,illustration3 8,,triumphs ,,and ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century40 ,this picture explains and is symbolic of the most progressive one hundred years in history4 ,in the center stands the beautiful female figure typifying ,industry4 ,to the right are the goddesses of ,music1 ,electricity1 ,literature and ,art4 ,navigation is noted in the anchor and chain leaning against the capstan2 the ,railroad1 in the rails and cross-ties2 ,machinery1 in the cog-wheels1 steam governor1 etc42 ,labor1 in the brawny smiths at the anvil2 ,pottery1 in the ornamented vase2 ,architecture1 in the magnificent ,roman columns2 ,science1 in the figure with quill in hand4 ,in the back of picture are suggestions of the progress and development of our wonderful navy4 ,above all hovers the angel of ,fame ready to crown victorious ,genius and ,labor with the laurel wreaths of ,success4 ,,triumphs ,,and ,,wonders ,,of ,,the #ai,,th ,,century ,,the ,,true ,,mirror ,,of ,a ,,phenomenal ,,era ,a ,,volume ,,of ,,original1 ,,entertaining ,,and ,,instructive ,,historic ,,and ,,descriptive ,,writings1 ,,showing ,,the ,,many ,,and ,,marvellous ,,achievements ,,which ,,distinguish ,,an ,,hundred ,,years ,,of ,material1 ,intellectual1 ,social and ,moral ,progress ,,embracing ,,as ,,subjects ,,all ,,those ,,which ,,best ,,type ,,the ,,genius1 ,,spirit ,,and ,,energy ,,of ,,the ,,age1 ,,and ,,serve ,,to ,,bring ,,into ,,brightest ,,relief ,,the ,,grand ,,march ,,of ,,improvement ,,in ,,the ,,various ,,domains ,,of ,,human ,,activity4 ,,by ,,james ,p4 ,,boyd1 ,a4,m41 ,l4,b41 ,assisted by a ,corps of ,thirty-,two ,eminent and ,specially ,qualified ,authors4 ,copiously and ,magnificently ,illustrated4 ,illustration ,,philadelphia ,a4 ,j4 ,,holman ,,co4 ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,isbister4 ,all ,rights ,reserved4 ,,copyright1 #aija1 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,isbister4 ,,introductory ,measuring epochs1 or eras1 by spaces of a hundred years each1 that which embraces the nineteenth century stands out in sublime and encouraging contrast with any that has preceded it4 ,as the legatee of all prior centuries1 it has enlarged and ennobled its bequest to an extent unparalleled in history2 while it has at the same time1 through a genius and energy peculiar to itself1 created an original endowment for its own enjoyment and for the future richer by far than any heretofore recorded4 ,indeed1 without permitting existing and pardonable pride to endanger rigid truth1 it may be said that along many of the lines of invention and progress which have most intimately affected the life and civilization of the world1 the nineteenth century has achieved triumphs and accomplished wonders equal1 if not superior1 to all other centuries combined4 ,therefore1 what more fitting time than at its close to pass in pleasing and instructive review the numerous material and intellectual achievements that have so distinguished it1 and have contributed in so many and such marvelous ways to the great advance and genuine comfort of the human race6 ,or1 what could prove a greater source of pride and profit than to compare its glorious works with those of the past1 the better to understand and measure the actual steps and real extent of the progress of mankind6 ,or1 what more delightful and inspiring than to realize that the sum of those wonderful activities1 of which each reader is1 or has been1 a part1 has gone to increase the grandeur of a world era whose rays will penetrate and brighten the coming centuries6 ,amid so many and such strong reasons this volume finds excellent cause for its being4 ,its aims are to mirror a wonderful century from the vantage ground of its closing year2 to faithfully trace the lines which mark its almost magical advance2 to give it that high and true historic place whence its contrasts with the past can be best noted1 and its light upon the future most directly thrown4 ,this task would be clearly beyond the power of a single mind4 ,so rapid has progress been during some parts of the century1 so amazing have been results along the lines of discovery and invention1 so various have been the fields of action1 that only those of special knowledge and training could be expected to do full justice to the many subjects to be treated4 ,hence1 the work has been planned so as to give it a value far beyond what could be imparted by a single mind4 ,each of the themes chosen to type the century's grand march has been treated by an author of special fitness1 and high up in his or her profession or calling1 with a view to securing for readers the best thoughts and facts relating to the remarkable events of an hundred years4 ,in this respect the volume is unique and original4 ,its authorship is not of one mind1 but of a corps of minds1 whose union assures what the occasion demands4 ,the scope1 character1 and value of the volume further appear in its very large number and practical feature of subjects selected to show the active forces1 the upward and onward movements1 and the grand results that have operated within1 and triumphantly crowned1 an era without parallel4 ,these subjects embrace the sciences of the century in their numerous divisions and conquests2 its arts and literature2 industrial1 commercial1 and financial progress2 land and sea prowess2 educational1 social1 moral1 and religious growth2 in fact1 every field of enterprise and achievement within the space of time covered by the work4 ,a volume of such variety of subject and great extent affords fine opportunity for illustration4 ,the publishers have taken full advantage of this1 and have beautified it in a manner which commends itself to every eye and taste4 ,rarely has a volume been so highly and elegantly embellished4 ,each subject is illuminated so as to increase the pleasure of reading and make an impression which will prove lasting4 ,as to its aim and scope1 its number of specially qualified authors1 its vigor and variety of style and thought1 its historic comprehensiveness and exactness1 its great wealth of illustration1 its superb mechanism1 its various other striking features1 the volume may readily rank as one of the century's triumphs1 a wonder of industrious preparation1 and acceptable to all4 ,at any rate1 no such volume has ever mirrored any previous century1 and none will come to reflect the nineteenth century with truer line and color4 ,not only is the work a rare and costly picture1 filled in with inspiring details by master hands1 but it is equally a monument1 whose solid base1 grand proportions1 and elegant finish are in keeping with the spirit of the era it marks and the results it honors4 ,its every inscription is a glowing tribute to human achievement of whatever kind and wherever the field of action may lie1 and therefore a happy means of conveying to twentieth century actors the story of a time whose glories they will find it hard to excel4 ,may this picture and monument be viewed1 studied1 and admired by all1 so that the momentous chapters which round the history of a closing century shall avail in shaping the beginnings of a succeeding one4 ,,authors ,,and ,,subjects ,,james ,p4 ,,boyd1 ,a4 ,m41 ,l4 ,b41 ,,wonders ,,of ,,electricity4 ,,rear-,,admiral ,,george ,,wallace ,,melville1 ,chief of ,bureau of ,steam ,engineering1 ,navy ,department1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,naval ,,progress4 ,,selden ,j4 ,,coffin1 ,a4 ,m41 ,professor of ,astronomy1 ,lafayette ,college1 ,easton1 ,pa4 ,,astronomy ,,during ,,the ,,century4 ,,thomas ,,meehan1 ,vice-,president ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,philadelphia4 ,,story ,,of ,,plant ,,and ,,flower4 ,,mary ,,elizabeth ,,lease1 ,first ,woman ,president of ,kansas ,state ,board of ,charities4 ,,progress ,,of ,,women ,,within ,,the ,,century4 ,,robert ,p4 ,,hains1 ,principal ,examiner of ,textiles1 ,united ,states ,patent ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,textile ,,progress4 ,,george ,,edward ,,reed1 ,s4 ,t4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,president of ,dickinson ,college1 ,carlisle1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,religious ,,progress4 ,,james ,p4 ,,boyd1 ,a4 ,m41 ,l4 ,b41 ,,great ,,growth ,,of ,,libraries4 ,,william ,,martin ,,aiken1 ,f4 ,a4 ,i4 ,a41 ,former ,united ,states ,supervising ,architect1 ,treasury ,department1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,in ,,architecture4 ,,harvey ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,chief ,chemist of ,division of ,chemistry1 ,agricultural ,department1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,chemistry4 ,,riter ,,fitzgerald1 ,a4 ,m41 ,dramatic ,critic 8,city ,item10 ,philadelphia4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,music ,,and ,,drama4 ,,james ,p4 ,,boyd1 ,a4 ,m41 ,l4 ,b41 ,,the ,,century',s ,,literature4 ,,morris ,,jastrow1 ,,jr41 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,,the ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,past4 ,,major ,,henry ,e4 ,,alvord1 ,c4 ,e41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,chief of ,dairy ,division1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,progress ,,in ,,dairy ,,farming4 ,,sara ,y4 ,,stevenson1 ,sc4 ,d41 ,secretary of ,department of ,archology and ,paleontology1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,moral ,,progress4 ,,charles ,mc,i,n,t,i,r,e1 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41 ,lecturer on ,sanitary ,science1 ,lafayette ,college1 ,easton1 ,pa4 ,,progress ,,of ,,sanitary ,,science4 ,,lieutenant-,,colonel ,,arthur ,l4 ,,wagner1 ,assistant ,adjutant ,general ,united ,states ,army4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,armies ,,and ,,arms4 ,,waldo ,f4 ,,brown1 ,agricultural ,editor 8,cincinnati ,gazette40 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,agriculture4 ,,walter ,,loring ,,webb1 ,c4 ,e41 ,assistant ,professor of ,civil ,engineering1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,,progress ,,in ,,civil ,,engineering4 ,d4 ,e4 ,,salmon1 ,m4 ,d41 ,chief of ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,agricultural ,department1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,the ,,animal ,,world4 ,,major-,,general ,,joseph ,,wheeler1 ,united ,states ,army1 and ,member of ,congress from ,eighth ,alabama ,district4 ,,leading ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,century4 ,,george ,j4 ,,hagar1 ,editor of ,appendix to ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,fairs ,,and ,,expositions4 ,,hon4 ,,bradford ,,rhodes1 ,editor of 8,banker's ,magazine40 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,coinage1 ,,currency1 ,,and ,,banking4 ,h4 ,e4 ,,van ,,deman1 ,late ,professor of ,botany and ,practical ,horticulture1 ,kansas ,state ,agricultural ,college4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,fruit ,,culture4 ,,emory ,r4 ,,johnson1 ,a4 ,m41 ,assistant ,professor of ,transportation and ,commerce1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,commercial ,,progress4 ,,franklin ,s4 ,,edmonds1 ,a4 ,m41 ,assistant ,professor of ,political ,science1 ,central ,high ,school1 ,philadelphia4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,advances ,,in ,,education4 ,,thomas ,j4 ,,lindsey1 ,editorial ,staff ,philadelphia 8,evening ,bulletin40 8,,the ,,art ,,preservative40 ,,george ,a4 ,,packard1 ,metallurgist and ,mining ,engineer4 ,,progress ,,in ,,mines ,,and ,,mining4 ,,john ,v4 ,,sears1 ,art ,critic ,philadelphia 8,evening ,telegraph40 ,,art ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century4 ,j4 ,,madison ,,taylor1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,and ,,john ,h4 ,,gibbon1 ,m4 ,d41 ,surgeons ,out-,patients ,departments of ,pennsylvania and ,children's ,hospitals4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,advance ,,in ,,surgery4 ,,frank ,c4 ,,hammond1 ,m4 ,d41 ,instructor in ,gyncology1 ,jefferson ,medical ,college4 ,,progress ,,of ,,medicine4 ,e4 ,e4 ,,russell ,,tratman1 ,c4 ,e41 ,assistant ,editor of 8,engineering ,news10 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,railroad4 ,,luther ,e4 ,,hewitt1 ,l4 ,b41 ,librarian of ,philadelphia ,law ,association4 ,,advance ,,in ,,law ,,and ,,justice4 ,,michael ,j4 ,,brown1 ,secretary of ,building ,association ,league of ,pennsylvania4 ,,progress ,,of ,,building ,,and ,,loan ,,associations4 ,,rev4 ,a4 ,,leffingwell1 ,rector ,trinity ,church1 ,toledo1 ,o4 ,,epoch ,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,century4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,contents ,,wonders ,,of ,,electricity ,i4 ,,at ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,the ,,century3--,earliest ,observations on ,electricity --,study of ,amber--,earliest ,electric ,machines--,conduction of ,electricity--,the ,leyden ,jar--,franklin's ,discoveries4 ,,ii4 ,,new ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,electricity3--,galvanism--,the ,voltaic ,pile --,davy's ,arc-light--,the ,electro-magnet--,faraday's ,discoveries --,the ,induction ,coil--,fields of ,force4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,telegraph3-- ,first ,successful ,telegraphy--,the ,morse ,system--,improvements in ,telegraphy--,ocean ,telegraphy4 ,,iv4 ,,hello6 ,,hello6--,invention of the ,telephone--,principle of the ,telephone--,transmitter and ,receiver--,uses of the ,telephone--,the ,phonograph1 ,gramophone1 and ,graphophone4 ,v4 ,,dynamo ,,and ,,motor3--,the ,first ,motor--,perfection of the ,dynamo--,how it generates ,electricity--,principle and ,uses of the ,motor4 ,,vi4 8,,and ,,there ,,was ,,light30--,various ,lights of the ,past--,era of ,electric ,lighting--,arc and ,incandescent ,lamps --,principles of ,each--,value of ,electric ,light4 ,,vii4 ,,electric ,,locomotion3--,passing of the ,horse and ,traction ,car--,introduction of the ,trolley--,features of the ,electric ,railway--,the ,storage ,battery and ,horseless ,carriage4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,x ,,ray3--,discovery of --,what the ,x ,ray is--,photographing by ,means of the ,x ,ray4 ,,ix4 ,,other ,,electrical ,,wonders3--,electric ,clocks--,electrotyping and ,electroplating1 etc4 ,x4 ,,electrical ,,language #ai-ed ,,the ,,century',s ,,naval ,,progress ,i4 ,,influence ,,of ,,sea ,,power3--,sea ,powers throughout the ,world-- ,enumeration of ,great ,naval ,wars4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,growth ,,in ,,naval ,,strength3--,american ,navies at ,different ,eras--,european ,fleets --,south ,american and ,chinese ,navies4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,battleship ,,past ,,and ,,present3--,the ,old ,fighting ,frigate--,evolution of the ,modern ,man-of-,war--,comparison of ,frigate with ,ironclad4 ,,iv4 ,,progress ,,of ,,naval ,,engineering3--,nelson's ,vision--,the #ad1ejj ,miles ,steaming of the ,oregon--,revolution in ,mechanism and ,material--,types of ,great ,battleships--,introduction and ,advantages of ,steam--,invention of the ,screw ,propeller--,improvement in ,boilers and ,engines-- ,the ,revolving ,turret--,cruiser and ,torpedo ,craft--,phenomenal ,speed4 ,v4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,ordnance3--,description of ,various ,guns and ,projectiles--,power of ,modern ,explosives4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,armor3--,its ,necessity in ,naval ,warfare--,how it is made1 tested1 and put on4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ram ,,and ,,torpedo3--,evolution of the ,ram-- ,introduction of the ,torpedo--,various ,kinds of ,torpedoes4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,fleet3--,whence it sprang and how it has grown--,its ,ships1 ,officers1 and ,men--,official ,naval ,ranks--,the ,naval ,academy --,passage of the ,united ,states to a ,world ,power #ee-hf ,,astronomy ,,during ,,the ,,century ,i4 ,,astronomy ,a ,,century ,,ago3--,discovery of ,uranus4 ,,ii4 ,,how 8,,bode',s ,,law0 ,,promoted ,,research3--,further ,discovery of ,planets--,celestial ,photography4 ,,iii4 ,,how ,,neptune ,,was ,,found3--,le ,verrier1 8,first ,astronomer of the ,age40 ,,iv4 ,,meteorites3--,meteoric ,showers-- ,various ,large ,meteorites4 ,v4 ,,do ,,meteors ,,often ,,strike ,,the ,,earth3 --,the 8,fire-ball0 of #ahfj4 ,,vi4 ,,astronomical ,,observatories3 --,their ,equipment and ,work--,number of ,observatories4 ,,vii4 ,,improved ,,instruments3--,their ,effect on the ,science4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,spectroscope3--,its ,triumphs--,elements discovered4 ,,ix4 ,,work ,,in ,a ,,large ,,observatory3--,discovery of ,comets and ,nebul4 ,x4 ,,washington ,,national ,,observatory3--,its ,instruments4 ,,xi4 ,,star ,,maps ,,and ,,catalogues3--,number of ,stars--,the ,planisphere4 ,,xii4 ,,astronomical ,,books ,,and ,,writers3--,number of ,students of ,astronomy4 ,,xiii4 ,,practical ,,uses ,,of ,,astronomy3--,its ,help in ,navigation--,uses in ,geodesy4 ,,xiv4 ,,notable ,,astronomical ,,epochs3--,clock ,regulation --,invention of ,chronograph and ,spectroscope--,great ,telescopes4 ,,xv4 ,,discarded ,,theories3--,are ,planets inhabited--,the ,orrery4 ,,xvi4 ,,future ,,astronomical ,,problems3--,how long will the ,sun endure8 #hg-ajd ,,story ,,of ,,plant ,,and ,,flower ,early ,history of ,botany--,the ,father of ,modern ,botany--,botany at the ,beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century--,natural ,system of ,classification--,advance in ,study of ,plant ,behavior--,illustrations from the ,peanut and ,grape-vine--,plant ,motions as regards ,forms-- ,origin and ,development of ,plant ,life--,the ,doctrine of ,evolution --,nutrition of ,plants--,fertilization of ,flowers--,insectivorous and ,cruel ,plants--,vegetable ,physiology--,advance in ,relation to ,cryptogamic ,plants--,geographical ,botany--,herbariums and ,botanical ,gardens #aje-aad ,,progress ,,of ,,women ,,within ,,the ,,century ,woman's ,misconception of her ,rights--,former ,oppression--,cosmic and ,moral ,processes--,what ,christianity has done for ,women--,hardship of the ,pauline ,grip--,the ,true ,mission of ,woman--,improvement in her ,education--,female ,occupations--,competition with ,men--,woman in the ,literary ,field--,in ,philanthropy and ,morals--,women's ,clubs --,woman in ,politics--,the constantly ,broadening ,field of ,woman's ,influence #aae-abd ,,the ,,century',s ,,textile ,,progress ,antiquity of ,textile ,industry--,the ,distaff1 ,spindle1 and ,loom among ,chinese1 ,egyptians1 and ,greeks--,introduction of the ,spinning-wheel --,loom of the ,eighteenth ,century--,the ,fly-shuttle--,textiles at the ,beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century--,invention of the ,spinning ,jenny--,arkwright's ,drawing-rollers--,whitney's ,cotton-gin--,its ,influence--,invention of the ,spinning-mule--,the ,spinning-frame --,rapid ,improvements in ,spinning ,machinery--,evolution of the ,spindle--,increase of ,speed--,introduction of the ,carding-machine --,carding-combs--,advent of ,power-looms--,description of their ,machinery and ,products--,the ,jacquard ,loom--,of ,pile ,fabrics--,the ,bigelow ,loom--,how ,tufted ,pile ,fabrics are made--,weaving of ,fancy ,cloths--,various ,forms of ,looms--,hair-cloth ,looms--,weaving of ,tubular ,fabrics--,infinitude of ,uses to which the ,loom can be put-- ,the ,coming ,automatic ,loom--,advent of the ,knitting-machine--,its ,wonderful ,perfection and ,products--,the ,century's ,patents of ,textile ,machinery--,beauty of ,textile ,art--,its ,influence on ,taste and ,comfort #abe-adf ,,the ,,century',s ,,religious ,,progress ,religious ,status in ,eighteenth ,century1 in ,england1 ,france1 and on the ,continent--,condition in the ,united ,states--,the ,reign of ,skepticism--,doctrinal ,divisions in the ,churches--,the ,nineteenth ,century ,revival--,variety and ,growth of ,religions in the ,united ,states--,freedom of the ,church--,kinship of ,denominations-- ,increase in ,material and ,spiritual ,forces--,church ,edifices and ,capacities--,religious ,population--,number of ,communicants --,distribution of ,communicants--,ministers and ,organizations --,missionary ,enterprises--,service of ,religion in ,education1 ,philanthropy1 and ,reform--,gifts to ,educational ,institutions --,growth of ,charitable ,institutions--,religion and ,republican ,institutions #adg-aeh ,,great ,,growth ,,of ,,libraries ,antiquity of ,libraries--,evidences of ,civilized ,progress--,character of ,ancient ,writings--,books of ,clay--,mesopotamian ,literature --,egyptian ,hieroglyphics--,papyrus ,manuscripts--,sacred ,books of ,thoth--,greek ,libraries--,their ,number and ,extent--,roman ,libraries--,imperial ,library of ,constantinople--,effects of ,christianity upon ,literature--,church ,book-making and ,collecting-- ,all ,books written or copied by ,priests--,fate of ,monastic ,libraries --,early ,libraries in ,france--,royal ,libraries in ,europe--,the ,french ,national ,library--,introduction of ,copyright--,growth and ,extent of ,european ,libraries--,their ,location and ,management--,the ,british ,museum--,libraries of ,great ,britain--,canadian ,libraries --,english ,colonial ,libraries--,libraries of the ,latin ,republics --,phenomenal ,growth of ,libraries in the ,united ,states--,wide ,ramification of the ,system--,the ,oldest ,united ,states ,library-- ,colonial ,libraries--,libraries of #ahjj--,number founded during the ,century--,state ,libraries--,school-district ,libraries--,library ,systems--,the ,library of ,congress--,its ,vast ,extent and ,new ,repository--,copyright ,system--,united ,states ,free ,libraries-- ,noted ,libraries of the ,country--,libraries of over #ajj1jjj ,volumes --,munificence of ,library ,founders--,noted ,givers to ,libraries-- ,progress in ,library ,management #aei-agj ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,in ,,architecture ,english ,architecture at the ,beginning of the ,century--,the ,queen ,anne ,style--,french ,architecture and ,architects--,architectural ,styles in ,germany1 ,austria1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,turkey1 and throughout ,europe--,canadian ,styles and ,notable ,buildings--,early ,architecture in the ,united ,states--,old ,new ,england and ,southern ,homes--,the ,colonial ,styles--,the ,white ,house and ,united ,states ,capitol-- ,progress in ,public ,building ,architecture--,notable ,changes after the ,war of #ahab--,the ,gothic ,cottage and ,italian ,villa--,the ,first ,school of ,architecture--,comparison of ,styles in ,different ,cities--,introduction of ,iron--,styles for ,hotels and ,summer ,resorts--,effect of ,chicago and ,boston ,fires on ,architecture-- ,how the ,centennial ,exposition changed ,styles--,church and ,library ,architecture--,the ,congressional ,library and ,other ,notable ,specimens of ,american ,architecture--,advent of the ,sky-scraper--,general ,review of ,architectural ,effects--,monumental ,works the ,poetry of ,architecture #aga-aij ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,chemistry ,status of ,chemical ,science at ,beginning of the ,century--,the ,century's ,main ,lines of ,progress3 ,i4 ,,inorganic ,,and ,,physical ,,chemistry3-- ,lavoisier's ,cardinal ,propositions--,rapid ,advance of ,chemical ,science--,sir ,humphrey ,davy's ,achievements--,elementary ,bodies of ,eighteenth ,century--,same in ,nineteenth ,century4 ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,chemistry3--,properties of ,elements--,of ,matter and ,energy--,rates of ,reaction--,conditions of ,equilibrium4 ,,iii4 ,,organic ,,chemistry3 --,of ,carbon ,compounds--,theory of ,substitution--,atoms in the ,molecule--,space ,relations--,the ,carbon ,atom--,the ,organic ,body4 ,,iv4 ,,analytical ,,chemistry3--,development of the ,blow-pipe-- ,gas ,analysis--,electricity as a ,factor--,discovery of ,spectrum ,analysis4 ,v4 ,,synthetical ,,chemistry3--,building up of ,complex ,forms --,synthesis of ,coloring ,matters and ,sugars--,future ,food of ,man4 ,,vi4 ,,metallurgical ,,chemistry3--,oldest ,branch of ,chemical ,science --,reduction of ,ores--,advantage to ,agriculture4 ,,vii4 ,,agricultural ,,chemistry3--,utilization of ,fertilizers--,nitrogen as a ,plant ,food --,advantages to ,practical ,agriculture4 ,,viii4 ,,graphic ,,chemistry3 --,fundamental ,principles--,daguerreotype and ,photograph4 ,,ix4 ,,didactic ,,chemistry3--,the ,student and the ,laboratory--,advantages of ,laboratory ,training4 ,x4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,fermentation3--,bacterial ,action--,process of ,digestion--,decay of ,meats and ,vegetables-- ,sterilization--,fermentation4 ,,xi4 ,,electro-,,chemistry3--,combination of ,carbon with ,metals--,uses of ,electricity in ,chemistry4 ,,conclusion4 #aia-bjf ,,the ,,century',s ,,music ,,and ,,drama ,i4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,music3--,leading ,composers--,nineteenth ,century ,music--,the ,great ,composers and their ,works--,different ,schools and ,styles of ,composition--,analysis of ,operas--,musical ,characteristics of the ,nations--,verdi and ,wagner compared-- ,the ,american ,opera4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,drama3--,the ,theatre of the ,past-- ,great ,modern ,improvement--,scenery and ,appointments--,actors and ,actresses--,the ,century's ,illustrious ,role--,theatres in the ,united ,states--,character of ,actors--,public ,estimation of the ,drama #bjg-bad ,,the ,,century',s ,,literature ,contrast with ,eighteenth ,century ,literature--,tone of ,modern ,literature--,how it types ,progress--,english ,literature-- ,literature of ,other ,nations--,various ,authors--,english ,criticism of ,american ,literature--,newspaper ,literature--,evolution of the ,newspaper--,newspapers of the ,nations--,nineteenth ,century ,journalism--,beginning of ,newspaper ,enterprise in the ,united ,states --,colonial ,papers--,papers of the ,revolution--,appearance of the ,daily--,the ,penny ,press--,newspaper ,growth up to #ahfa--,war ,journalism--,the ,sunday ,newspaper--,illustrated ,journalism-- ,reaction in ,newspaper ,prices--,cost of running a ,newspaper--,number of ,world's ,newspapers--,the ,comic ,paper--,evolution of the ,magazine --,growth of ,magazine in the ,united ,states--,character of ,magazine ,literature--,advent of the ,cheap ,magazine--,features of ,publication #bae-bcj ,,the ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,past ,extension of ,knowledge into the ,past--,spade of the ,archologist-- ,general ,view of the ,revelations--,documents of ,stone1 ,clay1 and ,papyrus--,assyrian ,revelations--,egyptian ,explorations--,eloquence of ,obelisk1 ,tomb1 and ,pyramid--,cuneiform ,scripts of ,babylon-- ,discovery of the ,rosetta ,stone--,champollion's ,key--,story of the ,ruins in ,greece and ,rome--,revelation of ,temples and ,statues --,phnician ,remains--,the ,moabite ,stone--,ruins in ,palestine-- ,revelations in ,jerusalem--,hittite ,remains--,continuing ,interest in ,archological ,discovery--,vast ,importance from an ,historic ,point of ,view #bca-bdd ,,progress ,,in ,,dairy ,,farming ,requisites for ,successful ,dairying--,enterprise of ,dairying ,districts --,advantages of ,dairying--,dairying ,areas--,dairying at the ,beginning of the ,century--,early ,methods--,the ,great ,change midway of the ,century--,improvement in ,milch ,cows--,growth of ,cheese-,making--,institution of ,creameries--,application of ,mechanics to ,dairying--,dairy ,associations--,best ,dairy ,breeds-- ,invention of the ,separator--,its ,operation and ,advantages--,the ,fat-test for ,milk--,growth in ,butter-making ,illustrated--,labor in ,dairying--,dairy and ,food ,commissions--,dairying ,publications --,city ,milk ,supplies--,annual ,production of ,cheese--,character of ,cheeses--,annual ,butter ,product--,butter and ,cheese-producing ,states--,number and ,value of ,cows--,dairy ,values as compared with ,value of ,other ,products--,necessity for guarding ,dairy ,interests4 #bde-bfj ,,the ,,century',s ,,moral ,,progress ,morals among the ,ancients--,moral ,precepts common to all ,communities --,evolution of ,ethics--,early ,christian ,morals--,spirit of the ,reformation--,low ,moral ,condition of the ,eighteenth ,century--,birth of a ,new ,moral ,epoch--,a ,national ,conscience--,abolition of ,slavery --,larger ,application of the ,principles of ,right and ,justice--,how ,women are affected--,effect of ,invention and ,education on ,social and ,moral ,conditions--,broadening of ,woman's ,sphere--,increase of ,self-respect--,influence of ,women on ,moral ,status--,legislation and ,morals--,how to meet ,ethical ,problems--,business ,success and the ,moral ,state--,rights and ,duties of ,capital and ,labor--,cruelties of ,war and ,blessings of ,peace--,the ,century's ,moral ,gain--,changed ,treatment of ,vice and ,poverty--,the ,principle of ,well-doing-- ,growth of ,tolerance and ,altruism--,a ,higher ,individual and ,public ,conscience #bfa-bgj ,,progress ,,of ,,sanitary ,,science ,hygienic ,code of ,moses--,hippocrates and ,disease--,sanitation and ,sanitary ,science--,foundation ,rules--,spirit of ,scientific ,investigation--,effect of ,act of ,parliament of #ahcg--,value of ,official ,figures--,the ,riddle of ,samson--,health ,reports in ,united ,states--,duty of ,separate ,states--,mortality in ,london of ,filth ,diseases--,progress of ,sanitation--,diminution of ,scourges --,effect of ,sanitation upon the ,weak and ,helpless--,value of ,culture ,tubes--,discovery of ,disease ,causes--,of ,trichin in ,pork --,communicable ,diseases caused by ,living ,organisms--,infectious and ,contagious ,diseases--,uses of ,biology in ,sanitary ,science-- ,purification of ,waters--,of ,consumption and ,cholera--,effects of ,filtration--,what ,bacteria are--,of ,isolation and ,disinfection-- ,modern ,quarantines--,fumigation of ,ships--,lowering of ,death ,rates --,influence of the ,sanitarium--,improved ,construction of ,dwellings --,care for ,paving and ,sewage--,disposal of ,refuse--,of ,food ,inspection--,state ,boards of ,health--,care of ,employees--,of ,play and ,athletic ,grounds--,public ,breathing ,spaces--,duty of ,caring for ,personal ,health--,bearing of ,public ,health on ,community and ,nation #bga-bhb ,,the ,,century',s ,,armies ,,and ,,arms ,armies and ,arms of the ,eighteenth ,century--,alteration in ,war ,methods --,european ,army ,systems--,changes made by ,napoleon--,battle ,weapons and ,tactical ,movements--,growing ,use of ,cannon--,the ,congreve ,rocket--,infantry ,formations--,the ,introduction of the ,rifle--,the ,crimean ,war and ,rifled ,siege ,guns--,the ,italian ,war and ,rifled ,cannon--,advent of the ,breech-loader--,introduction of ,heavy ,guns--,arms and ,tactics in the ,civil ,war--,use of ,steam and ,electricity in ,war--,advantage of ,railroad and ,telegraph-- ,introduction of ,armored ,vessels--,siege ,artillery--,advent of the ,machine ,gun--,new ,system of ,entrenchment--,german ,military ,system --,coming of the ,needle ,gun--,french ,military ,system--,comparison of ,russian and ,turkish ,methods--,strength of the ,world's ,armies-- ,united ,states ,army ,organization--,steel ,guns and ,smokeless ,powder --,improvement in ,mortars--,the ,dynamite ,gun--,modern ,shrapnel-- ,sea-,coast ,guns--,perfection of ,modern ,rifles--,their ,great ,range and ,power--,the ,gatling ,gun--,the ,maxim ,automatic--,introduction of the ,torpedo--,general ,review of the ,increase in ,military ,efficiency #bhc-cjf ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,agriculture ,i4 ,,vicissitudes ,,of ,,early ,,farming3--,first ,national ,road--,canal ,building--,coming of ,railroads--,farming ,conditions before the #ej's--,hardships of ,marketing4 ,,ii4 ,,improvements ,,in ,,farm ,,implements ,,and ,,machinery3--,farmers' ,draft upon ,nature--,the ,sickle1 ,flail1 and ,cradle--,coming of ,harvesters--,improvement in ,threshers --,portable and ,traction ,engines--,separators and ,stackers-- ,improvements in ,other ,implements4 ,,iii4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,stock3-- ,various ,breeds of ,cattle--,breeding of ,horses1 ,sheep1 and ,swine --,best ,breeds4 ,,iv4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,farming ,,methods3--,in ,drainage --,care of ,animals--,barns and ,stabling--,proper ,food ,rations --,fencing4 ,v4 ,,home ,,improvements3--,home ,architecture--,the ,yard and ,garden--,maintaining ,soil ,fertility--,proper ,manures --,soil ,analysis--,use of ,modern ,fertilizers4 ,,vi4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,agricultural ,,knowledge3--,agricultural ,literature--,farmers' ,clubs and ,institutes--,granges--,agricultural ,colleges--,experimental ,stations--,the ,department of ,agriculture--,bureau of ,animal ,industry--,agricultural ,newspapers and ,periodicals--,summary of ,agricultural ,progress #cjg-cch ,,progress ,,in ,,civil ,,engineering ,i4 ,,an ,,introductory ,,view3--,antiquity of ,engineering--,ancient ,roads and ,bridges--,nineteenth ,century ,advances4 ,,ii4 ,,bridges3--,primitive ,bridges--,iron and ,steel ,bridges--,the ,brooklyn ,bridge--,niagara ,suspension ,bridge--,pecos ,river ,viaduct--,the ,forth ,bridge-- ,remarkable ,arches--,stone ,bridges4 ,,iii4 ,,caissons3--,invention of the ,caisson--,its ,principle and ,use--,caisson ,adventures4 ,,iv4 ,,canals3--,the ,first ,suez ,canal--,nicaragua and ,panama ,canals --,modern ,suez ,canal--,the ,manchester ,canal--,chicago ,drainage ,canal--,what it is for4 ,v4 ,,geodesy3--,ancient ,methods of ,earth ,measurements--,the ,century's ,advance in ,methods of ,measurement4 ,,vi4 ,,railroads3--,their ,invention and ,development--,immense ,value4 ,,vii4 ,,tunnels3--,ancient ,origin of--,tunnels of ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 and ,india--,roman ,tunnels--,of the ,modern ,tunnel--,advance in ,machinery and ,constructive ,processes--,mount ,cenis ,tunnel--,tunnel ,surveying and ,excavating--,the ,hoosac ,tunnel--,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel --,st4 ,clair ,tunnel--,its ,construction and ,commercial ,effects #cci-cfj ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,the ,,animal ,,world ,i4 ,,of ,,animal ,,diseases3--,effect of ,napoleonic ,wars--,various ,animal ,diseases--,how controlled4 ,,ii4 ,,increase ,,in ,,number ,,of ,,animals3--,showing in ,europe1 ,united ,states1 and ,other ,countries4 ,,iii4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,breeds3--,shortening the ,time of ,growth-- ,development of ,dairy and ,beef ,breeds--,improvement in ,wool ,growing --,poultry ,breeds--,thoroughbred ,horses--,the ,american ,trotter-- ,animal ,exports--,foreign ,animal ,imports--,displacement of ,horses by ,mechanical ,motors--,prices of ,animal ,products--,american ,command of ,world's ,animal ,markets #cfa-cgd ,,leading ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,century ,i4 ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states3--,first ,war with ,barbary ,states-- ,indian ,wars--,war of #ahab--;,battles by ,land and ,sea--,exploits on the ,lakes--,victory of ,new ,orleans--,second ,war with ,barbary ,states --,the ,mexican ,war--,general ,taylor's ,victories--,siege of ,vera ,cruz--,general ,scott's ,march and ,battles--,capture of ,mexico-- ,results of the ,war--,the ,civil ,war1 #ahfa-fe--,secession of ,states --,calling out the ,armies--,building of the ,navies--,the ,first ,battles--,operations in #ahfb--;,battles of #ahfc--,the ,emancipation ,proclamation--,the ,turning ,point at ,gettysburg--,opening of the ,mississippi--,chickamauga and ,missionary ,ridge--,battles of #ahfd --,appomattox and ,surrender--,the ,spanish-,american ,war--,its ,causes--,destruction of ,spanish ,fleet in ,manila ,bay--,destruction of ,cervera's ,fleet--,capitulation of ,santiago--,invasion of ,porto ,rico4 ,,ii4 ,,foreign ,,wars3--,wars of ,napoleon--,battle of ,marengo --,treaty of ,amiens--,third ,coalition against ,france--,battle of ,austerlitz--,nelson's ,victory at ,trafalgar--,wars of the ,fourth ,coalition--,wars of the ,fifth ,coalition--,wars of the ,sixth ,coalition--,battle of ,waterloo--,final ,defeat of ,napoleon--,greek ,wars for ,independence--,battle of ,navarino--,greek ,independence-- ,french ,revolution of #ahcj--,polish ,insurrection--,england's ,wars in ,india--,french ,republic of #ahdh--;,hungarian ,wars for ,independence --,italian ,wars--,the ,crimean ,war--,sebastopol and ,balaklava-- ,peace of ,paris--,the ,indian ,mutiny--,wars of the ,alliance against ,austria--,battle of ,solferino--,danish ,wars--,wars for ,german ,unity--,verdict of ,sadowa--,the ,franco-,prussian ,war--,siege and ,capture of ,paris--,the ,french ,republic--,the ,turco-,russian ,war-- ,chino-,japanese ,war--,greco-,turkish ,war--,interference of the ,powers --,wars in the ,soudan--,review of the ,century's ,martial ,results #cge-dbj ,,the ,,century',s ,,fairs ,,and ,,expositions ,the ,primitive ,fair--,growth and ,influence of ,fairs--,their ,history in ,different ,countries--,of ,agricultural ,fairs1 ,societies1 and ,institutes--,their ,origin and ,purpose--,national and ,state ,agricultural ,departments--,sanitary ,fairs--,special ,exhibitions --,evolution of ,international ,expositions--,the ,first ,world's ,exposition at ,london--,expositions at ,dublin1 ,paris1 ,new ,york-- ,continental ,expositions--,second and ,third ,expositions at ,london and ,paris--,the ,vienna ,exposition--,the ,centennial at ,philadelphia --,description of ,subsequent ,expositions at ,atlanta1 ,louisville1 ,new ,orleans1 ,chicago1 ,nashville1 and ,omaha--,the ,american ,commercial ,museums #dba-ddb ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,coinage1 ,,currency1 ,,and ,,banking ,i4 ,,banks ,,and ,,banking ,,resources3--,banks as ,gauges of ,wealth-- ,civilization reflected in ,monetary ,machinery--,features of ,united ,states ,financial ,policy--,gold ,store of ,various ,countries-- ,banking ,resources--,number and ,resources of ,banks4 ,,ii4 ,,coinage ,,and ,,production ,,of ,,precious ,,metals3--,why ,gold is a ,standard-- ,primitive ,measures of ,value--,history of ,coinage--,first ,united ,states ,mint--,coin ,ratios--,gold and ,silver ,production and ,mintage --,exports and ,imports of ,precious ,metals--,circulation per ,capita --,coinage ,act of #ahgc4 ,,iii4 ,,early ,,banking ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states3 --,first ,banking ,associations--,first ,united ,states ,bank and its ,branches--,early ,state ,banks--,second ,united ,states ,bank--,how it fell--,state ,banks and ,independent ,treasury4 ,,iv4 ,,history ,,of ,,legal ,,tender ,,notes3--,the ,treasury ,reserve--,treasury ,notes-- ,manner of ,issue and ,redemption4 ,v4 ,,the ,,national ,,banking ,,system3-- ,formation of ,national ,banks--,law's and ,regulations--,number and ,circulation4 ,,vi4 ,,foreign ,,banking ,,and ,,finance3--,banks of ,england and the ,continent of ,europe--,their ,strength and ,methods4 ,,vii4 ,,united ,,states ,,government ,,debt ,,since #aheg3--;,gross ,receipts and ,expenditures --,interest ,charges4 ,,viii4 ,,postal ,,savings ,,banks3--,why they are not adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,,ix4 ,,savings ,,banks ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states3--,their ,number and ,strength4 ,x4 ,,the ,,clearing ,,house3--,how conducted--,its ,economic ,uses4 ,,xi4 ,,panics ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,and ,,their ,,causes #ddc-dgj ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,fruit ,,culture ,early ,cultivation of ,fruits--,beauty and ,uses of ,fruits--,fruits brought to the ,new ,world--,culture at the ,beginning of the ,century --,early ,fruit ,districts--,the ,experimental ,stage--,pioneers in ,culture--,the ,age of ,progress--,first ,commercial ,orchards--,the ,age of ,triumph--,spread of ,culture in ,various ,states and ,areas-- ,revolution in ,science of ,fruit ,growing--,success and ,failure of ,different ,species--,vine ,culture--,improved ,culture with ,implements --,home ,consumption and ,export of ,fruits--,our ,fruits a ,favorite in ,europe--,apple ,culture--,uses of ,apples--,typical ,orchards-- ,notable ,varieties--,extent of ,apple ,orchards--,apple ,exports-- ,progress in the ,culture of ,other ,fruits--,varieties and ,best ,soils --,history and ,progress of ,berry ,culture--,the ,citrous ,fruits-- ,where and how grown--,their ,great ,value to ,man--,general ,review of ,fruit ,culture and ,fruits #dga-dij ,,the ,,century',s ,,commercial ,,progress ,i4 ,,world',s ,,commerce ,,at ,,end ,,of ,,eighteenth ,,century3--,methods of ,traffic --,volume of ,trade4 ,,ii4 ,,revolution ,,in ,,commerce3--,change from ,sails to ,steam--,first ,ocean ,steamers--,steamship ,lines--,change from ,wood to ,iron--,the ,compound ,engine--,advent of ,steel ,vessels-- ,the ,twin ,screw--,immense ,size of ,ships--,their ,great ,velocity-- ,appointment and ,service4 ,,iii4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,commercial ,,auxiliaries3 --,betterment of ,waterways--,ship ,canals--,harbor ,improvements-- ,cable and ,banking ,facilities4 ,,iv4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,international ,,trade3 --,european ,commercial ,growth--,food ,importations4 ,v4 ,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states3--,extent of ,domestic and ,foreign--,vast ,extension --,imports and ,exports--,character of4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,american ,,marine3-- ,former ,carrying ,trade--,modern ,carrying ,trade--,decline of ,united ,states ,maritime ,importance4 ,,vii4 ,,american ,,shipbuilding4 ,,viii4 ,,causes ,,for ,,the ,,century',s ,,commercial ,,progress3--,economic1 ,political1 and ,social ,causes4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century ,,prospect #dia-ead ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,century ,education a ,hundred ,years ago--,pestalozzi's ,influence--,froebel's ,kindergarten ,system--,its ,introduction into the ,united ,states-- ,english and ,german ,schools--,great ,european ,teachers--,foundation of ,public ,school ,systems in the ,united ,states--,the ,battles for ,public ,schools--,immensity of ,common ,school ,systems--,number of ,schools and ,pupils--,expenditure for ,schools--,primitive ,schoolhouses--,old-time ,teachers and ,methods--,the ,modern ,schoolhouse--,improvements in ,teachers and ,methods--,of the ,high ,school--,college and ,university--,teachers' ,institutes--,state ,associations--,school ,publications--,national ,bureau of ,education --,normal ,schools--,teachers' ,salaries--,girls' ,seminaries-- ,change to ,female ,teachers--,modern ,school ,furnishings--,text-books --,university ,courses of ,lectures--,schools of ,manual ,training and ,business--,education of the ,negro ,race--,experiment of ,booker ,t4 ,washington--,school ,funds--,compulsory ,education #eae-edb 8,,the ,,art ,,preservative0 ,i4 ,,the ,,printing ,,press3--,printing ,art in the ,eighteenth ,century-- ,franklin's ,influence--,the ,hand ,press--,various ,improved ,presses --,coming of the ,power ,press--,order of the ,countries in ,printing ,progress--,impetus to ,printing in the ,united ,states--,wonderful ,improvement in ,presses--,how a ,swift-motioned ,press operates-- ,quadruple ,presses--,printing1 ,folding1 and ,pasting--,counting and ,delivering--,the ,sextuple ,press--,its ,wonderful ,achievements-- ,color ,printing ,presses4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,setting ,,of ,,type3--,the ,art at the ,beginning of the ,century--,dawn of ,mechanical ,composition--,first ,type-setting ,machines--,the ,linotype--,how it sets ,type4 ,,iii4 ,,other ,,events ,,in ,,the ,,printing ,,line3--,old ,methods of spreading ,news-- ,modern ,electric ,methods--,cables and ,overland ,wires--,vast ,extent of ,newspapers--,code ,systems4 ,,iv4 ,,type-,,making1 ,,stereotyping1 ,,and ,,picture-,,making3--,from ,wood to ,metal ,type--,introduction of the ,type ,foundry--,the ,stereotyping ,process--,how it preserves ,type --,introduction of ,electrotyping--,its ,advantages in ,printing-- ,disappearance of ,wood ,engraving--,the ,art of ,illustration--,triumph of ,mechanical ,processes in ,printing--,tendency of the ,future #edc-egj ,,progress ,,in ,,mines ,,and ,,mining ,search for ,american ,mines--,progress of ,mining prior to #ahjj-- ,methods at ,beginning of the ,century--,coal ,mining ,methods-- ,hoisting and ,ventilation--,introduction of ,steam--,european and ,south ,american ,mines--,mining in the ,united ,states--,opening of ,mines--,various ,working ,appliances--,invention of ,davy's ,safety ,lamp--,the ,safety ,fuse--,mine ,elevators--,mining at the ,middle of the ,century--,gold and ,copper ,mines of ,united ,states--,uses of ,man ,engine--,hoisting ,machines--,pumping ,engines--,introduction of ,machine and ,dynamite--,uses of ,compressed ,air--,mine ,ventilation-- ,improved ,fans--,coal-cutting ,machines--,placer and ,hydraulic ,mining for ,gold--,the ,timbering of ,mines--,lake ,superior ,iron ,mining-- ,room ,mining--,rise of ,mining ,schools and ,societies--,mining ,laws in ,england and ,united ,states--,unwise ,action of ,congress--,mining ,claims and ,rights--,miners' ,qualifications #ega-ehf ,,art ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century ,i4 ,,painting3--,effect of the ,french ,revolution on ,fine ,art--,rapid ,advance of ,french ,art--,artists and their ,works--,revolution of #ahcj--;,english ,art and ,artists--,landscape ,art--,millet's 8,angelus0--,the ,landseer ,family--,ruskin's ,influence on ,english ,art--,edwin ,abbey as a ,colorist--,works of ,rosa ,bonheur--,later ,english ,masters--,continental ,artists--,american ,masters--,rise of ,american ,art ,schools--,their ,influence on ,art--,some ,distinguished ,schools--,era of ,excessive ,coloring--,american ,landscapes--,women ,artists of ,america--,their ,style and ,influence--,scandinavian ,artists--,modern ,art in ,scotland--,masterpieces in ,european ,galleries--,masters of ,current ,art in ,america--,some of their ,great ,works4 ,,ii4 ,,sculpture3--,old ,world ,sculptors at ,beginning of ,century--,centres of the ,art--,advance in ,different ,countries-- ,masterpieces--,american ,sculpture--,notable ,artists and their ,works --,characteristics of ,sculptors--,effect of the ,columbian ,exposition --,names and ,works of ,modern ,sculptors #ehg-fad ,,the ,,century',s ,,advance ,,in ,,surgery ,surgery at the ,dawn of the ,century--,methods in ,early ,part of the ,century--,discovery of ,ansthesia--,its ,great ,advantages-- ,antiseptic ,surgery--,healing by ,first ,intent--,setting of ,fractures --,modern ,treatment of ,bone ,diseases--,of ,amputations--,control of ,hemorrhages--,advance in ,wound ,treatment--,surgery of the ,alimentary ,canal--,stomach ,surgery--,kidney and ,bladder ,surgery-- ,hernia or ,rupture--,of ,diseases of ,female ,organs--,modern ,brain ,surgery--,its ,wonderful ,advance--,astounding ,operations--,the ,rntgen or ,x ,rays--,their ,value in ,surgery--,general ,review of ,surgical ,progress #fae-fcj ,,progress ,,of ,,medicine ,early ,medical ,science--,progress to ,beginning of ,nineteenth ,century --,famous ,ancient ,physicians--,noted ,schools of ,medicine--,medical ,charlatans--,evolution of ,medical ,remedies--,important ,changes in ,treatment--,first ,american ,schools of ,medicine--,advance in ,materia ,medica--,growth of ,medical ,associations--,medical ,literature-- ,high ,standard of ,modern ,medical ,education--,students and ,colleges --,tendency to ,special ,practice--,great ,importance of ,modern ,medical ,discoveries--,use of ,ansthetics in ,medicine--,advance in ,physiology and ,anatomy--,importance of ,trained ,nurses--,review of ,medical ,progress #fca-fdb ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,first ,railways--,vast ,development--,uses of ,railways--,importance to ,farmers and ,producers--,various ,railway ,systems--,government ,ownership and ,operation--,mileage of ,railways--,the ,world's ,great ,railways--,methods of building and operating ,railways in ,different ,countries--,bridge ,structures--,use of ,steel ,rails--,railway ,signals--,the ,block ,system--,single and ,double ,tracks--,first ,steam ,locomotives--,weight and ,power of ,modern ,locomotives--,the ,old-fashioned ,passenger ,car--,luxury of the ,modern ,palace ,car-- ,improvement in ,freight ,cars--,the ,modern ,air-brake--,advance in ,train ,equipment and ,service--,rates of ,speed--,railway ,mail ,service --,passenger and ,freight ,rates--,railway as compared with ,water ,transportation--,railway ,labor--,relief ,associations and ,insurance --,mountain ,railways--,rapid ,transit--,military ,railways-- ,portable and ,ship ,railways #fdc-ffd ,,advance ,,in ,,law ,,and ,,justice ,progress in ,international ,law--,its ,subdivisions--,law-making ,bodies --,powers and ,duties of ,legislators--,courts of ,justice--,duties of ,judges--,of ,jurors--,of ,civil ,procedure--,codification of ,laws--,criminal ,jurisprudence--,punishments for ,crimes--,capital ,punishment--,police ,powers--,rights of ,married ,women under ,law-- ,laws regarding ,parents and ,children--,transfer of ,real ,estate-- ,copyright ,laws--,their ,effect on ,publication--,admiralty ,laws--,of ,seamen and ,shipping--,advance in ,corporation ,laws--,laws relating to ,religion--,of ,religious ,freedom--,general ,review of ,legal ,progress #ffe-fgf ,,evolution ,,of ,,building ,,and ,,loan ,,associations ,i4 ,,general ,,principles3--,objects and ,uses of ,building ,associations-- ,explanation of the ,system--,the ,various ,plans of ,operation--,loan ,series--,maturity and ,payment of ,shares--,cost of ,shares and ,loans --,early ,history of ,these ,associations--,their ,character abroad-- ,history of ,american ,associations--,the ,first ,founded--,eulogies of ,building ,societies--,vast ,membership and ,capital--,management in ,respective ,states--,amounts returned to ,members--,teachers of ,practical ,thrift--,value of ,one's ,own ,home--,comfort for ,those of ,modest ,means--,makers of ,better ,citizens--,duties of ,officers and ,members--,responsibility of ,members--,size and ,cost of ,houses usually built--,typical ,houses--,the ,social ,features of ,building ,societies #fgg-fij ,,epoch-,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,century ,statesmen1 ,orators1 and ,jurists--,great ,generals--,naval ,heroes-- ,noted ,preachers and ,teachers--,eminent ,historians--,distinguished ,editors--,noted ,scientists--,leading ,philanthropists--,famous ,inventors--,popular ,novelists--,greatest ,poets--,best ,actors and ,lyric ,dramatists #fia-gbj ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page 8,triumphs and ,wonders of the ,,xix ,century0 ,frontispiece ,puck #ai ,old ,franklin ,electrical ,machine #bj 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,clipper ,ship4 ,permission of ,whittaker ,co4 #dic ,robert ,fulton #did ,the ,clermont1 ,fulton's ,first ,steamboat #die ,s4 ,cunard1 ,founder of ,first ,ocean ,packet ,line4 ,courtesy of ,cunard ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 #dig ,the ,oceanic1 #ahii--,largest ,ship ,afloat4 ,courtesy of ,white ,star ,line4 ,full page #dii ,steamer ,campania1 of ,cunard ,line4 ,courtesy of ,cunard ,s4 ,s4 ,co4 ,full page #eji ,cramps' ,shipyard on the ,delaware4 ,full page #eab ,pestalozzi1 of ,yverdun #eag ,froebel1 ,founder of ,kindergartens #eai ,dr4 ,thomas ,arnold1 ,rugby1 ,england #ebj ,an ,old ,log ,schoolhouse #eba ,schoolhouse at ,sleepy ,hollow #ebd ,interior of ,sleepy ,hollow ,schoolhouse #ebe ,child's ,guide4 ,full page #ebg ,dr4 ,charles ,w4 ,eliot1 ,president of ,harvard ,university #eca ,william ,t4 ,harris #ecc ,ideal ,schoolhouse and ,grounds #ecd ,suggestions for planting a ,schoolground #ece ,new ,high ,school1 ,philadelphia4 ,full page #ecg ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,maxwell1 ,superintendent 8,greater 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mouth of ,puck1 prince of fairies1 the playful speech1-- 8,i'll put a girdle round about the earth ,in forty minutes10 he had no thought that the undertaking of a boastful and prankish sprite could ever be outdone by human agency4 ,could the immortal bard have lived to witness the time when the girdling of the earth by means of the electric current became easier and swifter than elfin promise or possibility1 he must have speedily remodeled his splendid comedy and denied to the world its delightful1 fairy-like features4 ,an old and charming story runs1 that ,aladdin1 son of a widow of ,bagdad1 became owner of a magic lamp1 by means of whose remarkable powers he could bring to his instant aid the services of an all-helpful genie4 ,when ,aladdin wished for aid of any kind1 he had but to rub the lamp4 ,at once the genie appeared to gratify his desires4 ,by means of the lamp ,aladdin could hear the faintest whisper thousands of miles away4 ,he could annihilate both time and space1 and in a twinkling could transfer himself to the tops of the highest mountains4 ,how the charm of this ancient story is lost in the presence of that marvelous realism which marks the achievements of modern electrical science6 ,the earliest known observations on that subtle mystery which pervades all nature1 that silent energy whose phenomena and possibilities are limitless1 and before which even the wisest must stand in awe1 are attributed to ,thales1 a scholar of ,miletus1 in ,greece1 some #fjj years ,b4 ,c4 ,on rubbing a piece of amber against his clothing1 he observed that it gained the strange property of at first attracting and then repelling light objects brought near to it4 ,his observations led to nothing practical1 and no historic mention of electrical phenomena is found till the time of ,theophrastus 7,b4 ,c4 #cda71 who wrote that amber1 when rubbed1 attracted 8straws1 small sticks1 and even thin pieces of copper and iron40 ,both ,aristotle and ,pliny speak of the electric eel as having power to benumb animals with which it comes in contact4 ,thus far these simple phenomena only had been mentioned4 ,there was no study of electric force1 no recognition of it as such1 or as we know it and turn it to practical account to-day4 ,this seems quite strange when we consider the culture and power to investigate of the ,egyptians1 ,phnicians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans4 ,true1 a few fairy-like stories of how certain persons emitted sparks from their bodies1 or were cured of diseases by shocks from electric eels1 are found scattered through their literatures1 but they failed to follow the way to electrical science pointed out to them by ,thales4 ,even in the ,middle ,ages1 when a few scientists and writers saw fit to speak of electrical phenomena as observed by the ancients1 and even ventured to speculate upon them in their crude way1 there were no practical additions made to the science1 and the ground laid as fallow as it had done since the creation4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,franklin ,,electrical ,,machine4 7,by permission of ,franklin ,institute47 ,after a lapse of more than two thousand years from the experiment of ,thales1 ,dr4 ,gilbert1 physician to ,queen ,elizabeth 7,a4 ,d4 #aecc-afjc71 took up the study of amber and various other substances which1 when subjected to friction1 acquired the property of first1 attracting and then repelling light bodies brought near them4 ,he published his observations in a little book called 8,de ,magnete10 in the year ,a4 ,d4 #afjj1 and thus became the first author of a work upon electricity4 ,in this unique and initial work upon simple electrical effects1 the author added greatly to the number of substances that could be electrified by friction1 and succeeded in establishing the different degrees of force with which they could be made to attract or repel light bodies brought near them4 ,fortunately for electrical science1 and for that matter all sciences1 about this time the influence of ,lord ,bacon's ,inductive ,philosophy began to be felt by investigators and scientific men4 ,before that1 the causes of natural phenomena had not been backed up by repeated experiments amounting to practical proofs1 but had been accounted for1 if at all1 by sheer guesses or whimsical reasons4 ,bacon's method introduced hard1 cold1 constant experiment as the only sure means of finding out exactly the causes of natural phenomena2 and not only this1 but the necessity of series upon series of experiments1 each based upon the results of the former1 and so continuing1 link by link1 till1 from a comparison of the whole1 some general principle or truth could be drawn that applied to all4 ,this inductive method of scientific research gave great impetus to the study of every branch of science1 and especially to the unfolding of infallible and practical laws governing the phenomena of nature4 ,for very many years electrical experiments followed the lines laid down by ,dr4 ,gilbert2 that is1 the finding of substances that could be excited or electrified by friction4 ,by and by such substances came to be called electrics1 and it became a part of the crude electrical science of the time to compute the force with which these electrics1 when excited1 attracted or repelled other substances near them4 ,among the ablest of these investigators were ,robert ,boyle1 author of 8,experiments on the ,origin of ,electricity10 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 ,otto von ,guericke1 and ,francis ,hawksbee1 the last of whom communicated his experiments to the ,english ,royal ,society in #agje4 ,otto von ,guericke used a hard roll of sulphur as an electric4 ,he caused it to revolve rapidly while he rubbed or excited it with his hand4 ,newton and ,hawksbee used a revolving glass globe in the same way1 and thus became the parents of the modern and better equipped electrical machine used for school purposes4 ,the next step in electrical discovery1 and one which marks an epoch in the history of the science1 was made by ,stephen ,gray1 of ,england1 in #agbi4 ,to him is due the credit of finding out that electricity from an excited glass cylinder could be conducted away from it to objects at a remote distance4 ,though he used only a packthread as a conductor1 he thus carried electricity to a distance of several hundred feet1 and his novel discovery opened up what1 for the time1 was a brilliant series of experiments in ,england and throughout ,france and ,germany4 ,out of these experiments came the knowledge that some substances were natural conductors of electricity1 while others were non-conductors2 and that the non-conductors were the very substances--glass1 resin1 sulphur1 etc4--which were then in popular use as electrics4 ,here was laid the foundation of those after-discoveries which led to the selection of copper1 iron1 and other metals as the natural and therefore best conductors of electricity1 and glass1 etc41 as the best insulators or non-conductors4 ,up to this time an excited electric1 such as a glass cylinder or wheel1 had furnished the only source whence electricity had been drawn for purposes of experiment4 ,but now another great step forward was taken by the momentous discovery that electricity1 as furnished by the excited but quickly exhausted electric1 could be bottled up1 as it were1 and so accumulated and preserved in large quantities1 to be drawn upon when needed for experiment4 ,it is not known who made this important discovery2 but by common consent the storage apparatus1 which was to play so conspicuous a part in after-investigations1 was named the ,leyden ,jar or ,phial1 from the city of ,leyden in ,holland4 ,it consisted of a simple glass jar lined inside and out with tinfoil to within an inch or two of the top1 the tinfoil of the inside being connected by a conductor passing up through the stopper of the jar to a metallic knob on top4 ,this jar could be charged or filled with electricity from a common electric1 and it had the power of retaining the charge till the knob on top was touched by the knuckle1 or some unelectrified substance1 when a spark ensued1 and the jar was said to be discharged4 ,by conductors attached to the knob1 guns were fired off at a distance by means of the spark1 and it is said that ,dr4 ,benjamin ,franklin ignited a glass of brandy at the house of a friend by means of a wire attached to a ,leyden jar and stretched the full width of the ,schuylkill ,river at ,philadelphia4 ,illustration3 ,,leyden ,,jar4 ,at this stage in the history of eighteenth century electricity there enters a character whose experiments in electricity1 and whose writings upon the subject1 not only brought him great renown at home and abroad1 but perhaps did more to systematize the science and turn it to practical account than those of any contemporary4 ,this was the celebrated ,dr4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 of ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,he showed to the world that electricity was not created by friction upon an electric1 but that it was merely gathered there1 when friction was applied1 from surrounding nature2 and in proof of his theory he invaded the clouds with a kite during a thunder-storm1 and brought down electricity therefrom by means of the kite-string as a conductor4 ,the key he hung on the string became charged with the electric fluid1 and on being touched by an unelectrified body1 emitted sparks and produced all the effects commonly witnessed in the discharge of the ,leyden jar4 ,franklin further established the difference between positive and negative electricity1 and showed that the spark phenomenon on the discharge of the ,leyden jar was due to the fact that the inside tinfoil was positively electrified and the outside tinfoil negatively4 ,when the inside tinfoil was suddenly drawn upon by a conductor1 the spark was simply the result of an effort upon the part of the two kinds of electricity to maintain an equilibrium4 ,by similar reasoning he accounted for the phenomenon of lightning in the clouds1 and by easy steps invented the lightning-rod1 as a means of breaking the force of the descending bolt1 and carrying the dangerous fluid safely to the ground4 ,here we have not only a practical result growing out of electrical experiments1 but we witness the dawn of an era when electricity was to be turned to profitable commercial account4 ,the lightning-rod man has been abroad in the world ever since the days of ,franklin4 ,thus far1 then1 electrical science1 if science it could yet be called1 had gotten on at the dawn of the nineteenth century4 ,no electricity was really known but that produced by friction upon glass1 or some other convenient electric4 ,hence it was called frictional electricity by some1 and static electricity by others1 because it was regarded as electricity in a state of rest4 ,though a thing fitted for curious experiment1 and a constant invitation to scientific research1 it had no use whatever in the arts4 ,an excited electric could furnish but a trivial and temporary supply of electricity4 ,it exhausted itself in the exhibition of a single spark4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,new ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,electricity4 ,by a happy accident in #agij1 ,galvani1 of ,bologna1 ,italy1 while experimenting upon a frog1 discovered that he could produce alternate motion between its nerves and muscles through the agency of a fluid generated by certain dissimilar metals when brought close together4 ,though this mysterious fluid came to be known as the galvanic fluid1 and though galvanism was made to perpetuate his name1 it was not until #ahjj that ,volta1 another ,italian1 showed to the scientific world that really a new electricity had been found4 ,illustration3 ,,franklin ,,institute1 ,,philadelphia4 7,from photo furnished by ,institute47 ,volta constructed what became known as the galvanic pile1 but more largely since as the voltaic pile1 which he found would generate electricity strongly and continuously4 ,he used in its construction the dissimilar metals silver and zinc1 cut into disks1 and piled alternately one upon the other1 but separated by pieces of cloth moistened with salt water4 ,this simple generator of electricity was the forerunner of the more powerful batteries of the present day1 and which are still popularly known as voltaic cells or batteries4 ,but the importance of ,volta's discovery did not lay more in the construction of his electrical generator than in the great scientific fact that chemistry now became linked indissolubly with electricity and electrical effects4 ,the two novel and charming sciences1 hitherto separate1 were henceforth to coperate in those majestic revelations and magnificent possibilities which so signally distinguish the nineteenth century4 ,by means of greatly improved voltaic cells or batteries1 that is1 by jars containing acid in which were suspended dissimilar metals1 electricity could be produced readily and in somewhat continuous current4 ,by increasing the number of these cells or jars or batteries1 and connecting them with conductors1 the current could be made stronger and more effective4 ,in contradistinction to the old frictional or static electricity1 the new became known as chemical or current electricity4 ,as was to have been expected1 ,volta's invention and discovery excited the whole domain of electrical science to new investigation1 and brought in their train a host of wonderful results1 growing more and more practical each year1 and pointing the way more and more clearly to the commercial value of electricity as a familiar1 inexhaustible1 and irresistible power4 ,thus1 in #ahja1 ,nicholson showed that an electric current from a voltaic pile would1 when passed through salt water1 decompose the water and resolve it into its two original gases1 oxygen and hydrogen4 ,in #ahjg1 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 carrying electricity further into the domain of chemistry1 showed1 by means of the electric current1 that various metallic substances embraced in the earth's crust1 and before his time supposed to be elementary1 were really dissoluble and easily resolved into their component parts1 whether solids1 or gases1 or both4 ,two years later1 in #ahji1 he made the equally momentous discovery of something which was to prove a veritable sit lux1 8,let there be light10 for the nineteenth century1 and illuminate it beyond all others4 ,though it had been known almost from the date of the first voltaic pile that1 when the ends of its two conducting wires were brought close together1 a spark was seen to leap in a curved or arc line from one wire to the other1 which phenomenon was known as the voltaic arc1 it remained for ,davy to exhibit this arc in all the beauty of a brilliant light by using two charcoal 7carbon7 sticks or electrodes1 instead of the wires1 at the point of close approach4 ,here was the first principle of the after-evolved arc light to be found by the end of the century in every large city1 and to prove such a source of comfort and safety for their millions of inhabitants4 ,this principle was simply that a stream of electricity pouring along a conducting wire will1 when interrupted by a substance such as carbon 7charcoal71 which is a slow conductor1 throw off a bright light at the point of interruption4 ,the phenomenon has been very aptly likened to a running stream of water in whose bed a stone has been placed4 ,the stone obstructs the flow of water4 ,the water remonstrates by an angry ripple and excited roar4 ,in ,davy's experiment with the pieces of charcoal1 both became intensely hot while the electricity was making its brilliant arc leap from one to the other1 and would1 of course1 soon be consumed4 ,he1 therefore1 in showing the principle of a permanent luminant1 failed to demonstrate its practical possibilities4 ,these last were not to be attained till the nineteenth century was well along1 and only after very numerous and very baffling attempts4 ,between #ahaj and #ahcj1 many important laws governing electrical phenomena were discovered1 which tended greatly to render the science more exact1 and to give it commercial direction4 ,oersted1 of ,denmark1 discovered a means of measuring the strength and direction of an electric current4 ,ampre1 of ,france1 discovered the identity of electricity and what had before been called galvanism4 ,ritchie1 of ,england1 made the first machine by which a continuous motion was produced by means of the attractions and repulsions between fixed magnets and electro-magnets4 ,this machine was an early suggestion of the dynamo and motor of the coming years of the century4 ,it meant that electricity was a source of power1 as well as of other phenomenal things4 ,in speaking of the electro-magnet in connection with ,ritchie's machine1 it is proper to say that the electro-magnet was probably discovered between #ahbe and #ahcj1 but precisely by whom is not known4 ,it differs from the natural magnet1 or the permanent steel horseshoe magnet1 and consists simply of a round piece of soft iron1 called a core1 around which are wrapped several coils of fine wire4 ,when an electric current is made to pass through this wrapping of wire1 called the helix1 the iron core becomes magnetized1 and has all the power of a permanent magnet4 ,but as soon as the electric current ceases1 the magnetic power of the core is lost4 ,hence it is called an electro-magnet1 or a temporary magnet1 to distinguish it from a permanent magnet4 ,illustration3 ,,induction ,,coil4 ,while the discovery of the electro-magnet was very important in the respect that it afforded great magnetic power by the use of a limited or economic galvanic force1 or1 in other words1 by the use of smaller and fewer ,voltaic batteries1 it was not until ,faraday began his splendid series of electrical discoveries1 in #ahca1 that a new and exhaustless wellspring of electricity was found to lay at the door of science4 ,faraday's prime discovery was that of the induction of electric currents1 or1 in other words1 of manufacturing electricity directly from magnetism4 ,he began his experiments with what became known as an induction coil1 which1 though then crude in his hands1 is the same in principle to-day4 ,it consists of an iron core wrapped with two coils of insulated wire4 ,one coil is of very lengthy1 thin wire1 and is called the secondary coil4 ,the other is of short1 thick wire1 and is called the primary4 ,when a magnetic current is passed through the primary coil1 with frequent makes and breaks1 it induces an alternating current of very high tension in the secondary coil1 thus powerfully increasing its effects4 ,in ,faraday's further study of electric induction1 he showed that when a conductor carrying a current was brought near to a second conductor it induced or set up a current in this second4 ,so magnets were found to have a similar effect upon one another4 ,illustration3 ,,magnetic ,,fields ,,of ,,force4 ,the secret of these phenomena was found to lie in the fact that a magnet1 or a conductor carrying a current1 was the centre of a field of force of very considerable extent4 ,such a field of force can be familiarly shown by placing a piece of glass or white paper sprinkled with fine iron filings upon the poles of a magnet4 ,the filings will be drawn into concentric circles1 whose extent measures the magnet's field of force4 ,so also the extent of the field of force surrounding a conductor carrying a current may be familiarly shown4 ,in these instances the filings brought within the fields of force are magnetized4 ,so would any other conducting substance be1 and would become capable of carrying away as an independent current that which had been induced in it4 ,here we have the essential principle of the modern dynamo-electric machine1 commonly called simply dynamo4 ,faraday actually constructed a dynamo1 which answered very well for his experiments1 but failed in commercial results because the only source of energy he could draw upon in his time was that supplied by the rather costly voltaic cells4 ,during ,faraday's time and subsequently1 electricians in ,europe and the ,united ,states were active in formulating further laws relative to the nature1 strength1 and control of electrical currents1 and each year was one of preparation for the coming leap of electrical science into the vast realm of commercial convenience and profit4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,telegraph4 ,from the date of the discovery that electricity could be conducted to a distance1 dreams were indulged that it could be made a means of communicating intelligence4 ,in the eighteenth century1 many attempts were made to carry intelligent signals over electric wires4 ,some of these were quite ingenious1 but in the end failures1 because the old-fashioned frictional electricity was the only kind then known and employed4 ,even after the discovery of the voltaic cell or battery1 which afforded an ample supply of chemical electricity to operate a telegraphic apparatus1 the time was not ripe for successful telegraphy1 for up till #ahcj no battery had been produced that was sufficiently constant in its operation to supply the kind of current required4 ,for feasible telegraphy1 two important steps were yet necessary4 ,one was the discovery of the electro-magnet1 #ahbe-cj4 ,the other was the discovery of the ,daniell's battery or cell1 in #ahcf1 by means of which a constant electric current could be sustained for a long time4 ,illustration3 ,,daniell',s ,,cells4 ,but even before these two indispensable requisites had been supplied by human genius1 much had been done to develop the mechanical methods of conveying intelligence4 ,in #ahaf1 ,ronalds1 of ,england1 constructed a telegraph by means of which he operated a system of pith-ball signals which could be understood4 ,in #ahbj1 ,ampre suggested that the deflection of the magnetic needle by an electric current might be turned to account in imparting intelligence at a distance4 ,in #ahbh1 ,dyar1 of ,new ,york1 perfected a telegraph by means of which he made tracings and spaces upon a piece of moving litmus paper1 which tracings and spaces could be intelligently interpreted through a prearranged code4 ,a little later1 #ahcj1 ,baron ,schilling constructed a telegraph which imparted motion to a set of needles at either end4 ,illustration3 ,,morse ,,telegraph ,,and ,,battery4 ,from this time up to #ahcg1 which last year was a memorable one in the history of telegraphy1 the genius of such distinguished men as ,morse in ,america1 ,wheatstone and ,cooke in ,england1 and ,steinhill in ,munich1 was brought to bear on the further evolution of the telegraph4 ,while all these names have been associated with the invention of the first practical telegraph1 it is impossible1 with justice1 to rob that of ,morse of the distinguished honor4 ,morse conceived his invention on board the ship ,surry1 while on a voyage from ,havre to ,new ,york1 in ,october1 #ahcb4 ,it consisted1 as conceived1 of a single circuit of conductors fed by some generator of electricity4 ,he devised a system of signs1 which was afterwards improved into the ,morse alphabet1 consisting of dots or points1 and spaces1 to represent numerals4 ,these were impressed upon a strip of ribbon or paper by a lever which held at one end a pen or pencil4 ,the paper or ribbon was made to move along under the pencil or pen at a regular rate by means of clockwork4 ,in accordance with these conceptions1 ,morse completed his instrument and publicly exhibited it in #ahce4 ,he gave it further publicity1 in much improved form1 in #ahcg4 ,in this form it was entirely original in the important respects that the ribbon or paper was made to move by clockwork1 while a pen or pencil gave the impressions1 thus preserving a permanent record of the message conveyed4 ,illustration3 ,,samuel ,,finley ,,breese ,,morse4 ,though under systems less original and effective than that of ,morse1 a first actual telegraph had been operated between ,paddington and ,drayton1 ,england1 a distance of #ac miles1 in #ahci1 and one at ,calcutta1 ,india1 for a distance of #ba miles1 it was not until #ahdd that the world's era of practical telegraphy actually set in under the ,morse system1 which speedily superseded all others4 ,in that year1 amid the jeers of congressmen and the adverse predictions of the press1 ,morse erected the first ,american telegraph line in ,america1 between ,baltimore and ,washington1 a distance of #dj miles1 and1 to the confusion of all detractors1 sent the first message over it on ,may #bg of that year4 ,from that date the fame of ,morse was established at home1 and soon became world-wide4 ,his system of telegraphy1 with slight modifications1 became that of all civilized countries4 ,illustration3 ,,cyrus ,w4 ,,field4 ,as was to be expected in a century so full of enterprise as the nineteenth1 a science so attractive1 so useful to civilization1 so commercially valuable1 so full of possibilities1 as telegraphy1 could not remain at rest4 ,everywhere it stimulated to improvement and new invention and discovery2 and as the century progressed1 it witnessed in steady succession the wonders of what became known as duplex telegraphy1 that is1 the sending of different messages over the same wire at the same time4 ,again1 the century witnessed the invention of quadruplex telegraphy1 that is1 the sending of four separate messages over the same wire1 two in one direction and two in another4 ,this was followed by the invention of ,gray's harmonic system1 by means of which a number of messages greater than four are transmitted at the same time over the same wire2 and this again by ,delaney's synchronous multiplex system1 by means of which as many as #gb separate messages have been sent over the same wire at the same time1 either all in one direction1 or some in one direction and the rest in an opposite4 ,for a time successful telegraphy was limited to overland spaces1 the conductors or wires1 consisting of iron or copper1 being insulated where they passed the supporting poles4 ,in the cities1 supporting poles proved to be unsightly and dangerous1 and they were succeeded by underground conduits carrying insulated wires4 ,in #ahci1 we read of what may be reckoned the first successful experiment in telegraphing under water by means of an insulated wire1 or cable1 as a conductor4 ,the experiment was tried at ,calcutta1 and under the river ,hugli4 ,in #ahdb1 ,morse experimented at ,new ,york with an under-water cable1 and showed that a successful submarine telegraphy was practical4 ,in #ahdh1 a cable1 insulated with gutta-percha1 was laid under water between ,new ,york and ,jersey ,city1 and successfully operated4 ,in #ahea1 a submarine cable was laid and successfully operated under the ,english ,channel4 ,an enterprising ,american1 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field1 of ,new ,york1 now took up the subject of submarine telegraphy1 and suggested a cable under the ocean between ,ireland and ,newfoundland4 ,one was laid in #aheg1 but it unfortunately parted at a distance of three hundred miles from land4 ,a second was laid under ,mr4 ,field's auspices in #aheh1 but the insulation proved faulty1 and after working imperfectly for a month1 it gave out entirely4 ,illustration3 ,,ocean ,,cable4 ,these disasters1 though furnishing much valuable experience1 checked the enterprise of submarine telegraphy for a number of years4 ,not until #ahfa1 when a deep-sea cable was successfully laid and operated between ,malta and ,alexandria1 and in #ahfd1 when one was laid across the ,persian ,gulf1 did enterprise gain sufficient courage to dare another attempt to cable the ,atlantic4 ,in #ahfe1 that attempt was made4 ,again the cable broke1 but this did not dissuade from another and successful attempt in #ahff4 ,this signal triumph was the forerunner of others1 equally important to international commerce and the world's diplomacy4 ,countries far apart1 and isolated by oceans1 have1 by means of deep-sea cables1 been brought into intimate relation1 and made sharers of one another's intelligence1 enterprise1 and civilizing instincts4 ,what the overland telegraph has done toward bringing local states and communities into contact1 the submarine cable has done for the remote nations4 ,in form1 an ocean cable differs much from the simple wire which constitutes the conductor of an overland or even underground telegraph4 ,it is made in many ways1 but mostly with a central core of numerous copper wires1 which are more flexible than a single wire4 ,these are thickly covered with an insulating material1 such as gutta-percha1 after first being heavily wrapped in tarred canvas or like material4 ,the central cores may be one1 two1 three1 or even more in number4 ,where a cable is likely to be subjected to the abrasion of ship-bottoms1 rocks1 or anchors1 it has an outer covering or guard composed of closely united steel wires4 ,in submarine telegraphy1 the instruments used in sending and receiving the message are very much more ingenious1 delicate1 and costly than in overland telegraphy4 ,whereas at the beginning of the nineteenth century electric telegraphy was an unknown science1 and even up to the middle of the century was of limited use and doubtful commercial value1 nevertheless the end of the century witnesses in its growth and application one of its most stupendous marvels4 ,from the few miles of overland wires in #ahdd1 the total mileage of the century has expanded to approximately #e1jjj1jjj1 and the submarine to #agj1jjj4 ,a single company 7the ,western ,union7 in the ,united ,states operates #hjj1jjj miles of wire1 conveying #fj1jjj1jjj messages per year1 while throughout the world more than #bjj1jjj1jjj messages per year serve the purposes of enlightened intercourse4 ,the capital employed reaches many hundreds of millions of dollars4 ,the close of the nineteenth century opened possibilities in telegraphy that may be classed as startling in comparison with its previous attainments4 ,it would seem that the intervention of the familiar conducting wire is not absolutely necessary to the transmission of intelligence4 ,the old and well-established principle of induced currents has lately been turned to account in what is termed 8telegraphy without wires40 ,as an instance1 a telegraph wire1 when placed close alongside of a railroad track1 will take up and convey to and from the stations the induced pulsations of a magneto-telephone placed within a passing car1 and connected to the metallic roof of the car4 ,this system has been put to practical use on at least one railway1 and pronounced feasible4 ,but a greater marvel than this springs from the discovery of ,hertz1 about #ahij1 that every electrical discharge is the centre of oscillations radiating indefinitely through space4 ,the phenomenon is likened to the dropping of a stone in a placid lake4 ,concentric undulations of the water are set up1--little waves1--which gradually enlarge in diameter1 and affect in greater or less degree the entire surface4 ,could an apparatus be invented to detect and direct the oscillations made in space by an electric generator1--to perceive1 as it were1 the ether undulations1 just as the eye notes those on the lake's surface8 ,in #ahia1 ,professor ,branley found that the electric vibrations in ether could be detected by means of fine metallic filings4 ,no matter how good a conductor of electricity the metal in mass might be1 when reduced to fine filings or powder it offered powerful resistance to a passing current2 in other words1 became a very poor conductor4 ,an electric discharge or spark near the filings greatly decreased their resistance4 ,if the filings were jarred1 their original resistance was restored4 ,branley placed his filings in a tube1 into either end of which wires were passed4 ,these were connected with a galvanometer4 ,ordinarily1 the resistance of the filings was such as to prevent a current passing through them1 and the galvanometer remained unaffected4 ,but when an electric spark was emitted near the tube1 the resistance was so much decreased that the current passed readily through the filings1 and was detected by the galvanometer4 ,this is simply equivalent to saying that the discharge of the electric spark made the filings to cohere and become a better conductor than when lying loosely in the tube4 ,here1 then1 was opportunity for an instrument which had but to regulate the number of sparks and indicate the presence of the electric waves in order to produce dots and dashes similar to those used in the common telegraph4 ,such an instrument was brought nearest to perfection by ,signor ,marconi1 a young ,italian1 in #ahif4 ,with it he succeeded in sending electric waves through ether or space1 and without the use of wires1 a distance of four miles1 upon ,salisbury ,plain1 ,england4 ,later1 he transmitted messages by means of space 7wireless7 telegraphy across ,bristol ,channel1 a distance of #h4g miles1 and subsequently across the ,english ,channel1 a distance of #ah miles4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,clarke1 of ,america1 has improved upon ,marconi's methods of space telegraphy1 and shown some remarkable results4 ,whether space telegraphy will eventually supersede that by wires is one of the problems that time only can solve4 ,but such are the possibilities of electrical science that we may well be prepared for more wonderful revelations than any yet made4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,eastern ,,laying ,,an ,,ocean ,,cable4 ,,iv4 ,,hello6 ,,hello6 ,telegraph 7,gr4 tele1 far1 and graphein1 to write7 implies the production of writing at a distance by means of an electric current upon a conductor4 ,telephone 7,gr4 tele1 far1 and phone1 sound7 implies the production of sound at a distance by the same means1 though the word telephone was in early use to describe the transmission of sound by means of a rod or tightly stretched string connecting two diaphragms of wood1 membrane1 or other substance4 ,this last plan of transmitting sound came to be known as the string telephone1 and it retained this name until the invention of the electric telephone4 ,like the electric telegraph1 the electric telephone was an evolution4 ,the string telephone1 in the hands of ,wheatstone1 showed1 as early as #ahai1 that the vibrations of the air produced by a musical instrument were very minute1 and could be transmitted hundreds of yards by means of a string armed with delicate diaphragms4 ,but while the string telephone served to confirm the fact that sounds are vibrations of the atmosphere which affect the tympanum of the ear1 it remained but a toy or experimental device till after electric telegraphy became an accepted science1 that is1 in the year #ahcg and subsequently4 ,one of the earliest steps toward the evolution of the electric telephone was taken by ,mr4 ,page1 of ,salem1 ,mass41 in #ahcg1 who discovered that a magnetic bar could emit sounds when rapidly magnetized and demagnetized2 and that those sounds corresponded with the number of currents which produced them4 ,this led to the discovery1 between #ahdg and #aheb1 of several kinds of electric vibrators adapted to the production of musical sounds and their transmission to a distance4 ,all this was wonderful and momentous1 but a little while had still to elapse before one arose bold enough to admit the possibility of transmitting human speech by electricity4 ,he came in #ahed1 in the person of ,charles ,bourseul1 of ,paris1 who1 though as if writing out a fanciful dream1 said1 8,we know that sounds are produced by vibrations1 and are adapted to the ear by the same vibrations which are reproduced by the intervening medium4 ,but the intensity of the vibrations diminishes very rapidly with the distance1 so that it is1 even with the aid of speaking-tubes and trumpets1 impossible to exceed somewhat narrow limits4 ,suppose that a man speaks near a movable disk1 sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the voice1 that this disk alternately makes and breaks the current from a battery1 you may have at a distance another disk1 which will at the same time execute the same vibrations40 ,illustration3 ,a ,,string ,,telephone4 ,bourseul further showed that the sounds of the voice thus reproduced would have the same pitch1 but admitted that1 in the then present state of acoustic science1 it could not be affirmed that the syllables uttered by the human voice could be so reproduced1 since nothing was known of them1 except that some were uttered by the teeth1 others by the lips1 and so on4 ,the status of the telephone then1 according to ,bourseul1 was that voice could be reproduced at a distance at the pitch of the speaker1 but that something more was needed to transmit the delicate and varied intonations of human speech when it was broken into syllables and utterances4 ,to transmit simply voice was one thing2 to transmit the timbre or quality of speech was another4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,alva ,,edison4 ,bourseul made plain the problem that was still before the investigator4 ,and now comes one of the most remarkable episodes in the history of electricity1--a chapter of mingled shame and glory4 ,in the village of ,eberly's ,mills1 ,cumberland ,county1 ,pa41 lived a genius by the name of ,daniel ,drawbaugh1 who had made a study of telephony up to the very point ,bourseul had left it4 ,he had transmitted musical sound1 sound of the voice1 and other sounds in the same pitch4 ,he had said that this was all that could be done till some means was discovered of holding up the constant onward flow of the electric current along a conducting wire by introducing into such flow a variable resistance such as would impart to simple pitch of voice the quality or timbre of human speech4 ,drawbaugh achieved this in his simple workshop as early as #ahei-fj1 according to evidence furnished to the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court at the celebrated trial of the cases which robbed him of the right to his prior invention4 ,he did it by introducing into the circuit a small quantity of powdered charcoal confined in a tumbler1 through which the current was passing4 ,the charcoal1 being a poor conductor and in small grains1 offered just that kind of variable resistance to the current necessary to reproduce the tones and syllables of speech4 ,he transmitted speech between his shop and house1 and proved the success he had met with before audiences in ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,but he neglected to care for the commercial side of his discovery1 though many of his patents antedated those which contributed to deprive him of deserved honor and profit4 ,in #ahfa1 ,reis1 of ,germany1 came into notice as the inventor of a telephone which transmitted sound very clearly1 but failed to reproduce syllabified speech4 ,however1 the principle and shape of his transmitter and receiver were accepted by those who followed him4 ,two men now came upon the scene who had reached the conclusion already arrived at by ,drawbaugh1 and who became rivals over his head for the honor and profit of an invention by means of which the quality of the voice in speaking could be transmitted4 ,these two were ,elisha ,gray1 of ,chicago1 and ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 of ,boston4 ,their respective devices seem to have been akin1 and to have been presented to the patent office almost simultaneously2 so nearly so1 at least1 as to make them a part of that long1 costly1 and acrimonious legal contention over priority of invention which did not end till #ahhg4 ,both ,bell and ,gray reached the conclusion that the transmission of articulate speech was impossible unless they could produce electrical undulations corresponding exactly with the vibrations of the air or sound waves4 ,they brought this similarity about by introducing a variable resistance into the electric current by means of an interposing liquid1 just as ,drawbaugh had done years before with his tumbler of powdered charcoal4 ,bell exhibited his instrument with comparative success at the ,centennial ,exhibition in #ahgf in ,philadelphia2 but much had yet to be done to perfect a telephone of real commercial value4 ,the years #ahgg-gh were years of great activity among electricians1 whose prime object was to perfect a telephone transmitter and receiver1 by means of whose mutual operations at opposite ends of a circuit all the modulations of speech could be preserved and passed4 ,to this end ,berliner introduced into a transmitter or sender the then well-known principle of the microphone 7,gr4 mikros1 small1 phone1 sound71 which magnified the faint sounds by the variation in electrical resistance1 caused by variation of pressure at loose contact between two metal points or electrodes4 ,edison quickly followed with a similar transmitter or sender1 in which one of the electrodes was of soft carbon1 the other of metal4 ,then came 7#ahgh7 ,hughes and ,blake with senders1 in which both of the electrodes were of hard carbon4 ,subsequently came other and rapid modifications of the sender1 both in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 till the form of telephone now in popular use was arrived at1 and which1 strange to say1 is1 in its method of securing the necessary variable resistance in the circuit1 quite like that employed by ,mr4 ,drawbaugh2 to wit1 the introduction of fine carbon granules into a small metal cup just behind the vibrating diaphragm or disk of the sender4 ,the circuit goes into the diaphragm in front1 passing through the carbon granules and out through the back of the instrument4 ,the action of talking into the sender causes the granules to be agitated1 thus opening and closing the circuit and producing the conditions necessary to the transmission of articulate speech4 ,the diaphragm or disk is the very thin covering of the cup containing the granules4 ,it is sometimes made of carbon1 but generally of hard metal1 as steel4 ,on being struck by the sound waves of the voice1 it vibrates to correspond4 ,the same vibrations are reproduced in the receiver at the opposite end of the circuit1 and thus one listens to the phenomenon of transmitted human speech4 ,the current for telephonic purposes is furnished by one or more batteries or cells1 whose effect is heightened by the presence of an induction coil4 ,the tendency now is to make 8bipolars0--two contacts at the diaphragm--in place of a single contact4 ,this style is becoming more in vogue in order to meet the demands of long-distance work4 ,to each telephone is attached a generator or device for ringing a little bell as a signal that some one wishes to communicate4 ,to such perfection have telephones been brought that it is quite possible to converse intelligibly at the distance of a thousand miles1 with a less satisfactory service at twice or thrice that distance4 ,the possibilities of clear speech-transmission at indefinite distance are without measure4 ,like the telegraph1 the telephone has opened an immense and profitable industry1 involving hundreds of millions of dollars4 ,at the end of the century it is1 unfortunately1 monopolistic2 but the time is near when a reasonable charge for service will enable every business house to communicate with its customers1 and when even the remote corners of counties will be brought into touch with their capitals and with one another4 ,along the lines of civilizing contact the telephone fairly divides the wonders of the century with the telegraph1 while for intimate intellectual communication it is a triumph of genius without parallel4 ,it is the dispenser of speech in city1 town1 and village2 in factory and mine1 in army and navy2 throughout government departments2 and in ,budapest1 ,hungary1 it is a purveyor of general news1 like the newspaper1 for the 8,telephone ,gazette0 of that city has a list of regular subscribers1 to whom it transmits1 at private houses1 clubs1 cafes1 restaurants1 and public buildings1 its editorials1 telegrams1 local news1 and advertisements4 ,a very natural outgrowth of the telephone was that curious invention known as the phonograph 7,gr4 phone1 sound1 and graphein1 to write74 ,it is not only an instrument for writing or preserving sound1 but for reproducing it4 ,as a simple recorder of sound1 it was an instrument dating as far back as #ahjg1 when ,dr4 ,young showed how a tuning-fork might be made to trace a record of its own vibrations4 ,but ,young's thought had to go through more than half a century of slow evolution before the modern phonograph was reached2 for in the phonautograph of ,scott1 the logographs of ,barlow and ,blake1 and the various other attempts up to #ahgg to make and preserve tracings of speech1 there were no successful means of reproducing speech from those tracings hit upon4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,graphophone4 ,in that year 7#ahgg71 ,edison1 in striving to make a self-recording telephone by connecting with its diaphragm or disk a stylus or metal point which would record its vibrations upon a strip of tinfoil1 accidentally reversed the motion of the tinfoil so that the tracings upon it affected the stylus or tracing-point in an opposite direction4 ,to his surprise1 he found that this reverse motion of the tinfoil1 tickling1 as it were1 the stylus oppositely1 reproduced the sounds which had at first agitated the diaphragm4 ,it was but a step now to the production of his matured phonograph in #ahgh4 ,he made a cylinder with a grooved surface1 over which he spread tinfoil4 ,a stylus or fine metal point was made to rest upon the tinfoil1 so as to produce a tracing in it1 following the grooves in the cylinder when the latter was made to revolve4 ,this stylus was connected with the diaphragm of an ordinary telephone transmitter4 ,when one spoke into the transmitter1 that is1 set the diaphragm to vibrating1 the stylus impressed the vibratory motions of the diaphragm1 or1 in other words1 the waves of the exciting sound1 in light indentations upon the tinfoil4 ,in order to reproduce the sounds thus registered in the tinfoil of the cylinder1 it was made to revolve in an opposite direction under the point of the stylus1 and as the stylus was now affected by precisely the same indentations it had first made in the tinfoil1 it carried the identical vibrations it had recorded back to the diaphragm of the telephone1 and thus reproduced in audible form the speech that had at first set the diaphragm to vibrating4 ,the speech thus reproduced was that of the original speaker in pitch and quality4 ,ingenious and wonderful as ,edison's machine was1 it was susceptible of improvement1 and soon ,bell and others came forward with a phonograph in which the recording cylinder was covered with a hardened wax4 ,this was called the graphophone4 ,again1 ,berliner improved upon the phonograph by using for his tracing surface a horizontal disk of zinc covered with wax4 ,by chemical treatment1 the tracings made in the wax were etched into the zinc1 and thus made permanent4 ,edison made further and ingenious improvements upon his phonograph by attaching hearing tubes for the ear to the sound receiver1 and by the employment of an electric motor to revolve the wax cylinder4 ,by the attachment of enlarged trumpets and other devices1 every form of modern phonograph has been rendered capable of reproducing in great perfection the various sounds of speech1 song1 and instrument1 and has become a most interesting source of entertainment4 ,v4 ,,dynamo ,,and ,,motor4 ,dynamo is from the ,greek dunamis1 meaning power4 ,motor is from the ,latin motus1 or moveo1 to move4 ,dynamo is the every-day term applied to the dynamo-electric machine4 ,motor is the every-day term applied to the electric motor4 ,the dynamo and motor are quite alike in principle of construction1 yet direct opposites in object and effect4 ,perhaps it might be well to designate both as dynamo-electric machines1 and to say that1 when such machine is used for the conversion of mechanical energy or power of any kind into electrical energy or power1 it is a dynamo4 ,when a reverse result is sought1 that is1 when electrical energy or power is to be converted into mechanical energy or power1 the machine that is used is a motor4 ,in practical use for most purposes they are brought into coperation1 the dynamo being at one end of an electric system1 making and sending forth electricity1 the motor being at the other end1 taking up such electricity and running machinery with it4 ,both machines were epoch-making in the midst of a wondrous century1 and both were results of those marvelous evolutions in electrical science which characterized the earlier years of the century4 ,we have seen how the simple glass cylinder or sulphur roll became1 when rubbed1 a generator of electricity4 ,in a later chapter of electrical history1 we saw a new and more powerful generator of electricity in the voltaic cell1 by means of opposing metals acted upon chemically by acids4 ,the greatest1 grandest1 most powerful1 and most economic of all generators of electricity was yet to come in the shape of the dynamo4 ,we see its beginnings in those investigations of ,faraday which led to the discovery of the induction coil and the principles of magneto-electric induction4 ,in #ahca1 he invented a simple yet1 for that date1 wonderful machine1 which was none the less the first dynamo in principle1 because he modestly called it 8,a ,new ,electrical ,machine40 ,he mounted a thin disk of copper1 about twelve inches in diameter1 upon a central axis1 so that it would revolve between the opposite poles of a permanent magnet4 ,as the disk revolved1 its lower half cut the field of force of the magnet1 and a current was induced which was carried away by means of two collecting brushes1 fastened respectively to the axis and circumference of the disk4 ,this was the first electric current ever produced by a permanent magnet4 ,the ,faraday machine and others that derived the mechanical energy which was converted into electric current from a permanent magnet were classed as magneto-generators4 ,soon the electro-magnet took the place of the permanent magnet1 because it produced a much stronger field of force4 ,but then the electro-magnet had to have a current to excite it4 ,this current was supplied by a magneto-generator1 placed somewhere on the dynamo4 ,now came the thought1 suggested by ,brett in #ahdh1 that the induced currents of the dynamo could themselves be turned to account for increasing the strength of the electro-magnets used in inducing them4 ,this was a most progressive step in the history of the dynamo4 ,it led to rapid inventions1 whose principle was based on the fact that every dynamo carried within the cores of its magnets enough of unused or residual magnetism to render the magnets self-exciting the moment the machine started4 ,so the outside means of magnetizing the fields of force of the dynamo passed away4 ,the dynamo speedily grew in size and importance4 ,the electro-magnets or fields of force were greatly increased in number1 size1 and power4 ,there were great improvements in the construction and efficiency of the wire coils or armatures which cut the fields of force1 and a corresponding increase in their number4 ,commutators and brushes underwent like improvement4 ,so1 at last1 the well-nigh perfect and all-powerful dynamo of the end of the century was evolved1 with a capacity for delivering1 in the form of electricity1 ninety per cent of the mechanical energy which set it in motion4 ,in the application of steam to machinery1 eighty per cent1 and sometimes more1 of the energy supplied by a ton of coal is lost4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,dynamo4 ,with the perfection of the dynamo1 its uses multiplied4 ,it became a prime factor in electric lighting4 ,trolley systems sprang up in city1 town1 and village1 taking the place of horse and traction cars4 ,in certain places1 as in the ,baltimore tunnel1 the dynamo superseded the engine for hauling freight and passenger cars4 ,the mighty dynamos which convert the inexhaustible energy of ,niagara ,falls into electricity send it many miles away to ,buffalo1 to be applied to lighting and to every form of machinery4 ,the end of the century sees a power plant in operation in ,new ,york city capable of furnishing one hundred thousand horse-power1 or enough to supply the lighting1 rapid transit1 and thousand and one mechanical needs of the entire municipality4 ,the essential parts of an ordinary dynamo are3 7#a47 ,the electro-magnets1 which1 however numerous1 are arranged in circular form upon part of the framework of the machine4 7#b47 ,the iron coils or armatures1 mounted in a circle upon a wheel4 ,when the wheel revolves1 the armatures pass close in front of the electro-magnets1 cutting through their fields of force1 and thereby inducing electric current4 7#c47 ,the commutator1 which consists usually of a series of copper blocks arranged around the axle of the armatures1 and insulated from the axle and from each other4 ,the current passes from the armatures to the commutator4 ,if the current be an alternating one1 the commutator changes it into a continuous one1 and the reverse may also be accomplished4 7#d47 ,the brushes1 which are thin strips of copper or carbon1 are brought to bear at proper points upon the commutator1 making connection with each coil or sets of coils4 ,they carry the corrected current to the outside line or lines4 7#e47 ,the outside line or lines1 to carry the current away to the motor4 7#f47 ,the pulley for strap-belting1 by means of which the water or steam power used is made to turn the dynamo machine4 ,but we must not forget the motor as a companion of the dynamo1 as its indispensable brother1 in turning to practical account the electricity sent to it4 ,as we have seen1 the motor is the reverse of the dynamo1 at least in its effects4 ,it is fed by the dynamo1 and it imparts its power to the machinery which it is to set in motion4 ,it is to the dynamo what the water-wheel is to the water4 ,in one sense it is an even older invention than the dynamo1 but its extended commercial application was not possible until the dynamo had reached certain stages of perfection4 ,it is generally agreed that the first motor of importance was that constructed by ,professor ,jacobi1 through the liberality of the ,czar ,nicholas1 of ,russia4 ,jacobi used two sets of electro-magnets1 by means of whose mutual attraction and repulsion he rotated a wheel on a boat with a power equal to that of eight oarsmen4 ,but as ,jacobi's electro-magnets required an electric current to magnetize them1 and as there were then no means of producing such current except by the costly use of the voltaic battery1 his invention was unripe as to time4 ,in #ahej1 ,professor ,page1 of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 constructed a motor which worked ingeniously1 but was still open to the objection of cost in supplying the necessary electric current for the electro-magnets4 ,though various inventions came about having for their object a commercially successful motor1 such a thing was impossible till ,gramme produced his improved and effective dynamo in #ahga4 ,this dynamo was found to work equally well as a motor1 and hence it became necessary for electricians to greatly enlarge their understanding of the nature of electro-magnetic induction4 ,they soon discovered many curious things respecting the behavior of induced currents1 with the result that rapid and simultaneous improvements were made in both dynamos and motors4 ,one of the most curious of these discoveries was that a motor automatically regulates the amount of current that passes through its circuit in proportion to the work it is called upon to do2 that is1 if the work the machine has to do is decreased1 the motor attains a higher speed1 which higher speed induces a counter electro-motive force sufficient to check up the amount of current passing through the motor4 ,so when the motor is required to do increased work1 the machine slows up2 but with this slowing up1 the counter electro-motive force decreases1 and consequently the current passing through the motor increases4 ,as with the dynamo1 one of the marvels of the motor is its efficiency4 ,in perfect machines1 ninety to ninety-five per cent of the electrical energy supplied can be converted into mechanical energy4 ,for this reason it has become a competitor with1 and even successor of1 steam in countless cases1 and especially where water-power can be commanded4 ,a prime motor1 in the shape of a water-wheel1 may be made to drive scores of secondary motors in places hundreds of miles away4 ,the power developed by the waterfall at ,lauffen1 ,germany1 is transmitted one hundred miles to ,frankfort1 with a loss of only twenty-five per cent of the original horse-power4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,golden ,,candlestick4 ,in its adaptation for practical use1 the motor1 like the dynamo1 assumes all sizes and embraces a host of ingenious devices1 yet its power and usefulness always centre around1 or are contained in1 its two efficient parts1 its armatures and fields of force4 ,we have seen how in the dynamo the armatures became the source of induced currents by being made to cut the fields of force of electro-magnets4 ,now1 a dynamo can be made to work in an opposite way2 that is1 by making the magnetic fields of force rotate in front of the coils or armatures4 ,in the motor1 the field of force is mostly established by the current directly from the dynamo4 ,this current passes also through the armature1 which begins to rotate1 owing to the force of the field upon it4 ,this rotation of the armature through the field of force produces in the armature conductors an electro-motive force1 which is the measure of the power of the motor1 be the same great or small4 ,,vi4 8,,and ,,there ,,was ,,light40 ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,lamp4 ,mention of the 8candlestick of pure gold0 7,ex4 xxv4 #ca7 may lead to the inference that the primitive artificial light was that of the candle4 ,but 8candlestick0 in connection with the lighting of the temple is clearly a misnomer4 ,the lamp was the original artificial light-giver1 unless we choose to except the torch2 and if less indispensable than in patriarchal times1 it is still a favorite dispenser of nightly cheer4 ,prior to the middle of the eighteenth century1 the lamp had practically no evolution4 ,it was the same in principle at that date as when it illuminated the desert tabernacle4 ,even the splendid enameled glass or decorated ,persian pottery lamps of ,damascus and ,cairo1 and the magnificent brass or bronze lamps of ,greece1 ,rome1 and the ,european cathedrals1 gave forth their dull1 unsteady flame and noisome smoke by means of a crude wick lying in a saucer or similar receptacle of melted lard1 tallow1 oil1 or some such combustible liquid4 ,a prime improvement was made in lamp-lighting in #aghc1 by ,leger1 of ,paris1 who devised the flat1 metallic burner1 through which he passed a neatly prepared wick4 ,a further improvement was made in #aghd by ,argand1 of ,paris1 who introduced a burner consisting of two circular tubes1 between which passed a circular wick4 ,the inner tube was perforated so as to admit of a draught of air to feed the flame on the inside of the wick4 ,in order to similarly feed the flame on the outside of the wick1 he invented the lamp chimney1 which was at first a crude thing of metal4 ,it1 however1 soon gave way to the glass chimney1 which has up to the present taken on many improved forms1 designed to secure more perfect combustion and a brighter1 steadier glow4 ,illustration3 ,,tallow ,,dip4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,lamp4 ,improvement in lamp-lighting during the nineteenth century has consisted of an indefinite number of inventions1 all aiming at economy1 brilliancy1 steadiness1 convenience1 beauty1 and so on4 ,but in no respect has this improvement been more rapid and radical than in the adaptation of lamps to the various combustible fluids that have bid for favor4 ,while the various oils1 animal and vegetable1 were almost solely in vogue as illuminants at the beginning of the century1 they were largely superseded at a later period by the burning-fluid known as camphene4 ,this was a purified oil of turpentine1 which found great favor on account of its economy1 convenience1 cleanliness1 and brilliancy of light4 ,but it was very volatile1 and its vapors formed with air a dangerously explosive mixture4 ,yet with all this it might have held its own for a long time1 had not ,gesner1 in #ahdf1 discovered that a superior mineral oil1 which he called 8kerosene10 could be readily and profitably distilled from the coal found on ,prince ,edward ,island4 ,this kerosene or hydrocarbon oil speedily displaced camphene as an illuminant4 ,its manufacture rapidly developed into an important industry in the ,united ,states1 and large distilling establishments arose1 both on the ,atlantic coast1 where foreign coal was used1 and throughout the country1 wherever cannel or other convertible coal was found4 ,with the discovery of petroleum in paying quantities on ,oil ,creek1 ,pa41 in #ahei1 there came about a great change in kerosene lamp-lighting4 ,it was found1 upon analysis1 that crude petroleum contained about fifty-five per cent of kerosene1 which constituted its most important product4 ,the manufactories of kerosene from cannel or other coal1 therefore1 went out of existence1 and new ones1 larger in size and greater in number1 sprung up for the manufacture of kerosene or1 popularly speaking1 coal oil1 from petroleum4 ,this illuminant came into almost universal favor for lamp use1 owing to its cheapness and brilliancy4 ,it is not free from danger when improperly distilled1 but under the operation of stringent laws governing its preparation and testing1 danger from its use has been reduced to a minimum4 ,in rural districts1 in smaller towns and villages1 wherever economy and convenience are essentials1 and when beauty in lamp effects is desirable1 the kerosene illuminant has become indispensable4 ,the discovery of petroleum helped further to light the world and distinguish the century4 ,it gave us gasolene1 naphtha1 gas oil1 astral oil1 and the very effective 8mineral sperm10 which is almost universally used in lighthouses and as headlights for locomotives4 ,with the addition of kerosene1 a favorite light of the beginning of the century--the tallow dip of our grandmothers--began to fall into disuse4 ,the homelike pictures of housewives at their annual candle-dippings1 or in the manipulation of their moulds1 became venerable antiques4 ,candle-light paled in the presence of the higher illuminants4 ,though still a convenient light under certain circumstances1 it plays a gradually diminishing part amid its superiors4 ,one of the signal triumphs of the century has been the introduction of gas-lighting4 ,though illuminating gas made from coal was known as early as #afia1 it did not come into use1 except for experiments or in a very special way1 until the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,in #ahji1 a few street lamps were lit with gas in ,london4 ,an unsuccessful attempt was made to introduce gas into ,baltimore in #ahba4 ,between #ahbb and #ahbg1 the gas-light began to have a feeble foothold in ,boston and ,new ,york4 ,other cities began to introduce it as an illuminant in streets and1 eventually1 in houses4 ,but the process was very slow1 owing to intense opposition on the part of both savants and common people1 who saw in it a sure means of destruction by poison1 explosion1 or fire4 ,it was not much before the middle of the century that prejudice against illuminating gas was sufficiently allayed to admit of its general use4 ,but meanwhile many valuable experiments as to its production and adaptation were going on4 ,the most productive source of illuminating gas was found to be bituminous coal4 ,though gas could be produced by distillation from other substances1 such as shale1 lignite1 petroleum1 water1 turf1 resins1 oils1 and fats1 none could compete in quality1 quantity1 and economy with what is known as ordinary coal gas1 at least1 not until the time came1 quite late in the century1 when it was found that non-luminous gases1 such as water gas1 could be rendered luminous by impregnating them with hydrocarbon vapor4 ,this became known commercially as water gas1 and it is now largely used in place of coal gas1 because it is cheaper and1 for the most part1 equally effective as a luminant4 ,gas-lighting has1 of course1 its limitations4 ,it is not adapted for use beyond the range of cities or towns whose populations are sufficient to warrant the large expenditures necessary for gas plants4 ,it is a special rather than general light4 ,yet within its limited domain of use it has proved of wonderful utility1--a source of cheer for millions1 a clean1 safe1 and economic light1 a convenience far beyond the candle1 the lamp1 or any previous lighting appliance4 ,in the street1 it is a source of safety against thieves and way-layers4 ,in the slums1 it is both policeman and missionary1 baffling the wrong-doer1 exposing the secrecy that conduces to crime1 laying bare the hotbeds of shame4 ,it is as well a source of heat as light1 and consequently convertible into power for light mechanical purposes4 ,in the kitchen1 it is more and more becoming a boon to the housewife1 who by means of the gas range escapes1 in cooking1 much of the dust1 smoke1 worry1 and even expense of the coal cook stove and range4 ,in the parlor1 library1 or sick-room1 it is a cheerful and effective substitute for the coal grate1 and may be made to assume the cosy qualities and fantastic shapes of the old-fashioned wood fire4 ,coincident with the discovery of petroleum1 its inseparable companion1 natural gas1 came into prominence as a source of both light and heat1 or this became true1 at least1 after it was ascertained that natural gas regions existed which could be tapped by wells1 and made to give forth their gaseous product independent of the oil that may have at one time existed near or in connection with it4 ,this natural source of light and heat became as interesting to the geologist1 explorer1 and capitalist as the source of petroleum itself1 and soon every likely section was prospected1 with the hope of finding and tapping those mysterious caverns of earth in which the pent-up luminant abounded in paying quantities4 ,it was found that workable natural gas regions were numerous in the ,united ,states1 especially in proximity to petroleum or bituminous coal deposits1 and little time was lost in their development4 ,as if by magic1 a new and profitable industry sprang into existence4 ,the natural gas well became almost as common as the oil well1 and at times far more awe-inspiring as it shot into space its volcanic blasts which1 when ignited through carelessness1 as sometimes happened1 carried to the vicinage all the dangers and terrors of ,vesuvius or ,stromboli4 ,powerful as was the force with which natural gas sought its freedom1 wonderful as was the phenomenon of its escape from the subterranean alembic in which it was distilled1 human genius quickly harnessed it by appliances for conservation and carriage to places where it could be utilized4 ,sometimes great industries sprang up contiguous to the wells2 at others1 it was carried through pipes to cities many miles distant1 where it became a light for street1 home1 and store1 and a prodigious energy in factory1 furnace1 forge1 and rolling-mill4 ,in fact1 no marvel of the century has been at once so weird and inscrutable in its origin as natural gas1 or more potential as an agency within the areas to which its use is limited4 ,the question is ever uppermost in connection with natural gas1 will it last8 ,the gas springs of the ,caucasus ,mountains have been burning for centuries4 ,but that is where nature's internal forces have their correlations and compensations4 ,where it is quite otherwise1 that is1 where the vents of natural gas reservoirs are abnormally numerous1 or where those reservoirs are drained to the extreme for commercial purposes1 not to say through sheer wastefulness1 the geologist is ready to surmise that the natural gas supply cannot be a perpetual one4 ,but one of the most magnificent triumphs of the century in the matter of light came about through the agency of electricity4 ,we have already seen the beginnings of electric lighting in the discovery of ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 in #ahji1 that when the ends of two conducting wires1 mounted with charcoal pieces1 were brought close together1 a brilliant light1 in the shape of an arc or curve1 leaped from one piece of charcoal to the other4 ,davy's charcoal pieces or carbons were consumed by the fierce heat evolved2 but the principle was established that an electric current1 so interrupted1 was a vivid light-producer1 and might be made permanently so if a substance capable of resisting the heat could be substituted for his charcoal tips1 and a generator of electricity of sufficient power and economy in use could be substituted for his voltaic batteries or cells4 ,upon these two essentials hung the future of the electric light4 ,the first essential1 that of a substance at the ends of the wires or in the midst of the electric circuit which would resist the heat1 was soon met by the use of specially prepared and hard graphite carbon tips1 in the shape of candles4 ,but the second essential1 a generator of electricity cheaper and more powerful than the voltaic cell1 was not met with till the dynamo machine reached an advanced stage of perfection2 that is1 about #ahfg4 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,arc ,,light4 ,the two grand essentials now being at command1 invention of electric light appliances went on rapidly upon two lines1 eventuating in two systems1 which became known as arc lighting and incandescent lighting4 ,by #ahgi-hj1 the arc light was sufficiently advanced to meet with favor as an illuminant for streets1 railway stations1 markets1 and any large spaces1 in which places it became a substitute for gas and other lights4 ,the essential features of the arc light are3 7#a47 ,the dynamo machine1 situated in some central place1 for the generation of electricity4 7#b47 ,conducting wires to carry the electricity throughout the areas or to the places to be lighted4 7#c47 ,the arc lamp1 which may be suspended upon poles in the streets1 or upon wires in stores and other covered places4 ,its mechanism consists of two pencils or candles of graphite carbon1 very hard and incombustible1 adjusted above and below each other so that their tips or ends are very close together1 but not in contact4 ,by means of a clockwork or simple gravity device these carbon tips are brought into contact at the moment the electric current is turned on1 and then are slightly separated as soon as the current has heated them4 ,the air between the heated tips1 having also reached a high temperature1 becomes a conductor1 and the electricity leaps in the form of an arc or curve through it1 rendering it brilliantly incandescent4 ,should the current be diminished in strength for any reason1 the above-mentioned clockwork or gravity device brings the carbons a little closer together2 and should the current be increased1 the carbons are separated a little wider2 thus the steadiness of the light is regulated4 ,there are also various automatic devices for thus regulating the proximity of the carbons and maintaining the evenness of the glow4 ,the power of an arc light is measured by candles4 ,an ordinary arc light under two amperes of current gives a light equal to twenty-five candles1 while under fifty amperes of current it gives a light equal to twenty thousand candles4 ,in searchlights on board vessels1 and where very large areas are to be lighted1 both heavier currents and larger carbons are used than in the arc lamps for ordinary street purposes4 ,no light surpasses the arc light in brilliancy1 excepting the magnesium light4 ,there are few cities in this country and ,europe that do not employ the arc lamp as a means of street1 station1 and large-area lighting1 owing to its superiority as an illuminant and the wonderful policing effect it has upon the slum sections4 ,the incandescent lamp1 or electric lighting by incandescence1 underwent a somewhat longer evolution at the hands of inventors than the arc lamp1 owing to the difficulty of finding a substance suitable for the production of the necessary glow4 ,the discovery of such substance may be accredited to ,edison more fully than to any other4 ,the incandescent or glow lamp is a glass bulb from which the air is exhausted4 ,there passes into the bulb a filament of carbon1 which1 after a turn or two inside the bulb1 passes out at the end through which it entered4 ,when a current from a voltaic battery is sent through this carbon filament1 it brings it1 in the absence of oxygen within the bulb1 to a high white heat without combustion4 ,the portion of this high white heat which is radiated is the light-giving energy of the incandescent lamp4 ,metal filaments were at first tried in the bulb1 but they quickly burned out4 ,carbon filaments were at length found to be the only ones capable of resisting the heat4 ,they moreover had the advantage of cheapness1 and of greater radiating energy than metals4 ,many substances1 such as silk1 cotton1 hair1 etc41 were used in the preparation of the carbon filaments1 but it was found that strips cut from the inside bark of the bamboo gave1 when brought to a white heat by an electric current and then properly treated1 the most tenacious and best conducting carbon filament4 ,the quality of light produced by an incandescent lamp is a gentler glow than that produced by the arc lamp1 and in color more nearly resembles the light of gas or the oil lamp4 ,the incandescent light speedily became for the home1 hotel1 hall1 and limited covered area what the arc light became for the street and railway station1 and1 if anything1 the former outstripped the latter in the extent and value of the industry it gave rise to4 ,in the arc lamp1 the carbon pencils have to be renewed daily4 ,in the incandescent lamp1 the carbon filament1 though very delicate1 may last for quite a time1 because incandescence takes place in the absence of oxygen4 ,if the favor in which the electric light is held1 and the great extent of its use1 rested solely on the question of cheapness of production1 such question would give rise to interesting debate4 ,and1 indeed1 the debate would continue1 if the question were the superior fitness of electric lighting for lighthouses and like service1 where extreme brilliancy does not seem to penetrate a thick atmosphere as effectively as the more subdued glow of the oil lamp4 ,but the debate ceases when the question is as to the beauty and efficiency of the electric light in the home1 street1 station1 mine1 on shipboard1 and the thousand and one other places in which it has come to be deemed an essential equipment4 ,in all such places the question of economy of production and use is subordinate to the higher question of utility and indispensability4 ,,vii4 ,,electric ,,locomotion4 ,the dawn of the nineteenth century saw1 as vehicles of locomotion1 the saddled hackney1 the clumsy wagon1 the ostentatious stage-coach1 the primitive dearborn1 the lumbering carriage1 the poetic 8one-hoss shay40 ,the universal energy was the horse4 ,a new energy came with the application of steam1 and with it new vehicular locomotion1--easier1 swifter1 stronger1 for the most part cheaper1 rendering possible what was hitherto impossible as to time and distance4 ,this signal triumph of the century may not have been eclipsed by the introduction of subsequent locomotive changes1 but it was to be supplemented by what1 at the beginning1 would have passed for the idle dream of a visionary4 ,the horse-car came1 had its brief day1 and went out with all its inconveniences1 cruelties1 and horrors before1 in part1 the traction-car1 and1 in part1 the rapidly revolutionizing energy of electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,locomotive4 ,the first conception of a railway to be operated by electricity dates from about #ahce1 when ,thomas ,davenport1 of ,brandon1 ,vt41 contrived and moved a small car by means of a current from voltaic cells placed within it4 ,in #ahea1 ,professor ,page1 of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ran a car propelled by electricity upon the steam railway between ,washington and ,baltimore1 but though he obtained a high rate of speed1 the cost of supplying the current by means of batteries--the only means then known--prohibited the commercial use of his method4 ,with the invention of the dynamo as an economic and powerful generator of electricity1 and also the invention of the motor as a means of turning electrical energy to mechanical account1 the way was open1 both in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 for more active investigation of the question of electric-car propulsion4 ,between #ahgb and #ahhg1 different inventors1 at home and abroad1 placed in operation several experimental electric railways4 ,few of them proved practical1 though each furnished a fund of valuable experience4 ,an underground electric street railway was operated in ,denver as early as #ahhe2 but the one upon the trolley plan1 which proved sufficiently successful to warrant its being called the first operated in the ,united ,states1 was built in ,richmond1 ,va41 in #ahhh4 ,it gave such impetus to electric railway construction that1 in five years' time1 enormous capital was embarked1 and the new means of propulsion was generally accepted as convenient1 safe1 and profitable4 ,the essential features of the electric railway are3 7#a47 ,the track of two rails1 similar to the steam railway1 7#b47 ,the cars1 lightly yet strongly built4 7#c47 ,the power-house1 containing the dynamos which generate the electricity4 7#d47 ,the feed-wire1 usually of stout copper1 running the length of the tracks of the system1 and supported on poles or laid in conduits4 7#e47 ,the trolley-wire over the centre of the track1 supported by insulated cross-wires passing from poles on opposite sides of the tracks1 and connected at proper intervals with the feed-wire4 7#f47 ,the trolley-pole of metal jointed to the top of the car1 and fitted with a spring which presses the wheel on the end of the pole up against the trolley-wire with a force of about fifteen pounds1 and which also serves to conduct the electricity down through the car to the motor4 7#g47 ,the motor1 which is suspended from the car truck1 and passes its power to the car axle by means of a spur gearing4 ,the power requisite for an ordinary trolley-car is about fifteen horse-power4 ,the speed of trolley-cars is regulated in cities to from five to seven miles per hour1 but they may be run1 under favorable conditions1 at a speed equal to1 or in excess of1 that of the steam-car4 ,as a means of city transit1 and of rapid1 convenient1 and economic intercourse between suburban localities and rural towns and villages1 the electric traction system ranks as one of the greatest wonders of the century4 ,the speed with which it found favor1 the enormous capital it provoked to activity1 the stimulus it gave to further study and invention1 the surprising number of passengers carried1 go to make one of the most interesting chapters in electric annals4 ,the end of the century sees thousands of these electric roads in existence2 a comparatively new industry involving over #ajj1jjj1jjj2 a passenger traffic running into the billions of people2 a prospect that the trolley will succeed the steam-car for all utilizable purposes within the gradually extending influence of cities and towns upon their rural surroundings4 ,in speaking of the passing of the horse-car and its substitution by the trolley1 a distinguished writer has well said3 8,humanity in an electric-car differs widely from that in the horse-car1 propelled at the expense of animal life4 ,it is more cheerful1 more confident1 more awake to the energy at command1 more imbued with the subtlety and majesty of the propelling force4 ,the motor confirms the ethical fact that each introduction of a higher material force into the daily uses of humanity lifts it to a broader1 brighter plane1 gives its capabilities freer and more wholesome play1 and opens fresh vistas for all possibilities4 ,we applaud ,franklin for seizing the lightning in the heavens1 dragging it down to earth1 and subjugating it to man4 ,let this pass as part of the poetry of physics4 ,but when ethics comes to poetize1 let it be said that electricity as an applied force lifts man up toward heaven1 quickens all his appreciations of divine energy1 draws him irresistibly toward the centre and source of nature's forces4 ,there is no dragging down and subjugation of a physical force4 ,there is only a going out1 or up1 of genius to meet and to grasp it4 ,its universal application means the raising of mankind to its plane4 ,if electricity be the principle of life1 as some suppose1 what wonder that we all feel better in an electric-car than any other8 ,the motor becomes a sublime motive4 ,god himself is tugging at the wheels1 and we are riding with the ,infinite40 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,railway4 ,,third ,,rail ,,system4 ,enthusiasts say the trolley is only the beginning of electric locomotion1 and that there is already in rapid evolution an electric system which will supersede steam even for trunk-line purposes4 ,in vision1 it presumes a speed of one hundred and twenty-five miles an hour instead of forty2 greater safety1 cleanliness1 and comfort2 and what is most momentous and startling1 an economy in construction and operation which will warrant the sacrifice of the billions of dollars now invested in steam-railway properties4 ,the proposition is not to sacrifice the steam-railway track1 but to add to it a third rail1 which is to carry the electric current4 ,then1 by means of feed-conduits alongside of the track1 and specially constructed electric locomotives and cars1 the system is supposed to reach the practical perfection claimed for it4 ,experiments with such an electrical system1 made upon branch lines of some of our trunk-line railways1 as the ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york ,central1 and ,new ,haven ,hartford1 give much encouragement to the hypothesis that it may become the next great step in the evolution of electrical science4 ,another means of electric propulsion was provided by the investigations of ,plant1 which resulted in his invention of the 8accumulator0 or 8storage battery10 in #ahei4 ,his battery consists of plates of lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid4 ,by the passage of an electric current through the acid1 it is electrolytically decomposed4 ,by continuing the current for a time1 first in one direction and then in another1 the lead plates become changed1 the one at the point where the current leaves the cell taking on a deposit of spongy lead1 and the one at the point where the current enters the cell taking on a coating of oxide of lead4 ,when in this condition1 the battery is said to be stored1 and is capable of sending out an electric current in any circuit with which it may be connected4 ,after exhausting itself1 it can be re-stored or re-charged in the same way as at first4 ,faure greatly improved on ,plant's storage battery in #ahhj1 by spreading the oxide of lead over the plates1 thus greatly reducing the time in forming the plates4 ,subsequently1 further improvements were made1 till batteries came into existence capable of supplying a current of many hundred amperes for several hours4 ,one of the first practical uses to which the storage battery was put was in the propulsion of street-cars2 but its weight proved a drawback4 ,it was found better adapted for the running of boats on rivers1 and1 in the business of water-freightage for short distances1 has in many instances become a rival of steam4 ,it found one of its most interesting applications in helping to solve the problem of the automobile1 or 8horseless carriage10 either for pleasure purposes or for street traffic4 ,in this problem it has1 at the end of the century1 an active rival in compressed air2 but as the 8horseless carriage0 is rapidly coming into demand1 means may soon be found to utilize the strong and persistent energy of the storage battery1 without the drawback found in its great weight4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,x ,,ray4 ,an astounding electrical revelation came during the last years of the century through the discovery of the ,x1 or unknown1 or ,roentgen ray4 ,a hint of this discovery was given by ,faraday during his investigation of the effect of electric discharges within rarefied gases4 ,he also invented the terms anode and cathode1 both of which are in universal use in connection with instruments for producing the ,x rays2 the anode being the positive pole or electrode of a galvanic battery1 or1 in general1 the terminal of the conductor by which a current enters an electrolytic cell2 and the cathode being the negative pole or electrode by which a current leaves said cell4 ,geissler followed ,faraday with an improved system of tubes for containing rarefied gases for experimentation4 ,he partially exhausted his tubes of air1 introduced into them permanent and sealed platinum electrodes1 and produced those wonderful effects by the discharge obtained by connecting the electrodes with the terminals of an electric machine or induction coil1 which from their novelty and beauty became known as ,geissler effects1 just as his tubes became known as ,geissler tubes4 ,in the attenuated atmosphere of the ,geissler tube1 the current does not pass directly from one platinum point or electrode to the other1 but1 instead1 illuminates the entire atmospheric space4 ,when other gases are introduced in rarefied form1 they are similarly illuminated1 but in colors corresponding to their composition4 ,in his further experiments1 ,geissler noted that the gases in the tube behaved differently at the anode1 or positive terminal1 and the cathode1 or negative terminal4 ,a beautiful bluish light appeared at the cathode1 while the anode assumed the same color as the illuminated space in the tube4 ,it was also noted that after the electric discharge within the tube1 there remained upon the inner surface of the glass a fluorescent or phosphorescent glow1 which was attributed to the effect of the cathode4 ,illustration3 ,,geissler',s ,,tubes4 ,this brought the study of the cathode rays into prominence1 and through the investigations of ,professor ,william ,crookes1 in #ahgi and afterwards1 a conclusion was reached that a 8,fourth ,state of ,matter0 really existed4 ,he perfected tubes of very high vacuum1 by means of which he showed that molecules of gas projected from the cathode moved freely and with great velocity among one another1 and so bombarded the inner walls of the tube as to render it fluorescent4 ,subsequently1 ,hertz showed that the cathodic rays would penetrate thin sheets of metal placed within the tube or bulb2 and soon after1 ,paul ,lenard 7#ahid7 demonstrated that the cathodic ray could be investigated as well outside of the tube or bulb as within it4 ,he set an aluminum plate in the glass wall of the bulb opposite the cathode4 ,though ordinary light could not penetrate the aluminum plate1 it was readily pierced by the cathodic rays1 to a distance of three inches beyond its outside surface4 ,with these rays1 thus freed from their inclosure1 he produced the same fluorescent effects as had been noted within the bulb1 and even secured some photographic effects4 ,these cathodic rays produced no effect on the eye1 which proved their dissimilarity to light4 ,lenard showed further that the cathodic rays outside of the tube could be deflected from their straight course by a magnet1 that they might pass through substances opaque to light1 and that in so passing they might cast a shadow of objects less opaque1 which shadow could be photographed4 ,now ,professor ,roentgen came upon the scene4 ,he had been conducting his experiments in ,germany1 along the same lines as ,lenard1 and had reached practically the same results as to the penetrative1 fluorescent1 and photographic effects of the cathodic rays4 ,but he had gone still further1 and1 in #ahif1 fairly set the scientific world aflame with the announcement that all the effects produced by ,lenard in the limited space of a few inches could also be produced at long distances from the tube1 and with sufficient intensity to depict solid substances within or behind other substances sufficiently solid to be impermeable by light4 ,professor ,roentgen claims that his ,x ray is different from the cathodic ray of ,lenard and others1 because it cannot be deflected by a magnet4 ,this claim has given rise to much controversy respecting the real nature of the ,x ray1 a controversy not likely to end soon1 yet one full of inspiration to further investigation4 ,illustration3 ,,sciagraph ,,or ,,shadow ,,picture4 ,by ,x ,ray process4 ,the essential features of the best approved apparatus designed to produce the ,x ray and to secure a photograph of an invisible object1 are3 7#a47 ,a battery or light dynamo as a generator of the electric current1 accompanied1 of course1 by the necessary induction coil1 which should be so wound as to give a spark of at least two inches in length in the tube where a picture of a simple object1 as a coin in a purse1 is desired2 a spark of four inches in length where pictures of the bones of the hands1 feet1 or arms are desired2 and a spark of from eight to ten inches in length where inside views of the chest1 thighs1 or abdomen are desired4 7#b47 ,the second essential is the glass tube4 ,the one in common use is the ,crookes tube1 usually pear-shaped1 and resting upon a stand4 ,into it is inserted two aluminum electrodes or disks1 the one through the smaller end of the tube being used as the cathode1 and the one from below and near the large end being used as the anode4 7#c47 ,a fluoroscope with which to observe the conditions inside the tube necessary to the production of the ,x ray1 to decide upon its proper intensity1 and to establish the proper degree of fluorescence4 ,the favorite fluoroscope for this purpose is the one invented by ,edison4 ,it is in the form of a stereopticon1 in which is a dark chamber after the manner of a camera4 ,in front are two openings1 admitting of a view within of both eyes4 ,at the opposite1 and greatly enlarged1 end is a screen which is rendered fluorescent by means of a new substance 7tungstate of calcium7 discovered by ,mr4 ,edison after some eighteen hundred experiments4 ,such is the power of this fluoroscope that it may be used as an independent instrument in cases of minor surgery to locate bullets or other objects buried in the flesh1 even before a photograph has been taken4 7#d47 ,the photographic plate1 which is prepared with a sensitized film and mounted in a frame as in ordinary photography4 ,upon this film the object to be photographed is laid1 say1 for instance1 the human hand1 care being taken to have the film or plate at a proper distance from the ,crookes tube4 ,current is now turned into the tube1 the ,x ray is developed1 the film is exposed to its effects1 and the result is a negative showing the interior structure of the hand1--the bones or any foreign object therein4 ,this negative is developed as in ordinary photography4 ,the discovery and application of the ,x ray has proved of immense value in medicine and surgery4 ,by its means the physician is enabled to carry on far-reaching diagnoses1 and to ascertain with certainty the whole internal structure of the human body4 ,fractures1 dislocations1 deformities1 and diseases of the bones may be located and their character and treatment decided upon4 ,in dentistry1 the teeth may be photographed by means of the ,x ray1 even before they come to the surface1 and broken fangs and hidden fillings may be located4 ,foreign objects in the body1 as bullets1 needles1 calculi in the bladder1 etc41 may be localized1 and the surgery necessary for their safe removal greatly simplified4 ,the beating of the heart1 movement of the ribs in respiration1 and outline of the liver may be exhibited to the eye4 ,it has been boldly suggested that in the ,x ray will be found an agent capable of destroying the various bacilli which infest the human system1 and become germs of such destructive diseases as cholera1 yellow fever1 typhoid fever1 diphtheria1 and consumption4 ,even if this be speculative as yet1 there is still room for marvel at the actual results of the discovery of the ,x ray1 and its future study opens a field full of the grandest possibilities4 ,,ix4 ,,other ,,electrical ,,wonders4 ,the novel idea of keeping time by means of electricity originated quite early in the century1 and culminated in two kinds of electric clocks1 one moved directly by the electric current1 the other moved by weights or springs1 but regulated by electricity4 ,the former have the advantage of running a very long time without attention1 but as it is impossible to keep up an unvarying electric current1 they are not so accurate as the latter in keeping time4 ,though the latter are popularly called electric clocks1 they are really only clocks regulated by electricity1 and in such regulation the electric current comes to be a most important agent1 as is proved at all centres of astronomical and other observations1 as at ,greenwich and ,washington4 ,at such centres the astronomical time-keeper is set up so as to run as infallibly as possible4 ,this central time-keeper1 say at ,washington1 is electrically connected with other clocks1 at observatories1 signal-service stations1 railway stations1 clock-stores1 city halls1 etc41 throughout the country4 ,should any of these clocks lose or gain the minutest fraction of time as compared with that of the central time-keeper1 the electric current corrects such loss or gain1 and so keeps all the clocks at a time uniform with one another and with the central one4 ,electrical devices are also often attached to individual clocks1 as those upon city hall towers and in exposed places1 for the purpose of meeting and correcting inequalities of time occasioned by weather exposure1 expansion and contraction by heat and cold1 etc4 ,the fatherhood of the very useful and elegant arts of electrotyping and electroplating is in dispute4 ,daniell1 while perfecting his battery1 noticed that a current of electricity would cause a deposit of copper4 ,in #ahca1 ,jacobi1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 called attention to the fact that the copper deposited on his plates of copper by galvanic action could be removed in a perfect sheet1 which presented in relief1 and most accurately1 every accidental indentation on the original plates4 ,following this up1 he employed for his battery an engraved copper plate1 caused the deposit to be formed upon it1 removed the deposit1 and found that the engraving was impressed on it in relief1 and with sufficient firmness and sharpness to enable him to print from it4 ,jacobi called his discovery galvanoplasty in the publication of his observations in #ahci4 ,it was but a step from this discovery to the application of the electrotyping process to the art of printing4 ,a mould of wax1 plaster1 or other suitable substance is made of an engraving or of a page of type4 ,this mould is covered with powdered graphite 7black lead7 so as to make it a conductor of electricity4 ,it is then inserted in a bath containing a solution of sulphate of copper4 ,an electric current is passed through the bath1 and the copper is deposited on the mould in sufficient quantity to give it a hard surface capable of offering greater resistance in printing than the types themselves1 and also of producing a clearer impression4 ,in electroplating1 practically the same principle is employed4 ,the bath is made to contain a solution of water1 cyanide of potassium1 and whatever metal--gold1 silver1 platinum1 etc4--it is designed to precipitate on the article to be electroplated4 ,the current is then passed through the bath1 and the article--spoon1 knife1 fork1 etc4--to be electroplated receives its coating of gold1 silver1 ,german silver1 platinum1 or whatever has been made the third agent in the bath4 ,the various modern submarine devices for the destruction of ships1 known as torpedoes1 submarine mines1 etc41 depend upon electricity for their efficiency4 ,it is the lighting or firing agent1 and is carried to the torpedo or mine by means of stout wires or cables from some safe shore-point of observation4 ,in railroading1 electricity has become an indispensable agent for the operation of signal systems1 opening and closing of switches1 and limitation of safety sections4 ,it moves the drill in the mine1 sets off the blast1 and supplies the light4 ,it enables the dentist to manipulate his most delicate tools and do his cleanest and least painful work4 ,in medicine it is a healing1 soothing agent1 boundless in variety of application and wondrous in results4 ,it is a stimulus to the growth of certain plants1 and has given rise to a new science called ,electro-horticulture4 ,it may be made a prolific source of heat for warming cars1 and even for the welding of iron and steel4 ,the electric fan cools our parlors and offices in summer1 and the electric bell simplifies household service4 ,in fact1 it would appear that1 in contrasting the electrical beginnings with the electrical endings of the nineteenth century1 the space of a thousand rather than a hundred years had intervened1 and that in measuring the agents which conduce to human comfort and convenience1 electricity is easily the most potential4 ,x4 ,,electrical ,,language4 ,out of the various discoveries and applications of electricity almost a new language has sprung4 ,this is especially so of terms expressive of the measurements of electric energy1 and of the laws governing the application of electric power4 ,for a time1 various nations measured and applied by means of terms chosen by themselves4 ,this led to a jargon very confusing to writers and investigators4 ,it became needful to have a language more in common1 as in pharmacy1 so that all nations could understand one another1 could compute alike1 and especially impart their meaning to those whose duty it became to apply discovered laws and actual calculations to practical electric operations4 ,this was a difficult undertaking1 owing to the tenacity with which nations clung to their own nomenclatures and terminologies4 ,but the drift1 though slow1 finally ended at the ,electrical ,congress in ,paris in #ahha1 in the adoption of a uniform system of measurements of electric force1 and an agreement upon terms for laws and their application1 which all could understand4 ,three fundamental units of measurement were first agreed upon1--the ,centimetre 74#cid in47 as a unit of length2 the ,gramme 7#ae4dc troy grains7 as a unit of mass2 the ,second 7#a_/fj of a minute7 as a unit of time4 ,these three units became1 when referred to together by their initial letters1 the basis of the ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 system of units4 ,now by these units of measurement something must be measured1 as1 for instance1 the electric force2 and when so measured1 an absolute unit of force must be the result4 ,,dyne3--,this is but a contraction of dynam1 force4 ,it was adopted as the name of the 8,absolute ,unit of ,force10 or the ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 unit of force1 and is that force which1 if it act for a second on one gramme of matter1 gives to it a velocity of one centimetre per second4 ,,ampere3--,electrical force produces electrical current4 ,current must be measured and an absolute unit of current strength agreed upon4 ,the 8,absolute ,unit of ,current0 was settled as one of such strength as that when one centimetre length of its circuit is bent into an arc of one centimetre radius1 the current in it exerts a force of one dyne on a unit magnet-pole placed at the centre4 ,but the absolute unit of current as thus obtained was decided to be ten times too great for practical purposes4 ,so a practical unit of current was fixed upon1 which is just one tenth part of the above absolute unit of current4 ,this practical unit of current was called the ampere1 in honor of the celebrated ,french electrician1 ,ampre4 ,it may be ascertained in other ways1 as when a current is of sufficient strength to deposit in a copper electrolytic cell #a4agd grammes 7#ah4aaf grains7 of copper in an hour1 such current is said to be of one ampere strength2 or a current of one ampere strength is such a one as would be given by an electro-motive force of one volt through a wire offering one ohm of resistance4 ,,volt3--,this was named from ,volta1 the celebrated ,italian electrician1 and was agreed upon as the unit of electro-motive force4 ,it is that electro-motive force which would be generated by a conductor cutting across #ajj1jjj1jjj ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 lines in a field of force per second2 or it is that electro-motive force which would carry one ampere of current against one ohm of resistance4 ,,ohm3--,so called from ,ohm1 a ,german electrician4 ,it is the unit of resistance offered by a conductor to the passage of an electrical current4 ,as an absolute unit of resistance1 it is equal to #a1jjj1jjj1jjj ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 units of resistance4 ,as a practical unit1 and as agreed upon at the ,international ,congress of ,electricians 7,chicago1 #ahic71 it represents the resistance offered to an electric current at the temperature of melting ice by a column of mercury #ad4dea grammes in mass1 of a constant cross-sectional area1 and #ajf4c centimetres in length4 ,this is called the international ohm4 ,the resistance offered by #djj feet of ordinary telegraph wire is about an ohm4 ,these three units--ampere1 volt1 and ohm--are the factors in ,ohm's famous law that the current is directly proportional to the electro-motive force exerted in a circuit1 and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit2 that is1-- ,current ,electro-motive force _/ ,resistance or1 ,electro-motive force ,current ,resistance or ,resistance ,electro-motive force _/ ,current4 ,,erg3--,from the ,greek ergon1 work1 is the unit of work required to move a force of one dyne one centimetre4 ,one foot-pound equals #ac1efj ergs4 ,,calorie3--,latin calor1 heat1 is the unit of heat2 being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree centigrade4 ,,coulomb3--,in honor of ,c4 ,a4 de ,coulomb1 of ,france4 ,it is the practical unit of quantity in measuring electricity1 and is the amount conveyed by one ampere in one second4 ,,farad3--,from ,,faraday1 the physicist4 ,it is the unit of electric capacity1 and is the capacity of a condenser that retains one coulomb of charge with one volt difference of potential4 ,,gauss3--,from ,carl ,f4 ,gauss 7#aghe-ahee74 ,the ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 unit of flux-density1 or the unit by which the intensity of magnetic fields are measured4 ,it equals one weber per normal square centimetre4 ,,gilbert3--,the unit for measuring magneto-motive force1 being produced by 4#gieh ampere-turn approximately4 ,,henry3--,from ,joseph ,henry1 of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,the practical unit for measuring the induction in a circuit when the electro-motive force induced is one international volt1 while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere per second4 ,,joule3--,the ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 unit of practical energy1 being equivalent to the work done in keeping up for one second a current of one ampere against a resistance of one ohm4 ,named from ,j4 ,p4 ,joule1 of ,england4 ,,oersted3--,from ,oersted1 the electrician4 ,it is the practical unit for measuring electrical reluctance4 ,,watt3--,the practical electrical unit of the rate of working in a circuit1 when the electro-motive force is one volt1 and the intensity of current is one ampere4 ,it is equal to #ajg ergs per second1 or 4#jjacd horse-power per second4 ,named from ,james ,watt1 of ,scotland4 ,,weber3--,the practical unit for measuring magnetic flux4 ,named from ,w4 ,weber1 of ,germany4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,naval ,,progress ,,by ,,rear ,,admiral ,,george ,,wallace ,,melville1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,i4 ,,influence ,,of ,,sea ,,power4 ,the share of navies in the great movements which have moulded human destiny and shaped the world's progress1 although long obscure and undervalued1 has met in our time full recognition4 ,within a decade the influence of sea power upon history has become the frequent theme of historians and essayists who1 in clear and striking form1 have shown the cardinal importance1 both in war and commerce1 of the fleet--the nation's right arm on the sea4 ,it is fitting1 therefore1 that in the retrospect of a hundred years navies should have their place2 that1 in looking backward with history's unclouded vision1 we should mark1 not only their growth and change1 but1 as well1 their achievement in some of the most memorable conflicts of our race4 ,the century had but begun when1 at ,copenhagen1 ,nelson1 with one titanic blow1 shattered the naval strength of ,denmark and the coalition of the ,northern powers4 ,his signal there1 ever for 8closer battle10 told in few words the life story of the ,great ,admiral1 and foreshadowed his end4 ,four years later1 at ,trafalgar1 the desire of his eager heart was satisfied1 when he met in frank fight the fleets of ,france and ,spain4 ,amid the thundering cannonade of that last victory his life-tide ebbed1 bearing with it the power of ,france upon the seas and the broken fortunes of ,napoleon4 ,in the war of #ahab1 our disasters upon the land met compensation in victory afloat4 ,the ,united ,states was then among the feeblest of maritime powers2 and yet ,macdonough and ,perry on the lakes and our few frigates on the ocean opposed1 with success1 the swarming squadrons of a nation whose naval glory1 as ,hallam says1 can be traced onward 8in a continuous track of light0 from the days of the ,commonwealth4 ,the oppression of the ,sultan was ended for a time when1 in #ahbg1 the ,turkish and ,egyptian fleets were annihilated1 in sudden fury1 by the allied squadrons in that brief engagement which ,wellington termed the 8untoward event0 of ,navarino4 ,a generation later1 the command of the sea enabled ,england and ,france to despatch1 in unarmed transports1 #fc1jjj men and #abh guns to the ,crimea1 and to land them1 without opposition1 for the red carnage of the ,alma1 ,balaklava1 ,inkerman1 and ,sebastopol4 ,following closely upon the disease and death1 the fatuity and the glory1 of the ,crimea1 came the great war of modern times1 in which the gun afloat played such a gallant part1 as the blockade1 with its constricting coils1 slowly starved and strangled the ,confederacy to death1 and ,farragut1 on inland waters1 split it in twain4 ,passing over the sea-fights of ,lissa1--in which imperial ,venice was the stake1--of ,south ,america and the ,yalu1 we note1 lastly1 the swift and fateful actions off ,santiago and in ,manila ,bay1 which destroyed once again the sea power of ,spain1 won distant territory for the ,united ,states1 and opened up for us a noble pathway of commercial expansion to the uttermost island of the broad ,pacific and the vast ,asian littoral beyond4 ,who will say1 in the retrospect of the century1 that the fleets of the world have not had their full share in the making of its history8 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,growth ,,in ,,naval ,,strength4 ,the ,united ,states fleet1 in the year #ahjj1 comprised #ce vessels1 #aj of which were frigates mounting #cb guns or more4 ,in #ahab1 ,america entered the lists against a navy of a thousand sail1 with a fleet of but #bj ships1 the largest of which was a #dd-;gun frigate4 ,the operations of the ,civil ,war were begun with but #hb vessels1 #dh of which were sailing craft4 ,before the close of that gigantic struggle there were added1 by construction or purchase1 #fgd steamers4 ,in #ahih1 during the war with ,spain1 there were borne on the ,naval ,register1 as building or in service1 #ac battleships and #agf other vessels1 including torpedo craft1 with #abc converted merchantmen4 ,the total naval force during hostilities was #bb1hcb men and #bchb officers1 excluding the ,marine ,corps4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,august ,,morning ,,with ,,farragut4 7,battle of ,mobile ,bay47 ,at ,london1 in #afec1 there was printed 8,a ,list of the ,commonwealth of ,england's ,navy at ,sea1 in their expedition in ,may1 #afec1 under the command of the ,right ,honorable ,colonel ,richard ,deane and ,colonel ,george ,monk1 ,esquires1 ,generals1 and ,admirals40 ,this quaint record of that early time gives the force afloat as #aje ships1 #chdj guns1 and #af1bfi men4 ,in ,britain's strife for that ocean empire1 which is world empire1 that fleet had grown1 by the year #ahjj1 to #geg vessels1 built or building1 with an aggregate tonnage of #fbi1baa1 and carrying #bf1eeb guns1 #cfec officers1 and #aaj1jjj men4 ,the stately three-decker1 with its snowy canvas and maze of rigging1 has vanished with the past2 but1 despite time and change1 that mighty fleet still dominates the seas4 ,its strength1 on ,february #a1 #ahih1 was #fae vessels--#fa of which were battleships1--carrying a total force of #aaj1jej officers and men4 ,illustration3 ,,british ,,battleship ,,majestic4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,battleship ,,magenta4 ,colbert1 when the ,grand ,monarch was at the zenith of his power1 found ,france with a few old and rotten vessels1 and left her with a noble fleet of #dj ships of the line and #fj frigates1 which1 under ,d',estre1 ,jean ,bart1 ,tourville1 and ,duquesne1 carried her flag to every sea4 ,a state paper of the time gives the force at the beginning of this century as #fa ships of the line1 #db corvettes1 and a numerous1 although unimportant1 flotilla of small craft4 ,with ,aboukir and ,trafalgar1 the maritime power of ,france wasted away2 and1 by the year #ahci1 there were afloat but three effective sail of the line4 ,in #ahdj1 however1 the revival began1 and during the modern era the ,french fleet has1 at times1 been a formidable rival of that of ,england4 ,it comprised1 in #ahih1 #ddf vessels1 including torpedo craft1 #bf of the total being battleships4 ,the force afloat numbered #gj1ibe1 of all ranks and ratings4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,battleship ,,woerth4 ,germany's navy is of modern creation4 ,it began1 a little less than half a century ago1 with one sailing corvette and two gunboats2 and1 in #ahih1 comprised #ac battleships and #agi other vessels of all types1 carrying #bc1cjb officers and men4 ,the fleet of united ,italy had its inception1 also1 within the age of steam4 ,it was on ,march #ag1 #ahfj1 that ,italian national life began with the ascension of the throne by ,victor ,emmanuel4 ,from the beginning1 the kingdom has been lavish with its fleet1 its expenditures within the first six years reaching #fj1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahih there were in the ,italian navy #bfe vessels of all types1 #ag of which were battleships4 ,the force afloat was #bd1bjj1 of all ranks and ratings4 ,the ,crimean war found ,russia but little advanced1 either on the ,black ,sea or the ,baltic1 in the substitution of steam for sail4 ,since that time1 however1 she has re-created her battle fleet1 which is now especially strong in torpedo craft and cruisers of great steaming radius4 ,her navy1 in #ahih1 comprised #bj battleships and #bfc other vessels1 with a force of #cb1dgg officers and men4 ,japan began her fleet in #ahff with the purchase of an armor-clad from the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahih1 she had a total of #ade vessels1 built and building--#h of which were battleships--carrying #bc1jjj men of all ranks and ratings4 ,illustration3 ,,italian ,,battleship ,,sardegna4 ,of minor navies little need be said4 ,austria had1 in #ahih1 a fleet of #aae vessels of all types1 including #ac battleships and #gi torpedo craft4 ,holland's force was #ahe vessels1 #c being battleships and #ic torpedo craft4 ,the fleets of ,turkey1 ,greece1 ,spain1 and ,portugal are 8paper-navies0 mainly4 ,norway and ,sweden have a combined strength of #aga vessels of all types4 ,denmark1 which began the century with overwhelming naval disaster at ,copenhagen1 has now a force of #cjjj men borne on #ej vessels1 half of which are torpedo craft4 ,argentina1 ,brazil1 and ,chili have afloat #ajb torpedo vessels and #di of other types4 ,the vast growth in naval armaments during the century may be measured from the fact that the personnel of the leading navies of ,europe1 with those of ,japan and the ,united ,states1 comprised1 in the year #ahih1 #cfh1jbh officers and men1 with a total force of #bgdi vessels of all types1 including torpedo craft4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,battleship1--,,past ,,and ,,present4 ,in tracing the evolution of the modern man-of-war1 it will be instructive to compare with her the type of the sailing age4 ,there are two ships of the old time which hold chief places in the memory of the ,anglo-,saxon race1--the ,victory1 ,nelson's flagship at ,trafalgar1 and the ,constitution1 whose achievements under ,hull1 ,bainbridge1 and ,stewart1 rang around the world4 ,there were1 even before the days of steam1 war-vessels twice as large and powerful as 8,old ,ironsides10 but over no sea1 in any age1 has there sailed a ship with a more gallant record4 ,plate ,i shows her as she was in her prime--before the wind1 with all sail set4 ,on ,plate ,,ii there is given a side view of her hull1 which is of historic interest1 in that it is reproduced from the original drawing made in ,october1 #agif4 ,illustration3 ,,nelson',s ,,flagship ,,victory4 ,when her power and dimensions are compared with those of the ,oregon1 our sea-fighter of to-day1 one sees what time has wrought4 ,the frigate carried #def men1 the armor-clad1 #ejj2 and yet1 with this approximately equal force1 the ,oregon has a displacement #f times that of her famed predecessor2 and although the number of the guns--#dd--;is the same in each1 she discharges a broadside #h4c times heavier and in energy overwhelmingly superior4 ,the speed of the battleship is one half greater than that of the ,constitution1 and she carries armor varying from #ah inches to #d inches thick1 which the frigate wholly lacked4 ,the longitudinal section of the ,oregon indicates the immense advance in other directions4 ,her hull is1 for safety1 minutely subdivided1 and is provided with engines for propulsion1 steering1 lighting1 drainage1 and ventilation1 numbering in all #hd1 with miles of piping and hundreds of valves4 ,the time-honored frigate was but a sail-propelled gun-platform1 whose wants were as few as her construction was simple2 the steel-clad battleship is a mass of mechanism1 a floating machine-plant1 which for full efficiency must be manned by a personnel not only brave and daring as of old1 but expert in many arts and sciences1 which in the age of sail were but rudimentary or unknown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,constitution 7#ahab7 ,,under ,,sail4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,naval ,,engineering4 8,i have just read the project of ,citizen ,fulton1 ,engineer1 which you have sent me much too late1 since it is one which may change the face of the world40 ,so1 in the beginning of the century1 wrote the first ,napoleon from his ,imperial camp at ,boulogne4 ,wrapped in his day-dream of a descent upon the ,thames1 he saw1 with prophetic vision1 in the plans of the ,american engineer1 the future of navigation1 and he strove to grasp--but too late--the opportunity which might have made his armada victorious over wind and tide4 ,his words1 however1 rang truer than he knew4 ,on the sea1 as on the land1 the engineer has indeed 8changed the face of the world20 and in no department of human progress has his influence been more radical or more far-reaching than in the mechanism1 the scope1 and the strategy of naval war4 ,fleets move now with a swiftness and surety unthought of in the days of sail4 ,over the same western ocean which ,nelson1 in his eager chase of ,villeneuve1 crossed at but four knots an hour1 the ,united ,states cruiser ,columbia swept1 ninety years later1 at a speed nearly four and three quarters times that of his lagging craft4 ,when1 in #ahih1 war came1 the great battleship ,oregon1 although far to the northward on our western coast1 was needed in the distant battle-line off the ,cuban shore4 ,in #gi days she steamed #ad1ejj miles1 making a run which is without parallel or approach by any warship of any navy in the world's history4 ,the magnificent manhood1 the unconquerable pluck1 the engineering skill1 which brought her just in time off ,santiago1 won their reward when the ,colon struck her flag4 ,speed has been a determining factor in many a naval action4 ,it was that which gave the power to take and hold the old-time 8weather-gauge40 ,none knew its value better than ,nelson1 the chief fighter of the age of sail4 ,once he said that there would be found1 stamped upon his heart1 8the want of frigates10 the swift and nimble 8eyes of the fleet0 in his day4 ,if his career in warfare on the sea had been a century later1 he would be found foremost among the advocates of high-speed battleships and quick-firing guns4 ,it is1 however1 not only in the speed of warships that steam and mechanism have revolutionized fleets4 ,for example1 the displacement of the battleship of to-day is fully three and one half times greater than that of her heaviest ancestor of the sailing age4 ,with due limitation as to length of hull1 it is evident that the wind would be1 at best1 a wholly inadequate and untrustworthy motor for this huge structure with its great weight of armor4 ,it is true that1 during the era of transition1 sail and steam were both applied to iron-clads--this absurdity reaching its climax in the ,british ,agincourt and her sisters1 which were #djj feet long1 #aj1fjj tons' displacement1 and were fitted with five masts4 ,it is said that a merchant steamer narrowly escaped collision at night with one of these vessels1 believing from her length and rigging that there were two ships ahead1 between which she could pass4 ,what these large displacements mean1 in contrast with those of past days1 will be1 perhaps1 best illustrated by the statement that the ,italia of #ac1fjj tons--a ship with which1 in her day1 ,italy challenged the criticism of the world--carries on her deck a weight1 in armor and armament1 of #bejj tons1 or one fourth more than that of ,nelson's flagship ,victory4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,constitution ,,from ,,original ,,drawing4 7,furnished by the ,author47 ,length #agd ft4 #aj ins4 ,beam #dc ft4 #f in4 ,mean ,draught #bj ft4 #j in4 ,displacement #bbjj tons4 ,,william ,,doughty1 ,fecit4 #agif1 ,oct4 ,joshua ,humphreys1 of ,philadelphia1 ,designer4 ,cloghorne and ,hartley1 of ,boston1 ,builders4 ,launched ,oct4 #ba1 #agig4 ,again1 the largest naval gun in the year #ahjj was one firing but a #db-pound shot1 while in the ,united ,states navy we have now the #ac-;inch rifle of #fj tons1 with a projectile of #aajj pounds1 and ,great ,britain has afloat #ahjj-pounder breech-loaders which weigh #aaa tons4 ,before monster ordnance such as this1 the strength of man1 unaided1 is but crude and futile4 ,he must call to his help--as he has done--steam as the source of power for the electric1 hydraulic1 or pneumatic engines1 which load1 elevate1 and train the gun4 ,in summing up the service of steam1 directly or indirectly1 to the ship-of-war1 it will be seen that the speed of the battleship has been increased by fully #ej per cent41 and that of the cruiser has been doubled2 that the displacement of the battleship is now three and one half times that of her sailing predecessor2 and that1 since the century's birth1 the gun has grown to such extent that the projectile for the ,oregon's main battery weighs #bf times that of the heaviest shot in the year #ahjj4 ,this1 however1 is not all4 ,steam acts primarily1 as well1 to raise the anchor1 to steer the ship1 and to effect her lighting1 heating1 drainage1 and ventilation4 ,to the genius of ,james ,watt there must be ascribed the possibility for the growth and change which have produced the modern man-of-war4 ,closely allied with mechanism in this evolution1 has been the transformation of the structural material of the hull1 which has passed from the hands of the shipwright in wood to the engineer who works with steel4 ,the reasons for this are not far to seek4 ,they lie1 firstly1 in the greater strength of the metal construction to withstand the vibration of swift and heavy machinery1 and the strains arising from the unequal distribution of massive weights in a hull which pitches or rolls with the waves4 ,with wooden ships1 the present proportions would have been unattainable4 ,again1 there is a marked saving in the weight of the hull proper of the steel vessel1 which is not only stronger but lighter4 ,this weight in the days of timber averaged fully one half of the displacement2 while in the ,oregon1 whose tonnage1 at normal draught1 is #aj1bhh1 the hull percentage is #dd4jf1 leaving a gain over the wooden vessel of #faa tons to be applied to armor1 armament1 or equipment4 ,finally1 the durability of the metal vessel1 with adequate care1 greatly exceeds that of the wooden war steamer1 whose average life was but #ac years4 ,the creation of the steam machinery of navies has been the achievement of the engineers of practically but three great nations4 ,the daring of ,france1 the inventive genius of ,america1 and the wide experience and sound judgment of ,great ,britain1 have united in this work4 ,our country has led time and again in the march of improvement2 although our progress has been fitful1 since1 more than a generation ago1 we turned from the sea to the development of the internal resources of this continent4 ,limits of space permit but brief review of a history which has had its full share of triumphs1 not only in battle1 but over wave and wind4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,oregon4 ,a contemporary authority states that1 when ,british ,admiral ,sir ,john ,borlase ,warren ascended the ,potomac ,river1 during the war of #ahab1 his expedition was reconnoitred by an ,american steamer4 ,this appears to be the first record of the use of such craft for military purposes4 ,in #ahad the ,united ,states built the first steam war-vessel in the world's history4 ,she was called the ,demologos1 later the ,fulton1 and her completion marked truly1 as her commissioners said1 8an era in warfare and the arts40 ,she was a double-ended1 twin-hulled floating battery of #bdge tons1 carrying twenty #cb-pdr4 guns1 protected by #d ft4 #aj in4 of solid timber4 ,she was driven by a single central paddle-wheel2 her speed was #e miles per hour2 and she was both handy and seaworthy4 ,france1 in #ahbj1 sent a commission to ,america to report upon steam vessels of war2 and in #ahcj the ,french had nine armed steamers afloat and nine building4 ,in #ahba1 the ,comet1 a small side-wheeler1 was commissioned as the first steam war-ship in the ,british navy1 and in #ahdj1 at the bombardment of ,acre1 steam vessels fought their first battle4 ,illustration3 ,,action ,,between ,,monitor ,,and ,,merrimac4 ,the growth of steam in navies had been retarded by its application solely to paddle craft1 whose wheels and machinery were incapable of protection in action4 ,during the years #ahdb-dc1 however1 the ,united ,states built the sloop-of-war ,princeton1 of #ied tons4 ,this vessel was the product of the genius of ,john ,ericsson1 the ablest marine engineer the world has ever seen4 ,she was the first screw-propelled steam warship ever built1 and1 in other respects1 foreshadowed the advances which were to come4 ,thus1 her machinery was the first to be placed wholly below the water-line beyond the reach of hostile shot2 her engine was the first to be coupled directly to the screw shaft1 and blowers1 for forced draft1 were with her first used in naval practice4 ,she was virtually the herald of the modern era4 ,the ,princeton was followed closely by the ,rattler1 the first screw vessel of the ,british fleet1 and in #ahdc-dd the ,french #dd-;gun frigate ,pomone was fitted with propellers4 ,in #ahdc1 also1 the ,english ,penelope was the first man-of-war to be equipped with tubular boilers1 and the year #ahde was notable for the building of the ill-fated ,birkenhead1 the first iron vessel of the ,british fleet4 ,in #ahej1 when the ,french constructed the screw line-of-battle ship ,napoleon1 the ,english became alarmed1 and began with vigor the renovation of their navy with regard to screw propulsion4 ,france1 in #ahed1 laid the keels of four armored batteries1 three of which1 forming the first ironclad squadron in history1 went into action a year later under the forts of ,kinburn in the ,crimea4 ,they were of #afjj tons' displacement1 carried #d inch armor and sixteen #fh-pdr4 guns1 and had a speed of four knots4 ,in #ahfb1 ,ericsson launched the famous ,monitor1 the first sea-going ironclad with a revolving turret1 and an 8engineers' ship0 from keel to turret top4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,turbinia4 ,the ,civil ,war found us with a sailing navy1 and left us one of steam4 ,passing over its victories1 in which steamers played always the chief part on sea and river1 we come to that most notable triumph of ,chief ,engineer ,isherwood1 the cruiser ,wampanoag of #dbjj tons' displacement4 ,this vessel1 phenomenal in her day1 steamed in ,february1 #ahfh1 from ,barnegat to ,savannah1 over a stormy sea1 in #ch hours4 ,her average was #af4f knots for the run1 and #ag knots during a period of six consecutive hours--a speed which for #aa years thereafter was unapproached by liner or by warship4 ,in #ahgi1 the ,british despatch vessel ,mercury1 of #cgcj tons and #ah4hg knots1 wrested the palm from ,america2 but1 in #ahic1 it was won again for the ,united ,states by the triple-screw fliers ,columbia and ,minneapolis of #gdge tons1 with speeds respectively of #bb4h and #bc4jgc knots4 ,the laurels rest now with the ,buenos ,ayres1 which1 though built in ,england in #ahie1 flies the flag of ,argentina4 ,she has a tonnage of #dejj and a speed of #bc4bjb knots4 ,illustration3 ,,engine ,,of ,u4,s4,s4,,powhatan4 ,a4,d4 #ahdi4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,the ,british ironclad ,pallas1 completed in #ahff1 was remarkable for having the first successful naval engines on the compound principle1 in which the steam is admitted at high pressure to a small cylinder1 and passes thence to a larger one which it fills by its expansion4 ,to ,great ,britain the world owes also the development of triple expansion1 i4 e41 the use of steam successively in three cylinders4 ,this system was inaugurated in naval engines by the ,british1 in #ahhe-hf1 and is now universally employed4 ,prior to #ahgi1 the boilers of all modern war-vessels had been those of the ,scotch type1 in which the flame passes through tubes fixed in a cylindrical shell containing water4 ,in that year1 however1 ,france began a revolution in the steam generators of navies by equipping a dispatch-vessel with the ,belleville tubulous boiler1 in which the water to be evaporated is contained within tubes surrounded by flame confined in an outer casing4 ,the water-tube principle1 also1 bids fair to become of universal application4 ,it has had its most noteworthy naval installation in the ,british cruisers ,powerful and ,terrible1 of #ad1bjj tons and #be1hhf horse-power1 completed in #ahie4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,engine ,,of ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,ericsson4 ,the use of more than one screw for propulsion dates back to #ahec4 ,during our ,civil ,war multiple screws figured1 to a small extent1 in the 8tin clads0 and larger monitors4 ,the application of twin screws1 in the modern era1 begins with the ,british ironclad ,penelope of #ahfh4 ,france1 in the years #ahhd-he1 blazed the way for another naval advance of much importance in conducting a series of trials with the launch ,carpe1 equipped with triple screws4 ,the system1 however1 although of much value1 from engineering and tactical points of view1 was not adopted in large1 high-powered vessels until the advent of the ,french armored cruiser ,dupuy de ,lme in #ahij1 and the protected cruisers ,columbia and ,minneapolis of the ,united ,states navy in #ahic4 ,it has now won full approval in the navies of continental ,europe1 and triple-screw ships1 aggregating #ejj1jjj tons1 are built or building there4 ,the limits of space forbid more than a passing note of the triumphs of the engineer in torpedo craft1 the light cavalry of the sea4 ,with steamers of normal proportions1 the speed and power depend largely upon1 and increase with1 the displacement4 ,as has been stated1 the maximum performance of large cruisers is now #bc knots on a tonnage of #dejj4 ,these particulars give a faint glimpse of the extraordinary problem which has confronted the torpedo-boat designer in driving hulls of1 at present1 about #aej tons at a speed which now approximates to #cj knots4 ,with the brilliant record of success in this task1 there will be linked always the names of ,yarrow and ,thornycroft in ,england1 of ,schichau in ,germany1 and of ,normand in ,france4 ,the achievement but recently of a ,british inventor1 the ,hon4 ,charles ,algernon ,parsons1 in giving the ,turbinia of #dd4e tons a speed of over #ca knots1 has drawn the attention of engineers the world over to the possibilities of the steam turbine on the sea4 ,this performance is phenomenal with such a displacement4 ,the ,french ,forban1 of #acj tons1 has made #ca4b knots1 and a reported speed of #ce knots gives a ,schichau boat her temporary laurels as the fastest craft afloat4 ,a brief glance at the improvements which have made possible these extreme speeds in cruisers and torpedo craft will be of interest4 ,the progress which has been made has been1 firstly1 in the economy in the use of steam arising from higher pressures and multiple expansion2 secondly1 in the reduction of weight1 per horse power1 due to increase in strength of materials and in engine-speed with the employment of forced draft--which was reintroduced by ,france--and the water-tube boiler2 and1 finally1 in the application of a more efficient propelling instrument4 ,the advances of half a century in propelling machinery are shown1 in some respects1 by ,plates ,,iii and ,,iv1 which contrast1 on the same scale1 the side-wheel machinery of the ,united ,states war-steamer ,powhatan1 of #ahdi1 with the engines of the ,united ,states torpedo boat ,ericsson of to-day4 ,the data of the former vessel are3 horse-power1 #aagb2 steam pressure #ae lbs42 weight of machinery per horse-power #igb lbs42 while1 for the ,ericsson1 the figures are3 horse-power1 #ahjj2 steam pressure1 #bej lbs42 weight of machinery per horse-power1 #ef lbs4 ,this comparison1 however1 must be qualified by the statement that the older engine was for a steamer of about #cgfj tons1 while the torpedo boat is but #abj tons in displacement4 ,the contrast lies1 therefore1 only in the reduced weight of material per horse-power developed and in the increased steam pressure1 which1 however1 are in themselves most striking4 ,v4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,ordnance4 ,at ,trafalgar1 the ,victory drifted before the wind into action4 ,in her slow advance1 at a speed of one and one half knots through but #abjj yards1 she was for half an hour under the prolonged fire of #bjj guns1 and yet she closed1 practically unhurt1 with her foes1 and lived1 not only to win the day1 but to bring undying glory to the ,english flag4 ,what a contrast the latest sea-fight of the century presents in the power of modern ordnance as compared with the puny guns of ,nelson's time6 ,our battleship ,oregon1 at a range of nearly five miles1 with one #aajj-pound shell1 drove the ,colon1 an armored cruiser1 not only shoreward1 but to surrender1 stranding1 and wreck4 ,the largest naval guns in the year #ahjj were the long #cb and #db-pounders1 smooth-bore muzzle-loaders1 with a range of about #abjj yards4 ,carronades--short pieces with a heavy shot but limited range--found favor also1 especially with ,british sailors1 eager for that close-quarter fighting in which the 8,smasher0--as ,general ,melville called his carronade--would be most effective in shattering timbers and in sending clouds of splinters among the foe4 ,the projectiles were spherical shot1 canister1 and grape1 the diabolical shriek of the shell being yet unheard4 ,both gun and shot were of cast metal1 and the mount was a wooden carriage on low trucks4 ,the training1 or horizontal angle of the gun1 was effected by rope tackles1 and the amount of elevation of its muzzle depended upon the position of a 8quoin10 or wooden wedge1 thrust beneath the breech4 ,the recoil was limited by rope 8breeching10 passing through the cascabel1--a knob behind the breech1--and secured to ring-bolts in the ship's side4 ,the gun was harnessed1 as a horse is1 in the shafts4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,trafalgar4 ,aiming was largely a perfunctory process1 since the gun had no sights and the shot had excessive 8windage10 its calibre being from one fifth to one third inch less than the bore1 making its outward passage a series of rebounds and its final direction a matter of chance4 8,windage10 however1 was essential to facilitate muzzle-loading and to provide for the expanded diameter of red-hot shot4 ,it is true that in #ahja a proposition to use sights was made to ,lord ,nelson4 ,he1 however1 rejected it with the words3-- 8,i hope we shall be able1 as usual1 to get so close to our enemies that our shot cannot miss the object40 ,his blind courage in this cost his countrymen dearly when1 in #ahab-ad1 their shot flew wild1 while their ships were hulled and their gallant tars fell before the then sighted guns of the ,united ,states4 ,to ignite the charge the slow-match was still used1 as is shown by the sharp words of a sailor of that time4 ,hailed in the darkness by a ,british ship and ordered to send a boat1 his quick answer was3-- 8,this is the ,united ,states frigate ,constitution1 ,edward ,preble1 commodore1 commanding1 and ,i'll be d--d if ,i send a boat60 ,then to his men1 silent and eager by the shrouded battle-lanterns3-- 8,blow your matches1 boys60 ,a full crew for a #cb-pounder consisted of #ad men4 ,an old rule as to this was one man to every #ejj-lbs4 weight of the gun1 which would give the ,oregon #aajj men to handle the four #ac-;inch rifles of her main battery1 or more than twice her whole crew4 ,steam and mechanism have wrought a magic change in this4 ,the slow-match remained in use until well into the nineteenth century1 although1 until #ahdb1 the flint lock was generally employed in the ,british navy1 having replaced the priming horn and match in #aghj4 ,in #ahjg there was discovered a composition which could be ignited by friction or concussion1 and in #ahci the ,french had adopted the percussion lock1 which exploded the cap and retracted1 uncovering the vent before the backward rush of the gas could strike it4 ,later1 a similar composition was used with 8friction-primers10 or tubes filled with mealed powder and capped with composition1 the tube forming a train leading to the charge1 and the composition being fired by the friction of a rough wire drawn briskly through it4 ,percussion and friction have been in turn largely displaced by the electric primer1 which consists essentially of a fine wire1 or 8bridge10 passing through a highly inflammable mixture4 ,the bridge offers a resistance to the electric current1 is heated thereby1 ignites the composition1 and fires the gun4 ,the older type of the cast-iron smooth-bore gun for solid shot reached its ultimate development in the #fh-pounder1 which endured until the advent of armor4 ,in #ahai the system of firing shells loaded with gunpowder from smooth-bore guns was suggested by ,general ,paixhans1 of ,france4 ,in #ahbd1 it was introduced into the ,french navy1 and about #ahdj into that of the ,united ,states4 ,at ,sinope1 in #ahec1 the terrible effect of shell fire upon wooden ships startled the world1 when a ,russian fleet destroyed absolutely #aa ,turkish vessels1 with their force of #djjj men4 ,the ,paixhans gun was modified and its form improved by ,admiral ,dahlgren1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 and in the late #ej's the armament--designed by him--of ,united ,states vessels was superior to that of any other in the world4 ,the #i1 #aa1 and #ae-;inch ,dahlgrens formed the bulk of our guns afloat during the ,civil ,war1 the remainder being almost wholly rifles of the ,parrott type4 ,illustration3 ,the ,growth of ,ordnance #cbpdr #fm ,smooth-bore1 ,muzzle-loader ,weight #cfjj lbs4 ,muzzle ,energy1 #fdb ,foot-tons ,u ,s 7,dahlgren7 #ddjpdr #aem ,smooth-bore1 ,muzzle-loader ,weight #dbjjj lbs4 ,muzzle ,energy1 #gbgc ,foot-tons ,italian 7,armstrong7 #bjjjpdr #ag;in ,rifle1 ,breech-loader ,weight #aja4e tons1 ,muzzle ,energy1 #eaicj ,foot-tons ,u ,s ,naval #aajjpdr #ac;in ,rifle1 ,breech-loader ,weight #fj tons1 ,muzzle ,energy1 #ccfbg ,foot-tons ,,plate ,v4 ,the resistance which spherical projectiles met from the air1 their deviation in flight1 owing to the frequent lack of coincidence of the centres of gravity and form1 their excessive 8windage10 and their light weight relatively to calibre1 led to the adoption of the rifled gun and the cylindrical projectile4 ,the principle of the former--making the shot act as a screw-bolt and the bore as a screw-thread--is very old1 there being at ,woolwich a barrel of this type bearing date of #aedg4 ,the objects aimed at in rifling are to give a pointed cylindrical shot rotation on its axis that it may keep steady during flight1 and secondly1 to obtain increased weight in the projectile from its elongated form4 ,as to the latter consideration1 it may be noted that the old #cb-pounder smooth-bore was of #f-;inch calibre1 while the ,united ,states #f-;inch rifle of to-day throws a shot of #ajj lbs4 weight4 ,france1 during the ,crimean ,war1 brought out the first heavy rifled gun4 ,in #ahfj-fa1 ,armstrong rifles were introduced in the ,british navy4 ,the labors of ,krupp met such success that at ,paris1 in #ahfg1 he exhibited a rifle weighing #ej tons with a projectile of #ajhj pounds4 ,the ,parrott rifle was brought out about #ahef in the ,united ,states1 and was so developed that in #ahfb it was the most powerful gun1 for its weight and size1 in existence4 ,the adoption of rifling was the first great step on the road which engineering had laid toward the growth in power of modern ordnance4 ,having thus secured a projectile of great weight and moderate calibre which would bore through the air a true path to the distant mark1 there remained to seek but four chief elements in the magnificent advance made within a generation by the naval artillery of our day4 ,these factors were3 #ast4 ,increased strength in the material of the gun4 #b;d4 ,a method of construction which would not only permit enormous pressures in the powder-chamber1 but would make possible the continuous acceleration of the projectile during its passage through the bore4 #c;d4 ,an explosive which would satisfy the objects of the method of construction2 and1 #dth4 ,a system of loading which would enable guns of great length to be charged with ease4 ,the mounting of ordnance of any weight1 its control1 and its rapid and facile handling were but minor matters of engineering4 ,in a paper such as this1 of limited length and addressed to laymen1 it is possible to give but a glance at the progress in the various elements of gun-construction which have been noted4 ,of material1 little need be said4 ,the rifle of ,crimean days was a cast-iron piece2 ,parrott ordnance was of cast and wrought iron2 and the first ,armstrong gun was built of wrought iron and steel4 ,cast and compound materials1 however1 have vanished with the past4 ,steel--hardened and toughened to the last degree by every refinement of manufacture--forms the 8reeking tube0 for the 8iron shard0 of the century's close4 ,the method of construction is the 8built-up0 process1 shown by the partial section on ,plate ,v41 the barrel being reinforced by tubes which are shrunk on--like the tire of a wagon-wheel--so as to produce initial compression4 ,the explosion in the powder chamber strains and expands temporarily the barrel1 and the application of the shrinkage principle enables a portion of the strength of the tubes to be employed in preliminary internal pressure4 ,the barrel thus supported can be strained by the charge1 not only to its own limit of safety1 but to an additional amount equal to this initial compression4 ,the all-steel1 built-up gun has a possible rival in wire-wound ordnance1 a system which replaces the tubes1 to a greater or less extent1 by layers of wire1 wound while in tension around the barrel4 ,powder is the soul of the gun2 it transforms the huge inert mass into a flaming engine of death4 ,the great development of explosives began but a generation since4 ,the researches of ,robins and ,rumford in the last century1 and of ,hutton in the dawn of this1 formed the world's knowledge of the gun's internal ballistics until the year #ahgj4 ,to the genius of ,noble and ,abel is due the stimulus to growth since then4 ,the powders have kept pace with gun-construction in its advance4 ,the increased strength of the chamber has been met by heavier and slow-burning charges--cocoa1 brown prismatic1 and the like--which have given not only greater initial velocity1 but a continuous acceleration through bores whose maximum length has exceeded #dg feet4 ,indeed1 to the production of this lingering combustion is due the great linear dimension and power of modern guns4 ,initial pressure had its limit2 advance lay only in the subsequent acceleration given by late ignition of a portion of the charge4 ,gunpowder1 however1 after a reign of more than five hundred years1 has been dethroned4 ,the 8villainous saltpetre0 of the monk1 with its allies1 charcoal and sulphur1 yields now to nitro compounds1 which produce not only far greater energy1 but are as well smokeless4 ,the sea-fights of our war with ,spain saw the last contending fleets to be wrapped in a cloud1 lingering and baffling1 of their own making4 ,cordite1 one of these compounds in use abroad1 is prepared in long 8cords0 from di-nitro-cellulose and nitro-glycerine4 ,the new smokeless 8powder0 of the ,united ,states navy is made from nitro-cellulose dissolved in ether alcohol4 ,france was the first in employing explosives such as these1 which1 in their offensive and tactical advantages1 form one of the signal triumphs of the century's last years4 ,the long gun of modern days is of necessity breech-loading4 ,the development of other elements gave1 as a resultant1 great length2 and this1 in turn1 required a system of charging which would permit protection for the men while loading1 and would obviate the intolerable inconvenience of ramming home powder and shot in a long muzzle-loader--an operation which was1 in fact1 impossible beyond a certain limit of length4 ,the advocates of the older construction1 especially in ,england1 urged long and earnestly its simplicity and the superior strength of a solid breech2 but the logic of events was against them1 and the breech-loader won a complete triumph4 ,it is worthy of note that it1 like rifling and the principle of building up1 was but a revival4 ,from the warship ,mary ,rose1 sunk in #aede in action off ,spithead1 there were recovered in #ahcf a number of guns1 some of which are of wrought iron1 built-up and breech-loading4 ,there are in use two methods of closing the breech when the gun is loaded from the rear4 ,in ,french1 ,english1 and ,american ordnance an axial screw-plug is inserted2 in the ,krupp system a cylindro-prismatic breech-block slides in a horizontal opening cut across the bore4 ,the former1 or interrupted screw mechanism1 was first set forth in the ,united ,states' patent of #ahdi to ,chambers4 ,in projectiles the tendency of the modern era has been towards simplification4 ,bar-shot1 chain-shot1 and grape have disappeared1 while canister and solid shot are becoming obsolete4 ,there remain shrapnel as the 8man-killer0 of this age1 and explosive shell1 differentiated into armor-piercing and that for attack on unarmored structures4 ,lieutenant ,shrapnel1 in #agif1 invented the projectile which bears his name4 ,in its modern form1 it consists of a steel case containing lead or iron balls and a light bursting charge of powder1 ignited by a time-fuse carried in the head4 ,this projectile is most formidable against bodies of men1 boats1 and the embrasures of forts1 since1 when it is ruptured1 the balls are dispersed1 covering a wide area4 ,the use of explosive shell in high-angle discharge dates back to the fifteenth century4 ,from ,paixhans' works1 8,la ,nouvelle ,arme10 published in #ahba1 came the stimulus to its development and to its deadly service1 in our time1 in horizontal fire4 ,the 8common shell0 for the ,united ,states #ac-;inch rifle is made of forged steel1 weighs #aajj pounds1 and carries within it a bursting charge of #ej pounds of powder1 ignited by a percussion fuse set in its base4 ,it will penetrate #f or #g inches of armor and then explode within the ship4 ,the ,united ,states 8armor-piercing shell0 is manufactured from crucible steel1 alloyed with chromium2 it is tempered to extreme hardness at the point1 which carries a cap of soft metal4 ,the function of the latter would appear to be that of a support to the shoulder of the projectile1 or as a lubricant thereto1 since1 without the cap1 the shell is broken or deformed in the attack on armor of surface hardened steel4 ,to resist the crushing strain in its passage through massive plate1 the walls of this shell must be so thick that no charge of gunpowder will burst it4 ,hence1 as a rule1 the shell is fired unloaded1 although recently there have been adopted to some extent bursting charges of some high explosive1 such as gun-cotton1 joveite1 or picric acid4 ,in closing this brief review of the progress of ordnance1 but passing mention can be made of matters minor1 but in themselves of much importance4 ,gun carriages1 or mounts1 are now intricate mechanisms1 practically the whole service of large ordnance being performed by electric and hydraulic machinery4 ,the rapid fire principle has been extended to pieces of #f-;inch calibre1 and bids fair to pass beyond that limit4 ,its success in increasing largely the number of shots within a given time lies in special breech-blocks1 aiming devices1 and prepared cartridges4 ,machine guns of rifle-calibre1 partly or wholly automatic1 have been so developed as to be capable of firing #abjj rounds per minute4 ,the discharge of high explosives in large quantity was effected with success by the ,united ,states steamer ,vesuvius off ,santiago4 ,the torpedo-gun afloat1 however1 would appear to be still in a tentative condition4 ,a brief lapse into technical terms may be permitted in summarizing the gun's growth in power4 ,the term 8muzzle energy0 is used to describe the work which the projectile is capable of performing when it leaves the bore4 ,it is expressed in foot-tons1 i4 e41 the number of tons which the energy stored in the shot would lift to a height of one foot4 ,the figures as to this for the #cb-pounder of the century's beginning1 for the ,united ,states #ac-;inch rifle and for the #aaa-ton ,english gun1 are1 respectively1 #fdb1 #cc1fbg1 and #ed1fij foot-tons4 ,again1 the round shot from the #cb-pounder lost from the resistance of the air1 in a range of #abjj yards1 #gf per cent of its energy2 while this loss1 with the ,united ,states #ac-;inch1 in a range of #ajjj yards1 is but #aa per cent4 ,finally1 if the cast-iron shot of the #cb-pounder were fired against armor-plate1 it would lose1 in breaking itself up1 two thirds of its remaining energy1 leaving at #abjj yards but #ea foot-tons for effective work2 while with the modern armor-piercing shell the entire energy left at the end of the range is expended upon the armor-plate4 ,it will be seen then that the immeasurable superiority of modern guns is owing both to their great increase in energy and to their wiser disposition of that which has been attained4 ,the gun has maintained fully during the century its primacy among naval weapons4 ,it is true that1 in theory and on paper1 its supremacy has at times been questioned2 but as to its two rivals1 the ram would seem to be rather the weapon of accident than action1 and the torpedo has yet to score in battle against ships in motion1 while the precision1 rapidity1 and power of the gun grow more deadly with every passing year4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,armor4 ,armor and the gun are natural and now hereditary foes4 ,the function of the one is to resist1 that of the other ever to attack4 ,since the beginning of the modern era in navies1 there has been ceaseless strife for mastery between these two elements of warship design1 the gun ever becoming more powerful1 and the armor--at first through growing thickness and later through improved material--opposing a steadily more stubborn front4 ,the official report of an ,english committee made in the year #ahfj states that1-- 8,vessels clothed in rolled-iron plates of four and a half inches' thickness are to all practicable purposes invulnerable against any projectile that can be brought to bear against them at any range40 ,the advance which forty years have seen may be shown by the single statement that the ,krupp #ae4g-;inch gun develops sufficient energy to penetrate at the muzzle #dg inches of wrought iron4 ,the battleship is at best but a series of compromises1 each factor of the structure yielding or growing as the skill or whim of her designer may indicate4 ,in the present stage of this unceasing change1 the gun would appear to be the victor1 and the power of this mighty #acb-ton rifle seems scarcely needed on the sea4 ,the distinguished chief of ordnance of the ,united ,states navy1 in his annual report for #ahih1 says3-- 8,the development of the #ab-;inch gun has been so great and its power so much increased that the ,bureau is of opinion that hereafter it will be the maximum calibre that it will be advisable to install on future battleships40 ,with armor1 as with the torpedo1 the talent of ,europe reaped where the genius of ,america had sown4 ,john ,stevens of ,new ,jersey was the first inventor of modern times to suggest the application of armor to a floating battery1 his plans being submitted to the ,united ,states government during the war of #ahab4 ,they received1 however1 no serious consideration1 and to ,france1 forty-two years later1 fell the honor of attaining the first practical results in the building of ironclads4 ,members of the ,stevens family1 however1 continued the experiments of its founder1 until by the year #ahda they had determined the thickness of iron necessary to stop spherical projectiles at point blank range1 and the comparative resisting powers of iron and oak4 ,these results led to an appropriation by ,congress1 in #ahed1 of #ejj1jjj to begin work upon an ironclad1--the ,stevens battery1--which vessel1 however1 never left the ways and was eventually broken up4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,armor4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,armor4 ,general ,paixhans1 who revolutionized naval artillery by the invention of the modern shell1 prophesied1 in an official letter to the ,french government in #ahbd1 that the new projectile would force the creation of armored ships4 ,in #ahda he recommended officially the clothing of vessels with iron armor1 as a protection against his own missiles2 and in #ahec his words of warning met complete and terrible fulfillment in the annihilation by shell guns of the ,turkish fleet at ,sinope4 ,this action was the immediate cause of the introduction of armor in modern navies4 ,the ,british admiralty1 in #ahdc1 had duplicated the ,stevens experiments1 using a target of #ad plates of boiler iron riveted together1 which gave a total thickness of #f inches2 and experiments on laminated plating had been also at this time carried on at ,gavres1 in ,france4 ,in #ahde ,dupuy de ,lme1 the famous naval architect1 submitted to the ,french government the first ,european design for an armored frigate4 ,his plans were1 however1 rejected2 and only with the outbreak of the ,crimean ,war was the construction of armored vessels begun4 ,on ,october #ag1 #ahee1 the three ,french batteries which were the first results of this new departure went into action off ,kinburn1 in the ,crimea1 silencing in four hours forts which had held at bay the combined fleets of ,england and ,france4 ,armor had won its first victory1 and had shown most signally its position as one of the main factors in the warship design of the years which were to come4 ,these vessels1 with three similar batteries constructed immediately thereafter by the ,british government1 were clad with solid iron plates #d inches thick1 backed by #bg inches of oak1 comparative experiments at ,vincennes1 ,france1 having shown the marked superiority of solid over laminated plating4 ,they were1 however1 in but a most limited sense sea-going ships1 their low speed and other inferior qualities being radical defects as to this4 ,france led in a further advance1 beginning in #aheg and completing in #ahei the transformation of the wooden line-of-battle ship ,napoleon into the armored vessel of #ejjj tons1 which1 as ,la ,gloire1 is famous as the first sea-going ironclad4 ,she carried a strake of #d-;inch plating at the water line1 and #d-;inch plates in wake of the battery4 ,england answered the challenge of her hereditary foe with the ,warrior1 an iron vessel of #ibaj tons1 completed in #ahfa4 ,while her rival had a fully armored side1 but #bab of the ,warrior's #chj feet of length carried plating4 ,its thickness was #d inches4 ,illustration3 8,la ,gloire0 7,france7 #aheg4 ,side ,armor ,iron #d in4 ,solid4 8,warrior0 7,england7 #ahei4 ,side ,armor ,iron #d in4 ,solid4 ,u4,s4 ,monitor 8,passaic0 #ahfb4 ,side ,armor ,iron #c to #e in4 ,laminated4 ,turret ,armor ,iron #aa in4 ,laminated4 8,inflexible0 7,england7 #ahgf4 ,belt ,citadel ,armor ,iron ,sandwiched4 8,duilio0 7,italy7 #ahgf4 ,belt ,armor ,steel ,solid4 ,u4,s4 ,battleship ,oregon4 ,belt ,armor ,harveyed ,nickel ,steel ,solid4 #ac in4 ,turret ,armor ,harveyed ,nickel ,steel ,solid4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,armor4 ,at the outbreak of the ,civil ,war in the ,united ,states1 the government appointed a special naval committee to report upon types of ironclads4 ,the conclusions of this board are of interest1 in showing the state of armor development at that period4 ,they required rolled armor of solid iron1 whose minimum thickness was #d inches4 ,ericsson's ,monitor1 however1 carried laminated plating from #c to #e inches thick on her low sides1 and #aa layers1 each one inch thick1 on her turret4 ,this construction1 which the difficulties in the manufacture of solid plate necessitated1 made the record of endurance of this type far from good4 ,the defect lay mainly with fastening bolts1 which broke frequently1 thus loosening or detaching the side armor1 and the heads or nuts of which1 flying off with violence when the armor was struck by shot1 became sometimes fatal missiles against those within the turrets4 ,in contrast with this1 the behavior of the ,new ,ironsides1 clothed with solid armor1 was most excellent4 ,she was a casemated ironclad frigate with unarmored ends1 her plating was #d inches thick1 and inclined throughout the citadel1 at an angle of #cj from the perpendicular4 ,for two years she was subjected to the most severe test that a war-vessel must meet1 the tossing and straining of blockade duty and the fiery ordeal of close action with fortifications4 ,in one engagement1 she sustained alone a fight against the combined fire of the forts in ,charleston harbor1 and1 although struck on her side-armor sixty times1 came out of the struggle unhurt4 ,the record of this ship is one which does honor to the flag4 ,the achievement of the ,confederacy during this war1 in the matter of armor1 was remarkable4 ,with iron worth almost its weight in gold1 and with most limited facilities for manufacturing1 they yet succeeded in constructing some of the most formidable ironclads of their day4 ,the ,merrimac1 for instance--with #c-;inch armor1 in two layers of narrow bars1 at an angle of #cj with the horizontal--sustained no material damage to her plating from the fire of the ,monitor2 although had the full charge of #cj lbs4 of powder been used in the #aa-;inch smooth-bores of the latter1 the story would have been different4 ,every fair blow would have smashed a hole completely through the armor1 and driven a shower of splinters about the battery-deck4 ,again1 the armor of the ,atlanta and the ,tennessee--both casemated ships1 with the sides of the citadel inclined at a sharp angle to the horizontal--was sufficiently strong1 with the former vessel1 to withstand1 at #ejj yards1 the #aa-;inch projectile fired with a #bj-lbs4 charge1 and1 with the latter1 the same shot practically at the muzzle1 although the #ae-;inch projectile broke through completely in both cases4 ,it is unnecessary to follow in detail1 through its many tests in peace1 the advance of iron armor4 ,its growth in strength1 as the power of the gun developed1 came almost solely from increase in thickness1 the latter reaching its maximum with the ,british ,inflexible1 completed in #ahgf1 which carries from #af to #bd inches of iron on her belt and citadel4 ,this plating1 however1 is divided and 8sandwiched0 with wood1 there being1 exterior to the skin1 #f inches of teak1 then #ab inches iron1 #aa inches teak1 and an outer #ab-;inch plate4 ,as armor1 iron received its death-blow in the famous tests at ,spezia1 ,italy1 during the autumn of #ahgf1 when the #ajj-ton gun1 with a full charge1 at a range of #ajj yards1 attacked solid and 8sandwich0 targets of iron and solid targets of steel--the single or aggregate thickness of metal in each case being #bb inches4 ,these trials were undertaken through ,italy's desire to build1 in the ,duilio and ,dandolo1 the most formidable vessels afloat4 ,steel won the day1 and the roar of that mighty gun1 thundering from the ,spezia firing ground1 sounded the knell of iron armor1 deprived the as yet unlaunched ,inflexible of her crown of invulnerability1 and demanded1 with success1 a revolution in the armor manufacture of ,europe4 ,as a compromise1 compound armor1 i4e41 iron faced with steel1 became popular for a time4 ,as with steel1 its beginnings were old1 dating back at least to the year #aheg4 ,the first perfected compound plate1 made by ,cammel ,co41 of ,england1 was tested at ,shoeburyness in #ahgg4 ,it was composed of #e inches of iron with a #d-;inch face of steel2 the iron being raised to a welding heat and the molten steel poured on its top4 ,the great heat partially fused the contact face1 the two metals were united1 and the combination was assured by immediate rolling4 ,compound plates sprang in #ahgg from obscurity to popularity2 by #ahgi iron armor had become obsolete with progressive naval powers1 and1 in #ahhj1 both compound and steel plates had reached such development that they were close rivals1 the leading competitors being ,cammel in ,england and ,schneider in ,france4 ,steel1 however1 slowly forged ahead during the next decade2 and1 at its close1 compound armor was practically out of the race4 ,in steel's victory1 its alloy with nickel1 in minute proportions1 has materially aided2 the combination imparting hardness without decreasing the toughness of the plate4 ,this material gave superior results from the beginning4 ,its first plate1 tested in #ahhi1 was #i inches thick2 it was pierced by a ,holtzer shell1 whose body did not pass wholly through and whose energy was #a4f times that just necessary to perforate a wrought-iron plate of the same thickness4 ,to the increased strength given by nickel there has been added a further gain through the application of face-hardening processes--such as that of the ,american1 ,harvey--which produce superficial carbonization1 transforming the surface into a high grade of very hard steel1 without the pronounced plane of demarcation between the two qualities of metal1 as in the weld of the compound plate4 ,a #aj-;inch nickel steel ,harveyized plate1 tested at the ,indian ,head ,proving ,grounds in #ahib1 showed a strength which previously had never been equaled in the history of armor1 and established beyond question the value of the face-hardening process1 which1 by various methods1 is applied to the nickel-steel plating of to-day4 ,the distribution of armor in the development of battleship construction is shown by the shaded sections on ,plates ,,vi and ,,vii1 and its relative thicknesses1 on various vessels during this progress1 by ,plate ,,viii4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ram ,,and ,,the ,,torpedo4 ,for two thousand years the ram--the razor-edged 8beak0 of the swift galley--was the chief naval weapon4 ,with the advent of sail-power and the employment of gunpowder1 it vanished from the seas2 but to reappear when the coming of steam gave again controllable propulsion4 ,in #ahei there was built into the ,french frigate ,magenta a sharp spur1--the first modern ram4 ,british construction of the modern era1 from the ,warrior down1 has also recognized this weapon1 and it is to-day a factor1 although a minor one1 in the design of all vessels of high speed4 ,the ram has1 however1 but a scant record of service in action1 while in accidental collision it has wrought more than once appalling disaster4 ,the ironclad ,merrimac rammed and sank in ,hampton ,roads1 in ,march1 #ahfb1 the ,united ,states sailing sloop-of-war ,cumberland1 which1 under the gallant ,morris1 went down with guns thundering and ensign flying4 ,on ,july #bj1 #ahff1 during the action off the island of ,lissa1 in the ,adriatic1 the ,austrian flagship ,ferdinand ,maximilian rammed the ,italian armorclad ,re d' ,italia1 which1 with many of her #hjj men1 sank with a swiftness that chilled the blood of those who watched4 ,like this1 in its sudden tragedy1 was the destruction of the ,british battleship ,victoria by her consort1 the ,camperdown1 off ,tripoli1 ,syria1 in the summer sunlight of a ,june day in #ahic4 ,the ram of the latter vessel cut a deep and fatal gash in the ,victoria1 which within ten minutes turned bottom upward and went down1 bow first1 bearing with her #cba officers and men1 whose unfaltering discipline gave a heroic splendor to their end4 ,despite these occasional instances of its deadly power1 the ram holds a secondary place among naval weapons4 ,to strike a modern vessel at high speed will require more than the skill of the swordsman4 ,the torpedo1 like the ironclad1 was an ,american invention1 whose neglect by the ,united ,states government brought retribution when this deadly engine of war in #ahfa-fe destroyed not a few war-vessels flying our flag4 ,bushnell of ,connecticut during the ,revolution appears to have invented both the submarine boat and the marine torpedo1 the latter being fired by clock-work4 ,fulton also met success in similar work during the period extending from #ahja to #ahab4 ,all of the elements of modern torpedo warfare1 excepting the use of steam1 compressed air1 or electricity as a motive power1 had been thus conceived by the early dawn of this century4 ,the torpedoes of our day are practically of but two classes3 the 8mine10 or stationary 7either 8buoyant0 or 8ground10 as its position in the water determines71 and the automobile1 or 8fish0 torpedo4 ,the former type is fired either by closing an electric circuit in a station on shore1 or by the ship herself in contact1 or in electric closure4 ,during the ,civil ,war nearly thirty vessels were sunk by mines1 usually wooden barrels filled with gunpowder and fired by hauling lines or slow-burning fuses4 ,it was a mine-field over which ,farragut charged at ,mobile ,bay1 when he uttered his famous oath and went 8full speed ahead10 with the cases of the fortunately impotent torpedoes striking the ,hartford's bottom2 it was a mine which1 it is claimed1 sunk the ,maine2 and it was a mine-field which kept ,sampson's battleships from entering the harbor of ,santiago de ,cuba4 ,the stationary torpedo is now charged with gun cotton or other high explosive4 ,the origin of the most prominent of the automobile torpedoes is due to ,captain ,lupuis of the ,austrian navy1 and its development from #ahfd onward to ,whitehead1 an ,englishman4 ,it is a cigar-shaped submarine vessel from #ad to #ai inches maximum diameter and from #ad to #ai feet long1 which is blown from a torpedo-tube or gun within the ship by compressed air or an impulse charge of gunpowder4 ,twin-screw engines contained within its hull1 and driven by compressed air stored in a reservoir therein1 drive it at about thirty knots speed through an effective range of #fjj yards4 ,in its nose or 8war-head0 there is carried a large charge of gun cotton or other high explosive1 which is fired by contact with the enemy's hull4 ,it is provided with both horizontal and vertical rudders1 the depth of immersion being regulated by intricate machinery contained in the 8balance-chamber40 ,the ,whitehead has a somewhat formidable rival in the ,united ,states in the torpedo invented by ,rear ,admiral ,howell1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,the automobile torpedo has never yet scored in battle against ships in motion4 ,its position in the naval warfare of the future is yet unfixed4 ,the one certainty is1 that its blow when struck home is almost surely fatal to ship and crew4 ,the development of the submarine torpedo-boat1 whose weapon is the ,whitehead1 has in recent years received much attention through the labors of the ,american ,holland and others4 ,france1 in the ,gustavus ,zede1 of #bfj tons1 has a diving boat of this character1 for which much is claimed4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,fleet4 ,until the advent of the ironclad1 the ships of the ,united ,states were equal1 if not superior1 in seaworthiness and fighting qualities to any in the world4 ,the high standard set by the ,constitution and her class of #agig was maintained for sixty years2 and1 especially during the period from #ahdj to #ahfj1 the officers and men of the ,united ,states navy trod the decks of the finest ships afloat4 ,they felt--as their successors feel--that1 ton for ton and gun for gun1 they had no foe to fear4 ,the early steamers of the ,powhatan class built in the late #dj's were a credit to the nation2 the five screw frigates of the ,merrimac type 7#ahef-eg7 aroused the admiration and imitation of foreign experts1 and the five corvettes which followed them in #aheh-ei-fj1 of which the noble ,hartford was the chief1 bore their full share in the war which was so soon to come4 ,the gallant ,kearsarge was the leader of a new class introduced in #ahei4 ,during the ,civil ,war two vessels1 the ,monitor and the ,new ,ironsides1 appeared which have left lasting traces on all battleship construction since their day4 ,the great fleet of monitors1 8tin-clads10 8#ij-;day gunboats10 8double-enders10 and the like1 which preceded and followed them during those dark years1 served their country well4 ,with the ending of that war1 in the internal task of reconstruction and development1 our maritime power was neglected and our fleet dwindled away4 ,its renaissance dates from the appointment of the first ,naval ,advisory ,board in ,june1 #ahha4 ,the growth since then has been so much a matter of national interest and pride that it needs no detailed recounting here2 its results have been summarized previously herein4 ,the sea-going personnel of the ,united ,states navy includes the line1 medical1 pay1 and marine officers1 the chaplains and warrant officers--a total on ,march #a1 #ahii1 of #aehi1 with an enlisted force of #ag1aif blue-jackets and #caff marines4 ,the officers who serve on shore are the naval constructors1 civil engineers1 and the professors of mathematics1 a total of #fi4 ,line officers are the commanders1 navigators1 gunners1 and1 by recent law1 the engineers of our ships of war4 ,marine officers have charge of the policing of ships and shore-stations and of the guns of light calibre afloat4 ,the duties of the remaining officers are indicated by their titles4 ,the titles of line officers and their relative rank1 as compared with that of officers of the army1 are3-- ,,navy4 ,,army4 ,admiral ,general4 ,rear-,admiral ,major or ,brigadier-,general4 ,captain ,colonel4 ,commander ,lieutenant-,colonel4 ,lieutenant-,commander ,major4 ,lieutenant ,captain4 ,lieutenant ,junior ,grade ,first ,lieutenant4 ,ensign ,second ,lieutenant4 ,line and marine officers and naval constructors are educated at the ,united ,states ,naval ,academy2 all other officers are appointed from civil life4 ,the ,academy was founded in #ahde and is located at ,annapolis1 ,md4 ,the course comprises four years at the school and two years at sea on a naval vessel4 ,the number of cadets at ,annapolis is usually about #bfj4 ,it is by reason of wars that navies exist1 and a few words as to our--now happily ended--conflict with ,spain1 may fitly close this review of naval progress4 ,the military lessons of that struggle have been fully set forth by able writers4 ,more important1 by far1 than these is its teaching as regard to our state and future as a nation4 ,the world has learned that the people of these ,united ,states are stirred still by the same stern and dauntless spirit which1 in ,revolution and ,civil ,war1 has made and kept us a nation4 ,furthermore1 with one swift stroke1 the bounds which in theory and in territory circumscribed us have been swept away1 and the ,united ,states have passed from a continental to a world power4 ,this is not chance4 ,it is but the leading onward to a destiny whose splendor we may not measure now1 whose light and peace and prosperity shall traverse a hemisphere4 ,the one note of sadness in it all is the memory of the gallant dead1 of the heroes who fell that this might be4 ,to them1 in ,cuba and the ,philippines1 ,columbia--with a smile of pride and a sob of pain--drinks in the wine of tears to-day1 as the smoke of battle fades4 ,,astronomy ,,during ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,selden ,j4 ,,coffin1 ,a4,m41 ,professor of ,astronomy1 ,lafayette ,college1 ,easton1 ,pa4 ,,its ,,progress1 ,,achievements1 ,,and ,,notable ,,results ,astronomy1 the oldest of all the family of sciences1 is not a whit behind its sister branches in activity of research and brilliance of discovery4 ,the assiduity and zeal of its devotees are marvelous4 ,the celestial field is so wide1 the depths of space between the stars so vast1 that no assurance can ever be given to an astronomer that a lifetime of faithful and intelligent research will be rewarded with even a single discovery of importance4 ,in this respect it differs materially from other branches of science4 ,nevertheless the patient labor of those who serve in its temple has rarely failed to receive an adequate reward4 ,the discovery made in ,august1 #ahgg1 by ,professor ,asaph ,hall1 of ,washington1 that the planet ,mars is attended by two satellites1 is a convincing illustration of this peculiarity of the pursuit of astronomy as a study4 ,an indefatigable watcher of the skies for many years1 ,professor ,hall1 looking at this planet at its opposition in #ahgg1 when it was unusually near to the earth1 was surprised to note two tiny points of light quite close to it2 seeing them again the next evening1 changed in their positions relative to ,mars1 it flashed upon him that the firm tradition that ,mars had no moons was now disproved4 ,his name will be forever associated with these two bodies1 ,deimos and ,phobos1 as their discoverer1 although they are but wee orbs1 only seven miles in diameter4 ,i4 ,,astronomy ,a ,,century ,,ago4 ,the end of the eighteenth century found the ,copernican theory of astronomy well established1 the principles laid down by ,kepler and ,newton fully elaborated1 and the application of the higher mathematics to the needs of astronomy complete4 ,but there were1 as yet1 no large telescopes1 and observatories were few4 ,in ,germany1 a great disposition to make observations in this science and in meteorology was displayed in #aghc and for a few years following1 and the records then made have proved of much value in confirming discoveries announced at later periods4 ,when ,sir ,william ,herschel1 on ,march #ac1 #agha1 pointed out a little star in the constellation of the ,twins1 and found that it had a perceptible disk and a slight motion1 and was therefore not a star1 but a newly found planet1 to which the name ,uranus was soon given1 a careful inspection of the notebooks of previous observers showed that ,uranus had been observed and recorded as a fixed star on twenty previous occasions in that century4 ,one man had seen it twelve times1 and made his record of it on a paper bag purchased at a perfumer's4 ,had he been a man of sufficient order and method to have penned what he saw on the regular records of his observatory1 to him would have come the glory of the great discovery of that century4 ,,ii4 ,,how 8,,bode',s ,,law0 ,,promoted ,,research4 ,an erroneous guess1 if it is a good guess1 sometimes produces excellent results4 ,in #aggh1 ,bode1 of ,berlin1 published a 8law0 that states the distances of the various planets from the sun4 ,it is often expressed simply in this way3 ,set down #d1 and add to it successively the numbers #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 etc41 and the sums obtained1 viz41 #d1 #g1 #aj1 #af1 #bh1 etc41 represent the relative distances of all the planets from the sun1 viz41 ,mercury #d1 ,venus #g1 ,earth #aj1 ,mars #af1 ,asteroids #bh1 ,jupiter #eb1 etc4 ,in reference to all the planets then known to exist1 the correspondence of the alleged law to the facts was remarkable4 ,the one point in which the alleged system utterly failed was in requiring the existence of a planet to fill the gap between ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,so boldly did ,biela press his convictions of the correctness of this law upon the notice of his fellow-workers1 that they resolved1 in #ahjj1 to divide the zodiac into twenty-four zones1 to be apportioned among them1 for the express purpose of searching for undiscovered planets4 ,this well-organized effort was1 erelong1 rewarded by the surprising discovery of four new planets1 the first one on the first night of the new century1 ,january #a1 #ahja1 and three more soon after4 ,as no more seemed to be forthcoming1 the search was relinquished in #ahaf4 ,a fifth was found in #ahde1 and nearly five hundred since4 ,since #ahia photography has been wondrously serviceable in finding these bodies4 ,a sensitive plate1 on being exposed toward that part of the sky which it is desired to examine1 will record all the perceptible stars as round disks2 while any planets that appear in the field of view will1 by their motion1 leave their trace in the form of elongated trails or streaks1 thus betraying themselves at once on the photographs4 ,in this way ,charlois1 of ,nice1 ,italy1 has found nearly ninety small planets4 ,all these planetoids1 as the minor planets are often termed1 are quite small1 being but twenty to one hundred miles in diameter1 and not consequential members of the solar system4 ,bode's law thus fulfilled its temporary mission2 but egregiously failed when ,neptune claimed admission to a place in the solar system1 for its distance from the sun was utterly out of harmony with that required by the law of ,bode4 ,,iii4 ,,how ,,neptune ,,was ,,found4 ,the patience of ,job had a strong parallel in the labors of those tireless toilers to whose minute computations we owe our knowledge of ,neptune's path in the skies4 ,for this far-off planet was discovered not by the use of a telescope1 or any optical instrument1 but simply by a process of mathematical reasoning4 ,the story is simply this4 ,for sixty years after ,uranus was recognized1 there were irregularities in its motion that could not be satisfactorily accounted for4 ,in the orbit that it was believed to pursue1 it was sometimes in advance of its proper position1 and sometimes it seemed to fall behind4 ,sometimes it appeared to be drawn a little to the right1 and at other times as far the other way4 ,the thought at last came separately to several penetrating minds1 not that the observations of its position were in error1 but that ,uranus must be drawn away from its supposed path by the attraction exercised upon it by some unseen body4 ,and if such an object existed1 was it a planet8 ,where was it8 ,how large was it8 ,what was its path in the far-off ether8 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,movement ,,of ,,uranus ,,and ,,neptune4 ,the inner circle shows the position of ,uranus at various dates2 the outer circle the position of ,neptune4 ,the arrows show the direction toward which ,uranus was drawn4 ,in the year #ahdb1 the ,royal ,society of ,sciences of ,gttingen proposed as a prize question the full discussion of the theory of the motions of ,uranus4 ,it was specially sought to learn the cause of the large and increasing error of ,bouvard's ,tables that had been relied upon to show its motion and its precise position at any time4 ,several able mathematicians undertook this intricate problem4 ,among them were ,john ,c4 ,adams1 of ,cambridge ,university1 ,england1 ,sears ,c4 ,walker1 of ,washington1 a man whose sad fate it was to pass away ere his magnificent abilities could receive extended recognition1 and ,m4 ,le ,verrier1 of ,paris4 ,working unknown to each other1 they reached similar conclusions almost at the same time4 ,though not the first to solve the problem1 the brilliant ,frenchman was the first to announce his result1 which he did by writing a letter to ,dr4 ,galle1 of the ,berlin ,observatory1 where there was one of the largest telescopes in ,europe1 and asking him to search for his computed planet1 and assigning its supposed place in the heavens4 ,the very night he received the letter ,dr4 ,galle found the planet within one degree of the point designated4 ,the next night it had moved one minute of space1 and was also seen to have a perceptible disk4 ,this settled the question1 and stamped it as a planet4 ,le ,verrier well merited the title bestowed upon him1 8,first astronomer of the age40 ,,iv4 ,,meteorites4 ,the nineteenth century will be forever memorable for its witnessing the closing career and final destruction of a famous comet4 ,first noticed in ,france1 in #aggb1 and rediscovered1 in #ahbf1 by an ,austrian officer named ,biela1 it bears his name4 ,his computation showed that it traversed its orbit in six and one half years4 ,when it reappeared in #ahdf1 and again in #aheb1 it was seen to have split into two unequal fragments4 ,it has not been seen since2 but at every time when its return should have taken place the earth has passed through showers of meteors supposed to be its constituent particles1 and to indicate its entire disintegration4 ,during the meteoric shower of #ahhe1 on the #bgth of ,november1 a large iron meteorite fell in ,mazapil1 ,mexico1 and chemical and physical investigation joined to pronounce it a part of the lost ,biela's comet4 ,the large cabinets of the world contain hundreds of specimens of meteorites1 known to be such by their chemical composition1 but only a few have actually been seen to fall4 ,the most remarkable fall ever witnessed was that of ,may #aj1 #ahgi1 in ,iowa1 in which the heaviest stone weighed #dcg pounds4 ,on ,april #h1 #ahic1 an aerolite fell near ,osawatomie1 ,kansas1 and struck the monument to ,john ,brown that had been erected through the efforts of ,horace ,greeley in #ahfc4 ,the meteor broke off the left arm of the statue4 ,a ,texas meteorite1 owned by ,yale ,university1 weighs #afce pounds4 ,a meteorite that fell in ,jiminez1 in #ahib1 now deposited in the city of ,mexico1 weighs twenty tons2 and one lying on the coast of ,labrador1 which it is proposed to bring to the ,united ,states1 is said to be still more massive4 ,v4 ,,do ,,meteors ,,often ,,strike ,,the ,,earth8 ,it must not be thought that meteors usually strike the earth4 ,in truth1 but few of them do4 ,the earth is surrounded by them1 cold1 dark1 invisible1 because unillumined4 ,it is only when they become heated by rapidly impinging on the atmosphere that they can be seen at all2 and unless they come near enough to become subject to the dominant power of the earth's attraction1 they pass off into space unnoticed1 and their presence unsuspected4 ,illustration3 ,,james ,h4 ,,coffin1 ,late ,professor of ,astronomy1 ,lafayette ,college1 ,easton1 ,pa4 ,a case in point is the brilliant 8fire-ball0 of ,july #bj1 #ahfj1 that moved rapidly over the ,united ,states1 from ,wisconsin to ,cape ,cod1 and then passed off into the skies4 ,the entire time of its visible flight over a path of thirteen hundred miles was about two minutes4 ,it was seen about ten o'clock in the evening4 ,it was estimated to be from one hundred to five hundred feet in diameter1 allowing for an increase as it expanded by reason of its striking with such velocity the lower and denser layers of the air4 ,its size and brilliancy were such as to arrest the attention of hundreds of persons1 some of whom crouched in fear1 and even alleged that they heard it hiss as it flew over their heads4 ,some fishermen in ,lake ,huron had ropes over the sides of their boat1 ready to spring into the water if it came too near4 ,james ,h4 ,coffin1 ,,ll4 ,d41 then ,professor of ,astronomy in ,lafayette ,college1 made an exhaustive study of this unusual phenomenon1 and1 under the patronage of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 published a volume containing many observations that he collected1 with the mathematical results derived from them4 ,professor ,j4 ,hann1 of ,vienna1 the highest authority on this subject1 said that it was the most comprehensive study of a meteor's path ever accomplished4 ,six years were spent in making the computations4 ,self-illumined by the heat evolved in striking the various layers of the earth's atmosphere1 it became sufficiently bright to be first seen when seventy miles above the surface of the earth4 ,it was within forty miles of touching us at the time it was over the ,hudson ,river1 when the great heat acquired by its rapid transit caused it to burst into two masses1 which--like ,biela's comet--continued to pursue separate courses1 side by side1 until they were lost to view in their ascending flight1 being last seen from the deck of a vessel off the island of ,nantucket4 ,no part of the fire-ball struck the earth4 ,its orbit was an hyperbola1 a curve not often found in nature1 such that it can never come near us again unless1 by the superior attraction of some celestial body1 its course may be changed1 and a new orbit result4 ,,vi4 ,,astronomical ,,observatories4 ,the ,royal ,observatory1 at ,greenwich1 ,england1 was founded by ,charles the ,second in #afge4 ,its main purpose was to extend astronomical knowledge1 so that navigators might better find the position of their ships at sea4 ,this institution retains its prominence4 ,all the longitudes on our maps are reckoned from it1 and ,greenwich time is used on every ship that traverses the ocean4 ,the 8,nautical ,almanac10 issued by the ,observatory1 was an indispensable part of the outfit of every sea captain until1 in #aheb1 the ,united ,states provided its own ,american ,ephemeris1 a collection of tables of the motions and places of the sun1 moon1 and planets for every day and hour1 and occultations of the stars1 with rules for calculating longitude and the like4 ,many valuable observations of the transit of ,venus in #agfi were made at points near ,philadelphia2 but almost seventy years ensued before ,america witnessed the erection of any permanent buildings devoted to the purposes of this science4 ,president ,john ,quincy ,adams1 who was highly versed in science1 and held the position of president of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences in ,boston for twenty years1 often urged this matter on the attention of ,congress1 but without success4 ,president ,thomas ,jefferson1 who was also a man of no small scientific information1 as evidenced in his keeping a systematic weather record at his home in ,monticello1 ,virginia1 proposed an elaborate survey of the national coast4 ,this was authorized by ,congress in #ahjg4 ,in the year #ahcb1 in reviving an act for the continuance of the ,coast ,survey1 ,congress was careful to append the proviso 8that nothing in the act should be construed to authorize the erection or maintenance of a permanent astronomical observatory40 ,the expected return of ,halley's comet in #ahce again stimulated popular interest in the science1 and aroused an intense desire to provide serviceable instruments1 and to establish buildings suitable for their care and use4 ,to ,williams ,college1 ,massachusetts1 belongs the honor of erecting1 in #ahcf1 the first astronomical observatory on this continent4 ,under its revolving dome was mounted an ,herschelian telescope of ten feet focus1 which later became the property of ,lafayette ,college1 where it is still preserved4 ,in #ahdc1 ,john ,quincy ,adams laid the corner-stone of the ,longworth ,observatory in ,cincinnati1 and delivered a commemorative address1 his last great oration4 ,the construction of the ,united ,states ,naval ,observatory at ,washington soon followed1 and before #ahej there were fourteen observatories established in this country4 ,nearly all the instruments they contained were made abroad1 chiefly in ,munich and ,london4 ,since then the number has risen to two hundred recognized observatories1 of which twenty-four are of superior order1 where systematic work is daily pursued1 and the results are regularly published in book form4 ,about two hundred observatories exist in other nations4 ,,vii4 ,,improved ,,instruments2 ,,their ,,effect ,,on ,,the ,,science4 ,the great improvements in telescopes made during the century have been fruitful in two ways2 a better knowledge of the surface of the moon and of the planets has been gained1 and we have been enabled to learn with precision the exact motions and times of revolution of these bodies and of their accompanying moons4 ,this information1 by the use of the laws ascertained by ,kepler and ,la ,place1 gives us their exact distance1 dimensions1 and mass4 ,with the increase of telescopic power1 the census of the starry host has been so augmented that the number of stars within reach of our modern instruments exceeds #abe1jjj1jjj4 ,but we had gone little beyond this sort of information until the invention of the spectroscope4 ,previous to the year #ahei a few meteors1 composed chiefly of stone or iron1 some of which had been actually seen to fall from the sky1 had been subjected to chemical analysis2 but outside of this naught was known of the physical constitution of other worlds than ours4 ,our ignorance on this point was complete4 ,all our attempts to become better acquainted with the structure of the planets1 the composition of the sun1 and the nature of the fixed stars would probably have been in vain but for the invention of the spectroscope4 ,this surprising instrument is a master-key with which to unlock many of ,nature's mysteries2 her recesses are brought to view1 and the farthest star is subjected to an accurate chemical analysis1 so far as the light that comes from it is sufficient to disclose the materials of which it is composed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lick ,,observatory1 ,,mount ,,hamilton1 ,,california4 ,the wondrous use of electricity as an agent for the production of light1 heat1 and power is no greater achievement1 in its way1 than is ,spectrum ,analysis in bringing to our earthly laboratories the work of the ,divine ,hand performed in distant regions of space4 ,yet the story of the spectroscope is easily told4 ,in its essential elements it is merely this3 ,a ray of light1 entering a darkened room through a hole in the window shutter1 produces a bright beam on the opposite wall4 ,a triangular glass prism held close to the crevice turns this beam into a band of rainbow hues4 ,if the hole can be changed into a small slit1 say one fourth of an inch high and one fiftieth of an inch wide1 and if the light can further be made to pass in succession through several prisms1 instead of through one1 the band will be so elongated thereby that its various and surprising markings can be thoroughly traced and fully studied4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spectroscope4 ,to this band of bright colors ,sir ,isaac ,newton gave the name of the solar spectrum4 ,the image formed by the light of any luminous body1 after it has passed through a prism1 is said to be the spectrum of that body4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,spectroscope ,,and ,,its ,,triumphs4 ,the spectroscope consists essentially of three tubes joined in the form of the letter ,y1 one of which is a small telescope1 in the focus of which a narrow slit is placed to admit the ray of light that is to be examined2 a prism1 or a ruled grating that disperses the light1 so as to form a spectrum2 and a view telescope1 with which to observe the various parts of the spectrum4 ,by using a small telescope to view the spectrum of the sun1 ,fraunhofer1 a ,german optician1 in #ahad1 discovered that the whole length of the spectrum was crowded with dark lines1 very narrow1 indeed1 but scattered all through the seven hues4 ,he found that sunlight1 whether taken directly or reflected from clouds or from the moon or planets1 invariably gave the same spectrum2 but in no case did light from the stars give a spectrum of the same sort as that from the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,yerkes ,,telescope1 ,,university ,,of ,,chicago4 ,largest in the ,world4 ,dr4 ,kirchhoff1 of ,heidelberg1 in #ahei1 explained the origin of the dark lines1 and showed that there are three kinds of spectra3 first1 that of an incandescent solid or liquid1 which is always perfectly continuous1 showing neither dark lines nor bright2 second1 the spectrum of a glowing gas1 which consists of bright lines or bands separated by dark spaces4 ,these lines are characteristic of the chemical elements that cause them2 and so1 from the composition of the bright lines in a spectrum1 it is possible to tell their origin4 ,third1 a spectrum crossed by dark lines2 which occurs when an incandescent solid is viewed through absorbent vapors4 ,in the solar eclipse of #ahfh1 ,m4 ,janssen first noticed that the solar prominences gave a spectrum of the second kind1 and thus proved that the prominences consist of glowing gas4 ,since that time the march of discovery has been exceedingly rapid4 ,this simple instrument has thus led the way to a knowledge of the elements composing every heavenly body1 no matter what its distance1 provided only it is giving out light intense enough to reach our gaze4 ,for the perfection both of the telescope and spectroscope we owe much to the optical skill and mechanical dexterity of the ,clarks and ,rowland1 ,hastings and ,brashear1 all ,americans4 ,about forty chemical elements have now been recognized in the sun4 ,the most prominent are iron1 calcium1 hydrogen1 nickel1 and sodium4 ,a distortion1 or displacement1 of some of the lines in the spectrum enables us to calculate the speed at which the gases are rushing toward or from us4 ,a given line in the spectrum of ,aldebaran is displaced toward the violet in such a way as to show that the star is approaching the sun at the rate of thirty miles a second2 while a similar line1 in the case of ,altair1 so deviates toward the red end of the spectrum as to prove that it is receding from the solar system at a velocity of twenty-four miles a second4 ,by this principle1 recognized by ,doppler in #ahdb1 the motions of about one hundred stars toward or from the solar system have been ascertained4 ,there is no question but that the solar system1 as a whole1 is steadily moving away from ,sirius1 and toward the constellation of ,hercules2 whether faster than at a rate of twelve miles every second is still scarcely decided2 but this rate would be about a million miles a day1 or three hundred and seventy million miles a year4 ,,ix4 ,,what ,,is ,,done ,,in ,a ,,large ,,observatory2 ,,its ,,work4 ,a visitor who wants to know what is done in a great observatory might go to ,harvard some evening4 ,he would probably find the large refractor pointed toward the satellites of ,jupiter1 ,uranus1 or ,neptune1 with a view of noting their precise places1 so as to compute tables of their exact motions2 or he might find a laborious observer watching such double stars as have considerable proper motion1 and making drawings of conspicuous nebul1 so that future astronomers may be able to decide whether time has wrought any changes in their constitution or figure4 ,the great glass at ,princeton1 under the charge of ,professor ,charles ,a4 ,young1 is largely used for spectroscopic work1 examining the sun's photosphere by day1 and noting the spectra of the stars at night4 ,spectral observation is an important part of the routine at the ,yerkes ,observatory in ,wisconsin4 ,many faint comets have been successfully photographed at the ,lick ,observatory1 on ,mount ,hamilton1 ,california1 and elsewhere by the use of very sensitive plates and a long exposure4 ,s4 ,w4 ,burnham1 of ,chicago1 is famed for his acuteness of vision1 tested in having detected and measured over one thousand double stars which to other eyes had appeared only as single stars4 ,the discovery of these objects belongs wholly to the nineteenth century2 for in #ahjc1 ,sir ,william ,herschel first announced the existence of sidereal systems composed of two stars1 one revolving around the other1 or both moving about a common centre4 ,some of these binary systems have periods of as great a length as fifteen hundred years2 and some are as brief as four1 and even two days4 ,some of them afford curious instances of contrasted colors1 the larger star red or orange1 and the smaller star blue or green4 ,x4 ,,the ,,national ,,observatory ,,at ,,washington4 ,illustration3 ,,professor ,,william ,,harkness1 ,astronomical ,director ,u4 ,s4 ,naval ,observatory1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,professor ,william ,harkness1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 is widely known as the author of numerous astronomical and physical papers and books4 ,he has also designed a number of instruments and made important discoveries4 ,he has long been connected with the ,united ,states ,naval ,observatory1 and now holds the position of ,astronomical ,director4 ,his report for the year #ahih shows that the twenty-six inch reflector at ,washington is now nightly engaged in mapping the relative positions of ,rhea and ,iapetus1 the fifth and eighth satellites of ,saturn1 with the intention of securing a new and final determination of the mass of that planet1 which has been heretofore reckoned as one #cdib;d of the sun4 ,the twelve-inch telescope is chiefly employed in studying comets and asteroids1 and on ,thursday evenings is at the service of the public4 ,in the year #ahih1 #cggh observations were made with the nine-inch transit circle1 for which two men were detailed1 with the services of five computers4 ,a transit circle and an altazimuth instrument1 each turned out of solid steel1 have recently been added to the equipment1 and are of a workmanship that compares favorably with anything ever manufactured in ,europe4 ,it is asserted that the latter instrument will give more accurate measurements of declination than a transit circle1 which is an innovation on long-cherished ideas4 ,professor ,simon ,newcomb1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 is about to issue new tables of ,mars1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune1 and a 8,catalogue of ,fundamental ,stars for the ,epoch #aijj40 ,during the year #ahih three thousand copies of the ,american ,nautical ,almanac were published4 ,this is but an illustration of the scientific labor accomplished at this busy hive of industry4 ,during the year this observatory issued to the navy #bcj chronometers1 #bjj sextants and octants1 and #adjj other nautical instruments of value4 ,,xi4 ,,star ,,maps ,,and ,,catalogues4 ,in the year #abh ,b4 ,c4 ,hipparchus put out a catalogue of #ajbe stars observed at ,rhodes4 ,twenty such works succeeded this up to the year #ahja1 when ,lalande1 of ,paris1 brought out a list of #dg1cij stars4 ,it will be remembered that few stars have names1 except those known to the ,arabians of old1 but are designated by their positions in the heavens4 ,it is customary to refer to them by their declinations and right ascensions1 as so many degrees north or south of the celestial equator1 and so many degrees1 or hours1 east of the vernal equinox--fifteen degrees being the equivalent of an hour of right ascension--just like the latitude and longitude of cities on a common globe4 ,during the nineteenth century many celestial atlases and astronomical catalogues have been published4 ,these contain lists of comets and nebul1 and the places of the double stars and of the fixed stars4 ,of the latter alone over one hundred have appeared1 of which ,argelander's is by far the largest1 as it contains the places of more than #caj1jjj stars4 ,the catalogue prepared by the ,british ,association in #ahde is of great value1 containing #hcgg stars4 ,yarnall's1 of #aj1feh stars1 published in ,washington in #ahgc1 is most accessible to us4 ,professor ,c4 ,h4 ,f4 ,peters1 of the ,hamilton ,college ,observatory1 ,clinton1 ,n4 ,y41 the discoverer of so many asteroids1 has prepared a valuable series of star charts4 ,by dividing the heavens into small squares and carefully photographing each of them1 the places of a vast number of stars can be recorded with far greater accuracy than by the old plan of a separate instrumental measurement of the position of the stars4 ,by the use of microscopes the determination of their positions can be made with precision4 ,these plates are preserved with care1 and when those of the same region of the skies1 made in different years1 are compared1 any variation in the relative positions of the objects can be detected with certainty4 ,the perfection of this method of star-mapping is justly deemed one of the most important achievements of the century4 ,for an amateur star-gazer who is not provided with a set of maps1 ,whitall's ,planisphere is a very ready aid1 as it can be instantly adjusted to any day and hour4 ,the inexperienced1 and those who have no instruments1 can use it with ease and satisfaction to locate a thousand of the most conspicuous stars4 ,,xii4 ,,astronomical ,,books ,,and ,,their ,,writers4 ,in ,england this attractive study has been popularized chiefly by the interesting works of the two ,herschels1 who were voluminous writers1 the lectures of ,proctor1 and the admirable compend of facts so assiduously gathered by ,g4 ,f4 ,chambers in his delightful treatise on astronomy4 ,in our own country the heights of theoretical astronomy have been scaled by such minds as ,benjamin ,pierce1 the profound mathematician of ,harvard ,university2 ,james ,c4 ,watson1 of ,ann ,arbor1 whose early death was a great loss to science2 and ,simon ,newcomb1 the genial savant of ,washington4 ,chauvenet and ,loomis have taught us the meaning of practical astronomy2 and ,olmsted1 ,young1 ,todd1 and not a few others of distinction have prepared text-books that fully present the elements of the science4 ,nor is this fascinating study limited to the students of the #dhd colleges and universities of the land4 ,the last report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education shows that in the public and private high schools of the nation there are over nine thousand boys and sixteen thousand girls pursuing the study of astronomy4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,practical ,,uses ,,of ,,astronomy ,,as ,,an ,,aid ,,to ,,navigation ,,and ,,geodesy4 ,the practical value of this science is best appreciated by the navigator1 who sees in the sun and moon his clock1 and in the stars and planets the ready means of learning his latitude and longitude4 ,it is one of the first tasks of the midshipman to become familiar with the use of the sextant1 by which he works out the problem of ascertaining the exact place of the ship upon the ocean4 ,navigation is helpless without the assistance of astronomy4 ,yet it is only the ,a1 ,b1 ,c of the science that the sailor has any use for2 its higher mysteries are away beyond his needs and of no practical profit to him4 ,nathaniel ,bowditch1 of ,salem1 ,mass41 in #ahjb1 issued a book entitled 8,the ,new ,american ,practical ,navigator10 which is still a standard treatise for seamen4 ,his rare acquirements as a mathematician were signally displayed1 and in a form that has proved enduring1 when1 in #ahad-ag1 he translated into ,english1 accompanied with copious notes of his own1 the profound work1 8,celestial ,mechanics10 penned by the gifted ,la ,place in #agii4 ,although in name a translation of a foreign book with a commentary1 it is in many respects an original work4 ,professor ,elias ,loomis1 who left to ,yale ,university three hundred thousand dollars as an endowment fund to aid in prosecuting astronomical research1 said of him1 in #ahej1 8,bowditch has probably done more for the improvement of physical astronomy than all other ,americans combined40 ,dr4 ,bowditch published the work in four ponderous quarto volumes wholly at his own private cost4 ,these volumes he did not expose for sale1 but generously gave them to such persons as proved to him their ability to appreciate and comprehend them4 ,this outlay impaired the fortunes of his family1 but became his own unique monument4 ,this work remains one of the most profound efforts of mathematical research on record4 ,bowditch's accuracy has passed into a proverb4 ,he gave the latitude of all the principal seaports of the world with marked precision2 while some of the longitudes are now found to be slightly in error1 it is surprising that his determinations of those of ,boston and ,philadelphia should be exactly the same as those obtained by the best methods in use to-day4 ,but he makes ,san ,francisco and ,halifax seven miles too far to the east1 and ,new ,york eight miles too far west4 ,but we are to remember that for this computation the best available instruments were the chronometers of a century ago1 and that lunar observations were made with the old-time sextant4 ,illustration3 ,,zenith ,,telescope4 ,made for ,university of ,pennsylvania by ,warner ,swasey4 ,as applied to geodesy1 astronomy has added a process of ascertaining geographical latitude with marvelous accuracy and speed by the use of the zenith telescope1 an instrument devised by ,major ,talcott in #ahce4 ,this instrument can be set in a vertical direction with ease1 and be pointed alternately to two stars that cross the meridian at a brief interval of time1 the one north and the other south of the zenith4 ,difficulties that arise from refraction are avoided1 and the resulting latitude is quickly computed4 ,this method is largely employed in the surveys of the public lands1 as also in establishing the boundary between the ,united ,states and ,british ,america4 ,,xiv4 ,,notable ,,epochs ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,worth marking as epochs of the nineteenth century were such dates as ,october #aj1 #ahdf1 when the first determination of difference of longitude of two places was made by the use of the telegraph wire4 ,sears ,c4 ,walker1 in ,washington1 and ,e4 ,otis ,kendall1 in ,philadelphia1 compared their clocks by interchanging telegraphic signals1 and thus found their respective longitudes4 ,in #ahej1 ,professor ,william ,c4 ,bond1 of ,harvard ,college1 invented the chronograph4 ,through the urgency of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 it was shown in the great exhibition of that year in ,london1 where a medal was awarded for it4 ,the chronograph was speedily adopted throughout ,europe1 and together with other apparatus made by ,bond constituted what there became known as the 8,american method0 of recording observations4 ,through it the errors for which the 8personal equation0 is a partial remedy are largely eliminated1 and a superior definiteness of record is obtained4 ,on ,august #g1 #ahfi1 the first application of the spectroscope to the examination of the corona of the sun was the beginning of the revelation of the inner mysteries of the constitution and activities of the great luminary4 ,the transit of ,venus that occurred on ,december #f1 #ahhb1 was fruitful in measurements1 by which the estimates of the distance of the sun were reduced from the long-accepted figures1 #ie to #ib millions of miles4 ,yet this loss of three millions of miles resulted from the apparently trifling change of reckoning the sun's parallax at #h4hb1 instead of #h4eg4 ,an occurrence of vast practical advantage to the whole nation was that of ,november #ah1 #ahhc1 when the four standard meridians of railroad time were adopted and put into use4 ,from that day the clocks of the ,union were set to keep either ,eastern1 ,central1 ,mountain1 or ,pacific ,coast time4 ,professor ,edward ,e4 ,barnard had used the magnificent telescope of thirty-six inches aperture1 belonging to the ,lick ,observatory in ,california1 but a short time before he astonished the world by discovering a fifth satellite of ,jupiter1 although it appeared as but a faint speck of light4 ,besides other honors for this achievement1 in #ahid the ,french ,academy of ,sciences awarded him the ,arago medal1 of the value of a thousand francs1 a distinction given but twice before1 first to ,le ,verrier1 for the discovery of ,neptune in #ahdf1 and to ,asaph ,hall1 for finding the two moons of ,mars in #ahgg4 8,personal equation0 is the name given to the amount of error to which any person is habitually liable in attempting to note the time of a fixed occurrence4 ,when the astronomer looks at a star passing the cross-wires of his transit1 he is likely to make the record one or two tenths of a second after the true time1 or possibly a like small amount of time before the actual occurrence1 by anticipation4 ,this is not a matter of wrong intention1 nor due to willfulness4 ,but in precise observations1 especially where comparisons are to be made between the records of several persons1 the 8personal equation0 must be determined1 if possible1 and allowed for4 ,various methods of correcting this inaccuracy have been used4 ,but the best is that of ,frank ,h4 ,bigelow1 of the ,nautical ,almanac ,office1 ,washington1 who1 in #ahij1 devised a process of taking star transits by photography4 ,it entirely does away with this source of error1 and has proved of great value4 ,,xv4 ,,discarded ,,doctrines ,,and ,,abandoned ,,ideas4 ,a few generations ago an eight-day clock was to be found only in the homes of well-to-do people1 and a gold watch was a symbol of wealth1 such as to subject its wearer to a special tax4 ,in this age of dollar clocks and ,waterbury watches1 almanacs are no longer indispensable4 ,we do not regulate our time-pieces by the rising and setting of the sun2 nor can a future ,jay ,gould lay the foundation of his fortune1 as did the one best known by that name1 by setting up rural noon-marks for a fixed fee4 ,some pleasant dreams of past decades have vanished in the light of recent knowledge4 ,the nebular hypothesis1 that wondrous conception of ,swedenborg1 elaborated by ,la ,place and espoused by ,william ,herschel and so many others1 as affording a full explanation of the method by which our worlds were shaped into their present forms1 has ceased to have general acceptance4 ,m4 ,maedler1 director of the ,dorpat ,observatory in #ahdf1 had a firm persuasion that the collective body of stars visible to us has a movement of revolution about a centre situated in the group of the ,pleiades1 and corresponding to the star ,alcyone4 ,but this notion of a central sun around which all the solar system is circling has lost ground4 ,the distortion in the orbit of the planet ,mercury has been accounted for by the urgent suggestion that there must be some planet1 as yet undiscovered1 that disturbs the regularity of ,mercury's movements1 but whose orbit is so near to the sun as to baffle all ordinary efforts to see it4 ,it has received1 by anticipation1 the prenatal name of ,vulcan4 ,many eyes have peered most intently into the region indicated1 and some few have imagined they had found what they sought4 ,a physician of the village of ,orgeres1 ,france1 ,m4 ,lescarbault by name1 on ,march #bj1 #ahei1 saw such an object pass over the sun's disk4 ,the skillful ,le ,verrier was much impressed by this physician's minute account of the occurrence4 ,but there was no confirmation of the alleged discovery4 ,at the time of subsequent eclipses that part of the heavens has been repeatedly examined closely1 but in vain4 ,so we must wait longer before believing that ,vulcan does exist4 ,when1 in #ahgg1 ,professor ,hall1 through the powerful telescope at ,washington1 saw that ,mars was attended by two tiny satellites1 he put a permanent injunction on the further use of the once favorite phrase1 8,the snowy poles of moonless ,mars40 ,and so of the question oft discussed in the old-time debating societies1 8,are the planets inhabited80 ,it may still be left in the hands of young collegians1 notwithstanding the fact that our largest telescopes give only negative testimony4 ,in a solar eclipse in ,february1 #agcf1 that was annular in shape1 just before the sun was completely hidden1 the narrow horn of light seemed to break into a series of dots1 or luminous points1 which1 when noted again a century later and described by ,francis ,baily1 received the name of 8,baily ,beads40 ,it was attempted to explain this as caused by the moon's mountains cutting off the last rays of sunlight1 or else as produced by irradiation4 ,but with the advent of stronger telescopic power the phenomenon has come to an end4 ,david ,rittenhouse1 of ,norristown1 whom ,thomas ,jefferson considered 8second to no astronomer living10 built an orrery worth a thousand dollars1 to illustrate mechanically the motions of all the planets1 and though the instrument is still treasured in the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 and its duplicate at ,princeton1 among the relics of a past age1 it is assigned to the category of toys4 ,mural circles1 much depended upon to measure the declination of heavenly bodies1 have fallen into disuse1 supplanted by improved transit instruments4 ,illustration3 ,,three-,,inch ,,transit1 ,,by ,,warner ,,swasey4 ,,xvi4 ,,problems ,,for ,,future ,,study4 ,many problems are in store for the future4 ,the field for research still opens wide4 ,how the solar activity is to be maintained was answered by ,newton in the suggestion that comets falling into it kept up its supply of matter and energy4 ,waterston1 in #ahec1 propounded the thought that meteoric matter may be the aliment of the sun4 ,now the prevalent theory is that a contraction of the sun's volume1 constantly in progress1 but so slight as to be invisible to the most powerful telescope1 is competent to furnish a heat supply equal to all that can have been emitted during historic periods4 ,professor ,newcomb answers the question1 8,how long will the sun endure80 by saying1 8,the physical conclusion to which we are led by a study of the laws of nature is that the sun1 like a living being1 must have a birth and will have an end4 ,from the known amount of heat which it radiates we can1 even in a rude way1 calculate the probable length of its life4 ,from fifteen to twenty millions of years seems to be the limit of its age in the past1 and it may exist a few millions of years1 perhaps five or ten1 in the future40 ,illustration3 ,,carolus ,,linn,,us ,,of ,,sweden1 ,,father ,,of ,,modern ,,botany4 ,this illustration was prepared by a ,swedish society1 and represents the famous botanist after his return from the exploration of ,lapland1 and with a bunch of his favorite flower 7,linna borealis7 in his hand4 ,,story ,,of ,,plant ,,and ,,flower ,,by ,,thomas ,,meehan1 ,vice ,president ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 ,philadelphia4 ,botany1 in its general sense1 signifies the knowledge of plants4 ,in the earlier periods of human history plants appealed to mankind as material for food or medicine2 and down to comparatively recent times botanical studies were pursued mainly in these directions4 ,dioscorides1 a ,greek1 who lived in the first century of the ,christian era1 is the earliest writer of whom we have knowledge that can lay a claim to botanical distinction1 but the medical property of plants was evidently the chief incentive to his task4 ,it was not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that botany1 in its broad sense1 became a study1 and ,le ,cluse1 a ,french physician1 who died in #afji1 may be regarded as one of its patriarchs4 ,still the medical uses of plants were steadily kept in view4 ,the ,english botanist1 ,john ,gerarde1 who was a contemporary of ,le ,cluse1 or ,clusius1 as botanists usually call him1 wrote a remarkable work on botany1--remarkable for his time1--but this was styled a 8,herbal10 as were other famous botanical works down to the beginning of the present century4 ,following the year #agjj1 the knowledge of plants individually became so extended that systematic arrangement became desirable4 ,the first real advance in this direction was made by ,carl ,von ,linn1 commonly known by its ,latin form1 ,linnus1 a ,swede1 born in #agjg1 and whose talents for botanical acquirements seemed almost innate4 ,in his twenty-third year he saw the need of a better system1 and commenced at once the great work of botanical reform4 ,he saw that plants with a certain number of stamens and pistils were correlated1 and he founded classes and orders on them4 ,flowers with five stamens or six stamens would belong to his class pentandria or hexandria1 respectively1 and those with five pistils or six pistils pentagynia1 or hexagynia1 accordingly2 and so on up to polyandria1 or polygynia--many stamens or pistils--of which our common buttercup is an illustration4 ,he further showed that two names only were all that is necessary to denote any plant1 the generic name and its adjective1 as1 for instance1 ,cornus alba1 the white ,dogwood2 and that the descriptions should be brief1 covering only the essential points wherein one species of plant differed from another4 ,this became known as the sexual system4 ,it fairly electrified intelligent circles4 ,people generally took to counting stamens and pistils1 and large numbers took pride in being botanists because they could trace so easily the classes and orders of the plants they met4 ,the grand old man died in #aggh1 and though his artificial system had to give way to a more natural method1 he is justly regarded as the father of modern botany4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,green ,,rose4 ,flower with leaves for petals4 ,with the incoming of the nineteenth century1 botany took a rapid start4 ,it ceased to be a mere handmaid to the study of medicine4 ,chemistry1 geography1 teleology1 and indeed the chief foundations of biology had become closely interwoven with botanical studies2 and thus the progress of botany through the century has to be viewed from many standpoints4 ,in classification1 what is known as the natural system has replaced the sexual4 ,plants are grouped according to their apparent relationships4 ,those resembling in general character the ,rose form the order ,rosace2 the ,lily1 ,liliace4 ,sometimes1 however1 a striking characteristic is adopted for the family name1 as ,composit1 or compound flower1 for the daisy and aster-flowered plants2 ,umbellifer1 or umbel-flowering1 as in carrot or parsley2 ,leguminos1 having the seed vessels as legumes1 like peas and beans4 ,illustration3 ,,head ,,of ,,white ,,clover1 ,,with ,a ,,branch ,,from ,,the ,,centre4 ,classification has1 however1 derived much assistance from a wholly new branch of the science known as ,morphology4 ,this teaches that all parts of plants are modifications of other parts4 ,what ,nature may have intended to be a leaf may become a stem2 the outer series of floral envelopes1 or calyx1 may become petals2 petals may become stamens2 and even pistils may become leaves1 or even branches4 ,the green rose of the florists is a case in which the leaves that should have been changed into petals to form a perfect rose flower have persisted in continuing green leaves1 though masquerading as petals2 and it is not unusual to find in the rose cases where the pistils have reverted to their original destination as the analogue of branches1 and have started a growth from the centre of the flower4 ,so in an orange1 the carpels1 or divisions1 are metamorphosed primary leaves4 ,two series of five each make the ten divisions4 ,sometimes the axis starts to make another growth1 as noted in the rose1 but does not get far before it is arrested1 and then we have a small orange inside a larger one1 as in the navel orange4 ,just the reverse occurs sometimes4 ,the lower series is suppressed1 and only the upper one develops to a fruiting stage1 when the small red oranges known as the ,tangerines are the results4 ,illustrations of these transformations of one organ to another are frequent if we look for them4 ,the annexed illustration shows a condition of the white clover1 which1 instead of the usual round head1 has started on as a raceme or spike4 ,these wanderings from general forms were formerly regarded as monsters1 of no particular use to the botanical student1 but are now welcomed as guiding stars to the central features of ,morphology4 ,the importance of this branch of botany1 in connection with classification1 can readily be seen4 ,the studies in the behavior of plants have made remarkable progress during the century1 and this also derives much aid from morphology4 ,the strawberry sends out runners from which new plants are formed2 but1 tiring of this1 eventually sends the runner upward to act as a flower stalk4 ,what might have been but a bunch of leaves and roots at the end of the runner is now converted into a mass of flowers and pedicels at the end of a common peduncle4 ,in some cases ,nature reverses this plan4 ,after starting the structure as an erect fruit-bearing stem1 it sends it back to pierce the ground as a root should do4 ,this is well illustrated by the peanut4 ,in the common ,yucca1 the more tropical species have erect stems2 but in the form known in gardens as ,adam's needle and thread--,yucca filamentosa--the erect stem is sent down under the surface of the ground1 and is then a rhizome1 instead of a caudex1 or stem4 ,illustration3 ,,peanut4 ,a pod magnified4 ,modification in connection with behavior is further illustrated by the grapevine and ,virginia creeper4 ,the whole leading shoot is here pushed aside by the development of a bud at the base of the leaf1 that takes the place of a leading shoot4 ,the original leader then becomes a tendril1 and serves in the economy of the plant by clinging to trees or rocks1 or in coiling around other plants in support4 ,great progress has been made in this department of botany within recent years4 ,darwin has shown that the tendrils of some plants continue in motion for some time in order to find something to cling to4 ,the grapevine especially spends a long time in this labor if there is difficulty in reaching a host4 ,the plant preserves vital power all this time1 but no sooner is support found1 than nutrition is cut off1 and the tendril dies1 though1 hard and wiry1 it serves its parent plant as a support better dead than alive4 ,the amount of nutrition spent in sustaining motion is found to be enormous4 ,a vine that can find ready means of support grows with a much more healthy vigor than one that has difficulty in finding it4 ,many plants present illustrations4 ,much advance has been made in the knowledge of the motions of plants as regards their various forms4 ,growth in plants is not continuous2 but is a series of rests and advances4 ,in other words it is rhythmic4 ,the nodes1 or knots1 in the stems of grasses are resting-places4 ,when a rest occurs1 energy may be exerted in a different direction1 and a change of form result4 ,this is well illustrated by the common ,dogwood of northern woods1 ,cornus florida on the eastern1 and ,cornus ,nuttallii on the western slope of the ,american continent4 ,on the approach of winter the leaf is reduced to a bud scale1 and then rests4 ,when spring returns these scales resume growth and appear as white bracts4 ,in the annexed illustration the scales that served for winter protection to the buds are seen at the apex of the bracts4 ,in other species of ,dogwood the bud scales do not resume growth4 ,energy is spent in another direction4 ,in this manner we have an insight as to the cause of variation1 which was not perceived even so recently as ,darwin's time4 ,we now say that variation results from varying degrees of rhythmic growth--force2 and that this again is governed by varying powers of assimilation4 ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,of ,a ,,white ,,dogwood ,,flower 7,cornus florida71 ,,showing ,,bud-,,scales ,,developed ,,to ,,bracts4 ,the ,darwinian view1 that form results from external conditions of which the plant avails itself in a struggle for existence1 is still widely accepted as a leading factor in the origin of species4 ,those which can assume the strongest weapons of defense continue to exist under the changed conditions4 ,the weaker ones do not survive1 and we only know of them as fossils4 ,this is termed the doctrine of natural selection4 ,the origin and development of plant-life1 or1 as it is termed1 evolution1 has made rapid advancement as a study during the century4 ,that there has been an adaptation to conditions in some respects1 as contended by ,mr4 ,darwin and his followers1 must be correct4 ,the oak and other species of trees must have been formed before mistletoe and other parasites could grow on them4 ,in the common ,dodder--species of ,cuscuta--the seeds germinate in the ground like ordinary plants4 ,as soon as they find something to attach themselves to1 they cut loose from mother earth and live wholly on the host4 ,as a speculation it seems plausible that all parasites have arisen in this way4 ,some1 like the mistletoe1 having the power1 at length1 to have their seeds germinate on the host-plant1 have left their terrestrial origin in the past uncertain4 ,a number of parasites1 however1 do not seem to live wholly on the plants they attach themselves to4 ,these are usually destitute of green color4 ,the ,indian pipe1 snow plant of the ,pacific ,coast1 and ,squaw root of the ,eastern ,states are examples2 the former called ghost-flower from its paleness4 ,these plants have little carbonaceous matter in their structure1 and hence are regarded as having formed a kind of partnership with fungi4 ,this is known now as symbiosis1 or living together of dissimilar organisms1 each dependent mutually4 ,the fungus and the flowering plant in these cases are necessary to the existence of each other4 ,they demand nitrogen instead of carbonhydroids4 ,the ,squaw root1 ,conopholis ,americana1 though attached to the subterranean portions of the trunks of trees1 is probably sustained by the fungus material in the old bark1 or even in the wood1 rather than by the ordinary food of flowering plants4 ,lichens1 as it is now well known1 are a compound of fungi and water weeds 7alg71 and this doctrine of symbiosis is regarded as one of the great advances of the century4 ,it is but fair to say that the doctrine of evolution by the influence of external conditions in the change of form1 though widely accepted at this time1 is not without strong opponents1 who point to the occasional development or suppression of parts on the same plant1 though the external conditions must be the same4 ,for instance1 there are flowers that have all their parts regular1 as in the petals of a buttercup2 and irregular1 as in the snap-dragon or fox-glove4 ,but it has been noted that irregular flowers have pendulous stalks1 while the regular ones are usually erect4 ,but once in a while1 on the same plant1 flowers normally drooping will become erect4 ,in these cases the flowers are regular4 ,in the wild snap-dragon or yellow toad-flax1 ,linaria vulgaris1 one of the petals is developed into a long spur2 the other four petals have1 in early life1 become connate and transformed into parts of the flower wholly unlike ordinary petals4 ,but now and then the original petals will all develop spurs1 resulting in the condition technically known as peloria4 ,linnus gave this name to this condition because it was supposed to be 8monstrous10 or something opposed to law and order4 ,through the advance in morphological botany we have learned to regard it as the result of some normal law of development1 innate to the plant1 and which could as well be the regular as the occasional condition4 ,in other words1 there is no reason why ,nature might not make the five-spurred flower as continuous in a wild snap-dragon as in a columbine4 ,many similar facts are used by those who question the ,darwinian law of development4 ,illustration3 ,,yellow ,,toad-,,flax4 ,flower in the peloria state4 ,that nutrition has more to do in the evolution of form than external forces has received much aid1 as a theory1 from the advance during recent times of a study of the separate sexes of flowers4 ,on coniferous trees1 notably the firs1 pines1 and spruces1 the male and female flowers are produced separately4 ,the female1 which finally yield the cones1 are always borne on the most vigorous branches4 ,when these branches have their supply of nutrition shortened and become weak1 only male flowers are produced4 ,on the other hand1 branches normally weak will at times gain increased strength1 and then the male flowers give female ones4 ,this is often seen in corn fields4 ,the generally weak tassel will have grains of corn through it4 ,it is not infrequent to find what should normally be perfect ears on stalks weaker than usual4 ,in these cases the upper portion of the ear will have male flowers only4 ,illustration3 ,,grained ,,corn-,,tassel4 ,in connection with the doctrine of development1 much attention has been given during the century to fertilization of flowers and the agency of insects in connection therewith4 ,on the one hand it is contended that in all probability the flowers in the earlier periods of the world's history had neither color nor fragrance4 ,in this condition they were self-fertilizers1 that is1 were fecundated by their own pollen4 ,in modern phraseology they were in and in breeders4 ,when the struggle for existence became necessary1 those which could get a cross with outside races became more vigorous in their progeny1 and thus had an advantage in the struggle4 ,in brief1 without an occasional introduction of new blood1 as it might be termed1 there was danger of a race dying out4 ,to support this view1 ,mr4 ,darwin published the result of a number of experiments4 ,many of them favored either side1 but the average was in favor of the view that crossing was advantageous4 ,against this it has been urged that an average in such cases is not conclusive4 ,if a number1 though the minor number of cases1 showed superiority by close breeding in his limited experiments1 a new set of observations might have changed the averages1 so as to make the minor figures in one instance the major in others4 ,again1 it is contended that to increase a plant by other means than by seeds must be the closest kind of reproduction2 yet some plants1 coeval with the history of man1 have been continued by offsets and are as strong and vigorous as ever4 ,the ,banana is an illustration4 ,under cultivation it produces only seedless fruits4 ,it is raised wholly from young suckers or offsets from the roots4 ,mythology gives it a prominent place in the ,garden of ,eden1 and its botanical name1 ,musa paradisiaca1 originated in this legend4 ,though much has been recorded in this line to weaken the force of the speculations that flowers late in the history of the earth developed color and sweet secretions in order to attract insects to aid in cross-fertilization1 they are strongly supported by the fact that a large number of species1 notably of orchids1 are seldom fertilized without insect aid in pollination4 ,but there are anomalies even here4 ,some plants capture and literally eat the insects that should be regarded as their benefactors4 ,these are classified as insectivorous plants4 ,some seem to catch the insects in mere sport1 while in the act of conveying pollen to them4 ,these are known as cruel plants4 ,there are numerous illustrations of this among the families of ,asclepias and ,apocynum1 the milk-weed family4 ,in our gardens a ,brazilian climber1 ,arauga1 or ,physianthus albens1 is frequently grown for its waxy flowers and delicious odor1 but the treacherous blossoms are frequently strung with the insects it has caught4 ,in the northern part of ,america a common wild flower of one of these families1 ,apocynum androsmfolium1 has this insect-catching habit4 ,numerous small insects meet death1 and hang to the flowers like scalps to the wild ,indian4 ,considerable advance has been made in vegetable physiology1 though no one has as yet been able to reach the origin of the life-power in plants4 ,the power that enables an oak to maintain its huge branches in a horizontal direction1 or that can lift or overturn huge rocks1 or split them apart as the lightning rifts a tree trunk1 is yet unknown4 ,on the opposite page is an illustration of a circumstance frequently observed1 wherein even a delicate root fibre can pierce a potato or other structures4 ,illustration3 ,,banana ,,flowers4 ,possibly the greatest botanical advance of the century is in relation to cryptogamic plants1 those low organisms which as mildews and moulds are most familiar to people generally4 ,as microscopes increase in power1 new forms are discovered4 ,over forty thousand species have already been described1 and we may fairly say that there are nearly half as many forms of vegetable life invisible to the naked eye as can be seen by our unaided visual organs4 ,their wants and behaviors are very much the same as in the flowering plants or higher orders1 as they are usually termed4 ,but there is one great difference in this1 that they feed mainly on nitrogen1 and have no use for carbon4 ,they care little for light1 but yet have an upward tendency under certain forms1 as do those which seek the light4 ,the agarics that revel in the darkness of a coal mine1 yet curve upward as heartily as a corn sprout in the open air4 ,just as in flowering plants1 also1 they are mostly innocuous1 and indeed many absolutely beneficial to man1 a very small portion only being poisonous1 or connected with the diseases of the human race4 ,even in these cases their power is closely guarded by nature4 ,the spores of fungi are found to require such a nice combination of conditions before they germinate1 that1 unless these occur1 they will retain their vegetative power many years in a state of absolute rest4 ,the mycelium of the mushroom1 as the real plant--the cobwebby portion under ground--only starts to grow when just so many degrees of heat1 neither more nor less1 with just so much moisture1 and the proper food1 are all at hand together2 and large numbers are known to be very select in the kind of food they will make use of at all4 ,one genus1 known as ,cordyceps1 will only start when the spore comes in contact with the head of a caterpillar4 ,and various species of the genus will avoid a kind of caterpillar that another would enjoy4 ,in our own country we have one that feeds on the larvae of the ,may ,beetle1 and is known as ,cordyceps ,melolonth4 ,in ,australia is a very pretty species1 which takes on the appearance of the antlers of a deer4 ,this is known as ,cordyceps ,andrewsii4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cruel-,,plant4 ,butterfly caught in the flower4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,potato ,,penetrated ,,by ,,rootlet ,,with ,a ,,new ,,potato4 ,the most minute of these are known as microbes4 ,they are chiefly composed of a single cell1 in the midst of which is the protoplasm1 or material in which life resides1 but the exact nature of which is still a mystery4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fungus 7,cordyceps ,andrewsii7 ,,growing ,,from ,,the ,,head ,,of ,a ,,caterpillar4 ,one of the most useful and fascinating studies in modern times is ,geographical ,botany4 ,it is found to have a close relation to the history of man1 and to the changes which have occurred on the surface of the earth4 ,plants follow man wherever he wanders2 and though every other trace of man should be abolished on the ,american continent1 the plants that came with him from the ,old ,world would enable the future historian to follow his tracks here pretty well4 ,no one has any historical evidence that what is now the ,pacific ,ocean was once land1 and that the area between the ,pacific ,ocean and the ,mississippi was once a huge sea1 but botany tells the plain story4 ,only for botany we should not know that the land now serving as the poles was once within the tropics2 and mainly by fossil gum trees on the ,american continent1 and the existence still of a few plants common to ,australia1 have we the knowledge of some land connection between these distant shores4 ,island floras1 some of the species of which are now found only in very limited areas1 tell of large tracts submerged of which only the mountain peaks are left as small islands1 lonely in a wide expanse of water1 while other islands1 with only a limited number of well known species1 tell of new upheavals within modern times4 ,it is in these lines chiefly that botany has advanced during the century4 ,herbariums for dry and botanic gardens for living plants are essential4 ,the latter are not as necessary to the study as formerly1 as the facilities for travel bring the votaries of the science to distant places in a short time4 ,nature furnishes the living material for study at a less outlay of time and money than in the old way of growing the plants for the purpose4 ,few modern botanic gardens have the fame of those of the past4 ,it is the great ,herbarium of ,kew1 rather than the living plants1 that makes that famous spot the great school for botany to-day4 ,in our own country1 the ,herbariums of ,cambridge1 ,mass42 ,columbia ,college1 ,new ,york2 the ,national at ,washington2 and that of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia1 are the most famous in ,america4 ,,progress ,,of ,,women ,,within ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,mary ,,elizabeth ,,lease1 ,ex-,president ,kansas ,state ,board of ,charities4 ,the whole woman question may be briefly summed up as a century-old struggle between conservatism and progress4 ,women are moving irregularly1 and perhaps illogically1 along certain lines of development toward a point that will probably be reached2 while conservatism1 halting and fearful1 is struggling blindly to hold points and maintain lines that must be given up4 ,unfortunately for the rapidity of women's advancement1 women themselves have no thoroughness1 no clearness1 as to the fundamental cause of their grievances or the ends to be attained1 and are not yet alive to a consciousness of the fact that the question of woman's rights is simply and purely a question of human rights1 the basic solution of which1 on the broad plane of justice1 will solve all the social1 political1 and industrial problems of which the woman question forms a part4 ,the time when woman suffered silently and toiled patiently without once questioning the justice of her lot has happily passed forever4 ,confusion and antagonism are engendered because of misunderstanding of the real movement4 ,women are consciously or unconsciously struggling for that selfhood which has hitherto been denied them1 and are seeking for opportunity to develop that personality which ,browning1 ,ruskin1 and other broad thinkers declare 8is the good of the race40 ,the most discouraging feature of the situation is the fact that women as a whole do not realize that a politically inferior class is a degraded class2 a disfranchised class1 an oppressed class2 and that her economic dependence upon man is the basic cause of her inferiority4 ,the grievances openly proclaimed by the advocates of woman suffrage as causes of hostility are too frequently childish1 unreasonable1 and unworthy of serious attention4 ,in the majority of cases they centre around some fancied wrong that is a result rather than a cause4 ,the keynote not only to the woman question1 but to the labor question may be found in the words of that deep thinker and able writer1 ,august ,bebel3 8,the basis of all oppression is economic dependence upon the oppressor40 ,the widespread discontent with present social conditions is an augury of hope for the future4 ,there is no element in the unrest which need excite grave apprehension4 ,thoughtful people perceive clearly that women are intensely human1 nothing more1 and that as human beings they are entitled not only to food1 clothes1 and shelter1 but to an opportunity for development4 ,it is only as we are familiar with the oppression that has been the common lot of women since the beginning of time that we can realize that her lot has been sweetened1 her condition ameliorated1 and her progress within the century marvelous indeed4 ,the woman question1 historically considered1 contains all the physical subjugation and consequent inferiority which constituted all the differentiation between the physical and mental powers of men and women4 ,it contains all the humiliation1 uncertainty1 and ultimate hope of her future4 ,the history of the woman question is analogous with the history of the labor question1 with the difference that woman slavery had its origin in the peculiarities of her sexual being1 while the laborer's slavery began when he was robbed of the land which is the birthright of every human being4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that woman's slavery antedates the thralldom of the thrall1 and 8was more humiliating1 more degrading1 because she was treated and regarded by the laborer as his servant1 his inferior40 ,this condition largely prevails among laborers to-day1 and was indirectly given utterance to a few weeks ago1 when some of the members of the ,american ,federation of ,labor formulated a traditional resolution demanding that 8women be excluded from all public work and relegated to the home10--a demand that would be to some extent reasonable1 and no doubt acceptable1 to the great army of working-women1 had the chivalrous laborers who formulated the demand the ability and industry to provide a home for the women whom they would render paupers by deprivation of work1 and for the children for whom their fathers were unable to provide4 ,it is gratifying to know that this resolution was lost in the committee room1 and that its formulation was greeted by the press of the whole country with a storm of deserved disapproval4 ,inasmuch as the rapidly increasing number of bread-winners among women makes it evident that men are either unable or incompetent to provide for them1 it remains for the working-women of the country to formulate a resolution demanding that men be excluded from all work that has hitherto been considered as belonging to or peculiarly adapted to women4 ,what an army of mosquito-legged men from the eating-houses1 laundries1 and dry-goods establishments would rise up to proclaim the idiocy of women and protest against such injustice6 ,on the threshold of the world's morning1 says a distinguished writer and worker in the ,german ,reichstag of to-day1 we may correctly assume that woman was man's equal in mental and physical power4 ,but she became his inferior physically1 and consequently dependent upon his bounty1 during periods of pregnancy1 childbirth1 and child-rearing1 when her helplessness forced her to look to him for food and shelter4 ,in the childhood of the race might made right2 brute strength was the standard of superiority2 the struggle for existence was crude and savage2 and thus this occasional helplessness became the manner of her bondage4 ,that nature is primarily responsible for the centuries of woman's enslavement there can be no doubt4 ,and as nature's laws are unchanging1 the advocates of woman's political advancement would do well to remember that woman's greatest importance as a public factor can only begin when the function of motherhood ceases4 8,in a real sense1 as a factory is meant to turn out locomotives or clocks1 the machinery of nature is designed in the last resort to turn out mothers4 ,life to the human species is not a random series of random efforts2 its course is set as rigidly as the pathway of the stars2 its laws are as immutable as the laws of the ,medes and ,persians40 7,drummond's ,ascent of ,man47 ,nature's great work for the individual is reproduction and care of the species4 ,the first1 ,drummond terms the cosmic process2 the second1 the moral process4 ,statistics show that one child out of every three dies before maturity1 and nature's task is incomplete unless at least two children be reared to the adult age by every family4 ,every couple1 then1 at marriage1 assumes the responsibility to society and posterity of bringing three children into the world4 ,woman's part in the stupendous economy of nature is first and distinctively most important1 that of motherhood4 ,she can only pay her debt to nature1 fulfill her mission to the world1 and discharge her obligations to humanity by faithfully discharging the duties of motherhood4 ,but as the function of motherhood ceases when the woman is in the prime of life1 ripened by experience and fortified by maternal ties1 she may yet have ample opportunity to exert her far-reaching influence in public work when she has exemplified in her own life the words1 ,home1 ,love1 ,mother4 ,and there is1 there can be1 no rational objection to granting the fullest suffrage to woman at this period4 ,illustration3 ,,mary ,,elizabeth ,,lease ,having located the basic cause of her dependence1 it will be seen that the only solution possible for the complete emancipation and mental and physical development of woman is to render her1 through industrial freedom1 so economically independent in every way of man's grudging bounty that she will scorn his pity1 resent his abuse1 and claim her right to fullest individuality and opportunity as a human being4 ,for countless ages women were separated from the world by a barrier as effective as the myriad-miled wall of ,china2 vacillating between the condition of slave and superintendent of the kitchen2 taught nothing but those flimsy accomplishments that would catch the eye of the prospective husband and master2 sneered at1 ridiculed1 and abused whenever she attempted to cross the line which hoary prophets and patriarchal slaveholders had marked across her path2 subject to man's whim and caprice2 her physical development1 in time1 became meagre and crippled4 ,and as her mental faculties were repressed and imprisoned in the narrowest circle of feminine opinions1 it became difficult for her to rise above the most commonplace trivialities of life4 ,thus it came about that the term 8,weaker ,sex10 originally used to convey only the acknowledged truth that women are inferior to men in physical strength1 came to include the mind as well as body4 ,be this as it may1 the position of women for long centuries was inevitably one of extreme cruelty and oppression4 ,countless bitter and unnecessary limitations hedged her pathway and obstructed her development from the cradle to the grave4 ,it is not to be wondered at that she in time became so inured to her degrading servitude as to accept it as her natural position4 ,madame ,de ,stal has truly said1 8,of all the gifts and faculties which nature has lavishly bestowed upon woman1 she has been allowed to exercise fully but one1 the faculty to suffer40 ,the extent of this suffering and the deteriorating influence which it has exerted upon the race can never be estimated till ,finis is written to the story of humanity4 ,in the noonday of ,grecian power and learning1 woman trod not beside man as helpmate and companion1 but followed as his slave4 ,demosthenes defines the wife as the 8bearer of children1 the faithful watch-dog who guards the house for her master40 ,at the ,council of ,macon1 held in the sixth century1 the question of the soul and humanity of women was gravely weighed and debated1 profound doctors of theology maintaining that 8woman is not a subject but an object for man's use and pleasure40 ,for centuries theological divines whetted their wit on helpless woman2 and the church in holy zeal persecuted the woman who was guilty of a fault as a 8daughter of the devil10 and held her up to public contumely as the concentration of all evil4 ,christianity1 indeed1 offered emancipation to women4 ,it proclaimed a startling doctrine1--the equality of the rich and the poor1 the weak and the strong1 in the sight of ,god the ,father4 ,and it became evident that such teachings would inevitably break down the barriers of class and caste1 eliminate injustice1 and usher in a time when all should stand equal before the law4 ,but alas1 the world1 with the exception of isolated and individual instances1 has never been offered an opportunity to test the efficacy of the all-corrective principles of the religion which ,christ gave to the world4 ,the repression of women biased the reformatory tendencies of ,christianity1 and rendered it as ineffective as a medium of relief to the oppressed as our one-sided political system of to-day4 ,christianity1 under masculine domination1 was lost in the rubbish of churchianity1 which1 professing but failing to practice the religion of ,christ1 has held woman in the same contempt in which she has been held by all the ancient and idolatrous religions of the world4 ,yet despite the fact that the great ,master1 were ,he to come to-day1 would scarcely recognize in the churches a trace of the code which ,he lived and died to exemplify1 it must not be forgotten that the vital principle of religion never dies4 ,it eventually attains fullest development1 and becomes identified with the progress of civilization and the highest purpose of a people4 ,therefore1 we may reverently believe that in the ultimate triumph and rehabilitation of practical ,christianity lies the hope of the oppressed1 and true liberty not only for women1 but for every human being4 ,illustration3 ,emma ,willard ,even now the mists are lifting4 ,the great change in the position of women--legal1 social1 and educational--within a hundred years is breaking even the hard shell of orthodox usage4 ,whole denominations have dropped the word 8obey0 from the marriage service4 ,many ministers frequently omit it1 or1 if administered1 it is pronounced by the bride with mental reservation and looked upon as a word that has only the most remote and shadowy significance4 ,the new wine is breaking the old bottles2 the spirit of the nineteenth century is too progressive for the usages and traditions of the eleventh century4 ,modern churchianity1 realizing that women constitute three fourths of its membership1 no longer wages a merciless warfare upon them4 ,it has relaxed its ,pauline grip upon her throat1 8,i suffer not a woman to speak in the churches40 ,and the more advanced theological bodies have offered her the intellectual hospitality of the pulpit1 where her eloquence is a pleasing change to those who have grown tired of preachers' platitudes4 ,clerical decrees are no longer hurled at her defenseless head4 ,the doors of churches1 schools1 and colleges are swinging wide at her approach1 though they sometimes creak on their hinges4 ,the ministers no longer openly advocate that the gates of opportunity be bolted and barred against her4 ,there is everything to stimulate hope2 the wings of feminine nature have expanded till a return to the chrysalis is impossible4 ,it is true that a very large number yet profess to believe that a woman fulfills her whole mission in the world when she makes herself as pretty and agreeable as possible1 and devotes all her time and attention to the discharge of domestic duties4 ,but there has been a wonderful modification of opinion since ,schopenhauer declared that 8woman is not called to great things4 ,she pays her debt to life by the throes of birth1 care of the children1 and subjection to her husband40 ,two things have tended to bring about this modification of opinion2 the broader education and increased opportunities for development attendant upon the growth of individual liberty and republican forms of government2 and the capability of self-maintenance due to improved mechanical appliances4 ,it is not mere inclination on the part of the individual1 nor is it the voice of the agitator1 that is bringing about these changes2 it is the irresistible logic of events4 ,one hundred years ago the education of women in the most progressive and wealthy families went little beyond reading and writing4 ,in #ahai1 when ,mrs4 ,emma ,willard issued an address to the members of the ,new ,york legislature advocating the endowment of an institution for the higher education of women1 there was not a college in the country for girls4 ,in #ahib1 the colleges of the ,united ,states numbered more than #ej1jjj female students4 ,in #ahhh1 the ratio of female students to the whole number of students pursuing a higher course of education in universities and colleges in this country was #bi4c per centum1 or a little more than one fourth4 ,at the same time the ratio in ,england was #aa per centum2 in ,france1 #b per centum2 while in ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,italy the ratio was so slight as to be but a mere fraction of #a per centum4 ,such a thing as a female president of a college was unknown and probably undreamed of in the eighteenth century2 but we learn from the ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #ahhg-hh that there are in the ,united ,states forty-two colleges and institutions for the superior instruction of women having a woman for president4 ,in the high and secondary schools1 in #ahhh1 over one half of the students were girls4 ,and in the same year1 tabulated statistics reveal that #fc per centum of the teachers were women4 ,and this percentage will become greater and greater as we grasp the truth that woman is1 by gift of greater intuition and sympathy1 the natural instructor of the human race4 ,the salaries paid to women teachers are grossly unfair when compared to the pay of male teachers for the same or less work4 ,but as the difference in compensation is growing smaller every decade1 there is at least room for hope that this injustice will soon be righted4 ,the law of evolution is the discoverer and formulator of woman's advancement4 ,the invention and use of gunpowder placed the peasant on an equal war-footing with the mailed knight4 ,the enormous increase in mechanical appliances and productive machinery has taken woman out of the rank of unpaid menials1 has given her leisure for mental development1 opportunity to receive recompense for toil1 and is largely breaking down the physical barriers which had hitherto been considered unsurmountable4 ,statistics show that there are forms of machinery in the operation of which the production of a woman is even greater than that of a man1 thus furnishing an actual proof of the falsity of the idea that woman is incapacitated for competition with man in the physical world4 ,and the trend of events is indicated by the statistics given in the ,report of the ,commissioner of ,labor1 from which we learn that in some trades and professions the percentage of women engaged has increased fivefold in the last decade4 ,while woman's work has always been a recognized factor in the world's progress1 yet her admittance to the field of remunerative work is limited to the last one hundred years2 is1 in fact1 the prominent feature of the nineteenth century4 ,there is overwhelming evidence that her work in every department to which she has been admitted is as capable1 acceptable1 and in every way as faithfully performed as the work of her brother man4 ,in the last century it is estimated that not more than #a per centum of artists and teachers of art were women2 while in #ahij women comprised #dh4jh per centum1 or nearly one half of that profession4 ,nearly the same proportion of increase is found in the ranks of teachers and musicians1--women now forming over #fj per centum of the teachers of the ,united ,states4 ,there are now about three million women and girls in this country who earn their own livelihood4 ,and the eleventh census reveals the startling information that in the city of ,new ,york there are twenty-seven thousand men who are supported by their wives4 ,yet these men1 useless to society1 a burden to the women who support them1 are permitted the immunities and privileges of law and custom1 while women have equality only in the duties and punishments4 ,at the beginning of the eighteenth century there were but few occupations in which women were permitted to engage4 ,their abilities and ambitions were restricted to the school and the home4 ,in the latter they received food and shelter as compensation2 in the former1 but one half or one third the salary allowed to male teachers4 ,the first noticeable change in woman's condition1 when she became something more than a mere household drudge1 whose busy hands carded and wove1 spun and knit1 the family supply of cloth1 dates from the first bale of cotton grown in this country in the early years of the eighteenth century4 ,in that bale of cotton lay the seeds of not only a new movement in labor1 but the beginning of a new epoch for woman1 in which her work and wages were destined to take coherent shape and form4 ,in all industrial progress since that time women have taken an active part while receiving a meagre share of the product4 ,forced by the course of events to emerge from seclusion and repression1 she has passed from one stage of development to another1 always a step or two behind man in the progress of social evolution1 till the close of the nineteenth century reveals myriad changes and the actual realization of ,tennyson's prophetic lines in the 8,princess10 8,we have prudes for proctors1 dowagers for deans40 ,illustration3 ,,george ,,eliot4 ,one hundred years ago it was the duty of a woman to efface herself4 ,she was expected to make of herself a mental blank-book upon which her husband might inscribe what he would4 ,thus it is only lately that women have begun actively to compete with men in expression of any kind4 ,indeed1 previous to that time1 with a few notable exceptions1 they were denied recognition of individual life4 ,the woman1 if unmarried1 was merged in the family1 or1 if married1 merged in the husband4 ,her name1 her religion1 her gods1 were changed on marriage4 ,but1 married or single1 the absorption was complete4 ,so it has happened that woman1 throbbing with poetic sympathy1 has1 with the exception of ,sappho1 produced less high and unmistakable poetry than man4 ,with more harmony1 more music in her nature1 her very soul attuned to symphony and rhythm1 she has been little known as a composer4 ,with far vision and clear literary insight1 she has been suppressed in art and literature4 ,george ,eliot gave her sublime literary productions to the world under a masculine nom de plume1 because of the prejudice of even that not remote day4 ,fanny ,mendelssohn was compelled by her family to publish her musical compositions as her brother's4 ,mary ,somerville met only discouragement and ridicule in her mathematical studies4 ,in every sphere1 in every department of science and art1 abuse1 injustice1 and the croaking of reactionary frogs have greeted each step of her upward way4 ,the wonder is1 then1 not that she has accomplished so little1 but that she is not in the same condition to-day that she was when ,paul thrust a gag in her mouth in the shape of a ,corinthian text1 8,and if a woman would learn anything1 let her ask her husband at home40 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the oft-repeated assertion that women have not given to the world as much evidence of genius as men is a ,lilliputian assertion tainted somewhat with envy4 8,there has been no ,shakespeare among women10 says the advocates of man's supremacy4 ,with all the world as their own1 and the gates of boundless opportunities swinging wide1 there has been but one ,shakespeare among men4 ,it has been asserted that ,george ,eliot is the ,shakespeare among women and ,mrs4 ,browning the counterpart of ,bacon4 ,but their immortality has not been tested4 ,they lived but a little while ago4 ,but there is one woman1 at least1 who has established her claim thoroughly1 and whose genius twenty-five centuries have tested4 ,sappho is truly immortal4 ,her fame and genius have been sealed by the approval of all the great literati of the centuries4 ,coleridge1 who occupies no uncertain place in the world of letters1 says of her1 8,of all the poets of the world1 of all the illustrious artists of all literature1 ,sappho is the one whose every word has a peculiar and unmistakable poetic perfume1 a seal of absolute perfection and illimitable grace40 ,swinburne1 the greatest living master in the world of verbal music1 declares that1 8,her verses are the supreme success1 the final achievement1 of poetic art40 ,sappho's claim to immortality exceeds that of ,shakespeare's by twenty-three hundred years4 ,men1 viewing the literary productions of women1 are apt to give them the color and bias of masculine thought4 ,as instance the poetic critic of a ,new ,york periodical1 who wantonly affronts the gifted author of 8,poems of ,passion0 by declaring that her 8fervent verses are but the burning of unseemly stubble that fails to give forth light or heat40 ,yet ,ella ,wheeler ,wilcox1 all fair-minded critics will admit1 has won a place in the ranks of poetic genius4 ,her poems throb with human sympathy1 and from the exalted plane of her splendid womanhood she reaches down1 fulfilling the law of ,christly service1 to lift up the fallen and soothe and bind the bruised and bleeding4 ,such masculine criticism is dying out1 but it has not been uncommon in the past4 ,mrs4 ,browning and ,jane ,austen were accused of 8breaking down by their writings the safeguards of society10 and they were admonished to 8cease their literary efforts and devote themselves to sewing and washing dishes if they would retain the chivalrous respect of men40 8,jane ,eyre0 was pronounced too immoral to be ranked as decent literature4 8,adam ,bede0 was classed as the 8vile outpourings of a lewd woman's mind40 ,yet ,charlotte ,bront1 ,george ,eliot1 ,mrs4 ,browning1 and ,jane ,austen have won an exalted and enviable place in the ranks of literature4 ,their writings have thrilled1 uplifted1 and sweetened humanity4 ,the test of literary genius is to create a character of universal acceptance4 ,the record of half a century has but one world-wide1 world-known character of that kind4 ,that character was created by a woman4 ,in all literature1 no book since the ,bible has been so widely circulated1 so extensively translated1 or has so thoroughly commanded the profound attention of all classes as ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe's 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin40 ,mrs4 ,stowe impressed her genius upon the race and time1 and marked a new epoch for freedom4 ,previous to the publication of her book only a few men recognized slavery as wrong1 but a woman's sympathetic heart and throbbing genius laid bare the evil and disclosed to a horrified world the wrong underlying slavery4 ,in philanthropy and the domain of morals there is none who is doing more heroic and effective work than ,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,b4 ,grannis4 ,she deals not with theories1 but with real conditions4 ,her sympathies1 her broad work1 her manifold charities1 go out to flesh and blood1 men and women4 ,she has the intuitive faculty of probing deep into human nature1 leading those she would reform to mourn real defects1 rejoice in real victories1 and hope and struggle for better things4 ,illustration3 ,,frances ,,willard4 ,the constantly broadening sphere of woman's usefulness is in a large measure due to the organized forms of intellectual activity among women known as clubs4 ,half a century ago club-life for women was unknown4 ,their social sympathies were limited to the political party that claimed the franchise of their male relatives1 or the church at whose shrine the women worshiped4 ,but so rapid has been woman's development in this direction that to-day women's clubs form a chain from ocean to ocean1 binding them as one great whole4 ,the effect upon the members is magical2 nature is enlarged2 charity broadened2 capacity for judgment increased2 and hitherto unsuspected faculties are called into life and power4 ,the first organized demand by women for political recognition in the ,united ,states was made in #ahdh1 at what was known as the ,seneca ,falls ,convention4 ,ridiculed1 persecuted1 kicked like a football from one generation to another1 this brave demand for political recognition was destined to become an agency that would work a peaceful revolution4 ,that the movement is progressing1 and will eventually succeed1 is evinced by the record of half a century4 ,in that time school suffrage has been granted in twenty-three ,states and ,territories1 partial suffrage for public improvements in three ,states1 municipal suffrage in one1 and in four ,states full political equality4 ,wyoming was the first ,state to accord citizenship to her women1 and she bears testimony to its efficacy in the progress1 honor1 and sobriety of her people4 ,in #ahic1 the ,wyoming state legislature passed resolutions highly commendatory of woman suffrage and its results1 and among other things said1 8,we point with pride to the fact that after nearly twenty-five years of woman suffrage1 not one county in ,wyoming has a poor-house1 that our jails are almost empty1 and crime1 except that by strangers in the ,state1 is almost unknown40 ,from the banks of the far-off ,volga come the good tidings that even ,russia is preparing to take a great step in advance by granting to women many legal and political privileges now enjoyed only by men4 ,england granted municipal suffrage to women a quarter of a century ago1 and has more recently granted partial parliamentary suffrage4 ,and to the influence of ,english law1 more particularly the ,married ,women's ,act1 is largely due the betterment of the legal status of women throughout the world4 ,in ,england we find women prominent in art1 literature1 politics1 the school and the church4 ,while in this country the middle classes have heretofore carried on the suffrage agitation1 in ,england it finds active workers among the peerage4 ,woman in politics meets with the opposition of job politicians1 but she realizes that every step of her progress1 from the unveiling of her face to a seat in the legislature of a ,state1 has been taken in the face of fierce opposition and in violation of conventionalities and customs4 ,undismayed she advances for the ultimate betterment of humanity4 ,the historian of the future will record the nineteenth century as the ,renaissance of womankind4 ,and the ultimate effect upon the human race of having individuals1 not servants1 as mothers will surpass the progress made in science and in art4 ,the eighteenth century found woman an appendage2 the nineteenth transformed her into an individual4 ,the wonderful altruistic twentieth century1 whose dawn even now is breaking1 will so develop this individuality that women will contend for all the rights of the individual1 coperating with the nation in the fulfillment of its mission1 and with the world in the development of the eternal law of progress4 8,through the harsh voices of our day ,a low1 sweet prelude finds its way2 ,through clouds of doubt and storms of fear ,a light is breaking calm and clear40 ,,the ,,century',s ,,textile ,,progress ,,by ,,robert ,p4 ,,hains1 ,examiner of ,textiles1 ,u4 ,s4 ,patent ,office4 ,antiquity conceals nothing more completely than the origin of the textile industry4 ,back in the dark ages and beyond authentic records1 evidence is furnished that this art was not unknown4 ,egyptian mummies shrouded in fine linen fabrics give their silent testimony of ancient knowledge1 but when or where the art had its inception still remains wrapped in mystery4 ,nearly every nation of the earth lays claim to its invention at some epoch in traditional existence4 ,thus the ,chinese attribute it to the wife of their first emperor1 the ,egyptians to ,isis1 the ,greeks to ,minerva2 but probably it had its birth in the ,orient1 where the making of cloth was known and practiced from the earliest times4 ,whatever the merits of rival claimants1 certain it is that for many centuries the simple distaff and spindle were the only instruments used for spinning1 while the warp and weft were woven together by hand implements not less primitive in structure4 ,in the first spinning device1 a mass of fibre was arranged on a forked stick1 and1 as drawn therefrom by hand1 it was twisted between the fingers and wound on a spindle4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england1 however1 the spinning-wheel replaced the distaff and spindle1 and in every cottage and palace it became an indispensable article of household equipment4 ,the young women in all walks of life were taught to spin4 ,spinning became the female occupation of the age1 and it is interesting to note that the modern term spinster1 meaning an unmarried woman of advanced age1 here had its origin4 ,the spinning-wheel1 though superior to the distaff and spindle1 was yet a crude machine4 ,it consisted of a stand on which was mounted in horizontal bearings a spindle driven by a band from a large wheel propelled by hand or foot1 and as twist was imparted to the fibre drawn through the fingers1 the resulting yarn was wound on the spindle4 ,the art of weaving was not more advanced4 ,it is true that the middle of the eighteenth century found the hand loom developed from the original ,indian structure to contain many of the essentials of the modern power loom4 ,it embodied the heddles1 the lay1 the take-up and let-off beams1 the shuttle for passing the weft1 and in #agdj1 ,john ,kay added the fly shuttle motion1 whereby the shuttle was thrown through the shed by a sudden pull on the picking stick2 then in #agfj1 ,robert ,kay1 son of ,john ,kay1 invented the drop box1 whereby several colors of filling might be employed4 ,brilliant as these achievements were1 the hand loom remained the crude embodiment of the simple principles of weaving until near the dawn of the nineteenth century1 when1 by the invention of ,cartwright1 a period of development was introduced in all lines of textile manufacture unsurpassed in the annals of industrial progress4 ,the first great stride1 and that which opened the door for further advance1 was the creation of the spinning-jenny1 in ,england1 by ,hargreaves1 about #agfg1 whereby eight or ten yarns could be spun at one time4 ,drawing rollers were subsequently added by ,arkwright1 and then traverse motion was given the bobbins in order to automatically build the yarn into a cop4 ,it has developed since that the drawing-rollers constituted one of the most important fundamental improvements in the spinning art4 ,their function was to draw out the fibres into a proper size of roving1 and to feed this to be spun4 ,without them the modern spinning-frame would not have been possible4 ,arkwright's drawing-rollers and ,hargreaves's spinning-jenny combined under the invention of ,crompton to produce1 in principle at least1 the modern spinning-mule4 ,illustration3 ,,distaff ,,and ,,spindle4 ,fairly good machines were thus provided on the advent of the nineteenth century for spinning unlimited quantities of yarn1 but this1 in turn1 required proper loom structures to use the same and a corresponding supply of raw material4 ,inventive genius was abroad1 and the necessity met by ,eli ,whitney1 who1 while at the home of ,general ,greene1 of ,georgia1 built the first practical machine for separating cotton fibre from its seed4 ,whitney's gin was constructed on the broad and simple principle that cotton fibre could be drawn through a smaller space than the attached seed1 and this same principle is the soul and spirit of every saw-gin of the present day4 ,prior to ,whitney's gin1 cotton fibre was separated from the seed by hand1 a day's work being represented by two or three pounds of cleaned fibre4 ,the daily product of the gin now reaches between three and four thousand pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,spinning ,,wheel4 ,such figures demonstrate the important position taken by the cotton gin among the developing agents of the cotton growing ,states4 ,it has rendered possible and profitable the cultivation of large districts of otherwise waste lands2 it has stimulated cotton production2 given employment to thousands of idle hands2 cheapened the price of cotton cloths1 and placed within the reach of the humblest people wearing apparel of fine and beautiful texture4 ,unlimited supply of raw material being thus provided1 attention reverted to perfecting the machines for spinning it1 and under the magical touch of ,richard ,roberts1 of ,manchester1 ,england1 in #ahcj1 the crude mule of ,crompton took practical shape4 ,he gave to it the quadrant winding motion1 provided for the harmonious working of the counter and copping faller wires1 perfected the 8backing off0 and 8drawing up0 mechanisms1 and gave attention to construction of details that placed the mule before the world as a practical success4 ,equipped in its present form1 the self-acting mule presents one of the most striking examples of complex automatic mechanisms that can be found in the industrial world4 ,the work of the attendant is confined to piecing broken ends and supplying roving1 the machine passing through the entire cycle of its complicated movements without human direction4 ,an idea may be had of its delicate and accurate operation when it is considered that one pound of cotton has been spun by it into a thread one hundred and sixty-seven miles long4 ,improvements have been made1 indeed1 on ,roberts's mule1 but aside from changes in details and form1 the machine1 as it left the hands of this mechanical genius in #ahcj1 remains unchanged4 ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,hand ,,loom4 ,during this period1 the fly frame was developed from the machines of ,hargreaves and ,arkwright1 but while it constituted a great advance over these machines1 it presented no radical departure in principle4 ,we may pause here1 as we pass through the third decade of the present century1 to witness the introduction of a spinning-frame1 which1 for originality of conception and far reaching influence on the textile industry1 closely approximates the achievements of the pioneer inventions of this art4 ,reference is made to the ring frame in which the flyer is omitted1 the bobbin being attached to the spindle and revolving with it4 ,on the traverse rail1 and surrounding each bobbin1 is secured a flanged ring having loosely sprung thereon a light traveler1 through which the yarn1 as it comes from the drawing-rolls1 is led to the bobbin4 ,revolution of the bobbin carries the traveler around the ring imparting twist to the yarn1 and as it is spun it is wound on the bobbin in proportion to the feed of the drawing-rolls4 ,the invention of this machine is attributed to ,john ,thorpe1 of ,rhode ,island1 in #ahbh1 and so popular did it become by reason of decreased power necessary to drive it1 incidental to the omission of the flyers1 and good quality of yarn produced1 that1 between #ahfj and #ahfe1 it nearly replaced all other machines in ,america for spinning cotton4 ,the speed of the ring frame1 as well as its output1 appeared unbounded2 but at high speeds1 under unbalanced loads1 the spindles were found to vibrate in their bearings1 and the quality of yarn1 in consequence1 degenerated1 the spindle bearings became worn1 and the limit seemed to be reached at five thousand revolutions per minute4 ,a careful examination of the ring frame revealed no vulnerable part of its general structure that could be improved so as to readily secure increased speed and steadiness of the spindles when unevenly loaded2 but with admirable foresight1 developing intellects set to improve the spindles themselves1 and1 in #ahga1 ,jacob ,h4 ,sawyer introduced and patented a spindle and bearing1 which was one of the most important improvements in the ring frame4 ,he chambered the bobbin1 and by carrying the bolster ,t well up inside supported the former near its load centre4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,spinning ,,jenny4 ,the evolution of the spindle was not yet complete4 ,the ,sawyer type1 at more than seven thousand revolutions1 would vibrate1 and of the many attempts to cure the defect none succeeded fully until the very simple change made by ,mr4 ,rabbeth in #ahgh4 ,he gave the spindle a small amount of play by making the bolster loose in its supporting case1 and placed a packing between the two4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sherman improved upon the ,rabbeth structure by making the bolster and step in one piece and omitting the packing1 the cushioning being dependent upon the lubricating oil4 ,illustration3 ,,ginning ,,cotton4 ,,the ,,old ,,way1 ,,prior ,,to #ahjj4 ,illustration3 ,,ginning ,,cotton4 ,,the ,,new ,,way4 ,the acme of development in this small but most important part of the ring frame was now reached2 and in its approved form it embodies the sleeve whirl extending into the bobbin1 the loose1 yet adjustable bolster1 tapering spindle1 removable step1 and lubricating reservoir4 ,such spindles are capable of unlimited speeds1--twenty thousand revolutions per minute have been given1--and under absurdly unbalanced loads they run steadily and with less expenditure of power than the older forms at their slower speeds4 ,increased speed in the spindles1 however1 brought increased breakage in the yarn1 and although stop motion devices had been employed for several years1 yet economy demanded ready means of piecing broken ends4 ,this has been provided recently by mounting the stop clamp upon the roving rod well up near the first pair of drawing rolls1 so that on pulling the stop wire into place the roving is at once fed between the drawing rolls and issues in front1 over the spindle1 to be easily pieced by one hand4 ,prior to this1 the operative was required to reach over the machine1 feed the roving to the rolls with one hand1 hold the stop wire down with the other1 and the broken end of yarn in his teeth4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,modern ,,mule4 ,excessive ballooning was also incidental to the use of high speed spindles1 and1 while inventive skill has never mastered it1 yet the injurious effects have been obviated by an ingenious mounting of separators1 one between each two spindles4 ,aside from minor details perfecting the mechanical construction1 such has been the evolution of the modern spinning frame4 ,in #ahcj1 it required the constant attention of one spinner to oversee twenty slow-running spindles1 whereas1 in #ahif1 the same attendant could1 with less effort1 8tend0 seventy-five or more of the high speed type2 and whereas1 in #agij1 when the first ,american cotton mill was established by ,samuel ,slater in ,rhode ,island1 there were only seventy-five spindles on cotton fibre1 in #ahcj1 the number had increased to #a1bdf1gjc1 and in #ahij1 to #ad1ahh1ajc4 ,under such competition no wonder the spinning-wheel of our grandmothers has followed the economic law1 that the fittest alone survive1 and has been relegated to the wood-pile or garret1 or1 bedecked with ribbons1 finds a resting-place in the chimney-corner as a decorated curiosity4 ,its mighty rival is here4 ,its attendants have been liberated to more ennobling pursuits4 ,the homespun has been replaced by beautiful fabrics1 and the monster spinning frames of to-day pour forth their hourly product in miles of spun fibre1 where the wheels of our grandmothers were taxed to the utmost to produce a very small fraction of the amount4 ,to appreciate the wonderful change1 pause beside the domestic wheel used within the memory of the living1 and compare its 8whirr10 in slowly producing its single thread1 to the 8buzz0 of the modern spinning frame turning out its product from a thousand spindles4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,comb ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,the production of yarn required something more than spinning4 ,the fibres in the massed cotton or wool1 as delivered to the manufacturer1 must be opened1 untangled1 straightened out1 and laid parallel by a series of preparing machines prior to being spun1 among which the carding engine ranks first4 ,in the incipient form1 this machine dates as far back as the middle of the eighteenth century1 when1 by hand manipulation1 two cylinders covered with small teeth and working in close proximity disintegrated the fibrous mass2 but the fibres were much broken and not evenly arranged4 ,the addition of the workers and strippers around a rapidly revolving swift gave increased utility to the machine1 and ,bramwell's feed1 in #ahga1 so regulated the amount of fibre fed at intervals that the resulting lap possessed the desired even character4 ,this feed weighs the fibre as it is fed1 stops the lifting apron while the scale pan dumps its load1 resets the scale pan1 and automatically starts the lifting apron to again feed the scale1--a cycle of operations indicating a near approach to human intelligence4 ,one additional machine at least1 the comb1 requires notice before passing to the all-important progress made in the loom structure4 ,with advancing civilization and refinement came demands for superior fabrics1 which could only be answered by a supply of better fibre4 ,such fibre could only be secured from the bale by separating the long from the short1 a problem well calculated to tax the ingenuity of an enlightened age4 ,attempts had been made to do this by hand implements not unlike the curry-comb of to-day1 except that the teeth were long and tapering4 ,this remained the only means employed for years1 while other textile machinery passed through its phenomenal period of development4 ,at last1 in #ahda1 it occurred to ,heilman1 while watching a lady comb her hair1 that a machine might be constructed to comb wool by drawing a bunch of fibres over pins4 ,he constructed a device on this principle1 and in a developed form it is used still and known as the ,heilman or nip comb4 ,illustration3 ,,noble ,,comb ,,of #ahij4 ,in #ahec1 ,james ,noble gave to the world the circle comb1 wherein two flat circular rings1 having projecting from one face vertical pins1 were mounted1 one eccentrically within the other1 and revolved in the same direction1 the object being to dab the fibre on the rings where they met2 and then as they revolved and separated the short fibre would be drawn off the large ring1 leaving the long fibre freed from the short4 ,these machines were successful1 and above all they were practical--the operation of the hand comber disappeared from the face of the earth4 ,the sudden birth and rapid development of mechanically perfect means for preparing and spinning fibres were due largely to the comparatively simple movements required to draw and twist the yarn1 but in the loom no such problem was presented4 ,here the movements were complicated and varied1 and the application of power to the manipulation of the delicate threads was not susceptible of sudden and successful solution4 ,the warps1 stretched in a sheet between two beams1 had to be opened to form the shed1 the shuttle had to be passed therethrough1 the weft beaten to place1 and means provided to feed the warp and to take up of the fabric an amount at each beat-up corresponding to the size of the weft4 ,these were the movements necessary in the most simple kind of weaving1 and though fully understood for many centuries1 as evidenced by the ,indian and ,egyptian looms1 and as embodied in hand machines of the seventeenth century1 it was not till #aghg that they were clothed with the application of power4 ,even then the first embodiment did not emanate from the hands of a weaver or engineer1 but from ,dr4 ,cartwright1 a clergyman in the church of ,england4 ,it was not surprising that these looms failed of their expectations1 for the shuttle would frequently get trapped in the shed1 the driven power-lay would break out the warp threads1 the take-up and let-off motions were not graduated to compensate for the decrease of the warp and increase of the cloth beams1 resulting in thin and thick places in the cloth4 ,but this application of power to the loom was the initial step in the industrial supremacy of the machine1 which to-day works with the perfect cadence of an automaton4 ,illustration3 ,,plain ,,power ,,loom1 #ahdj4 ,the first years of the present century were of unsurpassed activity in the inventive field4 ,the spinners were putting forth more yarn than the hand-looms could use4 ,it remained for the loom to keep pace with the times4 ,miller1 in #ahjj1 ,todd and ,horrocks in #ahjc1 ,johnston in #ahjg1 ,cotton in #ahaj1 ,taylor in #ahae1 and many others1 concentrated their efforts to develop the plain power-loom2 but the second decade of the present century saw the old hand-loom with its slow and cumbrous movements still mistress of the art4 ,the name of ,richard ,roberts stands preminent at this period1 between #ahbj and #ahbe1 as giving to the power-loom several perfecting touches in the means for letting off the warp the small amount necessary at each pick1 the means for taking up the finished cloth1 the means for shedding the warp for the passage of the shuttle1 and the adaptation of the stop motions of his predecessors4 ,these changes gave practical life to the machine1 and overthrew the barrier that obstructed the advance of the textile industry4 ,they were1 however1 only a few of the improvements added in perfecting the power-loom1 such as the automatic temple to hold the cloth extended and prevent drawing of the weft1 the shuttle-guard to prevent accidental jumping of the shuttle from the race1 the perfect weft-stop to bring the loom to a stand on breakage or failure of the weft1 the protector mechanism to obviate a 8smash0 when the shuttle failed to box1 and the loose reed1 all of which stand out in bold relief as evidences of the progressive tendencies of the age1 and combined in about the year #ahch1 more than a half century after ,cartwright's first conception of the idea1 to complete the practical power-loom4 ,the loom had not reached a stage of mechanical perfection2 much yet remained to be done1 but the plain power-loom of this period was both a practical and financial success4 ,by its immediate predecessor1 the hand-loom1 a good weaver and assistant could work from forty to fifty picks per minute1 and weave plain cloth4 ,by the power-loom of #ahdj1 one weaver could 8tend0 two looms running from #ajj to #abj picks per minute and produce the same cloth4 ,without passing through the various steps which culminated in the power-loom for plain cloth1 now in use1 and tracing the causes that led to perfection of details1 the amazing advance from the ancient and #ahth-century hand loom to the power-loom of #ahdj and that of to-day may well be shown by comparing the machines themselves4 ,such was the simple form of the power-loom4 ,one half of the warps were alternately raised and lowered for the shot of weft2 but as a woven fabric is one in which the warp and weft are united by passing them over and under each other1 the figure or pattern of the cloth will be varied as the threads are crossed in different combinations1 and this will depend on the order of raising and lowering the warp threads1 and the introduction of different characters and colors of weft4 ,this brings up for review the most important parts of the loom structure--the shedding mechanism and shuttle-box motions--through whose agencies the most beautiful and complicated designs are produced4 ,illustration3 ,,weaving4 ,,the ,,old ,,way4 ,illustration3 ,,weaving4 ,,the ,,new ,,way4 ,shedding mechanism was present of course in all looms1 but in the power-looms of the early part of this century it was confined to tappets adjusted on a revolving shaft1 and the number of heddles was limited to six or eight4 ,fairly good twills and other like fabrics could be produced within the limits of the few heddles1 but with the introduction of the 8dobbie10 or that part of the loom which raises and lowers the harness-frames1 a new era in fancy weaving was inaugurated4 ,by this ingenious device as many as thirty-six or even forty heddles could be used and raised at will to form figures4 ,the creation of the dobbie belongs to the #aith century1 and it is found in practical form about #ahfc in the ,united ,states under the name of the ,american or ,knowles dobbie4 ,the essentials are the two cylinder gears revolving constantly1 the vibrating gears1 carried on the end of pivoted arms and having teeth on a part of their periphery1 the harness jacks connected to the heddle frames1 and the links joining the vibrating gears and harness jacks in such manner that part revolution of the former causes the latter to move the connected heddle frame1 and consequently the warp threads1 up or down4 ,a pattern chain determines what vibrator gears shall engage the cylinder gears1 and1 once the chain is fitted to the design to be woven1 nothing remains for the loom tender but to oversee the operation of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,,loom ,,of #ahij4 ,another form of dobbie1 not less popular than the ,knowles1 developed into a perfect automatic device about fifty years ago in ,england4 ,here two reciprocating knives are engaged1 under the direction of a pattern chain1 by one of two hooked jacks connected to the harness levers1 and the shed is again formed without human intervention4 ,other forms of dobbie structures have been evolved during the last fifty years1 but these two1 with some modifications and additions of details1 have come extensively into practical use1 and represent the zenith of development at the present time4 ,by their aid great variety is rendered possible in the design on the resulting fabric4 ,the figured tablecloths1 damasks1 twills1 satins1 bordered and cross-bordered fabrics1 are now possible at a cost of a thousandth part only of that incurred when produced by any of the old types of machines4 ,illustration3 ,,jacquard ,,machine4 ,the subject of shedding1 i4 e41 of opening the warp-threads to afford a passage for the shuttle1 is so inseparably connected with the name of ,jacquard1 that attention is now carried to that wonderful invention evolved in the first few years of the present century1 and by the use of which it may truly be said that anything can be woven as figure in a fabric that can be designed by the hand of man4 ,it is as well adapted for the finest silks as for heavy carpets and figured velvets1 and by an operation theoretically so simple as to excite wonder that it remained hidden until this age4 ,jacquard was a native of ,france and exhibited his machine complete in #ahjd1 but so bitter was the opposition that the first machine was destroyed and burned4 ,its merits were clear1 however1 and reconstruction and general adoption in ,france followed soon after4 ,it has since been applied not only for shedding but for every purpose where mechanical operations could be controlled by a pattern4 ,in brief1 this machine simply controls each warp thread separately by a cord having a hook attached4 ,these hooks are arranged near the path of a reciprocating griffe or frame carrying cross bars1 and are controlled1 as to engagement with the bars1 by a card perforated according to a pattern2 thus any one or any number of threads can be raised at will4 ,the dobbie controls harness frames each carrying a large number of warp threads2 the ,jacquard controls every thread separately4 ,the greatly increased capacity of the latter machine is apparent4 ,thus a #aejj-;hook ,jacquard will do the work of thirty dobbies of fifty jacks each4 ,the hand-shuttle box mechanism of ,kay's time has developed into the machine operated as a sliding or revolving shuttle-box controlled by pattern devices1 which1 being added to a dobbie or ,jacquard equipped loom within the last twenty-five years1 presents the highest point of perfection attained in the textile art4 ,in such looms the warp threads1 arranged in any colors1 may be raised at will collectively or individually1 any one of ten or twelve different colored wefts may be introduced as desired1 and combinations may thus be formed to produce designs of the most complicated nature4 ,pile fabrics1 cut1 uncut1 and tufted1 represent a type quite distinct from those produced on the ordinary fancy loom just described1 and1 in the form of velvets1 imitation animal skins1 and ,brussels carpet1 were almost unknown prior to the invention of ,samuel ,bigelow of ,boston1 in #ahcg4 ,fabrics of this character1 if made at all1 were the products of tedious hand methods1 and on account of the consequent high price were the exclusive property of the very wealthy4 ,carpets with pile surface had been made by the ,persians and ,turks ages ago1 by tying pieces of woolen yarn around longitudinal or warp threads1 and binding the whole together by a weft at intervals2 and such tufts1 being carefully selected as to color1 were made to present rich designs1 but1 like all other hand-produced fabrics1 these were the property of the few4 ,the pile fabric loom of ,bigelow opened the way for an advance in the carpet industry which continues to the present time2 its ultimate effect being to place carpets within the reach of the humble cottager2 and floors which were strewn with brush1 or at best concealed by the home-made rag carpet1 now became covered by a soft and beautifully figured fabric4 ,this loom was a practical machine1 and at once commended itself to the manufacturer4 ,it consisted of the old power-loom provided with a ,jacquard1 already well understood1 to which was added an attachment to introduce wires at intervals as false weft1 and bind the warp around them by the usual weft threads4 ,the wires being withdrawn after a few shots had been woven1 left the warp loops standing1 and these loops being formed under the dictates of the ,jacquard1 any character of beautiful design could be produced4 ,velvets1 brocades1 even the fine imitation of sealskin1 are the simple products of this form of power-loom when the pile loops are cut4 ,greater cheapness in weaving cut pile fabrics has been secured by a slight modification in the ,bigelow loom1 so that two fabrics could be woven at one time4 ,this idea was introduced about #ahej1 and it contemplated weaving the two fabrics face to face1 keeping them separated by the usual pile wires of ,bigelow1 and passing the pile threads from one fabric to the other4 ,upon cutting the two cloths apart through the threads uniting them1 two cut pile or velvet fabrics resulted4 ,this loom required the service of two shuttles and double the number of warp-beams1 but it worked well1 and is to-day largely in use and well adapted to its purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,smith ,,and ,,skinner ,,loom ,,for ,,moquette ,,carpets4 ,the demand for tufted pile fabrics1 meaning those in which the pile is formed from tufts or yarns1 individually tied to the foundation fabric1 and of which the rich ,turkish and ,persian rugs are examples1 had not been met by the ,bigelow loom2 in fact it was only about forty years ago that the mechanical production of such fabrics became possible4 ,smith and ,skinner were the pioneers to enter this field1 and the first1 by the aid of machinery1 to compete with the cheap hand-labor of the orientals4 ,the invention of a machine that will select any desired color from a large number of yarns1 carry it between the warp-threads at the exact spot necessary to form the figure1 tie it around these threads1 cut it off to the length necessary to form an even and smooth surface1 return the unused portion to place1 and do all quickly1 accurately1 and with little cost1 is an achievement that may rightly claim the admiration of the industrial world4 ,yet this is what the machine inaugurated by ,smith and ,skinner does to-day4 ,the general movements and complicated parts of the power-loom are present as for weaving a plain fabric1 and on beams or large spools carried by a chain1 under the control of a pattern1 are arranged the tuft yarns1 in the order in which they should appear in the figure4 ,through the pattern devices the proper spool or beam is brought into position to be seized by a pair of fingers which rise1 take the spool from the chain1 lower it to the warp1 pass the ends of the tuft yarn through and around the proper warp thread1 hold them till the insertion of a binding weft1 then1 when they have been properly cut to length1 return the spool into its place in the chain4 ,this creation of mechanical genius takes rank with the wonders of the spinning mule and1 like that machine1 passes through its entire operation with the precision of an automaton4 ,by its aid close imitations of the oriental hand-made rugs are placed before the world at one quarter the former price1 and1 as a result1 the fine moquette and axminster carpets lend their beauty to nearly every home in the land4 ,the credit for improving the power-loom so as to adapt it for weaving fancy cassimeres and suitings1 belongs to ,william ,crompton1 a native of ,england1 who came to the ,united ,states in #ahcf1 and shortly thereafter1 in the ,middlesex ,mills at ,lowell1 ,mass41 constructed and operated the first fancy cassimere power-loom1 not only in this country1 but in the world4 ,prior to this the harness for all woolen and worsted power-looms was worked by cams1 and the cloth was woven plain2 but ,crompton's loom of #ahdj started a new era in the woolen industry1 rendering it possible to produce any fancy weave by an arrangement of pattern chain and large number of harnesses in connection with the change shuttle-boxes4 ,improvements followed1 by the substitution of the reverse shuttle-box motion in #ahed1 the perfection of the general loom structure in #aheg1 the addition of the upright lever harness motion in #ahfd1 and the centre-stop in #ahgi1 so that at the present time this machine is adapted to run at high speeds and weave at moderate cost the most complicated designs in woolen and worsted--such as shawls1 checks1 suitings1 and all forms of fancy cassimeres4 ,the general industrial activity in all matters pertaining to textile manufacture between the years #ahce and #ahfj1 brought forth many forms of looms of special adaptation to meet the increasing demands of society4 ,the narrow-ware loom appeared in the third decade of this century1 and the addition of the dobbie1 or ,jacquard1 later1 equipped this loom for the simultaneous production of several ribbons1 or narrow fabrics1 side by side1 having plain or figured effect4 ,the lay was divided into several reed spaces1 and a corresponding number of shuttles1 operated by rack and pinion1 carried the weft-threads through the adjacent warp4 ,about the middle of this century1 and until the adoption of the more rich and delicate fabrics1 hair-cloth was the accepted covering for furniture1 and power-looms for its production quickly answered the demand4 ,they reached such a degree of perfection and efficiency in this country that almost the entire industry was centred here4 ,this fabric was made from the hair of horses' tails as weft1 and a strong cotton warp2 and as the weft could not be wound upon bobbins1 as usual1 each separate hair was inserted by an ingenious device made to reciprocate through the shed1 and select one out of a bundle of hairs cut to the same length4 ,the conception of a power device capable of the delicate operation necessary to weave hair-cloth1 could never have been realized except in a highly intelligent manufacturing community2 but in #ahgj1 ,rhode ,island alone produced on such machines over #fjj1jjj yards1 consuming thereby the hair of about eight hundred thousand horse-tails4 ,illustration3 ,,circular ,,loom4 ,the evolution of the lappet loom started between #ahdj and #ahej in ,england and ,germany4 ,it sought to enhance the pleasing effect of plain fabrics1 by placing an embroidered or raised figure over the surface during the weaving process4 ,near the lower edge of ladies' skirts1 on the ends of neckties and like articles1 an embroidered effect was desirable2 and this has been secured by the lappet attachment to the present power-loom4 ,in this a needle is mounted in appropriate location1 usually back of the lay1 and through an eye in the end thereof the lappet thread is led from a suitable supply4 ,this needle is normally either above or below the warp4 ,when a spot or figure is wanted1 it is caused to move into the plane of the opposite warps of the shed1 under the direction of suitable controlling pattern mechanisms4 ,the shuttle being then shot1 the lappet thread appears upon the surface1 and it may be made to thus appear as often as desired2 its position being shifted as necessary under the guidance of a pattern-chain to form1 in embroidery effect1 any character of small design4 ,closely allied to the lappet loom in the effect produced is the swivel-shuttle loom1 which has come extensively into use during the last thirty years to supply demands for spotted or embroidered figures4 ,the loom is of the plain type1 having small swivel-shuttles movable in carrier blocks1 which are secured to the supporting bar near the top of the lay-reed1 in convenient location to permit the shuttles to be depressed into the shed4 ,each swivel-shuttle is provided with a rack engaging a suitable operating pinion to move the shuttles simultaneously from one carrier to the next4 ,normally these shuttles are held above the warp plane1 and the loom in this condition weaves tabby or twill4 ,at the desired moment1 the supporting-bar is lowered by a cam or ,jacquard to bring the shuttles in the shed2 the shuttles are moved from one carrier to the next adjacent1 and then all are raised to their normal position above the warp4 ,the ground weft is laid and the beat-up takes place4 ,repetition develops a spot or figure at intervals across the entire fabric1 and with the use of different colored swivel-threads the greatest diversity of embroidered effect is secured over the entire ground4 ,some of the most beautiful spotted silks for ladies' dresses and fancy scarfs1 never before contemplated1 are now woven on this loom at prices that are very moderate for such a class of goods4 ,a radical departure from the paths traveled by prior inventors was inaugurated about #ahei1 in adapting the power-loom for weaving tubular fabrics1 resulting twenty years later in perfecting a machine in which the warp threads were arranged in circular series and the weft laid in the circular shed by a continuously moving shuttle4 ,fire-hose and like tubular cloths resulted4 ,rapid development continued from the middle of the present century1 so that nearly every conceivable form of loom1 from the light running plain fabric and gingham looms to the heavy structures for weaving canvas and wire cloth1 claimed the attention of the inventor2 and in this last decade of the century looms are constructed to weave anything that can be woven4 ,wire1 slats1 cane1 straw1 and glass1 as well as the light fibres of cotton1 wool1 or silk1 are now easily manipulated on the power-loom and woven into cloths1 mattings1 baskets1 cane-seats for furniture1 bottle-covers1 and ever so many irregular forms that1 in the dormant condition of this industry prior to the nineteenth century1 were quite beyond consideration of the most active enthusiast of the art4 ,wonderful as these achievements have been1 the restless ambition of inventive genius remains unsatisfied4 ,improvements continue--especially in the ,united ,states1 under the fostering care of a liberal patent system--and attempts are now being made1 and with success1 to form the power-loom into a thoroughly automatic machine incapable of producing any but the best quality of cloth4 ,upon the breakage or undue slackening of a warp thread1 the loom would continue to weave and produce imperfect fabric until the attendant had pieced the broken end or adjusted the slack thread4 ,means were devised some years ago to remedy this defect1 but with only partial success until near the close of this century4 ,breakage or failure more often occurred in the weft1 however1 and though the weft stop-motion successfully detected the fault and stopped the loom1 yet much valuable time was lost1 and constant attention was needed to supply new filling4 ,progressive tendencies of the closing years of this decade have sought to meet this difficulty4 ,as a result1 means are now provided whereby1 on failure or breakage of the weft1 the loom discharges its imperfect filling from the shuttle1 supplies itself with a new weft from the hopper1 places it in the shuttle1 and continues to weave4 ,such a loom provided with a warp stop-motion is almost incapable of producing imperfect cloth1 and so long as the warps remain intact and the hopper is kept supplied with weft-bobbins1 it will continue to weave4 ,in fact1 in many mills of the ,new ,england ,states these looms are now left to run during the dinner hour without an attendant1 and no imperfect cloth is produced4 ,such machines are almost independent of human attention1 yet they are the evolution of the old-time hand loom4 ,just one hundred years ago the hand loom1 running at #dj or #ej picks to the minute1 required the watchful care of an expert weaver2 in #ahdj1 the same weaver could 8tend0 from two to four power-looms running #ajj to #abj picks2 to-day he oversees from #aj to #af looms running from #aej to #bjj picks4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,knitting ,,machine4 ,,lee4 ,the homespun1 with its old familiar butternut dye1 has disappeared4 ,the spinning-wheel and loom no longer occupy a part of every home4 ,in their stead1 the farmer1 as he looks beyond the thriving cornfields1 beholds the reeking chimneys of a thousand mills as they proclaim the majesty of the power machines4 ,the fabrics produced are beautiful and varied in design1 and their cost so low as to excite wonder that such progress could have been the result of one hundred years of industrial activity4 ,the emancipation of knitting1 as a domestic occupation1 dates from the romantic experiences of ,william ,lee1 a subject of ,queen ,elizabeth1 of whom it is related that while watching the deft fingers of his lady-love guide the knitting needle from loop to loop1 conceived the idea of performing the operation by mechanical means4 ,it is a singular coincidence also that the invention of this the first machine for knitting purposes1 like that of the power-loom for weaving1 should have emanated from the hands of a student and clergyman1 unfamiliar with the art4 ,lee's device was naturally crude4 ,it contained only twelve needles1 arranged in a row with about seven or eight to the inch1 but it successfully formed a knitted web4 ,further progress in the art was slow1 on account of the strong opposition to all machines which seemed likely to deprive the hand artisan of occupation4 ,the ,queen refused to grant a patent to ,lee for this reason1 and knitting remained the exclusive prerogative of women for many years4 ,like the spinning-wheel1 however1 the hand knitting-needle beheld a rival1 which in the diversity of human wants was destined to create one of the great industrial pursuits of the age4 ,stockings1 like all other garments1 were first made by sewing together pieces of linen1 silk1 cotton1 or woolen cloth1 resulting in a poorly fitting article1 prolific of uncomfortable seams4 ,knitting the entire hose in a single piece by hand needles overcame these defects to an extent1 and the ,lee machine opened the way for the production of such articles on a scale that now furnishes the civilized world4 ,lee's machine produced a straight web which required to be cut and sewn to shape2 then to it was added the ribbing device and the narrowing and widening attachment1 to shape the web to fit the body without cutting2 but still a seam existed in the stocking where the edges united4 ,in #ahaf1 however1 ,m4 ,i4 ,brunel built a circular machine having an endless row of needles1 and in #ahca1 ,timothy ,bailey1 of ,new ,york1 applied power to the knitting frame2 the result being that at this time a tubular seamless fabric could be produced on a power machine4 ,the latch-needle1 which has given to the knitting machine great capacity and diversity of product1 was not invented until about #ahdg1 by ,mr4 ,aiken1 of ,new ,hampshire4 ,a period of development then set in that continues to the present time4 ,the needles by cam mechanism were made independently operative in a circular carrier2 narrowing and widening devices to produce pouches1 such as the heels and toes of stockings1 were added1 as was also feeding mechanism for the introduction of different colored yarn1 or a reinforcing thread4 ,such machines1 of #ahfh and #ahgj1 would form a stocking or undergarment well fitted to the form2 but they required the constant attention of a skilled knitter1 until pattern mechanism was introduced to control the time of introduction of the colored or additional thread1 and the place for formation of the narrowed or widened web4 ,in forming the heel and toe pockets1 a part of the needles are thrown out of action1 and the movements to operate the active needles are changed from round and round1 or circular work1 to reciprocating4 ,at each reciprocation one or more needles1 at the end of the series1 are rendered inactive1 until one half the required pocket is formed2 then they are successively returned to action1 and circular knitting resumed4 ,it may be also an additional thread is introduced to reinforce the wearing qualities of the heel and toe1 or a differently colored yarn may be thrown in to give figure1 but all such movements are now automatically controlled by a pattern mechanism4 ,the ribbed leg portion of a stocking is formed either in the same machine that fashions the foot or in a separate machine to which the foot is transferred1 but in either case the pattern mechanism again controls4 ,illustration3 ,,knitting ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,way4 ,within the last twenty years this art has been so greatly improved1 especially in the hosiery line1 that the automatic machine of to-day passes through the entire operation of knitting the article1 finishing it off1 and starting afresh without other aid than a supply of yarn4 ,moreover1 the machine now to be considered practical must be so constructed that it will continue thus to operate without repairs or loss of time from month to month2 and its daily output will average more than the old hand machines could accomplish in a week4 ,by hand knitting one hundred loops could be formed per minute2 by ,lee's machine as many as fifteen hundred were possible in the same time2 but to-day1 the automatic machine will average between #cjj1jjj and #djj1jjj loops1 and at the same time will produce a finer web1 shaped to fit the form of the wearer4 ,such comparisons reveal the vitally important progress made in the knitting industry1 through which most of our underwear1 stockings1 scarfs1 neck-comforts1 and woolen gloves are supplied4 ,the labor and time saving devices developed in this class of machines1 and the fact that unskilled workmen may 8tend0 from fifteen to twenty of them1 largely accounts for the universal adoption of warm and comfortable wearing apparel by all classes of society4 ,the number of patents granted on textile machinery during the nineteenth century furnishes an index to the progress made4 ,prior to #ahjj1 less than one hundred patents were granted in the ,united ,states1 while since that time1 and up until ,july1 #ahie1 about #ae1bjj patents were issued1 covering tangible and material improvements over the old structures4 ,the beneficent effects of these inventions are attested by the wonderful and continuous reduction in cost to the consumer of all kinds of textile fabrics4 ,for the manufacturer1 these have made possible increased production in a given time with less manual labor4 ,when it is remembered that the labor cost is about one half the total cost of production of textile fabrics1 it will be apparent that the beneficial effects of any labor-saving device are felt as well by the consumer as the producer4 ,in #ahgj the number of textile establishments in the ,united ,states was #cjce1 giving occupation to #adf1hig employees1 and consuming annually #cei1dbj1hbi pounds of textile fibres1 while in #ahij the number of establishments had increased to #daad1 employing #eaa1hig hands1 and consuming the enormous amount of #a1egb1edh1icc pounds of fibres2 representing progress and growth in the textile arts not excelled by any other manufacturing industry4 ,food and clothing constitute the primary wants of man4 ,the former grew ready for his use as a natural product of the soil4 ,the latter he had to produce by artificial means to afford that protection which nature failed to provide4 ,next to agriculture1 therefore1 man's early attention was directed to securing a covering for the body4 ,looking back through the vista of years dimmed by the mists of very remoteness1 we find the animal and vegetable kingdoms destined to contribute to his needs4 ,there were the blue flax-fields2 cotton-bolls1 scattered like powdered snow about the land1 coquetting in wanton abandon with winds tempered by an all-wise ,power to the shepherd-watched sheep2 goats roaming the vale of ,cashmere2 silk-worms of ,ceres1 and the grasses of spring1 overflowing with allurements of assistance for his adornment4 ,with these essentials has man wrought a mighty miracle4 ,the genius of ,industrial ,art1 awakened by the fascinating influence of ,nature1 invoked the ,goddess of ,invention1 approaching her temple not with loud acclaim1 as marked the herculean strides in other arts and sciences1 but modestly1 though tenaciously and most effectually4 ,for not more is woman emancipated by the sewing machine than both sexes by the doing away of the spinning-wheel1 the household knitter1 and hand-worked loom4 ,not more do electricity and steam power facilitate the various occupations of man than do the many textured fabrics add to his needs4 ,illustration3 ,,knitting ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,way4 ,in all the phases of social life is this industry manifest4 ,if the banquet hall is warmed and lighted by electricity1 so1 also1 is it adorned with tapestries1 silken and artistic1 napery surpassingly smooth1 and laces intricately wrought4 ,how like a fairy tale reads the evolution of textile progress6 ,conceptions1 infinite in range and variety1 alike pleasing to the eye and gratifying to vanity1 have been spun1 woven1 knit1 and embroidered1 until1 standing as we do at the dawn of another century1 upon the summit of unparalleled achievements1 we ask1 8,can the mind conceive1 the heart desire1 or the hand execute more40 ,,the ,,century',s ,,religious ,,progress ,,by ,,george ,,edward ,,reed1 ,s4,t4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,president ,dickinson ,college1 ,carlisle1 ,pa4 ,the closing years of the nineteenth century1 both in ,europe and the ,united ,states1 are characterized by a religious life as phenomenal with respect to development and influence as those of the eighteenth were phenomenal for lethargy and decline4 8,never10 says a writer in the ,north ,british ,review1 8has a century risen on ,england so void of soul and faith as that which opened with ,anne 7#agjb71 and reached its misty noon beneath the second ,george 7#agcb-agfj71--;a dewless night succeeded by a sunless dawn4 ,the ,puritans were buried and the ,methodists were not born40 ,in this opinion1 all historians and essayists concur4 ,among the clergy were many whose lives were of the ,dominie ,sampson order1 described in ,scott's 8,guy ,mannering0--men whose lives were the scandal and reproach of the church2 who openly taught that reason is the all-sufficient guide2 that the ,scriptures are to be received only as they agree with the light of nature2 pleading for liberty while running into the wildest licentiousness4 ,montesquieu1 indeed1 did not hesitate to charge ,englishmen generally with being devoid of every genuine religious sentiment4 8,if10 he says1 8the subject of religion is mentioned in society1 it excites nothing but laughter4 ,not more than four or five members of the ,house of ,commons are regular attendants at church40 ,from the colleges and universities1 the great doctrines of the ,reformation were well-nigh banished1 a refined system of ethics1 having no connection with ,christian motives1 being substituted for the principles of a divinely revealed law4 ,on every side faith seemed to be dying out2 indeed1 would have died out but for the tremendous reformation in life and morals induced by the self-denying and heroic labors of the ,wesleys and their coadjutors1 to whom1 more than to any beside1 ,england owes her salvation from a relapse into barbarism1--a service which in later years won for the ,wesleys a memorial in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,on the ,continent1 religious conditions were no better4 ,in ,france the masses were yet reeling amid the excesses of the ,revolution4 ,voltaire and ,rousseau were the oracles and prophets of their times1--the popular idols of the hour4 ,voltaire1 indeed1 openly boasted that he alone would laugh ,christianity out of the court of public opinion1 declaring the whole system to be outgrown and powerless4 ,germany1 given over to theological speculation1 crushed beneath the weight of the ,napoleonic wars1 and torn by internal dissensions1 gave but little hope that upon her altars the dying fire of the great ,reformation would ever again flame forth as in the older and more heroic days4 ,in the ,united ,states1 similar conditions prevailed1 especially during the last decade of the eighteenth century and the first of the nineteenth4 ,forms of infidelity the most radical and revolting prevailed throughout the land4 ,many of the leading statesmen1 in private at least1 did not scruple to confess themselves atheists or deists4 ,thomas ,paine was the popular idol2 his 8,age of ,reason0 almost as common as the ,bible itself4 ,the majority of the men taking part with him in the founding of the government1 with but few exceptions1 held theological sentiments akin to his1 although declining to participate in his violent and brutal assaults upon the ,scriptures and the institutions of ,christian society4 ,illustration3 ,,birmingham ,,meeting-,,house 7,,ancient74 ,speaking of the earlier days of the century1 ,chancellor ,kent1 in one of his published works1 declared that in his younger days the men of his acquaintance in professional life who did not avow infidelity were comparatively few4 ,bishop ,meade1 of ,virginia1 in his autobiography1 states that 8scarcely a young man of culture could be found who believed in ,christianity40 ,the colleges and universities were so filled with youthful skeptics that when1 in #agie1 ,timothy ,dwight assumed the presidency of ,yale1 he found but four or five willing to admit that they were members of churches4 ,so far did they go in their devotion to the ,french infidelity prevalent at the time1 that the seniors of the college were commonly known among themselves by the names of ,diderot1 ,d',alembert1 ,robespierre1 ,rousseau1 ,danton1 and the like4 ,harvard1 ,princeton1 ,william and ,mary1 the ,university of ,virginia1--all the colleges indeed1--were as thoroughly hotbeds of skepticism as nurseries of learning4 ,the period1 too1 was one of internecine strife among the feeble churches themselves4 ,divisions on doctrinal lines were incessant2 departures from the faith as numerous as they were disastrous4 ,of the missionary spirit so gloriously characteristic of the nineteenth century there was not even a trace4 ,up to #agic1 not a missionary society was in existence on either side of the ocean4 ,the same was true of hospitals1 asylums1 of every form of organized effort for the reclamation of the masses or the amelioration of human ill4 ,in ,boston1 as late as #ahaa1 men of literary or political distinction1 eager to listen to the marvelous revival preaching of the celebrated ,dr4 ,griffin1 attended his services surreptitiously1 or in disguise1 fearful lest knowledge of attendance upon religious services of such vulgar character should detract from the dignity of their social standing4 ,if1 however1 the times were bad1 the outlook for ,christianity dark1 the period1 nevertheless1 was not wholly without gleams of light4 ,the spiritual leaven imparted by ,whitefield in his mighty preaching tours1 by ,edwards1 ,dwight1 ,asbury1 ,griffin1 and others of equally heroic stamp1 gradually began to work1--slowly at first1 but with ever accelerating movement1--until at last the triumphant successes of the present century began their stately march4 ,by degrees a new life appeared among the churches1 heralding the dawn of a new and brighter day4 ,revivals of religion1 many of them powerful and sweeping1 broke out in many parts of the country4 ,massachusetts1 ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 the ,carolinas1 ,georgia1 were in succession the theatres of movements which1 before they had spent their force1 had completely revolutionized the conditions of unfaith1 immorality1 and spiritual apathy so long prevailing4 ,these upheavals of spiritual power1 continuing during the first twenty-five years of the century1 laid broad and deep the foundations of the mighty achievements of the church which we are now to consider4 ,how extensive1 how wonderful1 have been these achievements can perhaps best be understood by a consideration of the changed conditions marking the close of the century4 ,in the first place1 that the people of the ,united ,states are a religious people may be inferred from the amazing number and variety of religions abounding and flourishing within our borders4 ,it may be doubted that in any other ,christian country of the earth there can be found so many varieties of religion1 so many church organizations1 so many and diverse peculiarities of doctrine1 polity1 and usage1 as here4 ,it is a land of churches2 churches for whites1 churches for blacks2 churches large and churches small2 churches orthodox and churches heterodox2 churches ,christian and churches pagan2 churches ,catholic and churches ,protestant2 churches liberal and churches conservative1 ,calvinistic and ,armenian1 ,unitarian and ,trinitarian2 representing nearly every phase of ecclesiastical and theological thought4 ,as ,americans have distanced the world in the extent and variety of their material inventions1 so have they distanced the world in the extent and variety of their theological and ecclesiastical forms4 ,the state cannot control the church1 and the church is as free as the state4 ,as a man may freely transfer his citizenship from one ,state to another1 to each in turn1 so may he1 if he shall so desire1 pass from one ecclesiastical communion to another1 until he shall have exhausted the list4 ,if1 perchance1 no one of the one hundred and forty-three distinct denominations enumerated in the census tables shall suit him1 there remain innumerable separate1 independent congregations1 no one of which lays claim to denominational name1 creed1 or connection1 in some one of which he yet may find an ecclesiastical home4 ,the principle of division1 indeed1 has been carried so far in ,america that it would be a difficult task to find the religious body so small as1 in the judgment of some1 to be incapable of further division4 ,illustration3 ,,cathedral ,,of ,,st4 ,,john ,,the ,,divine 7,,protestant ,,episcopal7 ,,under ,,process ,,of ,,erection ,,in ,,new ,,york4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that the differences of the one hundred and forty-three denominations into which our religious population is divided are1 in many instances1 so slight that1 should consolidation be attempted1 the one hundred and forty-three could easily be reduced to a comparatively small number1 and this with but little change in doctrine1 polity1 or usage4 ,consolidation into organic union1 however1 is hardly likely to occur in the near future1 even were such consolidation desirable4 ,in the first place such a result would be contrary to the genius of ,protestantism1 based1 as it is1 on the absolute right of private judgment with respect to matters of faith and morals1 and1 in the second place1 it would be contrary to human experience4 8,religious controversies10 as ,gladstone says1 8do not1 like bodily wounds1 heal by the genial forces of nature4 ,if they do not proceed to gangrene and mortification1 at least they tend to harden into fixed facts1 to incorporate themselves into laws1 character1 and tradition1 nay1 even into language2 so that at last they take rank among the data and presuppositions of common life1 and are thought as inexorable as the rocks of an iron-bound coast40 ,in religion1 when men separate1 the severance is like the severance of the two early friends of whom the poet speaks3-- 8,they parted1 ne'er to meet again1 ,but neither ever found another ,to free the hollow heart from paining4 ,they stood aloof1 the scars remaining1 ,like cliffs which have been rent asunder1 ,a dreary sea now rolls between40 ,illustration3 ,,father ,,damien1 ,,missionary ,,to ,,hawaiian ,,leper ,,colony4 ,if1 however1 the diversities are great--increasing rather than diminishing--the 8unity of the spirit in the bonds of peace0 with respect to all essentials of doctrine is as remarkable as the diversity in the outward form4 ,never1 indeed1 since the dawn of ,christianity1 were the members of the diversified bodies of the general church of ,christ in such thorough accord1 in such closeness of attachment1 with such generous recognition of all that is good in each of the several bodies1 as now4 ,even the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 intolerant in all lands where its sway is practically undisputed1 in the ,united ,states1 at least1 has caught something of the broader toleration of ,protestants1 giving to its millions of communicants a better and truer gospel than in those countries where it does not come into contact with ,protestantism1 while freely coperating with other churches in various works of philanthropy and reform4 ,in the next place1 that we are a religious1 a ,christian people may be argued from the steady and enormous increase during the century of the material and spiritual forces of the church of ,christ1 an increase phenomenal even amid the wonders of a phenomenal century4 ,whether we look at the increase of edifices or the multiplication of communicants1 the results in either case are sufficient for both congratulation and amazement4 ,were it possible to obtain from the earlier records exact statistics of the actual number of edifices and communicants existing at the opening of the century1 comparison would be comparatively easy4 ,such1 however1 is not the case1 the records having been imperfectly kept and indifferently preserved4 ,the census of #ahij1 indeed1 was the first to furnish exhaustive and really reliable results4 ,taking that census as a basis1 and adding to its figures those to be obtained from the year books of the various bodies up to and including #ahid1 the religious strength of the ,united ,states may be summarized as follows3 ,churches1 #ahi1dhh2 religious organizations1 #aeh1fie2 ordained ministers1 #aad1hbc2 members or communicants1 #ae1bag1idh2 value of church property1 #fgj1jjj1jjj2 seating capacity of churches1 #dc1jjj1jjj1 while in the #bc1jjj places where organizations which own no edifices hold their services1 accommodations could be found for #b1bej1jjj more4 ,in the majority of the ,protestant churches1 at least two services are held on each ,sabbath2 in the ,catholic1 six or seven4 ,granting these premises1 it is but reasonable to say that if1 on any given day1 the entire population of the country should desire to attend at least one religious service1 accommodations could readily be found for the entire number1--ample proof that the spiritual interests of the millions are by no means neglected so far as privileges of worship are concerned4 ,it is a showing all the more remarkable when we consider that all this vast provision is furnished on the basis of voluntary offerings1 the state contributing not a dollar for religious purposes4 ,it is probable that in these churches and edifices1 on ,sabbaths and on weekdays1 not less than #ae1jjj1jjj services are held each year1 to say nothing of sessions of ,sunday-schools1 meetings of ,young ,people's ,associations1 and gatherings of kindred character4 ,in them1 too1 not less than ten millions of sermons and addresses on religious themes are annually delivered4 ,the number of enrolled communicants1 or members1 however1 by no means expresses the real strength of the religious life of the nation4 ,to get at that1 we must multiply each ,protestant communicant by the #b4e adherents allowed in all statistical calculations4 ,proceeding on this basis1 omitting for the time all ,catholics1 ,jews1 ,theosophists1 members of ,societies for ,ethical ,culture1 ,spiritualists1 ,latter-,day ,saints1 and kindred bodies1 and multiplying the #ae1bjj1jjj ,protestant members by #b4e1 we have over #ej1jjj1jjj as the total ,protestant population of the country4 ,adding to these #ej1jjj1jjj the ,catholic population1 estimated by ,catholic authorities as being #ae per cent4 larger than the number of ,catholic communicants1 we have #eg1jfb1jjj as the total ,christian population1 leaving only about #g1jjj1jjj who are neither communicants nor adherents4 ,of the #g1jjj1jjj opposed1 for various reasons1 to the churches1 comparatively few are to be reckoned as either infidels or atheists2 while1 on the other hand1 it is true that of the #eg1jjj1jjj reckoned as either communicants or adherents1 millions are ,christians only in name1 either never attending the services of the churches1 or at the best only at rare intervals4 ,gratifying as is this splendid exhibit of religious devotion on the part of the ,american people1 the fact that there are millions in our land whose allegiance to ,christian doctrine is but nominal1 with millions more upon whose lives religion exercises no appreciable influence whatever1 is a sufficient proof of the enormous task yet confronting the churches of ,christ1 if we are to stand before the nations as the great distinctive ,christian nation of the world4 ,the stupendous gain1 however1 in ninety-four years1 of over #ad1hec1jgf in ,protestant churches alone is a record of religious progress unparalleled in the history of the world4 ,illustration3 ,,salisbury ,,cathedral1 ,,england4 7,,west ,,front47 ,advancing to the question of distribution of the religious forces enumerated1 we find that while these forces are distributed throughout every ,state and under one hundred and forty-three denominational names1 they are1 nevertheless1 massed largely in a few denominations and in a comparatively few ,states4 ,competent authorities estimate that the five largest denominations comprise fully #fj per cent4 of the entire number of communicants2 the ten largest1 #ge per cent4 ,with respect to communicants1 the ,catholic ,church is first1 with #g1eaj1jjj2 the ,methodist 7all bodies7 second1 with #e1dje1jgf2 the ,baptist third1 with #c1gag1cgc2 the ,presbyterian fourth1 with #a1bgh1ccb2 the ,lutheran fifth1 with #a1bcc1jgb4 ,illustration3 ,,young ,,men',s ,,christian ,,association ,,building1 ,,philadelphia4 ,with respect to population1 reckoning the ,catholic population at #g1eaj1jjj--which figures include children under ten years of age--and adding to the communicant strength of the four other bodies mentioned the #b4e adherents allowed for each communicant1 we have the following3 ,methodist population1 #ah1iah1dff2 ,baptist1 #ab1iij1hje2 ,presbyterian1 #e1ebe1afb2 ,lutheran1 #d1ceh1geb2 total ,protestant population1 #ej1jjj1jjj2 ,catholic1 #g1eaj1jjj4 ,with respect to value of church property1 the ,methodists are first with #acb1jjj1jjj2 the ,catholics second1 #aah1jjj1jjj2 the ,presbyterians third1 with #ie1jjj1jjj2 the ,episcopalians fourth1 with #hb1hce1jjj2 the ,baptists fifth1 with #hb1cij1jjj4 ,the total value of church property1 reckoning all denominations1 reaches the enormous sum of #fgj1jjj1jjj4 ,to further particularize with respect to the lesser groups into which the religious forces are divided is impossible within the limits allowed for this chapter4 ,to do it would require a volume instead of a chapter4 ,the following summary1 however1 may suffice to show the gain of a century of religious effort3-- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,year4 ,ministers4 ,organizations4 ,communicants or ,members4 ---------------------------------------- --------- #ahjj #b1fea #c1jcj #cfd1hgb #ahej #be1eee #dc1jgb #c1ebi1ihh #ahgj #dg1fji #gj1adh #f1fgc1cif #ahhj #fi1hgj #ig1jij #aj1jfe1ifc #ahij #ih1ahe #aea1agb #ac1hbc1eah #ahid #aad1hbc #aeh1fie #ae1bag1idh ---------------------------------------- --------- ,when one remembers that one hundred years ago it was a common boast of infidels that 8,christianity would not survive two generations in this country10 the above exhibit shows a religious progress unequaled in the history of the kingdom of ,god in any land or any age4 ,turning to the field of missionary effort1 we find that the spread of the ,christian religion by missionary efforts1 particularly during the last one hundred years1 forms one of the brightest chapters in the records of human progress4 ,within this period1 the triumphs of the first three centuries have been far more than repeated4 ,following these early victories of the ,christian faith came on1 as all know1 ages of darkness1 dreary centuries1 during the progress of which the power of the church gradually waned1 and1 with respect to purely spiritual activities1 seemed to die away4 ,the voice of exhortation ceased to be heard4 ,christian song was hushed4 ,even prayer closed its supplicating lips1 and the church1 overladen with corruption1 worldliness1 and human ambition1 passed into the thick darkness of the long and disastrous eclipse of the ,middle ,ages4 ,but amid the widespread darkness enveloping the world1 even the ages known as the 8,dark ,ages0 were not without their gleams of light4 ,among the ,saracens and in the lands of the ,orient1 always were to be found heroic men and women toiling ceaselessly for the conversion of heathen nations to the ,christ4 ,later on1 subsequent to the thirteenth century1 and especially during the centuries immediately following the discovery of the ,new ,world1 the desire for the ,christianizing of the world flamed into an all-absorbing passion4 ,the tremendous labors of ,xavier1 of ,loyola1 and their followers1 in every quarter of the globe1 have long been the wonder and admiration of the world4 ,checked in ,europe by the rise of the great ,protestant ,reformation1 the ,catholic ,church turned its energies to the acquisition of spiritual power in other lands1 and with enormous success4 ,along the banks of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 amid the wilds of ,canadian forests1 far away on the shores of the ,great ,lakes1 thence southward to the ,ohio1 along the ,mississippi1 even to the ,gulf2 in far ,cathay1 in ,ceylon1 in ,japan1 in ,china1 in ,africa1--everywhere its missionaries could be found1 heedless of hunger1 of cold1 of peril1 reckless even of life1 if by any means1 whether by life or by death1 they might 8sprinkle many nations0 and establish the holy emblem of the ,christian faith4 ,illustration3 ,,baptist ,,mission ,,school1 ,,japan4 ,absorbed in the struggles going on in their own lands1 ,protestants made but little effort for the extension of the gospel in foreign fields1 save the few but successful attempts made by the ,moravians of ,germany1 always the most zealous of all ,protestant bodies in lines of missionary service4 ,what1 however1 was lacking in the way of missionary effort in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been more than made good in the glorious nineteenth1 the distinctive missionary century of the ,christian era4 ,in the room of seven societies organized for world-wide gospel evangelization at the end of the last century1 there are now in ,europe and ,america between seventy and eighty organizations1 employing a force of nearly three thousand ,american and ,european missionaries1 and perhaps four times that number of native assistants4 ,full #aj1jjj1jjj are annually raised among the ,protestant bodies alone for missionary service1 while the great ,roman ,catholic ,church prosecutes its work with a zeal equally unflagging4 ,a brief survey of the progress of a hundred years of missionary effort will make it clear to all minds that the day is not far distant when the declaration of the prophet1 8,the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the ,lord1 even as the waters cover the sea10 shall have abundant and magnificent realization4 ,at the beginning of this century1 every island of the vast ,pacific was closed against the gospel4 ,to-day1 nearly every one is under the influence1 more or less extended1 of ,christian civilization4 ,india1 from ,cape ,comorin to the ,punjaub1 from the ,punjaub to the ,himalayas1 from the ,himalayas to ,thibet1--at whose gates the gospel is now knocking1--has been covered with a network of mission stations1 schools1 colleges1 and churches1 closer by far in its interlacings than that which at the close of the third century had spread itself over the vast empire of the ,csars4 ,of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,borneo1 the ,celebes1 ,new ,guinea1 not to mention smaller groups of islands1 are feeling the new life ever imparted by the advent of the ,cross4 ,japan1 too1 hungry for reform1 and full of the stir of the age1 by granting entrance to the gospel1 has within its borders already a numerous ,christian population with scores of evangelical congregations4 ,the same is true of the hermit nation1 ,corea4 ,in the lands of ,islam1 from ,bagdad to the ,balkans1 from ,egypt to ,persia1 and throughout all ,turkey1 are to be found centres of missionary enterprise1 the vast influence of which is now being sensibly felt in the changing life of those remarkable peoples4 ,in ,burmah1 and recently in ,siam1 after years of patient and apparently hopeless service1 fields are everywhere 8white unto the harvest40 ,china1 most populous of all heathen lands1 is open to missionary effort from ,canton to ,peking1 from ,shanghai to ,hon-,chow4 ,africa also1 once1 in its northern sections at least1 the home of the learning1 the art1 the science1 the religion of the world1 awakening from the sleep of long and dreary centuries under the influence of ,christian civilization1 again demands the attention of the great nations of the world4 ,everywhere1 east1 west1 north1 south1 it is being invaded all along the line of ,cecil ,rhodes' great railway1 stretching northward from ,cape ,town for three thousand miles1 to meet the twenty-six hundred pushing down from the north1--from ,senegal to ,gaboon and from ,gaboon to the ,congo2 on the shores of ,tanganyika and along the banks of the ,zambesi shine the lights of the gospel1 which1 wherever it has gone1 has been the harbinger of a new and brighter day4 ,within the mighty domains of our own continent1 upon the immense plains reaching from ,labrador to the ,pacific1 upon the sterile coasts of ,alaska1 in the land of the ,montezumas1 in ,central ,america1 in ,south ,america1 from ,panama to ,terra-del-,fuego1 equally marvelous have been the steady gains resulting from a ,christianity the forces of which1 like the waters that enrich the continent1 penetrate all the bays and estuaries of human society and influence all classes and conditions of men4 ,looking upon the transformations effected by the labors of a single century of ,christian effort1 one may surely say1 8,the peoples that walked in darkness have seen a great light2 they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death1 upon them hath the light shined40 ,equally wonderful have been the vast contributions of the church in ,america to the great causes of education1 philanthropy1 and reform1 particularly in the line of educational work4 ,the service of the church in the great cause of education has never yet been fully recognized4 ,men forget1 when charging the church with hostility to human progress1 to freedom of thought and action1 that until within a period of seventy years nearly everything accomplished for popular education was carried out under the auspices of the churches rather than under the direction of the state4 ,until #ahbe1 the state had done next to nothing even in the development of its common schools4 ,in the great ,state of ,pennsylvania1 the system had no existence until the year #ahce4 ,even to-day1 among the four hundred and fifty institutions of higher education in the various ,states1 nearly all owe their foundation to the energy and sacrifice of ,christian men and women4 ,the total gifts of the churches to the cause of education1 still existent in plant1 in grounds and buildings1 or in the form of endowment funds1 reach the enormous aggregate of nearly #cej1jjj1jjj1 while the total of gifts to institutions of learning1 largely from ,christian sources1 aggregate nearly #aj1jjj1jjj per year4 ,illustration3 ,,methodist ,,episcopal ,,hospital1 ,,philadelphia4 ,the religious activity of the century is further manifested in the enormous sums raised and expended for purposes of charity1 reform1 and general philanthropy4 ,it would require an octavo volume of four hundred pages to catalogue the various benevolent and charitable organizations in the city of ,new ,york alone4 ,add to that volume the hundreds more which would be required to enumerate the additional thousands to be found in ,philadelphia1 ,chicago1 ,boston1--in fact in every city1 town1 and hamlet from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 nine tenths of which are distinctively ,christian1--and you have a faint idea1 at least1 of the vastness of the spiritual forces at work in these closing years of the century for the amelioration of human ill1 the dispelling of moral and spiritual darkness1 and the ushering in of the era of peace and good will1 for the coming of which the church has so ceaselessly prayed4 ,what these philanthropies are we cannot in detail enumerate4 ,classified1 they are for the poor1 for the laboring classes1 for the sick1 for fallen women1 for free schools1 for the aged1 for the blind1 the deaf1 the insane1 the impotent1 the degraded1 the outcast1 for sailors1 for the protection of animals1 for city evangelization1 for home missions1 for foreign missions1 for religious publications1 for the publishing of the ,holy ,scriptures1 for peace1 for ,young ,men's ,associations1 ,young ,women's ,associations1 for every cause that appeals to the sentiment of brotherhood so characteristic of the age4 ,in number they are legion4 ,in origin1 three fourths are the outgrowth of that spirit of ,christian love without which they could not have been originated1 and by which they are maintained and perpetuated4 ,those who assert that within this century ,christianity has done more for humanity than in all the centuries preceding are doubtless correct4 ,it has made men kind1 made them humane4 ,it has penetrated prisons1 and with beneficent change4 ,it has lifted the prisoner from damp and dreary dungeons into commodious structures1 the pride of city and ,state4 ,so far1 indeed1 have the reforms inspired by the gospel been carried1 that men are beginning to inquire whether the limit has not been reached beyond which it may be dangerous to go4 ,such are the general facts of the religious progress of a century in the ,united ,states4 ,reviewing them1 we can easily discern the vast and commanding influence of religion--the ,christian religion--upon the character and fortunes of our people4 ,among the forces working for the upbuilding of the ,republic1 religion stands preminent1 the most powerful1 the most pervasive1 the most irresistible of them all4 ,a free church in a free state1 all its edifices have been built by private contribution1 all its magnificent benefactions sustained by voluntary offerings1 induced in every instance by the principle of ,christian love4 ,a corporation1 it holds its vast properties for the common good of all4 ,a relief society1 the scope of its sympathies is as wide as the wants of man4 ,a university1 it does more for the education of the masses than the public school system itself4 ,an employer of labor1 it utilizes the brains and energies of the most highly educated body of men to be found in the ,republic's broad domain4 ,an organized beneficence1 it outwatches ,argus with his hundred eyes1 outworks ,briareus with his hundred arms4 ,an asylum1 it gathers within its protecting arms the halt1 the maimed1 the wounded of life's great battle1 comforting them in trouble1 sustaining them in adversity1 while ceaselessly pointing them to ,him 8who taketh away the sins of the world40 8,every corner-stone it lays10 as one has said1 8it lays for humanity2 every temple it opens1 it opens for the world2 every altar it establishes1 it establishes for the salvation of men4 ,its spires are fingers pointing heavenward2 its ministers are messengers of good tidings2 its ambassadors1 ambassadors of hope2 its angels1 angels of mercy40 ,under all our institutions rest the ,bible and the school-house1--,christianity and ,education4 ,without them1 the ,republic is impossible2 with them1 we have ,republican ,america for a thousand years4 ,,great ,,growth ,,of ,,libraries ,,by ,,james ,p4 ,,boyd1 ,a4,m41 ,l4,b4 ,libraries are as old as civilization4 ,nothing marks civilized progress more distinctly than the collections of writings1 whether on clay1 stone1 wood1 papyrus1 or parchment1 which went to make up the libraries of ancient peoples4 ,such writings generally related to religion1 laws1 and conquests1 and found their abode1 in the form of archives1 in capitals and temples4 ,recent explorations in ,mesopotamia reveal collections1 or libraries1 of books inscribed on clay tablets1 many of whose dates are beyond #fej ,b4 ,c4 ,these libraries seem to have found a home for the most part in royal palaces1 and to have contained works abounding in instruction for the kings' subjects4 ,as unearthed and their contents deciphered1 they throw much valuable light upon the remote history1 as well as the arts1 sciences1 and literatures of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,in ancient ,egypt collections of hieroglyphic writings were made in temples and in the tombs of kings from the earliest known dates4 ,some hieroglyphics still extant bear date prior to #bjjj ,b4 ,c41 and one papyrus manuscript has been discovered whose supposed date is #afjj ,b4 ,c4 ,what were known as the sacred ,books of ,thoth--forty-two in number--constituted the ,egyptian encyclopdia of religion and science1 and became such a fruitful source of commentary and exposition1 that by the time of the ,grecian conquest they had grown in number of volumes to #cf1cbe4 ,of the libraries of the ,greeks we have little positive knowledge1 though it is abundantly asserted by late compilers that large collections of books 7writings7 once existed in the various ,grecian cities4 ,pisistratus is said to have founded a library at ,athens as early as #ecg ,b4 ,c4 ,strabo says that ,aristotle collected the first known library in ,greece1 which he bequeathed to ,theophrastus 7,b4 ,c4 #cbb71 and which1 by the vicissitude of war1 finally found its way to ,rome4 ,at ,cnidus there is said to have existed a special collection of works upon medicine4 ,xenophon speaks of the library of ,euthydemus4 ,euclid and ,plato are mentioned as book collectors4 ,but by far the most renowned book collectors of the ,greeks were the ,ptolemies of ,egypt1 who gathered from ,hellenic1 ,hebrew1 and ,egyptian sources that wonderful collection of volumes1 or rolls1 which became famous as the ,alexandrine ,library4 ,this was composed of two libraries1 one estimated at #db1hjj volumes1 or rolls1 connected with the ,academy1 the other estimated at #dij1jjj volumes1 or rolls1 deposited in the ,serapeum4 ,it is said that these immense collections were regularly catalogued and kept under the supervision of competent librarians1 till consumed by the ,saracens at the time of their conquest of ,egypt1 ,a4 ,d4 #fdj4 ,the ,romans at first paid little attention to literature4 ,it is not until the last century of the republic that we hear of a library at ,rome1 and then it was not a native collection but a spoil of war4 ,it was captured from ,perseus of ,macedonia and brought to ,rome in ,b4 ,c4 #afg4 ,so ,sulla captured the library of ,apellicon1 at ,athens1 in ,b4 ,c4 #hf1 and brought it to ,rome4 ,lucullus brought to ,rome a rich store of literature from his eastern conquests 7,b4 ,c4 #fg74 ,wealthy men and scholars now began to form libraries at ,rome1 some of which became very large and valuable4 ,it is here we first hear of the dedication of libraries to the public1--a step which made ,rome for a time the resort of scholars from other nations1 especially ,greece4 ,the most famous of the many imperial libraries of ,rome was that founded by ,ulpius ,trajanus4 ,it was called the ,ulpian ,library1 and was at first founded in the forum of ,trajan1 but afterwards removed to the baths of ,diocletian4 ,in the fourth century there are said to have been as many as twenty-eight public libraries in ,rome4 ,great1 indeed1 must have been their destruction under various vicissitudes1 for when the ,emperor ,constantine moved the ,roman capital to ,constantinople1 and founded his imperial library there1 it numbered but a few thousand books4 ,it was1 however1 greatly enlarged after his death--some say to #ajj1jjj volumes4 ,it was destroyed in ,a4 ,d4 #dgf1 with the close of the ,western ,empire4 ,with the spread of ,christianity there arose a new incentive to write and collect books4 ,the church required both a literature and libraries as part of its organization4 ,pamphilus is said to have collected a library of #cj1jjj volumes1 chiefly religious1 at ,csarea 7,a4 ,d4 #cji71 his object being to lend them out to readers4 ,but as book-making and collecting became narrowed to the church1 general literature was proscribed and libraries ceased to flourish1 except as encouraged by the monastic orders4 ,such libraries were necessarily small and of a private character4 ,their books were manuscripts written or copied by the priests1 up to the date of the invention of printing4 ,the libraries of this class which grew in importance were those of the ,swiss and ,irish monasteries1 not omitting those in ,england1 as at ,canterbury and ,york4 ,the invasion of the ,norsemen1 in the ninth and tenth centuries1 was generally fatal to the monastic libraries on both sides of the ,english channel4 ,in ,france1 the library at ,fulda seemed to retain its books and respect4 ,it was greatly enlarged by ,charlemagne1 who also founded a more ostentatious one at ,tours4 ,with the revival of learning1 and with the hope of opening a wider field to secular literature1 ,charles ,,vi41 of ,france1 founded a royal library which numbered #aajj volumes by ,a4 ,d4 #adaa4 ,a similar library in ,england1 that of the ,british crown1 numbered #cbi volumes at the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,in contrast with these early royal efforts stood that of ,corvinus1 king of ,hungary1 whose library numbered #ej1jjj volumes1 mostly manuscripts1 in #adij4 ,this imperial collection was burned by the ,turks in #aedj4 ,about this time the nucleus of the modern ,laurentian ,library of ,florence was formed4 ,in #aeef1 the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 or royal library of ,france1 at ,paris1 was endowed by the king with power to demand a copy of every book printed in ,france4 ,this power became the basis of the copyright tax1 now universally levied by civilized nations1 and which has been the means of greatly enriching all government libraries4 ,in #aeef the royal library of ,france could boast of but #bjjj volumes4 ,in #aghi it contained #bjj1jjj volumes1 the largest number of any library then existing4 ,at the end of the nineteenth century it still retains the distinction of being the most extensive library in the world1 containing approximately #c1jjj1jjj volumes4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,library ,,of ,,congress1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,in ,italy the libraries1 though venerable and very rich in rare collections of manuscripts1 are not noted for the number of books which represent modern literature4 ,the most noted library is the ,biblioteca ,vaticana1 or library of the ,vatican4 ,it traces a vague history back to the fifth century1 but its real foundation was in #adee4 ,the number of volumes and manuscripts on its shelves is approximately #cjj1jjj4 ,in ,spain and ,portugal are national libraries in their respective capitals1 ,madrid and ,lisbon4 ,the national library of ,spain contains some #efj1jjj volumes and manuscripts1 while that of ,lisbon contains over #bjj1jjj4 ,belgium and ,holland are rich in libraries4 ,the royal library at ,brussels contains over #djj1jjj volumes4 ,in #ahcj it was made a part of the state archives and thrown open to the public4 ,the national library of ,holland was established in #agih by uniting the library of the princes of ,orange with the smaller libraries of the defunct states4 ,it thus became the library of the ,states-,general1 but in #ahae it was converted into the present national library4 ,it has a very valuable collection of books1 numbering over #djj1jjj4 ,one of the best arranged and managed libraries in ,europe is the ,royal ,library at ,copenhagen4 ,it was thrown open to the public in #agic1 and has since been conducted under national auspices4 ,two copies of every book published in the kingdom must be deposited in this library4 ,its volumes have increased very rapidly during the nineteenth century1 and now number over #eej1jjj4 ,the ,royal ,library of ,sweden is located at ,stockholm4 ,it contains over #cej1jjj valuable volumes1 and is admirably arranged and conducted4 ,the ,university ,library at ,upsala is also a very valuable one1 containing #cjj1jjj volumes4 ,there is also an excellent library of over #ajj1jjj volumes connected with the university at ,lund4 ,the libraries of ,norway1 though not so large as those of ,sweden1 are numerous1 valuable1 and well managed4 ,the ,university ,library at ,christiana contains over #ccj1jjj volumes4 ,in ,russia1 large and valuable libraries are not numerous outside of the cities of ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,moscow1 and ,warsaw4 ,the ,imperial ,library at ,st4 ,petersburg ranks as the richest in ,europe1 excepting the libraries of ,paris and the ,british ,museum4 ,it is open to the public1 and contains approximately #a1bjj1jjj volumes4 ,illustration3 ,,ridgway ,,branch ,,of ,,philadelphia ,,library4 ,germany1 with her multiplicity of minor capitals1 her love of books and book-making1 her numerous universities1 excels every other ,european country in the number1 extent1 and value of her libraries4 ,the largest is the ,royal ,library at ,berlin1 with approximately #a1jjj1jjj volumes4 ,it was founded by the 8,great ,elector0 ,frederick ,william1 and opened as a public library in #affa4 ,the ,royal ,library at ,munich long rated as the largest in ,germany1 with its #a1bjj1jjj volumes1 inclusive of pamphlets1 the latter numbering some #ejj1jjj4 ,but it was thought to be unfair to class so many small and inconsequential works as books1 so that the library at ,berlin was given precedence4 ,still the ,munich library is particularly rich in incunabula and other treasures derived from the monasteries1 which were closed in #ahjc4 ,the ,university library at ,munich is also very rich in similar treasures4 ,it contains well nigh #ejj1jjj volumes4 ,the other large libraries of ,germany are the ,university library at ,leipsic1 with over #ejj1jjj volumes2 the ,royal and ,city library at ,augsburg1 with #abc1jjj2 the ,royal1 at ,bamberg1 with #cjj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,bonn1 with #bbj1jjj volumes2 the ,grand ,ducal at ,darmstadt1 with #djj1jjj volumes2 the ,royal ,public1 at ,dresden1 with #daj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,erlangen1 with #ahe1jjj volumes2 the ,city1 at ,frankfort1 with #aij1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,freiburg1 with #bej1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,giessen1 with #afj1jjj volumes2 the ,ducal ,public1 at ,gotha1 with #baj1jjj volumes2 the ,royal ,university at ,gttingen1 with #dij1jjj volumes2 the ,city at ,hamburg1 with #eaj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,heidelberg1 with #daj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,jena1 with #bjj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,kiel1 with #bbe1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,rostock1 with #caj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,strassburg1 with over #gjj1jjj volumes2 the ,university at ,tbingen1 with #cbj1jjj volumes2 the ,grand ,ducal at ,weimar1 with #bcj1jjj volumes2 the ,brunswick ,ducal1 at ,wolfenbttel1 with over #cjj1jjj volumes4 ,besides these there are numerous others attached to various universities or publicly organized which have #ajj1jjj volumes each4 ,in ,austria-,hungary1 the largest library is that of the ,imperial ,public1 at ,vienna4 ,it was founded in #addj by ,emperor ,frederick ,,iii41 and has ever since been munificently supported by the ,austrian princes4 ,few libraries in ,europe contain more important collections or are better organized and housed4 ,its volumes number #edj1jjj4 ,admission to its reading room is free1 but the books are loaned out under rigid restrictions4 ,the ,university ,library of ,vienna was founded by ,maria ,theresa1 and has grown very rapidly1 numbering nearly #ejj1jjj volumes4 ,in ,vienna alone the number of libraries exceed one hundred1 many of them of considerable extent4 ,the various university libraries throughout ,austria-,hungary are rich in volumes1 particularly that at ,cracow1 with over #cjf1jjj volumes1 and at ,innsbruck1 with #age1jjj volumes4 ,the ,national ,library at ,budapest1 ,hungary1 and also the ,university at the same place1 have rich collections1 numbering #dfe1jjj and #bab1jjj volumes respectively4 ,in ,switzerland libraries are very numerous and well conducted4 ,the largest is that at ,basel4 ,it is called the ,public ,university ,library1 and numbers #ahg1jjj volumes4 ,the next largest is the ,city ,library1 at ,zurich1 with #ace1jjj volumes4 ,the smaller libraries of ,switzerland exceed two thousand in number1 and are1 as a rule1 rich in literary treasures descended from the ancient monasteries4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,public ,,library ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,boston4 ,though by no means as ancient as some others1 the leading library of ,great ,britain1 and the second in extent and importance in the world1--the ,national1 at ,paris1 ,france1 being first1--has had a phenomenal growth4 ,it is located at ,london1 and is known as the ,british ,museum4 ,it dates from #agec1 when ,parliament purchased1 for #bj1jjj1 the ,sir ,hans ,sloane collection1 and afterwards consolidated therewith many other valuable collections4 ,it was given the privilege of copyright1 by which means1 and by frequent and fortunate private bequests of books1 it grew apace and became a national repository1 not only of home-written works1 but of the literature and rarities of all nations4 ,the number of its volumes at present exceeds #a1fej1jjj4 ,london does not contain many public libraries1 but there are numerous collections of scientific and special works of great value to those pursuing certain lines of knowledge4 ,the second largest and most important collection in ,england is that of the ,bodleian ,library of ,oxford1 with some #ecj1jjj volumes2 followed by that of the ,university of ,cambridge1 with some #eaj1jjj volumes4 ,next in extent and importance in ,great ,britain is the library of the ,faculty of ,advocates1 in ,edinburgh1 ,scotland4 ,it dates from #afhb1 and contains at present about #djj1jjj volumes4 ,the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 was founded contemporaneously with the ,bodleian1 and easily ranks as the largest and most important in ,ireland1 with its #bjj1jjj volumes1 to which about #cjjj are added annually4 ,what has been said of the dearth of public libraries in ,london is in part true of all ,great ,britain4 ,there are not a score of libraries in all her ,european domain that number over #ajj1jjj volumes1 and it is only within the nineteenth century that the public or free library system began to grow in favor4 ,indeed1 such growth may be said to date from as late a period as #ahej1 when the ,manchester ,free ,reference ,library was established4 ,it has shown in fifty years a most marvelous growth1 and contains at present some #bee1jjj volumes4 ,great ,britain has not neglected to encourage the use of libraries among her colonists4 ,at ,ottawa1 ,canada1 is the library of ,parliament4 ,it was founded in #ahae1 and grew slowly till #ahda1 when the two libraries of ,upper and ,lower ,canada were consolidated4 ,it was subsequently destroyed by fire1 and in #ahee restablished4 ,since then it has grown rapidly1 and at present contains over #aej1jjj volumes4 ,the ,laval ,university library1 at ,quebec1 is the next most extensive in ,canada1 containing over #ajj1jjj volumes4 ,the ,south ,african ,public ,library was founded at ,cape ,town in #ahah1 and has grown to contain some #ej1jjj volumes1 many of them of great importance as bearing on the languages and customs of ,african peoples4 ,in ,australia are many libraries of considerable extent1 whose volumes are1 as a rule1 free to all readers4 ,the largest of these is at ,melbourne1 and is called the ,public ,library of ,victoria4 ,it is a collection of considerably over #aej1jjj books and pamphlets1 many of which relate to ,australasian themes4 ,the ,sidney ,free ,public ,library is next to that at ,melbourne in importance4 ,it is said to contain the largest collection of works special to ,australia in the world4 ,the book collections of ,china1 and indeed throughout the ,orient1 are by no means inconsiderable1 and the favorite works relate to religion1 philosophy1 poetry1 history1 and the sciences4 ,they are generally large and of encyclopdic style and proportions4 ,thus a ,chinese history of national events from the third century ,b4 ,c4 to the seventeenth ,a4 ,d4 occupies sixty-six volumes1 as bound in ,european style for the ,british ,museum4 ,libraries in ,japan are more numerous1 convenient1 and extensive than in ,china and elsewhere in the ,orient4 ,the ,university library at ,tokio1 ,japan1 contains well nigh #bjj1jjj volumes4 ,of ,south ,american libraries the largest is the ,national1 at ,rio ,janeiro1 ,brazil1 with some #bdj1jjj volumes4 ,the other republics of ,south ,america which passed through their wars for independence and their formative periods1 not to say their internal jealousies and strifes1 during the nineteenth century1 have had but little opportunity or inclination to collect large libraries4 ,yet the spirit of education is by no means dormant1 and the nuclei of many libraries have been formed1 in which much pride is taken1 and which bid fair to grow great in importance as scholarship expands and other fostering conditions come to prevail more generally4 ,even in the small and tumultuous republics of ,central ,america there are some valuable collections of books which1 in the course of time1 will be greatly augmented and prove a source of literary and national pride4 ,notwithstanding all the ups and downs of the ,mexican republic during the century1 she has1 since the separation of church and state in #aheg1 evolved a creditable educational system1 and built up many excellent libraries1 especially in the capital1 ,mexico4 ,the largest of these is the ,national1 which contains over #ajj1jjj volumes4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,,russell ,,young4 ,first ,librarian of ,new ,library of ,congress4 ,the growth of libraries in the ,united ,states during the nineteenth century has been phenomenal4 ,if its leading libraries have not yet matched those of the old world in extent1 they are1 nevertheless1 unique in their freshness1 exceptional in their number1 original in their systems1 and most effective in their uses4 ,and what is here said of the leading libraries is still more true of the smaller1 for in no country has the library system so ramified as in the ,united ,states1 and come down to such close touch with the people4 ,not only cities1 towns1 and even villages have their libraries1 but ,states1 schools1 and myriads of special organizations1 all of which are centres of culture and sources of literary pride4 ,the oldest library in the ,united ,states is that of ,harvard ,college4 ,it was founded in #afch1 and was destroyed by fire in #agfd4 ,it was speedily restored1 and became the recipient of many private donations1 which not only greatly increased the number of its volumes1 but placed it in possession of a handsome endowment fund4 ,since its removal to ,gore ,hall1 in #ahdj1 it has been open to the public for reading within its walls1 but only the students of the university and other privileged persons may borrow books4 ,its present collection numbers over half a million of volumes of books and pamphlets4 ,in the year #agjj1 two other libraries were founded1--that of ,yale ,college1 and that which afterwards became known as the ,new ,york ,society ,library4 ,the first of these grew very slowly until the beginning of the nineteenth century1 when it took on new life1 and at the end of the century contains some #bej1jjj volumes4 ,the latter also grew very slowly1 and in #aged became a subscription library4 ,it is peculiarly the library of the old ,knickerbocker families and their descendants1 and the number of its volumes gravitates around #ajj1jjj4 ,in #agca1 ,benjamin ,franklin projected what he called a 8subscription library0 at ,philadelphia4 ,it was incorporated as the ,library ,company of ,philadelphia1 and grew rapidly through bequests of books and money4 ,in #agib it absorbed the very valuable ,loganian ,library1 and in #ahfi ,dr4 ,benjamin ,rush left a bequest of over #a1jjj1jjj to found its ,ridgeway ,branch4 ,the building erected for this purpose is1 with the exception of the new ,library of ,congress structure at ,washington1 the handsomest1 most commodious1 and best arranged for library purposes of any in the ,united ,states4 ,the collection of the ,library ,company of ,philadelphia1 commonly called the ,philadelphia ,library1 now numbers well nigh #bjj1jjj volumes4 ,of the sixty-four libraries in the ,united ,states reported to have been founded before the year #ahjj1 thirty were established between #agge and #ahjj4 ,the more important of these--that is1 those which rank as #bj1jjj-volume libraries and over--are the ,massachusetts ,historical ,society ,library1 at ,boston1 founded in #agia2 the ,georgetown ,college ,library1 at ,georgetown1 ,d4 ,c41 founded in #agia2 the ,dartmouth ,college ,library1 at ,hanover1 ,n4 ,h41 founded in #agfi2 the ,columbia ,college ,library1 ,new ,york ,city1 founded in #aged2 the library of the ,college of ,physicians1 at ,philadelphia1 founded in #aghi2 the ,college of ,new ,jersey ,library1 at ,princeton ,university1 founded in #agdf2 the ,brown ,university ,library1 at ,providence1 ,r4 ,i41 founded in #agfh2 the ,department of ,state ,library and ,house of ,representatives ,library1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 founded in #aghi2 the ,williams ,college ,library1 at ,williamstown1 ,mass41 founded in #agic4 ,from this standpoint we get a fair view of the tremendous strides of library growth in the ,united ,states during the nineteenth century4 ,the sixty-four libraries of #ahjj have grown to well nigh four thousand1 not counting those of less than #ajjj volumes2 and the less than #ejj1jjj volumes of #ahjj have increased to well nigh #cj1jjj1jjj1 omitting those in libraries of less than a thousand volumes4 ,over six hundred libraries in the ,united ,states take rank as #bj1jjj-volume libraries and over1 at the end of the century2 and in the six statistical years between #ahhh and #ahic1 which mark the greatest ratio of increase in volumes1 there was a growth equal to #ff per cent over all that had preceded4 ,nor has the century been more triumphant and wonderful in the accumulation of volumes and the number of book repositories than in the variety of systems and multiplicity of agencies by means of which library information is arranged and disseminated4 ,conspicuous among these has been the inauguration and growth of the free library system1 by means of which public funds are provided for the support of libraries whose use is free to all4 ,hardly less conspicuous1 and perhaps even more far reaching1 has been the adoption by many ,states of the school-district library system1 which draws upon a certain proportion of the school fund for the collection and maintenance of the district library4 ,again1 most of the ,states have established libraries of their own for public use1 and as centres to which may be gathered and whence may be disseminated the knowledge that appertains to the respective ,state localities4 ,special library systems have grown into great favor1 covering and encouraging collections of historic works1 of scientific literature1 of information relating to law1 medicine1 theology1 etc4 ,in fact1 there is hardly a line of investigation and mental activity that has not come to be represented in its library collections4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,carnegie ,,free ,,library1 ,,pittsburgh1 ,,pa4 ,at the head of all the century's library triumphs in the ,united ,states stands the ,library of ,congress4 ,it is the national repository1 and is to the country what the ,british ,museum is to ,great ,britain and the ,bibliothque ,nationale is to ,france4 ,it was founded in #ahjj1 when the seat of government was moved to ,washington4 ,in #ahad it was burned by the ,british soldiers1 its home being then in the ,capitol1 which was also destroyed4 ,the government purchased ,thomas ,jefferson's collection of #gjjj volumes as the nucleus of a new library4 ,this grew to contain #ee1jjj volumes by #ahea1 when all but #bj1jjj volumes were again destroyed by an accidental fire4 ,in #aheb it was refitted1 the government appropriating #ge1jjj for the purpose4 ,on the restoration of its halls in the ,capitol1 in fire-proof form1 it began to grow rapidly in volumes4 ,in #ahff1 it received the #dj1jjj volumes which constituted the library of the ,smithsonian ,institute4 ,in #ahgj1 the privilege of copyright was transferred to it from the ,patent ,office4 ,this1 together with the annual appropriation made by ,congress1 served to give it a more rapid growth than ever1 and to nationalize its importance4 ,it speedily grew rich in collections of history1 science1 law1 and every branch of literature appertaining to this and other countries4 ,under its privilege of copyright1 two copies of every volume desiring such protection are required to be deposited within it4 ,it must1 therefore1 ere long become quite fully representative of the literary productions of the country4 ,in #ahhb1 it was augmented by the presentation of the private collection of the late ,dr4 ,joseph ,m4 ,toner1 of ,washington1 containing #bg1jjj volumes and nearly as many pamphlets4 ,by #ahij it had outgrown its ability to accommodate its collections1 and ,congress made a very liberal appropriation for the erection of a new and separate library building1 which was completed and occupied by #ahig-ih1 the late ,hon4 ,john ,russell ,young being its first librarian4 ,it is the largest1 most elegant1 and best fitted repository of books in the world1 being capable of accommodating over #b1jjj1jjj volumes4 ,the public are privileged to use its books within the building1 but only members of ,congress and certain designated officials of the ,departments may take them away4 ,it is open from #i ,a4 ,m4 to #d ,p4 ,m41 except upon ,sundays and other legal holidays4 ,its location is on ,capitol ,hill1 quite contiguous to the ,capitol itself4 ,a pioneer of the system of free libraries1 and the one which comes next to the ,library of ,congress in the number of its volumes1 is the ,public ,library of ,boston1 founded in #ahdh4 ,it has had a phenomenal growth1 and is the centre of a wide range of literary influence4 ,its numerous branches extend throughout the city and surrounding towns1 bringing free reading to every locality4 ,the number of its volumes exceeds #gjj1jjj4 ,the free library system stands sponsor for a host of libraries throughout the larger cities4 ,the ,public ,library of ,cincinnati was founded upon this basis in #ahfg4 ,it at once attained great popularity and speedily grew till1 by the end of the century1 its volumes numbered approximately #bbj1jjj4 ,the same popularity and rate of growth characterized the ,public ,library of ,chicago and that of ,philadelphia4 ,the former was founded in #ahgb1 and now contains over #bbj1jjj volumes4 ,the latter was not founded until #ahia1 but by the year #aijj it grew to contain #bjc1ajb volumes1 with fifteen branches1 or divisions1 throughout the city1 and an annual circulation of #a1ggh1chg volumes4 ,other libraries of the ,united ,states founded or rehabilitated during the nineteenth century1 and which ere its close have taken rank as libraries containing over #ajj1jjj volumes1 are the ,new ,york ,state ,library1 at ,albany1 with approximately #aij1jjj2 the ,state ,library at ,annapolis1 ,md41 with #ajj1jjj volumes2 the ,enoch ,pratt ,free ,library1 at ,baltimore1 with #afe1jjj volumes2 the ,peabody ,institute ,library1 at ,baltimore1 with #abe1jjj volumes2 the ,athenum ,library1 at ,boston1 with #ahe1jjj volumes2 the ,city ,library1 at ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y41 with #abj1jjj volumes2 the ,university ,library1 at ,chicago1 with nearly #djj1jjj volumes2 the ,newberry ,library1 at ,chicago1 with #abe1jjj volumes2 the ,public ,library at ,detroit1 with #ace1jjj volumes2 the ,cornell ,university ,library1 at ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 with #age1jjj volumes2 the library of the ,state ,historical ,society1 at ,madison1 ,wis41 with #aaj1jjj volumes2 the ,mercantile ,library1 at ,philadelphia1 with #age1jjj volumes2 the library of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 with #abj1jjj volumes2 the ,astor ,library1 ,new ,york ,city1 with #bfe1jjj volumes2 the ,mercantile ,library1 ,new ,york ,city1 with #bej1jjj volumes2 the ,public ,library at ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 with #aje1jjj volumes2 the ,sutro ,library1 at ,san ,francisco1 with #baj1jjj volumes4 ,of those libraries founded during the century in the ,united ,states1 and which have secured a rank as over #bj1jjj-volume libraries1 there are very many that approach the #ajj1jjj mark1 and their average of volumes would gravitate around #ej1jjj4 ,it is by no means true that the importance and usefulness of a library must be measured by its number of volumes4 ,very many of the best managed1 serviceable1 and popular libraries contain even less than #bj1jjj volumes4 ,the spirit of knowledge which has created in the ,united ,states such a demand for libraries has been happily supplemented by a spirit of liberality4 ,nowhere in the world have there risen so many and such munificent donors of means to found and support libraries4 ,without appearing invidious1 mention may well be made of some of these munificent givers and founders4 ,conspicuous among them is ,john ,jacob ,astor1 founder of the ,astor ,library in ,new ,york ,city1 with its splendid endowment fund of #a1ajj1jjj2 ,james ,lenox1 who founded the ,lenox ,library of ,new ,york ,city1 and invested in buildings and endowment #a1bdg1jjj2 ,george ,peabody1 who founded1 in #aheg1 at ,baltimore1 the ,peabody ,institute and ,library1 with an endowment of #a1jjj1jjj2 ,walter ,l4 ,newberry1 of ,chicago1 who1 in #ahhi1 left #b1jjj1jjj to found a free public library in the northern part of the city2 ,john ,crerar1 of ,chicago1 who left an immense estate to found and endow the ,crerar ,library2 ,enoch ,pratt1 of ,baltimore1 who gave #a1aej1jjj to found the ,enoch ,pratt ,free ,library2 ,dr4 ,james ,rush1 of ,philadelphia1 who left1 in #ahfi1 a bequest of over #a1jjj1jjj to form the ,ridgway ,branch of the ,philadelphia ,library2 ,andrew ,carnegie1 who founded the ,pittsburgh ,free ,library and several others in different places4 ,the century's progress in library management has kept pace with the growth of volumes4 ,cataloguing and arranging of books have been reduced to a science4 ,training of librarians and of students in the use of books has become an educational course in many higher institutions of learning4 ,library architecture and the numerous appliances for distributing books or rendering them accessible on the shelves1 have all been improved1 so that the library of the end of the century is as much a seductive retreat as a world of knowledge4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,in ,,architecture ,,by ,,william ,,martin ,,aiken1 ,f4,a4,i4,a41 ,former ,u4 ,s4 ,supervising ,architect4 ,towards the close of the last century there arose in ,england a decided fashion for ,greek columns and pediments1 which was brought about by the publication in #agfb of the discoveries by ,stuart and ,revett at ,athens1 and was still further stimulated by the bringing to ,england of the ,elgin marbles in #ahja1 so that every building of any importance1 whether church or school or country residence1 had its portico with ,doric1 ,ionic1 or ,corinthian columns4 ,thus began the ,greek revival2 then followed the more slender columns1 with arches and vaults1 of the ,roman2 and to these were very shortly added the cupola or the dome and the balustrade of the ,renaissance4 ,in ,london1 the ,bank of ,england by ,sir ,john ,soane1 the ,british ,museum by ,robert ,smirke 7a pupil of ,soane's71 the ,university by ,wilkins1 were all built early in this century1 as were the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 ,cambridge1 and the ,high ,school at ,edinboro1 magnificent colonnades adorning the front of each4 ,st4 ,pancras ,church1 in ,london1 has a spire of superimposed copies of the ,temple of the ,winds at ,athens--each smaller than the one beneath it1--and there are side porches which reproduce the caryatid portico of the ,pandroseum4 ,but the most successful building in ,england which was designed upon ,greek lines is ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool1 which has a central hall lit from above2 at either end is a court-room1 and beyond1 at one end1 is an ,odeon1 or ,music ,hall4 ,the taste for classical design gradually declined in ,england1 and a new cult was assiduously propagated through the writings of ,pugin1 ,brandon1 ,rickman1 and ,parker1 whose text was that classicism represented paganism1 and this1 together with the remodeling of ,windsor ,castle1 in #ahbf1 by ,sir ,jeffrey ,wyatville1 caused a general interest in the revival of ,gothic architecture2 for some time1 however1 much illiterate work was done in the adjustment of old forms to new conditions4 ,throughout the last half of this century1 the battle of the styles has been maintained by the adherents of the differing schools with varying success1 and1 although there may be notable examples to the contrary1 it has virtually resulted in the adoption of ,gothic designs for ecclesiastical buildings1 conditions being much the same as formerly for these structures2 whereas1 for secular buildings1 with ever-changing requirements1 the classic or the ,renaissance1 which has shown even greater pliability1 has been considered more appropriate4 ,among those whose success has been greatest in ,gothic work may be mentioned ,sir ,charles ,barry1 who was knighted for designing the ,parliament ,buildings1 begun in #ahdj and completed twenty years later2 ,george ,gilbert ,scott1 who did the ,assize ,courts1 in ,manchester1 and ,new ,museum1 ,oxford2 ,george ,edmund ,street1 whose ,law ,courts in ,london are so full of defects in plan yet so excellent in details2 ,alfred ,waterhouse1 whose interesting 7,norman7 ,museum of ,natural ,history gave substantial encouragement to the use of terra cotta2 ,t4 ,g4 ,jackson1 the author of much collegiate architecture at ,oxford and elsewhere2 ,j4 ,l4 ,pierson1 the designer of eight churches in ,london2 ,william ,burgess1 ,sir ,arthur ,blomfield1 and ,james ,brooks1 all well known for the high character of their work1 as is also ,j4 ,d4 ,sedding1 whose broad sympathies and refined spirit ranked him as one of the most talented men of his day4 ,the first international exposition was held in ,london in #ahea1 and the single building in which it was contained was perhaps the most marvelous exhibit4 ,it was designed by ,sir ,joseph ,paxton1 and was the first example of the use of iron and glass on a scale of such gigantic proportions4 ,the so-called 8,victorian ,gothic0 was used to a great extent for secular work as late as #ahgj1 and as it was much stimulated by the writings of ,street upon ,spain and ,northern ,italy and by ,ruskin's 8,stones of ,venice10 there were frequent attempts at polychromy1 shown in the use of different colored stone1 brick1 and terra cotta1 and1 in the ,albert ,memorial1 by means of mosaic4 ,r4 ,w4 ,edis and ,e4 ,w4 ,godwin were among the foremost practitioners of the time1 but in spite of the cleverness and boldness of design shown in some of their city and suburban buildings1 neither they nor others could prolong the life of the fashion1 and it presently yielded to the revival of a previous one1 and the ,renaissance forms of the time of ,queen ,anne became the vogue1 especially for country houses1--nowhere more homelike than in ,england4 ,in the suburb of ,bedford ,park1 in ,lowther ,lodge1 as in his designs for the ,alliance ,assurance ,company and the new ,scotland ,yard1 ,norman ,shaw showed the facility of his clever pencil1 and ,ernest ,george ,peto gave many evidences of his skill and taste2 their work1 however1 often having a flavor of the ,flemish4 ,the building of the ,thames ,embankment1 the opening of new streets1--such as ,holborn ,viaduct and ,shaftesbury ,avenue1--with the widening and straightening of others1 have done much for the improvement of modern ,london4 ,in ,france1 there were very many important public buildings begun in the first ten years of this century1--during the reign of ,napoleon ,i41--although some of them were not completely finished until the time of ,napoleon ,,iii4 7#ahdh-ahgj74 ,among those in ,paris were the ,arc de l'toile by ,chalgrin1 the largest triumphal arch ever built1 being similar in height and width to the front of ,notre ,dame ,cathedral1 omitting the upper portion of the towers2 ,arc du ,caroussel by ,percier ,fontaine--both these arches commemorating the victories of ,napoleon2 the churches of the ,madeleine by ,vignon1 and of ,ste4 ,genevive1 in honor of the great men of ,france2 and the wing connecting the palaces of the ,tuileries with the ,louvre1 parallel to 7but furthest from7 the river4 ,the ,corps ,lgislatif1 which was formerly the ,palais ,bourbon1 was remodeled in #ahjg by ,poyet1 and has for its river front a portico with pediment sustained by twelve columns1 a greater number than any other existing building can show4 ,if there be one style more than any other which needs sunshine and a clear atmosphere to show it to advantage1 it is the classic2 and a ,greek or ,roman temple in the atmosphere of fog1 rain1 and snow1 of ,edinboro1 ,london1 ,munich1 or even ,paris1 does not produce at all the same impression as if it were under the blue skies of ,italy1 ,sicily1 or ,greece2 however1 the frequent employment of classical motifs since the beginning of the century has contributed1 to a degree unprecedented in modern times1 towards placing ,paris in the very foremost rank among the capitals of the world in the dignity and impressiveness of its public buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,arc ,,de ,l',,toile1 ,,paris4 ,the encouragement given to architecture in ,france by ,napoleon ,i4 was revived by ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,the remodeling of the streets1 avenues1 and boulevards of ,paris1 under the direction of ,baron ,hausmann1 while it swept away many landmarks of medival ,paris1 contributed wonderfully to its stately elegance as well as to its hygiene2 the work begun upon the ,louvre was completed from designs by ,visconti ,lefuel1 and much entirely new work erected4 ,there was a group of men1 some of whom brought about the ,neo-,grec movement1 whose work was especially interesting1 and although not extensively copied1 yet exerted a marked influence for many years afterwards4 ,these men were ,labrouste1 who designed the ,library of ,ste4 ,genevive1 about #ahcj2 ,duc1 who remodeled the ,palais de ,justice2 ,duban1 who built the library for the ,school of ,fine ,arts1 about #ahde2 ,viollet le ,duc1 who restored the ,chteau de ,pierrefonds1 and wrote treatises and dictionaries upon architecture1 furniture1 etc41 and was instrumental in the organization of the ,society for the ,preservation of ,historical ,monuments4 ,still later than these works are ,vaudremer's ,neo-,grec ,church of ,st4 ,pierre de ,montrouge1 built in #ahfj1 and ,abadie's ,byzantine ,church of the ,sacred ,heart1 still unfinished2 ,baltard's ,church of ,st4 ,augustin1 of brick and cast-iron1 and ,central ,market1 of cast-iron and glass2 ,garnier's ,opera ,house1 ,hitorff's ,northern ,railway ,station2 the ,trocadro1 built for the ,exposition of #ahgh2 the ,machinery ,hall and ,eiffel ,tower1 for that of #ahhi2 together with a host of other public buildings1 not only in ,paris1 but in other portions of ,france1 many of which have served as examples to the student of architecture in other lands4 ,in this connection we should not forget the debt we owe to the ,french nation4 ,during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 the ,school of ,fine ,arts was founded in ,paris1 where free instruction in painting1 sculpture1 and architecture is still given to all who pass satisfactorily the entrance examinations2 and in this school many of our successful architects have received gratuitous instruction from some of the distinguished men above mentioned4 ,in the ,department of ,architecture the chief characteristics are the thorough and systematic study of the plan1 and the adaptation of building materials to the conditions of the design4 ,other ,european cities besides ,paris have profited by the general prosperity of the century4 ,st4 ,petersburg produces the effect of a city of palaces1 the many residences of grand dukes and nobles1 the number of public institutions1 the riding schools1--much used on account of the severity of the climate1--and even the barracks1 in spite of the free use of stucco1 each contributing to a certain impression of stateliness2 the palace of the ,archduke ,michael1 built by an ,italian1 ,rossi1 in #ahbj1 is perhaps the most refined and dignified4 ,muscovite architecture is most conspicuous in the elaborate and bulbous domes1 curious not only in form1 but in color1 of the churches of ,st4 ,petersburg1 of ,moscow and ,warsaw4 ,king ,louis of ,bavaria1 having lived in ,rome when ,crown ,prince1 cultivated so great a fondness for the architecture of ,greece and ,italy1 that when he came to the throne he commissioned his architects to design for his capital city of ,munich the ,walhalla1 ,ruhmeshalle1 ,glyptothek1 and ,pinakothek1 after classical models4 ,in ,dresden1 the most interesting buildings designed upon ,greek or ,italian traditions are the theatre and the picture gallery1 by ,semper1 who will long be ranked as the foremost ,german architect of his day4 ,in ,berlin there is a theatre1--unique of its kind1 with stage in the centre1 and an auditorium for winter use at one end and one for summer at the other1--designed by ,titz2 at ,carlsruhe1 ,stuttgart1 and ,strasburg there are theatres and schools in the same style4 ,the present ,emperor has added many schools throughout the empire1 but they are of late ,german ,renaissance4 ,the public buildings of ,germany and ,belgium show few designs of interest in recent years2 the ,parliament ,house at ,berlin1 by ,wallot1 and the ,palais de ,justice at ,brussels1 by ,polaert1 being colossal in mass and clumsy in detail4 ,many of the private houses designed in the ,italian ,renaissance were very elegant and attractive1 but within the past decade there has been a woeful deterioration in the character of both surface and line--the grotesque replacing the graceful4 ,illustration3 ,,natural ,,history ,,museum1 ,,kensington1 ,,london4 ,the villages built for their employees by ,krupp1 the gun manufacturer1 and ,stumm1 the maker of steel1 are notable instances of the application of private capital to the improvement of the domestic conditions of the laboring class4 ,in ,austria1 ,vienna has developed wonderfully since the days of ,maria ,theresa4 ,the classic ,parliament ,house by ,hansen1 in #ahdc1 is one of the most delightful of its kind to be found anywhere2 ,schmitt's ,gothic town-hall is interesting1 but cannot be said to be so successful in design2 the ,votive ,church by ,ferstel1 in #ahef 7also ,gothic71 the ,opera ,house by ,siccardsburg and ,van der ,nll1 with the ,city ,theatre1 an elaborate ,renaissance structure1 by ,semper and ,hasmauer1 are all worthy of note4 ,the ,university with the two ,museum buildings1 facing each other upon a small park1 and other public buildings and residences along the ,ring ,strasse1 are extremely satisfactory1 in spite of the fact that stucco has been so extensively employed4 ,only a few years ago the municipality of ,buda-,pesth offered immunity from taxation for fifteen years to all prospective builders1 under certain conditions as to character and cost of buildings1 with the result that the newer portion of the ,hungarian capital was quickly occupied by buildings of the most desirable kind2 the ,parliament ,house1 ,opera1 ,cathedral1 ,technical ,school1 and several club-houses and private residences1 each testify to the spirit with which the citizens responded to this desire to beautify the city4 ,since the unification of ,italy there has been considerable building in some of the principal cities1 but very little of special importance4 ,in ,rome1 the changes are more perceptible than elsewhere2 the excavations of the ,forum1 the embankment of the ,tiber1 the widening and straightening of the ,corso1 and the opening of the ,via ,nationale and other streets1 have destroyed comparatively little of the picturesque that was worth retaining1 have brought to light many treasures of art1 and1 supplemented by the drainage of the ,campagna by ,prince ,torlonia1 have certainly made it a healthier city to live in4 ,the monument to ,victor ,emmanuel1 the ,national ,museum1 and the ,braccia ,nuovo of the ,vatican ,museum1 are among the few public structures of interest2 the many blocks of apartments and tenements are orderly and inoffensive1 though brick and stucco are the materials used in their construction4 ,turin is the modern manufacturing city1 while ,florence preserves its medival air1 and ,venice dreams of the bygone days when the splendor of the ,renaissance attracted the wealth1 beauty1 and talent of all ,europe to the city of the ,doges4 ,bologna and ,genoa have each built in the suburbs a magnificent ,campo ,santo1 or cemetery1 with chapels1 colonnades1 and other accessories of architectural value2 in ,milan and ,naples there are lofty glass-covered arcades through the centre of a block and connecting with cross streets1 and the semi-circular colonnades of ,st4 ,francesco di ,paolo1 at ,naples1 surround a piazza which is the great public resort of summer evenings4 ,during the reign of ,king ,george a new ,athens has sprung up alongside of and overlapping the old city2 although the nation is not wealthy1 the individual bequests of certain ,greeks have given her the ,museum1 ,university1 and ,academy1 each of strict classic design1 and a hospital of ,byzantine design4 ,under the sunny skies of ,greece those buildings certainly appear to much greater advantage than if in a more northern atmosphere1 and their statuary and polychromy show the value of these accessories to such architecture in this climate4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,white ,,house1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,abdul ,aziz1 the predecessor of the present ,sultan of ,turkey1 had so great a fondness for building that his extravagance in this respect was one of the causes which led to his downfall4 ,the ,dolma ,bagtche palace1 erected directly upon the shores of the ,bosphorus from the designs of ,balzan1 an ,armenian architect1 suggests ,spanish work of the sixteenth century4 ,in ,constantinople and at ,therapia1--a summer resort at the northern end of the ,bosphorus1--many of the foreign governments have built official residences for their representatives4 ,illustration3 ,,glass ,,covered ,,arcade1 ,,milan4 ,as for the architecture of our near neighbors on the north1 the buildings of ,canada have been sturdy and substantial rather than comely2 but the long continuance of cold weather and the lack of means have often hampered the builders4 ,since the completion of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railroad1 the prosperity of city and country seems more assured2 the older cities growing in importance and extent1 and new towns springing up along the line to the ,west4 ,in ,ottawa the ,parliament ,buildings and the octagonal ,library1 in ,toronto1 and1 to some extent1 in ,montreal1 the ,universities' buildings1 are ,victorian ,gothic4 ,the later buildings of the ,university in ,montreal1 excepting the ,girls' ,college1 are not so interesting2 but there are two railroad stations1 a hotel1 cathedral1 with several banks1 insurance buildings1 and residences that call for more than passing notice4 ,perhaps the finest building in all ,canada is the ,chteau ,frontenac1 in ,quebec1--built by ,bruce ,price of ,new ,york1--on the ,dufferin ,terrace1 overlooking the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 and commanding a view that is hardly surpassed on the ,bosphorus1 the ,rhine1 or the ,hudson4 ,although the history of architecture in ,america cannot be written without some reference to contemporary work in ,europe1--since so much of our architecture in the first half of the century is adopted from that of our ancestors and adapted to our uses1 and in the last half so many of our architects have studied there and so many of our citizens have traveled there1--the problems and their conditions in the ,old ,world are very different from those of the ,new4 ,europe was already mature when steam and electricity were introduced2 precedent was always to be considered1 and modern requirements were often forced to conform to existing circumstances4 ,there has1 therefore1 been comparatively less change there during the century than during the past thirty years with us4 ,with our republican institutions1 many of the monarchical formulas soon became obsolete1 though the general trend of our architecture has been in the direction of classic models4 ,as the country has grown larger and more wealthy1 the problems given to architects have become more complex2 less reliance could be placed upon precedent and a premium was placed upon originality1 which1 in spite of innumerable vagaries1 has brought ,american architecture1 at the end of the century1 to be the most notable of the day4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century1 this republic consisted of hardly more than a number of communities extending at intervals along the ,atlantic seaboard1 with an occasional settlement beyond the ,alleghany ,mountains and across the ,ohio ,river4 ,their resources were extremely limited1 their wants very few1 and their intercommunication irregular2 but their methods of living were simple and frugal1 and their courage and endurance phenomenal4 ,among the settlers of ,new ,england were many mechanics and manufacturers1 and these soon began to replace the primitive log cabins with frame dwellings2 those of the ,southern ,states were chiefly planters1 who imported much of their labor1 and often the bricks as well as the glass1 hardware1 tiles1 and other materials for their houses4 ,many of those who colonized the ,middle ,states had come from countries in ,europe where these materials were made1 and brought their secrets with them1 while others were farmers and stock growers1 whose snug little cottages and enormous barns may be seen to this day in ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century we possessed a national style of architecture1 which1 although it had come to us from ,italy1 through ,france and ,england1 was yet distinctly ,american4 ,it was1 however1 almost exclusively confined to residences1 and there were very few public buildings of any description1 except certain churches1--said to have been designed by followers of ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 some of whom were doubtless ship carpenters who had studied the works of ,sir ,william ,chambers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,capitol1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,the ,colonial style1 as we now term it1 was sufficiently elastic in its adaptability to conform to the requirements of the merchant1 manufacturer1 or mariner living at ,salem1 ,boston1 or ,newport1 as well as to those of the planter living at ,charleston or ,savannah4 ,there were certain differences1 more or less pronounced1 peculiar to each section and to each city1 but all houses were alike in this respect1--there was no gas or water1 and the open fireplace was depended upon for heat4 ,in ,new ,england the dwelling-houses were placed near the ground2 the chimneys built in an interior cross wall1 the kitchen1 with its accessories1 as near to the dining-room as possible2 the ceilings were low1 with cornices sometimes of plaster1 sometimes of wood4 ,the roof1--which was often hipped and often of the gambrel shape1 but rarely a gable of even slope1--was always covered with shingles1 which covering was occasionally used also on the exterior walls4 ,in the ,south1 some of the characteristics were the high basement1 broad piazzas1 frequently at the level of the second as well as the first story1 and placed on the south and west sides2 the chimney on outside walls2 the kitchen in a separate building1 detached from the dwelling2 a broad hall through the centre1 giving access to large rooms with high ceilings2 the roof quite as frequently hipped as gabled1 and often--in either case--a huge fanlight set in a low gable on the front for ventilation of the attic2 dormers were seldom used1 as the attic was not inhabited2 the gambrel roof was uncommon2 slate1 and occasionally tile or shingle1 was used for roof covering4 ,our first public buildings of any importance1 and which show the influence of contemporary work in ,england1 were the ,white ,house1 designed by ,hoban in #agib2 the ,capitol1 begun by ,dr4 ,thornton in #agic and completed by ,b4 ,h4 ,latrobe in #ahcj2 the wings1 containing the present ,senate and ,house of ,representatives1 were added later2 the dome1 designed by ,thomas ,u4 ,walter1 was begun in #aheh1 but not completed until #ahgc4 ,our early ,presidents took much interest in architecture1 ,washington directing and criticising the planning of the ,capitol and building his own home at ,mount ,vernon1 and ,jefferson designing the dome and colonnades of the ,university of ,virginia1 at ,charlottesville1 and his own home at ,monticello4 ,massachusetts was the first ,state to erect its capitol1--the ,state ,house in ,boston1 by ,bulfinch1 dating from #agie4 ,the ,city ,hall of ,new ,york was our first work of unmistakable ,french character1 and shows the influence of the time of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,it was designed by ,mangin1 a ,frenchman1 begun in #ahjc1 and completed in #ahab4 ,after the war of #ahab1 many state and national buildings were erected2 from that time colonnades and domes seem indispensable to the proper dignity of the capitol or court house4 ,the use of both brick and stone became more general1 and1 for private houses1 the form of the gambrel roof gradually disappeared in favor of the hip and gable4 ,subsequent to #ahcj1 the accepted type of the larger or more pretentious house was the ,italian villa1 with a square tower accentuating the front entrance1 often one story higher than the main building2 all roofs of low pitch1 covered with tin2 the exterior walls faced with stucco4 ,about this time bay windows and sliding doors for principal rooms of first story1 and better facilities for the use of heat1 light1 and water were introduced and the symmetrical disposition of parts often neglected4 ,the very steep pointed ,gothic roof denoted the modest cottage1 and the perforated wooden tracery of windows and porches1 or the barge-boards of gables1 became the simple beginning of that riotous growth of jig-sawed fretwork afterwards so prominent upon those houses constructed with ,mansard or ,french roofs of rectilinear1 concave1 or convex form4 ,the works and writings of ,downing had much influence at this time1 and it was shown not only in these ,italian villas or ,gothic cottages1 but also in landscape gardening about suburban residences4 ,the political disturbances in various countries of ,europe in #ahdh brought very many immigrants to our shores1 and the discovery of gold in ,california1 in #ahdi1 was the beginning of that steady flow of settlers which has since then peopled so many of our ,western ,states and ,territories4 ,illustration3 ,,library ,,building1 ,,university ,,of ,,virginia4 7,thos4 ,jefferson1 ,designer47 ,then followed our own ,civil ,war1 from #ahfa to #ahfe1 and subsequent to that the period of reconstruction1 during which time there was some building1 but very little architecture1 throughout the country4 ,in #ahfi the ,pacific ,railroad was completed1 and this not only gave a new impetus to ,western mining and farming1 but created a new market for ,eastern manufactures4 ,so great was this manufacturing and commercial activity that vast fortunes were made1 and there were many opportunities calling for the services of architects2 but as they had hitherto been rarely employed1 except in a few of the larger cities1 upon churches or public buildings1 a great proportion of them were untrained amateurs or self-taught carpenters and masons4 ,however1 the first school of architecture had just been organized at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology1 in ,boston1 and to ,william ,e4 ,ware1--who was its professor of architecture from #ahff1 and who organized a similar school at ,columbia ,college1 ,new ,york1 in #ahhj1--the profession and the public owe more than to any other one man for well-directed efforts towards the development of such1 qualifications as may eventually give a national character to our architecture4 ,these schools came none too soon1 and within the past twenty-five years many others have been founded and many traveling scholarships endowed2 collections of books1 photographs1 and casts have been provided in various cities2 architectural periodicals published1 and architectural societies and sketch clubs formed1 each of which has contributed to the higher education of the profession and to the greater appreciation by the public4 ,prior to this time1 each section and each city had certain peculiarities of architecture1 as of speech1 which were unmistakable4 ,the white ,new ,england meeting-house1 the red school-house1 the country house with its kitchen1 wash-room1 and wood-shed trailing in the rear1 or the swell-front city house1 were as characteristic as the endless blocks of brown stone1 high stoop houses of ,new ,york1 or the monotonous rows of red brick dwellings with white marble trimmings of ,philadelphia1 or the broad verandas and halls of the ,southern home4 ,cast-iron was the recognized material for the front of business buildings1 the designs being chiefly in the ,corinthian or composite orders1 and the arch or lintel used indiscriminately2 and when the dry goods store of ,a4 ,t4 ,stewart ,co4 was built1 in #ahgb1 to occupy the whole block from ,broadway to ,fourth ,avenue1 and from ,ninth to ,tenth ,streets1 it was the largest and most important of its kind4 ,before this class of commercial architecture disappeared1 a front was designed by ,r4 ,m4 ,hunt1 about #ahgh1 for a store on ,broadway1 near ,broome ,street1 where the plastic forms of the tile and stucco of ,saracenic architecture were used as being more logical for this material than an imitation of ,roman forms in stone4 ,there were not many summer resorts1 and a few weeks at ,saratoga1 ,newport1 or the ,virginia ,springs was the limit of the annual vacation2 the orthodox hotel was a rectangular frame building1 with veranda on one or more sides1 covered by a flat roof supported by square piers having the height of several stories2 the length1 width1 and height of the building were governed by no other proportion than that of the number of guests4 ,in the ,south and ,west there were virtually no hotels1 and the belated traveler applied for food and shelter for himself and his horse to the nearest friendly farm4 ,these were the prevailing conditions when the nouveau riche appeared upon the scene2 to him as citizen prosperity meant a better home1 to the congregation a larger church1 to the community a new city hall or court house1 to the ,state a more expensive capitol4 ,while these buildings were being everywhere erected1 in accordance with the time honored fashions of construction and with elaborate finish1 the disastrous conflagrations of #ahga in ,chicago1 and of #ahgb in ,boston1 called general attention to the necessity for more permanent building2 and the precautions now taken against similar occurrences were the beginning of efforts toward methods of fireproof construction4 ,granite1 marble1 and limestone were discarded in favor of sandstone1 brick1 and terra cotta2 iron beams carrying brick or concrete 7subsequently hollow terra cotta7 arches were introduced1 and metal laths were substituted for the wooden strips to a certain degree2 but as these fires were mainly in the business districts1 such reforms have been confined almost exclusively to commercial architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,trinity ,,church1 ,,new ,,york4 ,in #ahgc the financial panic gave a check to many building operations1 but it was of comparatively short duration1 for in #ahgf all the other nations of the earth were invited to unite with us at ,philadelphia in celebrating the centennial anniversary of our independence4 ,this was our first international ,exposition1 and it was not remarkable that in our eagerness to learn1 and in the enthusiasm of prosperity1 we sought inspiration from all those peoples who had brought their goods for our inspection4 ,at once we began to build ,queen ,anne cottages or to remodel existing houses with many bays and towers1 rooms set at all angles1 floors at different levels1 walls of many materials1 and roofs of varying slopes1 as well as to apply many tints and shades of color within and without4 ,the summer hotel and summer cottage began to appear at the seashore1 in the mountains1 and along the shores of the great lakes1 and the winter resorts of the ,carolinas1 ,florida1 and ,california to attract the seekers for health and pleasure4 ,the interior decoration of our houses was the chief lesson of #ahgf1 and having once seen the ,european and ,oriental hangings1 draperies1 rugs1 and bric--brac1 we set about furnishing our rooms with them4 ,hitherto ,american architecture had been most influenced by ,english precedent1 and the ,victorian ,gothic had able advocates1 especially in ,boston1 where the ,art ,museum by ,sturgis ,brigham1 as well as many stores1 residences1 and churches by ,cummings ,sears1 ,peabody ,stearns1 and others1 showed much vigor and originality4 ,william ,a4 ,potter1 as supervising architect for the ,government1 adopted this style1 in #ahge1 for his buildings at ,fall ,river1 ,mass41 ,nashville1 ,tenn41 and ,covington1 ,ky41 and ,r4 ,m4 ,upjohn designed for ,hartford1 ,conn41 the only ,gothic ,state ,capitol in this country4 ,r4 ,m4 ,upjohn and ,henry ,m4 ,congdon of ,new ,york had already done much ,gothic ecclesiastical work and1 with the possible exception of ,grace ,church in #ahdj1 and ,st4 ,patrick's ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral in #ahhf by ,renwick1 there is no example of this style which shows such appreciation of proportion or of form1 in mass and in detail1 as ,trinity ,church 7#ahdc7 by the first-named architect4 ,it was perhaps rather fortunate that just as the ,queen ,anne fashion1 with its multiplicity of detail1 was brought to us from ,england1 ,h4 ,h4 ,richardson1 of ,boston1 called our attention to the bigness and 7almost brutal7 simplicity of the ,romanesque from ,southern ,france4 ,from the date of the building of ,trinity ,church1 in ,boston 7#ahgf71 may be reckoned the parting of the ways4 ,heretofore everything we had done of any importance had an ,english stamp upon it2 henceforth the work that was done showed the result of training of the ,parisian atelier or of the well-filled sketch books of ,continental travel4 ,not only in this church1 but in his libraries at ,woburn1 ,north ,easton1 ,quincy1 ,milford1 ,burlington1 and ,new ,orleans1 did ,richardson show his grasp of the subject4 ,trinity is unmistakably a ,christian temple1 and its bigness most conducive to the sense of awe and reverence4 ,his libraries leave no doubt as to their having been built for the storing and reading of books2 his stone buildings1 whether the ,court ,house and jail in ,pittsburg1 the ,chamber of ,commerce in ,cincinnati1 or private houses in ,buffalo or ,chicago1 show their purpose and emphasize their material2 his brick buildings1 whether a college building at ,cambridge1 railway station at ,new ,london1 or residence at ,washington1 tell their story in brick2 and his country houses about the suburbs of ,boston1 to be what they are1 could not have been other than of wood4 ,his influence upon the architecture of the day was therefore not surprising1 but there was a subtleness in the character of his designs that his imitators could never acquire and even his immediate successors could not long retain after his personality was lost to them2 and from the lack partly1 perhaps1 of true sympathy1 partly from the modification of conditions1 his art may be said to have died with him4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,george',s ,,hall1 ,,philadelphia4 ,as ,r4 ,m4 ,hunt had the last word on the cast-iron front1 so he had the first on the modern sky-scraper1 a peculiarly ,american production2 the walls of the ,tribune ,building1 however1 carry both their own weight1 and that of the floors1 being built before the days of the methods of steel skeleton construction4 ,hunt was trained in ,paris1 as was ,richardson1 and had assisted in the design of the ,pavillon de ,flore under ,lefnel1 and he showed his appreciation of the ,neo-,grec movement in his design for the ,lenox ,library4 ,it is somewhat unusual for an artist to do his best work in his latest years1 but surely no better work of its kind has been done in modern times than the residences which he designed for three members of the ,vanderbilt family at ,newport1 in ,new ,york city1 and at ,biltmore1 ,n4 ,c4 ,the design which he left for the ,fifth ,avenue front of the ,metropolitan ,museum1 now being carried out by his son1 is a magnificent ,corinthian order1 whereas much of his other work is late ,french ,gothic4 ,that he was called upon to design the base for ,bartholdi's ,liberty in ,new ,york ,harbor1 and the ,administration ,building at the ,international ,exposition of #ahic1 and that a portrait bust has been erected to his memory1 all testify to the appreciation in which he was held by the profession4 ,to ,mc,kim1 ,mead ,white1 of ,new ,york1 we are greatly indebted for their influence upon secular architecture1 and their ,casino at ,newport1 built in #ahhj1 was probably more far-reaching in its effect upon country houses than any other building at that time4 ,among the other work from their office may be mentioned the ,boston ,public ,library1 the ,madison ,square ,garden 7reproducing in its tower the ,giralda of ,seville71 the ,library and other buildings for ,columbia ,college1 the ,metropolitan and ,university ,clubs1 the ,agricultural ,building 7of staff7 in ,chicago in #ahic1 now being reproduced in marble for the ,brooklyn ,institute1 the ,tiffany1 the ,villard1 and other city houses1 and a host of country houses at ,newport1 ,lenox1 and elsewhere4 ,there is another architect whose talents should be acknowledged2 for about #ahhj1 when the shingle house had just begun to take shape1 there was none more clever at that sort of thing than ,w4 ,r4 ,emerson1 of ,boston1 and his resources seemed endless in harmonizing form and color with conditions of seashore or mountain1 as shown in his houses at ,bar ,harbor1 ,milton1 ,newport1 and many other summer resorts4 ,philadelphia1 which had hitherto always been extremely conservative in architecture1 soon began to erect some of the most singular and fantastic structures that could well be imagined2 but fortunately the refined simplicity and fertile originality of such men as ,wilson ,eyre1 ,frank ,miles ,day ,bro41 and ,cope ,stewardson have prevailed1 and in both city and suburban work they and certain others have done and are doing much to counterbalance the character of the eccentricities of their predecessors1 as shown in buildings for the ,university of ,pennsylvania and the ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences4 ,but the restless activity of ,eastern loom and machine shop1 and of ,western farm and mine1 seemed to meet and concentrate in ,chicago--the entrept for the raw material of the ,west and the finished product of the ,east4 ,the unprecedented increase in value of land1 the low price of iron and steel1 with the introduction of high-speed elevators1 combined to develop a new type of sky-scraper2 and as the nature of the soil was entirely unlike that of other cities1 the foundations of these buildings presented problems which were solved by ,chicago architects in various ways hitherto untried4 ,the ,rookery by ,burnham ,root1 ,pullman ,building by ,s4 ,s4 ,beman1 and the ,auditorium 7opera house1 hotel1 and office building in one7 by ,adler ,sullivan1 at the time of their completion were most notable examples of architectural engineering1 and were soon followed by many others more or less similar1 designed by ,w4 ,l4 ,b4 ,jenny1 ,holabird ,roche1 ,henry ,ives ,cobb1 and others4 ,the buildings for the ,chicago ,university1 the ,athletic ,club1 and ,newbury ,library1 by the last-named architect1 show a high degree of ability2 the peculiarly rich arabesque ornamentation designed by ,louis ,h4 ,sullivan1 and the direct and rational handling of the buildings upon which it was used1 are certainly indicative of the spirit of enthusiasm and conscientiousness of a well-trained mind4 ,it is by such characteristics that ,john ,w4 ,root was able to accomplish so much for the advancement of architecture in the ,west4 ,what ,krupp and ,stumm had done for the employees in their works in ,germany1 ,pullman determined to do for his men and their families here2 and a town1 with dwellings1 schools1 churches1 water-works1 etc41 for many thousand inhabitants was designed and built by ,s4 ,s4 ,beman1 which has been reported by experts to be the best of its kind4 ,in ,chicago1 in #ahic1 was held our second international ,exposition2 and that the exhibits should be suitably housed1 some of the most prominent architects of the country were called together1 buildings were assigned to each of them1 and ,frederick ,law ,olmsted was appointed to lay out the grounds1 waterways1 and bridges4 ,illustration3 ,,trinity ,,church1 ,,boston4 ,except for the difference in material1 never did ,rome in the days of ,augustan magnificence show buildings similar to those grouped about the ,court of ,honor4 ,a ,greek would surely have been proud to walk through the ,peristyle1 or to have visited the ,art ,galleries1 and a ,roman to have sauntered about the ,terminal ,station or the triumphal arches of the ,manufactures ,building4 ,right nobly was the ,spanish aid to ,columbus acknowledged in the design of ,machinery ,hall2 but to ,france1 whose generosity had trained so many of our architects1 sculptors1 and painters to do such things1 was the greatest triumph in the unanimity with which they had all worked and the success which crowned their labors4 ,the building occupied by the ,federal ,government was one of the few unworthy of its location or of the occasion4 ,while the architecture of the people had been advancing steadily for fifty years1 that provided by the ,treasury ,department in ,washington had been quite as steadily retrograding4 ,the ,custom ,house1 ,boston2 ,sub-,treasury1 ,new ,york2 the ,mint1 in ,philadelphia2 the ,treasury1 ,post ,office1 and ,interior ,department buildings1 in ,washington1 have stood almost alone since the middle of the century4 ,the few ,gothic buildings referred to previously were honest and intelligent attempts to improve the quality of design for the government1 but the politicians decided that artistic ability was not a prerequisite for the office of ,supervising ,architect4 ,since #ahie1 there has been some infusion of new life into the designing-room1 and such work as the designs by ,william ,martin ,aiken1 for the ,buffalo and ,san ,francisco ,post ,offices and ,court ,houses1 the ,denver and the ,philadelphia ,mints1 and the ,new ,london ,post ,office1 were about being materialized1 when once again the politicians1 who cared not a whit for one design more than another1 interfered to oblige the government contractor4 ,but the good seed had been planted1 and the work of the present incumbent1 ,james ,knox ,taylor1 is likely to show a marked advance over that of many previous years4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,american ,,surety ,,company',s ,,building1 ,,new ,,york4 ,the general scheme of the ,congressional ,library was conceived by ,smithmeyer ,pelz1 the details carried out subsequently by ,general ,casey and his able assistants and successors1 and the building opened to the public in #ahif4 ,the experiment of the collaboration of sculptor and painter with the architect had resulted so favorably in ,chicago1 that the artists invited to decorate this building gladly responded2 and although the remuneration was inconsiderable1 their loyalty to the country1 as to ,art1 resulted in such mural decoration as had not been seen since ,w4 ,m4 ,hunt decorated the ,senate ,chamber in ,albany1 or ,la ,farge did the figures in ,trinity ,church1 ,boston1 and ,st4 ,thomas ,church1 ,new ,york4 ,blashfield's dome1 typifying all the nations of the earth2 ,vedder's ,minerva1 in mosaic2 ,h4 ,o4 ,walker's large lunettes1 illustrating ,english poems1 and ,simmons' small lunettes1 filled with exquisite little figures1 are but a few of the many interesting works in color4 ,two of the main entrance doors of bronze were modeled by ,olin ,l4 ,warner1 but he did not live to complete them4 ,the marble stairway is by ,martini1 and the statues which adorn the main reading-room are by ,adams1 ,bartlett1 ,partridge1 ,ward1 and others4 ,the plan of the building is that of a central octagon containing the general reading-room1 connected by wings containing the book-stacks with a surrounding hollow square containing rooms for special collections4 ,there are ample reading-rooms for representatives1 senators1 and the public1 and a tunnel by which books are sent to the ,capitol4 ,this is the last building of considerable importance constructed by the government1 and it was built on time and within the appropriation of #f1jjj1jjj2 it may be said to be dignified and suitable to its purpose1 and to be representative of the people at the close of the century4 ,it now seems probable that ,new ,york will build the handsome library designed by ,carrre ,hastings2 the ,egyptian lines of the reservoir occupying the site--emphasized by the varying hues of the ivy for so many seasons--will give place to those of an example of modern ,french ,renaissance4 ,among the changes incidental to the growth of this city is the recent disappearance of the old ,tombs prison1 which was another building of ,egyptian architecture1 good of its kind1 and quite dignified and impressive4 ,there are certain other buildings designed in the style of a country almost as tropical as ,egypt1 and as light and airy as that is sombre and gloomy1 but which seem quite as appropriate for their different purposes3 they are the ,casino ,theatre and the ,synagogue at ,fifth ,avenue and ,forty-third ,street1--each an excellent example of ,saracenic architecture1--the former of brick and terra cotta1 and the latter of vari-colored sandstones4 ,another synagogue1 by ,brunner ,tryon1 further up the avenue and facing ,central ,park1 has a decided ,byzantine flavor1--the large arch accentuating the entrance1 carrying a small arcade1 and being surmounted by the traceried dome4 ,the largest and most expensively elaborate hotel in ,america is the ,waldorf-,astoria2 and although certain features of the exterior may not be justified by interior arrangements1 it has certainly been planned with a view to great comfort and luxury4 ,while ,new ,york has the largest and most expensive private residences1-- the chief of these is that of ,cornelius ,vanderbilt1--,philadelphia has the greatest number of small houses owned by their occupants2 and of late years1 there are a greater number of attractive homes in ,st4 ,louis than anywhere else in this country4 ,very many of them have been designed by ,eames ,young1 or by ,shepley1 ,rutan ,coolidge2 and with much open space about them1 they have an air of elegance and hospitality that is lacking to the homes in most other cities4 ,new ,york1 from its position as the commercial and financial centre of the country1 in spite of its situation on a long1 narrow island1 may be accepted as the typical city4 ,what is done here architecturally is done 7only to a different degree7 elsewhere1 and its growth horizontally in the northern portion of the city has kept pace with its perpendicular growth in the more congested business portion4 ,this general expansion has altogether changed the character of many streets1 the residences becoming apartment houses1 and the shops becoming office buildings from ten to twenty stories1--or even more1--the masses becoming larger and the detail proportionately less prominent4 ,the sky-line has entirely changed2 the spire of ,trinity is lost in such surroundings as the ,bowling ,green1 ,empire1 ,washington ,life1 and ,american ,surety buildings1 and in the vicinity where the ,tribune tower was once conspicuous1 now the ,st4 ,paul ,building rises twenty-five stories1 and the ,ives ,syndicate ,building even higher2 further and further up ,broadway1 and to the right and left of it1 these monster buildings continue to rise4 ,but among them all there is not one which shows a more masterly handling of the problem than the ,surety1 where the architect1 ,bruce ,price1 has emphasized the entrance with a colonnade and six figures of much dignity and grace1 and has concentrated the ornament about the upper part of the building1 crowning it with a fine cornice1 which is more effective from the simplicity of the four walls beneath4 ,this building holds its own among such others as the ,washington ,life and ,st4 ,james buildings1 ,new ,york1 or the ,ames ,building1 ,boston1 ,harrison ,building1 ,philadelphia1 ,schiller ,theatre1 ,chicago1 ,wainwright ,building1 ,st4 ,louis1 or ,examiner ,building1 ,san ,francisco4 ,it is impossible1 in so brief a survey of the field1 to enumerate more than a very small fraction of the buildings illustrating the progress of the architecture of the century2 and aside from the residences1 apartments1 and hotels where we live winter or summer1 and commercial buildings in which our working hours may be occupied1 there are very many examples of churches1 schools1 colleges1 libraries1 and museums1 donated1 equipped1 and endowed for our instruction1 theatres and music halls for our entertainment1 railroad stations for transportation1 storage warehouses for the safety of valuables1 and armories for the use of our militia4 ,besides these1 there are engineering works of considerable importance1 such as the ,eads ,bridge1 at ,st4 ,louis1 or the ,roebling ,bridge1 between ,new ,york and ,brooklyn1 and the works of the sculptor ,st4 ,gaudens1 the ,washington ,arch by ,stanford ,white1 the ,farragut and ,lincoln statues in ,new ,york and in ,chicago1 which should surely be mentioned1 since monumental works are the poetry1 whereas the secular and commercial works are but the prose of architecture4 ,as we review our productions1 we should certainly feel encouraged to believe that if we continue to meet and solve each problem in the same direct1 honest way that we have been doing for the last quarter of the century1 there need be no misgivings as to the future of architecture in these ,united ,states4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,chemistry ,,by ,,harvey ,w4 ,,wiley1 ,m4,d41 ,,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,chief ,chemist ,agricultural ,department1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,the science of chemistry1 as it is known to-day1 had its real origin towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,before and up to that time it is true there were many great workers in chemistry1 whose names are associated with investigations in chemical science1 such as ,boyle1 ,stahl1 ,black1 and ,scheele4 ,contemporary with the close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth must also be mentioned particularly the names of ,priestly 7#agcc-ahjd71 ,cavendish and ,humphry ,davy 7#aggh-ahbi74 ,all these workers had to contend1 first of all1 with erroneous theories1 which made it difficult to rightly interpret the data of experiment4 ,the old theory of phlogiston produced an environment in which it was difficult for true scientific methods to survive4 ,the great investigator1 who did more than any other one man to overturn this false theory and place chemistry on a firm foundation1 was ,lavoisier 7#agdc-agid74 ,born near the middle of the eighteenth century1 his scientific activity began about #aggj1 and before he was twenty-five he was made a member of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences4 ,at the age of forty he was recognized as the foremost scientist of his age4 ,priestly discovered oxygen in #aggd1 but failed to recognize its true relations to other bodies4 ,it was ,lavoisier who discovered oxidation 7#aggf71 an achievement which meant more to chemistry than the discovery of oxygen4 ,the observation that metals when heated in confined air increased in weight while the volume of the confined air decreased1 is the crucial experiment upon which the whole science of chemistry rests4 ,this experiment was made most rigorously by ,lavoisier1 and the apparatus which he used is still preserved in the ,museum of ,l'cole des ,arts et ,mtiers in ,paris4 ,this apparatus1 simple in character and yet almost perfect in construction1 has for the chemist a peculiar significance and sacredness1 producing an impression similar to that inspired in the devout ,christian by the relics of the ,cross and the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,in the brief space which is assigned for a discussion of the progress of chemistry during the nineteenth century1 economy of words will be secured by briefly tracing some of the salient points in the progress of some of the more important branches of chemical science4 ,in the following pages1 therefore1 will be found a brief statement of what has been accomplished1 of the most important character1 in the science of chemistry1 under the following heads3-- ,inorganic chemistry2 physical chemistry2 organic chemistry2 analytical chemistry2 synthetical chemistry2 metallurgical chemistry2 agricultural chemistry2 graphic chemistry2 didactic chemistry2 chemistry of fermentation2 and lastly electro-chemistry4 ,no attempt will be made in this paper to enter upon the discussion of the progress which has been made in medical1 pharmaceutical1 and physiological chemistry4 ,the discussion outlined under the above heads does not by any means embrace the whole subject4 ,it will be sufficient to indicate only the lines of progress along which the greatest advances have been made4 ,i4 ,,inorganic ,,and ,,physical ,,chemistry4 ,illustration3 ,h ,davy ,pres ,,rs4 ,the three propositions established by ,lavoisier1 which serve as the foundation for inorganic and physical chemistry1 are the following3-- #a4 ,bodies burn only in contact with pure air4 #b4 ,the air is consumed in the combustion1 and the increase in weight of the burnt body is equal to the decrease in weight of the air4 #c4 ,in combustion the body is generally changed1 by its combination with the pure air1 into an acid1 and metals are changed into metal calx4 ,the total number of elementary bodies known at the beginning of the century was probably less than thirty4 ,many had been recognized as such since remote antiquity1 but none of the non-metallic elements1 except oxygen and sulphur1 was known1 and even their properties were not established with any degree of precision4 ,not only did ,lavoisier establish the fundamental principles of modern chemistry1 but in connection with ,fourcroy 7#agee-ahji71 ,berthollet 7#agdh-ahbb71 and ,guyton de ,morveau 7#agcg-ahaf71 laid the foundation of modern chemical nomenclature4 ,the contributions to chemical knowledge at this time were greatly increased by the works of the ,swedish chemist1 ,scheele 7#agdb-aghf71 and in the beginning years of the century the great work which was accomplished by ,sir ,humphry ,davy advanced very rapidly the general knowledge of chemical science4 ,davy's first works served to elucidate the connection between electricity and chemical processes1 and it was through the classical experiment with an electric current that he isolated 7#ahjg7 the metals sodium and potassium1 and described their properties4 ,this achievement of ,sir ,humphry ,davy's was the second great step in the progress of chemistry1 after the one taken by ,lavoisier4 ,by means of the metals sodium and potassium other metallic elements were separated1 notably aluminium by ,whler 7#ahde74 ,basing his work upon the above experiment1 ,sainte ,claire ,deville developed the metallurgy of aluminium 7#ahed71 and ,bussy isolated magnesium 7#ahcj74 ,in #ahaa iodine was discovered by ,courtois1 and its properties examined simultaneously 7#ahad7 by ,davy and ,gay-,lussac4 ,the contributions made by ,berzelius 7#aggi-ahdh71 who was a contemporary of ,davy and ,gay-,lussac 7#aggh-ahej71 were of the most important character4 ,berzelius not only added to the knowledge of inorganic chemistry but also established many of the important theories on which chemical action depends4 ,his elaboration of the employment of the blowpipe in chemical analysis was of the greatest practical value4 ,in #ahjg ,dalton published a work entitled 8,new ,system of ,chemical ,philosophy10 in which was announced for the first time the law of the definite proportions of bodies forming a definite union4 ,the atomic theory of matter was also developed by ,dalton1 who gave it a definite form and expression4 ,chemists now began to consider the elements as definite indestructible particles of matter1 forming unions among themselves and with different kinds of atoms to form molecules1 which were considered as the units of substances4 ,as a result of this supposition1 the development of the principle of the relative weight with which bodies combine was the logical consequence4 ,now for the first time the elements began to assume not only names and descriptions of properties but also numbers1 showing the relative weight of their atoms or final conditions of existence4 ,it was only necessary1 therefore1 to assume the standard of comparison for any one element1 in order to determine the relative weights with which it combined with others4 ,thus the system of atomic weights was developed4 ,as a result of the law of chemical action1 that most elementary bodies exist in a condition where two atoms are joined together to form a molecule1 it follows1 that in most instances the molecular weights of the elements are double their atomic weight4 ,there are1 however1 many notable exceptions to this rule4 ,the supposition of the existence of atoms was followed soon by another theoretical proposition1 advanced by ,prout 7#ahae74 ,assuming that the atomic weight of hydrogen was one1 ,prout's hypothesis asserted that the atomic weights of all other elementary bodies were multiples of that of hydrogen4 ,the most rigid investigations of recent years have shown that ,prout's hypothesis is untenable2 but the remarkable fact still remains1 that in a great many cases the atomic weights of the elements are almost whole numbers1 or differ from whole numbers by almost a half unit4 ,the determination of the atomic weights of the various elements during the past one hundred years has been worked on by hundreds of chemists whose names it would be impracticable to mention4 ,the most important of them are ,berzelius1 ,cooke1 ,cleve1 ,delafontaine1 ,dumas1 ,hermann1 ,marchand1 ,marignac 7#ahag71 ,morley1 ,noyes1 ,pelouse 7#ahjg-ahfg71 ,richards1 ,schneider1 ,stas 7#ahac-ahia71 and ,thompson4 ,of all these workers ,stas1 a ,belgian chemist1 is perhaps the most renowned4 ,among those mentioned1 ,cooke1 ,morley1 ,noyes1 ,delafontaine1 and ,richards are citizens of the ,united ,states4 ,from the less than thirty elements which were known at the beginning of the century1 there are known to-day seventy-two with certainty1 and perhaps one or two more whose identity has not yet been fully established4 ,the chemists who have become most renowned by the discovery of elementary bodies are3 ,cavendish1 ,scheele1 ,berzelius1 ,whler 7#ahjj-ahhb71 ,davy1 ,gay-,lussac1 ,priestly1 ,bunsen 7b4 #ahaa71 ,crookes 7b4 #ahcb71 and ,ramsay4 ,the following elements1 twenty-eight in number1 were known before #ahjj3 ,,elements ,,known ,,before #ahjj4 #a4 ,copper ,known to ,ancients4 #b4 ,gold 0 0 0 #c4 ,iron 0 0 0 #d4 ,lead 0 0 0 #e4 ,silver 0 0 0 #f4 ,tin 0 0 0 #g4 ,carbon 0 0 0 7,but three forms not identified until #aghf-ahjj47 #h4 ,mercury ,known to ,ancients4 #i4 ,antimony ,fifteenth ,century4 #aj4 ,bismuth 0 0 #aa4 ,zinc 0 0 #ab4 ,phosphorus #affi #ac4 ,arsenic 7,isolated7 #afig 0 7,studied7 #agcc #ad4 ,cobalt #agcc #ae4 ,platinum #agce-agdh #af4 ,nickel #agea #ag4 ,hydrogen #agff #ah4 ,nitrogen #aggb #ai4 ,oxygen #aggd #bj4 ,manganese 7,studied in compounds1 isolated at unknown date7 #aggd #ba4 ,barium #aggd #bb4 ,tungsten #agha-aghe #bc4 ,molybdenum #aghb #bd4 ,tellurium #aghb-agih #be4 ,strontium #agij #bf4 ,yttrium #agid #bg4 ,chromium #agig #bh4 ,beryllium #agih ,four additional elements were known to exist before that date1 but they had not been isolated and identified4 ,these are3-- ,,elements ,,known ,,but ,,not ,,isolated ,,or ,,examined ,,before #ahjj4 ,chlorine ,compound known #aggd ,isolated and studied #ahaj ,titanium ,known in compounds #agia ,isolated #ahbd ,uranium ,known in compounds #aghi ,isolated #ahbd ,zirconium ,known in compounds #aghi ,isolated #ahbd ,the following elements1 forty-nine in number1 have been discovered since #ahjj3-- ,,elements ,,discovered ,,since #ahjj4 #a4 ,niobium #ahja #b4 ,vanadium #ahja #c4 ,tantalum4 ,studied about #ahjb-ahjc 7,not yet isolated47 #d4 ,cerium #ahjc #e4 ,iridium #ahjc #f4 ,osmium #ahjc #g4 ,palladium #ahjc #h4 ,rhodium #ahjc #i4 ,potassium #ahjg #aj4 ,sodium #ahjg #aa4 ,calcium #ahjh #ab4 ,boron #ahjh #ac4 ,silicon #ahaj #ad4 ,iodine #ahab #ae4 ,cadmium #ahag #af4 ,lithium #ahag #ag4 ,selenium #ahag #ah4 ,bromine #ahbf #ai4 ,aluminium #ahbg #bj4 ,thorium #ahbh #ba4 ,ruthenium #ahbh-ahde #bb4 ,magnesium #ahcj #bc4 ,lanthanum #ahci #bd4 ,terbium4 ,studied about #ahci 7,not yet isolated47 #be4 ,erbium #ahdc #bf4 ,neodymium #ahdc #bg4 ,praseodymium #ahdc #bh4 ,rubidium #ahfj #bi4 ,csium #ahfj #cj4 ,thallium #ahfa #ca4 ,indium #ahfc #cb4 ,gallium #ahge #cc4 ,decipium4 7,name given in #ahgh to mixture of ,samarium and ,decipium47 ,isolated #ahgh #cd4 ,ytterbium #ahgh #ce4 ,thulium4 7,name given by ,cleve in #ahgi to a metal in ,gadolinite4 ,has not yet been isolated1 and elementary nature is disputed47 #cf4 ,scandium4 ,known since #ahgi 7,not yet isolated47 #cg4 ,germanium #ahhe #ch4 ,samarium4 7,a name given to a metal found in ,gadolinite4 ,elementary nature very doubtful47 #ci4 ,holmium4 7,not yet isolated47 #dj4 ,argon #ahie #da4 ,helium #ahif #db4 ,metargon #ahih #dc4 ,krypton #ahih #dd4 ,neon #ahih #de4 ,polonium #ahih #df4 ,coronium #ahih #dg4 ,xenon #ahih #dh4 ,monium #ahih #di4 ,etherion 787 #ahih #ej4 ,gadolinium 787 #ahhe #ea4 ,radium 787 #ahih ,the date in each case is that of the discovery4 ,numbers #di1 #ej1 and #ea are not yet sufficiently well known to justify being considered elements1 and are therefore properly followed by an interrogation point4 ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,chemistry4 ,in strictly physical chemistry the relations of electricity and heat to chemical action have been extensively developed during the century4 ,the specific heats of the elements and of most of their compounds have been carefully determined1 and thermo and physical chemistry under the leadership of such master minds as ,berthollet1 ,thompson1 ,van't ,hoff1 and ,ostwald have been brought to the highest degree of perfection4 ,the chemist now does not consider that he knows any body until he knows thoroughly its relations to heat and to electricity4 ,the action of light must also be included1 but this subject will be more thoroughly discussed under graphic chemistry4 ,the nature of solutions has also been developed by the studies of ,ostwald and ,van't ,hoff1 and as a result of these studies1 a flood of light has been thrown upon the constitution of compound bodies4 ,in the development of physical chemistry1 attention should be directed to the help afforded by ,newlands 7#ahfd7 and ,mendelejeff 7#ahfi7 and others1 showing that the elements form groups which tend to recur with a periodicity which is sufficiently definite to enable the investigator to foretell to some extent the properties of the elements which have never yet been discovered1 and whose existence is necessary in order to fill up the gaps in existing groups4 ,by this method the existence1 atomic weight and properties of scandium1 gallium1 and germanium were foretold years before their discovery4 ,such actual realization of a scientific-prophetic method is one of the strongest indications of the basis of fact upon which it rests4 ,although a rigid application of the principles of the periodic law is not possible1 yet its discovery and elaboration mark one of the great forward steps of chemical philosophy4 ,if we regard any material system by itself1 i4e41 independently of any other system or influence by which it may be surrounded1 we recognize it as consisting of essentially two things1--matter and energy4 ,a precise definition of either matter or energy is difficult1 if not impossible2 but what is connoted by these names is sufficiently well understood by their well-known properties4 ,both energy and matter are essential to each and every system4 ,they are coexistent4 ,in the light of human experience1 we cannot conceive of one existing without the other2 and in the study of any material system1 consideration of one of these components without the other can only be regarded as incomplete4 ,but1 for the sake of convenience1 this has been the practice1 and1 generally speaking1 chemists have concerned themselves with matter changes of equilibria1 while physicists have more especially directed their attention to energy equilibria4 ,the object of the physical chemist is to follow equilibria changes in given systems1 having due regard for both the matter and energy involved4 ,berthollet may be regarded as the first true physical chemist1 on account of his classical views on mass action4 ,largely because the time was not ripe for it1 his views were not generally adopted4 ,a quarter of a century later 7#ahfg71 ,guldberg and ,waage gave a precise mathematical expression of the law1 but still it attracted very little attention from investigators4 ,a tremendous impetus was given to the subject by the electrolytic dissociation theory of ,arrhenius 7#ahhg71 and the extension of the additive laws of gases to dilute solutions1 by ,van't ,hoff 7#ahhe74 ,this was but a comparatively small field in the subject1 but it stimulated activity along the whole line1 the wonderful increase of our knowledge concerning the velocity or rates of reaction1 the heat changes involved1 and the marvelous development of electrolytic chemistry being pertinent instances4 ,the generalization of ,gibbs1 known as the phase rule 7#ahgf71 which accurately states the condition for equilibrium in the system1 and the ,theorem of ,le ,chatelier 7#ahhd71 that any change in the factors of equilibrium from outside is followed by a reverse change within the system1 together with the mass law1 now give us a consistent theoretical foundation for the subject4 ,in general terms1 it may be said that all chemistry1 at least all theoretical chemistry1 properly belongs to the province of physical chemistry1 and the title1 while in many ways convenient1 is misleading4 ,,iii4 ,,organic ,,chemistry4 ,compounds containing carbon enter into all the products of a living cell4 ,for this reason the chemistry of carbon compounds came to be known as organic chemistry4 ,this should not be taken as a definition1 however1 without limitations4 ,many of the compounds containing carbon are not known to enter into living tissue in any way1 and their connection with it is very remote and not essential4 ,on the other hand1 it should be remembered that many organic compounds1 and those even of most importance1 contain some other element1--nitrogen1 for example1--as the significant one4 ,while nearly all the known elements can enter into organic compounds1 the vast majority of such substances are composed of but very few4 ,for instance1 those classes of which sugar1 starch1 the fats1 etc41 are examples1 contain only carbon1 oxygen1 and hydrogen4 ,with nitrogen1 sulphur1 and phosphorus added to these elements1 almost the entire range of organic chemistry is covered4 ,organic chemistry1 therefore1 differs from inorganic chemistry in that1 while the number of compounds is much larger1 the number of elements involved is very limited4 ,illustration3 ,,michael ,,faraday4 ,berzelius may be regarded as having founded organic chemistry in the beginning of this century4 ,as a result of his analyses of the salts of organic acids1 he clearly demonstrated that the laws of definite and multiple proportions hold equally for organic compounds and for inorganic ones4 ,the work of this master was ably furthered by ,liebig 7#ahjc-ahgc71 who devised most elegant methods for the analytical investigation of organic compounds1 methods which are in use to-day without any essential change4 ,very soon1 however1 it was found that organic compounds existed having the same percentage composition1 but quite dissimilar properties1 physical and chemical1 as1 for instance1 sugar and starch4 ,other striking examples are ,faraday's discovery 7#ahbe7 of a compound identical in composition with ethylene1 but wholly different in properties2 and ,whler's classical synthesis 7#ahbh7 of urea by the transformation of ammonium cyanate4 ,similar facts in the domain of inorganic chemistry1 though now well known1 were at that time wanting1 and thus this most fruitful idea1 designated as isomerism1 was introduced into the science4 ,the next great step was the introduction of the theory of radicles1 first suggested tentatively by ,berzelius 7#ahaj71 but put forward in a definite way as one of the results of the classical investigation on benzoyl by ,liebig and ,whler 7#ahcb74 ,that is to say1 a group of elements1 or radicle1 can pass through a series of compounds1 from one to the other1 as though the group were one single element4 ,for years this idea was the guiding principle in chemical investigations1 and was most useful in aiding the classification of chemical compounds and bringing order out of the chaos of accumulating observations4 ,but the search for radicles was in a sense a vain one4 ,we now know that no radicle exists as such by itself4 ,meanwhile1 ,dumas and his pupil ,laurent had introduced and developed the theory of types1 whereby all chemical compounds could be classified under four types1 which marked a distinct step in advance4 ,laurent1 together with his colleague ,gerhardt 7#ahaf-ahef71 recognized the shortcomings of both the radicle and type theories in their earlier forms1 and showed their inter-relation1 when modified so as to do away with certain inconsistencies4 ,dumas had before this demonstrated the theory of substitution 7#ahcd71--that is1 that in certain compounds one or more of the elements can be driven out and replaced by others without changing the essential characteristics of the compound4 ,for instance1 chloracetic acid1 in which part of the hydrogen of acetic acid has been replaced by chlorine1 contains all the essential characteristics of acetic acid2 in fact1 some of them--its acidic properties1 for example--being markedly accentuated4 ,this theory was fiercely assailed at first1 notably by ,liebig4 ,like all theories of science1 it was in the beginning pushed to the extreme1 and put forward to explain things to which it was not applicable4 ,it gradually came to demonstrate its own right to existence1 largely as a result of the work of ,laurent and ,gerhardt1 and made its influence felt in the exposition of their ideas1 to which reference has just been made4 ,the development of these theories1 about the middle of the century1 was greatly hastened by the work of many brilliant investigators1 notably ,wurtz 7#ahag-ahhd71 ,hofmann 7#ahah-ahib71 ,williamson 7#ahbd-71 ,kolbe 7#ahah-ahhd71 and ,frankland 7#ahbe-7 among others4 ,kekul proposed a new type1 marsh gas or methane4 ,shortly afterwards1 his well-known formula for benzene1 the starting-point and foundation of the vast class of aromatic bodies1 was proposed4 ,he insisted that the time had come when chemists must ask what those ultimate particles1 or atoms1 of the elements themselves were doing in these compounds of various types4 ,the answer was a grand one1 and the result1 our magnificent store of information concerning the constitution of organic compounds1 or the way in which the atoms are connected with each other4 ,it is not to be inferred that our knowledge on this subject1 in any one case1 is complete4 ,far from it6 ,much that is most interesting and important is apparently as remote from our grasp as ever4 ,but we do know something about the general relations of the atoms in the molecule1 and our knowledge1 so far as it goes1 is definite and precise4 ,somewhat later1 ,van't ,hoff and ,lebel1 at the same time but independently1 introduced the study of the space relations of organic compounds by suggesting the simplest possible space formula 7the tetrahedron7 for marsh gas or methane1 of which all other organic compounds may1 theoretically at least1 be regarded as derivatives4 ,many inexplicable relations1 especially among isomers1 now became clear4 ,the theory was at first bitterly assailed1 especially by ,kolbe4 ,it found an able champion in ,wislicenus 7#ahch-71 however1 and has so thoroughly established itself1 that it may be safely said that at the present day it is the controlling idea in the large majority of organic investigations4 ,the carbon atom is characterized by a wonderful facility in uniting not only with other elements1 but with itself4 ,it would even appear as though its influence in this regard extended to other elements united with it1 as nitrogen1 for instance1 shows an unexpected ability to unite with nitrogen in organic compounds4 ,further1 the carbon atom is characterized by an unusually constant valency1 namely1 four4 ,these two characteristics account for homology1 that is1 for a series of similar compounds differing in composition one from the other by--,,ch#b1 and enables us to trace back all organic compounds to one mother substance--marsh gas or methane4 ,these ideas have also been more or less successfully applied to the study of the composition of inorganic compounds4 ,the assistance organic chemistry has given to the general subject is incalculable4 ,finally1 it may be said1 that while in the nature of the case our ideas of structure in organic compounds cannot be regarded as proved1 or as not subject to possible future modifications1 we have1 at least1 a consistent theory and good working hypothesis4 ,a homely illustration of our present ideas may be drawn from the modern high city building4 ,the skeleton of this building is made of iron1 about which are grouped the brick1 stone1 wood1 and other materials to form a complete building4 ,so the organic body is built on a chain or frame-work or skeleton of carbon atoms1 about which are grouped the atoms of hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen1 or radicle compounds thereof4 ,it is not possible here to even name some of the more eminent workers who for a quarter of a century have contributed to our knowledge of organic chemistry4 ,this branch of chemistry has been the vogue1 and has been pushed almost to the limit of possibility since #ahge4 ,many almost unexplored fields still remain1 but chemists recognize the fact that in theory and practice organic chemistry has reached a high degree of perfection1 and they are returning to continue the researches in other fields which have for so long been almost neglected4 ,,iv4 ,,analytical ,,chemistry4 ,no branch of chemical science has a more general interest for the public than that which relates to the determination of the materials of which bodies are composed1 and the proportions in which they exist4 ,at the beginning of the century considerable progress had been made in this branch of knowledge by the researches of ,boyle 7#afbf-afia71 ,hoffmann1 ,margraff 7#agji-aghj71 ,scheele and ,bergmann 7#agce-aghd74 ,berzelius1 as has already been mentioned1 had added a new and valuable factor to chemical analysis by the development of the blowpipe1 and in the early part of the century mineral analysis was still further advanced by ,klaproth 7#agdc-ahag71 ,rose 7#agih-ahgc71 and many others4 ,no one man did so much to advance this branch of chemical science as ,fresenius 7#ahah-ahig74 ,he collated and proved all the proposed methods of analysis1 both qualitative and quantitative1 and out of a confused mass of material formed a logical system of procedure1 which has proved invaluable to the progress of chemical science in all its branches4 ,the volumetric methods of analysis1 which save so much time and labor without sacrificing accuracy1 were developed by ,gay-,lussac1 ,vauquelin 7#agfc-ahgi71 ,mohr 7#ahjf-ahgi71 ,volhard1 ,sutton1 ,fehling1 and ,liebig4 ,the methods of gas analysis have been worked out chiefly by ,bunsen1 ably assisted by ,winkler and ,hempel4 ,the methods of determining the elementary bodies in organic compounds have been developed by ,dumas1 ,liebig1 ,will1 ,varrentrap1 and ,kjeldahl1 to the last of whom chemical analysis owes a debt of gratitude for the invention of a speedy and accurate method of determining nitrogen4 ,not much less is the debt due to ,gooch for the invention of the perforated platinum crucible1 carrying an asbestos felt for securing precipitates by filtration1 in a form suitable to ignition without further preparation4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,through the classic researches of ,arago 7#aghf-ahec7 and ,biot 7#aggd-ahfb71 polarized light has been made a most valuable adjunct to chemical research1 serving as it does to measure the quantity of various alkaloids1 essential oils1 and sugars4 ,based on these researches of ,biot and ,arago1 ,ventzke1 ,soleil1 ,scheibler1 ,duboscq1 ,landolt1 and ,lippich have constructed apparatus1 which have made an exact science of optical saccharimetry4 ,optical analysis is not without its relation to theoretical chemistry1 for by it has been proved the assumption that optically active bodies contain an asymmetrical carbon atom1--that is1 one which combines with four different atoms or radicles4 ,electricity has become also one of the most useful factors in chemical analysis4 ,many metals are easily deposited by electrolytic action1 and their separation and determination rendered easy and certain4 ,chemical analysis has not only given us accurate knowledge of the constituents of matter1 but by revealing the deportment of molecules and groups of molecules in inorganic and organic compounds1 has opened up a path for organic and synthetic chemistry which otherwise must have remained forever closed4 ,the discovery and development of spectrum analysis is one of the great achievements of the nineteenth century in chemical science4 ,wollaston1 in #ahjb1 first noticed that the spectrum of the sun's light1 when greatly magnified1 was not composed of colors gradually changing from one to the other1 but that the continuity of the colors was interrupted by dark bands4 ,fraunhofer1 in #ahad1 had made a map of the solar spectrum1 showing #egf of these dark lines4 ,fraunhofer was entirely ignorant of the cause of these dark lines1 but when he had found them1 not only in the light from the sun1 but also from the moon and the fixed stars1 he properly concluded that they were due to something entirely independent of the earth4 ,it remained for ,bunsen and ,kirchhoff1 in #ahfj1 to point out the fact that these dark lines were characteristic of certain chemical elements existing in the sun and its photosphere1 and this fact is the foundation of spectrum analysis4 ,the broad black band in the sun's spectrum1 called by ,fraunhofer ,d1 corresponded exactly in position and in width with the yellow band produced by a flame containing incandescent sodium4 ,there was no doubt whatever1 therefore1 that the two phenomena were due to the same cause2 but why in the one case should the band be black and in the other yellow8 ,this question was answered by the discovery of the fact that a ray of light colored by incandescent sodium1 passing through a luminous atmosphere of the same metal1 would lose by absorption all of its yellow color1 and would display a black band where before the yellow color existed4 ,based upon this observation1 the development of spectrum analysis went forward with amazing rapidity4 ,the hundreds of lines in the sun's spectrum were found to occupy exactly the position of luminous lines in the spectra of various metals1 and thus it was possible for the chemist to extend his investigations beyond the limits of the earth1 and distinguish the chemical elements in the sun and in the fixed stars billions of miles farther away from us than the sun itself4 ,celestial chemistry has thus become a fixed and definite science4 ,but the value of spectral examinations has extended still farther4 ,many luminous lines were observed in the spectrum which were not found in the spectra of any known element4 ,the inference then logically arose that there were elements yet undiscovered to which these lines were due4 ,from this starting point investigations proceeded which have led to the discovery of a large number of elementary bodies4 ,among the important elements that have been discovered by means of spectrum analysis may be mentioned3 csium1 rubidium1 thallium1 indium1 gallium1 ytterbium1 and scandium4 ,spectrum analysis is also extremely useful in proving the verity of supposed new elements2 for if a supposed new element should be found to give a series of spectral lines coincident with those already known1 it would be a positive proof of the fact that the supposed new element was but a mixture of bodies already known to exist4 ,v4 ,,synthetical ,,chemistry4 ,this branch of chemical science has for its object the building up of the more complex from the simpler forms of matter4 ,in the early part of the century1 ,chevreul and ,whler laid the foundation of the science by the synthesis of fatty-like bodies and urea4 ,berthellot and ,friedel 7#ahcb-7 in ,france1 and ,williamson and ,frankland in ,england1 added much to our knowledge4 ,kolbe1 in ,germany1 made salicylic acid so abundantly as to banish the natural article from the market4 ,the synthesis of coloring matters resembling indigo was also a great blow to that industry4 ,from the products of the distillation of coal1 chemists were able to make thousands of valuable bodies of the greatest utility4 ,many medicinal substances and nearly all the common dyes trace their origin to coal4 ,fischer 7b4 #aheb71 in ,germany1 has contributed his remarkable results in the synthesis of sugar to the last years of the century4 ,lillienfeld1 in ,austria1 has gone still further1 and has built up a body which has many of the properties of protein1 one of the most highly organized of organic substances4 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,henry ,,bessemer4 ,in the inorganic world synthesis is not so difficult a matter as the vast number of compounds attest4 ,by means of the electric furnace1 ,moissan1 in ,france1 has succeeded in uniting carbon with many of the metallic elements1 and thus opened the path for new achievements in passing directly from inorganic to organic compounds4 ,the progress of chemical synthesis has already blotted out the old distinction between inorganic and organic chemistry1 and we can no longer say of organic bodies that they are the products of living cells4 ,organic bodies are those which contain a carbon or other elementary skeleton1 to which are attached the elements or groups of elements forming the complete body4 ,the claim which has been made that synthetical chemistry would in the near future produce the food of man1 and thus relegate agriculture to the domain of the useless or forgotten arts1 is1 however1 wholly without scientific foundation4 ,the function of the farmer will not be usurped by the chemist4 ,the future will see the most important contributions to chemistry coming from the field of organic chemistry1 but it will also see the farmer following in the furrow1 and man depending for his food on the fields of waving grain4 ,,vi4 ,,metallurgical ,,chemistry4 ,this is the oldest branch of chemical science1 and naturally the one which was furthest advanced at the beginning of the century4 ,nevertheless1 the advances which the past one hundred years have seen in this science are most surprising4 ,gold and silver are now secured from ores so poor as to have rendered them of no value a hundred years ago4 ,the ,bessemer process of steel making 7#ahef7 has revolutionized the world1 and made possible railroads and steamships4 ,the basic ,bessemer process of making steel from pig-iron rich in phosphorus1 has opened up rich mines of iron ore hitherto valueless4 ,the basic phosphatic slag1 resulting from this process1 is of the highest value in the fields1 and has brought agriculture and metallurgy into intimate relationship4 ,the electric furnace has made aluminium almost as cheap as iron1 bulk for bulk1 and electric welding bids fair to take the place of the old process1 with the cheapening of metals4 ,,vii4 ,,agricultural ,,chemistry4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 in the beginning of the century1 delivered a course of lectures on the relations of chemistry to agriculture1 and these were published in book form4 ,in ,france1 important contributions were made to agricultural chemical science by ,vauquelin1 ,chevreul 7#aghf-ahhi71 and ,boussingault 7#ahjb-ahhg71 who made important researches before the middle of the century4 ,the most important work in agricultural chemistry1 however1 was done by ,liebig4 ,his achievements so overshadowed those of his predecessors that he is generally regarded1 although improperly1 as the father of that branch of the science4 ,the early achievements of these workers showed the relatively small portions of the crops that were derived from the soil4 ,the study of the ash constituents of plants laid the foundation of rational fertilizing1 and the utilization of the stores of plant food preserved in great natural deposits4 ,beginning with the middle of the century1 the attention of agronomists was called to the desirability of utilizing the deposits of guano1 found in the islands along the west coast of ,south ,america2 of the deposits of phosphate rock existing in many localities2 and later1 of the potash salts1 discovered near ,stassfurt1 which completed the trio of available natural foods most useful to plants4 ,the establishment of an agricultural experiment station by ,sir ,john ,lawes at ,rothamstead 7#ahcd71 before the middle of the century1 set an example which has been followed by the establishment of experiment stations in all the civilized countries of the world4 ,under the great stimulus given to agricultural research by these stations1 progress during the latter half of the century has been very rapid4 ,there now exist in ,europe nearly one hundred stations devoted to agricultural research1 and in this country the number is half as great4 ,conspicuous achievements1 marking the closing years of the century1 have been the discovery of the methods whereby organic nitrogen is rendered suitable for plant food1 and atmospheric nitrogen fixed and rendered available by leguminous plants4 ,in the first instance1 it has been established that organic nitrogen in the soil can only be utilized by plants after it has been oxidized by bacterial action4 ,in the case of leguminous plants1 nitrogen is rendered available for nutrition by means of bacteria inhabiting nodules in the roots of the legumes4 ,these two great discoveries have proved of incalculable benefit to practical agriculture4 ,chemical science in its relations to agriculture has shown that the fertility of the soil may be conserved and increased1 while the magnitude of the crops harvested is sustained or augmented4 ,thus1 no matter how rapid may be the increase of population1 agricultural chemistry will provide abundant food4 ,,viii4 ,,graphic ,,chemistry4 ,illustration3 ,,louis ,,jacques ,,daguerre4 ,the honor of discovering that prints could be made by the action of light on certain salts1 such as those of silver1 belongs to ,daguerre1 in #ahci4 ,the fundamental principle of graphic chemistry is that metallic salts1 sensitive to the light1 when in contact with organic matter1 suffer a complete or partial reduction and are rendered insoluble4 ,the intensity of the reduction is measured exactly by the intensity of the light4 ,when light is reflected from any object capable of producing different degrees of intensity1 as from the hair and face of a man1 the reduction of the metal is greatest by the light from that portion of the physiognomy which gives the greatest reflection4 ,thus1 when the unreduced metallic salt is washed out1 a permanent record1 the negative1 of the object is left4 ,it is a long step from the first daguerreotype to the modern photograph1 but the principle of the process has remained unchanged4 ,photographs in natural colors have of late years been obtained4 ,one method is by interposing a film of metallic mercury behind the sensitive plate which must be transparent4 ,the reflected rays of light1 having different wave lengths1 precipitate the metal in superimposed films1 corresponding to the wave or half-wave length4 ,when a negative thus formed is seen by reflected light1 the emergent rays from the superimposed films acting as mirrors are transformed into the original colors of the photographed object4 ,the various methods of printing by heliotypes1 photolithographs1 photogravures1 etc41 are illustrations of the application of graphic chemistry to the arts4 ,,ix4 ,,didactic ,,chemistry4 ,the lectures of ,davy and ,faraday in ,england1 of ,whler and ,liebig in ,germany1 of ,chevreul and ,dumas in ,france1 and of ,silliman 7#aggi-ahfd7 in this country1 made the study of chemistry attractive and easy during the early part of the century4 ,it was noticed1 however1 that the students who finished these courses1 while well versed in the principles of the science1 were not able to apply them in practice4 ,towards the middle of the century1 therefore1 a radical change in the system of instruction was inaugurated4 ,the student was put to work and taught to question nature for himself4 ,the universities of ,france and ,germany were equipped with working desks where students of chemistry put into practice at once the principles of the science which they heard elucidated in the lecture room4 ,cooke1 at ,harvard1 was the chief apostle of the laboratory method in this country1 and this method of instruction has now spread1 until even the high and grammar schools have their chemical laboratories4 ,in our universities1 students may now begin their chemical studies associated with laboratory practice in the first year of their course1 and continue it to the end4 ,graduates of such courses are not only grounded in the theories of chemistry1 but are thoroughly familiar with its practice4 ,under this system1 coupled with the demand for chemical services in every branch of industry1 the number of trained chemists has speedily increased4 ,at this time 7#ahii7 there are more than four thousand trained chemists in the ,united ,states4 ,x4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,fermentation4 ,our knowledge of fermentation and bacterial action is practically all comprised in the achievements of the nineteenth century4 ,prior to this time it was known that fermentation took place1 but its causes and character were wholly mysterious4 ,the great work of ,pasteur 7#ahei7 resulted in the fact that fermentations were chiefly caused by the activity of living cells1 which have the capacity of reproduction4 ,the most common form of fermentation is that whereby sugar is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide4 ,the name of the organism that produces this change is saccharomyces cerevisiae4 ,another class of fermentation is seen in the process of digestion4 ,this species of fermentation is typified by the action of sprouted barley on starch1 whereby the starch is converted into sugar4 ,the active principle of the saliva1 ptyalin1 has the same property1 and when starchy bodies are masticated1 a part1 at least1 of the starch which they contain is converted into sugar4 ,the active principle of malt is known as diastase1 and this1 as well as ptyalin1 belongs to a class of ferments which are incapable of reproduction4 ,illustration3 ,,louis ,,pasteur4 ,all the decompositions of organic matter1 such as the decay of meats and vegetables1 are now known to be forms of fermentation1 due to the action of certain organisms known by the group name of bacteria4 ,this discovery led naturally to the process of preserving organic compounds by sterilization4 ,the principles on which this process depends are very simple4 ,if an organic body1 such as a fruit or vegetable1 be subjected for some time to a high temperature1--that of boiling water will usually suffice1--the fermentation germs which it contains will be destroyed4 ,if then it be sealed in such a way1 either hermetically or with a plug of sterilized cotton1 so that no living germ can reach it1 decomposition cannot take place4 ,certain chemicals1 such for instance as salicylic acid and formaldehyde1 have the property of paralyzing or suspending germ action1 and hence organic bodies treated with these substances may also be protected against decomposition4 ,the activity of fermentation is made use of in the technical arts4 ,bread is made light by fermentation1 and wine1 beer1 and cider are made by the fermentation of fruits and grains4 ,alcohol is produced by the fermentation of grains and potatoes1 their starch having previously been converted into sugar by malt4 ,buchner has lately shown that all fermentation is of one kind1 namely1 that due to ferments of the diastase type4 ,the fermentation produced by yeast1 for instance1 is not due1 according to his observations1 to the living cells1 but to the products of their activity4 ,by destroying yeast cells1 by grinding and high pressure1 and using their contents1 he has secured a vigorous fermentation similar in every respect to that caused by the cells themselves4 ,,xi4 ,,electro-,,chemistry4 ,the electric furnace1 which affords a higher heat than chemists had been able to secure1 has been the promoter of great advances in inorganic chemistry4 ,moissan 7b4 #aheb71 a ,french chemist1 has been the most successful in applying the heat of the electric furnace to analytic and synthetic studies4 ,one of the practical results which has come from these studies has been the virtual bridging over of the chasm which has been supposed to exist between organic and inorganic compounds4 ,under the influence of the heat of the electric furnace1 carbon1 which is the keystone of organic compounds1 has been made to combine directly with the metals1 forming a series of bodies known as metallic carbides4 ,the carbide of calcium1 under the action of water1 yields a gas known as acetylene1 which by a series of reactions can be converted into alcohol4 ,thus alcohol1 which only a short time ago was supposed to be solely the product of organic life1 is shown also to result from a simple inorganic reaction such as has been shown above4 ,the importance of electrolysis in metallurgical and analytical chemistry has already been noticed4 ,so rapid has been the progress along these lines that the terms metallurgical chemistry and electro-chemistry are in some respects almost synonymous4 ,electricity has also been employed in many of the chemical arts2 e4 g41 in the promotion of crystallization and purification of organic solutions as practiced in the sugar industry4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,a ,,nail ,,with ,a ,,hammer ,,made ,,of ,,frozen ,,mercury4 ,though belonging rather to analytical than to electro-chemistry1 one may here mention the wonders of that discovery which belongs to the close of the nineteenth century1 and which is known as 8liquid air40 ,until #ahgg air--oxygen and nitrogen--was regarded as a permanent gas4 ,oxygen liquefies at #cjj below zero and nitrogen at #cbj4 ,when air is cooled to those degrees it assumes a misty form and falls like raindrops to the bottom of the vessel4 ,it then gives off vapor1 like boiling water4 ,if poured out on a conductor1 as iron or ice1 it assumes the gaseous state so rapidly as to amount to an explosion4 ,the many experiments with it are simply wonderful1 and the practical claims for it are without end4 ,already it runs an engine and motor vehicles4 ,it is claimed that it will complete the problem of aerial navigation2 that it is the coming power in gunnery and blasting2 that it affords the ideal sanitation2 that in surgery it offers the most perfect chemical cauterization4 ,,conclusion4 ,there is no branch of science that holds such an intimate relation to the progress and welfare of man as chemistry4 ,first of all1 it is chiefly instrumental in providing him with food and clothing1 as has been shown in the paragraph on agricultural chemistry4 ,in the second place it has extended his domain over matter and1 in connection with physics1 has established the identity of the composition of the universe with that of the earth4 ,the universe has thus been shown to be of a single origin and of uniform properties4 ,by understanding the constitution of matter1 with which he is surrounded1 man is able to utilize to the best advantage the material at his disposal4 ,thus invention is promoted and the application of chemical knowledge in the arts extended4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,music ,,and ,,drama ,,by ,,riter ,,fitzgerald1 ,a4,m41 ,dramatic ,critic 8,city ,item10 ,philadelphia4 ,i4 ,,music4 ,music finds its highest artistic development in the happy combinations which go to make up the opera4 ,these combinations passed through various historic stages1 and ripened into noble maturity by the end of the eighteenth century1 under the guiding genius of the ,handels1 ,mozarts1 and ,glucks of the times4 ,their legacy passed1 in the nineteenth century1 to a host of worthy successors1 among whom stands1 as a central figure1 ,verdi1 the great ,italian operatic composer2 while ,wagner1 of ,germany1 has striven with herculean might to revolutionize the lyrical drama by polemical writing1 by twofold authorship of words and notes1 and by a new application of principles gathered from antecedent reformers4 ,his efforts produced a commotion in the art world which might be compared to that excited by the rivalry between ,buonocini and ,handel in ,london1 or ,piccini and ,gluck in ,paris1 but for the fact that in each of these instances the contention was between one composer and another1 whereas in the case of ,wagner it was the opposition of one composer to all others in the world1 save the few who1 believing in the man1 his teachings1 and his wonderful powers of application1 undertook propagandism as a duty1 and endeavored to make proselytes to their faith4 ,he did not live to see the day when his efforts could be called completely successful1 and his death in #ahhc left judgment quite wide open as to his theoretical and practical merits4 ,the nineteenth century closes with the question still on as to the permanence or evanescence of his many unique1 ponderous1 and revolutionizing productions4 ,verdi1 who still lives1 surpasses all the composers of his time in the beauty of his melodies and the intensity of his dramatic power4 ,rossini1 whose 8,guillaume ,tell10 which was produced in ,paris in #ahbi1 was his masterpiece1 ruled the operatic world before ,verdi1 until he died in ,paris in #ahfh4 ,meyerbeer1 whose principal operas are 8,les ,huguenots10 8,le ,prophte10 and 8,l',africaine0 7the latter produced in ,paris in #ahfe1 the year after its composer's death71 was regarded as a remarkable composer1 whose knowledge of effect was unsurpassed1 and whose fine intelligence and musical knowledge almost made the world forgive him for frequent lack of inspiration4 ,halvy1 whose only lasting success was 8,la ,juive10 composed other operas1 such as 8,charles ,,vi410 8,la ,reine de ,chypre10 8,l',eclair10 and 8,les ,mousquetaires de la ,reine10 that achieved a certain amount of success in ,france1 which success was interrupted by ,halvy's death at ,nice in #ahfb4 ,gounod1 in #ahei1 made his most remarkable success with his greatest opera1 8,faust10 which1 after the subject had been treated by ,spohr1 ,lindpainter1 ,schumann1 ,berlioz1 and other distinguished composers1 has remained the only completely successful opera on the subject1 although ,boito's 8,mefistofile0 7another version of the subject7 achieved a marked success in ,italy in #ahfh1 and placed ,boito among the remarkable composers of the day4 ,as for ,gounod1 his other operas never equaled his 8,faust40 ,next in merit comes 8,romo et ,juliette0 7produced in ,paris in #ahfg7 and then his 8,mireille10 which appeared in #ahfd1 and 8,philmon et ,baucis10 an exquisite little comic opera produced in #ahfj4 ,his last opera1 8,le ,tribut de ,zamora10 was given at the ,grand ,opera1 ,paris1 in #ahha1 and failed4 ,illustration3 ,,giuseppe ,,verdi4 ,donizetti1 who died in ,bergamo in #ahdh1 was for many years one of the most popular operatic composers4 ,he possessed undoubted ability1 but wrote carelessly1 as the ,italians did in that day4 ,but his operas contain much that is beautiful1 and often show fine dramatic power4 ,his 8,lucia0 contains inspired pages1 while other portions are inexcusably commonplace4 ,the same remark applies to his 8,lucrezia ,borgia10 8,la ,favorita10 and 8,maria di ,rohan20 while in his comic operas1 such as 8,don ,pasquale0 7which was composed in three weeks71 his 8,l',elisire d',amore0 and 8,la ,fille du ,rgiment10 ,donizetti appears to better advantage4 ,they are melodious and very agreeably written4 ,his fertility may be imagined when you are told that he composed over sixty operas during his career1 as well as other compositions4 ,bellini1 whose career was a short one1 as he was born in #ahjb and died in #ahce1 was badly trained and could not be called a well-schooled musician1 being rather a musician by instinct4 ,but he possessed remarkable ability1 and1 perceiving that the persistently florid style of ,rossini 7which all the composers of that time blindly imitated7 was approaching an end1 treated his melodies with a simplicity and directness that at once attracted attention and met with approval4 ,bellini's knowledge of instrumentation was childish1 but his intimacy with ,rubini1 the famous tenor1 aided him in achieving an admirable treatment of the voice4 ,his operas were very sweet and melodious4 ,the two operas by which he will be remembered are 8,la ,sonnambula0 and 8,norma10 the latter being1 with all its faults1 a great opera4 ,another talented and prolific operatic composer was ,mercadante1 whose 8,il ,giuramento0 7produced in #ahcg7 achieved considerable popularity4 ,but ,mercadante's successes were generally confined to ,italy4 ,he composed sixty operas1 and died in #ahgj in ,naples4 ,ponchielli1 who was born in #ahcd and died in #ahhf1 will be principally remembered by his remarkably beautiful opera1 8,la ,gioconda0 7produced in #ahgf71 which1 together with a re-written version of his first opera1 8,i ,promessi ,sposi10 gave him great popularity in ,italy and spread his reputation to other countries4 ,illustration3 ,,beethoven ,,in ,,his ,,study4 ,as for ,italy's young composers that profess to represent the modern ,italian school of opera1 they are led by ,puccini1 whose 8,manon ,lescaut0 and 8,la ,bohme0 are melodious and full of merit4 ,mascagni and ,leoncavallo1 whose 8,cavalleria ,rusticana0 and 8,i ,pagliacci0 achieved popularity1 have not realized expectations4 ,nor has ,giordano1 whose 8,andrea ,chenier0 was well received in ,italy4 ,bizet1 whose 8,carmen0 is one of the most remarkable of modern operas1 died in ,paris in #ahge4 8,carmen0 has remained in the repertoire4 ,his other opera1 8,les ,pcheurs de ,perles10 only achieved a moderate success4 ,illustration3 ,,grand ,,opera ,,house1 ,,paris4 ,one of ,france's greatest musicians1 ,hector ,berlioz1 was born in #ahjc and died in #ahfi4 ,his operas1 8,les ,troyens10 8,benvenuto ,cellini10 his 8,damnation de ,faust10 his 8,romo et ,juliette0 symphony1 are all great and afforded ,wagner a model that he imitated persistently4 ,in #ahga ,france lost one of its most talented operatic composers1 ,auber1 whose 8,masaniello0 and 8,fra ,diavolo0 are two of the most popular operas ever written by a ,frenchman4 ,auber composed comic operas charmingly1 and his 8,domino ,noir10 8,diamants de la ,couronne10 8,hayde10 and other works of a similar character1 entertained the ,french people for many years4 ,auber's death has left a vacancy that has not been filled4 ,the modern ,french composers cannot be called great4 ,saint-,saens1 whose most successful work is 8,samson et ,dalila0 7which is more of an oratorio than an opera1 and which was produced in #ahgg71 has composed other operas1 such as 8,henri ,,viii410 8,ascanio10 et cetera1 which lack originality and inspiration4 ,massenet has composed 8,le ,roi de ,lahore10 8,hrodiade10 8,manon10 8,werther10 et cetera1 that have had passing successes4 ,both ,saint-,saens and ,massenet have attempted to follow ,wagner in their sonorous orchestration2 but their works lack distinction4 ,the ,french composers of to-day have been demoralized by ,wagner's affectations4 ,the death of ,ambroise ,thomas1 in #ahie1 caused ,france the loss of one of her most successful and accomplished operatic composers1 whose 8,mignon0 will be long admired as a very charming opera comique1 while his 8,hamlet10 though containing portions that are ably written1 has never attained outside ,france any remarkable success4 ,illustration3 ,,metropolitan ,,opera ,,house1 ,,new ,,york4 ,reyer1 whose 8,sigurd0 was produced in #ahhd with considerable success1 is a follower of ,meyerbeer4 ,his 8,salammbo0 was produced in #ahij1 but did not attract the attention expected outside of ,france4 ,german opera of the latter part of the century has been so demoralized by the influence of ,wagner that the ,german composers have become little more than imitators of his pronounced mannerisms4 ,weber's 8,der ,freischtz0 remains the most popular of ,german operas1 just as ,verdi's 8,il ,trovatore0 is the most popular of ,italian operas4 ,spohr1 ,lindpainter1 and many other ,german composers of ability have been laid on the shelf4 ,marshner1 who died in ,hanover in #ahfa1 showed in his 8,hans ,heiling0 that he was a follower of ,weber1 as well as in his 8,templar and ,jewess40 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,richard ,,wagner4 ,cornelius1 who died in ,mainz in #ahgd1 made his principal success with his 8,barber of ,bagdad10 a comic opera in which the manner of ,wagner was imitated4 ,in #ahfd 8,the ,cid0 was produced in ,weimar1 but it was found depressingly heavy and labored4 ,goldmark1 a follower of ,meyerbeer1 made a success in #ahge with his 8,queen of ,saba0 that was not equaled by his 8,merlin10 produced in #ahhf1 or his 8,prisoner of ,war10 produced in #ahii4 ,to return to the great leader of opera--,verdi--one may say of him that his operas are divided into three periods4 ,the first included the works written in the old ,neapolitan style as he had found it4 ,to this class belong 8,nabucco10 8,attila10 et cetera4 ,to the second period1 which shows remarkable dramatic color and beautiful melody1 belong 8,rigoletto10 8,ernani10 and 8,ballo in ,maschera0 7in which ,verdi began to pay attention to his instrumentation74 ,to the third period belongs 8,ada10 which is his most characteristic and remarkable opera1 in which the melody is wonderfully fresh and beautiful1 combined with remarkable science4 ,illustration3 ,,edwin ,,forrest4 8,otello0 is also a great work1 written at a time of life when most composers retire1 and broadly dramatic in its treatment of the situations1 illuminated by rich and expressive instrumentation4 ,as for 8,falstaff10 the latest opera that ,verdi has written1 and probably the last he will write1 it is the greatest modern comic opera1 just as ,mozart's 8,nozze di ,figaro0 is the greatest comic opera of the past4 ,it convinces the world that ,verdi's genius is inexhaustible4 ,next to ,verdi comes ,wagner1 the anarchist of music1 who began in 8,rienzi0 and 8,the ,flying ,dutchman0 by imitating the ,italian forms of melody4 ,in 8,tannhuser10 portions are very beautiful and melodious2 in 8,lohengrin10 portions are fine2 but ,wagner's idea of effect was bad and he never knew when to stop1 so that many of the scenes are interminable4 ,this fault increased as ,wagner composed the 8,nibelungen0 series for the crazy king of ,bavaria4 ,melody vanished1 the singers became secondary to the orchestra1 which was persistently noisy4 ,wagner's effort was to create a new school of opera1 in which everything should be minutely descriptive4 ,he went too far and opened the question of failure4 ,in opera the voices claim the first place1 and the orchestra is an accompaniment1 so that ,wagner's method was radically wrong4 ,independent of this1 he attempted to infuse life into the 8,nibelungen0 series1 whereas he adopted a tangled and childish fairy-story that was more absurd than impressive4 ,the later ,wagner operas1 which the composer calls 8music dramas10 are tiresome and monotonous to such a degree that1 with all the remarkable talent of ,wagner1 they may never become popular1 and may be eventually laid on the shelf1 to be regarded in the future as musical curios4 ,the musicians of the ,united ,states are steadily developing1 and for so young a country we have a large number of composers of first-class ability1 such as ,macdowell1 ,foote1 ,lang1 ,chadwick1 ,gilchrist1 and many others who have produced important compositions4 ,in opera the ,american composers have done nothing1 for the reason that there are no opportunities for the production of such works4 ,if there were1 we should soon have many operatic composers1 and should speedily take high rank in the lyric drama4 ,,ii4 ,,drama4 ,illustration3 ,,charlotte ,,saunders ,,cushman4 ,the theatre of the latter part of the century shows a remarkable advance1 in certain respects1 over the theatre of the past1 which consisted of a 8star10 an inferior company1 poor scenery and appointments1 et cetera2 whereas to-day there are many more really good actors and actresses1 the theatres are far more comfortable and artistic1 the scenery1 costumes and details are beautiful and correct4 ,we have no ,mrs4 ,siddons1 no ,kemble1 no ,rachel1 no ,talma2 but we are confident that the actors and actresses of to-day are like the theatre of to-day1--they have more finish1 and the results1 while they may not rise to the plane of the school of ,shakespeare1 are nearer nature than they have ever been4 ,the school of declamation1 which belonged to the plays of the past1 is the severest loss the stage of to-day has felt4 ,the actors and actresses fail in elocution4 ,they do not know where to put their emphasis4 ,they seem lost when they appear in costume1 and ,shakespeare to-day has no distinguished exponents4 ,the ,english-speaking stage of the century has been adorned by such eloquent interpreters and powerful tragedians as ,edwin ,forrest1 ,charlotte ,cushman1 ,edwin ,booth1 and ,henry ,irving4 ,but this illustrious roll has been almost extinguished by death2 and1 especially if applied to ,america1 the question may well be asked1 where is the actor or actress who can play ,hamlet1 or ,macbeth1 or ,king ,lear1 or ,shylock as we were wont to see them rendered by those masters of the dramatic art1 or as they should be rendered8 ,salvini and ,rossi have both passed away4 ,irving verges on retiracy4 ,of the great dramatic actresses left to the closing of the century1 ,mme4 ,sarah ,bernhardt stands preminent4 ,the day of the imposing declamatory drama seems to have lost its lustre at the sunset of the century4 ,illustration3 ,,scene ,,from ,,shakespeare',s ,,play ,,of 8,,romeo ,,and ,,juliet40 ,but the modern dramas and comedies are acted1 even in the smaller parts1 with admirable intelligence and effect1 and we may add that the vice that disgraced the stage of the past is by no means so visible in the theatre of the present4 ,the coarseness that clung so long to the theatre is gradually disappearing1 and the theatre-goers of to-day have discovered that the theatre1 which was created to entertain the world1 can do so without recourse to vulgarity4 ,the theatres of the ,united ,states are the handsomest and most convenient in the world4 ,this ,mme4 ,sarah ,bernhardt acknowledged the other day1 while criticising the theatres of ,paris1 which lack many conveniences4 ,up to within twenty-five years of the close of the century1 plays written by ,american authors were rare4 ,managers had to rely upon those composed in ,europe4 ,but at present the ,united ,states possesses many able and successful playwrights1 just as it does its artists in all departments4 ,there has not been a time during the century when the personal character of actors and actresses has escaped discussion1 and sometimes violent criticism1 by those prejudiced against the theatre4 ,this does not seem to have lessened the estimation in which dramatic art is held1 nor to have seriously diminished in number the legion who find in the drama their most pleasurable recreation and keenest intellectual delight4 ,in answer to challenges of the morality of the stage1 ,bronson ,howard has fittingly said3 8,i have never yet seen anybody who wanted a bad picture just because it was painted by a good man4 ,it is society that corrupts the stage1 not the stage that corrupts society40 ,,the ,,century',s ,,literature ,,by ,,james ,p4 ,,boyd1 ,a4,m41 ,l4,b4 ,in contrasting the world's nineteenth century literature with that of the eighteenth1 one is impressed with the many remarkable differences4 ,but by no means all of such differences are to the discredit of the older literature4 ,as instances1 the prose literature of the nineteenth century may not surpass that of the eighteenth in elegance and accuracy of expression1 though its progress has been very marked in the diversity of its applications to mental needs2 and the poetical literature of the nineteenth century may not excel that of the eighteenth in beauty and virility1 though it has advanced in loftiness of theme and tenderness of mode4 ,and so1 when literature is divided into its many minor branches1 as history1 philosophy1 the sciences1 etc41 various features of the old compare favorably with the new4 ,it is in its general tone and universal aptitude that the literature of the nineteenth century stands out preminent4 ,the wonderful intellectual activity of the century has been1 as it were1 compelled to go forth along literary lines quite parallel with those that distinguish other fields of activity4 ,this may have had a tendency in some instances to rob the century's literature of some of the sweetly imaginative elements1 and to harden it in some of its essential forms1 but the process was necessary to secure for it just that quality which would best meet a progressive demand4 ,as the drift of human energy was toward the practical1 so the dominant literary thought took on the form of direct and exact expression4 ,there was less and less room for the indulgence of literary foible or speculative whimsicality4 ,even where elegance of style met with occasional sacrifice1 it was more than compensated by that general rise in literary tone which has characterized the century4 ,literature could not be untruthful amid active inquiry and scientific progress4 ,it must reflect1 more accurately than ever before1 its birth inspirations and its legitimate uses4 ,it must keep even pace with the demands for it4 ,a world crying for intellectual bread could not be put off with an antiquated stone4 ,without closer analysis1 the above is true of the literature of all reading and writing peoples who have kept touch with the century's progress4 ,but it is especially true in the literature of ,english speaking peoples4 ,history has1 in accordance with a growing spirit of research1 become more truthful1 philosophy more expressive1 and science more exact4 ,the outcrop of books shows the yearnings of the century1 not only as to their number but as to theme and treatment4 ,authors have multiplied as during no other world's era1 and the proportion of those who have attained permanent distinction was never larger4 8,german literature10 says ,professor ,ford1 in 8,self ,culture0 for ,february1 #ahii1 8has had its measure of ups and downs1 but its first age was its golden age4 ,from the beginning of the century to the present day is a far cry in ,german letters4 ,romanticism1 idealism1 realism--the ,fatherland has lived through them all4 ,and for what8 ,in a land of scholars no great philosopher2 among hosts of verse-makers no great poet2 among innumerable story-writers1 not one who has become known over a continent4 ,illustration3 ,,george ,,bancroft4 8,still these last years in ,germany have not been without some good work done1 though often achieved under the spur of wrong ideals and improper motives4 ,from the days of '#dh1 when ,young ,germany felt for the first time the seductive charm of revolutionism1 a new feeling has possessed ,german literature--a feeling that the past is past and out of date1 potent once but potent no longer1 and that the new age of man demands new principles1 new ideals1 a new faith4 ,and so the modern literature1 particularly so since #ahgj1 has been marked by iconoclasm and startling innovation2 it has discarded sentiment and line writing1 and made a plea for scientific methods1 with the privilege of exhibiting exact1 scientific results4 ,crimes1 disease1 and grinning skeletons have been dragged forth to the public gaze1 for art is no longer art that portrays the ideal and not the true4 ,such1 in short1 is the creed by which the realistic or naturalistic school has thought to overthrow the old1 conventional1 and frivolous1 to foster the spirit of the new nationality1 and prepare a balm for the wounds of the poor4 8,two men stand to-day as leaders of this new movement1--,hermann ,sudermann and ,gerhardt ,hauptmann1--the most commanding figures in contemporaneous ,german literature40 ,during the nineteenth century the ,united ,states took a high and firm place in the domain of literature1 and1 it may be said1 has evolved a literature that in scope and style is peculiar to her institutions and environment4 ,her array of authors1 both in number and reputation1 compares favorably with that of countries boasting of a thousand years of literary domination1 and her literature is as diversified and practical as her activities4 ,among the many illustrious historians of the century she numbers her ,bancroft1 her ,hildreth1 her ,prescott1 her ,motley1 worthy counterparts of ,england's ,lingard1 ,hallam1 ,macaulay1 ,buckle1 and ,kinglake4 ,among her poets are ,longfellow1 ,whittier1 ,bryant1 ,lowell1 ,halleck1 fit companions of ,tennyson1 ,browning1 ,wordsworth1 ,scott1 ,swinburne4 ,among her novelists are ,cooper1 ,hawthorne1 ,stowe1 worthy congeners of ,dickens1 ,thackeray1 and ,eliot4 ,and so1 the comparison holds in travel1 philosophy1 theology1 law1 and science4 ,if in dramatic literature the ,united ,states has1 during the century1 produced few authors of permanent reputation1 and perhaps none to be compared with ,knowles1 ,boucicault1 ,taylor1 and ,robertson1 of the ,old ,world1 nevertheless it cannot be said of these that their plays have had more than a stage value4 ,the drama of the century in following the demand for artistic and commercial results has sustained only in part the reputation of its literature4 ,but in lieu of this partial decadence1 there have sprung up new branches of literature which are1 in a measure1 compensatory4 ,among these are the critical literature of arts and design1 the literature of philology1 or of language1 and the literature of political and social science4 ,to these must be added two other kinds or classes of literature which1 if not peculiar to the century1 have yet found in it their most surprising evolution1 greatest glory1 and widest influence4 ,these are the literature of the newspaper and magazine1 as distinguished from that of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,g4 ,,whittier4 ,but before making further mention of these1 let us read somewhat of ,new ,world literature as viewed from a critical ,english standpoint4 ,says the critic1 8,english critics are apt to bear down on the writers and thinkers of the ,new ,world with a sort of aristocratic hauteur2 they are perpetually reminding them of their immaturity and their disregard of the golden mean4 ,americans1 on the other hand1 are hard to please4 ,ordinary men among them are as sensitive to foreign censure as the irritable genius of other lands4 ,mr4 ,emerson is permitted to impress home truths on his countrymen1 as #8,your ,american eagle is very well2 but beware of the ,american peacock4' ,such remarks are not permitted to ,englishmen4 ,if they point to any flaws in transatlantic manners or ways of thinking with an effort after politeness1 it is #8the good-natured cynicism of well-to-do age2' if they commend transatlantic institutions or achievements1 it is1 according to ,mr4 ,lowell1 #8with that pleasant ,european air of self-compliment in condescending to be pleased by ,american merit which we find so conciliating4' 8,now that the ,united ,states have reached their full majority1 it is time that ,england should cease to assume the attitude of guardian1 and time that they should be on the alert to resent the assumption4 ,foremost among the more attractive features of transatlantic ,american literature is its freshness4 ,the authority which is the guide of old nations constantly threatens to become tyrannical2 they wear their traditions like a chain2 and1 in canonization of laws of taste1 the creative laws are depressed4 ,even in ,england we write under fixed conditions2 with the fear of critics before our eyes1 we are all bound to cast our ideas into similar moulds1 and the name of #8free thinker' has grown to a term of reproach4 ,bunyan's #8,pilgrim's ,progress' is perhaps the last ,english book written without a thought of being reviewed4 ,there is a gain in the habit of self-restraint fostered by this state of things2 but there is a loss in the consequent lack of spontaneity2 and we may learn something from a literature that is ever ready for adventures4 ,in ,america the love of uniformity gives place to impetuous impulses2 the most extreme sentiments are made audible1 the most noxious #8have their day and cease to be2' and the truth being left to vindicate itself1 the overthrow of error1 though more gradual1 may at last prove more complete4 ,a ,new ,england poet can write with confidence of his country as the land 8#8,where no one suffers loss or bleeds ,for thoughts that men calls heresies4' ,illustration3 ,,alfred ,,tennyson4 8,another feature of ,american literature is comprehensiveness4 ,what it has lost in depth it has gained in breadth4 ,addressing a vast audience1 it appeals to universal sympathies4 ,in the ,northern ,states1 where comparatively few have leisure to write well1 almost every man1 woman1 and child can read1 and does read4 ,books are to be found in every log-hut1 and public questions are discussed by every scavenger4 ,during the ,civil ,war1 when the ,lowell factory-girls were writing verses1 the #8,biglow ,papers' were being recited in every smithy4 ,the consequence is1 that1 setting aside the newspapers1 there is little that is sectional in the popular religion or literature2 it exalts and despises no class1 and almost wholly ignores the lines that in other countries divide the upper ten thousand and the lower ten million4 ,where manners make men1 the people are proud of their peerage1 but they blush for their boors4 ,in the ,new ,world there are no #8,grand ,seigniors' and no human vegetables2 and if there are fewer giants1 there are also fewer manikins4 ,american poets recognize no essential distinction between the #8village blacksmith' and the #8caste of ,vere de ,vere4' ,burns speaks for the one2 ,byron and ,tennyson for the other2 ,longfellow1 to the extent of his genius1 for both4 ,the same spirit which glorifies labor denounces every form of despotism but that of the multitude4 ,freed of the excesses due to wide license1 and restrained by the good taste and culture of her nobler minds1 we may anticipate for the literature of ,america1 under the mellowing influences of time1 an illustrious future40 ,in treating of newspaper literature1 one cannot proceed without blending its origin1 style and aims with the business enterprise that cultivates and supports it4 ,and this may be done all the more cheerfully and properly1 for the reason that there is no history more interesting than that of the evolution of the newspaper1 and no consummation of mental and physical energy that places the nineteenth century in more vivid contrast with preceding centuries4 ,illustration3 ,,henry ,w4 ,,longfellow4 ,for the fatherhood of the newspaper we have to travel to a land and date calculated to rob modern civilization of some of its boastfulness4 ,the oldest known newspaper is the 8,tsing-,pao10 or 8,peking ,news10 mention of whose publication is made in ,chinese annals as far back as ,a4 ,d4 #gac1 when it was then1 as now1 the official chronicler of the acts of the emperor1 the doings of the court1 and the reports of ministers4 ,it has appeared daily for nearly fourteen hundred years1 in the form of a yellow-covered magazine1 some #c by #g inches in size4 ,the pages number twenty-four1 and are printed from wooden movable type4 ,two editions are published1 one on superior paper1 for the ,court and upper classes2 the other on inferior paper1 for general readers4 ,its editorship is in the ,grand ,council of ,state1 which furnishes to scribes or reporters the news deemed fit for publication4 ,as an official organ1 it first finds circulation among the heads of provinces1 and is by them further distributed to patrons4 ,this ancient purveyor of news seems to have pretty fully gratified the ,chinese taste for that kind of literature2 for even at the present day there are few newspapers in the empire published in the native language4 ,the few that have sprung up are confined to the larger cities1 as ,shanghai1 ,hongkong1 and ,peking1 where they are liberally patronized4 ,but their circulation and influence do not extend far into the interior1 owing to the lack of postal facilities4 ,the modern ,chinese newspaper can hardly be called a native enterprise4 ,it grew out of the necessity for a literature and a means of news communication which arose at the time the ,chinese ports were forced open to the world's commerce4 ,as a consequence1 a majority of the ,chinese publications have found their inception in foreign brains and capital1 and remain under the management of foreigners4 ,the same is true of ,japan1 where the modern native newspaper practically dates from the arrival of the foreigner4 ,but by reason of their greater mental and commercial activity1 and the rapidity with which they adjusted themselves to modern modes of civilization1 the ,japanese have far outstripped the ,chinese in their evolution of newspaper literature and enterprise4 ,whereas1 what may be called the first modern ,japanese newspaper was founded in #ahgb1 there sprang up in the following twenty years the almost incredible number of #fdh newspapers and periodicals1 not only due to native capital and enterprise1 but under native control4 ,this wonderful growth took place1 too1 in the face of the severest code of press laws existing in any country4 ,in ,europe1 the earliest inklings of a newspaper literature consisted of news pamphlets of infrequent and uncertain publication1 and dependent for circulation upon temporary demand4 ,the earliest departure from this stage was in ,germany1 in #afae1 when the 8,frankfurter ,journal0 was organized as a weekly publication1 for the purpose of 8collecting and circulating the news of the day40 ,antwerp followed with a similar enterprise in #afaf4 ,the first attempt to do likewise in ,great ,britain was in #afbb1 when 8,the ,weekly ,news0 was founded in ,london4 ,none of these enterprises were by editors1 in a modern sense1 but by stationers1 in the line of their ordinary trade4 ,they did not depend for patronage on regular subscribers1 but sold their publications on the streets through the agency of hawkers1 corresponding to our modern newsboys1 though they bore the classical name of 8mercuries40 ,the foundation of the first newspaper in ,france that attained permanence and fame was in #afca4 ,it was called the 8,gazette de ,france10 and owed its origin to a demand for mingled news and original discussion4 ,it was largely under the control of ,richelieu1 and1 of course1 reflected his sentiments4 ,in these beginnings of the newspaper1 we find little or no attempt at journalism1 as now understood and practiced2 no promise and potency of a literature peculiar to newspaper enterprise4 ,the journalist had yet to come into being4 ,he first appeared as a writer of 8news-letters10 generally from some capital1 or seat of legislation1 or commercial centre4 ,his duty was to keep a line of masters or patrons supplied with news during their absence from court1 legislative hall1 or business mart4 ,his duty evolved into a calling4 ,his patrons became regular paying subscribers1 to each of whom he wrote4 ,these letters1 coming from all countries of the continent of ,europe1 and covering a wide field of information1 became of great interest1 and many collections of them are still in existence in libraries1 adding no little to their historic value4 ,the step was easy from this journalistic stage to the regular periodic publication1 open not only to the 8news-letter10 but to discursive thought4 ,thus1 in #afda1 8,the ,weekly ,news10 of ,london1 began the publication of parliamentary proceedings in addition to its budget of 8news-letters40 ,this era witnessed a rapid establishment of weekly newspapers1 requiring editorial supervision and regular contributions4 ,they were not without their vicissitudes4 ,many of their careers were brief and marked with pecuniary losses2 yet out of the wreckage sprang some of the most important of the modern journals4 ,by #agjc ,great ,britain was ripe for a daily newspaper1 and in that year one appeared under the name of 8,the ,daily ,courant40 ,the advent of this enterprise gave further impetus to newspaper publication4 ,the ,english press of the eighteenth century rose into great popular favor4 ,it was able1 and quite too independent for royalty and royal courtier4 ,for corrupt and ambitious government it often became a whip of scorpions1 and in revenge was both severely taxed and invidiously censored4 ,but it seemed to prosper amid opposition and persecution1 and by #aggf fifty-three newspapers were published in ,london alone4 ,during the reign of ,george ,,iii4 7#agfj-ahbj7 the history of the ,english newspaper is one of criminal persecutions1 amid which editors and contributors were repeatedly defeated1 and sometimes severely punished2 yet it is doubtful if at any period the press gained greater strength from protracted conflict1 or turned ignominious penalties into more signal triumphs4 ,it is significant that out of this dark1 tumultuous1 and forbidding era sprang many of the newspapers whose influence is most potential to-day in ,english affairs of state and in the literature of journalism4 ,the era marks the turn in newspaper values4 ,the establishment became a concrete thing1 a lively property1 an energy composed of practical business minds1 surrounded and supported by the best procurable literary talent1 adapted for treating diversified topics4 ,thus 8,the ,london ,morning ,chronicle10 founded in #aghi1 rose to be a property in #ahbc which sold for #baj1jjj2 while 8,the ,morning ,post0 not only gave to ,coleridge his fame as one of the greatest of publicists1 but enlisted the brilliant attainments of ,mackintosh1 ,southey1 ,young1 and ,moore4 ,the sturdy 8,london ,times10 which dates from #aghe1 and for years encountered malignant royal hostility1 proved itself strong enough to brave the government and at the same time sufficiently enterprising to introduce steam printing and every mechanism calculated to give it precedence as a metropolitan journal4 ,as a property1 it is to-day worth a figure incredible at the beginning of the century1 and so powerful was its hold on popular favor for the first half of the century that no other daily could compete with it4 ,indeed1 it may be said to have had a lone field up to the establishment of 8,the ,daily ,news10 in #ahdf1 8,the ,daily ,telegraph10 in #ahee1 and 8,the ,standard10 in #aheg4 ,the nineteenth century journalism of ,great ,britain is characterized by its great plenitude4 ,morning and evening papers abound in all the centres4 ,the weekly paper is still an important literary and news factor4 ,class papers are numerous and excellent in their way4 ,again1 the century's journalism is characterized by its property value4 ,many of the leading ,english journals have become immense properties worth millions of dollars each1 and requiring the ablest management to improve and perpetuate them4 ,further1 the ,english press is characterized by able and conservative1 if prosaic1 editorial methods4 ,its correspondence is cautious1 and covers every important field4 ,its news columns1 so far as they depend on the telegraph and telephone1 are sprightly and well filled1 but limited and dull when the local reporter is the source of supply4 ,as already stated1 the annals of ,french journalism began with the founding of the 8,gazette de ,france0 in #afca4 ,the evolution of the ,french newspaper was not rapid till the eighteenth century was well along1 when the era of the first revolution called for a news and literature peculiar to bloody and exciting times4 ,myriads of newspapers sprang into existence1 all but two of which found their graves with the passing of the emergency which called them into being4 ,early in the nineteenth century 7#ahcf7 the introduction of cheap journalism gave great impetus to enterprise1 and by the middle of the century the number and circulation of ,french newspapers had more than trebled4 ,this rate has been1 in great part1 sustained throughout the latter half of the century1 and the ,french people are to-day abundantly supplied with a newspaper literature which for vivacity and amplitude is unexcelled4 ,it may not have the solid and lasting influence of the soberer outcrop of other nations1 but it is singularly adapted to a sprightly and mercurial people1 and is well sustentative of the great political transition of the people and empire since the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,the evolution of the newspaper in ,germany was slow4 ,between #afae1 the date of the founding of the 8,frankfurter ,journal10 and #agih1 when the 8,allgemeine ,zeitung0 7,general ,news7 was founded by the bookseller ,cotta1 at ,leipsic1 no journals of a high order made their appearance1 and it needed the inspiration of the ,french ,revolution to beget in the ,german mind a desire for a livelier newspaper literature than had prexisted4 ,thus1 the 8,zeitung0 soon sprang into great popularity as a purveyor of news and as a medium of discussion1 and has ever since maintained a leading place in the ,german political press4 ,it not only set the style of the press at the turn of the century1 but proved to be a pioneer in that wonderful journalistic march which spread over all ,german-speaking countries during the nineteenth century1 giving to them media of news and discussion as able and influential as exist in any land4 ,by #ahgj there existed in ,germany proper #cghj newspapers and periodicals2 in ,austria-,hungary1 #gjj2 in ,switzerland1 #cjj2 not to mention the many hundreds printed in ,german in other countries1 especially in the ,united ,states4 ,a proportionate increase would greatly augment the above figures by the end of the century4 ,the rise of ,german socialism proved to be a prolific source of journalism4 ,the socialist seems to be a born editor and literary combatant4 ,he is also a great reader and bold and independent thinker4 ,under the socialistic demand for a literature peculiar to itself1 there has arisen a score of ,german printing-offices and perhaps fifty political journals1 a third of which are dailies4 ,in the ,netherlands1 ,belgium1 ,denmark1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and other ,european countries1 the press of the nineteenth century has kept pace with the mental needs and spirit of enterprise of the respective peoples4 ,indeed1 there is no such an accurate criterion of the general make-up of a people1 of their place in the lines of progress1 of their influence upon civilization1 as that afforded by their press4 ,the ,belgian press is nimbly commercial1 that of the ,netherlands prosy and substantial1 while that of the ,scandinavian countries is rugged1 accurate1 and solemnly influential4 ,the ,russian press1 where free1 is despotic and unprogressive4 ,but it is so frequently under censorship that it can hardly be said to reflect with any degree of certainty the popular spirit of the empire4 ,the ,italian press is indolent and easy-going1 inaccurate1 spicy by spasms1 of little relative influence1 except as it has been improved since the unification of the ,italian ,states4 ,spain is a country of #ah1jjj1jjj people1 but has fewer newspapers and periodicals than the single ,state of ,new ,york4 ,of ,spain's #abjj papers1 only #ejj are newspapers4 ,of the rest1 #cjj are scientific journals1 mostly monthly1 #ajj are devoted to religion1 and #cj to satire1 music1 poetry1 art1 etc4 ,barcelona and ,madrid are the great centres of journalistic literature4 ,the political papers are the most powerful4 ,the reading public of ,spain is limited1 and the average circulation of a ,spanish newspaper is only about #abjj copies4 ,in the ,new ,world the demand for newspaper literature during the nineteenth century has proven quite as strong as in the ,old ,world1 and1 in certain localities1 even stronger4 ,even among the youthful and tumultuous republics of ,south ,america1 with their large percentages of lower classes and illiterates1 there are few centres of importance that do not support respectable and fairly influential journals4 ,the news-gathering and news-consuming spirit may not be so active as elsewhere1 nor the commercial sense so acute1 yet the century has laid the groundwork of journalistic enterprise so firmly that future years can afford to build upon it with certainty4 ,the same may be said of journalism in ,mexico and the other ,latin republics of ,north ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,benjamin ,,franklin4 ,in ,canada1 the century shows a highly complimentary growth in newspaper literature and influence4 ,great pride is taken in accurate and able editorship1 and in that kind of management which is best calculated to convert investment into permanent and profitable property4 ,what they lack on the reportorial1 or strictly newsy1 side1 they make up in free1 clean1 and independent discussion4 ,the people are readers and1 therefore1 generous supporters of the enterprises designed to supply them with their periodical literature4 ,during the century the newspapers and periodicals of ,canada increased in number from a very few to #hfb1 as reported in #ahid4 ,of these1 #hg are dailies1 #ehc weeklies1 #ach monthlies1 #c tri-weeklies1 #bb semi-weeklies1 #f bi-weeklies1 #ba semi-monthlies1 #b quarterlies4 ,the largest centres of circulation are the province of ,ontario with #ejg newspapers and periodicals1 and ,quebec with #acb4 ,the century's grandest field for journalistic opportunity has been the ,united ,states4 ,here journalism has developed with the greatest rapidity1 exemplified its manifold features to the fullest extent1 most successfully proved its influence as an educative and civilizing agency4 ,starting with the great and essential encouragement of freedom1 it has found unremitting and energetic propulsion in the unprecedented growth of population1 in the marvelous activities requiring intercommunication of thought1 in an intelligence which constantly recruited armies of omnivorous readers1 and in facilities for the preparation and dissemination of the literature at command4 ,the beginning of newspaper enterprise in the ,united ,states was in ,boston1 in #afij1 when the 8,publick ,occurrences0 appeared under the auspices of ,benjamin ,harris4 ,it was designed to be a monthly1 and was printed on three sides of a folded sheet1 each side being only eleven inches long by seven wide4 ,it was suppressed after its first issue by the colonial government of ,massachusetts1 thus restricting the avenues of news to the foreign journals or local coffee-houses4 ,but the demand for home news was not thus to be crushed4 ,there sprang up a medium of communication by news-letters1 such as then existed in ,england2 and in #agjd the postmaster of ,boston undertook to keep certain functionaries informed of the course of events by a periodical news-letter in printed form4 ,this he called 8,the ,news-,letter10 a title which1 with some1 is treated as that of a newspaper4 ,it was to appear weekly1 and would be sent to subscribers for such reasonable sum as might be agreed upon4 ,after a lapse of fifteen years1 without competition1 it had attained a subscription list of only three hundred copies4 ,a subsequent postmaster started an opposition sheet in #agai1 called 8,the ,boston ,gazette40 ,its appearance caused him to lose his office1 but the rival papers continued to exist1 8,the ,news-,letter0 up to the evacuation of ,boston by the ,british troops in #aggf1 and the 8,gazette0 up to #aged4 8,the ,boston ,gazette0 appeared on ,december #ba1 #agai4 ,one day after1 ,december #bb1 #agai1 ,andrew ,bradford started 8,the ,american ,weekly ,mercury0 at ,philadelphia4 ,on ,august #ag1 #agba1 ,james ,franklin started 8,the ,new ,england ,courant10 on which ,benjamin ,franklin learned the trade of printer4 ,after an existence of seven years its publication ceased4 ,on ,october #bc1 #agbe1 ,william ,bradford started 8,the ,new ,york ,gazette40 8,the ,new ,england ,weekly ,journal0 succeeded 8,the ,boston ,gazette0 and 8,courant0 in #agbg4 8,the ,maryland ,gazette10 the first paper published in that colony1 appeared in #agbg4 ,in #agbh ,samuel ,keimer started 8,the ,universal ,instructor in all the ,arts and ,sciences and ,pennsylvania ,gazette10 at ,philadelphia4 ,the following year ,benjamin ,franklin bought ,keimer's plant1 and shortened the name to 8,the ,pennsylvania ,gazette40 ,the first paper in the colony of ,south ,carolina1 called 8,the ,south ,carolina ,gazette10 was published on ,january #h1 #agca4 ,on ,november #e1 #agcc1 8,the ,new ,york ,weekly ,journal0 appeared as a rival to the 8,gazette40 ,in #agcf the first newspaper appeared in ,virginia4 ,it was published at ,williamsburg1 and was called 8,the ,virginia ,gazette40 ,in #agci a ,german newspaper appeared at ,germantown1 ,pa41 and another1 in #agdc1 at ,philadelphia4 ,all these pioneer papers1 with the exception of a few1 notably 8,the ,pennsylvania ,gazette0 under ,franklin1 and 8,the ,new ,york ,weekly ,journal0 under ,zenger1 were merely news purveyors1 or1 if any opinions were expressed1 they were in accord with the authorities of the day4 ,after #agde the press of the colonies became more independent and progressive1 in obedience to a demand for literature bearing upon the questions relating to the coming revolution4 ,new journals of the weekly class sprang up with considerable rapidity and1 for the most part1 in opposition to ,england's methods of colonial government4 ,among these were 8,the ,boston ,independent ,advocate10 started under the auspices of ,samuel ,adams1 in #agdh2 8,the ,new ,hampshire ,gazette10 in #agef2 8,the ,boston ,gazette and ,country ,gentleman10 in #agee2 the 8,newport 7,r4 ,i47 ,mercury10 in #ageh2 8,the ,connecticut ,courant10 in #agfd4 ,illustration3 ,,horace ,,greeley4 ,founder of 8,new ,york ,tribune40 ,by #agge1 the commencement of the struggle for independence1 the colonial press numbered thirty publications1 all weekly4 ,of these1 seven were published in ,massachusetts1 one in ,new ,hampshire1 two in ,rhode ,island1 three in ,connecticut1 eight in ,pennsylvania1 and three in ,new ,york4 ,in the first year of the war eight new weeklies were added to the list1 four of them being in ,philadelphia4 ,on ,december #c1 #aggg1 the first newspaper1 8,the ,gazette10 appeared in ,new ,jersey1 and in #agha1 the first in ,vermont1 8,the ,gazette or ,green ,mountain ,post ,boy40 ,such was the fatality overhanging the colonial press that1 of the sixty-three newspapers which had come into existence prior to #aghc1 only forty-three survived at that date4 ,from #aghi1 the date on which the ,constitution went into operation1 till the close of the eighteenth century and early beginning of the nineteenth1 several newspapers were founded1 most of which were ardently political1 and1 though employing writers of ability1 were bitterly vituperative4 ,the most powerful of this class were 8,the ,aurora0 of ,philadelphia1 ,jefferson's leading organ2 8,the ,evening ,post0 of ,new ,york1 the organ of the ,federalists2 and 8,the ,american ,citizen0 of ,new ,york1 an organ of the ,clintonian democracy4 ,the close of the eighteenth century witnessed also the advent of the press in the ,mississippi ,valley4 8,the ,centinel of the ,northwestern ,territory0 was started at ,cincinnati1 ,november #i1 #agic2 and 8,the ,scioto ,gazette10 at ,chillicothe1 in #agif4 ,illustration3 ,,john ,w4 ,,forney4 ,founder of 8,philadelphia ,press40 ,the press of the early part of the nineteenth century grew rapidly in number1 circulation1 and influence4 ,while it was largely partisan1 the field of discussion gradually broadened1 and the news departments became more vivacious and comprehensive4 ,many of the newspapers founded during the first decades of the century exist at its close1 having enjoyed their long careers of influence with honor1 and become properties of incalculable value4 ,during this period the transition from the weekly to the daily newspaper gradually went on in the large cities4 ,the first ,american daily paper1 8,the ,american ,daily ,advertiser10 was published at ,philadelphia in #aghd4 ,with it came the first use of reporters1 or regularly employed news-gatherers1 an innovation as important to the public as the advent of the daily itself4 ,special1 or class1 newspapers also began to get a firm foothold during this period4 8,the ,niles's ,weekly ,register0 appeared in ,baltimore in #ahaa4 ,the first religious newspaper attempted in the ,united ,states appeared at ,chillicothe1 ,o41 #ahad4 ,the first of the agricultural press was 8,the ,american ,farmer10 which appeared at ,baltimore1 ,april #b1 #ahah1 to be followed by 8,the ,ploughman10 at ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 in #ahba1 and by 8,the ,new ,england ,farmer10 in #ahbb4 ,several strictly commercial and financial papers found an origin in this period1 the most successful of which was 8,the ,new ,orleans ,prices ,current10 established in #ahbb4 ,during this period the newspaper1 whether daily or weekly1 was distributed only to the regular subscriber1--the price of a single copy on the street being prohibitory4 ,the slow-going mail facilities of the time prevented the large circulations that are credited to modern journalism4 ,prior to #ahcc no leading newspaper could throw sufficient enterprise into its business to raise its circulation above #ejjj copies4 ,this kept the price of advertising low1 and consequently limited a source of profit which has since grown to enormous proportions4 ,the period ended with the advent of the penny press1 in ,new ,york1 in #ahcc4 ,the initial experiment in this line was made by ,h4 ,d4 ,shepard with his 8,morning ,post10 and it proved a failure in the short period of three weeks4 ,the next was 8,the ,daily ,sun10 ,september #bc1 #ahcc1 claiming to be 8written1 edited1 set up1 and worked off0 by ,benjamin ,franklin ,day4 ,it remained a penny paper for a long time and attained a large circulation4 ,it was reorganized in #ahfg1 when ,charles ,a4 ,dana became its editor4 ,though the price was put up to two cents1 it became under his control one of the most potential news and political factors of the century1 and attained a circulation of over #ajj1jjj copies daily4 ,in ,may1 #ahce1 ,james ,gordon ,bennett followed in the tracks of ,day with 8,the ,new ,york ,herald40 ,its sprightly news columns and fantastic advertisements commended it to popular favor1 and proved a source of great profit4 ,it has since greatly varied its prices2 but by dint of stupendous1 if peculiar1 enterprise1 it has grown into enormous circulation1 and become a property worth millions4 ,in #ahda1 ,horace ,greeley started 8,the ,new ,york ,tribune10 at first as a penny paper1 though on an elevated plane4 ,it soon grew into popular favor1 and with its weekly and semi-weekly editions for country circulation became one of the most widely circulated and influential journals in the country4 8,the ,new ,york ,times0 also began as a penny paper in #ahea1 under the control of ,henry ,j4 ,raymond4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph ,,medill4 8,chicago ,tribune40 ,while the era of a distinctive and popular penny press was short-lived1 it witnessed one of the most notable advances of the century in journalism4 ,it stimulated newspaper enterprise throughout the entire country1 and journals multiplied enormously4 ,the era practically ended with the outbreak of the ,civil ,war in #ahfa1 which event caused a rise in the price of paper1 a demand for expensive correspondence1 telegraph news and battle scenes1 and a consequent necessity for enlarged and quadrupled sheets4 ,many of the penny papers went up to a five-cent price under the stimulus of war excitement1 the improved system of collecting news1 and the added expense of publication4 ,this era of phenomenal newspaper expansion extended even to the end of the century4 ,it has witnessed the wonderful evolution of the newspaper in all its modern phases1--the advent of the ,sunday newspaper2 the growth of the daily sheet to mammoth proportions2 the incorporation of the ,associated ,press1 with its thousands of agents in every part of the country gathering and sending the minutest events of the day2 correspondence from every quarter of the globe1 and covering every field of activity2 a highly improved and more independent editorship2 a greatly enlarged1 more active1 and more conscientious reportorial staff2 the coming of the interviewer1 at first an impertinent pest1 but now recognized as a valuable journalistic adjunct in reflecting opinions and sentiments not otherwise obtainable2 the employment of the thousand and one new appliances for printing1 such as stereotyping1 electrotyping1 improved types1 typesetting machines1 rapid presses1 folding machines1 etc4 ,by #ahhc a reaction came on in the prices of leading journals1 and they were forced to reduce them by reason of the strong competition offered by the numerous and powerful two-cent journals which had come into being and had proven to be valuable properties4 ,indeed1 this reaction did not leave the two-cent journals untouched1 for it brought many of that class to a one-cent basis1 with the claim that a consequently increased circulation would enhance the profits from advertising4 ,this claim is a debatable one1 and it may be safely said that most of the newspapers established near the end of the century have adopted a two-cent basis as a golden mean between the one-cent and three-cent journals4 ,illustration3 ,,record ,,building1 ,,philadelphia4 ,proportionally speaking1 the growth of the press in the ,united ,states has been as even as it has been rapid4 ,no leading city is without press establishments and prominent journals1 some of them conducted on the largest scales of expenditure1--the ,west vying with the ,east1 and the ,south with the ,north1 in liberality and enterprise4 ,the newspaper office of the early part of the century was generally dingy and cramped4 ,the abode of many1 especially in the larger cities1 has become a handsome pile1 conspicuous in architectural effects1 capacious and cleanly1--fitting hive for the myriad of workers that toil at midday and midnight in pursuit of the 8art preservative40 ,the annual expenditure of a single newspaper operated on a large scale has been thus computed3 ,editorial and literary matter1 #bbj1jjj2 local news1 #bij1jjj2 illustrations1 #ahj1jjj2 correspondence1 #abe1jjj2 telegraph1 #fe1jjj2 cable1 #bg1jjj2 mechanical1 #daj1ejj2 paper1 #fag1jjj2 business office1 #bai1jjj2 a total of #b1aec1ejj4 ,nearly every town in the ,united ,states of #ae1jjj population has come by the end of the century to have its daily newspaper1 and few of even #ajjj population1 especially if a county-seat1 are without their weekly newspapers4 ,it has become possible to conduct a rural weekly of fair proportions and with quite readable matter upon a very economic basis1 by means of a central office in some large city4 ,this office prints and supplies to the rural offices1 of which it may have hundreds on its list1 the two outside pages of a weekly1 leaving to the local office only the duty of supplying and printing on the inside pages its domestic news4 ,in the number of its newspapers and periodicals the ,united ,states easily leads the world4 ,only approximate figures for the close of the century are at hand2 but these1 for the ,united ,states1 gravitate around a total of #bj1jjj newspapers and periodicals1 while those for other countries which report are as follows3 ,great ,britain1 #dbbi2 ,france1 #dajj2 ,germany1 #eejj2 ,austria-,hungary1 #cejj2 ,italy1 #adjj2 ,spain1 #abjj2 ,russia1 #hjj2 ,switzerland1 #dej2 ,belgium1 #cjj2 ,holland1 #cjj2 ,canada1 #hfb4 ,in the report of #ahid for ,united ,states newspapers and periodicals1 the following subdivision appears3 ,dailies1 #ahec2 tri-weeklies1 #bi2 semi-weeklies1 #bbc2 weeklies1 #ad1jgg2 bi-weeklies1 #fb2 semi-monthlies1 #bij2 monthlies1 #beja2 bi-monthlies1 #gj2 quarterlies1 #aig4 ,the ,states in which over one thousand newspapers and periodicals are printed are1 ,new ,york1 with #bjja2 ,illinois1 with #aebj2 ,pennsylvania1 with #adjh2 ,ohio1 with #aajh4 ,the ,states next in order1 and with a number of newspapers and periodicals between #ejj and #ajjj1 are1 ,iowa1 with #igh2 ,missouri1 with #ijg2 ,indiana1 with #gec2 ,kansas1 with #gcb2 ,michigan1 with #gbg2 ,massachusetts1 with #ffd2 ,texas1 with #fef2 ,nebraska1 with #fci2 ,california1 with #fcg2 ,wisconsin1 with #eea2 ,minnesota1 with #edi4 ,the century's newspaper literature in the ,united ,states has been further characterized by the introduction of the comic feature4 ,the comic newspaper came into being about the middle of the century1 but did not strike a practical minded people with favor4 ,it was not until the century was well rounded out that the cartoonist's and joker's art came into sufficient demand to make a comic newspaper a commercial success4 ,even now their number is limited to a very few that can boast of permanent success4 ,the daily newspapers of the latter part of the century have not been dissuaded by earlier attempts to make illustrations a conspicuous feature4 ,on the contrary1 newspaper illustration has grown to the proportions of a special art1 and all of the larger and better equipped dailies have organized departments into which are gathered photographs and engravings ready for reproduction as events demand4 ,so the correspondent and reporter have added to knighthood of the pen that of the camera1 and the scenic view has become an essential part of serious correspondence and sprightly reporting4 ,an immense1 imposing1 and highly useful current of literature flows through the magazines1 which have1 by their number1 beauty1 and adaptation1 come to be a distinguishing feature of the nineteenth century4 ,this class of literature is usually called 8,periodical10 and it embraces the magazines and reviews devoted to general literature and science1 the class magazines devoted to particular branches of science1 art1 or industry1 and the publications of schools and societies4 ,most periodicals published in the ,english language are monthlies4 ,the same is true of those published on the continent of ,europe1 save that there the old-fashioned quarterly style is still much affected4 ,periodical literature found a beginning in ,france as early as #affe1 in what is still the organ of the ,french ,academy4 ,the first ,english periodical was published in #afhj1 and was hardly more than a catalogue of books4 ,the growth of the periodical or magazine proved to be very slow4 ,up to #ahjj1 not more than eighty had found mentionable existence as scientific and technical periodicals1 and only three as strictly literary periodicals4 ,the advent of 8,the ,edinburgh ,review10 in #ahjb1 gave great impetus to periodical literature in ,great ,britain1 and the period from #ahdj to #ahej was one of special development1 but to be surpassed by that of #ahfj to #ahgj1 when the shilling magazine came into vogue4 ,this class of literature also developed very rapidly in ,france during the century1 ,paris having #acha periodicals of all kinds by #ahij4 ,there was an equally rapid development in ,germany1 ,austria1 and throughout the continent4 ,the ,english magazine found several imitators in the ,united ,states during the latter part of the eighteenth century1 most of which had brief existences4 ,such was the fatality overhanging this class of enterprise1 that until #ahaj but twenty-seven periodicals could be counted in the ,united ,states4 ,while the next forty years were marked by several magazine successes1 such as the 8,knickerbocker10 8,graham's ,magazine10 and 8,putnam's ,monthly10 they were1 nevertheless1 strewn with long lines of melancholy wreckage4 ,indeed1 it was not until the middle of the century that the demand for magazine literature became sufficiently intense to make investment in it profitable and permanent4 ,since then the development has been almost phenomenal1 keeping even pace with that of the newspaper4 ,at the end of the century the number of monthlies published in the ,united ,states approximates #bhjj2 and there are over #cjj fortnightlies1 #ef bi-monthlies1 and #aib quarterlies4 ,these cover the vast domains of general literature1 religion1 science1 art1 and industry1 and in many respects vie with the newspaper in popularity and influence4 ,many of them have developed into magnificent properties1 whose value would appear incomprehensible to our grandfathers4 ,they employ excellent talent when special topics are treated1 and rise to occasions of war or other excitement through graphically written and highly illustrated articles4 ,indeed1 one of their most impressive features is the high degree to which they have carried the art of illustration4 ,toward the close of the century1 periodical literature has been greatly expanded and popularized by the introduction of the cheap magazine4 ,the older and more dignified periodicals had not thought of permanent and profitable existence at a price less than twenty-five to fifty cents a copy2 but those of the younger and ten-cent class1 by dint of what seems to be a newly discovered enterprise1 have found cheapness no barrier to commercial success4 ,within a decade they have duplicated patrons of magazine literature by the million1 and proven quite as clearly as the newspapers have done that we are a nation of readers4 ,,the ,,records ,,of ,,the ,,past ,,by ,,morris ,,jastrow1 ,,jr41 ,,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,the present century has so many distinguishing features that it is a hazardous undertaking to summarize its achievements4 ,all branches of science--,philology1 ,history1 ,mathematics1 ,medicine1 ,theology1 and ,philosophy--have felt the stimulating influence of a new spirit that made its appearance after the ,french ,revolution4 ,new methods of investigation have not only led to profound modification of views in all departments of science1 but have brought about considerable additions to the sum of human knowledge4 ,in the domain of natural science1 the discovery of new principles and of hitherto unknown forces has widened the horizon of humanity and created new mental disciplines2 but while perhaps less conspicuous1 because not so directly connected with the actual concerns and needs of the present1 the fertility of historical research during this century is not less remarkable4 ,the larger area now embraced under the caption 8history of mankind0 furnishes the best proof for the success that has signalized the labors of scholars--philologists1 historians1 and explorers--devoted to the study of the past4 ,ancient history no longer begins with the ,greeks or the ,hebrews4 ,its certain limits have been removed to as remote a date as #cjjj ,b4 ,c41 while the anthropologist1 supplementing the work of the historian1 has furnished a picture in detail of the life led by man in various quarters of the globe during that indefinite period which preceded the rise of culture in the true sense of the word4 ,this extension of knowledge in the domain of human history is primarily due to the spade of the explorer1 though it required the patience and ingenuity of the philologist and archologist to interpret the material furnished in abundance by the soil that happily preserved the records of lost empires4 ,documents in stone1 clay1 and papyrus have been brought forth from their long resting-places to testify to the antiquity and splendor of human culture4 ,by the side of written records1 monuments of early civilization have been dug up1 palaces1 forts1 and temples filled with works of art and skill1 to confirm by their testimony the story preserved by those who belonged to the age of which they wrote4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,black ,,obelisk0 ,,of ,,shalmaneser ,,ii41 ,,king ,,of ,,assyria4 ,b4 ,c4 #hfj-hbd4 7,british ,museum47 ,,researches ,,in ,,mesopotamia4--,the archological researches conducted during this century have definitely established the fact that the earliest civilizations flourished in the ,valley of the ,euphrates and in the district of the ,nile4 ,until the beginning of this century1 ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 and ,assyria were little more than names4 ,the spirit of skepticism which accompanies the keen desire for investigation led scholars to question the tales found in classical writers of the great achievements of the ,babylonians and ,egyptians4 ,at the beginning of this century scarcely a vestige remained of the cities of ancient ,mesopotamia4 ,the site of ,nineveh was unknown1 and that of ,babylon was in dispute4 ,a profound sensation was created when1 in #ahdb1 ,p4 ,e4 ,botta1 the ,french ,consul at ,mosul1 discovered the remains of a palace beneath a mound at ,khorsabad1 some miles to the north of ,mosul on the east bank of the ,tigris4 ,botta's discovery marked the beginning of an activity and exploration in ,mesopotamia which continues to the present day4 ,at first the excavations were confined to the mounds in the north1 in which the palaces of the great ,assyrian kings1 ,sargon1 ,esarhaddon1 ,sennacharib and ,asurbanibal 7or ,sardanapalus as he was called by ,greek writers7 were unearthed1 as well as the great sacred edifices that formed one of the glories of ancient ,assyria4 ,the buildings exhumed abound in long series of sculptured slabs1 on which are depicted incidents in the campaigns of the kings and in their private life4 ,historical records on stone and clay furnished the needed details in illustration of the scenes1 and lastly1 literary remains in profusion were found1 which revealed the intellectual life and religious aspirations of the masses and of the secular and religious leaders4 ,to ,england and ,france belongs the glory of these early explorations4 ,through ,botta and ,sir ,austen ,henry ,layard1 the ancient cities of ,nineveh1 ,calah1 and ,ashur1 were rediscovered4 ,but as the field of activity extended to the mounds in the south1 in the ,valley of the ,euphrates1 other countries1 notably ,germany and the ,united ,states1 joined in the work4 ,the excavation of the remains of the city of ,babylon were first conducted by ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson in #ahed1 and much work was afterward done by ,hormuzd ,rassam2 but the most notable achievements of recent years are the excavations conducted by ,de,sarzec1 under the auspices of the ,french ,government1 at ,telloh1 from #ahha to #ahie1 and those of the ,university of ,pennsylvania at ,nippur1 begun in #ahhh1 and which are still going on4 ,through these excavations the history of ,babylonia has been carried back to the fourth millenium ,b4 ,c41 and while there are still some important gaps to be filled out1 the course of events in ,babylonia and ,assyria from this remote period down to the year #ehg ,b4 ,c41 when ,cyrus the ,mede established a new empire on the ruins of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 is tolerably clear4 ,hand in hand with the excavations has gone the decipherment of the inscriptions found in such abundance beneath the mounds4 ,on clay1 stone1 and metals1 rulers inscribed records of their reigns2 and added to pictorial illustrations accounts of their achievements in war as well as in the internal improvements of their empires4 ,clay1 so readily furnished by the soil1 became the ordinary writing material both in ,babylonia and in ,assyria1 and in the course of time an extensive library1 embracing hymns and prayers1 omens and portents1 epics1 myths1 legends1 and creation stories1 arose4 ,in every important centre there gathered around the temples bodies of priests devoted to the preservation and the extension of this literature4 ,assyrian culture being but an offshoot of the civilization in the south1 ,assyria reaped the benefit of the literary work accomplished by the scribes of ,babylonia1 and the most extensive collection of the literary remains of ,babylonia has come to us from a library collected through the exertions of ,asurbanibal1 and discovered in #ahdi by ,layard in the ruins of that king's palace at ,nineveh4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,moabite ,,stone40 ,,about ,b4 ,c4 #hej4 7,paris1 ,museum of the ,louvre47 ,monument dedicated to the god ,kemsh by ,mesha1 king of ,moab 7#b ,kings #c3d ff471 to record his victory over the ,israelites in the days of ,ahab1 and the restoration of cities and other works which he undertook by command of his god4 ,the stone1 which measures #c ft4 #aj in4 #b ft4 #ad in41 and contains #cd lines of inscription in the so-called ,phenician character1 was found at ,dibn 7the ,biblical ,dibon1 ,num4 #ba3cj2 #cb3cd1 etc471 in the land of ,moab1 by the ,german1 ,rev4 ,f4 ,klein1 in #ahfh4 ,unfortunately1 soon afterward it was broken in pieces by the ,arabs1 but about two thirds of the fragments were recovered by the ,frenchman1 ,clermont-,ganneau1 and it is possible to give a nearly complete text of the inscription from the paper impression which was taken before the stone was broken4 ,the basis for the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions1 as they are called from the wedge-shaped characters1 was laid by ,george ,f4 ,grotefend early in this century1 whose system was further worked out with great ingenuity by ,edward ,hincks1 ,jules ,oppert1 and ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson4 ,these pioneers have been succeeded by a large coterie of scholars in all parts of the world1 who are still busy studying the large amount of material now forthcoming for the elucidation of the past4 ,not merely have we learned much of the public and official events and religious ideas and customs during the period covered by the ,babylonian and ,assyrian ,empires1 but through thousands of little clay tablets that formed the legal and commercial archives deposited for safe keeping in the temples1 an insight into the life of the people has been obtained1 of their occupation1 of their business enterprise and commercial methods1 and of many phases of social life1 such as the position of women and slaves1 of the manner in which marriages were contracted and wills drawn up4 ,perhaps the most characteristic feature of the remarkable civilization that arose in the ,valley of the ,euphrates is the domination of the priesthood over all except the purely political interests of the people4 ,thus the priests1 as scribes1 as judges1 as astronomers1 as physicians1 brought that civilization to its high degree of excellence1 while under their guidance1 likewise1 the religion of the country developed from a crude nature worship to an approach to a monotheistic conception of the universe4 ,the heir of the ,babylono-,assyrian empire was ,persia1 which1 from the days of ,cyrus till the advent of ,alexander1 swayed the fortunes of the ancient world4 ,in all that pertains to art and architecture1 ,persia remained largely dependent upon ,babylonia4 ,extensive excavations conducted at ,susa by ,dieulafoy1 about ten years ago1 and quite recently continued by ,m4 de ,morgan1 have proved most successful in revealing the general nature and interior decoration of the great royal palace at that place4 ,in brilliant coloring of the brick tiles which1 as in ,babylonia1 formed the common building material1 the ,persians passed beyond the ,babylonians and ,assyrians4 ,one of the most interesting rooms in the ,louvre at ,paris is that devoted to the exhibition of the colored wall decorations from the palace at ,susa1 representing such various designs as a procession of archers and a series of lions4 ,the columns still standing at ,persepolis have long been famous2 and it is here likewise that the first cuneiform inscriptions were found which1 couched in ,persian1 ,median1 and ,assyrian1 formed the point of departure for the decipherment of cuneiform scripts4 ,,egyptian ,,researches4--,the civilization of ,egypt rivals in age and grandeur that of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,here1 witnesses to the past that survived in the shape of obelisks and pyramids gave scholars in this century a good start in the work of unraveling the fascinating narrative of ,egyptian history4 ,notwithstanding this1 our present knowledge of the history is due largely to the remarkable series of excavations which have been conducted in ,upper and ,lower ,egypt since the early decades of this century1 and which continue with unabated activity at the present time4 ,the stimulus to ,egyptian research was given by ,napoleon in #agih1 who1 when setting out upon his ,egyptian expedition1 added to his staff a band of scholars entrusted with the task of studying and preparing for publication the remains of antiquity4 ,the result was a monumental work that forms the foundation of modern ,egyptological studies4 ,another direct outcome of the expedition was the discovery of the famous ,rosetta stone1 in #agii1 which1 containing a hieroglyphic inscription accompanied by a ,greek translation1 served as the basis for a trustworthy system of decipherment of the ancient language of the ,nile4 ,the ,frenchman1 ,jean ,franois ,champollion1 and the ,englishman1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,young1 share the honor of having found the key that unlocked the mystery of the hieroglyphic script4 ,as in the case of ,babylonian archology1 so here1 excavations and decipherment went hand in hand4 ,a few years after the advent of ,botta at ,mosul1 ,mariette inaugurated in ,egypt a series of brilliant excavations under the auspices of the ,french government4 ,about the same time the ,german government sent ,richard ,lepsius on an expedition to ,egypt1 which resulted in the establishment of a large ,egyptian ,museum at ,berlin4 ,in #ahhc ,england entered the field through the formation of the ,egyptian ,exploration ,fund1 and since that time a large number of cities in ,lower ,egypt1 in the ,fayum district1 and in ,upper ,egypt have been unearthed4 ,year after year ,w4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,edouard ,naville1 ,f4 ,l4 ,griffith1 and others have gone to ,egypt and returned richly laden with material that has found its way to the ,museum at ,ghizeh1 to the ,british ,museum1 to ,boston1 to ,new ,york1 and to the ,museum of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,the activity of the ,french was continued after the death of ,mariette1 through ,gaston ,maspero1 ,e4 ,grebaut1 ,j4 ,de,morgan and ,e4 ,amelineau1 so that the mass of material at present available for ,egyptologists is exceedingly large4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,phil1 ,,or ,,pharaoh',s ,,bed1 ,,on ,,an ,,island ,,in ,,the ,,nile4 ,the cities of ,memphis and ,thebes have naturally come in for a large share of these excavations4 ,through the texts discovered within the pyramids at ,thebes and the surrounding district1 the history of the early dynasties was for the first time revealed4 ,at ,balas and ,nagadah1 a short distance to the north of ,memphis1 the excavations have brought us face to face with the indigenous population of the ,nile that maintained its primitive customs long after those who founded the real ,egyptian ,empire had established themselves in the country4 ,in the district of the ,fayum1 notably around ,arsinoe1 at ,hawara1 ,illahun1 and ,gurob1 traces of early foreign influence--,phnician and ,greek--were discovered1 while in ,lower ,egypt the towns of ,naukratis and ,tanis represent extensive ,greek settlements made in ,egypt as early1 at least1 as the seventh century ,b4 ,c4 ,through the magnificent illustrations in the tombs of ,beni-,hassan1 which have recently been carefully copied by ,english artists1 almost all phases of ancient ,egyptian life have been revealed4 ,though dating from the eleventh and twelfth dynasties1 the picture that they afford applies to earlier and later periods as well4 ,thus1 through the work done in all parts of the ancient empire1 the links uniting the earliest period to the sway of the ,ptolomies and the invasion of the ,romans have been determined4 ,wonderful chapters1 replete with interest1 have been added to the history of mankind1 and though much remains to be done1 we are much nearer to a solution than ever before of that most important problem as to the origin of the mysterious ,egyptian culture4 ,we know for a certainty that when the ,egyptians came to the region of the ,nile1 they found a fertile district populated by a people1 or by groups of people1 that had already made some progress on the road to civilization1 though not yet knowing the use of metals4 ,the ,asiatic origin of the ,egyptians is regarded as clearly established by so eminent an archologist as ,m4 ,de,morgan1 though it is likely that his views will be somewhat modified by further research4 ,the infusion of ,greek ideas1 we now know1 begins at a much earlier age than was formerly supposed1 so that it becomes less of a surprise to find1 even before the advent of ,alexander1 considerable portions of ,egypt absorbed by foreign settlers4 ,a noteworthy feature of archological work in ,egypt during the past decade has been the discovery of a vast amount of papyri containing long lost portions of ,greek literature4 ,the famous work of ,aristotle on the ,constitution of ,athens and the poems of ,bacchylides may be mentioned as the most notable among these discoveries1 and the sources from whence these treasures have come seem still far from being exhausted4 ,,greek ,,ruins4--,the mention of ,greek literature leads one naturally to speak of the work done in this century in that land which stands so much nearer to us and to modern culture in general than either ,babylonia or ,egypt4 ,while1 thanks to the activity and industry of ,greek and ,roman historians1 the records of the inspiring history of the ,greek states during their most glorious epoch are well preserved1 the earlier periods were enveloped in doubt and obscurity1 while of the remains of ,greece1 of her beautiful temples and her famous works of art1 comparatively few vestiges remained above the soil4 ,the most notable of these were the ,parthenon and the ,erechtheum1 with their works of art1 that stood on the ,acropolis1 and it is precisely here that some of the most remarkable archological discoveries of the century were made4 ,the ,parthenon dates from that glorious period in the history of ,athens which follows in the wake of disasters in the fifth century1 when the ,persians entered the city and laid waste its beauties4 ,the earlier ,athens1 which reached its zenith in the days of ,pisistratus1 has been brought to light through the excavations conducted by the ,greeks themselves4 ,in #ahhb a systematic excavation of the ,acropolis1 under the auspices of the ,greek ,archological ,society1 was begun4 ,the foundations of the ancient ,temple of ,athena that stood close to the modern ,parthenon were discovered1 and numerous works of art1 statues1 fragments1 pediments1 bases and vases1 dating from the earlier period1 by means of which we are enabled to trace the development of ,athenian sculpture from the rough beginnings to the perfection that it reached in the days of ,phidias4 ,the style of these earlier works differs totally from that which we had hitherto been accustomed to regard as the type of ,athenian art1 and yet even the rudest of the earlier statues possess already some of that charm which is so strongly felt in the works of the later period4 ,most remarkable1 perhaps1 among the remains of the earlier ,athenians are a large series of figures that appear to have been set up in rows within the ,temple of ,athena4 ,it is through these figures1 dating from various periods1 that we are best able to trace the evolution of ,greek art4 ,they are unquestionably votive offerings1 the gift of faithful followers of ,athena1 and1 while intended probably as representations of the goddess herself1 but little care was taken to give the goddess those accompaniments in dress and ornament which are never absent in the best specimens of the later period4 ,as a result of these excavations on the ,acropolis1 aided by the investigations of numerous scholars1 among whom ,ernst ,curtius and ,william ,doerpfeld merit special mention1 the entire plan of the little sacred city that stood on the ,acropolis can now be traced in detail4 ,the construction of the beautiful ,propyla by ,mnesicles1 of which remains are still to be seen1 has been determined1 and various temples to ,athena1 worshiped under the different guises that she assumed1 have been discovered4 ,the place where the great bronze statue of ,athena1 one of the master works of ,phidias1 stood1 has been fixed1 and through the inscriptions found on the ,acropolis1 numerous problems of ,greek history have been solved4 ,every one knows the story of the ,elgin marbles that once formed the decoration of the friezes of the ,parthenon1 and which in the early part of this century were brought to ,london by ,lord ,elgin4 ,that act1 though frequently denounced as a piece of vandalism1 has probably done more to arouse an interest in ,greek archology throughout ,europe than anything else4 ,even the indignation which ,lord ,elgin's act provoked has served a good purpose1 not only in leading ,greece to take better care of her great treasures1 but in inducing scholars of ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states to establish1 in ,athens1 architectural schools where young archologists may be trained1 and where expeditions can be organized for the systematic investigation of the numerous cities of ancient ,greece and the surrounding islands4 ,the most important work done through these schools is the excavation of ,olympia by the ,germans1 and of ,delos and of ,delphi by the ,french1 while only some degrees less noticeable is the work done by a zealous ,greek1 ,m4 ,carpanos1 at ,dodona1 by the ,greek ,society at ,eleusis1 ,epidaurus1 and ,tanagra1 and by the ,american ,school at ,eretria and at ,argos4 ,at ,olympia the discovery of the great ,temple to ,zeus1 the grand theatre in which the famous games took place1 the numerous shrines erected in honor of various deities that belong to the court of ,zeus1 and of hundreds of votive inscriptions commemorating the victors in the games1 have enabled scholars to restore for us the ancient glories of the place1 and to trace the history of the sacred city through its period of glory to its decline and fall4 ,the master work of antiquity1 the golden statue of ,zeus made by ,phidias1 is1 alas6 forever lost1 but it was at ,olympia that the ,germans found the wonderful statue of ,hermes by ,praxiteles1 a find that in itself was worth the million marks spent by the ,german government as a tribute to ancient ,greece4 ,at ,delos and ,delphi1 the careful work done by the ,french has added to our material for tracing the course of ,greek religion4 ,next to ,olympia there is1 perhaps1 no place in ancient ,greece which had such a strange hold upon the people as the seat of the great oracle at the foot of ,mount ,parnassus4 ,the work at ,delphi is still progressing1 but enough has been found to justify the great reputation of this religious centre in ancient times4 ,we can now traverse once again the sacred way leading past numerous buildings to the great shrine of ,apollo1 and to the cave from which the ,pythian priestess obtained her inspiration4 ,fewer works of art have been discovered here than in ,olympia1 though perhaps the soil still harbors treasures which the coming years may reveal4 ,the worship of ,demeter and the nature of the ,eleusinian mysteries are much clearer since the successful excavations that were conducted at ,eleusis4 ,tanagra is of interest because of the clay figurines1 the manufacture of which was one of the specialties of ancient ,botia4 ,those figures1 prepared partly from religious motives1 partly as a tribute to the dead1 are valuable as illustrations of popular customs4 ,great credit is due to the ,american school for the thorough manner in which excavations have been conducted by it1 and while the results are not as striking as in some other places1 so fundamental a problem as the arrangement of the ,greek theatre1 which has been engaging the attention of archologists for the past decade1 has been brought nearer to its solution through excavations at ,eretria4 ,at ,argos a head of ,hera was discovered1 which is now famous as one of the best specimens of the ,polycletan school4 ,no sketch of ,greek archology1 however brief1 would be complete without mention of a man who exhibited singular devotion and rare enthusiasm for the study of the past4 ,heinrich ,schliemann1 by dint of individual effort1 laid bare the remains of pre-,grecian civilization at ,mycen and ,tiryns1 and1 prompted by a theory which for a long time provoked naught but ridicule1 devoted many years and a large fortune to excavations at ,hissarlik1 on the coast of ,asia ,minor1 which1 he believed1 was the scene of the ,trojan ,war4 ,at the latter place no less than nine cities1 erected one above the ruins of the other1 have been found1 but the theory of ,schliemann which identified the second layer with ancient ,troy1 afterward known to the ,greeks as ,ilium1 has been shown to be false4 ,it is the sixth layer that represents the ruins of ,homer's ,troy4 ,at the same time1 it must be remembered that the ,homeric poems1 while based upon historic events1 are not history1 and the attempt to test their supposed historical accuracy by the results of excavations is now regarded by ,greek students as futile and unscientific4 ,but this view in no way diminishes the credit due to ,schliemann1 who not only did more to stir up popular interest in ancient ,greece than any other man living1 but has illuminated the early chapters of ,greek history which were almost unknown to the scholars of this century4 ,it now appears that ,phnician traders1 settling on the coast of ,asia ,minor and in districts adjacent to the islands of the gean sea and harbors1 which furnished a refuge for their ships1 gave the first impulse to ,greek art1 and1 although they were outdistanced by their apt pupils1 the traces of ,phnician influence remain in ,greek architecture1 and more particularly in ,greek cults1 down to the latest times4 ,apart from the direct bearings of the excavations conducted in various parts of ,greece upon the development of ,greek art1 the most important results of the work consist in the vast increase of material for ,greek history1 which is now being rewritten on the basis of the many thousands of inscriptions that have been found in the great centres of ancient ,greece4 ,as the work of excavation continues1 each year brings its quota of new facts1 and it is safe to predict that the recovery of ancient ,greece will be noted in future ages as one of the most notable achievements of the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,sarcophagus ,,of ,,alexander ,,the ,,great ,,in ,,marble ,,from ,,mount ,,pentelikon4 ,,about ,b4 ,c4 #cbj4 7,imperial ,ottoman ,museum1 ,constantinople47 ,,ph,,nician ,,ruins4--,with ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 and ,greece we are still far from having exhausted the field covered by archology in this century4 ,at ,cyprus much has been done by ,lhr1 ,cesnola1 and ,ohnefalsch-,richter4 ,the cities of ,cyprus are interesting as forming a meeting-ground for such various civilizations as ,phnician1 ,egyptian1 ,proto-,grecian1 and to a limited extent ,babylono-,assyrian4 ,the result is a curious mixture of art and of equally strange syncretism in religious rites4 ,it is one of the disappointments of scholars that we as yet know so little of the ,phnicians who played such an important role in history4 ,the traces of this people of wanderers and merchants have been found in tombs and votive inscriptions throughout the lands bordering on the ,mediterranean1 in ,northern ,africa1 in ,southern ,spain1 in ,sicily1 ,malta1 ,asia ,minor1 ,cyprus1 ,crete1 ,italy1 and even ,southern ,france2 but in ,phnicia itself but few inscriptions have been unearthed1 and only scanty remains of the important cities of ,sidon and ,tyre1 which once flourished on the coast of the ,mediterranean4 ,the fate of these cities1 subjected in the course of centuries to so many different powers1 is a sad one4 ,almost everything that belonged to a high antiquity has disappeared1 and such scanty excavations as have been undertaken1 the most notable of which is that of ,um-el-,awamid by the late ,ernest ,renan1 in #ahfa1 have been of little value4 ,tombs have been discovered1 but only few of them belong to the ,phnician period in the proper sense4 ,the ,sarcophagus of ,eshmunazar1 king of ,sidon1 with a long ,phnician inscription1 is however a most notable monument and of great historical importance4 ,but the most remarkable find within the limits of ancient ,phnicia was made a few years ago by ,hamdi ,bey under the auspices of the ,turkish government4 ,in the necropolis at ,sidon a series of sarcophagi were unearthed which1 belonging to the ,greek period1 are valuable as furnishing a specimen of the art of ,greece transplanted in foreign soil4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,view4 ,,rear ,,view4 ,,cuneiform ,,letter ,,from ,,lachish1 ,,palestine4 ,,about ,b4 ,c4 #adjj4 7,imperial ,ottoman ,museum1 ,constantinople47 ,,researches ,,in ,,palestine4--,ancient ,palestine1 likewise1 so full of sacred recollections for millions1 has been chary of yielding up the treasures which there is every reason to believe still lie somewhere beneath the soil4 ,in #ahgj1 a stone was found in the land of ,moab which commemorated the victory of ,king ,mesha over ,israel1 about #hjj ,b4 ,c41 and forms one of the most valuable monuments for tracing the history of the ,phnician alphabet1 of which the one we use is a direct successor4 ,at ,jerusalem a single inscription1 belonging probably to the age of ,hezekiah1 was found by accident at the pool of ,siloam4 ,this paucity of archological returns is not due to any lack of interest in recovering the monuments of ancient ,palestine4 ,in ,germany and ,england1 societies for the exploration of ,palestine have been in existence for the past twenty years1 and much important work has been done by them in making careful surveys of the country1 in identifying ancient sites1 and in adding material to our knowledge of the geography of the country4 ,the combined opposition of fanatical ,turks1 ,arabs1 ,christians1 and ,jews has prevented1 until recently1 the undertaking of excavations in the important centres of the country1 such as ,jerusalem1 ,samaria1 ,bethlehem1 ,hebron1 and the like4 ,a few years ago the mound ,tel-el-,hesy1 covering the site of the ancient city of ,lachish1 was thoroughly explored by ,f4 ,j4 ,bliss1 and no less than ten layers of cities identified by him2 but the results1 except for some pottery and a most important discovery of a cuneiform tablet which belongs to the ,el-,amarna series and dates from the fifteenth century ,b4 ,c41 have been rather disappointing4 ,recently ,mr4 ,bliss has succeeded in obtaining permission to undertake excavations at ,jerusalem4 ,he has begun his work by tracing carefully the walls of the ancient city1 but until this work is pushed to the extent of actually digging down some forty feet below the level of the present ,jerusalem1 it is not likely that significant discoveries will be made4 ,there are good reasons for hoping that the time is not far distant when systematic work1 such as has been done in ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 and ,greece1 will also be undertaken in ,palestine4 ,when that time does come1 we may expect that many of the problems besetting students of the ,old and ,new ,testaments will find their solution4 ,illustration3 ,,arch ,,of ,,titus1 ,,rome4 ,,hittite ,,remains4--,archology does not only solve problems1 but frequently raises new ones4 ,such a new problem is that of the ,hittites4 ,during the past fifteen years1 a large series of monuments1 many of them sculptured on rocks1 have been found in various parts of ,asia ,minor1 from the district of ,lake ,van almost to the ,mediterranean coast1 and notably at ,hamath1 on the ,orontes4 ,they all betray the same art1 and are accompanied by inscriptions in characters to which the name ,hittite has been given4 ,it is to be borne in mind that this term ,hittite is to a large extent a conventional one1 covering a series of peoples that may have belonged to different races4 ,we hear of these ,hittites in the ,asiatic campaigns of ,egyptian kings from the seventeenth century ,b4 ,c4 down to #adjj ,b4 ,c4 ,establishing an empire on the ,orontes1 they gave the ,assyrians a great deal of trouble1 and it was not until the end of the eighth century that they were finally conquered4 ,though we know a good deal of the history of these ,hittites from the records of ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 and ,assyrians1 their origin remains wrapped in obscurity4 ,the ,hittite characters have not yet been deciphered1 although various attempts of interpreters have been made4 ,the last of these is that of ,professor ,peter ,jensen1 of the ,university of ,marburg1 who believes that the ,hittite language is a prototype of the modern ,armenian4 ,although a number of prominent scholars have acknowledged their acceptance of the ,jensen system1 it cannot be said as yet to have been definitely established1 nor is it likely that a satisfactory key will be found until a large bilingual inscription containing a record in ,hittite characters with a translation1 perhaps1 in ,assyrian or ,aramaic1 shall have been found4 ,such a find may be expected at any moment4 ,meanwhile1 it may be said that from an ethnological point of view1 it seems more plausible to regard the ,hittites as a part of the ,turanian stock rather than belonging to the ,aryan or ,semitic races4 ,the exploration of ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan can scarcely be said to have more than begun4 ,the notable series of inscriptions that recall the period of ,indian history connected with ,acoka may be regarded as a specimen of what we may expect when once those distant lands are as thoroughly explored as the countries situated around the ,mediterranean sea4 ,illustration3 ,,hittite ,,inscription ,,from ,,jerabis4 ,,roman ,,ruins4--,coming to the last and greatest of the empires of antiquity1 ,rome1 a word should be said about the activity that has characterized the excavations at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 and recently in the city of ,rome1 which are carried on so successfully by ,rudolfo ,lanciani4 ,while our knowledge of ,roman history has always been much more complete than that of ,greece1 still many questions of detail have only recently been settled through these excavations4 ,an insight has been afforded into the public and private life of the ,romans which supplements that which was to be gained from the study of the classical writers4 ,europe and ,america have also been seized with the archological fever4 ,in ,germany1 ,austria1 ,france1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 ,switzerland1 ,north ,america1 and ,south ,america1 the knowledge of the past has been extended through exploration and excavation4 ,so large is the field of archology at present1 that it is impossible for one person to make himself familiar with more than a small section2 but1 on the other hand1 so close is the sympathy between the various branches of mankind scattered throughout the world that there is no work carried on in one division of archology which has not its bearings upon many others4 ,what ,goethe said of human life may be said of archology3 8,wo ihr's packt1 da ist's interessant40 ,,progress ,,in ,,dairy ,,farming ,,by ,,major ,,henry ,e4 ,,alvord1 ,c4,e41 ,,ll4,d41 ,chief of ,dairy ,division1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,nearly all industries have their branches or specialties4 ,farming is no exception1 and one of the most interesting1 highly developed1 and remunerative of its branches is dairying4 ,to be successful1 dairying requires good judgment1 knowledge of the relations of modern science to agricultural production1 constant study1 system1 and close attention to details4 ,hence it is regarded as among the highest forms of farming4 ,the occupation is itself so stimulating and the rewards are so substantial1 when brains and brawn are applied to it in judicious combination1 that dairying districts are commonly conspicuous as the most enterprising1 prosperous1 and contented of the rural communities of their section of country4 ,in all lines of farming at least one 8money crop0 seems to be the aim1 although this term may include animals and animal products4 ,a great disadvantage in certain kinds of farming is that the returns come at long intervals1 perhaps but once a year1 while the expenses are continuous for twelve months4 ,dairying1 as conducted by modern methods1 distributes the farm income through the year2 the cash returns are monthly1 or oftener1 the pernicious credit system disappears1 money circulates1 and at all seasons a healthy business activity prevails in the whole community4 ,it is a noteworthy fact1 that during periods of agricultural depression experienced in the ,united ,states during the nineteenth century1 the products of the dairy have maintained relative values above all other farm products1 and dairy districts seem to have passed through these periods with less distress than most others4 ,the greater part of this country1 geographically1 being well adapted to dairying1 this branch of agriculture has always been prominent in ,america1 and its extension has kept pace with the opening and settlement of new territory4 ,for many years a belief existed that successful dairying in the ,united ,states must be restricted to narrow geographical limits1 constituting a 8dairy belt0 lying between the fortieth and forty-fifth degrees of latitude1 and extending from the ,atlantic ,ocean to the ,missouri ,river2 and the true dairying districts were felt to be in separated sections occupying not more than one third of the area of this belt4 ,these ideas have been exploded4 ,it has been shown that good butter and cheese can1 by proper management1 be made in almost all parts of ,north ,america4 ,generally speaking1 good butter can be profitably produced wherever good beef can4 ,decided advantages unquestionably exist1 in the climate1 soil1 water1 and herbage of certain sections2 but these influences are largely under control1 and what is lacking in natural conditions can be supplied by tact and skill4 ,so that1 while dairying is intensified and constitutes the leading agricultural industry over wide areas1 including whole ,states1 where the natural advantages are greatest1 the industry is found well established in spots in almost all parts of the country1 and is developing in unexpected places1 and under what might be considered as very unfavorable conditions4 ,dairying existed in colonial times in ,america1 and butter and cheese are mentioned among the early exports from the settlements along the ,atlantic coast4 ,but this production was only incident to general farming4 ,dairying1 as a specialty in the ,united ,states1 did not appear to any extent until well along in the nineteenth century4 ,the history of this industry in this country is therefore identical with its progress in that century4 ,this progress has been truly remarkable4 ,the wide territorial extension1 the immense investment in lands1 buildings1 animals1 and equipment1 the great improvement in dairy cattle1 the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge as to economy of production1 the revolution in methods and systems of manufacture1 the general advance in quality of products1 the wonderful increase in quantity1 and the industrial and commercial importance of the industry1 have kept pace with the general material progress of the nation and constitute one of its leading features4 ,during the early part of the century1 the keeping of cows on ,american farms was incident to the general work1 the care of milk and the making of butter and cheese were in the hands of the women of the household1 the methods and utensils were crude1 the average quality of the products was inferior1 and the supply of our domestic markets was unorganized and irregular4 ,the milch cows in use belonged to the mixed and indescribable herd of 8native0 cattle1 with really good dairy animals appearing singly1 almost by accident1 or1 at the best1 in a family developed by some uncommonly discriminating yet unscientific breeder4 ,the cows calved almost universally in the spring1 and were generally allowed to go dry in the autumn or early winter4 ,winter dairying was practically unknown4 ,as a rule1 excepting the pasture season1 cattle were insufficiently1 and therefore unprofitably1 fed and poorly housed4 ,in the ,eastern and ,northern ,states1 the milk was usually set in small shallow earthen vessels or tin pans1 for the cream to rise4 ,little attention was paid to cooling the air in which it stood in summer1 or to moderating it in winter1 so long as freezing was prevented4 ,the pans of milk oftener stood in pantries and cellars than in milk rooms specially constructed or prepared4 ,in ,pennsylvania and the ,states farther south1 where spring-houses were in vogue1 milk received better care1 and setting it in earthen crocks or pots1 standing in cool1 flowing water1 was a usual and excellent practice4 ,churning the entire milk was very common4 ,excepting the comparatively few instances where families were supplied with butter weekly1 and occasionally a cheese1 direct from the producers1 the farm practice was to 8pack0 the butter in firkins1 half-firkins1 tubs1 and jars1 and let the cheese accumulate on the farms1 taking these products to market only once or twice a year4 ,not only were there as many different lots and kinds of butter and cheese as there were producing farms1 but the product of a single farm varied in character and quality1 according to season and other circumstances4 ,every package had to be examined1 graded1 and sold upon its merits4 ,prices were low4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,dairy ,,farm4 ,these conditions continued1 without material change1 up to the middle of the century4 ,some improvement was noticeable in cattle and appliances1 and in some sections dairy farming became a specialty4 ,with the growth of towns and cities1 the business of milk supply increased and better methods prevailed4 ,butter-making for home use and local trade1 in a small way1 was common wherever cows were kept1 and in some places there was a surplus sufficient to be sent to the large markets4 ,vermont and ,new ,york became known as butter producing ,states4 8,franklin ,county butter10 from counties of this name in ,new ,york1 ,vermont1 and ,massachusetts1 was known throughout ,new ,england1 and the fame of 8,orange ,county0 and 8,goshen0 butter1 from ,new ,york1 was still more extensive4 ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 and ,northern ,pennsylvania produced large quantities of cheese2 and the total supply was so much in excess of domestic demand1 that cheese exports from the ,united ,states1 mainly to ,great ,britain1 became established1 and ranged from three to seventeen million pounds a year4 ,the twenty-five years following #ahej was a period of remarkable activity and progress in the dairy interests of the country4 ,at first1 the agricultural exhibitions or 8cattle shows10 and the enterprise of importers1 turned attention towards the improvement of farm animals1 and breeds of cattle specially noted for dairy qualities were introduced and began to win the favor of dairymen4 ,then the early efforts at coperative dairying were recognized as successful1 and were copied until the cheese factory became an established institution4 ,once fairly started1 in the heart of the great cheese-making district of ,new ,york1 the factory system spread with much rapidity4 ,the 8war period0 lent additional impetus to the forward movement4 ,the foreign demand for cheese grew fast1 and the price1 which was ten cents per pound and less in #ahfj1 rose to fifteen cents in #ahfc1 and to twenty cents and over in #ahfe4 ,there were two cheese factories in ,oneida ,county in #ahed1 and twenty-five in #ahfb4 ,the system spread to ,herkimer and adjoining counties1 and in #ahfc there were #ajj factories in ,new ,york1 besides some in ,ohio and other ,states4 ,the number increased to #cjj in the whole country in #ahfe1 to #fjj in two years more1 and to over #ajjj in #ahfi4 ,from that time the coperative or factory system practically superseded the manufacture of cheese on farms4 ,establishments for the making of butter in quantity1 from the milk or cream collected from numerous farms1 soon followed the cheese factories4 ,such are properly butter factories1 but the name of 8creamery0 has come into general use for an establishment of this kind1 and seems unlikely to change4 ,placing the real beginning of cheese factories as a system of dairying in #ahfa or #ahfb1 the first creamery was started in #ahfa1 in ,orange ,county1 ,new ,york4 ,in ,illinois1 the first cheese factory was built in #ahfc1 and the first creamery in #ahfg2 in ,iowa1 the respective dates were #ahff and #ahga4 ,the effect of these industrial establishments1 comparatively new in kind1 is to transfer the making of butter and cheese from the farm to the factory4 ,originating in this country1 although now extensively adopted in others1 the general plan may be called the ,american system of associated dairying4 ,the early cheese-factories and creameries were purely coperative concerns1 and it is in this form that the system has usually extended into new territory1 whether for the production of butter or cheese4 ,the cow owners and producers of milk coperate and share1 upon any agreed basis1 in organizing1 building 7perhaps71 equipping1 and managing the factory and disposing of its products4 ,another plan is for the plant to be owned by a joint-stock company1 composed largely1 if not wholly1 of farmers1 and milk or cream is received from any satisfactory producer2 the factory may be allowed a certain rate of interest on the investment1 or may charge a fixed price per pound for making butter or cheese1 and then divide the remaining proceeds pro rata according to the raw material supplied by its 8patrons40 ,the proprietary plan is also common1 being managed much like any other factory1 the proprietor or company buying the milk or cream from the producers1 at prices mutually agreed upon from time to time4 ,and all these plans have their variations and modifications in practice4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,creamery ,,and ,,cheese ,,factory1 ,,with ,,ice-,,house1 ,,etc4 ,the third quarter of a century was also a period of unprecedented progress in the application of mechanics to the dairy4 ,the factories and creameries required new equipment1 adapted to manufacture upon an enlarged scale1 and equal attention was paid to the improvement of appliances for farm dairies4 ,the system for setting milk for creaming in deep cans in cold water--preferably ice-water--was introduced from ,sweden1 although the same principles had been in practice for generations in the spring-houses of the ,south4 ,numerous creaming appliances1 or creamers1 were invented1 based upon this system4 ,shallow pans were changed in size and shape1 and then almost disappeared4 ,butter workers of various models took the place of bowl and ladle and the use of the bare hand4 ,churns appeared1 of all shapes1 sizes1 and kinds1 the general movement being towards the abolition of dashers and the substitution of agitation of cream for violent beating4 ,about this time the writer made a search of the ,united ,states ,patent ,office records1 which revealed the fact that forty or fifty new or improved churns were claimed annually1 and after rejecting about one fourth1 the patents actually issued provided a new churn every fifteen days for more than seventy years4 ,this illustrates the activity of invention in this line4 ,it was admitted by all that at this period the ,united ,states was far in advance of any other country in the variety and excellence of its mechanical aids to dairying4 ,the same period witnessed the organization of dairymen in voluntary associations for mutual benefit in several ,states1 the formation of clubs and societies of breeders of pure-bred cattle1 and the appearance of the first ,american dairy literature of consequence in book form4 ,the ,american ,dairymen's ,association was organized in #ahjc4 ,its field of activity was east of ,indiana1 and accordingly the ,northwestern ,dairymen's ,association was formed in #ahfg4 ,both of these continued in existence1 held periodical meetings1 and published their proceedings for twelve or fifteen years4 ,then the formation of ,state dairy associations in ,vermont 7#ahgj71 ,pennsylvania 7#ahga71 ,new ,york 7#ahgg71 ,wisconsin 7#ahgb71 ,illinois 7#ahgd71 ,iowa 7#ahgj71 and other ,states took the place of the pioneer societies which covered wider territory4 ,the ,short-horn breed led in the introduction of improved cattle to the ,united ,states1 and for a long time the representatives of this race1 imported from ,england1 embraced fine dairy animals4 ,short-horn grades formed the foundation1 and a very good one1 upon which many dairy herds were built up during the second and third quarters of the century1 and much of this blood is still found in prosperous dairying districts4 ,this was the period of greatest activity in importing improved cattle from abroad4 ,but ,short-horns have been so generally bred for beef qualities that the demand for them is almost exclusively on that line1 and they are no longer classed as dairy cattle4 ,ayrshires from ,scotland1 ,holstein-,friesians from ,north ,holland1 and ,jerseys and ,guernseys from the ,channel ,islands1 are the breeds recognized as of dairy excellence1 and upon which the industry mainly depends for improvement of its milch cows4 ,the first two named are noted for giving large quantities of milk of medium quality2 the other two breeds1 both often miscalled 8,alderney10 give milk of exceeding richness1 and are the favorites with butter makers4 ,there are also the ,brown ,swiss and ,simmenthal cattle from ,switzerland1 the ,normandy breed from ,france1 and ,red ,polled cattle from the south of ,england1 which have dairy merit1 but belong rather to what is called the 8general purpose0 class4 ,associations of persons interested in maintaining the purity of all the different breeds named have been formed since #ahej1 and they all record pedigrees and publish registers or herd-books4 ,pure-bred herds of some of these different breeds are owned in nearly all parts of the country1 and half-breeds or higher grades are found wherever cows are kept for dairy purposes4 ,the quality and production of the average dairy cow in ,america are thus being steadily advanced4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,dairy ,,cow--,,ayrshire4 ,the development of dairying in the ,united ,states during the closing decades of the nineteenth century has been uninterrupted1 and marked by events of the greatest consequence in the entire history4 ,the importance of two inventions during this period cannot be overestimated4 ,the first is the application of centrifugal force to the separation of cream from milk4 ,this is based upon the specific gravity of the milk serum or skim milk1 and of whatever impure matter may have entered the milk1 such gravity being greater than that of the fatty portion or cream4 ,the dairy centrifuge1 or cream separator1 enables the creaming or 8skimming0 to be done immediately after milking1 preferably while the milk is still warm4 ,the cream can be at once churned1 while sweet2 but a better practice is to cure or 8ripen0 it for churning3 this can be done at a comparatively high temperature1 dispensing with the necessity of so much ice or cold water4 ,the skim milk is available for use while still warm1 quite sweet1 and in its best condition for feeding to young animals4 ,this mechanical method is more efficient1 securing more perfect cream separation than the old gravity system1 and the dairy labor is very largely reduced4 ,the handling and caring for the milk may be thus wholly removed from the duties of the household4 ,a usual plan is to have a 8skimming station10 to which the milk is hauled at least daily from the producing farms in the vicinity1 and where one or more separators are operated by power4 ,separators are also made of sizes and patterns suited to farm use1 where they may be operated by hand or by light power1--electricity1 steam1 water1 a horse1 a bull1 a sheep1 or a dog4 ,besides its economy and its effect upon labor1 this machine almost eliminates the factor of climate in a large part of dairy management1 and altogether has worked a revolution in the industry4 ,the centrifugal separator is still a marvel to those who see it working for the first time3 the whole milk1 warm1 flows into the centre of a strong steel bowl1 held in an iron frame2 the bowl revolves at a rate of #aejj to #be1jjj times per minute1 and from two projecting tubes cream and skim milk flow in continuous streams to separate receptacles4 ,the machines can be regulated to produce cream of any desired thickness or quality4 ,these separators1 of different sizes1 are capable of thus skimming or separating1 or more properly1 creaming1 from #ae to #ejj gallons of milk per hour4 ,a machine of standard factory size has a speed of #fjjj to #gjjj revolutions a minute1 and a capacity for separating #bej gallons of milk an hour4 ,the world is indebted to ,europe for this invention1 at least as a dairy appliance4 ,yet investigations were in progress contemporaneously in this country along the same line1 and many of the material improvements in the cream separator and several entirely new patterns have since been invented here4 ,the first separators were put into practical use in this country and ,great ,britain in the year #ahgi4 ,the century closes with #ce1jjj to #dj1jjj of these machines in operation in the ,united ,states4 ,the second great dairy invention of the period is the fat-test for milk1--being a quick and easy substitute for chemical analysis4 ,this is one of the public benefactions of the ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations which1 under ,state and national endowment1 have been established during the last part of the century1 so that there is now at least one in every ,state4 ,a number of these have done much creditable work in dairy investigation1 and from them have come several clever methods for testing the fat content of milk4 ,the method which has been generally approved and is now almost universally adopted in this and other lands is named for its originator1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,m4 ,babcock1 the able chemist and dairy investigator1 first of the ,new ,york ,station at ,geneva and since of the ,wisconsin ,station at ,madison4 ,this tester combines the principle of centrifugal force with simple chemical action4 ,the machine1 on the ,babcock plan1 has been made in a great variety of patterns1 simple and inexpensive for home use1 more elaborate and substantial for factories4 ,by them from two to forty samples of milk may be tested at once in a few moments2 and by slight modifications in the appliances1 the fat may be determined in samples of milk1 cream1 skim-milk1 or butter-milk4 ,this fat test of milk has wide application1 and is second only to the separator in advancing the economies of dairying4 ,the percentage of fat being accepted as the measure of value for milk for nearly all purposes1 the ,babcock test may be the basis for city milk inspection1 for fixing the price of milk delivered to city dealers1 to cheese factories and creameries1 and for commercial settlements between patrons in coperative dairying of any kind4 ,by this test1 also1 the dairyman may prove the quality of milk from his different cows1 and 7with quantity of milk-yield recorded7 may fix their respective value as dairy animals4 ,with perfect apparatus in careful hands1 the accuracy of the test is unquestioned1 and it is of the highest scientific value4 ,it should be noted that although clearly patentable1 and offering an independence through a very small royalty1 this priceless invention and boon to dairying was freely given to the public by ,dr4 ,babcock4 ,illustration3 ,,centrifugal ,,cream ,,separator ,,in ,,operation4 ,the advent of the twentieth century finds the dairy industry of the ,united ,states established upon a plane far above the simple and crude domestic art of three or four generations ago4 ,the milch cow itself1 upon which the whole business rests1 is more of a machine than a natural product4 ,the animal has been so bred and developed to a special purpose1 that instead of the former short milking period1 almost limited to the pasture season1 it yields a comparatively even flow of milk during ten or eleven months in every twelve2 and if desired1 the herd produces as much in winter as in summer4 ,it is not unusual for cows to give ten or twelve times their own weight of milk during a year4 ,and the quality has been so improved that the milk of many a good dairy cow will produce as much butter in a week as could be made from three or four average cows of the olden time4 ,instead of a few homely and inconvenient implements for use in the laborious duties of the dairy1 generally devolving upon the women of the farm1 perfected appliances skillfully devised to accomplish their object and lighten labor are provided all along the way4 ,the factory system of coperative or concentrated manufacture has so far taken the place of home dairying1 that in entire ,states the cheese vat or press is as rare as the hand-loom1 and in many counties it is as hard to find a farm churn as a spinning-wheel4 ,long rows of shining tin pans are no longer seen adorning rural dooryards1 as one drives along country roads2 but in their place may be found the bright faces of 8the women-folks10 who rejoice over the revolution of modern dairying4 ,illustration3 ,,milk ,,tester 7,,open74 ,here is an example of this radical change in the system of making butter3 ,northern ,vermont has always been a region of large butter production4 ,st4 ,albans1 in ,franklin ,county1 is the natural business centre4 ,during the middle of the century the country-made butter came to this town to market every ,tuesday from miles around4 ,the average weekly supply was #cj to #dj tons4 ,this was very varied in quality1 was sampled and classified with much labor and expense1 placed in three grades--prime1 fair1 and poor--and forwarded to the ,boston market1 two hundred miles distant4 ,during twenty-five years ending in #ahge1 #fe1jjj1jjj lbs41 valued at #bj1jjj1jjj1 passed through this little town4 ,all of this was dairy butter made upon a thousand or two different farms1 in as many churns4 ,in #ahha1 the first creamery was built in this county4 ,now1 the ,franklin ,county ,creamery ,company1 located at ,st4 ,albans1 has fifty-odd skimming stations distributed through this and adjoining counties4 ,to them is carried the milk from #cj1jjj cows or more1 and the separated cream is sent by rail to the central factory1 where from ten to twelve tons of butter are made every day4 ,a single churning room for the whole county6 ,all of this butter is of standard quality1 and sold on its reputation upon orders from distant points received in advance of its manufacture4 ,the price is relatively higher than the average for the product of the same farms fifty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,,butter-,,making ,,on ,,the ,,farm--,,the ,,old ,,way4 ,in one respect dairy labor is the same as a hundred years ago4 ,cows still have to be milked by hand4 ,although numerous attempts have been made1 and patent after patent issued1 no mechanical contrivance has yet been a practical success as a substitute for the human hand in milking4 ,therefore1 twice a day1 every day in the year1 the dairy cows must be milked4 ,this is one of the main items of labor in the dairy1 as well as a most delicate and important duty4 ,allowing ten cows per hour to a milker1--which is pretty lively work1--it requires the continuous labor of an army of #cjj1jjj men1 working ten or twelve hours a day throughout the year1 to milk the cows of the ,united ,states4 ,the industry is becoming thoroughly organized4 ,besides local clubs1 societies1 and unions1 there are dairy associations in thirty ,states1 most of them incorporated and receiving financial aid under ,state laws4 ,in some ,states1 the butter makers and cheese makers are separately organized4 ,sixteen ,states provide by law for officials known as ,dairy ,commissioners or ,dairy and ,food ,commissions4 ,these officers have a national association1 and there are also two national organizations of dairymen4 ,at various large markets and centres of activity in the commerce of the dairy1 there are special boards of trade4 ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture has a ,dairy ,division1 intended to watch over and promote the dairy interests of the country at large4 ,dairy schools are maintained in several ,states1 offering special courses of practical and scientific instruction in all branches of the business4 ,these schools and the agricultural experiment stations1 with which most of them are closely connected1 are doing much original research and adding to the store of useful information as to the applications of modern science to the improvement of dairy methods and results4 ,weekly and monthly journals1 in the interest of dairy production and trade1 are published in various parts of the country4 ,and during the last decade or two a number of noteworthy books on different aspects of dairying have been published1 so that the student of this subject may fill a good-sized case with substantial volumes1 technical and practical in character4 ,the business of producing milk for town and city supply1 with the accompanying agencies for transportation and distribution1 has grown to immense proportions4 ,in many places the milk trade is regulated and supervised by excellent municipal ordinances1 which have done much to prevent adulteration and improve the average quality of the supply4 ,full as much is being done by private enterprise1 through large milk companies1 well organized and equipped1 and establishments which make a specialty of serving milk and cream of fixed quality and exceptional purity4 ,this branch of dairying is advancing very fast1 and upon the substantial basis of care1 cleanliness1 and improved sanitary conditions4 ,cheese-making has been transferred bodily from the realm of domestic arts to that of manufactures4 ,farm-made cheeses are hard to find anywhere1 are used only locally1 and make no impression upon the markets4 ,in the middle of the century about #ajj1jjj1jjj pounds of cheese were made yearly in the ,united ,states1 all of it on farms4 ,at the close of the century the annual production of the country is about #cjj1jjj1jjj pounds1 and #if or #ig per cent of this is made in factories4 ,of these establishments there are some #cjjj1 varying greatly in capacity4 ,new ,york and ,wisconsin each have over a thousand2 the former ,state makes nearly twice as much cheese as the latter1 and the two together produce three fourths of the entire output of this country4 ,the other cheese-making ,states1 in the order of quantity produced1 are ,ohio1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 and ,pennsylvania2 but all are comparatively unimportant4 ,more than nine tenths of all made is of the familiar standard variety copied after the ,english ,cheddar1 but new kinds and imitations of foreign varieties are increasing4 ,the cheese made in the country1 with the small importations added1 gives an allowance of less than four pounds a year to every person2 but as thirty to fifty million pounds are still annually exported1 the per capita consumption of cheese in the ,united ,states does not exceed three and a half pounds4 ,this is a very low rate1 much less than in most ,european countries4 ,illustration3 ,,butter-,,making--,,the ,,new ,,way4 ,great as has been the growth of the factory system of butter-making1 and fast as creameries are multiplying1 especially in the newer and growing agricultural ,states1 such as ,minnesota1 ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 and ,south ,dakota1 there is still much more butter made on farms in the ,united ,states than in creameries4 ,creamery butter controls all the large markets1 the dairy product making comparatively little impression on the trade4 ,but home consumption and the supply of small customers and local markets make an immense aggregate1 being fully two thirds of all4 ,estimating the annual butter product of the country at #a1djj1jjj1jjj pounds1 not much over #djj1jjj1jjj of this is made in the #hjjj or #ijjj creameries now in operation4 ,iowa is the greatest butter producing ,state1 and the one in which the greatest proportion is made on the factory plan4 ,this ,state has #hej creameries1 only three counties being without them2 about two fifths are coperative4 ,in these creameries about #ij1jjj1jjj pounds of butter are made annually from #gej1jjj cows4 ,it is estimated that in the same ,state #ej1jjj1jjj pounds of butter in addition are made in farm dairies4 ,the total butter product of the ,state is therefore one tenth of all made in the ,union4 ,iowa sends over #hj1jjj1jjj pounds of butter every year to other ,states4 ,new ,york is next in importance as a butter-making ,state1 and then come ,pennsylvania1 ,illinois1 ,wisconsin1 ,ohio1 ,minnesota1 and ,kansas4 ,yet all these combined make but little more than half of the annual butter crop of the ,united ,states1 and in no one of them1 except ,iowa1 is half of the butter produced made in creameries4 ,the average quality of butter in ,america has materially improved since the introduction of the creamery system and the use of modern appliances4 ,no butter is imported1 and the quantity exported is as yet insignificant4 ,consequently the home consumption must be at the yearly rate of twenty pounds the person1 or about one hundred lbs4 annually to the family of average size4 ,if approximately correct1 this shows ,americans to be the greatest butter-eating people of the world4 ,and the people of this country also consume millions of pounds every year of butter substitutes and imitations1 known as oleomargarine1 butterine1 etc4 ,most of this is believed to be butter by those who use it1 and the ,state ,dairy ,commissioners mentioned are largely occupied in the execution of laws intended to protect consumers from these butter frauds4 ,the cows in the ,united ,states were not counted until #ahdj1 but they have been enumerated for every decennial census since4 ,it has required from #bc to #bg cows to every #ajj of the inhabitants to keep the country supplied with milk1 butter1 and cheese1 and provide for the export of dairy products4 ,the export trade has fluctuated much1 but has never exceeded the product of half a million cows4 ,with the closing years of the century1 it is estimated that there is one milch cow in the ,united ,states to every four persons4 ,this makes the total number of cows about #ag1ejj1jjj4 ,they are quite unevenly distributed over the country1 being largely concentrated in the great dairy ,states4 ,thus ,iowa leads with a million and a half cows1 followed by ,new ,york with almost as many1 and then ,illinois and ,pennsylvania with about a million each4 ,the ,states having over half a million each are ,wisconsin1 ,ohio1 ,kansas1 ,missouri1 ,minnesota1 ,nebraska1 and ,indiana4 ,texas is credited with #gjj1jjj1 but very few of them are dairy animals4 ,in the ,middle and ,eastern ,states the milk product goes very largely to the supply of the numerous cities and large towns4 ,in the ,central ,west and ,northwest butter is the principal dairy product4 ,it is estimated that the dairy animals of the ,united ,states include nearly half a million which are pure bred1 and that this blood has been so generally diffused that more than one fourth of the cattle are grades4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dairy ,,maid4 ,the following table gives approximately an exhibit of the quantity and value of the dairy products of the ,united ,states in the year #aijj3-- ,cows1 ,product4 ,rate of ,total ,product4 ,rate of,total ,value1 ,millions4 ,product4 ,value4 ,dollars4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #aa ,butter #acj lbs4 #a1dcj1jjj1jjj lbs4 #ah cents#beg1djj1jjj #a ,cheese #cjj lbs4 #cjj1jjj1jjj lbs4 #h cents #bd1jjj1jjj #e ,milk #chj gals4#b1jij1jjj1jjj gals4 #h cents#afg1bjj1jjj ,this gives the grand total of the dairy products of the country a value of #ddh1fjj1jjj4 ,if to this be added the skim milk1 buttermilk1 and whey1 at their proper feeding value1 and the calves dropped yearly1 the annual aggregate value of the produce of the dairy cows exceeds #ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,this may be accepted as a conservative estimate4 ,in a classification of the various annual farm products of the country by values1 meats and closely related products stand first in order1 the corn crop second1 dairy products and the hay crop alternate in the third and fourth places1 and wheat occupies the fifth4 ,hay and corn are so largely and directly tributary to the dairy as raw materials for its support1 that it is fair to place the products of the dairy as second only to meat products in the general list4 ,the cotton crop of the country is considered one of great importance1 but during recent years it rarely equals the butter crop in value4 ,the dairy aggregate exceeds all the mining products of the ,united ,states other than coal1 oil1 and gas4 ,there never has been a year when the entire gold and silver product of the world was enough to buy the annual dairy products of this country at the present time4 ,these comparisons show the commercial importance which the dairying of ,america has assumed4 ,it is a branch of farming of such magnitude as to command attention and justify all reasonable provisions to guard its interests4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,moral ,,progress ,,by ,,sara ,y4 ,,stevenson1 ,sc4 ,d41 ,secretary ,department of ,archology1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,in dealing with a subject so indefinite in its limits as the progress of morals in the nineteenth century1 it may be well to establish by a brief survey of previous facts some solid basis upon which to rest the discussion4 ,the notion of ,duty or of moral obligation--i4 e41 of well-doing viewed in the abstract and outside of expediency--does not appear to have been brought forward by the ,greek philosophers1 to whom is mainly due the origin of our own conceptions with regard to morality4 ,even ,plato1 who dealt with nearly all duties1 while insisting especially upon the negative duty of committing no injustice or evil1 even against one's foes1 nowhere systematically treats of ,duty4 ,indeed1 the ,greek equivalent for the word did not exist in his time1 and the notion was conveyed by a periphrase4 ,that morals have a bearing upon the welfare and character not only of the individual and of the family1 but of the whole body politic1 was however early recognized4 ,theognis1 for instance1 who lived in the sixth century ,b4 ,c41 stigmatized in the most energetic terms the evil influence exercised upon the destiny of nations by the immorality of the upper classes4 ,in the earlier schemes of civilization1 where worship played a dominant political rle1 morals were regarded as under the protection of the sacred law4 ,worship and law were closely united in the government1 and morals were included in these and governed by motives of expediency4 ,man's obligation to the ,deity was then mainly confined to material offerings and propitiatory rites1 whilst the law dealt with conduct in so far as order must be enforced1 authority respected1 and certain mutual rights recognized1 if the welfare of the nation was to be maintained4 ,that the moral standards of these early societies were high cannot be doubted4 ,those which prevailed in ancient ,egypt1 as preserved to us in the maxims of sages1 as well as in certain chapters of the sacred books1 prove that the rule of conduct which was to insure to the subjects of the ,pharaohs respect and popularity in this world and happiness in the world to come was in no way inferior to our own4 ,the men who taught their contemporaries 8,do not save thy life at the cost of another0 had little to learn from the high-bred ,parisians who recently escaped unhurt from the burning walls of the ,french ,charity ,bazaar4 ,for the ,greek thinkers1 however1 who first systematically dealt with the subject1 ,ethics was a branch of ,politics1 i4 e41 the ,science of ,government4 ,aristotle1 like ,socrates and ,plato1 took for the starting point of his argument the sovereign good1 or the idea of absolute well-being4 ,all that man undertakes has an aim which1 under analysis1 is found to be the greatest advantage to him who is acting4 ,accordingly all knowledge tends to this end2 and as all its elements are more or less connected1 there must be one1 the final end of which is essential2 this is the political science which aims at the highest well-being not only of each man1 but of man collectively1 i4 e41 of society4 ,the nature of this highest 8well-being10 which is generally termed 8happiness10 gave rise among ,greek philosophers to discussions which have been revived by modern thinkers4 ,it may therefore be stated that in ancient thought1 at least until the time of the ,stoics1 morals and virtue were studied1 whether in connection with religion or with politics1 under the light of expediency rather than under that of abstract right1 and that 8they were discussed as functions more than as moral obligations40 ,the fullness of significance which at present is conveyed in the word 8,duty0 is mainly due to the gradual and complex development of religious1 legal1 and philosophical modes of thought1 in which certain human acts are regarded as enjoined and others as forbidden by a higher power1 and in which conscience enters as an important and ever increasing factor4 ,a sense of duty is the legitimate product of human nature under cultivation4 ,but although we should look in vain among the ancients for the abstract notions which the words 8,conscience1 ,duty1 and ,right0 evoke in the modern mind1 we find in groping our way up the stream of time that germs of these concepts had long lain concealed in the precepts of ancient moralists4 ,the fact of virtue existed long before it was made the subject of theoretical systems1 and if with the development of the reasoning faculty our moral code has been elaborated and our ethical terminology enriched1 broadly speaking1 the rules of conduct laid down by civilized men in the remote past and those which govern us to-day are1 in kind1 virtually the same4 ,thou shalt not kill2 ,thou shalt not steal2 ,thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife2 ,thou shalt not bear false witness1 are coeval with the beginnings of communities4 ,it is in the scope and degree of their application--not in their nature--that mainly lies the difference existing in this respect between the past and the present4 ,in the highest stage of our moral development the unselfishness which seeks gratification in the welfare of others and in duty accomplished1 at the cost of self1 may in final analysis be reduced to a refined egoism4 ,the motive held up to man by most moralists is still expediency4 ,the reward1 whether it is promised on this earth or in the world to come1 is still a reward1 and to the 8greatest advantage of him who is acting40 ,moreover1 moral standards to-day1 as in the past1 have a strong bearing upon political government1 and it is in studying the development of democratic ideas that we may best follow the evolution of modern ethics as characteristic of our epoch2 for to this development is due a higher sense of justice1 the recognition of the rights of men and of the unimportance of the ego as compared with the race1 all of which form distinctive features of the modern creed for which the words 8altruism0 and 8humanitarianism0 have been coined4 ,it may also be said1 to the honor of the present century1 that there exists a growing tendency to accept abstract truth and right outside of expediency as standards of conduct1 and to apply these regardless of sex1 class1 or persons according to the inflexible logic of a trained reason4 ,two thousand years ago ,christianity established itself upon the wreck of ancient civilizations1 preserving that which in them was immortal4 ,grafted upon the ,roman world1 the gospel of democracy which it preached could be accepted as the official religion of the ,empire only at the cost of its own purity4 ,how could ,god and ,mammon rule together8 ,how could a ,constantine rise to an understanding of the ,teacher who said3 8,ye know that they which are accounted to rule over the ,gentiles exercise lordship over them1 and their great ones exercise authority over them4444 ,but so shall it not be among you2 but whosoever will be great among you shall be your minister2 and whosoever of you will be the chiefest shall be servant of all40 7,st4 ,mark x4 #db-dd47 ,christ had established religion among his followers as distinct from worship4 ,the people soon relapsed into worship1 whilst for the clergy theology took the place of religion4 ,with the alliance formed between ,church and ,state in the ,christian community1 much of the ,sermon on the ,mount was necessarily forgotten2 many of the parables in which the ,teacher embodied his doctrine of justice1 of tolerance1 of love and humility1 were to lose their living force4 ,under the banner of faith1 conduct sank to the second rank4 ,the dry subtleties of scholasticism helped to crush morality beneath the words and formul of a learned dialectic4 ,although for centuries the spirit of ,christ continued to protect the weak and the lowly1 although from the very body of the ,church1 then ever ready in its arrogance to cast its anathemas upon every effort of man to assert his freedom1 sprang reformers who endeavored to restore to the gospel some of its early significance1 the ,church strayed ever farther from its founder4 ,was this because1 as ,michelet said1 the reformers themselves needed reforming8 ,once more man found himself crushed under the law which ,christ had declared was made for him1 until1 at last1 in the forcible words of ,mr4 ,darmesteter1 of all the ,teacher's lessons ,christian ,rome seemed to remember only one1 8,return unto ,csar that which is ,csar's40 ,however fiercely monarchy might struggle against the temporal encroachments of the ,church1 it joined with it to repress the people4 8,authority rested upon a mystery4 ,its right came from above4 ,power was divine4 ,obedience to it was a sacred duty and inquiry became a blasphemy40 ,then from the great schools and universities the developing intellect of ,europe awakened to a sense of its rights4 ,suddenly there came inquiries into the reality of this spiritual power over human souls and over the human understanding which ,rome claimed to be derived from ,heaven4 ,in its revolt against dogma1 from ,ablard and ,arnold di ,brescia to ,huss and ,wickliff1 from ,luther and ,pascal to ,voltaire and ,rousseau1 the human thought struggled for freedom under the banner of learning and of reason1 and fought for the rights of the people against the privileged few4 8,i will not speak of tolerance10 cried ,mirabeau1 in his plea for the emancipation of the ,jews in the ,national ,convention 7#agia72 8the freedom of conscience is a right so sacred that even the name of tolerance involves a species of tyranny40 ,at the close of the last century1 freedom at last planted its standard in ,europe above the ruins of despotism4 ,in the fiery torrent which swept away the ancient traditions of the ,church1 as well as those of the ,state1 it seemed for a time as though religion as well as the church1 right as well as might1 must disappear from the surface of the earth1 and that1 in the smoke of battles and the revelry of reason1 truth and morals must perish and anarchy prevail4 ,but a moral rule is indispensable to society1 and 8,religion is after all but the highest expression of human science and of human conscience40 ,its germ1 innate in man1 grows with his understanding in its constant strain to establish a relation between himself and the universe4 ,to the moral chaos that for a brief space followed the overthrow of the old order of things succeeded1 in the beginning of this century1 a period of readjustment1 and now1 in the words of a poet whose own mental processes are a type of those of his time1 8,of a hopeless epoch is born a fearless age40 ,after the absolute negations of the early years of the nineteenth century1 after the violent controversies not only of arrogant science and of prejudiced faith1 but of scientific and theological schools inter se which fill the serious literature of the last generations1 a reconciliation between faith and science is taking place1 a certain unity of thought is being reached with regard to conduct and to the rights of men4 ,and the century1 at its close1 shows us the ,protestant churchman less tenacious of his dogma1 the ,romanist less certain of the infallibility of ,rome1 the scholar less convinced of the infallibility of his science1 the agnostic less boastful of his skepticism1 the monarchist awakened from his dreams of a divine right of kings and of a preordained subjection of men1 the socialist sobered of his revolutionary frenzy and repudiating the extremes of anarchy and nihilism born of his earlier teachings1 all marching shoulder to shoulder under the banner of a broad tolerance toward a common goal1 in a united effort to lift the masses from the depths of poverty1 ignorance1 vice1 and often crime1 to which centuries of repression seemed to consign them1 and seeking in friendly coperation to bring about a better social order4 ,for in our time has taken place a great broadening of the moral standpoint from which the old rules of conduct are in future to be applied4 ,toward the end of the last century the equality and fraternity of men was proclaimed to the ,european world and received a baptism of blood4 ,this official declaration of the rights of men professed to be universal2 but1 like other dispensations that had preceded it1 in its application it fell short of the democratic ideal4 ,all men were declared equal1 yet with striking inconsistency those who proclaimed the new creed held others in bondage1 and race disqualification survived4 ,the honor of leading in the greatest moral reform which the world has seen is due to the ,french ,revolutionary leaders4 ,on ,february #b1 #agid1 the ,convention decreed the abolition of slavery throughout the ,french colonies1 and all slaves were admitted to the rights of citizenship4 ,it was only in #ahcc that slavery was abolished in the ,british colonies by ,act of ,parliament1 and that coolie labor was substituted4 ,in #ahfa ,emperor ,alexander ,,ii41 following the policy inaugurated by his father1 ,nicholas ,i41 freed the serfs in ,russia4 ,it is a curious fact that the ,united ,states1 which for many reasons might have been expected to lead in the movement1 only followed in #ahfc4 ,the terrible struggle of the public conscience against expediency and class interest1 which then took place upon this continent1 must form one of the most important lessons which this century will offer to posterity4 ,right prevailed1 and with this triumph of justice the human conscience1 throwing aside casuistry and evasion for a time1 faced its problems honestly and asserted its own sovereignty4 ,the consequences of the mighty struggle did not stop here4 ,once the principles of abstract justice established1 not only against might but against tradition and expediency2 once the rights not only of men 7as in #aggf and in #aghi71 but of all men1 recognized in a broader application of the principles of a true democracy1 there came a tendency to extend its application to mankind at large2 and women1 who according to their station in life had hitherto been dealt with theoretically as either useful or ornamental possessions1 began to find their place as members of the community4 ,the rights of slaves as men had been officially proclaimed4 ,the rights of women as citizens began to be discussed4 ,illustration3 ,,czar ,,alexander ,,ii4 ,,of ,,russia4 ,in the widespread shifting of levels which has taken place in the last hundred years1 affecting directly and indirectly the moral progress of all classes of society1 certain important elements have entered which cannot be overlooked in the present discussion1 and which in future ages must stand as preminently characteristic of the nineteenth century and the ,anglo-,saxon ascendency4 ,the reign of machinery in the industrial world1 the advent of steam1 of electricity1 of compressed air1 as motors1 have done away with the human machine4 ,whether in peace or in war the skilled workman has crowded him out4 ,labor-saving inventions have done away with the necessity for a multiplicity of hands4 ,the need to-day is for trained heads4 ,from evaporated fruit and canned meats to heat1 light1 and inter-communication1 science is brought to bear upon every detail of existence4 ,as an immediate consequence of the part necessarily played by learning in our industrial and commercial life under modern conditions1 public education has become the mainspring of national prosperity4 ,freedom and public education have made our laboring classes the self-respecting1 thinking people they are4 ,the human automaton upon which formerly played the greed1 the vice1 the craft of others now holds a comparatively small place in the modern community1 outside of ,latin ,europe4 ,the 8vile multitude10 as ,m4 ,thiers still stigmatized it 7before he turned republican71 no longer exists4 ,the world has moved1 and so have men4 8,if the shuttle would weave of itself10 said ,aristotle in his apology for slavery1 8there would be no need of slaves40 ,the miracle1 which seemed impossible to the founder of science1 has been accomplished with the predicted result4 ,the shuttle weaves of itself and slavery has disappeared4 ,even in ,oriental lands1 under ,anglo-,saxon supremacy the carrying out of great public works is stimulating a demand for education among the people1 and the sum total of ignorance and poverty is gradually decreasing and making way for better conditions2 for only a trained hand guided by a trained intellect can use the modern tools4 ,this applies to agriculture as well as to industries4 ,in the rising tide of intellectual and material progress1 woman has been carried along to a great extent unconsciously4 ,it is a matter of grave doubt whether the early 8suffragists0 did more than be the first to recognize and herald the logical drift of contemporary events4 ,it is through higher education that woman has quietly forged her way to the place she occupies in the modern community1 and that she is claiming her share of the common heritage of freedom and independence4 ,the prophecy embodied in ,bulwer's 8,coming ,race0 is being realized4 ,from year to year her sphere is broadening4 ,she is fast becoming self-supporting4 ,in education she already holds a leading place4 ,her influence as a moving force is becoming patent4 ,it is officially recognized to a varying degree in certain parts of the civilized world1--,england1 ,new ,zealand1 ,russia1 and twenty-two of the ,united ,states1 where she stands before the law not only in her relation to man as his mother1 wife1 or sister1 but in a direct relation to society1 as a reasoning being and as a citizen4 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,edward ,,bulwer4 ,the increased self-respect born in woman's mind of a consciousness of equal training and culture1 the growing number of women whose ambitions have been stimulated to higher achievement1 and the consequent increasing influence wielded by them in the community1 suggest the thought that in time their legal status will be generally established1 as it already is now in several localities4 ,much leveling has taken place since the abolition of the 8ancient rgime10 not only in the relations of the various classes composing society1 but in the relation of men and women4 ,the process is still steadily going on4 ,and it is not unreasonable to believe that1 with the gradual elevation of the ideals of one half of the population1--that half which is in control of the early training of children of both sexes1--a common standard of character and morality may in time be acknowledged which will admit of but one rule by which the actions of mankind1 without distinction of persons1 class1 or sex1 may be measured4 ,the fact that all distinction in favor of the privileged class has already been removed in the eyes of modern public opinion holds out such a hope4 ,the casuistry which still discriminates between evil-doers can but retard moral progress1 and the more earnestly modern parents urge upon their sons the same observance of the laws of hygiene and propriety1 of truth and self respect1 as they exact from their daughters1 the nearer to true civilization will society reach4 ,the world is yet far from this goal4 ,no legislative act has as yet saved society from the ravages of vice1 sensuality1 and greed1 and to-day every degree of savagery and immorality still exists in so-called civilized countries4 ,education1 taking the word in its broadest sense1 can alone1 by its refining influence1 force the savage to give way before reasoning man4 ,and it is by the constantly increasing proportion of educated1 self-respecting men and women that the coarser instincts of the human race are being controlled and brought to yield to reason4 ,by holding up the same standards of conduct to humanity1 the important place occupied by casuistry and expediency1 in the discussion of the ethical problems set before the moralist1 may be reduced1 and a logical facing of the serious issues to be met may follow4 ,such a result must tend to strengthen the marriage tie and the family relation1 upon which rests the whole moral structure of society4 ,at present1 modern casuistry1 if it no longer seeks to justify falsehood and crime committed on behalf of ,church or ,state1 still exonerates1 in the world of affairs1 the high railroad official or the industrial magnate of an infraction of the higher code by which his own personal integrity is judged1 provided that infraction is committed in the interest of his constituents4 ,many a man of high standing1 whose personal honor is beyond suspicion and whose conscience would not allow him to take an unfair advantage of another1 does not hesitate to transgress when dealing with rival corporate bodies or with public interests4 ,hence the corruption which prevails in public life to a degree dangerous to the commonwealth1 and which is in direct contradiction with the professed standards of the age4 ,must we then think that living up to the highest moral standard is incompatible with business success1 and agree with ,m4 ,jules ,lematre that 8the attaining to moral perfection is really possible only in the solitude of literary or artistic pursuits1 in the humility of manual labor1 or in the dignity of such disinterested functions as those of priest or soldier08 ,however this may be1 new conditions have created new problems which the public conscience alone can solve--as it has already solved that of slavery and of race--with unflinching logic4 ,the human mind1 if less concerned than it was in the days of ,molina with polemics on the nature of the human will1--a question1 by the way1 which ,rome after eleven years and thirty-three ,councils dared not then settle1--or with theological controversies regarding the value of indulgences1 is not yet at peace with itself4 ,indeed1 for being less immaterial1 the issues now before it for adjustment are1 owing to their bearing upon practical life1 all the more vital to the moral health of the body politic4 ,to the respective rights and duties of labor and capital our best thinkers must turn their attention before an equitable solution can be reached4 ,that such a solution must be reached cannot be doubted1 for the interests at stake are fundamental4 ,whilst individualism in thought and in conduct asserts itself at every turn1 never were the principles of organization so actively carried out among all classes of society4 ,to the strain caused by the forming of trades unions and of united labor leagues for the protection of the wage-earner is now succeeding the danger produced by the concentration of capital in the hands of powerful corporations and the creation of mighty trusts1 the undue extension of which in this country seems to threaten the prosperity of the nation and to add to its political corruption4 ,as against these monopolies1 public ownership and operation of common utilities is being successfully tried1 notably in ,england and the ,british ,colonies1 and the honest municipalization of all community service1 carried on as the post-office is carried on among us1 results in positive benefit to the people1 that is1 in good wages and reduced taxes4 ,to discuss these important problems would encroach upon the domain of political economy and social science2 but there is no doubt that the public morality is closely dependent upon their solution4 ,whether so-called civilized nations1 whilst regarding murder as a capital offense and punishing dueling when indulged in by individuals1 will long continue to train their best men at enormous expense1 in order that in cold blood they may scientifically destroy the greatest possible number of other trained and equally good men2 whether peaceful communities of practical tradesmen will some day cease to emulate barbarians in their rejoicings over the slaughter of so-called enemies whom they are individually prepared to befriend and whose prowess they are ready to extol1 are glaring contradictions offered by the problem of war which must be left to future generations to reconcile4 ,the leading part which the ,anglo-,saxon race has taken in urging arbitration as a proper means of settling international differences places it in the foremost rank of civilization2 whilst the ,peace ,conference proposed by one of ,europe's most powerful potentates1 the ,czar of ,russia1 must bring a ray of hope to the hearts of those who labor for the advent of universal peace4 ,such are the great moral issues of the present day2 and in these many minor ones are included4 ,everywhere and at all periods of history the theory of ethics has widely differed from practical conduct4 ,the race conflict which is taking place in ,france as the result of the ,dreyfus trial1 more than a century after the emancipation of the ,jews before the law was proclaimed1 is a late illustration of this fact4 ,to this1 the corruption and failure of justice which recent exposures have revealed in the highest circles of republican ,france add peculiar significance4 ,as already stated1 the broad outlines established in precept remain unchanged1 and it is in their logical application that lie all present growth and future hope4 ,to trace1 even in sketchy outline1 the debit and credit account of modern ideas upon the various subjects involved in the above mentioned issues would be a serious undertaking4 ,a chapter must be devoted to each nation1 for the moral progress of each differs as does its besetting sin4 ,moreover1 every shade of opinion must be weighed and considered4 ,inherited traditional views are1 in each modern mind1 hopelessly interwoven with the new articles of a code of morals which public opinion is even now evolving from contemporary conditions4 8,each of us10 says ,edmond ,schrer1 8belongs to two civilizations1 that which is coming and that which is going2 and as we are accustomed to the first1 we are poorly placed to judge or enjoy the latter40 ,there never was an epoch when the struggle for existence was fiercer and when earthly possessions were more keenly prized4 ,but despite the many survivals which still point to a semi-barbaric inheritance of selfishness descended through millenniums1 a decided moral gain may1 on the whole1 be placed to the credit of our era4 ,with the decrease of the sum total of ignorance1 not only among the lower but among the upper classes1 the sum total of well-doing and well-being has immeasurably increased4 ,the sympathy for suffering is more widespread than it has ever been4 ,no middle-aged person can fail to note the rapid change which has taken place in the public mind with regard to the general treatment not only of children1 but of animals4 ,the present mode of dealing with school children according to their individual capacity1 the trust in their honor which governs their relation to the teacher1 the absence of any corporal punishment1 form a recent departure in education well calculated to produce the best moral results4 ,the improvement of modern methods in relief work as well as in the treatment of vice--now viewed more in the light of a pathological condition than in that of a sin--must make this a memorable epoch in the ethical history of humanity4 ,no branch of civilization has undergone greater change in modern times both in theory and practice than public and private charity4 ,to-day the humanitarian endeavors to lift up the fallen and the needy1 and almsgiving on the part of the well-to-do is fast becoming relegated to the category of a self-indulgence which is not to be encouraged4 ,the distinction between the old methods and the new is given in the formula that 8henceforth the chief test of charity will be the effect upon the recipient40 ,any relief calculated to undermine self-reliance and independence is discouraged by those who have in view the prevention of our moral ills rather than their relief4 ,illustration3 ,,captain ,,alfred ,,dreyfus4 ,indeed1 the new school preaches scientific charity as against emotional charity4 ,what it may have lost in impulse it has more than made up in effectiveness4 ,the attempt to teach the needy to help themselves1 the work of college settlements and of the organized efforts in the poorest and most neglected districts of large cities1 with a view to fostering by personal contact and example habits of thrift and self-respect where those virtues are most lacking1 are among the truest if more homely glories of the closing century4 ,verily1 never was a more thoughtful effort made everywhere to mitigate the cruel distinctions of race and sex1 of wealth and poverty1 and to 8harmonize the social antagonisms0 of modern life4 ,never was so much consideration given to the betterment of humanity1 nor was the aggregate of earnestness so great4 ,in our more robust intellectual world the tree is judged by its fruit1 and acts tell1 not creed4 ,the principle that well-doing1 unless it is disinterested1 forfeits its claim to the highest respect of men1 is growing in strength1 whilst the feeling is gaining ground among the thoughtful that in the development of personality may be found a sufficient motive for the exercise of virtue1 and that character1 not reward1 being not having1 are the highest aims4 ,if we resume the moral progress of the nineteenth century1 allowing for its inconsistencies1 carefully weighing its negative and positive results1 and taking as a balance what is original in its contribution to the ethical development of the human race1 we will find that this contribution mainly lies in the direction of tolerance and of altruism4 ,this altruism is distinct from the charity of ,st4 ,vincent1 which sacrificed self in a loving attempt to relieve individual distress4 ,such pure sacrifice1 admirable as it is1 is not only narrow in its scope1 but because of its austerity must fail to survive in the struggle for existence4 ,modern altruism aims at removing the main cause of individual distress1 and spends itself in educational efforts1 in which the well-doer finds happiness in the consciousness of usefulness4 ,it is also unlike the socialism of ,condorcet1 which reached down in an endeavor to make all institutions subservient to the interests of the poorer and most numerous classes1 for it aims at lifting these to the highest possible plane4 ,the mountain summits are not to be lowered1 but the valleys are being filled4 ,to raise the people1 to build up1 not to tear down1 is the avowed end of all modern moral effort1 and must ever stamp the humanitarian struggles of the present age as distinct from those of the eighteenth and preceding centuries4 ,with this we may claim an increase in individual freedom1 and a perceptible tendency to a logical and ever broadening conception1 not only of the rights1 but of the duties of citizenship2 to a more honest recognition of the place assigned by expediency to evil in the social and business intercourse of a practical life2 to a growing scorn of casuistry1 and to a stronger faith in the reality of right and of abstract truth as they are revealed in every thinking man's heart1 and the uniformity of which is reflected in the public conscience4 ,,progress ,,of ,,sanitary ,,science ,,by ,,charles ,mc,i,n,t,i,r,e1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d41 ,lecturer on ,sanitary ,science1 ,lafayette ,college1 ,easton1 ,pa4 ,since blessings brighten as they take their flight1 it may be difficult to realize how much of our present happiness and comfort depend upon the constantly abiding benefactions brought about by the progress of ,sanitary ,science in the present cycle4 ,the proper care of the body and the prevention of disease1 rather than its cure1 have occupied the minds of men from the dawn of history4 ,moses is the author of a well-digested code of hygiene1 and erudite scholars can find hints of the proper conservation of health in the ,egyptian papyri4 ,hippocrates wrote about the prevention as well as the cure of disease2 indeed1 all along the course of time the master minds of medicine attempted the solution of many of the problems of ,sanitary ,science as eagerly as they sought for the elixir vit or for the universal solvent4 ,notwithstanding all this1 one can truthfully say that sanitation could not be fairly termed ,sanitary ,science until its rules of procedure began to be formulated with more or less exactness upon careful experiment and accurately recorded observation4 ,sanitary science1 as such1 could not begin to be until pathology 7a knowledge of the morbid processes of disease7 and etiology 7a study of the causation of disease7 had builded upon a scientific foundation4 ,before this all deductions were from experience1 and had no other reason than the seeming helpfulness of the procedure2 after this1 as fast as the facts were demonstrated1 deductions were made that determined a procedure which would of a certainty accomplish the purpose4 ,in the olden times1 during an epidemic of a contagious disease1 tar barrels were burned in the streets1--and not without some benefit4 ,at the present1 the room1 with its contents1 can be disinfected with a certainty of destroying every atom of contagion4 ,this difference must be kept in mind when comparing the old with the new1 and the true reason of the great advance be recognized as due to the spirit of scientific investigation1 which began in the latter part of the last century with the employment of instruments of precision in research1 and which has developed so wonderfully up to the present that the experimental psychologist measures the minute portion of time it takes to form a thought4 ,at the same time1 it must be kept in mind that the sciences which furnish sanitary science much of its material are progressing and1 because progressing1 changing2 that the conditions desired to be removed are prevailing1 and the necessity of overcoming them urgent4 ,not in every case has the sanitarian fully demonstrated and laid down scientifically accurate data on which to base his method of procedure4 ,hence it happens that even now sanitary empiricism must needs be mingled with sanitary science1 and the mingling is sometimes as much of a motley as the dress of the court fool of the ,middle ,ages4 ,since sanitary science had its origin during the present century1 it will be helpful to assign a definite period for its birth4 ,not that any one would have the temerity to dogmatically assert that the science came into being at a fixed date1 but rather to fix a period of time when the conditions working through the ages were so shaped that1 perforce1 the problems of sanitation would thereafter be treated more in a scientific and less in an empirical method than before4 ,this time is associated with the beginning of the reign of ,queen ,victoria of ,england1 since the first ,act of ,parliament for the registration of births1 marriages1 and deaths was passed in #ahcg1 and the beginning made of accurately gathering information which is to the sanitarian what the pulse is to the physician4 ,with his fingers on this tell-tale of the flow of the heart-blood of the nation1 he is enabled to determine whether disease is above or below the normal1 the character of the disease that abounds1 and its whereabouts4 ,knowing where to find any disease in excess1 he can study the conditions and surroundings1 comparing them with other places1 whether afflicted in like manner or1 more favored1 free from the disease4 ,by means of these vital statistics he can compare year with year1 and tell with a degree of exactness heretofore impossible whether any disease is increasing or decreasing2 he can lay his returns by the side of the figures of the meteorologist and learn if the weather has any influence on the death-rate2 he can follow the results of his efforts to improve the condition of the people and vindicate his expenditure of the public money by pointing to the reduced mortality rate4 ,it may seem to be a gruesome task for every physician in the land to send to the proper official a notice of each death and of each patient suffering from a disease apt to be communicated to some one else2 and almost ghoulish for the officer to sit at his desk1 day after day1 and catalogue and tabulate these returns4 ,but it is only a modern version of the old riddle of ,samson1 out of the bitter came forth the sweet2 for without this1 much of the progress of sanitary science would be well-nigh impossible4 ,the act adopted in ,great ,britain has been modified and improved upon since then1 and in the ,united ,states many of our cities and some of our ,states have been engaged in a similar effort4 ,as yet we have no central bureau or collecting office for the nation2 nor is this necessary1 if each ,state would do its duty1 or1 at least1 the general government in that event need only tabulate the returns of each of the ,states4 ,the effort is now making1 under the auspices of the ,american ,public ,health ,association1 to secure a uniform method of registration in all offices collecting vital statistics1 by which the same name will be given to the same disease and the same facts recorded in each return made4 ,this will cause a little confusion at first in those offices where statistics have been tabulated for a number of years1 but the advantage will be so great as to fully repay any inconvenience at the first4 ,if we desire to obtain the full benefits from the advance of sanitary science1 we must see to it that in every ,state there is an efficient bureau of vital statistics1 whether under the supervision of the ,state ,board of ,health or some other department of the ,state4 ,the absence of such a bureau reflects upon the intelligence of the people or the integrity of the law-making power4 ,are there tangible results to warrant so sweeping an assertion8 is a fair question1 since at the time of the preparation of the census of #ahij ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,delaware were the only ,states collecting vital statistics1 and since then but ,maine and ,michigan have been added4 ,before quoting figures1 it must be premised that even now the returns only approximate accuracy2 they were much more inaccurate at the first1 and before the general registration was undertaken most of the statements are merely estimates1 after the fashion of the geographer who gives the number of inhabitants in ,china1 where a census never has been taken4 ,it may happen that the benefits are not as great as the figures seem to show1 but after making all allowance there is great improvement4 ,illustration3 ,,lives ,,saved ,,by ,,public-,,health ,,work4 ,comparison of death-rates in ,michigan from scarlet fever and small-pox before and since the ,state ,board of ,health was established1 and from typhoid fever before and since its restriction was undertaken by the ,state ,board4 7,compiled from the ,state ,department's 8,vital ,statistics0 of ,michigan47 ,the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 asserts that two centuries ago the mortality of ,london was #hj per #ajjj1 while now it is but a little over #bj4 ,in #ahda1 out of every #ajj1jjj people in ,england1 #cj1jjj would have died before reaching the age of #aj1 and one half would have died before they were #dj years old2 in the decennium #ahha-ij1 before #cj1jjj would have died out of each #ajj1jjj some would have lived to be #ag1 and some would have lived to be #ee before one half of the number had departed into the unknown and the hereafter4 ,the figures of the statistician must be quoted again and again in the progress of the article1 as no more tangible evidence can be given of the benefits resulting from improved methods of sanitation4 ,very early a coincidence was observed between the uncleanly and the death-rate4 ,neighborhoods where little or no care was taken to remove the refuse1 where there were foul drains and a deficient water supply1 were found to be the abodes of special forms of disease1--so much so1 that these diseases soon received the name of 8filth diseases40 ,acting upon the suggestion1 the gospel of cleanliness was preached and its practice enforced4 ,there was a 8redding up0 in its eventuality as thorough as the cleansing of ,santiago de ,cuba in recent days4 ,it did not take long to discover that decaying organic matter in some way was the offending body1 and that this contaminated the water supply4 ,wells were condemned and public water supplies installed2 means were sought to enable the cleansing to be constantly carried on1 and sewers for house drainage followed or accompanied the water supply4 ,in proportion as this has been thoroughly done has the death-rate from certain diseases diminished4 ,during the last century the ,european armies were decimated by fever 7typhus or relapsing7 to such a degree that the work of the fell destroyer at ,santiago was trifling in comparison4 ,on into the present century1 the great scourge of ,great ,britain was these same two fevers2 so much so1 that 8the fever0 meant the dread jail or typhus fever4 ,it was imported into this country1 and epidemics of 8ship fever0 were of frequent occurrence4 ,thus1 as late as #ahdf1 it was estimated that in ,dublin alone there were #dj1jjj cases of fever1 with a total in ,ireland of #a1jjj1jjj cases4 ,there were #aj1jjj deaths in ,liverpool1 a city especially prone to the disease2 while in ,edinburgh one person out of every nine of the population was attacked1 and one out of every eight of the sick died4 ,turning from this account to the medical returns of the war for the ,union1 there were reported only #agbc cases1 with #egb deaths1 to the office of the ,surgeon ,general1 and even these a very competent authority after careful investigation decided not to be instances of true typhus4 ,or turn to civil practice3 the disease is found so seldom with us that it is not necessary to assign to it a column along with the other diseases in publishing the mortality returns by our health authorities4 ,the deaths from fever in ,london during ,october1 ,november1 and ,december1 #ahih1 were but #bif4 ,london has an estimated population of #d1ejd1gff1 and the 8fever0 in the report included typhoid1 simple and ill-defined forms of fever1 as well as typhus4 ,this makes a death-rate of but #j4bf per #ajjj4 ,had sanitary science no other trophy1 its votaries could still boast of the great benefits to humanity brought about by their labors4 ,this is but one of many2 thus1 scurvy1 the great bane of the navy1 is now a disease that few physicians have the misfortune to see1 or patients to endure4 ,then that disease somewhat akin to typhus1 and until within the memory of the fathers confounded with it1 hence called typhoid fever1 is likewise fast disappearing1 more rapidly in cities than in rural communities however4 ,the suppression of typhoid proceeds with equal step with the introduction of a public water supply in our towns1 the adoption of the proper means to furnish this water unpolluted1 and the proper removal of domestic waste through sewers1 whose contents are so treated as to work no harm after they escape4 ,notwithstanding these great triumphs1 if boasting is permissible1 the sanitarian's boast is rather that his science1 which had its beginning1 as we have seen1 at the time when there was a great awakening of the national conscience in ,british politics for 8the larger sympathy of man with man10 has broadened with the years of its growth2 has endeavored to care for one's brother so that his blood would not cry up from the ground2 so that1 after forty or fifty years had passed1 a distinguished sanitarian could write with literal accuracy3 8,whatever can cause1 or help to cause1 discomfort1 pain1 sickness1 death1 vice1 or crime--and whatever has a tendency to avert or destroy1 or diminish such cases--are matters of interest to the sanitarian2 and the powers of science and the arts1 great as they are1 are taxed to the uttermost to afford even an approximate solution of the problems with which he is concerned40#a ,and the crowning glory of the science to-day is the care it bestows upon the weak1 the ignorant1 and the helpless2 the efforts it makes to ameliorate every undesirable condition of society4 #a ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,billings in ,ziemssen's ,encyclopdia4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing 8,,registration ,,states0 ,,now ,,available ,,for ,,the ,,mortality ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,twelfth ,u4 ,s4 ,,census 7#aijj74 ,,note4--,states having immediate registration of deaths and requiring burial permits are black4 ,the only additions to the list since the ,census of #ahij are ,maine 7#ahia7 and ,michigan 7#ahig74 ,it would be misleading to infer that all of these benefits have been brought about solely through the collection of vital statistics1 although much of it would have been difficult without the knowledge furnished by these statistics4 ,workers in almost every branch of pure science have contributed to the progress1--the physicist1 the meteorologist1 the chemist1 and by no means the least1 the biologist4 ,indeed1 with the more recent investigations1 the culture tube of the biologist has almost revolutionized medicine and all that pertains to it4 ,sanitary science seeks to accomplish two ends2 it purposes to prevent disease and to promote public health4 ,if it seeks to prevent disease1 after the fashion of the oft-quoted cook-book1 it must first secure the disease1 or what is essentially the same thing1 know what causes it4 ,if the cause be known1 and we can conquer the cause1 we can prevent the disease4 ,thus a disease known as trichin spiralis1 from the name of the parasite invading the body and causing sickness and death1 is caused by eating pork infected by the trichin4 ,we can certainly prevent trichin in persons by forbidding pork2 but we also know that the trichin do not occur in all pork1 and that their presence can be detected by the microscope4 ,if1 then1 a sample from every slaughtered pig is submitted to the microscopist1 the infected pork can be discovered4 ,this is done in our large packing establishments1 especially for that pork which is to be exported4 ,again1 a thorough cooking will kill the trichin1 even if present4 ,only the grossest carelessness1 consequently1 can account for a case of trichin1 and1 indeed1 it is a very rarely occurring disease4 ,this illustrates the importance of a knowledge of the cause of the disease1 to enable one to devise a method for preventing it4 ,in the study of disease causes1 the biologist has been very successful during the past few years1 and a number of our communicable diseases are demonstrated to be caused by the growth and development of bacteria4 ,from this demonstration in the case of some1 a general hypothesis has been formulated1 which is useful as a working hypothesis1 but by no means safe to call a theory as yet4 ,this hypothesis is that all of our communicable diseases are caused by living organisms originating in one person and conveyed to another1 where they begin to grow1 to reproduce their kind and to perform their life functions4 ,hence all communicating diseases are infectious4 ,some of these infectious diseases1 like measles or smallpox1 are capable of direct communication from one person to another1 rendering them contagious2 others1 like typhoid fever and cholera1 are not contagious in this sense of the word4 ,this is a very excellent distinction to make in the use of these much abused words4 ,the biologist has rendered sanitary science great service not only in discovering the causes of certain diseases1 but also by aiding to determine the nature of the disease in any outbreak4 ,it makes a vast difference if a given case is one of true diphtheria or not1 or of ,asiatic cholera or not1 and often the symptoms alone are not conclusive4 ,here the biologist comes to our aid1 as is seen so often in cases of supposed diphtheria4 ,a portion of the throat secretion is sent him under such precautions that no bacteria from the outside can possibly contaminate4 ,with this secretion he stabs or inoculates a jelly composition which he has placed in a test-tube1 stuffs a wad of absorbent cotton in the mouth of his tube and puts it in a warm chamber or incubator4 ,if there are any microbes present1 they will begin to grow1 and the expert biologist can tell the bacteria from its manner of growth as readily as the gardener can distinguish between his radishes and lettuce when they sprout in the spring1 and in this way is able to report the nature of the germs4 ,if he is in doubt1 he carries his cultivation further and employs other tests to prove his observation4 ,illustration3 ,,laboratory ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania4 ,the biologist has also rendered great aid to sanitary science in discovering many other species of bacteria that are helpful to man4 ,our polluted waters could not be purified1 our air could not be cleared from foul odors1 nor the proper decomposition of organic matters go on1 without the aid of bacteria4 ,these little vegetable growths1 while working much harm upon humanity1 contribute far more to their comfort1 well-being1 and happiness than they do to their ill4 ,possibly no better illustrations can be given of the value of bacteriology to sanitary science1 and the great progress it has brought about1 than to contrast a cholera outbreak of a few years ago with one occurring more recently2 or to point to the efficacy of purifying water by the assistance of bacteria4 ,another disease1 pulmonary consumption1 may also be noticed1 but the triumph here is not so marked as yet4 ,the first outbreak of cholera in the ,united ,states occurred in #ahcb4 ,in one special hospital in ,new ,york city1 #bjcj patients were received in the nine weeks from ,july #a to ,september #a1 and of these #hej died4 ,an eye-witness1 who was personally known to the writer1 one not given to exaggeration1 said that the state of dread and alarm had been increasing until1 when the disease first made its appearance in ,new ,york1 fully one half of the population had left the city1 many of the physicians fleeing with the rest4 ,there was no efficient health department1 and no organized system for the protection of the public health4 ,this gentleman was a city missionary1 and1 in the performance of his duties1 visited many of the houses4 ,he mentioned visiting one of these on a morning when the fifteenth body had been carried out4 ,it was the time of the rumble of the dead cart and the indiscriminate burial in public trenches4 ,contrast the horrors of this scene with the last attempt of cholera to invade the ,united ,states1 in #ahic1 when1 notwithstanding its presence at the quarantine station in ,new ,york harbor1 and the actual presence of a few well-authenticated cases in the city itself1 not one of these cases proved a focus for the spread of the disease4 ,the opinion that water in some way acts as a conveyer of disease can be generalized after a very little observation4 ,to explain how it does this is a problem that was attempted to be solved by the chemist4 ,he added vastly to our knowledge1 but it was not until the biologist showed the presence of the disease-producing bacteria in water that a full explanation was possible4 ,but the biologist has done more3 it has been found1 and notably in the very complete series of experiments carried on by the ,massachusetts ,board of ,health1 that even an effluent of a sewer1 if filtered through a bed of sand1 is purified to such an extent that the filtrate is a perfectly safe water to drink4 ,the dangerous organic matter disappears1 and ninety-eight per cent of the bacteria is removed4 ,and it is pleasing to note1 when one has so much to say of the dangers of bacteria1 that the purification is entirely brought about by the action of bacteria working for the good of man4 ,a sand filter bed does not purify water properly until it has been in operation for a few days1 when the top of the bed is covered with a slime in which the bacteria act upon the organic matter in the water and purify it4 ,the fact of the purification was known before the manner in which it was done was understood2 and in those cities where the authorities have acted upon this knowledge and have purified their water supply1 the influence upon the death-rate of typhoid fever is almost as marked as those already quoted for typhus fever1 while the scourge of cholera has been almost entirely removed from their borders1 as many an instance during the late outbreak in ,europe could illustrate4 ,it does not contribute to our self-esteem to know that most of the water supplies so filtered are to be found abroad4 ,there is not enough of 8practical politics0 in filter beds to charm the traditional alderman of our cities4 ,it is now clearly proven that a species of bacteria is uniformly present in pulmonary consumption4 ,this bacillus is to be found in the material coughed up by those who are ill with that disease4 ,it has considerable tenacity of life2 the expectorated material can be dried1 pulverized into dust1 and carried about on the wind2 should the bacteria so dried and carried find a proper soil1 they can grow and reproduce the disease4 ,fortunately1 a combination of circumstances is required for the contraction of this disease1 or it would be far more prevalent than it is4 ,notwithstanding1 it already claims more victims than any other single disease4 ,what has sanitary science done for its repression8 ,it is attempting1 in a tentative way1 to obtain a registration of those who are consumptives1 in order to teach them to avoid being possible sources of infection2 to disinfect the discharges carrying the bacteria1 and at times the rooms occupied by the consumptives4 ,in ,rome1 for example1 the services of the public disinfectors are asked for as eagerly for the room occupied by a consumptive as for one that had been used by a person suffering from diphtheria4 ,in ,new ,york city1 where the department of health has been exercising an oversight and care over the consumptives1 there has been a constantly diminishing death-rate from all tubercular diseases from #ahhf1 when the rate was #d4db1 to #ahig1 when it was #b4he1 with the single exception of #ahid1 which was lower than #ahie4 ,it is too soon to predict the result1 but the proper care of consumptives promises much to check the ravages of the disease4 ,illustration3 ,,sand ,,filter ,,bed4 ,one of the charms connected with the great results indicated is the simplicity of the methods employed to bring them about4 ,while complex schemes and elaborate machinery may be necessary whenever the amount of service to be rendered requires organization and division of labor to properly accomplish the desired results1 the principles are such that they can be executed in the smallest hamlet1 and with the very crudest paraphernalia4 ,the two great weapons of the sanitarian in fighting disease are isolation and disinfection4 ,dr4 ,henry ,m4 ,baker1 the efficient secretary of the ,state ,board of ,health of ,michigan1 has for years collected and tabulated the results of the observing and non-observing of these precautions in his ,state4 ,he has a happy faculty for graphically presenting the results4 ,one of his diagrams is presented here and needs no explanation4 ,in very few of these outbreaks could there have been any municipal disinfecting plant or isolating hospital4 ,isolation and disinfection--but the old quarantine and fumigation under new names6 ,who of us has not sympathized with the traveler of the earlier days in the ,levant1 when he was condemned to days and weeks of detention in the barren lazaretto8 ,and even at so comparatively recent a date as the pilgrimage recorded by ,mark ,twain in his 8,innocents ,abroad10 he states that the ,italians found it more to their convenience to fumigate travelers than to wash themselves4 ,how very different is a modern quarantine station1 such as may be found near any of our more important ports on the ,atlantic coast4 ,if the health officer of the port finds a contagious disease upon board1 he immediately removes the sick to the hospital1 and keeps the well under supervision long enough to see if the disease has been communicated to any4 ,he may keep them on shipboard2 but more likely1 if the ship must be disinfected1 he removes them to the detention station1 safely separated from the hospital4 ,the steerage has been crowded1 and there is need of disinfection of their persons and clothing4 ,under proper supervision1 each is required to take a bath1 for which abundant facilities are furnished2 and while this is doing their clothing has been placed in the steam disinfecting apparatus1 a partial vacuum secured1 superheated steam introduced1 the clothing thoroughly disinfected1 a partial vacuum again produced1 whereby the contents are rapidly dried1 and they are ready to be put on again by the time the bath is completed4 ,the luggage is treated in the same way1 while the cargo is probably treated to a sulphur fumigation1--the sulphur being burned in furnaces and the fumes carried to all parts of the cargo through lines of hose4 ,in the course of a very few days1 at least1 all but the sick can proceed on their journey without any risk of conveying the disease4 ,everything that has thus far been chronicled regarding the progress of sanitary science has related to the diminution of the death-rate and the prevention of disease4 ,after all1 is this worthy the telling8 ,when one learns 8how the other half lives10 or1 with more restricted knowledge1 realizes to a degree the intensity of the remark of a young ,hebrew1 replying to a command of a police officer to clean up1 as related in 8,the ,workers0 by ,professor ,wykoff3 8,you tell us we've got to keep clean10 he answered in broken ,english1 lifting his voice to a shout above the clatter of machines2 8what time have we to keep clean1 when it's all we can do to get bread8 ,don't talk to us about disease2 it's bread we're after1 bread60 ,is it worthy of boasting that sanitary science is only increasing the hardships and adding to the number of mouths to be fed1 without opening up new ways to earn one's bread8 ,even if it be so decided1 and all the claims of progress thus far made be declared wanting1 there still remains much worthy of praise4 ,sanitary science strives not only to prevent disease1 but also to promote health1 and its progress is fully as marked in its efforts at promotion as in those of prevention1 although we do not possess the cold figures of even imperfect vital statistics to demonstrate the proposition4 ,it must be kept in mind that sanitary science is wider than sanitation in its technical sense4 ,one would not care to assert that philanthropic effort and sweet charity are resultants of the development of sanitary science1--very few care to assert an evident untruth4 ,but the influence of this study has been widespread and beneficial4 ,the whole round of social science is also permeated with the truths demonstrated by the sanitarian1 and is likewise deeply indebted to its teachings4 ,our field broadens greatly as we view it1 just as one who has been traveling through a vale of surpassing grandeur1 because of the mountain barriers on either side1 finds himself confronted by a park whose beauty is enhanced by its variety as well as its extent1 bounded1 it is true1 by the same mountains1 but merely a hazy definition of the distant horizon4 ,in the construction of dwellings1 for example1 the small1 low ceiled rooms1 whose earthen or stone floors were covered with rushes seldom removed1 the absorbers of whatever might fall upon the floor2 the unpaved1 unswept1 and unsewered street2 the domestic water supply but a well into which filters the water from the adjoining cesspool1--these and many similar destroyers of health and comfort can no longer be found among nations classed as enlightened in our school geographies4 ,even the improvements of half a century ago--the tenements improvised out of the deserted mansions of the well-to-do1 with the additions built on the rear of the lot to increase the density of the population and the rent of the owner 7as well as the death-rate71 are disappearing1 and in their places we find dwellings capable of furnishing air and light to all of the residents4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,quarantine ,,station4 ,then1 in the matter of streets1 how much more attention is now given to small parks6 ,when about the middle of the century interest in public parks was revived1 the efforts of the various cities were directed to the securing of large tracts of ground and beautifying them in every way4 ,they were open to every one1 it is true1 but too often too far removed to be of use to the submerging tenth4 ,now1 while not adorning these with one garland less1 the effort is making to break up the congestion of the crowded districts by breathing spaces1 to the comfort and vigor of those who must make the surrounding houses their homes4 ,the streets1 too1 no longer paved with the unsightly cobble-stones1 are made noiseless with the asphalt paving and1 what is more to the purpose1 can be easily cleansed by flushing4 ,when practical business1 and not practical politics1 prevails in the municipality1 there is no opportunity for the household refuse to accumulate1 although no longer rushes are available to receive it1 for it is regularly and promptly removed4 ,the exigencies of trade compelled our government to establish its bureau for the inspection of meat4 ,the necessity of an inspection of foodstuffs for export demonstrates the possibility of adulteration for the home market4 ,while1 possibly1 the ingenuity of the sophisticator has more than kept pace with the keenness of the inspector1 the health of the people has been maintained1 their comfort promoted1 and their resources husbanded by the inspections carried on by the various city and state boards of health4 ,the welfare of the people at home1 in their dwellings and at their tables1 does not limit the efforts of the sanitarian4 ,he takes cognizance of the daily toil1 the ceaseless grind1 to win one's daily bread4 ,he recognizes that some callings are dangerous or annoying to the people1 and devises methods to overcome this1 or failing in this1 insists that such occupations must be carried on remote from the dwelling-place of man4 ,others1 he finds1 bring danger to those who are employed4 ,this may not be an inherent danger1 but one acquired by our crowding of operatives1 or in other ways not securing to them proper comfort2 and factory inspectors are at work to reduce these dangers to a minimum1 and to prevent child labor as well--giving to youth1 as far as cessation from overmuch toil can give1 an opportunity to develop into physical manhood or womanhood4 ,the sanitarian insists upon proper ventilation in mines1 and tries to devise the means to remove the danger from those trades that ordinarily are inherently dangerous4 ,the sanitarian seeks to aid in the amenities and relaxations of life as well4 ,the playgrounds for children1 the athletic grounds by the riverside at ,boston1 recreation piers in ,new ,york1 are examples of this4 ,and all of these are comparatively recent efforts1 adding to the catalogue of achievements during the century4 ,it was the arch-enemy who1 in the poem of antiquity1 said3 8,all that a man hath will he give for his life40 ,but he made the remark after much observation1 and to ,jehovah1 unto whom even he would not dare to lie2 and the rolling years since the ,hebrew epic was first written have only added testimony to the truth of the assertion4 ,in these later days1 when the rule and plummet are everywhere applied1 where the scientist delves and classifies to seek the cosmos in the apparent chaos1 there was evolved out of self-seeking for life a higher and better quest1--a search for those things which make for the health of all4 ,this search has widened1 until many a broad savannah has been trodden1 many a mountain scaled and wilderness explored4 ,with its ever extending view1 new responsibilities and greater cares have been thrust upon those who are endeavoring to rule in this domain4 ,a community1 a nation1 is but a unit4 ,let one part suffer1 and all are in pain2 let one but decay1 and rot is imminent everywhere4 ,there can be no true social progress1 no real stability of government1 no national prosperity worthy the name1 unless the environment of each individual permits the enjoyment of personal health1 if he individually observes but the ordinary care of self4 ,and whatever else of progress for sanitary science may be granted or denied as belonging to our century1 the crowning claim of all1 which cannot be taken from her1 is that1 along with the ideas embodied in commonweal and commonwealth1 she has added the other of equal dignity and worth--,public ,health4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,armies ,,and ,,arms ,,by ,,lieutenant-,,colonel ,,arthur ,l4 ,,wagner1 ,assistant ,adjutant ,general1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army4 ,a true appreciation of the progress made in the arts and sciences in the nineteenth century can be obtained only by contrasting the conditions found at present with those existing a hundred years ago4 ,the difference between the sperm candle and the electric light2 between the stage-coach and the rapid-flying express train2 between the flail and the threshing machine2 between the hand-loom and the machinery of the modern woollen mill2 between the cruel medical operations of five score years ago and the skillful surgery1 with the use of ansthetics1 of the present day2 or between the mail-carrier with letters in his saddle-bags and the electric telegraph flashing news instantaneously from continent to continent2 marks the difference between the beginning of the nineteenth and the opening of the twentieth centuries4 ,but there is scarcely an agency that has been employed during this wonderful century for the improvement of the condition of man that has not been enlisted for his destruction4 ,steam1 electricity1 chemical knowledge1 engineering skill1 and mechanical invention have all been employed in the science of war1 and everything pertaining to the organization1 arms1 equipment1 supply1 training1 and even the size of armies1 has been so revolutionized that there is scarcely anything in common between the forces that fought at ,marengo and those employed in recent wars1 except the characteristic of being armed and organized bodies of soldiers under military leadership4 ,the nineteenth century was born in the midst of war4 ,all ,europe was an armed camp1 and the contest between the principles of the ,french ,revolution and the old feudal system had taken the form of actual strife upon the field of battle4 ,a great alteration was taking place in the methods of war2 the old pedantic strategy of the ,austrian school had already received a rude shock at the hands of the brilliant young ,bonaparte1 and the old tactical methods bequeathed by ,frederick the ,great were1 also1 soon to be shattered by the genius of the newer and greater warrior4 ,to appreciate the changes that were already being made in military methods1 a brief glance at the organization of the armed forces in the latter part of the eighteenth century is necessary4 ,the ,prussian army1 as organized by the great ,frederick1 was regarded as the finest of the time4 ,in it the most exact and machine-like methods were observed1 the most careful accuracy in marching was required1 drill was carried to mechanical perfection1 volley firing was conducted with the greatest precision1 and no skirmishers were employed4 ,in comparison with later methods1 the whole system may be characterized as exact1 methodical1 and slow4 ,armies were supplied entirely from magazines1 by means of long and cumbrous trains1 and the art of moving rapidly and subsisting on the country was still to be discovered4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,style ,,shrapnel4 ,the ,french army produced by the ,revolution1 and led by such men as ,dugommier1 ,hoche1 ,moreau1 and ,bonaparte1 was trained to operate in column1 to deploy quickly into line1 and generally to act with celerity2 while the impoverished treasury of the republic compelled its armies to live entirely upon the country in which they were operating1 as the only alternative to starvation4 ,this entailed serious hardships to the soldiers1 and great distress to the population of the country in which they were acting1 but it marked distinctly the beginning of a new system of supply1 which contributed greatly to the rapid movement of armies4 ,the ,french army1 at the beginning of the century1 contained no regiments1 but was organized into demi-brigades1 each of which consisted of four battalions1 each comprising ten companies1 two of which were trained to act as skirmishers4 ,these demi-brigades1 with one or more batteries of artillery1 constituted a division1 to which a small force of cavalry was generally added4 ,in #ahje ,napoleon1 then the supreme ruler of ,france1 made important changes in the organization of the army4 ,the demi-brigade was replaced by the two battalion regiments1 each regiment now consisting of eight companies4 ,two regiments formed a brigade1 and two brigades and a regiment of light infantry constituted a division4 ,on the light regiment devolved the duties of skirmishers2 namely1 to harass and develop the enemy before the main attack4 ,the divisions were grouped into larger organizations known as corps d'arme1 or army corps1 each of which consisted of all arms of the service1 and was1 in fact1 a force capable of operating independently as a small army4#b ,a corps of reserve cavalry was also formed4 ,in numbers the cavalry was equal to one fourth1 and the artillery one eighth of the strength of the infantry4 ,the infantry was armed with a smooth-bore1 muzzle-loading1 flint-lock musket1 which required some thirty-two distinct motions in loading1 and which had an effective range of only two hundred yards1 though by giving it a high elevation it could do some damage at twice that distance4 ,this weapon bore about the same relation to the magazine rifle of the present day that the old-fashioned sickle bears to the modern mowing-machine4 ,the artillery consisted of muzzle-loading1 smooth-bore guns1 which had less than one fourth the range of the modern infantry rifle4 ,cavalry1 being able to form with comparative impunity within close proximity of the opposing infantry1 could sweep down upon it in a headlong charge2 and the use of the sabre on the field of battle1 now so rare1 was then an almost invariable feature of every conflict4 ,under ,napoleon the armies continued to 8live on the country10 but magazines of supplies were carefully prepared to supplement the exhausted resources of the theatre of war4 #b ,brigades and divisions had long existed1 but the army corps was a creation of ,napoleon4 ,in besieging a fortified place1 the first parallel or line of batteries of the besiegers was habitually established at about six hundred yards from the enemy's works1 a distance then at long artillery range1 but which would now be under an annihilating fire from infantry rifles4 ,the cannon used solid shot almost exclusively1 though early in the present century a projectile1 invented by ,lieutenant ,shrapnel1 of the ,british army1 and which now universally bears his name1 was introduced4 ,this consisted of a thin cast-iron shell filled with round musket balls1 the interstices between which were filled by pouring in melted sulphur or resin1 to solidify the mass and prevent it from cracking the shell when the piece was fired4 ,a hole was bored through the mass of sulphur and bullets to receive the bursting charge1 which was just sufficient to rupture the shell and release the bullets1 which then moved with the velocity that the projectile had at the moment of bursting4 ,shrapnel has at all times been a destructive missile1 though in its early form it was insignificant in comparison with the 8man-killing projectile0 which now bears the same designation4 ,illustration3 ,,congreve ,,rocket4 ,in the year #ahjf1 the ,congreve rocket was added to the weapons of war4 ,it consisted of a case of wrought iron1 filled with a composition of nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 in such proportions as to burn more slowly than gunpowder4 ,the head of the rocket consisted of a solid shot1 a shell1 or a shrapnel4 ,at the base was fastened a stick1 which secured steadiness for the projectile in its flight4 ,the range of the rocket was scarcely more than five hundred yards1 though a subsequent improvement1 which dispensed with the guide-stick and substituted three tangential vents1 increased the range very considerably4 ,congreve rockets were used with effect in ,europe in #ahad1 and against our raw militia at ,bladensburg in the same year4 ,they seem1 however1 to have depended more upon the moral effect of their hissing rush than upon any really destructive properties1 and were effective mainly against raw troops and cavalry4 ,the rocket is now an obsolete weapon1 having made its last appearance in war in the ,austrian army in #ahff4 ,illustration3 ,u4 ,s4 ,,rifle ,,musket1 #ahee4 ,the infantry of all the armies of ,continental ,europe1 when deployed for battle1 was formed in three ranks4 ,on the eve of the battle of ,leipsic1 ,napoleon1 finding himself greatly outnumbered by the allies1 ordered his infantry to deploy in two ranks1 in order that his front might approximate in length to that of the enemy4 ,this formation had1 however1 been adopted by the ,british some years before1 and had been used with great success against the assaulting ,french columns1 in many of ,wellington's battles in ,spain1 where the steadfast ,anglo-,saxon soldiery was able to maintain the 8thin red line10 and throw the fire of every musket against the denser formation of its foes4 ,it was not until the ,british troops encountered1 upon our own soil1 an ,anglo-,saxon opponent as steadfast as themselves1 and better skilled in marksmanship1 that they were unable to achieve a victory over their enemies4 ,true1 our raw militia was everywhere beaten when it encountered the disciplined soldiers of ,great ,britain1 but our regular troops at ,chippewa and ,lundy's ,lane gallantly defeated the choice veterans of ,wellington's campaigns2 and1 at ,new ,orleans1 an army composed mainly of hardy backwoodsmen1 trained in ,indian lighting1 and expert in the use of the rifle1 hurled back1 with frightful carnage1 experienced ,british soldiers who had habitually triumphed over the best veterans of the ,french empire4 ,the battle of ,new ,orleans marked the introduction of the rifle as a formidable arm for infantry4 ,it was by no means a new weapon1 for it had been invented in ,germany in #adih2 but it had not been used to any extent in military service1 mainly because of the slowness of loading4 ,the capabilities of the rifle in the hands of an army of expert marksmen were1 however1 made so manifest by ,jackson's great victory that the attention of military men was turned towards the weapon which had enabled a crude army to overwhelm the choicest troops of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,mini ,,ball4 ,yet it was not until #ahej that a practically efficient military rifle appeared4 ,this was the invention of ,captain ,mini1 of the ,french army1 and was the well-known 8,mini rifle10 long familiar to troops on both continents4 ,the weapon was a muzzle-loader1 and its projectile1 the 8,mini ball10 was of a conoidal shape1 as shown in the accompanying figure4 ,the ball being slightly smaller in diameter than the bore of the piece1 the loading was easily accomplished1 and the shock of the explosion against the cavity at the base of the bullet forced the lead into the grooves of the bore and caused the shot to take up a rotary motion on its axis--in other words1 8to take the rifling40 ,rifles1 mostly constructed on principles similar to those on which ,mini's weapon was based1 were soon in use in the armies of all great nations4 ,the rifle musket1 8model of #ahee10 adopted by the ,united ,states1 is shown in the accompanying figure4 ,in #ahag percussion caps were invented in the ,united ,states1 but some time elapsed before they were introduced into military use2 and though the 8percussion rifle0 was known in #ahda1 the victorious troops which went with ,scott in the brilliant campaign from ,vera ,cruz to the ,city of ,mexico1 six years later1 were armed with the flint-lock musket4 ,in #ahcc1 ,colonel ,colt invented the first practical revolving pistol4 ,this weapon1 especially in its present perfected form1 is so well known as to need no description4 ,the first pattern of ,colt's revolver used paper cartridges and percussion caps4 ,in the long period of peace which ,europe enjoyed after the battle of ,waterloo1 but little change was made in the organization of the armies of the great powers2 and in the ,crimean war 7#ahee-ef7 the composition of the ,english1 ,french1 and ,russian armies did not differ materially from the constitution of the forces of the same nations in the ,napoleonic wars4 ,marked changes had1 however1 been made in the nature of the weapons2 most of the ,english and a part of the ,french infantry being armed with the rifle1 though the ,russian infantry1 with the exception of a few selected regiments1 were still armed with the smooth-bore musket4 ,though the extreme range of the rifle at this time did not exceed eight hundred yards1 and was inaccurate at half that distance1 it was1 nevertheless1 a formidable weapon in comparison with the infantry musket of ,napoleonic times4 ,rifled siege guns were employed by the ,british at ,sebastopol1 but they were not a success1 and were soon withdrawn from the batteries4 ,a striking indication of the increased range of artillery was furnished at ,sebastopol1 when the besiegers established their first parallel at a distance of #acjj yards from the ,russian works4 ,illustration3 ,,armstrong ,,field ,,gun4 ,in the ,italian war of #ahei rifled cannon appeared for the first time upon the field of battle4 ,they were employed by the ,french1 and to their use was largely due the victories of the ,french and ,sardinians over the ,austrians4 ,for many years the attention of artillerists had been devoted to the production of serviceable rifled artillery1 and as early as #ahdf an iron breech-loading rifled cannon had been invented in ,france by ,major ,cavalli4 ,this gun fired a shell not dissimilar in shape to the projectile employed in the ,mini rifled musket4 ,in #ahed1 experiments with a ,cavalli gun gave very satisfactory results1 both in range and accuracy2 but the breech mechanism seemed dangerously weak1 and the rifled guns1 adopted by the ,french and used with such effect in ,italy1 were muzzle-loaders4 ,in #ahed a breech-loading rifled field-piece was invented by ,sir ,william ,george ,armstrong4 ,it was made of wrought-iron bars coiled into spiral tubes1 and welded by forging4 ,the breech was closed with a screw which could be quickly withdrawn for loading and sponging the gun4 ,the projectile was made of cast-iron1 thinly coated with lead1 and was 7with its coating7 slightly larger in diameter than the bore4 ,the lead coating was crushed into the grooves by the force of the powder1 the necessary rotation being thus given to the projectile4 ,this gun gave excellent results in range and in rapidity and accuracy of fire1 but it was not until some years after its invention that it was adopted in the ,british service4 ,other breech-loading cannon soon appeared2 but in the ,united ,states army the #c-;inch ,rodman muzzle-loading rifled gun was preferred to any breech-loader then devised1 and was used with great effect throughout the ,war of ,secession4 ,this gun was made by wrapping boiler plate around an iron bar1 so as to form a cylindrical mass1 the whole being brought to a welding heat in a furnace and then passed through rollers to unite it solidly4 ,the piece was then bored and turned to the proper shape and dimensions4 ,the projectiles for rifled guns were generally coated with soft metal1 or furnished with an expanding base or cup of similar metal or papier mach2 though in some systems they were furnished with studs or buttons which fitted into the grooves of the bore4 ,in the case of the ,whitworth gun1 the projectile was made nearly of the exact size and form of the bore1 so as to fit accurately into the grooves4 ,illustration3 ,,rodman ,,gun4 ,breech-loading cannon were not1 however1 quickly adopted1 owing1 perhaps1 to conservatism on the part of artillerists1 and partly because the guns first produced did not seem to give appreciably better results in range1 accuracy1 or even in rapidity of fire than the muzzle-loaders4 ,not only were breech-loading cannon adopted with seeming reluctance1 but rifled cannon generally were looked upon with disfavor by many artillerists of the old school4 ,hohenlohe tells of an old ,prussian general of artillery who was so prejudiced against the rifled innovation that he requested1 on his death-bed1 that the salute over his grave should be fired with nothing but smooth-bore guns4 ,it must be confessed1 however1 that the #ab-pound smooth-bore ,napoleon gun long held its own against the new rifled field-pieces1 as many a bloody battle in our ,civil ,war well attested4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,winfield ,,scott4 ,in the manufacture of heavy guns the ,united ,states for some time led the world4 ,in #ahfj1 ,general ,rodman1 of the ,ordnance ,department1 produced the first #ae-;inch gun ever made4 ,this gun was made of cast-iron1 and was cast on a hollow core1 cooled by a stream of water passing through it1 by which means the metal nearest the bore was made the hardest and most dense1 and the tendency towards bursting was thus reduced to a minimum4 ,general ,rodman was also the inventor of the hollow cake powder1 which consisted of cakes perforated with numerous small holes for the passage of the flame1 thus enabling the powder to be progressively consumed1 and causing the amount of gas at the last moments of the discharge to be greater than at the instant of ignition4 ,a large-grain powder1 known as 8mammoth powder10 was afterwards devised by him to produce the same results4 ,it will be seen later that this invention has rendered possible the powerful ordnance of the present day2 and it is perhaps not too much to say1 that ,rodman is really thus the father of the modern high-power guns4 ,at the beginning of the ,war of ,secession the heaviest gun in the ,united ,states was the #ae-;inch ,rodman1 the projectile of which weighed #cbj lbs41 the charge of powder weighing #ce lbs4 ,next to this was the #aj-;inch ,columbiad1 which fired a #ajj-lb4 shell with a charge of #ah lbs4 of powder4 ,the effective range of these guns was a little less than three miles4 ,the heaviest mortar was of #ac-;inch caliber1 fired a #bjj-lb4 shell1 with a charge of #bj lbs4 of powder1 and had a range of #dcbe yards4 ,this mortar was1 like all others then in use1 manipulated by means of handspikes1 and not only was much less powerful1 but was much more clumsy than the admirable mortar of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,smooth-,,bore ,,mortar4 ,the ,crimean and ,italian wars had foreshadowed the passing away of the old military conditions and the dawning of a new era of warfare4 ,but it was in the gigantic struggle which rocked our own country for four years that the developments of modern warfare really commenced4 ,at the beginning of this great conflict the ranges of #ajjj to #abjj yards for field guns1 and of #aejj to #bjjj yards for heavy guns1 were as great as could be secured with any degree of accuracy4 ,the infantry rifle with which the ,union and ,confederate armies were armed had an extreme range of but #ajjj yards1 and a really effective range of only half that distance4 ,the rifle was a muzzle-loader1 which required nine distinct motions in loading besides those necessary in priming the piece with the percussion cap then used4 ,the tactics employed at first in all arms of the service did not differ materially from the methods employed in the ,napoleonic wars2 and a line of ,american infantry deployed for battle in two ranks1 shoulder to shoulder1 scarcely differed in anything but the color of its uniforms from the 8thin red line0 of ,wellington's warriors4 ,all this was to be changed2 but it was not only in the matter of arms and tactics that a revolution was to be effected1 for new forces hitherto untried were to be employed in the art of war4 ,the ,war of ,secession was not only one of the most gigantic conflicts ever waged on earth1 but was one which will always be of interest to the military student because of its remarkable developments in the science of warfare1 and one which will ever be a source of pride to ,americans because of the grim earnestness and stubborn valor displayed by the contending armies4 ,from first to last1 more than two millions of men were enrolled by the ,united ,states1 and in the final campaign #a1ajj1jjj men were actually bearing arms in the service of the ,union4 ,the infantry was organized in companies of one hundred men1 ten companies forming a regiment4 ,at first1 three or four regiments constituted a brigade1 though it was afterwards formed of a greater number when the regiments became depleted by the losses of battle4 ,three brigades generally composed a division1 which also habitually included two batteries of artillery and a small detachment of cavalry for duty as orderlies and messengers4 ,three or more divisions constituted an army corps4 ,the cavalry was formed into brigades and divisions1 which in the later years of the war were combined to form1 in each of the large armies1 a corps of cavalry4 ,it was in command of such corps of mounted troops that ,sheridan1 ,j4 ,e4 ,b4 ,stuart1 ,merritt1 and ,wilson achieved their great fame4 ,the batteries first distributed to divisions1 or even brigades1 were afterwards assigned to the army corps1 and all guns not thus employed were grouped into a corps of reserve artillery4 ,it is a curious fact that the two factors most important in warfare were found to be two inventions designed primarily for the interests of peace1 namely1 the railroad and the electric telegraph4 ,steam and electricity had both been used in the ,crimean and ,italian wars2 but it was in the ,war of ,secession that they received their first great and systematic application4 ,the effect of the use of railroads in war not only enables armies to be more rapidly concentrated than was formerly the case1 but renders it possible to supply them to an extent and with a certainty that would otherwise be out of the question4 ,the difference between the supply of an army by wagon and by rail was clearly shown in the siege of ,paris1 in #ahgj-ga1 where six trains a day fed the whole besieging army1 while it is estimated that nearly ten thousand wagons would have been required for the same purpose4 ,moreover1 the force of troops necessarily detached to protect a line of railroad communications is not nearly so great as the force that would be necessary to guard the innumerable wagon or pack trains that would otherwise be required4 ,in the opinion of the best military authorities1 railroads1 had they been in existence1 would have enabled ,napoleon to conquer ,russia1 and with it the world2 while1 without the aid of railroads1 the successful invasion of the ,south by the armies of the ,union would have been an impossibility4 ,it is only while it keeps moving that an army can 8live on the country40 ,it is like a swarm of locusts1 consuming everything within reach2 and if it be compelled to halt1 whether for battle or from other cause1 it must be supplied from bases in the rear1 or it will speedily disintegrate from hunger alone4 ,this fact was fully appreciated by ,general ,sherman1 when he left ,atlanta in his famous 8march to the sea20 for though he expected to1 and did1 live upon the country1 he nevertheless took the precaution to carry with him a wagon train containing twenty days' rations for his entire army4 ,in the ,war of ,secession the electric telegraph first appeared on the field of battle4 ,the telegraph train became a prominent feature of all our armies2 and the day's march was hardly ended before the electric wire1 rapidly established by an expert corps1 connected the headquarters of the army with those of each army corps1 division1 and brigade4 ,but it was not in its employment on the actual field of battle that the telegraph found its most valuable military use4 ,it enabled generals1 separated by hundreds of miles1 to be in constant communication with each other1 and rendered it possible for ,grant to control from his headquarters hut at ,city ,point the movements of the armies of ,sherman1 ,thomas1 and ,sheridan in combined operations1 which enabled each to perform1 in harmony with the others1 its part in the mighty plan4 ,illustration3 ,,spencer ,,carbine4 ,it followed as naturally as day follows night that a shrewd and intelligent people1 engaged in a desperate struggle for self-preservation1 would avail themselves of all means provided by military science for carrying out the contest in which they were engaged4 ,iron-clad vessels had been devised in both ,england and ,france1 but they were merely frigates designed on the old lines and partly covered with a sheathing of armor4 ,with characteristic energy and ingenuity the ,americans1 ignoring old traditions and seeking the shortest road to the fulfillment of a manifest want1 produced simultaneously the ,merrimac and the ,monitor1 the former resembling 8a gabled house submerged to the eaves10 and the latter looking like 8a ,yankee cheese-box upon a raft40 ,these novel vessels met in their memorable combat at ,hampton ,roads1 and the booming of their guns sounded the death knell of the old wooden navies4 ,as with war vessels1 so with firearms4 ,new conditions were met with inventive genius and mechanical skill4 ,though the great mass of our troops continued throughout the conflict to use the muzzle-loading rifle1 breech-loaders were in the hands of many thousands of our soldiers before the close of the great contest4 ,in #ahfd the cavalry of ,sheridan and ,wilson and many regiments of infantry were armed with breech-loading carbines1 which gave them a great advantage over their opponents4 ,the effect of the breech-loaders upon the ,confederates was unpleasantly surprising to them1 and the ,southern soldiers are said to have remarked with dismal humor that 8the ,yankees loaded all night and fired all day40 ,the principal breech-loading arms in use in the ,union armies were the ,sharps and the ,spencer4 ,in the ,sharps carbine the barrel was closed by a sliding breech-piece which moved at right angles with the axis of the piece1 the breech being opened and closed by pulling down and raising up the trigger-guard4 ,the ,spencer carbine was a magazine rifle1 and was greatly superior to the ,sharps4 ,the magazine of the rifle lay in the butt of the stock1 and was capable of holding seven cartridges4 ,as the cartridge was fired and ejected another was pushed forward into the breech by a spiral spring in the butt of the piece4 ,the ,spencer carbine used metallic cartridges4 ,the introduction of these cartridges was one of the most remarkable advances in the art of war made during the present century4 ,the cartridge in use in #ahfd-fe is shown in the accompanying figure2 it consisted of a thin copper case firmly attached to the bullet containing the powder1 and having at its base a small metallic anvil1 in a cavity of which was placed the fulminate1 which was exploded by means of a firing pin1 driven in by a blow of the hammer4 ,the advantages of the metallic cartridge can scarcely be overestimated2 it rendered obsolete the percussion cap1 and being water-proof it did away with the ever-present bugbear of damp ammunition4 ,the old injunction1 8,put your trust in ,god and keep your powder dry10 has consequently lost much of its force2 for while it is to be hoped that the soldier will continue to place his reliance upon ,providence1 the latter part of the advice can now be safely ignored4 ,illustration3 ,,metallic ,,cartridge ,,of #ahfd-fe4 ,among the many advantages possessed by the breech-loader over the muzzle-loader1 the principal ones are greater rapidity of fire1 ease of loading in any position1 diminished danger of accidents in loading1 and the impossibility of putting more than one charge in the piece at the same time4 ,this last advantage is by no means slight4 ,among #bg1jjj muzzle-loading muskets picked up on the battlefield of ,gettysburg1 at least #bd1jjj were loaded4 ,of these about half contained two charges1 one fourth held from three to ten charges1 and one musket contained twenty-three cartridges4 ,the failure of the ,americans to produce during the great war a practical breech-loading field-gun is doubtless due to the fact that the field artillery in use at that time answered fully all the requirements then existing4 ,owing to the nature of the country in which the armies were operating1 the range of the #c-;inch rifled gun was fully as great as could have been desired2 and on the broken and wooded ground which generally formed our field of battle1 the smooth-bore ,napoleon gun1 firing shrapnel and canister1 seemed to have reached almost the acme of destructiveness4 ,moreover1 the muzzle-loading cannon1 both rifled and smooth-bore1 were served with such celerity as to make it a matter of doubt for some years after whether the introduction of breech-loading field-guns would materially increase the rapidity of fire4 ,it was not until infantry fire had greatly increased in range and rapidity that a further improvement in field artillery became necessary4 ,in siege artillery1 heavy rifled guns of the ,rodman and the ,parrott type appeared4 ,the ,parrott gun was of cast iron1 strengthened by shrinking a coiled band of wrought iron over the portion of the piece surrounding the charge4 ,the famous 8,swamp ,angel10 used in the siege of ,charleston1 was a ,parrott gun4 ,the sea-coast artillery consisted mainly of smooth-bores of large calibre1 which were able to contend successfully with any armor then afloat4 ,it is a curious fact that the war1 so to speak1 between guns and armor has been incessantly waged since the introduction of the latter1 every advance of armor towards the degree of invulnerability being met with the production of a gun capable of piercing it4 ,the sea-coast artillery of the ,united ,states in the ,civil ,war met fully every demand to which it was subjected4 ,the ,war of ,secession produced the first practical machine-gun1--the ,gatling1--though such guns were not used to any extent4 ,the machine-gun has1 in fact1 passed through a long period of gestation1 and it is only in recent years that it can be said to have attained its full birth4 ,our great war was also noted for the introduction of torpedoes4 ,these peculiar weapons had1 it is true1 been devised may years before2 and ,robert ,fulton had1 in the early part of the century1 devoted his inventive genius to the production of a submarine torpedo1 which1 however1 was never practically tested in war4 ,it was not until the contest of #ahfa-fe that torpedoes were of any practical use4 ,the high explosives of the present day being then unknown1 these torpedoes depended for their destructive force upon gunpowder alone4 ,yet crude and insignificant though they were in comparison with the mighty engines of destruction now known by the same name1 they accomplished great results in more than one instance4 ,the destruction of the ,housatonic off ,charleston1 the sinking of the ,tecumseh in ,mobile ,bay1 and ,cushing's daring destruction of the ,albemarle1 gave notice to the world that a new and terrible engine of warfare had made its appearance4 ,but it was not merely by the production of new weapons that the great ,american war was characterized4 ,it marked the turning-point in tactics as well4 ,the first efforts of our great armies of raw volunteers were as crude as the warfare of untrained troops always is1 and it was fortunate that we were opposed to a foe as unpracticed as ourselves2 but as the troops gained experience in war1 acquired the necessary military instruction1--in brief1 learned their trade and became regulars in all but name1--they displayed not only a steadfast prowess1 but a military skill that placed the veteran ,american soldier at the head of the warriors of the world4 ,the art of constructing hasty intrenchments on the field of battle grew out of the quickness of the ,american soldier to appreciate the necessity of providing defensive means to neutralize1 in some degree1 the greatly increased destructive effect of improved arms4 ,in this respect he was thirteen years in advance of the ,european soldier1 for hasty intrenchments did not appear in ,europe until the ,turco-,russian ,war4 ,true1 intrenchment on the field of battle was as old as war itself2 but the ,american armies were the first that developed a system of quickly covering the entire front of an army with earthworks hastily thrown up in the presence of the enemy1 and often actually under fire4 ,skirmishers were no longer used merely to feel and develop the enemy2 but in many of our battles1 notably in ,sherman's campaign in ,georgia1 the engagement was begun1 and fought to the end1 by strong skirmish lines successively reinforced from the main body1 which they gradually absorbed in the course of the action4 ,here1 too1 the ,american soldier was fully six years in advance of the ,european warrior2 for it was not until the ,germans had been warned by the terrific losses incurred in their earlier battles with the ,french1 in #ahgj1 that they evolved from their own experience a system of tactics1 the essential principles of which had already been demonstrated on the ,western ,continent4 ,the increased range of artillery again received a practical illustration2 for at the siege of ,fort ,pulaski the ,union batteries first opened fire at ranges varying from #afej to #cdjj yards from the ,confederate fort4 ,at the siege of ,charleston shells were thrown into the city from a battery nearly five miles distant4 ,in #ahff1 the brief but bloody war between ,austria and ,prussia suddenly raised the latter nation from a comparatively subordinate position to the front rank of military powers4 ,the greatness of ,prussia was born in the sackcloth and ashes of national humiliation4 ,forbidden by ,napoleon1 after her crushing defeat in #ahjf-g1 to maintain an army of more than #dj1jjj men1 her great war minister1 ,scharnhorst1 conceived the plan of discharging the soldiers from military service as soon as they had received the requisite instruction1 and filling their places with recruits4 ,in this way1 though the standing army never exceeded the stipulated number1 many thousands of ,prussians received military training2 and when ,prussia declared war against ,napoleon1 after his disastrous ,russian campaign1 the discharged men were called back into the ranks1 and there arose as if by magic a formidable ,prussian army of trained soldiers4 ,the principle of universal military service1 thus called into existence in ,prussia in time of war1 had been continued through fifty years of peace1 and enabled ,prussia1 with a population scarcely more than half as numerous as that of ,austria1 to place upon the decisive field of ,kniggrtz a larger army than that of her opponent4 ,the ,prussian system1 which has since been copied by all the great military nations of ,europe1 is1 in its essential features1 as follows3 ,every able-bodied man in the kingdom1 upon reaching the age of twenty years1 is available for military service2 and each year there are chosen by lot sufficient recruits to maintain the army at its authorized strength4 ,the great body of the male population is thus brought into military service4 ,there are a few exceptions1 such as the only sons of indigent parents1 and a small number of men who are in excess of the force required4 ,any man who escapes the draft for three successive years1 and all able-bodied men exempted for any cause from service in the regular army1 are incorporated in the reserve4 ,the term of service in the regular army is two years for the infantry and three for the artillery and cavalry4 ,after being discharged from the regular army the soldier passes into the reserve1 where he serves for four years4 ,while in the reserve1 he is called out for two field exercises of eight weeks' duration each1 and the rest of his time is available for his civil vocation4 ,at the end of four years in the reserve he passes into the ,landwehr1 in which he is required to participate in only two field exercises of two weeks' duration each4 ,after five years in the ,landwehr proper1 he passes into the second levy of the ,landwehr1 where he is free from all military duty in time of peace1 though still liable to be called to arms in case of war4 ,from the second levy of the ,landwehr he passes1 at the age of thirty-nine years1 into the ,landsturm1 where he remains until he reaches his forty-fifth year1 when he is finally discharged from military duty4 ,the soldier in the ,landsturm is practically free from all military duty1 for that body is never called out except in case of dire national emergency4 ,by this system ,prussia became not only a military power but 8a nation in arms10 in the blaze of whose might the military glory of ,austria and of ,france successively melted away in humiliating defeat4 ,the careful military preparation of ,prussia in time of peace was by no means limited to measures for providing an army strong in numbers4 ,every year her troops were assembled in large bodies for practice in the manuvres of the battlefield4 ,this mimicry of war1 at first lightly regarded by the military leaders of the other ,european nations1 produced such wonderful effects in promoting the efficiency of the army that it has since been copied in all the armies of ,europe1 and is now regarded as the most important of all instruction for war4 ,though breech-loading rifles were1 as we have seen1 used in the ,war of ,secession1 the ,prussian army was the first that ever took the field completely armed with such weapons4 ,the ,prussian rifle was not new1 for it had been invented by a ,thuringian gunsmith1 named ,dreyse1 about the time that the ,mini rifle appeared4 ,dreyse's arm was known as the 8zundnadelgewehr10 or needle-gun1 and its effect in the ,austro-,prussian war was so decisive and startling as to cause muzzle-loading rifles everywhere to be relegated to the limbo of obsolete weapons4 ,yet the needle-gun was but a sorry weapon in comparison to those now in use1 and was distinctly inferior to the ,spencer carbine4 ,its breech mechanism was clumsy1 it used a paper cartridge1 it was not accurate beyond a range of three hundred yards1 and its effective range was scarcely more than twice that distance4 ,the ,german infantry fought in three ranks1 and its tactics was not equal to that employed by the ,american infantry in the ,war of ,secession4 ,the ,prussian field artillery was the most formidable that had yet appeared1 and consisted mainly of steel breech-loading rifled guns1 which were classed as #f-pounders and #d-pounders1 though the larger piece fired a shell weighing fifteen pounds1 and the smaller projectile used a shell weighing nine pounds4 ,in the ,austrian army the infantry was armed with a muzzle-loading rifle1 and the artillery consisted entirely of muzzle-loading rifled guns4 ,the exalted military prestige gained by ,prussia rendered it certain that she must soon enter the lists in a contest with ,france1 whose commanding position in ,europe was so seriously menaced by the rise of the new power4 ,foreseeing the inevitable conflict1 ,napoleon ,,iii4 endeavored to prepare for a serious struggle4 ,the ,french infantry was armed with the ,chassept rifle1 which had an effective range nearly double that of the needle-gun4 ,a machine gun1 known as the mitrailleuse1 was also introduced into the ,french army4 ,much was expected of these new arms2 but so superior was the organization1 readiness1 generalship1 and tactical skill of the ,prussians that the war was a practically unbroken series of victories for ,prussia and the allied ,german ,states4 ,profiting by their experience in the course of the conflict1 the ,prussians formed their infantry for attack in three lines2 the first consisting of skirmishers1 the second of supports1 either deployed or in small columns1 and the third of a reserve1 generally held in column until it came under such fire as to render deployment necessary4 ,the skirmishers were constantly reinforced from the supports1 and finally from the reserve as the attack progressed1 the whole force being united in a heavy line1 and opening the hottest possible fire when close enough to the enemy for the final charge4 ,in its essential principles this attack formation is in use at the present day in the armies of all civilized nations4 ,the ,prussian artillery was handled with terrible effect both in battle and siege4 ,a new demonstration of the increased power of artillery was given in the siege of ,paris1 in which shells were thrown from the heights of ,clamart to the ,panthon1 a distance of five miles4 ,the next ,european war was the contest between ,russia and ,turkey1 in #ahgg4 ,in this conflict the ,american system of hasty intrenchments was used with success by the ,turks1 who were also armed with an ,american rifle1 the ,peabody1 which enabled them to inflict serious losses upon the ,russians at a range of a mile and a quarter4 ,owing to the ,turkish intrenchments and the inferiority of their own arms1 the ,russians won their victories over much smaller armies only with a gruesome loss of life4 ,a further impetus was given to the development of the infantry rifle1 and the ,german tactical experience was confirmed by the ,russian ,general ,skobeleff in the declaration that infantry can successfully assault only in a succession of skirmish lines4 ,the war in ,turkey was the last great ,european conflict4 ,subsequent campaigns of the ,russians in ,central ,asia1 of the ,english in ,egypt1 the ,soudan1 and ,india1 of the ,japanese in ,china1 of the ,turks in ,greece1 and the ,americans in ,cuba1 have emphasized the lessons already taught1 and demonstrated the increased power of new weapons4 ,having taken a retrospective view of the military forces and weapons employed in the wars of the nineteenth century1 let us now turn to a consideration of the armies and arms of the present day4 ,the adoption of the system of universal military service has increased the size of the standing armies of the nations of ,europe far beyond the proportionate increase of their respective populations4 ,in round numbers1 the strength of the armies of the great powers is as follows3 ,russia1 #hfi1jjj2 ,germany1 #ehe1jjj2 ,france1 #fah1jjj2 ,austria1 #cjf1jjj2 ,italy1 #bca1jjj2 ,great ,britain1 #bbb1jjj4c ,not only are the standing armies greater than in the early days of the century1 but1 owing to the improved methods of transportation and supply1 the forces now brought upon the field of battle are vastly larger than in the days of ,napoleon4 ,the ,french army at ,marengo was less than #cj1jjj strong4 ,at ,austerlitz it was only #gj1jjj1 which was its strength also at ,waterloo4 ,in only two battles1 ,wagram and ,leipsic1 was ,napoleon able to place #aej1jjj men on the field2 and in the latter battle the armies of all ,europe opposed to him numbered only #bhj1jjj4 ,in more recent times ,prussia alone placed upon the field of ,kniggrtz #bbc1jjj men with which to oppose the ,austrian army of #bjf1jjj2 and at ,gravelotte the great ,french army of #ahj1jjj men was outnumbered by the ,german host of #bgj1jjj4 ,it is probable that in the next great ,european war more than a million men will be found contending on a single battlefield4 ,a detailed description of the armies of all the great powers would prove wearisome to the reader1 for their points of resemblance are many and their general characteristics are the same4 ,the ,german army may be taken as the most perfect specimen of a highly organized military force1 and a description of its organization would answer with slight modification for the other armies of ,continental ,europe4 #c ,these numbers give the peace strength of the armies4 ,in time of war they can easily be quadrupled4 ,the infantry of the ,german army is organized in companies of #bej men each4 ,four companies constitute a battalion1 and three battalions compose a regiment4 ,the brigade consists of two regiments1 and the division is composed of two brigades of infantry1 four batteries of artillery1 and a regiment of cavalry4 ,the army corps consists of two divisions1 a body of corps artillery composed of twelve batteries1 a battalion of engineers1 and a supply train4 ,in round numbers1 the fighting strength of the army corps consists of #cj1jjj men and #abj guns4 ,the cavalry is organized in squadrons of #aej sabres each1 five squadrons forming a regiment1 only four of which are employed in the field1 the fifth remaining at the regimental depot4 ,the cavalry brigade consists of three regiments2 and the cavalry division1 which is composed of two brigades1 aggregates #cfjj sabres4 ,thus a small part of the cavalry force is attached to the infantry divisions1 while the bulk of it is organized into divisions composed of mounted troops alone1 two batteries of horse artillery being attached to each cavalry division4 ,the entire military force is divided into 8armies10 each consisting of from three to six army corps and two or more cavalry divisions4 ,the cavalry has about one sixth and the artillery about one seventh of the numerical strength of the infantry4 ,the ,german cavalry is armed with sabre1 carbine1 and lance4 ,the officers carry the sabre and revolver4 ,in the army of the ,united ,states the organization differs in many respects from that of the ,german army4 ,the infantry companies each consist of #ajf men1 including officers4 ,twelve companies form a regiment1 and three regiments constitute a brigade4 ,a division is composed of three brigades1 and the army corps is made up of three divisions4 ,the number of batteries assigned to the divisions varies1 as also the amount of corps artillery4 ,in the army operating in ,cuba1 the artillery was all in a separate organization1 and was distributed to the divisions only on the eve of battle4 ,experience and theory alike suggest four batteries for each division and eight batteries for the corps artillery4 ,no cavalry is assigned to the divisions1 but a regiment is supposed to be assigned to each army corps4 ,the main force of the cavalry is grouped together into cavalry divisions4 ,the cavalry is organized into troops of #ajj sabres1 four troops forming a squadron1 and three squadrons constituting a regiment4 ,three regiments form a brigade1 and three brigades a division4 ,the ,american cavalry brigade is thus of the same size as a ,prussian cavalry division4 ,the cavalry is armed with the sabre1 carbine1 and revolver4 ,the lance is unknown in the ,american army4 ,having viewed the composition of modern armies1 let us now see how they are armed4 ,a consideration of the powder now in use is a necessary preface to a description of the weapons employed in the warfare of the present day4 ,the old fine-grained black powder familiar to every boy who has ever handled a shotgun has passed completely out of military use4 ,the powders now employed usually have guncotton or nitroglycerine and guncotton for a base4 ,they are practically smokeless1 the product of their combustion is almost entirely gaseous1 they leave no solid residuum1 and are of the quality known as 8slow-burning10 giving a constantly increasing pressure on the projectile from the moment of ignition to the time when it leaves the muzzle of the piece4 ,these powders are manufactured in thin sheets or small tubes or cords1 which1 for small arms1 are broken up into grains4 ,they vary in color from light yellow to black4 ,illustration3 ,,prismatic ,,powder4 ,before the adoption of smokeless powder1 the cake powder invented by ,general ,rodman had been highly developed and improved in the form of 8cocoa powder40 ,this was made in hexagonal prisms1 each perforated longitudinally1 so as to have a hollow core4 ,these grains were carefully arranged in the cartridges so as to have this core continuous from one grain to another1 in order that upon ignition the combustion would begin in the interior and produce a constantly increasing volume of gas as the exterior surface of the grain was reached4 ,though the time of combustion was too rapid to be appreciated by the ordinary senses1 it was1 nevertheless1 quite different from the practically instantaneous combustion of the old small-grain powder1 and was susceptible of accurate measurement4 ,much difficulty was experienced in overcoming the detonating tendencies of the smokeless powders1 but at last the requisite slow-burning properties were obtained4 ,the smokeless powder for large guns is made in cartridges composed of bundles of strips or cords1 or in the same prismatic form as the cocoa powder1 and the process of combustion is the same4 ,illustration3 ,,mortar ,,on ,,revolving ,,hoist4 ,the form of the gun is dependent entirely upon the nature of the powder used4 ,as the pressure of the gas constantly increases with the burning of the powder1 the maximum force will be reached at the moment the combustion is complete4 ,the length of the bore should1 therefore1 be just sufficient to enable the powder to be entirely consumed at the exact instant the projectile leaves the muzzle of the piece4 ,a shorter bore would cause much of the powder to be thrown out unconsumed1 while a much greater length would retard the projectile by subjecting it to the friction of the bore after the maximum force of the powder had been reached4 ,this accounts for the greatly increased length of the modern cannon4 ,a change in the method of gun construction has accordingly become necessary4 ,guns are no longer made of cast iron1 but are 8built up0 of steel4 ,the explosion of the powder is1 of course1 exerted in every direction1 against the bore and sides of the piece as well as against the base of the projectile4 ,this produces two strains2 a longitudinal strain which is exerted in the direction of the axis of the piece1 and a transverse strain which tends to burst the gun4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to have the piece so strong1 especially at the points of first explosion1 as to counteract these strains1 and thus cause the entire force to be exerted upon the projectile in the direction of the 8least resistance40 ,this strength1 or 8initial tension10 is obtained by shrinking cylinders of steel over the original cylinder of the piece1 each outer cylinder or jacket being a few thousandths of an inch smaller in its interior diameter than the outer diameter of the cylinder which it incloses1 and being expanded by heating to a sufficient degree to enable it to be slipped over the latter4 ,upon cooling1 the jacket exerts a constant and powerful force of compression1 which counteracts the outward pressure of the force of explosion4 ,the longitudinal strain is less dangerous than the other1 and is usually counteracted by an interlocking of some of the cylinders or hoops1 to which the strain is transmitted from the breech-plug4 ,the art of building up guns has been of slow growth1 the first efforts in this direction having been made by ,sir ,w4 ,g4 ,armstrong nearly half a century ago4 ,the weight of the projectile of the present #af-;inch gun in the ,united ,states service is #bcgj pounds2 the charge of powder weighs #ajfj pounds1 and the extreme range is more than #ad miles4 ,the cost of each shot is #dej1 and when we consider that this does not include the wear and tear of the gun1 it is evident that money has become more than ever before 8the sinews of war40 ,not less remarkable than the improvement in cannon is the improvement in mortars4 ,these mortars are very unlike the clumsy weapons of that name manipulated by hand-spikes1 which were known in our great war4 ,they are now mounted on a platform which turns on rollers4 ,they are elevated or depressed by a mechanical appliance1 are loaded at the breech1 are accurately rifled1 and can drop their projectiles on the decks of hostile vessels at a range of six miles4 ,they are placed in groups of four1 each in a separate pit1 some batteries containing as many as four groups1 or sixteen mortars4 ,in all important sea-coast batteries both guns and mortars are so arranged as to be fired by electricity1 either singly or in volleys4 ,a dynamite gun has been devised by ,captain ,zalinsky for the purpose1 as the name implies1 of throwing a projectile containing dynamite4 ,attempts to fire dynamite projectiles by means of powder have thus far failed4 ,in the ,zalinsky gun the propelling power is compressed air4 ,the projectile contains from fifty to sixty pounds of gelatine dynamite1 the explosion of which is terrific4 ,excellent results have been obtained with ,zalinsky's gun up to a range of #bjjj yards1 but as this is insignificant in comparison with the enormous range of high-power cannon using powder as a charge1 the dynamite gun is still a weapon of limited usefulness4 ,although the dynamite gun has not as yet fulfilled the desired requirements as to range1 promising experiments have been made in firing shells charged with high explosives from mortars using charges of powder1 and it is probably a question of only a short time before means will be found for successfully firing dynamite in a similar manner4 ,the great improvements in field artillery make the cannon of the early battlefields of the century seem1 in comparison1 almost like harmless toys4 ,the modern field gun is made of steel1 is rifled1 loads at the breech1 and has great rapidity and accuracy of fire4 ,the extreme range of the #c4b-;inch field gun in the ,united ,states service is about four miles4 ,this1 in fact1 is beyond the ordinary range of human vision1 and it is but rarely that the ground for so great a distance is free from features that obstruct the view4 ,for these reasons the fire of field guns can seldom be utilized beyond a range of two miles4 ,the projectile of the #c4b-;inch field gun weighs #ac pounds1 and the charge of powder #c pounds4 ,the #c4f-;inch gun is a still more powerful weapon1 the weight of the projectile and charge being #bj and #d pounds respectively4 ,shells are used against inanimate objects1 such as earthworks or buildings2 but the great artillery projectile for the battlefield is shrapnel4 ,it is now very different from the crude projectile known by the same name in the early years of the century4 ,the bullets are assembled in circular layers and held in position by 8separators10 which are short cast-iron cylinders with hemispherical cavities into which the bullets fit4 ,the bottom separator fits by means of lugs into recesses at the base of the shrapnel1 and prevents independent rotation of the charge of bullets4 ,the top separator is smooth on its upper side1 and is kept firmly in place by the head of the projectile1 which screws against it4 ,the separators prevent movement or deformation of the bullets under shock of discharge1 and being weakened by radial cuts1 increase the effect by furnishing additional fragments of effective weight4 ,the shrapnel for the #c4b-;inch gun contains #afb bullets one half inch in diameter and weighing #da to the pound4 ,the total number of bullets and individual pieces in the shrapnel is #bja4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,shrapnel4 ,the heavy sea-coast guns are now mounted either in armored turrets1 en barbette1 or on disappearing gun-carriages4 ,the first system is very costly and is not generally used in the ,united ,states4 ,the second system1 in which the guns are fired over a parapet and are constantly exposed1 is used only in rare cases4 ,the third has been perfected in the ,united ,states in the ,buffington-,crozier and the ,gordon disappearing gun-carriages4 ,these carriages enable the gun to be loaded in safety under cover of the carriage pit1 and then to be raised by means of counterweights or compressed air to a position from which it can fire over the parapet4 ,with trained cannoneers1 the gun can be raised and fired in twenty seconds1 and this brief period of exposure1 especially when smokeless powder is used1 renders it almost impossible for the enemy to locate the gun with any degree of accuracy4 ,the shock of the recoil1 taken up by pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders1 brings the piece back1 quickly but gently1 to the loading position1 whence it is again raised for firing4 ,the siege artillery of the ,united ,states army consists of the #e-;inch gun1 the #g-;inch howitzer1 and the #g-;inch mortar4 ,they all use shell1 and their effective range is from three to four miles4 ,when the enemy is sheltered behind entrenchments it is difficult to reach him with shrapnel fired from field guns4 ,field mortars have accordingly been devised for this purpose and have given excellent results4 ,the ,united ,states #c4f-;inch field mortar is rifled1 and carries a shrapnel weighing twenty pounds4 ,the weight of the field mortar is only #ejj pounds1 and it can be easily carried in a cart drawn by a single mule4 ,illustration3 ,,krag-,,jorgensen ,,rifle4 ,but great as the improvements have been in artillery1 they are less important than the changes effected in the infantry rifle2 for upon the quality of the infantry depends1 more than upon anything else1 the efficiency of an army4 ,there are many kinds of rifles now in use in the different armies of the world1 but in their essential principles they are very similar4 ,all use smokeless powder1 and all are provided with a magazine which admits of firing a number of shots without reloading4 ,the ,springfield rifle formerly in use in the ,united ,states army has been replaced by the ,krag-,jorgensen1 which has a magazine holding live cartridges1 and is provided with a cut-off which enables the piece to be used as a single-shooter4 ,when an emergency demands rapid fire1 the opening of the cut-off enables the cartridges in the magazine to be fired in rapid succession4 ,the range of the ,krag-,jorgensen is #djff yards1 being practically equal to that of the ,mauser1 which1 in the hands of the ,spaniards1 inflicted casualties upon our men when they were more than two miles from the hostile position4 ,the difference in the penetrating power of the ,krag-,jorgensen and the ,springfield is shown in the accompanying illustration1 taken from the report of the chief of ordnance for #ahic4 ,the ,springfield lead bullet was fired with #fi grains of black powder1 and penetrated #c4c inches of poorly seasoned oak1 the bullet being badly deformed4 ,with a bullet covered with a ,german silver jacket the penetration was #e4c inches1 the bullet being again deformed4 ,the ,krag-,jorgensen used a bullet consisting of a lead core and a cupronickeled jacket1 which was fired with #cg grains of smokeless powder4 ,the bullet penetrated well-seasoned oak to a distance of #bd4b inches and was taken out in perfect condition4 ,the new rifle1 at short ranges1 has an almost explosive effect and produces a shocking wound2 but at ordinary ranges the wounds inflicted by it may be almost characterized as merciful1 for the bullet makes a clean puncture1 and unless a vital organ is struck the wound heals easily and quickly4 ,the old expression of 8forty rounds10 so familiar to veterans of the ,civil ,war1 is now obsolete2 for no soldier now thinks of going into action with less than #aej cartridges on his person4 ,not only is the firing more rapid than was formerly the case1 but the lighter weight of the cartridge enables a greater number to be carried4 ,illustration3 ,,springfield1 ,,cal4 #de 7,,lead ,,bullet74 ,,springfield1 ,,cal4 #de 7,,german ,,silver ,,jacket74 ,,krag-,,jorgensen1 ,,cal4 #cj 7,,nickel ,,steel ,,bullet74 ,from the rifle to the ,gatling gun is only a step1 for the latter is essentially a collection of rifle barrels fired by machinery4 ,it consists of a number--generally ten--of rifle barrels grouped around1 and parallel to1 a central shaft1 each barrel being provided with a lock4 ,by turning a crank at the breech1 the barrels and locks are made to revolve together around the shaft1 the locks having also a forward and backward motion1 the first of which inserts the cartridge into the barrel and closes the breech at the time of the discharge1 while the latter extracts the cartridge after firing4 ,upon the gun1 near the breech1 is a hopper which receives the cartridges from the feed case4 ,the cartridge falls from the hopper into the breech-block of the uppermost barrel1 and in the course of the first half-revolution of the barrel it is inserted1 the hammer is drawn back1 and at the lowest point of the revolution the breech is closed and the cartridge is fired4 ,as the barrel comes up in the second half-revolution the cartridge shell is extracted1 and when the barrel reaches the top it receives another cartridge4 ,the ,gatling gun can be fired at the rate of #ajjj to #aejj shots a minute4 ,it generally uses the same cartridge as the infantry rifle2 but some patterns of the gun fire a projectile an inch in diameter1 and approximate closely in their effect to a field gun4 ,the gun is mounted either on a carriage similar to that of a field-piece or on a tripod4 ,gatling guns were very successfully used by the ,british in the ,zulu ,war and in the ,soudan1 and by our own troops in the battles around ,santiago4 ,illustration3 ,,gatling ,,gun4 ,the ,gardner is a lighter machine gun than the ,gatling4 ,it consists of two parallel rifle barrels1 and is operated by means of mechanism at the breech1 which1 as in the case of the ,gatling1 is worked with a crank4 ,it can fire #ejj shots a minute without danger of overheating1 as the breeches are enclosed in a metallic water-jacket4 ,its extreme portability makes it a most valuable weapon1 though its firing capacity is not equal to that of the ,gatling4 ,illustration3 ,,nordenfelt ,,rapid ,,fire ,,gun4 ,there are several other types of machine guns1 but the most ingenious1 and perhaps the most effective1 is the ,maxim automatic gun4 ,this has a single barrel1 about two thirds of which1 from the muzzle towards the breech1 is surrounded by a water-jacket into which water is automatically injected at each discharge1 thus rendering overheating impossible4 ,the mechanism for operating the gun is at the breech1 covering the remaining third of the barrel4 ,all that is necessary is to draw back the trigger to fire the first shot2 the recoil of the piece again cocks it1 and the gun is then automatically fired1 the process being kept up until the cartridges in the feed-belt are all expended4 ,the cartridges are fed to the piece by means of belts holding #ccc rounds1 two or more of the belts being joined together if desired4 ,the ,maxim gun can easily fire ten shots a second1 and if every man at the piece were killed the moment the first shot was fired the gun would keep on until it fired at least #ccb more shots4 ,the ,gatling1 ,gardner1 ,maxim1 and similar guns are known as machine guns4 ,of the same general family1 so to speak1 are rapid-fire guns1 which are1 however1 distinguished from machine guns by having a larger calibre1 loading by hand1 having only one barrel1 and being provided with artificial means of checking recoil and returning the piece to the firing position4 ,they use metallic ammunition1 and have a breech mechanism which cocks the firing pin and extracts the empty case by the same motion which opens the breech for reloading4 ,rapid-firing guns were first designed as a means of naval defense against torpedo boats4 ,they deliver a rapid and easily aimed fire1 and use projectiles of sufficient power to penetrate the plates of the boats4 ,in the naval service the gun is mounted on a spring return carriage fixed to the vessel1 so that the piece1 when discharged1 is brought back to the firing position without any derangement of aim4 ,on land a rigid carriage is used4 ,this carriage has a spade at the end of the trail1 which is forced into the ground by the recoil and holds the gun and carriage in place4 ,the principal rapid-fire guns are the ,hotchkiss1 ,driggs-,schroeder1 ,nordenfelt1 ,krupp1 ,canet1 and ,armstrong1 which fire from five to ten shots a minute1 and use either shell or shrapnel4 ,experiments are now being made in different armies with a view to adopting rapid-fire guns for field artillery4 ,the principle of rapid fire1 or 8quick fire10 has been successfully applied to guns having a caliber as great as six inches4 ,the metallic cartridge used in rapid-fire guns is1 in appearance1 simply a 8big brother0 of the cartridge used in the infantry rifle4 ,closely allied with guns1 both in coast defense and in naval warfare1 are torpedoes4 ,the crude weapons of this type1 used in the ,war of ,secession1 have been developed into formidable engines of war1 before whose destructive power the strongest vessels are helpless4 ,for their classification and description see 8,the ,century's ,naval ,progress10 pages #hd1 #he4 ,the destructive power of torpedoes is so well known as to give them a great moral weight as a means of defense4 ,the fact that the ,german harbors on the ,baltic were known to be protected by torpedoes saved them from an attack by the ,french navy in #ahgj-ga1 and ,cervera's fleet in the harbor of ,santiago1 in #ahih1 was safe from our squadron so long as the mouth of the channel was closed with ,spanish torpedoes4 ,though necessarily brief1 the foregoing sketch will show that in the course of the nineteenth century armies have increased enormously in size1 and in the power of rapid movement and certainty of supply4 ,infantry has increased in relative numbers and in importance4 ,extended order fighting1 in which the individuality of the soldier comes into play1 has taken the place of the old rigid shoulder-to-shoulder line of battle4 ,the private soldier's vocation has risen1 in many branches of the military service1 from a trade to a profession1 and now1 more than ever before1 is extensive training and a high order of intellect necessary for the command of armies4 ,wars have become shorter1 sharper1 more decisive and more terrible2 and increased emphasis has been placed upon the warning1 8,in time of peace prepare for war40 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,agriculture ,,by ,,waldo ,f4 ,,brown1 ,agricultural ,editor 8,cincinnati ,gazette40 ,i4 ,,vicissitudes ,,of ,,early ,,farming4 ,if the thought enters the mind of the reader that a youth 787 of sixty-seven is not competent to write upon agricultural improvement for the entire century1 the answer is that such improvement can scarcely be said to have begun until near the middle of the century2 that the early forties saw the writer at work on a farm2 that he has ever since lived on a farm2 and that he1 therefore1 writes from personal experience of the improvements which have transformed agriculture from a simple art to a profound science4 ,to realize the progress agriculture has made1 we must understand its condition in the first half of the century1 and the causes which prevented improvement at that time4 ,the soil was rich with the accumulations of centuries1 and the farmer was at no expense to either maintain or restore fertility1 for with but indifferent cultivation large crops could be raised4 ,when a field became impoverished1 with axe and torch a new field was soon cleared from the forest4 ,the implements in use were of the crudest and mostly manufactured by the nearest blacksmith1 and it cost but a few dollars to equip a farm2 still they were sufficient for the wants of the farmer of that date4 ,so it will be seen that the difficulty was not in the farm nor with the farmer2 for he could grow not only all that was necessary for family use1 but more than enough to supply the demand for such market as he had4 ,perhaps the greatest difficulty in the way of agricultural progress was the want of transportation facilities2 for a market was of little use to a farmer if he was separated from it by a hundred miles or more of roads which1 through almost the entire winter1 were so deep with mud that modern farmers would think them utterly impassable1 with streams unbridged and hills ungraded4 ,the first step toward relieving the farmer of this trouble was ,john ,quincy ,adams' message to ,congress in #ahbg1 when he recommended the construction of the ,national ,road1 the eastern terminus of which was to be in ,maryland and the western at ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,this road was constructed within a few years4 ,it was the first outlet for the crops of the great ,west1 and over it1 across the ,alleghany ,mountains1 a procession of covered wagons passed during the entire year1 carrying the products of the farms to the ,eastern markets and bringing back manufactured goods4 ,one other avenue was opened for the interchange of products between these two sections1 the ,erie ,canal being completed in #ahbe1 and enlarged and improved many years later4 ,during the thirties1 just preceding the era of railroads1 there was almost a craze on the subject of canal building1 and scores of miles of canals were begun which were never completed1 as with the beginning of the fourth decade of the century the railroad idea had taken possession of the minds of the people4 ,in some cases the tow-path of the canal formed the roadbed for the railroad which superseded it1 and probably more lines of canal were abandoned than were completed4 ,the era of railroads--that wonderful factor which was to revolutionize farming--dates from about #ahcj4 ,the first locomotive in the ,united ,states was imported from ,england and placed upon the rails in #ahbi1 and in #ahcj the first ,american locomotive was built4 ,it was1 however1 very near the middle of the century before the system of railroads had been completed so as to materially improve the condition of agriculture2 and although the fact may sound strange to some1 the first railroad train ran into ,chicago in #aheb4 ,during these years of depressed agriculture1 however1 the population of the country was rapidly increasing4 ,while the railroad system of the country was developing1 turnpikes were being built radiating from the principal markets and railroad stations4 ,with the beginning of the second half of the century the farmers awoke to the fact that the ,united ,states was a large and populous nation1 requiring an immense amount of supplies1 and that improvements for transportation had been furnished so that the markets were easily accessible4 ,before passing1 however1 from the discouragements and difficulties of agriculture in the early days1 some practical illustrations of the difficulties met with seem necessary to give a clear understanding of the condition4 ,what would the farmer of to-day think were he obliged to start with a load of wheat in midwinter over roads which crossed unbridged streams and wound over clay hills1 not a rod of which was macadamized and all of which were poorly graded1 spending ten days with a four-horse team to make a round trip of one hundred miles with thirty-five bushels of wheat1 and sell it in the market for #ce cents a bushel8 ,yet such was the fact which the writer had from the lips of a farmer who had been through this experience4 ,two thoughts may occur to the reader--first1 that thirty-five bushels was a light load for a four-horse team1 and1 second1 that hotel bills would more than absorb the money received from such a load of wheat4 ,but both of these are explained by saying that one cause of the lightness of the load was that the farmer must carry feed for his team for the entire trip1 and another1 the uncertainty of the condition of the roads2 for though he might start with the roads frozen solid and possibly worn smooth by the teams which had preceded him1 he was liable on the trip to meet with a sudden thaw which reduced the roadbed to mortar1 so that the wheels would sink almost to the axle1 and in many cases the load would be found too heavy for his team4 ,it was no uncommon sight to see a score of places to the mile where the fences had been torn down and rails carried into the middle of the road to be used in prying the wagons out of the mud when hopelessly mired4 ,the reason the hotel bills did not consume the proceeds of the load was that there were none2 for the farmer carried his camp kettle1 bedding1 and provisions with him1 and slept in the wagon during his entire trip4 ,the same farmer referred to1 in telling his story1 said that all the money spent on the ten days' trip was three 8fips0 7#ah cents71 and that1 presumably1 was for three 8nips0 of whiskey4 ,an interesting personal experience in the winter of #ahdf-dg was in driving hogs from ,anderson1 ,ind41 to ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 a distance of about #aej miles4 ,the drove was started with the mercury at zero1 and the first difficulty met was in getting them across ,white ,river1 as there was no bridge and the stream must be forded4 ,the hogs absolutely refused to enter the icy water1 but the pioneer of that day was equal to any emergency4 ,the drove was soon huddled on the bank1 rails were carried from an adjoining field1 and a close pen was built around them2 then two plucky frontiersmen1 with thick leggings reaching from ankle to hips1 towed them by the ears to frozen shoal water in the centre of the river1 and pushed them across the ice1 when they were obliged to go ashore on the other side4 ,two days later a sudden and unexpected thaw set in1 when for one hundred weary miles the drivers urged the hogs through mud which reached from fence to fence1 and which was so fluid that not a trace was left behind1 as it flowed in to fill not only the track of the hogs but the footsteps of the drivers4 ,when after days of urging the hogs began to lose strength and fall by the way1 they settled down into the ooze1 from which the men must lift them into wagons which accompanied the drove or were hired from farmers along the road4 ,when ,cincinnati was reached it seemed that the worst trouble of the journey was over2 but not so1 for the climax of disaster with this drove was reached at the slaughter-house1 when for two weeks the weather was so warm that no slaughtering could be done1 and the price of pork declined day by day1 until the entire drove was finally sold at one and three quarters cents per pound dressed weight--and during the entire time1 both on the road and in the pens1 the hogs had been losing rapidly in weight every day4 ,this was the lowest price recalled for hogs2 but it was very common to have a glut in the market of some staple which reduced the price so low that it scarcely paid for transportation1 and in some cases made it actually unsalable4 ,illustration3 ,,soil ,,pulverizer4 ,a neighbor relates that when he was a boy1 needing some money1 his father made him the offer that he might have all the corn that he would shell1 take to mill1 and market the meal in ,cincinnati1 forty miles distant4 ,he went to work with a will1 prepared a two-horse load1 and reached ,cincinnati with it safely1 only to find the market glutted so that he could not get an offer on it4 ,a part of it was finally sold at #aj cents per bushel1 and the remainder was taken home4 ,during the closing years of the fifth decade the prices of stock were at the lowest1 good dairy cows bringing from #g to #i per head2 yearling calves from #a to #b2 the very best horses1 #dj1 and stock hogs selling for #a or #b each4 ,at the same time many of the necessities of life were sold at exorbitant prices1 and an examination of an old account book shows the following figures3 ,salt1 #d per barrel2 nails1 #f to #h cents per pound2 calico1 #ab cents per yard2 drilling1 #be cents per yard2 clocks1 #dj each 7the value of the best horses674 ,some other facts must be taken into consideration to understand why the farmers did not attempt improved methods4 ,one was the condition of the currency4 ,the ,united ,states ,bank1 which it would seem should have afforded security and stability to the currency1 had been wrecked by the action of ,andrew ,jackson in vetoing its rechartering and withdrawing the ,united ,states funds 7at that date about #dc1jjj1jjj7 from it2 and private banks had been established over the entire west and south1 a system of what was then known as 8wild cat0 banks supplying the people with currency4 ,the man who was trading needed to carry in his pocket at all times a 8bank detector10 to which he might refer to ascertain how many cents on the dollar the issue of each bank was worth4 ,looking back at the condition of affairs as described1 remembering how few the markets1 how easily glutted1 how unstable the currency1 and all the uncertainties connected with the disposal of the farmer's products1 what was there to stimulate him to improve his methods or increase his products8 ,if1 as was occasionally the case1 the farmer determined to improve his stock1 he must import from ,england or buy at high prices from an importer1 and there being no express companies to deliver his stock1 he must either go in person or trust to private individuals to drive them over the mountains or1 if small stock1 to bring them in wagons the entire distance4 ,he could not afford to carry on a wide correspondence1 for each individual letter cost twenty-five cents postage1 if the distance was over three hundred miles4 ,it was not until #ahde that postage was reduced to ten cents1 and ten years later it was reduced to three cents for letters of half an ounce4 ,if any one is inclined to throw the blame upon the farmers for not having done their part to improve agriculture and bring prosperity1 he should consider the conditions under which they had lived for a generation2 the uncertain markets2 the low prices of products2 that they must construct roads and bridges1 build schoolhouses and churches1 clear the farms1 nearly all of which were covered with heavy timber2 and the fact that all this work was done with the crudest implements4 ,it will be seen that the farmers had been accomplishing wonders and were worthy of the highest praise rather than blame4 ,with the beginning of the last half of the century1 the farmers suddenly awoke to the fact that the conditions had become wonderfully favorable4 ,towns and cities were growing up on every hand1 offering new markets4 ,railroads and other means of transportation were opening to them4 ,inventive genius had taken up the improvement of implements of agriculture1 and1 best of all1 prices had advanced greatly for all the leading products4 ,the improvements of methods in farming1 which have not been less than those in manufacturing and other callings1 date from this time1 and will be described under the following heads3 ,improvements in implements2 in stock2 in drainage and tillage2 in the maintaining and increasing of fertility2 in care and feeding of stock2 in and around the farmer's home2 and education1 which includes agricultural literature1 farmer's organizations1 and schools4 ,,ii4 ,,improvements ,,in ,,farm ,,implements ,,and ,,machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,columbia ,,harvester ,,and ,,binder4 ,in writing on the improvements in agriculture one can scarcely fail to be impressed with the fact that whenever the human race comes to the point that it must have help and make a demand upon nature1 she always honors the draft2 and as the steps are portrayed by which the agricultural products of this continent have been increased a hundred fold1 while the power of the individual worker has increased wonderfully1 and the labor has been lightened by machinery1 we can see that these inventions and improvements came just as fast as they were needed1 and no faster4 ,god has given to the human mind such power1 and to the hands such skill1 that whatever is necessary is soon provided when the want is made known4 ,perhaps there is no better way in which this can be traced than in the appliances by which the farmer feeds the world4 ,it is an interesting study to note the successive steps in the improvement of implements for the work of the farm4 ,in the beginning of the century the sickle and flail were all that were needed to cut and thresh the grain2 and it was by a series of steps that the steam thresher and the combined mower and binder were evolved4 ,the sickle was all that was needed until population increased and markets were made accessible2 then the cradle was invented4 ,with the former1 an expert could cut an acre a day1 and with the latter four or more acres2 but all the work was done by human muscle4 ,the man using a sickle must work with bended back all day4 ,the cradle enabled him to work erect1 and lightened the labor2 but when the 8,reaper sickle0 was invented the labor was transferred to brute muscle4 ,the first machines were clumsy and heavy to draw1 requiring as much1 or more1 power to cut the grain as to cut and bind it with the light running modern binder4 ,now1 the man who sweltered with bended back ten or twelve hours to cut an acre of grain with the sickle 8drives his team afield10 and by simply guiding it cuts and binds ten or fifteen acres a day1 and carries the bundles to the shock row4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,thresher ,,with ,,blower ,,and ,,self-,,feeder4 ,the improvement in threshing machinery has been as marked as in that for harvesting the grain4 ,in the first part of the century all the work was done with the flail1 and on farms where a large amount of grain was grown it kept a man busy a good part of the winter to thresh it4 ,the first improvement was in threshing the grain by tramping it out with horses1 and with two men and four horses1 under the most favorable conditions1 from fifty to one hundred bushels could be threshed in a day4 ,but by both these methods there was the disadvantage that in all damp weather the work must be stopped1 as the grain would become so tough that it could not be threshed4 ,another disadvantage of these methods was that it took a long time to prepare the crop for market1 and in case of a sudden rise in price the farmer could not take advantage of it as he now can when his grain is all threshed in a single day and held in the granary for sale4 ,in the thirties1 the first threshing machines were put in use1 and were but little improvement over the method of tramping with horses4 ,the machines were of small capacity1 and simply threshed the grain1 but did not separate it from the straw and chaff1 both of which operations had to be done by hand2 and if the straw was to be saved1 either in the barn or in a stack1 it had to be all handled with rakes and forks4 ,the first threshing machine that the writer ever saw was one that was called 8,the ,traveller40 ,this was followed by machines run by stationary horse-power4 ,these were called 8chaff pilers10 from the fact that they threshed the wheat but did not separate it from the straw or chaff4 ,the first horse-powers were inclined planes1 or endless chain powers1 as they were called1 and were run by the weight of the horses1 the floor revolving under their weight as they attempted to go up the grade4 ,these were soon superseded by lever powers1 made at first for two or four horses1 but afterward increased in size and power until ten or twelve horses were used2 and about this time the machinery for separating the grain and chaff was added to the machine4 ,it almost seemed to the farmers at this time that perfection had been reached when two or three hundred bushels could be threshed in a day and also cleaned2 but the feeding of this large number of horses was a heavy tax upon the farmers1 particularly when a rainy day would intervene before the job was finished1 and they were obliged to keep the horses two or three days4 ,the invention and introduction of the mounted steam-engine not only saved the farmer from this expense1 but also increased the power and doubled the daily capacity of the machine4 ,for a short time the farmers were satisfied with this2 but the engine was heavy1 and often the farmers' teams were light1 and as it was the rule that each man must draw the engine from his farm to where the next job was to be done1 and often the distance was great and the roads bad1 it was not long until he tired of this4 ,then came the traction engine1 which not only transported itself but also drew the thresher and separator4 ,about this time another difficulty arose2 for now that the machine had been improved and the power increased so that under favorable conditions a thousand bushels could be threshed in a day1 the handling of the straw became a serious problem1 for it was impossible to build it in a stack suitable for keeping as fast as the machine would deliver it4 ,the first step to lighten and expedite this labor was in adding a straw carrier1 a kind of revolving platform1 which was attached to the separator and would lift the straw some twelve or fifteen feet4 ,for a year or two the farmers were satisfied with this help1 but soon found that it was inadequate for the work4 ,then the stacker was invented1 a separate machine which was backed under the straw carrier to receive the straw1 and which had1 mounted on wheels1 an elevator which would carry the straw to a height of twenty-five or thirty feet2 and not only could it do this1 but it was the work of a moment1 with a crank at its base1 to raise it1 and it could be run at any angle4 ,when the machine first started1 the straw carrier was placed horizontally1 and as the stack grew in height1 it was raised until in the finishing out of the stack it stood at an angle of forty-five degrees or more4 ,the straw carrier could not only be raised1 but by an ingenious arrangement of small wheels1 it could be moved from side to side by a light pressure with one hand1 or by a man on the stack pushing it with his fork4 ,with this admirable machine for handling the straw1 it seemed as though perfection had been reached1 and that there was now practically nothing more to be desired4 ,but it was not long until the farmer found that with the delivery of six tons of straw per hour it was heavy work for six men to build the stack1 and that it was the most disagreeable work about the machine because of the dust4 ,about #ahij1 some inventive genius produced the 8blower0 to take the place of the stacker4 ,this is a long jointed tube1 some sixteen or eighteen inches in diameter1 mounted at the rear of the cylinder through which the straw is forced by compressed air which is furnished by the machine4 ,it can be raised or lowered1 turned to the right or to the left1 so as to deliver the straw at any desired point on the stack4 ,it is managed by a man standing on top of the separator near the rear end1 does away entirely with any hands on the stack1 and thus reduces the force about six men4 ,some other improvements which have been added are the putting of knives in the cylinder to cut the bands1 thus saving one or two hands1 for often it was necessary to have a man on each side for cutting the bands when the wheat was dry and the work was done with the greatest rapidity4 ,then a revolving platform1 called a self-feeder1 was added in front of the cylinder1 on which platform the bundles could be thrown from a wagon standing on each side1 and be carried automatically and dumped into the cylinder1 doing away with the man who formerly fed the bundles to the machine4 ,to some machines an automatic weigher has been attached1 which does away with a man for measuring and keeping tally of the wheat4 ,compare for a moment this modern machinery which1 with a force of twelve or fourteen men1 will thresh and clean for market from #abjj to #afjj bushels of wheat per day1 with the man with the flail laboriously pounding out ten bushels1 and you will get a vivid idea of the progress in agricultural machinery4 ,one somewhat curious fact must be taken into account in this1 which is1 that with some of these most wonderful machines the cost of labor is about the same it formerly was4 ,but the advantage is that the work can be done in a few hours1 and the farmer's crop be ready for market to take advantage of increased prices1 while by the old plan the work would reach almost through the winter4 ,illustration3 ,,automatic ,,mounted ,,stacker ,,with ,,folding ,,attachment4 ,in the cutting and handling of hay there has been as great improvement as in any portion of the farm4 ,a first-class mowing machine1 new from the shop1 can now be bought for #dj or less1 and with it the farmer can drive to the field after supper1 in the cool of the day1 and in an hour cut more grass1 and do it better1 than a man could with a scythe by working hard all day4 ,illustration3 ,,disk ,,harrow4 ,instead of shaking out the swaths slowly with a fork1 with a single horse hitched to a hay tedder about two acres an hour can be shaken up and left in such shape that both sun and wind have perfect access to it and cause it to cure rapidly4 ,instead of raking the hay laboriously by hand1 a steel sulky rake does the work easily and quickly1 doing more in an hour than was possible in a day with the hand rake4 ,on farms where the acreage of hay is large1 a self-loader attached to the rear of the wagon gathers the hay from the windrow and delivers it on the wagon4 ,at the barn1 instead of the slow and wearisome hand pitching1 the hay fork and hay carrier deliver it in the top of the highest barns4 ,illustration3 ,,acme ,,harrow4 ,the invention of the hay baler enables the farmer now to condense his crop1 so that one third of the room for storage formerly required for hay will answer2 and it also enables him to ship it to market by rail1 where formerly it was necessary that it should be taken in wagons4 ,while the plough has not been improved to the extent that many of our farm implements have been1 it is vastly superior to those used by the pioneers1 and modifies somewhat the adage of 8,poor ,richard10 who wrote3-- 8,he who by the plough would thrive1 ,himself must either hold or drive20 for the modern ploughman must not only hold and drive1 but drive three horses at that1 and turn as many acres in a day4 ,another adage attributed to 8,poor ,richard0 was-- 8,plough deep while sluggards sleep1 ,and you shall have corn to sell and keep40 ,but the modern farmer has learned that the depth to which he ploughs must be governed by the nature of his soil1 and that deep ploughing on heavy clay lands1 or lands with a crude subsoil1 is often the cause of short crops and permanent injury to the soil4 ,it is doubtful if in any line of farm implements there has been more improvement than in that of harrows2 and yet this improvement dates back but about a quarter of a century1 as previous to that time the old 8,a0 harrow or drag1 which was hard on the team and did indifferent work1 was the only one found on most farms4 ,more recently the cutting and slicing harrows have been largely introduced1 and many other forms of improved harrows have been put on the market4 ,for the preparation of hard land for a seed bed1 especially for small grain1 the disk harrow cannot be excelled4 ,but for garden use1 or for pulverizing sod land which has not been too much compacted1 the slicing ,acme harrow is the most perfect implement in use1 it being of light draft1 easily transferred from field to field1 and capable of making the finest and best seed-bed4 ,the cultivators in use have been greatly improved4 ,it is necessary to describe but two of them4 ,the two-horse cultivator with fenders1 which enables the farmer to cultivate both sides of the row at once1 driving two horses in the field instead of one1 as by the old method1 has more than doubled the capacity of the individual2 as by its use he is able not only to cultivate both sides of the row at once1 but to dispense entirely with the man who1 under the old rule1 was obliged to follow the cultivator and uncover the corn4 ,this 8fender0 is exceedingly simple1 and the only wonder is that it took the farmer so long to find out its value4 ,costing but a few cents1 it has saved the farmers millions of dollars1 as previous to its adoption it was necessary to have one man follow each one-horse plow to uncover the corn4 ,there are two forms of this 8fender10 the simplest being a light piece of galvanized sheet iron attached to the cultivator or plow so as to come just between it and the row of corn2 the other is in the form of a rolling cutter1 and attached in the same way4 ,with either of these the farmer goes into the field as soon as the young plants can be seen in the row1 drives his team astride the row1 and stirs every inch of the soil1 putting a little fresh earth around each hill of corn or potatoes without covering a single plant4 ,as a single ,state grows some millions of acres of corn1 it can be seen that the saving from this little invention to the farmers amounts to millions of dollars in a single year4 ,the old idea of deep cultivation of most crops has been proven to be wrong1 and modern implements are made to cultivate the surface to a depth of two or three inches rather than to tear up the roots of the plants2 and one of the most perfect of all implements for this purpose is the 8,planet ,junior one-horse cultivator40 ,perhaps no other class of machines has relieved the farmer more than the ones for planting the grain2 and with a modern two-horse corn planter two rows can be planted at a time in checkered rows1 so that it can be cultivated both ways and with more precision1 both as to alignment and as to the number of plants in a hill1 than by the old hand method of planting4 ,the small grain is sown by a two-horse drill arranged for not only the grain1 but at the same time to deposit commercial fertilizer along the rows of grain1 and with a grass seed sower attached4 ,in the garden a hand drill is used4 ,it is easily adjustable to any sized seed1 from that of the turnip up to beans and peas1 and the seed is perfectly distributed in straight rows1 while the garden hand cultivator does away largely with the use of the hoe4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,corn ,,cultivator4 ,one other modern implement1 which promises to be very useful1 is 8the weeder10 and its value rests on two facts which it required the farmer many years to discover4 ,the first is that the thorough pulverizing of the surface1 even to the depth of an inch1 breaks the capillaries and checks the evaporation of moisture2 but to do this it is necessary that the work be done just as soon after a rain as the land will crumble1 and since often if a drying wind blows the land gets dry in a few hours1 a machine is needed that will enable the farmer to thus stir a large surface in a short time2 and this the weeder does1 as it is made to cover the width of three rows at once1 and more than two acres an hour can be stirred with a single machine4 ,the other fact which makes this implement of great value is that all weeds are easily exterminated when in embryo1 and this stirring of the soil kills every one that is starting4 ,one other machine which has been greatly improved is the clover huller4 ,previous to its invention1 most of the clover seed was sown in the chaff1 and when clean seed was required it took several days' work with four horses to tramp out three or four bushels1 and then much of the seed was left in the chaff4 ,the modern huller is equipped with the blower and self-feeder1 and with it from twenty to fifty bushels can be hulled and cleaned in a day1 the amount depending on how well filled the heads are with seed4 ,it is quite recently that machinery has been invented that relieves the farmer of the hard work of planting potatoes by hand1 and at the same time does the work better than the old way1 as the machine drops the seed at a uniform distance apart and covers it perfectly4 ,a man with this machine will do the work of eight or ten men dropping by hand4 ,several potato diggers1 operated by horse power1 have also come into recent use4 ,they greatly lighten and accelerate the work1 and the cost of growing potatoes has been reduced several cents a bushel by these inventions4 ,,iii4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,stock4 ,perhaps it would be well in beginning to write on this subject to ask1 what is 8pedigreed stock08 ,many people have the idea that pedigreeing is an arbitrary rule adopted by stock growers to mystify the buyer and secure larger prices for their stock4 ,the fact is that it is intended as a protection to the purchaser1 and is1 or should be1 a guarantee that the stock has been bred along certain lines for a sufficient period to establish the desirable qualities which it is wished to perpetuate4 ,a rigid censorship is exercised over the record books1 and it makes every one recording stock1 in a certain sense1 a detective to see that the records are truthful and represent the animals just as they are4 ,it is doubtful if along any line of farm operations there has been greater improvement than in the breeding and care of stock2 yet there were greater difficulties to overcome in doing this than in improving the implements4 ,these difficulties may be classed as follows3 ,first1 the one already alluded to in the opening chapter1 to wit1 the expense of importing and the consequent high price of thoroughbred animals2 and when we recall that this was at a time when the farmers were hewing out their homes from the forest1 and could not obtain large prices for their products1 it will be seen that few farmers could afford to improve their stock4 ,second1 as to cattle and hogs1 it was almost impossible to breed pure stock2 for all animals were allowed to run at large1 and the woods were full of 8tramp males10 which would break through the fences and invade the fields where the improved stock was kept4 ,third1 those engaged in breeding stock found that there was a limit which when reached brought barrenness to high-bred animals1 and in many other cases reduced the vitality so as to invite disease4 ,that this evil was a real and serious one is shown from the fact that large numbers of high-priced animals failed to produce young among cattle1 and that many herds of pedigreed swine were carried off by epidemic diseases4 ,fourth1 and perhaps the most serious hindrance to improvement1 was the indifference of farmers and the want of appreciation of good stock1 and of course the farmer who did not want it would not coperate in producing it4 ,the difference between the improvement of implements and stock consisted largely in the fact that trained mechanics were responsible for the former1 and they would perfect the implements until the farmers could not afford to do without them2 while the slipshod farmer would be satisfied with his common stock1 and would fail to accept the help of the men who were trying to improve it4 ,another thing which farmers learned slowly was that good stock requires good care1 which not only means shelter and liberal feeding1 but also that the food be adapted to the wants of the animal4 ,more fine animals were ruined by over-feeding with corn--a heating and fattening diet--than by insufficient food and exposure to cold and storm4 ,it took many years to teach the farmer what a balanced ration was1 and why it was necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,modern ,,clover ,,huller4 ,showing ,uncle ,tom's ,stacker and ,self-,feeder4 ,it would be interesting to take up each separate breed of cattle and trace its source1 giving credit to the men who improved and developed it1 and the date of each importation2 but the limitations of this article forbid anything more than brief mention of the more prominent breeds1 and many which possess great merit cannot be even mentioned4 ,the improved cattle of the ,united ,states may be grouped under three heads--beef1 dairy1 and general purpose4 ,of the first the ,short-horn holds1 perhaps1 the highest place1 or certainly did for a long series of years4 ,these for many years were bred under the name of 8,durham10 but about a generation ago the name began to undergo a change to ,short-horn4 ,these animals1 while especially adapted to the block1 are fairly good milkers1 and some strains of them are superior dairy cows4 ,they have the quality of early maturity and produce a larger per cent of fine cuts of meat than most1 if not any1 other breeds4 ,these cattle were first imported into ,america in #agig1 and many other importations were made during the first half of the present century4 ,another breed which closely resembles the ,short-horn is the ,hereford4 ,these cattle are usually of a uniform color--a pale red--with white face1 breast1 and flanks1 and drooping horns4 ,they were first introduced by ,henry ,clay in #ahag4 ,another importation was made in #ahdj1 but it was not until #ahfj and subsequently that they were imported largely and a 8herd book0 established for them4 ,since that time they have multiplied largely4 ,illustration3 ,,hereford ,,cow4 8,,lady ,,laurel40 ,the last of the three distinctly beef breeds is a hornless race originating in ,scotland1 and known by the name of ,aberdeen ,angus1 ,galloway1 or ,polled cattle4 ,these cattle have the distinctive quality of hardiness1 and as they have very thick1 close hair they are able to subsist on the range without shelter better than perhaps any other breed4 ,the males have a remarkable prepotency1 and the cross-bred animals very rarely show horns4 ,like the ,herefords1 they are poor milkers2 for while their milk is rich1 the quantity is small1 and they usually go dry for several months of the year4 ,they were first imported into this country about #ahej1 and in #ahhc nine hundred were imported and distributed among the cattle breeders of the plains4 ,polled cattle are becoming more popular every year1 and many farmers now dehorn the cattle of other breeds2 and the time is not far distant when horned cattle will be the exception and not the rule4 ,the ,channel ,island group--the ,jerseys1 ,alderneys1 and ,guernseys--embraces unquestionably the best butter animals of the world2 and if we are to judge by their wide distribution and great popularity1 the ,jerseys lead the list4 ,they were first introduced into the ,united ,states in #ahbj1 and in #ahej large importations were made2 but it was during the decade from #ahgj to #ahhj that greatest interest in the breed was awakened and large and frequent importations were made4 ,there has been a strong and bitter opposition to these cattle by many farmers on account of their small size1 but they have won their way until they are more universally distributed1 and are to be found on more farms than any other breed4 ,remarkable yields of butter from the individual have been recorded1 many of them running from #ab to #ah pounds per week under high feeding and extra care4 ,while the ,ayrshire possesses great merit1 so few of them have been imported into this country that it seems scarcely worth while to more than mention them4 ,illustration3 ,,group ,,of ,,aberdeen-,,angus ,,cattle4 ,under the head of general-purpose animals come the ,holsteins1 ,devon1 and ,red ,polls4 ,all of these breeds possess fine qualities4 ,the ,holsteins were probably not introduced into this country until the last half of the century1 and the 8,holstein ,herd-,book10 published in #ahhb1 shows that about #ejjj registered animals were in this country at that date4 ,while fair beef cattle1 the ,holsteins are deep milkers1 and show a record of the largest quantity of milk of any breed in ,america1--some cows giving over #ab1jjj pounds of milk in a year4 ,the milk1 however1 is not as rich in butter fat as that of the ,jersey1 but probably they are the best breed of dairy cows for the cheese factory in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,devons are beautiful red cattle4 ,they do not rank as large milkers1 but produce a superior quality of milk1 and are unexcelled in this respect by any breed but the ,jersey4 ,one peculiarity about the breed is the comparative smallness of the cow2 for while the steer will weigh from #adjj to #afjj pounds1 the cows will average only from #hjj to #ajjj pounds each4 ,illustration3 ,,jersey ,,cow4 ,,ida ,,of ,,st4 ,,lambert4 ,the importation of ,red ,polls from ,england is comparatively recent1 and they come nearer filling the idea of a general purpose animal than any other breed in ,america4 ,the first importation was made in #ahgc1 and consisted of only four animals4 ,two years later four more were imported1 and in #ahhb twenty-five4 ,other importations soon followed4 ,they are of a uniformly cherry-red color1 with occasionally the tip of the tail white or a little white about the udder4 ,ninety per cent of the grades are hornless4 ,they are of large size1 mature bulls weighing from #ahjj to #bbjj pounds1 and occasionally one will exceed #bejj pounds4 ,cows weigh from #aajj to #afjj pounds1 and will average #abjj4 ,that they mature early the following weights1 copied from the report of the ,smithfield ,club1 of ,england1 will show3-- ,steer1 twenty-two and one half months old1 weighed #acij lbs4 ,heifer1 twenty-one and three quarters months old1 weighed #abeh lbs4 ,steer1 twenty-three and one half months old1 weighed #aejj lbs4 ,steer1 twenty-two months old1 weighed #accf lbs4 ,at the same show a mature cow was exhibited that weighed #aijc pounds4 ,as dairy cattle they show good records1 giving an average of #eejj pounds of milk per year1 and some have exceeded #ejj pounds of butter in a year1 milking over #cjj days4 ,while the ,united ,states can show as good horses as any other country in the world1 they are not as generally distributed among the farmers as are animals of other breeds of stock4 ,this perhaps can be accounted for1 first1 from the fact that a horse must be mature1 and not less than six years old1 before it can be put on the market2 and that the low price of the service--fee of grades and scrub stallions--is too great a temptation to the farmer who is in debt and short of money4 ,still1 our standard has been advancing1 and there is a sure but slow bettering of the working stock of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,poland-,,china ,,hog4 ,in the draft class we have the ,norman1 ,percheron1 ,clydesdale1 and ,belgian1 and possibly some others1 while the ,cleveland ,bay comes as near the general-purpose horse as any other breed4 ,the importations that have given us the magnificent horses which are being used in this country have been made chiefly from ,france1 ,england1 ,belgium1 and ,germany4 ,the blood of the ,english thoroughbred and of the ,arab has also contributed to the development of the qualities desired4 ,in no other class of stock produced in this country has the improvement been more marked than in the swine1 and while there are probably half a score of breeds in the country1 a look through the markets shows that probably #ij per cent of them are of the three following breeds3 ,poland-,china 7formerly called ,magie71 ,berkshire1 and ,duroc or ,jersey ,red2 although it is quite possible that the ,chester ,white might take the third place4 ,with the exception of the ,berkshire1 these may be called distinctively ,american breeds1 and even the ,berkshire has been so modified and improved as to almost lay claim to ,american origin4 ,a few other breeds are kept pure in this country1 particularly the ,essex1 ,yorkshire1 and ,victorias2 but they are bred to but a limited extent and then for a special purpose4 ,one thing that makes it easy and rapid to improve swine is the fact that they mature so early1 and that a new cross may be made every year if desired4 ,the writer1 living in that part of ,miami ,valley1 in ,ohio1 where the ,poland-,china swine originated1 has seen1 in a quarter of a century1 these hogs change in form and color and general characteristics1 and these fixed so thoroughly that they could be depended on to reproduce them4 ,as this breed existed in the fifties1 they were coarse in form1 mongrel in color1 and slow in maturing1 requiring from eighteen months to two years to be made ready for market4 ,but to-day they are early maturing1 can be put on the market at six months of age1 weighing from #bjj to #bej pounds1 and are of uniform shape and color4 ,they are still the leading breed throughout the great corn belt of the ,united ,states1 and the herd-books have registered breeding stock to the number of many thousand4 ,the ,berkshire hog was first introduced into this country in #ahbc1 and a second importation was made in #ahcb1 but there was no systematic breeding and care to preserve their purity1 and grades were sold for pure-bred until the breed fell into disrepute2 but in #ahfe new importations were made of the finest animals to be found in ,england1 and the merits of the breed became universally known4 ,though called a small breed1 they are but little below the ,poland-,china in weight1 and grades from ,berkshire males on large rangey sows will give the finest possible hogs for the block2 but these grades must not be used for breeding1 or the stock will deteriorate4 ,the ,american ,chester ,white hog originated in ,chester ,county1 ,pennsylvania2 but it is believed that there was an importation of white hogs from ,england in #ahah4 ,the breed1 until within less than a quarter of a century1 was coarse1 large of bone1 and slow of maturity1 and sometimes would attain enormous weight1 nearly #ajjj pounds2 but in the last quarter of a century they have been improved until they are a close rival of the best breeds we have4 ,the ,duroc-,jersey ,red seems to be a distinctly ,american breed1 having a history dating back to #ahbd1 but it is less than a half century since they came into prominence1 and the improvement made in them in that time has put them near the front rank4 ,one thing which caused their rapid increase was the belief that they were proof against swine-plague and hog-cholera1 and they were boomed on that idea4 ,but this did not prove true1 and our intelligent farmers have learned that it is not in the breed but in the food and care that immunity from disease will be found4 ,these hogs are of a beautiful red color1 and of good form4 ,the mothers are prolific and good nursers1 and they mature early1 making the choicest of pig pork at an early age4 ,no other class of animals has been subject to so much foreign competition or has figured to such an extent as a political factor as the sheep1 and this1 for more than a generation past1 has kept the sheep industry fluctuating between a depression which destroyed all profit and a boom which placed fictitious values on them1 and both extremes have worked harm to the industry4 ,yet through all these changes1 those who have recognized the intrinsic value of the sheep and stuck to the work of improvement1 have not only found the business profitable but have prevented the deterioration of the animals which threatened4 ,while swine are of no value until killed1 the sheep gives two coupons in a year1 one in the fleece and the other in the increase1 and the breeder always has two distinct objects before him1--the production of wool and mutton4 ,the breeds of sheep are almost as dissimilar as are horses from cattle1 and some are suited for hot arid lands1 while others are adapted to the rich lowlands with their abundant and succulent herbage4 ,the most ancient of all breeds is the ,merino2 and those who have studied this question trace its descent back in direct line1 probably1 to the flocks of the patriarchs4 ,for ages they have been the clothers of mankind1 first with the skin and later with the fleece1 and still they maintain a high1 if not first1 place among different breeds4 ,they have been wonderfully improved1 but the improvement has been along the line of increasing the value of the fleece rather than the carcass1 and it has been changed from an animal that would produce two or three pounds of wool1 and one which had bare belly and legs1 to one which produces a fleece from the hoofs to very near the nose4 ,it is within bounds to say the weight of the fleece has been doubled4 ,with the long-wool breeds the improvement has been designed to develop the carcass and mutton qualities rather than the wool1 and of these the two typical breeds are the ,shropshire and ,cotswold4 ,probably the best mutton lambs that are produced in this country are from the ,shropshire rams and ,merino ewes4 ,the representative ,cotswold is of majestic port and large size4 ,the wool is curly1 long1 and lustrous2 not dry and harsh to the touch1 and has but a slight amount of yolk2 at maturity it ought to be eight inches long4 ,the fleece averages six or seven pounds4 ,,iv4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,farming ,,methods4 ,illustration3 ,,merino ,,sheep4 ,the improvement of methods on the farm has been discussed to some extent in speaking of implements and stock1 as their use involves better methods2 but there are other points worthy of notice4 ,one of the most important of these is drainage4 ,the first attempts to remove surface water from farm-land were by the construction of open ditches2 but as these had to follow the natural water-courses which often zigzagged through the fields1 they were objectionable1 not only because of making bad shaped lands to plow and cultivate1 but also because they caused a waste of land1 and usually had to be bridged to be crossed with the wagons4 ,other objections to them were that they produced crops of weeds to give trouble in the fields1 and there was a constant tendency to fill up1 which soon impaired their usefulness2 or1 if kept cleaned out1 it had to be done at heavy expense4 ,the first attempt at underdrains1 or 8blind ditches10 as they were called1 was by making an underground water-way with stone or timber2 but both these materials were found objectionable1 because such drains were easily damaged by the action of craw-fish and rarely continued to do good work for more than a few years4 ,it was after the middle of the century that drain tiles made of burnt clay were introduced1 resembling good hard brick in material2 but the first drains laid were usually with tiles of too small caliber1 two-inch being largely used1 which were not only easily choked but failed to carry the water off rapidly enough in a wet time4 ,large sections of many of our ,states were originally swampy and so nearly level as to make it necessary to construct open ditches1 almost like canals1 as an outlet for the water flowing into them from the drains4 ,these could not1 of course1 be constructed by individuals1 as no man had a right to go on his neighbor's land to open a ditch for this purpose2 so1 in many cases1 this was made a matter of legislation1 and the large open ditches were built by taxation equitably levied on the lands4 ,by this means the farmers were enabled to thoroughly drain large areas of country which otherwise would have been nearly worthless for agricultural purposes4 ,in some instances the earth taken from these large ditches was graded up several feet high at the side1 and on the top of this levee a turnpike road was constructed1 thus giving a double benefit from a single operation4 ,the first draining of farms was in the wet spots where1 usually1 a single line of tiles1 laid for a moderate distance1 would bring the parts of the field under cultivation that otherwise would be waste2 but gradually the farmers learned that there were other valuable effects from drainage1 and that most heavy clay lands would be benefited by it sufficiently to justify the expense4 ,the following incidental advantages have been learned3 first1 drainage deepens the soil2 second1 it prevents the killing out of grass and grains during a wet season2 third1 it makes the land warmer2 fourth1 it improves the texture of the soil and makes it possible to work and plant it earlier in the spring2 fifth1 it prevents washing and waste of manure2 sixth1 it often prevents failure of crops in excessively wet seasons1 and enables them to endure drought better in dry seasons4 ,although drainage is expensive it is a permanent improvement1 and in many cases the increase of the wheat crop in a single year has defrayed the expense of tilling the land4 ,another improvement1 which seems to be the opposite of this1 is the irrigation of arid lands in those parts of the country where the annual rainfall is small and every summer brings a drought4 ,in these cases1 water stored in large natural or artificial reservoirs1 or that furnished by snow melting on the mountains1 is utilized to carry the crops through the dry season and to enable the farmer to grow large crops where nothing could be produced without this aid4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,corn ,,planter4 ,perhaps in no other line have the methods changed for the better more than in the care of domestic animals1 and this includes both shelter and feeding4 ,in the first half of the century1 cattle and hogs were usually exposed to the severe weather of the winter with no other shelter than that afforded by a straw-stack1 and this often was found leveled to the ground by the first of ,march1 leaving them entirely without shelter at that changeable season of the year4 ,they were allowed at all seasons to roam over the farm and gather their own living1 and were turned into the cornfields as soon as the ears were removed1 where they lived well as long as the stalk pasture lasted1 after which they depended on straw for food until spring2 and it was common to have the cattle so poor1 as spring approached1 that many died of actual starvation1 while others became so feeble that they would have to be lifted to help them on their feet4 ,then the stables for horses were constructed apparently with the idea that ventilation was the chief thing1 and the horses stood and shivered in their stalls from the drafts that blew through the sides of the barn and up through the floors of their stalls4 ,gradually these things have changed1 until the larger part of farm stock is warmly sheltered1 and well fed with a variety of food4 ,succulent food is now largely furnished from ensilage preserved in silos1 from beets and other roots grown and stored for winter use1 and1 more recently1 from sorghum1 which has been found to retain its succulence and sweetness during the entire winter4 ,farmers have learned what is meant by a balanced ration1 which is a combination of foods that will give the proper proportion of heat and fat producers with those which make bone and muscle1 and that it means both health and economy to substitute to a certain extent bran and oil meal for corn1 and clover hay for hay made from the grasses1 and straw4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,garden ,,plow4 ,another great improvement has been along the line of fencing2 and1 in this respect1 the most economical step of all has been in reducing the amount of division fence on the farm1 keeping only a portion of it divided into fields for pasture1 and leaving half or more of the best parts to be cultivated in a single inclosure on which stock is never turned4 ,in most ,states1 laws have been passed obliging each farmer to fence in his own stock1 and no one is compelled to fence out his neighbor's4 ,the substitution of wire for wood as a fencing material has reduced the cost of fence construction about one half1 and the waste of land occupied by fences is reduced in about the same proportion4 ,v4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,and ,,around ,,the ,,home4 ,the change in this direction in a single generation has been most marked1 and is one of the surest signs of prosperity4 ,the log cabin has given place to a substantial and1 in many cases1 an elegant home4 ,the irregular and ill-shaped yards1 fenced with rails1 which surrounded both house and barn1 and in which hogs and cattle were kept1 with no shelter but a rail pen with straw roof1 have disappeared1 and rectangular lots enclosed with neat fences and good barns and piggeries have taken their place4 ,the wood-pile has retired from the front yard1 and is now sheltered in a woodshed adjoining the kitchen2 and a neat lawn with flowers and shrubbery is no longer the exception1 but the rule4 ,a good garden1 in which the newer and improved vegetables have taken the place of the old sorts1 and a berry patch1 well cared for1 afford the luxuries which they alone can give for a period of many weeks each season4 ,the water is no longer carried from a remote spring1 but good wells and cisterns are placed conveniently1 many of them so that the pump is in the kitchen or under a porch attached to the house4 ,the cellar is usually floored with cement1 and the stairs leading to it are of easy grade2 while good walks of plank or cement make it a pleasure to pass from the house to the surrounding outbuildings4 ,another line in which very great improvement is shown is in maintaining the fertility of the soil4 ,the old method was to exhaust the fertility of a field and then clear a new one2 and it is doubtful if one farmer in a hundred could have answered the question1 8,why does land become sterile after long cultivation80 for they had no conception of what the chemical elements of the soil were which are necessary to its fertility4 ,there are two theories of fertilizing and fertility3 one1 that the soil is a mine to be worked out1 and which will inevitably become unproductive in the process2 the other1 that it is a laboratory in which1 under the intelligent management of man1 forces can be set at work which will maintain and develop a perpetual fertility4 ,malthus1 more than a century ago1 announced that the time would come before long when the people of the earth would starve because they had outgrown the fertility of the soil and its productive capacity2 but after long cultivation1 we find it possible to produce on less than half the cultivatable land enough not only to feed our own nation1 but the world at large1 and there is no questioning the accurateness of the laboratory theory as opposed to the mine theory4 ,the first improvement along this line was in the better saving and utilizing of animal manures2 but when it was found that these were insufficient1 science came to the help of the farmer4 ,the chemist analyzed both crop and soils1 ascertaining what was needed1 and then the world was searched for the materials necessary4 ,the elements which formed our plants were found to be fifteen in number1 but of these it was found that it was necessary to furnish only three1--nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash4 ,nitrogen was known to exist in inexhaustible quantities in the atmosphere1 forming seventy-six per cent of its composition2 but the question was long unsolved3 8,can growing plants appropriate atmospheric nitrogen80 ,finally1 it was discovered that plants of the ,leguminos family--of which clover is the best type and of greatest value for this purpose to the farmer--could appropriate nitrogen from the atmosphere2 and after careful research1 with the aid of the microscope1 it was discovered that this appropriation came about through the agency of bacteria in the roots4 ,this fact connected with the clover plant is one of immense importance to the farmer1 because nitrogen is not only the most expensive element of fertility to purchase1 but is likely to be lost both through evaporation and leaching4 ,so it can be seen that clover is one of the most valuable plants which can be grown on the farm1 for the reason that the crop can be utilized as food for stock1 while still great benefit inures to the soil1 as the fertility is largely stored in the roots1 which cannot be used for any other purpose1 and as by the action of these roots the mechanical condition of the soil is greatly improved4 ,further1 the dense shade the plant affords induces chemical action in the soil1 which makes plant food available that would otherwise remain inert4 ,one of the most wonderful things connected with fertility is that ,god has so locked it up in the earth that no greedy generation can exhaust it1 and that the greatest source of fertility is the atmosphere1 whose secrets are just being discovered4 ,an ,english scientist has recently announced that by the aid of electricity1 furnished by cheap water-power1 nitrates can be manufactured directly from the atmosphere so as to reduce their cost to less than one fourth what it has heretofore been4 ,again1 the intelligent use of clover will enable the farmer to produce his own nitrogen and reduce the cost of chemical fertilizers to one half what it usually is when containing nitrogen4 ,this brings us to the question of commercial fertilizers4 ,with the single exception of guano1 they are a product of the last third of the century4 ,the first step toward the use of commercial fertilizers was by analyzing our barnyard manures4 ,when the chemist discovered that a ton or more which the farmer drew out laboriously with two horses to the field contained but twenty or thirty pounds of actual plant food1--the remainder being water1 sand1 and other dead matter1--the next step was to combine the three elements essential to a perfect fertilizer in such proportions that a single sack would hold enough manure for an acre of ground2 and in tens of thousands of cases1 the application of this amount of fertilizer has increased the wheat crop from five to fifteen bushels per acre1 doubling the grass crop which followed1 which in turn1 and through the influence of the fertilizer1 formed a sward which1 by its decay1 fertilized a third crop when it was turned under in the rotation4 ,the element in fertilizers of next importance to nitrogen is phosphoric acid1 and the first source from which this was obtained was the bones of animals4 ,but the supply from animals slaughtered was entirely insufficient2 and so the great plains of the ,west were gleaned1 and tens of thousands of tons of buffalo bones were gathered and shipped ,east to fertilize our farms4 ,but soon this source began to wane2 then two other sources1 practically inexhaustible1 of this indispensable element were discovered1--the phosphate rocks of the ,south and the iron slag from furnaces1 each of which is found to contain a large per cent of phosphoric acid2 and when the rock is dissolved by acids and the slag ground to an impalpable powder by machinery1 the fertilizing elements in both are found to be as available and valuable as that from bones4 ,the supply of potash was obtained at first from wood ashes1 which the clearing of the farms and the universal use of wood as fuel made abundant4 ,but later1 when these sources were no longer sufficient1 potash salts were found in large quantities where they could be mined from the earth1 so that now there seems to be in sight an inexhaustible supply of the elements needed for plant food4 ,like almost every reform1 the use of commercial fertilizers was opposed bitterly by many farmers1 and statements were made by them that their effects on the soil were like those of whiskey or other stimulants on the body1 and that the ultimate result of their use would be that the soil would become barren4 ,many refused1 to use them at all2 others1 after a single trial made without intelligence1 denounced them as humbugs4 ,but as they saw on the farms of their neighbors the wonderful results from their use1 they have been gradually led to adopt them1 until now1 with most farmers1 the question no longer is1 8,can ,i afford to use commercial fertilizers80 but rather1 8,can ,i afford to do without them80 ,,vi4 ,,improvement ,,in ,,agricultural ,,education4 ,to one who has followed the writer to this point1 it must be apparent that the farmer of to-day has made progress in the knowledge of his calling to at least as great an extent as he has improved in his methods1 and that the terms 8farm drudge0 and 8clodhopper0 are misapplied and should be obsolete4 ,there is no other industrial calling in which one touches nature and science at so many points1 or which gives such good opportunities to develop the perfect man1--8the sound mind in the sound body10--as that of the farmer4 ,admitting that not all farmers understand this and live up to their privileges1 does not alter the fact that the farm offers a great opportunity to develop and broaden the mind2 that the last quarter of the century has brought into active operation forces which have touched and influenced a large per cent of the tillers of the soil2 and that the leaven of education is working mightily4 ,the intelligent1 studious farmer becomes a practical botanist as he studies the growth and habits of plants4 ,as he is dependent more than any other man upon the weather and must change his plans frequently to correspond with climatic changes1 he becomes a meteorologist4 ,myriads of insects1 which include both enemies and friends1 make him a student of entomology2 and the wonderful alchemy of the soil by which offensive and poisonous matters are transmuted into golden grain1 luscious fruits1 vegetables1 and flowers1 calls for a knowledge of chemistry4 ,the use of modern machinery develops his mechanical powers2 and the man on the farm develops in more directions and has an opportunity to acquire a broader education than any other man who earns his living by his own labor4 ,to sustain this statement1 it is only necessary to enumerate the educational opportunities and privileges now open to the farmer and which are1 to a great extent1 utilized by him4 ,first1 what the government is doing for him4 ,no other calling is represented in the cabinet of the ,president1 and time and experience have demonstrated the wisdom of a ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,not only are we distinctively an agricultural people1 but the prosperity of the nation depends on the intelligence and prosperity of the farmer more than on all other classes combined4 ,not only must the food supply of our people be furnished1 but the foreign demand must be met2 and this gives to the farmers money to spend1 so that the industries which contribute to their wants shall share in the general prosperity4 ,while there are many honorable and useful callings1 agriculture seems to be the only one which touches and affects all others4 ,the financial importance of agriculture is shown by the fact that1 after the wants of the nation were supplied1 in the year #ahig we exported in round numbers #fij1jjj1jjj worth of agricultural products1 or nearly #fg per cent of the entire exports2 and notwithstanding an enormous increase of imports of wool and sugar1 in anticipation of increased duties1 the balance of trade on agricultural products for the year was #bhi1jjj1jjj1 and the export of agricultural products for the current fiscal year would show still larger figures4 ,considering the specific educational influences which are elevating the farmer and his calling1 we enumerate the following3 ,agricultural literature1 farmers' organizations1--including farmers' clubs1 farmers' institutes1 and the ,grange1--agricultural experiment stations1 and agricultural colleges1 all of which have contributed their share to the intelligence and prosperity of the farmer1 and all are products of the last half of the century4 ,to give an intelligent idea of the help which these influences have brought to the farmer1 it is necessary to treat them to some extent in detail4 ,first1 agricultural literature4 ,all that is necessary to an understanding of the progress in this direction is to get one of the very few so-called agricultural papers of fifty years ago and compare it with those of to-day4 ,not only have they multiplied a hundredfold1 but while the former largely contained stilted articles written by theorists1 to-day every page is full of practical instruction written by farmers1 and often by specialists who have spent years in improving some line of farming or stock breeding4 ,most of our agricultural papers have a staff of paid contributors1 nearly all of whom have made a success in some branch of farming2 and so anxious are the publishers of these papers to give their readers all the help possible1 that they search out the men who are prospering on the farm and engage their services as instructors for their readers4 ,the journals devoted to agriculture are numbered by hundreds1 some of them devoted to a single line1--such as sheep1 poultry1 or gardening1--and others with well classified departments which give instruction on all points4 ,in addition to this1 nearly all of the weeklies have a page of agriculture1 usually conducted by a farmer or some one with practical knowledge of farm work4 ,there are no secrets in agriculture1 and every farmer is ready to impart to all any valuable information he acquires4 ,farmers appreciate the value of these helps and make large use of them1 and the circulation of these papers is enormous4 ,illustration3 ,,success ,,anti-,,clog ,,weeder4 ,by ,farmers' ,clubs we mean those organizations of farmers1 governed by constitutions and by-laws1 who meet at stated times for the discussion of topics connected with the improvement of their calling4 ,there are no statistics available from which can be gathered the extent of this movement1 but ,ohio reports fifty clubs and has formed a state organization4 ,in ,michigan1 where the clubs are organized on a different basis1 #cj1jjj members are reported2 they have also formed a state organization1 which was attended by #bjj delegates at the last meeting4 ,indiana is but little1 if any1 behind these two ,states1 and the club idea is rapidly spreading through the ,northern ,states4 ,there are two forms of these clubs1 one of which limits the membership to twelve families1 and the meetings are all held at the homes of the members1 one each month4 ,the advantages of this plan are several4 ,first1 with the club thus limited1 the horses can be stabled and cared for during inclement weather of winter4 ,second1 the wives need prepare but one meal in the year for the club2 while with the large club it is necessary that each should contribute to a basket dinner for every meeting1 which often causes as much trouble as to prepare the meal for the entire club once a year4 ,third1 the attendance is sure to be more regular in the small club1 and one condition of membership is that every member shall be present at each meeting unless providentially detained4 ,fourth1 with a club of this size every member can take part in the discussion1 and there will be less danger of a few 8talkers0 monopolizing the time4 ,fifth1 the social features in the small club are very much better than in the large4 ,most of the clubs in ,ohio and ,indiana are organized on this basis1 while in ,michigan it is probable that most of the clubs have an unlimited membership4 ,the objection is sometimes urged that the small club seems selfish1 but as any twelve or even six families are at liberty to organize a club this objection is not valid4 ,as many farmers who would like to organize may not be able to find a form of constitution and by-laws1 it seems proper to give one here4 ,preamble4 ,recognizing the fact that farmers need an opportunity to compare methods and to cultivate their social qualities1 and considering that 8,as iron sharpeneth iron1 so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend10 in order that we may be mutually helpful to each other in matters relating to husbandry1 home comfort1 and economy1 we do form ourselves into an association known as the ---- ,farmers' ,club fill the blank with the name you wish to use for your club1 and adopt for our government the following3-- ,constitution4 ,article #a4 ,the officers shall be ,president1 ,vice-,president1 ,secretary1 ,treasurer1 and ,librarian1 who shall be elected annually in ,november1 and assume their duties in ,january of the following year4 ,article #b4 ,the duties of these officers shall be such as pertain to the offices in other organizations and are indicated by the name of the office4 ,article #c4 ,the active members of this club shall be engaged in agricultural pursuits1 but honorary members may be elected by unanimous vote4 ,honorary members are not obliged to attend all the meetings1 but will be welcomed to any4 ,article #d4 ,application for membership must be submitted at the meeting previous to their being balloted for1 and members will be admitted on receiving a two-thirds vote by ballot2 but the membership shall be limited to twelve families4 ,article #e4 ,amendments may be made at any regular meeting by a two-thirds vote of the active members4 ,by-laws4 #a4 ,the club shall meet at the residence of one of the members on the third ,thursday of each month1 at ten o'clock1 invitations to which shall be limited to the hostess of the day4 #b4 ,the club shall be called to order by the president1 after an hour spent in social intercourse1 and the order of exercises shall be as follows3-- a4 ,reading and approving minutes of last meeting4 b4 ,monthly record of current events4 c4 ,selections1 recitations1 essays4 d4 ,adjournment for dinner and social intercourse until two o'clock4 e4 ,discussion2 so conducted as to avoid all questions of politics and theology4 f4 ,question drawer4 g4 ,miscellaneous business4 ,in order that the work of the club may be systematic and the time fully occupied1 a programme covering the entire year is prepared and printed so as to be ready for distribution at the ,december meeting of each year4 ,that the reader may understand the working of this plan1 a few topics will be given1 taken from the programme of the club of which the writer is a member3-- ,january4 ,the club will meet at the home of ,mr4 44444444 ,thursday1 the #aith4 ,selection 44444444444444444444444 ,mrs4 44444444 ,paper 444444444444444444444444444 ,mr4 444444444 ,topic3 ,a review of the previous year4 ,each member will give in writing a statement of profits and losses for the year under the following heads3-- #a4 ,general crops grown and acreage and yield thereof4 #b4 ,what special crops have been raised4 #c4 ,stock raised or handled4 #d4 ,what experiments have been made on the farm4 #e4 ,what losses of stock1 or crops1 and the cause thereof4 ,june4 ,the club will meet at the home of ,mr4 44444444 ,thursday1 the #aeth4 ,selection 4444444444444444444444 ,mrs4 44444444 ,paper3 8,hindrances to sheep raising and how to avoid them40 ,mr4 444444444 ,topic3 ,the ,farmer's ,barn4 #a4 ,relative size to farm4 #b4 ,location and ground plan4 #c4 ,arrangement of stabling1 feeding1 and water conveniences4 #d4 ,plan for saving manure4 ,either a gentleman or a lady is appointed to open each topic1 after which the subject is opened for question or discussion by any member of the club4 ,during one month of the summer1 usually ,july or ,august1 a picnic takes the place of the regular meeting1 at which a basket dinner is served4 ,farmers' institutes are1 in the best sense of the word1 a farmers' school1 and while it is less than twenty years since their first organization1 nearly all of the ,states1 at least in the ,north1 are conducting them to a greater or less extent4 ,as ,ohio claims the honor of inaugurating this movement1 and the writer is more familiar with the plan of organization and the work of institutes in that ,state than any other1 some facts concerning them will be given4 ,the first attempt to teach the farmers by lecture courses was made late in the seventies at the ,ohio ,state ,agricultural ,college1 when a course of eighty lectures on subjects connected with farm interests were given1 all of them by professors of the college4 ,this first course occupied five weeks2 and as it was found that but a limited number of farmers could be induced to leave their homes and care of their stock in the winter1 and that the attendance was only about forty1 the next two years the course was shortened in hopes that a larger attendance might result1 but such was not the case4 ,then some one suggested1 8,if the farmers will not come to the lectures1 why not take the lectures to the farmers80 and the outcome of this suggestion has been a wonderful success2 the ,state holding three hundred institutes in the winter of #ahig and #ahih1 under a law providing a fund for that purpose1 and over a hundred independent institutes in addition1 by which is meant institutes in which the local organization pays its own expenses and chooses its own lecturers and subjects4 ,the work in most of our ,states is thoroughly organized1 a fund provided to meet the expenses of the work1 placed in some ,states under the charge of the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 and in others in charge of a superintendent of institutes4 ,the farmers have met this effort for their improvement with great enthusiasm1 and the attendance is usually limited by the size of the hall provided4 ,all partisan and sectarian questions are rigorously excluded from the discussions4 ,a bulletin is issued in the fall1 which gives the names of a large corps of lecturers and a list of subjects1 and these are sent to the officers of the local organizations1 from which they can select such topics as they wish discussed4 ,half of the time of each session is allotted to the state lecturers1 while local talent is expected to fill the other half4 ,the greatest possible freedom is allowed in asking questions and discussing the work of the speakers1 and no other educational influence which has come to the farmer has equaled that offered by these meetings4 ,at the close of each year the best papers and discussions are printed in a bulletin for free distribution among the farmers1 and are given out at the meeting the ensuing year1 or are mailed from the office of the ,secretary of the ,state ,board of ,agriculture on application4 ,the ,grange was organized at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 in #ahjg1 but existed only on paper until ,january1 #ahgc1 when the first meeting of the ,national ,grange convened at ,georgetown1 ,d4 ,c41 with delegates from ten ,states4 ,it was started as a secret society1 with a ritual and degrees1 and seemed to catch the popular fancy among the farmers4 ,at the meeting of the ,national ,grange in #ahgd1 thirty-two ,states were represented4 ,probably no other organization has made so rapid a growth as this4 ,a large element1 however1 of the membership was attracted to it by the rallying cry of 8,down with the middleman60 and had little or no conception of its educational possibilities4 ,little country stores with very small capital1 and managed by men with no business training1 sprang up at every cross-road1 which1 contrary to the expectation of their founders1 did not save money1 but resulted in some valuable business education for which a good tuition fee was paid4 ,the reaction which set in made it seem for a time as though the entire order would disintegrate2 but fortunately there were wise leaders who had caught the true idea1 that the organization must be kept on an educational basis to save it from extinction1 and through their efforts it has become a power for good in most localities1 and has been of great service to the farmers4 ,county1 state1 and national societies have been organized1 and no other large bodies of farmers can so quickly and thoroughly coperate in measures pertaining to the interests of the farmer as those belonging to this order4 ,illustration3 ,,aspinwall ,,potato ,,planter4 ,another educational force of immense value to the farmers is found in the experiment stations1 which are established in every ,state of the ,union4 ,this work was started by an act of ,congress1 approved ,march #b1 #ahhg1 and known as the 8,hatch ,act40 ,by this act the sum of #ae1jjj per annum was appropriated for each ,state in the ,union1 to be specially provided by ,congress in the appropriations from year to year4 ,in addition to this sum1 most of the ,states have made large appropriations for the purchase of suitable grounds and the erection of buildings1 and to cover the expense of printing the reports and pamphlets which are sent out free to the farmers who apply for them4 ,to go a little farther1 the questions requiring investigation by the agricultural experiment stations may be divided into three principal groups1 according as they are related to the soil1 to the growth of crops and vegetation1 or to domestic animals and their products4 ,i4 ,the soil is studied-- 7#a7 ,in its varieties1 as found in different parts of the farm and of the ,state4 7#b7 ,in its physical properties1 as affected by tillage1 drainage1 irrigation1 etc4 7#c7 ,in its chemical properties1 as related to the maintenance of fertility by the use of fertilizers and otherwise4 ,,ii4 ,in vegetation and crop production some of the objects of study are3-- 7#a7 ,varieties1 including the selection and dissemination of new sorts2 the elimination of synonyms2 the comparison of strains of varieties2 the production of improved varieties1 etc41 etc4 7#b7 ,vegetable pathology1 including studies of rusts1 smuts1 blights1 rots1 mildews1 etc4 7#c7 ,control of injurious insects4 7#d7 ,forestry1 embracing the culture of forest trees for wind-breaks1 for timber1 for nuts and incidental products4 ,,iii4 ,in the study of animals some of the problems are3-- 7#a7 ,breeds and their comparative values for different purposes4 7#b7 ,foods and feeding1 for growth1 for meat1 for milk and wool4 7#c7 ,the diseases of animals1 especially those of contagious1 epizootic1 or parasitic nature4 ,the stations have done most valuable work along these different lines1 and have contributed in a large measure to the introduction of improved varieties of cereals1 forage crops1 and fruits4 ,in the case of wheat especially1 there can be no doubt that the work of the stations has been a factor of great importance in producing large yields1 by stimulating the farmers to a more careful comparison of varieties and of methods of culture4 ,a plan of purchasing and testing most of the so-called new varieties of fruits and grains has been followed by some of the stations1 thus enabling the farmers and fruit growers to judge whether such varieties are likely to be superior to sorts already cultivated4 ,it has been part of the work of the stations to expose fraudulent sales of fruit1 stock1 and fertilizers4 ,much other work has been and is being done1 but the instances given show the value of the investigations made4 ,as has already been stated under another heading1 the officers of the experiment stations take an active part in the work of the institutes1 and by the frequent issuing of bulletins and their annual reports convey valuable information to the farmer in every department of his work4 ,in many ,states they have established reading courses for the study of ,nature1 which are conducted similarly to those in the ,chautauqua courses4 ,in the same connection the work of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry should be noticed4 ,possibly no other organization of the government is doing so much to save farmers from loss through disease of stock and educating them to the same extent as this4 ,the organization is made up of men of the highest scientific training1 whose lives are devoted to the study of diseases of domestic animals and whose work extends to the testing of remedies1 the inspection of meats1 the study of foreign markets1 and everything that pertains to the interest of the stock growers4 ,no disease can break out in the herds of live stock in any part of the country without this bureau being at once notified of it1 and trained officials are sent to study all the circumstances connected with it and to prevent1 if possible1 such disease from becoming epidemic4 ,some years ago1 when contagious pleuro-pneumonia had secured a foothold in this country1 the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry set to work to stamp it out4 ,the ,old ,world was paralyzed by the enormity of the undertaking4 ,veterinarians in ,england and ,continental ,europe laughed at us and considered us fit subjects for lunatic asylums4 8,hadn't they always had it8 ,it cost them millions of dollars annually in cattle1 yet they had been unable to stamp it out1 and most assuredly we could not do what ,european veterinarians could not40 ,they forgot that we were ,yankees4 ,it cost us many good hard dollars that were represented by large figures2 but we stamped it out1 and it has now been years since 8,uncle ,sam0 officially declared the country free from it4 ,another work which this bureau undertook was the regulation of vessels in which cattle were exported1 and they reduced the losses so as to save from two to three million dollars annually in the insurance of export cattle4 ,the greatest possible care is taken to disinfect vessels in which cattle have been shipped1 and strict regulations are established regulating the size of stalls1 ventilation1 the number of cattle to be carried on any single vessel1 and every point which has a bearing on the health and comfort of the animals4 ,it was not until after the ,civil ,war that such a thing as an agricultural college was known in this country1 but through the action of ,congress very liberal appropriations were made1 which in most ,states were supplemented by the action of the ,state ,legislatures1 and an agricultural college was started in every ,state of the ,union4 ,in the beginning there was much criticism1 and without doubt many mistakes were made by those to whom the work was assigned2 but now that a generation has passed1 the farmers have come to understand better the objects of these schools1 and scientific men have been trained to do the work2 and these men have gone out into other departments1 such as those already described1 and have made possible the splendid achievements which have already been hinted at in what has been written4 ,the teachers and officials of these colleges have been exceedingly friendly to everything that could help the farmers1 and are in close touch with them2 aiding in the work of local1 state1 and national organizations1 and1 in most ,states1 carrying on the work of the experiment stations through their professors and graduates2 and in many of them courses of lectures by practical farmers have been established4 ,without question they are becoming more and more helpful as the years go by1 and their power for good is constantly increasing4 ,a ,,summing ,,up4 ,what has agriculture gained1 or rather along what lines1 in the century's progress8 ,a brief summary would seem a fitting close of this chapter3-- 7#a7 ,the marvelous advance in methods and means of transportation1 and the consequent opening of the markets of the world4 7#b7 ,the knowledge of the chemical constituents of the soil and its management in the line of maintaining fertility4 7#c7 ,the appliances to lighten labor and shorten processes in the production and harvesting of crops4 7#d7 ,increased knowledge of plants1 as to their growth and cultivation1 their feeding qualities1 and the combination of these qualities in feeding our domestic animals1 by which we are able to reduce the cost of production through the early maturity of the animals and the maintaining of vigorous health4 7#e7 ,increased knowledge of the value and power of organization and of agricultural literature in helping to a practical education for the duties of the farm4 7#f7 ,in an increase of home comforts and a higher ideal of living1 and an appreciation of the fact that the work of the farm should be subservient to the life on the farm1 as 8,the life is more than meat1 and the body than raiment40 7#g7 ,in no other country on the globe are there so many tillers of the soil who own their homes1 and1 as a consequence1 there is no country where there is so much of patriotism4 ,when ,matthew ,arnold visited the ,united ,states1 nothing that he saw delighted him more than the beautiful farms1 with their comfortable dwellings and outbuildings and the evidences of high cultivation and fertility4 ,but one thing puzzled him1 and that was the absence of tenant houses1 and he asked1 8,where do the men live who cultivate these farms80 ,when told that in most cases the farmers were their own tenants1 he could scarcely express his astonishment4 ,prince ,kropotkin1 of ,russia1 who has traveled in this country and paid particular attention to the condition of agriculture1 says in his summing up3 8,american agriculture offers an imposing sight2 not in the wheat fields of the far ,west1 which will soon become a thing of the past1 but by the development of rational agriculture and of the forces which promote it4 ,read the description of an agricultural exhibition in a small town in ,iowa1 with #gj1jjj farmers camping with their families in tents during the fair week1 studying1 learning1 buying and selling1 and enjoying life4 ,you see a national fte1 and you feel that you deal with a nation in which agriculture is held in respect4 ,or read the publications of the scores of experiment stations1 whose reports are published by thousands and scattered broadcast over the country1 and are read by the farmers and discussed at countless farmers' meetings1 and you will feel that ,american agriculture is a real force1 imbued with life1 which no longer fears mammoth farms1 and needs not1 like a child1 cry for protection40 ,the future of agriculture in this country seems safe1 and no class of men can look the future in the face with more of confidence than those who till the soil4 ,,progress ,,in ,,civil ,,engineering ,,by ,,walter ,,loring ,,webb1 ,c4,e41 ,assistant ,prof4 of ,civil ,engineering1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,i4 ,,an ,,introductory ,,view4 ,if we broadly define civil engineering as the art of construction1 then the birth of the art is as old as the emergence of man from savagery4 ,the savage who hollows out a log of wood in order to construct a canoe has taken the first step in the art of shipbuilding2 and when he has constructed a hut1 however rude1 to take the place1 as an abode1 of the cave hollowed out by nature1 he has moved one step nearer to those triumphs of building construction which satisfy man's necessities1 comforts1 and sthetic desires4 ,from this standpoint civil engineering is as old as the oldest of the arts and sciences4 ,not only is civil engineering an ancient art1 but when the archologist points to some of the masterpieces of building construction which have been literally hidden from view by the dbris of centuries1 and describes the old roads which the disintegrating forces of nature1 working for centuries1 have not been able to destroy1 it is natural to assume that in many features the civil engineering of the present day is but a copy of ancient work1 or1 at least1 that there has been comparatively little real progress4 ,it may be claimed that bridges are very old1 that canals1 lighthouses1 and roads antedate the ,christian era1 and that even the ancient ,egyptians knew that the earth is round1 and had made a rough computation of its diameter4 ,but it will be shown that even in these cases there has been an enormous advance1 not only in the character and magnitude of the work done1 but also in another feature of civil engineering which is frequently overlooked1 namely1 the economy of labor and material4 ,civil engineering has been defined as the art of doing well with one dollar what any bungler can do somehow with two dollars4 ,this definition1 although very loose and one-sided1 nevertheless contains a very important truth4 ,if by improved methods a canal or a bridge can be constructed for one half to one third of what it would have cost by older methods1 then the world has advanced1 in that it may have two or three canals or bridges at the same cost of labor as would have been previously required for the construction of one4 ,when we add to this a vast improvement in quality1 an improvement that would have been previously impossible at any cost1 the world's advance is hardly measurable by any standard4 ,it is a well-known fact that many engineering works1 justly considered masterpieces at the time of their construction1 could now be replaced by a much better structure for a comparatively small part of their original cost4 ,this statement not only applies to very old constructions1 but even to some of the great engineering works of the latter half of this century4 ,some of these reconstructions have actually occurred1 as is illustrated in the ,victoria tubular bridge at ,montreal1 or the ,roebling suspension bridge at ,niagara ,falls1--described later4 ,in fact1 the progress in civil engineering during the nineteenth century is chiefly made up of the enormous advances which have been made during the latter half of the century4 ,it should not be argued that these recent constructions are cheaper1 because 8everything is cheaper now40 ,the general scale of wages has advanced1 and the total cost of construction is cheaper1 only because improved methods of work have reduced the labor required to produce finished building material from the raw product and to erect that material into a structure4 ,therefore in considering in detail the construction of the great masterpieces of this century1 we should not lose sight of the enormous advance in general methods of work1 which has rendered it possible to have all of these structures which so minister to the prosperity of the world1 at such a reduced cost in labor4 ,a complete discussion of the century's progress in civil engineering would require a treatise on all modern practice as well as a description of nearly all of the great engineering masterpieces in existence1 but the limitations of this article utterly preclude the possibility of even a short discussion of all the branches of the science1 to say nothing of a detailed description of all of the examples4 ,the following discussion will therefore be confined to those branches in which the advance has been most notable1 even to the unscientific reader1 the progress being illustrated by brief statements regarding the most typical constructions4 ,,ii4 ,,bridges4 ,not only is there evidence that bridges of the simplest forms have been used from prehistoric times1 but the engineering world has been frequently surprised at the discovery1 in semi-barbarous lands where there was evidently no scientific knowledge of bridge construction1 of a bridge which1 in its mechanical analysis1 is a rude example of some one of the more complicated types now in use4 ,but these bridges are always small1 and are constructed with an utter disregard of that economy of construction which is one of the great triumphs of modern bridge engineering1 being uselessly strong in some parts1 considering their weakness in others4 ,at the beginning of this century there was not a wrought-iron or steel bridge in existence4 ,disregarding stone arches for the present1 all other bridges were made of wood--with the exception of a few bridges of cast iron1 which were constructed during the latter part of the eighteenth century4 ,but cast-iron is unsuitable for pieces requiring tensile strength2 it is also difficult to cast very large pieces with any assurance of uniformity4 ,the best existing examples of cast-iron bridges are1 therefore1 those of the arch type2 but these are very heavy in proportion to their real strength1 and would now be much more costly than1 as well as inferior to1 steel bridges of equal strength4 ,therefore the great advance in bridge work during this century consists in the development of steel bridge construction1 and a brief description will be given of a few bridges which represent the chief types4 ,illustration3 ,,brooklyn ,,suspension ,,bridge4 ,,brooklyn ,,bridge4--,the suspension bridge between ,new ,york and ,brooklyn is the largest bridge of its kind in existence1 and1 until the construction of the 8,forth0 bridge1 was the longest clear span ever built4 ,every one is so familiar with this stupendous structure that only a few statements will be made1 which may give a better idea of the unprecedented problem which confronted the great engineer1 ,john ,a4 ,roebling4 ,when looking at the exceedingly graceful design of the towers1 one is apt to forget that a large part of the structure of each tower is hidden from view4 ,the bottom of the foundation of the pier1 on the ,new ,york side1 is #gh feet below mean high tide1 and spreads over an area #agb feet long and #ajb feet wide4 ,the pressure exerted by the caisson on its base is about #aad1jjj tons1 or #f tons per square foot4 ,this great area1 #ced feet below the parapet of the towers1 is a surface consisting partly of bed-rock and partly of a material so compact that it was found1 to be almost impossible to drive an iron bar into it4 ,down below the mud1 below all danger of scour1 far below the depth where the dreaded teredo navalis can destroy the timber in the caissons1 these piers rest on an immovable foundation1 and are an imperishable monument of man's skill4 ,the floor of the bridge is supported by four cables1 each containing #fcjj wires4 ,each wire is supposed to be subjected to a stress of about #egj pounds1 and to have an ultimate strength of #cdjj pounds4 ,to say that each cable is pulled by a force of #c1eia1jjj pounds conveys but little real impression to the mind--as little as to say that it would require a pull of over #ba1jjj1jjj pounds to break it4 ,and there are four such cables6 ,the main span1 including the weight of the cables1 weighs about #ejjj tons4 ,some interesting facts concerning the caissons under the piers of this bridge will be given under the heading of 8,caissons40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,niagara ,,railway ,,arch4 ,,niagara ,,railway ,,arch4--,the railway suspension bridge1 constructed by ,mr4 ,john ,a4 ,roebling across the ,niagara gorge in #ahec-ee1 was justly considered a monument to the skill of a great engineer1 a monument of the world's progress2 and yet so rapid has been the advance in the art of bridge engineering1 that this great structure is already a thing of the past1 and has now been replaced by another bridge which better fulfills the increased requirements4 ,it was not that ,roebling's bridge was an engineering failure1 but that the large increase in the weight and length of trains now requires a much stronger bridge4 ,there were several formidable conditions confronting the engineer who designed the steel arch which has now replaced the suspension bridge4 ,for one thing1 a heavy railroad traffic was using the old bridge4 ,the interruption of railroad traffic for even a few day's is a serious matter4 ,extend the time to several months1 and the consequences are too serious for toleration4 ,and thus it became necessary to so plan and construct the arch that both structures would occupy the same site1 not interfere with each other1 and not interfere with the running of trains4 ,it is an amazing1 almost inconceivable1 triumph of constructive skill that this was accomplished so that 8not a single train was delayed1 and traffic on the highway floor was suspended only for about two hours each day1 while the upper floor system was being put in40 ,the second rigid requirement was the necessity for constructing the arch without any 8false works0 underneath4 ,of course it was not practicable to suspend the various members of the arch during construction1 from the old bridge1 as it was not designed for such a load4 ,nor would it have been possible to plant false works in the deep and swift current of the ,niagara ,river4 ,and so it became necessary to make each half of the bridge self-supporting1 as it hung out over the raging torrent a distance of about #bge feet from the abutments1 until the two projecting arms could be joined in the centre4 ,the illustration does not show the independence of the arch from the old bridge4 ,if the old bridge had not been there 7as was virtually the case1 so far as support given by it is concerned71 the independence of those arms reaching out over the river would have been more apparent4 ,add to all these rigorous conditions the marvelous fact that the erection of this great arch was begun on ,september #ag1 #ahif1 and that the bridge was tested on ,july #bi1 #ahig 7only #cae days afterward71 and we have here one of the greatest triumphs of engineering which could be imagined4 ,,pecos ,,river ,,viaduct4--,the original location of the ,galveston1 ,harrisburg1 and ,san ,antonio ,railway included a section of about #be miles which was very difficult to operate1 on account of its very heavy grades and sharp curvature4 ,after some years of study and surveying1 a line was found which would save #aa4b miles in distance1 #cgh feet of rise and fall1 and #aicc degrees of curvature1 besides being free from land slides which threatened the old line at many points4 ,but the great economic advantages in the expenses of operating could only be obtained at the cost of an almost unprecedented structure1--a viaduct #bahj feet long1 which should cross the ,pecos ,river at an elevation of #cbj feet #aj inches above the water surface4 ,there are two bridges in ,europe which span very deep gorges by arches1 which are higher above the water than this viaduct1 but in such cases the depth of gorge is of no engineering importance4 ,there is also a viaduct1 for a narrow-gauge railway in ,bolivia1 #hjj feet long and with a height of #ccf feet from the rails to the water4 ,but the ,pecos viaduct is built to carry standard-gauge railway traffic over a valley nearly half a mile wide1 and at such a height that a train moving over it appears diminutive4 ,the stone towers in the illustration appear small1 but they are constructed to a height of over #ej feet above the ordinary level of the water1 to allow for possible floods4 ,the longest 8bents0 have a height of #bda feet #j inches4 ,no 8false works0 were used in erecting the bridge4 ,the 8traveler10 shown in the illustration1 had an arm #abd feet #f inches long4 ,after completing the construction on one side of the river 7including one half of the 8suspended0 span immediately over the river71 the traveler was taken apart1 loaded on cars and transported by rail a distance of nearly #dj miles1 in order to reach the other side of the valley4 ,then the construction was carried on as before1 until the two halves of the suspended span met in the centre4 ,the work of erection began ,november #c1 #ahia1 and on ,february #bj1 #ahib 7only #ajh days later71 the two halves of the suspended span were connected4 ,a portion even of this time was lost by inclement weather and unavoidable delays4 ,this light 8spider-web0 method of construction for crossing very high valleys was originated by ,american engineers1 the first notable instance of it being the construction of the 8,kinzua0 viaduct1 on the ,n4 ,y4 ,l4 ,e4 ,w4 ,r4 ,r41 which has a length of #bjej feet and a height of #cjb feet above the water--figures which are only slightly less than the above4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,firth ,,of ,,forth ,,bridge4 ,,general ,,view4 ,,forth ,,bridge4--,the next type of bridge to be considered has for its example the largest bridge in the world--the 8cantilever0 crossing the ,firth of ,forth1 in ,scotland4 ,the economic design of bridges of this type1 on the basis of the mechanical principles involved1 is not only an achievement of this century1 but of the latter part of the century4 ,nevertheless1 we may find illustrations of the fundamental principle in the stone lintels in an ,egyptian temple2 in a rough wooden bridge erected by ,indians in ,canada1 near the line of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railroad2 and in a bridge erected over two hundred years ago in ,thibet1 and discovered in #aghc by ,lieutenant ,davis1 of the ,english embassy to the court of the ,teshoo ,lama4 ,the principle of these bridges is very graphically shown by a photograph made at the time of the construction of the ,forth bridge4 ,illustration3 ,,pecos ,,river ,,viaduct4 ,this bridge joins two sections of ,scotland which had been previously separated by an arm of the sea1 which could only be crossed by a tedious ferry4 ,even this ferry was frequently tied up by fog or by the strong gales which so often blow up the channel4 ,the prevalence of heavy wind pressure demanded that special attention should be given to this feature1 and the most elaborate tests ever made of the effect of wind on a bridge structure formed a part of the preliminary work4 ,the estuary1 for a distance of nearly fifty miles1 is never less than two miles wide1 except at this one place1 where it is but little more than one mile wide1 with the added advantage of having the island of ,inchgarvie nearly in the centre of the channel4 ,the channel on both sides is about two hundred feet deep1 which would forbid the location of a pier at any place except on this island1 which1 being composed of basaltic trap rock1 furnished a sufficient foundation at a comparatively slight depth below the surface4 ,to secure the maximum rigidity consistent with economy in weight1 the 8vertical columns0 of the towers were spaced #abj feet apart at the base1 but only #cc feet apart at the top4 ,the towers are #ccj feet high4 ,as shown in the illustration1 the cross-sectional dimensions of the cantilevers diminish rapidly both in width and height1 so that although the weight of the steel per running foot at the towers is #bc tons1 it becomes only a little over two tons per foot at the centre4 ,the structure is exceptionally rigid4 ,the picture of any gigantic structure1 especially when well proportioned1 utterly fails to give an adequate idea of the size of its component parts4 ,it is difficult to realize from the illustration that the four tubular 8vertical columns0 on each main pier are twelve feet each in diameter at the base--large enough for 8a coach and four0 to drive into1 if they were laid horizontally4 ,over #ej1jjj tons of steel were used in the main spans4 ,the total cost of the whole structure was over #c1bjj1jjj 7#af1jjj1jjj74 ,,stone ,,arches4--,the nineteenth century has but little to claim as to the development of stone arches4 ,the mechanical theory of their stresses is perhaps better understood now than ever1 and the largest masonry arch in existence 7the ,cabin ,john arch1 having a span of #bbj feet1 carrying the ,washington aqueduct over a creek7 is a piece of ,american work of this century4 ,but it should not be forgotten that more than five hundred years ago there was constructed at ,trezzo1 ,italy1 a granite arch of #bea feet span4 ,this arch was unfortunately destroyed in #adbg4 ,one of the most remarkable arches in existence was designed and built by an 8uneducated0 stone-mason at ,pont-y-,prydd1 ,wales1 in #agej4 ,a rigorous analysis of its strains--of which the designer probably knew nothing--shows that the 8line of resistance0 passes almost exactly through the centre of the arch ring4 ,the most highly educated engineer of the present day could do no better4 ,on the other hand1 the development of the theory has been shown by the successful construction of an exceedingly bold design for a bridge on the ,bourbonnais ,railway1 in ,france4 ,the span is #abd feet1 and the rise only #f4ib feet4 ,the design was considered so very bold that a model of the arch was first constructed and tested before the design was finally adopted4 ,the extension of the use of stone arches1 especially those of very large size1 is doubtless prevented by their excessive initial cost over the cost of a steel structure of equal span and strength4 ,since a stone arch is generally considered more beautiful than a steel bridge1 the sthetical element often demands the construction of stone arches in public parks in situations where a metal structure would be more economical4 ,the great reduction in the cost of steel during the past few years1 due to improved processes of manufacture1 generally renders the cost of a steel bridge1 even with a proper allowance for maintenance1 repairs1 and renewals1 cheaper than a stone arch1 unless the span is short4 ,,iii4 ,,caissons4 ,the use of compressed air to keep back the water that would naturally flow through the soil into a deep excavation is a comparatively recent idea4 ,in #ahci ,m4 ,triger1 a ,french engineer1 conceived the idea of sinking an iron cylinder through twenty metres of quicksand in the valley of the ,loire ,river1 in order to reach a valuable coal deposit which was known to be located beneath the river4 ,a chamber with doors1 such as is now called an air-lock1 was constructed at the top of the cylinder4 ,to pass into the cylinder the lower door1 opening downward1 was closed1 and when the air in the chamber was at atmospheric pressure1 the upper door1 also opening downward1 was opened4 ,upon entering the chamber the upper door was shut1 and air was pumped in until the pressure equaled the pressure in the cylinder underneath1 which was also the pressure necessary to keep back the water from the excavation4 ,the lower door could then be opened and the working chamber entered4 ,to pass out1 the reverse process in inverse order was necessary4 ,this was the first pneumatic caisson ever sunk1 although such plans had been proposed and even patented in ,england several years before4 ,the idea was essentially the present plan1 but the process has been improved and enlarged4 ,the required pressure is substantially that due to the weight of a column of water as high as the depth of the base of the caisson below the water surface4 ,in the case of the ,st4 ,louis bridge1 the bottom of the caisson was sunk to #aji feet #h inches below the water surface1 which required an air pressure of about #dg pounds per square inch in the working chamber4 ,such a pressure is dangerous to those working in it4 ,the men literally 8live fast40 ,great exertion is easily made1 but is followed by corresponding exhaustion after leaving the caisson4 ,those having heart disease1 or who have been debilitated by previous excesses1 are liable to be seriously affected--generally by a form of paralysis which has been specifically named by physicians the 8caisson disease40 ,at the ,st4 ,louis bridge1 when working at the greatest depths1 the men were only worked four hours per day1 in two-hour shifts4 ,facilities were likewise provided to have them bathe1 rest1 and take hot coffee on coming out of the working chamber4 ,healthy men1 who observed these and similar precautions1 were not permanently affected by the work4 ,illustration3 ,,formal ,,opening ,,of ,,suez ,,canal4 ,procession of ,ships in ,canal1 ,november #af1 #ahfi4 ,the caissons of the ,new ,york and ,brooklyn suspension bridge are the largest ever constructed1 and a bald account of some of the experiences encountered is fairly dramatic4 ,under such air pressures the flame of a candle will return when blown out1 and so the danger of fire inside the wooden caissons became very serious4 ,one evening a fire was discovered in one of the caissons1 caused presumably by a workman holding a candle temporarily against the wooden roof while searching for his dinner pail4 ,when discovered it was apparent that the fire had burned out a cavity in the solid timber roof1 and the supply of compressed air was fast turning those timbers into a mass of living coal4 ,two pipes capable of throwing one and one half inch streams had been provided for this express contingency1 and the two streams were turned on as quickly as possible4 ,all night the fight went on4 ,at #d ,a4 ,m41 when the water was pouring out of the orifice of the cavity as fast as it was sent in by the hose1 it seemed as if the cavity must have been thoroughly flooded and the fire out4 ,to make sure of the absolute extinction of the fire1 borings were made1 which showed that the fire had worked its way along individual timbers1 especially those which were 8fat0 with resin1 and that the fourth roof course was still a mass of burning timber4 ,it was then decided that the caisson must be flooded1 which was done by pumping in #a1cej1jjj gallons of water4 ,after flooding the caisson for two and one half days1 it was pumped out and the work examined4 ,it required the services of eighteen carpenters1 working day and night for two months1 to repair the damage caused by that fire4 ,when the ,brooklyn caisson was twenty-five feet below the water level1 the boulders encountered became so large that blasting became necessary4 ,but blasting inside of a caisson was hitherto an untried experiment4 ,it was feared that the men would be injured2 that their ear-drums would break by a sudden explosion in that confined space under heavy air pressure2 that a 8blow out0 might occur1 i4 e41 that the compressed air might suddenly escape past the edges1 and that an inflow of water would then drown the men4 ,at first a pistol was fired1 gradually using heavier charges2 then a small blast was set off4 ,encouraged by their freedom from resulting complications1 the blasts were gradually increased1 until they finally used as heavy blasts as was desired1 the men simply stepping into an adjoining chamber to avoid flying fragments2 and an increase in the rate of progress was at once apparent1 the caisson being lowered from twelve to eighteen inches1 rather than only six inches1 per week4 ,the caissons of the bridge across the ,firth of ,forth1 ,scotland1 are examples of the great development of the caisson idea4 ,the pneumatic caisson of ,triger1 in #ahci1 had but one air lock1 through which must pass men1 excavated material1 and constructive material for linings1 etc4 ,this plan meant slow and expensive work4 ,the caissons of the ,brooklyn bridge were a vast improvement over this plan1 both on the score of economy and safety4 ,in the ,forth bridge the caissons were made almost wholly of iron1 thus avoiding the danger of the fire which so nearly wrecked the caisson of the ,brooklyn bridge4 ,the careless or premature opening of the doors of air locks1 which once nearly caused a serious accident on the ,brooklyn caisson1 was rendered impossible by a very elaborate system of interlocking4 ,the efficiency of the apparatus for removing excavated material from the compressed air chamber was also greatly increased4 ,electric lights were used instead of gas or candles4 8,,freezing ,,process40--,this process is mentioned here on account of the analogy of its object to that of pneumatic caissons--sinking a shaft through excessively soft wet soil4 ,the process is very recent1 it having been invented by ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,poetsch1 of ,prussia1 in #ahhc4 ,it has been used only in a very few cases up to the present time1 but where it has been used it has accomplished results which were practically unattainable by ordinary methods4 ,a very brief description of one instance of its use will explain the general idea4 ,for many years engineers had been baffled in their attempts to sink a shaft through #ajg feet of quicksand at the ,centrum mine1 near ,berlin1 ,germany4 ,dr4 ,poetsch sunk sixteen pipes in a circle around the proposed location of the shaft1 and in thirty-three days had succeeded in producing a frozen circular wall six feet thick1 within which the excavation was readily made and the shaft suitably lined4 ,the freezing is accomplished by circulating a freezing liquid 7chloride of calcium7 through the tubes4 ,after the shaft is completed the pipes can be thawed loose from the wall of ice by simply circulating a hot liquid instead of a cold one4 ,the pipes can then be redrawn uninjured1 and used over again--a consideration of no small advantage4 ,the process is not cheap4 ,it would seldom1 if ever1 be used where the more common methods are practicable2 but for passing through very soft and wet soils it is frequently the only possible method4 ,illustration3 ,,manchester ,,ship ,,canal4 ,,iv4 ,,canals4 ,history records the construction of a ship canal across the ,suez ,isthmus as early as #fjj ,b4 ,c42 that it continued in use for about #adjj years and was then abandoned4 ,it was very small2 all traces of it are now utterly lost4 ,the authentic records of it are very meagre1 and they serve only to show the great antiquity of the canal idea4 ,the nineteenth-century progress on this line1 therefore1 consists in the enormously greater magnitude of the works accomplished in the solution of the great subsidiary problems involved1 and in the improvement in methods of work which has rendered these great structures possible4 ,the limitations of this article utterly forbid even a brief description of all the great canals which have been constructed during this century1 and it must therefore be confined to a few statements regarding the more important and typical constructions4 ,it might be thought that no discussion of nineteenth-century canals would be complete without a mention of the ,nicaragua and ,panama canal projects4 ,but these stupendous works1 which will eclipse anything of the kind which the world has ever seen1 are not yet accomplished facts4 ,the twentieth century will be well under way before a trip 8around the ,horn0 will become unnecessary4 ,the successful completion of one of these canals will1 very probably1 so reduce the demand for the other that its construction will be indefinitely postponed4 ,these canals will not be further considered4 ,,suez ,,canal4--,this great work permits a reduction of about #cgej miles in the length of a voyage from ,western ,europe to ,india4 ,compared with some of the other great canals of the world1 its construction was easy4 ,the total length between termini is about #aja statute miles1 of which about nine miles required no excavation2 sixteen miles more required only a slight excavation to make the channel of sufficient depth through existing dry depressions1 called 8lakes20 and the remaining seventy-six miles of excavation were cut chiefly through a soft alluvial soil4 ,at only one point did the excavation reach fifty or sixty feet in depth1 and here also was found the only instance of rock excavation4 ,even this rock 7gypsum7 was so soft that part of it was excavated by the steam shovels4 ,about #hj1jjj1jjj cubic yards of material were removed4 ,if this material had been loaded on to cars carrying twenty-five cubic yards per car1 made up into trains of twenty cars per train1 and the trains were strung along at the rate of five per mile1 it would have required #cb1jjj miles of such trains to transport the material that was excavated4 ,work was actually begun in #ahjj4 ,the ,viceroy of ,egypt originally agreed to furnish the laborers required1 and at one time about #cj1jjj laborers were thus employed4 ,on a change of administration in ,egypt1 the new ,viceroy refused to furnish the native labor1 and it then became necessary to import labor from ,europe1 and to supplement this insufficient and high-priced supply of labor by very large dredging machines1 or steam shovels1 of which about sixty were employed4 ,the task of supplying water for the vast army of workmen was an engineering feat of no mean character and cost1 as the entire route lies through an arid desert4 ,a system of waterworks1 having its source at ,cairo1 on the ,nile1 and distributing the water throughout the length of the canal1 was therefore constructed4 ,in the latter part of #ahfi1 the waters of the ,red and ,mediterranean seas were joined1 large arid depressions had been transformed into great lakes1 and ocean-going vessels were sailing through what had been a desert4 ,the canal is #bf feet deep1 #gb feet wide at the bottom1 the sides sloping variably1 according to the nature of the material1 the resulting width at the top varying from #aij to #cbh feet4 ,although not deep enough for the very largest vessels afloat1 it will accommodate the great bulk of ocean travel1 including war vessels4 ,the total cost of this work1 including the breakwaters1 lighthouses1 etc41 at each terminus1 was1 approximately1 #bj1jjj1jjj1 or #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,complete ,,rock ,,cut4 ,,chicago ,,drainage ,,canal4 7,depth #ce feet47 ,unlike most canals1 the ,suez canal has no locks4 ,the original plan of the ,panama canal did not include locks1 but the revised plan provided for them1 in order to save excessive cutting4 ,the ,nicaragua canal scheme necessarily includes locks4 ,the water for the ,suez canal comes directly from the seas which are connected4 ,a canal with locks necessarily requires an ample water supply from some river or fresh-water lake4 ,if the ,suez canal had been constructed at a higher level than the ,mediterranean and ,red seas1 had been supplied with water from the ,nile1 and had1 therefore1 been constructed with suitable locks at each end 7as was actually recommended by some engineers71 the cost of construction1 as well as the perpetual expense of maintenance1 would have been greatly in excess of its actual cost4 ,and so the fact that it was possible to construct the canal without locks1 and without providing for a supply of water1 was a great advantage that facilitated the promotion of the enterprise4 ,,manchester ,,canal4--,this canal1 having a total length of only thirty-five and one half miles1 has transformed the city of ,manchester1 ,england1 from an inland city to a seaport4 ,actual excavation was begun in ,november1 #ahhg1 and just six years afterwards the whole canal was filled with water4 ,it has a depth of #bf feet1 and a width at the bottom of from #abj to #agj feet1 thus giving a greater capacity than the ,suez canal or the proposed ,panama canal4 ,some of the greatest difficulties involved arose from the necessity of providing for the existing canals and railroads with which that busy portion of ,england is so crowded4 ,perhaps the most interesting feat of engineering was the drawbridge carrying the ,duke of ,bridgewater's canal at ,barton4 ,this small canal1 having originally a depth of only four and one half feet1 here crosses the ,river ,irwell4 ,it was justly considered a great feat of engineering when ,james ,brindley constructed the canal1 during the eighteenth century1 so that it crossed the river on a viaduct4 ,a waterway crossing a waterway on a viaduct was then a new idea4 ,but this old canal was constructed considerably above the desired level of the ,manchester canal1 and yet1 of course1 not so high that a masted ship might pass under it4 ,therefore a draw became necessary4 ,to add to the complication1 the water supply of the small canal being somewhat limited1 it was considered very undesirable to lose a troughful of water 7roughly1 #bjj1jjj gallons7 each time the draw was opened4 ,to allow this water to flow into a tank and then pump it back would consume too much time1 to say nothing of the expense4 ,therefore the bridge must swing with the trough full of water4 ,that required gates at each end of the draw1 as well as at the ends of the canal on each abutment4 ,these gates were comparatively simple2 but the difficult problem was to ensure a water-tight joint between the ends of the draw trough and the corresponding ends of the canal4 ,temperature changes1 as well as many other considerations1 would preclude the possibility of making even a fairly tight joint by swinging the draw to a close fit with the abutments4 ,the desired result was accomplished by placing at each end of the draw a very short ,u-shaped structure1 having the same cross section as the cross section of the trough1 and having beveled ends fitting corresponding bevels on the ends of the trough4 ,these beveled ends are faced with rubber4 ,to open the draw the gates are closed1 the water between the gates at each end 7a comparatively small amount7 is drained off and wasted1 the ,u-shaped wedges are raised1 and the draw is then free to turn4 ,the wedges are operated by hydraulic rams4 ,illustration3 ,,an 8,,atlas0 ,,powder ,,blast ,,under ,a ,,traveling ,,cableway4 ,,chicago ,,drainage ,,canal4 ,,chicago ,,drainage ,,canal4--,it will probably be a surprise to many people to learn that this 8drainage0 canal has a greater cross section throughout the 8earth-work0 sections than any ship canal in existence1 and is only exceeded through the rock sections by the ,manchester canal4 ,the city of ,chicago obtains its water supply from ,lake ,michigan4 ,the 8intake0 pipe was at first located comparatively near the shore4 ,as the population of the city grew and the volume of its sewage increased1 it was observed that the water supply was becoming contaminated4 ,the ,chicago ,river1 into which the sewage was emptied1 became so foul that the odor was intolerable4 ,the very evident fact of this odor probably had more to do with the promotion and accomplishment of the means of relief adopted than the far less evident but very dangerous pollution of the water supply4 ,an extension of the intake pipe to a point several miles from shore by means of a tunnel 7which was in itself a notable feat of engineering7 only deferred the time when the water supply would again be fatally contaminated if the sewage continued to flow into the lake4 ,it was accordingly determined to dispose of the sewage by discharging it into an artificial channel where it might become diluted with water from ,lake ,michigan1 and thence pass from the watershed of the ,great ,lakes to the watershed of the ,mississippi4 ,the level of ,lake ,michigan is so high that there was no trouble about obtaining the requisite grade1 and the divide between the watersheds is so low that the depth of the required cutting at the summit was not forbidding4 ,but why have such a large canal8 ,it was required that the sewage should be diluted1 so as not to become offensive to the inhabitants of the region through which the canal must pass4 ,the law under which the work was authorized required that the flow should be #fjj1jjj cubic feet per minute1 and that the minimum width at the bottom of the channel must be #afj feet4 ,according to the well-known laws of hydraulics1 it was seen that a deep canal would have a greater capacity per unit of excavation than a very wide shallow canal4 ,this is especially true through the sections of deepest cut1 since excavation above the water line adds nothing whatever to the capacity for flow4 ,the sections adopted called for a depth of water of #bb feet4 ,the side walls in rock are practically vertical1 the width of channel being #afj feet at the bottom and #afb feet at the top4 ,in earthwork the cross section is larger than in rock1 thus reducing the velocity of flow and danger of scouring the banks4 ,the width of channel at the bottom is #bjb feet1 the width at the water surface being #bij feet1 and the side slopes #b horizontal to #a vertical4 ,a very expensive feature of this great work was the necessity for constructing a diversion channel for the ,desplaines ,river throughout that portion of the river valley occupied by the canal4 ,lack of space forbids a further discussion of this feature4 ,the canal drains into the ,desplaines ,river at a point where the slope of the river is so great that there will never be danger that a strong west wind or an unusual lowering of the level of ,lake ,michigan can possibly cause the current to flow eastward4 ,work on the canal was commenced only after many years of discussion1 planning1 legislation1 litigation1 and bitter opposition by the varied interests which considered themselves more or less injured4 ,but the work was actually commenced in ,july1 #ahib4 ,the estimated excavation was approximately #dj1jjj1jjj cubic yards--about one half that of the ,suez canal2 but the length is only #bi miles1 compared with #aja miles for the ,suez canal4 ,the total cost was estimated at something over #bg1jjj1jjj4 ,on ,august #bb1 #aijj1 the ,congressional ,river and ,harbor ,committee approved the work as far as completed4 ,v4 ,,geodesy4 ,it may be that many1 who have read of the incredulity of all ,europe when the voyages of navigators during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries first demonstrated the sphericity of the earth1 will be surprised to learn that this knowledge had been acquired almost two thousand years before1 and had since then been forgotten4 ,to ,eratosthenes1 a ,grecian1 belongs the honor of first making a measurement 7about the year #bcj ,b4 ,c47 of the size of the earth1 which1 while very rude and inaccurate1 used the same fundamental principle as is now employed by geodesists4 ,but the appliances of those ancient ,grecians and of the ,arabians1 who later carried on the work1 were exceedingly crude4 ,even during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 when the ,french1 ,english1 and ,dutch were working very hard on the problem1 and were gradually obtaining results which came closer and closer to those now known to be correct1 the appliances for measuring angles were so rough and inaccurate that it was only possible to assert that the earth is spherical1 with a diameter of about #gijj miles4 ,the seventeenth century was nearly past when ,picard first used spider lines to determine the 8line of collimation10 or the true line of sight1 in a telescope4 ,this marked a new era in methods of work1 but the eighteenth century was about half gone when it was first authoritatively proven that the earth is not a sphere1 but is more truly an 8oblate spheroid10--such a figure as would be obtained by flattening a sphere at the poles4 ,some idea of the accuracy of the work done1 even at this stage1 may be obtained by considering that the computed flattening is so slight that if we had a perfect reproduction of the earth1 reduced to a diameter of #ab inches1 the flattening would be less than #a_/be of an inch--almost imperceptible even to a trained eye4 ,the very highest mountain would be considerably less than #a_/ajj of an inch in height on such a sphere4 ,the present marvelous state of the science is due to the great improvements which have been made in the construction and use of angle-measuring instruments and of 8base bars20 also to the development of the mathematical theory and processes involved1 notably that of the 8method of least squares40 ,as an illustration of the accuracy attainable in the construction of theodolites1 the writer recently made an elaborate test of the error of the centering of one of these angle-measuring instruments4 ,of course no direct measurement is possible4 ,the result is based on a long series of observations1 which1 when combined according to certain mathematical principles1 will give the desired result4 ,the error was thus computed to be forty-two millionths of an inch4 ,to realize what is meant when an angle is measured with a 8probable error0 of a few hundredths of a second of arc1 it should be remembered that one second of arc on a circle #aj inches in diameter is less than #a_/djjjj of an inch4 ,the accuracy which has been attained in the measurement of base lines is not easily realized by a layman4 ,an engineer realizes the practical impossibility of measuring a line twice and obtaining precisely the same result to the finest unit of measurement4 ,the initiated are therefore able to appreciate the achievement of measuring a base line having a length of over nine miles1 with a 8probable error0 of less than one five-millionth of its length4 ,the words 8probable error10 as used above1 have a scientifically exact meaning1 but they may be taken by the uninitiated as representing a measure of the precision obtained4 ,at about the close of the last century the great mathematician1 ,laplace1 had declared that the results of the surveys which had then been made were inconsistent with the theory that the form of the earth is exactly that of an oblate spheroid4 ,that form would require that the equator and all parallels of latitude shall be true circles1 and that all meridian sections shall be equal ellipses4 ,laplace showed that the discrepancies between the actual results obtained and the results which the theory would call for are too great to be considered as mere inaccuracies in the work done4 ,with the extension1 during this century1 of the great geodetic surveys1 carried on by the various governments of the world1 more and more evidence has developed that the meridian sections of the earth are not equal1 which is equivalent to saying that the equator is not a perfect circle4 ,this has led to the next stage1 which has been to prove that the form of the earth may be more closely represented by an 8ellipsoid0 than by a spheroid1 that is1 that every section of the earth is an ellipse4 ,several calculations have been made to determine the length and location of the principal axes of such a figure4 ,but these calculations are considered unsatisfactory1 because evidence has developed that the true form of the earth cannot be represented even by an ellipsoid4 ,this figure is symmetrical above and below the equator4 ,there are reasons for believing that the southern hemisphere of the earth is slightly larger than the northern1 and that the form of the earth is more nearly that of an 8ovaloid10--a figure of which the ordinary hen's egg is an exaggerated example4 ,all the above forms1 the sphere1 spheroid1 ellipsoid1 and ovaloid are geometrical forms which represent with more and more exactness the true form of the earth1 but even this increasing exactness will not account for the discrepancies and irregularities which have been found at various places1 and which cannot be explained on the ground of inaccurate work4 ,geodesists have been forced to the conclusion that the true form of the earth is not a regular geometrical form1 but is a 8geoid10 that is1 like the earth and like nothing else1 unless we admit the exaggerated comparison that it is 8like a potato40 ,it should be understood that the words 8form of the earth0 do not refer to the actual surface of mountain1 valley1 or ocean bottom1 but to the actual ocean surface1 and to the surface which the free ocean would assume if it could penetrate into the heart of the continents4 ,the astounding accuracy of the work done may be appreciated when we consider that the differences between the 8geoid0 and the more accurate mathematical forms are distances which should be measured in feet rather than in miles4 ,for many purposes1 it is sufficiently exact to consider the earth as a sphere4 ,for some very precise work it is necessary to consider it as a spheroid4 ,the more exact forms have little or no utilitarian value1 and the vast amount of work that has been spent on these researches has been due to man's thirst for knowledge as such1--due to the same enthusiasm which advances the sciences in fields which only broaden man's knowledge of the world in which we live4 ,,vi4 ,,railroads4 ,the achievements of engineering skill on the line of bridges1 canals1 tunnels1 etc41 have been great1 but their effect is insignificant compared with the social revolution that was created by the invention and development of railroads4 ,the railroads of this country represent a value of about #ab1jjj1jjj1jjj--one sixth of the national wealth4 ,their pay-rolls include about #hej1jjj employees--#a_/bh of the working population4 ,they support1 directly or indirectly1 about #e1jjj1jjj people4 ,they collect an annual revenue of about #a1bjj1jjj1jjj1 which is greater than the value of the combined products of gold1 silver1 iron1 coal1 and other minerals1 wheat1 rye1 oats1 barley1 potatoes1 and tobacco1 produced by the entire nation4 ,such a stupendous social institution requires special discussion1 and it will be found treated separately under the heading of 8,evolution of the ,railway40 ,,vii4 ,,tunnels4 ,tunnels are of exceedingly ancient origin1 if by tunnels we include all artificial underground excavations4 ,from prehistoric times natural caves have been used as burial places1 and1 following this practice1 tunnels and artificial rock chambers have been cut out by kings and rulers in ,thebes1 ,nubia1 and ,india during periods so ancient that we call the study of their history archology4 ,nor were the ancient tunnels confined to tombs4 ,the ,babylonians constructed tunnels through material so soft that a lining of brick masonry had to be used to sustain the work4 ,the ,romans constructed a tunnel over three and one half miles long to drain the waters of ,lake ,fucino4 ,about #cj1jjj laborers were occupied on this work for eleven years4 ,the nineteenth century can hardly boast of works that represent a greater amount of labor 7measured in mere days of work7 than some of these ancient monuments of constructive skill1 but the masterpieces of this century are works which have been greatly aided and even rendered possible by three modern inventions1--compressed-air drilling machines1 modern explosives1 and the compressed-air process used in subaqueous work4 ,the advance in methods of tunnel surveying is as great and nearly as important4 ,progress in excavating tunnels is necessarily slow1 because the working face is so small that only a few men can work there at a time1 and the rate of advance depends upon them4 ,as an illustration3 although the ,mont ,cenis tunnel belongs to the latter half of this century1 the first blast being made in #aheg1 yet for the first four years hand drilling was employed1 when the average progress was about nine inches per day4 ,then machine drilling with compressed air was adopted1 when the rate of advance was multiplied five times4 ,the invention of compressed-air drills simultaneously solved two difficulties3 7#a7 ,the compressed air furnishes an extremely convenient and safe form of power1 which enables holes to be drilled much more rapidly than it is possible to drill them by hand4 7#b7 ,the compressed air1 after doing its work1 is exhausted into the tunnel1 and thus furnishes a continuous supply of fresh air4 ,the necessity for ventilation has often required the construction and operation of expensive ventilating plants4 ,add to these improvements the lighting of the tunnel1 even during construction1 by electric lights which consume no oxygen1 and the comparison between ancient and modern methods becomes especially marked4 ,before the invention of explosives1 hard rock was sometimes broken by building wood fires next to the rock1 and then1 when the rock had become very hot1 cooling it suddenly with water4 ,the sudden contraction would split the rock4 ,ventilation was attempted by waving fans at the tunnel entrances4 ,with torches and fires to consume the precious oxygen1 and no effective ventilation1 it is a wonder how those earlier tunnels were constructed4 ,the compressed air methods for subaqueous work will be referred to under a special case4 ,the essential principles have already been described under caissons4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,portal1 ,,st4 ,,clair ,,tunnel4 ,,north ,,of ,,detroit1 ,,mich4 ,,tunnel ,,surveying4--,the tunnel surveying developed during this century is one of the marvels of surveying work4 ,if a tunnel is to be several miles in length1 not only is the excavation commenced at each end1 but one or more intermediate shafts are frequently sunk to the level of the tunnel1 and excavation is extended in each direction from the shafts4 ,it is extremely important that these sections of the tunnel should 8meet0 exactly4 ,if they should fail to do so by any appreciable amount1 the necessary modifications are frequently costly and therefore justify the most elaborate precautions in the surveying work1 especially since the surveying costs much less than the consequences of such a blunder4 ,the ,hoosac tunnel is over #be1jjj feet long4 ,the heading from the east end met the heading from the central shaft at a point #aa1bgd feet from the east end and #aefc feet from the shaft4 ,the error in alignment was five sixteenths of an inch1 that of levels 8a few hundredths10 error of distance 8trifling40 ,the corrected alignment was then carried on toward the heading from the west end1 which it met at a point #aj1ach feet 7nearly two miles7 from the west end and #bjef feet from the shaft4 ,here the error of alignment was #i_/af of an inch and that of levels about #a-e_/h inches4 ,the surveying work of the spiral tunnels on the ,st4 ,gothard ,railway 7to be described later7 is another example of marvelously accurate work under peculiarly unfavorable circumstances4 ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,tunnel4--,to appreciate the magnitude of the problem involved1 of which this great tunnel is the crowning feature1 some idea should be obtained of the ,alpine topography lying between ,silenen1 in ,switzerland1 and ,bodio1 in ,italy1 less than forty miles apart4 ,the idea of connecting ,switzerland and ,italy by a railroad passing over or through the ,alps1 by utilizing the ,st4 ,gothard ,pass as far as possible1 dates back to #ahej1 or even earlier4 ,an enterprise of such magnitude could be consummated only after years of discussion1 planning1 surveying1 negotiations1 and even international agreements4 ,in #ahga a treaty was finally ratified between ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,switzerland1 by which the construction and financiering was duly authorized4 ,on ,august #g1 #ahgb1 the contract for the construction was signed1 with a proviso that the work must be completed within eight years4 ,on ,april #cj1 #ahhj1 the advance headings met1 and soon thereafter the mails were regularly carried through1 although the tunnel was not actually completed in the specified time4 ,the route adopted was bold enough to stagger the financier1 if not the engineer4 ,starting from ,silenen1 ,switzerland1 it required a climb of nearly #bjjj feet to reach ,gschenen1 the adopted northern portal of the tunnel4 ,this would require an average grade of #bjj feet per mile in the ten miles of distance1 or an actual grade of #cgj feet per mile in the upper part of the line1 if the river valley were followed4 ,the line was therefore 8developed10 that is1 the distance was purposely increased by adopting an indirect line1 in order that the grade might be less4 ,it was found possible to run the line from ,silenen to ,pfaffensprung1 a distance of about six miles1 on the comparatively low grade of #acg feet per mile4 ,at this point the line suddenly plunges into the mountain1 and curves around in a circle1 which is1 roughly1 #bjjj feet in diameter1 while it continues an upward grade of #aba feet per mile4 ,after traversing #dhde feet of such tunnel1 the line again emerges into the open air1 having turned nearly three fourths of a circle in the solid rock4 ,about #bjjj feet farther on the line actually crosses itself1 the upper line there being #afg feet higher than the lower line1 which is at that point within the tunnel4 ,by this device1 which is called a spiral1 the line is run at a practicable grade1 and an elevation of #afg feet is surmounted by introducing #fihf feet of 8development40 ,near the entrance of the ,leggistein tunnel1 the line is less than #ejj feet away 7horizontally7 from a lower part of the line1 which is about #cej feet lower in elevation4 ,space forbids a further description of this climb of #bjjj feet to ,gschenen1 where the line plunges into the bowels of the earth1 and does not again emerge until it has traversed nine and one quarter miles1 and has reached the southern slope of the ,alps4 ,even here the portal is #cgee feet above sea level1 and the valley down to ,bodio is steeper in places than the valley of the ,reuss4 ,four spirals are used in descending about #bfej feet in an air line distance of less than #ai miles4 ,in one place even the upper line1 where it crosses the lower line1 is in solid rock4 ,imagine standing in the gloom of a tunnel and considering that vertically beneath your feet--more than #ajj feet further down in the bowels of the earth--there is another tunnel belonging to the same line of road4 ,the great majority of tunnels are straight4 ,a few have curves at one or both ends1 but nowhere else in the world can be found such examples of spiral tunnels carved out of the living rock4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,st4 ,,clair ,,tunnel1 ,,north ,,of ,,detroit1 ,,mich4 ,,st4 ,,clair ,,tunnel4--,a glance at a map of lower ,canada and ,michigan will show that all the rail traffic of lower ,canada1 and even that from ,montreal and ,quebec1 that passes as far west as ,chicago1 must either cross the ,detroit ,river at ,detroit or the ,st4 ,clair ,river1 at or near ,port ,huron4 ,plans for bridging the river have been frequently made1 but the ,canadian government has steadily refused permission4 ,the traffic along the river in #ahif amounted to over #ce1jjj1jjj tons1 or more than was shipped at the ports of either ,new ,york1 ,london1 or ,liverpool1 and greatly in excess of that which passed through the ,suez canal4 ,such traffic must not be impeded even by a drawbridge2 and therefore a tunnel was the only alternative4 ,the problem was in many respects unique4 ,borings showed that the tunnel must pass through clay and occasional pockets of quicksand1 and therefore it would be necessary to employ a pneumatic method4 ,brunel had used a 8shield0 on the ,thames tunnel half a century before2 but all of the earlier tunnels constructed by this method were much smaller1 and the difficulty and danger increase very rapidly as the size increases4 ,in #ahhf the 8,st4 ,clair ,tunnel ,company10 virtually a creature of the ,grand ,trunk ,railway ,company1 was organized1 and in #ahhh work was begun4 ,after a false start1 made by sinking shafts which were afterwards abandoned1 open cuttings were commenced at each end1 which were extended to points #fjjj feet apart1 between which the tunnel was excavated and lined4 ,the circular lining1 having an outside diameter of #ba feet1 is of cast iron1 made in segments which are bolted together1 having strips of wood three sixteenths of an inch thick placed in the joints4 ,liquid asphalt was freely used as a preservative and to make tight joints4 ,the tunnel was excavated for nearly #bjjj feet on each side as an ordinary open tunnel until the excavation was actually under the river2 then a diaphragm with air locks was built on each side1 and that part of the tunnel lying under the river--#bbij feet in length--was constructed under air pressure4 ,several curious facts were developed during the construction4 ,the material excavated outside of the shields was thrown inside1 loaded on to cars1 and hauled by mules to the diaphragm4 ,it was found that horses could not work in compressed air4 ,mules could do so1 but even they were sometimes affected by 8the bends10 a disease akin to paralysis1 which frequently occurred among the men4 ,the shields were forced forward by twenty-four hydraulic rams1 each having a capacity of #abe tons1 or #cjjj tons for each shield4 ,usually a force of #abjj to #aejj tons was sufficient4 ,much gas was encountered1 which1 on account of its explosiveness1 prevented the employment of blasting to break up the boulders which were frequently found4 ,the advantages of electric lighting in compressed air work were exemplified in this tunnel4 ,in ,august1 #ahij1 about one year after the shields were placed on each side of the river1 they met near the centre4 ,the progress of each shield averaged nearly ten feet per day4 ,considering the frequency with which the cost of great engineering work exceeds the original estimate1 it is remarkable to note that in this case the actual cost 7#b1gjj1jjj7 was less than the original estimate1 which was about #c1jjj1jjj4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,the ,,animal ,,world ,,by ,d4 ,e4 ,,salmon1 ,m4,d41 ,chief of ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,agricultural ,department4 ,i4 ,,of ,,animal ,,diseases4 ,the wars of ,napoleon1 which in the early years of the nineteenth century so seriously affected the governments and institutions of ,europe1 had an equally marked influence upon the development of the animal industry in the countries that were brought within the sphere of the military operations4 ,this chapter of the history of that period appears to have been neglected by writers who have industriously delved into details of subjects of far less interest and importance4 ,enough has been chronicled by various historians1 however1 to show that in many cases those engaged in successful operations for improving the breeds of domesticated animals were forced to abandon the work to which they had devoted their lives1 and for which long study and experience had specially fitted them1 and to become units in the vast armies which were organized only to melt away in the bloody and disastrous campaigns of that epoch4 ,but it was not the men alone that were taken4 ,the best horses were seized for the use of the officers and the cavalry1 for the artillery and the transportation trains4 ,the sheep and swine were slaughtered for the subsistence of the armies1 and the cattle were driven off for the same purpose4 ,neither the choicest flocks and herds nor the most magnificent individuals produced by the breeder's art escaped4 ,the fruits of many years of patient effort in selection and in guiding the forces of heredity were blotted out2 the animals left were few and inferior4 ,to crown all these disasters1 the most deadly forms of contagion were gathered from their hiding places with the animals that were seized1 the plagues which these caused were propagated among the vast aggregation of beasts that were required for the service of the armies1 and1 finally1 they were disseminated throughout all sections to which these armies penetrated4 ,the agriculturists of ,great ,britain1 thanks to the isolation due to the considerable expanse of water which separates their territory from the mainland1 escaped not only the invasions of armed and destructive hosts1 but also the pestilences which accompanied them4 ,while1 therefore1 the farmers of the continent were struggling to save a few of their remaining animals from the ravages of glanders1 rinderpest1 foot-and-mouth disease1 pleuro-pneumonia1 and other plagues1 those of the ,british ,isles were perfecting the work of their ancestors without molestation4 ,these circumstances1 lost sight of by many1 explain to a certain extent the apparently marvelous success of the ,british husbandmen in developing so many breeds of horses1 cattle1 sheep1 and swine to the wonderful perfection which we see at the end of the nineteenth century4 ,the favorable climate1 together with the abundant and nutritious herbage1 have undoubtedly been factors in the production of the ,british breeds1 but the power and opportunity to select the best animals and retain these for breeding purposes must also have had great influence4 ,the effect of contagious diseases in retarding the development of animal life may be appreciated from the estimate1 carefully made1 that in the closing years of the eighteenth century the cattle plague 7rinderpest7 alone destroyed in ,europe two hundred million head of cattle1 valued at seven billions of dollars4 ,during the first half of the nineteenth century1 cattle plague1 pleuro-pneumonia1 and foot-and-mouth disease were particularly disastrous to the animal industry of the ,continent of ,europe1 and unquestionably1 also1 throughout ,asia1 which appears to have been the original habitat of these plagues4 ,during the last third of this century the development of veterinary science1 together with the enactment of sanitary legislation and the enforcement of intelligent measures of repression1 have practically eradicated the cattle plague from the countries of ,europe1 and we have only to note1 as important1 its invasion of ,great ,britain in #ahfe1 which led to the adoption of the present most excellent sanitary organization1 and the extensive outbreak on the continent following the ,franco-,prussian war4 ,during the last six years this plague has swept over large sections of the ,african continent1 destroying nearly every bovine animal in the regions first invaded1 and had it not been for the fortunate and timely discovery of a successful method of preventive inoculation1 the cattle industry would have been absolutely annihilated4 ,pleuro-pneumonia1 almost equally destructive with cattle plague and much more persistent1 was widely disseminated over the continent of ,europe during the seventeenth century1 and reached ,england about #ahdj4 ,many years were lost in futile contentions over the subject of contagion1 and it was not until the last twenty years that vigorous measures for its extermination were enforced4 ,in the meantime the contagion had been carried to ,australia and ,south ,africa1 where it has since remained domiciled1 a constant source of loss to the cattle growers4 ,the losses from this disease in ,europe are now comparatively unimportant1 but in the countries of ,asia and ,africa1 and in ,australia1 it is still a great incubus4 ,foot-and-mouth disease1 less fatal in its effects than the other maladies mentioned1 appears to be more difficult to control1 and1 in the closing years of the century1 we find it prevailing extensively over the principal countries of ,continental ,europe4 ,the diseases which have most seriously affected the development of other species of animals are the glanders of horses1 the variola of sheep 7sheep-pox71 and the three diseases of swine known in ,europe as erysipelas1 swine pest1 and swine plague4 ,these have been extremely prevalent and fatal in many parts of ,europe4 ,glanders1 swine pest1 and swine plague have been brought to the ,american continent1 and have been even more destructive here than in their ancient habitat4 ,the diseases which at present are regarded as most serious attracted but little attention at the beginning of the century1 or were unknown4 ,tuberculosis has now become the great scourge of dairy cows and other highly bred cattle1 ruining many of the best herds and threatening the health of the consumers of milk1 if not also of beef4 ,texas fever1 a disease of cattle first studied in the ,united ,states1 but now known to be widely disseminated over the ,south ,american1 ,african1 and ,australian continents1 has during late years retarded operations for improving and increasing the stock of cattle1 and has seriously restricted the marketing of animals from the infected districts4 ,illustration3 ,,thoroughbred4 ,this brief summary relative to contagious diseases and their effects is all the attention that can be given in this article to conditions which through all historic times have been important1 and1 in many cases1 have been supreme in their influence upon the tendencies and development of the animal population4 ,as the twentieth century approaches1 however1 the influence of the animal plagues is on the wane1 and with a few more years of active scientific investigations they will all be so thoroughly controlled that the disastrous visitations of the past can never be repeated1 and they will not even be a hindrance or menace to the stock grower4 ,,ii4 ,,increase ,,in ,,numbers4 ,as might be expected1 there has been an increase in the numbers of the domesticated animals held in the various countries of the world1 but this increase has been far from uniform1 and cannot be measured either by the growth of the population or the degree of prosperity4 ,evidently the density of population1 the development of manufactures1 and the fertility of the soil have had much influence4 ,in the ,united ,kingdom there were #a1ejj1jjj horses in #ahjj1 and but #b1jjj1jjj in #ahih4 ,during this time the cattle had increased from #e1jjj1jjj to #aa1jjj1jjj2 the sheep from #be1jjj1jjj to #ca1jjj1jjj2 and the swine from #c1jjj1jjj to #c1gjj1jjj4 ,thus1 while the cattle doubled in numbers during the century1 the horses increased but one third1 the sheep one fourth1 and the swine one fourth4 ,as in the same period the population of the country was augmented from #af1bjj1jjj to #dj1jjj1jjj1 or two and one half times1 it is not difficult to see why ,england has become the world's greatest market for animals and animal products4 ,it is important to note the increase in animals in a few of the principal countries of ,europe4 ,in ,france there were #a1hjj1jjj horses at the beginning of the century1 and there were #c1dah1jjj in #ahif4 ,the cattle increased from #f1jjj1jjj to #ac1ccd1jjj2 the swine from #d1ejj1jjj to #f1djj1jjj2 the goats from #hjj1jjj to #a1ejj1jjj2 while the sheep decreased from #cj1jjj1jjj to #ba1bjj1jjj4 ,that is1 in round numbers1 the horses1 cattle1 and goats doubled1 the swine increased nearly #ej per cent1 but the sheep were diminished one fourth4 ,the population advanced from #bg1cej1jjj to #ch1ejj1jjj1 or about #dj per cent4 ,in ,germany1 from #ahbh to #ahib1 the horses increased from #b1ejj1jjj to #c1hcf1jjj2 the cattle from #i1ggj1jjj to #ag1ejj1jjj2 the goats from #gjj1jjj to #c1jjj1jjj2 the swine from #d1ejj1jjj to #ab1agd1jjj2 and the sheep decreased from #ag1cjj1jjj to #ac1fjj1jjj4 ,the population increased during the same time from #bi1gjj1jjj to #di1ejj1jjj4 ,in ,european ,russia1 from #ahbh to #ahhh1 the horses were increased from #ab1jjj1jjj to #bj1jjj1jjj2 the cattle from #ai1jjj1jjj to #bc1hdj1jjj2 the sheep from #cf1jjj1jjj to #dg1ejj1jjj2 while the swine decreased from #ae1hjj1jjj to #i1bjj1jjj4 ,the population during this period increased from #de1jjj1jjj to #ij1jjj1jjj4 ,these are the countries in which there is most interest on account of their influence upon the markets of the world4 ,in regard to ,europe as a whole1 owing to the lack of statistics1 we can only estimate approximately as to the condition at the beginning of the century4 ,from such data as are available it appears that there were about #bj1fjj1jjj horses1 #fa1hjj1jjj cattle1 #aeg1ejj1jjj sheep1 and #cf1fjj1jjj swine4 ,the population of ,europe at that time is placed at #age1jjj1jjj4 ,in the year #aijj there will be in ,europe not far from #dd1bej1jjj horses1 #ajh1jjj1jjj cattle1 #ahj1ege1jjj sheep1 and #ef1hjj1jjj swine4 ,the population will reach about #chj1jjj1jjj4 ,from these figures it would appear that1 taking all of ,europe1 the human population has increased more rapidly than have any of these species of domesticated animals4 ,in other words1 the population is #b4ag times what it was at the beginning of the century1 while there are but #b4ad times as many horses1 #a4ge times as many cattle1 #a4ee times as many swine1 and #a4ad times as many sheep4 ,illustration3 ,,watering ,,the ,,cows4 ,this growing deficiency in the stock of animals1 coupled with an increasing consumption of meat per capita1 has led to the importation of great numbers of animals and large quantities of meats and other animal products4 ,the resulting trade has stimulated the production of animals in other parts of the world1 particularly in the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,australia1 and ,argentina1 in all of which there has been a marvelous development4 ,there are no reliable statistics as to the number of animals in the ,united ,states at the beginning of the century4 ,some have estimated that there were only #cjj1jjj horses1 #fjj1jjj cattle1 and #fjj1jjj sheep2 but the writer is of the opinion that there were from #ejj1jjj to #a1jjj1jjj horses1 at least #c1jjj1jjj head of cattle1 and from #b1jjj1jjj to #c1jjj1jjj sheep4 ,in #ahdj1 with a population of #ag1jfc1jjj1 there were #d1cjj1jjj horses1 #ad1ijj1jjj cattle1 #ai1cjj1jjj sheep1 and #bf1cjj1jjj swine2 while in #ahii the number is placed at #ae1hjj1jjj horses and mules1 #dd1jjj1jjj cattle1 #ci1jjj1jjj sheep1 and #ch1fjj1jjj swine4 ,in #ahhh the horses of ,canada numbered #a1ajj1jjj1 the cattle #c1gij1jjj1 the sheep #b1fjj1jjj1 and the swine #a1bje1jjj4 ,in the same year ,mexico was credited with #b1jjj1jjj horses1 #c1jjj1jjj cattle1 #b1jjj1jjj sheep1 and #e1jjj1jjj goats4 ,taking the whole of ,north ,america1 and making allowances for the increase since #ahhh in ,canada and ,mexico1 it may be fairly assumed that at the close of the century there will be about #ai1jjj1jjj horses and mules1 #ee1jjj1jjj cattle1 #ej1jjj1jjj sheep1 and #dj1jjj1jjj swine4 ,in ,south ,america1 ,argentina far outstrips all other countries in animal production4 ,the horses1 which in #ahfd numbered #c1hge1jjj1 had increased by #ahie to #d1ddg1jjj2 the cattle increased in the same period from #aj1bae1jjj to #ba1gjb1jjj2 the sheep1 from #bc1aaj1jjj to #gd1chj1jjj4 ,the population in #ahie was only #c1ifd1jjj4 ,in ,uruguay there were1 in #ahie1 #djb1cdh horses1 #e1bdh1jjj cattle1 and #ad1ccc1jjj sheep4 ,in ,paraguay there were1 in #ahif1 #bdf1jjj horses and #b1ajj1jjj cattle4 ,the last returns from ,chili 7#ahhb87 give #dej1jjj horses1 #a1ecj1jjj cattle1 and #b1ejj1jjj sheep4 ,as to the condition in ,brazil1 we have no reliable statistics4 ,the animal industries of ,australasia have shown the most wonderful development during the century4 ,in #ahjj1 there were but #bjj horses1 #ajdj cattle1 and #fajj sheep4 ,in #ahaj1 there were #aacj horses1 #ab1ddj cattle1 #be1ijj sheep1 and #iedj swine4 ,in #ahif1 there were #a1ibc1eed horses1 #ab1gja1fjj cattle1 #aaj1ebd1jjj sheep1 and #a1jjj1jjj swine4 ,in ,asia there are large numbers of animals1 but it is impossible to give statistics1 except for ,british ,india1 where1 in #ahie1 there were #a1aeb1jjj horses1 #di1jjj1jjj cattle1 and #ag1bjj1jjj sheep4 ,mr4 ,simonds endeavored to ascertain the number of each class of live stock in the world in #ahij1 and his conclusions may be accepted as approximately correct4 ,he placed the total number of horses in all countries at #fc1dfi1jjj1 the asses and mules at #aj1cah1jjj1 the cattle at #cji1hjg1jjj1 the sheep at #ehh1ice1jjj1 the swine at #ajb1ebf1jjj1 and the goats at #ei1iga1jjj4 ,,iii4 ,,improvement ,,of ,,breeds ,,of ,,animals4 ,the increased number of animals now held in various parts of the world does not give an adequate idea of the enlarged production of animal food products1 as compared with one hundred years ago4 ,during the last century there has been constant improvement in the various breeds of animals1 with a view to perfect their form and shorten the time required for their growth4 ,the breeder has learned how to stimulate development1 and has fixed the quality of early maturity1 through hereditary influence1 until it is now transmitted with the same regularity as are other characteristics4 ,cattle are no longer fed until they are three or four years old before being sent to the butcher1 and it has been found that they can be made to yield an equal quantity of beef of better quality at eighteen months to two years4 ,it is the flesh of such young animals which has been much discussed under the title of 8baby beef40 ,not only is this beef commended on account of its tenderness1 its high nutritive value1 and the more even distribution of fat through the muscular tissue1 but because this shortening of the feeding period enables the farmer to produce a greatly increased quantity of human food from the same number of acres4 ,that is1 by reducing the age at which bullocks are marketed from three and one half years1 as was formerly the rule1 to twenty months1 it is possible for the same farm to produce one third more animals in a given series of years4 ,it may be admitted that not all of the stock of beef-producing animals1 nor even the greater part of it1 has acquired this extreme degree of early maturity1 but most of it has developed somewhat in this direction4 ,the large-boned1 gaunt1 and long-horned cattle of ,texas have nearly disappeared1 and even in ,mexico they are being rapidly replaced by others of better quality4 ,the most important fact is that breeds exist which can be depended upon for the speedy transformation of the entire stock of cattle when the necessity arises4 ,a similar hastening of maturing has been accomplished with the mutton breeds of sheep1 with numerous varieties of swine1 and to a considerable extent with poultry4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,temperance ,,society4 7,,herring47 ,the development of the dairy breeds of cattle has also been remarkable4 ,it can be best appreciated by contrasting the half wild cows of our ,western plains1 which yield but two or three quarts of milk a day at their best1 and none for half of the year1 with the highly specialized types which produce twenty to thirty quarts daily when in full flow1 and with which the milk secretion continues from year to year without interruption4 ,the yield of butter has been increased equally with that of milk1 and among the dairy breeds there are some which are specially valued because of their aptitude for butter production4 ,while the unimproved cow yields but one fourth to one half pound of butter a day1 good specimens of the best breeds produce from one and one half to three pounds1 and in numerous instances still greater quantities4 ,in the production of wool there has also been a wonderful advance4 ,the fibre has been increased in length1 the fleece has been distributed more uniformly over the surface of the body1 and the quality of the fibre has been modified to conform to the requirements for manufacturing the infinite varieties of fabrics demanded by modern civilization4 ,the fleece of to-day is probably three times as heavy as that of a century ago4 ,the improvement in the ,merino type has been truly wonderful4 ,not only have the beautiful long and silky wools of the ,rambouillet and ,saxony breeds been developed by persistent selection1 but the body of the ,merino1 formerly small and almost useless for its flesh1 has been brought to a standard closely approaching that of the best mutton breeds4 ,it is unfortunate that the changes of fashion have1 during the latter part of the century1 made the production of the extra fine wools less profitable than the coarse varieties1 and that1 as a consequence1 many flocks which had been bred to the very highest degree of perfection in this direction have gone to the shambles1 and their peculiar points of excellence have been lost4 ,illustration3 ,,art ,,critics4 7,,gebler47 ,with poultry1 a vast number of varieties and strains have been developed1 among which the most fastidious taste may readily find its ideal4 ,some of these have been perfected from the standpoint of utility1 while with others the guiding principle has been purely sthetic4 ,thus there are breeds which are characterized by their size1 rapid growth1 and excellence of flesh2 others which have been developed simply as egg-producing machines and which have even lost the maternal instinct for incubation2 and still others in which the beauty1 the complication1 and the perfection of the feathering constitute the principal claims to attention4 ,the standard weights of the heavy varieties1 such as ,brahmas and ,cochins1 is now #aa lbs4 to #ab lbs4 for cocks1 and #h lbs4 to #i lbs4 for hens4 ,in the ,united ,states1 there has been developed a distinct ,american class of medium weight fowls1 of which the ,plymouth ,rocks and ,wyandottes are the most popular varieties4 ,the cocks of these varieties weigh from #h lbs4 to #i lbs41 and the hens #f lbs4 to #g lbs4 ,they are valued both for their flesh and for egg production4 ,the rapid multiplication of varieties by modern breeders is illustrated by the ,wyandottes1 which came into existence during the last third of the century1 and of which there are now five distinct varieties3 the ,silver1 ,golden1 ,white1 ,buff1 and ,black4 ,illustration3 ,,french ,,coach-,,horse 8,,gladiator40 ,the breeder's art has been most successfully brought to bear in stimulating the function of egg production4 ,not many years ago1 an average yield of #abe to #aej eggs annually from the hens of even a small flock was considered all that it was possible to obtain1 but at present there are varieties which may be relied upon to produce more than #bjj eggs annually4 ,in some instances1 it is alleged that an average of nearly #cjj eggs a year has been reached in small flocks which have been given special care4 ,it should not be forgotten that there has also been great improvement in the various breeds of horses4 ,the heavy draught horses have been bred into a more compact form1 with better legs and feet and less sluggish disposition4 ,the most noticeable advance has1 however1 been in the lighter grades of horses1 and this has largely been accomplished by infusing the blood of the ,english thoroughbred4 ,the ,french1 by systematically breeding the heavy mares of the country to thoroughbred stallions with careful selection of the offspring1 produced an extremely valuable breed of carriage-horses1 known there as the demi-sang1 and which have been imported into the ,united ,states as ,french coach-horses4 ,these animals1 beautiful in form and action1 have been brought to a high degree of perfection1 and the breed is so well established that its good qualities are reliably transmitted from generation to generation4 ,there are also ,german coach-horses and similar breeds in several other countries1 which have been established by following the same general plan as that adopted by the ,french4 ,these breeds are peculiarly the product of the nineteenth century1 and are in their most valuable condition as the century closes4 ,the ,american trotting horse has without doubt been one of the most remarkable triumphs of the breeder's art which the century has seen4 ,originating in considerable obscurity1 but undoubtedly owing much of its excellence to the thoroughbred1 the trotter was born with the century1 and has continually increased its speed until the very end4 ,it now gives promise of continuing its evolution through at least a considerable part of the twentieth century4 ,in the decade from #ahjj to #ahaj1 the best recorded speed at this gait was #b3ei2 from #ahaj to #ahbj1 the time was lowered to #b3dh2 from #ahcj to #ahdj1 it reached #b3ca2 from #ahdj to #ahej1 the limit was #b3bh2 from #ahej to #ahfj1 #b3ai2 from #ahfj to #ahgj1 #b3ag2 from #ahgj to #ahhj1 #b3ab2 from #ahhj to #ahij1 #b3jh2 and from #ahij to #ahih1 #b3jc4 ,this extraordinary and constantly progressing increase in speed during the century has excited the interest and admiration of the world4 ,it is1 however1 quite generally admitted that too much attention has been given to speed and not enough to disposition1 size1 conformation1 and soundness1 to bring the animals to their highest value for other than racing purposes4 ,owing to the relatively small extent of agricultural territory and the great development of manufactures1 ,great ,britain has become the best market in the world for animals and animal products4 ,the purchases of cattle1 sheep1 beef1 and mutton have been particularly large4 ,considering1 first1 the importations of cattle1 it is found that during the five years from #ahfa to #ahfe inclusive1 the average number was #agd1agg2 from #ahff to #ahgj1 the average was #aid1idg2 from #ahga to #ahge1 #bae1iij2 from #ahgf to #ahhj1 #bgb1gde2 from #ahha to #ahhe1 #chg1bhb2 from #ahhf to #ahij1 #dch1jih2 from #ahia to #ahie1 #ddh1aci2 and for the two years #ahif and #ahig1 #eij1dcg4 ,this unparalleled growth in the consumption of foreign cattle has had a marked influence in encouraging the development of the cattle industry of some other parts of the world1 particularly in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 and ,argentina4 ,the export trade of the ,united ,states has developed even more rapidly than the import trade of ,great ,britain4 ,in #ahga this traffic was in its infancy1 and but #bj1ecj head of cattle were exported1 valued at #djj1jjj4 ,by #ahgi the number had increased to #acf1gbj1 valued at #h1cjj1jjj4 ,then came the ,british restrictions prohibiting ,american cattle from leaving the docks where landed1 and requiring their slaughter on these docks within ten days from their arrival4 ,these regulations were a rude shock to the ,american cattle grower1 and led to measures here for the control and eradication of the cattle diseases which were cited by the ,english authorities as the cause of their unfavorable action4 ,although the pleuro-pneumonia1 about which most apprehension was expressed1 has long since been extirpated1 and an elaborate inspection service has been organized to prevent any affected animals from leaving our shores1 the restrictions have been continued4 ,fortunately1 the trade was only temporarily embarrassed1 and has continued its growth notwithstanding this obstruction4 ,in #ahhi these exports first exceeded #bjj1jjj1 and the following year reached #cid1hcf4 ,since that time the number has fluctuated between #bhg1jjj and #cib1jjj1 until #ahih1 when it reached the enormous aggregate of #dci1bee1 valued at #cg1hjj1jjj4 ,not quite all of these cattle have gone to ,great ,britain1 but that has been the destination of by far the greater part4 ,illustration3 ,,pacing ,,horse 8,,star ,,pointer40 ,,time1 #a ,m4 #ei ,s4 ,the exports of sheep have varied widely1 according to the fluctuations of the markets at home and abroad4 ,from #ahgj to #ahgc the number varied from #ci1jjj to #ff1jjj2 from #ahgd to #ahhi1 it varied from #aaj1jjj to #ccg1jjj4 ,in #ahij the exports were but #fg1ejj2 in #ahia1 #fj1ijj2 in #ahib1 #df1ijj2 and in #ahic1 #cg1bjj4 ,beginning with #ahid1 the exports of sheep again increased1 reaching in that year #acb1jjj2 in #ahie they were #dje1jjj2 and in #ahif1 #dia1jjj4 ,in #ahig there was a decrease to #bdd1jjj1 and in #ahih a further decrease to #bjj1jjj1 valued at #a1bac1jjj4 ,the export trade in horses and mules was inconsiderable1 varying from #bjjj to #hjjj a year until #ahie1 when #ad1jjj horses and #dhjj mules were shipped to foreign ports4 ,this trade increased in #ahif to #be1abf horses and #fecd mules1 together valued at about #d1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahig a further increase was made to #ci1ecb horses and #ggec mules1 the value being #e1djj1jjj4 ,and1 finally1 in #ahih there were exported the largest number ever sent from this country1 amounting to #ea1aej horses and #fiif mules1 valued at #f1fia1jjj4 ,swine are not exported in very large numbers1 as they do not stand shipping well4 ,the largest number sent abroad was #aeh1eha1 in #ahgd1 the value of which was #a1fbe1hcg4 ,in #ahig and #ahih there were only #af1hjj exported each year4 ,very few of these cross the ocean4 ,this resum of the development of the international traffic in live animals and the status of the animal industry would not be complete without some reference to the markets for animal products4 ,the quantity of foreign meat consumed in ,great ,britain is most remarkable4 ,the imports of fresh beef1 which from #ahfa to #ahfe averaged but #ae1ggb cwts41 had increased in the years #ahia to #ahie to an average of #b1jbj1ffh cwts41 and in #ahig exceeded #c1jjj1jjj cwts4 ,the proportion of this supplied by the ,united ,states is indicated by the returns for #ahif1 giving a total of #b1fei1gjj cwts4 of imported beef1 of which this country furnished #b1jgd1fdd cwts4 ,great ,britain also imported #c1aic1bgf cwts4 of fresh mutton in #ahig1 more than nine tenths of it being frozen carcasses from ,argentina and ,australasia4 ,of fresh and salted pork1 the ,united ,states supplied #d1ahc1hjj cwts4 out of a total of #f1efc1fhh cwts4 ,the principal other animal products imported by that country are1 #a1gej1jjj cwts4 of lard1 #bgf1deh cwts4 of rabbits1 and #a1fhc1haj1jjj eggs4 ,the continent of ,europe consumes considerable quantities of lard and salted pork1 which are largely furnished by the ,united ,states1 notwithstanding the unfavorable attitude of the governments towards such traffic and the existence of many annoying and injurious regulations4 ,fresh meats from ,america have been practically excluded4 ,the ,british markets for dairy products and wool have also had considerable influence upon the prosperity of the animal industries in various parts of the world4 ,the rapidly increasing demand for dairy products is worthy of attention4 ,in #ahgg there were imported into the ,united ,kingdom #a1fcg1djc cwts4 of butter and margarine4 ,in #ahig the imports had been raised to #c1bag1hja cwts4 of butter and #icf1edc cwts4 of margarine1 or a total of #d1aed1cdd cwts41 being two and one half times the quantity imported in #ahgg4 ,the quantity of cheese imported in #ahgg was #a1fec1ibj cwts41 and had increased to #b1fjc1fjh cwts4 in #ahig4 ,the country supplying the largest quantity of butter in #ahif was ,denmark1 with ,france second1 ,sweden third1 ,holland fourth1 and ,australasia fifth4 ,nearly all of the margarine came from ,holland4 ,the largest quantity of cheese came from ,canada1 the ,united ,states being second1 with less than half the quantity furnished by her neighbor to the north1 and ,holland third4 ,the quantity of wool imported by the ,united ,kingdom1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,belgium1 ,united ,states1 and other consuming countries1 increased from #bjj1jjj tons1 in the decade #ahba-ahcj1 to #c1cjj1jjj tons in #ahga-ahhj4 ,this wool came principally from ,australia1 ,river ,plate1 ,south ,africa1 ,russia1 and ,spain4 ,the excess of imports of wool into the ,united ,kingdom over the exports were1 in #ahib1 #cab1bag1aaa lbs41 and in #ahif1 #chc1hde1dej lbs4 ,of the total quantity imported by the ,united ,kingdom in #ahif1 the ,united ,states supplied but #d1ejj1jjj lbs41 while ,australasia furnished #dgg1fjj1jjj lbs42 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #gj1jjj1jjj lbs42 ,british ,east ,indies1 #dc1jjj1jjj lbs42 ,natal1 #ba1jjj1jjj lbs42 ,france1 #bj1jjj1jjj lbs42 ,turkey1 #af1ejj1jjj lbs42 and ,belgium1 #aa1djj1jjj lbs4 ,the tendency of the last decade of the nineteenth century has been to displace horses and adopt mechanical motors4 ,the great increase of steam railroads1 cable cars1 electric cars1 bicycles1 and automobile vehicles has so reduced the demand for these animals that their value has decreased over fifty per cent4 ,while there is still a good market for horses suitable for carriage use1 for drays1 for army service1 and for agricultural purposes1 buyers are becoming more critical and the future is uncertain4 ,as it is five or six years after a breeding establishment is started before any of the horses produced can be placed upon the market1 the effect of this uncertainty is to discourage would-be horse breeders and influence them toward other enterprises4 ,illustration3 ,,automobile ,,or ,,horseless ,,carriage4 ,the end of the century also finds the sheep industry in a depressed condition on account of over-production4 ,the vast quantities of wool grown in ,australasia and ,south ,africa have clogged the markets to such an extent that ,australian wool in the ,london market has dropped from #ae;d4 per pound in #ahgg to #h;d4 in #ahig1 and ,south ,african wool from #ae;d4 to #g;d4 during the same period4 ,other wools have fallen in about the same proportion4 ,although sheep are raised for the production of mutton as well as wool1 and the tendency in the ,united ,states has been towards the breeding of mutton sheep1 the value of these animals has been reduced about one half4 ,there have been periods of depression with the cattle and swine industries1 but prices have been well sustained4 ,the ,european markets are yearly requiring larger supplies1 and the stock of beef-producing cattle in the ,united ,states1 in proportion to the population1 is rapidly diminishing4 ,the decreased number is in a slight degree counterbalanced by earlier maturity2 but when due allowance is made for this1 it is plain that the ,united ,states has not the surplus of beef which it boasted a few years ago4 ,at the same time1 our meat trade in the markets of the world is threatened with more serious competition from ,south ,america1 ,australasia1 and even ,russia4 ,the century closes in a period of wonderful achievements in the extension of transportation facilities and in the education of the masses in all parts of the world4 ,the producer in ,south ,america1 ,africa1 and ,australasia keeps abreast with the most enlightened stock-growers of ,europe and ,america in his knowledge of the best breeds1 the most economical methods of feeding1 and the most desirable handling of his products4 ,there is no animal product so perishable but that it can now be sent from the antipodes to ,london in good condition4 ,all of this has brought surprising changes in the traffic between different countries and in the modification of industries to meet new conditions4 ,the producers of the most distant parts of the world are aggressively entering our nearest markets4 ,competition is becoming more intense1 and commercial rivalry is assuming more the appearance of warfare than heretofore4 ,the nations of the world are actively engaged in assisting their people in this struggle4 ,they diffuse information as to the best and most economical methods of production1 they seek out new markets1 they subsidize transportation lines1 they assist in the introduction of new kinds of goods1 they sustain their subjects in the most aggressive practices1 they exclude the products of competing countries by tariffs and hostile sentiment1 by discriminations1 by unpacking1 delaying1 or damaging goods1 under the pretext of inspection1 and by burdensome charges and regulations4 ,some countries have gone so far as to absolutely prohibit competing products for comprehensive but indefinite sanitary reasons4 ,the outcome of this commercial warfare cannot be foreseen4 ,the struggle has been1 and is1 fiercest over the international traffic in animals and animal products4 ,the greatest forces of the world are to-day contending as to what the future shall be4 ,the ,united ,states has only recently begun to realize that it also must take part in this commercial struggle1 if it would retain markets for its products and secure prosperity for its people4 ,its trade has been unjustly prohibited and discriminated against1 its merchants have been unfairly treated and insulted1 and its protests have been treated with ill-disguised contempt4 ,notwithstanding all these efforts at repression1 ,american trade has gone on increasing at an amazing rate1 the forbearance of the government having been far overbalanced by the energy of the people4 ,having grown to be one of the greatest powers of the world1 with magnificent resources yet undeveloped1 the ,united ,states will no doubt maintain its position and continue to supply the markets of the world with the best animals1 the best meats1 and probably with the best dairy products4 ,,leading ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,major ,,general ,,joseph ,,wheeler1 ,u4 ,s4 ,,army4 ,i4 ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the progress of the nineteenth century1 in everything that pertains to civilization1 arts1 and sciences1 has been greater than the total progress in any decade of centuries in the history of the world1 and this is equally true in regard to the art and science of ,,war2 for the expenditure of blood and treasure in the prosecution of the wars and the fighting of the battles of this century far exceeds that of any other like period4 ,the first year of the nineteenth century dawned upon the ,united ,states at peace with the world4 ,in ,september1 #ahjj1 ,napoleon1 finding that he could not coerce the young nation into 8an entangling alliance10 and fearing lest the ,united ,states should join ,england in opposing him1 found it his best policy to conclude a peace4 ,the brilliant achievements of the newly organized navy1 under ,commodore ,truxton1 not only illuminated these early pages of our history1 but established a prestige never yet forfeited2 for the history of this branch of our service is unparalleled from the first effort1 during the ,revolution1 of ,esek ,hopkins1 to that of ,george ,dewey at ,manila1 and ,sampson and ,schley at ,santiago4 ,,war ,,with ,,barbary ,,states4--,in #ahjc the ,united ,states determined to end the piracy of the ,barbary ,states1 and an expedition under ,commodore ,preble was sent to the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,philadelphia1 while pursuing a pirate1 was grounded off the coast of ,tripoli1 and captured by the ,tripolitans1 who made slaves of the crew and prisoners of the officers4 ,in ,february1 #ahjd1 ,captain ,decatur1 with seventy-six men from his ship1 the ,intrepid1 boarded the ,philadelphia1 killed or drove off the ,moors1 fired the vessel1 and returned without the loss of a man1 although fiercely attacked by the shore batteries4 ,in ,july1 ,commodore ,preble1 with his squadron1 laid siege to ,tripoli1 but his bombardment was ineffective4 ,general ,eaton1 consul to ,tunis1 induced ,hamet1 the brother of ,yusef1 who had usurped the sovereignty of ,tripoli1 to furnish him a troop of ,arab cavalry and a company of ,greeks4 ,with these1 and a band of ,tripolitan rebels and a force of ,american sailors1 he crossed the ,barcan ,desert1 stormed and captured ,derne1 an eastern seaport of ,yusef4 ,the latter was glad to make peace1 and a treaty was signed ,june #d1 #ahje4 ,,indian ,,wars4--,from #ahji to #ahaa fighting with the ,indians in the ,south and ,northwest was constant4 ,general ,harrison and the celebrated ,indian chief ,tecumseh were the principal actors4 ,,war ,,of #ahab4--,the contest between ,england and ,france for the dominion of the seas was the cause of the war of #ahab4 ,england declared the ,german and ,french coast to be in a state of blockade4 ,napoleon1 in #ahjf1 made the same declaration regarding ,british ports4 ,in #ahjg1 ,england prohibited trade with the coast of ,france4 ,american commerce was injured and almost destroyed by the combined action of the two powers4 ,four years were consumed in negotiations1 with constant aggressions on the part of ,england1 and on ,june #ai1 #ahab1 ,congress declared war4 ,the great error of the campaign was the attempted invasion of ,canada4 ,had the war been made entirely upon the seas1 an early peace might have ensued4 ,the war began on the ,lakes1 and1 repulsed in the effort to make a stand on the ,canada shore1 and falling back1 ,hull surrendered ,detroit1 ,august #e4 ,again1 at ,queenstown1 ,october #ac1 the ,americans were defeated with the loss of a thousand men4 ,altogether the first year of the war was a disastrous one on land4 ,illustration3 ,,commodore ,,stephen ,,decatur4 ,at sea1 the navy1 consisting of not more than a half-dozen frigates1 with its magnificently disciplined officers1 had been eminently successful4 ,on ,august #ac1 the ,essex1 ,captain ,porter1 captured the ,british sloop ,alert2 on ,august #ai1 ,captain ,hull1 commanding the ,constitution1 destroyed the ,guerriere off the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence2 ,october #ah1 the ,wasp1 ,captain ,jones1 captured the ,frolic1 but later in the day both the ,frolic and the ,wasp fell into the hands of the ,british ship ,poictiers4 ,october #be1 ,captain ,decatur1 with the frigate ,united ,states1 captured the ,macedonian off the ,azores2 on ,december #bi1 after a desperate fight in the ,south ,atlantic1 ,captain ,bainbridge1 commanding the ,constitution1 defeated the ,british ship ,java4 ,the campaign of #ahac opened on the ,canadian frontier with the several divisions in command of ,generals ,harrison1 ,dearborn1 and ,hampton4 ,on ,june #h1 ,general ,winchester1 with eight hundred ,kentuckians1 drove the ,british and ,indians1 under ,proctor1 from ,frenchtown1 on the ,river ,raisin1 but returning with a force of fifteen hundred1 they obliged ,winchester to surrender1 which he only consented to do under ,proctor's promise to protect the ,americans from the ,indians2 which promise ,proctor treacherously disregarded1 and marched away1 leaving the sick and wounded ,kentuckians to be massacred4 ,henceforth the ,kentucky war cry was1 8,remember the ,river ,raisin10 and many were the ,british and ,indians who had cause to dread that slogan4 ,may #e1 ,general ,harrison1 reinforced by ,general ,green ,clay and his ,kentucky troops1 repulsed the ,british and their dusky allies under ,tecumseh4 ,july #ba1 they returned four thousand strong1 but were again repulsed4 ,illustration3 ,,commodore ,,perry ,,at ,,battle ,,of ,,lake ,,erie4 ,the ,americans1 by wonderful exertion and hard work1 built and equipped1 at ,erie1 a squadron of nine ships with fifty-five guns1 the command of which was given to ,commodore ,perry4 ,september #aj1 ,perry won his grand victory on ,lake ,erie1 over the ,english squadron of six ships and sixty-three guns4 ,this was the turning point of the war1 and ,perry's name goes down to posterity with the immortal names that never die4 ,on ,october #e1 ,general ,harrison1 conveyed by ,perry's ships1 landed his forces in ,canada and completely destroyed ,proctor's army1 ,tecumseh being among the slain4 ,so ended the war in the ,northwest4 ,in the meantime1 ,general ,dearborn was fighting with varying success in ,upper ,canada4 ,jackson1 in the ,south1 was avenging the ,fort ,mimms massacre1 finally crushing the ,creeks early in the next year4 ,the ,british1 under the odious ,admiral ,cochrane1 plundered and ravaged and burned everything in reach1 from ,lewistown to the ,carolina coast1 seizing the negroes and selling them in the ,west ,indies4 ,during this year the ,american navy continued to be successful1 meeting few losses1 though the fighting was even more desperate4 ,july #e1 #ahad1 the ,americans defeated the ,british at ,chippewa2 and on the #beth was fought the battle of ,lundy's ,lane1 where ,generals ,brown and ,scott were wounded4 ,in this desperate battle1 eight hundred men were lost on either side2 and though the battle was undecisive1 it had the effect of a victory for the ,americans4 ,august #ad1 five thousand troops1 under ,general ,ross1 were landed on the ,patuxent1 and1 defeating ,general ,winder1 who made a stand with a handful of men near ,bladensburg1 proceeded to the city of ,washington4 ,after burning the capitol and ,white ,house1 and other buildings1 they hastily withdrew4 ,the attempt to take ,baltimore proved abortive1 and on ,september #ad the ,british rembarked4 ,it was at this time that ,key wrote the 8,star ,spangled ,banner40 ,august #ae1 the enemy were repulsed at ,fort ,erie with the loss of one thousand men1 and a month later were finally driven back4 ,the whole ,british squadron on ,lake ,champlain surrendered to ,commodore ,mac,donough after a terrific fight for several hours1 on ,september #ag1 and on the same day the ,british army of twelve thousand was forced to retreat from ,plattsburg by ,general ,macomb's force of forty-five hundred4 ,in ,florida the ,spaniards had allowed1 if not encouraged1 the ,english to use their territory to fit out expeditions against the ,united ,states4 ,jackson1 with two thousand men1 took possession of ,pensacola on the #gth of ,november1 driving out the ,british4 ,december the #bhth the ,british opened fire on ,new ,orleans2 again1 on ,january #a1 #ahae2 and on ,january #h ,packenham1 with twelve thousand men1 made his supreme effort4 ,jackson's force was now about six thousand4 ,the ,british were driven to their ships after losing two thousand killed and wounded1 their general being among the slain4 ,the ,american loss was seven killed and six wounded4 ,the war was kept up on the ocean until ,march1 the last capture being that of the ,british brig ,penguin by the ,american sloop-of-war ,hornet1 in the ,south ,atlantic4 ,the treaty of ,ghent had been signed on the #bdth of ,september1 #ahad1 and the news of the glorious victory at ,new ,orleans reached ,washington simultaneously with that of the signing of the treaty4 ,the war had been so distasteful to the people of ,new ,england that ,massachusetts and ,connecticut had passed laws directly antagonistic to those of the ,united ,states1 and hostilities between the ,federal and ,state governments were feared1 which1 perhaps1 were only averted by the ending of the war4 ,the issues leading to the war of #ahab were left unsettled by the treaty1 but ,england never again attempted to interfere with ,american shipping4 ,,second ,,war ,,with ,,barbary ,,states4--,immediately on the close of the war of #ahab1 the ,algerians1 supposing that the ,american navy was badly crippled1 began again their depredations on ,american commerce4 ,commodore ,decatur was sent to the ,mediterranean with a squadron1 and once more gave them an ,american drubbing4 ,june #ag1 #ahae1 he destroyed two ,algerine vessels2 ,june #bh1 in front of the city of ,algiers1 he demanded the release of all ,american prisoners1 indemnification for all property destroyed1 and a relinquishment of all claims for tribute from the ,united ,states4 ,the ,dey quickly assented to the terms1 and signed a treaty of peace4 ,tunis1 ,tripoli1 and ,morocco were likewise brought to terms1 the ,united ,states thus taking the lead of all the other powers in its determination to break up the piracy of the ,barbary ,states4 ,,mexican ,,war4--,the ,republic of ,texas became1 by its own request and by ,act of ,congress1 one of the ,united ,states ,july #d1 #ahde4 ,mexico prepared for war2 the ,united ,states took measures to protect the new ,state4 ,march #h1 #ahdf1 ,general ,zachary ,taylor marched with fifteen hundred men to a point on the ,rio ,grande opposite ,matamoras1 where he erected ,fort ,brown4 ,illustration3 ,,schoolship ,,saratoga4 ,to the secretary of war1 ,william ,l4 ,marcy1 and to ,general ,winfield ,scott was due the plan of campaign1 the battles of which1 like instantaneous flashes of victory from the beginning of the war until its close1 illumine the pages of ,american history4 ,then1 as now1 ,congress was slow to respond to the needs of the military branch of the government4 ,april #bd1 #ahdf1 hostilities began4 ,general ,taylor advanced into ,mexico and1 ,may #h1 won the brilliant victory of ,palo ,alto1 and again1 the next day1 the battle of ,resaca de la ,palma4 ,taylor's force was less than one third the number of the enemy1 whose loss was one thousand4 ,these two battles crushed the flower of ,santa ,anna's army4 ,taylor returned to the relief of ,fort ,brown1 where the brave garrison had sustained a cannonade for #afh hours4 ,september #bd1 ,monterey and its garrison of nine thousand men were taken by ,general ,taylor with six thousand4 ,february #bc1 #ahdg1 ,taylor gained the glorious victory of ,buena ,vista1 in which the ,mexican loss was #bjjj1 the ,american1 #gad4 ,at times the ,mexicans were within a few yards of ,bragg's guns4 8,a little more grape1 ,captain ,bragg10 was ,taylor's celebrated order1 the execution of which decided the day4 ,the ,american loss was severe in officers4 ,taylor's force1 depleted by more than two thirds1 which had been sent to reinforce ,general ,scott1 was barely forty-five hundred2 the ,mexican troops numbered twenty thousand4 ,captain ,fremont1 assisted by ,commodores ,sloat and ,stockton1 had subjugated ,california2 ,general ,kearney and ,colonel ,doniphan1 ,northern ,mexico4 ,doniphan defeated the ,mexicans at ,bracito1 ,december #be1 #ahdf1 and at ,sacramento1 ,february #h1 #ahdg1 and took possession of ,chihuahua1 a city of forty thousand inhabitants1 and marched to join ,general ,wool at ,saltillo1 ,march #bb4 ,early in ,january1 #ahdg1 ,general ,scott reached the mouth of the ,rio ,grande1 where he awaited the eight thousand troops sent by ,general ,taylor4 ,this raised his force to twelve thousand4 ,these were landed at ,sacrificios4 ,the ,americans debarked just below ,vera ,cruz between sunset and ten o'clock on the night of ,march #h without a single accident4 ,with wonderful skill the investiture of ,vera ,cruz and the castle of ,st4 ,john de ,ulloa was completed4 ,on ,march #bb the ,governor of ,vera ,cruz was summoned to surrender4 ,day and night the mortar batteries played upon the city1 the fleet ably assisting2 and on the #bith the stars and stripes floated above the walls of city and fortress4 ,the ,americans lost but two officers and a few soldiers4 ,april #ah1 the magnificent victory at ,cerro ,gordo1 where three thousand ,mexicans were captured1 was won2 ,april #ai1 ,jalapa was taken2 ,april #bb1 ,pecote1 the strongest of ,mexican forts1 was captured2 and ,may #ae1 ,puebla surrendered to ,general ,worth4 ,ten thousand prisoners1 seven hundred cannon1 ten thousand stands of arms1 and thirty thousand shot and shells were captured within two months4 ,when the army entered ,puebla it numbered but forty-five hundred4 ,reinforcements reaching him1 ,scott set out from ,puebla to the valley of ,mexico on ,august #g4 ,august #bj1 the heights of ,contreras were assailed and taken1 and the battle of ,churubusco--with nine thousand ,americans against thirty thousand ,mexicans--was fought and won4 ,september #h1 ,molino del ,rey was taken2 ,september #ac1 the heights of ,chapultepec4 ,the ,mexicans fled from the capital1 and the victorious ,american army marched in and took possession of the city1 ,september #ad1 #ahdg4 ,here ,scott and his noble warriors rested until the treaty was concluded at ,guadalupe ,hidalgo1 ,february #b1 #ahdh1 and peace was proclaimed1 ,july #d1 by ,president ,polk4 ,guadalupe ,hidalgo1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,california were ceded to the ,united ,states1 #ae1jjj1jjj paid to ,mexico1 and the debts due from ,mexico to ,american citizens were assumed by the ,united ,states4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war4--,it is not here the place to rehearse or to discuss the causes which led to ,america's ,civil ,war1 a war perhaps the most stupendous recorded in history4 ,looking backward1 after the bloody foot-prints have been well nigh obliterated by the growth of a generation1 we can see that the trend of human progress1 the political problems confronting the federated ,states1 in the solution of which were evolved elements of discord1 the inherited antagonism between the ,puritans of the ,north and the ,cavaliers of the ,south1 all combined to make the conflict inevitable4 ,for more than a decade of years grievances had been growing and rumblings were heard1 like the imprisoned fires beneath the surface of the earth1 until the election of ,abraham ,lincoln as ,president1 pledged to a policy believed to be inimical to the ,south1 caused the outburst of the volcano1 whose fierce fires and molten lava for four years spread desolation over the land4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,e4 ,,lee ,,at ,,chapultepec4 ,time and milder judgment have very nearly smoothed away the wrinkles of discord1 and the close of the century finds the nation a reunited people1 whose new compact is written in the life-blood of her sons on the battlefields of the recent war with ,spain4 ,december #bj1 #ahfj1 ,south ,carolina2 ,january #i1 #ahfa1 ,mississippi2 ,january #aj1 ,florida2 ,january #aa1 ,alabama2 ,january #ah1 ,georgia2 ,january #bc1 ,louisiana1 and ,february #a1 ,texas1 one by one asserted their supposed right to withdraw from the federal compact1 and enacted ordinances of secession in their several state conventions4 ,each ,state1 as it took action1 claimed and possessed itself of all government property1 forts1 guns1 ammunition1 within its borders1 and armed its militia for garrison duty4 ,a convention of delegates from the seceded ,states1 held ,february #d1 #ahfa1 at ,montgomery1 ,alabama1 organized a new federation1 to be known as the ,confederate ,states of ,america1 chose ,jefferson ,davis ,president and ,alexander ,stephens ,vice-,president1 and set the whole machinery of a provisional government in working order4 ,july #bj1 ,richmond became the capital of the ,southern ,confederacy4 ,virginia seceded ,april #ag2 ,arkansas1 ,may #f2 ,north ,carolina1 ,may #bj1 and ,tennessee1 ,june #h4 ,kentucky declared neutrality4 ,lincoln1 upon assuming the executive chair1 ,march #d1 #ahfa1 found the treasury depleted1 the army of only sixteen thousand men scattered in the ,west1 and many of its best officers already with the ,confederacy4 ,the navy had been sadly neglected by ,congress1 partly because this branch of the service had been steadily antagonized by the ,west1 so that at the beginning of the war1 both as to vessels and armament1 it was by no means in a condition for active service4 ,as in the army1 some of its most valuable officers had espoused the cause of their native ,states1 and the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ports1 being in possession of the new federation1 left the ,united ,states vessels no place of refuge4 ,with unlimited means at command1 the ,union navy increased the number of its vessels to #ehh--ge of them ironclads--with #dddc guns and #cj1jjj men1 before the end of #ahfb4 ,torpedoes and steel rams were first used during this war1 and monitors1 just invented1 were used by the ,united ,states4 ,with a nucleus of #aj vessels1 around which to build its navy1 the ,confederacy had1 by ,november1 raised the number to #cd4 ,until the blockade became effective1 8cotton was king20 for1 in ,october1 #ahfa1 the ,nashville1 running out with a heavy consignment1 brought back into ,charleston in exchange a cargo worth #c1jjj1jjj4 ,vessel after vessel was bought from ,english shipbuilders1 among them the celebrated ,alabama1 which1 in the fourteen months of her service1 captured sixty-nine prizes1 and destroyed ten million dollars' worth of merchandise4 ,the armored ram ,stonewall was bought in ,france4 ,april #ab1 #ahfa1 ,fort ,sumter1 in ,charleston harbor1 was forced to surrender to the ,confederates1 and the first shot at the old flag ushered in the long1 bitter struggle4 ,troops were called for by ,lincoln4 ,lieutenant-,general ,scott1 the veteran hero of ,mexico1 was in command of the army4 ,in three months1 three hundred thousand men were in the field4 ,one hundred thousand had swarmed to the ,confederate ranks4 ,general ,mc,clellan was sent to the front and1 after the resignation of ,scott in the latter part of the year1 was made commander of the army4 ,july #ba1 the battle of ,bull ,run was fought4 ,the ,union troops were disastrously routed and retreated in confusion to ,washington4 ,the army did little more during this year4 ,illustration3 ,,castle ,,william4 ,,military ,,prison1 ,,governor',s ,,island1 ,,new ,,york ,,harbor4 ,april #ba1 after setting fire to and destroying the ,navy ,yard and ships1 ,norfolk was evacuated by the ,union forces4 ,the frigate ,merrimac1 which had been sunk1 was raised by the ,confederates1 plated with iron1 renamed 8,virginia10 and became the scourge of the shipping off the ,virginia coast4 ,the navy1 as is usual1 and because of its very organization1 got in its effective work much earlier than did the army1 and the seizure of the forts and ports on the coast of the seceded ,states began at once4 ,fort ,hatteras was taken ,august #bi2 ,port ,royal1 in ,south ,carolina1 ,november #g4 ,november #g a naval officer1 by overhauling an ,english mail steamer and taking off ,messrs4 ,mason and ,slidell1 who had been appointed commissioners of the ,confederate ,states to ,france and ,england1 very nearly caused a complication with the latter power4 ,mr4 ,seward's diplomacy settled the incident amicably1 and the commissioners were allowed to proceed upon their mission1 which1 however1 proved futile4 ,by the close of the year1 ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 and ,missouri1 at first doubtful1 were securely in the ,union1 though many of their citizens were in the ,southern army4 #ahfb4--;,february #f1 ,general ,grant1 commanding the army of the ,tennessee1 with the assistance of ,commodore ,foote and his gunboats1 captured ,fort ,henry1 on the ,tennessee ,river1 and1 on the #afth1 ,fort ,donelson on the ,cumberland4 ,the ,federal forces had reached the number of four hundred and fifty thousand1 of which ,mc,clellan had two hundred thousand4 ,may #bc1 at ,front ,royal1 and ,may #be1 at ,winchester1 8,stonewall0 ,jackson defeated the ,union troops and forced them across the ,potomac4 ,banks1 ,fremont1 and ,mc,dowell1 concentrating their forces1 bore down on ,jackson1 who slipped through their lines1 and1 on ,june #i1 defeated ,shields at ,fort ,republic4 ,the cry of the ,northern press was1 8,on to ,richmond10 and ,mc,clellan endeavored to obey the command4 ,he had arrived not far from the city1 between the ,york and ,james rivers1 when he was defeated in the bloody battle of ,seven ,pines1 ,may #ca and ,june #a4 ,the ,confederate ,general ,johnston was wounded1 and ,general ,lee was assigned to the command of the army of ,northern ,virginia1 which he retained until the end4 ,the ,seven ,days' battles1 from ,june #be to ,july #a1 were fought at fearful cost to the ,confederates2 nevertheless1 8it was a glorious victory10 and the siege of ,richmond was raised4 ,lee advanced toward ,washington1 met the armies of ,banks and ,pope1 and defeated them in the second battle of ,bull ,run1 ,august #bi and #cj1 and at ,chantilly1 ,september #a and #b1 forcing ,pope's army to retreat to ,washington4 ,the clamor in the ,south had been1 8,on to ,washington40 ,lee crossed the ,potomac at ,harper's ,ferry and took twelve thousand prisoners4 ,mc,clellan1 who had been recalled1 met the ,confederates at ,sharpsburg 7,antietam71 ,september #ag1 and fought a battle with undecisive results4 ,each side lost about ten thousand men1 and ,lee returned4 ,the ,union army under ,burnside1 who had superseded ,mc,clellan1 met a fearful repulse at ,fredericksburg1 ,december #ac1 with a loss of fourteen thousand4 ,the ,confederate loss was five thousand4 ,december #ca1 ,january #a and #b1 was fought the terrible battle of ,murfreesboro1 ,tennessee1 where ,bragg's force was #ce1jjj1 and his loss in killed1 wounded1 and missing1 #aj1dff4 ,rosecrans's force was #dc1djj1 and his loss #ab1eie4 ,march #h1 the ,virginia attacked the ,union fleet at ,fortress ,monroe and destroyed the ,cumberland and the ,congress4 ,the next day1 the ,monitor attacked the ,virginia1 and1 after five hours' fighting1 succeeded in disabling her so that she returned to ,norfolk4 ,the ,virginia was destroyed by the ,confederates before evacuating ,norfolk1 ,may #aj4 ,admiral ,farragut1 with a fleet of #de vessels1 entered the ,mississippi and bombarded the forts of ,st4 ,philip and ,jackson4 ,despising the fear of mines and torpedoes1 he continued on his course1 defeating the ,confederate fleet1 and1 together with ,general ,butler1 entered ,new ,orleans ,april #be4 ,during this year the navy1 with the assistance of land forces1 had retaken all important ports on the ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,georgia coasts1 seriously interfering with the blockade running1 upon which the ,confederacy depended for its foreign supplies4 ,the year #ahfb closed with no advantage having been gained on either side4 ,illustration3 ,,generals ,,robert ,e4 ,,lee ,,and ,,stonewall ,,jackson4 #ahfc4--,on ,january #a1 ,lincoln issued the threatened ,emancipation ,proclamation4 ,this destroyed the last hope of the ,confederacy for recognition by ,england4 ,no event of importance occurred before the middle of spring1 when ,hooker1 who had relieved ,burnside1 made another advance upon ,richmond1 and was routed by ,lee and ,jackson at ,chancellorsville1 ,may #b1 and on the #eth was forced across the ,rapidan with a loss of seventeen thousand4 ,the ,confederate loss was less than five thousand4 ,in ,jackson's death the ,confederacy received a blow1 the consequences of which may never be estimated4 ,lee's army again crossed the ,potomac for an invasion of the ,north4 ,the ,union forces1 under ,meade1 marched in an almost parallel line with ,lee's through ,maryland into ,pennsylvania4 ,they met and fought at ,gettysburg1 ,july #a1 #b1 and #c1 one of the decisive battles of the world's history4 ,lee was forced to again retire beyond the river4 ,the ,union could well afford the loss of twenty-three thousand men1 but ,lee's loss of twenty thousand of the choice troops of his army was irreparable4 ,in the meantime1 ,grant had been sent to open the ,mississippi1 and after a six weeks' siege1 on ,july #d1 ,vicksburg1 with nearly thirty thousand prisoners and vast quantities of stores1 fell into his hands4 ,these two almost simultaneous victories greatly encouraged the ,north1 and formed the turning point in the history of the war4 ,july #i1 ,banks's victory at ,port ,hudson accomplished the desired possession of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,bragg1 who had been sorely pressed by ,rosecrans1 made a stand at ,chickamauga1 defeating the ,union ,general ,rosecrans1 ,september #ai and #bj1 and forcing him to retreat to ,chattanooga1 where he was besieged by ,bragg4 ,grant1 with ,sherman1 coming to his aid1 the battles of ,lookout ,mountain and ,missionary ,ridge were fought1 ,november #bc and #be1 and ,bragg was driven back into ,georgia4 ,the ,federal navy was gradually taking possession of the whole coast1 and ,charleston was tightly blockaded4 ,in ,march the ,confederate ship ,nashville was sunk in the entrance of the ,savannah ,river4 ,during this year both governments were forced to resort to conscription4 ,lincoln ordered a draft1 and1 in ,july1 a three days' riot in consequence prevailed in ,new ,york1 during which two million dollars' worth of property was destroyed4 #ahfd4--;,in ,march1 ,grant was put in command of the whole ,union army1 the grade of lieutenant-general having been revived in his behalf4 ,he left ,sherman in command1 repaired to ,washington1 and1 ,may #c1 started on the third campaign against ,richmond1 with a force of one hundred and forty thousand4 ,sherman1 with one hundred thousand1 was to march to ,atlanta4 ,the whole strength of the ,union army at this time was about seven hundred thousand4 ,grant had spent some weeks in formulating his plans of campaigns1 from the main features of which he never deviated4 ,the ,union had at last found the man1 and at the same time had acquired the wisdom to leave the conduct of the war to his judgment2 proving1 also1 that 8there is no war on record that has not given its man to the world or shaped the destiny of some other40 ,crossing the ,rapidan1 ,grant encountered the ,confederates1 and the fighting1 on the #eth1 #fth1 and #gth1 of the battles of the ,wilderness1 was terrific1 but the result undecisive4 ,at ,spottsylvania he fought from the #hth to the #ahth with fearful loss4 ,june #a1 he was repulsed at ,cold ,harbor1 and again on the #c;d1 and fighting1 more or less desultory1 continued in that vicinity until the #abth4 ,since the opening of the campaign1 the ,union army had lost sixty thousand men2 the ,confederate thirty thousand4 ,grant moved on ,petersburg and began the siege which lasted from ,june until the next ,april4 ,the western part of ,virginia had seceded from the eastern portion1 and1 ,june #bj1 was admitted into the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,ulysses ,s4 ,,grant4 ,to divert ,grant1 and1 if possible1 to raise the siege of ,petersburg1 in ,july1 ,lee sent ,general ,early to threaten ,washington and ,baltimore1 which he accomplished without1 however1 affecting ,grant's position4 ,returning laden with spoils1 ,early turned1 and driving back the ,federal troops invaded ,pennsylvania1 burning ,chambersburg1 and came back again bringing vast quantities of supplies4 ,sheridan was sent to dispose of ,early and to ravage the valley4 ,at ,winchester1 he met and defeated ,early in a very severe fight on ,october #bj1 almost destroying the force under that general's command4 ,sherman set out for ,chattanooga on ,may #g1 marching towards ,atlanta4 ,at ,dalton he met ,general ,johnston's army of fifty thousand men4 ,johnston's masterly retreat from ,dalton to ,atlanta is unrivaled in military history4 ,he made a stand from ,may #be to ,june #d at ,dallas1 but1 being outflanked1 was obliged to fall back4 ,the next stand was made at ,great ,kenesaw1 on ,june #bb1 when he repulsed the ,federals4 ,on the #bgth1 ,sherman made a powerful assault1 but was again repulsed with a loss of four thousand1 ,johnston's loss being four hundred2 but1 again outflanked4 ,johnston was forced across the ,chattahoochie1 and ,july #aj found the ,confederate army entrenched in ,atlanta4 ,johnston's retreating tactics caused the people to clamor for a 8fighting leader10 and ,davis1 in transferring the command from ,johnston at such a crucial time1 committed a grave error4 ,johnston was superseded by ,general ,hood1 whose chief ambition was to fight1 which1 in this case1 was a great mistake in judgment4 ,on the #bjth1 #bb;d1 and #bhth of ,july1 ,hood assaulted the lines of the besiegers1 only to be repulsed again and again4 ,in these fights more men were lost than during ,johnston's long1 skillful retreat4 ,an injudicious movement by ,hood separated his command1 obliging him to evacuate ,atlanta1 of which ,sherman1 on ,september #b1 took possession4 ,in its advance on ,atlanta1 the ,union army had lost thirty thousand men4 ,hood saved his army and made his way towards ,nashville1 hoping to divert ,sherman from ,georgia4 ,at ,franklin1 ,november #cj1 he met ,general ,schofield1 and drove him back to ,nashville1 from whence ,general ,thomas made a sortie1 and fell upon ,hood's troops1 ,december #ae1 completely routing them4 ,in the two fights1 ,hood lost in killed1 wounded1 and captured over eleven thousand4 ,with the remnant he escaped into ,alabama1 and these finally reached ,johnston1 participated in his last fight with ,sherman1 and were surrendered at ,raleigh with the troops of their old commander4 ,november #ad1 ,sherman burned ,atlanta1 cut all telegraph lines and began his 8,march to the ,sea10 ravaging1 devastating1 and utterly destroying everything in his reach4 ,he was opposed by the ,confederate cavalry1 which successfully defended the cities of ,macon and ,augusta1 upon which the ,confederacy mainly depended for the manufacture of munitions of war4 ,sherman entered ,savannah on ,december #bb1 the advance having cost him only #efg men killed and wounded4 ,illustration3 ,,sherman',s ,,march ,,to ,,the ,,sea4 ,on ,june #ai1 the celebrated sea fight between the ,kearsarge and the ,alabama took place off ,cherbourg1 ,france4 ,the ,alabama was sunk after a five hours' fight4 ,admiral ,semmes was rescued by the ,deerhound1 belonging to an ,english gentleman1 and thus saved from capture4 ,august #e1 ,commodore ,farragut1 overcoming the ,confederate ram ,tennessee and the gunboats1 sailed into ,mobile ,bay1 commanding his fleet from the maintop of his flagship4 #ahfe4--,the opening of the campaign of #ahfe found ,grant's army still before ,petersburg4 ,on ,april #b1 he ordered an attack along his whole line1 which had been so lengthened that the lines of ,lee's depleted army were very thin4 ,the ,confederates were driven back with heavy loss4 ,lee telegraphed to ,davis3 8,my lines are broken in three places2 we can hold ,petersburg no longer4 ,richmond must be evacuated this evening40 ,that night ,admiral ,semmes1 in obedience to orders1 destroyed the ,confederate fleet in the ,james ,river4 ,richmond was in the possession of the ,union forces the next day1 and on ,april #d ,lincoln held a reception in ,davis's vacated mansion4 ,lee attempted to break through ,grant's lines at ,appomattox1 but closely pursued by ,sheridan1 and finding further retreat impossible1 he surrendered with about twenty-six thousand men on the #ith of ,april4 ,grant's magnanimous terms were worthy of his fame4 ,the troops were paroled on condition of promise not to take up arms until exchanged4 ,the officers were permitted to keep baggage and side arms1 and all were to retain their horses1 as1 ,grant said1 8they would be needed in the crops40 ,illustration3 ,,lee',s ,,surrender ,,at ,,appomattox4 ,turning northward from ,savannah1 ,sherman continued his march and reached ,fayetteville1 ,north ,carolina4 ,wilmington had been captured early in the year by a land and naval force4 ,johnston had been reinforced by the garrison which had been forced to evacuate ,charleston and the remnant of ,hood's army1 and had several severe fights1 with no decisive results1 with ,sherman1 who entered ,raleigh2 and here1 on ,april #bf1 ,johnston's army surrendered on the same terms given by ,grant4 ,december #ca and ,january #a ,fort ,fisher was captured1 and on ,january #ab ,wilmington was entered by the ,federals2 ,february #ah1 ,charleston was captured4 ,the regular battles during the ,civil ,war numbered #hib4 ,lincoln called in all for #b1fij1jjj men4 ,there were actually in service #a1dij1jjj4 ,there were #djj1jjj disabled2 #cjd1cfi perished2 #bbj1jjj were captured1 and #bf1jjj died in captivity4 ,the expenses of the war were #c1ejj1jjj per day4 ,the national debt was #b1gjj1jjj1jjj4 ,this great ,american ,war was fought on both sides with a courage and fortitude never before experienced in the annals of warfare4 ,as compared with the statements of forces and losses in battles of ,european armies1 the casualties in the battles of the ,civil ,war were three and four times as great4 ,and this proves that in the ,american ,war each side met 8foe-men worthy of their steel40 ,these overwhelmingly fearful casualties are not to be explained otherwise4 ,and each section respects the other more than before the war--a war in which the conquered felt not1 nor said1 peccavi1 and in which surrender to greater numbers and heavier artillery involved no sacrifice of belief in the truth and justice of their cause4 ,was there ever an armed strife that brought forth greater generals or more knightly valor1 undiminished courage and unflinching fortitude on the part of combatants8 ,together must the names of ,grant and ,lee go down to posterity as great types of the ,american soldier1--the one1 noble and generous in victory2 the other1 though a hero uncrowned by success1 a warrior still more heroic in defeat4 ,,the ,,spanish-,,american ,,war4--,the proximate causes of the war with ,spain are tersely set forth in the ,joint ,resolution declaring the independence of ,cuba and demanding the withdrawal of ,spanish sovereignty therefrom1 which says3-- 8,whereas1 ,the abhorrent conditions which have existed for more than three years in the island of ,cuba1 so near our own borders1 have shocked the moral sense of the people of the ,united ,states1 have been a disgrace to ,christian civilization1 culminating as they have in the destruction of a ,united ,states' battleship1 with #bff of its officers and crew1 while on a friendly visit in the harbor of ,havana1 and cannot longer be endured1 as has been set forth by the ,president of the ,united ,states in his message to ,congress of ,april #aa1 #ahih1 upon which the action of ,congress was invited2 therefore1 8,resolved1 by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled3 8,first1 ,that the people of the island of ,cuba are1 and of right ought to be1 free and independent4 8,second1 ,that it is the duty of the ,united ,states to demand1 and the ,government of the ,united ,states does hereby demand1 that the ,government of ,spain at once relinquish its authority and government in the island of ,cuba1 and withdraw its land and naval forces from ,cuba and ,cuban waters4 8,third1 ,that the ,president of the ,united ,states be1 and he hereby is1 directed and empowered to use the entire land and naval forces of the ,united ,states1 and to call into the actual service of the ,united ,states the militia of the several ,states to such extent as may be necessary to carry these resolutions into effect4 8,fourth1 ,that the ,united ,states hereby disclaims any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty1 jurisdiction1 or control over said ,island1 except for the pacification thereof1 and asserts its determination when that is completed to leave the government and control of the ,island to its people40 ,this resolution was signed by the ,president at #aa4bd o'clock ,a4 ,m41 ,april #bj1 #ahih4 ,illustration3 ,,morro ,,castle1 ,,santiago1 ,,cuba4 ,it was on ,february #ae1 #ahih1 that the catastrophe referred to--the blowing up of the ,maine--occurred4 ,on ,april #be1 the formal declaration of war was made4 ,spain had three fleets1--,admiral ,cervera's flying squadron1 the ,asiatic fleet under ,admiral ,montejo1 and ,admiral ,camara's fleet of heavy armored vessels4 ,the ,american navy is always ready for emergencies1 and even with the grudging appropriations made by ,congress1 the 8new navy10 while not possessing vessels of such large size as those of some other nations1 was much more formidable than was generally supposed4 ,congress1 apprehending the outcome1 had given the ,president #ej1jjj1jjj to put the country on a war footing4 ,in reply to the call for #abe1jjj volunteers1 five times that number offered themselves4 ,it had been more than fifty years since the ,united ,states had encountered a foreign foe1 and since the close of the ,civil ,war1 for a third of a century1 peace had reigned4 ,illustration3 ,,admiral ,,george ,,dewey4 ,april #be1 by cable to ,hong ,kong1 ,commodore ,dewey was ordered to find and destroy the ,spanish ,asiatic fleet1 which he proceeded to do on ,may #ast1 without the loss of a single man4 ,entering ,manila ,bay1 scorning torpedoes and mines1 his wonderful battle at ,cavite is the admiration of the world4 ,schley1 with his flying squadron1 watched in ,hampton ,roads for an attack by the enemy on the ,atlantic coast4 ,havana was blockaded by ,sampson's squadron ,april #bb1 and his searchlights seen from the ,cuban capital were as the handwriting on the sky1 foredooming ,spanish rule4 ,his tactics were to take no risk with his vessels while awaiting the appearance of the ,spanish ships1 so he failed to return the greeting of the shore batteries4 ,illustration3 ,,main ,,deck ,,of ,,cruiser ,,chicago4 ,the first casualties of the war were in ,cardenas harbor ,may #aa1 when upon the ,winslow1 while chasing a decoy gunboat too far under the fire of the land batteries1 ,ensign ,bagley and four sailors were the first men of the navy to lay down their lives4 ,it was known that ,cervera had sailed from ,cadiz toward the ,west ,indies4 ,sampson made a tour of ,porto ,rico to hunt the ,spaniard1 who mysteriously eluded the sight of the ,americans4 ,san ,juan was bombarded on ,may #ab4 ,on ,may #cj ,schley1 who in the meantime had arrived off ,santiago1 dispatched3 8,i have seen the enemy's ships with my own eyes40 ,cervera had then been in the harbor ten days4 ,on the #cast1 ,schley commenced a bombardment1 and the forts at the mouth of ,santiago harbor and the vessels within replied for an hour4 ,june #a ,sampson came1 and all hope of escape for ,cervera was cut off4 ,on that night ,lieutenant ,hobson executed his bold1 heroic plan of sinking the ,merrimac in the channel of the harbor1 which was accomplished without the loss of one of his seven co-heroes1 although subjected to a deadly fire from forts and vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,dewey',s ,,guns ,,at ,,manila4 ,the first troops landed on ,cuban soil were the marines1 #fej in number1 under ,lieutenant-,colonel ,huntington4 ,this battalion had been on board the ,panther since ,may #bb1 and the men were eager to land4 ,after ,sampson had shelled the shore and adjacent hills and woods1 on the afternoon of ,june #aj the landing was made and the ,american flag raised for the first time on ,spanish territory in the west4 ,no ,spaniards were seen until after the tents had been erected and the evening shadows were falling4 ,then for five nights and days there was no sleep for these men1 than whom there were no greater heroes in this short1 sharp war4 ,with few exceptions they received their 8baptism of fire10 and nobly did they acquit themselves4 ,i am told that when almost utterly exhausted the first platoon reached the summit of ,cusco hill1 so exactly in unison was their fire that the ,spanish1 believing that machine guns were opening upon them1 turned and ran1 never again making a stand4 ,the first to consecrate the soil with his life's blood was ,dr4 ,john ,blair ,gibbs1 who left a #aj1jjj practice in ,new ,york to go as surgeon of the battalion1 and who had greatly endeared himself to both officers and men4 ,sergeant ,goode1 one of the finest subalterns in the corps1 and four men were killed4 ,the good condition and health of this battalion during the whole campaign were due to the fine organization of the commissariat and the strict discipline maintained in this corps4 ,general ,shafter arrived off ,santiago1 ,june #bj1 with a force of #ggc officers and #ad1efd men4 ,general ,garcia1 the ,cuban commander1 with four thousand insurgents1 was at ,assuadero1 eighteen miles west4 ,there he1 ,shafter1 and ,sampson held a consultation4 ,on the #bb;d1 the disembarkment of troops was begun4 ,on the morning of the #bc;d1 ,general ,lawton with his division advanced to ,juragua4 ,major-,general ,wheeler1 after landing #ifd of his force1 pursuant to ,general ,shafter's orders1 moved rapidly to the front1 and1 passing through ,lawton's lines1 pushed on to ,las ,guasimas1 attacking and defeating ,general ,linares on the morning of ,june #bd4 ,the entire ,american force was pressed forward under ,general ,wheeler1 ,general ,shafter being detained on the ships to attend to the landing of the armament and supplies4 ,on the #bith1 the commanding general left his ships and pitched his camp on the ,santiago road1 and on the next day orders were given for an attack along the whole line4 ,in carrying out these orders1 ,general ,lawton with about six thousand men attacked ,el ,caney1 a small town about five miles north of ,santiago4 ,the garrison consisted of #ebj men1 the defenses being one block-house and a shore fortification4 ,it was not until four o'clock that ,general ,lawton's success was complete4 ,his loss was #dcg killed and wounded1 and but #cj of the enemy succeeded in escaping and reaching the ,spanish lines4 ,while ,lawton was moving on ,el ,caney1 the cavalry division1 unmounted1 and ,kent's infantry division were ordered to move forward4 ,crossing ,san ,juan ,river at a point about five hundred yards from the enemy's fortifications on ,san ,juan ridge1 the left of the cavalry rested on the main ,santiago road and the infantry formed to the left of the cavalry4 ,these troops were subjected to a very heavy fire in advancing from ,el ,pozo1 in crossing the river and in forming on the other side2 they1 however1 most bravely charged the enemy in their strong position on ,kettle ,hill and ,san ,juan ridge1 and drove them precipitately from their strong fortifications2 the ,american loss being #aed killed and #iig wounded4 ,this placed the ,americans in a position commanding the fortifications around the city of ,santiago4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,joseph ,,wheeler4 7,copyright by ,aim ,dupont1 #ahii47 ,the ,spanish fleet1 consisting of five armored cruisers of #g1jjj tons and #b torpedo-boat destroyers1 attempted to escape from ,santiago at #i4cj o'clock on ,sunday morning1 ,july #c1 just nine weeks after the destruction of ,montejo's fleet4 ,schley and ,sampson destroyed the vessels and made prisoners of #gj officers and #afjj men2 #cej were killed and #afj wounded4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,truce ,,before ,,santiago4 ,fighting more or less severe occurred until the #ajth1 when negotiations for surrender were inaugurated1 resulting in the capitulation of ,santiago1 ,july #af1 the ,spanish fortifications1 twenty-four thousand prisoners1 and a large amount of arms and ammunition4 ,at noon on ,sunday1 ,july #ag1 #ahih1 the ,american flag was hoisted over the headquarters at ,santiago4 ,general ,miles started on the invasion of ,porto ,rico1 ,july #be1 and reached ,guanica at daylight next morning4 ,he landed with three thousand five hundred men1 marched toward ,yauco1 five miles distant1 which he entered after a skirmish1 and was received enthusiastically by the citizens1 as he also was at ,ponce1 where he was joined by ,general ,wilson1 who had come with the war ships1 and who was made governor4 ,the army continued on to ,san ,juan along the military road1 meeting very little opposition4 ,july #bf1 the ,french ambassador1 ,m4 ,jules ,cambon1 acting for ,spain1 made overtures for peace4 ,the protocol was signed on ,april #ba1 by ,m4 ,cambon and ,secretary of ,state ,day4 ,a cessation of hostilities was proclaimed4 ,at the very moment of the signing of the protocol1 the last naval battle took place at ,manzanilla1 ,cuba1 and an artillery engagement at ,aybonito in ,porto ,rico4 ,illustration3 ,,aguinaldo1 ,,the ,,tagal ,,leader4 ,the one-hundred-days ,spanish-,american war was concluded by the treaty of ,paris4 ,it will be only in the retrospect that we may tell the results of this conflict4 ,as the future unfolds them to our view1 it may be that it will have been more momentous in its consequences than we can now determine4 ,one thing it has proved1 that is1 that this nation is really reunited2 for1 from all sections and from all grades of life1 men flocked together to fight and conquer under the old ,stars and ,stripes4 ,,ii4 ,,foreign ,,wars4 ,,napoleonic ,,wars4--,the long contest between ,france and ,austria began when the ,girondist ministry of ,france declared war1 ,april #bj1 #agib4 ,by the execution of ,louis ,,xvi41 ,january #ba1 #agic1 the ,revolution threw down the gauntlet to all ancient ,europe4 ,england1 whose sympathies had hitherto been more or less with ,france1 began to take measures to bring about more cordial relations with the other powers of ,europe4 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia1 for the time seemed to forget their several grievances as they found themselves confronted with a totally new move on the chessboard of ,european autonomy4 ,the year #agid saw the ,french ,revolution progressing triumphantly1 and all ,europe1 except ,england and ,austria1 appeared acquiescent in apathetic indifference4 ,in #agie the royalists made a supreme effort to recover power1 but were crushed by the 8,man of ,destiny10 and the ,directory1 consisting of five members1 of whom ,carnot was one1 came into power4 ,dominated by the martial genius of ,carnot1 8the organizer of victory10 the ,directory won the confidence of the army4 ,scherer1 the commander1 lacked the qualifications to undertake a successful campaign against ,austria1 and ,bonaparte1 succeeding him1 soon infused his own spirit into the army and bound it to himself with a devotion that never failed4 ,early in the year #ahjj1 ,napoleon1 having been made first consul1 took up his abode in the old palace of the kings of ,france1 the ,tuileries4 ,the history of ,napoleon for the ensuing fifteen years is the history of ,europe4 ,it is1 therefore1 best to begin with the close of the eighteenth century1 in order to appreciate the situation at the dawn of the nineteenth4 ,austria and ,england1 with several small ,german principalities1 were still in arms against ,france4 ,the plans and movements of the armies under ,napoleon showed him to be verily a master in military skill4 ,opening this campaign1 he left ,massena with about eight thousand soldiers to hold the territory from ,nice to ,genoa1 so as to keep the ,austrian army in ,italy busy4 ,he sent the ,rhine army1 under ,moreau1 to threaten ,bavaria and to secure the most important position between the ,rhine and the ,danube4 ,moreau drove the ,austrians to ,ulm1 and disposed his left flank to support ,napoleon4 ,meantime1 he himself was recruiting another army for operations on the ,po4 ,baron de ,melas1 commanding the ,austrian troops in ,northern ,italy1 besieged ,massena in ,genoa1 which1 after severe suffering1 surrendered1 leaving ,de ,melas free to join the army of the ,po4 ,napoleon was between de ,melas and ,austria4 ,general ,ott1 with eighteen thousand men1 attempted to reach ,placentia1 but ,lannes1 with twelve thousand1 defeated him at ,montebello1 forcing him back to ,allesandria4 ,napoleon hastened across the ,po to ,stradella to intercept ,de ,melas and prevent his breaking through the ,french lines to ,placentia4 ,illustration3 ,,napoleon1 #ahad4 7,,meissonier47 ,the night of ,june #ac1 #ahjj1 the ,french army was scattered1 watching along the ,po and the ,tessino for the ,austrians1 while their army1 forty thousand strong1 with ten thousand more not far distant1 was ready at daybreak of the #adth to cut its way through the armies of ,france1 and reach ,placentia4 ,the ,french force was but eighteen thousand1 but ,victor with his division held his position firmly1 and the great leader1 ,kellerman1 was in command of the cavalry4 ,backward and forward surged the battle with varying fortune1 and at noon victory seemed perched upon the banners of ,austria4 ,de ,melas was so certain that the battle was won that he galloped back to ,allesandria and sent dispatches to that effect to the governments of ,europe4 ,general de ,zach was left in command to conduct the pursuit and to drive the ,french across the ,scrivia4 ,napoleon1 dismayed1 hoping against hope that ,desaix1 whom he had sent towards ,novi the day before to look out in that quarter for ,de ,melas1 might hear the thunders of the battle and return1 saw him in the distance1 hurrying with his troops1 who1 though worn and tired1 were eager for the fight1 and ,napoleon saw already the tide of battle turned4 ,desaix had found no trace of the ,austrians1 but he had heard the sound of battle at day dawn1 and he knew that ,de ,melas was there1 and that there he was needed1 and not at ,novi4 ,he roused his division1 and hastened back to ,napoleon4 ,a short conference with his chief1 to whose questioning he answered1 8,the battle is lost1 but it is only three o'clock1 there is yet time to win another10 and the battle of ,marengo1 glorious in its consequences to ,napoleon1 stupendous in its carnage1 was won2 but ,desaix1 the brave paladin1 lay dead upon the field4 ,de ,melas returned from ,allesandria to meet the victorious army he had left--flying in disorder--thoroughly routed4 ,on ,december #b1 ,moreau and ,ney won the field of ,hohenlinden1 and the 8peace of ,luneville0 was concluded1 ,february #i1 #ahja4 ,the result of this campaign was the cession of ,austria's strongholds in the ,tyrol and ,bavaria to ,france1 as also a number of important holdings in ,italy4 ,france secured the left bank of the ,rhine1 the ,belgian provinces and ,tuscany1 and the king of ,naples closed his harbors to ,england4 ,in ,march1 #ahjb1 by the 8treaty of ,amiens10 peace was concluded with ,england4 ,the coalition of ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 and ,prussia1 with ,france against ,england1 in #ahjj1 fomented by ,napoleon1 broke down in #ahja1 after ,nelson's battle of ,copenhagen4 ,england had secured the supremacy of the sea and dominion over ,india1 rescued ,portugal1 ,naples1 and the ,states of the ,church from ,france1 and restored the ,sublime ,porte to ,turkey4 ,finding ,napoleon again militating against her interests1 and resenting his encroachments1 ,england declared war against ,france in the spring of #ahjc4 ,russia espoused the cause of ,england1 ,prussia held off1 and ,austria was friendly1 though not in fighting trim4 ,the third coalition comprised ,england1 ,russia1 and ,austria4 ,powerless to hurt ,england on the seas1 ,napoleon1 who had the year previous been proclaimed emperor1 attacked ,austria1 invaded her territory1 captured her army at ,ulm1 proceeded to ,vienna1 and occupied a great part of the valley of the ,danube4 ,on ,december #b1 #ahje1 the 8,battle of the ,three ,emperors0 7the battle of ,austerlitz7 was fought4 ,the 8,peace of ,pressburg10 concluded ,december #bf1 left ,austria shorn of her ancient prestige1 her title of ,german ,empire1 and of a great part of her possessions4 ,the 8,sun of ,austerlitz0 melted the third coalition4 ,in the meantime the battle of ,trafalgar1 won by the immortal ,nelson1 crushed the naval power of both ,france and ,spain4 ,in ,september1 #ahjf1 ,prussia declared war against ,france1 and1 to the amazement of ,europe1 alone undertook to engage armies flushed from their recent victories and still in ,germany4 ,october #ad1 ,napoleon utterly defeated the ,prussians at ,jena and ,auerstadt1 and entered ,berlin a conquerer1 the king having fled to ,knigsberg4 ,russia came to the aid of ,prussia1 but arrived too late to accomplish anything except to check the advance of the ,french1 whose armies wintered on the ,vistula4 ,the next summer1 however1 the ,russians met their final defeat in this campaign at ,friedland1 and ,knigsberg was taken4 ,the 8,treaty of ,tilsit0 ended the operations of this fourth coalition ,july #g1 #ahjg4 ,the fifth coalition against ,napoleon comprised ,england1 ,austria1 ,spain1 and ,portugal4 ,the decisive battle of this campaign was at ,wagram1 ,july #e and #f1 #ahji1 and terrible as were the consequences of his defeat to ,austria1 so crippled was ,napoleon that he willingly granted the armistice of ,znaim and concluded the 8,peace of ,vienna40 ,when the fifth coalition ended1 ,napoleon had acquired the ,illyrian provinces and part of the ,tyrol for ,france1 and eventually the ,emperor's daughter1 ,maria ,louisa1 for his wife4 ,illustration3 ,,admiral ,,horatio ,,nelson4 ,in #ahab came war with ,russia1 and that most disastrous campaign which cost ,france more than three hundred thousand soldiers and ,napoleon his empire4 ,russia1 ,england1 ,prussia1 and ,sweden formed the coalition now1 and ,turkey had made peace with ,russia4 ,napoleon crossed the ,niemen in ,june1 halted at ,wilna to put his new conscripts in better order1 addressed words of sympathy to ,poland1 and took measures to keep ,austria conciliated4 ,the ,russians retreated before him4 ,he met and fought and defeated them at ,smolensk1 ,august #ag2 they retreated in good order1 burning and destroying all in their reach4 ,the terrible battle of ,borodino was fought ,september #g2 the defeated ,russians again retreated in good order1 pursuing the same tactics4 ,napoleon reached ,moscow ,september #ae1 but the heroic measure of ,russia in destroying that city was equal in its results to several victories4 ,october #ae1 the ,french troops commenced their fearful retreat4 ,the ,russian armies grew bold1 they harassed the ,french troops1 weak from hunger and cold1 and from ,moscow to ,wilna their progress was one continual guerilla warfare4 ,from ,wilna1 their flight to ,france1 ,december #e1 was even more disastrous4 ,of the grand army that set out in the spring not one fourth ever returned4 ,affairs in ,spain had fared badly for ,france4 ,wellington defeated the ,french army in ,spain1 and finally expelled it4 ,france1 though sometimes shaken in her devotion by the conscription that was draining her children's blood1 still had faith in ,napoleon1 and in #ahac1 having raised another grand army1 he undertook to subjugate ,prussia4 ,his first victory was on the plain of ,lutzen4 ,the ,prussians and ,russians retreated in good order through ,dresden4 ,napoleon pursued and drove them from ,bauken1 on ,may #bj and #ba1 and established his headquarters at ,dresden4 ,austria now joined the allies4 ,in their attack upon ,dresden1 ,august #bf and #bg1 they were defeated1 but ,russian troops and the ,king of ,bavaria coming up made ,napoleon's position untenable4 ,the allies were awaiting him at ,leipsic4 ,the battle raged for three days1 and ,napoleon withdrew on ,october #ai1 utterly defeated4 ,january #bc1 #ahad1 ,napoleon1 having raised another army1 left ,paris to assume command4 ,the allies--,england1 ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia--were more determined than ever to crush him4 ,many battles were fought1 and the fortunes of war varied4 ,blucher defeated him at ,la ,pothiers on the #ast of ,february4 ,napoleon was the victor at ,montenau2 unsuccessful at ,soissons1 ,march #c2 victorious at ,cravonne1 ,march #g2 and defeated by ,blucher at ,laon1 ,march #i4 ,with more than half his army lost1 ,napoleon worried the allies in their rear2 but ,blucher marched on ,paris4 ,the prestige of ,napoleon and ,france in ,europe was at an end4 ,the ,empress and the regency retired to ,blois4 ,on ,march #ca ,paris surrendered1 and the ,emperor of ,russia and the ,king of ,prussia entered the city4 ,a provisional government1 with ,talleyrand at its head1 deposed ,napoleon on ,april #b1 and on ,april #f he abdicated4 ,may #cj1 the ,first ,peace of ,paris was concluded between ,france and the allies4 ,france was to have her boundaries as they were in #agib1 and also her foreign possessions1 except ,tobago1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,mauritius1 which1 with ,malta1 were ceded to ,england4 ,the ,bourbons1 in the person of ,louis ,,xviii41 were restored2 but the ,french people were not content1 so that when ,napoleon appeared at ,cannes on ,march #a1 #ahae1 he was greeted with joy1 even by the troops sent out to oppose him4 ,this astonishing news was communicated to the ,congress of the ,allies assembled at ,vienna4 ,the allied armies at once gathered on the borders of ,france1 ,wellington landed in ,flanders1 and ,blucher's ,prussians joined him4 ,wellington1 finding ,napoleon in front of him1 fell back to ,waterloo1 lest the approach of the ,prussians should be cut off4 ,napoleon hurled his force on ,blucher at ,fluores1 and victoriously drove him from the field on the #aeth4 ,ney1 who had been sent to confront ,wellington1 fought at ,quatre ,bras1 and the following day joined ,napoleon4 ,on the #ahth of ,june1 #ahae1 ,napoleon made his supreme and final effort to recuperate his lost fortunes and to reestablish his empire4 ,the story of the battle of ,waterloo1 than which none ever fought was more decisive in its consequences1 has been told and retold4 ,the battle was at first undecided1 victory seeming to incline to ,napoleon1 though the ,english and ,germans with unflinching heroism still held the field until the afternoon1 when ,blucher1 with his ,prussians1 at last arrived4 ,napoleon perceived that the supreme moment was at hand1 and that his only hope was to crush ,wellington before ,blucher's advancing columns could be thrown into line of battle4 ,he sent forward his magnificent ,imperial ,guard4 ,they charged with chivalric splendor1 fought with heroic desperation1 were repulsed1--and the star of ,napoleon set to rise no more4 ,finding his cause irretrievably lost1 leaving the remnant of his army in command of ,marshal ,soult1 ,napoleon fled and1 failing to find a passage to ,america1 surrendered4 ,this battle1 magnificent in its results1 ensured to ,england a long peace1 and raised her to the first rank1 for military prowess1 among the nations of the world4 ,napoleon's skill at ,waterloo was up to the highest standard of his most glorious work2 but he was overwhelmed by preponderance in numbers4 ,his entire force with which he conducted this campaign was barely #ajd1jjj1 while the combined armies of ,wellington and ,blucher numbered #bbj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,napoleon',s ,,retreat ,,from ,,waterloo4 ,the ,congress of ,vienna restored the ancien rgime1 replacing dethroned monarchs upon their hereditary domains1 but the parceling out of the smaller territories showed the ,powers to be quite as arbitrary as ,napoleon himself4 ,the semi-decade of passive submission to the 8policies of princes0 was broken in #ahbj by general revolts in ,europe4 ,spanish-,american colonies1 indignant at ,french interference in ,spanish matters1 began their struggles for independence4 ,,greek ,,war ,,for ,,independence4--,since the capture of ,constantinople by the ,turks1 in #adec1 ,greece had been subject to ,turkey4 ,out of the defeats of several rebellions against the greed1 tyranny1 and brutality of the ,moslem1--particularly from the revolutions of #aggj and #agij1--;grew the secret society of the ,hetria1 cementing the union of the ,greeks for the struggle beginning in #ahba4 ,it is claimed that ten thousand ,greeks were slaughtered within a few days1 and thirty thousand in less than three months4 ,mahmoud1 having failed in #ahbe to crush the rebellion1 called ,mehemet ,ali1 the ,pasha of ,egypt1 to his aid4 ,mehemet sent ,ibrahim1 his son1 with his army and navy1 trained in the tactics of ,european warfare1 into the ,peloponnesus4 ,victory and devastation marked his course4 ,never was grander courage nor loftier bravery displayed than by the ,greeks4 ,the siege of ,missolonghi lasted from ,april #bg1 #ahbe1 until ,april #bb1 #ahbf4 ,athens was captured1 ,june #b1 #ahbg4 ,the fleets of ,england1 ,france1 and ,russia were cruising on the coasts to prevent attacks by the ,turks on the islands4 ,approaching the bay of ,navarino1 they were attacked by the ,turks and ,egyptians1 whose combined fleets were thereupon annihilated on ,october #bj1 #ahbg4 ,the ,sultan was forced by the powers to consent to the establishment of the kingdom of ,greece1 and his delay to do so was punished by ,czar ,nicholas1 who declared war1 crossed the ,balkans1 and at ,adrianople in #ahbi compelled the ,sultan to recognize her independence1 grant ,christian governors to ,servia1 ,moldavia1 and ,wallachia1 and to yield ,bessarabia to ,russia4 ,,minor ,,european ,,wars4--,the ,french ,revolution of #ahcj1 placing ,louis ,philippe on the throne of ,france1 brought about ,belgium's independence4 ,the ,polish insurrection of #ahca-cb lost ,poland her last vestige of liberty1 enchaining her irretrievably under the tyranny of ,russia4 ,from #ahdj to #aheb ,england was engaged in quelling periodic wars in her ,indian possessions4 ,in #ahda1 her army1 numbering seventeen thousand men1 perished in their retreat from ,afghanistan4 ,so with ,france in ,algiers and ,morocco4 ,and revolts in ,spain were more or less successful4 ,in #ahdb1 ,england's war with ,china1 caused by seizure of opium1 resulted in the cession by ,china of ,hong ,kong1 the freedom of five other ports1 and #ba1jjj1jjj indemnity4 ,in #ahdh1 the revolutionary spirit broke out fiercely1 and the people made strong leaps for liberty and constitutional government4 ,in ,france1 it overthrew ,louis ,philippe1 establishing a republic1 with ,louis ,napoleon ,president4 ,in all ,europe its echo resounded4 ,riots in ,vienna forced ,metternich to flee to ,england2 ,ferdinand1 to take refuge in the ,tyrol and to abdicate in favor of his son1 ,francis ,joseph4 ,frederick ,william was compelled by the conditions in ,berlin to promise a constitution4 ,the ,frankfort ,assembly1 in #ahdi1 offered ,frederick ,william the title and prerogative of ,emperor of ,germany1 and though1 because of his respect for the ,hapsburgs1 he declined the honor1 he still took advantage of the sentiment that prompted the offer to so strengthen the dynasty that later it might be held4 ,hungary rose against ,austria in #ahdh1 and almost won independence4 ,kossuth proclaimed ,hungary a republic1 and ,nicholas immediately sent aid to ,austria4 ,the ,russian army1 #acj1jjj strong1 joined the ,austrians4 ,the ,hungarians retreated to ,temesvar1 where they were defeated with great slaughter1 and ,georgy surrendered1 ,august #i1 #ahdi4 ,the name of ,haynau1 the ,austrian commander1 is held in execration for his awful cruelty to the conquered4 ,in the meantime ,italy rose4 ,lombardy drove out the ,austrians4 ,charles ,albert1 king of ,sardinia1 had declared war on ,austria and crossed the ,mincio1 ,april #h1 #ahdh4 ,radetsky1 commanding the ,austrians1 lost ,gorto and yielded ,peschiera in ,may1 but in ,june he forced the ,papal troops1 who were assisting ,charles ,albert1 to surrender1 and completely routed the ,italians at ,custozza1 ,july #be1 and entered ,milan4 ,charles ,albert was again defeated by ,radetsky at ,novari1 ,march #bc1 #ahdi1 and ,venice was captured ,august #bc4 ,charles ,albert resigned his crown to his son1 ,victor ,emmanuel1 and died shortly after4 ,pope ,pius ,,ix4 was forced to flee from ,rome4 ,mazzini established the ,roman republic in ,november4 ,austria1 by the close of the summer of #ahdi1 had regained control of her disputed possessions4 ,louis ,napoleon1 taking part against ,italy1 occupied ,rome with his troops1 ,july #b1 #ahdi1 and drove out ,mazzini and ,garibaldi4 ,,the ,,crimean ,,war4--,in #ahec1 ,louis ,napoleon wanted war4 ,he fomented trouble between the ,porte and ,nicholas1 which ended by a declaration of war by ,russia4 ,the ,czar claimed and demanded the protectorate of ,christians in ,turkey4 ,austria1 ,france1 and ,england opposed the demand4 ,nicholas had intimated to the ,british minister at ,st4 ,petersburg that ,england and ,russia should share the partition of ,turkey1--showing that he was ready to carry out the will and aims of ,peter the ,great and ,catherine4 ,the ,russian army was thrown across the ,pruth into ,moldavia1 and was at first worsted by the ,turks4 ,in deference to the wishes of ,austria and ,prussia1 ,nicholas withdrew his army from the ,danubian provinces1 and so secured their neutrality4 ,he dislodged the ,turkish fleet at ,sinope1 ,november #d1 #ahec4 ,england and ,france allied with ,turkey and declared war against ,russia1 ,march #bh1 #ahed4 ,the allied fleets and troops proceeded to the ,black ,sea4 ,sebastopol was the great arsenal of ,russia4 ,twenty-seven thousand ,english1 thirty thousand ,french1 and seven thousand ,turks were landed in the ,bay of ,eupatoria1 thirty miles above ,sebastopol1 ,september #ad1 #ahed1 towards which1 five days later1 the southerly march began4 ,the allies waded the river ,alma under terrific fire from the large ,russian army1 and won a brilliant victory4 ,the attack was remarkable in that it won victory over superior numbers in seemingly impregnable positions1 and in spite of official blunders4 ,mentschikoff1 the ,russian general1 withdrew the crews from the ships in the harbor and put them1 eighteen thousand strong1 in command of the batteries4 ,with his own army he marched out of ,sebastopol1 leaving twenty-five thousand defenders to the city4 ,admiral ,korniloff and his able assistant1 ,colonel ,von ,todleben1 undertook to strengthen the defenses and to inspire the troops4 ,on ,october #ag1 the siege guns of the allies were in position4 ,the ,english stormed the suburbs of the city1 the ,malakoff and the ,redan2 the ,french stormed the city4 ,both were unsuccessful4 ,russian troops poured into ,sebastopol1 and invited battle outside of the fortifications4 ,at the harbor of ,balaklava1 ,turkish troops recoiled from the ,russian advance1 and ,sir ,colin ,campbell1 with the ,highland ,brigade1 saved the shipping and stores by timely check to the ,russians4 ,the battle of ,balaklava1 ,october #be1 gave the town to the ,british after stubborn fighting1 more than two thirds of the ,light ,brigade having been sacrificed to ,lord ,lucan's misconstruction of orders4 ,at ,inkerman1 on ,november #e1 sixty thousand ,russians1 in fog and rain1 surprised the ,british ,household ,guards1 and for six hours vainly strove to crush them4 ,general ,bosquet1 with the genius of the soldier1 guessed the point of severest attack1 and sent reinforcements to the ,guards4 ,the ,russians were finally driven back4 ,little good resulted from these two stubborn battles4 ,winter put an end to active operations4 ,rain1 hurricanes1 insufficient shelter1 lack of supplies1 and extreme cold produced fearful misery among the soldiers4 ,russia suffered as severely as did the allies1 besides having had her fleet on the ,black ,sea destroyed and her army beaten4 ,in ,april1 #ahee1 the bombardment began again4 ,in ,may the allies captured ,kertch and ,yenikale1 thus cutting off ,russian supplies from the ,caucasian provinces4 ,in ,june1 ,marshal ,pelissier succeeded ,canrobert and successfully stormed ,manelon2 and1 after the abortive attacks1 ,june #ah1 of the ,french on the ,malakoff and the ,english on the ,redan1 ,general ,simpson succeeded ,lord ,raglan4 ,august #af1 the ,russians crossed ,tchernaya1 but were repulsed by the ,french4 ,on ,september #h the ,french carried the ,malakoff2 the ,british failed to carry the ,redan4 ,the ,russians set fire to the city and ships and retired to the northern part of the harbor1 where they held strongly intrenched positions opposite the allied armies and beyond the reach of the allied fleets4 ,russia was driven from the ,black ,sea1 had lost her prestige in the ,baltic ,sea1 ,bomarsund1 on the ,aland islands1 and the arsenal of ,sweaborg1 in the ,gulf of ,finland4 ,she had saved ,cronstadt1 and1 at terrible sacrifice1 had captured ,kars from the ,english ,general ,williams with his army of ,turks4 ,her vast territory was comparatively intact4 ,the nations were not satisfied4 ,the ,peace of ,paris increased the prestige of ,louis ,napoleon2 it postponed the ,eastern ,question by putting the ,christian subjects under the nominal protection of the ,powers1 but virtually under that of the ,sultan4 ,the treaty of peace was signed ,march #cj1 #ahef4 ,,wars ,,in ,,the ,,east4--,in #aheg1 the ,indian ,mutiny was caused by the introduction of ,enfield rifles4 ,delhi was taken after desperate fighting1 ,september #bj4 ,cawnpore and ,lucknow were the theatre of horrible scenes4 ,the rebellion was finally crushed in #ahei4 ,in the meantime war with ,persia was begun and ended by the recapture of ,herat1 in ,afghanistan4 ,in ,december1 #aheg1 ,england and ,france made war on ,china and captured ,canton4 ,they secured many concessions by the ,treaty of ,tien ,tsin1 and #b1jjj1jjj indemnity4 ,,war ,,between ,,austria1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,sardinia4--,in #ahei1 ,louis ,napoleon made a secret alliance with ,italy4 ,general disarmament was proposed4 ,sardinia agreed to it2 ,austria stood aloof4 ,on ,april #be1 #ahei1 ,austria ordered the disarmament of ,piedmont4 ,on the #bgth1 ,king ,victor ,emmanuel proclaimed war4 ,on the #cjth1 ,french troops were in ,turin4 ,on ,may #ac1 ,louis ,napoleon himself disembarked at ,genoa1 where he was met by ,victor ,emmanuel4 ,the ,austrian forces crossed the ,ticino1 en route for ,milan1 but hesitated1 because of the ,french advance4 ,the opening battles at ,montebello and ,balestro1 ,may #bj1 #cj1 and #ca1 were favorable to the allies4 ,illustration3 ,,capture ,,of ,,the ,,malakoff4 ,at ,magenta1 ,june #d1 the ,austrians met with terrible defeat4 ,the forces of the allies numbered #ee1jjj1 and their loss was #djjj2 the ,austrian army of #ge1jjj lost #aj1jjj killed and wounded and #gjjj prisoners4 ,the conquerors entered ,milan on ,june #h4 ,francis ,joseph fell back to the line of the ,mincio1 and at ,solferino the decisive battle of the campaign was fought on ,june #bd4 ,napoleon commanded the allied armies1 which numbered about #aej1jjj2 they fought for sixteen hours against the ,austrian force of #agj1jjj1 gaining a fearful victory4 ,this battle cost ,austria #bj1jjj men2 the ,french lost in killed and wounded #ab1jjj and the ,sardinians #ejjj men4 ,the allies crossed the ,mincio and laid siege to ,peschiera1 but while all ,europe expected another fight1 an armistice of five weeks was agreed to1 and ,napoleon1 unknown to his ally1 met ,francis at ,villafranca and made a peace1 upon which was based the ,treaty of ,zurich1 signed ,november #aj4 ,austria gave ,lombardy to ,napoleon for the king of ,sardinia1 as also the fortresses of ,mantua and ,peschiera4 ,italy was to become a confederation1 with the ,pope as president1 of which ,austria was to be a member1 because of her holdings in ,venetia4 ,tuscany and ,modena were to be restored to their princes4 ,garibaldi's brilliant conquest of ,sicily and ,naples1 in #ahfj1 and ,sardinia's growing power1 startled ,europe1 but the nations dared not interfere4 ,the general parliament of ,italy met in #ahfa1 at ,turin1 and made ,victor ,emmanuel king of ,italy4 ,rome1 under the ,pope1 and ,venetia1 under ,austria1 were as yet dismembered from 8,young ,italy40 ,,war ,,with ,,denmark4--,christian ,,ix4 succeeded to the throne of ,denmark ,november #ae1 #ahfc4 ,he endeavored to incorporate ,schleswig with ,denmark2 the ,german population repudiated him and appealed to the ,confederacy4 ,the ,diet sent troops into ,holstein4 ,bismarck induced ,austria to join ,prussia in setting aside the ,london treaty of #ahec1 and the allied troops forced the ,danes back to the intrenchments of ,duppel4 ,the capture of ,duppel by the ,prussians1 ,april #ah1 proved the efficiency of needle guns and rifled cannon4 ,june #bb1 the allies crossed the channel to the ,island of ,alsen and1 on the #bhth1 captured the ,danish stronghold ,dennewerke1 hitherto considered impregnable4 ,the ,treaty of ,vienna1 ,october #cj1 #ahfd1 closed the war4 ,prussia and ,austria together were to control the duchies4 ,,the ,,seven ,,weeks' ,,war4--,the arrangement between ,prussia and ,austria respecting the ,danish duchies caused the 8,seven ,weeks' ,war0 of #ahff4 ,bismarck induced ,victor ,emmanuel to form an alliance against ,austria1 ,march #bg4 ,the ,prussians1 on ,june #g1 without a blow forced the ,austrians to retire from ,holstein1 ignoring the protest of the ,federal ,diet4 ,austria was not prepared for war4 ,her army1 together with that of ,saxony1 amounted to two hundred and seventy-one thousand4 ,with ,prussia1 fully equipped and on a war footing with three armies1 besides the reserves1 the grand total estimated at three hundred thousand1 the result was a foregone conclusion4 ,prussia declared war1 ,june #ae1 #ahff1 against ,hanover1 ,hesse1 and ,saxony1 and next day threw her armies into the hostile states4 ,on the #agth ,francis ,joseph published his war manifesto4 ,italy declared war1 on the #bjth1 against ,austria and ,bavaria4 ,in fourteen days ,prussia's immense army was mobilized4 ,in five days the northern states to the ,main were disarmed1 and the ,saxon army was forced to retreat toward ,bohemia4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,magenta4 ,general ,benedek was commander of the ,austrians4 ,upon news of ,prussian victories1 he advised ,francis ,joseph to make terms of peace with ,william4 ,prussia fought for ,german unification2 ,austria to protect her pride4 ,it was supposed the ,austrians would first enter ,saxony and dispute the ,prussian advance1 but ,bismarck had determined the war should be brief1 for ,prussia was now master of the situation4 ,on ,june #bc1 the ,prussian army marched from three points towards ,josephstadt1 where ,benedek was preparing to fight4 ,on the #bgth the ,austrians were driven back at ,soor1 next day at ,skalitz1 and on the #bith at ,gitschen4 ,archduke ,leopold1 on the #bhth1 and ,count ,clam ,gallas1 at ,gitschen1 both attacked the enemy in disobedience of orders1 and thus forced ,benedek to fall back from his strongest position towards ,kniggratz4 ,the ,austrians were also defeated1 on the #bhth1 at ,kniginhof and ,schweinschadel1 and their loss by this time numbered over thirty-five thousand4 ,benedek asked permission to retreat into ,moravia and await reinforcements1 but news of the ,austrian victory over the ,italians at ,custozza reached ,vienna1 and immediately battle was enjoined upon ,benedek4 ,benedek placed five hundred guns in position1 spanning a league between the ,elbe and ,bistritz4 ,on ,july #b1 the king of ,prussia assumed command of the ,prussian hosts and ordered attack for the next day4 ,the ,crown ,prince1 several miles away with his army1 received orders at four o'clock in the morning of the #c;d to advance his ,silesian army from ,kniginhof4 ,at eight o'clock1 ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 with a hundred thousand1 attacked the ,austrian centre lying against ,sadowa4 ,general ,herwarth1 with four hundred thousand men1 attacked the ,austrian right4 ,the whole ,austrian army was hurled against these two commands for five hours4 ,prince ,frederick ,charles forced passage through the ,bistritz and took ,sadowa1 but could not take the heights4 ,at one o'clock retreat was being considered1 but the ,crown ,prince coming up with his troops the heights were taken at four o'clock4 ,the fighting on both sides in this battle was determined and heroic4 ,the ,prussian loss was over ten thousand1 and the ,austrians lost twenty-seven thousand killed and wounded1 nineteen thousand prisoners1 with #agd cannon and #aa colors4 ,at ,lissa1 on ,july #bj1 the ,austrian navy destroyed the ,italian fleet4 ,july #bb1 an armistice of four weeks was granted4 ,the ,peace of ,prague was concluded ,august #bc4 ,her defeat cost ,austria ,venetia and the quadrilateral1 namely1 the fortresses of ,peschiera1 ,mantua1 ,verona1 and ,legnano1 deprived her of any part in ,germany or ,german affairs1 and ,holstein and ,schleswig1 and obliged her to pay #dj1jjj1jjj thalers1 one half of which she was to retain in lieu of the duchies4 ,austria emerged from the 8,seven ,weeks' ,war0 with her ideas somewhat liberalized1 and though her territory was diminished her progress and prosperity increased4 ,the dual-,austro-,hungarian empire was formed by ,francis ,joseph1 he ruling at ,vienna as ,emperor of ,austria and at ,buda ,pesth as king of ,hungary4 ,this war also ended the ,germanic confederation of #ahae1 and the ,north ,german ,confederation under ,prussia arose4 ,at the peace of ,vienna1 ,october #c1 ,austria recognized the kingdom of ,italy1 and with the acquisition of ,venetia and the quadrilateral fortresses the 8,seven ,weeks' ,war0 had greatly helped on the cause of 8,united ,italy40 ,in ,april1 #ahfd1 ,louis ,napoleon sent an army of twenty-five thousand to sustain the ,austrian ,archduke ,maximilian on the throne of ,mexico4 ,at that time the ,united ,states was occupied with the ,civil ,war4 ,this ended1 ,napoleon was summarily required to withdraw his forces from the ,american continent1 which he did4 ,maximilian was thus left to his fate1 and1 after being condemned by court martial1 was shot at ,quertaro1 ,june #ai1 #ahfg4 ,,the ,,franco-,,prussian ,,war4--,prince ,leopold1 of ,hohenzollern1 was offered the throne of ,spain after ,isabella had fled from ,madrid4 ,leopold declined1 but ,napoleon demanded that the ,emperor ,william should guarantee never to permit ,leopold to accept4 ,william refused to accede to the demand1 and ,napoleon1 urged by the war party1 declared war ,july #ai1 #ahgj4 ,on the same day the ,confederation placed its forces in the hands of ,william1 as did the ,south ,germans4 ,this spontaneous uprising of all ,germany was unlooked for4 ,napoleon's army numbered three hundred and ten thousand men4 ,in ten days ,william had nearly half a million soldiers ready to march against the enemy4 ,august #b1 the first fight took place at ,saarbrcken1 a little town over the ,german frontier4 ,napoleon and the young ,prince ,imperial were present1 and the force of ,uhlans was driven back4 ,august #d1 the ,crown ,prince of ,prussia drove the right wing of ,mac,mahon's army back at ,weissenburg1 and on the #fth1 again was ,mac,mahon defeated at ,wrth4 ,the ,germans1 having separated ,mac,mahon's army1 advanced into ,alsace4 ,in the meantime ,general ,steinmetz carried ,spicheren by storm1 and the whole ,german army went forward4 ,together with the ,crown ,prince1 ,steinmetz1 on the #adth of ,august1 defeated ,marshal ,bazaine1 at ,courcelles1 who retreated to ,metz1 and then endeavored to push on with his hundred thousand men to ,chalons4 ,von ,moltke hurried on the ,crown ,prince to intercept ,bazaine1 and at ,mars la ,tour was fought the fiercest battle1 so far1 of the war4 ,on either side the losses amounted to seventeen thousand4 ,gravelotte was fought1 on ,august #ah1 between the armies of ,steinmetz and the ,crown ,prince1 ,king ,william commanding in person4 ,the battle lasted all day between two hundred thousand ,germans and one hundred and eighty thousand ,french4 ,the ,germans lost twenty thousand men1 and succeeded in forcing ,bazaine into ,metz4 ,although1 in one sort1 an undecisive battle1 ,gravelotte perhaps settled the fate of the ,empire4 ,mac,mahon's plan was1 with his one hundred and twenty-five thousand men reorganized at ,chalons1 to prevent the ,german advance on ,paris4 ,he was overruled and sent to the relief of ,bazaine4 ,defeated in several small fights1 ,mac,mahon was obliged to fall back on ,sedan4 ,the heights and ridges above ,sedan once occupied by hostile troops1 surrender or annihilation was the outcome4 ,mac,mahon was wounded1 then ,ducrot1 and the command fell to ,wimpffen4 ,sedan was forced to surrender1 ,september #a1 and ,napoleon himself gave his sword to ,king ,william4 ,paris was maddened4 ,the ,empress escaped to ,england4 ,napoleon was taken to the castle of ,wilhelmshhe4 ,a month had hardly passed since the outbreak of the war1 and one of the two great ,french armies with the ,emperor had been captured2 the other was besieged in ,metz4 ,gambetta and other prominent men in ,paris set up the government of the national defense4 ,a republic was proclaimed4 ,the defense of ,paris was zealously undertaken4 ,large supplies of provisions were gathered4 ,fortifications were strengthened4 ,the siege began ,september #ai1 #ahgj1 and ended ,january #bh1 #ahga4 ,the direst famine attended it4 ,gambetta left ,paris in a balloon1 and at ,tours succeeded in forming the army of the ,loire and the army of the ,north4 ,both were defeated4 ,strasbourg was captured1 and ,metz surrendered with a hundred and seventy-three thousand men1 among them three marshals of ,france4 ,the entire ,german loss in this war was #abi1gjj men4 ,january #ag1 #ahga1 ,thiers was elected ,president of the ,third ,republic4 ,knowing the impossibility of further resistance1 with half a million ,german soldiers1 flushed and inspired by constant success1 on the soil of ,france1 and ,paris in their anaconda coils1 he counseled that peace be asked4 ,thiers1 ,favre1 and ,picard negotiated with ,william and ,bismarck4 ,an armistice of twenty days was permitted1 that the ,national ,convention then at ,bordeaux might ratify terms4 ,in the meantime the house of ,hohenzollern reached the summit of its gratified ambition1 when1 on ,march #ah1 ,william was crowned at ,versailles1 ,emperor of ,germany4 ,the cession of ,alsace and ,lorraine1 and #a1jjj1jjj1jjj indemnity1 was the price of peace4 ,no patriot name in all history deserves more reverence than that of ,louis ,adolphe ,thiers4 ,upon him devolved the task of making peace with the ,german foe1 of quelling the civil war1 and of so managing the finances of ,france1 that her people within two years were enabled1 to the astonishment of the world1 to pay the enormous indemnity extorted by the ,germans1 and1 by ,september1 #ahgc1 the last franc was paid and the last ,german sentinel removed from the soil of ,france4 ,the civil war between the ,republic and the ,commune settled the question once for all1 that ,paris1 accountable for all the errors and vicissitudes of the country1 is not ,france1 and there is every reason to hope that out of the unequaled horrors of those awful days of carnage the republican government of ,france arose to remain in perpetuity4 ,garibaldi1 taking advantage of the fall of ,louis ,napoleon1 and caring not for the king's promises1 took possession with his troops of the city of ,rome1 ,september #bj1 #ahgj1 and on ,july #b of the next year ,victor ,emmanuel erected his throne in the ,quirinal4 ,,turco-,,russian ,,war4--,in #ahge1 the ,bosnians1 ,turkish subjects1 revolted4 ,they maintained their struggle1 and the enraged ,turks sent ,mohammedan troops among the defenseless ,bulgarians1 destroying unnumbered thousands of men1 women1 and children4 ,czar ,alexander declared war ,april #a1 #ahgg4 ,his army crossed the ,balkans and occupied ,shipka ,pass4 ,osman ,pasha developed unexpected military genius and skill4 ,for five months he checked the onward march of the ,russians and won world-wide admiration by his defense of ,plevna4 ,by the first of ,december ,plevna was invested completely by the ,russians4 ,driven back whenever attempting to make a sortie1 starvation compelled ,osman to surrender with forty-four thousand troops4 ,adrianople was occupied4 ,the ,treaty of ,san ,stefano was wrested in sight of ,constantinople4 ,it greatly reduced ,turkish power in ,europe1 and constituted ,russia heir to ,turkey in ,europe4 ,bulgaria was to be protected by fifty thousand ,russian troops for two years and to have a ,christian governor4 ,three months later1 ,england formed a secret treaty with ,turkey1 securing ,cyprus and agreeing to protect ,turkey in ,asia4 ,austria1 too1 was dissatisfied1 and the treaty of ,berlin was made in #ahgh1 to rectify the balances of the nations4 ,russia was by this treaty damaged in prestige and1 shorn of triumphs1 was given only ,asiatic provinces4 ,turkey was stripped of all real power in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,louis ,,adolphe ,,thiers4 ,,chino-,,japanese ,,war4--,in ,japan's declaration of war against ,china1 ,august #a1 #ahid1 she set forth succinctly the provocation forcing her to this action4 ,she said that ,korea had been brought into the notice of the nations of the world by her efforts2 that ,china constantly had interfered with ,korea's government1 insistently posing as her suzerain2 that when an insurrection in ,korea broke out ,china sent troops into ,korea1 and that when ,japan1 under the treaty of #ahhe1 also sent troops to assist ,korea to quell the rebels1 asking ,china's coperation in the effort1 ,china refused her rightful demand2 that ,china's course tended to keep up the trouble indefinitely1 so that the only course left for ,japan was to declare war4 ,as with ,germany a score of years previously1 when the time came ,japan was ready1 not only with munitions of war1 but with better topographical knowledge of the enemy's country than they themselves possessed4 ,the ,emperor1 whose dynasty antedates the ,christian era1 gave his people a constitution1 and stretching his hand towards ,korea he helped her in the same direction4 ,he had ,japan's army and her navy drilled by expert ,european officers4 ,arsenals and extensive manufactories for the implements of war were started1 with ,european superintendents4 ,the latest and best of ships were both bought at foreign marts and made at home4 ,her students were to be found in the universities of the world4 ,her agents were sent to study in their capitals the economy of every government and the machinery of their executive departments4 ,to find the best and assimilate it seemed the principle of her progression1 so that both in military skill and the knowledge of diplomacy she acquired the ability to hold her place among the nations of the civilized world4 ,a war alone was needed to prove that this was a fact4 ,japan's navy consisted of four armored cruisers and eight vessels of #cjjj tons each4 ,this was a much lighter fleet than that of ,china1 but swifter4 ,china's navy had been trained by an able ,english naval chief1 ,captain ,lang4 ,her outfit of ships was1 perhaps1 superior to that of ,japan1 consisting of five armored vessels1 nine protected cruisers1 and torpedo boats besides4 ,the principal battle of this ,chino-,japanese war was fought on ,september #ae at ,ping ,yang1 an old capital of ,korea1 situated at the meeting of several roads4 ,the ,japanese landed troops at ,gensan1 on the northeast1 and at ,hwang-jo1 on the northwest1 coast of ,korea4 ,these formed the right and left wings of the army whose centre1 under ,general ,nodju1 advanced from ,seoul1 about one hundred miles to the south1 of which the ,japanese were already in possession4 ,only one wing of the army met opposition in its march1 a small battle having been fought4 ,the forces1 so far as we can learn1 were between twenty and thirty thousand of ,chinese and between thirty and forty thousand of ,japanese4 ,japan's twenty-four years of scientific preparation1 her study of the art of war1 the practicability of her strategic movements1--admired by the soldiers of the world1--left ,china1 with her old semi-barbarian methods1 no chance for victory4 ,the battle was a bloody one2 the defeated ,chinese fled until they were on the other side of the ,yalu ,river1 in ,manchooria4 ,seven hundred 7some accounts say fourteen thousand7 ,chinese were captured1 two thousand killed and wounded4 ,the army continued fighting and conquering until practically the province of ,manchooria was in ,japan's possession1 as well as the peninsula of ,liaotung1 terminating with ,port ,arthur4 ,the battle of ,yalu1 or ,hai ,yun ,tao1 afforded the first practical test of modern vessels1 guns1 and projectiles in ,asiatic waters4 ,ping ,yang has been called ,china's ,sedan1 and ,yalu1 ,japan's ,trafalgar4 ,japan had nine cruisers and two converted cruisers wherewith to fight twelve ,chinese warships and four torpedo boats4 ,it is said that ,japan used melanite shells4 ,the fleet of ,chinese warships1 convoying transports with ten thousand troops1 entered the ,yalu ,river4 ,the next day1 ,september #ag1 the ,japanese fleet1 under ,admiral ,ito1 went out to meet them4 ,a ,european officer on a ,chinese vessel says3 8,passing along the ,chinese line1 the ,japanese poured as heavy a fire as they could bring to bear upon each ship in succession1 and1 while they had sea-room1 circled round their opponents4 ,the ,japanese state that no ,japanese war-ship was lost and only three seriously injured40 ,a ,chinese officer says3 8,as soon as the ,chinese on the port side had brought their guns to bear and had obtained range accurately1 the ,japanese would work around and attack the starboard side40 ,four ships were destroyed and two badly injured4 ,one of the ,chinese ships was said to have been hit two hundred times4 ,the ,chinese ironclads that escaped were later sunk off ,wei ,hai ,wei4 ,port ,arthur1 captured ,october #ba1 was filled to overflowing with ammunition1 grain1 and other supplies4 ,china made three informal overtures for peace4 ,finally1 ,li ,hung ,chang went from ,tientsin to ,shimonoseki1 to make terms1 on the #aith of ,march1 #ahie4 ,by the treaty there made1 ,may #ag1 ,china recognized the independence and autonomy of ,korea1 ceded certain territory in ,manchooria1 all the islands in the eastern part of the bay of ,liaotung and the northern part of the ,yellow ,sea1 ,formosa1 and all islands belonging to it1 and the ,pescadores group4 ,two hundred million ,kuping taels were exacted as indemnity1 to be paid in eight installments1 one every six months4 ,the inhabitants were to sell out and leave1 or in two years to be ,japanese subjects4 ,russia1 ,germany1 and ,france recommended that ,japan should not permanently possess the peninsula of ,feng ,tan1 and ,japan agreed to their suggestions4 ,illustration3 ,,cavalry ,,charge ,,at ,,gravelotte4 7,a4 ,,de ,,neuville47 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,of ,,yalu ,,river4 ,formosa1 as a strategetical post1 is of the greatest value4 ,korea and ,japan now control absolutely the ,japan ,sea4 ,it was only after four months of fighting that ,japan completely conquered the ,formosans and had all her new possessions under her control4 ,china paid ,japan an additional #cj1jjj1jjj for the release of ,port ,arthur and ,liaotung peninsula4 ,china was well pleased4 ,but in ,april1 #ahig1 ,russia herself had obtained possession of ,port ,arthur and ,talien ,wan1 and in ,december the ,germans received ,kaio ,chao1 the finest naval station of the province of ,shantung4 ,france subsequently obtained ,kwang-,chau1 the best port of ,wangsi2 and ,england1 though not joining these powers in the demand in favor of ,china in #ahie1 obtained ,wei ,hai ,wei in #ahig4 ,,greco-,,turkish ,,war4--,in #ahie1 the fearful atrocities committed by the 8unspeakable0 ,turk began to assume appalling proportions4 ,during three years one hundred thousand ,cretans were murdered4 ,february #h1 #ahig1 the ,cretans proclaimed union with ,greece4 ,the ,greeks1 unable longer to endure the sufferings of their kindred1 determined to help them4 ,prince ,george left for ,crete with a torpedo flotilla ,february #aj2 ,colonel ,vassos1 aide-de-camp to the king1 followed with fifteen hundred men and two batteries on the #acth4 ,prince ,nicholas led a regiment of artillery to the ,thessalian frontiers4 ,the powers sent a collective note of protest to ,greece1 but it was not heeded4 ,colonel ,vassos landed in ,crete on the #adth4 ,sailors from the fleet of the powers occupied the coast towns of ,crete4 ,pasha ,berovitch resigned and returned to ,constantinople4 ,greek reserves rallied promptly4 ,volunteers offered4 ,colonel ,vassos established headquarters in the mountainous interior at ,sphakia4 ,march #ah1 the powers blockaded ,crete4 ,on the #bgth1 ,crown ,prince ,constantine proceeded to the ,turkish frontier4 ,on ,april #e1 the powers declared no gain should accrue to the combatant who approached ,thessalian borders4 ,april #h1 three thousand ,greeks crossed near ,krania1 began fighting1 and were driven back4 ,on ,april #ag ,turkey declared war4 ,on the #ahth1 a battle of twenty-four hours1 in ,milouna ,pass1 crowned ,turkish arms with victory4 ,another hard fought battle1 at ,reveni1 discomfited the ,greeks4 ,greeks passed the ,arta ,river and ,greek ironclads bombarded ,prevessa4 ,on the #aith1 the ,turks were in ,thessaly and the ,greeks in retreat to ,larissa4 ,after terrific battles ,tornavo and ,larissa1 on the #beth1 fell into the hands of the ,turks4 ,colonel ,smolenski fought desperately at ,valestino1 but had to yield2 and ,volo also fell to the ,turks4 ,the ,turks occupied ,pharsaos on ,may #f4 ,greece asked the powers for peace1 ,may #h2 ,cretan autonomy was agreed to1 and ,turkey permitted armistice on the #aeth4 ,the war closed4 ,turkey was forced to yield all ,thessalian territory1 and ,crete was relieved of ,turkish oppression4 ,greece was forced to withdraw all support from ,crete and pay #bj1jjj1jjj indemnity4 ,the remarkable feature of this war was the intensely hard fighting from start to close1 and the disposition of the powers to assist ,turkey by interfering with the ,grecian navy4 ,frequently the ,austrians helped the ,turks by placing their guns in position4 ,it was only when the ,sultan conquered ,thessaly and threatened to keep it that the powers interposed4 ,the crime committed by the powers against civilization and ,christianity by their action seems incredible1 even though the peace of ,europe was thereby secured4 ,,england',s ,,wars ,,in ,,the ,,soudan4--,the ,khedive of ,egypt had obtained great loans from ,europe4 ,england and ,france took financial control of the country4 ,arabi ,pasha inaugurated a rebellion and fortified ,alexandria4 ,many ,europeans were murdered1 and ,england bombarded the city1 taking possession ,july #ab1 #ahhb4 ,general ,wolseley1 at ,tel el ,kebir1 ,september #ac1 fought and defeated ,arabi1 who fled leaving two thousand dead4 ,france withdrew from the financial arrangement4 ,the ,english remained to put the ,egyptians in condition for self-government4 ,england has remained ever since4 ,mohammed ,ahmed arose in the ,soudan1 proclaiming himself ,el ,mahdi1 the ,mussulman ,messiah4 ,the barbarian hordes flocked to his banner4 ,he defeated the ,egyptians in four engagements1 ,october1 #ahhc4 ,the ,anglo-,egyptian force of ten thousand men1 under ,general ,hicks1 was destroyed1 only two escaping4 ,general ,gordon was sent to the relief of the ,egyptian army4 ,he reached ,khartoum1 ,february #ah1 #ahhd4 ,the ,mahdists besieged the city4 ,gordon sent for reinforcements4 ,england was so slow in sending them that they arrived two days too late4 ,khartoum was captured through treachery1 and ,gordon1 the most beloved of ,english soldiers for his saintly and heroic character1 was put to death on ,january #bg1 #ahhe4 ,general ,sir ,horatio ,herbert ,kitchener was made ,sirdar in #ahij4 ,he started from ,cairo with one thousand ,british and fifteen thousand ,egyptians1 black and fellah troops1 building a road across the desert as he advanced1 and engineering his gunboats up the ,nile4 ,the distance from his base1 at ,cairo1 to his first storehouse1 at ,wady ,halfa1 is eight hundred miles4 ,april #h1 #ahih1 was fought the battle of ,atbara1 a fort at the point where the ,atbara ,river enters the ,nile4 ,here ,mahmud1 the commander of the barbarians1 was captured and his army of twelve thousand infantry destroyed4 ,osman ,digna got away with the greater part of the cavalry1 numbering four thousand4 ,the force was about a month reaching ,wady ,hamed1 and1 ,september #a1 was in sight of ,omdurman4 ,the ,sirdar's line was drawn up in crescent form1 with ,omdurman and ,khartoum for its centre4 ,in this position was fought the first battle of ,egeda1 in which twenty-two thousand of the ,dervishes fell4 ,the ,khalifa and ,osman ,digna fled with a scant handful of followers1 and are now said to be bandits in the ,kordofan4 ,the number of the annihilated army of the ,mahdists will never be known4 ,the ,british loss of whites was less than two hundred1 and the native loss less than three hundred4 ,the fire of the barbarians was generally too high to effect great injury4 ,september #b will be a marked day in ,england's calendar4 ,the ,sirdar marched into ,khartoum1 the ,union ,jack was raised1 and beneath its floating crosses his chaplains performed ,gordon's funeral ceremonies on the spot where he was slain nearly fourteen years before4 ,,the ,,boer ,,war4--,by the treaty of #ahha ,great ,britain claimed suzerainty over the ,south ,african 7,transvaal7 ,republic and ,orange ,free ,state4 ,these ,republics claimed that by the treaty of #ahhd ,great ,britain gave up her claim of suzerainty4 ,here arose an issue which was aggravated by the discovery of diamonds at ,kimberley and of gold at ,johannesburg1 followed by the ,jameson raid1 which1 shorn of its disguise1 was notice to the ,boers that ,great ,britain desired and designed to occupy and absorb their two ,republics4 ,the diplomatic war went on for years between ,president ,kruger1 of the ,transvaal1 and ,mr4 ,chamberlain1 ,great ,britain's ,colonial ,secretary4 ,it culminated in an ultimatum on the part of ,kruger1 on ,october #i1 #ahii1 which ,chamberlain rejected4 ,both sides had been preparing for this1 and on ,october #aa1 the outbreak of the war1 ,great ,britain had already an army of #be1jjj men in ,south ,africa1 while the ,boers had mobilized an equal1 if not superior1 army of effectives4 ,the ,boers immediately invaded ,natal and ,cape ,colony1 shutting up ,general ,white and his army in ,ladysmith1 and ,colonel ,powell and his forces in ,mafeking4 ,kimberley was also besieged4 ,the initial battles were numerous1 fierce1 and generally favorable to the ,boers4 ,great ,britain's eyes were speedily opened to the gravity of the situation4 ,she hurried large reinforcements to the scene till her armies far outnumbered those of the ,boers4 ,yet her best generals1 as ,buller at ,tugela ,river1 and ,methuen1 at ,magersfontein1 continued to meet with disastrous defeats4 ,lord ,roberts1 in connection with ,general ,kitchener1 was sent1 ,january #aj1 #aijj1 to supersede the blundering generals1 and to organize a new campaign4 ,it was seen that direct battle against the ,boers was bound to end in defeat4 ,so ,roberts was provided with an overwhelming army1 estimated at #bbe1jjj1 and he at once entered upon a war of strategy4 ,his northward advance was general along his lines1 thus keeping the ,boers divided4 ,he flanked them out of their strongholds4 ,by ,february he had invaded the ,orange ,free ,state1 and raised the siege of ,kimberley4 ,on ,february #bg he captured ,general ,cronje and his force of #djjj men1 and on ,march #ac took possession of ,bloemfontein1 the ,free ,state capital1 whence he issued a proclamation annexing the republic under the name of ,orange ,river ,colony4 ,on ,february #bh the siege of ,ladysmith was raised1 and shortly after that of ,mafeking4 ,the ,boers continued to fight doggedly1 all the while inflicting heavy losses on their enemy1 but resistance was futile against such overwhelming odds4 ,they were gradually forced from one position to another in the direction of ,pretoria1 the ,transvaal capital4 ,on ,march #e ,presidents ,kruger and ,steyn joined in peace proposals1 which were rejected4 ,on ,march #ab they made an appeal to the nations for mediation4 ,all refused to mediate4 ,on ,march #bg the ,boers lost their ablest general in the person of ,general ,joubert1 who died at ,pretoria4 ,by ,may #ab ,kroonstad1 the second ,free ,state capital1 had fallen into ,lord ,roberts' hands4 ,the ,vaal ,river was then crossed and the ,transvaal invaded4 ,on ,may #ca the ,british army entered the important town of ,johannesburg1 and hastened toward ,pretoria1 which was captured on ,june #e1 #aijj4 ,president ,kruger and ,general ,botha had left a few days before1 the former in the direction of the ,portuguese port of ,lorenzo ,marques1 the latter with the remnant of the ,boer army to the mountains beyond ,pretoria4 ,on ,september #c ,lord ,roberts declared the ,transvaal annexed to ,great ,britain under the name of the ,vaal ,river ,colony4 ,generals ,botha and ,de ,wet continued a guerrilla warfare far past the end of the century4 ,president ,kruger accepted the protection of ,holland1 and sailed thither on ,october #bj1 #aijj4 ,lord ,roberts arrived in ,england in ,december1 #aijj1 to receive his honors4 ,at the turn of the century the ,south ,african problem was a most wearying one for ,great ,britain4 ,,the ,,boxer ,,uprising4--,the defeat of ,china by ,japan in #ahid1 the ambition of ,european powers to occupy her ports and enlarge their 8spheres of influence10 the ominous threats to partition her territory1 soured the ,manchu dynasty and the people of northern ,china against foreigners4 ,the ,empress ,dowager deposed the young ,emperor1 seized the reins of government1 and catered to that reactionary and hostile spirit which culminated in the 8,boxer0 uprising4 ,these mobs began the destruction of missions1 the murder and expulsion of missionaries1 and concerted attack against everything that savored of foreign direction and influence4 ,the ,chinese regular soldiers were either helpless before them or in sympathy with them4 ,by ,may1 #aijj1 all the powers represented at ,peking stood aghast at the startling fact that their respective legations were beleaguered in ,peking1 and liable to be murdered4 ,warships were instantly ordered to ,taku4 ,by ,june #a1 #aijj1 twenty-three vessels had reported1--nine ,russian1 three ,british1 three ,german1 three ,french1 two ,american1 two ,japanese1 one ,italian4 ,a force of #bjjj soldiers was landed from these1 and immediately started for ,peking1 under command of the ,british ,rear-,admiral ,seymour1 for the rescue of the legations4 ,this force was defeated by the 8,boxers10 and compelled to retreat to ,tien-,tsin with heavy loss4 ,an attempt to torpedo the ,taku harbor was resented by the warships4 ,they bombarded and blew up the ,taku forts4 ,in this action the ,american warships did not participate4 ,the 8,boxers0 swarmed in ,tien-,tsin1 and an allied force of #djjj men was sent thither to capture it4 ,in their first attack1 on ,july #i1 they were repulsed with heavy loss4 ,being reinforced up to #gjjj men1 their second attack1 on ,july #ac1 was successful4 ,the city was taken1 and made the base of further operations against ,peking1 #hj miles up the ,pei-ho4 ,the allies were further reinforced1 and started for ,peking with an army of #af1jjj men4 ,they met the ,chinese army of #cj1jjj men at ,pei-,tsang1 and after a severe battle on ,august #e1 drove them from their fortifications with great loss4 ,the ,chinese rallied at ,yang-,tsun1 but were again defeated by the allies on ,august #f4 ,they offered no further serious resistance to the allies1 who moved swiftly on ,pekin1 invested it1 and1 on ,august #ad1 breached its walls and entered it in triumph4 ,the legations were relieved after an imprisonment of nearly three months4 ,two ministers1 one of ,japan1 the other of ,germany1 had been murdered4 ,the others had escaped death only by concentrating and defending themselves in the ,english compound4 ,the allied forces occupied the city for a time1 and then those of ,russia and the ,united ,states withdrew1 leaving a strong legation guard4 ,the ,chinese government appointed ,li-,hung-,chang and ,prince ,ching ministers to meet ministers of the powers to arrange terms of settlement4 ,after months of conference a protocol was signed in ,january1 #aija1 which was supposed to contain the germs of future settlement4 ,but there was that in the ,chinese situation which was bound to tax the diplomacy of the world during many years of the twentieth century4 ,a ,,review ,,of ,,martial ,,results4--,the history of the world shows that successful war adds to the glory and prestige of the victorious nation1 and this is particularly exemplified by the wars of the nineteenth century4 ,france1 so long victorious1 dazzled the world4 ,at ,waterloo1 her glory was clouded4 ,napier1 in his closing words of the history of these events of the twenty years of war and turmoil1 showed how thoroughly the ,english people appreciated that their greatness and power were due to the glory achieved by the arms of ,britain's chivalrous sons4 ,while ,england was covering herself with glory1 her offspring1 the ,united ,states1 was teaching her1 in the war of #ahab1 that being now of age his pockets were not again to be turned inside out1 a lesson which thereafter she heeded4 ,greece1 throbbing with the impulse of freedom1 achieved her independence1 displaying all the heroism of her ,hellenic ancestry4 ,the ,mexican war added greatly to the glory of ,american arms and resulted in the acquisition of a vast territory1 whose inhabitants quickly assimilated themselves to the requirements of ,american citizenship4 ,the ,revolution of '#dh but served to consolidate the power of ,prussia1 laying the foundation for the ,imperial crown to rest upon the head of her king1 while fitting ,france for her future solid republican career4 ,the ,crimean war1 except that it checked the policy of ,russia1 produced few results in comparison with the vast amount of blood and treasure so lavishly spent4 ,the victories of ,magenta and ,solferino illumined again the eagles of ,france4 ,the 8,seven ,weeks' ,war10 while still further consolidating ,germany under ,prussia1 was not without its blessings for ,austria1 and advanced 8,young ,italy0 greatly toward the goal of her ambition4 ,in ,america1 the appeal to arms was made to decide the questions mooted since the nation's birth4 ,one effect of this war was to show the wonderful prowess and soldierly qualities of the ,american citizen4 ,the ,franco-,prussian war lifted the dignity of ,hohenzollern to its height1 ended forever the ,empire of ,france in a crushing fall1 and taught the lesson of scientific preparation for war1 than which no science is more worthy of intense study and application in all its branches4 ,the ,chino-,japanese war was a triumph of a growing civilization over semi-barbarism1 and foreshadows the prominent rle that ,japan may be called upon to play in the twentieth century4 ,the enlargement of her territory was a fitting reward for her unselfish championing of her weaker sister1 ,korea4 ,the ,greco-,cretan-,turkish war shed no glory on the ,turkish nor on the so-called ,christian nations1 and will stand on history's page as a crowning shame to ,european civilization4 ,the opening of ,africa by ,general ,kitchener and his great achievements read like old-time stories1 and the twentieth century may see great results in ,africa from this wonderful campaign4 ,the war of the ,united ,states with ,spain1 fought because it was impossible longer to allow the atrocities of her rule on this hemisphere at our very doors1 has brought conditions not dreamed of1 and which1 under the providence of ,god1 may lead to greater results in the development of ,christian civilization than we now may comprehend4 ,the ,boer war had little instigation on the part of ,great ,britain1 except greed4 ,its management reflected no credit on her military genius1 weakened her in the eyes of nations1 and entailed a loss of life and money from which she will not recover in generations4 ,the ,chinese disturbance did not rise to the dignity of war1 but opened problems of startling intricacy and moment for all the powers4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,fairs ,,and ,,expositions ,,by ,,george ,j4 ,,hagar1 ,editor of ,appendix to ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,dr4 ,alfred ,russell ,wallace1 in a recent work1 argues that the nineteenth century is altogether unique in that it inaugurated a new era4 ,to grasp its marvelous achievements1 he tells us1 it should be compared with a long historical period1 rather than with another century1 however happily selected4 ,the progress it environs is set down as almost wholly material and intellectual1 and the palm for completeness is given to the material4 ,debatable as his conclusion may be1 there can be no dispute either as to the qualitative or quantitative progress in the material advancement of mankind in the century now closing4 ,in the present retrospect the broader view becomes apparent1--that the material and the intellectual have been allied forces that have constantly pushed forward side by side1 one devising in the solitude that genius needs for expansion1 the other showing to the world the realizations of thought that in practical application benefit all4 ,the evolution of the international exposition of to-day is a conspicuous result of this material and intellectual wedlock4 ,it seems a long time between the fair that was held to allow people not closely settled to purchase the ordinary commodities of life1 food1 clothing1 and household belongings1 and the great expositions to which the nations of the world bring the surpassing embodiments of native thought4 ,measured by years1 the time is really beyond computation2 but measured by results1 mere time is annihilated1 and the progress that the evolution illustrates is found to have kept a steady pace with man's physical necessities and intellectual growth4 ,the moment ,necessity has shown that mankind needed something to make life brighter1 happier1 or more comfortable to pass through1 ,intellect has undertaken the task of creating it and has fashioned out the ,material4 ,in the great expositions of to-day are seen the effects of the marvelous influence which sprang from the fair as a market1 instituted so long ago that no call for the records is answerable4 ,of this kind1 only a very few remain4 ,then came the fair designed to promote the useful arts and manufactures2 the fair to advance agriculture and allied industries2 and the fair to show special articles1 to commemorate historical events1 and to aid interests of large public concern4 ,under an ever-increasing expansion1 stimulated by popular favor1 the fair1 with the commercial feature abandoned or having it only as a restricted branch1 became the exhibition to show a larger development of the arts1 sciences1 and mechanical trades2 to celebrate great public occurrences on a grander scale than earlier fairs had done2 to promote special industries1 local or national2 to aid education by permanent displays of natural or manufactured products2 and to promote the commercial intercourse of the world4 ,from the first of this class of exhibitions came the international undertakings1 first known as world's fairs1 and afterward as international exhibitions and expositions4 ,in some one of these classes may be found every kind of a display of products1 irrespective of its purpose or individual name4 ,the development of the modern exhibition from the early fair has been confined to no one country nor people4 ,everywhere the purpose and process have been the same4 ,a few years changed the old-time mart1 where people went to buy what they knew they would find1 to the convenient place where tradesmen placed on view the things they knew people would need and buy1 as well as articles offered at a venture that people who really didn't need them might be tempted to purchase because of novelty or other quality4 ,thus1 the bargain counter and the department store are several hundred years older than the thrifty housewife of to-day reckons4 ,trade competition1 then as now1 led to a broadening of plans1 rival efforts1 and special attractions4 ,people began to attend fairs to see what was new1 as well as to buy2 and soon1 lest they should tire of sightseeing1 it became necessary to provide means for entertaining them4 ,punch and ,judy came on the scene with perennial popularity4 ,jugglery astounded the young and fascinated their elders4 ,dancing and wrestling rings proved sportive magnets of annually increasing strength4 ,the fair now began to change from a strictly commercial undertaking to an occasion for holiday hilarity1 and soon trade and amusement were struggling for the mastery4 ,in many places1 hilarity led to excesses1 and excesses to crime4 ,public opinion demanded the forceful intervention of the law1 and one by one the most demoralizing fairs were suppressed1 the notorious ,donnybrook closing its long career of debauchery and lighting in #ahee4 ,the display of merchandise and the gathering of customers at the most noted fairs in time became really enormous1 and for many years the great fairs of the day were held on open and extensive plains4 ,then1 too1 the fair assumed an importance that led first the local authorities1 and after them higher dignitaries1 to seek to turn it to their individual advantage4 ,for a time no fair could be held in ,great ,britain without a special grant from the crown1 and it was a widely observed custom for royal or ecclesiastical authorities to give permission to a town or village that had suffered some misfortune to hold a fair as a means of reestablishing itself4 ,the famous fair of ,st4 ,giles's ,hill1 near ,manchester1 ,england1 was instituted as a revenue to the bishop by ,william the ,conqueror4 ,that it was a valuable monopoly is shown by the facts that its jurisdiction extended seven miles around the city1 and that all merchants who sold wares within that circuit1 unless at the fair1 forfeited them to the bishop4 ,a curious evidence of early international interest in the fair1 as well as of its importance and influence1 is found in the records of #acad1 when ,king ,philip of ,france sent a formal complaint to ,king ,edward ,,ii4 of ,england1 to the effect that the merchants of ,england had ceased frequenting the fairs in his dominions with their wood and other goods1 to the great loss of his subjects4 ,philip entreated ,edward to persuade1 and1 if necessary1 to compel1 ,english people to frequent the fairs of ,france as formerly1 promising them all possible security and encouragement4 ,as a purely commercial institution1 the fair had its best day when people were widely separated4 ,the increase of population1 the development of new life and activity by growing communities1 the opening of means of travel between distant points1 and the establishment of stores and markets1 were all fatal to the commercial fair4 ,to-day1 in all ,europe1 only three really great annual fairs of this character remain1--those of ,nijni-,novgorod1 in ,russia2 ,beaucaire1 in ,france2 and ,leipsic1 in ,germany4 ,the same conditions that brought the popular usefulness of the commercial fair to an end were the forces from which the fair as an exponent of industrial achievement has been developed1 and the material progress of the nineteenth century is to be traced4 ,illustration3 ,,munich ,,exposition1 #ahed4 ,for the modern fair in all of its forms the world is indebted to the ,society of ,arts1 of ,london1 an organization whose fame in ,america was so great that ,benjamin ,franklin1 in soliciting corresponding membership1 declared that he would esteem it a great honor to be admitted and also to be permitted to contribute twenty guineas to be expended in premiums4 ,what this ,society in its early days did for ,great ,britain it did also for civilization4 ,it organized the first exhibition of specimens of improvements in the useful arts and manufactures in #agfj2 stimulated native ingenuity by judicious awards of prizes and premiums for exhibits of exceptional merit2 and extended its powerful influence to foster art1 science1 mechanical and agricultural industry1 and the fishery trade and colonial commerce of the country4 ,of the many influences of this ,society that came to the ,united ,states1 it may be questioned if any had a more lasting benefit for both people and country than that which gave birth to the mechanics' institutes4 ,there are people still living who are able to recall how the large cities in the ,eastern and ,middle ,states vied with each other in the establishment of two great and kindred institutions--the mechanics' institute and the apprentices' library4 ,philadelphia led the cities in the matter of time1 her ,franklin ,institute being founded in #ahbd4 ,four years afterward the ,american ,institute was chartered in ,new ,york ,city4 ,after these came the ,massachusetts ,charitable ,mechanics' ,association in ,boston1 the ,maryland ,institute in ,baltimore1 and numerous others1--those mentioned being the principal ones that still maintain annual or other exhibitions4 ,at first1 the exhibitions of these institutes1 like the first one ever held under the patronage of a national government1--that in ,paris in #agih1--were composed of various articles loaned by their owners4 ,soon1 however1 the popularity of the institutes and the awarding of prizes and diplomas brought to the exhibitions specimens of the handicraft of members and friends1 and the rising lights in the arts and manufactures became eager to secure the recognition of their genius that such awards established4 ,thus1 the influence of the principal surviving institutes has spread far beyond local limits4 ,purely national exhibitions have never found much popular favor in the ,united ,states4 ,when as a whole people we decide to hold one for a purpose of general interest1 we prefer to set a large table and invite the universe to help us celebrate4 ,in ,france1 the first national exhibition was a loan exhibition4 ,its effect1 however1 was so immediate that the government repeated it the same year1 organized more elaborate ones in #ahja and #ahjb1 and decided to hold them triennially thereafter--a course that has since been interrupted by political exigencies4 ,these exhibitions were projected to illustrate the progress of ,france only4 ,in the ,united ,states there have been no ,state exhibitions1 excepting agricultural fairs1 for which outside coperation has not been invited4 ,the life of the ,american agricultural fair is almost measurable by the full century4 ,this1 too1 had its origin in ,england4 ,the father of the ,american system of combined agricultural fairs and cattle shows was ,elkanah ,watson1 a native of ,plymouth1 ,mass41 who spent the greater part of his life in promoting large public measures besides agriculture and education4 ,in #ahjg he removed from ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 to ,pittsfield1 ,mass41 where he engaged in general and experimental agriculture and cattle-raising4 ,his efforts to improve local farming conditions and to raise a superior breed of cattle attracted widespread interest1 and this suggested to him that an annual exhibition of cattle and of farm products1 resulting from a more painstaking system of cultivation than was commonly followed1 would prove of material advantage to the farmer1 the breeder1 and the general public4 ,accordingly1 he induced his farming friends in the country to contribute specimens of improved breeds of cattle and of superior products of the soil2 and the first exhibition or fair was held in #ahaj4 ,this1 with modest prizes for the best exhibits1 proved a complete success4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,orleans ,,exposition4 #ahhd4 7,illumination of ,horticultural ,building on ,christmas ,night47 ,encouraged by the results of his initial efforts1 he went to ,boston to solicit pecuniary aid for a second and much larger exhibition4 ,although he was at that time widely known for his public-spirited philanthropy1 and also as the founder of the influential ,berkshire ,agricultural ,society1 his appeals for aid brought him little save derision4 ,to show how small concern was felt by business and public men toward the farming industry1 a sentence in a letter from ex-,president ,john ,adams to ,mr4 ,watson is sufficient3-- 8,you will get no aid from ,boston2 commerce1 literature1 theology1 medicine1 the university1 and universal politics are against you40 ,the ex-,president was correct in his judgment4 ,mr4 ,watson did not receive a single favorable response to his appeals2 yet he lost not a particle of faith in the wisdom of his undertaking4 ,with the coperation only of the farmers in his county1 ,mr4 ,watson succeeded in arranging annual exhibitions until #ahaf1 when he returned to ,albany4 ,the same year he organized the first agricultural society in the ,state of ,new ,york1 and began establishing fairs and cattle shows in the near-by counties4 ,in #ahai he secured the passage of an ,act by the ,legislature appropriating #aj1jjj annually for six years for the promotion of agriculture and domestic manufactures1 conditional on a like amount being raised by the agricultural societies in the different counties4 ,a ,state ,society was incorporated in #ahcb1 to which county societies were directed to report1 while it1 in turn1 had to render a combined report to the ,legislature annually4 ,since then an agricultural department has become an indispensable part of the government of the various ,states and ,territories1 even of those that are popularly believed to be only metallic producers4 ,the character of the state and county agricultural fair has been undergoing a radical change for many years1 especially in sections thickly settled or near large cities1 and the chief attractions have passed from the exhibition of sleek domestic animals and choice fruits of the soil to horse-racing and bicycle contests4 ,innovations foreign to the spirit and intention of the fair have already wrought its ruin in many places and are threatening it generally4 ,of ,american fairs in the original commercial sense1 those held during the ,civil ,war1 to aid the work of the ,united ,states ,sanitary ,commission on the battlefield and in the camp and hospital1 will always be historically conspicuous4 ,during those memorable four years it is doubtful if there was a single city1 town1 or village in the ,northern ,states that did not put forth a special effort to provide necessities and conveniences for the soldiers and sailors that were not supplied by the government1 and the fair was the most popular form of raising the needful money4 ,exhibitions of special articles1 possessing the features of state1 national1 and international combinations1 and independent of any locality1 event1 or period of time1 are growing in frequency4 ,many of these have a predominating technical interest1--as the international exhibitions of fisheries and fishery methods1 of life-saving methods and apparatus1 of forestry products and systems of forest preservation1 and of railway appliances2 while others combine the technical and popular features1 as the exhibitions of electrical apparatus1 of improved food preparations1 of bicycles1 of automobile vehicles1 and of wood-working and labor-saving machinery4 ,special exhibitions in the ,united ,states that possess a large popular interest include the annual showing of the art associations and leagues in the principal cities1 and the annual horse1 dog1 and sportsmen's shows in ,new ,york city4 ,among them also are to be noted the permanent expositions in ,philadelphia and ,chicago--both reminders of the greatest international expositions that had been held up to their day4 ,the ,philadelphia exposition is held in ,memorial ,hall1 the building erected in ,fairmount ,park by the ,state of ,pennsylvania at a cost of #a1ejj1jjj1 and used for the ,art ,gallery of the ,centennial ,exposition in #ahgf4 ,it now contains an art and industrial collection similar to the famous ,south ,kensington ,museum in ,london4 ,the ,chicago exposition is in the former ,art ,palace of the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition in #ahic1 and1 having been endowed by ,marshall ,field with #a1jjj1jjj1 is now known as the ,field ,columbian ,museum4 ,its most conspicuous feature is a collection showing the development of the railway1 and the next1 its forestry exhibits4 ,in the line of permanent expositions1 ,philadelphia is to be credited with two commercial museums of far-reaching influence that will be considered further on4 ,illustration3 ,,eiffel ,,tower4 ,,paris ,,exposition1 #ahhh4 ,the first exhibition of the industries of all nations was that held in ,hyde ,park1 ,london1 in #ahea4 ,it was an outgrowth of the annual exhibitions of the ,society of ,arts1 before mentioned1 and was at first designed to be only a national enterprise1 but on a more extended scale than the former exhibitions of the ,society4 ,the late ,prince ,albert1 husband of ,queen ,victoria1 however1 conceived the idea of throwing this particular exhibition open to the industry of the world4 ,his suggestion at once met the favor of the ,council of the ,society1 as well as of the leading manufacturers of ,england and the general public4 ,a royal warrant was procured appointing a commission to 8manage an exhibition of the works of industry of all nations10 and of this body ,prince ,albert became president4 ,on ,february #ba1 #ahej1 the commissioners felt justified in making a public announcement that the building would cover an area of from sixteen to twenty acres2 that it would be ready for the reception of goods by ,january #a1 #ahea2 and that the exhibition would be opened to the public on ,may #a1 following4 ,the plans for a building submitted by ,sir ,joseph ,paxton were accepted after a large number had been considered4 ,they called for a vast structure of iron and glass1 somewhat similar to the great conservatory he had erected for the ,duke of ,devonshire at ,chatsworth4 ,a contract was signed with ,messrs4 ,fox and ,henderson for the construction of the building1 under which they were to receive #gi1hjj1 and the materials of the building were to remain their property4 ,on ,february #c1 the completed structure was formally delivered to the commissioners4 ,it had an extreme length of #ahea feet and an extreme breadth of #djh feet1 with an additional projection on the north side1 #icf feet long by #dh feet wide4 ,while the erection of the building was in progress1 ,dr4 ,lyon ,playfair was chosen to decide and classify the wide range of articles that was sought to be brought together under the general title of 8,objects of ,industrial and ,productive ,art40 ,he arranged these under four great sections3 ,raw ,materials1 ,machinery1 ,manufactures1 and ,fine ,arts1 and they in turn were divided and subdivided into a vast number of classes and smaller divisions4 ,the collecting of national exhibits was placed in the hands of district committees in all the principal towns and manufacturing localities1 and in response to invitations extended to all the ,british colonies and the various foreign governments1 nearly every country in ,europe1 almost every ,state in the ,north ,american ,union1 the ,south ,american republics1 ,india1 ,egypt1 ,persia1 and the far-off islands of the seas1 sent objects that swelled the total estimated value of exhibits--excluding the renowned ,koh-i-noor diamond--to #a1gha1ibi4 ,the exhibition was opened by ,queen ,victoria on the appointed day1 and was continued till ,october #aa4 ,the total number of exhibitors was about #ae1jjj4 ,during the #aad days the exhibition was open a total of #f1jfc1ihf persons visited it1 a daily average of #db1aaa4 ,the largest number in a single day was on ,tuesday of the closing week1 #aji1iae4 ,an attempt to ascertain the number of foreign visitors developed the unexpected result that not much more than #dj1jjj foreigners visited ,london beyond the annual average of #ae1jjj4 ,the financial result of the exhibition was really remarkable4 ,the total receipts from all sources amounted to #ejf1jjj1 and the total expenditures to about #ccj1jjj1 leaving a surplus of #agf1jjj1 which was subsequently increased to #ahf1dcf4 ,the distinctions of all kinds that were awarded1 ,council and prize medals and 8honourable mentions10 aggregated #ejhd4 ,it is here interesting to note1 as showing the truly international character of the first world's exhibition1 that foreign guests occupied two-fifths of the exhibition space and received three-fifths of the honors4 ,british exhibitors of machinery1 manufactures in metal1 and manufactures in glass and porcelain1 took more prizes than all the foreigners combined4 ,foreigners led in the number of prizes for textile fabrics1 fine arts1 and miscellaneous manufactures2 and in the section of raw materials for food and manufactures the foreign exhibitors gained nearly four times as many prizes as the ,british4 ,this exhibition developed a number of features that should be borne in mind when considering those that came after it4 ,it was an experiment in an untried field2 it was comprised in a single building2 and it was self-supporting4 ,in all respects it was a marvelous achievement4 ,it made the late ,prince ,consort the 8father10 and the ,society of ,arts the pioneer promoters1 of the international exposition4 ,illustration3 ,,court ,,of ,,honor ,,from ,,peristyle4 7,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 ,chicago1 #ahic47 ,the beneficial influence of the first world's exhibition began to be felt immediately4 ,an exhibition of the arts and manufactures of ,ireland was held in ,cork in the following year1 and the ,royal ,dublin ,society1 which had been holding similar exhibitions triennially1 got up a much larger one than usual1 through the generous pecuniary aid of ,william ,dargan1 in #ahec4 ,the ,dublin exhibition1 unlike that of ,cork1 was international in scope4 ,american visitors to the ,london exhibition brought home with them a pretty large inspiration for a similar effort1 and before the close of #ahea a number of citizens of ,new ,york had associated themselves for that purpose4 ,in ,january1 #aheb1 the corporation of the city of ,new ,york granted a lease for five years of ,reservoir ,square1 on the conditions that a building of iron1 glass1 and wood should be erected thereon1 and that the entrance fee to the proposed exhibition should not exceed fifty cents4 ,in ,march1 the ,legislature incorporated the ,association for the ,exhibition of the ,industries of all ,nations1 with a capital of #bjj1jjj that might be increased to #cjj1jjj4 ,subsequently1 the ,federal ,government constituted the building a bonded warehouse and exempted foreign exhibits from the payment of duties4 ,this exhibition was therefore a private enterprise1 having no other official recognition than that mentioned4 ,it was also an unfortunate affair from beginning to end4 ,the location was then three or four miles from the heart of the city2 the area was entirely inadequate for the purpose2 the day of opening had to be postponed1 because of the incomplete condition of the building2 and financially the enterprise was a huge failure4 ,the exhibition was opened ,july #ad1 #ahec1 with much ceremony1 although still scarcely half ready for exhibits or visitors1 and was continued for #aai days4 ,there were about #dhjj exhibitors1 somewhat more than one-half being foreign4 ,the total cost of the exhibition was nearly #a1jjj1jjj1 and the receipts were #cdj1jjj4 ,although a financial failure1 and a disappointment in many ways1 this first international exhibition in the ,united ,states was productive of much good4 ,the success of the ,london exhibition also aroused the ,french to depart from the exclusively national character of their former exhibitions and to inaugurate one open to the world4 ,this was done under the direct auspices of the ,imperial ,government1 which undertook to combine certain features of both the ,london and the ,new ,york enterprises2 hence1 the first international exhibition held in ,paris was practically a private scheme supported by official guarantees4 ,a further departure was here made in the matter of building1 and1 instead of the single great structure1 there were the ,palais de l',industrie1 the ,palais des ,beaux ,arts1 the ,panorama1 and three smaller buildings for agricultural implements1 carriages1 and a variety of less costly articles4 ,another innovation was here introduced1 a partial return to the methods of the commercial fair1 in the setting apart of exhibiting spaces on the open ground4 ,the main building1 the ,palais de l',industrie1 was erected by a joint-stock company on the ,champs ,elyses1 and provided a floor space of #a1ggj1jjj square feet4 ,it was built of glass1 stone1 and brick1 and was #hjj feet long by #cej feet wide4 ,the various buildings cost about #e1jjj1jjj1 and the ,palais de l',industrie was erected for a permanent structure4 ,this exhibition was opened on ,may #ae1 #ahee1 and closed on ,november #ae1 following4 ,it was visited by #d1ecc1dfd persons4 ,besides ,france and her colonies1 fifty-three foreign states and twenty-two colonies belonging to them sent exhibits4 ,in all there were #bj1hci exhibitors1 those of ,france and her colonies predominating by only about #ejj4 ,the exhibits were classified on the ,london plan1 there being in each case thirty classes altogether4 ,excluding the main building1 which the ,imperial ,government acquired1 the exhibition cost about #b1bej1jjj4 ,between the first and second ,london exhibitions there were many industrial and art displays in the ,united ,kingdom and colonies and on the ,continent1 among which should be noted those of ,new ,brunswick and ,madras in #ahec1 ,munich in #ahed1 and ,edinburgh and ,manchester in #aheg4 ,the second ,london exhibition was undertaken by a commission headed1 as the first1 by the ,prince ,consort1 under a guarantee fund of #b1bej1jjj4 ,while it was in course of preparation the ,prince ,consort died1 and for a while a heavy pall hung over the scheme4 ,the commission here introduced the ,french idea of separate buildings4 ,the site was at ,south ,kensington1 and the main structure was built of brick1 glass1 and iron1 was nearly rectangular in shape1 and covered an area of about seven acres4 ,with the annexes the total area under roof was about twenty-three acres4 ,illustration3 ,,woman',s ,,building4 7,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 #ahic47 ,this exhibition was opened by the ,duke of ,cambridge on ,may #a1 #ahfb1 and remained open for #agg days4 ,it was visited by #f1baa1ajc persons1 a daily average of #cf1cbi1 its receipts were wholly absorbed by expenses1 and a slight deficit was left4 ,foreign exhibitors numbered #ag1hfa1 and received more than #ijjj prizes4 ,in #ahfc the ,french ,government announced that an exhibition would be held in ,paris in #ahfg1 that was intended to be more completely universal in character and more comprehensive in plan than any that had ever been held4 ,the ,champ de ,mars1 the great parade-ground on which the ,ecole ,militaire faced1 containing about #aaa acres1 was placed at the disposal of the commissioners by the ,government4 ,in the centre of this space was erected the principal building1 an oval structure mainly of iron1 #afjg feet long and #abdf feet wide1 that cost #b1ceg1jjj4 ,in planning this building the convenience of exhibitors and visitors in ready access to the exhibits of any desired country or class was given the preference over architectural effect4 ,here1 again1 was a diffusion of exhibits in detached buildings1 and a noteworthy novelty was the reservation of ground on the park surrounding the main building for the erection by foreign exhibitors of special buildings for the display of articles that could not be accommodated in the main structure4 ,this feature became the most popular one of the entire exhibition1 for it gave a most graphic illustration of the architecture1 manners1 customs1 and countless peculiarities of the peoples of the world4 ,the exhibition was opened by the ,emperor on ,april #a1 #ahfg1 and was closed on ,october #ca1 following4 ,the number of visitors was upward of #ae1jjj1jjj1 a daily average of nearly #gj1jjj1 and of exhibitors1 #ea1hai4 ,in all1 #ab1idd medals and grand prizes of honorable mention were awarded4 ,from beginning to end the expenses were #d1eif1gfd1 and the receipts aggregated #b1hbb1jjj4 ,the national and municipal governments contributed #a1bjj1jjj each1 which added to the receipts of the exhibition proper created a surplus over expenditure of #fbf1jjj4 ,london's third exhibition1 from ,may #a till ,september #cj1 #ahga1 was projected as the first of an annual series that should separately promote a distinct branch of industrial effort4 ,thirty-three foreign countries were represented2 there were approximately #djjj art and #gjjj industrial exhibitors2 and the visitors numbered #a1adb1jjj4 ,the second in the series1 in #ahgb1 was confined to printing1 paper1 music1 musical instruments1 jewelry1 cotton goods1 and fine arts2 and the third1 in #ahgc1 was devoted to the general subject of cookery4 ,great as was the universal exposition of ,paris in #ahfg1 that at ,vienna in #ahgc far surpassed it in extent and grandeur1 although its pecuniary success was severely affected by an epidemic of cholera1 a financial crisis1 and local extortions4 ,as each of the preceding international exhibitions had developed a distinctive feature1 so this of ,vienna introduced the custom of holding world's congresses for the discussion of great problems of universal application4 ,the exhibition was opened on ,may #a and closed on ,november #c1 following4 ,turnstiles recorded the entrance of #g1bed1fhg visitors4 ,there were about #gj1jjj exhibitors1 whose display1 in extent and costliness1 exceeded that of ,paris in #ahfg4 ,the gross receipts were about #b1jjj1jjj1 and expenditures about #i1hej1jjj1 making a deficiency of some #g1hej1jjj1 which the ,government liquidated4 ,the ,united ,states was represented by #fdc exhibitors1 more than half of whom were awarded prizes4 ,this brings the record up to the ,centennial ,exposition1 at ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf1 and covers the third quarter of the century4 ,the actual work of making the ,centennial ,exhibition began on ,march #c1 #ahga1 when ,congress passed an ,act creating the ,united ,states ,centennial ,commission4 ,this authorized the ,president to appoint a commissioner and an alternate from each ,state and ,territory1 on the nomination of the respective governors4 ,the appointments were promptly made1 and from the whole body of commissioners the following were chosen for the principal executive officers3 ,president1 ,joseph ,r4 ,hawley1 of ,connecticut2 ,vice-,presidents1 ,alfred ,t4 ,goshorn1 of ,ohio1 ,orestes ,cleveland1 of ,new ,jersey1 ,john ,d4 ,creigh1 of ,california1 ,robert ,lowry1 of ,iowa1 and ,robert ,mallory1 of ,kentucky2 ,director-,general1 ,alfred ,t4 ,goshorn2 ,secretary1 ,john ,l4 ,campbell1 of ,indiana2 ,assistant ,secretary1 ,dorsey ,gardner2 ,counselor and ,solicitor1 ,john ,l4 ,shoemaker4 ,details of organization and management were vested in an ,executive ,committee4 ,on ,june #a1 #ahgb1 ,congress passed an ,act creating the ,centennial ,board of ,finance1 with large powers4 ,this ,board estimated that the cost of the exhibition would be #aj1jjj1jjj1 and apportioned shares of capital stock for this amount among the several ,states and ,territories1 on the basis of population4 ,subsequently1 a ,board of ,revenue was appointed and vested with authority to collect subscriptions and other funds4 ,despite the financial panic of the summer of #ahgc1 preparations progressed so favorably that on ,july #c ,president ,grant issued a proclamation reciting that the one-hundredth anniversary of the independence of the ,united ,states would be celebrated by holding an international exhibition of arts1 manufactures1 and the products of the soil and mine1 in ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf1 opening ,april #ai and closing ,october #ai1 and inviting the nations of the world to take part in both the celebration and the exhibition4 ,in response to a formal invitation issued by the ,secretary of ,state1 thirty-two foreign governments sent favorable replies for themselves and their colonies4 ,illustration3 ,,agricultural ,,building4 7,atlanta ,exposition1 #ahie47 ,the city of ,philadelphia placed at the disposal of the commissioners a tract in ,fairmount ,park1 aggregating #bcf acres1 for the principal buildings1 and also made proportionately large allotments for the exhibition of livestock and agricultural implements4 ,five principal buildings were erected4 ,the ,main ,exhibition ,building was in the form of a parallelogram1 #ahhj feet long and #dfd feet wide1 with projections at the centre of the longest sides #daf feet long1 and at the centre of the short ones #baf feet long4 ,the building was erected on piers of masonry1 wrought-iron columns supporting wrought-iron roof trusses forming the superstructure1 the sides of which for some distance above the ground were finished between the columns with paneled brick work4 ,this building covered #ba4dg acres1 had a floor space of #icf1jjh square feet1 and cost #a1fjj1jjj4 ,the ,art ,gallery and ,memorial ,hall1 designed to be a permanent structure1 was erected on an eminence in the ,lansdowne ,plateau4 ,it is built of granite1 glass1 and iron1 in the modern ,renaissance style of architecture1 on a terrace several feet above the level of the ,plateau1 and cost #a1ejj1jjj4 ,the dimensions are3 length1 #cfe feet2 width1 #baj feet2 height1 #ei feet4 ,from the centre of the structure rises a dome of iron and glass1 #aej feet in height1 surmounted by a figure of ,columbia with outstretched hands4 ,this building was erected by the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 and is now used as a permanent art and industrial museum4 ,machinery ,hall was #adjb feet long and #cfj feet wide1 with an annex on the south side #baj by #bjh feet1 and the main building and annex had together a floor space of #eeh1ddj square feet1 or nearly thirteen acres4 ,the total cost was #gib1jjj4 ,horticultural ,hall1 near the ,art ,gallery1 was built by the city of ,philadelphia for permanent uses4 ,it exhibits the ,moorish architecture of the twelfth century1 is #chc feet long by #aic feet wide1 and is #gb feet high to the top of the lantern4 ,its cost was #bea1icg4 ,the ,agricultural ,building was erected of wood and glass1 the ground plan showing a parallelogram #fcj feet long by #dfe feet wide1 and a nave #hbf feet long and #ajj feet wide crossed by three transepts1 and cost about #cef1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,machinery ,,hall4 7,atlanta ,exposition1 #ahie47 ,other noteworthy edifices were the ,united ,states ,government ,building1 #ejd feet long by #cjj feet wide1 prepared to exhibit the various functions of the public service2 the ,women's ,pavilion1 covering an area of an acre1 and with its exhibits of woman's handiwork from the fifteen leading nations of the world constituting the first display of the kind ever attempted on a large scale2 twenty-six buildings erected by ,state and ,territorial governments2 and many others put up by foreign governments or exhibitors4 ,before the exhibition closed there were more than two hundred buildings on the ground4 ,an interesting feature of this exhibition was the observance of ,state ,days1 when the governors of the ,states1 with their official staffs and a large following of citizens1 made ceremonial visits and held receptions in the several ,state buildings4 ,there were also numerous other special days1 when hosts of people united in a common interest1 religious1 fraternal1 social1 military1 aquatic1 or educational1 added thousands to the ordinary attendance4 ,during the exhibition #i1iaj1iff persons entered the grounds1 of whom #g1bej1fbj paid the full rate of fifty cents1 #gec1fcd paid twenty-five cents each1 and #a1ijf1fib had free entry4 ,the exhibition represented an outlay of all kinds and by all interests of about #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,the ,united ,states ,government aided it with a loan of #a1ejj1jjj1 which was repaid2 the ,state of ,pennsylvania appropriated #a1jjj1jjj1 and the city of ,philadelphia gave #a1ejj1jjj4 ,from every point of view it was an unqualified success4 ,two years after the ,centennial ,exposition another one was held in ,paris1 which not only exceeded all previous ones in that city in size and magnificence1 but made an unprecedented display of works of art and literature4 ,on this occasion about one hundred acres were set apart for the various buildings1 the exhibitors numbered some eighty thousand1 the gross receipts were upward of #b1ejj1jjj1 and #af1jcb1gbe visitors were registered4 ,the third world's exhibition in the ,united ,states was held in ,new ,orleans during the winter of #ahhd-he1 and was planned to commemorate the centennial of the first export of cotton from ,america4 ,the conception was an outgrowth of the exposition in ,philadelphia1 and was first carried out on a limited scale in ,atlanta in #ahha1 and on a larger one in ,louisville in #ahhc4 ,under the belief that the cotton centennial should be celebrated in the chief city of the cotton belt1 the ,national ,cotton ,planters' ,association joined heartily in the scheme suggested by ,major ,e4 ,a4 ,burke1 of ,new ,orleans1 for a universal exhibition in that city1 in which the great industry of the ,southern ,states should play the most prominent part4 ,congress aided the movement by an ,act incorporating the ,world's ,industrial and ,cotton ,centennial ,exposition1 and1 further1 made a loan of #a1jjj1jjj and appropriated #cjj1jjj for a ,federal ,building4 ,railroad and other corporations subscribed for #ejj1jjj in stock1 the ,state of ,louisiana appropriated #ajj1jjj1 and the city of ,new ,orleans contributed a similar sum for the erection of a permanent ,horticultural ,hall4 ,illustration3 ,,woman',s ,,building4 7,nashville ,exposition1 #ahig47 ,formal invitations were sent out to all foreign governments by the ,state ,department at ,washington1 commissioners were appointed for the several ,states and ,territories1 and the time of the exposition was fixed for ,december #a1 #ahhd1 to ,may #ca1 #ahhe4 ,the site selected was the ,upper ,city ,park1 an unimproved tract of #bde acres1 and in its centre was erected the ,main ,building1 a structure built wholly of wood1 #acgh feet long and #ije feet wide1 and with a continuous roof principally of glass4 ,the entire building covered a space of thirty-three acres4 ,a ,music ,hall capable of seating #aa1jjj persons was constructed in the centre of this building1 and a ,machinery ,hall in the rear4 ,an extension at the southern end1 #egj by #abj feet1 was devoted to mills and factories in operation1 and at right angles with this extension was a building given up to sawmills4 ,the ,federal ,building1 planned for the exhibits of the ,united ,states ,government and of the ,states1 was #hhe feet long by #efe feet wide1 and in general style and construction conformed to the ,main ,building4 ,horticultural ,hall1 built of iron and glass1 is #fjj feet long1 #ajj feet wide in main structure1 and has a central transept carrying out the extreme width to #aid feet4 ,the ,art ,building1 of corrugated iron and glass1 stood nearly in front of the ,main ,building1 and was #bej long by #ajj feet wide1 with a rotunda #ej feet square in the centre4 ,two other noteworthy buildings were erected by the ,mexican ,government1 one in the style of a native hacienda1 with an interior gallery for the display of horticulture and bird-life2 the other for native minerals4 ,excluding those of ,mexico1 the various buildings covered an area of #b1fgc1ehh square feet1 or sixty-two acres1 and all buildings covered about seventy-six acres4 ,among the special features of this exposition were the display of woman's work1 under charge of ,mrs4 ,julia ,ward ,howe2 of the work of the colored race1 under charge of the late ,blanche ,k4 ,bruce2 of the cultivation of cotton and manufacture of the fibre2 and of the cultivation1 harvesting1 and preparation for market of rice and sugar4 ,on ,may #e1 #ahhi1 another universal exposition was opened in ,paris4 ,this was also a commemorative one1 marking the centennial of the ,french ,revolution1 and because of its political character only the ,united ,states and ,switzerland accorded it official recognition1 although most of the ,european governments encouraged individual participation4 ,the exposition1 despite this feature1 was a grand success because of its unusual extent and comprehensiveness and its distinctive features4 ,this exposition cost #h1fjj1jjj1 and had about #fj1jjj exhibitors and more than #bh1jjj1jjj reported visitors1 the greater number1 of course1 being ,french4 ,the making of the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 to commemorate the discovery of ,america by ,columbus1 began soon after the close of the ,centennial ,exposition in ,philadelphia4 ,it was at first proposed to create a permanent exposition1 to be held in ,washington in #ahib1 to illustrate the progress of ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america1 and a board of promotion was organized4 ,by #ahhi1 however1 a strong popular sentiment had been aroused for a more comprehensive display1 and citizens of ,washington1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 and ,st4 ,louis vied with each other in pressing on a special committee of the ,united ,states ,senate the advantages of their respective cities4 ,a certificate to the effect that subscriptions to the amount of #e1jjj1jjj had been made in ,chicago decided the controversy in favor of that city4 ,on ,april #be1 #ahij1 ,congress passed an ,act giving a legal status to a ,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 to be held under the auspices and supervision of the ,united ,states ,government1 the organizing corporation to guarantee the subscription of #aj1jjj1jjj and the payment of #ejj1jjj before the national commissioners should officially recognize the site offered by the corporation for the exposition4 ,on ,december #bd1 following1 ,president ,harrison announced the forthcoming exposition1 to be opened on ,may #a1 #ahic1 and invited the nations of the world to participate in it4 ,congress appropriated in various sums a total of #c1bch1bej in money and authorized the coining of #e1jjj1jjj souvenir fifty-cent pieces in silver to be sold for the benefit of the exposition4 ,the management was vested in a ,national ,commission of two representatives of each ,state and ,territory and of the ,district of ,columbia1 and eight from the country at large4 ,the site was ,jackson ,park1 on the shore of ,lake ,michigan1 to which was added the ,midway ,plaisance tract of #hj acres1 making an aggregate ground area of #fcc acres4 ,on the main ground more than #aej noteworthy buildings were erected4 ,the ,midway ,plaisance was devoted to amusements and the illustration of the manners and customs of the world4 ,here1 the most conspicuous of a multitude of great and curious objects was the gigantic revolving and passenger-carrying ,ferris ,wheel4 ,all of the exposition buildings proper were constructed of wood1 iron1 and glass1 in combination with a material known as 8staff10 made by uniting plaster and jute fibre in water1 in the form of a paste4 ,as all exterior surfaces were painted white1 the exposition grounds became popularly known as the ,white ,city4 ,illustration3 ,,art ,,building4 ,,exact ,,reproduction ,,of ,,the ,,parthenon4 7,nashville ,exposition1 #ahig47 ,the principal buildings1 with their cost1 were those of ,manufactures and ,liberal ,arts1 the largest of all1 #afhg by #ghg feet1 #a1ejj1jjj2 ,machinery1 #a1bhe1jjj2 ,fine ,arts1 #fgj1jjj2 ,agriculture1 #fah1jjj2 ,administration1 #dce1jjj2 ,electricity1 #dja1jjj2 ,united ,states ,government1 #djj1jjj2 ,live ,stock1 #che1jjj2 ,transportation1 #cgj1jjj2 ,horticulture1 #cjj1jjj2 ,mines1 #bfe1jjj2 ,fisheries1 #bbd1jjj2 ,woman's1 #ach1jjj2 ,forestry1 #ajj1jjj2 and a brick imitation of a modern ,united ,states battleship1 with complete armament and equipment1 #ajj1jjj4 ,foreign governments appropriated a total of #f1ega1ebj for their respective buildings and exhibits1 ,france leading with #fej1jjj1 and being followed by ,japan1 #fcj1jjj2 ,brazil1 #fjj1jjj2 ,germany1 #bad1bjj2 and ,austria1 #adi1ajj2 and the ,states and ,territories1 a total of #f1jbj1hej4 ,the entire cost of construction was #ah1cbb1fbb4 ,according to the original ,act of ,congress1 the buildings then completed were dedicated on ,columbus ,day1 ,october #ba1 #ahib1 with prayer1 music1 and an oration by ,chauncey ,m4 ,depew1 and during that week a number of ,state buildings were also dedicated4 ,the exposition was formally opened with exceedingly brilliant ceremonies on ,may #a1 #ahic1 and was closed with an entire lack of formality on ,october #cj1 following1 in consequence of the assassination of ,carter ,harrison1 mayor of ,chicago1 two days before4 ,up to ,november #ab1 the receipts from all sources aggregated #cc1bij1jfe1 and the expenditures1 #ca1aag1cec4 ,the total number of paid admissions1 excluding those prior to the opening and after the closing1 was #ba1dgg1bah1 and of all1 #bg1ebi1djj2 smallest single-day number1 #aj1gia2 largest1 on 8,chicago ,day10 #gbi1bjc4 ,in all there were #fe1dbb exhibitors1 and medals were awarded to #bc1geg of them1 the jury examining and reporting on more than #bej1jjj separate exhibits4 ,present space will only permit the briefest summarizing of this greatest of all international expositions hitherto held1--matchless in extent1 in completeness of composition1 in grandeur of setting4 ,a pleasing evidence of the influence the undertaking was expected to yield is found in the remarkably large number of international congresses that were held during its progress4 ,this feature alone called for #abde separate sessions1 at which there were #eigd speakers and a special attendance of more than #gjj1jjj persons1 chiefly adults4 ,almost every conceivable branch of human thought and effort had its individual congress4 ,particularly noticeable among these formal gatherings was the ,parliament of ,religions1 in which ,christian1 ,protestant1 ,catholic1 ,jew1 and ,buddhist expounded their doctrinal beliefs and narrated the story of their sectarian progress and hopes4 ,the ,cotton ,states' and ,international ,exposition1 opened in ,atlanta on ,september #ah1 #ahie1 had its origin in two purposes3 the first1 to give the industrial conditions of the ,southern ,states a more adequate display than they had at ,chicago1 owing to the constitutional inability of their ,legislatures to appropriate public money for such a purpose2 the second1 to promote larger trade relations between the ,south and the ,latin-,american republics and with ,europe4 ,it was set on foot by private enterprise1 and received its largest official aid from the city council of ,atlanta1 which appropriated #ge1jjj4 ,piedmont ,park1 a tract of #ahi acres1 two miles from the centre of the city1 and memorable because traversed by the rifle-pits over which ,general ,sherman threw shells into the city thirty-one years before1 was selected as the site4 ,in a natural dip of the ground an artificial lake was constructed1 covering thirteen acres1 and around it the principal buildings were erected4 ,not only the ,southern1 but many of the ,northern and ,western ,states aided the enterprise with special buildings and exhibits4 ,of the thirteen large buildings1 that of the ,united ,states ,government occupied the most conspicuous site4 ,the ,administration ,building was a reproduction of portions of ,blarney ,castle1 the ,tower of ,london1 ,warwick ,castle1 the ,rheinstein in ,germany1 and ,st4 ,michael's1 on the coast of ,brittany4 ,on a considerable elevation was the ,auditorium1 a four-story building with a dome surmounted by a statue of ,music4 ,the largest building was that devoted to ,manufactures and ,liberal ,arts1 and the most original of all in design was the one set apart for ,minerals and ,forestry1 which was constructed entirely of wood from the different ,southern ,states in its natural condition1 with the bark on4 ,the ,fine ,arts and the ,woman's ,buildings were the showiest1 and the ,negro ,building was made attractive by specimens of the industry of negroes in fourteen ,states4 ,the exposition was closed ,december #ca1 and cost about #b1jjj1jjj4 ,the international exposition at ,nashville1 open from ,may #a to ,october #cj1 #ahig1 was a commemoration of the one-hundredth anniversary of the admission of ,tennessee into the ,union1 and had for its special attraction a reproduction of a number of notable buildings of antiquity4 ,the original plan provided for an exposition in #ahif1 the true centennial year1 but the projectors encountered unusual opposition in their efforts to procure the necessary funds1 and it was not till early in #ahig that the incorporators were able to begin the creation of the ,centennial ,city4 ,illustration3 ,,grand ,,court1 ,,omaha ,,exhibition1 #ahih4 7,night view47 ,west ,side ,park1 a former race-course in the suburbs of ,nashville1 with many natural attractions in running water and forest growths1 was selected as the site1 and ,centennial ,city was made for the brief time of the exposition a full-fledged municipality1 with a mayor1 board of aldermen1 and a combined police and fire department4 ,the reproduction of notable buildings showed on a reduced scale the ,parthenon1 the ,pyramid of ,cheops1 the ,alamo of ,texas1 the ,blue ,grotto of ,capri1 a glimpse of the ,rialto of ,venice1 and1 in the beautiful main entrance1 a type of early ,egyptian architecture4 ,a flagstaff #bej feet high1 cotton and tobacco fields1 ,venetian gondolas1 ,vanity ,fair1 a typical ,chinese farm1 an abundance of statues of classical and mythological subjects1 waterfall and old-time wheel at work1 ,lake ,katherine1 ,ellen ,island1 the umbrella fountain1 and a large field for athletic sports1 were among the pleasurable features4 ,the ,state made a strong showing of its industrial development and of its riches yet in reserve4 ,in all #aij acres of ground were occupied4 ,the total receipts were #a1jhg1bbg1 and the expenditures balanced to a cent4 ,a unique expense feature was that1 excluding the preliminary work1 the women raised the money and paid the entire running cost of the ,woman's ,department4 ,the turnstiles registered #a1hhf1gad entrances4 ,this exposition was succeeded in #ahih by the ,trans-,mississippi and ,international ,exposition at ,omaha1 an undertaking designed to show what had been accomplished by the pioneers and their children in the great ,trans-,mississippi ,valley1 and especially in a ,state that forty-three years before was an unorganized territory in the vast tract known as the ,louisiana ,purchase4 ,the site was a plateau just north of the city1 and in planning the display every consideration was given to originality4 ,excepting that the grounds constituted a second ,white ,city1 from the use of 8staff10 as at ,chicago1 every feature of design and construction possessed striking elements of difference from all similar efforts in the past4 ,the management was under the presidency of ,gurdon ,w4 ,wattles1 and the exposition was formally opened by ,president ,mc,kinley1 who1 in the ,white ,house at ,washington1 pressed an electric button that started the great engine4 ,the ,united ,states ,government erected a building of the classic style1 following the ,ionic order4 ,it was surmounted by a colossal dome supporting a copy of ,bartholdi's statue of 8,liberty ,enlightening the ,world10 and had a floor space for exhibits of about #ej1jjj square feet4 ,the ,government also recognized the importance of the event by issuing a special set of commemorative postage stamps4 ,fine arts was exhibited in a twin-domed building1 a structure in two parts1 with an elaborate peristyle between them1 and all under one great roof4 ,what afforded the masses the greatest delight were the ethnological exhibits and the instructive and amusing scenes on the ,midway ,reserve4 ,these included an ,indian village1 with representatives from every tribe between ,alaska and ,florida1 a ,chinese village1 an ,arabian encampment1 a ,moorish town1 a ,swiss village1 a ,cairo street1 the entertaining ,egyptian ,pyramid1 and the gigantic passenger-carrying ,sherman ,umbrella--a mechanical marvel operated by electricity1 and one hundred feet higher than the ,ferris ,wheel of ,chicago4 ,there was also a picturesque lagoon or canal1 half a mile long and #aej feet wide at its narrowest part1 terminating in an artificial lake trefoil in shape and #djj feet across4 ,the exposition was opened on ,june #a and was closed on ,october #ca4 ,in that time it was visited by more than #b1fjj1jjj people1 the largest single-day attendance being #ih1ghe4 ,the total receipts were not quite #b1jjj1jjj1 and the expenditures were about #a1ejj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,main ,,building1 ,,national ,,export ,,exposition1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,sept4 #ad ,,to ,,nov4 #cj1 #ahii4 ,this completes the record of the most notable expositions and the incidental history of their development1 from the commercial fair of the previous century up to near the close of #ahii4 ,there remains to note a form of permanent exhibition that has been purposely reserved for this point4 ,the ,commercial ,museum1 of which ,philadelphia has the two most effective examples in existence1 is a purely commercial development1 yet an educational text-book of unique and extraordinary compass4 ,though the ,philadelphia ,commercial ,museum and the similar department of the ,philadelphia ,bourse were both projected before the foreign trade of the ,united ,states had reached the enormous volume that caused wonder and alarm alike all over the world1 both have had a powerful1 direct1 and immediate influence in bringing about a greater appreciation abroad of ,american products4 ,the commercial museums stand between the ,american producer and the foreign factor4 ,they inform the former where special articles are needed and the latter of reputable firms who can supply their needs4 ,by a large corps of traveling agents1 an enormous correspondence1 and a direct coperation with the ,state ,department and its representatives1 these museums keep in the closest possible touch with the commercial interests of the world4 ,all this is independent of the exhibition feature1 a vast department in which the principal economic productions1 first of the ,united ,states and then correspondingly of the world1 are spread before the eye of the visitor4 ,in this connection should also be noted the fact that many of our commercial representatives abroad have established at their headquarters collections of ,american products that are particularly needed in their respective localities4 ,in all of the foregoing a single text has been kept in mind3 ,what has been the influence of the fair1 the exhibition1 the international exposition8 ,ready answers have been suggested by the several items of cost and attendance4 ,another answer may be divined in their frequency and universality4 ,and at the close of this survey of more than a hundred years1 probably the best answer of all is to be found in the efforts in this line with which one century is closed and another opened4 ,these include the ,greater ,american ,exposition at ,omaha1 ,july-,november1 #ahii1 a commercial success1 and a revelation of trans-,mississippi pioneering enterprise4 ,this was supplemented by the ,export ,exposition and ,world's ,commercial ,congress1 the first of the kind ever held under the joint auspices of the ,commercial ,museum and the ,franklin ,institute of ,philadelphia1 in that city1 in ,september-,november1 #ahii4 ,then followed the ,universal ,exposition in ,paris1 in #aijj4 ,it was regarded as especially elaborate and successful4 ,it beautified the ,champ de ,mars and ,place des ,invalides with handsome industrial palaces1 brought into permanent existence the two ,palaces of ,fine ,arts and the ,alexander ,,iii4 ,bridge1 lined the banks of the ,seine with the 8,street of ,nations10 and swarmed the ,trocadero with the world's colonization4 ,over #ej1jjj1jjj witnessed its panoramic scenes4 ,its expense was largely provided for by prior sales of tickets on a bonded plan4 ,the century turned with a prospective of the ,pan ,american ,exposition at ,buffalo and ,international at ,glasgow in #aija2 the ,ohio ,centennial and ,international at ,toledo in #aijb2 the ,international at ,liege1 ,belgium1 in #aijc2 and the ,louisiana ,purchase ,centennial at ,st4 ,louis in #aijd4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,coinage1 ,,currency1 ,,and ,,banking ,,by ,,hon4 ,,bradford ,,rhodes1 ,editor of 8,banker's ,magazine40 ,i4 ,,banks ,,and ,,banking ,,resources4 ,the history of nation building contains no parallel to the progress and development of the ,united ,states in the past one hundred years1 and the most accurate and striking indication of this remarkable growth may be seen in the evolution of our currency and banking systems4 ,as the variations in temperature and the changes in atmospheric pressure are measured by the thermometer and barometer1 so are the fluctuations in a country's wealth gauged by the banks and other financial institutions4 ,likewise the degree of civilization to which a country has attained is reflected by the perfection of its monetary machinery4 ,after having tried nearly every unwise experiment condemned by the teachings of history1 the ,united ,states has finally reached a position where its currency meets the two fundamental requirements of sound finance1 namely1 7#a7 the standard of value is that in use among the great commercial states of the world2 7#b7 all of the currency is either directly or indirectly convertible into the standard coin4 ,despite some minor faults in our financial system which make the maintenance of the parity of the several kinds of currency a cumbersome and expensive operation1 and prevent the banks from rendering that full degree of assistance to commerce and industry which they would afford under laws that did not unnecessarily restrict their rightful functions1 all our money responds to the two essential tests--safety and convertibility2 while the banks have been among the most powerful factors in placing the ,united ,states in the front rank of the nations of the earth4 ,our finances may be likened to a triangle1 of which the base--the gold standard--has been in actual existence since #ahgi 7much longer than that in law71 and the other side--safety--also assured1 wanting but another addition--elasticity--to complete the symmetrical and perfect figure4 ,that this last requisite of a sound currency will be supplied by the wisdom and ingenuity of our people1 is not to be doubted4 ,there are two respects in which the financial policy of the ,united ,states is unique in comparison with most other great commercial countries2 first1 its gold reserve is unprotected by the devices in use elsewhere1 as it does not charge a premium on gold as the ,bank of ,france does when gold is wanted for export1 nor can it protect the gold reserve by raising the rate of discount as the great banks of ,europe may do2 second1 banking is practically free and anti-monopolistic4 ,under these conditions we have reached a place that may well excite the astonishment of the old-world countries4 ,our stock of metallic money1 as estimated by the ,director of the ,mint1 in #ahih1 was #ibe1jjj1jjj in gold and #fch1jjj1jjj in silver4 ,no other nation owned so much gold4 ,only one--,china--owned as much silver1 but it had no gold1 and the per capita of silver in ,china is only #a4if against #h4ef in the ,united ,states4 ,our stock of gold is more than double that of ,great ,britain1 greater by a hundred millions than that of ,france1 and also exceeds that of ,germany and ,russia4 ,of our silver stock1 #efa1ejj1jjj is a full legal tender1 and #gf1gjj1jjj a limited legal tender1 the latter sum representing the subsidiary coins4 ,in our banking power the situation is equally fortunate4 ,mulhall defines banking power as the paid-up capital of banks1 the deposits exclusive of savings banks1 and the amount of convertible paper money4 ,he shows the growth of this form of wealth to have been as follows1 from #ahdj to #ahid3-- ,,millions ,,pounds ,,sterling4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,great ,united ,france4 ,germany4 ,other ,total4 ,britain4 ,states ,states ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ahdj #acb #ij #af #ab #eh #cjh #ahid #ifj #a1jcj #cef #bca #gfj #c1ccg ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,in the two great essentials of financial strength--the quantity of metallic money and banking power--we have far outstripped every other nation4 ,this is an unfailing sign of our advance toward a position of commercial and industrial supremacy4 ,the sceptre of financial power has crossed the ,atlantic from ,europe to the ,new ,world4 ,we are gradually acquiring command of the world's markets1 and in time we shall see our banks--ever the handmaids of commerce--extending their operations to the most distant quarters of the earth and carrying everywhere the beneficent influences of modern civilization4 ,new ,york as a financial centre has been growing with astonishing rapidity in recent years4 ,from #ahgi to #ahii the banks belonging to the ,new ,york ,clearing-,house ,association increased their deposits from #bed1gjj1jjj to #iaj1ejj1jjj1 and their specie--chiefly gold--from #ed1gjj1jjj to #bjb1fjj1jjj1 the latter item having about doubled in the past two years1 being #ajd1gjj1jjj in #ahig1 and #bjb1fjj1jjj1 as above stated1 in #ahii4 ,the aggregate of banking institutions in the city--national banks1 state banks1 trust companies1 and savings banks1 exclusive of private banking firms--had1 about ,january #a1 #ahii1 capital1 surplus1 and profits amounting to #caa1fjj1jjj2 deposits of #b1jdg1hjj1jjj2 and total resources of nearly #b1ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,one bank--the ,national ,city--with over #add1jjj1jjj of deposits1 is the largest in the ,united ,states2 while the ,bowery ,savings ,bank1 with #aba1jjj depositors and #fg1jjj1jjj of deposits1 is the largest of its kind in the country4 ,the present status of the different classes of banks in the ,united ,states is fairly shown by the following table compiled from the ,annual ,report of the ,comptroller of the ,currency1 for the year #ahih3-- ,,principal ,,items ,,of ,,resources ,,and ,,liabilities ,,of ,,all ,,classes ,,of ,,banks ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,july #ad1 #ahih4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,national ,state ,banks4,loan ,trust ,banks4 ,companies4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,loans #b1aea1geg1fee #hac1gdi1hjceci1afb1dde ,united ,states bonds #bhe1cef1ijj #d1ahe1cjd #cd1ahf1ddj ,other bonds #bej1fhi1cge #abg1ejj1dhd #aei1gia1cab ,cash #dib1hhb1gbd #acc1hgg1acc #bb1bej1hfb ,capital #fbb1jaf1gde #bcc1ehg1cec #aja1bbh1eee ,surplus and profits #ccb1iga1fdc #aji1eed1eai #ig1fdc1fff ,deposits #b1jgf1bbf1egf #iab1cfe1djf #ffb1ach1cig ,total resources #c1igg1fge1ddea1cef1jhd1hjj #idb1dfb1agi ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,savings ,private ,total4 ,banks4 ,banks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,loans #a1jgj1gge1biceg1bjf1haid1fcb1fcb1jae ,united ,states bonds #adj1jbi1gbf #ibg1dgc #dfd1fhe1hdc ,other bonds #hcd1fgj1dia #c1eii1jib #a1cgf1bej1ged ,cash #cb1ibh1cbc #e1heg1acb #fhg1gif1agd ,capital #ah1ecf1acj #af1gba1gej #iib1jij1ecc ,surplus and profits #ahg1dge1iga #e1jib1cda #gcb1gch1adj ,deposits #b1jbh1bjh1dji #fb1jhe1jhd #e1gda1jbc1hgb ,total resources #b1bda1cdd1iia #ia1dcf1chg #h1fji1jjc1hjb ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,there were #cehb national banks that reported1 and #eijc other banks1 a total of #idhe4 ,the total banking funds1 that is1 capital1 surplus and profits1 and individual deposits1 of all banks reporting1 amounted to #g1daf1cee1efh4 ,we cannot get a correct understanding of these figures without going back to earlier dates and making comparisons4 ,in #agih there were twenty-five state banks in the country1 against #cife reporting to the ,comptroller of the ,currency in #ahih1 which is perhaps about #ij per cent of the total of such institutions now existing4 ,a hundred years ago the capital of the state banks was less than twenty millions1 compared with #bcc1iga1fdc now reported4 ,they had1 all told1 but #ad1jjj1jjj of specie--half as much as is now held by one ,new ,york city bank alone4 ,their circulation was only #i1jjj1jjj1 compared with more than #bjj1jjj1jjj of national bank circulation now outstanding4 ,the national banks also show a remarkable growth4 ,in #ahfi there were #afbj banks in operation1 reporting #dbj1hjj1jjj capital1 #edg1ijj1jjj individual deposits1 #ag1ejj1jjj specie1 and #a1eag1gjj1jjj total resources4 ,thirty years later the number of banks had increased to #ceij1 while the capital was #fjh1cjj1jjj1 the individual deposits #b1bcb1ajj1jjj1 and specie #cga1hdc1djj1 while the total resources had increased to #d1djc1hjj1jjj4 ,the total wealth of the ,united ,states in #ahie was estimated at more than #hj1jjj1jjj1jjj1--;far exceeding in the aggregate that of any other country in the world4 ,it is expected that the census of #aijj will show our total wealth to be more than #ajj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 or probably double that of ,great ,britain1 the next richest nation4 ,but while the nation is piling up wealth at an unexampled rate1 it cannot be said that this is a land 8where wealth accumulates and men decay40 ,great in its material resources1 the country was never before stronger in those elements which constitute the chief reliance of national power4 ,a united citizenship1 possessing an honesty that adversity cannot sully and an intelligence that when once aroused penetrates the most cunningly concealed economic sophistries1 working out the problems of the future under laws and conditions assuring to the individual the largest opportunities1 points to a development in the twentieth century in no wise inferior to that of the hundred years preceding4 ,,ii4 ,,coinage ,,and ,,production ,,of ,,precious ,,metals4 ,the prevailing systems of coinage in this country and among all great commercial nations are the result of development and growth4 ,gold and silver have become the principal money metals by a process of natural selection1 which has chosen the instruments best suited to the purpose4 ,in recent years1 and under the laws of development1 nearly all the great trading countries of the world have selected gold as the standard of value4 ,in the future1 gold itself may give way to something better1 for it only relatively meets the essentials of a perfect standard4 ,among ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,oriental peoples1 cattle were generally used as a standard of value4 ,the modern rupee of ,india is the old ,sanscrit word roupa1 a herd4 ,capital is but the estimate of ,roman riches in cattle4 ,the ,latin pecus1 cattle1 is the root of pecunia1 riches1 and the origin of our word pecuniary4 ,the ,icelanders measured values in dried fish2 the ,hudson ,bay country in skins2 the early ,virginians in tobacco2 the ,indians of the ,united ,states and ,canada in wampum2 the ,chinese1 even in recent times1 in squares of pressed tea2 the ,africans in bars of salt and slaves4 ,these primitive devices gradually gave way1 under the demands of international trade1 to the use of metals as standards of value4 ,tin1 copper1 gold1 silver1 and iron all were used1 and1 at first1 passed by weight4 ,government coinage of money is thought to date from the seventh century ,b4 ,c41 and is credited to the ,lydians and to ,pheidon of ,argos1 the official stamp being a guarantee of the honesty1 weight1 and purity of the coins4 ,modern coinage dates from the reformation of the coinage of ,rome under ,constantine1 who introduced the gold solidus of #c4jb in value1 and a silver coin of like weight but of relative value4 ,after the time of ,julian1 this silver piece1 called siliqua1 was given such value as that twenty-four of them equaled a gold solidus4 ,in the ,frankish ,empire1 under the ,merovingian kings1 the relative values of the solidus and siliqua fluctuated greatly4 ,in the eighth century1 on account of the scarcity of gold1 there was a gradual transition to the silver standard1 and a silver unit1 also called a solidus1 was substituted for the gold solidus1 the former being divided into twelve pence4 ,this silver solidus afterwards became the shilling of ,england and ,germany4 ,at first #cjj pence were coined out of a pound of silver2 but under ,pepin the number was reduced to twenty-two solidi of twelve pence each--#bfd pence--out of a pound of silver4 ,under ,charlemagne it was provided that only #bdj pence1 or twenty solidi of account1 should be stamped out of a pound of silver1 and this system was introduced1 with more or less success1 in what is now ,france and ,germany4 ,as to form1 it has remained1 up to the most recent period1 the basis not only of the countries of ,charlemagne's ,empire but of ,england4 ,after the time of ,henry ,,viii4 came a period of coinage debasement which culminated in #aeea4 ,a thorough coinage reform was effected under ,elizabeth in #aefj4 ,the first large coinages of gold in ,england were made under ,james ,i4 ,these continued until the death of ,william ,,iii41 in #agja4 ,still1 silver continued to be the standard metal1 and in #afie another attempt was made to reform the currency by a recoinage of the silver pieces1 most of which had been clipped or worn1 into a new full-weight silver coin4 ,these1 however1 were soon exported1 in spite of a reduction of the current value of the guinea1 in #agag4 ,the gold standard in ,england gained a nearly complete victory by act of ,parliament in #aggd1 which provided that silver coins not of full weight 7there were hardly any others7 need not be accepted in payments of more than twenty-five pounds1 except by weight4 ,this provision1 after several renewals1 became permanent in #agih4 ,in #agig coinage of silver was suspended1 and the single gold standard practically introduced1 though its operation was somewhat interfered with by the existence of a paper currency4 ,in #ahaf the present ,english monetary system was introduced4 ,it held fast to the gold standard1 by the provision that silver pieces should be used only as divisional coins1 and with a legal-tender power limited to forty shillings4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,united ,,states ,,mint1 ,,philadelphia4 ,properly speaking1 there was no coinage in the ,united ,states during the colonial period4 ,maryland had a mint at one time1 and one or two of the other ,states1 but they practically amounted to nothing4 ,in the early colonial period the substitutes for coins were wampum and bullets1 as in ,massachusetts2 skins and furs1 as in ,new ,york2 tobacco1 as in ,maryland and ,virginia4 ,the coins in use before the ,revolution were1 to some extent1 those of ,england1 but more largely those of ,spain1 circulated in ,south ,america and traveling up to the ,united ,states4 ,the unit of account was the ,spanish milled dollar or piece-of-eight1 though1 up to #agge1 accounts were kept in pounds1 shillings1 and pence1 a pound consisting1 then as now1 of twenty shillings1 and a shilling of twelve pence 8colonial0 or 8pound0 currency4 ,four pounds of this 8colonial currency0 were reckoned as equal to three pounds sterling4 ,this colonial composite system of current coins was regulated by coinage tariffs4 ,such a tariff1 issued in #agej1 valued one ounce of silver at six shillings and eightpence1 the ,spanish milled dollar at six shillings1 the guinea at twenty-eight shillings1 and the ,english crown at six shillings and eightpence4 ,all foreign coins were valued in proportion to the value of the ,spanish piece-of-eight4 ,some of the colonies stamped the shilling1 which constituted a large part of the money in circulation4 ,it1 however1 varied greatly in value in the different colonies4 ,thus1 the ,spanish dollar equaled five shillings in ,georgia2 eight in ,north ,carolina and ,new ,york2 six in ,virginia1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,massachusetts1 and ,rhode ,island2 seven and sixpence in ,maryland1 ,delaware1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,new ,jersey2 thirty-two and sixpence in ,south ,carolina4 ,the ,spanish dollar itself1 with which these comparisons were made1 was frequently below legal weight1 and1 therefore1 varied in value4 ,where the pieces mentioned in the tariff of #aggf were of full weight1 the ratio there established was the ,english ratio of one to #ae4ba1 the ratio for bullion being nearly the same4 ,after the tariff of #aggf had been in operation for six years1 the colonies began to feel keenly the difficulties caused by the variety of coins constituting their metallic circulating medium1 and the need of a special ,american coinage was frequently expressed4 ,in #aghb1 ,robert ,morris1 superintendent of finance1 submitted to the ,congress of the ,confederation a scheme for a national coinage and the establishment of an ,american mint1 which met with approval4 ,jefferson recommended the decimal system1 with the dollar as the unit4 ,neither of these proposals was carried into effect till1 in #aghf1 the ,congress of the ,confederation chose as the monetary unit of the ,united ,states the dollar of #cge4fd grains of pure silver1 which unit had its origin in the ,spanish piaster or milled dollar1 then the basis of the metallic circulation of the ,english colonies in ,america4 ,this ,american dollar was never coined1 there not being at the time a mint in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,act of ,april #b1 #agib1 established the first monetary system of the ,united ,states4 ,the bases of the system were3 ,the gold dollar1 containing #bd4ge grains of pure gold1 and stamped in pieces of #aj1 #e1 and #b4ej1 denominated respectively eagles1 half-eagles1 and quarter-eagles2 the silver dollar1 containing #cga4be grains of pure silver4 ,a mint was established4 ,the coinage was unlimited1 and there was no mint charge4 ,the ratio of gold to silver in coinage was #a3ae4 ,both gold and silver were legal tender4 ,the standard was double4#d ,the ,act of #agib undervalued gold1 which was therefore exported4 ,the ,act of ,june #bh1 #ahcd1 was passed to remedy this by changing the mint ratio between the metals to #a3af4jjb4 ,the latter act fixed the weight of the gold dollar at #be4h grains1 but lowered the fineness from #j4iaf to #j4hiibbe4 ,the fine weight of the gold dollar was thus reduced to #bc4b grains4 ,the ,act of #ahcd undervalued silver as that of #agib had undervalued gold1 and silver was attracted to ,europe by the more favorable ratio of #a3ae4 ,the ,act of ,january #ah1 #ahcg1 was passed to make the fineness of the gold and silver coins uniform4 ,the legal weight of the gold dollar was fixed at #be4h grains1 and its fine weight at #bc4bb grains4 ,the fineness was therefore changed by this act to #j4ijj and the ratio to #a3ae4ihh4 ,silver continued to be exported4 ,the ,act of ,february #ba1 #ahec1 reduced the weight of the silver coins of a denomination less than #a1 which the ,acts of #agib1 #ahcd1 and #ahcg had made exactly proportional to the weight of the silver dollar1 and provided that they should be legal tender to the amount of only #e4 ,under the ,acts of #agib1 #ahcd1 and #ahcg they had been full legal tender4 ,by the ,act of #ahec the legal weight of the half dollar was reduced to #aib grains1 and other fractions of the dollar in proportion4 ,the coinage of the fractional parts of the dollar was reserved to the government4 #d ,this was true so far as the law was concerned1 but not actually1 as may be seen by reading the sentences immediately following the above statement4 ,the ,act of ,february #ab1 #ahgc1 provided that the unit of value of the ,united ,states should be the gold dollar of the standard weight of #be4h grains1 and that there should be coined besides the following gold coins3 ,a quarter-eagle1 or two and-a-half dollar gold piece2 a three-dollar gold piece2 a half-eagle1 or five-dollar piece2 an eagle1 or ten-dollar piece2 and a double eagle1 or twenty-dollar piece1 all of a standard weight proportional to that of the dollar piece4 ,these coins were made legal tender in all payments at their nominal value when not below the standard weight and limit of tolerance provided in the act for the single piece1 and when reduced in weight they should be legal tender at a valuation in proportion to their actual weight4 ,the silver coins provided for by the ,act were a trade dollar1 a half-dollar or fifty-cent piece1 a quarter-dollar1 and a ten-cent piece1 the weight of the trade dollar to be #dbj grains troy2 the half-dollar1 twelve and a half grams2 the quarter-dollar and dime1 respectively1 one half and one fifth of the weight of the half-dollar4 ,the silver coins were made legal tender at their nominal value for any amount not exceeding #e in any one payment4 ,owners of silver bullion were allowed to deposit it at any mint of the ,united ,states to be formed into bars or into trade dollars1 and no deposit of silver for other coinage was to be received4 ,section #b of the joint resolution of ,july #bb1 #ahgf1 recited that the trade dollar should not thereafter be legal tender1 and that the ,secretary of the ,treasury should be authorized to limit the coinage of the same to an amount sufficient to meet the export demand for it4 ,the ,act of ,march #c1 #ahhg1 retired the trade dollar and prohibited its coinage4 ,that of ,september #bf1 #ahij1 discontinued the coinage of the one-dollar and three-dollar gold pieces4 ,the ,act of ,february #bh1 #ahgh1 directed the coinage of silver dollars of the weight of #dab grains troy1 of standard silver1 as provided in the ,act of ,january #ah1 #ahcg1 and that such coins1 with all silver dollars theretofore coined1 should be legal tender at their nominal value for all debts and dues1 public and private1 except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract4 ,the ,secretary of the ,treasury was authorized and directed by the first section of the act to purchase from time to time silver bullion at the market price thereof1 not less than #b1jjj1jjj worth nor more than #d1jjj1jjj worth per month1 and to cause the same to be coined monthly1 as fast as purchased1 into such dollars4 ,a subsequent act1 that of ,july #ad1 #ahij1 enacted that the ,secretary of the ,treasury should purchase silver bullion to the aggregate amount of #d1ejj1jjj ounces1 or so much thereof as might be offered1 each month1 at the market price thereof1 not exceeding #a4jj for #cga4be grains of pure silver1 and to issue in payment thereof ,treasury notes of the ,united ,states1 such notes to be redeemable by the government1 on demand1 in coin1 and to be legal tender in payment of all debts1 public and private1 except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract4 ,the act directed the ,secretary of the ,treasury to coin each month #b1jjj1jjj ounces of the silver bullion purchased under the provisions of the act into standard silver dollars until ,july #a1 #ahia1 and thereafter as much as might be necessary1 to provide for the redemption of the ,treasury notes issued under the act4 ,the purchasing clause of the ,act of ,july #ad1 #ahij1 was repealed by the ,act of ,november #a1 #ahic4 ,the ,war ,revenue ,act of ,june #ac1 #ahih1 authorized and directed the coinage of standard silver dollars to the amount of not less than one and one half million dollars a month1 from the bullion in the ,treasury purchased under the ,act of ,july #ad1 #ahij4 ,the ,act of ,june #i1 #ahgi1 made the subsidiary silver coins of the ,united ,states legal tender to the amount of #aj4 ,the minor coins are legal tender to the amount of twenty-five cents4 ,the following official figures give1 by periods of ten years1 the coinage of the ,united ,states from the establishment of the ,mint to the present time3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,years4 ,gold4 ,silver4 ,minor4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #agic-agii #fif1ecj4jj #a1baf1aeh4ge #ej1aaa4db #ahjj-ahji #c1jfg1jfg4ej #c1aed1fhg4ge #afd1hfe4gi #ahaj-ahai #b1cdh1iae4jj #f1ajg1ijc4ge #afb1ecd4jg #ahbj-ahbi #b1egi1jag4ej #ad1ghg1cbg4fe #agh1cgb4gj #ahcj-ahci #ag1gde1dbb4ej #bh1aab1acf4fj #ccd1haj4ba #ahdj-ahdi #eh1iji1dci4jj #bb1bbc1gcc4jj #cfj1hdj4cc #ahej-ahei #ceb1iae1jei4jj #dg1bch1hac4jj #a1ace1ehj4jc #ahfj-ahfi #bij1ghf1aca4jj #ac1fcg1fjg4ij #h1ejd1jgj4jj #ahgj-ahgi #cgj1gah1hhc4ej #adb1aif1agh4fj #b1bca1jji4ej #ahhj-ahhi #daa1gff1bgg4jj #cje1hfi1jha4bj #h1abg1cje4ef #ahij to ,june #cgd1hjf1bbe4jj #acf1bdh1eja4fe #g1efd1hdi4fe #cj1 #ahig ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a1hhf1cch1ieh4jjgbj1gib1abi4hebh1had1ee h4bf ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ------------------------------ ,years4 ,total4 ------------------------------ #agic-agii #a1ifb1hjj4ag #ahjj-ahji #f1chf1fba4jd #ahaj-ahai #h1fai1efa4hb #ahbj-ahbi #ag1edd1gag4he #ahcj-ahci #df1aib1cfi4ca #ahdj-ahdi #ha1did1jab4cc #ahej-ahei #dja1bhi1ddc4jc #ahfj-ahfi #cab1ibg1hjh4ij #ahgj-ahgi #eae1adf1jga4fj #ahhj-ahhi #gbe1gfb1ffc4gf #ahij to ,june #eah1fai1egf4cj #cj1 #ahig ------------------------------ #b1fce1ide1fdf4ja ------------------------------ ,at this writing the report of the ,director of the ,mint has not been published1 but the coinage for the full year #ahig may be stated as follows3 gold1 #gf1jbh1dhd2 silver1 #ah1dhf1fig2 and for the year #ahih1 gold1 #gg1ihe1geg2 silver1 #bc1jcd1jcd4 ,from ,january #a to ,june #cj1 #ahii1 the coinage was3 gold1 #fe1iae1jbj2 silver1 #ab1ghj1dda4 ,it is sometimes thought that the silver dollars are not a full legal tender1 but this is not so4 ,they are an unlimited legal tender for all debts1 public and private4 ,the ,treasury does not1 in practice1 redeem silver dollars in gold1 but successive ,secretaries of the ,treasury have announced their readiness to do so1 if necessary to keep the silver dollars from depreciating1--that is1 preserve their parity1--which the law directs4 ,silver certificates and gold certificates are not legal tender1 but entitle the holder to receive the kind and amount of coin named on their face4 ,the value of gold bullion in a dollar of that metal is #ii4iiaabe cents1 or practically #ajj cents4 ,the value of the silver bullion in a dollar of that metal is about #de cents4 ,it varies1 however1 with the fluctuations in the market value of silver4 ,it will thus be seen that the bullion value of a silver dollar and of a gold dollar differs greatly1 but the equality of the purchasing power of the two coins is due to the fact that the silver dollars are receivable for public and private debts1 that they are indirectly exchangeable for gold1 by depositing them in the banks1 and that the government is pledged to redeem them in gold1 if necessary to preserve their parity with gold4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,united ,,states ,,mint1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,as early as #ahbf the ,united ,states began to export domestic gold1 beginning with an export of #a1jef1jhh of gold coin and bullion1 and receiving an import of #fgh1gdj4 ,up to #ahig the grand total of exports of gold coin and bullion amounted to #b1ahf1bch1eda1 and the total imports to #a1aab1ach1gff1 an excess of exports over imports of #a1jgd1jii1gge4 ,in #ahih the imports of gold coin and bullion into the ,united ,states were #abj1cia1fgd1 and the exports #ae1djf1cia1 making the net imports #ajd1ihe1bhc4 ,from #ahba to #ahig the grand total of exports of silver coin and bullion from the ,united ,states was #a1aeb1fhh1ggf1 and the imports #gcj1cbe1hha1 making an excess of exports over imports of #dbb1cfb1hie4 ,in the fiscal year #ahih1 the silver imports were #cj1ibg1gha1 and the exports #ee1aje1bci1 making the excess of exports #bd1agg1deh4 ,the total product of gold in the ,united ,states from #agib up to #ahif was #b1aac1jcd1gfi1 and of silver #a1ddd1igj1jjj1 making a grand total of the precious metals of #c1eeh1jjd1gfi4 ,the total value of the entire world's production of gold1 between the years #adic and #ahif1 was #h1ihc1cbj1fjj1 and of silver #aj1eef1gjj1hjj1 making a grand total of gold and silver of #ai1edj1jba1djj4 ,as a comparison of the money status of the ,united ,states at the beginning and end of the century1 the following figures are interesting3 ,in #ahjj the population was #e1cjh1dhc2 the estimated bank notes outstanding1 #aj1ejj1jjj2 the estimated specie in the country1 #ag1ejj1jjj2 the total money in the ,united ,states1 #bh1jjj1jjj2 the specie in the ,treasury1 #a1ejj1jjj2 the money in circulation1 #bf1ejj1jjj2 the amount per capita1 #d4ii4 ,in #ahih the population was #gd1ebb1jjj2 the total coin in the ,united ,states1 including bullion in the ,treasury1 #a1dih1iic1bdi2 total paper money1 #a1ach1ddj1abf2 total money of all kinds1 #b1fcg1dcc1cge2 coin1 bullion1 and paper money in the ,treasury1 #gii1ecg1dhj2 total circulation1 #a1hcg1hei1hie2 circulation per capita1 #bd4ff4 ,illustration3 ,,carpenters' ,,hall1 ,,philadelphia4 7,first ,site of ,first ,united ,states ,bank47 ,perhaps no law relating to the coins and currency of the ,united ,states has been so widely discussed1 or has borne more directly on the attitude and influence of political parties than the ,coinage ,act of #ahgc4 ,this act grew out of a proposition to revise our coinage laws1 made by ,john ,jay ,knox to the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 in ,april1 #ahgj4 ,mr4 ,knox1 in his rough draft of a bill1 provided for a silver dollar of #chd grains1 to be a legal tender for sums not exceeding #e4jj4 ,thus1 the standard silver dollar of #dab grains was eliminated4 ,it did not appear in the bill as it passed the ,senate1 ,january #aj1 #ahga1 nor in that reported to the ,house1 ,march #i1 #ahga4 ,the bill underwent protracted and thorough discussion1 and on ,may #bg1 #ahgb1 was passed in the ,house4 ,as passed1 it contained the original provision for coining a silver dollar of the weight of #chd grains--twice the weight of the silver half dollar4 ,these dollars were to be a legal tender for amounts not exceeding #e4jj4 ,the ,senate amended this ,house bill1 by substituting a trade dollar of the weight of #dbj grains for that of #chd grains1 at the same time preserving the legal-tender limit of #e4jj4 ,in the amended form1 it passed the ,senate1 ,january #ag1 #ahgc1 and the ,house1 ,february #g1 #ahgc1 and became a law4 ,it will be seen that the standard silver dollar of #dab grains was never in the bill1 and could not1 therefore1 have been secretly omitted1 as was afterwards charged4 ,it was omitted from the first draft1 and all through1 because none were being coined1 and those that had been coined were exported1 the silver bullion in them being1 at that time1 worth more as bullion than coin4 ,by joint resolution of ,congress1 approved ,july #bb1 #ahgf1 the trade dollars provided for in the act were deprived of their legal-tender quality4 ,it was supposed they would circulate in ,china1 but they proved useless even for that purpose4 ,,iii4 ,,early ,,banking ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the first banks in the ,united ,states owed their origin to ,robert ,morris and ,alexander ,hamilton4 ,morris1 as early as #agfc1 conceived the plan of a bank to assist in developing ,american trade1 and in #aggi1 ,hamilton proposed the organization of 8,the ,company of the ,bank of the ,united ,states40 ,these plans did not mature1 but were followed1 at the suggestion of ,thomas ,paine1 by an association of ninety-two subscribers to a fund of #cjj1jjj pounds ,pennsylvania currency to support the ,revolutionary army4 ,this association became known as the ,pennsylvania ,bank4 ,it commenced business ,july #ag1 #aghj1 and after a career of a year and a half1 during which time it greatly aided the government in furnishing army supplies1 its affairs were wound up4 ,on ,may #ag1 #agha1 ,hamilton presented the plan of a bank to ,congress1 which was to be truly national1 and 8created avowedly to aid the ,united ,states40 ,its name was to be the ,bank of ,north ,america1 with a subscription of #djj1jjj in gold and silver1 and its notes1 payable on demand1 to be receivable for duties and taxes in every ,state4 ,congress approved the plan1 and ,morris1 then ,superintendent of ,finance1 published it1 with an address showing its advantages to the government and people1 then suffering from the ill effects of a depreciated currency4 ,the ,bank of ,north ,america was organized ,november #a1 #agha1 and began business ,january #g1 #aghb4 ,it creditably fulfilled its mission 8to aid the ,united ,states10 and1 after the expiration of its charter1 became a ,state institution4 ,in #ahfd it entered the national banking system1 though retaining its old name4 ,this bank was followed by the ,bank of ,new ,york1 which began business ,june #i1 #aghd1 and by the ,massachusetts ,bank1 which began business ,july #e1 #aghd4 ,,first ,,united ,,states ,,bank4--,this institution grew out of the recommendations of ,alexander ,hamilton1 and formed a part of his scheme of strengthening the public credit and bringing about a closer union of ,states4 ,his plan was incorporated into a bill which passed the ,senate ,january #c1 #agia1 and the ,house1 ,january #bj1 #agia4 ,washington signed it ,february #be1 #agia4 ,the bill was hotly opposed as unconstitutional by ,secretary of ,state ,thomas ,jefferson1 ,attorney-,general ,edmund ,randolph1 and in general by representatives from the ,southern ,states4 ,the capital of the bank was fixed at #aj1jjj1jjj1 one fifth of which was to be subscribed by the government4 ,the remainder was subscribed by individuals1 and two hours after the opening of the books the capital was oversubscribed to the amount of #djjj shares4 ,the central bank was located at ,philadelphia1 and afterwards branches were established in ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,baltimore1 ,washington1 ,norfolk1 ,charleston1 ,savannah1 and ,new ,orleans4 ,business was first opened in ,carpenters' ,hall1 ,philadelphia1 ,december #ab1 #agia4 ,in ,july1 #agig1 the site was removed to a new building on ,third ,street1 below ,chestnut1 and it remained there till the dissolution of the bank1 with the exception of a brief removal to ,germantown in #agih1 during the epidemic of yellow fever4 ,though this bank proved a profitable enterprise for the government1 it failed to secure a renewal of its charter in #ahaa1 chiefly because so many of its shares had passed into foreign hands4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,girard ,,bank1 ,,philadelphia4 7,second ,site of ,first ,united ,states ,bank47 ,,early ,,state ,,banks4--,from #agij to #ahaa the number of ,state banks increased from four to eighty-eight2 their circulation from #b1ejj1jjj to #bb1gjj1jjj2 their capital from #b1ejj1jjj to #db1faj1jjj4 ,in the same time the metallic circulation of the country rose from #i1jjj1jjj to #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,these banks failed to meet the monetary necessities of the ,war of #ahab1 and in #ahad practically all of them south of ,new ,england suspended specie payments4 ,their notes were poured out in all denominations from six cents upward1 and1 with coin redemption stopped1 they depreciated rapidly4 ,this led to great financial distress in #ahah-ahbj1 and to excessive bank failures4 ,the seriousness of the general situation1 and the declining credit of the government1 led to the establishment of the second ,bank of the ,united ,states4 ,,second ,,bank ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4--,in ,october1 #ahad1 ,secretary ,dallas laid a report before ,congress1 in which he deprecated the uncertain amount and value of the paper currency4 8,there exists10 he said1 8at this time no adequate circulating medium common to the citizens of the ,united ,states4 ,the moneyed transactions of private life are at a stand1 and the fiscal operations of the government labor with extreme inconvenience40 ,he then recommended as the remedy the establishment of a national banking institution4 ,a bill1 based upon ,dallas's plan for such an institution1 failed of passage in the ,house in #ahad1 and again in #ahae1 though passed by the ,senate4 ,it was1 however1 finally passed in an amended form1 but was vetoed by ,president ,madison4 ,on ,december #bd1 #ahae1 ,mr4 ,dallas laid before ,congress another plan for a national bank4 ,a bill was framed authorizing such an institution1 with a capital of #ce1jjj1jjj1 #g1jjj1jjj of which were to be subscribed by the government1 the central bank to be at ,philadelphia1 with power to establish branches1 payments to be made in specie at all times unless otherwise authorized by ,congress4 ,this bill passed both ,houses of ,congress1 and was signed by ,president ,madison1 ,april #aj1 #ahaf4 ,when the subscription books of this bank were closed1 it was found that the subscriptions fell short of the authorized #ce1jjj1jjj by #c1jjj1jjj1 which amount was taken by ,stephen ,girard4 ,the bank could not lend more than #ejj1jjj to the government without authority of ,congress1 was to be the fiscal agent of the ,treasury1 and to receive deposits of public moneys4 ,no notes of a less denomination than #e4jj were to be issued1 and the penalty for refusing to pay notes or deposits in specie on demand was twelve per cent per annum until paid4 ,it began business ,january #g1 #ahag4 ,owing to the impending financial crisis and bad management1 the bank verged rapidly toward insolvency1 but was resuscitated under the vigorous management of a new president1 ,langdon ,cheves1 who was elected ,march #f1 #ahai4 ,he was succeeded by ,nicholas ,biddle in #ahbc1 who was destined to see the fall of the great institution4 ,the national bank incurred the hostility of the ,state banks1 which called it a monster because it refused to allow the notes of the local banks to accumulate as deposits in its branches without redemption4 ,various ,states passed discriminating laws against it4 ,jackson1 in his message to ,congress in #ahbi1 attacked the constitutionality of the law establishing it1 and charged that it had 8failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency40 ,at this time the ,bank was an imposing institution with its capital of #ce1jjj1jjj1 its public deposits of six to seven million1 its private deposits of a like amount1 its circulation of #ab1jjj1jjj1 its annual discounts of #dj1jjj1jjj1 its annual profits of over #c1jjj1jjj1 its palatial establishment in ,philadelphia1 its twenty-five branches throughout the ,union1 its five hundred employees1 its stock distributed through nearly all parts of the world1 and its notes current at par at home and abroad4 ,jackson's message was not received favorably by ,congress4 ,his aversion1 it was thought1 was due rather to his belief that the ,bank was his enemy than to any dislike of a national bank4 ,the growing hostility between him and ,henry ,clay induced the latter to make the renewal of the ,bank's charter a political issue4 ,when the bill rechartering the ,bank was passed in ,july1 #ahcb1 ,jackson vetoed it1 charging1 in the main1 that the ,bank was a monopoly4 ,this brought the question of the further existence of the ,bank fully into the arena of politics1 in the presidential election of #ahcb1 with the 8,hero of ,new ,orleans0 on one side1 and on the other 8monster monopoly10 8,old ,nick's money10 and 8,clay's rags40 ,jackson won1 and speedily decided to remove the public deposits from the ,bank4 ,this decision precipitated a bitter war between ,jackson and ,congress4 ,but ,jackson did not swerve from his purpose4 ,by #ahce it became apparent that the ,bank could not secure a renewal of its charter from ,congress4 ,as a confession of its defeat1 and just thirteen days before the expiration of its federal charter1 the ,bank obtained from the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 ,february #ah1 #ahcf1 a charter for the ,united ,states ,bank of ,pennsylvania1 for a period of thirty years4 ,shorn of its importance1 in a restricted field1 yet with enormous capital1 it fell into large bond and stock investments of questionable value4 ,its troubles were aggravated by bad management4 ,it suspended during the panic of #ahcg and the next year1 and again for the last time in #ahda4 ,biddle resigned the presidency in #ahdj1 and four years later died poor and broken-hearted4 ,thus perished what is sometimes called the third ,bank of the ,united ,states1 its predecessor1 the second ,bank of the ,united ,states1 having fallen a victim to political intrigue and loss of prestige4 ,the shareholders lost their entire investment of #bh1jjj1jjj1 but the circulating notes were all paid1 and also the deposits4 ,the government got back its investment of #g1jjj1jjj1 and made #f1jic1afg besides1 from its connection with the ,bank4 ,illustration3 ,,second ,,united ,,states ,,bank1 ,,philadelphia4 ,,now ,,custom ,,house4 ,,state ,,banks ,,and ,,independent ,,treasury4--,after the removal of deposits from the ,bank of the ,united ,states1 ,september #bf1 #ahcc1 the public revenues were deposited in selected ,state banks1 sometimes called 8pet banks40 ,in #ahcf eighty-eight ,state banks in twenty-four ,states held public deposits to the amount of #di1cgg1ihf4 ,as the ,state banks had thrown their influence against the national bank1 they were rewarded by allowing them to use the public money intrusted to them as a basis of extending their loans and for enormous issues of their own notes4 ,banks were started for the sole purpose of issuing notes which they could use in buying public lands4 ,as a consequence the government lost heavily through the depreciation of these notes and the failure of the banks4 ,on ,july #aa1 #ahcf1 the ,secretary of the ,treasury issued a circular forbidding the receipt of anything but specie in payment for public lands4 ,this caused a run on the banks and aided in hastening the financial crisis of #ahcg4 ,an act of ,congress of ,june #bc1 #ahcf1 authorizing the calling in of #cg1dfh1hei of the public funds deposited in the ,state banks1 for purposes of distribution1 forced the suspension of specie payments by all such banks1 with very few exceptions4 ,the unsatisfactory trial of both federal and ,state banks as custodians of the public funds led to the establishment of what became known as the independent ,treasury system1 by which the government collects its money and keeps it in the hands of the ,united ,states ,treasurer or sub-treasurers1 making disbursements when required4 ,an act putting this system into effect became law ,july #d1 #ahdj1 but was repealed the next year4 ,it was repassed ,august #f1 #ahdf1 and remained in operation until the passage of the ,national ,currency ,act in ,february1 #ahfc1 which gave the ,secretary of the ,treasury the right to designate certain national banks as depositories of public funds4 ,there were in such banks1 on ,february #d1 #ahii1 ,united ,states deposits amounting to #ha1abj1hgc1 secured by ,united ,states bonds belonging to the banks and deposited in the ,treasury1 amounting to #hi1ajj1bdj4 ,prior to the adoption of the national banking system the country had a somewhat disastrous experience with what has been known as 8wild-cat0 banks4 ,many of them were organized for the sole purpose of issuing notes they never intended to pay4 ,while they were numerous and dangerous1 it must be remembered that in a number of ,states the leading banks carried on only a legitimate business1 and ,state banks as they exist to-day compare favorably in their management with the national banks4 ,,iv4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,legal-,,tender ,,note4 ,the first act authorizing the issue of legal-tender notes1 known popularly as greenbacks1 was approved by ,president ,lincoln1 ,february #be1 #ahfb4 ,it provided for the issue of #aej1jjj1jjj in notes1 in denominations of not less than #e4jj4 ,holders of these notes could deposit them with the ,united ,states ,treasurer or assistant treasurers in any sum not less than #ej4jj1 or any multiple thereof1 and receive ,united ,states bonds bearing six per cent interest4 ,the first notes were issued ,march #aj1 #ahfb4 ,an act authorizing a second issue of #aej1jjj1jjj was signed by the ,president1 ,july #aa1 #ahfb4 ,of these #ce1jjj1jjj were to be in denominations of less than #e4jj4 ,a third issue of #aej1jjj1jjj was authorized ,march #c1 #ahfc1 but this act deprived the legal-tender note of its convertibility into six per cent bonds at the option of the holder4 ,the withdrawal of this privilege worked no particular hardship at the time1 for bond issues and various interest-bearing certificates were plenty during the period of war4 ,but after the war had closed and the issues of new securities had ceased1 the absence of this provision began to prevent the absorption of the legal-tender notes4 ,the highest amount of legal-tender notes outstanding at any date was on ,january #c1 #ahfd1 #ddi1cch1ijb4 ,their depreciation was hastened by the issue of the short-time interest-bearing securities in large amounts4 ,during #ahfb the average gold premium was #aac4c2 during #ahfc1 #ade4b2 during #ahfd1 #bjc4c4 ,in ,july1 #ahfd1 this premium reached its highest point1 an average of #beh4a4 ,in #ahfe the country began to feel the necessity of a contraction of the currency1 with a view to as early a resumption of specie payments as the business interests would permit1 and the ,congress expressed the public sentiment by an almost unanimous resolution4 ,on ,march #ab1 #ahff1 an act was approved calling for the retirement and cancellation of not more than #aj1jjj1jjj of legal tenders within six months1 and thereafter not more than #d1jjj1jjj during any one month4 ,the effect was to reduce the legal tenders outstanding on ,december #ca1 #ahfg1 to #cef1jjj1jjj4 ,this reduction1 together with the rapid payment of notes of other classes1 used as currency1 led to so sudden a contraction of the circulating medium1 and such stringency in the money market1 that ,congress1 by act of ,february #d1 #ahfh1 prohibited the further reduction of the legal-tender notes4 ,the amount outstanding1 ,october #a1 #ahgb1 was #cef1jjj1jjj1 and on ,january #a1 #ahgd1 #chb1igi1hae1 the increase being due to a construction on the part of secretaries of the ,treasury to the effect that they had power to reissue retired notes which were held as a reserve4 ,on ,june #bj1 #ahgd1 ,congress enacted that the ,united ,states notes outstanding and to be used as part of the circulating medium should not exceed #chb1jjj1jjj1 and that no part thereof should be held or used as a reserve4 ,another attempt was made in #ahge to reduce the aggregate of legal-tender notes1 preparatory to the resumption of specie payments4 ,the ,resumption ,act of ,january #ad1 #ahge1 authorized1 among other things1 the retirement and cancellation of legal tenders till the amount outstanding should be reduced to #cjj1jjj1jjj2 #ce1cah1ihd were retired under this law1 but further reduction was prohibited by act of ,may #ca1 #ahgh4 ,the amount outstanding at that date was #cdf1fha1jaf1 and this has continued to the present time1 no new issues having been authorized4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahgi1 the resumption of specie payments took place as provided in the act of ,january #ad1 #ahge4 ,at this latter date1 the only legal-tender coin recognized by law was the gold coin4 ,but1 in ,february1 #ahgh1 the coinage of standard silver dollars was authorized1 and they were to be a legal tender for all debts1 unless otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract4 ,this led to the claim on the part of those who favored silver that the redemption of legal-tender notes1 provided for in coin in the act of #ahge1 could be effected by the use of silver dollars4 ,but the general1 and doubtless sound1 construction of the law of #ahge has been that it was an express contract to redeem the legal-tender notes in the coin then recognized as legal tender1 and in no other2 and so the ,treasury has redeemed legal tenders since #ahgi1 in gold1 when the same is demanded4 ,in #ahfi the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 the bench not being full1 declared the acts authorizing legal-tender notes to be unconstitutional4 ,but subsequently1 the bench having its full quota of nine1 the ,court sustained the constitutionality of the acts1 on the ground1 mainly1 that they were a proper exercise of the war power vested in the ,congress4 ,in #ahhc the ,court decided that the reissues of these notes1 made in time of peace1 were constitutional4 ,at the time of the resumption of specie payments there were #ace1jjj1jjj in gold and bullion on hand to provide for the redemption of such notes as might be presented4 ,by ,act of ,july #ab1 #ahhb1 it was provided that when the redemption reserve of gold coin and bullion in the ,treasury fell below #ajj1jjj1jjj1 the issue of gold certificates should cease4 ,this is held to indicate that ,congress regarded #ajj1jjj1jjj as the limit below which the redemption reserve should not be permitted to fall4 ,if this reserve had not been called upon to bear other burdens1 there would probably never have been any doubts as to its sufficiency4 ,in #ahgh1 however1 began the coinage of silver dollars and the issue of silver certificates4 ,these notes were kept at par in gold by their interchangeability in the operations of commerce for legal-tender notes4 ,they were thus an indirect charge on the gold reserve4 ,from #ahgh to #ahij they were increased at the rate of over #b1ejj1jjj a month4 ,in that year 7,july #ad1 #ahij7 an act was passed providing for the issue of ,treasury notes in the purchase of silver bullion1 which provided also for the coinage of some of the bullion purchased into silver dollars4 ,these ,treasury notes were redeemable both in gold and silver1 and as the government never availed itself of its option to redeem in silver when gold was demanded for them1 these notes as they were issued became a further burden on the gold reserve provided for the legal-tender notes4 ,by the beginning of the year #ahic the legal-tender notes1 silver certificates1 and ,treasury notes had reached an aggregate of nearly #hjj1jjj1jjj1 all depending on the ,treasury reserve for gold redemption4 ,this reduction of the percentage of gold held to the amount of the demand liabilities raised doubts as to the ability of the government to maintain gold payments1 and the legal tenders and ,treasury notes were presented for redemption4 ,the depletion of gold was so great that on one or two occasions there was danger that the reserve would be exhausted1 and resort was had to the sale of bonds to procure gold to replenish the reserve4 ,the issue of further ,treasury notes was stopped by the repeal of the act of #ahij in ,november1 #ahic1 and since this repeal confidence in the ability of the ,treasury to maintain gold redemptions has been gradually restored4 ,under the provisions of the ,act of ,may1 #ahgh1 the legal-tender notes when redeemed cannot be canceled4 ,they must be paid out again1 and therefore when reissued1 they may again be presented for redemption4 ,this constitutes the so-called endless chain by which the gold in the ,treasury is always liable to be drawn out4 ,v4 ,,the ,,national ,,banking ,,system4 ,the desirability of perfecting the banking and currency system of the country was readily perceived on the breaking out of the ,civil ,war in #ahfa4 ,secretary ,chase in two annual reports1 those of #ahfa and #ahfb1 recommended a system of national banks1 whose supervision should be by national authority1 and whose issues of notes should be based on deposits of bonds of the government4 ,after several unsuccessful attempts1 a bill1 introduced by ,mr4 ,sherman1 passed both ,senate and ,house1 and became a law ,february #be1 #ahfc4 ,this act embodied the essential features of ,mr4 ,chase's reports4 ,under it the first charter was issued to the ,first ,national ,bank of ,philadelphia4 ,the formation of national banks proceeded very slowly at first4 ,in order to hold out greater inducements for the ,state banks to enter the national system1 the act was amended on ,june #c1 #ahfd4 ,the first report of the ,comptroller of the ,currency1 ,november #bh1 #ahfc1 showed that only #acd national banks had been organized up to that date2 but when the act of ,june #c1 #ahfd1 went into operation1 new banks were formed more frequently4 ,a more rapid increase took place after the passage of the act of ,march #c1 #ahfe1 imposing a tax of #aj per cent on the circulating notes of ,state banks4 ,this increase was from #fch banks in ,january1 #ahfe1 to #aeac in ,october of the same year2 with an increase in capital of from #ace1fah1hgd to #cic1ahg1bjf2 and in circulation of from #ff1gfi1cge to #aga1cba1ijc4 ,prior to #ahfi national banks were required to make their reports on fixed dates1 but after ,march #c1 #ahfi1 they were required by law to make their reports to the ,comptroller five times a year on some past date fixed upon by the ,comptroller4 ,,national ,,bank ,,laws ,,and ,,regulations4--,the national banks are under the supervision of the ,comptroller of the ,currency1 who is appointed by the ,president on the recommendation of the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,his salary is #ejjj a year4 ,a national bank may be organized by any number of persons not less than five1 on permission of the ,comptroller4 ,the capital required is not less than #ej1jjj in any case1 and this minimum applies only to towns the population of which does not exceed #fjjj2 in cities having a population exceeding #ej1jjj1 the minimum capital is #bjj1jjj4 ,for places having a population over #fjjj and not exceeding #ej1jjj1 the capital required is #ajj1jjj4 ,one half of the capital must be paid in before the bank is authorized to begin business1 and the remainder in installments of not less than #aj per cent on the entire amount of the capital1 as frequently as one installment at the end of each succeeding month from the time it is authorized to begin business4 ,capital stock is divided into shares of #ajj each4 ,the banks are managed by a board of not less than five directors1 chosen by the stockholders4 ,executive officers of the bank--president1 vice-president1 cashier1 and assistant cashier--are chosen by the directors4 ,shareholders are individually liable for the debts1 contracts1 and engagements of the bank to the extent of the amount of their stock therein1 at the par value1 in addition to the amount invested in such shares4 ,this is what is known as the double liability of shareholders1 and is one of the features adding to the strength of the system4 ,national banks are designated by the ,secretary of the ,treasury to act as depositaries or custodians of public money4 ,such deposits are secured specially by a deposit of ,united ,states bonds with the ,treasury4 ,all national banks before commencing business are required to transfer and deliver to the ,treasurer of the ,united ,states1 as security for their circulating notes1 ,united ,states registered bonds to an amount not less than one fourth the capital where the capital is #aej1jjj or less1 and to the amount of #ej1jjj where the capital is in excess of #aej1jjj4 ,these bonds must be taken by the banks whether they issue circulation or not4 ,circulating notes are issued to national banks on a deposit of ,united ,states bonds with the ,treasurer4 ,notes are limited to #ij per cent of the par value of the bonds1 also to #ij per cent of the capital of the bank4 ,they are over-secured1 and no holder of them has ever lost a dollar by reason of the failure of a bank4 ,the notes are secured by the government bonds1 there being a difference of the #aj per cent between the par of the bonds and the notes issued1 and the bonds nearly always command a premium4 ,they are further secured by the first lien on the assets of the bank1 including the double liability of shareholders1 by a #e per cent redemption fund in the ,treasury1 and also by the margin between the capital and the amount of notes permitted4 ,national bank notes are redeemable at the counters of the issuing banks and at the ,treasury in 8lawful money0 of the ,united ,states4 ,this term1 as commonly used1 means legal-tender money1 and in practice1 perhaps1 gold coin or legal-tender notes4 ,reserves of national banks are the amounts of money kept on hand to pay their deposits and current checks and drafts4 ,this reserve is to be kept in lawful money1--gold and silver coin or certificates1 and ,united ,states currency certificates or legal-tender notes4 ,there are three central reserve cities1 namely1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 and ,st4 ,louis4 ,national banks in these three cities must keep a reserve of #be per cent against their deposits1 and this amount must be kept in their own vaults4 ,there are twenty-four other reserve cities which are also required to keep a reserve of #be per cent1 but one half of that amount may be due from other banks in ,new ,york and other central reserve cities1 approved as reserve agents by the ,comptroller of the ,currency4 ,banks outside of these reserve cities must keep a reserve of #ae per cent1 three fifths of which may be due from approved reserve agents in the reserve cities or central reserve cities4 ,in times of panic when there is a run on banks they may use this reserve to pay their depositors1 and it often happens that the reserve falls below the amount required by law4 ,under such circumstances the ,comptroller may notify the banks to make good the deficiency2 failing to comply with this request within thirty days1 they may be closed4 ,national banks are not permitted to make loans on real estate4 ,the regulations prescribed by the law for the management of these institutions are very stringent1 supplemented by a system of examination and reports4 ,in #ahif the ,comptroller of the ,currency estimated that the government had made a net profit of #aeg1dci1bdh4ih out of the revenues derived from the national banks4 ,it was estimated in the same report that the average percentage of dividends paid to creditors of insolvent national banks was #ge per cent4 ,there have been no losses on circulation4 ,in #ahgh the ,comptroller estimated that the annual losses upon all the currency issued by ,state and private banks amounted to #e per cent annually4 ,the national banks are not monopolistic4 ,any body of five reputable citizens can form one by getting together #ej1jjj capital4 ,the total shares of the national banks are approximately #cjj1jjj4 ,profits on national bank stock are not exorbitant4 ,for a period of twenty-nine years the net earnings on capital and surplus have been only a little over #g per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bourse1 ,,paris4 ,since the establishment of the national banking system #eaga banks have been organized1 of which #abbd have gone into liquidation1 #cfh have become insolvent1 and #cegi are in operation 7,february #d1 #ahii74 ,there is a marked falling off in the number of new national banks organized in recent years4 ,in #ahij there were #cjg organized1 but in #ahih there were only #ej organizations reported1 and that was the highest number reported since #ahic4 ,the capital of the national banks is also decreasing1 but the deposits show a large increase4 ,at present the ,state banks are gaining in numbers more rapidly than the national banks4 ,illustration3 ,,bank ,,of ,,england1 ,,london4 ,,profit ,,on ,,national ,,bank ,,circulation4--,many suppose that national banks make an undue profit on the privilege they have of issuing notes to circulate as money1 based on a deposit of bonds with the ,united ,states treasurer4 ,official figures disprove this4 ,the total national bank notes outstanding1 ,february #d1 #ahii1 was #bjc1fcf1ahd4ej4 ,the law permits these banks to issue notes to the extent of #ij per cent of their capital4 ,this capital1 on ,february #d1 #ahii1 was #fjh1cja1bde4 ,therefore they might have had notes at issue on that date to the amount of #ede1hga1abj4ej1 instead of only #bjc1fcf1ahd4ej4 ,this is conclusive evidence that there is no substantial profit in the issuing of such notes4 ,in the figures furnished by the ,comptroller of the ,currency for #ahih1 he shows that the profit which a national bank could make by taking out circulation on a deposit of #ajj1jjj of ,united ,states bonds1 on ,october #ca1 #ahih1 was less than #a per cent4 ,on that date eight leading banks had no circulating notes at all out4 ,the meagre profits of national banks explain why they do not supply an adequate paper currency4 ,the restrictions on them make it impossible to render any substantial assistance to business in this respect4 ,this is especially true in times of panic4 ,possessing gigantic strength1 they are compelled to see the industries of the country attacked by doubt and distrust1 and are unable to go to their aid because of the restraints which forbid them to exercise their legitimate functions4 ,,vi4 ,,foreign ,,banking ,,and ,,finance4 ,most foreign countries issue metallic money only1 except those that are on a paper basis4 ,in general the paper currency is issued by banks1 many of which are more or less remotely associated with the government4 ,some of these banks issue notes on the security of the government or other stocks and bonds1 while many emit notes based on no special form of security1 but upon the general assets of the bank4 ,as compared with the ,united ,states there are but few banks in the principal foreign countries4 ,england has less than one hundred2 ,scotland less than a dozen2 ,canada but thirty-eight chartered banks4 ,as in other foreign countries1 the ,canadian banks have numerous branches affiliated with the head office4 ,national banks in the ,united ,states are prohibited from having branches4 ,the ,bank of ,france1 the ,bank of ,england1 the ,imperial ,bank of ,germany1 the ,austro-,hungarian ,bank1 the ,imperial ,bank of ,russia1 are all more or less intimately associated with their respective governments4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,bank1 ,,bremen4 ,the ,bank of ,england was incorporated by royal charter1 ,july #bg1 #afid1 its incorporators lending #a1bjj1jjj to the government1 in return for which the ,bank was permitted to issue notes to a like amount4 ,it had a practical monopoly up to #ahbf1 and even now1 it is believed1 no bank within a radius of #fe miles of ,london may issue notes4 ,it has suspended specie payments more than once4 ,in #ahdd1 the banking and issue departments of the ,bank were separated4 ,one fifth of the reserve may be silver1 though in practice the reserve is kept in gold coin and bullion4 ,its notes are based on gold1 except #af1hjj1jjj1 which are secured by the government debt and other securities4 ,it is compelled to buy all gold offered at a fixed price1 paying for it in notes4 ,so it must redeem all notes on demand in gold4 ,when so redeemed they are canceled and1 after five years1 burned4 ,no notes of a less denomination than five pounds are issued4 ,the ,bank checks gold exports by raising the rate of discount4 ,the building covers about four acres of ground1 and employs over eleven hundred persons4 ,it is the keystone of the entire system of ,british credit1 and commands the assistance of the ,government when needed4 ,the ,scotch banks issue notes on their own credit to the amount outstanding at the time of the passage of the ,bank ,act in #ahdd4 ,their rate of interest is said to be the same at all of their thousand offices4 ,a unique feature of the ,scotch banking system is that of cash credits1 by means of which a person of good credit may get his checks cashed without a deposit of actual money1 the banks simply entering the credits on their books4 ,the ,bank of ,france has a monopoly of note issues1 charges a premium on gold for export1 and may redeem its notes in either gold or silver4 ,the ,imperial ,bank of ,germany and a few other ,german banks issue notes on gold and other securities1 and further amounts on their general credit4 ,beyond a fixed sum1 called the emergency circulation1 a tax of five per cent is levied4 ,other ,european banks are generally modeled on the same leading principle--a central bank of issue1 with numerous branches1 and associated with the ,government directly or indirectly4 ,the ,imperial ,bank of ,russia issues notes practically covered by gold and redeemable in that coin4 ,japan tried a system of national banks combined with ,government paper money1 but is now substituting a system of bank notes issued by the ,bank of ,japan4 ,,vii4 ,,united ,,states ,,government ,,debt ,,since #aheg4 ,in #aheg the ,government owed only #aj1jjj1jjj over and above the cash held in the treasury4 ,at the breaking out of the ,civil ,war the debt had increased to about #hj1jjj1jjj4 ,by ,august #ca1 #ahfe1 it had increased to #b1gef1jjj1jjj1 with an interest charge of #aej1jjj1jjj4 ,in twenty-eight years1 down to ,june #cj1 #ahic1 the ,government extinguished #a1iag1ejj1jjj of its debt1 paid #b1cfd1jjj1jjj for interest on its debt1 and #aah1jjj1jjj for premium on bonds redeemed1 making a grand total of #d1djj1jjj1jjj1 or an annual average payment of #aeg1jjj1jjj for the entire period4 ,the rise and fall of the public debt from ,july #a1 #aheg1 to ,july #a1 #ahih1 appear more fully in the following table4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,years4 ,total debt4 ,debt less cash in the ,treasury4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- #aheg1 ,july #a #bh1fii1hca #i1iih1fba #ahfj1 0 #a #fd1hdb1bhg #ei1ifd1djb #ahfa1 0 #a #ij1ehj1hgc #hg1gah1ffj #ahfb1 0 #a #ebd1agf1dab #eje1cab1geb #ahfc1 0 #a #a1aai1ggb1ach #a1aaa1cej1gcg #ahfd1 0 #a #a1hae1ghd1cgj #a1gji1deb1bgg #ahfe1 ,august #ca #b1hdd1fdi1fbf #b1gef1dca1ega #ahgc1 ,july #a #b1bcd1dhb1iic #b1aje1dfb1jfj #ahgi1 0 #a #b1bde1die1jgb #a1iif1dad1ije #ahhi1 0 #a #a1fai1jeb1ibb #ige1ici1gej #ahic1 0 #a #a1ede1ihe1fhf #hch1ifi1dge #ahie1 ,december #a #a1gjh1hga1fgj #idh1dgg1fab #ahif1 ,july #a #a1gfi1hdj1cbc #iee1big1bec #ahig1 0 #a #a1hag1fgb1ffe #ihf1fef1jhf #ahih1 0 #a #a1gif1eca1iie #a1jbg1jhe1dib ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,in #ahfe the annual interest charge on the public debt was #aej1igg1fig4 ,in #ahih it was only #cd1chg1djh4 ,from #agia to #ahih the gross receipts of the ,government were #cj1edg1jfc1ccf4jf and the gross expenditures #bi1gfh1eig1bcg4bd4 ,the net ordinary receipts1 which do not include loans or proceeds from the issue of ,treasury notes1 were #dje1cba1cce4bj for the fiscal year ended ,june #cj1 #ahih1 and the net ordinary expenditures1 which do not include payments on account of premiums or interest on the public debt1 were #dje1ghc1ebf4eg4 ,,viii4 ,,postal ,,savings ,,banks4 ,many believe that a system of postal savings banks could be generally introduced into the ,united ,states4 ,such banks doubtless appeal to those who have more confidence in the ,government than in any association of individuals4 ,their safety may be conceded1 for when the ,government fails other institutions are likely to go the same way4 ,but when people deposit money in a postal savings bank1 they make a loan to the ,government4 ,this implies that the ,government must be a perpetual borrower1 whereas1 until recent years1 the ,united ,states has been a debt-paying nation1 and in the course of affairs may soon be again4 ,unless we are to have a large permanent debt1 the deposits in postal savings banks would have to be invested in general securities4 ,such investments could not well be made by the post-office officials of the country4 ,in ,great ,britain these banks have been in existence for about thirty-eight years1 and their number has grown to about #ab1jjj1 with more than #f1jjj1jjj depositors4 ,the system prevails in a number of other countries4 ,the more concentrated and paternal system of government prevalent in countries having these banks renders their management a much less difficult problem than it would be in the ,united ,states with our large areas1 vast number of post-offices1 and general diversity of conditions4 ,in ,great ,britain the deposits in the postal savings banks are made at the money order post-offices in a pass book held by the depositor4 ,withdrawals are made by filling up blank forms1 and these withdrawals may be made at any money order post-office4 ,deposits are invested in the public debt1 and the rate of interest is about two and one half per cent4 ,the postal savings banks of ,great ,britain contain deposits approximating #ebg1jjj1jjj2 those of ,france1 #aeb1jjj1jjj2 those of ,italy1 #ij1jjj1jjj2 those of ,belgium1 #fg1jjj1jjj2 those of ,canada1 #ca1jjj1jjj4 ,,ix4 ,,savings ,,banks ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,there are no worthier financial institutions in the country to-day than the savings banks4 ,most of these are organized on what is known as the mutual plan4 ,they have no capital1 no stockholders1 and all the assets are held in trust for the benefit of the depositors4 ,they are managed by a board of trustees1 who serve without pay4 ,the investments which the banks are permitted to make are generally restricted to high-class securities insuring safety4 ,the savings banks in ,new ,york ,state1 especially1 are closely restricted in investing their funds1 and failures in recent years are almost unknown4 ,a deposit in one of these banks is hardly less safe than an investment in ,government bonds4 ,the savings banks are the primary schools of economy and thrift1 and ,i believe that an extension of the mutual savings bank system throughout the country1 under proper legal safeguards1 would be of the greatest benefit to the people of the ,united ,states4 ,the deposits in banks of this kind are usually limited by law to amounts not exceeding #cjjj to one depositor1 as they are not intended to be used by the wealthier class of people4 ,the following statistics will be found interesting4 ,,savings ,,banks ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states1 #aheg-ahig4 7,statement of condition for each period of ten years47 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #aheg #ahfg #ahgg ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,number of banks #bca #cga #fge ,number of depositors #dij1dbh #a1ahh1bjb #b1cie1cad ,amount of deposits #ih1eab1ifhccg1jji1debhff1bah1cjf ,average to each depositor #bjj #bhc #cfa ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- #ahhg #ahig ---------------------------------------- --------- ,number of banks #fhd #ihj ,number of depositors #c1dah1jac #e1bja1acb ,amount of deposits #a1bce1bdg1cgaa1ici1cgf1jce ,average to each depositor #cfa #cgb ---------------------------------------- --------- ,in addition to the mutual and stock savings banks in the ,united ,states1 a system of school savings banks1 introduced into the schools of the ,united ,states by ,j4 ,h4 ,thiry1 of ,long ,island ,city1 ,n4 ,y41 is worthy of mention4 ,such banks have been very successful in inculcating habits of thrift and economy among the children of the country4 ,x4 ,,the ,,clearing-,,house4 ,a clearing-house may be defined as an institution for saving time1 money1 and labor4 ,its underlying principle is that of setting off one claim against another4 ,a bank in a large city receives every day in its mail a great number of checks or drafts drawn on banks in the same place4 ,it does not present these checks directly to the banks on which they are drawn for payment1 but sends them by messenger to the clearing-house4 ,let us say1 for illustration1 that the ,first ,national ,bank presents to the clearing-house checks on other banks amounting to #ajj1jjj4 ,at the same time the other banks send to the clearing-house checks they have received drawn on the ,first ,national ,bank1 aggregating #ge1jjj4 ,a payment of #be1jjj in money to the ,first ,national ,bank will be all the cash required to pay checks representing #age1jjj4 ,the economy in the use of money is still better illustrated by the following statement of an actual transaction4 ,on a day in the latter part of #ahih the ,bank of the ,state of ,new ,york took to the ,new ,york ,clearing-,house checks on other banks amounting to #ae1fdg1ehc4hb1 and other banks brought checks against it amounting to #ae1fdg1dja4he4 ,the sum of these items was #ca1bid1ihe4fg1 and they were paid with #aha4ig in money1 which represents the credit balance due to the ,bank of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,this instance shows what large transactions may be effected with small sums of money by employing proper banking machinery4 ,banks multiply the usefulness of money many fold4 ,the ,new ,york ,clearing-,house ,association was organized ,september #ac1 #ahec1 and the first clearing made by the ,association took place on ,october #aa1 #ahec4 ,the banks belonging to the ,new ,york ,clearing-,house ,association reported on ,april #a1 #ahii1 loans and discounts1 #ggi1iea1ajj2 deposits1 #hih1iag1jjj2 specie1 #ahg1aad1cjj2 circulation1 #ac1hgj1fjj4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,york ,,clearing-,,house4 ,,clearing-,,house ,,loan ,,certificates4--,these are simply devices that the banks have invented for use in times of panic4 ,they are issued by a committee of the ,clearing-,house ,association on the deposit of approved securities by the bank desiring them1 and are used only to settle balances between the banks4 ,they are not money1 but serve a useful purpose in diminishing the demand for money2 for when the banks agree to accept these certificates among themselves1 it makes that much money available to be loaned or paid to depositors4 ,in #ahic1 and in other years of financial stringency1 the issue of these certificates afforded great relief to business interests and saved the country from some of the most disastrous results consequent upon such panics4 ,these certificates are not to be confounded with clearing-house gold certificates issued by the ,association on deposits of gold coin4 ,they are used in making payments of balances between banks1 and obviate the necessity of frequently passing the actual coin from hand to hand4 ,on ,april #aa1 #ahih1 the clearings at the ,new ,york ,clearing-,house for that day amounted to #ceb1hhb1efg--the largest amount ever reported up to that time4 ,the balances to be paid in money were #ag1cde1deb1 or only about five per cent4 ,for the year #ahih the bank clearings at ,new ,york were #da1iga1gha1fhd1 and for the whole country1 #fh1gej1jjj1jjj4 ,an investigation of the amount of credit paper used respectively in the wholesale and retail trade was made by the ,comptroller of the ,currency in #ahif4 ,in his report for that year the ,comptroller says3 8,from the face of the returns the conclusion to be drawn is that #fg4d per cent of the retail trade of the country is transacted by means of credit paper 7checks71 that #ie4c per cent of the wholesale trade is so carried on1 #ie4a per cent of business other than mercantile1 and #ib4e per cent of all business40 ,,xi4 ,,panics ,,and ,,their ,,causes4 ,a panic is generally due to inflation and speculation1 and these1 of course1 have their origin in various sources not easily determined4 ,an unusual increase in the production of precious metals1 bountiful crops1 a speculative craze taking possession of the public--such as the tulip mania in ,holland--all these and many other causes lead to speculation4 ,the fall in prices due to a stoppage in speculation brings on the panic4 ,sometimes the catastrophe is produced by war or rumors of war1 often by the most trivial circumstances1 and not infrequently without any apparent cause4 ,before everybody had desired to buy2 they now became as eager to sell1 and this rush to convert securities and commodities into money precipitates a panic4 ,crises may be divided into commercial and financial4 ,the last one in the ,united ,states1 whatever may have been its ultimate developments1 was in its inception and culmination essentially a financial panic4 ,the ,treasury and the banks were both regarded with more or less distrust4 ,panics or crises more or less severe have occurred in the ,united ,states in #ahad1 #ahah1 #ahbf1 #ahcg-ci1 #ahdh1 #aheg1 during the ,civil ,war1 #ahfa-fe1 #ahgc1 #ahhb1 #ahhd1 #ahij1 #ahic4 ,some of these should hardly be called panics1 as they were mere local disturbances4 ,different causes have been given for each of these revulsions4 ,overtrading and speculation were doubtless responsible for them4 ,the panic of #aheg was coincident with large net imports of merchandise4 ,on ,august #bd1 #aheg1 the onward wave of prosperity1 which had been steadily rising to a great height1 received a check by the failure of the ,ohio ,life ,insurance and ,trust ,co41 followed by numerous other failures4 ,on ,october #d every bank in ,new ,york1 except the ,chemical1 suspended specie payments1 and they did not resume until ,december #ab4 ,the speculation in gold in #ahfi culminated in what is known as the ,black ,friday panic1 ,september #bd1 #ahfi4 ,fiske and ,gould were conducting a speculation in gold1 and sought to corner it4 ,they forced the price up to a high figure1 but the ,government suddenly appeared as a seller of gold and broke the 8corner40 ,the year #ahgc witnessed another revulsion of confidence and another disruption of the commercial and financial affairs of the country4 ,business had long been unduly expanded1 and the collapse finally came4 ,the failure1 on ,september #ah1 of the honored firm of ,jay ,cooke ,co41 which had not only been identified with the building of the ,northern ,pacific ,r4 ,r4 but had been a strong supporter of the credit of the ,government when it was in the direst distress1 was the first bad news4 ,house after house fell4 ,the ,stock ,exchange closed its doors on ,september #bj1 and did not reopen them until ,september #cj4 ,more than fifty ,stock ,exchange firms suspended1 and several of the leading banking institutions of ,new ,york and other cities had to stop business4 ,during this panic the ,new ,york ,clearing-,house ,association issued clearing-house certificates to those of its members who needed available funds1 and during the trouble issued #bd1iae1jjj of them4 ,in ,may1 #ahhd1 it issued #bd1iae1jjj2 in the #ahij panic1 #af1fde1jjj2 in #ahic1 #da1dij1jjj4 ,following the resumption of specie payments the times were good for several years4 ,the production of the precious metals was averaging #ge1jjj1jjj or more per year4 ,from #ahgi to #ahhc we imported about #aij1jjj1jjj of gold4 ,railroad construction reached a higher point than was ever recorded1 either before or since1 nearly #dj1jjj miles of track having been laid in five years4 ,all seemed well1 when another collapse came in ,may1 #ahhd4 ,this was preceded by the failure of ,grant ,ward1 and it was followed by the failure of the ,marine and the ,metropolitan ,ranks4 ,the disclosures of bad faith on the part of men occupying positions of great trust1 made the #ahhd panic one of distinct characteristics of its own4 ,the previous activity in all lines of enterprise may have made the revulsion timely1 but individual dishonesty greatly aggravated the situation4 ,the panic of #ahij1 in the ,united ,states1 was but a reflection of the great ,baring failure in ,london in the fall of that year4 ,this crash was due to ,south ,american speculations1 and was one of the greatest failures of modern times4 ,it is the opinion of many well-informed financiers that this was one of the causes which operated to produce the panic of #ahic in the ,united ,states4 ,the course of the ,united ,states in regard to the purchase of silver1 doubts as to the tariff1 deficiency in revenues--all1 perhaps1 had their share in creating distrust4 ,but back of these were the conditions superinduced by an era of inflation and speculation4 ,the #ahic panic bore most heavily upon the banks4 ,there was a continued demand upon the ,treasury for gold1 and the deposits in banks were withdrawn so rapidly that hundreds of failures ensued4 ,the period of depression continued for nearly three years1 and has been succeeded by an era of general prosperity1 which it is hoped may be long continued4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,fruit ,,culture ,,by ,h4 ,e4 ,,van ,,deman1 ,late ,prof4 of ,horticulture1 ,kansas ,state ,agricultural ,college4 ,from the earliest histories of civilization we learn that the cultivation of fruits has been a delightful pastime and also a substantial means of living4 ,their tempting colors1 fragrant perfumes and luscious flavors are unequaled in combined attractiveness and satisfaction to the human senses by anything else among all the products of nature4 ,their juices are at once appetizing1 nutritious1 and wholesome4 ,millions of people have subsisted upon them largely1 from time out of mind4 ,it is1 therefore1 not a matter of wonder that our forefathers1 when they came to the shores of this ,new ,world1 brought with them seeds1 cuttings1 and plants of the best fruits they had at their old homes4 ,thus it was that the apple1 pear1 peach1 plum1 cherry1 grape1 olive1 date1 almond1 ,european walnut and chestnut1 and many other less valuable fruits were first cultivated in ,north ,america4 ,,the ,,beginning4--,previous to the beginning of the nineteenth century there had been considerable development in fruit culture in the colonies4 ,small apple orchards were quite common in the settlements1 from ,new ,england to the ,carolinas4 ,the pear1 peach1 plum1 grape1 and a few other fruits were cultivated in less degree4 ,the ,spanish had introduced the peach and orange in ,florida1 and the ,french had planted the grape and pear in their sparse settlements in the ,mississippi ,valley and near the ,great ,lakes4 ,there are to-day1 and yet in a healthy condition1 near ,detroit1 ,michigan1 several immense pear-trees from these first plantings1 that are nearly three hundred years old4 ,the ,catholic fathers planted the vine and the olive1 and occasionally the date palm1 at their mission stations along the ,rio ,grande and on the ,pacific coast4 ,thus we see that when the year #ahjj ushered in the century now closing1 there were many feeble beginnings in the way of fruit culture scattered over the ,continent4 ,the ,indians1 contrary to what we might have supposed1 helped materially in the distribution of some of the orchard fruits4 ,in #agii1 when ,general ,sullivan made his famous raid against the tribes which composed the historic 8,six nations10 he found bearing apple orchards in ,western ,new ,york4 ,in ,southern ,canada and ,michigan the ,indians occasionally planted the apple and pear4 ,the tribes living along the ,gulf of ,mexico had peach-trees in their little cultivated patches1 having obtained the seeds from the ,spaniards2 and to-day we find the descendants of these ,spanish or 8,indian0 peaches commonly grown throughout all the ,southern ,states1 and to some extent all over the peach-growing sections of ,america4 ,,the ,,experimental ,,stage4--,during the life of the generation which existed for the first thirty or more years of the century the culture of fruits was still principally in the experimental stage4 ,some of the foreign species and varieties had not proved satisfactory1 and they were being critically tested or abandoned4 ,new varieties were being originated on our own soil4 ,our native fruits were being brought under culture1 too1 and with the most satisfactory results in many cases4 ,it was learned that we had in them the foundation of almost unlimited development4 ,their progeny has revolutionized some lines of fruit culture4 ,this is especially true in our vineyards and berry-fields4 ,there were men of noble and patriotic cast of mind1 who devoted their lives to the development of this lovely and wholly humane work4 ,they deserve to rank beside the heroes of our battlefields4 ,their victories were those of peace1 and were followed by an increase of the delightful products of the orchard1 vineyard1 and garden4 ,once that our forefathers were free from the bondage of ,european greed1 this art of peace kept pace with our civilization on other lines4 ,there is nothing in the whole list of our scientific attainments or material industries that can show more substantial progress4 ,nor is there a nation on earth that has so rich1 varied1 and adaptable soils1 together with climatic conditions so admirably and generally suited to fruit culture2 nor a people more alive to their opportunities in this direction4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,progress4--,during the generation of fruit growers who lived from about #ahcj until the time of the ,civil ,war1 the region lying between the ,alleghany ,mountains and the ,missouri ,river1 and extending from the ,ottawa ,river in ,canada to the mountains of ,tennessee1 which is now the great apple bin of ,america1 as well as its granary1 was being rapidly filled with energetic settlers4 ,these pioneers carried with them carefully selected seeds1 cuttings1 and trees of the best varieties of fruits known in their ,eastern and ,southern homes4 ,these were planted in the rich1 virgin soil of the new territory1 which was then known as 8,the ,west40 ,under the happy influences of a congenial climate and careful cultivation1 they developed into fruitful orchards and vineyards1 yielding finer specimens1 and1 in some cases1 larger crops than had ever been known in the older parts of the country4 ,this gave a great impetus to the culture of fruits4 ,the first large commercial orchards of the apple1 peach1 and pear in the central ,united ,states were then being planted in ,michigan1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,kentucky4 ,the ,south had not yet awakened to a knowledge of her possibilities in fruit culture4 ,under slave labor the land was almost solely given up to cotton and tobacco4 ,florida had not then even dreamed of her wonderful developments in orange culture4 ,in ,missouri1 ,kansas1 ,arkansas1 ,texas1 and the great ,northwest1 where now there are fruit plantations of almost unparalleled extent1 only the first trees and plants were being set1 and it was only thought possible that some day fruits could be produced in abundance there4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain and ,pacific ,states had scarcely been heard of1 even as ,territories1 and only an occasional plantation of vines and trees around some mission station could be found4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoanut ,,tree1 ,,palm ,,beach1 ,,fla4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,triumph4--,at the close of the ,civil ,war1 which had somewhat distracted the attention of our people both ,north and ,south from the progress of the peaceful arts1 there was a great expansion of our rural population4 ,the love of travel had taken possession of many who had been in the armies4 ,they were no longer content with the narrow boundaries and the poor lands of the old ,eastern farms4 ,they wanted new fields for their energies4 ,the building of the great railroad systems across the continent solved the question of the settlement of the 8,far ,west10 and the mythical 8,american ,desert0 that was supposed to lie this side of it4 ,the prairies were covered with homesteaders' shanties1 sod houses1 and 8dug-outs40 ,the forests of ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 ,missouri1 and ,arkansas fell before the axe of the pioneer4 ,the 8,boys in ,blue0 who had seen the natural advantages of the ,southern ,states1 while there on the dread errand of war1 began the rehabilitation of the country they had helped to devastate4 ,they took with them their ,yankee notions and ,western vim1 and planted many kinds of farm crops1 trees1 vines1 and berry bushes upon the old plantations where little else than cotton and tobacco used to grow4 ,florida was veritably turned into a garden of orange trees and truck patches4 ,the chocolate hills and rich black lands of ,texas were planted to grapes1 peaches1 and berries4 ,the dry plains and mesas of the ,rocky ,mountain region1 that were naturally almost devoid of vegetation1 were irrigated and made to produce the most delightful fruits in abundance4 ,the giant forests of ,oregon and ,washington were invaded by the lumberman and the homeseeker1 and in their stead were planted trees which yielded the largest and best of fruits4 ,and ,california1--what shall we say of her wonderful valleys1 grassy foothills1 and timbered mountain slopes8 ,all of the fruits of the temperate zones are growing there1 and in some places the hardier of the tropical kinds succeed4 ,california is indeed a land of fruits4 ,taking the whole of ,north ,america1 except the frozen regions of the ,british possessions1 and ,alaska1 where few cultivated fruits can be grown2 and half-civilized ,mexico1 where progress is scarcely known2 the last thirty-five years have witnessed such advancements in fruit culture as seem almost beyond belief4 ,it has truly been an age of triumph4 ,not only has the territory of its successful culture been wonderfully extended1 but the whole plan and science of fruit-growing has been almost revolutionized4 ,old things have largely passed away4 ,new varieties1 new methods of culture and new markets for the products of the fruit farm have been found4 ,some of the old varieties have been retained1 but many new ones have been originated here2 some by chance and others by scientific breeding4 ,valuable kinds that had long been lying in obscurity have been brought into public favor4 ,others have been imported from foreign countries4 ,almost the entire world has been ransacked in order to obtain fruits that might prove of value to us4 ,at the beginning of this period of unparalleled progress the experiments of former years had shown the success or failure of the different species and varieties already in cultivation in many parts of the country2 and now1 at its close1 after nearly forty years more of experience1 there is scarcely a section within the entire domain of ,north ,american fruit culture where it is not quite well known what is and what is not adapted to each locality4 ,the methods of culture are changed from the old ones1 which were largely those practiced in ,europe1 to such as have been evolved by the peculiar necessities of our soil1 climate1 and varieties4 ,this is especially true of our vineyards2 for1 except on the ,pacific slope1 where the foreign grapes succeed1 our native vines require much less severe pruning1 and a much more roomy trellis upon which to grow than those old kinds4 ,the first vineyards were planted very thickly and trained by the stake method1 which is the ,french and ,german style4 ,i remember working in such vineyards just prior to #ahgj1 and of seeing the dwarfing and dwindling effect upon the vines4 ,nothing of the kind is now seen this side the ,rocky ,mountains1 because our ,american grapes will not endure such treatment and continue to bear well4 ,horse culture has in a great measure succeeded hand culture4 ,without such a change it would be impossible to profitably cultivate the vast stretches of orchards1 vineyards1 and berry-fields that are to-day found in many parts of the country4 ,the common plow and harrow were about the only tools available thirty or forty years ago4 ,they are now supplemented1 and in some cases superseded1 by various kinds of cultivators1 weeders1 and improved plows and harrows4 ,they are made to carry out the modern idea of frequent but shallow stirring of the soil4 ,this method of culture disturbs the roots but little and retains the moisture in the soil1 by keeping the surface finely pulverized1 thus forming a 8dust mulch40 ,some of these tools are so made as to enable one man with one horse to easily cultivate twenty-five acres per day1 and with a two or three horse implement1 to thoroughly pulverize the surface over fifty or more acres in that time4 ,the tendency during the last half century has been towards heading orchard trees lower4 ,the old style was to have them with trunks so tall that a horse could walk under the branches4 ,low heads have the advantage of giving the winds less purchase upon the roots1 the fruit is more easily gathered1 and the sun is less likely to scald the trunks4 ,the old idea of our forefathers was1 that apples were chiefly to be used for making cider1 peaches for brandy1 and grapes for wine4 ,we have become a nation of fruit-eaters1 as compared with our predecessors and the ,europeans4 ,the greatest impetus ever given to ,american fruit culture came from the increased demand in our own country for fresh fruit4 ,it is a staple article of diet here1 rather than a luxury1 as it is in most parts of ,europe4 ,nearly all of our fresh fruits are consumed in the homes of our people1 or exported4 ,a very little is made into cider1 brandy1 or wine1 and the larger part of the remainder is dried or canned4 ,the proportion of grapes made into wine east of ,california is trifling1 while there it is considerable4 ,the enormous production and consumption of berries of various kinds by the ,americans is unparalleled in the history of the world2 and nearly all of this has come through the development of our wild berries4 ,instead of buying largely of foreign fruits and their products1 except such as are strictly tropical and cannot be grown within our borders only in a limited way1 we have nearly stopped their importation1 and have1 in turn1 become exporters4 ,the rapid increase in our population demands more and more fruit1 and it is not to be wondered at that our imports of oranges and lemons is increasing2 but if it was not for our home production of these fruits the present amount would be more than doubled4 ,our raisins and dried prunes have almost driven out the foreign products1 and their quality is so good that there is a growing demand for them in ,england and some other foreign countries4 ,the same is true of our canned and preserved fruits4 ,our apples bring the highest price of any that reach the markets of ,europe1 and the demand for them is increasing4 ,fresh pears and peaches have also been sent to ,england in limited quantities from as far west as ,california and ,oregon4 ,our oranges also have an enviable reputation there because of their beauty and delicious flavor4 ,our apples are sent to ,mexico1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,the street venders of ,bombay1 ,india1 cry their sale with great gusto3 8,american apples6 true ,american apples60 and sell them at a price which would require more than a whole day's wages of a good workman to buy a single one4 ,the world is beginning to know the value and goodness of our fruits4 ,we are selling1 inside their dainty skins1 a portion of our sunshine and water2 for the golden1 pink1 and crimson tints are from the glowing sun1 and the water1 which is the main part of all fruits1 is fresh from nature's fountain4 ,,growth ,,of ,,apple ,,culture4--,from the first settlement of the country well into the present century1 the principal purpose for which apples were cultivated in ,america was to make cider4 ,this was a common beverage in ,england and on the continent of ,europe1 whence our forefathers came4 ,here they introduced the ,old ,world custom of drinking hard cider 8in season and out of season40 ,in #agba1 in one 8town0 near ,boston1 wherein lived about forty families1 there were made in one year three thousand barrels of cider1 and in another of two hundred families1 near ten thousand barrels4 ,this is fifty barrels to the family1 which seems ample for a great many drinks per day for each person1 with plenty left to sell to the cider-loving citizens of ,boston4 ,colonel ,john ,taylor of ,virginia wrote1 in #ahac1 nearly one hundred years later3 8,the apple will furnish some food for hogs1 a luxury for the family in winter1 and a healthy liquor for the farmer and his laborers all the year40 ,but hard cider did not always satisfy4 8,applejack10 which is the strongest kind of brandy1 suited the taste of many of the old-fashioned folk much better4 ,the ,virginia gentleman1 the ,dutch burgher1 whose ample acres fronted upon the ,hudson1 the solemn ,philadelphia ,quaker and the staid ,puritan of ,new ,england1 all loved their dram and took it frequently4 ,besides alcoholic liquors1 vinegar was made in considerable quantities4 ,but as late as the middle of this century there was scarcely a good family apple orchard to be found1 such as we now have1 with varieties arranged to ripen from early to late4 ,nor were there many commercial orchards of consequence4 ,the famous orchard of ,robert ,l4 ,pell1 in ,ulster ,county1 ,new ,york1 was a remarkable exception4 ,it consisted of #bj1jjj trees1 all of the ,yellow and ,green ,newtown apples4 ,fruit from this orchard sold at wholesale in ,london1 ,england1 in #ahde1 at the enormous price of #ba4jj per barrel1 but the next year the price had fallen to #f4jj in ,new ,york city1 ready for foreign shipment4 ,this orchard gradually fell into decay1 and was not soon followed by others of so large acreage4 ,the ,newtown apple proved unsuitable for general culture1 and is now grown only in two localities with much success4 ,in the mountain 8coves10 or sheltered slopes and valleys1 of the ,blue ,ridge1 in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 where it is called 8,albemarle ,pippin10 there are many orchards that produce as fine fruit as any from the ,pell orchard1 and it now sells from #e4jj to #ab4jj and more per barrel in ,england4 ,in the higher foothills of ,california and ,oregon this variety does equally well1 and apples from there are being sold in ,england during this closing period of the century at almost fabulous prices4 ,in the old days1 if an orchard furnished an abundance of apples for cider1 brandy1 vinegar1 apple butter1 some for drying1 and a few of fair quality that would keep for winter use1 it was all that was expected4 ,illustration3 ,,packing ,,apples ,,for ,,export1 ,,in ,,orchard ,,of ,,mr4 ,,pay1 ,,st4 ,,catharines1 ,,ont4 ,most of the trees in those old orchards were inferior seedlings1 and it is no wonder that the people of those days did not use apples as we do4 ,a few of them were very good1 and it is from such chance favorites that we have preserved to us1 by grafting1 the ,baldwin ,winesap and hundreds more that fill our orchards to-day4 ,we have developed a new race of ,american seedlings4 ,most of the old varieties that were so highly esteemed across the ocean are now rarely mentioned4 ,our newer and better kinds have largely supplanted them4 ,as time advanced more choice varieties were added1 until we may now confidently boast of having the best apples in existence4 ,whoever has eaten our delicious ,grimes ,golden1 ,jonathan1 and ,northern ,spy1 need not look for better kinds1 because they cannot now be found4 ,indeed1 the name 8,seek-no-farther0 has been triumphantly applied to one variety4 ,however1 we are still seeking and expecting to produce by skillful breeding1 if not to find1 others which may be even better than those we now possess4 ,a history of the recognized and named varieties of apples of ,american origin would be a book in itself4 ,it should begin almost with the first settlement of the country4 ,at the beginning of this century the ,early ,harvest1 ,baldwin1 ,swaar1 ,esopus ,spitzenberg1 ,rhode ,island ,greening1 ,yellow ,bellflower1 and a few others which are yet popular1 were already grafted into hundreds of orchards1 some of them being as far west as the ,mississippi ,river4 ,william ,coxe1 in his excellent book on fruits1 published in #ahag1 mentions #ajj kinds4 ,william ,prince1 of ,long ,island1 who kept the first nursery of note1 had #aaf varieties of apples in his published list in #ahbe1 of which about half were of ,american origin4 ,now there are nearly #ajjj kinds offered by the nurserymen of the country1 and the books on pomology contain nearly #ejjj varieties1 a large part of them being ,american4 ,truly this is progress4 ,we have the best and by far the most extensive apple country in the world4 ,the largest apple orchards in the world are in ,america4 ,the biggest of all belongs to ,f4 ,wellhouse ,son1 of ,kansas1 in which there are #afjj acres4 ,there are others in ,missouri1 ,illinois1 ,iowa1 ,colorado1 and ,new ,mexico that are nearly as large4 ,the variety principally grown in these orchards is the ,ben ,davis4 ,it is a thrifty1 rugged grower1 a most productive bearer1 and a handsome apple to sell4 ,its brilliant red stripes1 large size1 and ability to keep1 make up for its deficiency in flavor4 ,it is1 to-day1 the business apple of ,america4 ,baldwin is the business apple of the ,eastern ,states4 ,both these varieties are well known in every market of this country1 and wherever our apples are exported4 ,the first government record of exported apples was in #ahba1 when 8#fh1fdc bushels10 or about #bb1gha barrels of apples1 were sent abroad4 ,in #ahig there were #b1cga1adc barrels exported1 which is the largest quantity ever shipped to foreign countries in one year4 ,during the same year there were also exported nearly #ca1jjj1jjj pounds of dried apples1 #id1jjj gallons of vinegar1 and #gej1jjj gallons of cider4 ,certainly this is a good showing for the surplus products of ,american apple orchards4 ,the year #ahih gave a lighter yield1 but #ahii will1 perhaps1 about equal it4 ,,the ,,pear4--,whoever has eaten a delicious little ,seckel pear must know that its equal in richness and spicy flavor is not to be found4 ,this little gem is one of the triumphs of ,american fruit culture4 ,how far beyond and above the old 8choke0 pear of our grandfathers' days is this one1 and many more of the delicious pears that grow in our orchards and gardens to-day6 ,pear growing was only a side issue until lately4 ,a few trees were planted about our forefathers' houses or in the edge of the apple orchards2 but these were often sprouts from some neighbor's seedling trees4 ,as the appetite for good fruit increased1 the false idea that pears should be ground and pressed into cider1 called perry1 decreased1 until now no one thinks of wasting this delicious fruit by making it into an intoxicating drink4 ,the ,bartlett is our most popular pear of good quality4 ,it originated in ,berkshire1 ,england1 about #aggj1 where it was called ,williams4 ,when brought to ,america early in this century and planted at ,dorchester1 ,mass41 the original name was lost1 and it was renamed in honor of ,enoch ,bartlett1 who first propagated and distributed the trees and grafts4 ,the old tree1 from which came the millions that have been and are now a source of delight and profit to our people1 is still in bearing condition at ,dorchester1 and ,i have lately eaten as good ,bartlett pears from it as ever were grown4 ,the variety flourishes better in ,america than in its old home1 and every year large shipments of the fruit are sent to ,england and sold at a very high price4 ,some fifty years ago there were brought from ,china seeds of a type of a pear that was entirely new to this country1 and was called by us the 8,sand0 pear4 ,the only apparent reason for giving it this name is1 that it is gritty1 hard1 and little better to eat than so much sand4 ,but the seeds made trees that grew with remarkable vigor and were much alike1 and so was their fruit4 ,from this stock came up a seedling some thirty years ago1 in the garden of ,peter ,kieffer1 in ,philadelphia1 that has almost revolutionized pear growing in ,america4 ,it is supposed to be the result of a cross between a ,chinese ,sand pear-tree and a ,bartlett that stood near each other1 although this is mere supposition4 ,the fruit is only of medium quality1 and some say it is very poor2 but it is large1 very beautiful when fully mature1 late in ripening1 and endures rough handling with as little harm as so many potatoes4 ,it is very popular with the canners4 ,the greatest point in its favor is the freedom of the tree from blight1 its vigor and almost never-failing and abundant bearing4 ,it is the business pear of to-day1 despite its inferior quality4 ,,the ,,peach4--,when the peach was first planted in ,america by the ,spanish and ,french1 and later by other nationalities1 there was little thought of it ever becoming a great commercial fruit4 ,the trees that sprang from the seeds brought across the ocean grew so luxuriantly and bore so abundantly that their progeny was soon scattered far and wide4 ,peach trees were early found growing wild1 like our native trees1 wherever seeds had been dropped by travelers or hunters4 ,there was no attempt at commercial peach orcharding until well into the present century1 and for the first half of this there were scarcely more than a few seedling orchards planted for family use or for making brandy4 ,in some sections dried peaches were an article of trade before any commercial peach orchards1 in the true sense1 had been planted2 but they were always the product of women's work1 and were prepared under the disadvantageous conditions with which they are usually hampered4 ,it is no wonder that the grade was low1 for the peaches were generally of poor quality1 and no other mode of drying was then known than on boards and wooden trays1 exposed in the open air to flies1 moths1 and dust4 ,all that was sent to market was first taken in at the stores where the country people came to trade1 and it was a mixed mess1 indeed1 that was thus collected4 ,what fresh peaches were sold brought a very low price1 rarely more than twenty-five cents per bushel4 ,early in the century budded peach-trees were almost unknown in ,america4 ,a few were brought over from ,france and the fruit houses of ,england1 all of which did very well here4 ,however1 it was soon learned that there were seedlings of ,american origin that were equal to the best of the foreign kinds4 ,among the first of these were ,heath1 ,early ,york1 ,tillotson1 and ,oldmixon ,cling and ,free4 ,a little later1 two large yellow freestones came up by accident on the premises of ,william ,crawford1 of ,middletown1 ,n4 ,j41 one ripening early and the other late4 ,early ,crawford and ,late ,crawford are1 after more than sixty years of trial1 still very popular upon the markets4 ,many other kinds1 once popular1 have long since been discarded and forgotten4 ,just before our ,civil ,war the ,hale peach was discovered and1 being earlier than any kind then known1 it became very popular4 ,about #ahfe1 the ,amsden1 ,alexander1 and some others came to notice4 ,they were a month earlier than the ,hale4 ,a peach1 called ,peen-to1 was imported from southern ,china about the same time1 that ripened still a month earlier2 but as it belonged to a very different race from our other peaches1 and was exceedingly tender1 it has been found suitable only to ,florida and other semitropical regions4 ,the most popular peach of the present day is the ,elberta4 ,it was originated by ,samuel ,h4 ,rumph1 of ,georgia1 about twenty years ago4 ,its large size1 creamy1 yellow color1 and good flavor1 added to its productiveness1 make it very acceptable to both grower and consumer4 ,the most extensive peach orchards in ,america are located in ,georgia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,southern ,missouri1 ,western ,colorado1 and ,california4 ,a few are each more than a thousand acres in extent4 ,the advent of patent evaporating machines1 about #ahgj1 aided greatly in the production of high grade dried fruits of all kinds1 and the peach shared in the progress4 ,california and ,oregon alone shipped in a single recent year nearly #dj1jjj1jjj pounds of dried peaches4 ,the peach is canned more than any other fruit1 as may be seen upon the shelves of any grocery store1 or in the fruit closets of the country housewives4 ,whether eaten fresh from the trees1 served up with cream and sugar 7a dainty dish unknown in ,europe71 evaporated or canned1 the peach is one of the blessings of our great country4 ,,the ,,plum4--,there are three general classes of plums grown in ,america to-day1 the ,european1 ,american1 and ,japanese4 ,european plums were introduced here at an early day1 but were grown very sparingly until within the last thirty or forty years4 ,the principal reason for this is the presence of a deadly enemy to the plum1 apricot1 and some other fruits1 commonly known as the plum curculio4 ,it is a little enemy but a mighty one2 for it deposits its eggs in the young fruit1 and they soon hatch into little grubs that work their way into the fruit and cause it to die and drop off4 ,west of the ,continental divide there are none of these insects4 ,there the soil1 climate1 and all else seem to conspire to enable the plum-grower to prosper4 ,great prune orchards are planted in the fertile valleys from ,new ,mexico and ,colorado westward4 ,some of them cover thousands of acres in a body1 and the yield is enormous4 ,the rainless autumns of ,california permit the drying of the fruit in the open air and in the most economical and perfect way4 ,from an infant industry twenty years ago it has now grown so great that1 in #ahig1 ,california alone produced nearly #ih1jjj1jjj pounds of dried prunes4 ,oregon1 ,washington1 ,idaho1 and some other western ,states are almost equally well suited to this industry4 ,east of the ,rocky ,mountains plum-growing is not so easy4 ,the curculio damages all classes of plums to some extent1 but the ,european kinds seem to be much less able to endure its attacks than any other4 ,this led to the selection and cultivation of the best varieties of our several native species4 ,their fruit is not so large or so richly flavored as some of the foreign kinds1 but much of it is very good1 and the brilliant red1 purple1 and yellow colors are greatly admired4 ,the ,japanese plums are of quite recent introduction4 ,the beginning was in #ahgj1 when the ,kelsey1 which is the largest1 the latest to ripen1 and about one of the least valuable varieties of this class was brought to ,california4 ,later importations have brought us many very valuable kinds4 ,the trees bear well1 the fruit is mostly large1 handsome1 of good quality1 and resists the stings of the curculio quite as well as our native kinds4 ,one of the most interesting and promising steps in plum-growing is only beginning to be made1 in the crossing of the three classes named4 ,the most skillful and patient worker in this field is ,luther ,burbank1 of ,california1 who has already produced1 by artificially pollenizing the flowers1 some most excellent varieties4 ,some of these new varieties are larger than any plums ever before seen1 delicious in flavor1 and blood-red to the stone4 ,,the ,,cherry4--,away back in the history of our country1 cherry trees were planted here and there1 but only for family use4 ,the list of varieties was meagre4 ,most of them were sour1 bitter1 or small4 ,now we have hundreds of named varieties and of all grades of color1 from creamy yellow to black1 and both sweet and sour1 early and late4 ,in ,washington1 ,oregon1 and ,california the cherry does better than in any of the regions farther ,east4 ,the first cherries of the season to ripen are in the famous ,vaca ,valley of ,california1 and sometimes shipments from there reach ,new ,york as early as ,april #a4 ,the largest cherry trees in ,america are found in the foot-hill regions of ,pennsylvania and ,virginia4 ,trees are sometimes seen there that have trunks three feet in diameter1 with a spread of branches of more than fifty feet4 ,such trees sometimes yield more than fifty bushels of fruit at a time4 ,,the ,,apricot4--,all over the ,eastern and ,central ,states the apricot is almost an entire failure because of the ravages of the plum curculio4 ,after many years of trial its culture there has been almost abandoned1 except by those who are willing to follow the jarring of the trees to catch the insects4 ,across the ,continental divide1 where this enemy does not exist1 the apricot flourishes as well or better than anywhere else in the world4 ,it is one of the profitable fruits from western ,colorado to the shores of the ,pacific4 ,california dried and sent to market in one year over #cj1jjj1jjj pounds4 ,there is also a great amount of apricots canned there every year1 a large part of which are shipped all over the world4 ,,the ,,quince4--,although sour and unfit for eating from the hand1 the quince is one of our most delicious fruits when cooked4 ,no store of sweetmeats is complete without a generous supply of quince jelly4 ,this fruit delights in a moist soil and a cool but not severe climate4 ,however1 it succeeds very well over the main part of ,north ,america4 ,almost every home plot has a tree or two4 ,in western ,new ,york many commercial quince orchards have been planted within the last twenty-five years1 some of them being of forty acres in extent4 ,,american ,,grape ,,culture4--,in no department of ,american pomology has there been more remarkable advancement than in grape-growing4 ,it was the belief of those who first began to grow fruits here1 that the grapes of ,canaan1 ,persia1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 which were brought down through the ages to the vineyards of modern ,europe1 would grow equally well in ,america4 ,one great reason for this belief was the abundance of wild grapes of many kinds that were found from ,nova ,scotia to ,texas4 ,one of the first things the pioneers of civilization did in ,new ,england1 at ,roanoke ,island1 and at ,jamestown1 was to make wine of the native grapes4 ,the ,spaniards in #aefd also made wine of the wild grapes of ,florida4 ,after testing the wine and finding it inferior to that produced in their old homes1 they were more determined to grow vineyards of the choicest grapes of ,europe4 ,the ,french established a vineyard of this kind in ,virginia1 and another in southern ,illinois2 and ,william ,penn did the same near ,philadelphia in #afhc4 ,the most notable attempt that was made was by ,john ,james ,dufour1 a native of ,switzerland4 ,he came to ,america in #agif1 and at once set about doing the wisest thing that he could have done1 by first visiting and critically examining the vineyards that had already been started4 ,he was not favorably impressed by what he saw1 for the ,european vines had done very poorly1 because of some unknown disease or weakness that seemed to cause them to make but feeble growth1 or gradually dwindle and die4 ,the cause has since been found to have been the fungus diseases and insect pests that are peculiar to the eastern half of ,america4 ,but ,dufour thought the right varieties had not been tried1 except a few that he found near ,philadelphia4 ,from these he secured a start1 and in #agii organized a stock company with #aj1jjj in capital1 to plant a vineyard1 ,henry ,clay being one of the stockholders4 ,a tract of #fcc acres was selected near ,lexington1 ,ky41 and there he began work in the most enthusiastic manner4 ,he induced two of his brothers to come from ,switzerland to join him1 and they brought other varieties of their best grapes4 ,but after three years' trial he gave it up as a hopeless effort and turned his attention to the cultivation of our native grapes4 ,the beginning of successful grape culture in ,america may be said to have been made by ,dufour1 in his next or second attempt1 which was in #ahjb1 at ,vevay1 ,ind41 on the banks of the ,ohio1 and with a variety of the wild ,vitis labrusca1 or fox grape1 found near the ,schuylkill ,river before the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,it was at first called the 8,cape0 grape1 from a mistaken notion that it had been brought from the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it was also known by several other names4 ,although this grape was the first of a very long list of native varieties which have made our country famous in grape culture1 it has long since been entirely abandoned for better kinds4 ,but the vineyard at ,vevay1 planted largely of this variety1 was the first really successful one in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,single ,,vine ,,of 8,,lady ,,de ,,coverly0 ,,grape 7,,seedless7 ,,grown ,,by ,j4 ,p4 ,,onstott1 ,,maryville1 ,,cal4 ,the next forward step was the introduction of the ,isabella and ,catawba1 both having originated in ,america1 not long previous to #ahbj1 although of unknown parentage2 but1 perhaps1 as the results of accidental crossing between our native wild grapes and some of the foreign kinds4 ,the ,isabella is supposed to have originated in ,south ,carolina1 and was brought from there by ,mrs4 ,isabella ,gibbs and planted in her garden in ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 where it came to the notice of ,william ,r4 ,prince in #ahaf1 when in full bearing4 ,he named it ,isabella in her honor1 and introduced it to the general public4 ,the ,catawba is supposed to have originated as a seedling near the ,catawba ,river1 in ,north ,carolina1 but was not generally known until ,major ,john ,adlum1 of the ,district of ,columbia1 found it in bearing on the premises of ,mrs4 ,scholl1 a tavern keeper of ,clarksburgh1 ,md4 ,he was at once delighted with its good qualities1 and planted it in his experiment grounds at ,georgetown in #ahai1 and introduced it to the fruit-loving public soon after4 ,the next impetus to grape culture was caused by the introduction of the ,delaware and ,concord4 ,the exact origin of the ,delaware is not known1 but it came to public notice about #ahee1 through the efforts of ,mr4 ,a4 ,thomson and ,george ,w4 ,campbell1 of ,delaware1 ,o4 ,it was learned afterwards that the same variety was growing in #ahej1 in the garden of a ,swiss immigrant1 ,paul ,h4 ,provost1 at ,frenchtown1 ,n4 ,j4 ,it may be that it originated at this place from a chance seed1 and that cuttings were thence carried to ,ohio4 ,it is evidently a cross between the foreign species and one of our natives1 and is to-day about the best of all the grapes grown in the ,eastern ,states4 ,the ,concord is a pure native seedling1 produced by ,ephraim ,w4 ,bull1 of ,concord1 ,mass41 and first shown to the public at ,boston in #ahec4 ,it has proved itself to be the greatest blessing of all grapes that have ever been grown in ,america4 ,its thriftiness and reliability under all circumstances are unequaled4 ,it is not only good in itself1 but it has been the parent of a race of seedlings which have filled our vineyards1 gardens1 and markets with the most delicious grapes1 and at a very slight cost of labor or money4 ,whoever gathers or buys a basket of blue-black ,concord or ,worden1 purple ,brighton or opal ,niagara1 should render a silent thank-offering to the memory of ,ephraim ,w4 ,bull1 who made their existence a possibility4 ,the first commercial vineyard of importance was planted by ,nicholas ,longworth1 on the hills overlooking the ,ohio ,river1 about ten miles below ,cincinnati1 and it was largely of ,catawba4 ,many others followed his example1 and from about #ahcj to #ahfj so great an interest was shown that the hills bordering the ,ohio for many miles were dotted with vineyards4 ,but mildew and black rot devastated them and almost destroyed their usefulness4 ,these diseases are now largely overcome by spraying with a solution of sulphate of copper4 ,in northern ,ohio1 about ,cleveland and ,sandusky1 and on the islands near the southern shore of ,lake ,erie1 the ,catawba was planted with much better success1 owing1 perhaps1 to the climate not being so favorable to grape diseases4 ,the lake region of western ,new ,york is perhaps more densely planted with grapes than any section east of ,california4 ,thousands of carloads of grapes of high quality are shipped from there every year4 ,the ,southern ,states have awakened somewhat to the importance of grape culture4 ,some of the poorest sandy lands of ,north ,carolina and ,florida have been planted to vines and found to produce1 when fertilized1 excellent grapes4 ,texas is also a most productive grape region4 ,their earliness causes them to find a ready market in the ,north4 ,but in all of ,north ,america there is no section where the grape flourishes with such wonderful success as in ,california and other regions beyond the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,there the tenderest and most delicious of all the grapes of ,france1 ,italy1 ,persia1 and ,palestine ripen their luscious clusters beneath the glowing skies4 ,the grapes of ,eshcol1 ,i imagine1 did not surpass those now grown in ,california1 ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,idaho4 ,all up and down their fertile valleys and foot-hills may be seen great stretches of vineyard after vineyard4 ,the raisin industry alone is immense2 and the product is of such high quality and is produced at so low cost that the importation of ,european raisins is becoming less each year1 and may soon be practically at an end4 ,we have already begun exporting our raisins to ,england and other parts of the world4 ,over #ajc1jjj1jjj pounds1 filling #ejjj cars1 were shipped from ,california alone in one year4 ,single clusters of grapes have frequently been grown in ,california that weighed from ten to fifteen pounds1 and four or five pound clusters are very common4 ,truly1 ,america is a land of grapes4 ,,the ,,berries4--,america stands alone in the popular use of berries4 ,except in the matter of gooseberries and currants1 which are rather plentiful in some parts of ,europe1 and a few strawberries and raspberries there and in ,japan1 there are very few berries grown outside of ,america4 ,the strawberry was found wild here in all sections4 ,the fruit was small but of most delicious flavor4 ,a few of the varieties grown in the mother country were brought over here1 but they did not flourish4 ,about #ahcd ,c4 ,m4 ,hovey1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass41 grew some seedlings of the old ,pine strawberry1 which is an offshoot of the wild strawberry of the west coast of ,south ,america1 and his introduction of varieties named ,hovey and ,boston ,pine marked the first step in our modern strawberry culture4 ,next came the ,wilson1 which originated about #ahej on the grounds of ,john ,wilson1 of ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,this variety really popularized the growing of strawberries1 because of its hardiness and productiveness4 ,soon after this the ,crescent was found at ,new ,orleans1 ,la4 ,other kinds were soon originated from seed by experimenters1 and chance seedlings were found coming up in all fruit-growing regions4 ,it was not long until there were hundreds of named varieties of good quality and that bore abundantly4 ,within the last decade or two there have been hundreds more originated by the most skillful hybridizers using our native species and the foreign ones also4 ,others just as good were picked up wherever they chanced to grow from seed4 ,thus1 we now have the most wonderful assortment of varieties of the strawberry in the world4 ,they are early1 medium1 and late4 ,the facilities for shipping are so convenient that1 now1 it is possible to have strawberries in the fancy markets almost every day of the year1 from some section of our great country4 ,in the flush of the season they are so cheap and abundant that the poor can enjoy them along with the rich4 ,from little garden patches fifty years ago1 and very small ones too1 we have now come to grow them by the thousand acres4 ,the raspberry is another of our delicious berries4 ,at first our pioneers were satisfied with those they could gather from the wild bushes4 ,following the same plan that was used with most other fruits1 the ,european raspberries were brought over the sea and planted in the gardens of ,america4 ,but they did poorly1 and about #ahej our people began to plant the native varieties4 ,these grew and bore well4 ,now we have hundreds of the very choicest named kinds1 black1 red1 purple1 and yellow1 early and late1 and more being originated every year4 ,the history of the gooseberry is almost identical with that of the raspberry4 ,the foreign kinds1 although bearing very much larger fruit than our native kinds1 were ruined by mildew4 ,about #ahde ,abel ,houghton1 of ,massachusetts1 grew a seedling from the wild berry1 which was named ,houghton1 and from this came another seedling1 the ,downing1 which was originated at ,newburgh1 ,n4 ,y41 some years later4 ,these two varieties are now among our very best kinds4 ,since the benefits of spraying with fungicides have been known1 the larger and milder flavored ,english kinds are being grown with considerable success4 ,the blackberry is found native only in ,america4 ,it has been one of the most useful of all our wild fruits from the earliest settlement of the country1 and was used by the aborigines for centuries before4 ,until about #ahdj there was not enough thought given to blackberry culture to make the least attempt in that direction1 when ,captain ,lovett1 of ,beverly1 ,mass41 gave the name ,dorchester to a chance variety1 and distributed it4 ,soon after #ahej the ,lawton was taken from its wild habitat on the banks of the ,hudson ,river4 ,this variety was the first really good blackberry that was named and distributed4 ,the ,kitatinny followed about ten years later1 having been found wild in the mountains of western ,new ,jersey4 ,at least two white varieties1 and several having pink berries1 that were found growing wild1 were named and sent out4 ,these novelties are yet cultivated by a few amateur horticulturists4 ,it may seem strange to say that we have white and red blackberries1 but it is a fact4 ,at this date we have many kinds of later introduction1 some early and some late1 and of most delicious flavor4 ,perhaps all ,americans know that cranberry sauce goes with ,thanksgiving turkey4 ,no country in the world has so many cranberries as ,north ,america4 ,the bogs of ,cape ,cod are famous for this fruit1 and the ,pilgrims of ,plymouth colony knew of them1 and served them on their rustic tables4 ,now the wild marshes along the ,atlantic are nearly all under cultivation1 and the product has been increased many fold4 ,fully #a1jjj1jjj bushels are marketed when the crop is good4 ,the same is being done with the bogs in the vicinity of the ,great ,lakes4 ,cranberries grow in untold quantities on the marshes of ,alaska4 ,,citrus ,,fruits4--,when the ,spaniards invaded ,florida in search of gold they brought with them seeds of the citrus fruits from the regions of the ,mediterranean4 ,there the orange1 lemon1 and lime were planted in the genial climate of our ,southern borders4 ,the fruit was carried hither and thither1 and soon escaped the bounds of the cultivated areas4 ,the forests in places were filled with wild orange trees1 the most of which bore fruit of poor quality4 ,when the tide of immigration set southward after the ,civil ,war1 these wild groves were budded to good varieties1 and new land was cleared and planted with small seedlings4 ,these were budded to good varieties in due time4 ,orange culture was soon a fixed industry in ,florida4 ,this increased rapidly up to the time of the severe freeze of #ahid-ie1 when there were shipped over #e1jjj1jjj boxes4 ,since then the results of the freezing of the trees has greatly lessened the product1 but it is steadily increasing again4 ,the lemon has attracted much less interest than the orange1 but ,i have seen one lemon orchard in ,florida of more than two hundred acres1 and there are many smaller ones4 ,the lime is but little called for1 and is therefore grown more as a novelty than for commercial purposes4 ,the pomelo1 by some misnamed 8grape-fruit10 is a very large1 wholesome1 and delicious citrus fruit that is becoming quite popular where it grows1 and in the northern markets4 ,illustration3 ,,orange ,,orchard ,,of ,,lyman ,,phelps1 ,,sanford1 ,,fla4 ,in ,california the orange was first planted by the mission fathers centuries ago4 ,the first real orchard is said to have been planted at ,san ,gabriel in #ahjd4 ,before the discovery of gold in that far-away region very few orange orchards existed there1 and they were of small size4 ,up to #ahgb very little more than this was done1 when the founding of the colony at ,riverside1 and the fortunate introduction of the ,bahia or ,navel orange from ,brazil by our government1 at this juncture1 was the start of prosperous citrus culture on that coast4 ,now there are annually about #e1jjj1jjj boxes of oranges sent out of that ,state alone1 and the amount is steadily increasing4 ,a large part of these are of the justly famous ,navel variety4 ,lemon growing is also becoming a great industry there4 ,orchards of one hundred acres are rather common1 and some are fully five times larger4 ,over #b1jjj1jjj boxes of lemons were produced the past season4 ,,the ,,olive4--,among the historic fruits of ,palestine and southern ,europe the olive holds a conspicuous place4 ,numerous but futile attempts were made in early times to establish it in ,virginia and along the ,atlantic coast1 the climate there proving unsuitable4 ,but in the warmer parts of ,california the olive is perfectly at home4 ,the first olive orchard of consequence was planted by ,ellwood ,cooper1 at ,santa ,barbara1 in #ahgb1 and in #ahgf he made oil from the fruit grown on the trees4 ,now there are many extensive orchards in many parts of the ,state4 ,it is estimated that there are nearly #b1jjj1jjj olive trees now growing in that ,state4 ,the oil and pickled fruit are steadily becoming popular in our fancy markets in competition with the foreign product4 ,illustration3 ,,olive ,,orchard1 ,,quito ,,ranch1 ,,near ,,san ,,jose1 ,,cal4 ,,the ,,fig4--,very little is done in fig culture east of ,california1 although the trees are not tender along the ,gulf coast1 except in case of extremely severe winters4 ,in ,california it is a decided success1 commercially as well as for mere pleasure4 ,the past year dried figs to the amount of nearly #d1jjj1jjj pounds were sent to market1 and the quantity has been constantly increasing for several years4 ,,the ,,pineapple4--,those who have never seen pineapples growing are apt to think they are produced on trees4 ,this is far from the fact4 ,they grow on the tips of stalks about two feet high4 ,the plants have large narrow leaves that cluster at the ground1 from the centre of which these stalks spring4 ,a few patches were planted on the islands near the ,florida coast in #ahfj1 but it is only about fifteen years since the first vigorous attempts were made to grow this delicious fruit in the ,united ,states4 ,florida is the only region within our country where the climate is sufficiently moist and warm for it to flourish4 ,along the east coast1 from ,rock ,ledge southward1 and on the west coast below ,tampa1 are the most favorable sections4 ,many acres are devoted to its culture there4 ,frosts damage the plants sometimes1 but they soon recover4 ,in central ,florida1 many acres are grown under sheds4 ,these are made of frame-work1 which is covered with slats or boughs as a protection from frost4 ,upwards of #c1jjj1jjj fruits of marketable size are now produced in ,florida annually4 ,,other ,,fruits4--,the date is just beginning to be set in the arid regions of ,arizona and southern ,california1 and with good prospects of success4 ,already many trees are in bearing1 and the fruit is of excellent quality4 ,the choicest varieties have been imported from ,africa4 ,the guava is being grown in the warm parts of ,florida and ,california4 ,the mango has been fruited in the warmest parts of ,florida and ,california4 ,illustration3 ,,pineapple ,,field ,,at ,,palm ,,beach1 ,,fla4 ,,nuts4--,the sweet almond of southern ,europe has long been tested in ,america1 but nowhere with success except in ,california1 where there are almond orchards of several hundred acres each4 ,the ,persian 7wrongly called ,english7 walnut is a great success in the richer lands of ,california1 where orchards of majestic trees have been in full bearing for many years4 ,of our native nuts the pecan is the best of all1 and it is about the only one that has so far proved worthy of cultivation4 ,it is found in a wild state in ,illinois1 ,missouri1 and ,nebraska1 and southward to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the creek and river bottoms suit it best1 but it will do very well on almost any rich land4 ,on some of the hammock lands of ,florida hundreds of acres are now planted to the pecan4 ,the largest pecan orchard is that of ,f4 ,a4 ,swinden1 of ,brownwood1 ,texas1 which covers over five hundred acres1 and is being increased from year to year4 ,our native chestnut is of better quality than the foreign kinds1 but the nuts are much smaller4 ,the largest are from ,japan1 some of which are two inches in diameter4 ,many of these choice kinds have been imported1 and others were originated from seeds1 which are now being planted in orchards4 ,the best of the ,european chestnuts have also been imported1 and new kinds have been grown here from the nuts4 ,nearly all of these varieties succeed in ,america1 and many small orchards have been planted4 ,some have grafted sprouts from our native chestnut stumps and small trees with these improved kinds1 and found them to grow and bear abundantly4 ,the cocoanut is strictly tropical1 and can only be grown in the very warmest parts of ,florida4 ,it will not endure as low a temperature as the pineapple without injury4 ,as a commercial venture its culture will probably never pay in ,america1 but for ornamental purposes and as an interesting novelty it is already a success from ,lake ,worth southward4 ,the waving plumes of this giant palm are a source of constant delight to those who are privileged to see them4 ,the huge clusters of nuts are indeed an interesting sight4 ,surely we have a great and fruitful country1 from the cranberry bogs of arctic ,alaska to the waving cocoanut groves of ,florida4 ,this century closes and the new one begins with wonderful advances in fruit culture beyond those of a hundred years ago4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,commercial ,,progress ,,by ,,emory ,r4 ,,johnson1 ,a4,m41 ,asst4 ,prof4 of ,transportation and ,commerce1 ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,commercial activity has three phases1 trade1 shipping1 and shipbuilding4 ,in each of these three phases of commerce the nineteenth century has witnessed a remarkable progress4 ,the expansion of both domestic and international trade has far exceeded the anticipations of those who lived a hundred years ago2 and the agencies of transportation by water1 the numerous auxiliaries of commerce and the shipbuilding industries1 have undergone a technical revolution so complete1 and with consequences so beneficent to our social and industrial life1 as to make the commercial progress of the past hundred years one of the salient features of the history of the century4 ,we shall better appreciate the nature and scope of the commercial progress of the past hundred years1 if we glance for a moment at a picture of the commerce of the world at the close of the eighteenth century4 ,i4 ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,commerce ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,a hundred years ago1 the volume of trade1 both domestic and foreign1 was necessarily kept within proportions relatively small as compared with present traffic1 because of the slowness and high costs of inland transportation4 ,domestic inland traffic is directly dependent upon facilities for water and land transportation1 and until the railroad came into use1 some seventy years ago1 only those countries having numerous navigable rivers or well-developed canal systems could extend their commerce much beyond the cities and districts adjacent to tide water4 ,in all ages since the world became civilized enough to engage in commerce1 an overland traffic by caravan or wagon has been carried on2 but the amount of commodities could not be large1 and the kinds of goods transported were necessarily limited to articles of high value per unit of bulk or weight4 ,such an inland traffic as this did not establish the basis for a large coastwise or over-sea commerce4 ,at present1 bulky commodities produced long distances from the sea-ports comprise a large portion of international traffic1 and supply the coast cities with the raw materials from which they manufacture the articles they contribute to swell the volume of foreign trade4 ,when the means were wanting for the inland transportation of these bulky commodities1 only a few countries1 such as ,phnicia1 the ,italian cities1 ,portugal1 the ,netherlands1 the ,united ,kingdom1 and the ,british colonies in ,america1 could develop an important maritime commerce4 ,during the past fifty years1 the improvements in transportation have been such as to enable all industrial countries1 inland as well as maritime1 to engage extensively in the world's trade4 ,commerce has become general2 and countries like ,switzerland and ,saxony readily market their wares the world over4 ,the volume of foreign trade1 as late as a hundred years ago1 was really small1 even in the case of the most important commercial nations4 ,the imports and exports of the ,united ,kingdom in #ahjj amounted to about #cfj1jjj1jjj1 which1 for a population of approximately #ah1jjj1jjj1 would be about #bj per capita4 ,at that time the trade of the ,united ,kingdom was about one tenth what it is now4 ,at the present time the foreign commerce of the ,united ,kingdom amounts to nearly #ajj for each inhabitant of the country4 ,the thirteen ,british colonies in ,america and the original commonwealths of the ,united ,states were all maritime ,states with navigable rivers1 and their industries1 lumbering1 fisheries1 production of food products and tobacco1 called for the exchange of large quantities of commodities with the manufacturers of the home country1 and with the tropical islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,for their time1 then1 these ,states were large traders4 ,the statistical information which we possess of their commerce is meagre1 but we know that the total trade of the colonies with the mother country in #aggj was about #ac1jjj1jjj a year1 or something over four dollars per person4 ,there was a trade of considerable proportions with the ,west ,indies1 some with the ,mediterranean countries and ,africa1 and1 after the colonies became ,states1 with the ,east ,indies and the ,orient2 but in all probability the foreign trade of the ,americans did not reach ten dollars per capita until after #agij4 ,at the present time1 in spite of the very rapid growth of population in the ,united ,states that has continued throughout the nineteenth century1 our foreign trade is equal to twenty-five dollars per person4 ,it is when the commerce of the eighteenth century is viewed from the standpoint of the transportation agencies by which it was served--the size1 speed1 and efficiency of the ships--that the contrast with present conditions becomes most striking4 ,two hundred years ago1 the #efj ships owned at ,london averaged #aeg tons4 ,a century ago1 a vessel of #cjj tons was still considered a large ship1 and as late as #ahdj vessels of that size traded from the ,united ,states to ,india and ,china4 ,the ,grand ,turk1 of #efd tons1 built in #agia1 was probably the largest ship built in ,america up to that time4 ,during the fourth decade of the nineteenth century numerous vessels of over #ajjj tons were constructed1 and in #ahdj the ,great ,britain of #cjjj tons was ordered4 ,in her day the ,great ,britain was more of a marvel than is the recently launched ,oceanic1 of #bh1ejj tons displacement4 ,when we consider that these small vessels in use a century ago took from a month to six weeks to cross the ,atlantic1--their speed being about one third that of the freight steamers of to-day1--we realize the great difference in the efficiency of the merchant marine of the present as compared with that by which commerce was served in #ahjj4 ,the efficiency of the ships1 however1 does not depend alone upon their size and speed4 ,the commercial auxiliaries which enable vessels to enter and clear harbors without delay1 and to load and unload cargoes quickly1--lighthouses1 beacons1 buoys1 spacious wharves and docks equipped with mechanical appliances for handling freight1--make it possible for vessels to spend a greater portion of the time at sea4 ,a merchant marine to-day has fully five times the efficiency that one with an equal tonnage had a century ago4 ,we shall better see how this has been brought about1 by briefly reviewing the technical revolution which has taken place in ocean navigation during the past seventy years4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,technical ,,revolution ,,in ,,commerce4 ,during the first four decades of this century the wooden sailing vessel was the sole carrier of ocean traffic1 and in the construction and operation of such ships the ,americans had special advantages and manifested peculiar ingenuity4 ,for forty years the ,american sailing clipper1 whose fine lines made it stanch and speedy1 had been 8the type and model of excellence in ship-building20 but before the middle of the century the supremacy of the wooden clipper-ship had been destroyed1 and the technical superiority of steam and iron had been demonstrated4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,clipper ,,ship4 ,there are six distinct steps in the technical evolution of the ocean liner of the present day1--six changes which mark the epochs in the history of the substitution of steam and steel for sail and wood4 ,the first step in the evolution was taken when the steam engine and the paddle-wheel took the place of wind and sails4 ,like most epoch-making changes1 this one was made slowly2 indeed1 it was preceded by thirty years of hesitation and conservative experimentation4 ,robert ,fulton1 taking advantage of ideas and plans which he had obtained in ,europe1 produced his ,clermont in #ahjg1 and demonstrated the practicability of the steamship for river traffic4 ,five years later1 ,henry ,bell of ,scotland constructed the ,comet1 the first passenger steamboat built in ,europe1 a vessel only forty feet long1 ten and one half feet in width1 and of four horse-power4 ,the ,clermont was somewhat larger1 having a length of #acj feet1 a beam of eighteen feet1 and a hold six feet in depth4 ,she succeeded in making five miles an hour against stream4 ,these little vessels attracted great attention1 and the problem of constructing ships that could cross the ocean by steam power began to be studied4 ,in #ahai1 the ,savannah was fitted with engines and crossed the ,atlantic1 using both steam power and sails1 but the vessel did not prove a success1 and her engines were taken out the following year4 ,indeed1 it was not until #ahcc that a vessel steamed all the way across the ,atlantic2 and this ship1 the ,royal ,william1 a ,canadian craft of four or five hundred tons1 was able to make the trip from ,quebec to ,gravesend on the ,thames only by stopping for coal at ,picton1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,cowes near ,portsmouth1 ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,robert ,,fulton4 ,the first steamships to cross the ocean without recoaling were the ,sirius and ,great ,western1 which arrived in ,new ,york the same day1 ,april #bc1 #ahch1 the former vessel having sailed from ,london and the latter from ,liverpool4 ,this achievement on the part of these two wooden craft1 neither one capable of carrying more than seven hundred tons1 created a great impression4 ,the ,new ,york 8,courier and ,enquirer0 said1 in its issue of ,april #bd1 #ahch3-- 8,what may be the ultimate fate of this excitement--whether or not the expense of equipment and fuel will admit of the employment of these vessels in the ordinary packet service--we cannot pretend to form an opinion2 but of the entire feasibility of the passage of the ,atlantic by steam1 as far as regards safety1 comfort1 and dispatch1 even in the roughest and most boisterous weather1 the most skeptical man must now cease to doubt40 ,the employment of steamships in the regular packet service was assured in #ahci1 when ,samuel ,cunard founded the famous ,english line that still bears his name1 and ordered four steamers of moderate size that cost between four and five hundred thousand dollars each4 ,these1 however1 were wooden vessels1 and it was not until #ahef that the conservative ,cunards constructed any iron ships4 ,the construction of iron ships for ocean navigation marks the second important phase of the technical evolution of the past century's commerce4 ,it began on a small scale about #ahcj1 and in #ahcg an iron vessel1 ,the ,rainbow1 of six hundred tons was built2 but the first large iron steamer was ordered in #ahdj1 and was the famous ,great ,britain before referred to1 constructed by ,brunel1 the engineer who subsequently built the unfortunate naval monstrosity1 the ,great ,eastern4 ,the completion of the ,great ,britain1 in #ahdc1 was an important event in the progress of ocean navigation1 not only because she was five times the size of her largest iron predecessor1 but also because of the fact that ,brunel decided1 while building the vessel1 to adopt the screw for propelling the ship4 ,the substitution of the screw instead of paddle-wheels represents a third phase of the technical evolution of ocean navigation4 ,john ,ericsson1 who subsequently built the famous ,monitor1 had demonstrated the practicability of the screw as a propeller in #ahcf1 and1 three years later1 the ,archimedes1 of two hundred and thirty-seven tons1 was fitted with a screw4 ,it was the success of the ,archimedes that led ,brunel to adopt the screw on the ,great ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,clermont4 ,,fulton',s ,,first ,,steamboat4 ,the superiority of the screw over paddle-wheels1 and the greater merits of iron ships compared with wooden vessels1 have long been accepted2 but the adoption of iron as a material and of the screw for a propeller came about slowly4 ,indeed1 iron ship-building made little progress in ,great ,britain before #ahej1 and in this country wood was adhered to till much later4 ,one reason why the ,english did not change to the screw and iron more quickly was probably the great influence exerted by the powerful ,cunard line1 whose conservatism caused it to hold to wooden ships until #ahef4 ,the ,great ,eastern1 finished as late as #ahei1 was an iron ship1 but was fitted with both screw and paddle-wheels4 ,of the total tonnage built in the ,united ,kingdom in #ahec1 about twenty-five per cent was steam tonnage and a little more than twenty-five per cent was of iron4 ,at the present time three fourths of all ,british-built vessels are steamers1 and no wooden ships are built in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,america was slow in changing from wood to iron1 because the cost of iron was so high4 ,we had wood in abundance1 numerous yards for the construction of wooden vessels1 and were the builders of the best type of wooden ships4 ,in #ahec1 the year just referred to for ,great ,britain1 twenty-two per cent of the tonnage of the vessels built in this country was in steamships1 but only an inappreciable portion was in iron vessels4 ,the adherence of ,american ship-builders and owners to wood is well illustrated by the action taken by the owners of the famous but unfortunate ,american ,collins line1 established in #ahdg4 ,the company began1 in #ahej1 to run four palatial steamers1 built without regard to cost1 and supplied with luxurious appointments1 some of which are retained in vessels of the present day2 but the company built the ships of wood and propelled them with paddle-wheels4 ,the great ,american ship-building firm1 ,william ,cramp ,sons1 founded in #ahej1 did not begin constructing iron ships till #ahgj4 ,even in #ahih1 the tonnage of wooden vessels constructed was one and a half times the steel and iron tonnage4 ,about twenty-six per cent of our merchant marine1 foreign and domestic1 is now made up of iron and steel vessels4 ,the next important step in maritime progress1 following the adoption of iron and the screw1 was taken about #ahgj1 when the compound engine came into general use4 ,though the compound engine had been used on a small vessel in ,france as early as #ahbi1 it was first extensively adopted as the result of the rapid development in steam navigation which took place in the seventies4 ,in the compound engine the steam1 instead of being used in only one cylinder in passing from the boiler to the condenser1 exerts its force in two or three cylinders1 and even in four1 in the quadruple expansion engines4 ,this results in a great economy in the amount of fuel used4 ,in the earlier marine engines the pressure of steam in the boilers was thirteen pounds to the square inch1 and the consumption of coal per horse-power per hour was five and one half pounds2 whereas1 at the present time1 a pressure of two hundred pounds per square inch is maintained1 and the fuel used has been reduced to less than one and a half pounds per hour for each indicated horse-power4 ,ten years after the compound engine came into general use1 the cheapened cost of steel made it possible to adopt steel in the place of iron in the construction of hulls4 ,this may be regarded as marking a fifth epoch-making step in the progress of commerce2 because the steel ship was stronger1 lighter1 and able to carry more cargo than iron vessels of the same size4 ,the substitution of steel for iron in the ,british yards was made rapidly4 ,in #ahgi1 only ten and a quarter per cent of the tonnage constructed on the ,clyde was of steel2 but in #ahhi the per cent had risen to ninety-seven4 ,during the past twenty years there have been many improvements made in the construction and appointments of ships2 but the more important changes have consisted in dividing vessels1 by means of bulkheads1 into several water-tight compartments1 and in substituting twin screws for the single screw4 ,the ,inmans placed twin screws on the ,city of ,new ,york in #ahhh1 and since then their use has become general on the larger ocean liners4 ,the twin screws add somewhat1 though not greatly1 to the speed of vessels2 but they render ships much safer and less liable to be disabled4 ,an ocean steamer with twin screws and water-tight compartments can suffer any one of the common accidents--such as breaking of one of its shafts1 losing one of its screws1 having its rudder damaged1 or one of its engines give out1 or having its side punctured by collision--without being disabled4 ,although ocean travel still has its dangers1 the risks at the present time are far less than they were a half or a quarter of a century ago4 ,illustration ,the technical progress of commerce during the nineteenth century is well summarized by ,mr4 ,henry ,fry in his book on the ,history of ,north ,atlantic ,steam ,navigation1 written in #ahie4 ,he says3-- 8,the ,comet of #ahab has multiplied into twelve thousand steamships1 measuring over sixteen million tons4444 ,her twenty tons have been multiplied into a ship of eighteen thousand2 her forty feet to six hundred and ninety-two feet2 and her four horse-power to thirty thousand in a single ship4 ,symington's four-inch cylinder has grown to one hundred and twenty inches2 the pressure of steam in the boiler has increased from thirteen pounds to two hundred pounds on the square inch2 the two hundred and forty-three knots1 the maximum of the ,great ,western in #ahch1 to five hundred and sixty2 and the average speed from #h4b to #bb4ja knots1 while the consumption of coal has decreased from about five and one half to one and one half pounds per indicated horse-power per hour40 ,the century's naval technical progress is epitomized in the ,white ,star liner1 the ,oceanic4 ,the length of this mammoth vessel is over an eighth of a mile1 being #gje feet1 #f inches4 #ac feet longer than the ,great ,eastern was4 ,when loaded1 the ,oceanic draws #cb feet1 #f inches of water1 and on that draft her displacement is #bh1ejj tons4 ,the figures for the ,great ,eastern were #be feet1 #f inches1 and #bg1jjj tons4 ,the capacity of her engines is #bh1jjj horse-power1 or two and one third times the capacity of those in the ,great ,eastern4 ,the pressure in her boilers is #aib pounds to the square inch1 or ten or twelve times that in the boilers of her famous predecessor4 ,though not built for speed1 the ,oceanic can average #ejj miles a day1 or sixty per cent more than the ,great ,eastern did4 ,the ,oceanic will accommodate #djj first-class passengers1 #cjj second-class1 #ajjj third-class1 and a ship's company of #cid1 making a total of #bajd persons4 ,in this regard1 however1 her figures are fortunately less than those of the ,great ,eastern1 for that vessel was designed to carry #djjj persons1 besides crew4 ,these figures regarding passenger accommodations indicate in a forceful way the great advancement that has been made in the comforts of ocean travel during the past forty years4 ,,iii4 ,,improvements ,,in ,,commercial ,,auxiliaries4 ,the progress of commerce during the nineteenth century has been promoted not only by the evolution of ships of great speed and capacity1 but also by the improvements made in numerous other auxiliaries of commerce4 ,chief among these aids to commercial activity have been the betterment of natural waterways and the construction of ship-canals1 the improvements of harbors1 the laying of cables1 and the extension of international banking facilities4 ,the improvements of such rivers as the ,rhine1 ,danube1 ,hudson1 and ,mississippi1 and of such natural waterways as the chain of ,great ,lakes in the northern part of the ,united ,states1 are conspicuous instances of the manner in which the canalization of natural waterways has been undertaken for the promotion of traffic4 ,that part of the ,rhine ,river traffic which passes ,emmerich and ,mannheim amounted to #b1hjj1jjj tons a year from #ahgb to #ahge1 but by #ahie it had increased to #aj1cjj1jjj tons4 ,the traffic on the rivers of the ,mississippi ,valley1 according to census statistics1 increased from #ah1idf1ebb tons1 in #ahhj1 to #bi1dhe1jdf tons1 in #ahhi2 and since that year the increase must have been considerable4 ,the effect of the improvement of waterways upon commerce is most strikingly shown in the case of our ,great ,lakes4 ,in the seventies1 the demands of traffic were for channels and harbors #ab feet in depth4 ,during the next decade it was necessary for the ,united ,states to increase the depth to #af feet2 and in the nineties the channels had to be made deep enough to accommodate vessels of #bj feet draft4 ,at the present time the traffic on the ,lakes is probably over #gj1jjj1jjj tons annually4 ,during the year #ahih the freight that passed the locks at the ,sault ,st4 ,marie equaled #ba1jjj1jjj tons1 two and a half times the tonnage passing the ,suez ,canal4 ,during the last third of the nineteenth century six important ocean ship-canals have been opened2 the ,suez1 opened in #ahfi2 the ,rotterdam ,canal1 in #ahgb2 the canal connecting ,amsterdam directly with the ,north ,sea1 #ahgg2 the canal across the ,isthmus of ,corinth1 #ahic2 the ,manchester ,canal1 #ahid2 and the ,baltic or ,kiel ,canal1 finished in #ahie4 ,the ,panama ,canal was begun in #ahhb1 and the construction of the ,nicaragua ,canal was commenced in #ahhi2 but the date of the completion of these most important works is still problematical4 ,in the improvement of its harbors every government has been active4 ,thirty years ago a depth of #bc feet was considered ample1 but after #ahhj it became necessary to adopt #bg feet as the standard4 ,during the past five years the larger seaports have required harbors with #cj feet of water in order to accommodate the largest ocean vessels1 and the limit has by no means been reached4 ,the ,united ,states ,government has just recently1 #ahii1 authorized the deepening of ,new ,york harbor to #ce feet4 ,as noted before1 the ,oceanic can be loaded to a draft of #cb feet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,oceanic1 #ahii4 ,,largest ,,ship ,,afloat4 7,tonnage1 #ag1jjj3 length1 #gje ft4 #f in42 breadth1 #fh ft4 #d in47 ,the docks of the great seaports have been improved at a cost of many millions of dollars4 ,as an illustration of this ,liverpool may be cited4 ,the city's position gave it great commercial possibilities1 but a troublesome bar at the mouth of the ,mersey1 and a tide with a rise and fall of thirty feet made the construction of its harbor and docks a difficult matter4 ,the problem was solved by the construction1 under public control1 of a large number of commodious wet docks with gates which are opened only a few hours a day1 during high tide4 ,these harbor improvements have made possible ,liverpool's phenomenal expansion in commerce during the past quarter of a century1 an increase that has given the city third place among the seaports of the world1 with an annual tonnage of vessels entered and cleared of #af1jjj1jjj tons4 ,the achievements of ,manchester during the past decade are even more notable than those of ,liverpool4 ,manchester is situated on a small stream thirty-five miles from the ocean2 but she has become a seaport for the largest ocean vessels1 and has docks and wharves equipped with the most improved appliances4 ,her dock-sheds1 for instance1 are twin structures1 three stories in height1 and the arrangements for handling freight are such that goods are taken directly from the ships to any one of the three stories of the sheds4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the government and private corporations are rapidly improving the harbor facilities of our ports4 ,during the past decade the ,gulf ports have received especial attention1 with the result that a large part of our export trade is now moving through the ,gulf harbors4 ,as an instance of what private corporations are doing1 mention may be made of the fact that a railway corporation has recently completed a wharf in ,new ,orleans that cost #b1jjj1jjj4 ,besides these harbor improvements1 the erection of more and better lighthouses and signals has made the approach of vessels safer4 ,the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau has also done much to lessen the dangers of navigation by its weather forecasts and its warnings of approaching storms4 ,although the ,bureau was established only twenty-nine years ago1 and in a small way1 its services have so increased and in such a practical manner as to have come to be regarded as indispensable by the commercial interests4 ,the first successful trans-,atlantic cable was laid in #ahff2 at the present time there are #agj1jjj miles of submarine telegraphs in use4 ,the cables now used for commercial purposes number #cbj and include about #aej1jjj miles of lines1 the other #bj1jjj miles being short government lines connecting forts1 batteries1 signal-stations1 and lighthouses4 ,the total cost of these cables has been about #bej1jjj1jjj4 ,the influence of the cable upon commerce has been so great as to revolutionize the methods of international trade that prevailed a century ago2 indeed1 ocean telegraphy has made it no more difficult to effect international sales and purchases than it is to make domestic exchanges4 ,with thirteen cables in successful operation between the ,united ,states and ,europe1 we have had no difficulty in building up an immense trade across the ,atlantic2 but1 with no trans-,pacific line1 we are experiencing much difficulty in securing a large place in the trade of the ,orient4 ,of course the development of our commerce with the ,east is conditioned by numerous other factors2 but no one doubts that the construction of the proposed ,pacific cable will be of assistance to our commercial progress in the ,orient4 ,among the other agencies that have promoted the progress of commerce1 mention should be made of the extension and improvement of international credit systems and banking facilities4 ,in this regard the ,united ,kingdom leads the nations of the world1 ,london being the clearing-house for a large part of the world's trade4 ,germany1 ,france1 and the ,netherlands have also developed good facilities for international banking2 but the ,united ,states has not yet done so4 ,our merchants are still obliged to settle most accounts through foreign banks1 but it is probable that our recent acquisition of foreign possessions will cause us to establish some system of international banks4 ,,iv4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,international ,,trade ,,during ,,the ,,century4 ,in the introductory paragraph of this paper it was stated that the commercial progress of the past hundred years is one of the salient features of the history of the century2 and1 in contrasting the commerce of a hundred years ago with that of the present1 a few figures were cited that indicated in a general way the growth that the foreign trade of ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states has enjoyed4 ,the expansion of international trade during the century merits fuller presentation and analysis4 ,accurate figures for the whole world's trade are not obtainable for the earlier years2 and if it were possible to present comparative statistics of the international trade of the world1 as a whole1 the comparisons would not be so instructive as those which present the progress of the commerce of those countries which rank highest among trading nations4 ,accordingly it will be most profitable to confine our statistics and analytical study to the commerce of ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 ,france1 and the ,united ,states4 ,the progress which the commerce of the ,united ,kingdom has made during the century is shown by the following table1 giving the imports1 exports1 and total trade for the years #ahjj1 #ahci1 #ahig1 and the annual average for alternate quinquennial periods between #ahee and #ahij4 ,,table ,,showing ,,growth ,,of ,,commerce ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,years4 ,imports4 ,exports4 ,total ,trade4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #ahjj #adh1hgf1jjj #baj1bdj1jjj #cei1aaf1jjj #ahci #cjj1dgd1jjj #cba1efd1jjj #fbb1jch1jjj #ahef-fj #hij1gbc1jjj #fjd1hed1jjj #a1die1egg1jjj #ahff-gj #a1dbe1icf1jjj #iad1ehf1jjj #b1cdj1ebb1jjj #ahgf-hj #a1hfb1gge1jjj #ihj1hah1jjj #b1hdc1eic1jjj #ahhf-ij #a1hig1ceb1jjj #a1dec1fie1jjj #c1cea1jdg1jjj #ahig #b1aid1icb1ebd #a1dca1eih1cde #c1fbf1ecj1hfi ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,during the first four decades of the century1 the growth of the commerce of the ,united ,kingdom1 though considerable1 was not rapid1--the figures for #ahci showing an increase of #gc per cent over those for #ahjj1--;but during the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh decades the progress was phenomenal4 ,the value of the exports in #ahgc1 as compared with #ahci1 shows a gain of #cgi per cent1 and the total foreign trade increased nearly #dej per cent2 that is1 it was five and a half times as much in #ahgc as it was thirty-four years previous4 ,since #ahhj1 the quantities of imports and exports have largely increased1 but the fall in prices has been such as to make the increase in the total value comparatively small4 ,the commerce of the ,german ,states during the nineteenth century did not grow very rapidly until after #ahej4 ,during the early part of the century the great ,continental wars rendered commerce nearly impossible4 ,peace was restored in #ahae1 but the ,german ,states had neither political nor commercial unity4 ,each ,state had a tariff which applied against all other ,states4 ,gradually a ,zollverein1 or customs union1 grew up1 which1 by #ahed1 had come to include all the ,german ,states except ,austria1 ,holstein1 ,mecklenburg1 ,lauenburg1 and the three ,hanse towns1 ,hamburg1 ,lbeck1 and ,bremen4 ,in #ahff1 the ,north ,german ,federation was organized1 and this paved the way for the formation of the ,german ,empire in #ahga4 ,the ,zollverein made commercial progress possible1 and political unity gave it a great impulse4 ,the statistics of the ,german trade before the establishment of the ,zollverein are very meagre4 ,a ,german authority1 ,otto ,huebner1 estimates the value of the total import and export trade of the ,german ,states to have been #cji1jai1bjj in #ahej1 and #ejd1ihh1bjj in #ahee4 ,the value of the imports of ,hamburg1 the chief port of ,germany1 rose from an annual average of #ib1cbj1jej for the five-year period #ahea-ee1 to #aeg1ffj1dgb during the half decade #ahff-gj4 ,the growth of ,germany's foreign commerce during the past twenty years has been phenomenal1 and her trade is now second only to that of ,great ,britain4 ,in #ahha1 the imports were valued at #gjd1ijd1jjj1 and the exports at #gjg1igh1jjj1 being slightly more than the imports2 whereas1 by #ahij1 the imports had risen to #ihf1fda1jjj1 and the exports to #gib1fbj1jjj1 a sum nearly a hundred million dollars less than the value of the imports4 ,the foreign trade of the country1 particularly in imports1 has continued its rapid growth since #ahij1 the figures for #ahig being1 imports #a1bca1gef1hfb1 and exports #igg1ddg1aih1 a total trade of #b1bji1bjd1jfj4 ,the foreign trade of ,france at the beginning of the nineteenth century consisted of #hj1ejj1jjj worth of imports and #ei1jjj1jjj of exports1 a total of #aci1ejj1jjj4 ,the ,continental wars1 up to #ahae1 were even more disastrous to ,french trade than they were to ,german2 but with the restoration of peace1 commercial progress began1 and between #ahae and #ahca the total trade increased from #aai1bjj1jjj worth to #afh1aeb1jjj worth4 ,the growth by decades since #ahcj has been as follows3 ,in #ahdj1 the value of the total foreign trade was #bgh1chc1bjj2 in #ahej1 #ceh1gdh1djj2 in #ahfj1 #hje1fei1bjj2 in #ahga1 #a1bdb1gfe1fjj2 in #ahhj1 #a1fdj1gab1cjj2 and in #ahij1 #b1jjc1eeg1eaf4 ,these figures show that the rapid expansion of ,french commerce began about #ahej4 ,the highest point was reached in #ahia2 but since then there has been a slight falling off in the total trade1 due to a decrease in imports4 ,in #ahia1 the value of the imports was #a1aee1igc1caj2 in #ahig1 #iia1ecg1ejj4 ,the exports were valued at #ibj1hci1acj in #ahia2 and at #ibf1iih1cjj in #ahig4 ,the total trade for these years was #b1jgf1hab1ddj for #ahia1 and #a1iah1ece1hjj for #ahig4 ,during the first quarter of the century ,france had a strong balance of trade in her favor3 that is1 she sold more commodities than she bought2 and between #ahbe and #ahdj the exports and imports about balanced each other2 but since that date1 with the exception of the years #ahga to #ahge1 when the huge war indemnity was paid1 the balance of trade had been unfavorable1 as would naturally be expected of a country such as ,france1 whose people are extensively engaged in manufacturing4 ,france1 as well as the ,united ,kingdom1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,switzerland1 and other ,european countries1 imports raw materials and food in large quantities4 ,the decline in the value of ,french trade1 though due to falling prices rather than to a decrease in the quantities of commodities1 has given the ,french people much concern4 ,it is not probable1 however1 that this decline is due to permanent causes4 ,the population and industries of ,france have not reached a stationary stage2 they are going to increase and cause a natural growth in the country's foreign commerce4 ,the commercial progress of ,france1 however1 can hardly be so rapid as that of ,germany and the ,united ,states4 ,these are the countries whose commercial vitality is strongest1 and of these two countries1 the ,united ,states possesses greater natural resources and larger possibilities1 industrial and commercial4 ,the progress of the commerce of the ,united ,states merits a somewhat closer survey than has been given its three leading rivals in trade4 ,v4 ,,the ,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,during ,,the ,,century4 ,the economic progress of the ,united ,states during the past hundred years is most clearly indicated by the growth of its foreign and domestic commerce4 ,being a new country1 busied with occupying and developing our large territory1 our domestic commerce has been of enormous proportions4 ,with nearly two hundred thousand miles of railroads1 comprising four ninths of the total railway mileage of the world1 with our chain of the ,great ,lakes and our admirable system of navigable rivers1 it has been possible to exploit our natural resources on a large scale1 and to develop an inland traffic several times the volume of our foreign commerce4 ,our international trade1 however1 although smaller than our domestic traffic1 has been large throughout the country1 has grown rapidly1 especially since the year #ahej1 the period of the ,civil ,war excepted1 and is now increasing in such a manner as to give our foreign rivals much concern4 ,the progress of our foreign trade during this century is shown by the following table containing the statistics of the value of our merchandise imports1 exports1 and total foreign trade for each decade1 beginning with #agij4 ,,table ,,showing ,,imports ,,and ,,exports ,,of ,,merchandise ,,by ,,decades ,,from #agij ,,to #ahih4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,year4 ,exports4 ,imports4 ,total ,trade4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #agij #bj1bje1aef #bc1jjj1jjj #dc1bje1aef #ahjj #gj1iga1ghj #ia1beb1gfh #afb1bbd1edh #ahaj #ff1geg1igj #he1djj1jjj #aeb1aeg1igj #ahbj #fi1fia1ffi #gd1dej1jjj #add1ada1ffi #ahcj #ga1fgj1gce #fb1gbj1ief #acd1cia1fia #ahdj #abc1ffh1icb #ih1beh1gjf #bba1ibg1fch #ahej #add1cge1gbf #agc1eji1ebf #cag1hhe1beb #ahfj #ccc1egf1jeg #cec1faf1aai #fhg1aib1agf #ahgj #cib1gga1gfh #dce1ieh1djh #hbh1gcj1agf #ahhj #hce1fch1feh #ffg1ied1gdf #a1ejc1eic1djd #ahij #heg1hbh1hfd #ghi1caj1dji #a1fdg1aci1jic #ahih #a1baj1bia1iac #faf1jdi1fed #a1hbf1cda1efg ---------------------------------------- -------- ,during the first half of the century1 the expansion of our foreign trade was not especially rapid4 ,the ,continental wars1 lasting from #agic to #ahae1 and our own war with ,england1 from #ahab to #ahae1 interfered considerably with international trade4 ,probably our tariffs of #ahaf1 #ahbd1 and #ahbh had the effect they were intended to accomplish1 and restricted somewhat the volume of our foreign commerce4 ,the chief reason1 however1 why our trade progress was much more rapid after #ahej was1 that it was not until about that time that the means of inland transportation became developed sufficiently to make possible a large domestic traffic4 ,when our central ,west was able to exchange commodities on a large scale with the seaboard1 then our foreign commerce began to increase rapidly4 ,the growth of our imports was very rapid for the period of fifteen years1 #ahgi to #ahic1 their value having risen from #dde1ggg1gge to #hff1djj1ibb2 but since then there has been a sharp decline to #faf1jdi1fed4 ,our exports1 however1 have increased in a phenomenal manner during the past decade4 ,prior to #ahig1 the highest point was reached in #ahib1 when the value of the exports was #a1jcj1bgh1adh4 ,in #ahig1 the value was #a1jej1iic1eef1 and in #ahih 7the official year ending ,june #cj71 the value1 as shown by the foregoing table1 was #a1baj1bia1iac4 ,in consequence of this great increase in our exports the total foreign trade of the ,united ,states has not decreased in value during recent years1 although there has been a considerable fall in prices and a large falling off in our importations4 ,our total trade1 during the fiscal year #ahih1 was much larger than it was in #ahij1 and fell only #aj1jjj1jjj short of the value reached in the record-breaking year of #ahib4 ,the calendar year #ahih shows a larger trade than has been shown by any previous year1 the value being #a1hfh1ebc1jeg4 ,the leading industry of the ,united ,states being agriculture1 our exports consist largely of various products of the farm4 ,in #ahih the exported agricultural products were valued at #hec1fhc1egj1 and comprised #gj4ed per cent of our total sales abroad4 ,in spite of these large figures1 the preponderance of agricultural over other products is being reduced with considerable rapidity by the growth in the exportation of manufactures4 ,before #ahgf our exports of manufactures were less than #ajj1jjj1jjj a year2 whereas1 in the calendar year #ahih1 they were #cgj1ibd1iid4 ,in #ahhj1 agricultural exports comprised #hc4be per cent of our exports1 and manufactures #ab4dh per cent2 and in the calendar year #ahih1 a year of exceptionally large foreign sales of food products1 agriculture furnished only #fi4jf per cent1--less than seven tenths of the exports1 while manufacture supplied #bd4if per cent1 or one fourth of the total4 ,the year #ahih is a notable one in the history of ,american manufactures1 for it was then1 for the first time1 that we sold to foreigners more of our manufactures than we bought of theirs4 ,a table showing the total foreign trade of the ,united ,states from #aghi to #ahih1 the first eleven decades of our national existence1 has recently been prepared by the ,bureau of ,statistics in the ,united ,states ,treasury ,department4 ,it shows the total imports and exports of merchandise and specie1 and on which side of our trade account the grand balance comes4 ,,table ,,showing ,,total ,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states #aghi-ahih4 ,merchandise ,exports #cj1ieb1bjb1ihe ,imports #bi1igi1ifa1dhg ---------------- ,excess of ,exports #igb1bda1dih ,gold and ,silver ,exports #c1djj1fbc1eha ,imports #a1idj1aej1cbj ---------------- ,excess of ,exports #a1dfj1dgc1bfa ,merchandise and ,gold and ,silver combined ,exports #cd1ceb1hbf1eff ,imports #ca1ibj1aaa1hjg ---------------- ,excess of ,exports #b1dcb1gad1gei ,the table shows that we have exported nearly thirty-one billion dollars worth of commodities1--about a billion dollars more than we have purchased4 ,it also shows that we have sent out of the country #a1dfj1dgc1bfa more of the precious metals than we have received4 ,our exports of merchandise and gold and silver combined exceed our total imports by the large sum of #b1dcb1gad1gei4 ,if the statistics of our imports and exports for each year since #aghi be consulted1 it will be found that during the eighty-seven years preceding #ahgf there were but sixteen years when our exports of merchandise exceeded our imports4 ,the balance of trade was nearly always 8unfavorable40 ,since #ahgf1 however1 the balance has nearly always been on the other side1 there having been only three years when our exports did not exceed our imports4 ,in return for something1 we have given foreign countries nearly two and a half billion dollars worth more of commodities and precious metals than we have received in return4 ,a part of this large sum1 possibly one fourth1 has been paid to foreigners for freights on our imported commodities1 and we have also spent large sums in foreign travel4 ,the chief reason why we have exported more than we have imported is1 that we have been borrowing foreign capital to use in constructing railroads and factories and in developing our farms and mines4 ,prior to #ahgf1 we received #a1jhd1cci1iab more than we exported2 we accumulated a large foreign debt4 ,since #ahgf1 we have continued to borrow abroad2 but we have been able to liquidate a part of our former debts1 and also to exchange large amounts of commodities and precious metals for capital2 for1 since #ahgf1 our exports have exceeded our imports by #c1eag1jed1fga4 ,if our present large excess of exports over imports continues1 we shall soon become a creditor nation with large sums invested abroad4 ,the history of our foreign trade is highly gratifying to our national pride2 our achievements have been signal1 well-nigh continuous1 and have been more marked during the latter decades of the century than at any previous time4 ,the history of the ,american marine1 however1 presents a somewhat different picture4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,american ,,marine ,,in ,,foreign ,,and ,,domestic ,,commerce4 ,in colonial days maritime industries held an important place4 ,the location of the colonies adjacent to the ocean1 their dependence upon the mother country for manufactures and upon the ,west ,indies for tropical products1 their need of foreign markets for their timber1 fish1 tobacco1 and food products1 and their abundant supply of lumber for shipbuilding1 all tended to make them a seafaring people4 ,this fondness for the sea was especially intense in ,new ,england1 where the returns of agriculture were relatively meagre4 ,the long ,revolutionary ,war destroyed many ships and interfered seriously with ocean commerce1 but the struggle gave the colonists what was of more value than ships1--a spirit of venture and hardihood4 ,hundreds of ships and thousands of seamen engaged in privateering1 and when the war ended the maritime instincts of the ,americans were stronger than they had been when the declaration of political and commercial independence was declared in #aggf4 ,the imbecility of the general government under the ,articles of ,confederation and the restrictions placed upon interstate traffic prevented any considerable maritime progress between the ,peace of ,paris and the inauguration of a truly national government under the ,constitution4 ,but a stable government1 sound credit1 and uniform national laws for the regulation of commerce gave the maritime instincts of the ,americans a chance to assert themselves1 and the tonnage of our ships grew rapidly larger4 ,our tonnage registered for the foreign trade was only #abc1hic tons in #aghi2 by #agie it had grown to #edi1dga tons2 in #ahjj it amounted to #ffg1ajg tons2 during the next five years it increased to #gdd1bbd tons1 and by #ahaj it had reached #iha1jai tons4 ,such a growth as this in twenty years1 from such small beginnings1 was truly remarkable4 ,the ,american ships soon crowded most foreign vessels out of our commerce4 ,in #agij we carried only #dj4e per cent of our imports and exports2 but by #agie we had secured #ij per cent2 and1 with the exception of a short period during and immediately following the ,war of #ahab1 it was not till fifty-two years later that as much as one fourth of our foreign trade was carried under foreign flags4 ,moreover1 we not only carried our own commerce1 but we also entered largely into the carrying trade of other countries4 ,the great ,european war crippled the commercial activities of ,european countries1 and made it easier for our ships to gain control of our own commerce and to secure employment as carriers for foreign merchants4 ,during the fifteen years from #agic1 the year of the outbreak of the ,european war1 to #ahjh1 when the blockade of ,european ports and the capture of ,american ships and seamen led us to attempt to prohibit our ships temporarily from engaging in foreign trade1 our merchant marine rose from a position of obscurity to a place of great prominence on the high seas4 ,as long as ocean commerce was carried in wooden vessels1 the maritime interests of the ,united ,states continued to prosper4 ,the ,war of #ahab-ae1 the panic of #ahai1 and the competition of foreign vessels after the restoration of peace in ,europe1 gave our marine a setback1 so that it was not until #ahdg that our tonnage in the foreign trade exceeded the figures for #ahaj2 but during the period of fifteen years1 from #ahdf to #ahfa1 our tonnage increased #aej per cent4 ,when the ,civil ,war1 which proved so disastrous to the shipping interests of the ,united ,states1 broke out in #ahfa1 our tonnage registered in the foreign trade equaled #b1dif1hid tons1--the highest point it has ever reached4 ,the ,american sailing clipper was for nearly half a century the mistress of the seas4 ,as ,j4 ,r4 ,soley says3 8,it was in these ships that for nearly half a century not only the largest freights of the world were carried1 but the finest and most profitable as well4 ,merchants having valuable cargoes to export would wait for the sailing of a favorite clipper1 and merchants with goods to import would instruct their correspondents to wait in like manner40 ,as late as #ahej the higher grades of commodities were almost always shipped in the stanch and speedy ,american clipper ship4 ,since #ahfa the ,american marine in the foreign trade has played a rle of decreasing importance4 ,three causes account for this4 ,about the middle of the century our commercial rivals began to substitute iron ships for wooden2 but we were not able to adopt the better material in the construction of our ships because of the high cost of iron in this country at that time4 ,great ,britain could build the iron ships much cheaper than we could1 and she soon began to displace us in the carrying trade of the other countries4 ,and it was not long before she began also to carry a large share of our own foreign commerce4 ,the second cause for our maritime decline was the ,civil ,war4 ,in #ahfa our tonnage registered for the foreign trade was #b1ejj1jjj tons2 by #ahff it had fallen to #a1chg1gef tons1 a loss of over a million tons4 ,during the war period1 nearly #hjj1jjj tons of our shipping were sold abroad2 #aaj1jjj tons were captured by ,confederate cruisers2 and other casualties occurred4 ,of course there were no ships built for our merchant marine during the stormy years of the war4 ,why1 it may be asked1 did we not restore our ships after the war and regain our former proud place on the high seas8 ,for the simple1 though possibly unsatisfying1 reason that we did not find it profitable to do so4 ,capital is invested where the prospects for profit are best1 and the inducement to put money into ,american ships for the foreign trade was not strong4 ,it still cost more to build ships in our country than it did in ,europe1 and the expenses of operating them when constructed were greater4 ,moreover1 our rivals had gotten possession of the lion's share of the world's carrying trade1 and would not release any portion of their business without a keen struggle4 ,at the same time the ,american capitalist was offered many opportunities for the investment of his property in domestic enterprises4 ,during the quarter of a century which followed the war1 we devoted our energies and capital to building our railroads1 opening the ,west1 exploiting our mineral and forest resources1 and building the mills and factories whose products are now rapidly entering foreign markets in all parts of the world4 ,america's economic activities were industrial rather than commercial4 ,the result of these general causes has been the decline of our shipping in the foreign trade from two and a half million tons in #ahfa to less than three quarters of a million tons in #ahih2 but it seems that the low-water mark has been reached and that the tide is turning4 ,the man who writes the history of our merchant marine on the high seas during the first half of the twentieth century will1 in all probability1 write a record of rapid progress4 ,we have already made much headway in substituting steel for wooden ships2 and ,america's foremost iron manufacturer1 ,mr4 ,andrew ,carnegie1 says that steel ships can now be built as cheaply on our ,atlantic coast as they can be built on the ,clyde4 ,furthermore1 the opportunities for investment in domestic industries are becoming fewer and less alluring1 and there are good reasons for thinking ,american capitalists will be disposed from now on to put their ventures in ships to sail foreign seas4 ,the attitude of ,american capitalists1 however1 will depend very largely on the maritime policy adopted by the ,united ,states4 ,that policy should unquestionably be as liberal as the policy adopted by our rivals in commerce4 ,whatever differences of opinion may rightly exist as regards specific measures for the restoration of the ,american marine to the high seas1 all parties should agree as touching the justice and necessity of treating our maritime interests as generously as ,great ,britain deals with the owners of her mighty marine4 ,our domestic marine1 being free from foreign competition1 has had a prosperity as great as the adversity of our foreign marine4 ,the present tonnage of domestic shipping is nearly #d1jjj1jjj tons1 our growth during the period since the ,civil ,war having been nearly a million tons4 ,the traffic on our northern lakes now employs #cbef vessels1 canal boats1 and barges1 with a total tonnage of #a1dcg1ejj tons2 and two thirds of this tonnage consists of steamships4 ,in #ahhh our lake tonnage was only #hgd1ajb tons2 the growth during a decade having been nearly #hj per cent4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that the increase or decrease in the efficiency of a marine during the last few decades is not measured by the growth or decline in the tonnage statistics4 ,the modern steamship1 aided by the many commercial auxiliaries that facilitate it in receiving and discharging its cargo1 is a much more efficient transportation agent than was its smaller predecessor propelled by sails1 and loaded and unloaded mainly by human labor4 ,our present domestic marine of #d1jjj1jjj tons is at least twice as effective as was the domestic shipping of #c1jjj1jjj by which we were served a generation ago4 ,,vii4 ,,american ,,shipbuilding4 ,one great aid to the achievement of maritime greatness is a strong shipbuilding industry1 and every nation with commercial aspirations endeavors to establish the business upon a sure foundation4 ,for some countries1 as in the case of the ,united ,kingdom1 that is much easier than for others2 and that is one reason why ,great ,britain has so easily succeeded in maintaining her place as mistress of the seas4 ,the business of building ships in the ,united ,states1 to be used in foreign trade1 has passed through a golden age of triumphs1 followed by a period of decline and discouragement1 and it is now entering upon an epoch of revival4 ,the golden age came in the days of wooden vessels4 ,it began in early colonial times and lasted until the middle of this century1 when the world began to buy iron ships of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the magnitude of our shipbuilding industry at the middle of the nineteenth century is indicated by the fact that during the decade beginning with #ahej the tonnage built in our yards equaled #c1ihh1cgb tons1 an annual average of nearly #djj1jjj tons4 ,during the three years #ahed-ef we constructed over a million and a half tons4 ,illustration3 ,,steamer ,,campania ,,of ,,the ,,cunard ,,line4 ,the decline in ,american shipbuilding set in sharply after the ,civil ,war1 and1 in spite of the continued growth of our domestic marine1 the tonnage constructed by ,american builders steadily declined until #ahhf1 when only #ie1dec tons were built4 ,the causes of this decline have been stated in what has been said regarding the substitution of iron and steel vessels for wooden4 ,the period of decline seems now to be safely passed1 for we are annually building over #bjj1jjj tons on an average1 and every indication points to rapid progress in the near future4 ,what is more indicative of progress than the increase in the tonnage constructed is the growth in the percentage of steamers and iron and steel ships built1 as compared with the wooden sailing ships turned out4 ,during the decade #ahgb-ha1 we built #hjj1jjj tons of steamers and #bbd1jjj tons of iron and steel ships2 in the decade following1 we constructed #a1bjj1jjj steam tons and #dhe1jjj tons of iron and steel vessels2 and from #ahia to #ahih our yards turned out #gcj1dcb tons of steamships and #edc1hej tons of iron and steel vessels4 ,as these figures indicate1 the reconstruction of our merchant marine is progressing with a fair degree of rapidity4 ,at the present time one half our tonnage consists of steamers2 but our percentage of iron and steel is still small as compared with other countries4 ,over seven tenths of our tonnage consists of wooden ships1 whereas our chief commercial rival has practically no wooden vessels whatever4 ,only #g per cent of the ,french marine consists of wooden ships1 and in the case of ,germany less than #e per cent4 ,the outlook for iron and steel shipbuilding is so promising that a rapid increase in iron and steel tonnage is certain to come4 ,largely through the influence of the reconstruction of our navy1 numerous large plants for the construction of steel ships have been established at ,bath1 ,philadelphia1 ,wilmington1 ,baltimore1 ,newport ,news1 ,san ,francisco1 and other seaports4 ,cities on the ,mississippi ,river1 and especially those on the ,great ,lakes1 are engaged in building ships of iron and steel4 ,there are several steel plants in the ,lake ports1 and in them we have built the larger part of our steel tonnage4 ,our iron ships have been built chiefly in the seaboard yards4 ,during the present year1 #ahii1 the ,american yards are busy constructing vessels both for the navy and for our merchant fleet1 and new yards are being established4 ,having begun selling crude and structural iron and steel and various classes of machinery in ,europe1 even in ,great ,britain1 we shall ere long be selling iron and steel ships4 ,the excellence of our navy has brought us orders for war ships1 and the skill and invention of our shipbuilders will bring us foreign orders for merchantmen4 ,,viii4 ,,causes ,,accounting ,,for ,,the ,,century',s ,,commercial ,,progress4 ,the commercial progress of the nineteenth century1 the salient phases of which have been depicted in the foregoing pages1 has been the result of three sets of causes1 economic1 political1 and social4 ,the economic causes of most importance are the improvements in transportation1 the reorganization of industry on a large scale1 the accumulation of capital1 together with the growth of corporations and credit institutions whereby the utility of capital has been enhanced1 and the discovery of large stores of gold4 ,illustration3 ,,cramp',s ,,shipyard ,,on ,,the ,,delaware4 ,transportation is the handmaid of trade4 ,whatever enables this handmaid to do her work cheaper and quicker enlarges the scope and volume of the world's commerce4 ,when one considers that it cost nearly four times as much in #ahge to ship wheat from ,new ,york to ,liverpool as it did twenty years later1 and fully three times as much from ,chicago to ,liverpool1 one can readily understand how transportation has removed hindrances to commerce4 ,cheap and rapid transportation has made an extensive commerce possible1 but it has been the organization of industry on a large scale that has created the chief demand for commerce4 ,industry at the present time is1 to a large extent1 so organized as best to promote the territorial and international division of labor2 and each large producer regards the whole world as his market4 ,the amount of commerce required increases with the concentration and specialization of industry1 and with every widening of the producer's market4 ,it has been the accumulation of capital and its increased availability for purposes of production that have made possible the organization of industry on its present basis1 and enabled men to construct the highly developed transportation system by means of which commerce is accomplished4 ,the material progress of the past century is unprecedented4 ,industry has created wealth as with the touch of a magic wand2 and this rapidly growing wealth has been made available capital through the instrumentality of the corporation which1 by means of stocks and bonds1 has gathered into giant organizations the property of hundreds and even thousands of individuals4 ,the industrial corporations have been greatly assisted in their work of concentrating and applying capital1 by the banks and other institutions that have enlarged credit and made a given amount of property capable of performing a much larger work4 ,the expansion of industrial credits1 furthermore1 has been greatly facilitated by the issue of government bonds in large amounts during the century4 ,these state obligations constitute excellent business securities1 of which banks1 other corporations1 and individuals make extensive use4 ,such are some of the factors that have promoted the accumulation of capital and increased the volume of commerce4 ,money is not capital1 but an adequate supply of a sound and stable medium of exchange is essential to industrial and commercial progress4 ,twice in the history of the world the discovery of large supplies of the precious metals has given a great impetus to industry and trade3 once1 in the sixteenth century1 when the ,spanish galleys brought to ,europe rich treasure from the silver mines of ,america2 and again1 in the middle of the nineteenth century1 when the rich finds of gold were made in ,australia and ,california4 ,the very rapid increase in the commerce of the ,united ,states and of the world at large1 which began about #ahej1 was in no small degree the result of the rising prices which followed the discoveries of gold4 ,the closing decade of the century is witnessing a similar occurrence4 ,for many years prices declined rapidly2 the demands made upon the world's gold supply were rapidly increased at a time when the annual output was declining4 ,from #ahej to #ahgj the annual output of gold averaged over #acj1jjj1jjj2 it then declined so rapidly that it amounted to only a little over #ajj1jjj1jjj a year1 in #ahhe and #ahhf4 ,it was only #aah1hdh1gjj in #ahij2 but the present annual production is nearly #cjj1jjj1jjj1 and the fall in prices has been cheeked for a while at least4 ,the very rapid enlargement in commerce during the past two years must have been facilitated by the recent increase in the annual production of gold4 ,a second general cause accounting for the world's progress in commerce is political--the commercial policy followed by the leading nations of the world4 ,up to the nineteenth century1 practically every country strove to promote its trade1 navigation interests1 and its power as a nation by means of the mercantile system1--a system of strict and detailed regulation of foreign trade by means of tariffs and navigation laws4 ,each country strove to determine the nature of its international trade1 and endeavored to carry on its commerce in its own ships4 ,in the case of one country1 at least1 the mercantile system was eminently successful4 ,great ,britain entered the great ,napoleonic wars with a powerful naval and merchant marine1 and emerged from that struggle the unquestioned mistress of the ocean4 ,her industries also1 as well as her ships1 were stronger than those of other countries2 and she soon concluded that both her foreign trade and her shipping would profit by doing away with the restrictions of the mercantile system1 and adopting the policy of entire commercial freedom4 ,she made no mistake1 for her industries and commerce have wonderfully prospered4 ,the success of free trade and freedom of commerce in the ,united ,kingdom had much influence upon other countries1 and1 during the third quarter of the nineteenth century1 several countries began to move cautiously in the direction that the ,united ,kingdom had taken4 ,they soon found1 however1 that for them free trade and shipping meant ,british trade and shipping1 because of their inability to compete successfully with their powerful rival2 and1 during the last quarter of the century1 the dominant commercial and maritime policy outside of the ,british ,isles has been one providing for the regulation of trade by tariffs1 and for the promotion of the mercantile marine by postal payments and bounties4 ,at the present time1 the two most powerful commercial rivals of the ,united ,kingdom are the ,united ,states and ,germany2 and their trade policy is one of regulation instead of freedom4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 judging by results1 that both the ,united ,kingdom and her competitors have acted wisely1 and that in both cases the means adopted were such as conditions demanded4 ,the third cause of the world's commercial progress during the past century has been colonial expansion4 ,germany1 ,france1 and other countries1 influenced by the great success of the ,united ,kingdom1 have established colonies in different parts of the world1 and assumed control over uncivilized peoples1 until there are now #abe colonies1 protectorates1 and dependencies4 ,these #abe regions comprise two fifths of the land surface of the globe1 and contain one third of its population4 ,these colonies and protectorates import annually over #a1ejj1jjj1jjj worth of commodities1 and of this large sum more than forty per cent is bought from mother countries4 ,the last nation to adopt the policy of colonial expansion is the ,united ,states1 her principal colony1 the ,philippine ,islands1 having been made a part of her possessions because of our desire to secure a larger share of the trade of the ,orient4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century ,,prospect4 ,the world is entering upon the twentieth century with the nations of the earth bound to each other by much closer relations than existed a hundred years ago1 and chief among the forces that draw the countries of the world together is commerce4 ,it is commerce1 more than anything else1 that has brought about the existing organization of industry in which each nation is dependent upon every other4 ,the nations of the world are mutually dependent1 but their interests are not identical4 ,in the future1 as they have done in the past1 nations will compete with each other1 each striving to secure for itself a maximum of economic advantage2 and this competition will continue to take the form of commercial rivalry4 ,the great international struggles of the present day are being carried on to secure trade advantages2 and at no time in the past have those contests been more earnest than they now are4 ,the conflicts of the twentieth century will be commercial struggles1 and they will be intense4 ,in the centuries when ,phnicia1 ,greece1 ,carthage1 ,rome1 and ,venice were successively powerful1 the ,mediterranean was the theatre of commercial activity and international rivalry4 ,the navigators and explorers1 whose exploits closed the medival period and inaugurated the modern era1 carried the world's commerce from the ,mediterranean to the ,atlantic and transferred the centres of national greatness from the southern to the western and northern nations of ,europe4 ,the great industrial countries of the present are those of ,europe and ,america adjacent to the ,north ,atlantic4 ,these countries originate the larger part of the world's commerce2 and the main streams of international trade are those which connect these countries with each other and with those regions of the earth less highly developed industrially4 ,the ,isthmus of ,suez1 just north of the ,tropic of ,cancer1 and the ,isthmus of ,panama1 a short distance south of that line1 were the only barriers which nature placed across an otherwise continuous water route around the earth in the northern hemisphere4 ,these barriers diverted the lines which the world's largest volume of traffic tends to follow far to the south around ,africa and ,south ,america1 or did so until #ahfi1 when ,europe overcame the barrier of most consequence to her by the construction of the ,suez ,canal4 ,since the opening of that waterway ,europe has enjoyed advantages for international trade superior to those enjoyed by our country4 ,our regions most highly developed industrially are tributary to the ,atlantic and ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,to the east of us lies ,europe1 a region of great industrial advancement1 demanding little more than our surplus food products and raw materials2 to the south are the countries of the ,south ,atlantic lying along the line of the world's secondary commercial routes2 countries1 moreover1 whose trade we can secure only in direct competition with ,europe1 which has already forestalled us at many points4 ,in pushing their trade westward the industrial ,states of the ,united ,states--and they are found in the eastern half of our country--find that the possibilities of a traffic by land are restricted within narrow bounds by the heavy costs of a long haul over the elevated ,cordilleran ,mountain ranges1 while shipments by water have to take the circuitous and expensive route around ,south ,america4 ,until an isthmian canal is constructed the ,united ,states will be handicapped in its competition with ,europe for the trade of all countries bordering the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the ,united ,states looks forward to the coming century1 confident of sharing largely in the world's commerce4 ,with an enormous and rapidly growing foreign trade1 and with her industries sending their wares into all quarters of the globe1 the future of her trade is certain4 ,shall we also become a great maritime nation8 ,shall we be as successful in the age of steel steamships as we were in the days when our clipper-ships1 8those strong-winged gulls in timber1 put swift girdles around the earth80 ,unquestionably1 yes6 ,the commercial advantages which our rivals have possessed for half a century have nearly all disappeared4 ,our maritime instincts are not dead2 and when we again turn our attention in earnest to the work of international navigation1 we shall 8win anew the wide-reaching seas our sires loved and occupied so well40 ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,franklin ,s4 ,,edmonds1 ,a4,m41 ,asst4 ,prof4 of ,political ,science1 ,central ,high ,school1 ,philadelphia4 ,the nineteenth century has been characterized by a deep and abiding interest in popular education4 ,one hundred years ago there were many close observers who strongly opposed all attempts to provide schools for the masses1 lest they should be educated above their station in life4 ,this feeling was particularly strong in conservative countries like ,england4 ,it led the ,duke of ,wellington to remark to one who was explaining to him the work of ,joseph ,lancaster1 8,take care what you are about2 for unless you base all this on religion1 you are only making so many clever devils40 ,so careful a critic as ,alexis de ,tocqueville1 after his visit to the ,united ,states in #ahca1 wrote to ,jared ,sparks3 8,are the effects of education uniformly good8 ,does not a man who obtains an education above his social condition become an unquiet citizen80 ,the first triumph of the nineteenth century was the conquest of this fear2 and there is to-day a general belief that it is the duty of each community to provide a well-developed school system1 that each child may have an opportunity for making the best and highest use of his powers and capabilities4 ,perhaps no single element has contributed more to this change in the popular attitude towards schools than the writings of the great group of thinkers who1 with lofty ideals and keen acumen1 have devoted themselves to the study and discussion of educational questions4 ,germany has been foremost in its contributions to educational literature4 ,foremost in time as in influence is ,john ,henry ,pestalozzi 7#agdf-ahbg74 ,although endowed with an 8unrivaled incapacity for government10 ,pestalozzi has yet become an inspiration to modern pedagogy1 because of his love for teaching and the tender sympathy of his nature4 ,after various educational experiments1 he opened1 in #ahje1 a school at ,yverdun1 on the ,lake of ,neufchatel1 which soon won for him a ,european reputation1 and became a centre of interest to educators from all ,europe4 ,the ,emperor of ,russia gave him a personal proof of his favor1 and ,fichte1 the great ,german philosopher1 declared that he saw in ,pestalozzi and his labors the dawning of a new era for humanity4 ,in his writings and in his teaching ,pestalozzi emphasized the importance of the home in education2 he asserted the truth that all instruction is based on observation3 8,neither books nor any product of human skill1 but life itself1 yields the basis for all education20 and in a general way he aimed to develop the child through his own personal activity1 rather than to furnish him with useful facts4 ,the most eminent of ,pestalozzi's disciples was ,friedrich ,froebel 7#aghb-aheb71 the founder of the kindergarten4 ,after a varied career as a forester1 student at ,jena1 etc41 ,froebel went to ,yverdun in #ahjh1 and for two years was a co-laborer with ,pestalozzi4 ,the impulse which he here received never lost its force4 ,it brought him to consider the problems of elementary education1 and finally led1 in #ahcg1 to his establishment of the first kindergarten at ,blankenburg in ,thuringia4 ,his idea may be well expressed in his own words1--8,i can convert children's activities1 energies1 amusements1 occupations1 all that goes by the name of play1 into instruments for my purpose1 and therefore transform play into work4 ,this work will be education in the true sense of the term40 ,his great theory was idealistic--he believed in the unity of the universe1 in the essential harmony of the world4 ,it was the duty of the teacher to fit the child for his place in human society4 ,this could be best done if the child was taken at a very early age and prepared for life in an ordinary school4 ,the kindergarten1 or child-garden1 is thus a school where a child learns social life1 where his play is systematized and his activities are directed4 ,the average course of study takes hold of the child when he is six years of age2 the kindergarten usually fills in the two preceding years4 ,as an educational institution1 the kindergarten has met with little public support in ,europe1 although in ,paris there are a number of 8maternal schools10 which correspond closely to ,froebel's plan4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,miss ,elizabeth ,peabody became the first apostle of the movement4 ,the idea of caring for the children below the regular school-age won instant favor1 and in a number of large cities kindergartens were opened under private auspices4 ,as their success became clearer and more positive1 they were taken under the control of the public4 ,in #ahif-ig1 the report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education shows that there were #ajgg kindergartens in the ,united ,states connected with the public-school systems of cities having more than #djjj population1 with an enrollment of #ha1iaf pupils4 ,the ,international ,kindergarten ,union1 formed for the purpose of 8gathering and disseminating knowledge of the kindergarten movement throughout the world10 has aided greatly in stimulating an intelligent interest in ,froebel's ideals in ,america4 ,none of the great ,german philosophers has been honored with a more loyal cult than ,johann ,friedrich ,herbart 7#agge-ahda71 who directed general attention to the necessity of studying the principles of education4 ,in his writings and lectures while professor at the ,university of ,gttingen1 ,herbart started an inquiry into the theoretical basis of instruction4 ,he found the final aim of all education to centre in the formation of moral character1 while the keystone of instruction is interest4 8,the final aim of instruction is morality4 ,but the nearer aim which instruction in particular must see before itself in order to reach the final one1 is many-sidedness of interest40 ,herbart's influence in arousing and directing thought has been most felt in ,germany1 but in ,america his name has been taken by one of the most active educational associations1 8,the ,national ,herbart ,society40 ,illustration3 ,,pestalozzi4 7,the ,perry ,pictures4 ,copyright1 #ahih1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,perry1 ,malden1 ,mass47 ,next to ,germany in its list of great educational thinkers must come ,england4 ,at the beginning of this century there were no 8public schools0 in ,england1 in the ,american sense of the term4 ,the great preparatory schools1--,eton1 ,rugby1 ,harrow1 ,winchester1 etc41--although called 8public0 by the ,english1 were in reality endowed boarding-schools1 where as a rule only the children of the rich could be found4 ,general education was cared for by the village schools under the direction of the vicar of the parish1 and usually presided over by elderly dames with varied degrees of attainments4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century1 the work of ,andrew ,bell and ,joseph ,lancaster began to arouse some interest4 ,working independently1 the one in ,india and the other in ,london1 both developed the same method of providing general instruction at a minimum of cost1 by using the more advanced pupils to instruct the beginners4 8,by the aid of monitors10 said ,lancaster1 8one master can teach a thousand boys40 ,in #agih1 ,lancaster opened the first ,english school of this kind in ,southwark1 ,london1 placing this inscription over the door3 8,all that will may send their children and have them educated freely1 and those that do not wish to have education for nothing may pay for it1 if they please40 ,in #ahjh1 the ,royal ,lancasterian ,society was organized1 to agitate for more schools2 and although its name was changed1 in #ahad1 to ,british and ,foreign ,school ,society1 its work has continued down to the present time4 ,in #ahah1 ,lancaster came to ,america1 and was at once placed in general charge of the public schools of ,philadelphia4 ,he was made principal of a model school for training teachers1 which is believed to have been the first attempt at a normal school in ,america4 ,after extensive agitation in ,new ,york1 in ,canada1 where in #ahbi he received an appropriation from the legislature to enable him to start his monitorial schools1 and even in ,south ,america1 ,lancaster's work was done4 ,probably the greatest teacher of the century in ,england was ,thomas ,arnold1 whose character will long live in literature through the loving portraiture of his pupils4 ,while contributing little of importance to the science of pedagogy1 he was yet able to work a revolution in the general conception of teacher and pupil1 and their relations to each other4 ,he insisted that his teachers must continue their studies after they had secured positions1 and so raised professional ideals4 8,the pupil10 said he1 8must drink from the running fountain1 and not from the stagnant pool40 ,his sympathy gave him rare power to mould the character of boys4 ,he trusted his boys and they became worthy of it4 8,it is a shame to tell ,arnold a lie6 ,he always believes one10--was the common saying4 ,as a consequence1 there went out from ,rugby ,school from #ahbg to #ahdb1 the years of ,arnold's headmastership1 a group of clean1 healthy1 whole-souled boys1 well fitted to become leaders in ,english life4 ,many contributions have been made to the literature of pedagogy during the century1 but there is none that has attracted more attention or stimulated more earnest discussion than ,herbert ,spencer's 8,education40 ,in the first chapter of his book1 ,spencer asks the question which aroused the educational world1--8,what knowledge is of most worth80 ,it at once directed inquiry into the very heart of educational theory4 ,the course of study1 the order in which subjects should be considered1 the time to be given to each1--all these problems were vitally concerned with the answer to this question4 ,mr4 ,spencer's solution won instant favor3 8,how to live10 said he1 8that is the essential question for us4444 ,and this1 being the great thing needful for us to learn1 is1 by consequence1 the great thing which education has to teach4 ,to prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge40 ,this point of view led to the accenting of useful and practical subjects4 ,the human body should be studied1--this is necessary to fulfill the first law of nature1 self-preservation4 ,the natural sciences should be an essential part of education3 this is necessary for our acquaintance with the world in which we must live and work4 ,history and social science should be studied3 that each one may become fully in touch with the society in which he forms a unit4 ,naturally1 little time would be left for branches that were sthetic or cultural1 and so ,spencer would have the student give but his surplus time to these4 ,but the important thing was that he should know himself1 his world1 and his society1 so that he would be fitted to do his work in the most complete way4 ,his practical influence upon education is best seen in the great increase of appreciation for the natural sciences1 which has led to the introduction of nature observation and study1 even in the most elementary schools4 ,illustration3 ,,froebel1 ,,founder ,,of ,,kindergartens4 7,the ,perry ,pictures4 ,copyright1 #ahih1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,perry1 ,malden1 ,mass47 ,in ,america there have been important contributions to educational theory during the century4 ,there has been a perfect flood of educational books1 pamphlets1 and periodicals1 whose merit is so great as to extort even reluctant admiration from foreign critics4 ,while there has been much unevenness in quality1 yet ,americans have no reason to feel ashamed of their contribution to pedagogical literature4 ,the best work has been done in the discussion of specific questions1 rather than in an elaboration of general ideals4 ,administration1 with its manifold problems1 has appealed strongly to the ,american genius2 and consequently the greatest names of the century are those of men who have devoted themselves to some practical work1 the ideals and details of which they have thoroughly mastered1 and so have left enduring monuments of their lives' work4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,thomas ,,arnold1 ,,of ,,rugby1 ,,england4 7,courtesy of ,the ,school ,journal1 ,new ,york47 ,the great achievement of the century in the ,united ,states has been the establishment of a system of free and public schools4 ,like most of the nation's intellectual impulses1 this spirit seems to have come from ,new ,england4 ,there1 the democratic ideals of the people led to an early appreciation of the necessity for universal education4 ,there can be little doubt that it was from the ,puritan settlements in ,massachusetts that the original impulse toward universal education came4 ,thus1 in #afdg1 the ,colonial ,assembly required that each town containing one hundred families should establish a grammar school to prepare youths for the university4 ,during colonial times more and more schools were steadily established4 ,but the movement1 which was zealously supported in ,new ,england and encouraged in the ,middle ,states1 especially by the ,friends1 met with opposition in the ,south1 where education was considered a family duty1 and not within the province of the ,state4 ,whatever1 therefore1 was accomplished in an educational line prior to the ,revolution depended upon the spirit of the individual colonies2 consequently1 there was the widest possible divergence in the policies and methods of different localities4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,log ,,schoolhouse4 ,but as soon as the ,revolution had been accomplished1 and independence had become a fact1 a renewed interest in general education was evident4 ,it is exceedingly interesting to watch the development of the point of view that free schools were a necessity for the existence of the republic1 and hence must be established by the ,state4 ,the early fathers of the nation were not slow to recognize this4 ,in the words of ,franklin1 8,a ,bible and newspaper in every house1 a good school in every district--all studied and appreciated as they merit--are the principal support of virtue1 morality1 and civil liberty40 8,in proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion10 said ,washington1 8it is necessary that public opinion should be enlightened40 ,and ,jefferson1 with his broad philosophical appreciation of democracy1 started the battle against the ideas of ,governor ,berkeley1 of ,virginia1 when1 in #aggi1 he introduced into the ,general ,assembly of ,virginia a bill providing for the establishment of schools 8for the free training of all free children1 male and female40 ,the half century from #agij to #ahdj is the period of the battle for free public schools4 ,it was a hard fight1 complicated in many ,states by local questions and conditions that rendered success almost hopeless4 ,some opposed from the old point of view that education was an individual matter1--each should get for himself just so much as was possible4 ,others raised the objection of cost1--if taxation was proposed1 was it right to take money from one group to educate the children of another8 ,religious disputes hindered progress1--many of the denominations had founded sectarian schools1 and were unwilling to see them replaced by public schools1 where no creed would be taught4 ,especially1 in some ,states1 as in ,pennsylvania1 where ,swede1 ,german1 ,scotch1 ,irish1 and ,english lived side by side1 did the race problem enter as a perplexing element4 ,should any language other than ,english be taught8 ,what respect should be given to the traditions and customs of each race-group8 ,moreover1 when the conservatism began to yield to progress1 it compromised with great reluctance4 ,at first1 provision was made whereby the children of the poor should have their school fees paid by the ,state4 ,then public schools were started exclusively for the poor1 which were branded with the stigma of 8pauper schools40 ,but these difficulties only served to increase the ardor of the public-school advocates1 and at length their success was complete4 ,some episodes of the struggle deserve special mention4 ,horace ,mann 7#agif-ahei7 has been called the ,st4 ,paul of education in ,america4 ,in #ahcg1 the ,state ,board of ,education was created in ,massachusetts1 and ,horace ,mann was appointed its first secretary4 ,for twelve years he labored with unflagging energy to build up the public interest in education4 ,by speech and by pen1 he awakened in his ,state an appreciation of the value of the public school system that has never since decayed4 ,he established on an enduring basis the business side of education in the ,state1 by systematizing the school funds4 ,the personal sacrifice was enormous4 ,he addressed public meetings all over the country4 ,when he found that no arrangements had been made at ,pittsfield to prepare the schoolhouse for his meeting1 ,horace ,mann and ,governor ,briggs themselves swept out the building and set it in order4 ,one of his first interests was the provision of good teachers4 ,in order to spur the ,assembly to its duty1 he begged from his friends the sum of #aj1jjj1 which1 with an equal sum appropriated from the state treasury1 was used in the establishment of the ,massachusetts normal schools at ,lexington and ,barre 7#ahci74 ,outside of his administrative work1 his fame must rest upon his stanch advocacy of the principle of 8the obligation of a ,state1 on the great principles of natural law and natural equity1 to maintain free schools for the universal education of its people40 ,in ,pennsylvania1 the hero of the battle for free schools was ,thaddeus ,stevens4 ,in #ahcd1 a law was passed by the legislature establishing a state system1 and abolishing the distinction between rich and poor which had been noticed in the old pauper schools4 ,two years later1 a determined effort was made by the combined forces of ignorance1 prejudice1 and caste1 to repeal the act of #ahcd4 ,nothing but the stanchness of ,governor ,wolf and the power exerted by the eloquence of the 8,old ,commoner0 saved free schools for the ,keystone ,state1 and so established the system which to-day receives more direct aid from the state treasury than in any other ,state of the ,union4 ,west of the ,alleghanies1 the interest in popular education has always been deep and thorough4 ,settled in large measure by the steady sons of ,new ,england1 education found there a most fertile soil4 ,moreover1 by the wise foresight of ,congress1 provision was made for school funds in a most satisfactory way4 ,the ,ordinance of #aghg1 which organized the territory north of the ,ohio ,river1 contained a provision that one section of land in each township should be devoted to public education4 ,if this grant1 which was originally suggested by ,jefferson1 had been carefully watched1 it would have been sufficient to endow the public schools of many ,western ,states4 ,the national government gave to education in the first hundred years of its history nearly eighty million acres of public lands1 but these grants were not always conserved with sufficient care4 ,in #ahif-ig the total revenue of the school systems in the ,united ,states was #ahh1fda1bdc1 of which less than five per cent was from state school funds or rent of school lands1 while over eighty-six per cent was derived from state and local taxation4 ,some little conception of the immensity of the common-school system in the ,united ,states may be obtained from the following statistics1 taken from the ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education for #ahif-ig4 ,,common-,,school ,,statistics ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states 7,,not ,,including ,,private ,,schools1 ,,colleges1 ,,or ,,universities74 #ahgj-ga #ahif-ig ,i4--,general ,statistics4 ,approximate ,total population #ci1ejj1ejj #ga1cgd1adb ,number of persons #e to #ah years of age #ab1cje1fjj #ba1jhb1dgb ,number of different pupils enrolled on the school registers #g1efa1ehb #ad1feb1dib ,per cent of total population enrolled #ai4ad #bj4ec ,average daily attendance #d1ede1cag #aj1jhi1fbj ,average length of school term 7days7 #acb4a #adj4d ,male teachers #ij1bic #aca1chf ,female teachers #abi1icb #bga1idg ------------ ------------ ,whole number of teachers #bbj1bbe #djc1ccc ,per cent of male teachers #da4j #cb4f ,average monthly wages of teachers3 ,males 7averaged from the statistics of #dc ,states7 #dd4fb ,females 7averaged from the statistics of #dc ,states7 #ch4ch ,number of schoolhouses #acb1aai #bdf1hbh ,value of school property #adc1hah1gjc #dfi1jfi1jhf ,,ii4--,financial ,statistics4 ,receipts3 ,income from permanent funds #g1hdf1fdh ,from state taxes #ce1jfb1ecc ,from local taxes #abg1ifj1gfa ,from all other sources #ag1gga1cja ------------ ,total receipts #ahh1fda1bdc ,expenditures3 ,for sites1 buildings1 furniture1 libraries1 and apparatus #ca1ijc1bde ,for salaries of teachers and superintendents #db1ehj1hec #aai1cjc1edb ,for all other purposes #cf1aac1hae ------------ ,total expenditures #fi1ajg1fab #ahg1cbj1fjb ,expenditure per capita of population4 #a4ge #b4fb ,total expenditure per pupil #ae4bj #ah4eg ,to these grand totals must be added the million and more in attendance at private schools throughout the country1 and the rapidly increasing number 7now #bag1gfc7 of those who receive higher instruction1 in universities and professional and normal schools4 ,this makes for the ,united ,states a grand total of #af1bee1jic pupils and students of all grades in public and private schools4 ,the growth during the last generation has been most marked4 ,the statistical table gives an opportunity for comparison with the year #ahgj-ga1--the span of a generation1--and it has been estimated that within this period the average total amount of schooling has increased from #b4ia years to #d4bh years4 ,in other words1 the amount of education which each one felt able to afford has increased almost one half4 ,such is the magnificent result which has grown out of the isolated village schools of our ,new ,england ancestors1 fostered by the democratic desire for intelligence found all over the country4 ,illustration3 ,,schoolhouse1 ,,sleepy ,,hollow1 ,n4 ,y4 7,courtesy of ,the ,school ,journal1 ,new ,york47 ,equally great has been the change in the spirit of the school4 ,in the early days the schools were very crude4 ,population was scattered1 and since the children could not go as far to school as their elders did to church1 the number of schoolhouses was very great4 ,they were usually put up by the people of the neighborhood with little pretense at adornment4 ,the average schoolhouse was located either at a fork in the roads or on an elevation1 where it shared1 with the church1 the honor of conspicuousness4 ,we give a picture of ,old ,sleepy ,hollow ,schoolhouse1 made famous by ,washington ,irving's elaborate description of ,ichabod ,crane1 its ruler in the colonial days4 ,but a structure of this kind is luxurious compared with the hardships of more sparsely settled regions4 ,from ,wickersham's 8,history of ,education in ,pennsylvania0 the following description is culled3 8,the pioneer schoolhouse was built of logs1 sixteen by twenty feet1 seven feet to the ceiling1 daubed with mud inside and out1 a mud and stick chimney in the north end1 and in the west a log was left out1 and the opening covered with oiled paper to admit light2 holes were bored in the logs and pins driven in1 on which to nail a long board for a writing-table1 and slabs with legs answered for seats4 ,the early schoolhouses were generally situated near the roadside or cross-roads1 being without playground1 shade-trees1 or apparatus40 ,here the master kept his country school for a term of from six to twelve weeks4 ,in the winter time the pupils were almost frozen1 and there were other dangers which the hardy lad of those days had to encounter4 ,nevertheless1 rude1 uncomfortable1 and inadequate as they were1 it was here that our forefathers obtained their scanty schooling4 ,the three ,r's1 ,readin'1 ,ritin'1 and #8,rithmetic1 formed the basis of the course of study4 ,methods were very simple4 ,much of the early instruction was religious in its trend1 and the child was expected to use books which would teach moral lessons4 ,church books1 containing creeds and hymns and catechisms1 might be used in the school for study4 ,then there were the primers or books to teach the ,a ,b ,c4 ,the famous 8,new ,england ,primer0 was published in the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,later editions contained rhyming couplets upon each letter of the alphabet1 illustrated with such imagery as the art would allow4 ,a page from the 8,child's ,guide10 published in ,london in #agfb1 is shown on page #ebg4 ,its verses were easily memorized1 and sometimes gave a basis for a spelling lesson4 ,there were no graded readers until this century4 ,writing in some neighborhoods was taught only to boys1 on the general ground that it was an unnecessary accomplishment for the sex which never engaged in business4 ,ink was home-made from bruised nutgalls placed in a bottle with water and rusty nails4 ,the writing was done with a quill pen1 and one of the foremost duties of the old-fashioned pedagogue was to make and mend pens4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,schoolroom1 ,,sleepy ,,hollow1 ,n4 ,y4 7,courtesy of ,the ,school ,journal1 ,new ,york47 ,the master set the copies by writing a lesson which was to be imitated by the pupils4 ,there was no set style1 but usually the teacher wrote a bold1 legible hand which in time was acquired with a fair degree of success4 ,arithmetic was taught without text-books4 ,sums were given out by the master and worked out on paper on the desk4 ,nothing but the more rudimentary principles was taught1 and the higher branches of algebra and geometry were unknown in the public schools of this time4 ,spelling was one of the favorite studies4 ,it gave free scope for the memory1 and provided an opportunity for one of those public exhibitions in which ,americans have always delighted4 8,spelling on the book10 says ,wickersham1 8was taught by attempting to lead the pupil to give the names of syllables and words by naming the letters of which they are composed4 ,the first lesson consisted of combinations of a word with one or more consonants1 arranged so that a kind of rhyme aided the pronunciation1 as ab1 eb1 ib1 etc40 444 8,spelling off the book0 consisted in naming the letters of words pronounced for that purpose4 ,but the chief enjoyment of spelling came from the old-fashioned contests1 or 8spelling-bees40 ,sometimes it was to discover the best speller of the district2 again1 one district might be pitted against another4 ,the spellers would be arranged in two rows4 ,the first word would be given to the first speller on one side1 the next to his rival1 the third to his comrade1 and so on4 ,if one missed a word1 he at once took his seat2 presently the contest would narrow down to a few1 until at last all would have missed save one1 and he or she became the champion speller4 ,the teachers of the time formed a group of varied attainments1 and oftentimes with little professional enthusiasm4 ,teaching has always suffered from the fact that a great number of young men enter upon its practice1 who use it merely as a stepping-stone to some other and more attractive pursuit4 ,the number of those who have taught a few terms1 in order to save money for a college1 law1 or medical course is legion2 and this fact has laid the profession open to the reproach that only the unambitious and the unalert follow it permanently4 ,in the early days of our country's history1 this stigma was intensified by the number of 8itinerant schoolmasters10 men who wandered from place to place1 teaching a term in one village and then moving to the next1--8odd in dress1 eccentric in manners1 and oftentimes intemperate40 ,their work was simple in its nature2 they were to keep order and to teach the rudiments4 ,their methods in the latter have already been referred to2 for the former1 they relied1 almost universally1 upon the unsparing use of the rod4 ,the wisdom of the practice of flogging has only been questioned in the latter part of this century4 ,in the early days it was the one recognized punishment1 even for students whose maturity and attainments would suggest an appeal to reason4 ,with this mode of punishment was associated a more or less ingenious series of devices1 such as the dunce-block1 the fools' cap1 etc41 all calculated to bring the offender into ridicule1 but utterly destructive of that good feeling between teacher and pupil1 upon which so much stress is laid to-day4 ,in the course of the century the old-fashioned school has either passed away or else has been modified materially4 ,to-day it is to be found in only sparsely settled districts1 while in the cities and in the more cultured neighborhoods one finds carefully planned systems of education that show the fruits of the study and direction of some of the keenest minds that our country has produced4 ,while it is impossible in the space of a single chapter to refer to all the changes1 yet some of the most important will be considered4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,in ,adam's ,fall1 ,we sinned all4 ,b4 ,this ,book attend1 ,thy ,life to mend4 ,c4 ,the ,cat doth play1 ,and after slay4 ,d4 ,the ,dog doth bite ,a ,thief at ,night4 ,e4 ,an ,eagle's flight ,is out of sight4 ,f4 ,the ,idle ,fool1 ,is whipt at ,school4 ,g4 ,as runs the ,glass1 ,man's ,life doth pass4 ,h4 ,my ,book and ,heart ,shall never part4 ,i4 ,jesus did dye1 ,for thee and ,i4 ,k4 ,king ,charles the ,good1 ,no man of ,blood4 ,l4 ,the ,lyon bold1 ,the ,lamb doth hold4 ,m4 ,the ,moon gives ,light1 ,in time of ,night4 ,n4 ,nightingales sing1 ,in time of ,spring4 ,o4 ,the ,royal ,oak our ,king did save1 ,from fatal stroke of ,rebel ,slave4 ,p4 ,peter denies ,his ,lord1 and cries4 ,q4 ,queen ,esther came in ,royal ,state1 ,to save the ,jews from dismal fate4 ,r4 ,rachel doth mourn ,for her first-born4 ,s4 ,samuel anoints ,whom ,god appoints4 ,t4 ,time cuts down all1 ,both great and small4 ,u4 ,uriah's beauteous ,wife1 ,made ,david seek his ,life4 ,w4 ,whales in the ,sea ,god's voice obey4 ,x4 ,xerxes the ,great did die1 ,and so must you and ,i4 ,y4 ,youth's forward slips ,death soonest nips4 ,z4 ,zaccheus1 he ,did climb the ,tree1 ,his ,lord to see4 ,,child',s ,,guide4 7,courtesy of ,j4 ,harold ,wickersham47 ,foremost in real importance come the changes in the course of study--in the list of subjects which the well-educated young man may be expected to have mastered4 ,one hundred years ago the average child would have gone to the village school for the three 8,r's0 with1 maybe1 a little training in geography and parsing4 ,if a college career was open to him1 he would then go to an academy1 usually a private institution1 for his introduction to the classics1 ,latin and ,greek1 and to algebra4 ,while instruction was given in other branches1 yet these formed the backbone of the course4 ,the average age of admission to college was considerably less than it is at present4 ,in the ordinary college there was a required course of study1 in which ,latin1 ,greek1 and higher mathematics played the most conspicuous part4 ,the scientific studies were counted less educative1 and were usually rather poorly taught4 ,literature1 history1 and philosophy were sometimes included in the college curriculum1 and in many ways the course of study was modeled to suit the preferences and abilities of the different teachers4 ,nowadays this is all changed4 ,in the ,united ,states a graded school system has been created1 that is1 a complete course of study has been worked out1 whereby certain studies are specified as suited for each year of the school life4 ,this is not the same for all parts of the country1 for the ,american school system1 unlike that in ,germany and ,france1 is not national in its organization4 ,the authority over the schools is vested in the individual ,states1 and as a consequence each ,state shows peculiarities in course of study1 in laws1 and in methods that make the whole seem chaotic4 ,there is1 however1 more similarity than would appear at first sight1 and while what is asserted in general may not be true of each particular locality1 yet certain lines of development may be clearly seen4 ,the schools of the country may be divided into three groups1--elementary1 secondary1 and higher4 ,the elementary schools are built in some places upon the kindergarten2 they are ordinarily supposed to occupy the first eight or nine years of the child's school-life1 and are classified as primary and grammar schools4 ,during that period the pupil studies a great variety of branches1--language studies1 reading1 writing1 spelling1 and grammar2 arithmetic1 geography1 ,united ,states history1 civil government1 nature study1 physiology and hygiene1 physical culture1 vocal music1 drawing and manual training in boys' schools1 or sewing and cooking in girls' schools4 ,several of these subjects have been introduced only within the last few years4 ,the tendency toward enriching the curriculum is quite manifest to-day2 it is based upon the fact that by far the larger part of the pupils never enter the higher schools1 since their education is ended with the elementary schools1 therefore it is thought desirable to bring some of the higher subjects into the grammar school4 ,with the completion of this elementary course the pupil passes into the secondary school4 ,earlier in the century this was ordinarily a private academy1 either conducted for profit or by a religious society4 ,in exceptional cases these schools were public2 but as the benefits of higher education were recognized more completely1 the popularity of these schools increased enormously4 ,public high schools were opened1 and success led to their rapid multiplication1 until to-day they form one of the most useful elements in our system1 sending forth year by year leaders of thought and moulders of opinion4 ,their course of study has been the subject of much controversy4 ,the old academy prepared for the college2 the new high school prepares for life2 consequently there ensued a breach between the high school and the college which only now is being closed4 ,the ordinary high-school course is four years1 and includes languages1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,german1 and sometimes ,greek and ,spanish2 mathematics1 algebra1 geometry1 trigonometry1 and sometimes analytical geometry and even astronomy2 history1 literature1 physical geography1 physics1 chemistry1 biology1 geology1 drawing1 and occasionally political economy1 ethics1 and civics4 ,it will be noticed that subjects formerly taught only in the colleges have been brought into the high-school curriculum4 ,this again is due to the 8enriching process10 and is illustrative of the fact that for so many of its students the high school is the crown of their education4 ,the stress laid upon nature study and the physical sciences1 and the introduction of modern languages1 are among the most significant changes of the century1 as indicative of the desire to bring the schools in touch with the conditions of practical life4 ,from the high school or academy1 the student passes to the college or university4 ,within the last decade an attempt has been made to give a definite pedagogical content to each of these terms4 ,a college is an institution where the liberal arts are studied for purposes of general culture4 ,a university1 on the other hand1 prepares a man for one definite line of work1 either professional or technical4 ,both confer degrees upon those who have successfully completed their courses1 but those of the university 7,ph4 ,d41 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41 etc47 are of a higher type than those of the college 7,a4 ,b41 ,ph4 ,b474 ,there were twenty-four colleges in the ,united ,states in #ahjj4 ,the six oldest were3 ,harvard1 established in #afhg2 ,william and ,mary1 #afic2 ,yale1 #agja2 ,princeton1 #agdf2 ,university of ,pennsylvania1 #agdi2 ,columbia1 #aged4 ,in #ahif there were #dgb colleges and universities in the ,united ,states1 representing most of the ,states and ,territories in the ,union4 ,many of these are entirely public1 being supported by ,state appropriations2 some receive ,state aid2 others were originally founded by private endowment1 but have become public in their management2 some are entirely private in both endowment and control4 ,most are non-sectarian1 but many require worship in accordance with the services of some denomination4 ,in general1 all recognize their lofty function in society and are anxious to discharge it properly4 ,originally aristocratic in many ways1--prior to the ,revolution some colleges classifying their students in the catalogue according to the social rank of their families1--they have become among the most popular institutions in the educational world1 largely because of the high worth of their graduates4 ,universities1 in the scientific sense of the term1 did not exist prior to #ahjj1 except in the few medical and law schools and theological seminaries4 ,the ,american conception of the university has been very largely moulded by the experience of ,germany4 ,the college does not exist as a degree-conferring institution in ,germany1 but its place is taken very largely by the ,gymnasium4 ,the ,german system comprises three grades of schools3 #a4 ,volkschulen 7primary schools71 where the elementary instruction is given4 #b4 ,gymnasia and ,real-,schulen 7secondary schools71 which provide a nine years' course for the pupil1 usually covering the period from ten to nineteen years4 ,the aim of the first is to prepare for the university1 while the ,real-,schulen fit their students for the ordinary business callings of life4 #c4 ,universities1 in which the studies are arranged in four faculties2 theology1 law1 medicine1 and philosophy4 ,on account of the thoroughness of the ,german teaching1 many ,american students have gone to ,germany for their university course4 ,a sincere effort has been made in ,america to develop universities according to the ,german concept1 with its detailed study of particular topics based on a thorough general education4 ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,baltimore1 opened in #ahgf1 has done most along these lines4 ,during the century a determined and successful effort has been made to break down the old-fashioned college curriculum1 with its absolute and unvarying requirements from every student4 ,harvard ,university1 under the leadership of its brilliant executives1 ,thomas ,hill and especially ,charles ,w4 ,eliot1 has led the way by providing a series of elective courses from which the student might select a sufficient number to make up his roster4 ,this has given scope to the exercise of a freedom of choice that has been most wholesome in its effects upon both the scholar and university4 ,it has led to the neglect of the poor courses and to the encouragement of the good ones2 and it has promoted individuality in the different students to a marked degree4 ,the success of the elective system1 and the development of post-graduate courses in the university1 taken in connection with the very great interest in all the phases of higher education1 constitute the chief lines of advance during the century4 ,it is evident1 then1 that the student of to-day has a tremendous advantage over his fellow of one hundred years ago in the subjects which he may study4 ,the courses have been enriched1 instruction has been systematized1 new subjects1 more closely allied with popular needs1 have been developed4 ,but a gain which transcends in importance even these alterations in the curriculum1 is that which has come through the teacher4 ,we have seen that the teacher of our forefathers was a man of doubtful attainments and uncertain character1 and while there were golden exceptions to any general criticism1 yet it is beyond question that as a class the teachership was not well esteemed4 ,as a rule1 there was no stable salary1--the teachers 8boarded around0 at the homes of their pupils or received payment in produce from the farmers4 ,at the school he was janitor as well as educator4 ,outside of ,new ,england1 there was little intelligent supervision of his efforts1 and1 on the whole1 very little effective home coperation4 ,within the century1 however1 there has been a marked increase in the esteem in which the teacher is held1 and in the popular appreciation of his work4 ,moreover1 to-day1 the teacher better deserves esteem and respect4 ,while the profession still contains a vast floating element who look forward to a future in other lines of work1 yet on the whole its members possess a keen interest in their work and a desire for professional improvement4 ,a most powerful means toward this end has been found in the various teachers' organizations4 ,the ,institute1 with its annual assembly of all teachers within a given district1 who for two or three days discuss school questions and listen to lectures upon educational topics1 has been introduced throughout the whole country with great success4 ,the teachers in the various ,states have organized ,state associations1 and there are innumerable voluntary organizations1 whose meetings give each teacher an opportunity for that free contact with others of his own kind that is so helpful and so suggestive4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,charles ,,william ,,eliot1 ,,president ,,of ,,harvard ,,university4 7,courtesy of ,the ,school ,journal1 ,new ,york47 ,the oldest educational association in ,america1 maybe in the world1 is the ,american ,institute of ,instruction1 organized in #ahcj4 ,during its nearly seventy years of life it has been a vast inspiration to thousands of teachers4 ,it has drawn its support chiefly from the ,new ,england ,states and recently from ,canada1 but its influence is widespread4 ,annual meetings have been held regularly4 ,among its leading spirits1 it has numbered such men as ,w4 ,e4 ,sheldon1 ,francis ,wayland1 ,henry ,barnard1 etc4 ,out of the success of the various ,state associations1 and perhaps suggested by the necessity for more general action1 grew the ,national ,educational ,association1 founded in #aheg1 with the objects 8to elevate the character and advance the interest of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the ,united ,states40 ,its first president was ,zalmon ,richards1 and his successors have been the foremost educators of the country1 including ,james ,p4 ,wickersham1 ,emerson ,e4 ,white1 ,william ,t4 ,harris1 ,albert ,g4 ,lane1 ,nicholas ,murray ,butler1 ,charles ,r4 ,skinner1 etc4 ,its membership has grown from #hj in #aheg to #aj1fed 7#ahih71 and it has been estimated that some of its conventions have brought twenty-five thousand people in their train4 ,in spirit it is thoroughly national1 meeting in every section of the country in turn1 so helping to promote uniformity in school ideas4 ,as the ,association grew larger1 and its work became more complicated1 its organization became involved4 ,to-day it consists of seventeen departments1 each of which devotes itself to one phase of education1 usually reporting at the annual meeting4 ,since #ahib the ,national ,educational ,association 7,n4 ,e4 ,a41 as it is popularly called7 has appointed three committees to investigate special lines of work in separate departments of the school system4 ,the ,committee of ,ten1 whose chairman1 ,charles ,w4 ,eliot1 was the distinguished ,president of ,harvard ,university1 submitted a most useful report in #ahic on ,secondary ,school ,studies4 ,in #ahie the ,committee of ,fifteen1 of which ,superintendent ,wm4 ,h4 ,maxwell was chairman1 then of ,brooklyn but since chosen to be the first ,superintendent of ,schools of 8,greater ,new ,york10 made a valuable report on elementary education1 including reports of sub-committees on the ,training of ,teachers1 ,correlation of ,studies1 and the ,organization of ,city ,school ,systems4 ,in #ahig came the report of the ,committee of ,twelve on ,rural ,schools1 ,superintendent ,henry ,sabin1 of ,iowa1 as chairman4 ,these documents have been epoch-making2 they have accumulated a mass of trustworthy information2 they have procured opinion upon a wide variety of topics1 and their influence upon the general systematization of the school system has been enormous4 ,their additional value lies in the fact that they have been prepared by teachers who thoroughly understood the topics which were being considered1 and they have furnished to educators generally that consensus of professional opinion which has been so badly needed in ,america4 ,in this work of gathering and disseminating information1 a most potent part has been played by the national government4 ,the limitations of the ,constitution left education as a ,state interest1 to be worked out by each commonwealth as it should think best4 ,there had always been a general desire among teachers for some national organization1 and at last1 after the ,civil ,war1 ,congress established a department1 and then later made a ,bureau of ,education in the ,department of the ,interior4 ,in #ahfg ,hon4 ,henry ,barnard was appointed the first ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education4 ,a wiser choice could not have been made4 ,dr4 ,barnard's career in education covers a period from #ahcj1 when he was appointed ,secretary of the ,board of ,school ,commissioners in ,connecticut1 down to the present4 ,beyond question1 his greatest work has been the organization of the ,national ,bureau of ,education1 which to-day is a grand educational clearing-house1 sending forth in its excellent reports an account of ideas and work of each ,state to the others4 ,its high efficiency has been due1 in a large measure1 to the character of its commissioners3 ,henry ,barnard1 from #ahfg to #ahgj2 ,john ,eaton1 #ahgj-ahhf2 ,nathaniel ,h4 ,r4 ,dawson1 #ahhf-ahhi2 ,william ,t4 ,harris1 #ahhi to date4 ,the present incumbent has had the satisfaction of the knowledge that his position has been removed from the list of partisan appointments4 ,by his tactful prudence and genuine scholarship1 ,dr4 ,harris has brought his office into touch with every good educational work for a decade1 and has made his name a synonym for genial wisdom throughout the whole country4 ,the teacher has been aided in his work by his professional associations4 ,it is1 moreover1 true that to-day the teacher enters upon his work better equipped for his duties4 ,the normal-school system has spread over the whole country1 and every year thousands of young men and women are sent forth with a preparation that fifty years ago was not even dreamed of4 ,since the teacher better deserves respect1 he has commanded it the more readily4 ,gradually the barbarisms of the schoolroom have disappeared4 ,as the sympathy with education increased1 the necessity for excessive flogging passed away4 ,to-day there is a wide variety in opinion as to the efficiency of this mode of discipline4 ,in one ,state1 ,new ,jersey1 corporal punishment in schools is forbidden by law2 but in most of the others it is permitted in special cases1 as a general part of the teacher's power when in loco parentis4 ,the teacher is now paid a regular salary1 but unfortunately it is the lowest paid in any profession for which formal preparation is required4 ,in #ahif-ig the average monthly wages of teachers was1 for males1 #dd4fb1 and for females1 #ch4ch4 ,in comparison with the standard of life throughout the country1 this is poor pay4 ,superintendent ,n4 ,c4 ,schaeffer1 of ,pennsylvania1 in a recent annual report1 states that 8one superintendent found that there were teachers in his county teaching for four dollars less per year than it cost the county on an average to keep one pauper40 ,this is an exceptional case1 but it illustrates the general truth4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,t4 ,,harris4 7,the ,perry ,pictures1 ,copyright1 #ahih1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,perry1 ,malden1 ,mass47 ,one consequence of this low pay has been to accent a tendency which is fast removing education from the list of those professions in which men will engage4 ,from #ahgj-ga to #ahif-ig the percentage of male teachers decreased from #da4j to #cb4f2 especially is this true in the older ,states4 ,this is in striking contrast with one hundred years ago1 when1 except in infant schools1 teachers were almost universally of the male sex4 ,a variety of causes may be given for this change4 ,the preminent fitness of women for guiding the child during certain ages is acknowledged4 ,again1 the decline of the rod and the introduction of a happy sympathy between teacher and pupil have helped the tendency4 ,but of all the forces which have contributed to this change1 none has been more potent than the great increase of opportunities for the higher education of women4 ,at the beginning of the century the ,united ,states was not behind ,european nations in its provision for the education of young women4 ,no one thought of making anything like the same provision for both sexes4 ,women were refused admission to the colleges1 and were obliged to content themselves with an elementary education or else meet the expense of private tutorage4 ,gradually1 in protest against this state of things1 girls' seminaries were opened and girls' high schools were established in the large cities4 ,the idea of a seminary1 8which should be to young women what the college is to young men10 was first given definite shape by ,mary ,lyon1 who collected funds for that purpose1 and in #ahcg1 two hundred years after ,harvard1 ,mount ,holyoke ,female ,seminary was opened4 ,its success was complete2 it offered the regular ,english and classical course1 and its graduates entered generally into the teaching profession4 ,presently1 colleges for women were incorporated1 of which to-day the best known are ,vassar1 ,wellesley1 ,smith1 and ,bryn ,mawr4 ,as the demand for the higher education of women increased1 presently it was queried1 why may not the two sexes be trained in the same institution8 ,is there any real necessity for a duplication of plants with the consequent weakening of resources8 ,the ,west has advanced far beyond the ,east toward co-education4 ,oberlin ,college1 founded in #ahcc1 opened its doors to both sexes from the first1 and most of the institutions that derive their spirit from the ,west have followed the same plan4 ,as a result1 some of the city systems are trying co-education in their high schools and elementary grades1 and thus far1 while there are many opponents1 the general verdict is favorable4 ,illustration3 ,,ideal ,,schoolhouse ,,and ,,grounds4 7,courtesy of ,agricultural ,department1 ,cornell ,university47 ,but the women were not content with a general collegiate training or a normal course that fitted only for teaching4 ,within recent years they have entered into the other professions with a keen enthusiasm4 ,they are allowed1 in a few institutions1 to take theological courses fitting for the ministry4 ,the first woman physician was graduated in #ahdi from the school at ,geneva1 ,n4 ,y42 since that time special medical schools for women have been opened and some colleges have decided to admit women on the same terms as the other sex4 ,in most law schools1 women may be admitted1 and in several ,states there are women practicing at the bar4 ,while the influence of tradition has been strong1 yet there is to-day no reason why an ,american woman should not receive as full an education and as complete a training as her brother4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestion ,,for ,,planting ,a ,,schoolground4 7,courtesy of ,agricultural ,department ,cornell ,university47 ,in considering the changes in school-life1 the improvement in buildings and equipment must not be overlooked4 ,with the appreciation of the value of education1 there has come an attention to the environment of the pupil that manifests itself in the provision of text-books1 in the erection of larger and better ventilated buildings1 and in the adornment of school grounds4 ,school architecture1 especially where populations are dense1 has become an important science1 involving problems of light1 heat1 ventilation1 etc41 together with questions of furniture1 fire-proof construction and playgrounds4 ,there was a time when the most interest was aroused by the exterior1 that the school might be an adornment to its neighborhood4 ,to-day the important problems of arrangement receive the most attention1 and deservedly so4 ,we give two suggestive pictures of modern schoolhouses4 ,professor ,liberty ,h4 ,bailey of ,cornell ,university1 in a pamphlet which has been extensively circulated1 has advocated a judicious arrangement of shrubbery around a schoolhouse1 as space permitted1 with a view to the elimination of all bare and cheerless features from the landscape4 ,this is especially adapted to country districts4 ,as a comparison1 the new ,central ,high ,school of ,philadelphia is given as one of the best types of a complete city schoolhouse4 ,it has been erected at a total cost of over one million dollars4 ,the furnishing of a school has undergone characteristic development4 ,the hard bench1 upon which our forefathers sat1 has in a large measure disappeared1 and in its place has come a variety of desks patterned with chairs fitted to each curve of the back1 etc4 ,blackboards came into general use about the middle of the century4 ,in certain studies1 maps1 charts1 models1 etc41 seem indispensable1 and the modern schoolroom contains all these4 ,moreover1 as soon as science teaching had won a place in the curriculum1 the cry went up for laboratories1 that a higher grade of work might be done with the more advanced pupil4 ,it is rather a singular fact that in many places the public high school led in this demand1 rather than the more conservative college4 ,to-day no high school would count itself able to do its work without one or more laboratories where each pupil might work for himself4 ,in the new high school of ,philadelphia there are physical1 chemical1 and biological laboratories1 as well as a completely equipped astronomical observatory4 ,text-books were just coming into use at the close of the eighteenth century4 ,the 8,child's ,guide0 was being superseded by such works as ,noah ,webster's ,spelling ,book1 ,grammar1 and ,reader 7#agib74 ,within a few years came ,lindley ,murray's 8,english ,grammar10 the work of a ,quaker merchant who wrote his famous text-book primarily for a young ladies' school in his immediate neighborhood4 ,the instant success of these books demonstrated what a need there was for such a class of literature4 ,the writing and publication of text-books has become one of the most flourishing industries of the country4 ,on account of hard usage1 a text-book does not last more than a few years1 and this gives continual opportunity for a new book more nearly up to date than its predecessor4 ,within recent years1 less stress has been laid on the text-book1 and its influence is being minimized4 ,in the elementary schools the teacher explains the lesson1 and in the higher schools the professor lectures upon his subject4 ,consequently1 the text-book is relatively less important4 ,this does not mean that less reading is being done1 but it does mean that the reading covers a wider ground4 ,particularly is this true where libraries have been established4 ,the public library system is a most valuable auxiliary to the school system1 and is fast becoming indispensable4 ,this is one of the great advantages which city pupils have over those whose home is in the country1 and it will lead in the end to district libraries4 ,in some ,states1 as in ,new ,york1 a successful effort has been made to inaugurate a system of traveling libraries1 whereby a case of fifty or one hundred volumes1 relating to a particular topic1 will be lent for a time to any circle of readers4 ,massachusetts has best developed a library system1 since there are but nine towns in the ,state that have not free libraries4 ,the growth of the universities has led to the accumulation of great collections for special research and study4 ,in #ahjj there were but eleven college libraries in ,america worth mentioning2 to-day there are almost five hundred1 of which the largest1 ,harvard1 contains a half million volumes4 ,libraries are of use1 not only for pupils1 but also for adults as well4 ,they have aided materially in solving the great question of adult education4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,high ,,school1 ,,philadelphia4 ,in the ,new ,england towns of the middle part of the century1 the lyceum lecture was exceedingly popular4 ,university extension has recently come to the front as the latest form of the lyceum system4 ,the idea of lectures to the people by university teachers came from ,england1 where it was suggested just after an extension of the suffrage had attached a new value to the education of adults4 ,societies for the extension of university teaching have been formed in ,oxford1 ,cambridge1 and ,london4 ,their methods are on the whole identical1--university men are sent to town or village centres to give a course of lectures upon some general topic2 after each lecture a voluntary class is held where questions may be asked and answered2 at the conclusion of the course an examination based upon the course and collateral reading is given to those who care to take it2 and sometimes a certificate or testimonial may be given4 ,the method has been transplanted to ,america and generally adopted by the universities1 with greatest success1 perhaps1 in the ,middle ,states1 where the ,american ,society for the ,extension of ,university ,teaching has organized the field4 ,during the period #ahij-ii1 #hfb courses of lectures were given under the auspices of the ,american ,society to audiences aggregating #ieb1jfh4 ,another movement of equal importance is that done by the ,chatauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle1 which prepares lists of books for home reading1 with a view to encouraging system in one's use of spare time4 ,perhaps the most interesting public work for adults is being done in ,new ,york city1 where a lecture department has been organized by the ,board of ,education1 by which free lectures are given in schoolhouses to the people4 ,in #ahih1 #ahff lectures were given to #fih1bjj people1 and the president of ,new ,york's ,school ,board has declared that 8these lectures have contributed more than any other agency to the distribution of general intelligence among the masses40 ,these forces have supplemented very well the work that is being done by the public night schools1 which are established in most large cities1 with a view to providing elementary1 and sometimes technical1 instruction to those adults who care for it4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,wm4 ,h4 ,,maxwell1 ,,superintendent 8,,greater ,,new ,,york0 ,,schools4 7,courtesy of ,the ,school ,journal1 ,new ,york47 ,no educational question has aroused more interest in business circles than the problem how to train best those who will devote themselves to a commercial life4 ,this has become a live question recently to the ,american people4 ,with improved processes in manufacture1 the power of production has grown far beyond the consumption of our own people4 ,consequently ,america is competing with the great industrial nations of ,europe for a control of the markets of the world4 ,as soon as this competition became evident1 the need for a better trained class of commercial leaders was felt4 ,the example of ,germany has had a great influence upon other countries4 ,there is a general conviction that the leading position among commercial nations which ,germany has won for itself is due in large measure to the technical education given to ,german artisans and the commercial education provided for business men4 ,for illustration1 the ,german government has recently established in ,berlin a school where young men1 preparing for business careers in ,asia1 can learn ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,arabic1 and ,turkish4 ,german youths have been supplanting ,english young men1 to an appreciable degree1 in the great commercial houses of ,london4 ,as a consequence1 there has been a strong demand in ,america for the establishment of commercial high schools1--public institutions in which ,german1 ,french1 and ,spanish will be taught1 together with economics1 industrial history1 commercial geography1 public finance1 social science1 etc4 ,these institutions differ entirely from the business colleges1 of which there were #cdb in the ,united ,states in #ahig1 in that they are broader in scope and content4 ,the latter qualify a man to be a good clerk by teaching him stenography1 typewriting1 bookkeeping1 etc41 but the former aim to give him a broad1 liberal education1 enabling him to have an intelligent comprehension of all matters which interest him in active business4 ,this movement is too recent to have borne much fruit1 but in many of the larger cities of ,america1 as ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,boston1 ,brooklyn1 and ,cleveland1 commercial courses have been established in connection with the regular high-school course2 and in some of the larger universities1 as ,pennsylvania1 ,chicago1 ,columbia1 schools in economics and politics have been created1--all with a view to equipping a young man for an active business career4 ,in view of the present interest in this movement1 more may be expected in the near future4 ,illustration3 ,,booker ,t4 ,,washington4 ,the close of the ,civil ,war brought the ,american people to a problem1 vast in its importance and intricate in its solution4 ,the negro race had had no opportunity for education under the institution of slavery4 ,but with their freedom came the necessity for creating a system of schools which could be of special help to this new body of citizens4 ,the ,south has preferred generally that separate schools should be provided for the two races4 ,in the ante-bellum days1 the wealthier families usually sent their sons and daughters away from home to obtain their education under better auspices than their own neighborhood could afford4 ,so when the war concluded1 and there was but little sign of public schools1 a new system must be created1 and at once4 ,the first work toward educating the negro was done by the national government1 through the schools opened by the ,freedman's ,aid ,society4 ,the different religious bodies throughout the country took a hand in the good work1 by establishing special missionary boards for work in the ,south4 ,private benevolence lent substantial assistance4 ,george ,peabody1 the philanthropist1 and ,john ,f4 ,slater1 both founded trusts which they richly endowed to aid in the establishment of schools in the ,southern section4 ,but the greatest work was done through the awakening of the people to the value of education1 leading to liberal appropriations and to a firm public support4 ,within recent years1 negro education has assumed a new and interesting phase4 ,booker ,t4 ,washington1 principal of the ,tuskegee ,normal and ,industrial ,institute1 ,alabama1 is the leading educator of the ,afro-,americans1 and he has won his high place by the success which has attended his efforts at industrial education4 ,his school at ,tuskegee was started in #ahha1 and to-day contains over one thousand students4 ,while fully appreciating the value of an academic education1 ,mr4 ,washington has felt that the first necessity for his people was the knowledge that would earn a livelihood4 ,as a consequence1 the industrial side of education has been accented2 twenty-six different trades or industries are in operation at ,tuskegee1 and one is taught to each student of the ,institute4 ,as a consequence1 its graduates have gone forth into active life1 well equipped to become bread-winners and to fill a useful place in society4 ,the care of those who1 from birth or by accident1 do not possess all the powers of a normal person1 has aroused much interest during the century4 ,the deaf-mutes1 the blind1 and the mentally deficient1 have each had institutions created1 where they are taught as much of the knowledge of the world as is possible4 ,the instruction of the deaf and dumb proceeds along two lines4 ,the manual or sign method of conversation1 based on gestures1 was founded by ,abb de l',epe in #agfj2 while about the same time ,samuel ,heinicke1 a ,german1 introduced the oral method1 by which the eye of the mute is trained to perform the part of the ear1 by learning the meaning of spoken words through observation of the changes in the position of the vocal organs4 ,special institutions for these classes abound in ,europe and ,america1 with the difference that1 in the former1 they are generally private or maintained by charity2 whereas in the latter they are maintained by the ,state4 ,rev4 ,t4 ,h4 ,gallaudet and his son1 ,dr4 ,edward ,m4 ,gallaudet1 have been the leaders in the instruction of deaf-mutes in the ,united ,states1 and have achieved a high degree of success4 ,the teaching of the blind is of equal value to education4 ,two methods are generally followed2 an alphabet of raised letters is employed in some cases1 or1 and more generally in the ,united ,states1 a system of raised dots or points1 which do not resemble the letter in form1 but are a kind of shorthand to the reader4 ,in both methods1 the sense of touch takes the place of sight4 ,in some cases1 notably ,laura ,bridgman and ,helen ,keller1 the success has been so complete as to excite universal wonder4 ,perhaps no institutions alleviate more human misery than do the schools for the blind1 by bringing world-ideas within the limited horizon of this afflicted class4 ,much also has been done for the training of idiots or those who are mentally deficient4 ,in #ahdh1 the ,massachusetts ,school for ,idiots and ,feeble-,minded was opened1 and other ,states followed with equally generous provision4 ,within recent years1 special schools have been opened in connection with the school systems of large cities1 so that children who need individual care and watchfulness may receive more attention than they could secure in the graded class-room4 ,all these tendencies are exceedingly hopeful1 as indicative of society's recognition of her duty to those who cannot satisfactorily care for themselves4 ,humanitarianism in education has been a powerful and constant force during the whole of this century4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,e4 ,,benj4 ,,andrews1 ,,superintendent ,,of ,,schools1 ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,it must not be forgotten that other agencies beside those established by ,states have been contributing to education4 ,the ,sunday-school movement is one of the great efforts of the century1 to help in training children by a voluntary organization4 ,in #agha1 ,robert ,raikes employed some teachers for the poor children of ,gloucester1 in order that their ,sundays might be spent quietly and with profit4 ,presently1 as the number of ,sunday-schools increased1 men and women proffered their services gratuitously4 ,the teaching followed two general lines1 secular 7reading1 writing1 etc47 and religious4 ,the former was of help1 especially to children who were employed during the week4 ,from ,england1 the movement came to the ,west4 ,the ,american ,sunday-school ,union was organized in #ahbd1 and has ever since continued to stimulate the establishment of more schools of this kind4 ,in #ahif1 there were #acb1fig ,sunday-schools in the ,united ,states and #ijig in ,canada1 with a total membership of #ab1bhh1aec and #gba1dce respectively1 while it has been computed that in the world the number of ,sunday-schools was #bdf1feh1 with an enrollment of #bd1iai1cac4 ,in ,european states1 they have been solving the same problems as in ,america4 ,the importance of education once admitted1 the next problem is to secure the funds and develop the system4#e ,because of administrative centralization1 this has been far easier in ,europe than in ,america4 ,the ,minister of ,education in ,france or ,germany orders1 and his directions are carried out2 the ,united ,states ,commissioner advises1 and while his recommendations influence public opinion1 yet the latter method is by far the slower4 ,as a consequence1 the ,european schools are more systematized and better organized than our own4 ,their course of study differs widely in details from our own1 and generally shows more influence on the part of the pedagogical expert4 ,technical and professional education has been developed to an exceedingly high degree4 ,england has had a peculiar problem to face1 in determining the relation between the church schools and the secular schools1 and has only solved it by maintaining both4 ,most ,european countries have adopted the principle of compulsory education for children within a certain age limit1 and the same principle has been accepted in thirty-two ,states in ,america4 ,in general1 it may be said that in the changes in course of study1 in equipment1 in the teachership1 etc41 ,europe and ,america have been working along parallel lines4 ,as a rule1 these changes have come more quickly in ,america1 where traditions were as yet unformed2 nevertheless1 the progress in ,europe has been constant and very great4 #e ,the comparative interest in education is well illustrated by the following extract from an address by ,dr4 ,charles ,r4 ,skinner1 recently delivered before the ,n4 ,e4 ,a4 8,the ,united ,states1 to-day the youngest of all1 is the only great nation of the world which expends more for education than for war4 ,france spends annually #d per capita on her army and #gj cents per capita on education2 ,england1 #c4gb for her army and #fb cents for education2 ,prussia1 #b4jd for her army and #ej cents for education2 ,italy1 #a4eb for her army and #cf cents for education2 ,austria1 #a4cf for her army and #fb cents for education2 ,russia1 #b4jd for her army and #c cents for education2 the ,united ,states1 #ci cents for her army and #a4ce for education4 ,england #f to #a for war6 ,russia1 #ag to #a for war6 the ,united ,states #d to #a for education6 ,the ,united ,states spends more per capita annually for education than ,england1 ,france1 and ,russia combined40 ,canada has a well-established and well-regulated system1 in which the principle of free and public education is recognized4 ,the eight provinces contain twenty-four colleges1 and the schools have over one million pupils4 ,education is more or less compulsory in all of the provinces1 but the law is not very strictly enforced4 ,in ,ontario1 ,quebec1 and the ,northwest ,territories there are separate schools for ,roman ,catholics2 in the other provinces the schools are non-sectarian4 ,there is a high professional spirit among the teachers1 so that the schools may be expected to keep fully abreast of the times4 ,the nineteenth century has been a century of continuous advance in education4 ,its spirit has been healthy1 its achievements are notable1 its work has been great4 ,it would be futile1 however1 to assert that all is yet accomplished4 ,the problems in elementary education are so many and so important that there have been times when solution seemed impossible4 ,nevertheless1 the system is now established and is assured of public support1 and with an education within the reach of every child1 the security of free institutions is forever guaranteed4 8,,the ,,art ,,preservative0 ,,by ,,thomas ,j4 ,,lindsey1 ,editorial ,staff ,philadelphia 8,evening ,bulletin40 ,i4 ,,the ,,printing ,,press4 ,when ,benjamin ,franklin edited the 8,gazette10 in ,philadelphia1 a century and a half ago1 he set up the type1 worked off the paper on a wooden hand-press of primitive construction1 made wooden types for use in his office1 and engraved the cuts with which to illustrate the articles4 ,in those days printing was an art which figured among the mysteries of science1 and was practiced by men of high social standing and advanced education4 ,the sixty years which passed between ,franklin's purchase of the 8,gazette0 and his death saw the discovery of many scientific wonders1 but the art of printing moved so slowly as to leave it at the close of the eighteenth century practically in the condition in which ,franklin found it when he began his career as proprietor of his ,philadelphia printing establishment4 ,and this condition of affairs applied to ,england as well as to the ,united ,states4 ,with all the rare ability possessed by the printer philosopher1 he was able to do but little for the advancement of the profession which was instrumental in making for him an international reputation4 ,in all that pertains to the printing business there is nothing with which the name of ,franklin is connected as inventor2 yet he is referred to invariably as in the highest degree representative of the 8art preservative of all arts40 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,printing ,,press ,,as ,,used ,,by ,,benjamin ,,franklin4 ,were the distinguished scientist1 statesman1 diplomat1 printer1 and philosopher to come forth from his grave in the cemetery of ,christ ,church1 at ,fifth and ,arch ,streets1 ,philadelphia1 and go into one of the great printing houses of the country1 how astounding to him would be the revelation6 ,no more the wooden types or the unsymmetrical metal pieces2 no more the wooden hand-press1 the wood engravings1 the ink balls1 and the process of printing a few hundred sheets an hour4 ,the terrific rapidity with which the newspapers are turned out to-day1 printed1 cut1 pasted1 and folded2 the fineness of the work done on books and magazines2 the wonder of one press putting on different colors at the same time2 the setting of type by machines seemingly possessed of human intelligence2 the rapidity and the simplicity of making stereotype plates2 the dexterity of forming ordinary metal types into all kinds of forms2 the millions of books1--secular and religious1--papers1 and general literary productions turned out daily1 would so puzzle the gigantic brain and cloud the understanding of the philosopher as to cause him to exclaim3 8,take me back1 ,o spirit of death1 and let me forever rest from this seething1 surging1 whirling sphere of inventive progression40 ,when the genius of invention was turned toward the printing art1 it is worthy of note that the press which attracted the greatest attention was the production of a ,philadelphian who once had been an associate of ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,it was known as the ,columbian press1 the invention of ,george ,clymer1 and was regarded as of sufficient consequence to meet the approval of the printing fraternity of ,great ,britain as well as of this country4 ,in the ,national ,museum in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 is the hand press which ,benjamin ,franklin used to print his ,philadelphia paper1 the 8,gazette40 ,it had been built for him in ,london1 where he had used it about five years prior to its being brought to ,philadelphia4 ,what a curious-looking affair it is6 ,yet it was little less in the way of primitiveness compared with that used prior to #ahag1 when ,clymer's ,columbian came into use4 ,when these productions are contrasted with the magnificent contrivances of to-day1 from which can be thrown sixteen hundred papers per minute1--papers of ten1 twelve1 and fourteen pages1 printed on both sides1 pasted and folded1--the comparison is like putting the steamboat of ,fulton by the side of the monster ships which cross the ,atlantic ocean from ,new ,york to ,southampton in less than five days4 ,the ,columbian press was looked upon1 when presented to the printers1 as an advance worthy of note in the art4 ,it is easy to imagine how much prominence was given ,clymer's invention when it was placed beside the old common press4 ,to-day1 this supposed-to-be great piece of mechanism would not even be dignified by a place in the most un-modern backwoods printing establishment4 ,and yet from this were printed the literary productions of ,great ,britain1 as well as of the ,united ,states1 in the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,the ,columbian mechanical advancement consisted of the use of rollers for inking the type1--very much like the process now employed in inking the type when a rough proof is desired1--thus dispensing with the balls1 which were managed by boys2 the use of screws under the bed of the press to hold in position the form1 into which had been securely adjusted the type2 and the application of a long bar to obtain pressure sufficient to make the impression on the paper4 ,the picture of this press shows the flat carriage upon which was placed the type1 the platen or pressing surface1 the bar which forced the platen upon the type1 the spring which carried the platen back to position when the impression had been taken1 and the track upon which the carriage was moved forward and backward1--primitive enough1 and sufficiently simple in construction to show the limited capacity of the inventive genius of our great-grandfathers4 ,it was about #ahbi when the ,columbian gave way to the ,washington press1 and this was used for some time for fine book-work4 ,the feature of it was an automatic inking roller attachment4 ,while the ,washington press had the capacity for producing fine work1 it was deficient in the speed required for meeting the demand then growing for books and newspapers4 ,then the printers turned to a cylinder press which had appeared in the last decade of the eighteenth century4 ,the ,london 8,times0 had taken hold of it1 and brought it to such a condition that its speed was raised to something like a thousand impressions an hour4 ,knig1 a native of ,saxony1 in #ahae1 produced a press for printing both sides of the sheet4 ,it resembled two single presses placed with their cylinders toward each other1 the sheet being carried by tapes from the first to the second cylinder4 ,its capacity was #gej sheets1 both sides1 an hour4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,columbian ,,press4 ,cambridge ,university about this time was furnished with a press in which the types were placed on the four sides of a prism1 the paper being applied by another prism4 ,it proved unsuccessful4 ,in this press1 however1 were first introduced the inking rollers formed of a combination of glue and molasses4 ,rollers are made of these two materials to this day4 ,cowper1 an ,englishman1 in #ahae1 introduced curved stereotyped plates and fixed them to a cylinder4 ,two place cylinders and two impression cylinders were soon afterward worked together on one press by ,cowper1 printing both sides of the sheet at the rate of one thousand copies an hour4 ,this seems to have been the period when inventive skill began to assert itself in the printing press4 ,the educational advancement of the people in this country and in ,europe1 with the lack of facility for furnishing information of the campaigns of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 the desire for facts regarding the events transpiring in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 the meagreness of the details which had been furnished of the conflict between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states in #ahab1 convinced the publishers of newspapers in this country and abroad that the laws of supply and demand were not equally balanced4 ,the outcome of this was a press constructed to print both sides of the sheet from type1 and was soon followed by the introduction of four impression cylinders4 ,these were applied to the reciprocating bed to carry the type for one side of the sheet1 the sheets being fed from four feeding boards1 the impression cylinders alternately rising and falling1 so that two sheets were printed during the passage one way1 the other two on the return passage4 ,a pair of inking rollers between the impression cylinders obtained ink from the reciprocating board4 ,illustration3 ,,washington ,,hand ,,press4 ,the capacity of this press was five thousand an hour1 and this was regarded as a feat worthy of public mention1 record of it being made in the newspapers of that period in a way which shows the general interest in the work4 ,the first power-press used in the ,united ,states was made by ,daniel ,treadwell1 of ,boston1 in #ahbb4 ,two of them were used by the ,bible and ,tract societies4 ,the ,london 8,times0 had succeeded in applying steam to the movement of the printing press as early as #ahad--;a cylinder press being brought into requisition1 to the use of which they had the exclusive right4 ,following the ,treadwell press1 about #ahbe1 came the improvements of ,samuel and ,isaac ,adams1 and the general use of the press which is still worked in the book offices of this country and ,great ,britain4 ,it was on one of these ,adams presses1 in #ahfc1 that was printed the book written by ,dr4 ,elisha ,kent ,kane1 describing his second expedition in search of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 the ,arctic explorer4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,wooden ,,frame ,,adams ,,bed ,,and ,,platen ,,book ,,press4 ,it was found that the ,adams press could be used for newspaper as well as exceedingly fine book-work1 its construction admitting of the use of plates or type1 and its speed such as nearly came up to the requirements of that period4 ,in this press a feed board holds the paper1 which is fed by hand to a second board or tympan1 having points to make holes in the sheet to regulate the second side4 ,the type rests upon a bed which is raised by straightening a toggle-joint against the upper plates4 ,the fountain for the ink is carried at one end of the press4 ,the inking rollers pass twice over the form4 ,the paper is caught by grippers1 carried in a frame called a frisket over the form 7or type71 receives the impression1 and is carried by tapes to a fly frame in the rear which delivers it to the sheet board4 ,with the two-1 three-1 and four-cylinder presses1 the ,adams press1 steam power and various improvements in the make of inks and rollers1 the first half of the nineteenth century was looked upon as having made for the printing press extraordinarily rapid advancement4 ,great ,britain held first place in the production of newspapers and books1 the ,united ,states was a slow second1 then came ,france1 ,germany1 ,russia1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,austria1 in the order given4 ,the greatest evidence of this march of improvement was the enormous increase in the production of the ,bible1 and the bringing of the cost to a figure which then was looked upon as placing it within the reach of all classes4 ,scientific and literary works were being put out in great numbers1 newspapers were being started in every town in this country and ,england1 and the editions put out in such ,european centres of advancement as ,paris1 ,madrid1 ,berlin1 ,brussels1 ,london1 ,liverpool1 ,dublin1 ,glasgow1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,vienna1 and ,rome reached proportions then supposed to be enormous4 ,the ,london 8,times0 at that period had a circulation of about #cj1jjj1--;and this was the leader in journalism4 ,in the ,united ,states the leading newspapers did not issue daily editions greater than #bj1jjj1 while a circulation of #aj1jjj daily was regarded as being entirely satisfactory to the business ideas of the average publisher4 ,the opening of the last half of the nineteenth century may be spoken of as a quiescent period4 ,it was the calm in the affairs of the ,united ,states which preceded the occurring of stormy events which put to the full test the strength of the young republic1 the attitude of the nations of the old world toward us1 and the power of the people successfully to maintain a government 8of the people1 for the people1 and by the people40 ,millard ,fillmore became the ,president of the ,united ,states in ,july of #ahej1 succeeding ,zachary ,taylor1 who died4 ,the ,congress had taken a stand on the disturbing question of slavery by the passage of the fugitive slave law1 and had made the first step toward freedom for the negroes by the abolition of the slave trade in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,it was in this year that ,new ,mexico and ,utah were admitted as ,territories1 the entire population of the ,united ,states being only #bc1aia1hgf2 ten years later the population reached #ca1ddc1cba4 ,the people were beginning to realize how important was the printing press in placing them in communication with the statesmen of the country4 ,they were looking to ,webster1 ,calhoun1 ,clay1 ,meredith1 ,everett1 ,scott1 ,crittenden1 ,collamer1 ,marcy1--then in the fullness of mental vigor1--and they were demanding information of their acts in the cabinet1 their speeches in ,congress1 their views on state rights and slavery4 ,it was at this time that the ,hoe ,american ,printing-press ,company startled the world by producing the ten-cylinder press1 the speed of which was limited only by the ability of the feeders to supply the sheets4 ,the first one of them to be used in the ,united ,states was that upon which the ,philadelphia 8,public ,ledger0 was printed4 ,it at once came into general use in ,europe and ,america4 ,its speed was #bj1jjj copies an hour4 ,in this press--still in use in many cities--the form of type is placed on the surface of a horizontal revolving cylinder of about four and a half feet in diameter4 ,the form occupies a segment of only about one fourth of the surface of the cylinder1 and the remainder is used as an ink-distributing surface4 ,around this main cylinder1 and parallel with it1 are smaller impression-cylinders4 ,the large cylinder being put in motion1 the form of types is carried successively to all the impression-cylinders1 at each of which a sheet is introduced1 and receives the impression of the type as the form passes4 ,one person supplies the sheets of paper to each cylinder4 ,after being printed they are carried out by tapes and laid upon heaps by means of self-acting flyers4 ,the ink is contained in a fountain placed beneath the main cylinder1 and is conveyed by means of distributing rollers to the distributing surface on the main cylinder4 ,the surface being lower1 or less in diameter than the form of types1 passes by the impression-cylinder without touching4 ,for each impression there are two inking rollers1 which receive their supply of ink from the distributing surface of the main cylinder2 they rise and ink the form as it passes under them1 after which they again fall to the distributing surface4 ,each page of the paper is locked up on a detached segment of the larger cylinder1 which constitutes its bed and chases1 termed the 8turtle40 ,the column-rules run parallel with the shaft of the cylinder1 and consequently are straight1 while head1 advertising1 and dash rules are in the form of segments of a circle4 ,the column-rules are in the form of a wedge1 with the thin part directed toward the axis of the cylinder1 so as to bind the type securely4 ,these wedge-shaped column-rules are held down to the bed by tongues projecting at intervals along their length1 which slide in rebated grooves cut crosswise in the face of the bed4 ,the spaces in the grooves between the rules are accurately fitted with sliding blocks of metal1 even with the surface of the bed1 the ends of which blocks are cut away underneath to receive a projection on the sides of the tongues of the column-rules4 ,the form of type is locked up in the bed by means of screws at the foot and sides1 by which the type is held as securely as in the ordinary manner upon a flat bed4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,cylinder ,,press4 ,this press was regarded as the highest degree of perfection1 until ,william ,a4 ,bullock1 of ,philadelphia1 put out his web perfecting press4 ,this completely revolutionized the printing business so far as the newspapers were concerned4 ,it came into use in #ahfa1--;just before the breaking out of the war of the rebellion in the ,united ,states1--in time to meet the enormous demands made upon the printing press at home and abroad4 ,it had been in operation but a short time when the newspaper owners of ,great ,britain took hold of it1 and for several years no other press was used by the newspapers of large circulation4 ,how slow and toy-like it seems in comparison with the monsters of the present day6 ,and yet this machine met the demands of a period when it was supposed the circulation of the daily press had reached an altitude never to be surpassed4 ,a newspaper like the ,new ,york 8,herald10 which had attained a daily circulation of about #ge1jjj1 was looked upon as achieving the highest degree of success4 ,in this last year of the nineteenth century the 8,journal0 and 8,world0 of ,new ,york send out at least a million copies of their papers #cfe days in the year4 ,william ,a4 ,bullock worked at his web printing press for six years before he had it in shape to pronounce it applicable to the requirements4 ,it was not long after it was in successful operation that one of his limbs caught in the machinery of one of his presses1 and death was the result4 ,as the presses first were made1 and indeed for many years thereafter1 the paper was cut in the press before being printed1 and it was a difficult matter properly to control these single sheets until they were delivered1 while the presses were without any folding attachment4 ,but these old style ,bullock presses did succeed in turning out #fjjj eight-page papers an hour1 printed on both sides4 ,in #ahgc a great improvement was made in the ,bullock presses1 which allowed of the papers being printed on the endless roll before the paper was cut4 ,with the aid of other improvements subsequently made these presses attained to a capacity of #af1jjj eight-page papers an hour4 ,but an unexpected limit was found in the impossibility of delivering beyond a certain rate from the fly4 ,then ,r4 ,hoe ,co4 7about #ahgg7 invented a contrivance which obviated the difficulty4 ,it consisted of an accumulating cylinder1 on which six or eight sheets were laid one above the other and then delivered from the fly at one motion4 ,this increased the capacity of their perfecting press to #ah1jjj an hour4 ,a folding attachment was then added2 next a pasting and cutting attachment4 ,thus1 in #ahgi they were able to turn out a press which produced #cj1jjj perfect eight-page papers an hour--printed1 cut1 pasted1 and folded4 ,the next great achievement was put in operation in a ,new ,york pressroom in #ahhe4 ,that was the double supplement press1 which in reality combines two presses in one4 ,it was the first press to insert supplement sheets automatically1 and it was the first press to print from two rolls of paper1 one roll being placed at right angles to the main roll4 ,as the name of the press implies1 from the secondary roll the supplements are printed at the same time that the main part of the paper is being printed from the other roll4 ,and by means of what to the ordinary man seems a miraculous contrivance1 but which to the initiated in the mysteries of mechanics is no doubt very simple1 the supplement is automatically inset and pasted into the main paper before reaching the fly1 and dropped out folded ready for the newsdealer4 ,from this press has been evolved the superb printing machine which1 in recent years1 has astonished the world4 ,on it can be printed eight-1 ten-1 or twelve-page papers at a running speed of #bd1jjj an hour1 or #djj a minute1 and whether eight1 ten1 or twelve pages are printed they all come out with the supplements inset and the paper pasted and folded4 ,from this press was developed the next triumph1 the quadruple press4 ,marvelous machines these quadruple presses are1 and it seemed impossible that any press could be built for many years to come that would beat them4 ,the printing business stood amazed1 awe-stricken at the sight of so many papers being turned out each hour4 ,and before the amazement had subsided there came forth the machine which is destined to go down in history as one of the great achievements in mechanics of the nineteenth century1--the sextuple press1 manufactured by ,hoe ,co41 which has brought forth as many wonderful improvements as any mechanical concern in the world4 ,although it is impossible to explain in language comprehensible to the man who is not an engineer how this monarch among printing presses does its work at a rate of speed which is well-nigh incredible and outstrips the flight of imagination itself1 yet it is possible to convey an idea of what the extent of the work is4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,perfecting ,,press4 ,this machine will print1 fold1 paste1 and deliver #ij1jjj of a four-page paper or six-page newspaper in one hour4 ,it will require some figuring to convey an adequate idea of how fast that is1 for1 as a matter of fact1 it is faster than a man can think1 and that is why ,i say that the speed of the machine outstrips the flight of imagination4 ,ninety thousand copies an hour is equivalent to fifteen hundred copies a minute1 and fifteen hundred copies a minute means twenty-five copies per second6 ,now take out your watch1 and while the second hand is passing from one second to another try to grasp the idea that in all that brief interval of time twenty-five six-page newspapers have been printed4 ,you can't do it4 ,it is faster than you can think4 ,and yet in that second those twenty-five papers are not only printed1 but the inside sheets are automatically pasted in1 and the twenty-five papers are all cut and folded ready for delivery to the newsdealers4 ,is there anything more marvelous than that recorded in the 8,arabian ,nights08 ,who said that there are no miracles in this nineteenth century8 ,why1 if old ,gutenberg1--peace to his soul1--or ,faust1 or ,caxton1 or even our own ,benjamin ,franklin had seen anything of the sort1 they would have sworn that it was either a miracle or the work of the supernatural1 with the chances in favor of the latter4 ,each page of the average newspaper has six columns1 and in each column there is on an average #ahjj words4 ,six multiplied by six and the product of that by twenty-five1 and that again by #ahjj1 you will find makes #a1fbj1jjj1 which is just about the number of words that this press prints in a second when it is turning out six-page papers at the rate of twenty-five a second4 ,that is something that will stagger any man's imagination if he tries to realize what it is4 ,this press will print1 cut1 paste1 fold1 count1 and deliver #gb1jjj copies of an eight-page newspaper in one hour1 which is equivalent to #abjj a minute and #bj a second4 ,it will print1 cut1 paste1 count1 and deliver complete #dh1jjj copies of a ten- or twelve-page newspaper in one hour1 which is equivalent to #hjj a minute and a fraction over #ac a second4 ,it will print1 cut1 paste1 fold1 count1 and deliver complete #cf1jjj copies of a sixteen-page newspaper an hour1 which is at the rate of #fjj a minute1 or #aj a second4 ,it will print1 cut1 paste1 fold1 count1 and deliver complete #bd1jjj copies of a fourteen-1 twenty-1 or twenty-four-page newspaper an hour1 which is at the rate of #djj a minute1 or very nearly seven a second4 ,this is lightning work with a vengeance1 and yet it is possible that there may be some who read this who will live to call it slow4 ,that will probably be when they have found out all about how to put a harness on electricity4 ,no one can predict when inventive genius will reach its limits in the printing press4 ,before this press was built1 the fastest presses in the world were ,hoe's quadruple presses1 which will turn out #dh1jjj four-1 six-1 or eight-page papers an hour1 #bd1jjj ten-1 twelve-1 fourteen-1 or sixteen-page papers an hour1 and #ab1jjj twenty- or twenty-four page papers an hour1 all cut1 pasted1 and folded4 ,the sextuple press has a well-nigh insatiable appetite for white paper4 ,to satisfy it it is fed from three rolls at the same time1 one roll being attached at either end of the press1 and the third suspended near the centre4 ,it is the only press which has ever been able to accomplish that feat4 ,each roll is sixty-three inches wide4 ,when doing its best this press will consume #be-g_/h miles of #fc-;inch wide white paper in one hour1 and eject it at the two deliveries1 each copy containing an epitome of the news of the world for the preceding twenty-four hours1 and each copy cut1 pasted1 and folded ready for delivery4 ,it is a sight worth seeing to see it done1 and in its way it is just as impressive as ,niagara4 ,a man turns a lever1 shafts and cylinders begin to revolve1 the whirring noise sets into a steady roar1 you see three streams of white paper pouring into the machine from the three huge rolls1 and you pass around to the other side and--it is literally snowing newspapers at each end of the two delivery outlets4 ,so fast does one paper follow the other that you catch only a momentary glitter from the deft steel fingers which seize the papers and cast them out4 ,the machine weighs about fifty-eight tons4 ,it is massive and strong1 with the strength of a thousand giants4 ,and yet1 though its arms are of steel and its motions are all as rapid as lightning1 its touch is as tender as that of a woman when she caresses her babe4 ,how else does the machine avoid tearing the paper8 ,paper tears very readily1 as you often ascertain accidentally when turning over the pages4 ,truly wonderful it is1 and mysterious to anybody but an expert1 how this huge machine can make newspapers at the rate of twenty-five a second without rending the paper all to shreds4 ,it has six plate cylinders1 each cylinder carrying eight stereotype plates1 and six impression-cylinders4 ,these cylinders1 when the press is working at full speed1 make two hundred revolutions a minute4 ,the period of contact between the paper and the plate cylinders is therefore inconceivably brief1 and how in that fractional space of time a perfect impression is made even to the reproduction of the finest1 is one of those things which1 to the man who is not 8up0 in mechanics1 must forever remain a mystery4 ,illustration3 ,,four ,,roller ,,two-,,revolution ,,press4 ,a double folder forms part of the machine4 ,a single folder would not be equal to the task imposed on it4 ,as it is1 this double folder has to exercise such celerity to keep up with the streams of printed paper which descend upon it that its operations are too quick for the eye to follow4 ,the press has two delivery outlets4 ,at each the papers are automatically counted in piles of fifty4 ,no matter how rapidly the papers come out1 there is never a mistake in the count4 ,it is as sure as fate4 ,by an ingenious contrivance--if ,i should try to describe it more definitely most people would be none the wiser--each fiftieth paper is shoved out an inch beyond the others which have been dropped on to the receiving tapes1 thus serving as a sort of tally mark4 ,truly it is a marvelous machine--this sextuple press4 ,nowhere you will find a more perfect adaptation of means to ends1 nowhere in any branch of industry a piece of mechanism which offers a finer example of what human skill and ingenuity is capable of4 ,and it is free from that reproach which is sometimes brought against the greatest triumphs of inventive genius in other departments of human activity1--that they make mere automatons out of human beings4 ,there was recently manufactured by the ,hoe ,company for a ,new ,york paper an addition to this wonderful piece of machinery designated an octuple press4 ,running at full speed it will print1 paste1 cut1 fold1 and count #if1jjj eight-page papers an hour4 ,it is nearly #ad feet high1 and #be feet long4 ,ten men are required to operate it4 ,the cylinders revolve #bjj times in every #fj seconds4 ,this monster is divided into two working parts4 ,the printing is done on the half of the machine to the right4 ,the paper passes over the cylinders there1 where it is printed from the stereotype plates1 and then runs through the other half of the machine on the left1 where it is cut1 inserted1 pasted1 delivered1 and counted from four outlets folding in half-page size4 ,this press shows four distinct double printing machines1 each fed by its own roll of paper4 ,the paper from each roll passes against two sets of stereotype plate cylinders--one for each side of the printed sheet4 ,the machine is so perfectly adjusted that by simply turning a screw and moving a gear a few inches each of the four sets of cylinders can be thrown out of operation2 that is to say one quarter1 one half1 three quarters1 or the whole press can be operated at will4 ,the folder is harmonized for each adjustment of the printing cylinder4 ,the folding of the papers has been brought to the highest state of perfection4 ,the sheets are folded1 cut1 and delivered by a rotary motion at a speed that could never have been attained with the reciprocating arms1 such as were used prior to the ,hoe inventions4 ,when a sixteen-page paper is being printed it comes in four-ply thickness1 and then doubles and shoots eight thicknesses under the knife4 ,when a twenty-four-page paper is being printed it passes over the longitudinal folder in six-ply thickness and passes under the knife in twelve thicknesses4 ,all this is attained without the use of guiding tapes4 ,in fact1 the speed could not be attained with them4 ,as the papers are folded and delivered from the four outlets1 with a speed too great for the eye to follow1 the machine itself counts them in total and in bundles1 as is done on the sextuple press4 ,this monster octuple machine has a perfected system of ink distribution with which no other presses are equipped4 ,under the system results are obtained by decreasing the size and increasing the number of ink-rollers around each cylinder of plates4 ,the arrangement of the type cylinders is such as to make the press one that can be handled with great ease and rapidity4 ,along the right hand of the machine1 between the two rows of cylinders1 is an open passageway4 ,it is large enough for men to pass through either from the ground or from the gallery near the latitudinal centre of the press4 ,from this open passageway the pressmen are able to watch every movement of the machine's interior working1 and from it they are able to make quick changes on the plate cylinders4 ,the change in position of only two ink-rollers is necessary to change a plate on any cylinder4 ,this is a matter of great importance to a paper which prints many editions1 for it is necessary to change plates so often and to economize every minute of time in order to catch the fast mails which carry the paper to all quarters of the earth4 ,on the octuple presses each roll of paper is guarded against breakage4 ,there is a device in the shape of a short endless belt of rubber which passes over two pulleys and rests on top of the roll of paper4 ,the paper is then pulled from the roll as gently as the thread is pulled from the spool of a sewing machine4 ,the belt pushes the roll along at a speed equal to and sometimes a little greater than that of the stereotype cylinders4 ,hence1 all tension is removed from the paper4 ,from the stereotyper's department1 where they have been made in a few minutes1 come the plates of curved1 bright metal4 ,passed to the pressmen1 they are locked on the cylinders as fast as they can be handled4 ,the rolls of paper have been placed in their proper positions4 ,this accomplished1 the men step back from the machine1 the brakeman pulls the lever1 and the giant press begins its work4 ,slowly its cylinders revolve at first1 but as headway is gained the rumble that accompanied the start increases into a shrill shriek as the limit of speed is reached4 ,illustration3 ,,lithographic ,,press4 ,the paper rushes from its continuous rolls1 is printed1 folded1 cut1 and thrown out from the four outlets at a speed that would be over twice greater than that of any express train if it were confined to one roll4 ,every paper is just like every other one1 perfect in every detail4 ,when this has gone on for an hour1 two hours1 or however long it may take to run off the editions1 the monster press can be stopped in an instant4 ,with the simple touching of a lever all its movement will cease before the cylinders can revolve five times1 and they had been revolving two hundred times a minute before4 ,the two wonders just described are confined to newspaper work4 ,this same ,american firm has produced presses upon which are printed the fine specimens of magazines where the work takes a striking resemblance to lithograph printing4 ,they have a speed of #hjjj an hour4 ,from them come booklets of #af1 #bj1 or #bd pages4 ,from the presses of #djjj an hour come books of #cb1 #dj1 and #dh pages4 ,in construction they are complicated and grand4 ,then come the presses upon which are printed different colors4 ,these are made in ,england and the ,united ,states1 and are used with satisfactory results on prominent publications in both countries4 ,a recent issue of the 8,british and ,colonial ,printer0 directs attention to this advance in mechanism through the medium of the ,hoe art rotary form feeder4 ,it says3-- 8,this machine carries the mind back naturally to pre-rotary days1 when the ,hoe multi-feeder held the field as the newspaper machine1 to the days of the heavy1 and as we consider in these advanced days1 clumsy turtle4 ,when the creative genius of ,colonel ,hoe evolved the rotary press1 the multi-feeder was almost at once relegated to the lumber room of obsolete mechanics4 ,it is hardly conceivable that it entered the mind of any practical man at this time that the principle of multi-fed flat sheet printing would ever be adapted to the production of high art illustrated literature1 at a speed equal1 or nearly so1 to the former ,hoe news machine4 ,it has1 at all events in our country1 long been a settled opinion that such work could only be successfully accomplished upon a flat-bed machine1 that the mere curvature of a plate must destroy the beauty of a fine process block for example1 and that any attempt to travel at a greater speed than #abjj to #aejj an hour must be at the sacrifice of depth and sufficiency of rolling4 ,whether this is really so readers will now be able to form their own opinion from the pages of the #8,strand ,magazine4' ,those pages abound in very varied methods of engraving1 woodcut and process1 line and nature1 and reproductions alike from photos and from wash and crayon drawings4 ,every page has undergone the process of electrotyping1 cast straight and curved subsequently1 and therefore the conditions of printing at the high speed of #djjj 7or to be strictly accurate1 four sheets of #af pages each put through at the rate of #iej each1 or #chjj per hour7 are as severe as could be desired4 8,the ,british printer has yet to acquire a full mastery of its capabilities1 and the engineer has equally before him in some degree a period of development4 ,some of the portraiture1 human and animal1 is equal to anything seen4 ,the make-ready 7upon hard packing7 exhibits the highest quality1 and the distribution of color perfection4 ,the plate-cylinder is made as large as the desired speed renders practicable1 in order that the curvature of the plates may be reduced to a minimum4 ,the provision for securing adequate distribution and in-rolling is upon a liberal scale1 but not one whit more so than is requisite1 extent of surface and speed of running considered4 ,there are #af inkers and #ch distributors1 with #af iron distribution cylinders4 ,the sheets are fed in two at either side of the machine1 those from the right hand feeders being delivered upon the table at the extreme left1 the other upon the inner delivery board4 ,the plates are rigidly secured by special clutches4 ,to facilitate the imposition of the plates1 or any attention required by the cylinder1 the short rear portion of the machine back of the cylinder is detachable and can be run out upon an extended base1 and then closed up and put into gear again4 ,this renders it perfectly accessible at the most essential point4 ,the sheets are of course printed on one side only4 ,we have not yet attained to the perfecting stage in art work in combination with high speed2 the introduction of the ,hoe art rotary press1 however1 marks a distinct epoch in this class of printing in ,great ,britain4 ,color printing-presses are in use in the newspaper and magazine offices in this country1 and from them are produced the artistic as well as the lurid styles of art40 ,what the possibilities of the printing press are1 looking at the degree of excellence at present attained1 it is difficult to predict4 ,it would seem as if the height of perfection now had been reached4 ,the probability is that the printer at the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century may look with something akin to contempt upon the machines which now are regarded with so much pride4 ,such a thing is possible in this age of invention4 ,illustration3 ,,numbering ,,card ,,press4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,setting ,,of ,,type4 ,in the beginning of the nineteenth century1 when the little metal pieces of type were picked up one at a time and placed in the composing 8stick0 by hand1 there was attached to the work an importance which elevated it almost to the ranks of the trained professions4 ,in ,england1 as late as #ahag1 compositors arrogated to themselves the dignity of carrying swords4 ,at the close of the nineteenth century1 the art is seen to be passing into the sphere of mechanics1--the methods in vogue making it entirely a mechanical operation4 ,before many years of the twentieth century have passed1 there will have been attained a degree of advancement which will dispense with the hand of man in guiding the movements of the machine4 ,the inventive skill which brought the printing press to such a high point of excellence and speed has been turned toward the work of type-composing1 and the forward march is likely to be as rapid4 ,outside of the actual learned professions1 no occupation has contributed so many prominent figures to the history and progress of this country as the composing-room4 ,they have filled important places in journalism1 politics1 ,congress1 state legislatures1 the army and navy1 and the world of literature4 ,horace ,greeley1 the founder of the ,new ,york 8,tribune10--writer1 statesman1 and man of affairs1--is one of the notable figures of the present century1 who laid the foundation of his career at a case of type4 ,schuyler ,colfax1 who became ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states in #ahfi1 passed the early years of his life setting type4 ,and1 strange to say1 these two men1 when the presidential chair seemed a possible realization of their ambition1 were opposed by men of their craft simply because they had seemed to run so far above the 8stick0 and 8rule40 ,simon ,cameron1 of ,pennsylvania1 once ,secretary of ,war1 ,united ,states senator1 representative of the ,united ,states abroad1 and for many years political master of his great ,state1 was proud to say that he had begun his career as a type-setter in a country printing-office4 ,it is worth while noticing that this printer-politician's life covered nearly a century of existence4 ,his life spanned every president from ,john ,adams in #agii to ,benjamin ,harrison in #ahhi1 while his active political control of ,pennsylvania covered a period of sixty-five years1--a record made by only one man within the history of the ,united ,states4 ,every state in the ,union has contributed to history its quota of printer-statesmen1 printer-authors1 and printer-journalists4 ,how many of such there have been in this nineteenth century would be beyond ordinary research to ascertain4 ,but printers--compositors--can refer with just pride to the fact that in all the advanced walks of life are to be found men who have been members of the guild4 ,the setting of type by hand prevailed universally until as late as #ahhj4 ,that may be put down as the period when there came into anything like general use the machines for type composition1 although experiments in that direction had been going on for sixty years4 ,as early as #ahbj1 printers realized that machinery eventually must be brought into play for composing type4 ,but how to do it was the scientific as well as mechanical problem4 ,it was argued that the machine must be so constructed as to pick up the type1 uniformly distribute the space between the words1 and 8justify0 the lines1 that is1 make them the exact width4 8,it is beyond the range of possibility10 suggested the printer4 8,mechanism never can be applied to art4 ,the great ,benjamin ,franklin would have discovered the way to make such a thing possible1 if it were possible--which is impossible40 ,and the scientific electric discovery made by ,benjamin ,franklin in the eighteenth century is1 at the close of the nineteenth1 the motive-power used for driving the machines for type composition1--the seemingly impossible has reached the stage of possibility4 ,illustration3 ,,octuple ,,stereotype ,,perfecting ,,press ,,and ,,folder4 7,capacity1 #if1jjj impressions per hour47 ,dr4 ,william ,church1 of ,connecticut1 produced a machine looking to machine type-composition in #ahbj4 ,it did not come into use1 although he spent large sums of money on it1 and devoted a vast amount of energy toward having it taken up both in this country and in ,england4 ,at the ,paris ,exhibition in #ahce there were exhibited several machines of this sort1 one of which--the patent of ,christian ,srensen1 of ,copenhagen--was used upon a daily paper issued during the exhibition4 ,in #ahga1 at the ,international ,exhibition in ,london1 there was shown a machine possessing peculiar features4 ,it used a perforated ribbon1 through the medium of which types were worked into position4 ,the machine was cumbersome1 complicated1 and expensive1 and could not be brought into anything like general usage4 ,in #ahge ,m4 ,delcambre1 of ,paris1 after twenty years' work produced a machine in ,new ,york4 ,it had the same objections as the others4 ,while this machine could do as much as the labor of three men by hand1 it required a man to operate1 another man to place the set type in lines1 steam to keep it in motion1 and a big cost to construct4 ,illustration3 ,,linotype 7,,type-,,setting7 ,,machine 7,,front ,,view74 ,up to this period1 all the experiments had shown the want of something which would obviate the presence of a man to make the lines of the proper length and with equal spacing between the words4 ,all the machines which were anything near available picked up and placed in position separate types4 ,at the ,centennial ,exhibition of #ahgf1 in ,philadelphia1 there were shown machines which used brass dies and cast a line of type4 ,these seemed to possess the element for successful use1 and the outcome was the production of the machine which is now in use in all the big newspaper offices in this country--the 8,mergenthaler ,linotype40 ,practically it has driven all the other machines out of use1 but how long it will hold sway is a question4 ,already men of genius are experimenting with two objects in view1--increase of speed1 decrease of cost1--and it is fair to presume that before the twentieth century has gone very far into history these two objects will have been attained4 ,the linotype1 as here shown1 has the appearance of a heavy and cumbersome piece of machinery4 ,it actually is so only when there are several of them placed in line--then they give to a composing-room the appearance of a machine shop4 ,this machine1 instead of producing single type of the ordinary character1 casts type-metal bars or slugs1 each complete in one piece1 and having on the upper edge1 properly justified1 the type characters to print a line4 ,these slugs present the appearance of composed lines of type1 and serve the same purpose1 and for this reason are called 8linotypes40 ,the linotypes are produced and assembled automatically in a galley1 side by side1 in proper order1 so that they constitute a 8form10 answering the same purposes and used in the same manner as the ordinary 8forms0 consisting of single types4 ,after being used1 the linotypes instead of being1 like type forms1 distributed1 are thrown into a metal pot of the machine to be recast into new forms4 ,the machine contains1 as its fundamental elements1 several hundred brass matrices4 ,each matrix consists of a flat plate having in one edge a female letter1 or matrix proper1 and in the upper end a series of teeth1 which are used for distributing to their proper places in the magazine matrices containing different letters4 ,there are in the machine a number of matrices of each letter1 and also matrices representing special characters1 and spaces or quads of definite thickness for use in tabular and other work of a complicated nature4 ,the machine is so organized that on manipulating the finger-keys it will select matrices in the order in which their characters are to appear in print1 and assemble them side by side with wedge-shaped spaces at suitable points in the line4 ,this composed line forms a line matrix1 or in other words a line of female type1 adapted to produce a line of raised printing type on a slug1 which may be forced into or against the matrix characters4 ,after the matrix line is composed it is automatically transferred to the face of the mold1 into which molten metal is delivered to produce the slug or linotype1 after which the matrices are distributed or returned to the magazine to be again composed in new relations for succeeding lines4 ,these operations are performed by mechanism1 as shown in the outline here presented4 ,a is an inclined fixed magazine1 containing channels in which the assorted matrices are stored1 and through which they slide1 entering at the top and escaping at the foot1 one at a time4 ,each channel is provided at the lower end with an escapement device1 ,b1 connected by a rod1 ,c1 with a finger character of the matrices in the corresponding channel4 ,there is a key for each character1 and also keys for quads stored in the magazine4 ,the keys are actuated by the operator in the order in which their letters are to appear in print4 ,as a key is depressed1 it operates the corresponding escapement1 ,b1 which allows a matrix to fall out of the magazine through one of the channels1 ,e1 to the inclined traveling belt1 ,f1 which serves to carry the matrices down in succession into the assembler stick1 ,g1 in which they are stored side by side4 ,a box1 ,h1 contains a number of elongated spaces1 ,i1 and a discharging device connecting with a finger-key bar1 ,j1 by which the spaces are permitted to fall into the line of matrices at the proper points during composition4 ,it will be perceived that the operation of the various keys results in the selection of the matrices and spaces1 and their collection in assembler1 ,g1 until it contains all the characters to be represented by one line of print4 ,after the matrix line is thus composed it is transferred1 as indicated by the dotted lines1 to the front of a mold or slot extending through a mold wheel1 ,k1 from front to rear4 ,this mold is of the exact size and shape of the slug required4 ,the matrix line is pressed tightly against1 and closed in front of1 the mold for the time being1 and the characters1 or matrices proper1 face the mold cell or space4 ,while the line is in place in front of the mold1 the wedge spaces are pushed up through the line1 and in this manner exact and instantaneous 8justification0 is secured4 ,behind the mold there is a melting pot1 ,m1 heated by a flame from a gas burner1 and containing a quantity of molten metal4 ,the pot has a perforated mouth arranged to fit against and close the rear side of the mold1 and contains a jump plunger1 mechanically actuated4 ,illustration3 ,,outline ,,of ,,type-,,setting ,,machine4 ,after the matrix line is in place1 the plunger falls and forces metal through the pot mouth into the mold1 against and into the characters of the matrix line4 ,the metal instantly solidifies in the mold1 forming the slug or linotype1 having on its edge raised type characters formed by the matrices4 ,the mold wheel next makes a partial revolution1 turning the mold from the original horizontal to a vertical position in front of the ejector1 which then advances from the rear through the mold1 pushing the slug out of the latter into the receiving galley1 at the front4 ,a vibrating arm advances the slugs laterally in the galley1 and thus assembles them side by side in column or page-form ready for use4 ,in order to insure absolute accuracy in the height and thickness of the slugs1 knives are arranged to act upon them during their course to the galley4 ,after the matrices in the line have served their purpose in front of the mold1 they are returned to the magazine to be again discharged and used in the following manner4 ,the line is lifted from the mold and shifted laterally until the teeth at the top engage the teeth of bar1 ,r4 ,this bar then rises as shown by dotted lines1 lifting the matrices to the distributor at the top of the machine1 but leaving the spaces1 ,i1 behind to be shifted laterally to the magazine or holder1 ,h1 from which they were discharged4 ,each matrix has distributor teeth in its top1 arranged in a special order or number1 according to the character it contains4 ,in other words1 a matrix containing any given character differs in the number or relation of its teeth from a matrix containing any other character4 ,this difference is relied upon to secure proper distribution4 ,a distributor-bar1 ,t1 in a single piece1 is fixed horizontally over the upper end of the magazine1 and is formed with longitudinal ribs or teeth1 adapted to engage the teeth of the matrices and hold the latter in suspension as they are carried along the bar over the mouths or entrances of the channels4 ,the teeth of the bar are cut away to vary their number or arrangement at different points in its length1 so that there is a special arrangement over the mouth of each channel4 ,the matrices are pushed upon the bar at the end1 and made to slide slowly along it while suspended therefrom4 ,each matrix remains in engagement1 and travels over the mouth of the channels1 until it arrives at the required point1 where1 for the first time1 its teeth bear such relation to those of the bar that it is permitted to disengage and fall into its channel4 ,the travel of the matrices is secured by longitudinal screws1 which lie below the bar in position to engage the edges of the matrices4 ,the matrices pursue a circulatory course through the machine1 starting from the bottom of the magazine and passing thence to the line being composed1 thence to the mold1 and finally back to the top of the magazine4 ,this circulation permits the operations of composing one line1 casting a second1 and distributing a third1 to be carried on concurrently1 and enables the machine to run at a speed exceeding that at which any operator can finger the keys4 ,one half horse power is generally used in driving a machine4 ,about five square feet is the space occupied by the machine2 it weighs #aibe pounds1 and consumes about fifteen feet of illuminating gas each hour to heat the metal pot4 ,each machine will do complete work equal to that of five men by hand4 ,the simplicity of the machine bears a striking resemblance to the typewriter1 and this is operated successfully by young girls4 ,when the matter set by the machine is placed together1 the page presents a surface equal to an entire new set of type1 or1 as the printers say1 8,we take on an entire new dress every day40 ,that is a production of the nineteenth century4 ,how commonplace it will appear when the achievements of the twentieth century are placed on record4 ,,iii4 ,,events ,,as ,,they ,,occur4 ,when the nineteenth century opened1 great events were occurring in the world4 ,napoleon ,bonaparte was the central figure in the eye of ,europe4 ,he had1 but a few years previously 7#agig71 gone through the most brilliant campaign known4 ,he had crossed the ,alps1 defeated the ,austrians at ,montenotte and ,millesimo1 defeated the ,sardinians at ,ceva and ,mondovi1 and conquered ,lombardy1--all in a few weeks4 ,the year following he had conquered ,egypt1 and in #ahjj had become the first consul and the ruler of ,france1 to be declared ,emperor four years later4 ,then followed1 in rapid succession1 the events which caused the world to look upon ,napoleon as the probable coming ruler of the universe4 ,it was in #ahje that he began the war of aggrandizement4 ,he crossed the ,rhine1 compelling the ,austrian army to surrender at ,ulm2 he entered ,vienna and routed the ,russian and ,austrian armies at ,austerlitz4 ,this was followed by his move to make himself master of ,southern and ,central ,europe4 ,he established his brother ,joseph as ,king of ,naples2 his brother ,louis as ,king of ,holland2 his stepson ,eugene as ,viceroy of ,italy2 and his brother-in-law1 ,joachim ,murat1 as ,grand ,duke of ,berg4 ,the following year he defeated the ,prussians and entered ,berlin4 ,it was not until his abdication at ,fontainebleau1 in #ahad1 that ,europe and ,america breathed freely4 ,his final overthrow at ,waterloo in #ahae removed him from the stage as an active participant in the world's history of the nineteenth century4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the close of the eighteenth century was marked by the death of ,washington1 while #ahjj1 #ahja1 #ahjb saw us make a treaty of peace with ,france1 remove the national capital from ,philadelphia to ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 declare war against ,tripoli1 purchase ,louisiana from ,france1 and enter upon the disputes with ,great ,britain which culminated in a declaration of war with the mother country1 in ,june of #ahab4 ,while these events at home and abroad were making history1 long periods of time elapsed between their occurrence and their being given to the people4 ,there was no telegraphic communication which flashed messages around the globe4 ,it was a wait until the mails brought the news4 ,two months1 probably1 elapsed after the battle of ,waterloo ere this country was furnished with the story which meant so much to the peace of ,europe4 ,what a change in this respect was wrought between the downfall of ,napoleon ,bonaparte in #ahae and the downfall of his nephew1 ,louis ,napoleon1 in #ahgj6 ,on the fateful second of ,september1 #ahgj1 when the ,emperor of ,france1 ,napoleon ,,iii41 surrendered to the ,emperor ,william of ,prussia1 on the field of ,sedan1 the news was flashed to ,america in less than two hours4 ,on that hot1 sultry day eager crowds surrounded the bulletin boards of the newspapers1 on which were displayed the facts connected with the overthrow of the ,napoleonic dynasty4 ,the difference in time made it possible for us here to know all that had been done by the two emperors and by ,bismarck an hour ahead of their actual happening4 ,for days before that the crowds had surged around the newspaper offices1 for days afterward they did the same1 and facts were given with a rapidity which showed how wonderful had been the scientific stride between #ahae and #ahgj4 ,had any one in #ahae predicted the possibility of such scenes1 he would have been put down as a fit subject for a writ of de lunatico inquirendo4 ,such1 too1 would have been the comment on the one who then would have suggested the likelihood of a newspaper in this country reaching a circulation of a million copies daily1--and yet such has become an accomplished fact4 ,at the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century there had been no practical advance in the rapid transmission of news4 ,this was the period when the press lacked the facility to rapidly furnish the people with the events which were occurring in all directions4 ,newspapers still depended upon the mails4 ,home events were many weeks reaching sections remote from their happening4 ,in this respect there had been some little improvement at the close of the first half of the century4 ,that was the time when the electrical current was being brought into operation in the transmission of signals from which messages were being recorded1 and these were being utilized for the sending of information at short distances4 ,scientific men were even talking of the possibility of connecting distant points on the coast1 and whispering their hope for an ,atlantic cable4 ,in #aheh that wonderful event came to pass4 ,the old world and the new were connected by cable from ,valencia ,bay1 in ,ireland1 to ,newfoundland1 in ,north ,america1 and messages of greeting passed between ,queen ,victoria and ,president ,buchanan4 ,the break which followed soon after the opening of this cable stimulated men of genius and men of capital to further efforts1 and the governments of the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain came forward with generous aid4 ,the laying of the ,atlantic cable by the ,great ,eastern in #ahfd1 and its successful operation in #ahff1 opened the doors for the possibilities of the press of to-day1 and the realization of such scenes as were witnessed in this country on ,september #b1 #ahgj4 ,between that memorable year1 #ahff1 and this1 #ahii1 how wonderful has been the advance in the transmission of information from all quarters of the globe4 ,from the ,transvaal ,republic1 in ,south ,africa2 from the desert home of the ,dervish in the ,soudan2 from the domain of ,turkey's ,sultan1 in ,armenia2 from the ,holy ,land2 from the ,oriental empires of ,china and ,japan2 from the snow-clad land of the ,czar in ,siberia2 from the ,bosphorus to the ,english ,channel2 from ,valencia across the ,atlantic2 from ,victoria ,land in ,north ,america to ,patagonia in ,south ,america2 from ,maine to ,mexico2 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific2 there are each day transmitted all occurrences of interest transpiring1--and these encompass peace and war1 joy and sorrow1 science and art1 education and trade1--events which arouse the passions and quicken the pulse of humanity4 ,this is done through the medium of an organization known as the ,associated ,press4 ,this wonderful combination has nearly forty thousand miles of wire from the different telegraph companies1 for which there is paid a fixed price per mile4 ,this1 however1 does not include its cable service1 the charges for which are according to the number of words transmitted4 ,the service of this organization costs a million and a half a year1 divided among several hundred of the great newspapers of the ,united ,states4 ,during the recent conflict between ,spain and the ,united ,states its expenditure for war news alone was nearly #ejj1jjj4 ,this can readily be understood when the reader is informed that the cable rate from ,manila was #b4cg a word4 ,thus1 a dispatch filling less than a quarter of a column of the average daily paper cost #ajjj4 ,the rate from ,porto ,rico1 at the outbreak of hostilities1 was #a4ij a word1 and it often happened that a single dispatch covering the movements of a body of troops in that island1 with possibly a pen picture of a skirmish with the ,spaniards1 would cost #bjjj in gold4 ,the ,santiago toll was #a4aj a word2 and whole pages of newspapers were printed at that rate4 ,what a gigantic institution it has become for the rapid dissemination of news events6 ,in that war between ,spain and the ,united ,states1 ,general ,toral1 the ,spanish commander1 surrendered ,santiago on ,july #ad1 at #b4ae o'clock in the afternoon4 ,at #b4be o'clock the message announcing the fact was received in ,philadelphia4 ,on the #abth of ,august following1 at #d4bc o'clock in the afternoon1 the ,peace ,protocol was signed in ,washington by the ,french ,ambassador ,cambon and ,secretary of ,state ,day1 and at #d4bg o'clock--four minutes later--the information was in the ,new ,york office of the ,associated ,press4 ,hundreds of such instances of this rapid transmission of news could be recorded in this last year of the nineteenth century1--facts never even dreamed of when ,benjamin ,franklin chained the electric current in the closing years of the eighteenth century4 ,the journey of a piece of news from the far ,east to the far ,west is something worth noting4 ,the trip covers thousands of miles out of a direct route4 ,as for instance1 when ,admiral ,dewey annihilated the ,spanish fleet in the ,bay of ,manila1 on ,may #a1 #ahih1 the fact was cabled to ,hong ,kong1 ,china4 ,there an operator transmitted it northward to ,helampo in ,russia1 right on the border line of ,manchooria1 from which place it was sent across ,russia to ,tomsk1 thence to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,from the ,russian capital it zigzagged to ,berne1 in ,switzerland2 thence to ,paris2 thence across the channel to ,penzance1 and finally to ,valencia1 to be put on the cable for ,america4 ,in two hours from the time the operator in ,hong ,kong started his dispatch1 it was being hurried across the ,american continent--north1 west1 east1 south--for distribution in the newspaper offices4 ,when a party of ,mohammedans attacked a ,christian mission in ,calcutta1 a telegraph operator dispatched the news to ,bombay1 whence it was transmitted to ,aden4 ,the next point reached was ,suez1 from which it was sent to ,malta4 ,it was next sent to ,lisbon4 ,from there it was given to ,paris4 ,from ,malta it was also cabled to ,penzance1 thence to ,valencia1 and finally to the ,united ,states4 ,when that ,manila piece of news from ,admiral ,dewey reached the ,pacific coast in the ,united ,states1 the date of its being started was yet several hours behind the time of its arrival4 ,the attack on the ,spanish fleet was made on ,sunday1 ,may #a1 ,manila time4 ,the fact was not sent out by ,dewey until the following morning1 ,may #b 7still ,manila time74 ,it was started on its westward course that morning 7,may #b7 at ten o'clock4 ,by the route taken to ,valencia with the relays1 two hours were consumed4 ,this brought it to ,london about three o'clock on that morning of ,may #b1 owing to the difference in time4 ,traveling westward across the ,atlantic ocean in advance of the sun1 it reached ,new ,york about ten o'clock in the night of ,may #a4 ,but little time was lost in retransmission to the ,pacific coast1 which point it reached about six o'clock on that ,sunday evening of ,may #a--;fourteen hours previous1 by the day of the month1 to its being started from ,manila4 ,in this work of sending out news not a moment is lost that can be avoided4 ,the aid of the typewriter enables the operator to keep pace with the sending operator1 and his pace has been increased in the past few years by the introduction of a code system4 ,here is a specimen of the code system as used by the operator in sending out a news item3-- 8,madrid1 ,march #ag--,t ,qn ,regent h sined t ,treaty of ,peace btn ,spn t ,uni ,stas4 ,t treaty wb frwded to t ,french ,ambsdr1 ,jules ,cambon1 at ,washn1 fo exg w t one sined by ,pr ,mc,kinley4 ,no decree q sj wb pud d #8,official ,gazette4' 8,ofl rlns btn t #b govts wi nw b promtly rnud4 ,ix rmrd #e ,mir to t ,uni ,stas wb ,snor4 ,don ,j4 ,brunetti1 ,duke d',arcos1 fmr ,spnh ,mir to ,mex1 wos wif is an ,amn40 ,when this seemingly incomprehensible conglomeration of letters leaves the hand of the receiving operator it reads as follows3-- 8,madrid1 ,march #ag--,the ,queen ,regent has signed the ,treaty of ,peace between ,spain and the ,united ,states4 ,the treaty will be forwarded to the ,french ,ambassador1 ,jules ,cambon1 at ,washington1 for exchange with the one signed by ,president ,mc,kinley4 ,no decree on the subject will be published in the #8,official ,gazette4' 8,official relations between the two governments will now be promptly renewed4 ,it is rumored that the ,minister to the ,united ,states will be ,seor ,don ,j4 ,brunetti1 ,duke d',arcos1 former ,spanish ,minister to ,mexico1 whose wife is an ,american40 ,the ,london 8,times0 recently has been experimenting with a scheme whereby reporters in the ,houses of ,parliament operate the typesetting machines in the ,london office by the wire from their quarters in ,parliament4 ,it is only a question of time when this practice comes into use in the reporting of all legislative proceedings4 ,in some of the ,new ,york newspaper offices1 the receiving operator sits at a typesetting machine and puts into type the messages which come over the wires4 ,how rapidly we have advanced in this direction in the last half of the nineteenth century is thus shown4 ,what will be done by our successors in the first half of the twentieth century1 no man can at this time satisfactorily predict4 ,,iv4 ,,type-,,making1 ,,stereotyping1 ,,picture-,,making4 ,the manufacture of the small metal pieces called type has undergone little change in this nineteenth century4 ,that which has been done has been in the way of producing artistic designs1 so arranged that combinations can be formed pleasing to the eye1 and an aid to rapid workmanship4 ,the machinery in use has lost its crudity1 the production has been increased1 and the finish become more perfect4 ,the setting of type by machinery has been a serious blow to this industry1 and the time will come when it will be devoted entirely to the making of job or fancy types4 ,benjamin ,franklin attempted to make metal type in this country1 but he did not succeed4 ,it was not until #agif that type-making was commenced here4 ,as in many other departures in the printing business1 the city of ,philadelphia took the lead4 ,binney and ,ronaldson1 of ,edinburgh1 ,scotland1 established the first foundry in this country1 operating it in ,philadelphia4 ,after a severe struggle and with some aid from the ,state1 a business was established by the two ,scotchmen1 which afterwards became known as the ,johnson ,foundry1 under ,mac,kellar1 ,smiths ,jordan1 which is still in existence4 ,they were followed by ,david ,bruce1 also a ,scotchman1 and by #ahac foundries had been established in ,new ,york and other large cities4 ,since that time improvements have been introduced1 but nothing has come forth which deserves to be ranked with the printing-press or the typesetting machine4 ,the type founder will tell you how much better are the machines used in #ahii than those which produced type in #ahej4 ,but he cannot point out any device connected with it which the mechanical world can designate as marvelous1 or the people at large regard as a wonderful invention4 ,type once was rubbed into smoothness by boys4 ,now it is done automatically on the machine4 ,by the hand process about four hundred types an hour were cast2 by the present mechanism a speed of six thousand an hour has been acquired4 ,until about #ahge1 this output hardly met the demand2 now it will do so4 ,before many years it will be far in excess of the requirements4 99 99 99 99 99 ,stereotyping is the art of making plates cast in one piece of type metal from the surface of one or more pages of type4 ,in the beginning of the nineteenth century1 stereotyping was used to an exceedingly limited extent4 ,the printers were prejudiced against it for reasons purely selfish4 ,it was not until #ahac that it was introduced into the ,united ,states1 and only a few years previously ,lord ,stanhope introduced it into the ,english printing business4 8,the ,larger ,catechism of the ,westminster ,assembly0 professes on its title-page to have been the first work stereotyped in ,america4 ,it bears the date of ,june1 #ahac4 ,now the process is in general use--plaster1 clay1 and papier mch being used4 ,the process of stereotyping originally was to preserve the pages1 so that an entire edition of a work could be finished without requiring large numbers of type1 and to have it ready for future editions4 ,for newspaper work it came into vogue to save the rapid wearing out of the type by the impressions made4 ,from the practical introduction of stereotyping in this country1 in #ahac1 by ,robert ,bruce1 until about #ahej1 the slow1 tedious1 and troublesome process of making the plates by plaster of ,paris was in vogue4 ,that was done by the plaster being poured over the face of the type4 ,molten lead was then run into the cast1 after which the plate was finished4 ,the time thus occupied caused the work to be confined to books1 magazines1 and weekly issues of small journals4 ,when the plate was taken from the cast it was rough1 imperfect1 and unfit for use4 ,men1 whose specialty was finishing1 were employed to make the plate so as to meet the requirements of the printing press4 ,it was just at the opening of the last half of the nineteenth century that papier mch began to be used in this country4 ,a few years before that time it had been brought into use in ,london and ,paris4 ,its introduction into the ,united ,states found the printing trade ready and willing to accept it1 and but a few years passed before it came into general use by the newspapers4 ,it is a peculiar combination4 ,the paper matrix is formed by paste of starch1 flour1 alum1 and water4 ,this is spread over a thick paper1 on which are placed layers of fine tissue paper4 ,when ready for use1 it is placed on the face of the type and a deep impression secured by being passed through a press4 ,then it goes into a steam chest to be dried1 from there it is passed into the casting machine1 the molten metal poured in1 and a few minutes thereafter the plate is ready for the press4 ,up to a few years ago1 the impression on papier mch was secured by being beaten with brushes prepared for that use4 ,the method had two disadvantages1--consumption of time and destruction of type4 ,the press now used obviates these defects4 ,the old way took about twenty minutes to produce a plate4 ,now it is done in from five to seven minutes4 ,the machinery here introduced has been of benefit to the trade1 but none of it ranks among the great inventions of the century4 ,the making of electrotype plates had its origin early in the century1 when it was found that stereotype plates had a limit as to durability4 ,electroplating suggested to ,josiah ,adams1 in #ahci1 the idea of a copper surface for the stereotype plate4 ,it took ten years to bring it into practical use4 ,his first successful work in this line was on the engravings and borders for a ,bible issued in ,new ,york4 ,it was found to be particularly adapted to engravings1 producing a surface of sufficient smoothness to allow the pressman to make a print of exquisite fineness4 ,the improvements introduced tended only toward the saving of time and the excellence of finish4 ,practically the same process is used now that was employed half a century ago4 ,an impression of the type is made on wax1 the electric current is secured by a deposit of fine graphite1 the mold is placed in a bath containing a solution of sulphate of copper and is made part of the electric circuit1 in which also is introduced a zinc element in a sulphuric acid solution4 ,the current deposits a film of copper on the graphite surface of the mold4 ,when it has assumed a sufficient thickness1 it is taken from the bath1 the wax is removed1 and the copper shell trimmed4 ,it is then backed with an alloy of type metal4 ,the finishing process brings the plate to the proper thickness1 after which it is blocked to the height required for printing4 ,that is the process4 ,to it in the last ten years there has been applied the use of steam machinery4 ,in the old days the making of electrotypes required from ten to fifteen hours4 ,they now are produced in from two to three hours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the close of the nineteenth century witnesses the disappearance entirely from the printing establishment of the once generally used wood engraving4 ,the rise and fall of this once splendid art is practically encompassed in the period of time covered by the nineteenth century4 ,thomas ,bewick1 an ,englishman1 gave wood engraving an artistic impetus by the production of illustrations for his 8,histories of ,british ,quadrupeds10 which appeared about #agij4 ,up to that period the work was crude4 ,the books and magazines of the first decade of the century were illustrated in a way then regarded as highly artistic4 ,the application of the ,bewick method brought forth work which ranked in the line of high art4 ,of the development of this work volumes could be written4 ,to simplify the situation it is only necessary to recall how these pictures were made4 ,squares of boxwood were used1 on the face of which was spread a preparation of water-color ,chinese white4 ,on this surface the artist drew his picture1 and then the engraver's art was brought into requisition--the engraving being done alongside the pencil lines4 ,and here it was that the artistic instinct of the handler of the 8graver0 appeared1--the delicacy of touch being shown in the shading and in the finish of the lines4 ,by this method there have been produced rare works of art1 as can be seen by an examination of the books printed in the first half of the century4 ,the time taken in the making of the engravings1 however1 prevented the possibility of their being used by the newspapers and magazines as generally as was desired4 ,this want was in a measure met by the introduction of machine 8grooving40 ,the cuts1 however1 could not be used to print from directly in consequence of the warping of the boxwood1 and it was necessary in every instance to make stereotype or electrotype plates4 ,then1 too1 came the realization of the fact that the reproduction of portraits needed something which would preserve features and expression4 ,in those days some of the pictures produced were ludicrous in the extreme1 and it became a standing joke in the newspapers that the best way to cast ridicule upon a public man was to print his picture4 ,in the work of reproducing scenes the skill of the artist and the engraver frequently brought forth results which were marvels of excellence4 ,for a number of years the wood engraving business flourished in this particular line1 despite the dissatisfaction existing in regard to portrait work4 ,in the production of illustrations for fine books1 printed on good paper with flat presses and properly 8under-0 or 8overlaid10 there was attained a degree of perfection in lines and shading which raised the pictures almost to the rank of steel and copperplate engravings4 ,many of those engaged in the work of drawing and cutting were possessed of a skill which would have won for them distinction in other artistic lines4 ,this1 practically1 was the condition of the profession when the end of the first half of the nineteenth century had been reached4 ,even then1 however1 the question of a substitute was under severe consideration in scientific as well as artistic circles4 ,experiments were made with copper1 acids1 and zinc1 but satisfactory results could not be obtained4 ,it was not until #ahfj that a successful substitute was produced4 ,gillot1 a ,frenchman1 brought forth a system of etching4 ,by this means a photograph from an artist's drawing was placed above a plate of gelatine1 chemically sensitized4 ,the parts of the gelatine exposed to the light became hard1 and the remainder was brushed away with warm water4 ,from this an electrotype could be made directly4 ,that process has given way to the present system of photographing on zinc1 and the use of acid baths for etching4 ,other improvements--principally the use of the screen--have resulted in the production of half-tones which are highly satisfactory in newspaper work4 ,by this means there can be produced such reproductions as give the features of persons so that recognition is as easy as in the case of photographs4 ,with the aid of different sizes of screens1 backgrounds are secured which add materially to the artistic excellence of the pictures4 ,so well done is the work in this direction that the plates can be used on the curved cylinders of the huge octuple presses1 and enormous editions are printed from them4 ,the peculiarity of this process is that the original can be reduced or enlarged so as to suit any width of column or page without affecting one way or the other the fineness of the work4 ,pen and ink drawings made by artists are photographed and backgrounded with the utmost accuracy as to design and detail4 ,it has been found1 however1 that scenes in half-tones do not give as much satisfaction as do portraits1 and it is believed to be only a question of time when there is a return to line engravings so far as the newspapers are concerned4 ,when one compares the photographic reproductions which appear in the magazines and newspapers of to-day with those of even ten years ago1 there is seen an advancement which tells a wonderful story of the rapid march of artistic taste4 ,the outline picture--excellent of its kind--has the appearance of crudity almost grotesque when placed beside the life-like half-tone reproduction of photographic art4 ,wood engraving has been relegated to the days of the hand-press1 the mail news-carrier and the plaster of ,paris process of stereotyping4 ,inventive genius not only has advanced for the printing press and its adjuncts2 it has also laid a heavy hand on art1 causing it to pause and consider how soon the pencil and the brush will be superseded entirely by the rhythmic motion of the machine4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,progress ,,in ,,mines ,,and ,,mining ,,by ,,geo4 ,a4 ,,packard1 ,metallurgist and ,mining ,engineer4 ,when we consider how largely the discovery and exploration of ,america was due to the search for mines1 that the precious metals might be found to replenish the depleted treasuries of ,european monarchs2 and when we note that1 as a result of this search1 the world's annual production of gold and silver had increased in the three hundred years following the discovery from #e1ejh1jjj1 in #aejj1 to #dh1iie1jjj at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 we view with surprise the little progress made during this period in the art of mining4 ,at the beginning of the present century1 we find in use the same general methods that were followed in the time of ,columbus4 ,the very first operation--the search for veins--was oftentimes conducted after the manner of the ,middle ,ages2 for in ,pryce's 8,mineralogia ,cornubiensis10 which seems to have been one of the leading works on mining of the last century1 there occurs1 among other methods1 a lengthy treatise on 8,how to ,discover ,mines by the ,sole ,virtue of the ,hazel-tree40 ,powder1 although it had been invented for centuries1 had been so little employed in mining that it was considered merely as a last resort4 ,in a description of mining methods1 another work says3 8,the soft vein is generally dug with the spade and turned out into wooden trays2 but the hard veins are knocked out with a gad and a hammer4 ,if the ore is so hard as to be incapable of breaking it in this manner1 they usually soften it with fire4 ,but a still more expeditious method is the working with gunpowder4 ,a small quantity of powder does great things this way40 ,in #ahjj the coal miner was working by the naked light of the tallow dip4 ,cast-iron rails had been introduced but a few years1 and rails of wrought iron1 which could be bent to follow the curves of the drifts1 were unheard of4 ,the cars were pushed along the levels by boys4 ,water power1 where it could be obtained and applied by means of the overshot wheel1 was in general use for pumping1 hoisting1 and ventilating4 ,but from many a mine the ore was raised by women1 who pulled the bucket up 8by walking away with the end of the rope0 which passed from them over a sheave and thence down the shaft4 ,in places the ore was still carried up the steep inclines to the surface on the backs of women and girls4 ,ventilation1 when not secured by natural means1 was obtained by bellows operated by men or mechanically4 ,a mine which had been worked to a depth of one thousand feet was extraordinary4 ,though steam power1 applied in the form of what was known as the atmospheric engine1 a device utilizing for suction the vacuum formed by the condensation of steam in a chamber1 had been used for years in draining mines1 the steam engine1 as invented by ,watt1 had been introduced for hoisting in only a few places4 ,the power was applied to turn a long crank arm1 which rotated the drum4 ,at the beginning of the century the mines of ,cornwall1 which were the greatest producers in ,great ,britain1 were turning out about #e1jjj1jjj pounds of tin and #aj1jjj1jjj pounds of copper a year1 while the whole ,united ,kingdom was furnishing only #agj1jjj tons of iron4 ,south ,america was the greatest producer of gold and silver1 wonderfully rich mines of the latter having been found in ,peru and ,chile4 ,humboldt places the production of the whole ,south ,american continent for the year #ahjj at #fia1fbe pounds of silver and #iijj pounds of gold4 ,the ,united ,states at that time had practically no mining within its borders4 ,some small mines of iron1 lead1 and copper1 which had been opened to supply the demands created by the ,revolution1 were producing spasmodically2 but even as late as #ahba1 ,william ,keating1 in an address before the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 said1 8,upon the whole we think we may be warranted in saying that there are as yet no mines in activity in the ,united ,states4 ,coal1 in most places1 is taken from the surface1 or dug from the foot of a hill4 ,the lead mines of ,missouri are rich and abundant1 but the mining is a mere pilfering of the richest spots40 ,in #ahja the ,cornish pumping system was introduced4 ,a long rod1 extending from the surface to the bottom of the shaft1 operates simultaneously a series of pumps placed1 one above the other1 at intervals of about two hundred and fifty feet4 ,the lowest one lifts the water from the pump and delivers it into a tank from which the next one draws its supply1 and this in turn forces it up to a higher tank4 ,with this improved means of drainage mines began to be sunk deeper1 a depth of three thousand feet having been reached with this method of pumping4 ,the manufacture of iron pumps1 which had begun to replace wooden ones toward the end of the eighteenth century1 decreased the amount of repairs necessary on the pumps1 and aided in making possible better arrangement of underground work4 ,it was at about this time1 the beginning of the present century1 that the method of opening ground by shafts1 levels1 and raises1 which we refer to as 8blocking out ore10 began to be more generally adopted1 displacing the former mode of following down the ore by a series of irregular1 isolated excavations4 ,with it came overhead stoping1 in which1 after the shaft has been sunk1 the level driven and timbered1 and a raise made1 the miner begins breaking down the ore from over his head1 allowing it to run down into chutes4 ,from these it is drawn out into cars pushed along the tracks in the level4 ,the waste is allowed to accumulate on top of the stulls1 or timbers1 forming the top of the level above referred to1 and serves as a platform upon which the miner stands in breaking down more ore4 ,the invention of the safety lamp1 in #ahae1 is probably the most important event of the early part of the century4 ,previous to this the miners fired the gas in the 8rooms0 with their candles1 which were raised toward the roof with the aid of a long pole1 the miners lying flat on the floor of the level to escape the blaze1 and sometimes putting on wet jackets to avoid being scorched4 ,as first invented by ,davy1 the safety lamp consisted merely of a cylinder of wire gauze surrounding the flame1 much as the flame is surrounded by a glass globe in the modern lantern1 except that the diameter of the cylinder did not exceed two inches4 ,this was based upon the theory that the gas set on fire by the light would burn inside the gauze without heating it hot enough to ignite the gas outside4 ,the principle was correct1 and the lamp worked satisfactorily when carefully used under proper conditions4 ,it was soon found1 however1 that in a strong air current1 or if swung at a more rapid speed than six feet per second in an explosive mixture1 the surrounding gas would be ignited4 ,as a man walking naturally on the surface moves at a rate of between five and six feet per second1 it will be easily seen that even were the speed considerably diminished underground1--and any one who has tried to follow a mine foreman through mine workings knows the speed slackening is slight1--a very slight swing of the arm would bring the rate of movement of the lantern up to the danger point4 ,another and a very unexpected factor in causing explosions with the new lamp also developed2 and that was the great carelessness of the men who used it4 ,armed with this device1 and deluded by the quietly burning flame1 the miner would seat himself upon a pile of coal1 draw forth his pipe and fill it1 and deliberately open the gauze to light it4 ,as a consequence1 for a time after the introduction of the safety-lamp1 the number of accidents from explosions increased4 ,this latter difficulty1 the recklessness of the miners1 was presently overcome by having the lamps locked1 and by depriving the men of all matches before admitting them to the mine4 ,an improved lamp1 introduced by ,clanny1 wherein the lower part of the cylinder was replaced by glass1 partially protected the flame from strong air currents1 and also gave a better light4 ,later1 ,mseler added an interior sheet iron chimney1 which divides the air current so that the hot air does not strike directly against the gauze1 and the lamp as thus improved is very largely used1 especially in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,sinking1 ,,drifting1 ,,and ,,stoping ,,with ,,the ,,ingersoll-,,sergeant ,,drills4 ,in #ahca the safety fuse was invented1 a train of powder having been used before this for firing the charges4 ,the same year a patent was granted to ,moses ,shaw of ,new ,york for an electrical device to fire several charges at once4 ,it was at about this time1 too1 that the man-engine was invented in ,germany4 ,some miner1 noticing the slow and steady up and down motion of the long rods which operated the pumps in the ,cornish system1 had conceived the idea of nailing steps on to them at intervals1 and riding up and down4 ,as mines grew deeper and the time and labor required for the men to get down to their work increased1 a special engine1 utilizing an improvement of this device1 was employed for raising and lowering men4 ,this 8man-engine0 consisted of two parallel beams1 moving slowly up and down the shaft with a reciprocating motion1 the length of the stroke being about twelve feet4 ,upon these beams small platforms were nailed at distances equal to the length of the stroke4 ,the miner wishing to descend stepped upon the top platform of one beam as it started on its down stroke4 ,at the end of this stroke he found himself twelve feet down the shaft1 on a level with the second platform of the other beam1 which had in the mean time been coming up1 and he stepped across on to this1 which now began its down stroke4 ,thus by constantly stepping from one rod to the other at the completion of each down stroke1 he was conveyed to the bottom4 ,by reversing the process he was raised to the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,ingersoll-,,sergeant ,,duplex ,,steam-,,actuated ,,air ,,compressor4 ,in general1 mining progress was slow up to the middle of the century4 ,the production of the baser metals1 here and abroad1 increased gradually with the demands of the mechanic arts1 but it was not until the middle of the century that this factor1 joined with the improved methods of transportation1 and of metallurgy1 gave to mining that impetus which1 though through alternate recurring waves of prosperity and stagnation1 carried it forward until the annual expenditure for technical skill1 machinery1 and supplies used in the industry is estimated to-day at one thousand million dollars4 ,the first mining excitement in the ,united ,states occurred in #ahbi1 following the discovery of gold in the ,south2 but these fields soon declined in importance without resulting in any improvements to mining methods and machinery4 ,the next mining fever resulted from the inauguration of work upon the copper properties at ,keweenaw ,point1 ,mich41 in #ahde4 ,this caused the first mining-stock speculation in this country1 and it is interesting to note that the century closes with a repetition of this same fever1 founded upon almost the same ground4 ,yet the conditions have changed wonderfully4 ,upon the then barren peninsula1 whitened with the tents of speculators and geologists1 has grown up a multitude of towns1 filled with thousands of people whose labors are performed at a depth of nearly a mile under ground4 ,thousands more transport the ore to the mills1 separate the copper from the rock1 and cut timber for the mines2 while yet other thousands prepare food and clothing and shelter for all these4 ,during #ahih1 the copper mines about ,lake ,superior produced nearly #afj1jjj1jjj pounds of copper1 and paid in dividends #f1dij1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sergeant ,,rock ,,drill4 ,this district is the only one in the ,united ,states where the man-engine has been used2 but as the shafts were sunk deeper and deeper1 it was found that even this method was not sufficiently rapid1 and the men are now lowered into the mines by cages or skips4 ,a 8cage0 is simply the miners' name for the ordinary elevator when used underground1 and has developed from the bucket in use at the beginning of the century4 ,a 8skip0 is a car especially designed for use on an incline4 ,the roadway upon which the skip runs is so planned1 at the top of the shaft1 that the rear wheels run upon a track raised above the one over which the front wheels pass1 so that the rear end is elevated and the skip is dumped automatically4 ,at the ,de ,beers diamond mines in ,south ,africa are two of these skips which hold nearly five tons of rock each4 ,at the bottom of the shaft are chutes containing the rock1 and when the skip is in position a man pulls a lever1 allowing the ore to run into it4 ,another pull closes the chute1 a button is touched which rings a bell in the engine-room1 and the skip starts up the shaft4 ,at the top it dumps itself and returns to be filled again4 ,in the mean time the other skip has been filled and is going up while the first is coming down4 ,with these two skips1 making ninety-two trips an hour1 over four thousand tons of rock have been hoisted in less than twelve hours1 from a depth of #abej feet4 ,to handle these enormous quantities tremendous hoisting engines are used4 ,at the ,calumet and ,hecla mines is a pair of quadruple expansion engines which will lift cages1 carrying six tons of ore1 a mile in a minute and a half4 ,the 8,modoc0 hoist1 built for the ,anaconda ,mining ,company of ,butte1 ,montana1 is the largest hoist in the world4 ,it is a double compound beam engine1 and is designed to be used in sinking to a depth of #fjjj feet4 ,this machine weighs four hundred tons1 and has seven separate subordinate engines for use in operating it4 ,think of it6 ,an engine so ponderous that smaller engines are necessary to apply the clutches that set the reels in motion2 other engines set the brakes1 and another reverses the action1 if need be4 ,all these are controlled by levers operated from the engineer's platform1 the 8runner0 having one foot and seven hand levers to handle4 ,besides these there are two indicator discs1 directly in front1 requiring constant attention1 for these show the exact position of the cage in the shaft4 ,yet such wonderful skill have the runners in the control of these veritable flying machines that they instantly interpret the complicated signals1 and drop the cage with such exactness that the car of ore is run from the track in the level to the track on the cage1 almost without a jar4 ,illustration3 ,,ingersoll-,,sergeant ,,steam-,,driven ,,air ,,compressor4 ,nor is the hoist the only large machine necessary in the equipment of the modern mining plant1 for in sinking to great depths vast quantities of water have to be removed4 ,the ,chapin ,mining ,company1 at ,iron ,mountain1 ,mich41 have one of the largest pumping engines in the world4 ,this engine is located on the surface1 driving the pumps after the ,cornish style1 though it would be difficult to see much of the pump of #ahja in this magnificent machine4 ,with a ten-foot stroke it conveys the power to the pumps through a walking beam weighing a hundred tons4 ,in an hour it will raise nearly #bjj1jjj gallons of water from a depth of a quarter of a mile4 ,illustration3 ,,driving ,a ,,railway ,,tunnel ,,with ,,the ,,ingersoll 8,,eclipse0 ,,rock ,,drill4 ,imagine the miner of #ahjj 8softening by fire0 sufficient ore to supply a modern hoist4 ,for the mines which now turn out #bjjj tons a day can by no means be counted on one's fingers1 and #bjjj tons means more than a foot deep over a whole city block4 ,before the middle of the century the use of powder and drill had largely increased1 and in #ahde an attempt was made to aid the man behind the drill with a machine which swung a hammer by steam power4 ,in #ahje a machine was invented using compressed air in a cylinder1 and this was gradually improved until it became a success in #ahfa1 in the ,mont ,cenis tunnel4 ,as finally employed1 the power drill is practically a small engine1 the drill being attached to the piston rod and moved rapidly back and forth by compressed air or steam4 ,the machine has three functions3 to strike the blow1 turn the drill1 and advance it1 as the hole is driven deeper and deeper4 ,illustration3 ,,ingersoll-,,sergeant ,,straight ,,line ,,air ,,compressor4 ,soon after the machine drill became a success dynamite was invented1 and these two have been the greatest factors in bringing about that rapid development and production which is the most pronounced attribute of modern mining4 ,dynamite alone has doubled the amount of ore which can be extracted from a face in a given time4 ,le ,neve ,foster1 in his work on mining1 gives the rate of advance in driving a tunnel by fire setting at two fathoms per month4 ,compare with this the ,niagara ,falls tunnel1 driven with power drills and high explosives1 #cdb feet in four weeks4 ,it is probably to the power drill more than to anything else that we are indebted for the development of the air compressor2 the exhaust from a steam drill and the heat emitted from the pipes being very disagreeable under ground4 ,as early as #ahjj a ,welsh engineer had attempted to run a blast by means of a water power a mile and a half distant1 but it was not until #ahfe that machines were operated to any extent by compressed air4 ,the great difficulty had been the loss of efficiency1 owing to the clearance spaces and the heating of the air4 ,in driving the ,mont ,cenis tunnel but #af per cent of the power developed was available1 and up to #ahhj the efficiency was extremely low2 but to-day as high as #hj per cent is obtained4 ,the air compressor is simply a force pump with ingenious devices to overcome the loss of energy4 ,for ordinary use the air is compressed to a pressure of from #fj to #hj pounds per square inch4 ,this is done in a single cylinder for low pressures1 but for high pressures two cylinders are used4 ,from the compressor the air is conducted to a reservoir1 from which it is piped to the machine which it is to run4 ,illustration3 ,,ingersoll-,,sergeant ,,duplex ,,steam-,,driven ,,air ,,compressor4 ,one of the advantages of air-driven machines under ground is that the exhaust furnishes fresh air to the miners and cools the atmosphere4 ,the result has been that in metal mines1 where there are no noxious gases escaping from the ground1 the exhaust from the air-drills1 together with the natural air currents1 has supplied sufficient ventilation4 ,in the coal mines1 however1 it has been necessary to employ other means4 ,after it was found that1 even with the safety-lamp1 gas would be exploded if a large amount of it had accumulated1 more attention was paid to ventilation4 ,levels and shafts were divided to produce a natural current2 the size of the drifts was carefully figured in order to regulate it2 doors were put in to compel it to follow the faces2 devices were adopted to split it1 a part going to one room1 the remainder to a second2 and boxes were built to carry one current across another4 ,early in the century hand fans run by a wheel and pinion had been employed for forcing the air down the shaft1 but it was soon found that the circulation produced in this way was inferior to the result of eduction4 ,large furnaces were then constructed at the bottom of the upcast shafts1 in order to cause a strong upward current4 ,again1 huge air pumps1 run by machinery1 were tried for exhausting the air4 ,by #ahej exhaust fans were coming into use1 and these1 occasionally replaced by blowers1 also used for exhausting1 are now generally employed4 ,the ,guibal1 which has been the most prominent of the fans1 has been made as large as forty-six feet in diameter4 ,the ,capell1 which is an improved form of the ,guibal1 has six curved veins1 or blades1 and is made from eight feet to fifteen feet in diameter4 ,it is driven quite rapidly1 making from one hundred and eighty to three hundred revolutions1 and having a capacity of from one hundred thousand to three hundred thousand cubic feet of air1 per minute4 ,the result of this thorough ventilation is that the gas is removed from the mine almost as rapidly as it enters1 and often the safety-lamp is no longer needed by the common miner4 ,nevertheless1 it has by no means become useless1 since as an indicator of the presence of gas it is invaluable4 ,the action of the different lamps in the presence of gas varies1 but in general the size of the flame increases in direct proportion to the increase in the amount of gas mixed with the air4 ,each morning1 before the men go to work1 the fire boss takes his safety-lamp and makes the round of the mine4 ,when he goes into a room he watches the flame1 and if it burns up to the point which indicates that it would not be safe to enter with a naked light1 he makes a mark on the wall which serves as a danger line beyond which the men do not go4 ,another machine1 which1 like the fan1 has been developed by the demands of the coal mines1 is the coal-cutting machine4 ,probably the lot of no man was as hard as that of the coal-digger at the beginning of the century4 ,after he had performed the dangerous task of exploding the accumulated gases1 he was often forced to work all day lying in the most constrained attitude4 ,applied in this manner1 his power was largely wasted1 and much useless dust and small coal was produced4 ,the first effort at relief was a machine which imitated the miner1 striking a blow with a pick worked by a lever1 and making as high as seventy blows a minute4 ,these have been generally replaced by quite another type of machine1 one which depends on the action of either a rotary bar1 a rotary wheel1 or a chain cutter4 ,these machines are operated by either air or electricity4 ,the ,jeffrey rotary bar cutter will undercut a block of coal thirty-nine inches by fifty-four inches in six minutes4 ,the chain-cutter is an endless chain carrying cutting knives and traveling horizontally4 ,it is claimed that these machines will effect a saving of about ten cents a ton in the cost of mining4 ,when in #ahdh the finding of gold in ,california was reported1 followed in #ahea by the discovery of the ,australian fields1 large numbers of men were attracted to the placer mines1 who later1 as the placers became exhausted1 turned their attention to vein mining4 ,nor did hydraulic mining itself fail to progress4 ,when the placers were first discovered1 the miner1 standing in the shallow stream1 washed the gravel1 a panful at a time1 and secured from fifteen to twenty-five dollars a day4 ,as the placers became poorer he built sluices1 and1 shoveling in his gravel1 turned the stream in to wash off the light rock1 while the heavy gold was caught in the interstices between the blocks with which he had paved the bottom4 ,if the ground became clayey1 he brought part of the water through a hose and used it to break up the lumps in his sluice box4 ,then as he gradually removed the gravel and the banks about him became higher1 he turned his hose toward the bank and brought more water from a higher level1 until1 to quote ,bowie1 8a forty-inch wrought-iron pipe has been substituted for canvas hose and a stovepipe1 and an inch stream replaced by a river of water discharged through a nine-inch nozzle under a four-hundred-foot pressure40 ,by this means1 at ,north ,bloomfield1 ,cal41 nearly a million yards of gravel1 containing but two and nine tenths cents per cubic yard1 was moved in a single season1 and at a profit4 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,coal-,,mining ,,machine4 ,as the banks became poorer1 the miners turned their attention to the river beds4 ,in ,new ,zealand1 in the early days1 they worked the banks as far down into the river as they could reach with a spoon dredge4 ,then a dredge was made resembling a ladder of buckets1 continually revolving1 and operated by wheels driven by the current4 ,when the river got low the current became too weak1 and a steam engine was substituted4 ,then a revolving screen was put on to separate the large rocks from the fine sand1 and gradually the modern dipper dredge has been evolved1 with its pumps1 screen1 distributors1 and tables and sluices1 handling #bjjj yards of gravel a day at a cost of three cents a yard4 ,in #ahei the ,comstock lode in ,nevada was discovered1 and it is to this district that we owe the 8square set0 method of timbering1 so largely in vogue in wide veins to-day4 ,some of the 8bonanzas10 that is1 pockets of rich ore1 were of enormous size4 ,for example1 one found in the 8,gould and ,curry0 was #djj feet long1 #hj feet wide1 and #djj feet deep4 ,as the walls were not sufficiently solid to stand unsupported1 and a single stick of timber was too short to reach across1 splicing was tried4 ,it was soon found that this weakened the timber too much1 and the method of square 8setting0 was invented4 ,this consists in framing timbers together in rectangular sets1 having a square base of four pieces1 usually six feet long1 placed horizontally as sills4 ,into these are framed posts1 surmounted by a cap of four additional timbers which become the base for the next set4 ,the timbers are usually twelve inches square1 and cost on the ,comstock about #aj a set4 ,from #ahgj to #ahia there is said to have been used up on the ,comstock #bjj1jjj acres of forest1 valued at #de1jjj1jjj4 ,the amount of timber which is consumed under ground in a single year must be enormous4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,goodale estimates that in ,butte alone1 in #ahie1 #cg1ejj1jjj feet1 equal to #cgej carloads1 were used in the mines4 ,as the timber decays in from five to fifteen years1 and has to be replaced1 efforts are constantly directed toward decreasing the large expense which is thus continually recurring4 ,in shafts and levels for permanent use iron is an economical substitute4 ,wherever possible1 new methods of mining are being introduced4 ,thus in the ,lake ,superior iron regions1 the mine development is planned along lines almost unheard of ten years ago4 ,in the first place the gravel which overlies the ore is stripped off1 even if it is fifty feet thick4 ,this is done with steam shovels1 which load the gravel upon cars4 ,these are then pulled away by one locomotive while a second places new 8empties0 in position to be filled4 ,one shovel will load from #aej to #age cars a day2 that is1 will take from #cejj to #dejj tons of dirt from the sides of the pit and put it upon the cars4 ,this method obviates the use of timber for holding up the surface4 ,after the overlying gravel is removed1 should the conditions be favorable1 the ore is taken out with a shovel4 ,if this cannot be done1 some method depending on rock-filling is adopted4 ,at the ,auburn mine1 after stripping and driving the levels1 raises are made to the surface at intervals of about fifty feet1 the ore broken down around them1 starting at the surface1 and dropped down through them4 ,this leaves openings in the shape of inverted cones1 having their bases at the surface4 ,additional raises are then made halfway between the others1 and the remaining material extracted4 ,illustration3 ,,gold ,,dredging ,,on ,,swan ,,river1 ,,colorado4 ,at the ,fayal mine they take out rooms twenty-four feet wide by three hundred feet long1 with a twenty-four-foot pillar between them4 ,these rooms are carried up from the first level to the surface1 and filled with gravel which is run in from above4 ,then the pillars are mined by 8slicing and caving20 that is1 by running drifts along the sides of the pillar and caving the ore down from the roof4 ,after removing this ore another drift is run1 the roof caved1 and another slice taken off4 ,it is claimed the saving in timber by using this method amounts to ten cents on each ton of ore mined4 ,all of these1 and many other inventions1 have constantly tended to decrease mining costs4 ,yet the industry is carried on to-day in so many out-of-the-way places1 and under such varying conditions1 that the cost per ton of the ore mined vacillates between wide extremes4 ,as an example of what can be accomplished1 working on a large scale1 and where supplies are easily and quickly obtained1 the ,atlantic mine1 in ,michigan1 may be mentioned4 ,this mine produced1 in #ahih1 #cgj1jjj tons of ore1 at a cost of sixty-six cents per ton4 ,with all these wonderful advances in mine mechanics1 engineering1 ventilation1 and lighting1 have come the foundation and development of mining schools1 the rise of technical societies1 and a general governmental recognition of the importance of the industry4 ,it is not so very far back in the preceding century that we find among the statutes of ,england the following3 8,stealing ore out of mines is no larceny1 except only those of black lead1 the stealing ore out of which is felony without benefit of clergy40 ,it would be interesting to know the name of the gentleman who owned the black-lead mine1 for1 in modern parlance1 he certainly 8had a pull40 ,by #ahcc mining legislation had so far progressed in ,england that laws were enacted regulating the employment of children under ground4 ,in this country1 in #ahcj1 a state geological survey was inaugurated by ,massachusetts1 and this institution has since been copied by many ,states4 ,the majority of the ,states where mining is carried on have passed laws tending to increase the safety of men working under ground4 ,abroad1 carefully prepared codes describe the method of lease or sale of mining rights1 and define the rights of owners of ground4 ,in this country the first legislation of this character was in #ahjg1 when the government mineral bearing lands were withdrawn from sale and ordered leased4 ,in #ahcd the miners refused to pay the royalty1 owing to the large number of illegal entries1 and in #ahdg the lands were opened to sale4 ,it was not until #ahff1 after fifteen years of self-government among the miners of the ,west1 that ,congress earnestly undertook to regulate the acquisition of mining titles on the public domain4 ,leagues beyond the towns1 miles from the nearest roads1 hurrying from the scene of one excitement to another1 pushed by the crowd of constantly arriving adventurers1 with surveyors unobtainable and courts not accessible1 almost without time to measure1 and in a region absolutely unlocatable1 it had been impossible for the miner of the ,west to secure a legal title to his land as contemplated by the act of #ahdg4 ,accordingly1 there had grown up the custom which gave to the discoverer of a lode the right to a certain length of it1 and it was this right which was recognized by ,congress1 and became the basis of the law of #ahff4 ,so far our story has been of progress1 but what shall we say of the action of ,congress1 which1 in #ahgb1 abrogated this law and substituted for it the prolific breeder of litigation called the law of the apex8 ,to quote ,dr4 ,raymond3 8,the leading characteristic differs from all previous mining laws of this or any other country4 ,the old right of discovery1 which was the basis of the miner's title down to #ahgb1 has dwindled under the present law to a nominal importance4 ,it is true that the discovery of the lode within the claim is made a prerequisite to location4 ,but the right to follow the lode in depth beyond the side lines of the claim depends no longer upon having discovered it1 but on having included its top1 or apex1 in the surface survey40 ,should the miner be so fortunate as to have a vein which outcrops plainly on the surface1 he may stake out the ground without difficulty1 so that the vein crosses the end lines4 ,but if his vein does not appear on the surface1 and he fails to guess its direction correctly1 and finds1 on developing1 that it does not cross the end lines of his claim1 he is suddenly cut off from all extra-lateral rights4 ,or should he1 in laying out his lines along the rough1 precipitous mountain-side1 fail to make his end lines parallel1 he again finds his rights limited4 ,nor has this law been made clearer by court decisions1 but rather it has been complicated4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,power ,,plant ,,at ,,jerome ,,park1 ,n4 ,y4 7,ingersoll-,sergeant ,duplex ,corliss ,condensing ,air ,compressor47 ,certainly this is a peculiar condition of affairs4 ,the century which has witnessed an advance from the hazel rod to the diamond drill1 from the spade to the steam shovel1 from fire softening to dynamite shattering2 a century during which a clumsy car pushed over cast-iron rails by a boy has grown to a cable train1 and a two-hundred-pound bucket raised by women has developed into a six-ton self-dumping skip hoisted by electricity2 a century productive of new devices which tunnel mountains1 cross ravines1 or sink through quicksands with equal ease2 a century which has seen the touch of a button and the turn of a wheel bring power from thirty miles away to light and drain the mine1 as well as operate the drills and hoist2 such a century closes with a law in force in the greatest mining country in the world which makes litigation one of the expected stages of mine development4 ,at the beginning of the century the mining engineer advised where to sink1 the manner of working1 and the method of dealing with the water3 to-day he must not only be a mining1 civil1 and hydraulic expert1 but a mechanical and electrical engineer1 a chemist1 and a lawyer4 ,the time was when he who leveled forests1 built himself a home1 and brought the land under cultivation1 was regarded as the true pioneer of civilization4 ,in later times the miner fairly divides this honor4 ,pursuing a hazardous occupation1 he has invaded most out-of-the-way and desolate places1 creating untold wealth1 founding towns and ,states1 and inviting vast and substantial populations4 ,by his industry and enterprise he has not only revealed the seventy-seven non-metallic underground products which in the ,united ,states alone1 in #ahii1 had a value approximating #ejj1jjj1jjj1 but the twelve metals--precious and useful--whose value in the same year approximated #bgj1jjj1jjj4 ,around his gold mines--deep and placer--have grown ,california1 ,nevada1 the ,dakotas1 ,colorado1 and even ,alaska2 while empires have sprung up at the sound of his pick and the introduction of his mighty machinery in ,australasia and ,south ,africa4 ,in the development of silver he has contributed wealth1 population1 and institutions to ,colorado1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,montana1 and ,arizona4 ,his iron and copper mines have transformed the barren coasts of the ,great ,lakes4 ,the quicksilver mines of ,southern ,california brought ,san ,jos and other towns to wealth and importance4 ,in the history of ,ureka and ,leadville1 ,col41 we have the romance of both the gold and lead mine4 ,and so1 whether the miner unearths the ores1 the coals1 the wonderful variety of buried materials which nature has provided for the use and comfort of mankind1 he so frequently becomes the source of wealth1 population1 and permanent civic organization as to give him high rank among the 8true pioneers of civilization40 ,,art ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,john ,v4 ,,sears1 ,art ,critic ,philadelphia 8,evening ,telegraph40 ,i4 ,,painting ,at no period since the ,renaissance has there been such marked progress in certain walks of art as during the period of reconstruction in the political1 social1 economic1 and sthetic world immediately following the ,french ,revolution of #agih4 ,the armies of ,france1 returning from the conquest of ,europe1 brought home to ,paris the treasures of art ravished from the great capital cities4 ,the vast public galleries and numerous private collections established under the first ,empire contained accumulations of pictures1 marbles1 bronzes1 tapestries1 decorations1 and bric--brac brought from ,italy1 from ,germany1 from the ,low ,countries1 from ,spain1 and even from ,russia and ,egypt1 of extent and value unparalleled in the history of the human race4 ,these treasures were dispersed under the ,restoration and returned to their former owners2 but1 in the meantime1 their educational influence upon the people of ,france1 and especially of ,paris1 had produced profound and permanent impressions which abide to this day4 ,to this practical education afforded by the models and examples of all that is noble and exalted1 gathered from the galleries and safe deposits of the civilized world1 ,france is primarily indebted for that cultured skill and that refinement of good taste which have enabled her to take and hold her acknowledged position as the leading nation in the realm of art in the nineteenth century4 ,at the beginning of the century the art of ,france was resting inert in the bonds of classic tradition4 ,academic conventionality held almost undisputed sway2 only a few painters of portraits1 as1 for example1 ,madame ,vige-,lebrun1 ,isabey1 and decorative artists like ,greuze1 venturing beyond the limits of the hard and fast rules prescribed by scholastic pedants4 ,the only subjects regarded as legitimate for artistic treatment were illustrations of mythology or of ,greek or ,roman literature4 ,sacred pictures illustrating the ,biblical narratives and lives of the saints were permitted for church adornment and for religious purposes2 but historic and story-telling pictures of the order now known as genre were classic in subject and academic in treatment4 ,even in portraiture1 where a likeness was the main consideration1 military heroes were represented in ,greek armor and distinguished civilians were invested with the dignity of the ,roman toga4 ,the high priest of ancient pagan worship in ,france during the first quarter of the century was ,jacques ,louis ,david 7#agdh-ahbe74 ,david was a master of such real power that he was court painter to ,louis ,,xvi41 director of ,fine ,arts under the ,republic1 and again court painter to the ,emperor ,napoleon4 ,his great work1 8,the ,oath of the ,horatii10 now in the ,louvre1 first exhibited in #aghd1 was universally admired and is still highly esteemed4 ,this was followed by a triumphal procession of classic compositions1 the most notable of which were 8,the ,rape of the ,sabines10 usually considered to be his masterpiece1 8,the ,death of ,socrates10 8,paris and ,helen10 and 8,brutus and ,his ,sons10 all of which have been reproduced many times in prints4 ,david was influenced1 late in his career1 by the romantic reaction1 as shown by his 8,napoleon ,crossing the ,alps0 and his 8,floating ,martyr10 but he championed classic art all his life1 his last words expressing an aspiration to paint the head of ,leonidas4 ,the downfall of the classic dominion in ,france was brought about by the revolt of ,gricault and ,delacroix1 about #ahbj4 ,jean ,louis ,gricault 7#agia-ahbd7 was declared by ,viardot to have revealed an era when liberty in art was revived together with political liberty1 joining the general movement of the human spirit in the march of progress toward independence4 ,his epoch-marking picture1 8,the ,raft of the ,medusa10 in the ,salon of #ahai1 created an intense excitement not only in artistic circles1 where it opened the battle between romance and classic tradition1 but also among the people4 ,instead of ,greek heroes1 posing like antique statues1 this thrilling picture portrayed a group of ,french sailors1 perishing amid the horrors of shipwreck and starvation1 the subject being a scene in the awful tragedy incident to the loss of the frigate ,medusa in #ahaf1 a calamity which the nation was then mourning with unspeakable grief4 ,women wept and strong men paled before this terrible illustration of human agonies endured unto death1 but the academicians attacked the work and the artist with almost savage fury4 ,gricault1 a genius1 sensitive and nervous1 quailing before the storm which beat upon him1 fled to ,england1 but1 pining in exile1 returned home1 only to die1 crushed and broken-hearted4 ,ferdinand ,victor ,eugne ,delacroix 7#agih-ahfc7 was a man of firmer fibre than his friend and fellow-student1 and his was the strong hand to take up the gage of battle when ,gricault fell in the fight4 ,for daring to depart from the classic traditions1 these two young painters of the commonplace subjects of every-day human tragedy and romantic drama were savagely denounced by the academicians as traitors1 as charlatans1 as assassins seeking to murder art4 ,the persecution killed ,gricault1 but ,delacroix laughed at it4 ,as ,thophile ,souvestre said of him3 8,the blindness of ignorance1 the intrigues and clamors of envy1 have not arrested him for an instant in his valiant and glorious course40 ,by the splendor of his genius and the virility of his work1 as shown in his great pictures1 8,the ,bride of ,abydos10 8,the ,two ,foscari10 8,the ,amende ,honorable10 and the magnificent series of ,oriental studies by which he is best known1 he established the romantic school on a firm basis and attracted to it nearly all the talented and promising young painters of ,paris4 ,among these students and unknown painters were many whose names subsequently became famous1 as ,horace ,vernet1 ,paul ,delaroche1 ,baron ,gros1 ,ary ,scheffer1 ,alexandre ,decamps1--artists whose noble productions gave to the romantic school its finest triumphs4 ,in the mean time1 classic art was ably and effectively supported by the distinguished labors of ,domnique ,ingres1 pupil and successor of ,david1 ,guillaume ,guillon-,lethire1 ,hippolyte ,flandrin1 and ,jean ,baptiste ,regnault4 ,the ,academy1 though defeated1 still lives1 and modern lovers of art find that1 especially in decorative design1 there is much to admire in classic subjects4 ,after the revolt of the romanticists the most important movement in the world of art also took place in ,france1 and is known as the 8,revolution of #ahcj40 ,to understand this movement it is necessary to consider the state of art in ,england1 as the 8men of #ahcj0 in ,france derived their inspiration from ,john ,constable1 an ,english landscape painter4 ,at the beginning of the century the two great artists of ,england were ,sir ,david ,wilkie and ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4 ,david ,wilkie 7#aghe-ahda7 was a portrait1 historic1 and genre painter1 and no ,english artist up to his time had ever attained such wide popularity as he enjoyed4 ,his pictures are all known the world over1 as witness such titles as 8,the ,rent ,day10 8,village ,politicians10 8,the ,blind ,fiddler10 8,king ,alfred in the ,neatherd's ,cottage10 8,the ,village ,festival10 8,reading the ,will10 8,the ,chelsea ,pensioners10 8,blind ,man's ,buff10 8,the ,village ,school10 and 8,john ,knox preaching40 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,holy ,,women ,,at ,,the ,,tomb4 ,joseph ,mallord ,william ,turner 7#agge-ahea7 was one of the most remarkable artists that ever lived2 a most original genius1 8without ancestors and without heirs40 ,he was a landscape painter and a most earnest and faithful student of nature1 as shown by his wonderful illustrations1 in black and white1 of the scenery of ,england and ,wales4 ,in his paintings1 however1 he interpreted rather than portrayed nature1 investing his subjects with the grandeur and glory of his imagination4 ,his pictures were 8golden dreams10 revealing the beauty1 the majesty1 the sadness1 and the terror inspired by nature1 not from observed details 8but from the image or ideal in his own mind40 ,of his many masterworks mention can only be made here of 8,crossing the ,brook10 8,dido in ,carthage10 8,palestrina10 8,the ,golden ,bough10 8,hannibal ,crossing the ,alps10 8,the ,slave ,ship10 8,battle of the ,nile10 8,burial of ,sir ,david ,wilkie at ,sea10 and perhaps the greatest of all1 8,the ,fighting ,tmraire40 ,turner created no school and left no successor1 but he made a distinct impression on the art of ,england by stimulating an active interest in landscape painting4 ,patrick ,nasmyth1 ,augustus ,wall ,callcott1 ,john ,linnell1 and a score of artists turned to the study of rural scenery1 with the result that they succeeded in establishing what is known as the ,norwich school of landscape art4 ,by far the most important name in the annals of this period1 after ,turner's1 is that of ,john ,constable 7#aggf-ahcg74 ,constable presents the contrast of diametric opposition to ,turner4 ,his pictures1 so far from being 8golden dreams10 are more like cast-iron realities4 ,when ,turner was an idealist1 ,constable was an uncompromising realist4 ,if the one painted poetry1 the other painted prose1 and often very rugged1 plain prose indeed4 ,while ,turner subordinated fact to fancy1 illuminating his subjects with the glow of his fervid imagination1 ,constable devoutly stood before nature in the attitude of a worshiper1 and faithfully labored to represent as truthfully as his powers permitted exactly what he beheld4 ,in contrast with the shining canvases of his brilliant contemporary1 ,constable's pictures seemed dark1 dull1 and heavy to the ,british public1 and the original genius of the conscientious artist was not recognized4 ,his greatest works1 8,dedham ,vale10 8,the ,white ,horse10 8,the ,hay ,cart10 8,stratford ,mill10 8,salisbury ,cathedral10 8,the ,rainbow10 and others were exhibited in succession during the second decade of the century1 before an indifferent public1 only his fellow artists and a few connoisseurs caring for them1 the painter meanwhile starving in neglect4 ,in #ahbd two of his pictures were shown in ,paris1 and were then instantly understood and appreciated4 ,they created a profound impression and1 as has been justly said1 inaugurated the second revolution of the century in the realm of art4 ,by this revolution the artists were driven out of their studios and out of the city1 to study nature in the spirit of humble sincerity shown by ,john ,constable4 ,among the young students who went forth to encounter poverty1 hardship1 and the severest toil were the 8men of #ahcj10 the founders of the ,barbizon school of painting4 ,millet1 ,rousseau1 ,diaz1 ,corot1 ,troyon1 ,daubigny1 and ,dupr left ,paris and the ways that then led to success1 and sacrificed themselves to what they saw to be the truth in art4 ,they carried the study of out-door nature further than ever before2 created the standard of modern landscape art1 and attained immortal fame1 though not until their leader and prototype had perished in poverty4 ,illustration3 ,,christmas ,,chimes4 7,,blashfield47 ,illustration3 ,,whispers ,,of ,,love4 7,,bouguereau47 ,jean ,franois ,millet 7#ahae-ahge7 has been called the greatest painter of the nineteenth century1 and his masterpiece1 8,the ,angelus10 is regarded by many as second only to the 8,sistine ,madonna0 of ,raphael in the brief catalogue of the world's artistic treasures4 ,he lived the life of a poor peasant in the rural village of ,barbizon1 attracting around him1 late in life1 the ablest of the 8men of #ahcj10 and producing there those works which have placed his name first on the annals of our time3 8,the ,sower10 8,waiting10 8,sheep-shearers10 8,woman ,carding10 8,the ,gleaners10 8,shepherdess and ,flock10 and the few others that constitute the tale of his exceedingly careful and long-considered compositions4 ,thodore ,rousseau 7#ahab-ahfg7 was declared1 by ,edmond ,about1 to be the ,moses who led the landscape painters of ,france out of the ,egyptian bondage of academic convention into the promised land of liberty1 where rivers ran water1 where trees were rooted in the ground1 and where animals lived1 moved1 and had their being4 ,as late as #ahdh the ,salon rejected ,rousseau's noble work1 8,the ,alley of ,chestnut ,trees10 one of the finest landscapes ever painted2 but this was the last act of the academic tyrants1 the foolish offense against the great master causing the old classic pedants to be relegated to oblivion4 ,rousseau took up his residence in ,barbizon1 and in the forest of ,fontainebleau and the adjoining country studied those rural and pastoral scenes that have given him his place as one of the first1 if not the very first1 of landscape painters4 ,of these magnificent examples of landscape art1 mention can only be made here of 8,the ,village10 8,a ,pool under ,oaks10 8,edge of the ,forest at ,barbizon10 8,a ,forest ,interior10 8,water ,course at ,sologne10 and 8,hoar ,frost10 these being the pictures best known to the public through reproductions in black and white4 ,if ,turner was a painter of 8golden dreams10 ,corot was a painter of silver dreams2 the pearly haze of early morning1 the pale sky and misty tree-forms of a gray day1 and the soft1 low tones of a still1 cloudy afternoon attracting his loving devotion and commanding the conscientious exercise of his skill4 ,jean ,baptiste ,camille ,corot 7#agif-ahge7 was certainly one of the happiest artists that ever lived4 ,like the other 8men of #ahcj10 he was ostracized by the ,academy1 and he was never allowed to receive the first medal of the ,salon1 but he had every other honor and compensation1 and1 late in life1 was given a magnificent gold medal by popular subscription4 ,for many years he could not sell a single picture1 but1 being fortunately independent1 in a modest way1 he continued to paint the subjects which1 as he said1 delighted his heart1 and to treat them1 as he again said1 8with truth to your own instincts1 to your own method of seeing1 with what ,i call conscientiousness and sincerity40 ,in due time ,corot conquered his world and1 in the height of his career1 was earning not less than #ej1jjj a year by his brush4 ,he was a constant visitor at ,barbizon1 maintained a close intimacy with his friends1 there1 and studied in the vicinity many of the hundreds of landscapes his industrious and tireless hand rejoicingly produced4 ,jules ,dupr 7#ahab-ahhi7 and ,charles ,franois ,daubigny 7#ahag-ahgh7 are distinguished members of the 8#ahcj0 group1 each standing at the head of the department of landscape art to which he was especially devoted4 ,narcisse-,virgil ,diaz de la ,pea1 called ,diaz 7#ahjg-ahgf71 another of the fraternity1 was not technically so thoroughly trained as his fellows1 but he was a stronger colorist than any of them and a romanticist of the most pronounced type4 ,constant ,troyon 7#ahaj-ahfe7 was the most eminent cattle-painter of the century4 ,he came on the scene after the revolt of ,gricault was accomplished1 but was in full sympathy with the movement1 and is usually accounted as one of the revolutionists4 ,so also with ,jean ,leon ,grme 7#ahbd71 an artist surviving to the close of the century4 ,he first exhibited in #ahdg1 but he took up the line of ,oriental romance1 following ,delacroix1 and made so strong an impression with his illustrations of the splendors and glories of the ,east that his influence in art will be felt for generations to come4 ,after attaining fame as a painter1 ,grme also developed marked ability as a sculptor4 ,in strict chronological order the birth of the pre-,raphaelite movement in art preceded the 8revolution of #ahcj10 as the event actually occurred in ,rome1 about #ahab4 ,the movement was not originally known by the name subsequently given it1 and it did not attain to more than local importance until it was fully developed in ,england1 about #ahej4 ,it is to the great ,german artist1 ,peter von ,cornelius 7#aghc-ahfg71 that the honor of originating the pre-,raphaelite revolution must be given4 ,in #ahaa ,cornelius went to ,rome and soon became the master spirit of the 8,brotherhood of ,painters10 popularly called 8,nazarites10 banded together for the study of the thirteenth-century ,italians1 ,cimabue and ,giotto1 and their successors in the century following1 ,gaddi1 ,simoni1 and ,orcagna4 ,this ,brotherhood was afterward imitated by ,rossetti in ,london1 and its purposes more fully developed2 but it was the young ,german enthusiasts of the previous generation who affected a revival of the pure religious spirit1 the devout simplicity1 and the absolute sincerity of the ,italian artists before the era of ,raphael4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,girls ,,playing ,,at ,,ball4 7,,leighton47 ,cornelius returned to ,germany in #ahaf1 became the founder of what is known as the ,munich school of painting1 and was made director of the ,art ,institute of that city4 ,he exercised a controlling influence in the evolution of modern ,german art and1 indirectly1 on art in ,england and in ,america4 ,his pupil and successor1 ,wilhelm von ,kaulbach 7#ahje-ahgd71 imparted vitality and power to the ,munich school1 attracting to his classes students from all civilized countries4 ,during the second and third quarters of this century1 ,kaulbach reigned as the first artist of ,germany and one of the first in the world4 ,dante ,gabriel ,rossetti 7#ahbh-ahhb7 founded his pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood in ,london1 with ,john ,everett ,millais--subsequently president of the ,royal ,academy--and ,william ,holman ,hunt1 in #ahdh4 ,the pre-,raphaelite movement gave a richer and stronger color to ,english painting in the latter half of the century1 and also awakened general interest in early ,christian art1 that is1 the art of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,beyond this1 ,rossetti's new departure1 though widely advertised by ,john ,ruskin1 had very little permanent effect4 ,millais soon left the ,brotherhood and produced his master-works1 the greatest historic-genre pictures of his time1 in ,england1 after outliving pre-,raphaelite influences4 ,little known outside of ,england1 that movement did not entirely absorb ,british art1 as proved by such a man as ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 a master of portraiture1 who made studies of many of the most notable men of the century in ,england1 besides many imaginative works of great interest4 ,others were ,holman ,hunt1 with his powerful religious conceptions1 and the talented ,landseer family1 the youngest member of which1 ,edwin1 is world-famous for his animal pictures4 ,the critic and philosopher1 ,john ,ruskin1 studied art and became a proficient draughtsman1 although never using his skill professionally4 ,his literary works on art1 however1 have had so wide an influence that it seems just to include him in the list of contributors to art's progress in this era4 ,his criticism of the fantastic productions of ,james ,mc,neill ,whistler brought forth a controversy and law suit1 resulting in a verdict of damages of one farthing to the injured artist1 and enough advertising gratis to secure his fame4 ,the genius of the latter for achieving artistic effects and personal notoriety are equal to his skill in avoiding oblivion4 ,he is a unique and interesting figure1 despite his abnormal vanity1 for his unquestionable talent in many lines of art1 and is ,american by birth1 ,english by adoption1 and now ,french by force of circumstances4 ,edwin ,abbey is also an adopted son of ,britain1 although born in ,america4 ,he is better known through illustrative work in black and white1 but his superb decorations in the ,boston ,public ,library testify to his great skill as a colorist4 ,the most illustrious growth of foreign seed on ,british soil has been ,lorenz ,alma ,tadema1 whose wonderful representations of ,greek and ,roman life place him hors concours as an artist1 and hold before our eyes a mirror of ancient days4 ,sir ,frederick ,leighton1 the recently deceased president of the ,royal ,academy1 was a true ,briton and a leader of modern art in ,england1 as also was ,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,thompson ,butler1 with her patriotic war pictures1 as vigorous as any man's could be4 ,a talented young artist1 whose untimely death cut short a promising career1 was ,frederick ,walker1 who is said to have been the original of 8,little ,billee0 in ,du ,maurier's famous novel of student life in the ,latin ,quarter1 8,trilby40 ,that masterpiece takes us into the art atmosphere of ,paris1 and we readily understand why there is the centre of the artistic circle4 ,illustration3 ,,landseer ,,and ,,his ,,favorites4 7,,by ,,himself47 ,from thence have risen most of the great modern names1 one of the greatest and most honored being that of ,rosa ,bonheur1 who has received all possible distinction as an artist and reverence as a woman4 ,her animal pictures1 especially horses and cattle1 are known the world over1 and the story of her early struggle for study1 disguised as a boy1 that she might work unmolested where a girl could hardly have gone1 is well known1 yet she never renounced an atom of her womanliness in adopting masculine attire4 ,it is hard to avoid dwelling on the lives and works of the modern masters1 but we must pass over the intermediate period between the revolt of #ahcj and our own day1 touching only an especially shining light here and there1 such as ,jules ,breton1 with his sturdy peasants2 ,lon ,bonnat1 ,alexandre ,cabanel1 and ,carolus ,duran1 with their elegant distingu portraiture4 ,besides these are ,edouard ,dtaille and ,alphonse de ,neuville1 showing faithful studies of soldier life and action2 ,eugne ,fromentin1 with his picturesque ,arabs2 and the decorative allegories of ,puvis de ,chavannes4 ,the brilliant ,spaniards1 ,mariano ,fortuny and ,don ,frederick ,madrazo1 are practically ,frenchmen in their art1 although each is distinctly individual in manner4 ,we must also mention ,vibert1 with his delightful little satires on the human frailities of the holy fathers of the ,church1 and ,meissonier1 the master of exquisite finish in detail1 and ,passini1 with his small canvases crowded with ,oriental figures glowing with color4 ,in addition to the great ,french names of this time are ,defregger1 of the ,munich ,school2 ,israels of ,amsterdam1 ,schreyer of ,frankfort1 whose works all hold that quality dear to the popular heart1 but despised by the high priests of lofty criticism nowadays1 that is1 they have a story to tell1 and they tell it4 ,at the time these men were telling their artistic tales in ,europe1 such men as ,washington ,allston1 the first great painter in this country2 ,thomas ,sully1 whose rare works in portraiture entitled him to paint the ,queen of ,england1 ,victoria1 when a girl2 ,henry ,inman1 also a great portrait painter2 ,george ,fuller1 a painter of poetic dreams2 and many others of talent1 had said their say in ,america4 ,almost with the beginning of the new country1 public interest had been roused in the fine arts by the efforts of such men as ,gilbert ,stuart and the ,peales1 ,charles and ,rembrandt1 who bridged the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries together1 and labored to advance the cause of art4 ,schools and academies1 with adequate galleries for exhibition purposes1 became necessary2 and such institutions as the ,pennsylvania ,academy of the ,fine ,arts and the ,national ,academy of ,design in ,new ,york were established4 ,the latter was started in #ahjb1 but did not receive its charter until #ahjh2 so the ,pennsylvania ,academy1 which was incorporated in ,philadelphia in #ahjf1 was really the first of its kind in the country4 ,in #ahjg1 the minutes bearing the date of ,october #h record as follows3 8,until the funds of the institution will admit of opening a school on a more extended plan1 persons of good character shall be permitted to make drawings from the statues and busts belonging to the ,academy10 thus showing the humble beginning of art education in ,america4 ,naturally1 for many years the facilities for learning were too limited to supply more than rudimentary instruction1 and the pilgrimage to ,paris was a necessity before an artist could feel qualified to launch out professionally4 ,in these latter days that need no longer exists1 for the great art schools of ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,boston1 ,chicago1 and ,st4 ,louis can amply provide all that is required2 but the charm of the ,latin ,quarter still draws as a magnet all who can afford to go there4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,horse ,,fair4 7,,rosa ,,bonheur47 ,in that centre is a constant mingling of ideas from all sources seeking new forms of expression1 out of which proceed the impulses that vibrate through the world of current art4 ,naturally enough many of the new departures are futile experiments1 short lived and not sufficiently important to discuss2 but within recent years the movement known as impressionism has been so widespread in influence1 so radical in method1 and so vital in result1 that it has doubtless produced a permanent effect on art4 ,like its predecessor1 the renaissance after the dark ages1 this mouvement moderne was an upheaval of all forms of expression2 and in painting it seemed as if a wave of dazzling color had burst over the studios1 drenching the canvases with rainbow tints1 flooding the exhibition galleries with bewildering brilliance4 ,the unaccustomed eye was overwhelmed1 and the confused and wondering public burst into loud outcry against the insane folly of these mad young painters1 who showed purple and green gridirons1 speckled with green and streaked with scarlet1 and called them landscapes1 marines1 and figure studies as they chose4 ,of course the pendulum swung to its limit1 the radicals carrying things to extremes after the fashion of their kind1 and making foolish caricatures of work that was really great4 ,by degrees1 however1 sober sense prevailed1 the new ideas became better understood1 the public point of view changed1 and it was seen that there was method in this madness4 ,the new movement was intended simply to interpret what the artist saw most forcibly expressed by any given subject1 or1 as the name implies1 to record his first impression and convey the idea rather by suggestion than by explicit statement and detail4 ,applied to out-of-door subjects1 these principles were carried out by the plein air colorists1 as they were styled1 from their efforts to suggest atmosphere glowing with light1 a feeling of space and sunshine4 ,edouard ,manet was the leader of the new school in figure work1 and ,claude ,monet in landscape4 ,no two styles could be more widely different save in their mutual abhorrence of detail2 the first dark1 heavy1 and sombre in color2 the latter luminous and palpitating1 every conceivable tint vibrating into harmony1 an example which is followed in this country by ,childe ,hassam1 often successfully1 but sometimes with extravagance4 ,after reaching extreme high-water mark1 the flood of brilliance has somewhat subsided1 and latter-day painters do not find it necessary to observe the world through a prism4 ,while returning to more sober statements of simple truth1 without trying to copy a kaleidoscope1 the vision men have had of pure color sparkling with light has given them an insight into ,mother ,nature's method that has left a lasting impression upon the minds and manners of the best workers and lifted the whole tone of modern painting4 ,whether one was prepared to enjoy truly impressionistic pictures or not1 the force of them in a collection of works in the old manner of hard outline and heavy shadow could not fail to be felt like a beam of light in a dark room4 ,however one might protest against the invader1 the old friends looked dull and flat after a time1 in spite of the most determined loyalty4 ,the style of the ,hudson ,river school was narrow and petty1 full of trifling little details1 the color often being forced and theatrical in effect4 ,the striking scenery of that noble stream inspired the efforts of ,american landscape painters of the two decades from #ahcj to #ahej4 ,asher ,b4 ,durand was a leader among them1 and for many years the manner of a generation past held sway until the new method forced a place for itself4 ,it was an amusing experience in following exhibitions of late years to see1 one after another1 the leaders1 long established in their own particular methods1 finally breaking away from lifelong habits and coming into line with the new movement1 some keeping step bravely with the vigorous newcomers1 some halting along with pitiful attempts at a jaunty stride4 ,the strong men neither hung back in sulky indifference nor flung themselves wildly about in exuberant freedom1 but kept quietly on the even tenor of their way1 absorbing what was best in the new1 holding fast to what was best in the old1 and producing the kind of work that is independent of schools and eras1 but intrinsically great in itself4 ,in ,paris1 the younger workers who began sending strange wild landscape and figure pictures to the exhibition at the ,salon of the ,champs ,elyses1 the most important annual exhibition in the world1 were indignantly rejected by the horrified jury of selection4 ,equally indignant at their treatment1 the young painters1 who felt themselves to be the coming men1 gathered their rejected treasures together in an independent exhibition of their own1 and established a rival salon in the ,champ de ,mars1 which has come to hold an equal footing in the world of art with the older institution4 ,by reference to 8men0 we do not at all exclude women1 for there is no sex in art1 and women of our time paint as well as men1 folding equal rank in the exhibitions1 equal places on the juries of selection1 and receiving equal honors and awards4 ,one of the foremost women of the day is a ,philadelphian1 ,miss ,cecilia ,beaux1 whose portraiture ranks among the highest4 ,miss ,mary ,d4 ,cassatt is also a ,philadelphian1 although long resident in ,paris1 and highly esteemed there4 ,her name is mentioned in a recent notice of a ,salon exhibition among those of distinguished men1 which concluded with the words 8and other strong men10 meaning thereby no grain of disrespect to the woman1 but only honor to the artist1 classifying her as among the first painters of the time4 ,important exhibitions nowadays are likely to contain strong works by many women1 such as portraits by ,mrs4 ,sarah ,sears of ,boston or ,mrs4 ,rosina ,emmet ,sherwood of ,new ,york1 child studies by ,ellen ,k4 ,baker1 or animal studies by ,mrs4 ,helen ,c4 ,hovenden1 widow of the late master of modern genre1 ,thomas ,hovenden1 whose untimely death the art-loving public of this country has not ceased to mourn4 ,his faithful studies of ,american domestic life have touched the people1 who are1 after all1 the final art critics1 despite the claims of those who feel themselves especially qualified by taste and training to tell others what they must and must not like4 ,many times public opinion has been unduly slow in setting the seal of its approval on worthy works1 but once established in the heart of the populace1 immortality is assured1 and that place belongs preminently to ,thomas ,hovenden1 as proved by the throngs that stood before his picture 8,breaking the ,home ,ties10 at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago4 ,that cosmopolitan collection showed1 among other interesting developments1 a strong school of vigorous young ,norsemen1 hardy vikings of art from ,scandinavia1 of whom ,anders ,zorn was the leader1 with a variety of figure subjects1 studied indoors and out1 with an unconventional freedom and dash as inspiring as the breezes of his native fjords4 ,prince ,eugene1 the handsome popular second son of the ,king of ,sweden1 was no mean contributor to this school4 ,fritz von ,thaulow is a ,norwegian by birth1 but being well recognized in ,france he has taken up his abode at ,dieppe1 although still finding inspiration in his native land4 ,he is an exponent of the theory of tone in painting1 as it is technically termed4 ,this refers to the quality of harmony1 or perfect balance of light and shade and color4 ,it does not depend upon the key of the picture1 whether light and bright or dark and sombre1 but consists in keeping the relations of the different masses of color true to each other1 the small details subdued to their proper places1 yet each having its correct value in the whole4 ,the ,scotch painters1 stimulated no doubt by the success of their literary brethren1 have established the ,glasgow school of art1 most original in its methods1 and in some cases highly peculiar in its results1 but with unquestionable strength in its more serious and less fantastic work4 ,john ,lavery is a leader among these men4 ,germany prides herself on one of the greatest painters of modern times in the person of ,adolph ,friedrich ,menzel1 a ,prussian1 born #ahae1 contemporary with ,meissonier4 ,as the latter was devoted to the ,emperor of the ,french1 so was ,menzel to his hero1 ,frederick the ,great1 and their vivid portrayals of their respective sovereigns will keep the personality of these conquerors fresh as long as art lasts4 ,for many years ,menzel has been artist laureate to the court at ,berlin1 painting ,hohenzollern family portraits1 battle pieces and scenes of court splendor in the most masterly manner4 ,the ,hungarian1 ,munkacsy1 has been widely known by his huge religious works1 lately exhibited in this country1--8,christ before ,pilate0 and the 8,crucifixion40 ,his work shows great power and much originality in conception1 although often somewhat morbid1 a not unnatural condition1 as the unfortunate artist has become hopelessly insane4 ,the opposite extreme of expression is to be found in the gorgeous coloring and superb compositions of ,hans ,makart of ,vienna1 notably his 8,coronation of ,catherine ,cornaro at ,venice40 ,a revival of interest in religious subjects has recently appeared1 possibly stimulated by the work of ,mr4 ,james ,tissot1 a ,parisian1 who has given ten years to the production of a series of careful studies of the life of ,christ4 ,these little paintings1 numbering some five hundred in all1 are the result of close research in the ,holy ,land into the conditions of life and customs which prevailed at the time of ,christ1 and are a tribute of religious devotion4 ,whether through this influence or not1 ,dagnan-,bouveret has been inspired to paint a number of strong scenes of biblical subjects1 two conceptions of the ,last ,supper being very powerful4 ,a young colored man1 ,h4 ,o4 ,tanner1 has achieved success on similar lines1 an 8,annunciation0 recently shown giving evidence of deep and original thought4 ,curiously enough1 the women painters of distinction do not seem to be given to religious subjects4 ,one serious lack in most of the work exhibited in recent years is the absence of any importance in subject4 ,the artists have been so concerned to express what they saw in the simplest manner1 that they have carefully avoided seeing or thinking about anything but the simplest things to be expressed4 ,while some powerful work has resulted1 it has often been labor worthy of a better cause1 for the pictures produced have had little to tell beyond the skill of the painter4 ,a nobly painted cabbage field1 or a superbly handled stone wall with the tail of a woman's skirt disappearing around a corner1 may be masterly painting1 but it is not great art2 and it is to be hoped that the day of meaningless canvases will soon pass1 and the coming painters will not be content to discourse grandly about nothing4 ,illustration3 ,,at ,,the ,,shrine ,,of ,,venus4 7,,alma ,,tadema47 ,among the leaders of current art in ,america1 the place of honor in portraiture belongs to ,john ,s4 ,sargent1 who easily ranks with ,boldini and ,benjamin ,constant in ,paris4 ,he is closely followed by ,edmund ,c4 ,tarbell1 ,john ,h4 ,alexander1 with his love for long flowing graceful lines of drapery1 ,robert ,vonnoh1 and ,william ,m4 ,chase4 ,john ,mc,clure ,hamilton has made some striking studies of some of the most prominent people of our time1 among them ,gladstone and ,pope ,leo ,,xiii4 ,elihu ,vedder1 ,john ,la,farge1 ,will ,h4 ,low1 ,carroll ,beckwith1 ,abbott ,thayer1 and ,e4 ,h4 ,blashfield are figure painters whose subjects are frequently of a decorative or semi-religious character4 ,the latter is noted for his literary as well as artistic ability4 ,george ,h4 ,boughton1 though called an ,american1 really belongs to ,england1 where he paints interior genre subjects usually of olden times4 ,john ,swan1 the animal painter1 is also ,english4 ,the names of ,moran and ,sartain are distinguished in the history of ,american art1 each family having contributed several generations of talented painters4 ,the elders were contemporary with ,daniel ,huntington1 long president of the ,national ,academy of ,design1 and ,eastman ,johnson1 whose 8,old ,kentucky ,home0 was famous4 ,william ,t4 ,dannat1 ,herbert ,denman1 ,frederick ,bridgman1 and ,f4 ,l4 ,weeks are all strong figure painters1 the last two being especially given to ,oriental subjects4 ,winslow ,homer includes figures with his marine studies1 often presenting groups of peasants on a stormy shore1 while ,alexander ,harrison and ,w4 ,t4 ,richards usually confine themselves to marines pure and simple4 ,the ragged1 dirty little street ,arabs of ,j4 ,g4 ,brown have been exceedingly popular1 and so have the landscapes of ,h4 ,bolton ,jones4 ,the list of modern landscape painters really deserving of mention is far too long to give in anything like complete mention4 ,a few leaders1 such as ,charles ,h4 ,davis1 ,homer ,martin1 the late ,william ,t4 ,picknell1 and ,george ,inness must suffice to close our talk on the painters of this century4 ,,ii4 ,,sculpture4 ,human progress seems to advance in waves1 sending forerunners to announce the gathering tide2 and the ebb and flow of force is felt in all manner of endeavor1 but in nothing so instantly or accurately as in the fine arts1 the most sensitive and subtle forms of human expression4 ,the plastic arts are as keen to record these changes as the pictorial1 and the coming power of the nineteenth century found a few prophets in the dying years of the century passing away4 ,antonio ,canova 7#ageg-ahbb71 born near ,venice1 left many graceful and delicately finished works4 ,his 8,three ,graces0 and group of 8,cupid and ,psyche0 are well known1 also his colossal bust of ,napoleon and seated statue of ,washington for the ,state of ,carolina4 ,france produced a master in ,jean ,antoine ,houdon 7#agda-ahbh71 more vigorous than his contemporaries1 as seen in his powerful work1 the seated statue of ,voltaire4 ,his statue of ,washington1 in the state capitol of ,virginia1 while preserving a faithful likeness1 has a singular air of ,french elegance4 ,despite his strength1 ,houdon was not more accurate in study than the great ,dane ,thorwaldsen1 born at ,copenhagen1 #aggj4 ,his famous 8,lion of ,luzerne0 is known to all tourists1 and his bas-reliefs are familiar the world over4 ,his chief religious works1 the colossal figures of ,christ and the twelve apostles1 are in the church at ,copenhagen1 where he died in #ahdd4 ,the greatest name of this period in ,england was ,john ,flaxman 7#agee-ahbf71 who was as successful a teacher as he was a worker in his art4 ,he was the originator of the cameo designs on the ,wedgwood ware1 being particularly happy in delicate reliefs4 ,christian ,daniel ,rauch 7#aggg-aheg7 achieved the place of honor among ,german sculptors of this time by his heroic imperial monuments1 of which the most important is the equestrian statue of ,frederick the ,great4 ,although1 for many generations1 ,rome was the ,mecca of artistic pilgrims1 and most of the great names have at one time or another been enrolled upon the list of students sojourning within her gates1 the race characteristics of each strong mind were liable to find expression in spite of classic training2 and when the mature artist brought forth his own creations independent of the touch of school or master1 they were likely to present his own national tendencies of thought4 ,of late years1 with increased facilities for studying other art centres1 of intercommunication of ideas by travel and increasing duplication of works of art by various reproductive processes1 the 8art atmosphere0 seems to have extended so as to absorb1 and in a great measure obliterate1 distinct lines of racial difference in manners of expression1 the fundamental principles of truth being more generally sought for and applied4 ,thus1 the unmistakably ,teutonic aspect of ,german sculpture in the early half of this century shows in the great monument to 8,german ,unity10 by ,schilling1 at ,niederwald on the ,rhine1 and the ,walhalla decorations1 by ,ludwig ,schwanthaler1 for ,king ,louis of ,bavaria4 ,german seriousness of purpose lends a dignity of appearance1 even if it becomes somewhat grandiose at times1 and ,german painstaking accuracy perfects the technique even to the finish of small details4 ,during the same periods1 in ,italy1 the classic influence was more dominant where the ,roman school still held sway1 and delicacy deteriorated into insipidity1 and finish became finical4 ,religious and classic subjects were most frequently produced1 beside more vital work in portraits1 statues1 and busts4 ,some there were who struggled for freedom1 among them ,lorenzo ,bartolini 7#aggg-ahej71 a ,florentine professor1 whose group1 entitled 8,charity10 is in the ,pitti ,palace4 ,luigi ,pampaloni achieved a surprising fame for his figures of children1 one of which1 from a monument on a ,polish sepulchre1 has been widely copied in cheap plaster under the erroneous title of 8,the ,praying ,samuel40 ,illustration3 ,,napoleon ,i4 7,,canova47 ,in ,france1 the advance of sculpture has been more continual and consistent1 the national artistic temperament finding abundant means of expression in the plastic art4 ,the ,french dramatic instinct has a sure perception of the effect of a pose1 the value of graceful or vigorous lines and the balance of proportion1 so that whether under bonds to academic tradition in matters of technique1 or broken loose and working under individual inspiration1 the ,french sculptor is likely to create an artistic result4 ,the minds of the common people are more awakened to artistic impressions through the general excellence of the public monuments and sculptural decorations1 so freely displayed throughout the land1 than are the masses in countries where art is at a low standard4 ,until after the middle of the century1 ,french sculpture1 like the rest1 was mainly of smooth and delicate finish and inclined to be romantic1 though ,franois ,rude was powerful and vigorous1 as shown in his patriotic group 8,le ,chant du ,dpart0 on the ,arc de ,triomphe4 ,in ,england1 the seeds of ,flaxman's sowing slowly began to bear fruit in an awakening public interest1 though the earlier efforts were sedate and conventional rather than spirited1 the most important works being dignified and stately monuments and memorials4 ,westmacott 7#aggg-ahef71 ,francis ,chantrey 7#aghb-ahda71 whose large fortune was bequeathed to the ,royal ,academy as the 8,chantrey ,fund20 ,john ,gibson 7#agia-ahff71 a pupil of ,canova2 ,henry ,weeks 7#ahjg-ahgg71 who made the first bust of ,victoria as ,queen2 and ,alfred ,g4 ,stevens 7#ahag-ahge71 are a few of the more notable men of the past generation4 ,thomas ,woolner 7#ahbe-ahib7 expressed the feeling of the pre-,raphaelite movement in sculpture1 as did ,hunt1 ,burne-,jones1 and ,rossetti in painting4 ,illustration3 ,,statue ,,of ,,benjamin ,,franklin4 7,,boyle47 ,american sculpture began with the new century and1 like most ,american growths1 began in a very small way2 for although ,rush had made a few figures1 notably a fountain now in ,fairmount ,park1 one of the first pieces of sculptural work in the country was that of a poor ,new ,jersey stone-cutter1 ,john ,frazee1 who tried to comfort himself for the death of his child by making a memorial figure of him1 although he had never seen a statue4 ,from this meagre beginning started a line of ever-increasing strength1 until now1 in the plastic arts1 as in all others1 we can hold our own with the best in the world4 ,of course the earlier students1 led by ,horatio ,greenough1 of ,boston1 ,hiram ,powers1 of ,vermont1 and ,thomas ,crawford1 of ,new ,york1 made their way to ,rome1 where they applied the traditional methods to traditional subjects with conventional results4 ,greenough's colossal statue of ,washington is in the ,capitol grounds2 ,powers's 8,greek ,slave0 is owned by the ,duke of ,cleveland2 and ,crawford's 8,orpheus seeking ,eurydice10 now in the ,boston ,museum1 and 8,colossal ,liberty0 in the ,capitol1 are his best-known works4 ,erastus ,palmer1 of ,albany1 contemporary with these1 developed his talent at home1 and secured models and subjects from his own neighborhood1 giving a distinctly ,american character to his work4 ,among the most noted of the ,american colony at ,rome1 although not particularly given to ,american subjects1 was ,william ,wetmore ,story1 of ,salem1 ,mass41 born in #ahai4 ,thomas ,ball1 born in the same ,state in the same year1 was of the same class in ,rome2 but his themes are more patriotic1 notably the 8,emancipation0 group in ,washington4 ,harriet ,hosmer is the first feminine name on the ,american list of sculptors4 ,she also settled in ,rome1 where she completed many works4 ,william ,henry ,rinehart and ,randolph ,rogers were both of the idealist school1 the latter completing ,crawford's unfinished ,washington monument at ,richmond4 ,the name of ,rogers is more commonly connected with the familiar little statuette groups of every-day domestic scenes so appealing to the popular taste4 ,the sculptor ,john ,rogers1 of ,massachusetts1 has also made a few large works1 among them the equestrian statue of ,general ,reynolds1 before the ,city ,hall1 ,philadelphia4 ,henry ,kirke ,browne 7#ahad-ahhf7 made a number of equestrian statues of note1 one of ,washington being the first bronze actually cast in ,america4 ,his figure of ,general ,scott was cast from captured cannon1 relics of the ,mexican war4 ,his pupils1 ,larkin ,meade and ,j4 ,q4 ,a4 ,ward1 both attained high places1 the latter being especially prominent in the progress of ,american sculpture through such works as his colossal ,washington for the ,new ,york ,treasury ,building1 and his 8,indian ,hunter10 8,pilgrim10 and 8,shakespeare10 in ,central ,park4 ,after the middle of the century1 ,french art became emotional and dramatic1 the notorious 8,dance0 for the ,paris ,opera ,house1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,carpeaux1 being one of the first of the new utterances4 ,paul ,dubois was less astonishing in manner1 and ,henri ,chapu was still more restrained1 although far more vital than the old conventional school4 ,the name of ,frdric ,auguste ,bartholdi should be known to every ,american by reason of his colossal statue of 8,liberty ,enlightening the ,world10 now standing sentinel in ,new ,york harbor4 ,this1 and his figure of ,lafayette offering his services to ,washington1 were presented to ,america by the ,french government4 ,antoine ,louis ,barye 7#agie-ahge7 was a sculptor sui generis1 a law unto himself of his own development2 and though he has many followers1 as a sculptor of animals he has no rivals4 ,in many branches of art he was proficient1 but his best-known works are the marvelous studies of animal life1 modeled with infinite skill4 ,when the great wave of impressionism rose and flooded the land1 carrying music1 literature1 and the drama before it1 plastic art as well as pictorial was caught up too1 and whirled into a variety of strange forms4 ,auguste ,rodin led the new movement in sculpture1 his manner being copied with varying degrees of success by lesser lights1 and like all new movements run to foolish extremes by incompetent followers4 ,his heroic group1 8,the ,bourgeois of ,calais10 will indicate his style4 ,from extreme realism on one side1 with portrait statues in the last detail of modern costume1 silk hats1 kid gloves1 and in one case holding a cigar1 to the vague suggestions of a shapeless mass of marble1 out of which protrude unfinished limbs and half-developed heads1 sculpture has been pushed from side to side1 but is settling into a vigorous1 steady1 onward movement1 in which the best men of all nations stride along together4 ,in the limits of a short article it is impossible to mention all deserving names1 but a few will serve as types1 and the ,americans are well worthy to head the list4 ,daniel ,french's grand majestic golden figure of ,liberty1 towering above the ,court of ,honor1 the imperial hostess of the ,world's ,fair at ,chicago1 placed him at once on a pedestal of fame4 ,from the prominence of his beautiful ,columbian ,fountain opposite the golden ,goddess1 ,frederick ,mac,monnies became known the land over4 ,his greatest late work is the crowning of the soldiers' and sailors' memorial arch for ,prospect ,park1 ,brooklyn1 with a colossal quadriga of ,triumph and groups of the army and navy4 ,augustus ,st4 ,gaudens1 though a cosmopolitan1 is truly an ,american sculptor of the first rank1 whose statues of ,admiral ,farragut in ,new ,york1 ,lincoln in ,chicago1 and the sturdy ,puritan1 ,chapin1 in ,springfield1 ,mass41 are well known4 ,olin ,warner is another distinctively ,american product1 although he had the advantage of some training in ,paris4 ,his work is ,french in technique but not ,french in spirit1 having the native traits of freedom and originality1 as shown in his figure of ,william ,lloyd ,garrison1 and later in his relief portraits on the art building at the ,columbian ,fair4 ,this great occasion offered opportunities to ,american sculptors of which they took full advantage1 showing the high rank to which they were entitled4 ,it made an ,american of ,carl ,bitter1 the talented ,austrian1 whose decorations on the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,station1 ,philadelphia1 are well known4 ,it added further lustre to the name of ,john ,j4 ,boyle1 whose heroic 8,indian ,mother0 in ,fairmount ,park1 and seated statue of ,benjamin ,franklin1 are matters of just pride to ,philadelphians4 ,it gave prominence to such men as ,lorado ,taft1 with his graceful work on the ,horticultural ,building2 ,philip ,martiny1 on the ,agricultural ,building2 the great ,columbus quadriga1 by ,e4 ,c4 ,potter and ,daniel ,french1 whose beautiful relief of 8,death ,staying the ,hand of the ,sculptor0 is a masterpiece4 ,all visitors to the ,white ,city will remember the vigorous animal studies by ,edward ,kemys1 and the ,indian figures of ,a4 ,c4 ,proctor4 ,the sculptural commissions of the ,congressional ,library in ,washington have produced a remarkable collection of works by talented ,americans1 and every great exhibition brings interesting examples from those already named1 and such others as ,herbert ,adams1 ,edwin ,elwell1 ,bessie ,potter1 with her dainty little statuettes1 portrait work by ,charles ,grafly1 ,catherine ,cohen1 ,c4 ,e4 ,dallin1 strange visionary suggestions1 in the ,rodin manner1 by ,george ,bonnard1 and an array of lesser names too numerous to mention4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,washington ,,monument1 ,,fairmount ,,park4 ,for this reason1 but few of the notable names of modern foreigners can be given4 ,however1 ,hamo ,thornycroft1 of ,england1 must not be overlooked1 whose famous 8,mower0 is much admired2 nor ,onslow ,ford1 more youthful and romantic in style4 ,john ,henry ,foley1 of ,dublin1 has had a pronounced effect on ,english sculpture1 being a successful teacher1 including among his pupils several distinguished women1 among them the ,princess ,louise and the ,earl of ,elgin's granddaughter1 ,miss ,grant4 ,george ,tinworth's terra cotta reliefs must conclude the list of ,english works4 ,a few ,russians have reached eminence1 mainly by animal studies4 ,antocolski1 a ,jew of ,wilna1 of poorest parentage1 has done powerful figure work of a serious1 rather melancholy sort1 the most important being a 8,christ ,bound40 ,what is best in modern ,italian and ,german work is practically ,french1 and of the ,french themselves the list is too long to complete4 ,a few must suffice1 such as ,jean ,alexandre ,falguire1 who aspires1 like ,carpeaux1 to give vitality by means of vigorous action to his figures4 ,emanuel ,frmiet has worn with some distinction the mantle descended from ,barye's shoulders4 ,vidal1 another pupil of ,barye1 was blind for twenty years1 yet gained two medals for correct anatomy in his modeling4 ,carrier ,belleuse's 8,hebe ,asleep0 is an example of the delicate style1 and ,alfred ,boucher shows the other extreme in his rendering of sturdy masculine figures1 toiling or racing1 striving to present in sculpture the picture of human struggle for existence1 as did ,millet in his paintings4 ,these materialistic studies represent the fight for the bread and breath of life1 while the impressionist contortions of the ,rodin school try to suggest the conflict of emotions1 good and bad1 and the battle of spiritual and physical desires and development4 ,,iii4 ,,ceramics ,,and ,,glass ,,work4 ,from time immemorial to the present day men have been fashioning shapes of clay1 experimenting with different kinds1 different degrees of heat1 and different chemical combinations to form glazes and colorings4 ,the fundamental processes of pottery making have changed but little since prehistoric times1 and wall pictures of the days of the ,ptolemies show the potter's wheel whirling much as it does at present1 although1 of course1 many modern inventions have been made to facilitate different forms of work4 ,in the famous ,svres factories in ,france1 established under royal patronage and still remaining government property1 a modern device has rendered possible the making of large vases of extremely thin ware4 ,to prevent the delicate paste of which these are made from collapsing by its own weight before it can harden1 the vase or jar is moulded in an air-tight chamber1 the mouth of the object sealed1 and the air exhausted from the chamber1 leaving the object in a vacuum4 ,the air contained in itself is sufficient to hold up the sides until they harden and danger of collapse is over1 when it can be fired4 ,attempts were made in vain to equal the delicacy of the ,chinese egg-shell ware1 when1 one day an educated ,chinese visitor to the factories observed the method employed1 and exclaimed1 8,this is the way we make those cups10 and1 taking a mould1 he dipped it into the liquid paste1 rinsed it around and emptied it at once4 ,a thin film like a soap bubble remained in the mould1 which hardened enough to form the dainty ware the workers had been trying without success to produce2 so the ,chinese method was at once adopted4 ,about the middle of the last century an impetus of development in ceramic art appeared all over the continent of ,europe and in ,england4 ,this was probably due to the discovery1 in different places1 of kaolin or the fine clay of which porcelain is made1 which stimulated the pottery industry and caused the establishment of many factories which are still working to-day4 ,the ,dresden works1 founded in #agjj1 were hidden in an old fortress1 and their secrets jealously guarded4 ,after about a century they went into decay1 but in #ahfc were revived and restablished in large new buildings of their own1 where dainty flowered ware is produced1 which has again come into popular favor4 ,italian ceramics are apt to be florid and overloaded with decoration1 that called 8majolica0 deriving its name from the island of ,majorca1 where it was first made4 8,fayence0 comes from ,faenza1 and the ,french form of the name1 8faence10 has been used to designate porcelain in general4 ,the town of ,limoges1 in ,france1 has been a centre of ceramic art since #aggc1 when a ,french firm established a factory for the production of a peculiarly fine ware1 made possible by the superior quality of the kaolin found in the neighborhood4 ,in #ahci a lady in ,new ,york showed the ,haviland firm a cup of delicate ware1 asking them to match it for her4 ,it was so much finer than anything they had seen that they desired to import some for their own business4 ,with this end in view1 ,mr4 ,david ,haviland took the cup and went to ,france trying to find where it had been made4 ,he was directed to ,limoges and1 in the factories there1 he tried to have ,english shapes and decorations copied in the exquisite ware4 ,the conservatism and slow methods of the place were not equal to his demands1 and he therefore established a factory of his own1 which1 since the middle of the century1 has been the most important in the town4 ,in ,england1 the most celebrated potteries are all over a century old1 and the ceramic art has been developed to the highest degree both in technical and artistic directions4 ,the works of the ,doulton firm1 who own many potteries1 are particularly rich in color1 and decoration1 those from their factory at ,lambeth being especially fine4 ,so also are the ,coalport wares1 celebrated for their rich blue color1 the ,royal ,worcester and the ,crown ,derby4 ,in these ,english factories1 and also in those on the ,continent1 artists of great skill are employed as decorators1 and in the ,wedgwood works the delicate cameo figures in white relief on a tinted ground were originated by the famous sculptor1 ,john ,flaxman4 ,in ,america1 the ,trenton potteries turn out a vast quantity of wares of varying degrees of artistic excellence1 and one factory has the secret of an old ,irish ware1 the ,belleek1 of indescribable delicacy1 like an iridescent sea shell1 long thought to be a lost art4 ,the ,rookwood pottery1 of most artistic quality in design and color1 is made in ,cincinnati1 and was the invention of a woman who has trained a school of girls as decorators2 as has also the ,tiffany firm in ,new ,york for their marvelous glass work4 ,an adequate description of the work of this firm would fill a book1 as they have developed undreamed-of possibilities in the use of glass for decorative purposes4 ,they have revived forgotten arts of coloring and invented new processes of treatment1 that give results like fairy work1 no two pieces being alike4 ,these and many other forms of industrial art products are brought to a high plane of perfection nowadays1 although the word 8art0 is grievously abused1 being applied to everything salable1 from writing paper to soap4 ,the great schools and institutions which teach the arts and industries combined are doing vast good1 however1 in improving public taste and teaching the world to discriminate between true art and false1 and their influence can already be felt in higher standards of decoration in articles of common daily use4 ,,iv4 ,,industrial ,,arts4 ,closely following painting comes black and white art in various forms1 either reproductive or original work1 and it is difficult to discriminate between fine art and handicraft in the many processes employed4 ,engraving on metal has long been known1 and steel was considered an especially valuable method of reproducing paintings until within a generation4 ,etching is another old form of black and white work1 and is still popular1 though less so than formerly4 ,wood engraving during this century has passed through many stages of development1 and in the illustrations of books and magazines has been brought to a high standing as a fine art4 ,it is still used in many ways1 but all those processes that require line work by hand are being superseded by the photo-type processes1 of which there are many kinds4 ,the making of plates or blocks for printing required skilled hand work1 and the engravers and wood-cutters were necessarily artists themselves1 so that while they were copying the work of others they were also producing works of art themselves4 ,the plates and prints were1 therefore1 valuable and expensive1 and1 as modern haste grew more and more to demand cheap quick work1 the old careful style of working gave way to mechanical methods of greater speed4 ,with the development of photography and its application to the engraver's art1 while a certain individual artistic character in the work was lost1 the actual copying of painting in all the details of light1 shade1 and half tones has been carried to a high degree of perfection4 ,by what is known as photogravure1 every tiny brush mark and every different tint of color is reproduced with scientific accuracy in black and white4 ,this is accomplished by having a photograph of the painting taken on a gelatine film1 which is suspended in a bath of acid in the line of an electric current4 ,this current1 playing over a sheet of copper1 sets free the molecules of metal that are deposited upon the film1 and filling all the little inequalities of the surface1 produce what is practically a cast of the photograph in copper4 ,the plate1 thus secured1 is gone over by hand and finished here and there with engraver's tools1 and from this prints may be duplicated to any extent4 ,in engraved plates the design is cut into the metal1 incised lines being either drawn by hand with a sharp point1 called 8dry point0 work1 or eaten in by acids1 the remaining surface of the plate being protected from the acid by a greasy film4 ,in wood-cutting1 the blocks show a reverse process1 the design being left standing in fine lines1 while the remaining surface is cut away1 so that a wood-cut is in reality a carving in low relief4 ,the modern electrotype processes produce a similar result on a metal block by the action of acid1 a method capable of most speedy work and therefore in demand among the multitude of daily publications illustrating current events4 ,of course these hasty results can scarcely be called fine art1 but they are developments of artistic industries1 calculated to meet certain needs of our busy civilization4 ,illustration3 ,,photographic ,,view ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,and ,,hudson ,,river1 ,,taken ,,from #bf,,th ,,story ,,of ,,park ,,row ,,building4 ,for more artistic effects1 various forms of lithography have given beautiful results4 ,this valuable process was accidentally discovered in #agif1 by a young ,bohemian1 ,aloys ,senefelder1 of ,prague4 ,desiring to write a list1 and having no paper1 he scrawled on a fine stone floor tile a few words1 and later on1 coming to remove them1 he bethought him of an experiment with acid on the stone4 ,this he tried1 finding the stone eaten away all around his writing1 leaving that raised in sufficient relief to print from1 the lettering being done with a greasy writing substance that repelled the acid4 ,later experiments proved that the eating away of the stone was not necessary if the design were made with an oily material and the rest of the surface kept moist with a weak solution of acid4 ,a greasy printing ink being applied would stick only to the oily design and not to the acidulated surface1 which process made possible the printing from flat stones1 which were not so liable to wear out as the relief designs4 ,senefelder died in #ahbd1 living long enough to see his invention in use throughout the world1 although of course he could not know the improvements that photography would bring4 ,on the centennial anniversary of this great discovery in #ahif1 exhibitions of lithographic works were held in ,london and ,paris1 and the possibilities and developments shown4 ,mr4 ,james ,mc,neill ,whistler has made many very interesting experiments with it1 as have also ,mr4 ,joseph ,pennell and ,mr4 ,hubert ,herkomer4 ,the latter has made innumerable experiments and inventions in his busy artistic career1 and has just recently perfected an improvement on lithography which he calls 8plate printing10 and which has been dubbed by the irreverent the 8,herkotype0 process4 ,it is simply painting in a peculiar oily ink on a metal plate1 which1 while the ink is moist1 is dusted over with a fine powder which adheres to every brush mark on the surface4 ,one ingredient of this powder is a metal that is electrically conductible1 and1 after the excess of powder is brushed off1 the plate1 with what remains sticking on the oily surface1 is placed in an electrotype bath4 ,the copper deposited thereon by the electric current hardens and forms a negative of the original painting1 which can be stripped from the plate and used in a printing-press1 giving an absolutely faithful reproduction of the artist's handiwork4 ,a similar process1 called 8algraphy10 has been invented by ,mr4 ,scholz1 of ,mayence1 who has developed the possibilities of aluminum for plate work1 the advantage of this material over stone or other metal being its extreme lightness4 ,these processes are especially valuable to artists who can work in black and white1 as their own original conception is perfectly reproduced without the possibility of misconception by some copyist1 as exists where a painting is interpreted by an etcher or engraver4 ,of the new processes or improvements on the old1 that have arisen because of the discovery of photography1 it may be said their name is legion4 ,photography itself is rapidly being developed into a fine art1 and has become one of the most important factors of modern existence4 ,it combines science1 art1 and industry1 and is equally necessary to all these occupations4 ,while it is difficult to state what was the first attempt that led to the suggestion of photography1 it may be supposed the experiments of the ,swedish scientist ,scheele were among the first4 ,he found that the action of the sun's ray blackened silver chloride1 and others experimenting after him1 at the beginning of the century1 had glimmering ideas of the possibility of a new art4 ,as has so often happened with the dawning of some great idea1 some new appreciation of a great natural law1 the thought was working in many minds1 and the discovery seemed to be almost simultaneous in several places4 ,as early as #ahjb ,wedgwood published in the 8,journal of the ,royal ,institute0 an 8account of a method of copying paintings on glass and of making profiles by the agency of light on nitrate of silver1 with some remarks by ,sir ,humphry ,davy40 ,these gentlemen were1 however1 unable to fix the impressions they procured1 and a ,frenchman1 ,de ,niepce1 seems to have been the first to succeed in this direction4 ,in #ahbf1 learning that ,m4 ,louis ,jacques ,daguerre was experimenting on the same lines1 he conferred with him and they formed a partnership4 ,the latter seems to have been the more businesslike of the two1 and the process they evolved became known as the 8,daguerreotype40 ,de ,niepce died in #ahcc1 and ,daguerre continued the partnership with his son ,isidore1 making many improvements1 and becoming really the pioneer of modern photography4 ,the extent of advance may be calculated from ,daguerre's own remark1 that 8a landscape requires seven or eight hours to be photographed1 but a single statue or monument1 if strongly lighted1 can be taken in about three hours40 ,comparing this with the instantaneous camera work of to-day1 that gives us the lifelike moving figures of the kinetoscope1 will illustrate the change wrought in two thirds of a century4 ,the earliest portrait work was slow and tedious1 the first portrait in ,new ,york probably being produced by ,dr4 ,draper1 the scientist1 although the celebrated ,professor ,morse was vastly interested in the new science or art1 and advanced its cause in this country4 ,from the beginning of photographic experiments1 the greatest desire has been felt to photograph in color1 and numberless attempts with more or less success have been made1 but the processes are mainly slow and very expensive4 ,a new method of photo-printing in color1 however1 has recently developed very artistic possibilities4 ,this is accomplished by means of three plates1 one for each of the three primary colors2 the negative having been made and the plate prepared for printing in each color1 the inks of each color are applied separately4 ,one printing produces a red impression1 directly on this comes a yellow impression1 and on top of that is put a blue2 and as all gradations of color are composed of various proportions of these three primary tints1 the 8overlaying0 of the three inks produces a picture containing all the variety of the original subject4 ,a still more recent discovery makes an impression upon a glass plate that gives all three colors on the same plate2 but this process is a secret1 and is too new to be classed among the successes of industrial art as yet4 ,one of the later and more notable uses of photography is found in its application to the purposes of astronomy1 an evolution in modern science1 which1 although still in its infancy1 has already produced wonderful results4 ,about the middle of the century photographs of the moon were secured by ,warren ,de la ,rue and other astronomers1 which greatly facilitated studies of the earth's satellite1 and these were followed by photographs of the sun and the sun's corona during eclipse4 ,it was not1 however1 until ,professor ,henry of the ,smithsonian ,institute originated the idea of uniting the camera with the telescope that the marvelous possibilities of stellar photography were discovered4 ,it is not too much to say that this discovery has revolutionized the science of astronomy1 extending the field of human observation into the realm of the infinite4 ,by the aid of clockwork attachments1 the telescope is made to follow the apparent motion of the star to which it may be directed1 throughout the night1 if desired1 and the sensitive photographic plate is exposed to the action of light during a corresponding period4 8,each image1 however faint1 has a comparatively long time on the sensitive surface1 and therefore exerts a cumulative action40 ,the result is that stars are pictured by the camera which no human eye has ever seen4 ,it is estimated that the camera has revealed double the number of stars discovered by the most powerful telescopes4 ,in #ahhg1 at a convention of astronomers held in ,paris1 it was resolved to photograph the entire skies1 with the purpose of making a new stellar atlas to include the latest discoveries among the heavenly hosts4 ,with this object the firmament was charted in squares1 and each observatory of importance throughout the world was assigned certain of these squares to work on4 ,this monumental labor is still going on1 and it will necessarily be extended well into the first quarter of the twentieth century4 ,the epoch-marking paper of ,dr4 ,rntgen1 in which he announced the discovery of the ,x-ray1 was made public in the latter part of #ahie4 ,it immediately attracted the attention of the scientific world1 and1 since that date1 endless successions of experiments have been made with the marvelous ray in all civilized countries4 ,the ,x-ray produces no noticeable effect on the retina of the eye1 and we therefore acquire knowledge of it through indirect agencies4 ,one of these agencies is the photographic plate1 on which1 under certain conditions1 the ray acts somewhat in the same manner as does a ray of light4 ,it is not a ray of light1 in the ordinary sense1 as it penetrates opaque bodies which light cannot traverse4 ,just what it is scientists are not yet ready to state1 but its discoverer defines it as 8a longitudinal vibration of luminiferous ether40 ,this vibration will traverse many substances opaque to light1 as wood1 paper1 vegetable and animal tissues and fabrics1 as wool1 cotton1 silk1 etc42 and1 if then directed upon a photographic plate1 will produce an image there4 ,the resulting picture is not of the object traversed by the ray1 but of any intervening object which it does not pass through4 ,as a consequence1 the picture is the image1 so to speak1 of a shadow1 and1 hence has been called a 8shadowgraph40 ,to illustrate1 if the ray is directed through a human body1 it will give a 8shadowgraph0 of the bones1 or of a bullet or piece of metal1 if such foreign substance be encountered on its way4 ,again1 the ray will traverse a diamond and cast no shadow1 but it will not pass through the finest imitation ever made1 the 8shadowgraph0 showing the manufactured article4 ,,the ,,century',s ,,advance ,,in ,,surgery ,,by ,j4 ,,madison ,,taylor1 ,m4,d41 and ,j4 ,h4 ,,gibbon1 ,m4,d41 ,surgeon in ,pennsylvania and ,children's ,hospitals4 ,,at ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,the ,,century4--,in the year #aegi the celebrated ,french surgeon1 ,ambroise ,par1 probably the greatest of his day1 in completing his work on 8,chirurgery10 made the following statement1 which to us of to-day is both amusing and pathetic4 ,he says3 8,for ,god is my witness1 and all good men know1 that ,i have labored fifty years with all care and pains in the illustration and amplification of ,chirurgery2 and that ,i have so certainly touched the work whereat ,i aimed that antiquity may seem to have nothing wherein it may exceed as beside the glory of invention1 nor posterity anything left but a certain small hope to add some things40 ,this great man had scarcely passed away when the practice of surgery of his day was a thing of the past1 due to the realization of that 8certain small hope0 which he allowed as possible to posterity4 ,every reader1 when he reflects upon the crude surgery practiced in those days1 when the operations were those of necessity and not election1--that is1 were done for injuries and not for disease1 done to relieve and not to cure2 when he remembers that not only antiseptics but also ansthetics were unknown1 must be filled with sympathy for this old gentleman1 and wonder what he would think now were he to see what progress posterity has made and is still making4 ,it is not our purpose1 however1 to carry our researches so far back as ,par's time1 but to begin with our own century and bring before the reader the advances in surgery since the day of our grandfathers4 ,in the beginning of this century surgery was practiced by many great men1 men who did not enjoy the self-satisfaction of their predecessor1 ,par1 but who accomplished much by constant endeavor and faithful application to advance this art and science4 ,they1 too1 realized manifold 8hopes10 and their children and grandchildren have moved on1 and to-day are still pressing forward in the line of invention and discovery4 ,but to us1 the art of an hundred years ago appears widely different from that of our day4 ,ansthesia had not then been discovered1 no germ theory had been evolved1 and1 consequently1 no such thing as antiseptic or aseptic surgery was known4 ,the abdomen was opened for disease only1 and rarely2 and brain surgery consisted solely in trepanning for fractures of the skull4 ,surgery was not regarded as a specialty1 but every surgeon was also an obstetrician and a practitioner of general medicine4 ,outside of the treatment of broken bones1 dislocations1 gunshot wounds and injuries1 the surgeon at that time operated for strangulated hernia1 for stone in the bladder--8cutting for stone10 as it was called2 for cataract and for cancer4 ,dentistry was just beginning to be taken up as a specialty1 and all medical men extracted teeth1 and many filled their cavities4 ,ophthalmic surgery consisted largely in operations for cataract1 and was done by the general surgeon4 ,one department of the surgeon's education at this time was well attended to1 and that was his anatomic knowledge4 ,our bodies were the same then as now2 and although the surgeon dared not trespass in anatomical fields which are familiar ground to the student of to-day1 he did study the body after death1 and was quite as well informed regarding the gross anatomy of the human body as the surgeon of to-day2 and1 had ansthesia been known to him1 he would probably have accomplished nearly all that was done during the middle of the century by his successors4 ,during the first quarter of the century no great advance was made in surgery1 that is1 nothing revolutionizing2 but many minds and hands were at work perfecting old methods of operation and devising new ones4 ,they had to trust to whiskey and opium to control the pain of the patient1 and consequently operations requiring much time in their performance were avoided when possible1 and1 when necessary1 had to be performed with such rapidity that the essential object aimed at was often missed4 ,the patient was given a large dose of laudanum and a huge drink of whiskey or brandy1 and was then held or tied on the table while the surgeon proceeded with his work4 ,one can readily understand the torturing pain the poor patient had to endure1 and the hurried and often unsatisfactory operation which the surgeon had to perform4 ,the endurance of pain was not the worst part of the patient's lot1 for afterward he ran the greatest risk of blood-poisoning and gangrene1 which were common complications in those days4 ,it was the rarest thing for even the simplest operation wounds to heal by 8primary union10 as it was called1--that is1 without the formation of pus4 ,every wounded surface was expected to go through a certain amount of suppuration4 ,many patients lost their lives from compound fractures of their bones2 and a compound fracture1 that is1 where there was a wound connecting the seat of fracture with the skin1 usually meant many months in bed1 and very often the loss of the limb4 ,excepting for the purposes of removing a ftus from the womb 7the so-called ,csarian operation1 because ,csar was from 8his mother's womb untimely ripped071 the abdominal cavity was practically never opened1 and when it was the patient nearly always died4 ,the operation for the radical cure of hernia was seldom resorted to1 excepting when strangulation of the intestine necessitated operative interference to save the patient's life4 ,during the latter part of the eighteenth century the quacks1 calling themselves 8rupture cutters10 were not scarce2 but the great mortality of their practice produced a wholesome fear among the people4 ,the operation was so often fatal that most of the best surgeons would only perform it under unusually urgent circumstances4 ,what caused the deaths was peritonitis1 or gangrene of the intestine1 and not the method of operating2 for at this time nearly every method of operating had been devised that was in vogue fifty years later4 ,bone surgery1 the treatment of fractures1 dislocations1 and diseases of the bones1 was greatly improved in the first half of the century1 this subject receiving more attention at the hands of surgical writers than any other4 ,illustration3 ,,surgical ,,operating ,,room1 ,,howard ,,hospital1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,,an,,sthesia4--,ansthesia may1 certainly from the patient's point of view1 be looked upon as the greatest advancement ever made in surgery4 ,it was great not only for the reason that it gave the patient absolute unconsciousness during the time of the operation1 but because it enabled the surgeon to work with greater exactness and less hurry4 ,the conception of the ansthetic state did not1 however1 come into being for the first time in our century1 for1 like most great ideas1 it agitated the minds of medical and scientific men for centuries4 ,gross tells us that ,theodoric1 in the thirteenth century1 recommended the inhalation of a certain combination of opium1 hemlock1 and other vegetable derivatives for the purpose of producing sleep1 and that in ,india similar combinations were for centuries in use4 ,it is needless1 however1 to say that the effect produced was nothing like that following the use of nitrous oxide1 8laughing gas10 ether1 or chloroform1 and that their use never became general4 ,toward the close of the last century ,sir ,humphry ,davy and others performed repeated experiments with nitrous oxide gas1 but finally gave up in despair4 ,in the early part of our own century several methods of producing insensibility to pain were recommended1 such as pressure on nerves and bleeding to the degree of producing unconsciousness1 but none of them was ever sufficiently successful to render their adoption general2 and it remained for a ,new ,england dentist1 ,dr4 ,horace ,wells1 in #ahdd1 to first use satisfactorily upon himself and his patients the complete state of unconsciousness produced by nitrous oxide gas4 ,this poor man1 however1 failed signally when he endeavored to demonstrate its powers before a body of medical men1 and was subjected to the most unwarranted ridicule4 ,however1 a pupil of this man1 another dentist1 named ,morton1 two years later1 experimented with ether1 and finally proved upon himself and on patients the wonderful power of the vapor4 ,he exhibited his discovery at the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital at ,boston1 where ,dr4 ,warren performed an operation upon a patient etherized by ,dr4 ,morton4 ,the fame of this man and his great discovery spread rapidly over the continent and into the ,eastern ,hemisphere1 and in #ahdg ,sir ,james ,y4 ,simpson in ,edinburgh discovered the ansthetic powers of chloroform4 ,these two agents1 ether and chloroform1 have existed as rivals for professional favor for nearly half a century1 one being more popular and more generally used in one country and the other in another4 ,there is1 however1 a field for the use of both1 the operator choosing the ansthetic to suit the individual case4 ,in our own country ether is more generally used in the ,north and ,east and chloroform in the ,south and ,west4 ,chloroform has had more deaths attributed to its use1 but in many cases is a much safer ansthetic than ether4 ,it is most amusing to observe the attitude of the so-called conservative surgeon toward the use of ansthetics soon after their discovery2 this is particularly true of their employment in obstetric practice1 many eminent obstetricians maintaining that the parturient woman was intended to suffer1 and referring triumphantly to the ,bible for authority4 ,it is1 however1 needless to say that although many men were at first uneasy in the use of these new-found agents1 those who did not take advantage of their wonderful powers found themselves rapidly becoming out of date and deserted by their patients1 who preferred unconsciousness to the older method of using opium and whiskey4 ,notwithstanding the great step made by the introduction of ether and chloroform1 the medical man is to-day still dissatisfied and is continually endeavoring to discover some agent or combination of agents which will produce insensibility to pain without unconsciousness and without the slight danger and the uncomfortable after effects of chloroform and ether4 ,an ideal ansthetic then must be a local ansthetic1 one that will render the field of operation insensible and be without the slightest danger to the patient4 ,,local ,,an,,sthesia4--,at the beginning of our century freezing with ice alone1 or with ice and salt1 was the only method employed for producing local insensibility4 ,freezing as a local ansthetic was1 however1 not extensively used until fifty years later1 when ,dr4 ,richardson of ,london showed the ansthetic effect of spraying the surface of the tissues with ether4 ,during the late sixties this method of freezing became quite popular for producing local ansthesia for small operations such as extraction of teeth1 removing nails1 opening abscesses1 etc41 and occasionally was employed for more protracted operations1 ,csarian section having been performed a number of times by the aid of this agent4 ,the rhigolene spray was found later to be more satisfactory than ether in many respects1 and the two together were frequently used4 ,another freezing agent which is now used very extensively and has entirely supplanted those just mentioned is the chloride of ethyl4 ,this1 when applied to the dry skin1 produces in a few seconds complete freezing1 and renders the surface comparatively painless for many of the minor surgical operations4 ,the properties of cocaine as a local ansthetic were known thirty years ago1 but it was not until #ahhd that ,dr4 ,kohler of ,germany demonstrated its practical applicability4 ,to-day most of the operations on the eye1 nose1 and throat are performed under the pain prevention afforded by this drug1 and in general surgery it has an extensive field1 being found satisfactory where freezing is inapplicable or general ansthesia not desired1 as1 for instance1 in removing small tumors1 splinters1 ingrowing nails1 etc4 ,in the eye1 nose1 and throat it is applied simply in solution to the mucous membrane1 but where ansthesia of the skin is desired1 it is necessary to inject it under the skin with a hypodermic syringe4 ,when used in strong solutions this remedy is dangerous1 and it has lately been shown that weaker solutions when used in larger quantities are just as satisfactory and less dangerous4 ,a recent substitute for cocaine is eucaine2 but1 although less dangerous1 it is less satisfactory and not harmless to the tissues themselves4 ,,antiseptic ,,and ,,aseptic ,,surgery4--,excepting the introduction of ansthesia1 no greater step has ever been made in surgery than that which was brought into use by the antiseptic and aseptic method of treating wounds4 ,it is now about thirty years since ,sir ,joseph ,lister1 believing in the so-called 8germ theory10 evolved by ,pasteur1 ,virchow1 and others1 advocated the use of agents which were destructive to germ life in the treatment of wounds4 ,at first the great antiseptic1 and the one used most generally by ,lister1 was carbolic acid1 which was applied to the wound in solution1 and used as a spray during the performance of operations1 to protect the wound from infection by germs in the atmosphere4 ,it was not long1 however1 before it was discovered that the danger lay not in the atmosphere but in the skin of the patient and in the hands of the surgeon and in the condition of his instruments and dressings2 and to these sources attention was given with results known to us all4 ,other antiseptics1 such as bichloride of mercury and boric acid1 afterward came into use1 and within the past ten years the first of these two has largely supplanted carbolic acid1 and is the one reliable and practical destroyer of germs4 ,the antiseptic treatment of wounds was probably not in full swing until about #ahhe-ahij1 and was quickly followed by the more recent aseptic method4 ,these two can1 however1 never be successfully separate1 as the latter is dependent entirely upon the former2 that is1 in order to render the field of operation and the hands of the surgeon aseptic1 the antiseptics must be used4 ,asepsis means without poisonous germs1 and1 as applied to surgical treatment1 it is essential that1 after the instruments1 the dressings1 the patient's skin1 the surgeon's and his assistants' hands have been thoroughly cleaned with soap and water and rendered free from germs1 there be use of antiseptic solutions in the wound or on the dressings4 ,this has been a great step forward1 this discovery that it was in the skin that the germs lurked1 and that soap and water and a scrubbing brush were as necessary as antiseptics4 ,few surgeons to-day employ antiseptic solutions in wounds unless the wound itself is already infected1 when it becomes necessary4 ,in wounds which are clean and made by the surgeon under aseptic conditions1 no antiseptic drug is required which may indeed be actually harmful1 for these chemicals which destroy germs are not altogether harmless to healthy tissue1 particularly when used in strong solution4 ,the discovery of ansthesia and the promulgation of the germ theory of inflammation1 together with the subsequent perfection of the means of destroying microbes1 all within the memory of many now living1 have revolutionized surgery to such an extent that the surgeon reaches fearlessly into regions which before were impracticable1 and undertakes operations which were never even dreamed of a generation ago4 ,one can readily imagine that no surgeon would care to undertake1 and no patient would endure1 the agony of an operation lasting for several hours without an ansthetic2 and that it must have been only an immediate and certain danger of death that compelled a surgeon1 in pre-antiseptic days1 to open an abdomen or brain when he realized the great probability of subsequent inflammation and death4 ,let us look at some of the individual advances of surgery since the introduction of ansthesia and of the use of germ-destroying agents1 considering first1 simple fractures4 ,,of ,,simple ,,fractures4--,ansthesia was the means of permitting surgeons to 8set0 fractures in a satisfactory manner and without pain2 and the use of antiseptics has prevented many of these fractures from becoming compound fractures4 ,lately there has been a change in the general treatment of fractures which is proving a great advancement4 ,formerly it was the custom to keep not only the broken bone itself perfectly quiet on a splint until union had taken place1 but also to immobilize all the neighboring structures1 joints1 muscles1 and tendons4 ,this meant that when the limb was taken off the splint1 not only would the bone be 8solid10 but there was also a tendency to fixation of the muscles and joints1 so that it took the patient as long to get back the use of the limb as it did to unite the broken bone4 ,this is now obviated in many fractures by beginning both the passive and active motion of the neighboring muscles and joints at a much earlier period than heretofore2 in fact1 in many fractures1 such as those near the wrist1 by never allowing these adjacent structures to get stiff at all1 but keeping up the passive motion 7while the fragments are held firmly together7 from the very first dressing4 ,in other more complicated and serious fractures where motion is contra-indicated1 the use of carefully applied massage prevents largely the stiffness and the wasting of the muscles which results from long confinement on splints4 ,,compound ,,fractures4--,in pre-antiseptic days compound fractures were one of the greatest causes of the amputation of limbs2 and yet1 to-day1 these same breaks1 which twenty-five years ago would have cost the patient his limb1 are1 by means of antiseptics1 rendered aseptic and converted into a simple fracture by the closing of the wound1 and the part is not only saved but fully restored to function4 ,,bone ,,diseases4--,diseases of the bones1 as inflammation1 caries1 and necrosis1 are now dealt with very differently from of old4 ,the diseased structures are now thoroughly removed2 and the inflammation which at one time kept the patient in misery and danger for a long time is subdued from the start4 ,,osteotomy4--,this term1 which means the division of a bone1 is generally applied to the correction of deformities1 such as bow-legs4 ,this operation fifty years ago was not frequently resorted to1 and then only in severe cases1 the milder ones being left alone or treated with braces1 which at best could do little more than prevent increase in deformity4 ,when the operation was performed on the bone1 it was then divided1 usually with a saw4 ,the operation nowadays for this condition is what is called subcutaneous osteotomy2 that is1 the wound made is only as large as the chisel used for severing the bone1 about one half inch1 and owing to our knowledge of microbes and our means of destroying them and preventing their ravages1 hundreds of legs are made straight every year which a generation ago could not have been safely touched4 ,illustration3 ,,clinical ,,amphitheatre4 ,,garrett ,,memorial ,,building1 ,,pennsylvania ,,hospital1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,,amputations4--,the first successful amputation at the hip joint1 for either injury or disease1 in the ,united ,states1 was done in #ahjf by ,dr4 ,brasheur2 the next was not accomplished until #ahbd4 ,as late as #ahhb1 the great ,american surgeon1 ,gross1 wrote in his 8,system of ,surgery30 8,to no operation that can be performed on the human body is the oft-repeated maxim1 #8,ad extremos morbus extrema remedia1' more justly applicable than to amputation at the hip joint4 ,the operation may become necessary both on account of disease and accident2 but it is of so formidable a nature and so fraught with danger1 that it should never be undertaken unless the patient has no other chance of escape4 ,the great risk which attends it is chiefly due to shock1 loss of blood1 suppuration1 erysipelas1 and pyaemia4444 ,under highly favorable circumstances1 much of the enormous wound may unite by the first intention2 but1 in general1 more or less suppuration takes place1 and in some instances the discharge is so copious as to lead to fatal exhaustion4 ,the greatest danger of all1 however1 is the occurrence of pyaemia1 or secondary abscess1 especially in amputations at the hip joint in consequence of injury1 as a compound fracture or a gunshot wound40 ,this gives the attitude of the profession toward this operation a little more than fifteen years ago1 and the dangers which attended its performance4 ,let us add that the mortality at this time may be expressed in the following figures4 7,dr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,sheppard prepared these statistics for ,dr4 ,ashhurst47 ,of #fac cases in which the results are known1 8#bcg occurred in army practice1 of which #cj recovered and #bjg1 or #hg4c per cent died2 #ga were performed in civil life for injury1 with the result of #dg deaths1 or a mortality of #ff4a per cent2 #bfa were practiced for disease1 with #aje deaths1 or a mortality rate of #dj4b per cent2 and of #dd amputations for unknown causes #cd1 or #gg4b per cent were fatal40 ,in #ahij1 ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,wyeth of ,new ,york introduced his 8bloodless method0 of amputation at the hip joint1 and he recently reports #fi operations performed after this manner by himself and others1 in which there were #aa deaths1 #e of which occurred in cases of extreme injury1 where the patients had lost a large amount of blood and vigor before operation4 ,in #dj cases the operation was done for malignant growth1 and #d deaths occurred1 #aj per cent4 ,in #bb the amputation was made for inflammatory disease of the bone1 and #c died1 #ac4f per cent4 ,one has but to contrast these statistics to understand what antiseptic methods and recent improvements in the control of hemorrhage have done to lessen the mortality of amputations4 ,the still more recent use of salt solution injected into the circulation of patients suffering from profuse hemorrhage has lately been the means of saving many lives which would have otherwise succumbed to the loss of blood and the shock subsequent to injury and operation4 ,as illustrating the contrast between the septic and antiseptic methods1 let us consider the surgery of our ,civil ,war and compare with that of to-day1 and we shall see the enormous differences in methods1 and particularly in economy of limbs and organs as well as mortality4 ,illustration3 ,,pennsylvania ,,hospital1 ,,philadelphia4 ,,hemorrhage4--,the arrest and control of hemorrhage has greatly improved within the past twenty-five years4 ,the making of an aseptic wound does away largely with the much dreaded secondary hemorrhage of a generation ago1 by preventing suppuration1 which is usually the cause of secondary hemorrhage4 ,the clumsy and complicated apparatus of former days for controlling hemorrhage has been superseded by the use of the ,esmarch rubber tourniquet1 the neat hemostatic forceps1 and the sterile animal ligature4 ,no surgeon thinks to-day of applying a silk ligature to a blood vessel and allowing it to hang out of the wound until it separates1 so that in case of secondary bleeding he could readily find the vessel2 but he applies an absorbable ligature1 usually of catgut1 which is sterile1 and which is entirely absorbed by the tissues after it has done its work4 ,much suffering has been saved patients by the introduction of absorbable materials for ligation of vessels and sewing of wounds4 ,formerly one of the great dreads of wounds was the 8taking out of the stitches40 ,to-day where the wounds are not inflamed this is little complained of1 and where the animal suture is used there is no discomfort whatever4 ,many means have1 during the past century1 been employed for the resuscitation of patients suffering from profuse hemorrhage and shock4 ,the idea of injecting into the veins of the patient thus affected blood from another person or from an animal is not new1 and has at times been quite successful4 ,the most generally used method was to draw the blood from a healthy person or animal and inject it into the vein of the patient with a syringe3 however1 so-called 8direct transfusion0 was also employed1 and consisted in pumping the blood direct from the vein of the healthy individual into that of the patient4 ,other materials than blood have been injected into the blood vessels of persons suffering from great loss of blood1 notably milk4 ,all of these methods have been put upon the shelf1 never to be called into use again4 ,the ingenuity of the nineteenth century suggested the substitution of a solution of common salt for blood and1 to-day1 the intra-venous injection of normal salt solution saves hundreds of lives4 ,the solution is made to resemble as closely as possible the liquid portion of the human blood 7the liquor sanguinis71 especially as to specific gravity2 and as it is always sterilized by boiling before being used1 it is free from all the dangers which accompany the transfusion of one person's blood into another4 ,no well-appointed operating room is without its transfusion apparatus and its salt solution ready for use4 ,,wounds4--,reference to the remarks on asepsis and antisepsis will show the reader that the treatment of wounds has undergone a complete change in the past quarter of a century2 but probably the modern treatment of gunshot wounds illustrates this better than anything else4 ,until #ahhe1 only six cases were recorded where the abdominal cavity was opened for gunshot wounds1 but since that time hundreds of cases have been treated in this way every year4 ,the injuries were formerly considered almost certainly fatal1 and if the intestine was injured the patient assuredly died4 ,now the abdomen is opened1 hemorrhage controlled1 wounds--often to the number of six or eight or even thirty or more--of the intestines closed1 or an injured section of the intestines removed and the abdominal cavity cleansed and closed1 with many favorable terminations to make the operation not only a justifiable one1 but one of necessity and safety4 ,there is no comparison with the present-day results of gunshot wounds of either abdomen or chest and those of a generation ago4 ,it is the duty of the surgeon1 in case of gunshot wound of abdomen1 to open1 explore1 and repair1 whereas formerly it was considered the part of wisdom to leave the patient without radical treatment and only to make him comfortable with opiates4 ,thus cases of damage to the intestines and viscera did occasionally recover in pre-antiseptic days1 but it was the rarest occurrence4 ,what has been said of gunshot wounds applies also to stab wounds of the chest and abdomen4 ,,the ,,alimentary ,,canal4--,probably the surgery of no portion of the body1 unless it be the brain1 has been so much improved during the past fifteen years as that of the alimentary canal4 ,the esophagus or gullet is now opened with impunity for both disease and injury4 ,this organ is not only approachable through the neck but also through the back part of the chest1 by resection of the ribs2 and the latter operation is frequently made necessary by the lodgment of foreign bodies1--buttons1 false teeth1 etc4--so low down in the esophagus that they cannot be reached through the mouth or through an opening made in the neck4 ,,the ,,stomach4--,this organ1 which was formerly a forbidden field to the surgeon1 is now subjected to the most varied surgical operations1 from simple opening for the purpose of removing a foreign body or establishing a fistulous tract to the resection of a portion of it or to its complete resection1 as has been successfully accomplished several times within the past year or two for malignant disease4 ,the removal of the smaller end of the stomach for cancer is now a frequent operation4 ,during the war of the rebellion there were sixty-four cases of wounds of the stomach1 and only one recovered4 ,in over six hundred and fifty cases of wounds of the intestines there were recorded only five cases of recovery from wounds of the small and fifty-nine from wounds of the large intestine4 ,,the ,,intestinal ,,tract4--,what has been said of the stomach applies also to this portion of the alimentary canal4 ,no surgeon can nowadays call himself such if he is incapable of removing a diseased portion of intestine1 it may be only a few inches or several feet1 and bringing the dividing ends of remaining intestine into such apposition that healing takes place and the function is restored4 ,until recently1 when the means of anastomosing the intestinal canal were perfected1 it was the custom of the surgeon to bring the severed ends of the intestines into the abdominal incision and suture them there1 establishing in this way an artificial anus with all its accompanying discomforts4 ,this was certainly better than allowing the patient to perish from his disease1 but how infinitely preferable is the present method of bringing the healthy cut ends of the intestine into apposition and restablishing the calibre4 ,it is this operation which has so much reduced the mortality of intra-abdominal injuries1 gunshot wounds1 stabs1 etc41 and has made hundreds of sufferers from intestinal cancer either well again or comfortable for years4 ,the perfection of the operation of joining one part of the alimentary canal to another has been due largely to the ingenuity and perseverance of ,american surgeons1 who have devoted years to experimentation and practice upon the cadaver and upon animals4 ,,the ,,kidneys4--,the kidney has not been behind the other organs of the body in reaping the benefits of modern surgery4 ,the first case of removal of the kidney was done in #ahfi by ,simon1 and was successful4 ,it was done only after a number of dogs were operated on successfully to demonstrate that life and health are compatible with only one kidney4 ,since this time the removal of a kidney for disease or injury1 when its fellow of the opposite side is healthy and performing its function1 has been looked upon as an entirely justifiable operation4 ,the surgery of this organ has lately so far advanced1 however1 that many kidneys are now treated by more curative operations4 ,in #ahhj the first operation was done for the removal of a stone from the kidney1 an operation which now nearly every surgeon of much experience has performed4 ,the operation for the fixation of a floating kidney1 which is now so common1 was first done in #ahha4 ,now1 since ,simon's bold experiment the lives of between two thousand and three thousand persons have been thus saved who had otherwise certainly died4 ,,the ,,bladder4--,for generations the bladder has been considered a legitimate field for surgery1 but modern methods and technique have greatly extended the domain4 ,one of the greatest advances in bladder surgery has been the crushing of stone and its immediate removal4 ,until #ahbe the treatment of all stones in the bladder was their removal through an incision made in the organ4 ,at that time ,civiale first performed the operation of passing a bladed instrument into the bladder and crushing the stone1 then allowing the patient to pass it subsequently at urination4 ,the operation became quite popular with certain surgeons as early as the middle of the century4 ,the cutting operation has1 however1 never been entirely put aside1 and even to-day it is1 in many cases1 the best and only procedure4 ,in #ahgh ,bigelow1 of ,boston1 devised the method which is now universally used1 of crushing the stone and washing it out at once through a silver tube4 ,this was a great stride ahead of the old method4 ,one of the great difficulties in deciding upon the removal of a kidney has been the trouble of finding out whether the other kidney is doing its work1 and this ,kelly1 of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 has done much to overcome in devising his method of examining by looking at the openings of the tubes of the kidneys where they empty into the bladder4 ,if the kidney is performing its function the urine will be seen flowing from its tube into the bladder4 ,,hernia ,,or ,,rupture4--,probably the treatment of no condition has received more consideration from the surgeon of the nineteenth century than that of rupture1 and it was not until #ahia that an operation was devised1 simultaneously by an ,italian and an ,american surgeon1 which has proved for itself all that its originators claimed4 ,hundreds of operative methods have been brought forward for the cure of this troublesome and dangerous condition2 but1 until the operations of ,halstead and ,bossini were brought forward1 little prospect of an absolute cure could be promised a patient1 and the conservative surgeon would only undertake to operate upon very troublesome cases such as could not be controlled by a truss4 ,now nearly every case of hernia may be looked upon as curable by an operation4 ,,operative ,,gyn,,cology4--,the operative treatment of the disease of the female generative organs has been revolutionized in our century1 and its revolution has been largely due to ,american surgeons4 ,the first ovariotomy ever performed was done in ,kentucky1 by ,dr4 ,ephraim ,mc,dowell1 in #ahji4 ,in the fifties1 ,marion ,sims won great renown for himself and his country by his wonderful ingenuity and boldness in this line of work4 ,the greatest advance here1 as in all departments of surgery1 has been made since the introduction of antiseptic and aseptic principles4 ,to-day there is no disease or condition which1 if seen early enough1 cannot be cured1 or essentially relieved at the hands of an expert abdominal surgeon4 ,thousands of women are now saved every year by these means who formerly would have certainly died or remained hopeless invalids4 ,,appendicitis4--,this condition must seem to the ordinary reader to be either a new disease or one much more prevalent than in days gone by1 but it is not the case4 ,the cause of this appearance is the fact that in former times the condition was not recognized in its incipiency1 and the exact cause of the trouble was unknown4 ,the condition then advanced until it was called typhlitis1 peritonitis1 and obstruction of the bowels1 etc41 all of which would to-day occur if the conditions were not recognized early and treatment immediately instituted before the inflammation and infection extended from the appendix to neighboring tissues4 ,,brain ,,surgery4--,this branch of surgery is practically a triumph of recent years4 ,formerly the brain was never interfered with except for injury 7traumatic71 and even then nothing was done excepting for the removal of pressure1 as from a piece of depressed bone1 and the institution of drainage4 ,to-day the skull is opened for epilepsy2 abscesses of the brain are opened and drained successfully1 and tumors of the brain are removed1 thus not only in numberless instances saving life but--what is equally important--saving the usefulness of the life and mind4 ,the first actual successes in this line are recorded by ,bennett and ,godlee in #ahhd1 who localized and operated on and ultimately found a tumor4 ,the patient died1 but the bold beginning was followed by a number of other surgeons1 till this new region for exploration1 hitherto untouched1 has become a fertile ground for successful efforts4 ,abscess of the brain1 until twenty years ago1 was almost invariably fatal4 ,mac,ewen in #ahgi located an abscess of the brain and begged to be allowed to operate1 but was refused by the family of the patient4 ,after the death of the patient he operated precisely as he would have done in life1 evacuated the pus and demonstrated that had he been permitted to do so he could have saved life4 ,where the cranium is wounded surgeons nowadays will not hesitate to open the skull1 secure the bleeding vessels1 remove clots1 and thus many lives are saved4 ,even comparatively slight injuries to the skull1 where the brain is damaged1 involve oftentimes destruction to the arteries and blood is effused1 producing such destructive pressure as causes very serious symptoms or even death4 ,in other instances1 the results of a blow or a fall without injuring the skull may cause profound damage and subsequent hemorrhage4 ,in all these cases operative interference1 now extremely safe and easy1 may readily save life4 ,gunshot wounds of the brain are now only occasionally fatal1 provided opportunity offers for prompt and clean operative work4 ,even where the ball has traversed the entire length of the cerebrum1 recovery has followed operation4 ,the results of brain surgery in relieving certain forms of epilepsy are occasionally most brilliant and frequently much relief is afforded4 ,where the epilepsy is of the character known as focal1 and where there is evidence of irritation of the brain1 due to a local pressure1 whether of the cranial walls or of some new growth within the brain tissue1 the removal of these sources of irritation has in many reported instances been most satisfactory4 ,again1 certain cases of protracted headache1 so severe as to render life insupportable1 have been cured by trepanning the skull4 ,certain forms of insanity have been modified and relieved where this had followed upon brain injuries4 ,it is of great interest to reflect upon the methods by which students of brain disease are enabled to determine so exactly the location of tumors1 abscesses1 hemorrhages1 clots1 scars1 and other alterations of tissue giving rise to epilepsy and brain disorders1 and which afford no indication of the diseased locality by any changed condition of the surface4 ,in dealing with other parts of the body1 if the precise locality of the part to be operated on cannot be at first determined1 there is no hesitation in the minds of the surgeons in cutting down upon1 and searching for1 that which he proposes to remove4 ,in dealing with so delicate an organ as the brain1 however1 this cannot be permitted2 for a variation of the very smallest dimension will sometimes change the manipulations from those of perfect safety to the most fatal results4 ,our knowledge of the location of the functions of the brain and the areas from whence arise governing influences has been derived almost solely from experiments upon living animals4 ,among the names of the great pioneers in this direction must be mentioned those of ,ferrier and ,horseley1 of ,england2 ,fritsch1 ,hitzig1 and ,goltz1 of ,germany4 ,the researches which have thus opened up a new realm of operative possibility are among the very greatest triumphs in our means of saving life and affording opportunity for relief of the most serious disablements known to modern times4 ,for illustration of how these studies are pursued1 it may be of interest to review the method used by ,horseley4 ,the brain of a monkey having been exposed at the part to be investigated1 the poles of a battery are applied over squares one twelfth of an inch in diameter1 and all the various movements which occur 7if any7 are minutely studied4 ,one square having been studied1 the next is stimulated1 and the results are again noted1 and so on from square to square4 ,these movements are then tabulated4 ,for example1 all those adjacent squares which1 when stimulated1 produce movements of the thumb are called the region for representation of the thumb1 or 8the thumb centre20 and to all those squares which produce movements of the hand1 the elbow1 the shoulder1 or the face1 etc41 are given corresponding names4 ,in this way the brain has been mapped out1 region by region1 and the same minute1 patient study given to each4 ,these animals are etherized so that they do not suffer the least pain4 ,such operations1 with few exceptions1 even without ether1 are not painful4 ,the brain itself can be handled1 compressed1 cut1 or torn without the least pain4 ,a number of cases have already been reported in which a considerable portion of the human brain has been removed by operation1 and the patients have been about their ordinary avocations within a week or two4 ,studying in this way the brain in the lower animals1 it is now possible to get a very fair knowledge of the localization of many of its functions in man4 ,moreover1 portions of the body can be entirely severed1 and1 if suitably preserved1 can be replaced1 and they will adhere and grow as if nothing had happened4 ,when a wound is slow in healing1 we now take bits of skin1 either from the patient's own body or provided by the willing family or friends1 or even from frogs1 and 8graft0 them on the surface of the wound4 ,they usually adhere1 and as enlargement takes place at their margins1 they coalesce by one half the time required for healing4 ,even a large disk of bone1 one or two inches in diameter1 when removed from the skull1 can be so saved and utilized4 ,it is placed in a vessel filled with a warm antiseptic solution1 which is again placed in a basin of warm water1 and it is the duty of a special assistant to see that the thermometer in this basin shall always mark #ajj to #aje ,fahr4 ,the bone may be separated from the skull so long as one or two hours1 but if properly cared for can be replaced1 and will grow fast and fulfill its accustomed but interrupted duty of protecting the brain4 ,illustration3 ,x-,,ray ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,compound ,,fracture ,,and ,,dislocation ,,of ,,the ,,forearm4 ,r,,ntgen ,,rays4--,one of the most recent advances in the art of surgery is the discovery and use of the ,x-rays4 ,in ,december1 #ahie1 ,professor ,rntgen1 of ,wrzburg1 announced his discovery1 and since then its utility has continually increased1 until to-day no large hospital or properly equipped teaching institution1 indeed no first-rate surgeon1 is without the ,x-ray apparatus4 ,by its use many doubtful cases of both injury and disease in surgical practice are thus entirely rendered clear4 ,in the diagnosis and treatment of many fractures it is nearly indispensable1 showing the exact location of the break and the position of the fragment before and after dressing4 ,probably in no other condition1 unless it be in fractured bones1 has the ,x-ray proved itself of so much value as in the location of foreign bodies lodged in any of the organs or tissues of the body4 ,before ,professor ,rntgen's discovery it was not of infrequent occurrence that an exploratory operation was necessary to positively prove the presence of a foreign body1 and even this was at times of necessity a failure4 ,to-day the ,x-ray picture enables the surgeon to learn the exact location of the foreign body and indicates to him the best point from which it may be attacked4 ,with repeated improvements in apparatus the time of exposure required for making the picture of the part has been greatly reduced4 ,the advantage of this was made manifest when it was discovered that destruction of the skin1 the so-called 8,x-ray burns10 might follow long and repeated exposure to the rays4 ,it is not always necessary to make a plate of the part to be examined1 since by simply studying the parts by the eyes through the fluoroscope or the fluoroscopic screen the surgeon can readily see everything that a photographic picture could show him4 ,the fluoroscope or screen is now often used during the operation of removing foreign bodies2 through it the surgeon can watch the various steps of his operation1 his approach to the foreign body and its final removal4 ,illustration3 ,x-,,ray ,,picture ,,of ,a ,,dislocated ,,elbow4 ,if the field of its usefulness continues to expand at its present rate1 it will not be long before its use as a diagnostic measure will be as valuable to the medical man as it now is to the surgeon4 ,by such instruments of precision as this1 and others less conspicuous1 the old elements of intelligent inference and argument by analogy and exclusion are rendered of less value1 and a rapid approach is made to scientific exactitude in surgery as well as medicine4 ,all this has attained a far higher quality and scope in the last quarter of this century than in any other period of the world's history1 and we may look to great advances in the coming century1 in all life-conserving and remedial measures whereby the race may enjoy a larger measure of relief as well as immunity from the onslaught of disease and the results of accident4 ,there is shown here for illustration a photographic picture of a limb1 taken by the ,x-ray now growing familiar to every one4 ,it should be borne in mind that while it is a simple matter for the casual observer to note obvious solutions of continuity in bones1 or the presence of foreign bodies1 this is not the chief item of usefulness to the surgeon1 and certainly not to the medical practitioner4 ,a special training is required to study and interpret the findings and appearances of the tissues1 their altered relationships1 densities1 and many other matters entirely insignificant to the uneducated among medical men or laity4 ,again1 the picture here shown is similar in outline to but a reversal of the shading seen through the fluoroscope by direct vision1 when the greatest skill is required in noting the significance of altered states in the denser or softer tissues4 ,when suits for malpractice are instituted against surgeons it is not to be admitted that the evidence or findings of the 8highly intelligent0 but not technically skilled witness can have the slightest weight as proving the condition of tissues of which they are very ignorant1 not only physiologically but more so pathologically4 ,,progress ,,of ,,medicine ,,by ,,frank ,c4 ,,hammond1 ,m4,d41 ,instructor in ,gynecology1 ,jefferson ,medical ,college1 ,philadelphia4 8,as a point of history pregnant with valuable deductions1 it is good to look back upon the conditions of medicine in former times and find that it has always kept pace with the progress of the physical and moral sciences4 ,where these1 however1 have been marked by folly and credulity1 medicine has exhibited the same imperfections40 ,it is difficult to trace the improvement in successive eras1 because they melt into one another by indefinable gradations4 ,during the earliest period it was believed that physic was an art which was supposed to be most mysterious1 and it was presumed that the practicers held communion with the world of spirits4 ,the practice of medicine in those days consisted in the usage of agents necessarily unreliable1 as1 for instance1 the word abracadabra hung around the neck as an amulet to chase away the ague1 etc4 ,much time has been wasted in attempting to portray the first origin of medicine4 ,bambilla1 a surgeon of ,vienna1 has asserted that ,tubal ,cain was the inventor of cauterizing instruments1 apparatus for reducing fractures1 and other instruments for surgical procedures1 thus endeavoring to prove that surgery antedated medicine4 ,it is evident that medicine must have had a very early origin1 for mankind even in the earliest ages suffered pain and the train of sequences due to exposure1 and hence soon discovered a method of alleviation4 ,their category probably consisted of herbs4 ,unacquainted1 however1 with the construction and function of the human economy1 practitioners were unable to trace the progress of disease1 and the more fatal internal maladies were ascribed to the deities whom they feared4 ,hence1 various superstitious practices would arise and be handed down from one generation to another4 ,we may imagine this to have been the origin of the healing art1 and such is nearly its present condition amongst the savages of ,africa1 ,australasia1 ,polynesia1 ,sumatra1 etc4 ,later on1 the priests became the physicians1 from being the oracles of the divinity whom the people wished to consult4 ,the various remedies were handed down from one to another1 as medical science did not exist at that time4 ,herodotus informs us that even in his time the ,babylonians1 ,chaldeans1 and other nations had no physicians4 ,when any one was attacked with disease the patient was carried into the public street1 and passers-by who had suffered from a similar affection1 or nursed one who had1 advised the sufferer to employ the measures that proved successful in former cases4 ,the earliest writers on medicine trace its origin1 in common with that of most other branches of knowledge1 to the ,egyptians4 ,they appear to be the first nation that cultivated medicine and furthered its progress4 ,many peculiar medical properties were attributed to the deities4 ,all diseases were supposed to originate from the anger of ,isis4 ,resin was burned in the morning1 myrrh at noon1 and a composition termed cyphy in the evening1 in the temples of ,isis1 and the sick were taken there to sleep1 during which the oracles might reveal to them the means which they should employ to effect a cure4 ,this is an illustration of the superstitions which prevailed at that time4 ,the earliest authentic records which we can ascertain from collateral reading are to be found in the ,scriptures4 ,here it is stated that ,joseph commanded his servants and physicians to embalm him 7#agjj ,b4 ,c474 ,this shows that ,egypt at that time possessed a set of men who practiced the healing art1 and that they embalmed the dead4 ,this must have required an idea of anatomy1 which1 needless to say1 was crude and unscientific1 as dissection of the human body at that time was prohibited1 the penalty being death4 ,according to ,pliny1 the ,egyptian kings encouraged post-mortems1 for the purpose of ascertaining the cause of diseases2 and this method was fostered by the ,ptolemies1 during whose reigns anatomy was raised to a higher standard4 ,through the writings of ,moses in the sacred ,scriptures1 we learn that the medicine of the ,hebrews appertained mostly to public hygiene4 ,meat of the hog and rabbit was forbidden1 as being injurious in the ,egyptian and ,indian climate4 ,the relation of man and wife and the purification of women were regulated4 ,the measures suggested by ,moses for the prevention of the spread of leprosy have not yet been surpassed4 ,next to ,moses1 ,solomon acquired quite an efficient knowledge of compounding remedies4 ,the ,indian races were divided into castes1 the priests alone enjoying the privilege of practicing medicine4 ,their medical knowledge was condensed in a book which they called ,vagadasastir4 ,they believed the body gave rise1 through seventeen thousand vessels1 to ten species of gas which conflicted and engendered disease4 ,so far as we know1 they were the first to record a way of testing the specific gravity of urine4 ,though accused of many absurdities1 they claimed to cure the bites of venomous snakes and compounded an ointment which eradicated the cicatrices of smallpox1--a result which has not as yet been attained in the present epoch4 ,the ,chinese attribute the invention of medicine to ,hom-ti1 one of their emperors1 who lived about #bfhg ,b4 ,c42 but possessing no anatomical knowledge1 their surgery1 to say the least1 was barbarous4 ,for over four thousand years the ,chinese were not allowed to communicate with foreigners1 and naturally their progress was at a standstill4 ,they used cups1 acupuncture1 fomentations1 lotions1 plasters1 baths1 etc4 ,their midwifery practice consisted mainly of murderous principles1 and it is only since the introduction of missionaries that a reformation in the medical practice of the ,chinese empire has been accomplished4 ,the condition of medicine in ,greece did not differ from that of the 8rude and uncivilized nations40 ,but later1 ,greek physicians are credited with the most brilliant discoveries4 ,the most distinguished of ,chiron's pupils was sculapius1 who occupies the most conspicuous place in the history of medicine4 sculapius is always painted with a staff1 because the sick have need of a support2 and the serpent entwined around it is the symbol of wisdom4 ,the sons of sculapius are considered the fathers of surgery1 and1 for their distinguished valor at the siege of ,troy1 have been classed by ,homer among the ,greek heroes4 ,the first operation of venesection1 or blood-letting1 formerly so promiscuously done1 with at times good1 but oftener disastrous1 results1 and now rarely resorted to1 is attributed to ,podalirius1 of recognized ,grecian medical skill1 the patient being a princess4 ,the early ,greeks above all recognized the value of physical culture1 which to-day occupies a prominent place in our curriculum4 ,were the children of to-day1 like those of the ancient ,greeks1 compelled to follow a routine of physical training1 a rugged constitution would replace many a 8delicate0 and 8infirm0 one1 and the race propagated would tend to develop a stronger character4 ,then the weak-minded1 now so conspicuously present1 would be eradicated1 and many diseased conditions fostered by an 8inanimate0 race would disappear4 ,hygeia1 from whence comes ,hygiene1 or the art of preserving health1 was a pretended sister of sculapius4 ,anatomy could not flourish in ,greece1 because a most exemplary punishment awaited any untoward conduct toward the dead4 ,their peculiar religious beliefs regarding the rest of the soul were responsible for this4 ,the knowledge of the functions of the body in health and disease was appreciated by ,pythagoras4 ,diogenes asserts that ,alcmon1 one of the ,pythagoreans1 wrote a work on the functions1 which work would consequently be the most ancient known treatise on physiology4 ,the age of ,hippocrates 7,b4 ,c4 #dfj-cgj7 was marked by a revolution in medical science4 8,this central figure in the history of medicine0 was descendant of a family in which the practice of medicine was hereditary4 ,he was an extensive writer on such subjects as epidemics1 acute diseases1 dislocations1 fractures1 etc4 ,owing to the impossibility of establishing a physiology without an anatomical basis1 his references to these subjects are crude and incorrect4 ,to ,hippocrates we owe the classification of endemic1 sporadic1 and epidemic forms of disease1 and their division into acute and chronic4 ,he wrote on diseases of women and epilepsy1 and his therapeutics1 though crude1 were a marked improvement on what had preceded4 ,he wrote fully on external diseases and surgical therapeutics4 ,in obstetrics he was a close observer and a thoughtful teacher4 ,the brilliant theories and practices so diligently observed and urged by this master were thrown in the shadow by his thoughtless followers4 ,the well-instructed physician is not ignorant of the opinions of ,hippocrates1 for truly the 8divine old man0 is the 8,father of ,physic40 ,he caused a revolution in the practice of medicine1 semeiology1 pathology1 and dietetics4 ,he taught physicians to observe attentively the progress of ,nature1 proved the inutility of theories1 and showed that observation is the basis of medicine4 ,an important age1 and one of marked progress in medicine1 is from the foundation of the ,alexandrian ,library 7#cbj ,b4 ,c47 up to the death of ,galen 7,a4 ,d4 #bjj74 ,under the ,ptolemies dissection of human bodies was allowed1 and hence1 as already stated1 the science of medicine received quite an impulse4 ,herophilus deserves first mention as a dissector4 ,he described the brain and its vessels1 the eye1 the intestinal canal1 and parts of the vascular system4 ,the valves of the heart were more exactly described by ,erasistratus1 who discovered the lymph vessels and pointed out that the epiglottis prevents the entrance of food into the lungs4 ,aretus1 more than any other up to his time1 attempted to found pathology upon a sound anatomic basis1 an effort which shows the scientific progress of his age4 ,of all the physicians of antiquity1 ,galen was probably the most brilliant genius4 ,in the midst of disorder he led back to the safer road of sound doctrine and accurate observation which distinguished the ,hippocratic school4 ,he wrote extensively on anatomy1 especially regarding the muscles4 ,he was the first vivisector1 by exposing the muscles of animals and demonstrating their functions1 and his classification according to their use is at present in vogue4 ,carefully regulated vivisection has been1 and always will be1 of incalculable benefit to the development of accurate medical knowledge1 and an indirect aid in the alleviation of human suffering4 ,galen divided the body into cranial and thoracic cavities1 and described the organs1 etc41 contained therein4 ,anatomy and physiology1 the fundamental bases of medicine and surgery1 made the most progress during the period just reviewed1 and next came the description of diseases1 their medical and surgical therapeutics4 ,after the sixth century medicine was exercised almost exclusively by the monks of the ,west4 ,they were unworthy the name of physicians1 as they resorted more to prayers1 and were retarded by ignorance and prejudice4 ,during the seventh and eighth centuries there were among the monks a few traditionary remains of science1 originating from the ,east4 ,the prelates1 archdeacons1 etc41 though continuing the practice of the healing art1 were gradually discouraged by the church1 but as late as the middle of the fifteenth century the ,bishop of ,colchester was chaplain and first physician to ,henry ,,vi4 ,in #adeb physicians of the ,university of ,paris were not allowed to marry1 the applicant1 prior to admission1 taking the oath of celibacy4 ,during the twelfth century the school of ,salernum1 through the personal interest manifested by ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 acquired a degree of reputation attained by few similar institutions in ancient times4 ,schools in ,paris and ,england were placed on an advanced standing1 the professors being salaried2 and about this period the titles of bachelor1 licentiate1 and master1 were granted to the physicians4 ,during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries medicine made remarkable progress in ,france under ,st4 ,louis4 ,during the reign of this prince the teaching of medicine and surgery was divided into separate and distinct classes4 ,medical institutions now became greatly encouraged1 and in the leading cities of ,europe universities were erected under the auspices of royalty4 ,medical instruction experienced an important revolution in the ,european countries during the fourteenth century4 ,for the first time in ,europe anatomy was taught by dissection of the human body4 ,guy de ,chauliac1 who lived at the end of this century1 wrote a treatise on surgery which served as the basis of ,european instruction until ,ambroise ,par of ,france published his celebrated work upon the same subject4 ,the fifteenth century was also one of improvement4 ,the ,arabs added a few observations on pathology1 especially of the eruptive fevers4 ,some useful works on pharmacy and materia medica were published during this epoch4 ,during this era the operation was devised for replacing the nose when removed by accident or disease1 by using for the purpose a piece of flesh taken from the arm1 and applying it by a grafting process4 ,about the middle of this period the internal administration of metallic drugs was introduced4 ,towards the latter end1 the invention of printing tended to assist the progress of medicine4 ,near the close of this century scurvy was first noticed in ,germany4 ,during this period more energy was devoted to postmortem demonstrations and the study of symptoms of diseases4 ,to ,benevieni we owe the commencement of the study of gross pathology and pathological anatomy4 ,malgaigne remarks of him3 8,a eulogy which he merits1 and which he shared with no other person1 and which has not been accorded to him up to this time by the many historians of surgery1 who have superficially searched among these precious sources1 is that he was the first who had the habit1 felt the need1 and set the useful example1 which he transmitted to his successors1 of searching in the cadaver1 according to the title of his book1 for the concealed causes of disease40 ,his observations on anatomical heart lesions1 gall-stone1 and presence of parasites in the body1 were original4 ,john ,fernel1 who has been surnamed 8the modern ,galen10 divided medicine into physiology1 pathology1 and therapeutics4 ,the fundamental maxim of therapeutics1 that every disease must be combated by contrary remedies1 was early laid down by him1 and he claimed that anything that cured a disease was contrary to it4 ,surgery was placed on a high scale during this era1 as thorough a course as the time afforded was given1 and a rigid examination held at its termination4 ,ambroise ,par contributed largely toward making this a glorious century4 ,he rose from the lowest walks of life to the highest professional attainments and honors4 ,he was the first to control hemorrhage by tying the bleeding vessels1 thus doing away with the former crude and painful method of pouring on hot oil4 ,this procedure proved quite a boon to surgery2 as an instance it may be mentioned that prior to the introduction of this method in amputations the bleeding was controlled by means of a hot iron1 and this before the days of ansthesia4 ,every age of ancient1 medival1 and modern medicine has had its charlatans1 and the more civilization progresses1 the more popular these quacks become with certain types of people1 particularly those of the middle and lower classes1 although no class appears to be exempt4 ,latent1 unscrupulous1 and unprincipled1 they play upon the credulity of the ignorant4 ,the central figure of the medival charlatans was ,paracelsus1 who was given to drink and debauchery4 ,he advertised extensively1 similar to the charlatans of to-day1 and exerted an influence in his time4 8,the school which he would have founded was nothing but a school of ignorance1 dissipation1 and boasting--a school of medical dishonesty40 ,during the sixteenth century the greatest discoveries took place in anatomy1 based upon dissections1 the only rational method of ascertaining anatomical knowledge4 ,the lesser circulation of the blood1 or that through the lungs1 was appreciated4 ,the officers of the universities were chosen by the students1 who assisted in laying out the curriculum4 ,compare this with the rigid methods of medical instruction now in vogue4 ,the practitioners were of roving habits1 which were evidently contracted during their student days1 as it was customary for them to go from one school to another1 the poor classes defraying expenses by begging and singing4 ,there was evident improvement in the social and mental status of medical men upon the approach of the seventeenth century1 and this period is signalized by the discovery of the circulation of the blood1 one of the most important ever made in medicine4 ,chemistry now assumed the dignified aspect of a science1 which fact benefited the progress of medicine4 ,it is difficult for us at the present time to understand why the circulation of the blood was not discovered prior to this period1 but to the ancients it was incomprehensible4 ,they believed the arteries contained air1 because after death they were found empty4 ,william ,harvey1 the discoverer of the circulation of the blood1 did not publish the results of his investigations until #afbh1 first submitting them to fifteen years of proof4 ,this naturally revolutionized physiology4 ,the capillary circulation1 or that intermediate between the arteries and veins1 was described by ,malpighi in #afbh4 ,of course this was possible only through the means of a microscope4 ,no less remarkable was the discovery of the lymphatic vessels4 ,peruvian bark 7the alkaloid quinine being more commonly employed7 so universally employed as a specific for malaria1 was first used in the early part of this epoch4 ,during this period ophthalmology 7which treats of the diseases of the eye7 was cultivated in ,france1 cataract was first recognized1 and the diseases of the ear first systematically described4 ,altogether the century showed marked progression1 closing with the teachings of ,sydenham1 8the ,english ,hippocrates40 ,the eighteenth century was one of continued progress4 ,the eminent observers devoted more time to microscopical work1 studying the minute structure of the tissues and cells4 ,one of the most prominent is ,lieberkhn1 who invented the solar microscope1 with which he was enabled to exhibit the circulation of the blood4 ,the systematic practice of the preventive inoculation against small-pox by vaccination originated in this decade4 ,the first inoculation with cow-pox was in #aggd4 ,edward ,jenner1 the ,english surgeon1 was 8the father of vaccination10 which he first did in #agif4 ,about #ahjj1 ,dr4 ,waterhouse1 then professor of medicine in ,harvard ,college1 performed the first vaccination in ,america1 the patients being his four children4 ,the treatment of the insane was changed from one of torture and barbarous methods to a more scientific one1 conducive to the comfort and return to health of the patient4 ,this period marks the earliest example of medical teaching in this country1 consisting of the demonstrations of anatomy in ,philadelphia by ,dr4 ,thomas ,cadwalader1 upon his return from ,europe4 ,this was previous to #agej1 about which time a body was dissected in ,new ,york4 ,in #aged-ef ,dr4 ,william ,hunter of ,scotland delivered a series of lectures on anatomy1 accompanied by dissections1 at ,newport1 ,r4 ,i4 ,in #agfb ,dr4 ,shippen laid the foundation of a medical school in ,philadelphia1 which finally developed into the ,medical ,department of the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,this was the first medical school established in this country4 ,in #agfh a school of medicine was organized in ,new ,york1 and the next in succession was the ,medical ,department of ,harvard ,college in #aghb4 ,the fourth was established at ,hanover1 #agig1 being connected with ,dartmouth ,college4 ,these were the only medical colleges instituted prior to the present century4 ,the first book on ,american surgery was written in #agge by ,dr4 ,john ,jones1 the title being 8,wounds and ,fractures40 8,the tendency of the nineteenth century seems to be a continuation1 and1 perhaps1 in some respects an exaggeration of the condition that obtained in ,france during the previous century2 in other words1 the world has become practically an enormous school of pathological anatomy and diagnosis--a school inaugurated by ,bichat1 as representing so-called scientific or exact medicine40 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,oliver ,,wendell ,,holmes4 ,darwin has promulgated 8the most influential philosophic doctrine of this or any other century40 ,our materia medica and the laws of physics have been enriched by botanical discoveries1 aiding greatly the experimental researches of to-day4 ,helmholz has given us an instrument called the ophthalmoscope1 containing a series of numbered magnifying lenses1 with which the interior of the eye can be explored by looking directly through the pupil of the eye1 similar to looking through a door into a room4 ,through his knowledge of physics1 ,seebach was able to make fame through his discovery of thermal electricity4 ,daguerre1 who invented photography1 must not be overlooked1 as by means of this process1 many conditions are directly appreciated by the eye which could not be told in words and still convey an idea of the tumor1 etc41 being described4 ,it may not be amiss to mention here that the biograph will in a few years prove an important factor in teaching the various operations4 ,one surgeon in ,france is now employing it4 ,we must not overlook ,edison and his electrical achievements which directly and indirectly affect medicine2 nor ,bell's telephone1 which is sometimes used to locate a bullet4 ,by placing the receiver to the ear and probing for the bullet with electric conductors1 the making and breaking of the circuit upon contact with the missile is transmitted to the receiver and distinctly heard4 ,this procedure1 however1 has been discarded since the introduction by ,rntgen of the ,x-ray4 ,a very significant feature of the age has been the extraordinary development of associations devoted to scientific discussions and the publication of medical literature and journals4 ,the formation of medical societies1 especially in the ,united ,states1 has been quite active4 ,but few counties are without a medical organization1 referred to as 8,the 444 ,county ,medical ,society40 ,the ,american ,medical ,association was established by ,dr4 ,nathan ,smith ,davis in ,philadelphia fifty-two years ago 7#ahdg74 ,the first two years no meetings were held1 but since then regular annual meetings have been in progress1 the place of assembly being decided upon by a majority vote of its members4 ,it has met in the city of its birth five times1 the founder has been elected president twice1 and is still 7#aijj7 in active practice at the age of eighty-two4 ,he has attended all its meetings held in various cities from ,boston to ,san ,francisco4 ,the first medical journal in this country appeared in ,new ,york1 #agig4 ,it was called 8,the ,new ,york ,repository10 was published quarterly1 and managed to reach its twenty-third edition4 ,fifty years ago there were about twenty journals published in the ,united ,states4 ,at the end of the century there are two hundred and thirty4 ,in #ahaj there were six hundred and fifty students of medicine in ,america1 and one hundred graduates4 ,at the present writing about twenty thousand medical students are enrolled in our various colleges1 and during the spring of #ahii about three thousand five hundred received the degree of ,m4 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,starling ,,medical ,,college ,,and ,,st4 ,,francis ,,hospital4 ,the original branches1 practice of medicine1 surgery1 obstetrics1 physiology1 anatomy1 therapeutics1 and chemistry1 have been subdivided and specialized4 ,among the chief of these specialties are gynecology1 which treats of diseases of women2 pediatrics1 which treats of diseases of children2 dermatology1 which treats of diseases of the skin2 ophthalmology1 which treats of diseases of the eye2 laryngology1 which treats of diseases of the throat and larynx2 otology1 which treats of diseases of the ear2 neurology1 which treats of diseases of the nerves2 medical jurisprudence1 which treats of the relation of medicine to law2 pathology1 which treats of diseased tissues and organs2 bacteriology1 which treats of the microbes2 and physical diagnosis1 which treats of the art of discriminating disease by means of the eye1 ear1 and touch4 ,the nucleus of the teaching regarding the latter subject is due to the efforts and observations of ,corvisart1 of ,france4 ,he was the first to ascertain the diseased areas of the lungs1 by tapping on the chest with the fingers1 and listening to the pitch of the note thus elicited4 ,a low1 dull note indicates that the lung is solid1 as in pneumonia2 a flat note that fluid is present1 and so on4 ,by placing the ear to the chest wall1 sounds in health and disease are heard1 which vary in intensity1 degree1 etc4 ,laennec discovered by accident that this method was greatly improved and the sounds more distinctly heard if a cylindrical tube was interposed between the ear and the chest wall4 ,the outcome of this principle is the stethoscope4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,nathan ,,smith ,,davis1 ,,of ,,chicago4 ,the name of ,pravaz1 the ,lyons surgeon1 has been perpetuated by the hypodermic syringe which he devised4 ,the employment of suitable drugs in this instrument is the method par excellence for relieving pain4 ,with it drugs can be injected into unconscious patients4 ,suicides who refuse to swallow emetics can have their stomachs emptied most effectually of their contents by a hypodermatic injection of apomorphine4 ,the thermometer used for taking the temperature of the human body is so arranged that the mercury does not descend into the bulb until shaken down1 hence after taking the temperature it remains uninfluenced until shaken down4 ,were an ordinary thermometer used1 by the time it was removed from the patient to the light the mercury would descend several degrees4 ,pasteur began the studies of fermentation in #ahed4 ,through his observations1 aided by the microscope1 the opinion was reached that micro-organisms played an important role in the causation of disease4 ,many of the laboratory investigators became imbued with the spirit1 and through their diligent observations the microbes causing many diseases have been isolated4 ,it remained for ,koch to discover the tubercle bacillus1 or ,bacillus tuberculosis1 which is the cause of consumption4 ,the sputum of a patient1 properly stained1 and examined under the microscope1 will at once decide whether that individual has consumption4 ,having ascertained that bacteria were the cause of disease1 sepsis 7blood poisoning71 etc41 it then remained to discover a method of killing them1 without any undue injury to the patient4 ,sir ,joseph ,lister began experiments upon this hypothesis1 and in #ahfg was able to publish favorable results4 ,but lo6 the world was slow to bend to a new thought ably demonstrated1 and for a score of years he was bitterly opposed4 ,it was ,crawford ,w4 ,long1 in a little village of ,alabama1 who1 in #ahdb1 was the first to put to sleep a patient with ether1 and remove a small growth4 ,the patient1 upon awakening1 had experienced no pain4 ,this method of relieving pain was christened 8ansthesia0 several years later1 by the distinguished ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes1 whose writings did more than those of any other ,american to eradicate 8child-bed fever40 ,every woman in the land owes him an eternal debt of gratitude4 ,to ,guthrie1 of ,sackett's ,harbor1 ,new ,york1 is due the credit of first discovering chloroform1 but ,sir ,james ,simpson1 of ,edinburgh1 deserves the credit of first employing it in medicine4 ,the surgeons of ,america laid the foundation of gynecology1 the progress of which has been more marked than any department of medicine4 ,the first ovariotomy in the world was performed by ,dr4 ,ephraim ,mc,dowell in ,kentucky1 ,december1 #ahji4 ,this was prior to the days of ansthesia and antisepsis1 and a howling mob awaited outside1 ready to murder the brave surgeon should his patient die during the operation4 8,in five days10 says ,dr4 ,mc,dowell1 8,i visited her1 and much to my astonishment found her engaged in making up her bed40 ,dr4 ,j4 ,marion ,sims1 our illustrious genius who established an international reputation1 did much to promulgate plastic work on the female genitalia4 ,the deeds of medical men are soon forgotten by an ungrateful public1 and the sons of sculapius are the last to have monuments erected to their memory4 ,but four exist in ,america2 one1 in ,new ,york1 to that grand old gynecologist1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,marion ,sims2 one in ,washington1 to ,dr4 ,samuel ,d4 ,gross1 8the ,nestor of ,american ,surgery20 one in ,bushnell ,park1 ,hartford1 ,conn41 to ,dr4 ,horace ,wells1 the discoverer of ansthesia2 and one in the ,public ,garden in ,boston to the discoverer of ansthesia4 ,this last bears no name4 ,antisepsis and ansthesia have played an unusually important role in obstetrics1 by alleviating the sufferings of childbirth and eradicating child-bed fever1 thus reducing the mortality of both mother and child4 ,physiology has made very rapid strides during this era4 ,beaumont1 in his famous work1 describes digestion in the stomach and experiments on the gastric juice4 ,he was enabled to observe this in a voyageur who was accidentally wounded in the stomach by the discharge of a musket1 ,june1 #ahbb4 ,quite a large opening remained1 which ,nature closed with a valve4 ,by pushing the valve to one side1 the interior of the stomach could be explored4 ,through the work of the experimental physiologists in the laboratories1 the study of the action of drugs on the lungs1 heart1 liver1 stomach1 nerves1 etc41 has been greatly enhanced4 ,anatomy is now being taught by the only true method1 and that is dissection4 ,didactic lectures are given1 but the student must dissect every part of the human body before he can receive his degree4 ,formerly graves were robbed1 and the bodies sold to the colleges4 ,now1 however1 through legislative enactment1 unclaimed bodies are turned over to the colleges1 where they are preserved either by injection1 a pickling process1 or by cold storage4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,,marion ,,sims1 ,a4,b41 ,m4,d41 7,late ,surgeon to the ,woman's ,hospital1 ,new ,york47 ,the ophthalmologists of to-day fear nothing inside nor outside the eye4 ,cross eyes are straightened1 cataracts removed1 eyeballs taken out and glass eyes inserted4 ,this article would be incomplete1 were not a few remarks directed toward the trained nurse4 ,the first training school for nurses in ,america was established in connection with the ,lying-in ,charity ,hospital of ,philadelphia in #ahbh4 ,this school1 still in existence1 thus has the honor of being the oldest in this country1 and is antedated by only one abroad4 ,the generally recognized profession for women1 that of the trained nurse1 is practically of recent development4 ,twenty-five years ago the training school connected with the ,bellevue ,hospital1 ,new ,york1 graduated a class of five nurses4 ,this was a marked departure in the medical history of this country4 ,since then the demand for the trained nurse has been great1 and no hospital is complete without such a training school4 ,the progress of medicine in the nineteenth century has been far more rapid1 creditable1 and momentous than during any like period of the past4 ,this is true not only in the ,united ,states1 but in every civilized country4 ,its entire scope1 meaning1 and purpose have undergone changes equivalent to revolution4 ,antique superstitions1 idle theories1 foolish speculations1 absurd practices1 the ridiculous jealousies and incriminations of opposing schools1 have been largely eliminated4 ,medical institutions are upon the loftiest plane in their history4 ,teachers are better endowed than ever before4 ,periods of scholastic preparation have been lengthened and curriculums enlarged1 thus securing for the fields of practice a higher mental equipment and more conscionable devotion to duty4 ,never before have the auxiliary and material agencies been turned to so frequent and preventive account4 ,electricity1 the microscope1 ansthesia1 antisepsis1 laboratory experiment1 hospital opportunities1 etc41 are ever constant inspirations to skilled treatment and fresh researches4 ,as the grand army of humanitarian workers was never so large as at the end of the century1 so it was never better fortified for attack upon the enemies of health1 fuller of enthusiasm or more deeply established in the public confidence4 ,one may not1 as yet1 assert that medicine is ridding itself of empiricism with a satisfactory degree of rapidity1 or that it has arrived at the stage of an exact science1 but it surely has approached such a stage as nearly as conditions will allow4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,by ,e4 ,e4 ,,russell ,,tratman1 ,c4,e41 ,assistant ,editor of 8,engineering ,news10 ,chicago4 ,the railway as a means of rapid transportation and general intercommunication is one of the most important factors in the development of modern commerce and civilization1 and1 after reviewing what it has done and become in the nineteenth century1 one cannot help wishing for the opportunity to review the railway wonders of the twentieth century4 ,while the history of the railway dates back far beyond the nineteenth century1 yet the railway1 as we know it to-day1 is essentially a product of this century4 ,it dates1 in fact1 from ,england in #ahcj1 when the ,liverpool ,manchester ,railway1 #ca miles long1 was opened1 and was operated from the beginning by steam locomotives4 ,the ,stockton ,darlington ,railway1 #cg miles1 was opened in #ahbe1 but this line was intended only for private coal traffic1 while the other line was built for general passenger and freight service1 and for the use and benefit of the public4 ,the ,united ,states followed this lead very closely4 ,in #ahbh the ,delaware ,hudson ,canal ,company built a line from its mines to its canal at ,honesdale4 ,this was a private coal road1 however1 and may best be compared to the ,stockton ,darlington ,railway4 ,the first public railway operated by steam was the ,mohawk ,hudson ,railway1 from ,albany to ,schenectady1 #af miles1 which was opened in #ahca4 ,the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railway was the first railway enterprise of more than local character1 being designed to open communication with the ,ohio ,river1 a distance of #djj miles4 ,it was chartered in #ahbg1 commenced in #ahbh1 completed to ,ellicott's ,mills 7#ac miles7 in #ahcj1 and to ,washington 7#dj miles7 in #ahcd4 ,it is one of the great monuments of the ,american railway system1 and it was examined by government commissions from ,russia and ,austria in #ahca and #ahdi4 ,in speaking of the railway we unconsciously associate with it the steam locomotive1 since the two are so entirely interdependent4 ,railways operated by horses1 or by cables and stationary engines1 could never have become the great civilizing and commercial medium which the railway operated by swift locomotives has become4 ,similarly1 the development of the locomotive grew apace1 as soon as it was recognized that the smooth track of the railway--and not the rough track of the highway--was to be its field of operation4 ,at the end of the nineteenth century1 after seventy years of development1 the world has nearly #ejj1jjj miles of railway1 on which locomotives of #hj to #aaj tons in weight 7without their tenders7 haul freight trains of #ajjj to #cjjj tons4 ,passenger trains1 too1 are run at speeds of #dj to #ge miles per hour in regular daily service1 and even make bursts of speed at #hj to #ajj miles per hour4 ,the fact that in #ahij ,europe and ,north ,america had about #cbj1jjj miles of railway out of a grand total of #cgj1jjj miles1 indicates that this phase of nineteenth-century progress has been due mainly to peoples of ,christian civilization1 and besides this1 it must be remembered that the railways of ,asia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,south ,america have been mainly built by the same peoples4 ,the central regions of these four latter geographical divisions are fields for twentieth-century development4 ,the great trunk lines of railway communication are hardly more important than the vast network of branch and minor lines which connect and intersect them4 ,these latter lines bring the people of smaller towns and country districts into closer relation with the large cities1 the centres of industrial and intellectual energy1 enterprise1 and wealth4 ,they thus tend to reduce isolation and dependence upon purely local resources4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,old ,,stage ,,coach4 ,railways also serve important military and strategic purposes4 ,in ,india many of the railways have been built with a view to the defense of the northeastern frontier1 and many ,european governments assume certain military authority over the railways4 ,the first trans-continental railways of the ,united ,states and ,canada were largely assisted by government subsidies on account of their great importance for the transportation of troops4 ,the railway also serves purposes of pleasure1 as well as of commerce and war4 ,not only do the ordinary railways carry much tourist and pleasure travel1 but lines are built exclusively for such travel4 ,some of these take people to the summer and pleasure resorts1 while others cater to the inherent desire of man to ascend great altitudes and to behold the world in its beauty and grandeur spread below them4 ,for this purpose alone have railways been built to the summits of the ,rockies1 the ,alps1 and other mountain ranges4 ,at the end of the century the ,united ,states has about #ahe1jjj miles of railway1 which have cost about #ec1jjj per mile and earn #fejj per mile4 ,great ,britain has about #bb1jjj miles1 which have cost #bbe1jjj per mile and earn about #bj1jjj per mile4 ,a large proportion of this high cost of construction is due to the high prices for land and to the preliminary parliamentary proceedings which are necessary in securing the right to build railways4 ,the average cost per mile of railways in different countries is as follows3-- ,united ,states #ec1jjj ,india #ge1jjj ,japan #ib1jjj ,france #ajj1jjj ,germany #aja1ejj ,switzerland 7ordinary7 #aai1cjj ,do 7mountain7 #afb1ejj ,russia #abb1jjj ,austria-,hungary #abe1djj ,great ,britain #bbe1jjj ,one of the great economic purposes of railways in new countries is to reduce the cost of rapid transportation in bulk far below that of slow transportation in small quantities4 ,train speed is a matter of secondary importance in such cases1 the traffic accommodation and capacity of the slowest train being far beyond that of road or canal transportation4 ,traffic will be served better and at much less cost by being carried in bulk on #ejj miles of railway at #aj miles per hour1 than on #ajj miles of railway at #ce miles per hour1 and then in small lots on wagons or canal boats at #c miles per hour for #djj miles4 ,the advantages of the rapid transportation of perishable freight by rail1 especially in regard to food supplies for cities1 were early recognized1 and by #ahed the trains brought car-loads of country milk into ,london every day4 ,previous to this1 the supply was obtained from cows kept in stables1 which was an unsanitary and expensive plan4 ,another immediate result of railway service was that people began to live farther out of the towns1 and then began the growth of the suburban residence districts1 which are such a feature of modern cities and city life4 ,illustration3 ,,first ,,train ,,of ,,steam ,,cars4 ,the early railways were built merely as local lines1 and there was little idea of their ultimate connection or extension4 ,these small individual lines1 however1 with their own rate-making powers and systems of management1 have been consolidated into great systems1 thus effecting material economies and facilities in operation4 ,thus the ,mohawk ,hudson ,railway of #ahca was the first of a series of lines now consolidated to form the ,new ,york ,central ,railway2 while the ,liverpool ,manchester ,railway of #ahcj was the beginning of what is now the ,london ,northwestern ,railway system4 ,not only is there this consolidation1 but also a most comprehensive system for the interchange of traffic between different systems4 ,thus passengers can purchase through tickets and travel through from ,paris to ,st4 ,petersburg1 or from ,boston to ,san ,francisco1 while freight cars can be sent through in a similar way4 ,this is really a wonderful feature of railway development4 ,the following are a few examples of the great railway systems of the world3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,railway4 ,miles4 ,loco- ,passenger,freight motives4 ,cars4 ,cars4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,pennsylvania 7,u4,s4,a47 #hhhb #ceid #chdg #adf1jfj ,chicago ,northwestern 7,u4,s4,a47 #giif #achj #aagf #di1dhd ,chicago1 ,burlington ,quincy 7,u4,s4,a47 #gdfb #abje #icf #dj1gbj ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,f 7,u4,s4,a47 #gabj #ajcf #fee #bi1hcg ,great ,western 7,england7 #begf #ahcg #fbja #ec1aef ,london ,northwestern 7,england7 #aiab #bhea #hddf #fe1def ,paris1 ,lyons ,mediterranean 7,france7 #eeid #bfbd #ehcg #hg1cbj ,western 7,france7 #cdfd #adib #dcgh #bf1dhg ,mediterranean 7,italy7 #cefh #acad #cgjf #bc1jgg ,northwestern 7,india7 #ccga #fjb #baba #aj1cab ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,in some countries the government owns and operates all1 or nearly all1 of the railways1 as in ,germany1 ,belgium1 and the ,african and ,australian colonies4 ,switzerland1 in #ahih1 decided that its government should acquire the railways4 ,in ,holland and ,italy the government owns the railways1 but leases them to operating companies4 ,france1 ,brazil1 and the ,argentine ,republic have both state and private lines1 with a greater or less degree of state assistance and control of the latter4 ,in ,great ,britain the railways are owned entirely by private companies1 but their operation is subject to government supervision in the public interests4 ,in the ,united ,states there was at first almost absolute freedom of construction1 but the consequent abuses and financial disasters1 owing to unnecessary lines and cut-throat competition1 have led some of the ,states to wisely exercise some degree of control over railway affairs4 ,the interference of the federal government in railway affairs has been slight but important4 ,in #ahfb it aided the construction of the first transcontinental railway2 in #ahhg it passed the act for the regulation of rates1 etc41 in interstate traffic2 and in #ahic it passed the act making compulsory the use of power brakes and automatic couplers on freight cars4 ,government ownership and operation of railways is rarely satisfactory from a financial or a traffic point of view1 but1 on the other hand1 an absolutely unrestricted railway element is liable to become a serious evil4 ,the best system is undoubtedly that in which the railways are owned and operated by private enterprise1 but subject to state supervision1 like steamships1 factories1 etc4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that private enterprise is not always available4 ,in ,russia1 for example1 the development of railways would have been but slow on such a basis2 and in ,india1 government backing was needed to induce ,british capitalists to enter the field4 ,it is unfortunate for ,china that neither the government nor the people have been competent or enterprising enough to deal with the railway question4 ,the present system of development by rival interests of various nationalities seems almost certain to lead to the eventual dissolution of the empire and its partition among other nations1 as ,africa is already in large measure partitioned4 ,in the ,united ,states railway construction has gone by leaps and bounds1 and there is now a vast network of lines1--main1 secondary1 branch1 and local4 ,the highest records of construction within the past twenty years were #ab1hjj miles built in #ahhg1 and #aa1fjj miles in #ahhb1 while the lowest record was #agej miles in #ahif4 ,the growth from #ahhf to #ahii has been as follows1 the relatively small increase in number of locomotives being due to the greater power of modern engines3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,increase1 #ahhf4 #ahii4 per cent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,mileage #acc1fjj #ahe1jjj #hh4dg ,tonnage carried #dhb1jjj1jjj #ghj1jjj1jjj #fb4jj ,number of cars #hga1ejj #a1ccj1jjj #eb4fa ,number of locomotives #bf1djj #cf1jjj #cf4cj ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,perhaps the railway of most recent interest is the first line in ,alaska1 which is twenty miles long1 and was built as a result of the rush to the ,klondike gold fields4 ,this was opened on ,february #bj1 #ahii4 ,the great transcontinental railways1 however1 are of much broader interest4 ,in #ahce the ,rev4 ,samuel ,parker1 a missionary in the ,northwest1 suggested a railway from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and ,dr4 ,samuel ,e4 ,barlow proposed one from ,new ,york to the ,columbia ,river1 #bjjj miles1 to cost #aj1jjj per mile1 and to carry traffic at about seven miles per hour4 ,from #ahdd to #ahdi ,mr4 ,asa ,whitney urged ,congress to grant land to aid him in building a line from ,lake ,michigan to ,san ,francisco1 #bjcj miles1 to cost #bj1jjj per mile4 ,between #ahec and #ahfa ,congress had surveys made of five routes1 but no definite action was taken until after the outbreak of the ,civil ,war1 in #ahfa1 when the federal government soon recognized the importance of having direct communication with the ,pacific ,states1 which were at that time isolated4 ,companies were organized in #ahfb1 and work commenced in #ahfd1 under government subsidies and military aid and protection4 ,on ,may #aj1 #ahfi1 the ,union ,pacific ,railway 7from the east7 and the ,central ,pacific ,railway 7from the west7 met at ,promontory ,point1 ,utah1 #aahf miles from the ,missouri ,river and #fch miles from ,sacramento1 ,cal4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,railway ,,train ,,in ,,belgium4 ,now1 thirty years later1 we have six so-called transcontinental railways1 no one of which1 however1 has its own line from ocean to ocean1 and none of which run through trains or cars4 ,in ,canada1 however1 the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway 7opened in #ahhg7 has a through line from ,st4 ,john and ,montreal to ,vancouver1 with through trains daily between the latter points1 #bije miles4 ,the principal transcontinental lines1 with the total distances from ocean to ocean1 are shown on the following page4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total ,railway4 ,opened4 ,route4 ,length4,distance4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a4 ,canadian ,pacific #ahhg ,montreal to ,vancouver #bije #bije #b4 ,great ,northern #ahic ,st4 ,paul to ,seattle #ahbg #caegf #c4 ,northern ,pacific -- ,st4 ,paul to ,tacoma #aiab #cbdb #d4 ,union ,pacific #ahfi ,omaha to ,san ,francisco #aibh #ccdj #e4 ,union ,pacific -- ,omaha to ,portland #ahbc #cbce #f4 ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,f -- ,chicago to ,san ,francisco #begg #cdig #g4 ,southern ,pacific #ahhc ,new ,orleans to ,san ,francisco #bdhi #dafdf ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #f ,in ,nos4 #b and #g the total distance is given from ,new ,york4 ,of the various completed and partly completed interoceanic railways across ,central ,america1 the most important by far is the ,panama railway1 in ,colombia1 #dg miles long4 ,this was opened as long ago as #ahee1 and was originally intended as a link in a route between ,new ,york and ,san ,francisco1 #edej miles4 ,in ,south ,america there are few railways of great importance1 and the interior yet remains undeveloped1 with the exception of the great plains of the ,argentine ,republic4 ,a transcontinental line between ,buenos ,ayres and ,valparaiso1 #hej miles1 is nearly completed1 but work has been stopped for some years1 leaving #ej miles yet to be built at the summit of the ,andes4 ,an interesting1 but as yet visionary1 scheme is that for an intercontinental railway through ,central and ,south ,america4 ,the distance from the southern frontier of ,mexico to ,buenos ,ayres would be #eejj miles4 ,about #abhj miles of this are built1 but comprise many small lines which would have to be rebuilt4 ,the total cost would be about #bbj1jjj1jjj1 at a low estimate1 and the total distance from ,new ,york to ,buenos ,ayres would be #aj1cjj miles by rail4 ,in ,europe there is a vast and comprehensive network of railway lines1 but the distances are less1 even ,st4 ,petersburg and ,constantinople being but about #afjj and #ahjj miles from ,paris4 ,while the development of railways has been remarkable1 the most striking features are the lines which cross the ,alps to connect the interior with the ,mediterranean ports4 ,the first of these was the ,semmering railway1 on the route between ,vienna and ,trieste 7#ahed74 ,the ,mont ,cenis railway 7#ahfg7 was mainly a surface line1 with heavy inclines operated on the ,fell grip-rail system4 ,its route followed the great carriage road built by ,napoleon in #ahjc-aj4 ,the railway over the ,brenner ,pass was opened in #ahfh2 in #ahga the ,mont ,cenis tunnel superseded the high-level line1 and in #ahhj the ,great ,st4 ,gothard railway was opened4 ,this was followed by the ,arlberg railway in #ahhd1 and the ,simplon railway is now under construction4 ,europe has the only railway within the ,arctic ,circle4 ,it runs from ,lulea1 on the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 northwest to the ,gellivara iron mines1 #dd miles within the circle4 ,as the port is closed by ice during the winter1 the line is to be extended to the ,atlantic coast at ,ofoten1 #fi north latitude1 where the influence of the ,gulf ,stream keeps the ports open4 ,this end of the line will be #acj miles north of the ,arctic ,circle4 ,illustration3 ,,loop ,,in ,,the ,,selkirks1 ,,showing ,,four ,,tracks4 ,the countries of ,asia 7with the exception of ,india7 are but scantily supplied with railways4 ,even ,palestine--the ,holy ,land--has1 however1 been invaded1 and has now two railways4 ,one of these is from ,jaffa 7the biblical ,joppa7 to ,jerusalem1 #ed miles 7#ahib72 the other is from ,beirut to ,damascus1 #gj miles4 ,british interests have long advocated an 8all-rail-to-,india0 project4 ,the line would start opposite ,constantinople1 pass down the ,euphrates valley1 across ,persia1 and along the coast of ,baluchistan to ,kurrachee1 connecting there with the ,indian railway system4 ,this great system aggregates #be1jjj miles1 and extends up to the ,bolan ,pass and the ,khyber ,pass1 on the ,afghan frontier4 ,southward1 it has been proposed to connect with the ,ceylon railways by a line of bridges and embankments along the reefs and shoals known as ,adam's ,bridge4 ,owing to the vigorous opposition of the government and people1 ,china has but #cej miles of railway to its #d1bjj1jjj square miles and its population of #dbj1jjj1jjj4 ,many lines are projected1 but are all in the eastern portion1 and the twentieth century will be well advanced before the railway opens up the heart of the country to civilization4 ,japan1 the very opposite of ,china1 has encouraged railway construction1 and now has #cjjj miles of railway to its #adg1fjj square miles and its population of #de1jjj1jjj4 ,the most notable of all the railways in ,asia is the great ,trans-,siberian railway1 now being built by the ,russian government4 ,it was commenced in #ahia1 and may be completed by #aijc1 the distance from ,st4 ,petersburg to ,vladivostok1 or ,port ,arthur1 being then about #efgj miles4 ,there are several large cities on the route1 and the line does not pass through such a wild and uninhabited country as that through which the ,union ,pacific ,railroad was built thirty years ago4 ,it is now open to ,lake ,baikal1 the trip of #cbcj miles being made in about #ab days by the slow train1 or #h days by the less frequent fast train4 ,the road is roughly and lightly built in many respects1 so that high speeds cannot be maintained4 ,the eastern end of the road will pass through ,chinese territory1 thus giving ,russia a firm foothold in that empire4 ,hardly less interesting is the ,trans-,caspian railway1 from the ,caspian ,sea to ,samarcand1 #hhe miles1 with a branch from ,merv to within #ie miles of the ,afghan city of ,herat4 ,an extension to the ,persian ,gulf is also projected4 ,as the ,trans-,siberian railway has developed a new wheat-growing region1 so the ,trans-,caspian railway is developing a new cotton-growing region4 ,in ,africa the railways already extend northward from ,cape ,town1 through the land of the ,boers and up to ,buluwayo1 the old ,zulu stronghold1 #adjj miles4 ,there is a picturesque project for carrying the line on to the ,mediterranean1 a total distance of #eejj miles1 but this will not materialize for many years4 ,the ,congo railway1 passing the rapids1 opens communication between the coast and a long stretch of inland navigation4 ,several lines are being pushed from the east coast into the interior1 and a transcontinental railway from ,st4 ,paul de ,loando1 on the west1 has been commenced1 but there is not now much life in this latter project4 ,the ,french have two favorite schemes for railways1--from ,algeria to ,timbuctoo1 and from ,tunis to ,lake ,chad1 the latter line being about #afjj miles in length4 ,in ,australia1 the lines of the different colonies are gradually extending and connecting to form a continuous system1 which is hampered1 however1 by differences of gauge4 ,there is railway communication between the capitals of ,queensland 7,brisbane71 ,new ,south ,wales 7,sydney71 ,victoria 7,melbourne71 and ,south ,australia 7,adelaide74 ,the great stretch westward to the coast cities of ,western ,australia is yet in the future1 as is also the ,south ,australian transcontinental line from ,adelaide northward across vast deserts 7already crossed by the telegraph7 to ,palmerston4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,tunnel1 ,,switzerland4 ,great bridges and tunnels are among the prominent features of the railways of the world1 but space forbids entering into details of these works4 ,they are in principle similar to those required for highways1 but many of these great works would never have been undertaken for such traffic as is carried by a highway4 ,the only railway suspension bridge ever built was the ,niagara bridge1 opened in #ahee1 and replaced by a steel arch in #ahih4 ,the development of bridges and traffic may be judged from the fact that the ,victoria single-track tubular bridge over the ,st4 ,lawrence1 at ,montreal1 which was opened in #ahei1 was replaced in #ahig-ih by a double-track railway and roadway truss bridge on the same piers4 ,the steel arch bridge1 #agjj feet long1 across the ,mississippi1 at ,st4 ,louis1 cost #e1cjj1jjj4 ,the tubular bridge1 #feib feet long1 over the ,st4 ,lawrence1 at ,montreal1 ,canada1 cost #g1jjj1jjj4 ,the cantilever bridge1 #hibe feet long1 over the ,firth of ,forth1 ,great ,britain1 cost #ac1jjj1jjj4 ,the cost of the proposed suspension bridge1 #cjjj feet long1 over the ,hudson1 at ,new ,york1 is estimated at #ac1jjj1jjj4 ,the first railway tunnel was the ,portage ,tunnel1 in ,pennsylvania1 built in #ahca4 ,the longest railway tunnel is the ,simplon1 in ,switzerland4 ,it is #ab4be miles in length1 and is still under construction4 ,the next longest is the ,gothard1 ,switzerland4 ,it is #i4cj miles long1 and was opened in #ahha4 ,in track construction1 cast-iron rails began to be superseded by wrought iron in #ahbj1 and many of the early ,american railways had strap iron laid on timber stringers4 ,within the past twenty years steel has been used almost exclusively4 ,in place of rails weighing #be to #ce lbs4 per yard1 and #c to #ae feet in length1 we now use rails of #hj to #ajj lbs4 per yard1 #cj to #fj feet long4 ,stone blocks and wooden ties were first used to support the rails1 and the latter are now generally used1 although metal ties are extensively used and date back to #ahdf4 ,in #ahid there were thirty-five thousand miles of railway laid with this form of track4 ,the next development will probably be a permanent and continuous concrete bed for the rails2 as the present construction1 with wooden ties laid in stone or other ballast1 requires continual attention and repair under the effects of heavy traffic4 ,illustration3 ,,railway ,,signals4 ,the semaphore signal was introduced in ,england by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,gregory in #ahda1 and is now used in all parts of the world1 to govern and protect train movements4 ,the first interlocking plant was erected in #ahdc1 and the complete plants--as used to-day--date from #ahef4 ,now1 practically all important junctions are equipped with interlocking plants1 which prevent conflicting signals and switches being so set as to lead to accident4 ,the electric telegraph was patented by ,cooke and ,wheatstone in #ahcg1 and in #ahci they secured its introduction to govern the train service on the ,great ,western ,railway 7,england74 ,the movements were telegraphed from station to station1 and a train was not allowed to leave a station until the preceding train had passed the next station in advance4 ,this was the beginning of the 8block system10 which is a great element in the safe operation of traffic1 since it maintains an interval of space between trains4 ,mr4 ,edwin ,clark's telegraph block system was introduced in #ahec1 and as traffic increased intermediate block signal stations were established between the regular stations1 so as to shorten the distances between trains4 ,this system is compulsory in ,great ,britain and is already largely used in the ,united ,states4 ,it was at first held that it was not adapted to conditions in this country1 where so many lines have but a single track1 but experience has shown that it increases the facility as well as the safety of operating traffic on single and double track lines alike4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,american ,,express ,,locomotive4 ,steam locomotives were used on colliery railways in ,england as early as #ahjd1 when ,trevithick built an engine1 which was the first to haul a train on rails4 ,george ,stephenson built his first locomotive in #ahad1 and in #ahbe built the 8,locomotion0 for the ,stockton ,darlington ,railway4 ,horses1 stationary engines1 and steam locomotives were all proposed for the ,liverpool ,manchester ,railway1 and in #ahbi the directors offered a premium of #bejj for the best locomotive4 ,each engine was to consume its smoke1 weigh about #f tons1 cost not more than #bgej1 and be capable of hauling a train of #bj tons at #aj miles per hour4 ,this led to the now historical trials at ,rainhill1 in ,october1 #ahbi1 between the 8,rocket0 7,stephenson71 the 8,novelty0 7,braithwaite and ,ericson71 and the 8,sans ,pareil0 7,hackworth74 ,the award was made to the 8,rocket0 as the most practicable machine1 although the 8,novelty0 attained a higher speed1 and the 8,sans ,pareil0 was also a good engine and continued in use for several years4 ,seguin introduced the locomotive in ,france in #ahbg1 having modified and rebuilt an old ,stephenson engine4 ,the first locomotive operated in the ,united ,states was the imported 8,stourbridge ,lion10 on the ,delaware ,hudson ,canal ,co4's line1 in #ahbi4 ,cooper's 8,tom ,thumb0 was run on the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railway in #ahcj1 and in #ahca the directors of this road offered premiums of #djjj and #cejj for locomotives4 ,each engine was to weigh not more than #c tons1 to have four wheels1 and to haul loads of #ae tons at #ae miles per hour for #cj days4 ,five engines were presented1 by ,davis1 ,costell1 ,milholland1 ,childs1 and ,james4 ,the prizes were awarded to the first two1 the ,davis engine 8,york0 being rebuilt under the direction of its inventor and ,mr4 ,ross ,winans1 while the 8,costell0 was put in switching service4 ,in #ahca the 8,john ,bull0 was built by the ,stephensons in ,england1 and was put in service on the ,camden ,amboy ,railway 7,u4 ,s4 ,a47 in the same year4 ,in #ahic this old engine was readjusted and ran from ,new ,york to ,chicago1 #iab miles1 under its own steam1 hauling two cars of the type of #ahcf4 ,in #ahih there were about #ai1ejj locomotives in ,great ,britain and #cf1ejj in the ,united ,states4 ,as a comparison between the little engines of early days and the huge and swift engines of to-day1 it may be stated that modern passenger locomotives are now constructed with as many as six driving wheels1 and ten wheels in all4 ,some of those in use on the ,great ,northern ,railway1 ,great ,britain1 have driving wheels of #ig inches in diameter4 ,on the ,fitchburg ,railway1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 locomotives are in use which weigh #ge tons4 ,some modern freight locomotives have as many as ten driving wheels1 and twelve wheels in all1 and a total weight of #aae tons4 ,since the application of electric traction to street railways1 it has frequently been said that it would eventually supersede the steam locomotive4 ,in no instance1 however1 has it yet been applied to regular railway service1 with heavy trains and long runs1 nor is there yet any indication of increased economy or efficiency due to its use in such service4 ,it is successfully used for local and suburban lines1 but these form a class in themselves1 and the conditions of operation are very different from those which obtain in ordinary service4 ,the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railway has some heavy electric locomotives1 but these are for hauling trains through a tunnel1 to avoid the trouble and discomfort from the smoke and gases from the steam engines4 ,the early passenger cars were either open cars with cross seats1 or had coach bodies on four-wheel platform cars4 ,the coach-body cars on the ,mohawk ,hudson ,railway1 in #ahca1 were #g ft4 #d in4 long and #e ft4 wide4 ,in #ahcf the ,american type of car was introduced on the ,camden ,amboy ,railway1 having a long body mounted on two four-wheeled trucks4 ,these cars seated #dh passengers1 and cars for #fj passengers were in use in #ahci1 their cost being #bdjj4 ,american day cars are now #fj to #hj ft4 long1 seating #fj to #hd passengers1 and weighing from #cj to #dg tons4 ,the standard day car of the ,pennsylvania ,railway is #fj ft4 #g in4 long over all1 and seats #ff passengers4 ,dining and sleeping cars weigh from #de to #fe tons1 much of the weight being due to the special equipment for the comfort and convenience of passengers1 and consequently so much dead weight to be hauled4 ,it can be said without dispute that in no other country have the railways done so much for the comfort and convenience of their passengers1 and have charged so little therefor4 ,in ,europe1 the cars developed into the compartment system1 with side doors1 there being high transverse partitions with seats on each side1 so that in a full compartment half the passengers must ride backward4 ,the cars are usually short1 with two or three axles1 but about #ahgb the ,american system of mounting cars on trucks was introduced1 and longer cars on trucks are now somewhat extensively used4 ,within later years corridor cars have been introduced1 with a corridor connecting the compartments4 ,such details as steam heat1 toilet arrangements1 ample light1 luxurious finish1 etc41 which have long been a matter of course in this country1 are quite 8end of the century0 improvements in ,europe1 and generally below the standards observed in this country4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,american ,,freight ,,locomotive4 ,sleeping cars were used on the ,cumberland ,valley ,railway 7,u4 ,s4 ,a47 in #ahcf4 ,in #ahef1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,l4 ,woodruff built a sleeping car1 and in #aheg two were built by ,mr4 ,webster ,wagner and operated on the ,new ,york ,central ,railway4 ,mr4 ,george ,m4 ,pullman began his experiments in #ahei1 and in #ahfd he put in service on the ,chicago ,alton ,railway the first sleeping car with the berth arrangements now almost universally used4 ,he pushed the business more vigorously than his predecessors and acquired many of their patents4 ,the ,pullman ,palace ,car ,co4 was organized in #ahfg1 and in #ahgi its various works were all concentrated in a new industrial town--called ,pullman--near ,chicago4 ,in #ahih the company owned #b1dbh cars1 which were operated on #aba1bcf miles of railway1 ran #aij1efb1geh miles1 and carried #d1heb1djj passengers4 ,most of the cars are in the ,united ,states1 but some are in ,europe and ,australia4 ,the ,wagner ,palace ,car ,co4 owns #efj sleeping cars and #adc parlor cars4 ,in ,europe most of the long distance sleeping and dining car service is operated by the ,international ,sleeping ,car ,co41 which runs cars between ,paris and ,constantinople 7#gb hours71 ,paris and ,st4 ,petersburg 7#abj hours71 ,calais and ,brindisi 7#be hours74 ,passenger cars are now usually lighted by oil1 the mineral oil used in ,america being superior to the vegetable oils commonly used in ,europe4 ,oil gas1 compressed in tanks1 is very extensively used1 and gives an excellent light4 ,the system was invented by ,mr4 ,julius ,pintsch1 and was introduced in ,germany in #ahgc1 and in the ,united ,states in #ahha4 ,it is now applied to about #he1jjj cars in #bb countries2 #cb1jjj of these cars being in ,germany1 #ag1jjj in ,great ,britain1 and #ae1jjj in the ,united ,states4 ,the electric light is as yet used only on a few of the finest express trains1 the current being generated either from a steam engine and dynamo in the baggage car1 or from a dynamo on each car1 driven from one of the car axles4 ,storage batteries maintain the light when the cars are at rest4 ,american cars were heated by stoves at a very early date1 and this developed into the hot water system1 with a stove and circulating pipes in each car4 ,steam from the locomotive1 however1 is now generally employed1 and its use is compulsory in some ,states4 ,in ,europe the passengers have to rely largely upon their own wraps and rugs4 ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,of ,,latest ,,sleeping ,,car4 ,in ,american freight cars1 great improvements have been introduced1 increasing the carrying capacity while reducing the weight4 ,the capacity has been increased from #aj tons of load in #ahgj1 to #cj1 #dj1 and even #ej tons in #ahii 7an increase of #cjj to #ejj per cent74 ,the weight has increased only from #aj to #ae or #ag tons 7or #ej to #gj per cent74 ,cars are now being built entirely of steel1 and while their first cost is greater1 the cost per ton and the expenses of maintenance are less than for wooden cars of similar capacity4 ,as sleeping1 dining1 parlor1 tourist1 and other special cars have been introduced for passenger traffic1 so refrigerator1 stock1 horse1 fruit1 poultry1 and furniture cars have been introduced for special requirements in freight traffic4 ,in other countries1 however1 the use of such special equipment is much more limited4 ,the ordinary foreign freight cars are the same as those of #cj or #dj years ago1 being short four-wheel cars1 weighing #e tons1 and carrying #h to #aj tons4 ,these are not well adapted to the handling of bulk freight1 and greatly increased economy and facility in such traffic would result from the introduction of the ,american system1 as has been done in ,australia4 ,in modern ,american practice1 too1 the cars are equipped with automatic couplers and power brakes1 thus greatly increasing the safety and facility of operating heavy fast trains4 ,in #ahic1 ,congress passed a law requiring that by ,january #a1 #ahih1 all freight cars should be equipped with automatic couplers and enough cars equipped with power brakes 7operated from the engine7 to put the trains entirely under the control of the enginemen4 ,the date was afterwards extended to ,january #a1 #aijj4 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,pullman ,,sleeping ,,car4 ,as the speed and weight of trains increased1 the dangers due to lack of brake power soon became alarmingly apparent1 and numerous forms of continuous brakes were devised1 to be applied to the wheels of every car1 under the control of the engineman4 ,in #ahhi1 the ,british government passed the ,railways ,regulation ,act1 making compulsory the use of the block system1 the interlocking system1 and continuous brakes4 ,in ,england and some other foreign countries1 the vacuum brake 7introduced about #ahga7 is largely used1 but it is slower in action than the compressed air brake1 and is therefore less efficient for long1 heavy1 and fast trains4 ,the ,westinghouse brake is one of the most important factors in the safe and efficient handling of heavy and fast trains4 ,mr4 ,george ,westinghouse patented his straight-air brake in #ahfi1 his plain automatic brake in #ahgb1 and his quick-action freight train brake in #ahhg1 while in #ahib he introduced his high-speed brake for express trains4 ,up to the opening of #ahii1 the ,westinghouse brake had been applied to about #ee1ejj locomotives and #iab1jjj cars1 of which #cd1cjj locomotives1 #ej1jjj passenger cars and #gej1jjj freight cars were on ,american railways4 ,with this brake1 a passenger train of #cjj tons1 traveling at #fj miles per hour1 can be stopped in about #dejj feet and about #ij seconds1 or in #abjj feet and #ca seconds in case of emergency4 ,a freight train of #hjj tons1 running at #cj miles per hour1 can be stopped in about #iej feet in #cb seconds1 or in #cjj feet and #aa seconds by an 8emergency0 application4 ,very few countries have applied continuous brakes to freight cars1 except the ,united ,states and ,canada1 and 7to some extent7 ,russia and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the improvement in train service has been even greater than that in train equipment1 and this improvement has been in speed1 accommodation1 and number of trains4 ,among the notable runs are those across the ,american and ,european continents4 ,the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway starts a train daily from each end of the line for a through run of #bijj miles4 ,in #ahhh1 a through train service 7with sleeping and dining cars7 was instituted between ,paris and ,constantinople1 about #ahjj miles1 and through trains are run twice a week between ,paris and ,st4 ,petersburg1 #afjj miles4 ,there is also a similar service between ,calais and ,brindisi1 #abjj miles1 in connection with the mail steamers between ,england and ,india4 ,in #ahih1 the ,trans-,siberian ,railway was completed to ,irkutsk1 and a through train service between ,st4 ,petersburg and that city1 #cbcj miles1 was commenced4 ,railway trains were at first intended to have speeds of about #aj to #bj miles per hour1 the latter being looked upon as almost excessive1 but much higher speeds were very soon attained4 ,there has been almost from the earliest days a public demand for higher and higher speeds1 with consequent rivalry between the railways4 ,the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain 7and ,france within the past few years7 have the fastest trains and by far the greater number of fast trains4 ,the highest recorded train speed is that of the ,exposition ,flyer1 #bgj tons total1 upon the ,new ,york ,central ,railway1 ,may #ajth1 #ahic4 ,it ran a distance of one mile at the rate of #aab miles per hour1 and again1 on the same date1 maintained a speed of #ajj miles per hour1 through a distance of five miles4 ,as a daily train between ,new ,york and ,chicago1 it maintained a rate of #fj to #ge miles an hour1 throughout the entire #ihj miles of distance4 ,illustration3 ,,railway ,,suspension ,,bridge1 ,,niagara ,,falls4 ,it will be seen that the speed of 8#ajj-miles-an-hour10 which is popularly looked upon as a sort of ideal1 has been more than once exceeded1 but it may be well to explain that such spectacular bursts of speed are really less important and less wonderful than the trips of #ej to #ajjj miles at speeds averaging #ej to #fe miles per hour for the entire journey4 ,taking into account the loss of time by stops at stations1 by changing engines1 by the resistance of long grades1 etc41 it will be easily understood that in order to maintain the average speed from start to finish1 the actual speeds must often range from #fj to #ge or even #hj miles per hour4 ,the regular daily transcontinental train of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway has an average speed of #cj miles per hour1 but maintains this for the trip of #bijf miles1 which occupies #id hours4 ,this is a train and a record of which railway men in general1 and those of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway in particular1 may well be proud4 ,there are no such through trains in the ,united ,states1 but in #ahgf a special theatre train was run from ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco in #c days #g hours4 ,in #ahhi1 the time of the transcontinental mails was #e days #h hours1 but that same year it was reduced to #d days #ab hours1 which schedule continued in force until #ahii4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahii1 a new mail service was inaugurated1 making the #cdjh miles in #ih hours1 or at an average of #cd miles per hour1 including all stops1 and the transfer of mail bags across ,chicago by wagon from one station to another4 ,the actual running speed is often #fj to #ge miles per hour for long stretches4 ,engines are changed #ah times and postal crews #g times4 ,fast passenger trains are a popular attraction1 but only railway men can fully appreciate the advantages and economies of heavy trains for handling freight traffic4 ,in ,europe coal trains weigh from #cjj to #djj tons1 but in the ,united ,states the weight of coal1 ore1 and freight trains is from #hjj to #bjjj tons4 ,automatic couplers and power brakes enable the freight trains to be run as fast as passenger trains1 with entire safety2 improved cars carry greater loads1 and more powerful locomotives are continually being put in service to haul heavier trains4 ,the heaviest trains on record are as follows3 7#a7 ,pennsylvania ,railway1 #acj cars1 #ebac tons1 or #eefj tons with engine and tender2 7#b7 ,new ,york ,central ,railway1 #ha cars1 #cdgh tons1 or #ceie tons with engine and tender4 ,both these were run in #ahih1 the length of journey being #afj and #adj miles4 ,the mails were carried by rail between ,baltimore and ,washington in #ahcd1 on recommendation of the ,postmaster-,general4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 railway service was instituted in ,august1 #ahfd1 between ,chicago and ,clinton1 and the following figures indicate its wonderful development3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #ahhj #ahih ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,mileage run by mail cars #fe1gfc1iic #ahg1dhc1ahg ,number of mail cars ---- #c1fdi ,number of mail clerks #b1idf #g1iii ,miles of railway operated over #he1cbj #agd1ggg ,tons of mail carried #cfh1jjj #a1dcb1jej ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the railway express business was started in #ahch by ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,harnden1 on a suggestion from ,mr4 ,josiah ,quincy1 who had to travel weekly from ,boston to ,new ,york1 and was in the habit of taking small packages for business acquaintances4 ,mr4 ,alvin ,adams became associated with ,mr4 ,harnden1 and in #ahde formed the ,adams ,express ,co4 ,in ,great ,britain1 this business is conducted by the parcels-post and the railway companies1 but in other ,european countries it is mainly in the hands of the post-office department4 ,a very remarkable feature of railway development is that from the beginning there has been a tendency to increased traffic1 better service1 and a steady reduction in rates4 ,in the ,united ,states the average rates per mile since #ahfg have been as follows3-- --------------------------- ,passenger1 ,freight1 ,year cents cents --------------------------- #ahfg #a4iid #a4ibe #ahgj #b4cib #a4hhi #ahge #b4cgh #a4dba #ahhj #b4ddb #a4bcb #ahhe #b4baf #a4jaa #ahij #b4afg #j4ida #ahie #b4jdj #j4hci #ahif #b4jai #j4hjf --------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,hagerman ,,pass ,,on ,,colorado ,,midland ,r4 ,r4 ,while the reduction in passenger rates has been comparatively small1 it must be remembered that the safety1 speed1 comfort1 and service have greatly improved4 ,the marked reduction in freight rates has been made possible only by a still greater and more remarkable reduction in the cost of transportation4 ,this has been effected by consolidation of companies1 by improvements in roadway1 bridges1 etc41 and by the introduction of heavier trains1 with engines of greater power and cars of greater capacity4 ,this economy can be still further extended4 ,the reduction in rates has been much greater than that in the prices of commodities4 ,rates for wheat and hay1 for instance1 have decreased #bc and #bj per cent more than the market prices1 and the rate for shipping anthracite coal to tidewater has decreased #ej per cent in the past ten years1 while the price of the coal has decreased only #aj per cent4 ,the average freight rate on the ,pennsylvania ,railway in #ahih was #j4ecf cent per ton per mile1 while the cost was #j4cfi cent4 ,the cheapness of transportation in the ,united ,states is shown by the following figures for #ahih3-- ,passengers carried one mile #ac1jjj1jjj1jjj ,tons of freight carried one mile #ie1jjj1jjj1jjj ,revenue from passenger service #bf1jjj1jjj ,revenue from freight service #fb1jjj1jjj ,distance railway carries #a passenger to earn #a profit #ejj miles ,distance railway carries #a ton to earn #a profit #aecj miles ,average profit per passenger 7including baggage7 per mile #b-aj cent ,average profit per ton per mile #a-ae cent ,the lowest passenger rates in the world are on the ,indian railways4 ,in ,europe the passenger rates average higher than in the ,united ,states1 though the accommodation is inferior4 ,railway transportation has almost entirely superseded barge1 canal1 and river transportation1 except in special cases4 ,this is due to the greater speed1 the greater efficiency of service1 the greater carrying capacity1 and the extent to which spurs and branches are built to enable cars to reach mills1 factories1 and other industrial plants4 ,it was for a long time held that the low rates of water transportation exerted an influence in keeping railway rates down1 but with the present condition of the latter this no longer holds good as a general proposition1 especially for the limited capacity of barge canals4 ,the rates established for wheat and corn from ,buffalo to ,new ,york by rail in #ahii are about #j4bc and #j4ah cent per ton per mile1 which is but little above the canal rates1 while rail shipments are much more advantageous4 ,the railway system is a vast employer of labor1 directly and indirectly1 and several million persons in the ,united ,states derive their support from the various railway industries1 without taking into account such allied industries as rail mills1 bridge works1 locomotive works1 and car works1 etc4 ,the number of direct railway employees 7exclusive of the employees of terminal and sleeping-car companies1 fast freight lines1 etc47 is over #hbj1jjj1 or over #a4b per cent of the total population4 ,a large proportion of these represent skilled labor of a high degree of intelligence4 ,france has about #aaaj employees per mile of railway1 and #aj per cent of these are women4 ,the figures for the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain are as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,united ,states ,great ,britain ---------------------------------------- #ahij #ahig #aheg #ahhi #ahie ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,miles of railway #afc1eig #ahd1dbh #h1idb #ai1idc #ba1agd ,number of employees #gdi1cja #hbc1dgf #aji1ffj #cha1fbf #dfe1dab ,number of employees per #ajj miles #dgi #ddi #a1bcj #a1ijj #b1aig ,number of employees per cent of population #a4b #a4b #j4d #a4j #a4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the railway service especially demands some better and more intimate relation between the employers and employees than that of the mere buying and selling of labor for a price4 ,both humanity and self-interest have led several railways in this country and abroad to establish relief departments1 providing temporary financial aid in case of accident or sickness1 with other forms of benefits in addition1 the object being to induce men to continue permanently in the employ of the road4 ,such associations have existed in ,england since #ahej1 in ,canada since #ahgc1 and in the ,united ,states since #ahhj1 when one was started by the ,baltimore ,ohio ,railway4 ,in #ahif there were six of these associations in the ,united ,states1 with an aggregate of about #abe1jjj members4 ,the six railway systems owned #ae per cent of all the mileage and had #bj per cent of all the railway employees in the country4 ,before closing this review of railway development1 brief reference may be made to certain special classes of railways4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,near ,,verrugas1 ,,on ,,line ,,of ,,oroya ,,railway1 ,,peru4 ,,mountain ,,railways4--,these include lines either isolated or forming part of main lines1 having grades so steep as to require special means of traction4 ,they may be operated by 7,a7 cables1 7,b7 grip rails1 or 7,c7 rack rails4 ,cables are used for many short lines1 but are now rarely adopted for regular railway working4 ,the grip rail system was first used on the ,mont ,cenis railway in #ahfg1 and has been used in later years in ,brazil and ,new ,zealand4 ,rack rails were used in #ahdh on the incline near ,madison1 ,indiana 7,u4 ,s4 ,a474 ,in #ahff they were used on the ,mount ,washington railway 7,u4 ,s4 ,a471 7with the ,marsh rack71 this being the first mountain-climbing railway4 ,in #ahhe1 the ,abt rack-rail system was introduced1 and is a great improvement4 ,it has been used both for ordinary railway service and for special mountain lines4 ,,rapid ,,transit4--,street or surface railways for city traffic date from #ahca1 in ,new ,york1 and were operated by horses until #ahgc1 when cable traction was introduced4 ,electric traction was introduced in ,germany in #ahha and in the ,united ,states in #ahhd1 and the growth of this system was such that in #ahid it was in use on #ijjj miles in this country and #aie miles in ,europe4 ,locomotives operated by steam1 gas1 compressed air1 etc41 have been used to a limited extent4 ,for high speeds it was necessary to remove the railway from the street surface4 ,the first elevated railway was built in ,new ,york in #ahfi1 and now ,new ,york1 ,brooklyn1 and ,chicago have about #ajj miles1 operated by electricity and steam4 ,the only foreign railway on this system is at ,liverpool 7,england71 the line being #e miles long1 and operated by electricity4 ,the first underground railway was opened in ,london in #ahfc1 and that city now has several miles of such railway1 mostly operated by steam locomotives4 ,two underground electric lines are in operation and another is being built4 ,budapest 7,hungary7 and ,boston 7,mass47 have also underground electric railways4 ,new ,york has for years needed and demanded a railway of this character1 but political methods and extravagant demands for franchise rights have prevented the commencement of work upon the line4 ,,military ,,railways4--,railways cannot be made available to any extent for tactical purposes1 but are of great importance as a means of supply and communication4 ,they were used by the ,russians in the ,crimean war 7#ahed71 and were prominent features in some of the campaigns of the ,american ,civil ,war 7#ahfa-fe74 ,in the ,franco-,german war 7#ahgj71 the ,german army advancing on ,paris was closely followed by a military railway1 and in the ,soudan campaign of #ahih-ii1 the ,british army carried with it the head of a railway communicating with the base of supplies on the ,nile4 ,,portable ,,railways4--,these are narrow-gauge lines of light construction1 for use on plantations1 in lumbering operations1 on engineering construction works1 and for pioneer railways4 ,the rails are riveted to steel ties1 forming complete sections of track1 straight or curved1 which can be laid down1 taken up1 or shifted1 as required4 ,such a line1 of #bd inches gauge1 was used to carry passengers around the grounds of the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahhi4 ,,ship ,,railways4--,these are projected as substitutes for ship canals1 but none have been built in modern times1 if we except a few small ones for canal boats1 including one at the ,columbia ,river rapids1 in ,oregon 7,u4 ,s4 ,a474 ,one was proposed for the ,isthmus of ,suez in #ahfj1 and in #ahgi ,captain ,eads strongly advocated one across ,tehuantepec 7,mexico71 to connect the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans4 ,this line would be about #aej miles in length1 and the cost is estimated at #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahhh work was commenced on the ,chignecto ship railway 7,canada71 at the head of the ,bay of ,fundy1 but it has never been completed4 ,the general principle of the system is to float the ship into a dock and deposit it upon a wheeled cradle of suitable form4 ,this would then be raised by machinery and hauled along the railway by a number of locomotives4 ,,advance ,,in ,,law ,,and ,,justice ,,by ,,luther ,e4 ,,hewitt1 ,l4,b41 ,librarian of ,philadelphia ,law ,association4 ,i4 ,,international ,,law4--,exclusive rights asserted in past centuries have been succeeded by freedom of the seas and privileges on the rivers4 ,the principle back of the ,american guns off the ,barbary coasts has prevailed4 ,crimes of one country against another are punishable in either4 ,extradition for nonpolitical crimes is general4 ,expatriation has been won for those who would change their country4 ,internal affairs of countries are free from interference2 but a rule may be so revolting1 or so hurtful to foreign interests1 as to justify intervention4 ,the ,monroe doctrine was intimated in the ,declaration of ,independence1 and has developed with our country4 ,regard for other nations has increased4 ,protectorates and spheres of influence are respected1 while recognition of insurgent ,states will not be hurried4 ,devastation and weapons causing needless pain are condemned1 while guerillas are regulated by requirement of a responsible head1 a badge recognizable at a distance1 and subjection to rules of war4 ,the sick and wounded1 attendants1 and appliances are protected from intentional attack4 ,open1 unfortified places are in practice spared1 and ransoms no longer extorted4 ,twenty-four hours are allowed for withdrawal of noncombatants from places to be attacked4 ,military occupation no longer confers sovereign power2 and compensation on the closing of war has been recommended for private property of an enemy used in military operations4 ,impartial neutrality is demanded4 ,nations once bound themselves for troops in case others went to war4 ,this has ceased4 ,passage of troops through neutral territory is not allowed4 ,even sick and wounded will be denied if their passage would relieve a combatant's own lines2 but neutrals have interned such refugees4 ,the neutral cannot allow fitting out of armed expeditions or enlistment of troops4 ,jefferson advanced international law by demanding ,genet's recall for such offenses4 ,carriage of signals1 dispatches1 or persons in military operations is unneutral1 and the ,united ,states insisted that this ruled the ,trent affair4 ,a belligerent's ship of war can remain in port but twenty-four hours1 unless in an emergency1 like need of repairs4 ,coal will be afforded only to the nearest port1 nor will a new supply be furnished within three months4 ,statutes enforce some of these rules4 ,neutral trade is not lost except on blockade1 although goods which may be put to military uses are liable to seizure as contraband4 8,free ships1 free goods10 was long contended for2 and at last the ,declaration of ,paris1 in #ahef1 provided even further1 as follows3 7#a7 ,privateering is and remains abolished4 7#b7 ,the neutral flag covers enemy's goods1 with the exception of contraband of war4 7#c7 ,neutral goods1 with the exception of contraband of war1 are not liable to capture under an enemy's flag4 7#d7 ,blockades1 in order to be binding1 must be effectual4 ,spain1 ,mexico1 ,venezuela1 and the ,united ,states declined to adhere to the ,declaration4 ,the ,united ,states adopted #b1 #c1 and #d1 and offered to agree to the abolition of privateering if noncontraband property of the enemy were exempted under its own flag4 ,the ,united ,states and ,spain refrained from privateering in the recent war4 ,private property of the enemy on land has long been exempt from capture4 ,illustration3 ,,independence ,,hall ,,and ,,square4 ,,winter ,,scene4 ,,ii4 ,,law-,,making ,,bodies4--,state legislators were originally chosen from landed proprietors1 except1 perhaps1 in ,pennsylvania4 ,legislatures frequently had the selection of governors1 judges1 and other high officials1 but the ,ohio constitution in #ahjb foreshadowed the coming democracy4 ,distrust has followed reliance on legislatures4 ,their sessions have been limited in about half the ,states to an average of less than ninety days1 and almost everywhere made biennial4 ,increase of the members' own compensation is forbidden4 ,their duties are carefully prescribed4 ,common requirements are1 reading of bills on three days2 one subject for a bill1 and that expressed in title2 recital of old law1 upon revision2 prohibition of riders on appropriations4 ,nearly half the ,states require a majority in each house of all members elected thereto4 ,constitutional restrictions on state and municipal indebtedness and loan followed the burdens assumed in the first exultation over inventions in transportation4 ,the ,pennsylvania constitution1 for instance1 prohibits 8local or special laws0 in about thirty cases1 such as in municipal affairs1 descent of property1 judicial proceedings1 remitting penalties1 exemption from taxation1 regulating labor1 chartering corporations4 ,boundaries between legislative and judicial proceedings have been simplified2 special legislation in marriage and divorce has been forbidden2 appellate jurisdiction has been taken from ,senates once possessing it4 ,the ,british ,house of ,lords retains such jurisdiction1 but within it sit the great judges1 and the lay lords almost never vote on appeals4 ,payment of expenses of members was derived from ,england1 and although abandoned there has continued here4 ,members of ,congress give attendance remote from home1 so that they receive salaries rather than compensation4 ,sums for expenses are allowed in the other ,american republics1 in ,france1 ,australia1 ,sweden1 ,switzerland1 chiefly in the lower houses4 ,some are paid by the local constituency1 but this tends to create classes4 ,representatives to ,congress were generally elected at first on the ,state ticket1 and in some ,states this continued until the ,congress in #ahgb required district election4 ,the ,revised ,statutes appoint the day of their election1 and require a printed or written ballot4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,courts4--,a feature of ,american jurisprudence which excites the wonder of foreigners is the power in the courts to declare legislative or executive acts void because unconstitutional4 ,before the ,revolution the ,rhode ,island court struck down a statute contrary to the provincial charter2 and a recent instance is the decision of the ,u4 ,s4 ,supreme ,court on the income tax4 ,the power is exercised on individuals1 without direct conflict between the great departments of government4 ,the judicial power has otherwise widened4 ,civil trials without jury are frequent4 ,in the counties judges exercise much administrative power4 ,road and bridge cases1 grants of liquor licenses1 appointments to educational and other offices1 are illustrations4 ,in what has been termed 8government by injunction10 functions both of the executive and of the jury have been assumed4 ,perhaps this justifies the demand that all judges shall be elected by the people4 ,frequently the choice of judges was originally by the legislature1 or by the governor1 alone or with the approval of the senate4 ,the judicial tenure of office has generally been lengthened to a term insuring a long service4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 a supreme court judge holds office twenty-one years1 a county judge ten years4 ,age limit prevails in some ,states4 ,in a democracy1 it is not surprising to find the doctrine sometimes asserted that juries in criminal cases are judges both of law and fact4 ,in certain civil cases1 the jury is a crude but powerful engine for holding corporations to strict responsibility for the citizens' safety1 although excessive or unfounded verdicts are to be deplored4 ,much of the old law of deodands has force to-day in subtler form4 ,a feature to note in passing is the duty imposed on the judge to answer before the jury points of instruction framed by counsel4 ,,iv4 ,,civil ,,procedure4--,twenty-nine ,states and ,territories rejoice in escape from puzzling classifications by substitution of simple statements4 ,extreme separation of law and equity had made the old condition worse4 ,equity might often soften legal principles1 or law lend vigor to equity4 ,much of this has now been done2 had been done1 in fact1 in ,pennsylvania1 from early days4 ,its enforcement of equitable rights through remedies at law was largely followed in the ,english ,judicature ,act of #ahgc abolishing forms of actions at law and interblending law and equity4 ,this statute has been copied largely in ,british colonies4 ,england abolished the cumbrous system of real actions in #ahcd1 and substituted simpler remedies for assertion of title4 ,the simplicity of present procedure is accompanied by ability to reach decision more promptly1 and an old reproach has been greatly lessened4 ,v4 ,,codification4--,the ,new ,york ,revised ,statutes of #ahbh embraced nearly the entire civil procedure1 and in #ahdh a 8,code of ,procedure0 was adopted1 although the original draftsman1 ,david ,dudley ,field1 complained bitterly of changes4 ,forty-two ,states now have more or less complete codes of practice2 and criminal codes likewise are numerous4 ,codification of the branches of substantive law may be anticipated4 ,something of this is going on in ,england4 ,the ,bill of ,sales ,act1 the ,employers' ,liability ,act1 the ,bills of ,exchange ,act1 the ,public ,health 7,scotland7 ,act of #ahig1 the ,land ,transfer ,act of the same year1 are instances4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 there are codelets like the ,evidence ,act of #ahhg1 or the ,building ,law for ,philadelphia of #ahic4 ,instances could be multiplied4 ,a code intended for all the ,states on ,negotiable ,instruments has been prepared by commissioners1 and has been adopted in ,new ,york1 ,connecticut1 ,colorado1 and ,florida4 ,in ,great ,britain there has not been general codification1 whereas the continental systems run largely that way1 even in substantive law1 being based on the ,roman law4 ,,vi4 ,,criminal ,,jurisprudence4--,the grand jury is no longer grand in many ,states2 indeed1 less than twelve members suffice in some2 and their service may even be dispensed with under some ,western constitutions4 ,individual malice has been avoided by the creation of public prosecuting attorneys4 8,standing aside jurors0 resulted from #cc ,edward ,i41 denying government challenge except for cause4 ,it has been generally abolished1 and the prosecution equalized by a number of peremptory challenges4 ,pennsylvania retains the old practice4 ,prisoners may now testify1 but refusal is not to weigh against them4 ,the statute #g ,william ,,iii4 allowed counsel in treason cases1 but ,england did not extend the privilege to trials for other felonies until #ahcf4 ,the courts in mitigation permitted counsel to prompt prisoners with questions4 ,penn's charter gave prisoners privileges of witnesses and counsel1 and this is now universal in ,american constitutions4 ,many ,states provide counsel for prisoners without means1 some with compensation4 8,standing mute0 has become equivalent to a plea of not guilty4 ,unanimity in a verdict is essential to conviction of crime above misdemeanor1 except in ,utah1 and there it is limited to capital cases4 ,in civil and in minor criminal cases about a dozen constitutions in the far ,west or ,southwest either recognize verdict by proportion of jury or else empower the legislature so to do4 ,england refuses criminal appeals1 but in this country they are allowed4 ,the courts of this country have never been subservient to military passion1 and all friends of the great ,french ,republic must rejoice at the courage of the ,court of ,cassation in the ,dreyfus case4 ,the ,english law inflicted death for #afj crimes1 some great and many otherwise1 about the period of our ,revolution1 and in #ahai this number had become #bjj4 ,american jurisprudence never had such stain of blood1 yet #aj crimes were punishable with death in ,massachusetts1 and #bj in ,delaware1 at the time of the ,revolution1 and the pillory1 stocks1 shears1 branding-irons1 and lash were busy4 ,horrible prisons existed1 filled with every foulness and immorality4 ,the older penitentiary system has been modified in #bj ,states by the parole system under police supervision1 and in #d the policy of indeterminate sentences within fixed limits and ages has been adopted4 ,bertillon and other methods of identification have greatly lessened crime in ,england4 ,the law of deodand1 whereby the value of an object causing accidental death was forfeited for charities1 was abolished in ,england in #ahdf4 ,societies to prevent cruelty to children1 or to animals1 attest the advance of refinement and humanity4 ,illustration3 ,,hon4 ,,melville ,w4 ,,fuller4 7,chief ,justice ,u4 ,s4 ,supreme ,court47 ,,vii4 ,,capital ,,punishment4--,in ,england1 treason and felony1 except petty larceny and mayhem1 were punishable with death4 ,the fiction by which males who could read were supposed to be of the clergy saved first offenders1 who escaped with branding4 ,in the eighteenth century1 the fiction was forbidden1 and death imposed on additional offenses1 so that #afj crimes were so punishable4 ,in #ahbf1 the efforts of ,sir ,samuel ,romilly and ,sir ,james ,mackintosh1 and later of ,sir ,john ,russell1 resulted in a more merciful spirit1 and since #ahfa murder1 treason1 and firing of the great dock yards1 have been the only capital offenses4 ,the ,american colonies were more humane1 yet ,massachusetts punished #aj and ,delaware #bj crimes with death4 ,since the ,revolution imprisonment has been the general penalty4 ,in ,maine1 ,wisconsin1 and ,colorado capital punishment has been abolished altogether2 in ,rhode ,island1 except where murder is committed by a life prisoner2 in ,michigan1 except for treason4 ,in some ,states1 as in ,ohio1 the jury may avert the death penalty4 ,new ,york and ,iowa1 after experiments1 restored capital punishment4 ,the federal law imposes death for murder1 piracy1 robbery on the high seas1 rape1 treason4 ,the introduction of degrees of murder has reduced the number of executions4 ,in ,new ,york1 electrocution has been substituted for hanging4 ,capital punishment has been abolished or qualified in the ,argentine ,republic1 ,belgium1 ,brazil1 ,chile1 ,costa ,rica1 ,guatemala1 ,holland1 ,italy1 ,norway1 ,portugal1 ,russia1 ,switzerland 7in eight cantons71 and in ,venezuela4 ,,viii4 ,,police ,,power4--,the citizen of the present day is protected by the police power to a degree which1 perhaps1 would have seemed marvelous a century ago4 ,the sale of food is governed both in quality and quantity2 building laws prescribe yards for light and air1 height and thickness of walls1 and forbid wooden buildings in many populous centres4 ,explosives are placed under strict regulations4 ,health laws protect from impurity of food and from pestilence1 establish quarantines1 deny the importation of rags1 cattle1 etc41 likely to breed disease2 medicine1 pharmacy1 dentistry1 and nursing are protected from ignorance2 immigration laws exclude persons or races deemed uncongenial or objectionable2 railroads are subjected to provisions promoting safety1 comfort1 and impartiality of service2 lotteries1 gambling1 threatening letters are forbidden2 game laws preserve the various species from extinction2 women and children are guarded by special laws4 ,almost the entire body of this division of law is new to this century1 and much of it is recent4 ,,ix4 ,,married ,,women4--,in #ahjj1 a husband could appropriate his wife's personal property not held in trust1 and use her realty while he lived4 ,except for necessaries or for her separate estate1 she could not contract4 ,her emancipation began in #ahci1 in ,mississippi1 and now her property1 under the statutory interests secured to her by laws generally prevailing1 is hers free from control or interference4 ,this statutory estate includes property inherited1 or derived by purchase or gift1 or in some ,states by labor4 ,the wife's power to contract has been extended1 and in some ,states has little restriction beyond perhaps inability to become surety4 ,before this era1 some ,states1 acting on a ,london custom1 had allowed feme sole traders in cases of mariners' wives1 or of desertion or neglect4 ,x4 ,,children4--,regulation of the labor of children in hours and employments is usual1 debarring them from workshops and factories at certain ages and from occupations dangerous to their morals1 as in theatricals1 circuses1 rag picking1 mendicancy1 street music4 ,laws prohibit their entrance into gambling1 or worse1 houses1 into pool rooms1 or unaccompanied into dance or concert halls1 roller rinks1 vaudeville theatres4 ,minnesota excludes them from criminal trials4 ,sale of liquor to minors is prohibited4 ,numerous recent statutes prohibit sales of cigarettes1 cigars1 or tobacco1 and ,utah and ,west ,virginia forbid sales of opium4 ,oregon and ,rhode ,island prohibit their public use of tobacco4 ,new ,hampshire1 ,indiana1 and ,connecticut forbid children over three in almshouses4 ,north ,carolina makes it a misdemeanor to leave a child under seven1 and unattended1 exposed to fire4 ,prohibiting employment inconsistent with school attendance is usual4 ,compulsory education exists in twenty-nine ,states and two ,territories1 and largely throughout ,europe and the colonies4 ,fourteen is the more frequent limit of age4 ,children's welfare now determines their custody1 rather than the rights of either parent4 ,laws in some ,states protect children more or less from wills made before their birth by parents4 ,many ,states provide that bastards may inherit from their mother or from each other1 and she from them1 and that their parents' marriage legitimates them4 ,,xi4 ,,real ,,estate4--,ownership of land is no longer embarrassed by joint tenancies1 nor need conveyancing resort to cumbrous fine and recovery2 while transfer has been further lightened by title companies pending the adoption1 likely1 of the ,torrens system of registration and certificate4 ,democracy has rejected distinctions of sex or age in inheritance1 and the half-blood may share in many ,states after certain degrees4 ,disability of aliens to hold lands has been removed in some ,states1 in others there are limitations in acres1 value1 or time1 while in some disability ceases on declaration of intention to become a citizen4 ,the ,english doctrine of tacking1 whereby ownership of earlier and later incumbrances cut out intermediate titles1 mortgages1 etc41 is inconsistent with the ,american recording acts4 ,,xii4 ,,copyright4--,after printing became general1 the author received some1 if inadequate1 protection1 in ,england through the ,stationers' ,company1 or sometimes through particular privilege2 in continental countries1 through such privilege4 ,the statute of ,anne confined him to such years1 etc41 as it specified1 and the courts have decided with hesitation that there was no copyright at common law4 ,the statutory rights have varied4 ,since #ahca the copyright period in this country is #bh years1 with #ad more if author1 widow1 or children are living at expiration of first term2 and in ,england since #ahdb it is #bh years or author's life1 whichever is longer4 ,the first known copyright directed to an author was granted by ,venice in #adia4 ,in #agia ,france allowed copyright to all dramatists1 extending it in #agic to authors in general4 ,countries in sympathy with ,france adopted the policy4 ,prussia in #agid extended copyright to authors represented by publishers at the ,frankfort and ,leipzig book fairs4 ,general protection has now come about1 aided by consolidation of ,european states into great nations4 ,international copyright began with separate treaties2 and the movement culminated in the ,berne ,convention of #ahhg1 participated in by ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,hayti1 ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,tunis1 ,great ,britain1 ,liberia4 ,authors resident in any country which was a party to the ,convention may have copyright in the other countries4 ,the ,united ,states did not join1 although it had and since has had treaties with a few nations exchanging such protection4 ,the ,international ,copyright ,law of #ahia1 however1 protects foreign authors but not foreign publishers1 it being required that the printing shall be done in this country4 ,,xiii4 ,,admiralty4--,the difference between the majestic rivers of ,america and ,english streams was recognized in the case of 8,the ,genesee ,chief10 wherein the ,supreme ,court rejected the ,english doctrine that admiralty has no jurisdiction except on the seas or where the tides ebb and flow4 ,this has insured uniformity in the regulations of travel and commerce1 and has protected such waters from local interference4 ,international rules to prevent collisions at sea have been joined in by the ,united ,states4 ,by acts of #ahea and #ahhd1 ,congress relieved innocent shipowners of liability for merchandise destroyed by fire1 and provided that liability in case of collision1 embezzlement by crew1 etc41 shall not exceed the owner's interest4 ,the ,harter ,act of #ahic provides that on due diligence neither owners nor charterers shall be liable for faults in navigation or in management1 nor for perils of the sea1 defects in goods1 etc41 but prohibits agreements relieving from liability for injuries caused by neglect in fitting out1 provisioning and manning the vessel1 stowing the cargo1 or in caring for or delivery of the same4 ,parliament1 in #ahij1 protected seamen from commercial greed by requiring load lines to be marked on vessels at a height fixed by the ,board of ,trade4 ,,xiv4 ,,corporations4--,the source of corporate life was formerly the king2 to-day1 the charters are virtually the general corporation law1 and special incorporation is forbidden4 ,for a season1 minor amendments for particular companies were tolerated1 but constitutions are forbidding even these4 ,applications for charters must state such particulars as name1 nature1 and place of business1 amount of stock1 limit of indebtedness1 number and names of directors4 ,annual reports must be lodged with the tax authorities4 ,doctrines respecting corporations have wonderfully changed4 ,the ,dartmouth ,college case held that charters were contracts and could not be impaired2 and thereafter1 by constitution or otherwise1 the ,states provided that all new charters should be subject to alteration or repeal1 although even this does not authorize radical change of corporate character4 ,american law has recognized advantage of freedom in execution of corporate affairs4 ,it has dispensed with the burdensome requirement of seal to contracts1 and even in ,england the corporate seal is unnecessary1 unless in unusual transactions4 ,the ,american courts uphold negotiable notes and bonds given in authorized business4 ,the company is confined to the business for which it was created1 although a cautious tolerance exists in respect to related enterprises2 and mortgages may be acquired if for debts contracted previously and not as a device4 ,the old theory was that a company could not be held for misfeasance1 since it could not authorize its agents to commit wrong2 but corporations are now held for many torts sanctioned by them1 such as trespass1 assault and battery1 infringement of patents1 negligence1 and even fraud and libel4 ,exemplary damages may be awarded against them4 ,one or another kind has even been subjected to indictment1 in cases of nuisance1 violation of ,sunday law1 maintenance of disorderly house1 habitual omission of lights or signals1 etc4 ,they may be guilty of contempt4 ,they may be punished by penalties and forfeitures4 ,a corporation outside its own ,state cannot exceed either its own charter or the power granted like companies of the other ,state4 ,connecting railways are sometimes adopted in each of several ,states1 but the parts remain foreign to each other as respects jurisdiction in the federal courts4 ,foreign corporations are subject to the police power1 but not to interference by the ,state in their interstate commerce1 except ,congress so authorizes4 ,companies not engaged in interstate commerce nor in governmental service may have conditions placed upon their entry into a ,state1 and may be practically excluded by taxation4 ,property within the foreign ,state is alone taxable there1 but the value of the franchise may be considered4 ,usually1 statements are required showing location of agent1 names of officers1 etc4 ,contracts made before compliance are differently regarded1 being void in some ,states1 and only until compliance in some others1 and in some not void at all where penalty is imposed4 ,some ,states seek revenue by lax laws inviting outside companies4 ,thus1 by ,delaware law of #ahii1 companies need not oblige themselves to keep their original books nor hold their meetings there1 assessment beyond subscription is forbidden1 and taxation is light4 ,illustration3 ,,state1 ,,war ,,and ,,navy ,,building1 ,,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,in #ahbe and #ahbg the free organization of trades-unions and banking associations was authorized1 and thus was introduced into ,english jurisprudence the principle of free association familiar to the ,roman ,republic4 ,in #ahch1 but more especially in #ahdd1 limited partnerships with transferable shares were authorized by general law2 and in #ahfb freedom from liability beyond subscription was somewhat recognized4 ,a form of partnership1 socit anonyme1 has been known in ,france for six hundred years1 and by law of #ahfg may be organized without special leave4 ,the managers alone assume full responsibility1 and the association bears now a company name4 ,germany adopted the principle of general incorporation in #ahgj1 as have the greater nations1 excepting ,russia and ,austria4 ,so early as #aghd ,new ,york enacted a general incorporation law for churches1 and for libraries in #agif4 ,in #ahaa1 woolen1 glass1 and some other manufactures were thus favored4 ,the principle widened out1 was adopted elsewhere1 and became quite general by #ahej4 ,pennsylvania adopted the policy in #ahgd1 although its religious1 library and charitable organizations had enjoyed such law since #agia4 ,,xv4 ,,religion4--,scorned1 lashed1 thrown into prison1 his tongue cut out1 banished to savage woods1 such was the fate of the ,massachusetts ,quaker among the first settlers1 and ,roger ,williams shared little better4 ,a long stride had been taken when1 in #afia1 the ,massachusetts charter proclaimed liberty of conscience for all 8except papists40 ,then was the brave and gentle ,penn securing religious liberty to all confessing one ,god4 ,yet much further progress was essential4 ,roman ,catholics were excluded from office except in ,new ,york and ,maryland2 while even in ,pennsylvania no ,jew could sit in the legislature4 ,most of the ,states required some religious test for higher offices2 ,massachusetts allowed no voters or officials outside of the ,congregational church2 and church membership was essential in ,connecticut and ,new ,hampshire4 ,in #aggf ,pennsylvania admitted to the legislature any who believed in ,god and in a future state of rewards and punishments4 ,massachusetts threw down the barriers to office in #aghj1 except that until #ahba the governor should be of the ,christian faith2 but office-holding was limited to ,protestants in ,north ,carolina until #ahce1 and in ,new ,hampshire until #ahgg4 ,jews received the same rights as other sects in ,connecticut in #ahdc1 in ,maryland in #ahbe4 ,the ,virginia ,bill of ,rights declared that all are entitled to the free exercise of religion1 and a few years afterwards1 in #aghf1 proclaimed further in words written by ,jefferson that religious opinions shall never affect civil capacities1 and that no man can be compelled to support religious worship4 ,the ,lake region was secured from molestation for religious sentiments by the ,northwest ,ordinance of #aghg1 and the ,constitution not only secures all from such interference by ,congress1 but prohibits religious test for federal offices or establishment of religion by ,congress4 ,south ,carolina made the ,episcopal the ,state church in #aggf1 but dropped establishment in #agij4 ,support of religion was likewise abolished in ,maryland in #ahaj1 but continued in ,massachusetts until #ahcc2 and ,new ,hampshire authorizes public ,protestant teachers of religion4 ,maryland1 ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee exclude clergymen from office4 ,political hierarchies and polygamy are not within constitutional protections4 ,courts have declared ,christianity part of the common law2 but in present law its force is in its principles4 ,christian institutions1 in common with other religious or charitable agencies1 are favored in policies and exemptions2 and blasphemies1 like railings in general1 are forbidden4 ,bible reading in public schools is generally discretionary with the school board1 although held illegal in ,wisconsin2 but religious garbs may not be worn in such schools by teachers4 ,a public hospital may not be erected on sectarian ground4 ,the ,english corporation and test acts excluded from office all without the established church1 until #i ,george ,,iv4 ,,xvi4 ,,summary ,,of ,,advance4--,increased respect for the rights of others1 both individually and as nations1 characterizes the law of this century1 and may be perceived in every direction4 ,it has created a new international law1 developed democratic institutions at home and abroad1 almost revolutionized criminal jurisprudence1 extended the police power in every direction1 and secured freedom of conscience and separation of church and state4 ,it has emancipated woman1 thrown a protecting care over children1 and favored charities1 asylums1 houses of refuge4 ,imprisonment for honest debts has been abolished1 and the wretched sight of debtors imprisoned for paltry sums no longer reproaches society4 ,homestead and exemption laws preserve the family4 ,honest bankrupts are again lifted up in hope4 ,the legal means of settlement and recovery of rights has been greatly expedited4 ,england has followed ,america in making lands assets for payment of debts2 and claims against the ,state have received recognition in some of the ,states and under act of ,congress1 and likewise in ,england4 ,barriers excluding persons as witnesses have been broken down1 first in ,connecticut in #ahdh1 next in ,england in #ahea1 and now there is little exclusion unless the adversary has died4 ,something had been done before in compelling answers to written interrogatories1 but with a weakness and lack of logic that should have ridiculed the whole exclusion4 ,promotion of uniformity of laws has engaged the attention of ,state commissioners1 who have drafted a code concerning negotiable instruments which has been adopted in four ,states4 ,constitutional amendment has afforded an entire race opportunity to develop from the low estate of slavery into such condition as the future shall manifest4 ,questions of civil rights1 due process of law1 and of equal protection and privilege1 are constantly bringing ,state laws before the federal courts1 as do questions of interstate commerce4 ,anti-pool and anti-trust enactments mark both federal and ,state law1 and lately have broken up the alliance of the trans-,missouri transportation companies4 ,inheritance and succession taxes were imposed in ,pennsylvania in #ahbf1 and now are found in some dozen ,states4 ,the progressive feature1 or increase of rate with increase of estate1 has been sustained by high authority4 ,congress has imposed such taxes1 but its power to do so is in dispute before the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court4 ,illustration3 ,,portia ,,and ,,bassanio4 7,trial ,scene from 8,merchant of ,venice407 ,in the early days of the republic property requirements existed both for office and for voting4 ,new ,states came in with manhood suffrage established either by law or custom4 ,original ,states threw open the polls1--,maryland in #ahaj1 ,connecticut in #ahah1 ,new ,york in #ahba1 ,massachusetts in #ahbb4 ,the white labor of ,virginia was denied the suffrage in #ahcj1 but gained it in #ahej4 ,similar movement in ,england is marked by the ,reform ,bill of #ahcb2 and now manhood suffrage is universal in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,greece1 and wellnigh so in ,england4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,building ,,and ,,loan ,,associations ,,by ,,michael ,j4 ,,brown1 ,secretary of ,building ,association ,league of ,penna4 ,i4 ,,general ,,principles4 8,do not forget to pay your dues to-night10 is an expression familiar to the occupants of fifty thousand ,philadelphia homes1 one hundred and fifty thousand ,pennsylvania homes1 and six hundred and fifty thousand households in the ,united ,states4 ,this means that nearly seven hundred thousand families are contributing towards gaining homes of their own through ,building and ,loan ,associations4 ,the entire membership is nearly seventeen hundred thousand1 of whom fully four hundred thousand are women and children4 ,the picture 8,paying their ,dues0 is a representative one1 and in ,philadelphia there are four hundred and seventy-five such gatherings every year4 ,the ,philadelphia associations generally meet once every month1 but in some parts of the ,state1 and in other ,states1 many societies meet weekly1 so there are fully ten thousand such gatherings every twelve months in the ,united ,states4 ,the women have shares in their own right1 and the children are either paying dues for their parents or for themselves1 the father or mother acting as trustee4 ,the boys and girls know exactly what nights the associations meet1 and are generally on hand with their money long before the officers are ready to receive the funds and give receipts in the pass books4 ,what is the meaning of these gatherings8 ,to enable every member to become his own landlord--to purchase homes for themselves1 by paying their money into a joint concern for a few years until each one has saved enough1 with gains added1 to buy a home1 and in the meantime the entire receipts being loaned to the members to gain homes in advance of the final reckoning or maturity of the shares4 ,the members have well learned the principle that money makes money if well used1 that if many pay rent for the benefit of the few1 through the building association the many may combine together so as to put the rents into their own pockets4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,system4 ,for convenience1 8a share0 is the payment of #a4jj a month1 five shares #e4jj1 and so on4 ,the final value of a share is arbitrarily fixed at #bjj4 ,the money received is promptly loaned to the members1 on which the borrowers pay #a4jj per month interest on every #bjj borrowed1 until the final value of #bjj is reached1 which occurs in twelve years or less4 ,payments #add4jj ,gains #ef4jj ------- ,final value #bjj4jj ,a member may have borrowed #bjjj from the association on ten shares of stock 7#bjj being the limit loaned on each share71 and the shares having matured1 or become worth #bjjj1 his loan of #bjjj is canceled and his home is free4 ,the member who has not borrowed receives #bjj in cash for every share he holds4 ,the building association in its simplest form1 and as it existed in ,philadelphia for many years1 took all its members in at one time1 and the members paid from #b to #bj each every month until the shares matured4 ,at maturity all the borrowers received canceled mortgages1 and the non-borrowers cash for their shares1 and the society then closed its affairs4 ,hundreds of such associations have wound up their affairs successfully4 ,very many associations are now working on the permanent plan2 that is1 they admit new members every six months or every year1 the first set being the first to mature1 and so on1 one set going out every year and a new batch coming in4 ,each series is a separate association so far as the dues are concerned1 but the total gains are divided so as to give each dues dollar invested a like rate per cent per annum for the time of investment4 ,there is really no positive or final division of profits4 ,the gains are kept in a lump sum1 and the division is on paper only for the purpose of showing the progress made towards maturity4 ,when a set of shares matures1 its portion of the gain is taken from the accumulated profits and divided to the stock that has reached its final value4 ,some associations count all the loans as assets and all the dues and gains as liabilities4 ,in such societies the borrower pays interest on his full loan until the end1 and gets credit for profit on his dues until one account cancels the other4 ,other associations1 at the end of each year1 deduct the dues paid in from the loans and charge interest on the net amount only of the loan4 ,by the latter system the borrowers' payments decrease every year1 but it requires a longer time to finally cancel the loan than by the former system4 ,when there is a demand for money1 and more than one member is anxious to secure it1 the funds are offered at auction1 and the member who bids the highest premium secures the prize4 ,the bidding is generally done by offering so many cents per share per month above the required interest4 ,if a member secures #bjjj at #aj cents per share premium on ten shares1 his monthly payments are3-- ,dues per month #aj4jj ,interest per month #aj4jj ,premium per month #a4jj ------ ,total #ba4jj ,these payments continue until the shares mature4 ,the dues are the contributed capital1 and the interest and premiums are the gains4 ,,iii4 ,,their ,,early ,,history4 ,their early history in ,england seems to date back as far as #agha4 ,in ,mr4 ,langford's 8,century of ,birmingham ,life0 mention is made of certain proposals for establishing a society for building on lands belonging to ,william ,jennings1 ,esq4 ,the society was organized by rules or articles1 similar in some respects to those employed by the building societies of to-day4 ,illustration3 ,,paying ,,their ,,dues4 ,dr4 ,john ,henry ,gray1 in his 8,history of the ,laws1 ,manners1 and ,customs of the ,people of ,china10 describes some money-lending societies which seem to partake in some measure of the character of building associations1 at least in their coperative and equitable features4 ,he tells us that these societies are called 8,lee ,woee10 and were instituted by a person named ,pong ,koong1 an official of great wealth1 who flourished #bjj ,b4,c4 during the ,han dynasty4 ,the money was loaned to members and returned in monthly installments with interest4 ,each member was compelled to contribute to the fund a sum equal to that which he contributed at the first meeting4 ,one of the rules was1 8,each member shall deposit in a lottery box1 placed on a table1 a tender or bid for the money1 setting forth the rate of interest which he is disposed to pay on the amount in question2 that the tenders shall be taken out of the box by the president1 and the highest bidder takes the loan40 ,when two bids were alike the first bidder took the loan4 ,a fine was charged for non-payment of dues4 ,,iv4 ,,american ,,associations4 ,there is no evidence other than that ,frankford1 now a part of ,philadelphia proper1 saw the first building society that was organized in the ,united ,states4 ,it was called the 8,oxford ,provident ,building ,association10 and was started in #ahca1 sixty-eight years ago4 ,it closed its affairs in ,june1 #ahda4 ,the second ,frankford society1 of the same name1 was organized in ,february of #ahda1 and ran out in ,august1 #aheb4 ,isaac ,whitelock was president1 ,samuel ,pilling treasurer1 and ,isaac ,shallcross secretary1 of the first association2 and ,henry ,taylor president1 ,isaac ,shallcross secretary1 and ,william ,overton treasurer1 of the second association4 ,the ,holmesburg ,building ,association was organized in ,january1 #ahdb1 and closed its business satisfactorily to the members1 ,june #be1 #ahec4 ,john ,b4 ,duff1 a lumber counter by trade1 was instrumental in organizing the first building society within the compactly built up city of ,philadelphia1 in the year #ahdg4 ,the name of the society was the 8,kensington ,building ,association40 ,the society issued five hundred shares of stock in one series1 and wound up its affairs in ten years and two months after it was organized4 ,the first advertisement of any building and loan association1 so far as can be ascertained1 appeared in the ,philadelphia 8,public ,ledger10 ,february #e1 #ahdg1 and called for a meeting of the 8,kensington40 ,mr4 ,duff died in #ahhc1 and a few months before that event he presented to the writer a document now known as 8,the ,old ,yellow ,poster40 ,it is the call for the first building society in ,old ,philadelphia1 a copy of which is herewith presented4 ,mr4 ,duff seldom1 if ever1 held forth in public1 but his efficient work was done by taking individual cases and converting them to the benefits of obtaining homes for themselves4 ,frequently he has been seen on a pile of lumber with chalk in hand1 demonstrating a problem in building society arithmetic to converts to this system of saving4 ,illustration3 ,,meeting6 ,,kensington ,,building ,,association ,the ,subscribers being desirous of forming an ,association for the purpose of assisting the members thereof in the erection of ,dwelling ,houses1 or such other ,real ,estate as they shall deem most advantageous1 have concluded to hold a ,meeting for that purpose ,,on ,,friday ,,evening1 #bb;,d ,,jan',y1 #ahdg1 ,,at #g ,o',,clock1 ,at the ,kensington ,engine ,hall1 ,on ,queen ,street1 above ,marlborough ,st4 ,where the objects of the ,association will be laid before the ,meeting4 ,citizens generally1 are invited to attend4 ,ralph ,pilling1 ,joseph ,smith1 ,john ,bierly1 ,john ,b4 ,duff1 ,henry ,shermer1 ,john ,verdear1 ,samuel ,wensell1 ,samuel ,t4 ,hay1 ,henry ,lane1 ,howard ,bowman1 ,andrew ,himes1 ,rich'd4 ,fordham1 ,david ,guyant1 ,geo4 ,fordham1 ,henry ,kriener1 ,abr4 ,p4 ,eyre1 ,ed4 ,w4 ,gorgas1 ,alfred ,fitler1 ,alb't ,t4 ,eggleton1 ,albert ,engle1 ,and4 ,flanders1 ,thomas ,bennett1 ,j4 ,r4 ,fullerton1 ,charles ,tryon1 ,samuel ,parcels1 ,edward ,owens1 ,jacob ,jones1 ,john ,nevling1 ,henry ,mosser1 ,geo4 ,kennerd1 ,henry ,mercer1 ,george ,mattis1 ,michael ,collar1 ,edward ,wester1 ,henry ,miller1 ,william ,ellis1 ,john ,hearney1 ,jos4 ,b4 ,matlack1 ,saml4 ,biedaman1 ,j4 ,shilingburg1 ,james ,hill1 ,george ,cramp1 ,george ,coleman1 ,john ,fordham4 ,january #ba1 #ahdg4 ,printed at ,boyle's cheap ,printing ,establishment1 corner of ,second and ,brown streets4 ,,call ,,for ,,first ,,building ,,association ,,in ,,philadelphia4 ,there has been scarcely a great mind in the country that has not moved the lips to say some good word for the building society cause4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher in a sermon said1-- 8,i think that a young man who places before himself not a speculation1 not a fortune1 but some object that he means to achieve1 who selects a particular piece of property that he would like to own1 and aims steadily at acquiring it and works diligently for it1 and saves for it1 will be almost sure to succeed4 ,i will say that every young man in a city1 either through the instrumentality of a building association when there is one1 or independently1 when such an association does not exist1 and when at last1 having toiled and waited patiently1 the debt is paid and the piece of property is earned1 is a great deal richer than the assessor knows him to be4 ,the assessor goes around and puts a valuation upon his property for the purpose of taxing it4 ,but1 ah1 those habits of industry and self-control2 those wise measurings1 which we call economy1--all these the man has gained over and above the property4 ,he has saved himself from a thousand temptations4 ,he has protected himself against remorseless vices1 which would have gnawed out his marrow4 ,and though you call it merely amassing property1 it may be amassing manhood4 ,it is one step on the upward way40 ,state officials who closely examine the workings of these societies never seem to tire in their praise4 ,superintendent ,kilburn1 of ,new ,york1 in his last annual report1 refers to the conservative and honestly managed building association as follows3-- 8,during the past year associations of this class alone have returned to withdrawing members dues and profits amounting to #h1jad1jci4 ,during the same period no less than fifty-seven associations were engaged in the payment of matured shares1 and #hbi1geb were paid to members who had faithfully continued payments through a series of years1 and at last saw their confidence justified4 ,but these sums are of small consequence when we consider the comfortable homes that have been erected1 and the families that have been permanently and comfortably housed through the facilities for frugality and thrift1 for self-denial and saving afforded by them4 ,my attention was recently called to a village of the ,state in which it was said that nearly one-third of the houses had been erected through the agency of a small local association4 8,nor is this an exceptional case1 unless the element of proportion be taken into consideration4 ,in nearly all the cities of the ,state1 and in many of the large villages1 there are associations that are models of their kind1 and are worthy of the admiration and support of every good citizen4 8,their educational influence1 too1 can hardly be over estimated4 ,the workingman who joins such an association takes part in the administration of its affairs and learns his first lesson in finance from those of larger experience1 and1 who perhaps1 touches elbow with the lawyer1 the merchant1 and the minister as they discuss the safety of an investment1 or proper amendment to the articles of association1 and will not lend a ready ear to teachers of socialism1 of class hatred1 or of financial heresies40 ,as shown elsewhere1 the members of the ,new ,york societies have over #cg1jjj1jjj invested4 ,the ,building ,association ,league of ,pennsylvania1 an organization of twenty-six years' standing1 composed of the most active associations in the ,state1 some years ago proclaimed a 8,declaration of ,principles10 from which we quote3-- 8,the local building societies of the ,state of ,pennsylvania are true coperative organizations1 transacting no business with the public1 and not amenable to laws affecting financial institutions that have dealings with the public4 ,they encourage thrift among the wage-workers1 help to create taxable property in its best form--real estate1 educate their members in business methods and teach them both how to save and how to invest money4 8,by this service they have created a state police of tens of thousands of home owners1 more efficient for the protection of life and property than a standing army4 8,they have lessened the cost for the maintenance of alms-houses1 prisons1 and asylums1 by teaching men and women to be self-helpful and self-reliant1 and in that way have benefited the ,state to an amount far exceeding any sum that could be gathered by taxation4 8,the work of the societies is done gratuitously by the directors1 and in no other way could they be maintained1 the profits resulting from the services of men who1 though they have never posed as philanthropists1 are engaged in the best kind of charity1 helping men and women who help themselves40 ,joseph ,h4 ,paist1 a prominent ,philadelphia building association expert1 has been president of the league since it was organized4 ,other ,states have leagues1 and they are all combined as a ,national ,league1 whose motto is 8,the ,american ,home is the ,safeguard of ,american ,liberty40 ,at certain intervals the national government1 ,states1 cities1 and hundreds of industrial enterprises distribute earnings and accrued interest to those entitled to the same4 ,the vast sums of money drawn out of thousands of banks and banking institutions represent millions of dollars of canceled debts4 ,within a few days after these distributions take place1 at least nine tenths of this money finds its way back into the strong boxes that parted with it4 ,one tenth of the money is1 perhaps1 held in the pockets of the people1 to be gradually disbursed for current needs until the next pay arrives4 ,i do not remember having received a statement or statistical report referring to the building association share in these distributions4 ,true1 there are no set dates for building societies to part with money1 but in ,pennsylvania alone these coperative companies distribute #bj1jjj1jjj annually in matured shares and withdrawals4 ,this is no insignificant sum4 ,to-day their accumulated wealth 7mostly savings of people in the humbler ranks of life7 is over #ajg1jjj1jjj1 and in the ,united ,states fully #fjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the annual outgo for canceled shares is about #ajj1jjj1jjj1 or fully #h1jjj1jjj every month4 ,since these associations were organized1 quite one thousand five hundred million dollars have been returned to the members in the value of homes clear of debt and in cash for withdrawn and matured shares4 ,despite these vast disbursements1 there has been a gradual increase in their assets from year to year4 ,beginning with one association in #ahca1 their number increased in a small way until probably not over two hundred societies existed in #ahjj4 ,from that date until the present moment it is estimated that over #hjjj have been organized throughout the land1 increasing at a rapid rate every year1 and leaving at present1 after closing out a great number1 nearly #ejjj active associations distributed among the ,states as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,no4 of ,states4 ,societies4 ,membership4 ,assets4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,pennsylvania #abjj #cjj1jjj #aaa1gad1hga ,ohio #gfa #big1ghg #ii1ggj1afa ,illinois #fhb #ahj1jjj #gc1cji1aib ,new ,jersey #cjj #aaf1gci #da1jch1icd ,indiana #dib #acg1eaj #cg1fbd1dah ,new ,york #cag #ajb1ijb #cg1che1fdb ,massachusetts #abc #fe1dai #bd1ejg1hdc ,missouri #bee #di1dfb #bb1dig1gjj ,california #ach #ai1aec #ag1ich1ajj ,iowa #hg #be1jjj #f1eid1ggh ,michigan #gj #bj1dig #f1die1cjg ,minnesota #fi #i1jjj #d1bfj1fff ,tennessee #cd #f1aff #c1gga1ced ,nebraska #fh #aa1hba #c1eed1ghh ,connecticut #ae #aa1bjh #c1bdc1ice ,maine #cc #h1bcj #b1iab1ifc ,other ,states #bbh #bha1bhd #ajd1cbj1cfg ------------- ,totals #dhgb #a1fdb1agh #fjj1ida1jai ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,it is estimated that of the above named membership over #cbe1jjj are women4 ,of the #fjj1jjj1jjj of assets1 at least #ajj1jjj1jjj is a gain credit to the sharer4 ,it is believed that an average of at least three members of a family contribute toward the payment of the dues and interest1 and although seventeen hundred thousand names are on the books1 nearly five million persons actually contribute4 ,these societies have done more to teach the people practical thrift than any known device ever promulgated4 ,thrift is described as 8good husbandry1 economical management in regard to property1 success and advance in the acquisition of property1 increase of worldly goods1 vigorous growth1 as a plant40 8,he is a good wagoner that can turn in a little room40--,bishop ,j4 ,hall4 8,economy is the parent of integrity1 of liberty and of ease1 and the beautiful sister of temperance1 of cheerfulness and health4 ,without economy none can be rich1 and with it few can be poor40--,dr4 ,johnson4 ,while these literary economical truths proclaimed in all ages by wise men1 which they themselves very seldom knew how to put into practical use1 have no doubt caused millions to think and wonder how to do it1 they1 altogether1 have not built half as many rounds in the practical ladder of 8thrift0 as the poor workingman who successfully induces his next door neighbor to save one dollar a month out of his waste money1 and with it subscribe for one share of stock in a well-managed building society4 ,building society advocates have done much inducing1 but always in a practical way4 ,they have not merely proclaimed that 8economy is wealth20 that 8the best security for civilization is the dwelling10 but they have taken the arm of their friend and neighbor and have led him to the society meeting-room and shown him just how they saved their own money4 ,they have also taken them into their own homes and told them1 8,this is my own home1 paid for1 or nearly so1 through the aid of the building society40 ,in this way lessons in the practical benefit of thrift are daily given4 8,examples demonstrate the possibility of success10 said ,colton many years ago4 ,alexander ,dumas brought the matter home to the door of every man when he said1 8,all the world cries1 #8,where is the man who will save us8 ,we want a man6' ,don't look for this man1 you have him at hand4 ,this man--it is you--it is ,i--it is each of us4444 ,how to constitute one's self a man8 ,nothing harder if one knows not how to will it2 nothing easier if one wills it40 ,it would seem that building society advocates were created to teach men how to will it4 ,in this line of work they have certainly been eminently successful4 ,to what class of citizens do these advocates belong1 good1 better1 or best8 ,in the early history of these associations they were organized and almost wholly managed by mechanics and laboring men2 managed honestly1 conservatively1 and successfully2 and to this 8class0 belongs the honor of organizing1 conducting1 and carrying to a point of magnitude and usefulness1 that commands the admiration of financiers the world over1 the building societies as conducted in ,pennsylvania and other ,states4 ,the honest1 thrifty home-seeker has proved himself to be the 8best0 citizen so far as managing a building society is concerned4 ,when failures have occurred1 the main causes have been the introduction into the management of financial ideas emanating from the brains of theoretical bankers and literary economists4 ,the man who works at the bench mending shoes has a better idea of what a dollar will do than the man who has at his command hundreds of thousands of dollars belonging to other people1 but who never was blessed with the necessity of earning a real dollar by his own labor4 ,the conservative building society is one of good common sense and not of class4 ,it would be difficult to bankrupt a building society conducted by men endowed with honesty and good common sense4 ,the 8better citizen0 is the man who spends less than he earns1 pays his debts promptly1 would rather give his neighbor a dollar than steal a dollar from him1 looks upon the home institution as holy and sacred1 strives to own a home of his own1 obeys the laws and looks the world straight in the face4 ,this 8class10 without a penny to begin with1 caused ,philadelphia to be known the world over as 8the ,city of ,homes40 ,in the many interesting cases of men redeemed from the habit of unthrift through the agency of building associations1 and placed on the road to moderate fortunes1 there are sometimes two sides to the story4 ,one side is that related by the individual who has been saved from future poverty1 and the other side that which could be related by the wife and mother1 if she did not prefer and really strive to hide from the outside world the life she had been leading1 its trials and gloom4 ,the man simply tells how many days in the week he preferred not to work1 and how he never tried to save a penny4 ,the wife could tell how little the husband brought into the home in the way of money1 and what her awful anxiety had been4 ,one side is public property1 for it is told by the husband for the purpose of inducing others to make a new departure on the road to thrift and home-ownership4 ,the other side is supposed to be sacred1 but it is only a secret in a sense that it is not proclaimed4 ,no man who is often voluntarily away from his work1 having a 8good0 selfish 8time10 spending the earnings of days of actual work1 need imagine that his friends and neighbors are ignorant of what the life in his home is1 for it is as plain to all as if the house was constructed of clear glass4 ,every man of good health1 who will make an honest and determined effort1 has it in his power to change such a home as has been described into a palace of joy1 comfort1 and happiness1 and even beauty4 ,there are many thousands of men and women throughout the land who would not to-day have their own roof over their heads but for the building society and the thrifty habits acquired through it4 ,illustration3 ,,row ,,of #adjj ,,houses4 ,the officers and members of these societies are men who have1 by degrees1 worked their way on the path to independence1 and they are highly respected by all who know them1 and pointed out as examples by their neighbors4 ,members of these societies1 after becoming firmly established in thrifty habits1 delight in relating their own experience as well as that of others4 ,there are thousands of interesting cases on record1 of which samples are given below3-- ,a short time ago1 at a house of mourning1 the members of the family called the writer's attention to a girl about fifteen years of age1 who had volunteered her services to the family until after the funeral4 ,this remark was made3 8,our case is sad enough 7the death of a father71 but the child you saw at the door has a father who has been confined to the house with a lingering illness4 ,there are several younger children1 and one girl older than the one you saw4 ,the two girls have been working in a mill1 but on short time4 ,their case is sadder than ours1 and they were the first to volunteer to help us40 ,the above is the sad part of the story1 but there is a silver-lined side1 since ascertained4 ,the father joined a building society some years ago and bought a house for #bjjj1 and while on his sick bed received a paid-up deed for his home1 the building society shares having matured4 ,it is now twenty years since a big1 strong man1 under the influence of strong drink1 visited the office of a building society secretary and asked if a ,mrs4 ---- had any shares in the society4 ,the books were examined and an affirmative answer was given4 ,the next question was1 8,how much has been paid in on the shares80 ,answer1 8,three hundred and sixty dollars40 ,the inquirer brought his fist down on the secretary's desk and exclaimed3-- 8,so it is true1 is it8 ,i will stop that game2 that woman is my wife1 and ,i have just heard that she is going to draw out the money and run away40 ,the secretary measured the man1 and1 risking a fight1 determined to hasten a climax4 8,so you are the husband of ,mrs4 ----1 are you80 8,yes1 ,i am40 8,and you are drunk80 8,yes1 sir40 8,how long have you been drinking80 8,for a long time40 8,have you given your wife any money lately80 8,no1 sir40 8,have you given her any of the money in this society80 8,i don't think ,i have40 8,your wife takes in washing and goes out house-cleaning1 does she not80 8,yes1 sir40 8,you eat at home without paying anything towards the support of the house80 8,yes1 sir40 8,you have nice children1 and your wife takes good care of them80 8,yes1 sir40 8,you admit that all this is true80 8,yes1 sir40 8,now1 will you answer me an honest question80 8,i will40 8,don't you think that you are just the kind of a man that a good woman like your wife would be justified in running away from80 8,i do40 ,the secretary asked who told him that his wife was going to run away2 and he answered that it was a friend4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of #adjj ,,houses4 ,the secretary then addressed him as follows3-- 8,when your wife comes to the society1 ,i have noticed that her hands were sometimes split and bleeding from hard work1 and ,i know that she is saving this money to keep you and the children from the almshouse4 ,in the first place1 you should give up drinking and keep away from the people who have been talking against your wife2 and then ,i would advise you to go home at once and tell all to your wife1 and get down on your knees before her and ask her pardon40 ,to the utter surprise of the secretary the man shook hands with him and emphatically gave his word that he would act on the advice given4 ,not the strangest part of the incident is that the advice was exactly followed4 ,from that time until now the man has abstained from drink4 ,as soon as he got work he took shares in the society1 and in a few years three of his children had subscribed for shares4 ,only recently two of the children withdrew shares to buy homes of their own4 ,this is the kind of practical work done by every building society in every ,state in the ,union1 and the ,state as well as the entire country is the gainer by it4 ,of course it goes without saying that the building society knows no secret plan for the payment of dues and interest greater than the borrower can afford4 ,it does1 however1 point out a way for every man to gain a home of his own1 but the price of the house must be in keeping with his income4 ,if this rule is not observed the result is almost always failure to gain the desired object4 ,it is an old saying that it is almost wise to go in debt for a home1 but it is decidedly unwise to contract for a home that requires every dollar of income to keep it up4 ,every home buyer should allow himself some margin in order to provide for the possible rainy day4 ,the man who cannot save over twenty dollars a month outside of actual living expenses commits a serious error when he signs a contract requiring him to pay twenty-five dollars every four weeks4 ,in doing this he robs himself first1 and1 second1 is unfair to his family4 ,it would be to his advantage to place aside three or four dollars out of the twenty dollars named as a nest egg4 ,this applies in particular to the careful man1 who has been taught in the school of thrift4 ,the man who has been unthrifty may be able 7when he graduates7 to save thirty dollars a month even when he thinks he cannot save anything4 ,building society managers make it their business to warn the thrifty not to undertake too much1 and also to lead the unsaving into habits of economy4 ,only recently a judge on the bench said1 8,such associations1 when properly conducted under judicious restrictions and management1 are a helpful blessing and encouragement to any community4 ,but the ambitions and extravagance of some borrowing members place themselves in a burdensome condition4444 ,far better for the public1 the associations1 and their membership1 that many small loans be made rather than a few in number and large in amount4 ,moderate homes and a moderate price should be the criterion4444 ,their primary purpose was and should continue to be to promote industry1 frugality1 and saving1 and convert the shiftless and discouraged tenant into a self-reliant and contented home-builder40 ,building societies since their inception have supplied the means for home purchasing1 but these companies do not generally take any part in the erection of houses4 ,most of the small homes in ,philadelphia have been built by those engaged in the business of building houses for sale4 ,here is a picture of a row of houses containing seven rooms each4 ,the purchase price is #adjj each4 ,the lots are #ad feet wide and #fj feet deep4 ,the houses are brownstone and brick4 ,they have good cellars1 portable heaters1 and range in kitchen1 hot and cold water in kitchen and bathroom4 ,on the first floor there are three rooms1--parlor1 dining-room1 and kitchen1 and outside shed4 ,front door opens into vestibule2 entrance to parlor from entry1 and also from dining-room4 ,two front bedrooms over the parlor1 bathroom in centre1 and sitting-room back of the bathroom4 ,the dining-room extends over the width of the lot less stairway room1 and receives light from skylight4 ,the kitchen has a window opening towards the back shed or backyard4 ,a small toilet room occupies a small portion of the back shed4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,,association ,,banquet4 ,any person known to be prompt in the payment of dues and interest may purchase such a home by the payment of #bjj in cash1 and giving a building society mortgage for the balance of the purchase-money1 namely1 #abjj4 ,the monthly cost would be about as follows3-- ,monthly dues #f4jj ,monthly interest #f4jj ------ ,monthly total #ab4jj ,a fairly prosperous building society will mature its shares in twelve years1 and at the end of that period the home would be free from debt4 ,during this time the borrower must pay taxes and water rent1 amounting to some #be4jj per year4 ,the total payments would be about as follows3-- ,first payment #bjj4jj ,dues and interest #agbh4jj ,taxes and water rent #cjj4jj -------- ,total #bbbh4jj ,this seems like a considerable sum of money for a house worth #adjj4 ,but it must be remembered that the borrower has lived in the house during these twelve years1 and that he has saved in rent that he would have paid elsewhere1 at least #ahjj4 ,he has paid #bbbh4jj ,he has saved #ahjj4jj -------- ,real cost of house #dbh4jj ,now he is the full owner of his own home4 ,during the next twelve years he will have nothing to pay but taxes and water rent1 and possibly some slight repairs1 at the most not over #djj all told4 ,his next door neighbor is still a renter1 and pays #ahjj to his landlord during the second period named2 and the two accounts compared show3-- ,rent payer #ahjj4jj ,house owner #djj4jj -------- ,saving #adjj4jj ,this is equal to a saving of1 say1 #aj4jj a month for #add months1 and if used in the purchase of ten shares of building society stock would be worth at the time named #bjjj1 instead of #adjj merely saved4 ,the neighbor who is a tenant is still paying rent and owns neither a stick nor a stone1 while the building society borrower owns one house free and also has the command of #bjjj in cash1 all on account of his house-owning experiment4 ,v4 ,,the ,,banquet4 ,it is customary for the directors of these societies1 at their own expense1 to celebrate the closing of a successful year1 and have as their guests representatives from other societies4 8,the banquet0 includes officers from fully fifty companies1 some being directors of four or five associations4 ,at these gatherings experiences are related and subjects for the advancement of the cause are discussed4 ,every individual present on these occasions volunteers the information that he owed all he possessed to the building society and its teachings4 ,what the bottles on the table may have contained1 it matters not now1 for they are empty and are not capable of doing any harm4 ,,epoch-,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,century ,,by ,,rev4 ,a4 ,,leffingwell1 ,rector of ,trinity ,church1 ,toledo1 ,ohio4 ,every century has had its epoch-making characters1--men and women who dominated and directed the thoughts1 purposes1 activities1 and achievements of their times4 ,the nineteenth century is distinguished above all others by the number and quality of those who came to stand for the inception1 advance1 and culmination of the world's great movements and who highly exemplified in their careers the enterprise and genius of their day4 ,illustration3 ,,abraham ,,lincoln4 ,the object here is to designate1 and make brief mention of1 some of those who have fairly earned the title of epoch-maker1 with the hope of providing a delightful historic study1 and further enhancing the instructive value of a volume addressed to the triumphs and wonders of the century4 ,,statesmen1 ,,orators1 ,,and ,,jurists4--,abraham ,lincoln 7b4 ,february #ab1 #ahji2 d4 ,april #ad1 #ahfe7 sprang from the masses1 and grew up with their institutions rather than with the learning of the schools4 ,he grew into leadership because he was one of the 8million10 had hard sense and was true4 ,as a forcible exponent of the sentiment of his party he was elected ,president in #ahfa4 ,his election was the signal for secession and war4 ,his mastery of the most delicate situation in the history of his country was superb4 ,his patience1 his perseverance amid hard trials1 his wisdom of administration1 his adaptation to the march of events1 his striking and educative speech1 his determination to preserve a union of ,states1 all led grandly and inevitably to the crowning act of his noble career1--the abolition of slavery in the ,united ,states in #ahfc4 ,there is no sadder chapter in history1 and no greater loss for any nation or time1 than that of his taking off 7after being a second time honored by the presidency7 at the hands of an assassin1 on the night of ,april #ad1 #ahfe4 ,illustration3 ,,jefferson ,,davis4 ,jefferson ,davis 7b4 ,june #c1 #ahjh2 d4 ,december #f1 #ahhi7 stood for the cause of the ,south against the ,union1 as it took concrete political form in the shape of the ,confederacy1 of which he became the only ,president4 ,though1 perhaps1 lacking the ability of such leaders as ,calhoun and ,stephens1 he was a conscientious and persistent advocate of the doctrines which culminated in war1 and as chief executive ruled with energy and firmness4 ,henry ,clay 7b4 ,april #ab1 #aggg2 d4 ,july #bi1 #aheb7 was a born orator and natural party leader4 ,in statesmanship he was intensely patriotic and always able1 being highly informed and skillful in debate4 ,he came to stand as the champion of those doctrines which the ,whig party supported1 such as protection to home industries1 internal improvements1 and reciprocity4 ,upon the question of slavery which agitated ,congress during most of his career he generally assumed an attitude of compromise1 and fathered so many measures of a pacifying nature that he was called 8the great pacificator40 ,daniel ,webster 7b4 ,january #ah1 #aghb2 d4 ,october #bd1 #aheb7 typifies the gigantic and imposing in ,new ,england intellect and physique4 ,as early as #ahbj he stood at the very head of ,american orators1 a fame soon to be followed in the ranks of law and statesmanship4 ,at first he opposed the doctrine of protection1 but subsequently gave his support to ,henry ,clay's 8,american policy40 ,in the ,united ,states ,senate1 he won the titles of 8expounder of the ,constitution0 and 8supporter and defender of the ,union10 by his masterly denunciations of the doctrine of nullification4 ,james ,monroe 7b4 ,april #bh1 #ageh2 d4 ,july #d1 #ahca7 reached the presidency twice1 once in #ahag1 and again in #ahbj4 ,his last administration was characterized as 8the era of good feeling10 during which new ,states were admitted1 ,florida was acquired1 the ,louisiana boundary defined1 slavery prohibited north of certain lines1 and many provoking controversies with ,england were settled4 ,in #ahbc he signalized his administration by promulgating the now famous 8,monroe ,doctrine10 which was a warning to ,europe that monarchical governments would not be allowed to interfere in the affairs of either ,north or ,south ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,e4 ,,gladstone4 ,john ,quincy ,adams 7b4 ,july #aa1 #agfg2 d4 ,february #bc1 #ahdh7 typed the ,federalism of the early part of the nineteenth century1 and won the highest place in scholarly statesmanship4 ,in diplomacy he filled many prominent and difficult positions at home and abroad4 ,as sixth ,president of the ,united ,states1 he was opposed by a majority in ,congress1 and consequently failed to distinguish his administration4 ,he was the forerunner of those sentiments which culminated in organized opposition to the doctrine of human slavery4 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun 7b4 ,march #ah1 #aghb2 d4 ,march #ca1 #ahej7 was twice ,vice-,president of the ,united ,states1 and as ,senator became the leading exponent of the doctrine of ,states' rights and nullification of federal tariff laws4 ,he ranked with ,clay and ,webster as a debater and constitutional expounder1 and the three were known as 8the ,great ,trio40 ,in him the pro-slavery cause found its subtlest1 ablest1 and most logical defender4 ,with a fully stored mind of highly metaphysical turn1 a fearlessness and persistency that were matchless1 and a character above reproach1 he greatly endeared himself in the ,south1 and his writings are held in high esteem by men of his school of politics4 ,rufus ,choate 7b4 ,october #a1 #agii2 d4 ,july #ac1 #ahei7 was probably the best-equipped scholar of the public men of the century1 and was unusually brilliant as orator1 lawyer1 and publicist4 ,next to ,mr4 ,webster he was the greatest member of the ,massachusetts bar4 ,he may be called the ,american ,lord ,erskine4 ,count ,camillo ,benso di ,cavour1 of ,italy 7b4 ,august #aj1 #ahaj2 d4 ,june #f1 #ahfa71 found a life-work in the unification of the ,italian ,states4 ,by pursuing a masterly course in ,european diplomacy he brought the states of ,north ,italy into unity1 and finally1 through the efforts of ,garibaldi1 those of ,southern ,italy became united with them in one kingdom under the rule of ,victor ,emmanuel in #ahfj4 ,though not a man of 8blood and iron10 like ,bismarck1 he was the equal of his great ,german contemporary in diplomacy4 ,william ,ewart ,gladstone 7b4 ,december #bi1 #ahji2 d4 ,may #ai1 #ahih7 was four times premier of ,england4 ,as orator1 political leader and statesman1 and critic in the immense range of subjects he covered1 his genius was without parallel4 ,it may be said that his was the mightiest personality and most catholic and powerful intellect of any ,englishman4 ,he championed the cause of ,christianity among all nations1 sounded the first trumpet call of ,italian liberty1 opposed ,turkey as a ,mohammedan power1 raised ,england's commercial prosperity to the highest notch1 unraveled the entanglements of ,beaconsfield's ministry1 inaugurated the most astonishing reforms in all directions1 but especially in the church1 education1 army1 and among the labor unions4 ,it is almost impossible to name any matter of national or international importance in which his personality and genius were not felt for good4 ,alexander ,hamilton 7b4 ,january #aa1 #ageg2 d4 ,july #aa1 #ahjd7 was by all odds the ablest jurist and statesman of the early constitutional era of the ,united ,states4 ,he became the first ,secretary of the ,treasury1 and lifted the finances of the government from utter prostration to high prosperity4 ,as fiscal organizer his success was unparalleled1 and all after administrations of the ,treasury have been practically along the lines he first laid down4 ,he was easily the leader of that party which looked with disfavor on 8,states' ,rights10 and favored a strong central government4 ,benjamin ,disraeli1 ,earl of ,beaconsfield 7b4 ,december #ba1 #ahjd2 d4 ,april #ai1 #ahha71 stood1 as premier1 for ,english 8territorial aristocracy0 and for that 8territorial expansion0 which fixed the wide boundaries of the ,indian ,empire1 made ,queen ,victoria ,empress of ,india1 taught both ,russia and ,india to refrain from meddling with ,england's possessions1 made the ,english voice preminent in the disposition of ,continental territory1 and completely defeated the schemes of ,russia against ,turkey4 ,under him the middle classes lost1 and the laboring classes gained1 political power4 ,his career greatly heightened the national institutions and character1 as well as the international reputation and power1 of his country4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,jefferson4 ,thomas ,jefferson 7b4 ,april #b1 #agdc2 d4 ,july #d1 #ahbf7 stood in the past century as an able exponent of ,american rights1 and his views were incorporated into the ,declaration of ,independence1 of which he was the acknowledged author4 ,he equally stood as the leading exponent of that political school of thought which favored decentralization1 or limitation of the powers of the central government4 ,after his election to the presidency in #ahjj1 he signalized his administration by what is known as the ,louisiana purchase1 for #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,in thus enlarging the area of the country by boundaries of vast extent1 he became one of the earliest and most enthusiastic of expansionists1 and that without reference to the modernly mooted question of 8government without the consent of the governed40 ,richard ,cobden1 of ,england 7#ahjd-ahfe71 was a humanitarian of great native breadth and liberality1 largely increased by travel and constant observation4 ,he was a powerful leader in the famous ,manchester ,school of ,english statesmen4 ,his share in modern progress was fourfold2 first1 in securing the repeal of the odious tax on corn in #ahdf2 second1 in urging arbitration rather than arms as a final resort to settle international disputes2 third1 in negotiating with ,france the ,commercial ,treaty of #ahfj1 which ,mr4 ,gladstone said no other living man could have secured2 fourth1 in his vigorous and successful opposition of all efforts to enforce ,england's recognition of the ,southern ,confederacy during the late civil war4 ,prince ,otto ,e4 ,l4 ,bismarck1 of ,germany 7b4 ,april #a1 #ahae2 d4 ,july #cj1 #ahih71 blended the unerring instinct1 great far-sightedness1 fertility in invention and expedients1 and adroit diplomacy of a statesman1 with absolute fearlessness1 inflexible purpose1 indomitable energy1 and resistless force4 ,thoroughly ,german1 he was preminently and always ,prussian1 and his great life-work was the accomplishment of ,german unity with ,prussia at the head4 ,this he achieved by the humiliation of ,austria and ,france1 and the gradual accession of all the distinctively ,german states4 ,wendell ,phillips 7#ahaa-ahhd7 exemplified the wonderful power of the skillfully colloquial in public speech1 and is a type of the ,american orator who devotes his ability to correct public abuses1 right public wrongs1 and educate the public mind and taste4 ,chiefly as an avowed abolitionist1 as advocate of the temperance cause1 as champion of the ,indians and of woman's rights to the ballot1 and as untiring mover in improving the nation's penal institutions1 ,mr4 ,phillips most largely contributed to public weal and progress4 ,james ,gillespie ,blaine 7b4 ,june #ca1 #ahcj2 d4 ,january #bg1 #ahic71 whether serving in the ,house1 ,senate1 or ,cabinet1 had few equals as a statesman1 debater1 parliamentarian1 or enthusiastic political leader4 ,though often disappointed in his aspirations for the presidency1 he lost none of that wonderful power which he had acquired by reason of his energy1 tact1 skill1 personal magnetism1 and knowledge of public men and measures4 ,he became the special champion of the doctrine of reciprocity1 and by its practical application during ,mr4 ,harrison's administration proved its benefits to commerce and international trade relations4 ,by his splendid series of decisions and opinions1 ,joseph ,story 7,september #ah1 #aggi2 ,september #aj1 #ahde7 shares with ,john ,marshall the merit of determining and of developing towards its fullest capacity the power of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 as set forth in the ,constitution1 over state courts and state legislation4 ,he also practically constructed the ,united ,states ,admiralty ,law and1 even to-day1 his 8,commentaries on the ,american ,constitution10 in connection with both of his foregoing services1 is a standard work4 ,he represents the broad and powerful ,american judicial mind1 which has contributed so largely to the integrity of the ,union4 ,james ,kent 7b4 ,july #ca1 #agfc2 d4 ,december #ab1 #ahdg7 was professor1 judge of chancery1 justice and chief justice of the ,n4 ,y4 ,supreme ,court1 and chancellor of ,new ,york4 ,he possessed immense legal learning1 and to him is primarily due the creation of ,new ,york courts of equity4 ,his exhaustive 8,commentaries upon ,american ,law0 is accepted at home and abroad as one of the great classics of ,american law literature4 ,francis ,wharton was born ,march #g1 #ahbj1 and died ,february #ba1 #ahhd4 ,although at the age of forty-three he exchanged law for the ministry1 he still showed the legal tendency of his mind in a long career as professor of ecclesiastical and international law in ,boston institutions4 ,he enriched the literature of his profession by many valuable and standard works on law1 municipal1 state1 national1 and international1 and1 under ,mr4 ,cleveland1 was of great service to the administration as ,united ,states ,examiner of ,international ,claims in the ,department of ,state4 ,illustration3 ,,otto ,e4 ,l4 ,,von ,,bismarck4 ,louis ,adolphe ,thiers1 of ,france 7b4 ,april #af1 #agig2 d4 ,september #c1 #ahgg71 was editor1 historian1 and statesman1 and in the latter role became a distinguished leader of ,french thought and polity4 ,his greatest service to his country was after the ,franco-,prussian war1 when the ,assembly elected him chief of the executive1 with the title of 8,president of the ,republic40 ,in this capacity he was particularly successful in negotiating the terms of peace with ,germany1 and in fulfilling all the conditions of peace4 ,illustration3 ,,hon4 ,,william ,mc,k,i,n,l,e,y4 7,copyright1 #ahif1 by ,f4 ,gutekunst47 ,william ,mc,kinley 7b4 ,january #bi1 #ahdc7 became a leading champion of the doctrine of industrial protection at an early period in his congressional career4 ,in #ahhc ,hon4 ,w4 ,d4 ,kelley said of him3 8,he has distanced all his colleagues in mastering the details of the tariff40 ,the ,tariff ,act of #ahij came to be popularly known as the 8,mc,kinley ,bill40 ,elected ,president in #ahif1 his administration was signalized by that humanitarian interference in behalf of struggling ,cuban patriots1 which culminated in the ,spanish-,american war1 and the most unprecedented triumph of modern times4 ,it had the added distinction of rounding out the nineteenth and introducing the twentieth century4 ,,warriors4--,napoleon ,bonaparte 7,napoleon ,i471 soldier1 statesman1 and ,emperor of the ,french 7b4 ,august #ae1 #agfi2 d4 ,may #e1 #ahba71 was the greatest of the world's masters in the art of war4 ,his numerous campaigns1 conducted with a brilliancy never before equaled1 had for their object the humiliation of the countries of ,europe1 and the establishment of an imperial policy in which ,france should be supreme4 ,this he came very near to effecting1 in spite of closely combined and persistent opposition4 ,none of the frequent coalitions formed to thwart his ambitions and stay his martial progress proved absolutely effective till that of ,march #be1 #ahae1 was formed1 which put an army of #gjj1jjj men in the field against him4 ,it was a part of this army that he met at ,waterloo1 ,june #ah1 #ahae1 where defeat awaited him1 together with the eclipse of his gigantic influence and phenomenal genius4 ,illustration3 ,,grant',s ,,tomb1 ,,riverside ,,drive1 ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,ulysses ,simpson ,grant 7b4 ,april #bg1 #ahbb2 d4 ,july #bc1 #ahhe71 graduated at ,west ,point and had a brief military experience in the ,mexican war4 ,on the breaking out of the ,civil ,war he rentered the ,federal service from civil life1 and by exceptional fertility of resource achieved a series of victories in the ,west which led to his command of all the ,union forces1 with the specially conferred title of lieutenant-general1 a title subsequently raised to that of general4 ,by the brilliant1 persistent1 and simultaneous campaigns he carried through in the ,east and ,west1 he further clinched his title as one of the world's greatest generals1 and ended the conflict with honorable peace4 ,he was honored twice with the presidency of the nation1 and through the trying period of reconstruction his wise statesmanship cemented the ,union his sword had preserved4 ,arthur ,wellesley ,wellington of ,england 7b4 ,may #a1 #agfi2 d4 ,september #bb1 #aheb71 attained his first real military distinction in the campaigns of the ,english in ,india4 ,he further added to his fame in the campaign against ,france in the ,spanish peninsula4 ,but his greatest glory as a warrior was reached in #ahad1 when1 with the aid of the ,prussian marshal ,blcher1 he defeated ,napoleon at the decisive battle of ,waterloo4 ,he was afterwards honored with a seat in the ,house of ,lords1 and as ,prime ,minister of the ,tory party1 but his statesmanship proved to be of an inferior and unpopular order4 ,illustration3 ,,duke ,,of ,,wellington4 ,helmuth ,karl ,bernhard von ,moltke1 of ,germany 7b4 ,october #bf1 #ahjj2 d4 ,april #bd1 #ahia71 was the world's greatest exponent of strictly scientific warfare4 ,he made the ,prussian army a most powerful and dangerous machine1 and led it triumphantly against ,denmark and ,austria4 ,by dint of strict organization and drill he made the armies of the ,german ,confederation equally effective1 as was shown in the ,franco-,german war 7#ahgj-ga71 which was a series of brilliant victories1 ending with the capitulation of ,paris and the downfall of ,napoleon ,,iii4 and his empire4 ,his greatness lay in the fact that cool1 sober calculation always dominated his greatest audacity of plan4 ,simon ,bolivar1 or ,bolivar y ,ponte 7b4 ,july #be1 #aghe2 d4 ,december #ag1 #ahcj71 justly earned the surname of 8,the ,liberator40 ,the first and greatest of those ,south ,american patriots who struck against the tyrannical colonial system of ,spain1 he achieved the independence of the three ,states of ,colombia1 ,bolivia1 and ,peru1 secured their recognition by the civilized world1 and lived to govern them with the wisdom and moderation of a wise executive4 ,illustration3 ,,count ,,von ,,moltke4 ,robert ,e4 ,lee 7b4 ,january #ai1 #ahjg2 d4 ,october #ab1 #ahgj71 graduated at ,west ,point1 and was in the constant military service of the ,united ,states till the breaking out of the ,civil ,war4 ,he then transferred his services to the ,confederacy1 and speedily became the highest exponent of its military powers4 ,honorable1 just1 energetic1 persistent1 skillful in offensive or defensive warfare1 schooled in strategy1 full of devices and combinations to overcome desperate situations1 he prolonged a hopeless struggle to an astounding degree1 and met defeat and surrender without dishonor4 ,he readily ranks as one of the world's greatest generals4 ,lajos 7,louis7 ,kossuth of ,hungary 7b4 ,april #bg1 #ahjb2 d4 ,march #bj1 #ahid71 as writer1 lawyer1 and statesman1 came to stand for ,hungarian freedom4 ,after the declaration of independence of his country in #ahdi1 he became its military and political ruler1 but was forced by ,russian intervention and domestic rivalry from his high place1 and escaped to foreign lands to pass the balance of his life in eloquent but fruitless appeals in behalf of his cause and people4 ,giuseppe ,garibaldi1 of ,italy 7b4 ,july #d1 #ahjg2 d4 ,june #b1 #ahhb71 typed the restless1 daring soldier1 the impulsive statesman1 and the energetic defender of freedom4 ,he shared ,count ,cavour's desire for a free and united ,italy1 and grew to be a great popular hero4 ,upon his capture of the two ,sicilies1 he presented them to ,victor ,emmanuel1 thus consummating his life dream of unification1 and his desire for a government in which the wishes of the people were1 to some extent1 recognized4 ,,naval ,,heroes4--,stephen ,decatur 7b4 ,january #e1 #agga2 d4 ,march #bb1 #ahbj7 attained the rank of captain in the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy for his gallant exploit of burning the frigate ,philadelphia in the harbor of ,tripoli1 after she had been captured by the ,tripolitans4 ,he won further fame as commodore in the war of #ahab1 and again in the war with ,algiers1 ,tunis1 and ,tripoli4 ,quick to comprehend emergencies and prompt in action1 he was a type of the dashing and absolutely fearless ,american seaman4 ,true to his fiery nature1 he found his death in a duel with ,commodore ,barron4 ,oliver ,hazard ,perry 7b4 ,august #bc1 #aghe2 d4 ,august #bc1 #ahai7 was rewarded with the rank of captain in the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy for the remarkable courage and dash which eventuated in the memorable victory over the ,british fleet in ,lake ,erie1 ,september #aj1 #ahac4 ,this victory gave the ,americans control of the ,great ,lakes and hastened1 more than any single event1 the conquest of the ,northwest and the end of the ,war of #ahab4 ,he saw further honorable service as commander of the ,mediterranean squadron1 and died at ,port ,spain1 on the island of ,trinidad1 of yellow fever4 ,david ,dixon ,porter 7b4 ,june #h1 #ahac2 d4 ,february #ac1 #ahia7 grew and ripened gradually into one of the great naval captains of the nineteenth century4 ,his courage and energy1 large experience1 and intimate knowledge of the rivers and seacoasts of the country fitted him for the great emergencies of the ,civil ,war4 ,many of the victories of the ,union armies in the ,west were due to his coperation with gunboats4 ,he greatly aided in the initial success of ,farragut's expedition up the ,mississippi1 the reduction of ,vicksburg1 and other strongholds upon ,western waters4 ,the greatest victory of his life was the capture of ,fort ,fisher4 ,he wrote a history of the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy during the war1 a work commended by all naval nations4 ,on the death of ,farragut1 #ahgj1 he reached the high rank of admiral4 ,david ,glascoe ,farragut 7b4 ,july #e1 #ahja2 d4 ,august #ad1 #ahgj7 supplies the highest type of the skillful1 cautious ,american naval commander1 backed up by extraordinary dash and boldness4 ,his signal achievements during the ,civil ,war were the destruction of the ,confederate fleet in the ,mississippi1 the capture of ,new ,orleans1 the passage of the forts at ,port ,hudson and the batteries at ,vicksburg1 and the capture of ,mobile4 ,for his brilliant and successful services the rank of vice-admiral was especially created for him by the government1 and afterwards that of admiral4 ,john ,adolf ,dahlgren 7b4 ,november #ac1 #ahji2 d4 ,july #ab1 #ahgj7 was a prime agent in developing the ,naval ,ordnance ,department and its works at ,washington4 ,he invented and made the well-known ,dahlgren guns4 ,during the ,civil ,war he commanded the ,south ,atlantic blockading squadron1 of some ninety vessels1 and did splendid service for the ,union cause4 ,he was author of many naval articles and books1 some of the latter being used as text books by the government4 ,illustration3 ,,gen4 ,,giuseppe ,,garibaldi4 ,raphael ,semmes 7b4 ,september #bg1 #ahji2 d4 ,august #cj1 #ahgg7 types more fully than any other the naval dash and efficiency of the ,confederacy4 ,in him1 as commander of the ,sumter and ,alabama1 the merchant marine of the ,united ,states found its direst enemy1 and his exploits upon the ocean won for him a fame which overshadowed those of even higher rank1 but whose services were limited to narrower fields of naval activity4 ,admiral ,george ,dewey 7b4 ,december #bf1 #ahcg7 acquired considerable naval experience in the ,civil ,war4 ,at the breaking out of hostilities with ,spain 7#ahih7 he was in command of the ,u4 ,s4 squadron in ,eastern waters1 and was ordered to destroy the ,spanish fleet in the harbor of ,manila4 ,his attack was prompt and daring1 and it ended in one of the most notable victories in the history of naval warfare4 ,in a few hours the entire fleet of ,spain in the ,orient was swept away1 together with her power1 and the ,united ,states was placed in possession of a new and magnificent island empire whose maintenance and government may change the whole history of the ,orient1 if not of the world4 ,admiral ,sampson's contribution to the century's progress lies in the line of skillful preparation for emergencies1 and promptitude in meeting them4 ,he became an epoch-maker in the history of the ,united ,states by means of the great and decisive victory over the ,spaniards1 won by the fleet under his command in the waters off ,santiago4 ,,preachers ,,and ,,teachers4--,the ,rev4 ,james ,mc,cosh 7b4 ,april #a1 #ahaa2 d4 ,november #f1 #ahid7 was an able leader of that great school of literary men1 scholars1 educators1 and aggesssive practical thinkers which this century chiefly seems to have produced4 ,his contribution to modern progress lies mainly along three lines3-- ,first1 in his efforts to obtain the ,free ,church of ,scotland1 and establish it4 ,second1 in his most successful administration of the affairs of ,princeton ,college while he was president of that institution4 ,third1 by his numerous1 original1 and powerful writings1 chiefly controversial and philosophical4 ,the ,rev4 ,charles ,hodge 7b4 ,december #bh1 #agig2 d4 ,june #ai1 #ahgh7 was a fine example of the modern expositor of the dogmas of ,calvinism4 ,strong in conviction and persistent in purpose1 a clear1 logical thinker and writer1 he naturally became a very powerful leader1 his influence being particularly felt in establishing the present exalted position of the ,presbyterians1 especially of the old school division4 ,this influence was wielded partly from his chair as ,professor of ,didactic1 ,exegetic1 and ,polemic ,theology1 and especially in the famous ,princeton ,review1 which owes its greatness chiefly to his editorship and contributions4 ,philip ,schaff 7b4 #ahai2 d4 ,october #bj1 #ahic7 is a type of the scholar who1 through profound research and interpretation1 has created an epoch in theology by his contributions to the nineteenth century1 mainly in historical and exegetical branches4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher 7b4 ,june #bd1 #ahac2 d4 ,march #h1 #ahhg7 easily earned the reputation of the greatest pulpit orator of his day4 ,as pastor of ,plymouth 7,congregational7 ,church in ,new ,york1 his genius and remarkable eloquence attracted and held one of the largest congregations in the ,united ,states4 ,spontaneity1 tact1 emotion were elements of his oratory1 and these were always supplemented by force1 depth1 subtilty1 and quick grasp of intellect and heart4 ,his versatility was phenomenal4 ,journalism1 literature1 politics1 social life1 philanthropy1 parochial organization1 and even agriculture and many other branches were touched upon by him1 and all with results varying from excellent to extraordinary4 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson 7b4 ,may #be1 #ahjc2 d4 ,april #bg1 #ahhb7 passed through the career of teacher and preacher to that of general writer1 lecturer1 and poet4 ,he should probably be classed with the metaphysicians or philosophers4 ,his publication of 8,nature0 in #ahce marked a new era in ,american thought4 ,from subsequent addresses and works may be dated the intellectual movement which was called ,transcendentalism1 and which was a reaction against formalism and tradition4 ,he lacked the method essential to the foundation of a new philosophy1 but his works form a permanent addition to the highest literature of the human race4 ,phillips ,brooks 7b4 ,december #ac1 #ahce2 d4 ,january #bc1 #ahic7 was one of those phenomenal preachers of the century who won the hearing and hearts of his auditors by largeness and liberality of thought2 spirituality1 earnestness1 self-sacrifice1 and great love2 and by beauty and poise of character4 ,he seldom preached doctrine1 but relied on the efficacy of ardent exhortation1 and the finding and kindling of the good in each auditor4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,h4 ,,spurgeon4 ,charles ,h4 ,spurgeon 7b4 ,june #ai1 #ahcd2 d4 ,january #ca1 #ahib7 stands as a type of the great popular preacher and leader in charitable work4 ,with ,baptist view's1 he revived his own denomination and exerted a helpful influence on all others4 ,no divine of his time swayed so resistlessly the immense audiences he attracted4 ,his plain sermons were always lightened with happy illustrations and delivered with rare power and personal magnetism1 and they had the exceptional quality of retaining much of their charm and persuasiveness when in print4 ,friedrich ,froebel of ,thuringia1 ,germany 7b4 ,april #ba1 #aghb2 d4 ,june #b1 #aheb71 was a born educator1 and his great life-work lay wholly in that direction4 ,he studied not so much to get knowledge of particular branches as to discover their natural unity and hidden connection4 ,he was the advocate of the new education1 and pushed the system of ,pestalozzi far beyond its author's dreams4 ,according to ,froebel1 man and nature are governed by the same laws2 and1 by his observation of both1 he reached his idea of what man's development should be1 and how to accomplish it4 ,true development must of course proceed from within1 from self activity4 ,and as every age of man is complete in itself1 its perfect development can come from only such development in the preceding age4 ,hence1 the necessity of properly training and educating young children4 ,this course of reasoning resulted in his invention of the kindergarten system1 together with his self-sacrificing devotion in training teachers1 and in his heroic perseverance notwithstanding bitter opposition1 or indifference4 ,victor ,cousin1 of ,france 7b4 ,november #bh1 #agib2 d4 ,june #ae1 #ahfg71 was a renowned epoch-maker of the century in founding the school of systematic eclecticism in philosophy4 ,his system sets forth a doctrine of catholic comprehension and toleration of others4 ,few men did more in official and private life to advance the cause of general education in ,france4 ,william ,wilberforce1 of ,england 7b4 ,august #bd1 #agei2 d4 ,july #bi1 #ahcc71 with ,pitt and ,clarkson1 led in the cause of freeing the slaves1 being himself the greatest type of the ,english abolitionist4 ,for forty-six years he maintained unceasing and relentless warfare against slavery1 and his priceless gift to the present century was the final and complete extinction of slavery and of the slave-trade in the ,british possessions4 ,,historians4--,william ,h4 ,prescott 7b4 ,may #ad1 #agif2 d4 ,january #bg1 #ahei7 proved himself to be an epoch-maker in the sense that he combined the worth of history with the brilliance and fascination of the novel1 and developed the entirely new field of ,spain's career at home and in her colonies4 ,his 8,ferdinand and ,isabella10 8,conquest of ,mexico10 8,conquest of ,peru10 and 8,history of ,philip ,,ii10 all obtained a world-wide circulation1 and both placed and kept their author in the highest rank of modern ,american historians4 ,illustration3 ,,william ,,wilberforce4 ,franois ,p4 ,g4 ,guizot1 of ,france 7b4 ,october #d1 #aghd2 d4 ,september #ac1 #ahgd71 was both statesman and historian4 ,in the former capacity he held several important public positions1 and from #ahdj to #ahdg was1 as ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs1 really at the head of the government4 ,his many proposed reforms brought on the revolution of #ahdh and the dethronement of ,louis ,philippe4 ,though ranking as one of the greatest of ,french statesmen1 his highest and most enduring reputation rests on his historical writings1 which are very numerous1 and the chief of which is his 8,general ,history of ,civilization in ,europe40 ,his works are classics of historical research1 and inspiring forerunners of the modern method of treating history4 ,james ,anthony ,froude 7b4 ,october #bc1 #ahah2 d4 ,october #bj1 #ahid7 ranks as one of the brightest of ,england's writers and historians1 though not one of the most reliable4 ,his writings are characterized1 in the main1 by ultra-,protestantism2 and in his two most important works1 8,the ,english in ,ireland in the #ahth ,century10 and 8,the ,history of ,england10 he endeavors to justify his country's severe treatment of the ,irish ,romanists1 to establish ,henry ,,viii4 as the chief champion of ,english independence1 and also to bestow upon her ministers much of the credit popularly supposed to belong to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,john ,l4 ,motley 7b4 ,massachusetts1 ,april #ae1 #ahad2 d4 ,england1 ,may #bi1 #ahgg7 typifies the patient and painstaking searcher for truth in the development of national history2 and also the sympathetic1 graphic1 and spirited painter of the scenes1 events1 and characters which he presents4 ,his 8,rise of the ,dutch ,republic10 8,history of the ,united ,netherlands10 and 8,life and ,death of ,john of ,barneveld0 are all undeniably great contributions to the historical literature of the present century1 besides being monuments to the exacting toil and research of years4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,b4 ,,macaulay4 ,henry ,thomas ,buckle1 of ,england 7b4 ,november #bd1 #ahbb2 d4 ,may #bi1 #ahfb7 is a conspicuous type of the patient and learned historian4 ,his principal donation to modern progress is 8,the ,history of ,civilization in ,england10 a work whose novel theories created an epoch in the philosophy of history1 and called forth much controversy4 ,according to him1 civilization was due not so much to moral or religious influence as to material causes1--soil1 climate1 food1 atmosphere1 etc4 ,george ,bancroft 7b4 ,october #c1 #ahjj2 d4 ,january #ag1 #ahia7 was equally renowned as statesman and historian4 ,as a member of ,president ,polk's cabinet1 he was instrumental in founding the ,naval ,academy at ,annapolis and the ,naval ,observatory at ,washington4 ,as minister to ,prussia he negotiated several foreign treaties1 and ably conducted the settlement of the 8,northwest ,boundary0 question4 ,but his great life-work was his 8,history of the ,united ,states10 on which he labored untiringly till his death4 ,it is the most exhaustive1 philosophic1 and inspiring of our national histories4 ,richard ,hildreth 7b4 ,june #bh1 #ahjg2 d4 ,june #aa1 #ahfe7 was one of the century's valuable contributors to the welfare of the ,united ,states by his 8,history of ,banks10 his many works on morals and politics1 and chiefly by his great life-work1 8,the ,history of the ,united ,states10 a production of great labor and masterly detail1 but somewhat heavily written4 ,thomas ,babington ,macaulay1 of ,england 7b4 ,october #be1 #ahjj2 d4 ,december #bh1 #ahei71 was noted as essayist and statesman4 ,but his genius lay especially in history1 in which line he was enabled to furnish the world with his great life-work1 that most remarkable and valuable 8,history of ,england10 which quickly attained a circulation never before equaled by any similar publication4 ,though at times partisan and partial1 he was still fortunate in throwing his great strength on the side of right4 ,,editors4--,horace ,greeley 7b4 ,february #c1 #ahaa2 d4 ,november #bi1 #ahgb7 was founder of the 8,new ,york ,tribune40 ,he took rank as one of the ablest editors of his day1 and stood the foremost political advocate and controversialist of his time in ,america4 ,he made of his paper a splendid property1 and through it exercised an influence that reached far down among the masses4 ,he lost much of his popularity by his advocacy of universal amnesty and impartial suffrage1 after the close of the ,civil ,war1 and gradually drifted into the ,liberal ,republican party4 ,this party1 in alliance with the ,democrats1 placed him on the presidential ticket in #ahgb4 ,he was disastrously defeated1 and died from the effects of hard campaign work and grief4 ,james ,gordon ,bennett 7b4 ,september #a1 #agie2 d4 ,june #a1 #ahgb71 founder of the 8,new ,york ,herald10 was the most spirited and daring of those pioneers who revolutionized the journalism of the century4 ,in his paper he broke away from high prices and prosaic methods1 and inaugurated the era of cheap prices1 racy news1 and independent expression4 ,he practically developed the present organization of newsboys1 the use of the telegraph in securing news1 and the ,american system of ,european and war correspondence4 ,william ,cullen ,bryant 7b4 ,november #c1 #agid2 d4 ,june #ab1 #ahgh7 united the scholarship of the general literature and the grace of a poet with the genius of a high-toned and brilliant editor4 ,he gave to his paper1 the 8,new ,york ,evening ,post10 a rank and influence seldom attained in journalism1 especially when it is considered that its patrons were chiefly of the educated and higher business classes4 ,he represented the cleanest and most intellectual journalism of the century4 ,john ,w4 ,forney 7b4 ,september #bj1 #ahag2 d4 ,december #i1 #ahha7 was founder and owner of 8,the ,philadelphia ,press40 ,the journalism of the century can boast no more indefatigable and brilliant pen than his1 nor did any journal of his day occupy a more commanding place amid the discussions incident to the ,civil ,war and subsequent periods of reconstruction4 ,he was also editor and owner of the ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 8,chronicle40 ,charles ,anderson ,dana 7b4 ,august #h1 #ahai2 d4 ,october #ag1 #ahig7 is an instance of a scholar and publicist who found a true1 though late1 outlet for his genius in the realm of independent journalism4 ,under his editorship and management the 8,new ,york ,sun0 became the model news medium of the country1 and its editorial1 financial1 and other departments were conducted with an ability and conscientiousness that commanded the widest confidence4 ,he was associate editor of 8,the ,new ,american ,cyclopdia10 and compiler of the admirable 8,household ,book of ,poetry40 ,joseph ,medill 7b4 ,april #f1 #ahbc2 d4 ,march #af1 #ahii7 rose to the high rank of editor-in-chief and principal owner of 8,the ,chicago ,tribune10 through the schooling afforded by connection with several minor papers4 ,no man of the century was more thoroughly imbued with the true editorial instinct4 ,of dignified and prudent expression1 broad and keen thought1 ever alive to the privileges and power of the press1 he made his journal a model of excellence in all its varied departments as well as a colossal property4 ,joseph ,pulitzer 7b4 #ahdg7 was founder and editor of 8,the ,st4 ,louis ,post-,dispatch10 and afterwards became owner and editor of 8,the ,new ,york ,world40 ,like the elder ,bennett he ranks as one of the dashing1 daring editors of the century1 whose aim is to gain notoriety and extraordinary circulation for his journal by strong1 and often vituperative1 attack upon public men and things1 and by tireless efforts to secure general news of a unique and sensational character1 at whatever cost4 ,murat ,halstead 7b4 #ahbi7 rose to editorial distinction1 and became a strong factor in the life of the middle ,west1 through his connection with the 8,cincinnati ,commercial10 which he raised to a flourishing financial condition1 with immense power in municipal1 state1 and national politics4 ,in #ahij he became editor of 8,the ,standard-,union10 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,whitelaw ,reid 7b4 ,october #bg1 #ahcg7 is a type of the highest class of ,american political editors1 and represents the best in that kind of ,american journalism which aims to be both alert and catholic in its efforts1 without the sensationalism of personality1 exaggeration1 or the horrible4 ,next to ,mr4 ,greeley1 whom he succeeded as editor1 he will best be remembered in connection with 8,the ,new ,york ,tribune10 and has made his journal a great power along nearly all lines1 particularly those political4 ,,scientists4--,sir ,charles ,bell1 of ,scotland 7b4 ,november #ag1 #aggd2 d4 ,april #bi1 #ahdb71 is a shining example of patience and genius for investigation1 discovery1 and deduction in medical science4 ,the nervous system was his particular forte2 and he discovered the most important principle that the brain is divided into two parts1 each having its corresponding division in the spinal marrow1 and that one set of nerves conveys sensations from the body to the brain1 another carrying back to the body and its muscles the command of the brain1 and finally that nerves conveying different sensations are connected with different parts of the brain4 ,he was a remarkable surgeon1 a brilliant lecturer1 and a medical author of universal fame4 ,samuel ,d4 ,gross 7b4 ,july #h1 #ahje2 d4 ,may #f1 #ahhd7 ranked as one of the epoch-makers in his profession4 ,as physician1 surgeon1 and medical author he showed a lofty aim1 strict devotion1 marked originality1 and powerful intellect4 ,his numerous works commanded world-wide attention and became accepted standards4 ,two of them1 at least1 were the first of their kind ever published in ,america4 ,george ,c4 ,l4 ,f4 ,d4 ,cuvier1 of ,france 7b4 ,august #bc1 #agfi2 d4 ,may #ac1 #ahcb71 exhibited in his career the immense reformation and advance in natural history during the first three decades of the nineteenth century4 ,he expanded the system of comparative anatomy as the only true basis of natural history1 and from an utterly chaotic and unintelligible heap of dry facts concerning animal structures he finally deduced the underlying1 natural principles of unity1 in their classification and division4 ,he also established many positive laws of geology and paleontology and1 by his vast discoveries and daring conceptions therein1 developed the comparatively new science of fossil animal-life to an extent hitherto undreamed of4 ,charles ,robert ,darwin1 of ,england 7b4 ,february #ac1 #ahji2 d4 ,april #ah1 #ahic71 was one of those well-equipped and persistent scientists whose investigations led to the modern doctrine of the origin and evolution of species by means of natural selection and preservation of favored races in the struggle for life4 ,his conclusions were at first bitterly rejected1 especially by religious scientists1 but ere the end of the century came they met with wide acceptance4 ,only such a genius and patience as his could have collected1 arranged1 and interpreted the gigantic mass of facts out of which he slowly deduced his conclusions4 ,louis ,j4 ,r4 ,agassiz 7b4 ,may #bh1 #ahjg2 d4 ,december #ad1 #ahgc71 was the premier of his day as a scientist and naturalist4 ,of wonderful physical and mental power1 vast enthusiasm1 untiring industry1 and exceptional propensity for research and orderly arrangement1 he developed the modern science of ichthyology1 propounded new and accepted theories of geology and of glacial systems1 and established the magnificent ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,astonishingly prolific as a writer1 he remains a constant source of inspiration to naturalists and scientists4 ,samuel ,c4 ,f4 ,hahnemann1 of ,germany 7b4 ,april #aa1 #agee2 d4 ,july #b1 #ahdc71 was an epoch-maker in the field of medicine4 ,by #ahbj his theories and publications had awakened universal interest1 and the homopathic system had become an established school4 ,despite the long and bitter war between allopathy and homopathy1 it is certain that the latter has contributed largely to render medicine free from many old-time methods of an indefensible1 if not actually harmful or dangerous kind4 ,horace ,wells1 of ,hartford1 ,conn4 7b4 ,january #ba1 #ahae2 d4 ,january #ad1 #ahdh71 was a dentist4 ,his use of nitrous oxide 7laughing gas7 to render the extraction of teeth painless led to its fuller application as an ansthetic in surgery1 and hence to the discovery of modern ansthesia by ether and chloroform4 ,though robbed of the honor of his discovery by others1 the dentist ,wells is no less a contributor to mankind of one of the greatest boons of the century4 ,louis ,pasteur1 of ,france 7b4 ,december #ag1 #ahbb2 d4 ,september #bh1 #ahie71 gave new direction and impulse to chemistry and pathology by the discovery that fermentation arose from micro-organisms1 and also that disease was1 in many instances1 due to the presence of bacilli in blood or tissue4 ,he followed this with his system of culture and inoculation1 by means of which he performed most miraculous cures of even such a vicious disease as hydrophobia4 ,the ,pasteur ,institute in ,paris stands a monument to his genius and philanthropy4 ,,philanthropists4--,stephen ,girard 7b4 ,may #bd1 #agej2 d4 ,december #bf1 #ahca7 was crabbed1 unapproachable1 penurious1 irreligious1 yet strangely liberal in large public or charitable affairs4 ,twice he helped the government with large loans4 ,public charities and improvements1 hospitals1 and paradoxically enough1 even churches1 were indebted to him for munificent gifts4 ,the greatest monument to his philanthropy is ,girard ,college1 founded by a bequest of #h1jjj1jjj1 for the education of poor white male orphans4 ,james ,smithson1 of ,england 7b4 about #agfe2 d4 ,june #bg1 #ahbi71 was possibly the first philanthropist to bestow a large endowment upon the ,united ,states4 ,with the sum of #ejj1jjj to #fjj1jjj1 which came to it from this benevolent foreigner1 the young republic founded and endowed the splendid ,smithsonian ,institute at ,washington for the spread and increase of knowledge1 thus putting ,mr4 ,smithson in the highest rank of the world's benefactors1 and erecting an imperishable monument at another turning-point in the progress of civilization4 ,george ,peabody 7b4 ,february #ah1 #agie2 d4 ,november #ad1 #ahfi7 ranks as one of the century's greatest philanthropists4 ,among his noblest gifts were #c1ejj1jjj for free education and the training of teachers in the ,southern ,states1 #a1jjj1jjj for a scientific institute at ,baltimore1 large sums to ,harvard ,university1 and a great amount to his native town1 ,danvers1 ,mass41 for educational purposes4 ,dying in ,england1 he left #b1ejj1jjj to ,london1 to found workingmen's homes4 ,john ,jacob ,astor 7b4 ,july #ag1 #agfc2 d4 ,march #bi1 #ahdh7 used much of his colossal fortune in philanthropy4 ,perhaps his largest single gift1 at least that by which he is best known as a benefactor1 was the sum of #djj1jjj to found the ,astor ,library of ,new ,york city4 ,this noble institution is conducted on the public plan1 and contains nearly #cjj1jjj volumes4 ,james ,lick 7b4 ,august #be1 #agif2 d4 ,october #a1 #ahgf7 amassed a fortune in ,california1 out of which he provided a trust fund for certain public and charitable purposes4 ,this fund amounted to #e1jjj1jjj at the time of his death4 ,to him is due the famous ,lick ,telescope in the ,university of ,california1 which cost #gjj1jjj2 the ,california ,school of ,mechanic ,arts1 costing #edj1jjj2 the free public baths of ,san ,francisco1 costing #aej1jjj2 and numerous other charities and benefactions4 ,leland ,stanford 7b4 ,march #i1 #ahbd2 d4 ,june #bj1 #ahic7 acquired a great fortune in ,california4 ,inspired by a dream at the time of his little son's death1 he determined to found and endow an institution of learning in his ,state4 ,the result was the ,leland ,stanford ,junior ,university1 whose direct endowment was princely1 and whose indirect endowment is expected to amount to #bj1jjj1jjj or more4 ,illustration3 ,,florence ,,nightingale4 ,florence ,nightingale was born1 ,may1 #ahbc1 in ,florence1 ,italy1 of ,english parents1 and1 prompted by philanthropic instincts1 turned her attention to the relief of humanity4 ,after study in various nursing schools1 she was sent at the head of a corps of trained nurses to care for the sick and wounded soldiers of the ,crimean war1 in which position she displayed marvelous energy and ability4 ,a grateful public subscribed for her a testimonial of #bej1jjj1 which she devoted to the founding of a training-school for nurses4 ,clara ,barton 7b4 about #ahcj7 left a clerkship in ,washington to engage in the work of alleviating the sufferings of the soldiers of the ,civil ,war1 on the battlefields and in hospitals1 a work she performed with rare energy and self-sacrifice4 ,she afterwards aided the ,grand ,duchess of ,baden in establishing her hospitals during the ,franco-,prussian war1 and was decorated with the ,golden ,cross of ,baden and the ,iron ,cross of ,germany4 ,in #ahha she organized the ,american ,red ,cross ,society1 for which she secured an international treaty giving it protection4 ,she performed splendid service in camp and field during the ,spanish-,american war4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller 7b4 #ahci7 is a splendid example of those many and noble ,american millionaires who have responded with astonishing liberality to the promptings of their philanthropic natures4 ,the reconstruction of the ,chicago ,university1 the founding or endowment of other public institutions1 and of numerous charitable benefactions1 together embracing the expenditure of many millions1 are magnificent monuments to ,mr4 ,rockefeller's share in promoting the progress of his country during the last quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,matthew ,vassar 7b4 ,april #bi1 #agib2 d4 ,june #bc1 #ahfh7 founded ,vassar ,college1 ,n4 ,y41 in #ahfa4 ,a brewer of large fortune1 he conceived the idea of erecting and endowing a college for women1 wherein education could be obtained either moderately or gratuitously1 and which should be undenominational4 ,to this end he gave land and #dbh1jjj for buildings and equipment4 ,again he gave #cfj1jjj4 ,other members of his family added to his gifts1 till #a1jjj1jjj and more were expended in buildings1 apparatus1 etc41 and the endowment amounted to over #a1jjj1jjj4 ,,inventors4--,george ,stephenson1 of ,england 7b4 ,june #i1 #agha2 d4 ,august #ab1 #ahdh71 was the first 7#ahad7 to construct a satisfactory locomotive steam engine4 ,in #ahae he introduced the steam blast into his second locomotive4 ,in #ahbb he built and operated his first railway1 eight miles long4 ,in #ahbi his engine1 named the ,rocket1 was driven at the rate of twenty-nine miles an hour4 ,he invented a safety lamp1 which is still in use in ,english collieries4 ,a natural genius and self-taught mechanic1 he refused knighthood1 but has received by common consent the title of the father of railways4 ,richard ,m4 ,hoe 7b4 ,september #ab1 #ahab2 d4 ,june #g1 #ahhf7 completely revolutionized the art of printing by the invention of his 8lightning0 rotary press1 in #ahdf4 ,this marvel was capable of printing #bj1jjj impressions an hour4 ,after many costly experiments1 with a view to printing both sides of a sheet at once1 he evolved his web-perfecting press1 which drew the paper from a roll1 perhaps miles in length1 at the rate of #ajjj feet a minute1 printed both sides simultaneously1 and cut and folded the sheets at the rate of #bj1jjj per hour4 ,subsequent improvements have given his machines a much larger hourly capacity4 ,illustration3 ,,clara ,,barton4 ,elias ,howe 7b4 ,june #i1 #ahai2 d4 ,october #c1 #ahfg7 contributed the sewing-machine to the century's triumphs and wonders1 though it is alleged that the honor of inventing both the eye-pointed needle and the lock-stitch belongs to ,walter ,hunt1 between whom and ,howe long litigation prevailed1 finally resulting in the recognition of the #ahdf patent of the latter4 ,modifications and improvements by more recent inventors have made the sewing-machine the household boon of to-day4 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field 7b4 ,november #cj1 #ahai2 d4 ,july #ab1 #ahib7 made the problem of a telegraphic cable across the ,atlantic an aim of his life4 ,for thirteen years he labored with wonderful faith and perseverance1 and at last1 after a series of defeats and mortifying failures1 succeeded 7#ahff7 in laying a cable that thoroughly solved the problem4 ,since then submarine telegraphy has become one of the most useful and powerful factors in the private and public life of the world4 ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse 7b4 ,april #bg1 #agia2 d4 ,april #b1 #ahgb7 contributed to the century's triumphs and world's civilization by that brilliant and persistent series of investigations1 which resulted in the first practical telegraph4 ,he brought his invention before the world in #ahdd1 and with the aid of the government set up a line of forty miles between ,washington and ,baltimore1 over which dispatches successfully passed1 ,may #bd1 #ahdd4 ,from this moment his triumph was complete1 and he became the recipient of many flattering distinctions at home and abroad4 ,john ,ericsson 7b4 ,july #ca1 #ahjc2 d4 ,march #h1 #ahii7 either invented1 or first made practical1 the steam fire-engine1 the artificial draught for locomotives1 the reversible locomotive1 the 8link-motion10 the caloric engine1 and the screw propeller4 ,discouraged in ,england1 he came to the ,united ,states in #ahci1 where he revolutionized naval warfare by applying the screw propeller to the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,princeton1 and employing a range finder4 ,in #ahed he invented the ,monitor iron-clad on principles first applied in the ,monitor which defeated the ,merrimac in ,hampton ,roads1 ,virginia1 ,march #i1 #ahfb4 ,his career was signalized by many other valuable inventions4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 born ,march #c1 #ahdf1 besides exploiting in ,america his father's valuable system of instruction to deaf mutes1 typifies the inventive spirit of his age by his contribution to public progress through the material side1 as exemplified in that indispensable aid to modern life1 the telephone1 with the invention of which he is generally1 but by no means undisputedly1 credited4 ,thomas ,alva ,edison 7b4 ,february #aa1 #ahdg7 is a splendid example of the tireless1 acute1 and practical scientific inventor1 and is well named the electrical 8wizard40 ,among the triumphs of his skill and genius are the automatic telegraphic repeater2 the duplex telegraph1 afterwards developed into the quadruplex and sextuplex transmitter2 the printing telegraph for stock quotations2 the carbon telephone transmitter2 the aerophone2 the megaphone and microphone2 the phonograph and photometer2 the incandescent lamp2 and many other devices for electric lighting4 ,nicola ,tesla 7born #aheh71 a former pupil and assistant of ,edison1 shares with his master the honor of representing the world's greatest and most practical of scientific inventors and discoverers4 ,his most noted investigations and discoveries have been along the line of arousing luminous vibrations in matter1 without1 at the same time1 setting in action heat-vibrations4 ,he has made the remarkable discovery that #bjj1jjj volts may pass harmlessly through that body which #bjjj would kill1 and is experimenting to produce #c1jjj1jjj vibrations a minute in matter4 ,he has also shown that both motors and lights can be operated on one wire without a circuit4 ,his rotary motor is used in conveying power from the great plant at ,niagara ,falls4 ,,novelists4--,sir ,walter ,scott1 of ,scotland 7b4 ,august #ae1 #agga2 d4 ,september #ba1 #ahcb71 exerted a powerful influence on the literature of the century through the medium of his stirring poetry and delightful fiction1 in both of which he was most ready and prolific4 ,his numerous works1 teeming with striking situations1 strong and noble in style1 are models of literary excellence1 and are as captivating to readers of to-day as they were half a century ago4 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott4 ,charles ,dickens1 of ,england 7b4 ,february #g1 #ahab2 d4 ,june #i1 #ahgj71 ably exemplified that school of novelists who paint homely social life with all its innocent1 clumsy efforts at humor2 its sorrows1 vanities1 and weaknesses2 its selfishness1 malice1 and vice2 its wrongs1 sufferings1 and goodnesses4 ,though faulty in plot and style and ridiculous in their exaggerations1 his novels marked a new era in literature1 and no books ever so appealed to the sympathies and good impulses of readers4 ,james ,fenimore ,cooper 7b4 ,september #ae1 #aghi2 d4 ,september #ad1 #ahea7 typifies a large and apparently enduring class of fiction writers of which he was a remarkable forerunner2 that school of novelists who deal with stirring1 bold1 and healthful adventure1 in which the ,anglo-,saxon mind particularly seems to find unfailing delight4 ,both at home and abroad1 his novels attained a wide1 sudden1 and well-deserved popularity4 ,and to this day no library of fiction is complete without them4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,,dickens4 ,nathaniel ,hawthorne 7b4 ,july #d1 #ahjd2 d4 ,may #ah1 #ahfd7 exhibits in his numerous fictional works a man's breadth and strength of imagination and a woman's quick perception and spiritual insight4 ,almost gloomy in color1 overhung with impending fate1 and often uncanny1 his stories are yet always fascinating4 ,as has been well said1 one catches in them 8gleaming wit1 tender satire1 exquisite natural description1 subtle and strange analysis of human life1 darkly passionate and weird40 ,count ,leo 7or ,lyoff7 ,alekseevich ,tolstoi 7b4 ,august #bh1 #ahbh7 is a ,russian aristocrat by birth1 but has assumed the dress and life of a peasant1 the better to exploit his doctrines respecting non-resistance1 communism1 labor1 religion1 politics1 government1 and society4 ,his numerous writings show a combination of keenness of realistic insight and wealth of poetical imagination1 of a wonderful breadth of view with perfect handling of minute detail1 seldom rivaled in all literature4 ,whether or not he will prove to be the forerunner of a great revolution in the world's national and social life1 there is no disputing his genius and pertinacity4 ,edward ,george ,earle ,bulwer 7,baron ,lytton71 of ,england 7b4 ,may #be1 #ahjc2 d4 ,january #ah1 #ahgc71 was novelist1 poet1 dramatist1 and essayist1 and ranked as one of the most versatile and classical authors of the century4 ,through his plays1 poetry1 and novels he introduced a new literary era1 and was the leader1 if not actual founder1 of the school of melodramatic romance4 ,harriet ,elizabeth ,beecher ,stowe 7b4 ,june #ad1 #ahaa2 d4 ,july #a1 #ahif7 acquired great fame as authoress of the epoch-making book1 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin40 ,it proved to be a powerful contribution to the anti-slavery cause1 and served to electrify readers in twenty different languages4 ,in dramatized form it has delighted millions of auditors4 ,the authoress represents woman's efforts for the overthrow of slavery2 efforts she put forth modestly1 completely unconscious of their great power and future influence4 ,george ,eliot1 pseudonym of ,marian ,evans1 afterwards ,mrs4 ,lewes1 then ,mrs4 ,cross1 of ,england 7b4 ,november #bb1 #ahai2 d4 ,december #bb1 #ahhj71 was one of the ablest of the world's female novelists1 and had but few equals among men4 ,she was a leading epoch-maker in that introspective school which always with astonishing skill uses the 8plot0 in all its events1 environments1 and circumstances to develop each character in strict logical accord1 whether for good or evil4 ,victor ,hugo1 of ,france 7b4 ,february #bj1 #ahjb2 d4 ,may #bb1 #ahhe71 was1 in his day1 the most popular author who has ever lived4 ,few poems1 no drama1 and absolutely no novel have ever produced the immediate and tremendous effect of his earlier poems1 his 8,hernani10 and his 8,les ,misrables40 ,through 8,hernani0 he completely defeated the classic school and became the leader of the romantic school of revolutionary individualists1 thus creating a new epoch in literature4 ,he invented novelties in poetry and prose which produced strength1 variety1 delicacy1 harmony1 and richness of imagery and coloring1 absolutely unparalleled and original4 ,illustration3 ,,lord ,,byron4 ,,poets4--,lord ,george ,gordon ,byron1 of ,england 7b4 ,january #bb1 #aghh2 d4 ,april #ai1 #ahbd71 is a remarkable instance of a poet of marvelous natural powers1 mingling good and evil in accordance with the whim that took him2 yet exhibiting distinctly1 through it all1 evidences of a great soul and genius4 ,he created an epoch in the world's poetic literature4 ,skeptical1 cynical1 melancholy even to sentimentality1 and skillfully manipulating the public side of his affairs to keep up a most fascinating air of romantic mystery about them all1 he succeeded in affecting public thought with these characteristics to a wonderful extent4 ,as a result1 8,byronism10 for a time1 was the absorbing rage in all prominent circles1 literary and even social4 ,henry ,w4 ,longfellow 7b4 ,february #bg1 #ahjg2 d4 ,march #bd1 #ahhb7 is possibly the century's finest type of the people's poet4 ,though by no means a poet of great imaginative or creative powers1 yet few reached his perfect skill as a painstaking and unerring artist2 while none have ever surpassed him in creating that atmosphere of subtile beauty which always seems to surround and penetrate his verse4 ,as an epoch-maker his influence extended even to ,europe1 and especially to ,england1 securing him a fame wider and greater than that of any other ,american poet1 and rarely failing to win the enduring affection of all kinds of readers4 ,john ,greenleaf ,whittier 7b4 ,december #ag1 #ahjg2 d4 ,september #g1 #ahib71 as an editor and poet contributed no little to the cause of the abolitionists4 ,together with ,longfellow1 ,holmes1 ,lowell1 ,hawthorne1 and ,emerson1 he may be considered an epoch-maker in the development of ,american literature as guided by the spirit of ,new ,england4 ,he types the sweet1 simple1 and absolutely sincere poet whose verse breathes forth a strong patriotism1 and is redolent of the healthful home life of the ,eastern ,states4 ,sir ,alfred ,tennyson1 of ,england 7b4 ,august #f1 #ahji2 d4 ,october #f1 #ahib71 was by far the leading representative of those ,english poets who1 while not wanting in the fire and spontaneity of true genius1 nevertheless wrote carefully1 after long reflection1 with calculation and toil1 as to diction1 polish1 and arrangement of sentences and thoughts4 ,his highly-wrought 8,in ,memoriam0 and his exquisite1 though somewhat sensuous 8,idylls of the ,king0 were absolutely novel1 and mark an epoch in the history of the world's poetry4 ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning 7b4 #ahji2 d4 ,june #bi1 #ahfa7 is1 without doubt1 the greatest poetess of the present century and probably of any other4 ,she presents an extraordinary instance of the grasp1 comprehensiveness1 and logic of man's intellect1 united with the intuitions1 deep emotions1 impulses1 and visions of woman4 ,her especial contribution to the progress of this century is not only to the wealth of its poetry1 but also to the careful and discriminating consideration of many of its social problems4 ,robert ,browning 7b4 in ,london1 ,may #g1 #ahab2 d4 in ,venice1 ,december #ab1 #ahhi7 was the foremost of psychological poets4 ,belonging to 8,the ,romantic ,school10 he created an epoch in literature by carrying his high ideals and wonderful efforts of genius over into what became known as 8,the ,spasmodic ,school40 ,,actors4--,edmund ,keene1 of ,england 7b4 #aghg2 d4 ,may #ae1 #ahcc71 was one of the greatest and most popular actors of all time4 ,he typified1 and greatly contributed to the success of1 that school of actors who rely almost solely on their own native genius and acquired powers1 rather than on the aid of externals4 ,he has been called both the 8,byron0 and the 8,napoleon0 of actors1 and seemed to have the most extraordinary power both of catching and revealing the meaning of ,shakespeare1 with the quickness and vividness of the lightning flash4 ,edwin ,forrest 7b4 ,march #i1 #ahjf2 d4 ,december #ab1 #ahgb7 was a tragedian of the robust type4 ,his success upon the stage was signal1 owing to natural genius1 superb form1 and noble presence4 ,for more than a generation he rendered effective and kept popular the leading tragedies of ,shakespeare1 and others suited to his powers4 ,the ,actors' ,home at ,philadelphia was endowed by him1 and stands as his monument4 ,edwin ,booth 7b4 ,november #ac1 #ahcc2 d4 ,june #g1 #ahic7 stood as the exponent of the refined and lofty in drama4 ,through his rare histrionic powers he became a recognized interpreter of such characters as ,richard ,,iii41 ,shylock1 ,lear1 ,iago1 ,othello1 ,brutus1 etc41 but he never appeared to better advantage than in ,hamlet4 ,his ability was as fully recognized abroad as at home4 ,he expended #age1jjj in establishing the ,players' ,house and ,club in ,new ,york4 ,charlotte ,s4 ,cushman 7b4 ,july #bc1 #ahaf2 d4 ,february #ah1 #ahgf7 first won her histrionic honors in opera4 ,her voice failed1 and then she began her memorable career as actress1 her most famous personations being ,lady ,macbeth1 ,bianca1 ,julia1 ,beatrice1 ,lady ,teazle1 ,queen ,katharine1 and ,meg ,merrilies4 ,she readily ranked with the great dramatic artists of the century1 and her skill1 native and acquired1 divided with her own splendid character the admiration of the general public4 ,tommaso ,salvini 7b4 ,january1 #ahcj7 demonstrates that now very rare and severely tragic school of the stage in which the actor appeals to the public through his genius and art1 rather than through his environments and accessories4 ,he thus belongs to an apparently closing era in the history of the stage4 ,powerful1 passionate yet self-controlled1 magnificent in physique1 in elocution1 in reading and in deportment1 as an actor he really belongs to the world1 although ,italian in both spirit and training4 ,sir ,henry ,irving 7or really ,john ,henry ,broadrib71 of ,england1 was born in #ahch1 and is the leader of that modern school of actors1 who depend not so much on good reading1 acting and general elocution as upon careful attention to details in stage-setting and presentation4 ,as an epoch-maker in the history of the modern drama1 he marks that point where the actor begins to look away from his own personal art to that displayed in his surroundings and accessories4 ,,lyric ,,dramatists4--,ludwig van ,beethoven1 of ,germany 7b4 ,december #ag1 #aggj2 d4 ,march #bf1 #ahbg71 is widely held to be the most colossal of musical geniuses1 in breadth and grasp of intellect1 in vastness and boldness of imagination1 and in depth and tenderness of emotion4 ,his one opera1 8,fidelio10 is by many considered to be unrivaled in the realm of pure dramatic music4 ,his sonatas and chamber music are generally conceded easily to lead in those two departments1 while his symphonies are universally believed to have reached the utmost limit of development which is possible in the field of orchestral composition4 ,charles ,f4 ,gounod1 of ,france 7b4 ,june #ag1 #ahah2 d4 ,october #ah1 #ahic71 is an instance of a composer whose permanent fame must rest on but one work1 the opera of 8,faust10 in which he reached the utmost height of his powers and success4 ,no opera has ever had such instant1 universal1 and constant popularity4 ,eclectic in style1 and faithful and enthusiastic in his art1 he did much to advance the progress of religious and operatic music in ,france4 ,robert ,schumann1 of ,saxony 7b4 ,june #h1 #ahaj2 d4 ,july #bi1 #ahef7 was one of the creators of the romantic school of music4 ,he was not a piano player1 but a teacher and composer4 ,his symphonies have been accorded a rank next to those of ,beethoven1 and for their deep pathos1 fine1 intense passion and wild1 mournful beauty many of his compositions are almost peerless4 ,felix ,mendelssohn-,bartholdy 7b4 ,february #e1 #ahji2 d4 ,november #d1 #ahdg7 was as lovely in character as in works4 ,in symphony1 song1 piano-forte1 organ1 or oratorio1 he showed himself worthy of being classed with the great musical masters4 ,his compositions suffered eclipse for a time by those of a stronger school1 but his true position in the musical world is once more becoming recognized4 ,franz ,schubert1 of ,austria 7b4 ,january #ca1 #agig2 d4 ,november #aj1 #ahbi71 has been called 8the immortal melodist40 ,his fecundity was marvelous1 and he is best known by his songs1 several hundred in number1 and nearly half of which have immortal quality4 ,he also composed many charming symphonies and operas4 ,his chief characteristics are the freshness of his delightful melodies supported by harmonies of equal interest4 ,anton ,gregor ,rubinstein1 of ,russia 7b4 ,november #cj1 #ahcj2 d4 ,november #bj1 #ahid71 combined the brilliant pianist with the composer of genius4 ,had he not been preceded by ,liszt as an epoch maker1 he would undoubtedly have had the honor of being first of all great pianists4 ,frederic ,f4 ,chopin1 of ,poland 7b4 ,march #a1 #ahji2 d4 ,october #ag1 #ahdi71 was one of the first of pianists and musical composers4 ,his playing1 like his music1 was marked by a strange and ravishing grace1 and he was the great interpreter of the music of his native country4 ,he composed concertos1 waltzes1 nocturnes1 preludes1 and mazurkas abounding in poetic fancy and subtle harmonic effects4 ,jacques ,offenbach1 of ,france 7b4 ,june #ba1 #ahai2 d4 ,october #d1 #ahhj71 was the chief creator of the opera bouffe1 and was an astonishingly prolific composer4 ,he stands for the clever1 tactful musician1 shrewd to perceive and quick to seize what catches the public ear for the time being4 ,franz ,liszt1 of ,hungary 7b4 ,october #bb1 #ahaa2 d4 ,july #ca1 #ahhf71 ranks as one of the world's phenomenal pianists4 ,his strength and technique were prodigious1 his magnetism irresistible1 and his power over audiences unequaled4 ,by his free1 fantastic compositions he created a new school of composers4 ,he gave extraordinary aid and inspiration to other musicians1 and in reality brought ,richard ,wagner into prominence before the musical world4 ,richard ,wagner1 of ,germany 7b4 ,may #bb1 #ahac2 d4 ,february #ac1 #ahhc71 early abandoned ,beethoven as an operatic model1 and felt that a new era in music was about to dawn4 ,his musical theories first found full swing in his famous opera of the 8,nibelungen ,ring10 with which1 and kindred productions1 he practically created the modern music-drama4 ,in his operas he was sole author of their wonderful wealth of true poetry1 stage effects1 dramatic action1 and endless melody4 ,no musician has ever made such bitter foes and warm friends1 and none ever had to fight his way so stubbornly to recognition4 ,giuseppe ,verdi1 of ,italy 7b4 ,october #i1 #ahac71 is one of the most remarkable musical composers of the century1 in the respect that his talent has not failed with age1 but has kept pace with the great changes which have affected the dramatic stage since his youth4 ,in the beauty of his melodies and the intensity of his dramatic powers he is unsurpassed4 ,very few1 indeed1 of his numerous productions have failed to hold exalted place in public estimation4 ,his best-known works are 8,il ,trovatore10 8,la ,traviata10 8,rigoletto10 8,ballo in ,maschera10 8,ada10 8,otello10 and 8,falstaff10 the latter written in #ahic1 when the author had reached the age of eighty4 ,,sovereigns4--,william ,i41 ,king of ,prussia and ,emperor of ,germany1 was the epoch-maker of the #aith century for his realm4 ,he was son of ,frederick ,william ,,iii41 and born ,march #bb1 #agig4 ,in #ahdi he was made commander-in-chief of the ,prussian army4 ,he succeeded to the throne of ,prussia in #ahfa1 and immediately under the guidance of ,bismarck set about those measures which were to end in the unification of the ,german states4 ,these involved the war of #ahff with ,austria1 after which1 in #ahfg he became head of the powerful ,north ,german confederation1 comprising #bb states1 and a population of #bi1jjj1jjj4 ,then followed the successful war with ,france1 in #ahga1 which resulted in the complete realization of his idea of a united ,germany1 and on ,january #bh1 #ahga1 ,king ,william of ,prussia was proclaimed ,emperor of ,germany1 in the palace of the ,french kings1 at ,marseilles4 ,he died ,march #i1 #ahhh4 ,victor ,emmanuel4 ,at the birth of ,victor ,emmanuel in #ahbj1 ,italy was a segregation of states or provinces1 owned and played against one another by the chess-players of ,europe4 ,the policy of ambitious sovereigns to the north was to keep it divided and discordant4 ,victor ,emmanuel became king of ,sardinia at a time when ,austria's power was well-nigh supreme in the belligerent ,italian states4 ,his plea with ,austria that the ,sardinian constitution should be protected1 and its success1 aroused for him the confidence of the ,italian people1 and paved his way to the ,italian crown4 ,in #aheb he secured the services of the masterly ,count ,cavour1 the ,bismarck and ,gladstone of ,italy1 for his premier and guide4 ,through ,cavour's influence ,france united with ,sardinia against ,austria4 ,the war which followed and the peace of ,villafranca completed ,emmanuel's task1 and made him king of a united ,italy1 over which he reigned successfully for eight years1 dying on ,january #i1 #ahgh4 ,czar ,alexander ,,ii4 ,the epoch-maker of ,russia during the #aith century was ,alexander ,,ii41 born ,april #bi1 #ahah4 ,of the many important events of his reign1 which began in #ahee1 the most illustrious was the abolition of serfdom in his dominions1 which gave freedom to #bc1jjj1jjj subjects4 ,he was killed by anarchists in #ahha4 ,francis ,joseph4 ,this emperor of ,austria-,hungary was born ,august #ah1 #ahcj1 and succeeded to the throne of ,austria in #ahdh1 and of ,hungary in #ahfg4 ,though defeated in wars with ,france1 by which he lost ,italian provinces1 and with ,germany by which he lost ,schleswig-,holstein1 he managed through an unprecedently long reign1 in some part of which he was both emperor and legislature1 to hold together an empire composed of heterogeneous ,germans and ,slavs1 a task that would have proved impossible with a less wise and respected ruler4 ,he survived the century1 and the question also lived1 what of the empire after his death8 ,victoria1 ,queen and ,empress4 ,alexandrina ,victoria ,guelph1 whose reign was the longest in ,english annals1 and covered the epoch-making time of ,great ,britain during the nineteenth century1 was born in ,london1 ,may #bd1 #ahai4 ,she was the daughter of the ,duke of ,kent1 fourth son of ,george ,,iii4 ,she became next in succession to the throne on the death of her uncle1 ,king ,william ,,iv41 which occurred ,june #bj1 #ahcg4 ,her ancestry dated back to ,egbert1 ,a4 ,d4 #hbg4 ,to the wisdom of her mother she owed a well-ordered1 peaceful1 and happy childhood1 with a view to the possibility of the ,english throne4 ,special teachers were employed as her instructors1 and she became proficient in music and drawing1 as well as in the classic and modern languages4 ,she became equally proficient in the ,english constitution and general history4 ,in #ahca1 when1 at the age of twelve1 it was deemed necessary to acquaint her with the fact that she was heir presumptive to the throne1 the genealogical table of the royal family was placed in her book of history4 ,after a study of it1 she remarked that she was nearer the throne than she had thought1 and that the reasons for her course of mental training had become obvious4 ,about this time the young princess made her first appearance at court1 and ,parliament voted her an additional appropriation of #ej1jjj a year for her expenses4 ,but as a rule her mother made use of the fast vanishing possibility of the birth of other heirs who would take precedence of her1 to keep the child1 as long as propriety would permit1 out of the whirl of court life1 and to allow her education to proceed without interruption4 ,the consequence of this maternal discretion was that ,victoria came to the throne in excellent physical and mental health4 ,she attained her legal majority--eighteen years--on ,may #bd1 #ahcg1 and her birthday was celebrated throughout the country4 ,on ,june #bj1 #ahcg1 ,king ,william died childless4 ,it became the immediate duty of the ,archbishop of ,canterbury and ,lord ,conyngham to inform the young princess of her uncle's death and her own right of accession4 ,she held out her hand to the ,archbishop to be kissed1 and said1 8,i ask your prayers on my behalf40 ,a meeting of the privy council was called for eleven o'clock4 ,the princess was known to but few of the members1 and there was a universal desire to ascertain what manner of person she might be4 ,she appeared before this august body of a hundred leading nobles and statesmen with modest composure1 bowed to the lords1 took her seat1 and read her declaration4 ,the members of the council were then sworn to allegiance1 kneeling and kissing her hand4 ,the foreign ambassadors were then received one by one4 ,all were captivated by the easy dignity of their girl-queen4 ,her speech was generally remarked upon for its perfect elocution4 ,of her speech a few months after1 upon the dissolution of ,parliament1 ,charles ,sumner1 who heard it1 said1 8,i was astonished and delighted4 ,i think ,i never heard anything better read40 ,and of the same speech ,fanny ,kemble said3 8,i think it is impossible to hear a more excellent utterance than that of the ,queen's ,english by the ,english queen40 ,victoria promptly reformed her court1 which was sadly in need of correction1 and removed the royal residence to ,windsor ,castle4 ,public admiration for her ability and grace of manner grew into enthusiasm1 so that on the day of her coronation at ,westminster ,abbey1 ,june #bh1 #ahch1 the pageant was not only one of unsurpassed splendor1 but the populace were described as 8coronation mad40 ,this was the manifestation of a radically changed public sentiment as to royalty1 for the eclipse of monarchy under the four ,georges had long been accepted as a humiliating fact1 and respect for the throne had been well-nigh lost during ,william's reign4 ,altogether it was a bad time for a girlish queen to assume power2 yet her guiding hand was soon favorably and powerfully felt1 and it has been said by more than one good authority that her accession at that special crisis was the salvation of monarchy in ,great ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,victoria ,,in #ahdj4 7,after a painting by ,wm4 ,fowler47 ,her prime minister1 ,lord ,melbourne1 received at an early date a touch of her quality1 when1 after vainly urging her to sign a certain document1 he testily withdrew it with the remark that it was not of paramount importance4 8,sir10 replied the queen instantly1 8it is with me a matter of the most paramount importance whether or not ,i attach my signature to a document with which ,i am not thoroughly acquainted40 ,and on another occasion1 when her signature was asked to a document on the ground of 8expediency10 she replied1 8,i have been taught1 ,my ,lord1 to judge between what is right and what is wrong1 but expediency is a word ,i neither wish to hear nor to understand40 ,the beginning of her reign was coincident with the inauguration of transatlantic steam navigation4 ,in the second year of her reign the ,whig ministry1 at whose head stood ,lord ,melbourne1 lost its working majority in ,parliament4 ,the queen immediately summoned the ,tory leader1 ,duke of ,wellington1 to form a new government4 ,wellington suggested ,sir ,robert ,peel as better qualified for the task4 ,he accepted1 but when the queen found that the change would affect all the ladies of her ,bedchamber and household she repudiated ,peel1 and recommissioned ,melbourne4 ,for this she and her premier were taunted as being at the head of what was called the 8,bedchamber ,plot40 ,subsequently1 when ,peel succeeded ,melbourne1 the queen found in him and ,wellington warm friends and trusted advisers4 ,among the other notable events of this year 7#ahci7 of her reign1 were the formation of the ,anti-,corn ,law ,league1 and the occupation of ,cabul and ,aden by the ,british forces4 ,the queen's hand was sought in marriage by many kings1 dukes1 and princes of ,europe4 ,her choice fell upon her cousin1 ,prince ,albert of ,saxe-,coburg and ,gotha4 ,it was a love-match1 mingled with not a little diplomacy on the part of her aunt1 the ,duchess of ,gloucester1 and ,albert's uncle1 ,king ,leopold4 ,the wedding was celebrated with stately splendor at the ,chapel ,royal in ,st4 ,james's ,palace1 on ,february #aj1 #ahdj4 ,the marriage proved a happy one4 ,all that the most affectionate and unselfish wife could be1 she was to her husband4 ,and the ,prince ,consort not only returned her affection in full1 but became her faithful1 laborious1 vigilant1 discreet adviser and helper1 lifting from her shoulders the crushing load of state affairs1 and opening a new era in her life4 ,careful and well informed observers have ranked ,prince ,albert among the statesmen of his day1 and some have said that for the greater part of his twenty-one years of married life he was practically ,king of ,england4 ,on ,november #ba1 #ahdj1 their first child1 afterwards ,empress ,frederick of ,germany1 was born4 ,an economic triumph of the year was the introduction of cheap postage in ,england4 ,in #ahda ,sir ,robert ,peel succeeded ,lord ,melbourne as premier4 ,british arms greatly extended political and commercial influence in the ,orient by the taking of ,canton and ,amoy4 ,on ,november #i the ,prince of ,wales1 who1 ,january #bc1 #aija1 succeeded to his mother's throne1 was born4 ,in #ahdb two attempts were made to assassinate the queen4 ,it became the foreign policy of the government not to further complicate the ,indian question by pushing conquest in ,afghanistan1 so the ,british forces were withdrawn4 ,the commercial prestige of ,england was greatly advanced in the ,orient by the acquisition of ,hong ,kong as a port1 and the general opening of all the ,chinese ports to foreign trade4 ,this year also witnessed the permanent foothold of ,great ,britain in ,south ,africa1 by absorbing the ,boer republic of ,natal4 ,on ,april #be1 #ahdc1 ,princess ,alice was born4 ,british possessions in ,india were enlarged by the annexation of ,scinde4 ,the queen and her husband paid a friendly visit to ,louis ,philippe of ,france1 and received a return visit4 ,in #ahde ,mr4 ,gladstone became premier4 ,england and ,france joined in war against the ,argentine republic4 ,the year witnessed the outbreak of the formidable ,sikh rebellion4 ,in the following year1 #ahdf1 this rebellion was suppressed and the ,sikh territory was ceded to the ,east ,india ,company4 ,the aggravated question of the ,northwest boundary of the ,united ,states was settled by treaty4 ,the great famine in ,ireland1 and a somewhat indignant public sentiment in ,england1 conduced to the repeal of the ,corn-laws4 ,for several years the ,irish situation was serious1 famine and insurrection going hand in hand4 ,in #ahdh ,princess ,louise was born4 ,the ,sikh rebellion was renewed4 ,the ,boer territory in ,south ,africa was further trenched upon1 and the farmers trekt across the ,vaal ,river to establish the ,transvaal republic4 ,in #ahdi the queen paid her first visit to ,ireland1 the ,sikh rebellion was suppressed1 and the ,punjaub was annexed to ,british ,india4 #ahej witnessed the conclusion of the ,clayton-,bulwer treaty with the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahea the queen opened the great ,exposition in ,london4 ,in #aheb the first ,derby ministry came into power4 ,in #ahed ,great ,britain participated with ,france in the ,crimean ,war against ,russia4 ,for several years the vigorous foreign policy of the government led to serious complications4 ,in #ahfj the ,prince of ,wales visited ,america4 ,during the ,civil ,war in the ,united ,states1 the queen's sympathies were with the ,union cause1 and the very last public act of the ,prince ,consort was to sign in the name of the queen the paper which modified the demand of the ministry upon the ,united ,states with reference to seizure of the ,confederate envoys ,mason and ,slidell4 ,the paper in its unmodified form would have been equivalent to a declaration of war by ,england4 ,toward the end of #ahfa ,prince ,albert's strength began to fail1 and on ,december #ad he passed away4 ,his death was a severe blow to the queen and to the nation4 ,two years afterwards she wrote in a letter to ,dean ,stanley1 8,i can never be sufficiently thankful that ,i passed safely through those two years the two first years of her reign to my marriage4 ,then ,i was in a safe haven1 and there ,i remained for twenty years4 ,now1 that is over1 and ,i am again at sea1 always wishing to consult one who is not here1 groping by myself1 with a constant sense of desolation40 ,in #ahfc the ,prince of ,wales was married4 ,for several years the government had serious trouble with the ,fenian uprisings in ,ireland and ,america4 ,in #ahfg the ,dominion of ,canada was constituted4 #ahfh witnessed a cabinet change from ,derby to ,disraeli1 and from him to ,gladstone2 and the passage of a reform act for ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,in #ahgd ,disraeli succeeded ,gladstone as premier4 ,in #ahge ,great ,britain acquired control of the ,suez canal1 and in #ahgf the queen was proclaimed ,empress of ,india4 ,in #ahgi ,great ,britain was carrying on war in ,india against revolting tribes1 and in ,south ,africa against the ,zulus4 ,two years later 7#ahha7 she attacked the ,boers of the ,transvaal1 but met with defeat4 ,in #ahhe there was a further loss of military prestige by withdrawal from the ,soudan campaign4 ,in #ahhg the queen celebrated her semi-centennial jubilee1 and ten years later 7#ahig7 her diamond jubilee4 ,in #aijj she witnessed the consolidation of her ,australasian colonies1 and in #aija the establishment of the ,commonwealth of ,australia4 ,the closing years of her life were clouded by the attitude of her country in ,south ,africa1 and the losses of life and treasure entailed by the war with the ,boers4 ,it was said by many that her anxiety and grief over this situation hastened her death4 ,her last illness was brief and painless1 and her death took place at ,osborne1 ,isle of ,wight1 surrounded by her family1 at #f4ee ,p4,m4 on ,january #bb1 #aija1 in the eighty-second year of her age1 and sixty-fourth of her reign4 ,her death occasioned sincere mourning throughout the civilized world4 ,she was succeeded by her oldest son1 the ,prince of ,wales1 who ascended the throne on ,january #bc1 #aija1 and assumed the title of ,edward ,,vii4 ,the queen and ,prince ,consort were ever anxious as to the education of their children4 ,they were trained to industry and economy4 ,the daughters were taught accomplishments as well as sewing and cooking1 and were given to understand that they were not to marry without affection1 nor for mere money or reasons of state4 ,victoria was herself a careful manager in pecuniary affairs4 ,by thirty she had saved enough from her income to provide for the whole expense of her new place at ,osborne1 where she died1--about #a1jjj1jjj1--while for the ,prince she had already saved from the revenues of her ,cornwall estate1 #ejj1jjj4 ,the ,prince left her a valuable estate which at her death had come to be estimated at #be1jjj1jjj4 ,this1 added to her own judicious investments through the sixty-four years of her reign1 gave her rank as one of the wealthiest of sovereigns1 as well as of the world's persons4 ,already the 8,victorian era0 is being celebrated as the greatest period of progress that ,britain ever knew1 as the golden age of ,england4 ,and this with much propriety and truth1 for her reign teemed with instances of the exercise of power in the form of moral influence1 with results important and far reaching4 ,some of these instances showed statesmanship of a high order4 ,she never took sides in partisan politics1 nor antagonized the policy of her responsible ministers1 though often advising them and even at times correcting their serious mistakes1 never cheapening her advice by offering it in affairs of little moment1 always straightforward1 self-reliant1 vigilant for the rights of the people1 yet strenuous of law1 neither misled by flattery1 nor coerced by fear1 a hater of evil1 a maker of peace4 ,more than once1 in hours of crisis1 did she exercise a moral influence whose weight turned the course of events in both ,europe and ,america4 ,as an instance of this1 the modification of ,lord ,palmerston's action in the ,trent affair1 already mentioned1 may be referred to4 ,and when ,bismarck1 surprised at the rapid recovery of ,france from the effects of the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 had resolved on a second invasion and humiliation1 it was through ,victoria's intervention that the aged ,german emperor was influenced to refuse a renewal of hostilities4 ,if her reign pass into history as the 8,victorian ,era10 then it will truly have many interesting chapters1 some grandly inspiring1 others--for such there must be--widely open to the criticism and judgment of posterity4 ,it witnessed the greatest achievement in invention1 the greatest advancement in science and art1 and the most remarkable evolution in the relations of capital and labor that the world has ever seen4 ,no equal period of world-history has seen such unparalleled growth of a people1 and such unexampled expansion of national territory4 ,at the beginning of her reign the population of the ,empire was #abg1jjj1jjj4 ,at her death it embraced #aa1ccd1jjj square miles and #chd1jjj1jjj people4 ,the ,united ,kingdom itself grew from #af1jjj1jjj to #dj1jjj1jjj besides sending out its swarms of emigrants to people continents and isles4 ,commerce kept even pace with this advancement4 ,british ships sailed every sea4 ,england's flag was known in every port of the world4 ,during ,victoria's reign the foreign trade of ,great ,britain increased #dbj per cent4 ,the great cloud on the ,victorian era was ,england's wars1--the questionable ,crimean ,war of #ahec-ee2 the ,indian mutiny of #aheg1 which ran a frightful course of rapine and bloodshed2 the ,soudanese campaign2 the ,boer ,war in ,south ,africa4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained2 occurrences of inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed4 ,many of the original illustrations were grainy and faded4 ,in this e,book1 the graininess has been reduced1 when possible1 and the contrast has been increased1 when necessary4 ,text frequently uses either 8,de0 or 8de0 in people's names4 ,the ,list of ,illustrations had 8,christmas ,chimes0 and 8,whispers of ,love0 in the wrong sequence2 corrected here4 ,the ,list of ,illustrations omitted the portrait of ,queen ,victoria4 ,it has been added by the ,transcriber4 8,van't ,hoff0 is consistently printed that way in the original book1 and is shown that way here4 ,it should be 8,van 't ,hoff0 with a space4 ,there may be similar misprints of other names4 ,page #aji3 8growth--force0 may be a misprint for 8growth-force04 ,page #aib3 ,most of the illustration's handwriting on this page is illegible4 ,page #aii3 ,in the chemical formula 8,,ch#b01 the 8#b0 is subscripted4 ,page #djc3 8,bauken0 was printed that way2 probably refers to 8,bautzen40 ,page #ebg3 ,the illustrated examples of the letters of the alphabet in the 8,child's ,guide0 were not in alphabetic order1 and there was no example for 8,j04 ,in this e,book1 the text accompanying those examples is presented in alphabetic sequence4 ,page #gba3 8,marseilles0 was printed that way2 must be a misprint for 8,versailles40 ,the tables on pages #dde1 #dej1 and #dfg have been split in this version of the e,book to keep their widths within #gb characters4