 ,if /eam ( a high-pressure1 say ( ?ree or f\r atmosph]es1 be admitt$ to ! pi/on1 & all[$ to impel x ?r\gh a v small portion ( ! desc5t1 x may !n be cut (f & its expansion may be all[$ to act ^u ! pi/on until ! pressure ( ! /eam is dim9i%$ consid]ably bel[ ! atmosph]ic pressure2 ! /eam may !n be cond5s$ & a vacuum produc$1 & ! process repeat$4 ,9 ! d\ble-act+ eng9es1 commonly us$ 9 manufactures & 9 navigation1 & /ill m 9 ! high-pressure eng9es us$ = locomotion1 ! advantage\s application ( ! pr9ciple ( expansion appe>s to h be5 hi!rto att5d$ ) difficulties2 =1 not)/&+ ! b5efits :i* unque/ionably att5d x 9 ! economy ( fuel1 x has n be5 g5]ally resort$ to4 ,to d]ive f ?is pr9ciple full advantage1 x w\ld be necess>y t ! v>y+ p[] ( ! exp&+ /eam %\ld enc\nt] a correspond+1 or a ne>ly correspond+1 v>iation 9 ! resi/ance3 ?is requisite may be atta9$1 9 eng9es appli$ to ! purpose ( rais+ wat]1 by _m obvi\s exp$i5ts2 b :5 !y h1 z 9 manufactures1 to enc\nt] a ne>ly uni=m resi/ance1 or1 9 navigation & locomotion1 a v irregul> resi/ance1 ! due application ( expansion is difficult1 if inde$ x be practicable4 ,we h se5 t ! me*anical effect produc$ by /eam :5 ! pr9ciple ( expansion is n us$1 is always proportional to ! quantity ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! /eam1 & is likewise 9 ! same proportion s long z a giv5 degree ( expansion is us$4 ,x is app>5t1 !re=e1 t ! me*anical p[] :i* is or ought to be ex]t$ by an eng9e is 9 ! direct proportion ( ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$4 ,x has also be5 %[n t ! quantity ( wat] evaporat$1 :atev] be ! pressure ( ! /eam1 w be 9 ! direct proportion ( ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! fuel1 & !re=e 9 ! direct proportion ( ! quantity ( fuel itself1 s long z ! same proportion ( its heat is imp>t$ to ! wat]4 7#acf47 ,! ,,p[] ( an eng9e is a t]m :i* has be5 us$ to express ! rate at :i* x is able to raise a giv5 load1 or ov]come a giv5 resi/ance4 ,! ,,duty ( an eng9e is ano!r t]m1 :i* has be5 adopt$ to express ! load :i* may be rais$ a giv5 p]p5dicul> height1 by ! combu/ion ( a giv5 quantity ( fuel4 ,:5 /eam eng9es 7 fir/ introduc$1 !y 7 commonly appli$ to "w pumps or mills :i* _h be5 previ\sly wr\ght by horses4 ,x 01 !re=e1 conv5i5t1 & inde$ necess>y1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to be able to express ! p]=mance ( ^! ma*9es by ref]5ce to ! effects ( animal p[]1 to :i* manufactur]s1 m9]s1 & o!rs1 _h be5 long accu/om$4 ,:5 an eng9e1 !re=e1 0 capable ( p]=m+ ! same "w 9 a giv5 "t1 z any giv5 numb] ( horses ( av]age /r5g? usually p]=m$1 x 0 said to be an eng9e ( s _m horses' p[]4 ,?is t]m 0 long us$ ) mu* vagu5ess & unc]ta9ty3 at l5g?1 z ! use ( /eam eng9es became m ext5d$1 x 0 app>5t t confusion & inconv5i5ce w\ld ensue1 if "s fix$ & def9ite mean+ 7 n assign$ to x1 s t ! eng9e]s & o!rs %\ld cle>ly und]/& ea* o!r 9 express+ ! p[]s ( ^! ma*9es4 ,! t]m horse-p[] _h s long be5 9 use1 t x 0 obvi\sly conv5i5t to reta9 x4 ,x 0 only necess>y to agree ^u "s /&>d by :i* x might be def9$4 ,! p]=mance ( a horse ( av]age /r5g?1 work+ = eight h\rs a day1 01 !re=e1 select$ z a /&>d or unit ( /eam-eng9e p[]4 ,smeaton e/imat$ ! am\nt ( me*anical effect :i* ! animal c\ld produce at #bb1iaf p\nds1 rais$ "o foot p] m9ute2 ,desaguili]s makes x #bg1ejj p\nds1 rais$ ?r\gh ! same height4 ,messrs4 ,bolton & ,watt caus$ exp]im5ts to be made ) ! /rong horses us$ 9 ! brew]ies 9 ,london2 & f ! result ( ^! !y assign$ #cc1jjj p\nds rais$ "o foot p] m9ute1 z ! value ( a horse's p[]3 ?is is1 accord+ly1 ! e/imate n[ g5]ally adopt$2 &1 :5 an eng9e is said to be ( s _m horses' p[]1 x is meant t1 :5 9 good work+ ord] & prop]ly manag$1 x is capable ( ov]com+ a resi/ance equival5t to s _m times #cc1jjj p\nds rais$ "o foot p] m9ute4 ,?us1 an eng9e ( t5-horse-p[] w\ld be capable ( rais+ #ccj1jjj p\nds "o foot p] m9ute4 ,z ! same quantity ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam w always produce ! same me*anical effect1 :atev] be ! d5sity ( ! /eam produc$ f x1 & at :atev] rate ! evaporation may proce$1 x is evid5t t ! p[] ( a /eam eng9e w dep5d on two circum/ances3 fir/1 ! rate at :i* ! boil] ) its app5dages is capable ( evaporat+ wat]2 &1 secondly1 ! rate at :i* ! eng9e is capable ( consum+ ! /eam by its "w4 ,we %all consid] ^! two circum/ances sep>ately4 ,! rate at :i* ! boil] produces /eam w dep5d ^u ! rate at :i* heat c be transmitt$ f ! fire to ! wat] :i* x conta9s4 ,n[ ?is heat is transmitt$ 9 two ways3 ei!r by ! direct action ( ! fire radiat+ heat aga9/ ! surface ( ! boil]2 or by ! flame1 & heat$ air :i* escapes f ! fire1 pass+ ?r\gh ! flues1 z already expla9$4 ,! surface ( ! boil] expos$ to ! direct radiation ( ! fire is te*nically call$ fire surface2 & t :i* takes heat f ! flame & air1 on its way to ! *imney1 is call$ flue surface4 ,( ^! ! mo/ effici5t 9 ! g5]ation ( /eam is ! =m]4 ,9 /ation>y boil]s1 us$ = cond5s+ eng9es1 :]e magnitude & weight are matt]s ( little importance1 x has be5 f\nd t ! greate/ effect has be5 produc$ 9 g5]al by all[+ f\r & a half squ>e feet ( fire surface1 & f\r & a half squ>e feet ( flue surface1 = e horse-p[]4 ,by means ( ?is quantity ( fire & flue surface1 a cubic foot ( wat] p] h\r may be evaporat$4 ,x has be5 already %[n t ! total p[] ex]t$ by a cubic in* ( wat]1 conv]t$ into /eam1 w be equival5t to #bafj p\nds rais$ "o foot4 ,a cubic foot ( wat] consi/s ( #agbh cubic in*es1 & ! p[] produc$ by its evaporation w !re=e be f\nd by multiply+ #bafj by #agbh2 ! product1 #c1gcb1dhj1 expresses ! numb] ( p\nds' weight :i* ! evaporation ( a cubic foot ( wat] w\ld raise "o foot high1 suppos+ t its entire me*anical =ce 7 r5d]$ available3 b to suppose ?is 9 practice1 w\ld be to suppose ! ma*9e1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( :i* x is work$1 mov$ )\t any p[] be+ exp5d$ ^u its own p>ts4 ,x w\ld be1 9 fact1 suppos+ all its mov+ p>ts to be free f friction & o!r causes ( resi/ance4 ,to =m a practical e/imate1 !n1 ( ! real quantity ( available me*anical p[] obta9$ f ! evaporation ( a giv5 quantity ( wat]1 x w be necess>y to inquire :at quantity ( ?is p[] is int]cept$ by ! eng9e ?r\gh :i* x is transmitt$4 ,9 diff]5t =ms ( /eam eng9e--inde$1 we may say 9 e individual /eam eng9e--! am\nt ?us lo/ is diff]5t2 nev]!less1 an approximate e/imate may be obta9$1 suffici5tly exact to =m ! basis ( a g5]al conclusion4 ,let u consid]1 !n1 sev]ally1 ! means by :i* me*anical p[] is int]cept$ by ! eng9e4 ,fir/1 ,! /eam mu/ fl[ f ! boil] into ! cyl9d] to "w ! pi/on2 x passes necess>ily ?r\gh pipes m or less contract$1 & is1 !re=e1 subject to friction z well z cool+ 9 its passage4 ,second1 ,=ce is lo/ by ! radiation ( heat f ! cyl9d] & its app5dages4 ,?ird1 ,! friction ( ! pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] mu/ be ov]come4 ,f\r?1 ,loss ( /eam takes place by leakage4 ,fif?1 ,=ce is exp5d$ 9 expell+ ! /eam aft] hav+ work$ ! pi/on4 ,six?1 ,=ce is requir$ to op5 & close ! sev]al valves1 to pump up ! wat] = cond5sation1 & to ov]come ! friction ( ! v>i\s axes4 ,sev5?1 ,=ce is exp5d$ ^u work+ ! air-pump4 ,9 eng9es :i* d n cond5se ! /eam1 & :i*1 !re=e1 "w ) /eam ( high-pressure1 "s ( ^! s\rces ( wa/e are abs5t1 b o!rs are ( increas$ am\nt4 ,if we suppose ! total effective =ce ( ! wat] evaporat$ p] h\r 9 ! boil] to be express$ by #ajjj1 x is calculat$ t ! wa/e 9 a high-pressure eng9e w be express$ by ! numb] #cib2 or1 9 o!r words1 tak+ ! :ole undim9i%$ =ce obta9$ by evaporation z express$ by #aj1 v ne>ly #d ( ^! p>ts w be consum$ 9 mov+ ! eng9e1 & ! o!r #f only w be available4 ,9 a s+le-act+ eng9e :i* cond5ses ! /eam1 tak+1 z be=e1 #ajjj to express ! total me*anical p[] ( ! wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil]1 #djb w express ! "p ( ?is consum$ 9 mov+ ! eng9e1 & #eih1 !re=e1 w express ! portion ( ! p[] practically available2 or1 tak+ r\nd numb]s1 we %all h ! same result z 9 ! non-cond5s+ eng9e1 viz4 ! :ole =ce ( ! wat] evaporat$ be+ express$ by #aj1 #d w express ! wa/e1 & #f ! available "p4 ,9 a d\ble-act+ eng9e ! available "p ( ! p[] be>s a some:at great] proportion to ! :ole4 ,tak+1 z be=e1 #ajjj to express ! :ole =ce ( ! wat] evaporat$1 #cfh w express ! proportion ( t =ce exp5d$ on ! eng9e1 & #fcb ! proportion :i* is available = "w4 ,9 g5]al1 !n1 tak+ r\nd numb]s1 we may consid] t ! me*anical =ce ( f\r t5?s ( ! wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil] is int]cept$ by ! eng9e1 & ! o!r six t5?s are available z a mov+ =ce4 ,9 ?is calculation1 h[ev]1 ! resi/ance produc$ 9 ! cond5s+ eng9e by ! uncond5s$ /eam is n tak5 into acc\nt3 ! am\nt ( ?is =ce w dep5d ^u ! temp]ature at :i* ! wat] is ma9ta9$ 9 ! cond5s]4 ,if ?is wat] be kept at ! temp]ature ( #abj1 ! vap\r aris+ f x w h a pressure express$ by ?ree in*es sev5 t5?s ( m]cury2 if we suppose ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil] to be measur$ by #cg in*es ( m]cury1 !n ! resi/ance f ! uncond5s$ /eam w am\nt to "o t5? ( ! :ole p[] ( ! boil]2 ?is1 add$ to ! f\r t5?s already acc\nt$ =1 w\ld %[ a wa/e am\nt+ to half ! :ole p[] ( ! boil]1 & consequ5tly only half ! wat] evaporat$ w\ld be available z a mov+ p[]4 ,if ! temp]ature ( ! cond5s] be kept d[n to #ajj1 !n ! pressure ( uncond5s$ /eam w be express$ by two in*es ( m]cury1 & ! loss ( p[] consequ5t ^u x w\ld am\nt to a proportionally less fraction ( ! :ole p[]4 ,! foll[+ example w illu/rate ! me?od ( e/imat+ ! effective p[] ( an eng9e4 ,9 a d\ble-act+ eng9e1 9 good work+ condition1 ! total p[] ( /eam 9 ! boil] be+ express$ by #ajjj1 ! proportion int]cept$ by ! eng9e1 exclusive ( ! resi/ance ( ! uncond5s$ /eam1 w be #cfh1 & ! effective "p #fcb4 ,n[1 suppose ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil] to be measur$ by a column ( #ce in*es ( m]cury2 ! ?\s&? "p ( ?is w be sev5 two hundr$?s ( an in* ( m]cury1 & #fcb ( ^! p>ts w express ! effective portion ( ! p[]4 ,by multiply+ sev5 two hundr$?s by #fcb1 we obta9 #bb ne>ly4 ,n[1 suppose ! temp]ature 9 ! cond5s] is #abjj1 ! pressure ( /eam correspond+ to t temp]ature w be measur$ by #c-g_/aj in*es ( m]cury4 ,subtract+ ?is f #bb1 !re w rema9 #ah-c_/aj in*es ( m]cury1 z ! effective mov+ =ce ^u ! pi/on2 ?is w be equival5t to ab\t #g lbs4 on ea* circul> in*4 ,if ! diamet] ( ! pi/on !n be #bd in*es1 its surface w consi/ ( a numb] ( circul> in*es express$ by ! squ>e ( #bd1 or #bd #bd #egf2 &1 z ^u ea* ( ^! circul> in*es !re is an effective pressure ( #g lbs41 we %all f9d ! total pressure 9 p\nds by multiply+ #egf by #g1 :i* gives #djcb lbs4 ,we %all f9d ! space ?r\gh :i* ?is =ce works p] m9ute1 by kn[+ ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] & ! numb] ( /rokes p] m9ute4 ,suppose ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] to be #e feet1 & ! numb] ( /rokes p] m9ute #ba-a_/b4 ,9 ea* /roke#ea ! pi/on w1 !re=e1 move ?r\gh #aj feet1 & 9 "o m9ute x w move ?r\gh #bae feet4 ,! mov+ =ce1 !re=e1 is #djcb lbs4 mov$ ?r\gh #bae feet p] m9ute1 :i* is equival5t to #bae times #djcb lbs41 or #hff1hhj lbs41 rais$ "o foot p] m9ute4 ,footnote #ea3 ,by a /roke ( ! pi/on is meant its motion f "o end ( ! cyl9d] & back aga94 ,= e #cc1jjj lbs4 conta9$ 9 ?is1 ! eng9e has a horse-p[]4 ,to f9d ! horse-p[]1 !n1 ( ! eng9e1 we h only to divide #hff1hhj by #cc1jjj2 ! quoti5t is #bf ne>ly1 &1 !re=e1 ! eng9e is "o ( #bf horse p[]4 ,let x be requir$ to det]m9e ! quantity ( wat] :i* a boil] mu/ evaporate p] h\r1 = ea* horse-p[] ( ! eng9e :i* x works4 ,x has be5 already expla9$ t "o horse-p[] expresses #cc1jjj lbs4 rais$ "o foot high p] m9ute1 or1 #a1ihj1jjj lbs4 rais$ "o foot high p] h\r4 ,! quantity ( wat] necess>y to produce ?is me*anical effect by evaporation1 w be f\nd by consid]+ t a cubic in* ( wat]1 be+ evaporat$1 w produce a me*anical =ce equival5t to #bafj lbs4 rais$ a foot high4 ,if we divide #a1ihj1jjj1 !re=e1 by #bafj1 we %all f9d ! numb] ( cubic in*es ( wat] :i* mu/ be evaporat$ p] h\r1 9 ord] to produce ! me*anical effect express$ by "o horse-p[]2 ! result ( ?is division w be #iaf1f1 :i* is !re=e ! numb] ( cubic in*es ( wat] p] h\r1 ^: evaporation is equival5t to "o horse-p[]4 ,b x has be5 %[n t1 = e #f cubic in*es ( wat] evaporat$ 9 ! boil] :i* are available z a mov+ p[]1 !re w be #d cubic in*es int]cept$ by ! eng9e4 ,to f9d1 !n1 ! quantity ( wa/e correspond+ to #iaf cubic in*es ( wat]1 x w be necess>y to divide t numb] by #f1 & to multiply ! result by #d3 ?is process w give #faj z ! numb] ( cubic in*es ( wat] wa/$4 ,! total quantity ( wat]1 !re=e1 :i* mu/ be evaporat$ p] h\r1 to produce ! effect ( "o horse-p[]1 w be f\nd by add+ #faj to #iaf1 :i* gives #aebf4 ,?is result1 h[ev]1 be+ calculat$ ^u a supposition ( a degree ( effici5cy 9 ! eng9es :i* is1 p]haps1 some:at above _! av]age /ate1 x has be5 cu/om>y ) eng9e]s to all[ a cubic foot ( wat] p] h\r = ea* horse-p[]1 a cubic foot be+ #agbh cubic in*es1 or above #aa p] c5t4 m ?an ! above e/imate4 7#acg47 ,x has be5 /at$1 t to evaporate a cubic foot ( wat] p] h\r requires #i squ>e feet ( surface expos$ to ! action ( ! fire & heat$ air4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! quantity ( surface necess>y = ea* horse-p[]1 & we %all f9d ! total quantity ( fire & flue surface necess>y = a boil] ( a giv5 p[]1 by multiply+ ! numb] ( horses 9 ! p[] by #i2 ! product w express1 9 squ>e feet1 ! quantity ( boil] surface :i* mu/ be expos$ to ! fire1 "o half ( ?is be+ fire surface & ! o!r half flue surface4 ,s9ce ! supply ( heat to ! boil] mu/ be proportionate to ! quantity ( fuel ma9ta9$ 9 combu/ion1 & ! quantity ( t fuel mu/ dep5d on ! ext5t ( grate surface1 x is cle> t a det]m9ate proportion mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! p[] ( ! boil]1 & ! ext5t ( grat+ 9 ! fire place4 ,! quantity ( oxyg5 :i* comb9es ) ! fuel v>ies ) ! quality ( t fuel2 = diff]5t k9ds ( coal x v>ies f two to ?ree p\nds = ea* p\nd ( coal4 ,we %all take x an av]age ( #b-a_/b p\nds4 ,n[ #b-a_/b p\nds ( oxyg5 w measure #cj cubic feet2 also #e cubic feet ( atmosph]ic air conta9 #a cubic foot ( oxyg52 & consequ5tly #aej cubic feet ( atmosph]ic air w be necess>y = ! combu/ion ( #a p\nd ( av]age coals4 ,at lea/ "o ?ird ( ! air1 :i* passes ?r\gh a fire1 escapes uncomb9$ into ! *imney4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 all[ #bbj cubic feet ( atmosph]ic air to pass ?r\gh ! grate-b>s = e p\nd ( fuel :i* is consum$4 ,n[ s9ce l& boil]s w consume #ae p\nds1 & m>9e boil]s #aj p\nds1 p] h\r p] horse-p[]1 x foll[s t ! spaces betwe5 ! grate-b>s1 & ! ext5t ( grate surface1 mu/ be suffici5t to all[ #cjjj cubic feet ( air p] h\r 9 l& boil]s1 & #bjjj cubic feet 9 m>9e boil]s1 to pass ?r\gh !m = ea* horse-p[]1 or1 :at is ! same1 = ea* foot ( wat] conv]t$ into /eam p] h\r4 ,! quantity ( grate surface necess>y = ?is does n seem to be asc]ta9$ ) precision2 b1 p]haps1 we may take z an approximate e/imate = l& boil]s "o squ>e foot ( grate surface p] horse-p[]1 & = m>9e boil]s two ?irds ( a squ>e foot1 ! spaces betwe5 ! grate-b>s be+ equal to _! bread?4 ,x is evid5t t ! capacity ( a boil] = wat] & /eam mu/ h a det]m9ate relation to ! p[] ( ! eng9e x is int5d$ to supply4 ,= ea* horse-p[] ( ! eng9e1 x has be5 %[n t a cubic foot ( wat] mu/ pass f ! boil] 9 ! =m ( /eam p] h\r4 ,n[1 x is evid5t t ! /eam c\ld n be suppli$ ( a uni=m =ce1 if ! quantity ( /eam conta9$ at any mom5t 9 ! boil] 7 n consid]ably great] ?an ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d]4 ,= example1 if ! volume ( /eam 9 ! boil] 7 precisely equal to ! capacity ( ! cyl9d]1 !n "o measure ( ! cyl9d] w\ld = ! mom5t cause ! /eam to exp& into d\ble its bulk & to lose half its =ce1 suppos+ x to pass freely f ! boil] to ! cyl9d]4 ,9 ! same mann]1 if ! volume ( /eam conta9$ 9 ! boil] 7 twice ! cont5ts ( ! cyl9d]1 ! /eam w\ld = a mom5t lose a ?ird ( its =ce1 & s on4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t ! space allott$ to /eam 9 ! boil] mu/ be s _m times great] ?an ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d]1 t ! ab/raction ( a cyl9d] full ( /eam f x %all cause a v trifl+ dim9ution ( its =ce4 ,9 ! same mann]1 we may p]ceive ! necessity ( ma9ta9+ a l>ge proportion betwe5 ! total quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil]1 & ! quantity suppli$ 9 ! =m ( /eam to ! cyl9d]4 ,if1 = example 7tak+ z be=e an extreme case17 ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! boil] 7 only equal to ! quantity suppli$ 9 ! =m ( /eam to ! cyl9d] 9 a m9ute1 x w\ld be necess>y t ! cont5ts ( ! boil] %\ld be replac$ by cold wat] once 9 ea* m9ute3 &1 "u su* circum/ances1 x is evid5t t ! action ( ! heat ^u ! wat] w\ld be q unmanageable4 ,b1 indep5d5t ( ?is1 ! quantity ( wat] mu/ be suffici5t to fill ! boil] above ! po9t at :i* ! flue surface t]m9ates1 o!rwise ! heat ( ! fuel w\ld act ^u ! "p ( ! boil] conta9+ /eam & n wat]2 &1 /eam receiv+ heat sluggi%ly1 ! metal ( ! boil] w\ld be gradually de/roy$ by undue temp]ature4 ,! total quantity ( space = wat] & /eam 9 boil]s is subject to consid]able v>iation 9 proportion to _! p[]4 ,small boil]s require a great] proportion ( /eam & wat]-room1 or a great] capacity ( boil]1 9 proportion1 ?an l>ge ones2 & ! same applies to _! fire surface & flue surface4 ,! g5]al exp]i5ce ( eng9e]s has l$ to ! conclusion1 t a l[-pressure boil] ( ! common k9d requires t5 cubic feet ( wat]-room1 & t5 cubic feet ( /eam-room 9 ! boil]1 = e cubic foot :i* ! eng9e consumes p] h\r1 or1 :at is ! same1 = ea* horse-p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,?us1 an eng9e ( t5-horse-p[]1 accord+ to ?is rule1 w\ld require a boil] hav+ ! capacity ( #bjj cubic feet :i* %\ld be con/antly kept half fill$ ) wat]4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 diff]5t e/imates ( ?is4 ,"s eng9e]s hold t a boil] %\ld h tw5ty-five cubic feet ( capacity = ea* horse-p[] ( ! eng9e1 :ile o!rs r$uce ! /eam s l[ z eight cubic feet4 ,9 a table ( ! capacities ( boil]s ( diff]5t p[]s1 & ! fe$ ( wat] necess>y to be ma9ta9$ 9 !m1 ,mr4 ,tr$gold assigns to a boil] ( five-horse-p[] f\rte5 cubic feet ( wat] p] horse-p[]2 = "o ( t5-horse p[]1 twelve & a half cubic feet2 &1 = "o ( =ty-horse1 elev5 cubic feet4 ,= eng9es ( great] p[] x is g5]ally f\nd advantage\s to h two or m boil]s ( small p[]1 in/ead ( "o ( l>ge p[]4 ,?is me?od is almo/ inv>iably adopt$ on bo>d /eam boats1 & has ! advantage ( secur+ ! cont9uance ( ! work+ ( ! eng9e1 9 case ( "o ( ! boil]s be+ d]ang$4 ,x is also f\nd conv5i5t to keep an excess ( p[] 9 ! boil]s1 above ! wants ( ! eng9e4 ,?us1 an eng9e ( sixty-horse-p[] may be advantage\sly suppli$ ) two =ty-horse boil]s1 & an eng9e ( eighty-horse-p[] ) two fifty-horse boil]s1 & s on4 7#ach47 ,! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d] ( an eng9e is always less ?an ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! boil]1 ow+ to ! ob/ructions :i* x enc\nt]s 9 its passage ?r\gh ! /eam pipes & valves4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! pressures w dep5d ^u ! =m & magnitude ( ! passages3 ! /raight] & wid] !y are1 ! less ! diff]5ce w be2 if !y are contract$ & subject to b5ds1 especially to angul> inflexions1 ! /eam w be consid]ably dim9i%$ 9 its pressure be=e x rea*es ! cyl9d]4 ,! ?rottle valve plac$ 9 ! /eam pipe may also be s manag$ z to dim9i% ! pressure ( /eam 9 ! cyl9d] to any ext5t3 ?is effect1 :i* is well und]/ood by practical eng9e]s1 is call$ wire-draw+ ! /eam4 ,by su* means x is evid5tly possible = ! /eam 9 ! boil] to h any degree ( high-pressure :ile ! eng9e is work$ at any degree ( l[ pressure4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! pressure ( ! /eam 9 ! cyl9d] is a mat]ial elem5t 9 ! p]=mance ( ! eng9e1 ! magnitude1 position1 & %ape ( ! /eam pipe & ( ! valves are a matt] ( consid]able practical importance4 ,b !ory furni%es u ) little m ?an v g5]al pr9ciples to guide u4 ,"o practical rule :i* has be5 adopt$ is1 to make ! diamet] ( ! /eam pipe ab\t "o fif? ( t ( ! cyl9d]3 by ?is means ! area ( ! transv]se action ( ! pipe w be "o tw5ty-fif? "p ( ! sup]ficial magnitude ( ! pi/on2 &1 s9ce ! same quantity ( /eam p] m9ute mu/ fl[ ?r\gh ?is pipe z ?r\gh ! cyl9d]1 x foll[s t ! velocity ( ! /eam1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! /eam pipe1 w be tw5ty-five times ! velocity ( ! pi/on4 7#aci47 ,ano!r rule :i* has be5 adopt$ is1 to all[ a squ>e in* ( magnitude1 9 ! section ( ! /eam pipe1 = ea* horse-p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,! result ( ?is & all simil> rules is1 t ! /eam %\ld always pass ?r\gh ! /eam pipe ) ! same velocity1 :atev] be ! p[] ( ! eng9e4 ,9 eng9es ( ! same p[]1 ! pi/on w h v diff]5t velocities 9 ! cyl9d]1 accord+ to ! effective pressure ( ! /eam1 & ! proportions & capacity ( ! cyl9d]4 ,x is cle> f :at has be5 already expla9$1 t1 :5 ! p[] is ! same1 ! same actual quantity ( wat]1 9 ! =m ( /eam1 mu/ pass ?r\gh ! cyl9d] p] m9ute3 b1 if ! /eam be us$ ) a consid]able pressure1 be+ 9 a cond5s$ /ate1 ! same weight ( x w occupy a less space2 & consequ5tly ! cyl9d]s ( high-pressure eng9es are small] ?an ^? ( ! same p[] 9 l[-pressure eng9es3 ! magnitude ( ! cyl9d] & ! pi/on !re=e1 z well z ! velocity ( ! latt]1 w dep5d fir/ ^u ! pressure ( ! /eam4 ,b ) /eam ( a giv5 pressure1 ! velocity ( ! pi/on w be diff]5t3 ) a giv5 capacity ( cyl9d]1 & a giv5 pressure ( /eam1 ! p[] ( ! eng9e w det]m9e ! numb] ( /rokes p] m9ute4 ,b ! actual velocity ( ! pi/on w dep5d1 9 t case1 on ! proportion :i* ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d] be>s to its l5g?2 ! great] ! diamet] ( ! pi/on is ) respect to its l5g?1 ! less w be its velocity4 ,9 case ( /ation>y eng9es us$ on l&1 t proportion ( ! diamet] ( ! cyl9d] to its l5g? is select$1 :i* is ?\ght to contribute to ! mo/ effici5t p]=mance ( ! ma*9e4 ,accord+ to "s eng9e]s1 ! l5g? ( ! cyl9d] %\ld be twice its diamet]2#eb o!rs make ! l5g? equal to two diamet]s & a half2 b !re are circum/ances 9 :i* consid]ations ( practical conv5i5ce r5d] x necess>y to dep>t f ^! proportions4 ,9 m>9e eng9es1 :]e great l5g? ( cyl9d] w\ld be inadmissible1 & :]e1 on ! o!r h&1 consid]able p[] is requir$1 cyl9d]s ( %ort /roke & great diamet] are us$4 ,9 ^! eng9es ! l5g? ( ! /roke is (t5 n great] ?an ! diamet] ( ! pi/on1 & sometimes ev5 less4 ,footnote #eb3 ,?is is ! proportion "u :i* ! cyl9d] ) a giv5 capacity w pres5t ! lea/ possible surface to ! cool+ effect ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! actual velocity :i* has be5 f\nd to h ! be/ practical effect1 = ! pi/on 9 l[-pressure eng9es1 is ab\t #bjj feet p] m9ute4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is subject to "s v>iation4 7#adj47 ,a giv5 weight or measure ( fuel burnt "u ! boil] ( an eng9e is capable ( produc+ a me*anical effect ?r\gh ! means ( t eng9e1 :i*1 :5 express$ 9 an equival5t numb] ( p\nds' weight lift$ a foot high1 is call$ ! duty ( ! eng9e4 ,if all ! heat develop$ 9 ! combu/ion ( ! fuel c\ld be imp>t$ to ! wat] 9 ! boil]1 & c\ld be r5d]$ in/rum5tal 9 produc+ its evaporation2 & if1 besides1 ! /eam ?us produc$ c\ld be all r5d]$ me*anically available at ! work+ po9t2 !n ! duty ( ! eng9e w\ld be ! entire undim9i%$ effect ( ! heat ( combu/ion2 b x is evid5t t ?is c nev] practically be ! case4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! heat develop$ by ! combu/ion c nev] be :olly imp>t$ to ! wat] 9 ! boil]3 "s "p ( x w necess>ily escape )\t rea*+ ! boil] at all2 ano!r portion w be consum$ 9 heat+ ! metal ( ! boil]1 & 9 supply+ ! loss by radiation f its surface2 ano!r portion w be ab/ract$ by ! v>i\s s\rces ( ! wa/e & leakage ( /eam2 ano!r portion w be ab/ract$ by ! reaction ( ! cond5s$ /eam2 & ano!r portion ( ! p[] w be consum$ 9 ov]com+ ! friction & resi/ance ( ! eng9e itself4 ,x is app>5t t all ^! s\rces ( wa/e w v>y accord+ to ! circum/ances & conditions ( ! ma*9e1 & accord+ to ! =m & con/ruction ( ! furnace1 flues1 boil]s1 c4 ,! duty1 !re=e1 ( diff]5t eng9es w be diff]5t2 & :5 su* ma*9es are comp>$1 ) a view to asc]ta9 _! economy ( fuel1 x has be5 f\nd necess>y c>efully to regi/] & to comp>e ! fuel consum$ ) ! weight or resi/ance ov]come4 ,9 eng9es appli$ to manufactures g5]ally or navigation1 x is n easy to measure ! am\nt ( resi/ance :i* ! eng9e enc\nt]s1 b :5 ! eng9e is appli$ to ! pump+ ( wat]1 its p]=mance is m easily det]m9$4 ,9 ! ye> #ahaa1 sev]al ( ! proprietors ( ! m9es 9 ,cornwall1 suspect+ t "s ( _! eng9es might n be do+ a duty adequate to _! consumption ( fuel1 came to a det]m9ation to e/abli% a uni=m me?od ( te/+ ! p]=mance ( _! eng9es4 ,= ?is purpose a c\nt] 0 atta*$ to ea* eng9e1 to regi/] ! numb] ( /rokes ( ! pi/on4 ,all ! eng9es 7 put "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ,messrs4 ,?omas & ,john ,lean1 eng9e]s2 & ! diff]5t proprietors ( ! m9es1 z well z _! direct+ eng9e]s1 respectively pl$g$ !mselves to give e facility & assi/ance 9 _! p[] = ! atta9m5t ( s desirable an end4 ,messrs4 ,lean 7 direct$ to publi% a mon?ly report ( ! p]=mance ( ea* eng9e1 specify+ ! "n ( ! m9e1 ! size ( ! cyl9d]1 ! load ^u ! eng9e1 ! l5g? ( ! /roke1 ! numb] ( pump lifts1 ! dep? ( ! lift1 ! diamet] ( ! pumps1 ! "t work$1 ! consumption ( coals1 ! load on ! pump1 &1 f9ally1 ! duty ( ! eng9e1 or ! numb] ( p\nds lift$ "o foot high by a bu%el ( coals4 ,! publication ( ^! mon?ly reports comm5c$ 9 ,augu/1 #ahaa1 & h be5 regul>ly cont9u$ to ! pres5t "t4 ,! fav\rable effect :i* ^! reports h produc$ ^u ! vigilance ( ! sev]al eng9e]s1 & ! emulation !y h excit$1 bo? among eng9e-mak]s & ^? to :om ! work+ ( ! ma*9es are intru/$1 are r5d]$ conspicu\s 9 ! improvem5t :i* has gradually tak5 place 9 ! p]=mance ( ! eng9es1 up to ! pres5t "t4 ,9 a report publi%$ 9 ,decemb]1 #ahbf1 ! highe/ duty 0 t ( an eng9e at ,:eal ,hope m9e 9 ,cornwall4 ,by ! consumption ( "o bu%el ( coals1 ?is eng9e rais$ #df1hch1bdf p\nds a foot high1 or1 9 r\nd numb]s1 =ty-sev5 millions ( p\nds4 ,9 a report publi%$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t ye> 7#ahce7 x 0 ann\nc$ t a /eam eng9e1 erect$ at a copp] m9e ne> ,/4 ,an/ell1 9 ,cornwall1 _h rais$ by its av]age "w #ie millions ( p\nds #a foot high1 ) a bu%el ( coals4 ,?is enorm\s me*anical effect hav+ giv5 rise to "s d\bts z to ! correctness ( ! exp]im5ts on :i* ! report 0 f\nd$1 x 0 agre$ t ano!r trial %\ld be made 9 ! pres5ce ( a numb] ( compet5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses4 ,?is trial accord+ly took place a %ort "t s9ce1 & 0 witness$ by a numb] ( ! mo/ exp]i5c$ m9+ eng9e]s & ag5ts3 ! result 01 t = e bu%el ( coal consum$ "u ! boil] ! eng9e rais$ #abe-a_/b millions ( p\nds weight "o foot high4 7#ada47 ,x may n be un9t]e/+ to illu/rate ! am\nt ( me*anical virtue1 :i* is ?us prov$ to reside 9 coals1 9 a m famili> mann]4 ,s9ce a bu%el ( coal weighs #hd lbs4 & c lift #ef1jbg tons a foot high1 x foll[s t a p\nd ( coal w\ld raise #ffg tons ! same height2 & t an ounce ( coal w\ld raise #db tons "o foot high1 or x w\ld raise #ah lbs4 a mile high4 ,s9ce a =ce ( #ah lbs4 is capable ( draw+ #b tons ^u a railway1 x foll[s t an ounce ( coal possesses me*anical virtue suffici5t to draw #b tons a mile1 or #a ton #b miles1 ^u a level railway4#ec ,footnote #ec3 ,! actual consumption ( coal ^u railways is 9 practice ab\t eight ounces p] ton p] mile4 ,x is1 !re=e1 work$ ) sixte5 times less effect ?an 9 ! eng9e above m5tion$4 ,! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? measures #be1jjj miles4 ,if x 7 begirt by an iron railway1 a load ( "o ton w\ld be drawn r\nd x 9 six weeks by ! am\nt ( me*anical p[] :i* resides 9 ! ?ird "p ( a ton ( coals4 ,! great pyramid ( ,egypt /&s ^u a base measur+ #gjj feet ea* way1 & is #ejj feet high2 its weight be+ #ab1gfj1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,to con/ruct x1 co/ ! lab\r ( #ajj1jjj m5 = #bj ye>s4 ,its mat]ials w\ld be rais$ f ! gr\nd to _! pres5t position by ! combu/ion ( #dgi tons ( coals4 ,! weight ( metal 9 ! ,m5ai bridge is #d1jjj1jjj lbs41 & its height above ! level ( ! wat] is #abj feet3 its mass might be lift$ f ! level ( ! wat] to its pres5t position by ! combu/ion ( #d bu%els ( coals4#ed ,footnote #ed3 ,"s ( ^! examples 7 giv5 by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 8 ,prelim9>y ,disc\rse on ,natural ,philosophy2 b s9ce t "w 0 writt5 an increas$ p[] has be5 obta9$ f coals1 9 ! proportion ( #g to #ab-a_/b4 ,! enorm\s consumption ( coals 9 ! arts & manufactures1 & 9 /eam navigation1 has ( late ye>s excit$ ! fe>s ( "s p]sons z to ! possibility ( ! exhau/ion ( our m9es4 ,^! appreh5sions1 h[ev]1 may be allay$ by ! assurance receiv$ f ! highe/ m9+ & geological au?orities1 t1 e/imat+ ! pres5t dem& f our coal m9es at #af millions ( tons annually1 ! coal fields ( ,nor?umb]l& & ,durham alone are suffici5t to supply x = #agjj ye>s1 & aft] ! expiration ( t "t ! great coal bas9 ( ,s\? ,wales w be suffici5t to supply ! same dem& = #bjjj ye>s long]4 ,b1 9 speculations l ^!1 ! probable1 if n c]ta91 progress ( improvem5t & discov]y ought n to be ov]look$2 & we may safely pron\nce t1 long be=e a m9ute fraction ( su* a p]iod ( "t %all h roll$ ov]1 o!r & m p[]ful me*anical ag5ts w altoge!r sup]s$e ! use ( coal4 ,philosophy already directs h] f+] at s\rces ( inexhau/ible p[] 9 ! ph5om5a ( electricity & magnetism4 ,! alt]nate decomposition & recomposition ( wat]1 by magnetism & electricity1 has too close an analogy to ! alt]nate processes ( vaporisation & cond5sation1 n to occur at once to e m9d3 ! developm5t ( ! gases f solid matt] by ! op]ation ( ! *emical aff9ities1 & _! subsequ5t cond5sation into ! liquid =m1 has already be5 essay$ z a s\rce ( p[]4 ,9 a ^w1 ! g5]al /ate ( physical sci5ce1 at ! pres5t mom5t1 ! vig\r1 activity1 & sagacity ) :i* rese>*es 9 x are prosecut$ 9 e civiliz$ c\ntry1 ! increas+ consid]ation 9 :i* sci5tific m5 are held1 & ! p]sonal hon\rs & rew>ds :i* beg9 to be conf]r$ ^u !m1 all ju/ify ! expectation t we are on ! eve ( me*anical discov]ies /ill great] ?an any :i* h yet appe>$2 & t ! /eam eng9e itself1 ) ! gigantic p[]s conf]r$ ^u x by ! immortal ,watt1 w dw9dle into insignificance 9 comp>ison ) ! hidd5 p[]s ( nature /ill to be reveal$2 & t ! day w come :5 t ma*9e1 :i* is n[ ext5d+ ! bless+s ( civilisation to ! mo/ remote skirts ( ! globe1 w cease to h exi/5ce except 9 ! page ( hi/ory4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,pla9 ,,rules ,,= ,,railway ,,speculators4 7#adb47 ,= "s "t aft] ! completion ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railway1 d\bts 7 ent]ta9$ ( its ultimate success z a comm]cial speculation2 &1 ev5 /ill1 aft] sev]al ye>s' cont9uance1 "s p]sons are f\nd1 sceptical by temp]am5t1 :o h n acquir$ full confid5ce 9 ! p]man5cy ( its advantages4 ,! possibility ( su/a9+ a sy/em ( regul> transport ^u x1 ) ! unhe>d ( spe$ effect$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! und]tak+1 01 = a long p]iod1 que/ion$ by a consid]able portion ev5 ( ! sci5tific _w2 &1 aft] t possibility 0 e/abli%$1 by ! regul> p]=mance ( "s ye>s1 ! practicability ( p]man5tly pr(itable "w1 at t rate ( spe$1 0 /ill d\bt$ by _m1 & altoge!r d5i$ by "s4 ,! num]\s difficulties to be enc\nt]$1 & ! enorm\s exp5se ( locomotive p[]1 h be5 fully admitt$ by ! directors 9 _! semi-annual reports4 ,p]sons int]e/$ 9 canals & o!r rival e/abli%m5ts1 & o!rs con/itutionally d\btful ( ev]y?+1 attribut$ ! divid5ds to ! indirect proce$+s ( ! manag]s1 & ass]t$ t :5 !y appe>$ to be %>+ _! pr(it's1 !y1 9 reality1 7 %>+ _! capital4 ,?is delusion1 h[ev]1 c\ld n long cont9ue1 & ! paym5t ( a /eady semi-annual divid5d ( #d-a_/b p] c5t4 s9ce ! op5+ ( ! railway1 toge!r ) ! comm5cem5t ( a res]v$ fund ( a consid]able am\nt1 ) a premium ( above #ajj p] c5t4 on ! orig9al %>es1 has br\ght conviction to und]/&+s imp5etrable to g5]al reason+2 & ! tide ( op9ion1 :i*1 = a "t1 _h turn$ aga9/ railways1 has n[1 by ! usual reaction1 set 9 s viol5tly 9 _! fav\r1 t x becomes ! duty ( ^? :o pr(essionally devote !mselves to su* inquiries1 to re/ra9 & keep )9 mod]ate b\nds ! public ard\r1 r ?an to /imulate x4 ,! projects = ! con/ruction ( great l9es ( int]nal communication :i* h be5 ann\nc$ w\ld require1 if realiz$1 a v l>ge am\nt ( capital4 ,consid]+ t ! e/imat$ capital is inv>iably less ?an ! am\nt actually requir$1 we %all n1 p]haps1 ov]rate ! ext5t ( ! project$ inve/m5ts if we e/imate !m at fifty millions4 ,! magnitude ( ?is am\nt has creat$ al>m 9 ! m9ds ( "s p]sons1 le/ a *ange ( inve/m5t s ext5sive %\ld produce a s]i\s comm]cial %ock4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be consid]$ t1 ev5 if all ! project$ und]tak+s %\ld be ultimately c>ri$ into execution1 a long p]iod mu/ elapse1 p]haps n less ?an fifte5 or tw5ty ye>s1 be=e !y c be all complet$3 ! capital w be requir$1 n sudd5ly1 b by small in/alm5ts1 at di/ant int]vals ( "t4 ,ev5 if x 7 true1 !re=e1 t1 to su/a9 _! ent]prises1 an equival5t am\nt ( capital mu/ be )drawn f o!r inve/m5ts1 ! transf] w\ld lake place by su* sl[ degrees z to create no s]i\s inconv5i5ce4 ,b1 9 fact1 x is n probable t any transf] ( capital :atev] w be necess>y4 ,trade & manufactur]s are at ! pres5t mom5t 9 a highly fl\ri%+ condition2 & ! annual accumulation ( capital 9 ! c\ntry is s great1 t ! difficulty w probably be1 n to f9d capital to meet inve/m5ts1 b to f9d suitable inve/m5ts = ! increas+ capital4 ,9 ,man*e/] alone1 x is said t ! annual increm5t on capital is no less ?an ?ree millions4 ,9 fifte5 ye>s1 !re=e1 ?is m>t alone w\ld be suffici5t to supply all ! funds necess>y = ! completion ( all ! propos$ railroads1 )\t )draw+ capital f any o!r inve/m5t4 ,! facilities :i* ^! ,jo9t ,/ock ,companies (f] = ! inve/m5t ( capital1 ev5 ( ! smalle/ am\nt1 ! temptations :i* ! prospect ( l>ge pr(its hold out1 & ! l[ int]e/ obta9$ on national /ock ( e description1 h attract$ a va/ body ( capitali/s1 small & great1 :o h subscrib$ to ^! und]tak+s ) ! real int5tion ( inve/m5t4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is a v ext5sive body ( speculators :o engage 9 !m ^u a l>ge scale1 )\t ! mo/ di/ant int5tion1 &1 inde$1 )\t ! ability1 ( pay+ up ! am\nt ( _! %>es4 ,! loss :i* ! latt] class ( p]sons may su/a9 w\ld1 probably1 excite little commis]ation1 7 x n = ! consequ5ces :i* mu/ result to ! =m]1 %\ld a revolution take place1 & ! m>ket be inundat$ ) ! %>es ( ^! gambl+ speculators1 :o buy only to sell aga94 ,effects w\ld be produc$ :i* mu/ be ru9\s to a l>ge proportion ( ! bon fide subscrib]s4 ,x may1 !re=e1 be att5d$ ) "s advantage to p]sons :o really int5d to make p]man5t inve/m5ts ( ?is nature1 to /ate1 9 succ9ct & intelligible t]ms1 ! pr9cipal circum/ances on :i* ! effici5cy & economy ( railroads dep5d1 s z to enable !m1 9 "s measure1 to =m a probable conjecture ( ! prospective advantages :i* ! v>i\s projects hold out4 ,9 do+ ?is1 we %all endeav\r1 z mu* z possible1 to conf9e our /atem5ts to simple facts & results1 :i* c nei!r be d5i$ nor disput$1 leav+1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! inf]5ces to :i* !y lead to be d$uc$ f !m by o!rs4 ,x may be premis$1 t p]sons propos+ to engage 9 any railroad speculation %\ld obta9 fir/ a table ( gradi5ts2 t is1 an acc\nt ( all ! acclivities ^u ! l9e f t]m9us to t]m9us1 /at+ h[ _m feet 9 a mile ea* incl9e rises or falls1 & its l5g?4 ,secondly1 x w\ld also be advantage\s to h a /atem5t ( ! l5g?s ( ! radii ( ! diff]5t curves z well z ! l5g?s ( ! curves !mselves4 ,?irdly1 an acc\nt ( ! actual int]c\rse :i* has tak5 place1 = a giv5 "t1 ^u ! turnpike road connect+ ! propos$ t]m9i1 /at+ ! numb] ( coa*es lic5s$1 & ! av]age numb] ( pass5g]s !y c>ry2 also z ne> an acc\nt ( ! transport ( m]*&ise z may be obta9$4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 is ( less mom5t4 ,an approximate e/imate may be made ( ! int]c\rse 9 pass5g]s1 by all[+ = ea* coa*1 ^u ea* trip1 half its lic5s$ complem5t ( load4 ,f\r?ly1 ! wat] communication by canal or o!rwise betwe5 ! places2 & ! am\nt ( tonnage transport$ by x4 ,) ! in=mation ?us obta9$1 ! foll[+ succ9ct maxims w be f\nd useful3-- ,i4 ,no railroad c be pr(itably work$ )\t a l>ge int]c\rse ( pass5g]s4 ,goods1 m]*&ise1 agricultural produce1 c41 ought to be reg>d$ z ( second>y importance4 ,,ii4 ,a probable e/imate ( ! numb] ( pass5g]s to be expect$ ^u a project$ l9e ( railroad may be made by increas+ ! av]age numb] ( pass5g]s = ! la/ ?ree ye>s1 by ! common road1 9 a tw(old proportion4 ,! av]age numb] ( pass5g]s daily betwe5 ,liv]pool & ,man*e/]1 be=e ! =mation ( ! railway1 0 ab\t #dej2 ! pres5t av]age numb] is above #acjj4 ,a %ort railroad ( ab\t five miles is con/ruct$ betwe5 ,dubl9 & ,k+/[n3 on :i* ! av]age numb] ( pass5g]s daily betwe5 ^? places has increas$ 9 ne>ly ! same proportion4 ,,iii4 ,pass5g]s c be pr(itably transport$ by canal1 at a spe$ n exce$+ n9e miles an h\r1 exclusive ( delays at locks1 at ! rate ( "o p5ny p] head p] mile4 ,! av]age f>es *>g$ ^u ! ,man*e/] railway are at ! rate ( #a-hd_/ajj;d4 p] head p] mile1 ! av]age spe$ be+ tw5ty miles an h\r4 ,to transport pass5g]s at ! rate ( t5 miles an h\r on a railway1 w\ld co/ v little less ?an ! great] spe$ ( tw5ty miles an h\r1 s t a railroad c\ld n ent] into competition on equal t]ms ) a canal by equalis+ ! spe$4 ,! canal betwe5 ,k5dal & ,pre/on measures #eg miles3 pass5g]s are transport$ ^u x betwe5 ^! places at ! av]age spe$ ( a mile 9 #f-a_/b m9utes1 or #i-a_/d miles an h\r ne>ly1 exclusive ( delays at locks4 ,! f>e *>g$ is at ! av]age rate ( a p5ny a mile4 ,!re are eight locks1 ris+ #i feet ea*1 & a tunnel #djj y>ds long1 ?r\gh :i* ! boat is track$ by h&2 ! tunnel requires #e m9utes1 & ! locks f #be to #bh m9utes1 9 desc5d+1 & #de to #dh m9utes 9 asc5d+4 ,simil> boats are work$ on ! ,=? & ,clyde1 & ! ,union canals 9 ,scotl&1 & on ! ,paisley & ,john/one canal at ne>ly ! same f>es4 ,,iv4 ,at ! f>e ( #a-hd_/ajj;d4 p] head p] mile1 ! pr(it on ! ,man*e/] railroad is #ajj p] c5t4 on ! disbursem5ts = pass5g]s4 ,v4 ,goods c be pr(itably transport$ by canal at a l[] tonnage ?an by railroads2 ! spe$ on ! canal 7= goods7 be+1 h[ev]1 b "o-fif? ( ! spe$ on ! railroad4 ,,vi4 ,goods are transport$ on ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad at ?ree-p5ce ?ree f>?+s p] ton p] mile1 ) a pr(it ( ab\t #dj p] c5t4 ^u ! disbursem5t1 hav+ ! competition ( a canal betwe5 its t]m9i4 ,,vii4 ,a long railroad c be work$ ) great] relative economy ?an a %ort "o4 ,,viii4 ,/eam eng9es "w ) ! greate/ effici5cy & economy1 :5 ! resi/ance !y h to ov]come is p]fectly uni=m & inv>iable4 ,,ix4 ,! v>iation ( resi/ance on railroads dep5ds1 fir/1 on acclivities1 secondly1 on curves4 ,by curves are meant ! *anges ( direction ( ! road to ! "r or to ! left4 ,! direction ( a railroad _c be *ang$ sudd5ly by an angle1 b mu/ be effect$ gradually by a curve4 ,suppos+ ! curve to be 7z x g5]ally is7 ! arc ( a circle1 ! radius ( ! curve is ! di/ance ( ! c5tre ( ! circle f ! curve4 ,?is radius is an important elem5t 9 ! e/imate ( ! road4 ,x4 ,! m ne>ly a railroad approa*es to an absolute level1 & p]fect /raightness1 ! m pr(itably w x be work$4 ,,xi4 ,! total am\nt ( me*anical p[] necess>y to transf] a giv5 load f "o extremity ( a railroad to ano!r is a matt] ( easy & exact calculation1 :5 ! gradi5ts & curves are kn[n2 & ! m]its ( diff]5t l9es may be comp>$ toge!r 9 ?is respect3 b x is n ! only te/ ( _! effici5cy :i* mu/ be appli$4 ,,xii4 ,a railroad hav+ gradi5ts exce$+ sev5te5 feet 9 a mile w require m me*anical p[] to "w x ?an x w\ld 7 x level2 & ! m ( ^! excessive gradi5ts !re are ^u x1 & ! m /eep !y are1 ! great] w be ?is disadvantage4 ,,xiii4 ,al?\gh a railroad hav+ no gradi5ts exce$+ sev5te5 feet 9 a mile does n require m me*anical p[] ?an a level1 yet ! me*anical p[] :i* x requires w n be s advantage\sly exp5d$1 &1 !re=e1 x w n be s economical4 ,,xiv4 ,a railroad :i* has gradi5ts above ?irty feet 9 a mile w require su* gradi5ts to be work$ by assi/ant locomotive eng9es1 :i* w be att5d$ ) a wa/e ( p[]1 & an increase ( exp5diture1 m or less1 accord+ to ! numb] & l5g? ( su* gradi5ts4 ,,xv4 ,a v long incl9$ plane _c be work$ by an assi/ant locomotive )\t a wa/eful exp5se4 ,gradi5ts exce$+ sev5te5 feet p] mile mu/1 !re=e1 be %ort4 ,,xvi4 ,gradi5ts exce$+ fifty feet 9 a mile _c be pr(itably work$ except by /ation>y eng9es & ropes1 an exp$i5t att5d$ ) s _m objections z to be sc>cely compatible ) a l>ge int]c\rse ( pass5g]s4 ,,xvii4 ,/eep gradi5ts1 provid$ !y desc5d f ! extremities ( a l9e1 are admissible provid$ !y be %ort4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ?is case ! incl9$ planes w help at />t+ to put ! tra9s 9 motion1 at ! "t :51 9 g5]al1 !re w\ld be ! greate/ /ra9 ^u ! mov+ p[]2 &1 9 approa*+ ! t]m9us1 ! mom5tum w\ld be suffici5t to c>ry ! tra9 to ! top ( ! plane1 if its l5g? 7 n great1 s9ce x mu/1 at all ev5ts1 come to a /op at ! extremity4 ,,xviii4 ,! effect ( gradi5ts 9 increas+ ! resi/ance dur+ ! asc5t may be e/imat$ by consid]+ t a gradi5t ( sev5te5 feet 9 a mile d\bles ! resi/ance ( ! level1 ?irty-f\r feet 9 a mile triples x1 & eight & a half feet 9 a mile adds "o half its am\nt1 & s on4 ,,xix4 ,) ! spe$ n[ atta9able on railways1 curves %\ld be avoid$ ) radii %ort] ?an a mile4 ,exp$i5ts may dim9i% ! resi/ance1 b1 ?r\gh ! neglig5ce ( eng9e driv]s1 !y mu/ always be att5d$ ) dang]4 ,curves are n objectionable ne> ! extremities ( a l9e4 ,,xx4 ,! wor/ position = a curve is ! foot ( an incl9$ plane1 because ( ! velocity :i* ! tra9s acquire 9 ! desc5t1 & ! occasional impracticability ( *eck+ !m4 ,,xxi4 ,9 proportion z ! spe$ ( locomotives is increas$ by ! improvem5ts !y are likely to receive1 ! objections & dang]s incid5t to curves w be increas$4 ,,xxii4 ,! difficulty :i* att5ds ! use ( long tunnels arises f ! de/ruction ( ! vital air :i* is produc$ by ! combu/ion 9 ! furnaces ( ! eng9es4 ,tunnels on a level %\ld1 !re=e1 be f tw5ty-five to ?irty feet high1 & %\ld be v5tilat$ by %afts or o!r contrivances4 ,,xxiii4 ,! transition f light to d>kness1 ! s5sation ( humidity1 & ! *ange 9 summ] f a w>m atmosph]e to a cold "o1 w always =m an objection to long tunnels on l9es ( railroad int5d$ = a l>ge int]c\rse ( pass5g]s4 ,,xxiv4 ,all ! objections to a tunnel are aggravat$ :5 x happ5s to be ^u an acclivity4 ,! de/ruction ( vital air 9 asc5d+ x w be increas$ 9 exactly ! same proportion z ! mov+ p[] is increas$4 ,?us1 if x asc5d #ag feet 9 a mile1 ! de/ruction ( vital air w be twice z great z on a level2 if x asc5d #cd feet 9 a mile1 x w be ?ree times z great2 #ea feet 9 a mile1 f\r times z great1 & s on4 ,,xxv4 ,if by an ov]rul+ necessity a tunnel is con/ruct$ on an acclivity1 its magnitude & means ( v5tilation %\ld be great] ?an on a level1 9 ! same proportion z ! resi/ance produc$ by ! acclivity is great] ?an ! resi/ance ^u a level4 ,,xxvi4 ,tunnels %\ld be v5tilat$ by %afts at int]vals ( n m ?an #bjj y>ds4 ,,xxvii4 ,:ile a tra9 is pass+ ?r\gh a tunnel1 no b5eficial v5tilation c be obta9$ f %afts4 ,! eng9e w leave beh9d x ! impure air :i* x produces1 & ! pass5g]s w be envelop$ 9 x be=e x has "t to asc5d ! %afts4 ,suffici5t magnitude1 h[ev]1 may be giv5 to ! tunnel to prev5t any injuri\s consequ5ces f ?is cause4 ,a disagreeable & inconv5i5t od\r w be exp]i5c$4 ,,xxviii4 ,tunnels on a level1 ! l5g? ( :i* d n exce$ a ?ird ( a mile1 w probably n be objectionable4 ,tunnels ( equal l5g? ^u acclivities w\ld be m objectionable4 ,i may obs]ve g5]ally t we h z yet little or no exp]i5ce ( ! effect ( tunnels on l9es ( railroad work$ by locomotive eng9es1 :]e !re is a l>ge int]c\rse ( pass5g]s4 ,on ! ,leice/] & ,swann+ton railroad1 !re is a tunnel ( ab\t a mile long1 on a "p ( ! road :i* is ne>ly level2 x is v5tilat$ by eight %afts1 & ,i h frequ5tly pass$ ?r\gh x ) a locomotive eng9e4 ,ev5 :5 %ut up 9 a close c>riage ! annoyance is v great1 & su* z w\ld nev] be tol]at$ on a l9e ( road hav+ a l>ge int]c\rse 9 pass5g]s4 ,?is railroad is *iefly us$ to take coals f "s colli]ies ne> ,swann+ton1 & !re is no int]c\rse 9 pass5g]s ^u x1 except ( ! lab\r+ classes f ! adjac5t villages3 ! eng9es burn coal1 & n coke2 & !y consequ5tly produce smoke1 :i* is m disagreeable ?an ! gases :i* result f ! combu/ion ( coke4 ,?is tunnel also is ( small calibre4 ,on ! ,le$s & ,selby railroad !re is a tunnel1 on a "p :i* is ne>ly level1 ! l5g? ( :i* is #gjj y>ds1 wid? #bb feet1 height #ag4 ,x is v5tilat$ by ?ree %afts ( ab\t #aj feet diamet] & #fj feet high4 ,!re is an int]c\rse ( pass5g]s am\nt+ to f\r hundr$ p] day1 ^u ?is road1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 !y d n object to g ?r\gh ! tunnel ) a locomotive eng9e4 ,! fuel is coke4 7l7 ,9 ord] to %[ ! pres5t /ate ( railroad transportation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & enable our read]s to comp>e x ) ! op9ions & facts adduc$ by ,dr4 ,l>dn]1 we take ! late/ acc\nts f ! ,*>le/on & ,hamburgh ,railroad4 ,! eng9es drag a tra9 ( c>s :i* c>ry a load ( #acj tons1 & p]=m ! di/ance 7#bdj miles7 9 ?ree days1 travell+ only by day-light4 ,) ^! loads !y m\nt planes hav+ incl9ations ( #cg feet p] mile4 ,! same eng9es are capable ( c>ry+ pass5g]s at ! rate ( #dj miles p] h\r1 & (t5 p]=m #cj1 b _! av]age spe$ is limit$ by regulation to #bj miles p] h\r4 ,?is railroad is rem>kable = be+ ! l>ge/ :i* has yet be5 con/ruct$1 & is besides an object ( j pride1 9 z mu* z x 0 comm5c$ at a "t1 :5 accord+ to ,dr4 ,l>dn]1 ! subject 0 b imp]fectly und]/ood ev5 9 ,europe1 & all its arrangem5ts are due to native tal5t & skill1 unassi/$ by previ\s discov]ies 9 ,europe4--,a4 ,e4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,atmosph]ic air1 ela/ic =ce (1 #bc ,atmosph]ic pressure r5d]$ available z a me*anic ag5t by ,d5is ,pap91 #dh ,atmosph]ic eng9e1 fir/ conception ( by ,newcom51 #fa4 ,description (1 #fc4 ,advantage ( ov] t ( ,sav]y1 #fi ,b4 ,b>omet]1 !1 #ba ,b>omet] gauge1 !1 #abc ,belidor1 #acc ,birm+ham & ,london railroad1 probable advantages to be d]iv$ f1 #bjf ,black1 ,dr41 8 doctr9e ( lat5t heat1 #gf ,blasco de ,g>ay1 8 contrivance to propel vessels1 #db ,bl9k5sop1 ,mr41 con/ructs a locomotive eng9e1 #afa ,boil]1 me?ods = %[+ ! level ( wat] 9 !1 #aah4 ,its p[] & proportions1 #big ,bolton1 ,mat!w1 8 connexion ) ,watt1 #hh ---- & ,watt1 ,messrs41 imm5se exp5diture (1 9 br++ _! eng9es into use1 #ia ,boo?1 ,mr41 8 me?od ( us+ tubes to conduct heat$ air ?r\gh locomotive boil]s1 #agf4 ,8 report to ! directors ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railway on ! app>5t discrepancies ( ,messrs4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick's e/imate ( locomotive p[]1 #ahi ,brai?waite & ,ericsson1 ,messrs41 _! ,novelty describ$1 #age ,branca1 ,giovanni1 8 ma*9e = propell+ a :eel by a bla/ ( /eam1 #de ,brew/]1 ,dr41 #gi ,brunton1 ,mr41 8 improv$ furnace describ$1 #acj ,c4 ,canals1 transport on1 #bjh4 ,exp]im5ts ) boats on1 #bji1 ,comp>ison ( ) railroads1 #baj ,c>twright1 ,rev4 ,mr41 description ( 8 improvem5ts 9 ! /eam eng9e1 #adb ,cawley1 ,john1 #fa ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions by ! ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 #df ,*apman1 ,messrs41 obta9 a pat5t = work+ a locomotive by means ( a *a91 #afb ,*ur*1 ,dr41 8 /eam c>riage1 #bci ,cohesion1 attraction (1 #cb ,cond5sation ( solids1 #bh ,cond5sation by jet1 accid5tal discov]y (1 #fe ,cornwall1 reports ( duty ( /eam eng9es 91 #cjc ,cotton1 processes 9 ! culture (1 #ah ,cyl9d]1 its proportions1 #cjj ,d4 ,d valve1 description ( !1 #aac ,damp]1 !1 #abf ,duty ( a /eam eng9e1 #bia ,duty1 reports (1 9 ,cornwall1 #cjc ,e4 ,ecc5tric2 description ( !1 #aaa ,edelcrantz1 ! ,*evali]1 #abg ,f4 ,f>ey1 ,mr41 8 /atem5t respect+ ! v>iations 9 ! "w ( diff]5t /eam eng9es1 #acc ,fluids1 prop]ty (1 #ba ,fly-:eel1 introduction ( !1 #ajd ,f\r-way cock1 description ( !1 #aae ,fuel1 table ( ! consumption (1 9 diff]5t locomotives1 #ahj ,g4 ,gov]nor1 description ( !1 #aje ,gu]icke1 ,otto1 inv5tor ( ! air-pump1 #gj ,gurney1 ,mr41 8 /eam c>riage1 #baf ,h4 ,hackwor?1 ,mr41 description ( 8 eng9e1 ! ,sansp>eil1 #agc ,hall1 ,mr4 ,samuel1 8 pat5t /eam eng9e1 #bdh4 ,its advantages = navigation1 #bdi4 ,its successful application1 #bej ,hamilton1 ,duke (1 #hh ,hancock1 ,mr4 ,walt]1 8 /eam c>riage1 #bce ,heat1 ph5om5a (1 #bi ,h]o ( ,alex&ria1 description ( 8 ma*9e1 #da ,hopp]1 !1 or app>atus = supply+ ! fire-place ) coals1 #aca ,hornbl[]1 ,mr41 8 d\ble-cyl9d] eng9e1 #acd ,horse p[] & /eam p[]1 comp>ison betwe51 #bjb ,horse p[] ( an eng9e1 #bia4 ,me?od ( calculat+ x1 #bic ,h[>d1 ,mr4 ,?omas1 8 pat5t /eam eng9e1 #bec4 ,its advantages 9 navigation1 #bef ,huskisson1 ,mr41 #aed ,i4 ,incl9$ planes1 _! injuri\s effects on railroads1 #aid4 ,me?ods propos$ to rem$y ^!1 #aid ,india1 /eam communication )1 #bga ,k4 ,k5dal & ,pre/on canal1 spe$ ( boats on1 #bji ,l4 ,le$s & ,selby railroad1 #cag ,leice/] & ,swann+ton railroad1 #cag ,leupold1 8 ,!atrum ,ma*9>um1 #aaf4 ,8 eng9e describ$1 #adg ,liquids conv]t$ into vap\r by ! application ( heat1 #bg4 ,diff]5ce ( temp]atures (1 #ce ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad1 effects ( ! introduction ( /eam transport on1 #aeb4 ,want ( exp]i5ce 9 ! con/ruction ( ! eng9es1 #aed4 ,proce$+s ( ! directors1 #afg4 ,premium (f]$ by !m = ! be/ eng9e1 #afi4 ,exp]im5ts made on1 #ahc4 ,pass5g]s ! *ief s\rce ( pr(it to ! proprietors1 #bjd ,liv]pool & ,london1 suppos$ advantages f ! connexion ( ^! places by railroad1 #bjf ,llang5ne* coal1 its economy1 #bfg ,locomotive eng9es1 description ( ! ,rocket1 #aga4 ,! ,sansp>eil1 #agc4 ,! ,novelty1 #age4 ,mr4 ,boo?'s me?od ( us+ tubes to conduct heat$ air ?r\gh boil]s1 #agg4 ,mr4 ,/eph5son's me?od ( subdivid+ ! flue1 #agi4 ,am\nt ( fuel consum$ 91 #ahj4 ,progressive improvem5t (1 #ahj4 ,description ( an improv$ =m ( eng9e1 #aha4 ,circum/ances on :i* _! effici5cy dep5ds1 #ahc4 ,exp]im5ts )1 on ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] railroad1 #ahd4 ,defects (1 #ahf4 ,improvem5t 9 ! me?od ( tub+1 #ahh4 ,propos$ me?ods = work+ !m on levels & incl9$ planes1 #aid4 ,extraord9>y spe$ & p[] (1 #bjd4 ,_! introduction on turnpike roads1 #bac ,locomotive p[]1 exp5se (1 #ahh ,locomotive boil]s1 improv$ =m (1 #agg ,m4 ,ma*9es1 def9ition (1 #ai ,manufactures1 motions requir$ 91 #ai ,morgan1 ,mr41 8 pat5t paddle-:eel1 #bei ,morl&1 ,sir ,samuel1 8 application ( /eam to raise wat]1 #dg ,motion1 a prim>y ag5t 9 ! cultivation ( cotton1 #ah4 ,v>iety (1 #ai ,murray1 ,mr41 description ( 8 sugge/$ slide valve1 #aac ,n4 ,newcom51 ,?omas1 & ,john ,cawley1 turn _! att5tion to ! practicability ( apply+ /eam eng9es to ! dra9age ( m9es1 #fa ,newcom51 ,?omas1 8 con/ruction ( ! atmosph]ic eng9e1 #fc ,novelty1 description ( !1 #age ,o4 ,ogle1 ,mr41 8 /eam c>riage1 #bci ,oldham1 ,mr41 8 modification ( ! self-regulat+ furnace1 #acb ,p4 ,paddle-:eel1 ! common "o1 #beg4 ,mr4 ,morgan's pat5t "o1 #bei ,pap91 ,d5is1 8 contrivance1 by :i* atmosph]ic pressure is r5d]$ available z a me*anical ag5t1 #dh4 ,description ( 8 /eam eng9e1 #ga ,p>allel motion1 description ( !1 #ie ,pi/on1 its velocity1 #cjb ,po/-(fice /eam packets1 _! spe$1 #bfh ,pott]1 ,humphrey1 8 contrivance = work+ ! valves1 #fg ,p[] ( a /eam eng9e1 h[ e/imat$1 #bia ,r4 ,railroads1 fir/ introduction ( locomotives on1 #aea4 ,important effects to be expect$ f _! adoption1 #aee4 ,imag9>y difficulty respect+ ! progression ( c>riages on1 #afj4 ,v>i\s me?ods resort$ to1 to rem$y ?is suppos$ difficulty1 #afa4 ,"o ( ^! me?ods describ$1 #afb4 ,comp>ative e/imate ( ! exp5ses ( locomotive & /ation>y eng9es1 #afh4 ,difficulties aris+ f *anges ( level1 #aib4 ,_! great ext5sion1 #bjf4 ,comp>ison (1 ) turnpike roads1 #bac4 ,incl9$ planes on1 #aid ,railway speculators1 pla9 rules =1 #cjg ,roads1 _! resi/ance to draft1 #bac4 ,comp>$ ) railroads1 #bac ,rob9son1 ,dr41 #gc ,roebuck1 ,dr41 assi/ance r5d]$ by him to ,watt1 #hg4 ,8 emb>rassm5ts1 #hh ,rocket1 description ( !1 #aga ,s4 ,sav]y1 ,?omas1 obta9s a pat5t = an eng9e to raise wat]1 #di4 ,8 discov]y ( ! pr9ciple ( cond5sation1 #di4 ,con/ructs ! fir/ eng9e br\ght into op]ation1 #ej4 ,description (1 #ea4 ,ineffici5cy (1 #eg4 ,great consumption ( fuel necess>y 9 8 eng9es1 #fj4 ,diff]5t purposes to :i* he propos$ to apply ! /eam eng9e1 #fa4 ,limit$ p[] ( 8 eng9e1 #fi ,sansp>eil1 description ( !1 #agc ,smeaton turns 8 att5tion to ! details ( ! atmosph]ic eng9es1 #gc ,solids conv]t$ into liquids by ! application ( heat1 #bg ,solomon ,de ,caus1 description ( ! app>atus (1 #dc ,som]set1 ,edw>d1 ,m>quis ( ,worce/]1 inv5tion ( ! /eam eng9e ascrib$ to him1 #de4 ,description ( 8 contrivance1 #de4 ,simil> to ,sav]y's1 #df4 ,8 ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions1 #df ,/eam c>riages1 ,mr4 ,gurney's1 #baf4 ,mr4 ,hancock's1 #bce4 ,mr4 ,ogle's1 #bch4 ,dr4 ,*ur*'s1 #bci ,/eam1 its prop]ties describ$1 #cj4 ,its me*anical p[] 9 proportion to ! wat] evaporat$1 #bgg4 ,its volume1 #bgi4 ,its quantity ( heat1 #bgi4 ,its p[] 9 respect ( fuel1 #bhj4 ,its expansive action1 h[ advantage\s1 #bhj4 ,comb9ation ( expansion ) cond5sation1 #bhe4 ,high-pressure1 its expansive action1 #bhh4 ,examples illu/rative ( its me*anical =ce1 #cje ,/eam eng9e1 fir/ mov] 91 #ai4 ,physical effects connect$ )1 #bj4 ,claims to ! inv5tion (1 #ch4 ,efficacy (1 z a me*anical ag5t1 #ci4 ,fir/ br\ght into op]ation by ,sav]y1 #ej4 ,its ineffici5cy1 #eh4 ,fir/ propos$ to be appli$ to ! dra9age ( m9es1 #fa4 ,accid5tal discov]y ( cond5sation by jet1 #fe4 ,fur!r improvem5ts by ,humphrey ,pott] & ,beighton1 #fg1 #fh4 ,description ( ,pap9's eng9e1 #ga4 ,fir/ exp]im5ts ( ,watt & subsequ5t improvem5ts1 #gc4 ,dr4 ,black's !ory ( lat5t heat1 #gf4 ,watt's me?od ( cond5sation1 #gf4 ,fur!r improvem5ts ( ,watt1 #gg4 ,description ( ,watt's s+le-act+ eng9e1 #hj4 ,! cold wat] pump1 #hf4 ,! hot wat] pump1 #hf4 ,erection ( a specim5 eng9e at ,soho1 & gradual dem& = !m1 #hi4 ,! s+le-act+ eng9e inapplicable to manufactures1 #ia4 ,! d\ble-act+ eng9e1 #ib4 ,inv5tion ( ! p>allel motion1 #ie4 ,introduction ( ! rotatory motion1 #ajj4 ,! fly-:eel1 #ajd4 ,! gov]nor1 #aje4 ,! ?rottle valve1 #aje4 ,! ecc5tric1 #aaa4 ,! ,d valve1 #aac4 ,! f\r-way cock1 #aae4 ,me?ods = asc]ta9+ ! level ( wat] 9 ! boil]1 #aah4 ,! eng9e made to fe$ its own boil]1 #abj4 ,wa/e ( wat] prev5t$1 #aba4 ,! /eam gauge1 #abb4 ,b>omet] gauge1 #abc4 ,! damp]1 #abe4 ,me?ods propos$ = prev5t+ ! wa/e ( fuel1 #abh4 ,mr4 ,brunton's furnace describ$1 #acj4 ,mr4 ,oldham's modification ( ! self-regulat+ furnace1 #acb4 ,improvem5ts by ,hornbl[] & ,woolf1 #acd4 ,description ( ! improvem5ts ( ,mr4 ,c>twright1 #adb4 ,high-pressure eng9es1 #ade4 ,leupold's eng9e describ$1 #adg4 ,con/ruction ( ! fir/ high-pressure eng9e by ,messrs4 ,trevi?ick & ,vivian1 #adh4 ,fir/ application ( ! /eam eng9e to propel c>riages on railroads1 #aea4 ,h[ appli$ to navigation1 #bdb4 ,m>9e eng9e2 its =m & arrangem5t1 #bdc4 ,mr4 ,h[>d's pat5t eng9e describ$1 #bec4 ,mr4 ,hall's eng9e describ$1 #bdh ,/eam gauge1 !1 #abb ,/eam navigation1 incr$ulity :i* exi/$ respect+1 #aei4 ,! limit ( its pres5t p[]s1 #bfd ,/eam vessels1 _! av]age spe$1 #bfe4 ,_! av]age consumption ( fuel1 #bfe4 ,proportion ( _! p[] to _! tonnage1 #bff4 ,spe$ ( po/-(fice packets1 #bfh4 ,iron /eam vessels1 #bfi4 ,am]ican vessel call$ ! ,cig> ,boat1 its great spe$1 #bgj ,/eph5son's1 ,mr41 description ( an eng9e con/ruct$ by him1 #afd4 ,premium aw>d$ to ?is eng9e by ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railway ,directors1 #agj4 ,8 me?od ( divid+ ! flues1 #agi ,/eph5son & ,lock1 ,messrs41 appo9t$ by ! ,directors ( ! ,liv]pool & ,man*e/] ,railroad to make reports on ! m]its ( v>i\s railroads1 #afg ,sun & planet :eels1 #aja ,t4 ,!rmomet]1 description (1 #bd ,?rottle valve1 use (1 #ajd ,traction1 =ce (1 on a railroad1 #aib ,tr$gold1#gj ,trevi?ick & ,vivian1 ,messrs41 con/ruct ! fir/ high-pressure eng9e us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 #adh ,u4 ,unit$ ,/ates1 /eam communication )1 #bgd ,v4 ,vacuum1 production (1 by exp]im5t1 #cg ,vap\r1 ela/ic1 =ce (1 #ce ,valves1 ,watt's me?od ( work+ !1 #aji ,w4 ,walk] & ,ra/rick1 ,messrs41 app>5t discrepancy ( _! e/imat$ exp5se ( locomotive p[]1 #ahi ,wa%bor\gh takes out a pat5t = ,watt's inv5tion ( ! rotatory motion1 #ajj ,wat]1 sea1 injuri\s to m>9e boil]s1 #bde4 ,h[ rem$i$ by bl[+ out1 #bdf ,watt1 ,james1 important discov]ies (1 #ci4 ,8 acqua9tance ) ,dr4 ,rob9son & fir/ exp]im5ts on ! /eam eng9e1 #gc4 ,8 subsequ5t improvem5ts1 #ge4 ,8 me?od ( cond5sation1 #gf4 ,8 fir/ introduction ( ! air-pump into ! /eam eng9e1 #gg4 ,fur!r improvem5ts1 #gh4 ,8 difficulties1 #gh4 ,description ( 8 s+le-act+ eng9e1 #hj4 ,8 introduction to ,dr4 ,roebuck1 #hh4 ,erects 8 fir/ eng9e on ! e/ate ( ! ,duke ( ,hamilton1 #hh4 ,aft] fur!r improvem5ts1 obta9s a pat5t = ?is eng9e1 9 conjunction ) ,roebuck1 #hh4 ,8 difficulties ow+ to ,dr4 ,roebuck's failure1 & subsequ5t connexion ) ,bolton1 #hh4 ,obta9s an ext5sion ( 8 pat5t1 #hi4 ,+5i\s inv5tion (1 to det]m9e ! rate ( remun]ation he %\ld receive1 #hi4 ,8 inv5tion ( ! p>allel motion1 #ie4 ,8 me?od = produc+ a rotatory motion anticipat$ by ,wa%bor\gh1 :o takes out a pat5t = x1 #aja4 ,8 contrivance ( ! gov]nor1 #ajd4 ,8 me?od ( work+ ! valves1 #aji4 ,8 sugge/ion ( ! ,d valve1 #aac ,wood1 ,mr4 ,ni*olas1 #afh ,woolf1 ,mr41 8 improvem5ts 9 ! /eam eng9e1 #acd4 ,obta9s a pat5t = ! d\ble-cyl9d] eng9e1 #acg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,j ,,publi%$1 ,,9 ,,"o ,,volume1 #h,,vo4 ,,ma!matics ,,= ,,practical ,,m52 ,,be+ ,a ,,common-,,place ,,book ,,( ,,pr9ciples1 ,,!orems1 ,,rules ,,& ,,tables1 ,,9 ,,v>i\s ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,pure ,,& ,,mix$ ,,ma!matics1 ,) _! applications2 especially to ! pursuits ( ,surveyors1 ,ar*itects1 ,me*anics1 & ,civil ,eng9e]s4 ,) num]\s engrav+s4 ,,by ,,ol9?us ,,gregory1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,only let m5 awake1 & fix _! eyes1 "o :ile on ! nature ( ?+s1 ano!r :ile on ! application ( !m to ! use & s]vice ( mank9d4--,"l ,bacon4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,correct$ ,,& ,,improv$4 ,extract ( a ,lett] f ,,walt] ,r4 ,,johnson1 ,pr(essor ( ,me*anics & ,natural ,philosophy 9 ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute4 ,?is treatise is int5d$ & admirably calculat$ to supply ! defici5cy 9 ! means ( ma!matical in/ruction to ^? :o h nei!r "t nor incl9ation to p]use num]\s ab/ract treatises 9 ! same dep>tm5ts4 ,x has1 besides ! claims ( a good elem5t>y manual1 ! m]it ( embrac+ sev]al ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & important dep>tm5ts ( ,me*anics1 apply+ to ^! ! rules & pr9ciples embrac$ 9 ! e>li] sections ( ! "w4 ,que/ions 9 ,/atics1 ,dynamics1 ,hydro/atics1 ,hydrodynamics1 c41 are treat$ ) a cle>ness & precision :i* mu/ increase ! p[]s ( ! /ud5t ov] 8 own intellectual res\rces by ! me?odical habits :i* a p]usal ( su* works _c fail to imp>t4 ,) respect to ,eng9e]+1 & ! v>i\s incid5ts ( t important pr(ession1 mu* valuable matt] is conta9$1 9 ?is volume2 & ! results ( _m labori\s s]ies ( exp]im5ts are pres5t$ ) concis5ess & accuracy4 ,lett] f ,,alb]t ,b4 ,,dod1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,college ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,,messrs4 ,,c>ey ,,h>t1 ,g5tlem51--,i am glad to le>n t y h publi%$ an ,am]ican edition ( ,dr4 ,gregory's ',ma!matics = ,practical ,m54' ,i h = "s "t be5 acqua9t$ ) ?is "w1 & ,i e/eem x highly4 ,x conta9s ! be/ dige/1 )9 my k1 ( su* sci5tific facts & pr9ciples1 involv$ 9 ! subjects ( :i* x treats1 z are susceptible ( direct practical application4 ,:ile x avoids su* details ( inve/igation & processes ( ma!matical reason+ z w\ld r5d] x un9telligible to ! g5]al read]1 x equally avoids ! sacrifice ( precision 9 its /atem5t ( sci5tific results1 :i* is too (t5 made 9 popul> treatises ^u ! ,ma!matics & ,natural ,philosophy4 ,! au?or has succe$$ to a rem>kable degree 9 collect+ su* tru?s z w be f\nd g5]ally useful1 & 9 pres5t+ !m1 9 an available =m1 to ! practical me*anic4 ,to su*1 ! "w _c be too /rongly recomm5d$2 & to ! /ud5t1 too1 x w (t5 be f\nd highly useful z a book ( ref]5ce4 ,) mu* respect1 ,y\r ob$i5t s]vant1 ,,alb]t ,b4 ,,dod1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,college ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,pr9ceton1 ,nov4 #aa1 #ahcd4 ,extract ( a ,lett] f ,,edw>d ,h4 ,,c\rt5ay1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,! design ( ! au?or--t ( furni%+ a valuable collection ( rules & !orems = ! use ( su* z are unable1 f ! want ( "t & previ\s prep>ation1 to inve/igate ma!matical pr9ciples--appe>s to h be5 v successfully atta9$ 9 ! pres5t volume4 ,! in=mation :i* x af=ds 9 v>i\s bran*es ( ! pure & mix$ ,ma!matics embraces a great v>iety ( subjects1 is arrang$ conv5i5tly1 & is 9 g5]al convey$ 9 accurate & concise t]ms4 ,to ,,! ,,eng9e]1 ,,! ,,ar*itect1 ,,! ,,me*anic--inde$ to all = :om results are *iefly necess>y--! "w w d\btless =m a v valuable acquisition4 ,lett] f ,,*>les ,,davies1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,milit>y ,academy1 ,we/ ,po9t4 ,,milit>y ,,academy1 ,we/ ,po9t1 ,may #ad?1 #ahce4 ,to ,messrs4 ,e4 ,l4 ,c>ey ,a4 ,h>t1-- ,! ',ma!matics = ,practical ,m51' by ,dr4 ,gregory1 :i* y h rec5tly publi%$1 is a "w t _c fail to be ext5sively useful4 ,x embraces1 )9 a comp>atively small compass1 all ! rules & =mulas = ma!matical computation1 & all ! practical results ( me*anical philosophy4 ,x is1 inde$1 a collection ( ! useful results ( sci5ce & ! int]e/+ facts :i* h be5 develop$ by exp]i5ce4 ,x may safely be said1 t no "w1 ( ! same ext5t1 conta9s s mu* in=mation1 ) ! rules = apply+ x to practical purposes4 ,i h ! hon\r to be1 ,) great respect1 ,y\r ob$i5t s]vant1 ,,*>les ,,davies1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics4 ,extract f a ,lett] f ,j4 ,a4 ,,mill]1 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ,m\nt ,/4 ,m>y's ,college1 ,emmettsburg1 ,md4 ,s9ce ! ,london edition ( ,gregory's ,ma!matics = ,practical ,m5 appe>$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 x has be5 mu* us$ 9 ?is in/itution4 ,! accuracy ( its def9itions1 its beautiful sy/ematic arrangem5t1 ! _m simplifi$ & facilitat$ me?ods :i* x proposes1 & its highly practical "*1 mu/ recomm5d x /rongly to public patronage1 z "o ( ! v be/ works :i* h lately issu$ f ! press4 ,i h exam9$ y\r edition ( ?is valuable "w suffici5tly to say ) confid5ce t x is v accurately pr9t$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,only obvi\s pr9t]'s errors h be5 correct$ 7e4g43 #c s in/ead ( #b1 etc474 ,! au?or's spell+ has be5 ma9ta9$ & inconsi/5cies h n be5 /&>dis$4 ,! adv]tisem5t page has be5 move f ! front to ! end ( ! book4 ,o!r corrections made3 --,page x3 ! weal? ( rations has be5 replac$ by ! weal? ( nations4 --,page #ag3 ,pressure ( ,r>ifi$ ,air4 has be5 replac$ by ,pressure ( ,r>efi$ ,air4 --,page #ih3 ,?is beautiful contrivance1 :i* is inconte/ibly has be5 replac$ by ,?is beautiful contrivance1 :i* is inconte/ably4 --,page #ajj3 ! work+ beam no long] us$ has be5 replac$ by ! work+ beam is no long] us$4 --,page #bbc3 is att5d$ ) peli> difficulty has be5 replac$ by is att5d$ ) peculi> difficulty4 --,page #bga3 ,! project] is n[ employ$ 9 has be5 replac$ by ,! projector is n[ employ$ 94