,field ,book ( ,common ,rocks & ,m9]als ,= id5tify+ ! ,rocks & ,m9]als ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & int]pret+ _! ,orig9s & ,mean+s ,by ,fr$]ic ,brew/] ,loomis ,late ,pr(essor ( ,m9]alogy & ,geology 9 ,amh]/ ,college ,) #dg ,color$ ,specim5s & ov] #ajj o!r ,illu/rations f ,photographs by ,w4 ,e4 ,corb9 & draw+s by ! ,au?or ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons ,new ,york & ,london ,,field ,,book ,,( ,,common ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als ,copyright1 #aibc1 #aidh by ,fr$]ick ,brew/] ,loomis ,tw5ty-six? ,impression ,revis$ #aidh ,all rights res]v$4 ,?is book1 or p>ts !re(1 mu/ n be reproduc$ 9 any =m )\t p]mission4 ,made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica ,d$icat$ ,,to ,,my ,,"m ,,:o ,,enc\rag$ ,,me ,,:ile ,a ,,boy ,,to ,,ga!r ,,m9]als1 ,,rocks ,,& ,,fossils4 ,,preface ,ev]yone1 :o is al]t z he w&]s ab\t ?is _w1 wants to "k :at he is see+ & :at x is all ab\t4 ,"h & !re ) ! aid ( capable guides a few h be5 introduc$ into ! sph]e ( t wide & fasc9at+ k ( ,nature :i* has be5 s rapidly accumulat$ dur+ ?is & ! latt] "p ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,x is a full treasure h\se con/antly be+ enri*$1 b un=tunately ! few :o h be5 initiat$ h soon acquir$ a te*nical language & habit1 s t _! k & new acquisitions are communicat$ to b few4 ,! public at l>ge1 n hav+ ! language nor an int]pret] at h&1 has come almo/ at once to a b>ri] :i* few h ! "t or pati5ce to surm\nt4 ,latt]ly x has become cle> t ! l>ge/ progress _c be made if ! k ( any bran* ( ,sci5ce is conf9$ to a few only4 ,! mo/ rapid advances h be5 made :]e _m m5 are int]e/$ & en?usia/ic4 ,9 no sci5ce %\ld !re be a difficult b>ri] betwe5 ! amateur & ! pr(essional /ud5t4 ,all ,nature is equally op5 = ev]yone to /udy1 & !re %\ld nev] be creat$ ob/acles z by ! use ( t]m9ology n easily acquir$ by anyone4 ,( late ^! b>ri]s h be5 9 "p brok5 d[n & compet5t /ud5ts h writt5 guides :i* anyone c foll[1 & soon beg9 to "k ! plants1 trees1 birds1 insects1 etc4 ,s f> no "o has attempt$ to make ! /udy ( m9]als & rocks s direct & simple t ev]yone c get a />t4 ,mo/ books on m9]als1 & practically all ^? on rocks are writt5 = s*ool c\rses1 & to say ! lea/ *ill any en?usiasm :i* is naturally ar\s$ by ! f9d+ ( int]e/+ look+ rocks or m9]als4 ,! purpose ( ?is book is fir/ ( all to provide a means ( id5tify+ m9]als & rocks by su* me?ods z are practical )\t elaborate equipm5t or previ\s tra9+3 & second to sugge/ ! conditions "u :i* ! v>i\s m9]als & rocks 7 =m$1 s t1 at ! fir/ contact1 "o may get a conception ( ! ev5ts :i* h antec$$ ! m9]al or rock :i* has be5 f\nd4 ,= ?is purpose keys h be5 work$ out = det]m9+ ! rocks & m9]als by su* obvi\s features z color1 h>dness1 etc4 ,ea* m9]al or rock is introduc$ by a summ>y ( its *>act]s1 !n ! features by :i* x may be di/+ui%$ f any o!r simil> m9]al are giv51 aft] :i* its mode ( orig9 & its mean+s are consid]$4 ,= ^? int]e/$ 9 ! composition ( ! m9]als1 x is giv5 9 *emical symbols ) ea* m9]al4 ,mo/ classifications ( m9]als are bas$ on ! composition1 all ! sulphides1 c>bonates1 etc41 be+ gr\p$ toge!r1 b 9 ?is book1 because ! popul> int]e/ & comm]cial uses are prim>ily 9 ! metal pres5t1 ! m9]als are gr\p$ 9 ea* case ab\t ! *ief metal1 all ! m9]als ( iron be+ gr\p$ toge!r1 = in/ance4 ,a few m9]als & rocks :i* are n /rictly common h be5 includ$ su* z gems & meteorites2 ! gems because !y are ( int5se int]e/ to _! own]s & are (t5 simply p]fect examples ( a fairly common m9]al2 & su* =ms z meteorites because x is important t1 if "o %\ld run across "o1 x %\ld be recogniz$1 & s n lo/ to ! _w4 ,! book is freely illu/rat$1 ^? m9]als 9 :i* color is important = id5tification be+ illu/rat$ 9 colors1 & ^? :i* are black1 or 9 :i* ! color is n a det]m9+ factor1 are %[n 9 ei!r photographic or outl9e figures4 ,9 ! introductory *apt] !re are explanations ( ! t]ms us$ 9 describ+ m9]als1 & ( ! sy/ems 9 :i* !y are gr\p$4 ,a k ( ! sy/ems may n be a necessity1 b x is a great help 9 det]m9+ m9]als1 & is v important 9 und]/&+ :y ! individual m9]als take ! v>i$ =ms :i* are *>act]i/ic ( !m4 ,^! sy/ems w be bett] und]/ood aft] a few m9]als h be5 ga!r$ & exam9$4 ,x is hop$ ! book w help ^? :o h already "s k ( rocks & m9]als1 & especially t x w tempt _m to beg9 an acqua9tance ) ! rocks & m9]als :i* are all ab\t !m1 & are ! f\ndation on :i* our mat]ial progress is built4 ,rocks & m9]als h "s advantages ov] mo/ objects :i* are collect$ 9 t !y nei!r require special prep>ation be=e !y c be kept1 nor d !y det]iorate ) "t4 ,! au?or w appreciate corrections or sugge/ions z to bett] pres5tation ( ! mat]ial 9 ?is book4 ,f4 ,b4 ,l4 ,amh]/1 ,mass4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,preface vii ,,*apt] ,i4--,an ,introduction #c ,,ii4--,on ! ,=ms & ,prop]ties ( ,m9]als #aj ,,iii4--,! ,m9]als #be ,,iv4--,! ,rocks #agj ,v4--,miscellane\s ,rocks #bdh ,bibliography #bgj ,index #bgc ,,li/ ,,( ,,plates 7,,at ,,end ,,( ,,book7 ,,page ,t\rmal9e cry/als1 gr[+ amid feldsp> cry/als 9 a cavity 9 granite1 f ,p>is1 ,me4 #bgi ,plate #a4--;,basal =ms ( ! isometric sy/em #caa ,plate #b4--;,basal =ms ( ! tetragonal sy/em4 ,basal =ms ( ! or?orhombic sy/em #cab ,plate #c4--;,basal =ms ( ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,a cross section ( ! prism ) its edges bevel$ s t a six-sid$ prism is =m$ 7pseudo-hexagonal74 ,basal =m ( ! tricl9ic sy/em4 #cac ,plate #d4--;,basal =ms ( ! hexagonal sy/em #cad ,plate #e4--;,gold 9 qu>tz f ,cali=nia 79 color7 #bhj ,plate #f4--,native silv] 9 calcite4 ,arg5tite1 ! black masses ?r\gh\t ! :ite qu>tz 79 color7 #bha ,plate #g4--,pyr>gyrite z x appe>s aft] mod]ate exposure to ! light2 /reak at left4 ,cry/al =m ( pyr>gyrite4 ,pr\site z x appe>s aft] mod]ate exposure to ! light2 /reak at left 79 color7 #bhb ,plate #h4--,native copp] f ,mi*igan4 ,*alcopyrite 9 tetrah$rons & an occasional octah$ron2 /reak to ! left 79 color7 #bhc ,plate #i4--;,*alcocite cry/als ) ! blui% t>ni%4 ,tetrah$rite cry/als2 /reak to left 79 color7 #bhd ,plate #aj4--,tetrah$rons %[+ *>act]i/ic mann] 9 :i* tetrah$rite occurs4 ,a cube ) ! edges bevel$ & ! corn]s cut 9 a =m *>act]i/ic ( cuprite #cae ,plate #aa4--;,cuprite1 ! r$ cry/als %[+ *>act]i/ic color1 o!rs %[+ ! gre5 t>ni% ( mala*ite4 ,mala*ite 7gre57 & azurite 7blue71 ! two m9]als %[n toge!r z !y v commonly occur 79 color7 #bhe ,plate #ab4--,limonite4 ,! cry/al =m 9 :i* goe?ite is f\nd 79 color7 #bhf ,plate #ac4--;,hematite4 ,cl9ton iron ore1 oolitic4 ,sid]ite cry/als 79 color7 #bhg ,plate #ad4--;,cry/al =ms ( hematite4 ,a typical cry/al ( magnetite4 ,! rhomboh$ron typical ( sid]ite #cag ,plate #ae4--,pyrite cry/als4 ,m>casite 9 concretion>y =m ) radiate /ructure 79 color7 #bhh ,plate #af4--,! pyritoh$ron4 ,! pyritoh$ron ) c]ta9 ( its edges bevel$ by ! cube faces1 to %[ ! relation%ip ( ^! two =ms #cah ,plate #ag4--;,gal5a 9 cry/als4 ,pyromorphite cry/als 7,gre57 79 color7 #bhi ,plate #ah4--,typical =ms = c]rusite4 ,=ms 9 :i* anglesite occurs #cai ,plate #ai4--,sphal]ite1 "s ! normal yell[ & "s cry/als ) ! r$di% t+e4 7,:ite is dolomite47 ,z9cite1 /reak to ! left 79 color7 #bij ,plate #bj4--;,a *>act]i/ic =m 9 :i* sphal]ite may occur4 ,*>act]i/ic =m = z9cite cry/als4 ,typical =m ( cry/al ( willemite #cbj ,plate #ba4--,smi?sonite 9 yell[ cry/als4 ,frankl9ite 9 octah$ral cry/als1 /reak to left 79 color7 #bia ,plate #bb4--,moss agates1 %[+ ! d5dritic gr[? ( manganitic m9]als1 l manganite or pyrolusite4 ,cry/al =m ( manganite #cba ,plate #bc4--;,cry/als ( gre5 corundum 9 sy5ite1 f ,montana4 ,typical cry/al =ms ( corundum #cbb ,plate #bd4--;,ars5opyrite1 %[+ cry/als mass$ s z to be incompletely develop$4 ,realg> z x usually occurs 9 p[d]y incru/ations 79 color7 #bib ,plate #be4--,l>ge cry/als ( /ibnite2 ! light color$ face is ! "o p>allel to :i* cleavage occurs4 ,niccolite is a ve9 9 slate 79 color7 #bic ,plate #bf4--;,cobaltite1 silv] color1 ) p9k t+e4 ,smaltite1 p9k is cobalt bloom 79 color7 #bid ,plate #bg4--;,c>notite f ,s\?we/ ,colorado4 ,c9nab> 79 color7 #bie ,plate #bh4--;,cassit]ite1 tw9n$ cry/als4 ,! cry/al =m 9 :i* bo? cassit]ite & rutile occur :5 9 simple cry/als4 ,multiple tw9n+ *>act]i/ic ( rutile #cbc ,plate #bi4--;,cry/al ( sp9el4 ,cry/al =ms 9 :i* dolomite occurs #cbd ,plate #cj4--,two int]gr[+ or tw9n$ qu>tz cry/als4 ,diagram ( ! typical qu>tz cry/al4 ,a qu>tz cry/al on :i* ! left h& rhomboh$ron is repres5t$ by small faces1 :ile ! "r h& rhomboh$ron has l>ge faces #caf ,plate #ca4--;,ame?y/1 n h[ev] deep en\gh color$ = gems4 ,jasp]1 ) botryoidal surface 79 color7 #bif ,plate #cb4--;,b&$ agate f ,brazil 79 color7 #big ,plate #cc4--;,common opal f ,arizona4 ,silice\s s9t] or geys]ite f ,yell[/one ,p>k 79 color7 #bih ,plate #cd4--,or?oclase1 a cleavage piece4 ,cry/al =ms ( or?oclase4 ,diagram ( a multiple tw9 ( a plagioclase feldsp> #cbe ,plate #ce4--;,a gr\p ( microcl9e cry/als f ,pike's ,peak1 ,colo4 ,labradorite1 %[+ multiple tw9n+ 7! /riation7 & ! iridesc5t play ( colors 79 color7 #bii ,plate #cf4--;,cry/al =m ( a pyrox5e4 ,cross sections ( a pyrox5e cry/al %[+ ! l9es ( int]section ( two cleavage planes4 ,cross sections ( pyrox5es1 %[+ typical =ms tak5 by cry/als4 ,augite cry/als1 9 cry/all9e lime/one 79 color7 #cjj ,plate #cg4--;,diagrams ( amphibole cry/als4 ,tremolite 9 silky fibr\s cry/als1 asbe/os4 ,hornbl5de cry/als 9 qu>tzite #cbf ,plate #ch4--,! dodecah$ron & ! #bd-sid$ figure *>act]i/ic ( g>nets4 ,! g>net1 grossul>ite4 ,! g>net1 alam&ite 79 color7 #cja ,plate #ci4--;,b]yl ( gem quality4 ,zircon 9 sy5ite 79 color7 #cjb ,plate #dj4--;,cyanite cry/als 9 s*i/4 ,a cry/al ( mica1 %[+ basal cleavage 79 color7 #cjc ,plate #da4--;,cry/al =m typical ( topaz4 ,a topaz cry/al f ,brazil4 ,cry/al =m typical ( /aurolite :5 simple4 ,a typical tw9 ( /aurolite 79 color7 #cjd ,plate #db4--;,epidote cry/als4 ,typical =ms ( epidote cry/als4 ,typical =ms ( t\rmal9e #cbg ,plate #dc4--,s]p5t9e4 ,*lorite 79 color7 #cje ,plate #dd4--,! typical =m ( analcite4 ,a typical natrolite cry/al4 ,! typical cry/al =m ( /ilbite4 ,a %eaf-l bundle ( fibr\s cry/als1 typical ( /ilbite #cbi ,plate #de4--;,a gr\p ( calcite cry/als4 ,typical =ms ( calcite #ccj ,plate #df4--,typical =ms ( aragonite4 ,typical =m ( ! anhydrite cry/al #cca ,plate #dg4--;,a piece ( gypsum look+ on ! surface ( ! p]fect cleavage1 & %[+ ! two o!r cleavages z l9es1 int]sect+ at #ff4 ,tw9n+ is also %[n4 ,a simple cry/al ( gypsum4 ,tw9 cry/als ( gypsum4 #ccb ,plate #dh4--;,a gr\p ( b>ite cry/als4 ,outl9e ( ! typical tabul> b>ite cry/al4 ,! six-sid$ d\ble pyramid1 compos$ ( ?ree int]p5etrat+ cry/als1 typical ( )]ite & /rontianite #cbh ,plate #di4--;,apatite cry/als 9 cry/all9e calcite4 ,! ends ( apatite cry/als %[+ common modes ( t]m9ation 79 color7 #cjf ,plate #ej4--;,a gr\p ( fluorite cry/als4 ,a gr\p ( halite cry/als 79 color7 #cjg ,plate #ea4--,sulphur cry/als4 ,ice cry/als1 ! top "o1 ! end ( a hexagonal prism2 ! two l[] figures multiple tw9s z 9 sn[ flakes #ccc ,plate #eb4--,! ,devil's ,t[]1 ,wyom+1 an example ( igne\s rock ) column> /ructure1 & re/+ on s$im5t>y rocks #ccd ,c\rtesy ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,plate #ec4--;,a co>se granite4 ,graphic granite #cce ,plate #ed4--,sy5ite4 ,gabbro #ccf ,plate #ee4--;,basalt-porphyry4 ,! l>ge :ite cry/als are ph5ocry/s ( plagioclase feldsp>4 ,basalt-obsidian #ccg ,plate #ef4--;,amgydoloid #cch ,plate #eg4--,! nor? face ( ,scott's ,bluff1 ,neb41 %[+ s$im5t>y s&/ones above & clays bel[4 ,! type ( erosion is *>act]i/ic ( arid regions #cci ,c\rtesy ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,plate #eh4--;,breccia4 ,conglom]ate #cdj ,plate #ei4--;,calc>e\s %ale4 ,coqu9a #cda ,plate #fj4--;,=am5if]a f *alk2 enl>g$ ab\t #be diamet]s4 ,encr9al lime/one2 fragm5ts ( ! /ems1 arms & body ( cr9oids #cdb ,plate #fa4--;,amb]4 ,two bottles ( petroleum1 ! left h& "o ) a p>aff9 base1 ! "r h& "o ) an asphalt base 79 color7 #cjh ,plate #fb4--;,diatomace\s e>? magnifi$ #ej times4 ,two diatoms f ! above enl>g$ #bej times #cdc ,aft] ,gravelle1 by ! c\rtesy ( ,natural ,hi/ory ,plate #fc4--;,a metamorphic rock1 %[+ ! contortion ( lay]s due to expansion "u heat #cdd ,plate #fd4--;,a conglom]ate p>tly metamorphos$ to a gneiss4 ,a typical gneiss #cde ,plate #fe4--,mica s*i/1 ) g>nets4 ,*lorite s*i/ 79 color7 #cji ,plate #ff4--,phyllite4 ,a :ite m>ble1 ) black /reaks due to graphite #cdf ,plate #fg4--,s]p5t9e compos$ ( s]p5tite1 hematite1 & "s calcite 79 color7 #caj ,plate #fh4--;,clay/ones1 simple & comp\nd4 ,a lime concretion1 :i* on splitt+ disclos$ a f]n leaf ( ! age ( ! coal measures #cdg ,plate #fi4--;,a sept]ia f ,s5eca ,lake1 ,n4 ,y4 ,pisolite f ,nevada #cdh ,plate #gj4--;,a geode fill$ ) qu>tz cry/als #cdi ,plate #ga4--;,a qu>tz pebble f ! b$ ( a ,new ,engl& brook4 ,a pebble ( s*i/ & granite f ! foot ( ,mt4 ,toby1 ,mass4 #cej ,plate #gb4--;,an iron-nickel meteorite1 ( #bc lbs41 :i* fell 9 ,claiborne ,co41 ,t5n4 ,an et*$ slice ( an iron meteorite :i* fell 9 ,re$ ,city1 ,osceola1 ,co41 ,mi*4 #cea ,plate #gc4--;,a /one meteor1 ab\t natural size1 :i* fell 9 #ahge 9 ,i[a ,co41 ,i[a #ceb ,,field ,,book ,,( ,,common ,,rocks ,,& ,,m9]als ,,*apt] ,i ,,an ,,introduction ,:y ,:y %\ld "o be int]e/$ 9 rocks & m9]als8 ,because ! :ole _w is made ( rocks & m9]als4 ,!y are ! f\ndations on :i* we build4 ,f !m we draw all our metals1 & ! ext5t to :i* we utilize our m9]als is a measure ( ! advance ( our civilization4 ,fragm5ts ( rock are ! soil f :i*1 by way ( ! plants1 we draw our food1 & ultimately our life4 ,! rocks make wild or g5tle sc5]y1 "o at lea/ ( ! s\rces ( pleasure4 ,k ( rocks & m9]als is !n k ( fundam5tals1 ( ultimate s\rces4 ,betwe5 f9d+ ! raw mat]ials & _! pres5t uses !re are usually _m /eps 7s _m t we =get t ! beg9n+ & end are unit$71 z = in/ance 9 y\r wat*4 ,x is made ( gold1 brass1 /eel1 agate1 glass1 & p]haps has lum9\s radium pa9t on ! h&s4 ,x is a long way f f9d+ & m9+ gold1 *alcopyrite1 hematite1 c>notite1 etc41 ?r\gh ! raw mat]ials1 gold1 copp]1 iron1 etc41 to ! f9i%$ wat*1 b ! m9]als are ! f\ndations ( ! wat*2 & x took c5turies to f9d !m & le>n "o by "o h[ to use !m1 f ! gold #aj1jjj ye>s ago d[n to ! radium )9 ! la/ fifty ye>s4 ,!n too !re is joy 9 go+ out into ,nature's wild & raw places1 joy 9 be+ on ! f\ndations ( ! e>?1 joy 9 ! sc5]y1 9 ! beauty ( ! m9]als !mselves4 ,b :y collect ! rocks & m9]als8 ,fir/ because ?is is ! way to "k !m4 ,bo? m9]al & rocks require c>eful exam9ation 9 ord] to see all ^? f9e po9ts by :i* !y are di/+ui%$4 ,x is (t5 necess>y to comp>e "o ) ano!r to get 9 m9d ! diff]5ces ( =m1 color1 /reak1 ?\gh ) increas+ famili>ity ^! *>act]i/ics are recogniz$ at fir/ sight4 ,x is ! repeat$ exam9ation :i* makes a rock tell ! /ory ( ! c\ntry f :i* x came4 ,our fir/ attempts to read ! /ory give u only ! mo/ g5]al facts4 ,nature's book1 writt5 9 ! rocks1 has to be read closely1 (t5 betwe5 ! l9es4 ,until we are us$ to ! *>act]s 9 :i* ! words are writt51 we read sl[ly4 ,:5 !y look at ,nature's book1 always op51 mo/ p d n read2 = !y d n "k _! lett]s4 ,e m9]al is a lett]1 e rock a ^w1 & we le>n to read z we le>n ! m9]als & rocks1 & e "t we g ov] !m we get m facts com+ out4 ,! place :]e a rock or m9]al occurs is ( c\rse ! relation betwe5 !m1 & is involv$ 9 read+ ! /ory4 ,no "o today is a p]fect read]4 ,we are all le>n+ to see m 9 ! rocks day by day4 ,s x is important to h ! rocks & m9]als :]e !y c be h&l$ & repeat$ly exam9$1 :]e we c turn to !m 9 our leisure mom5ts4 ,don't /op :5 y h le>n$ ! "n ( a m9]al or rock4 ,y ne$ m4 ,see :at x means4 ,secondly1 m9]als h beauties ( =m1 color1 & /ructure1 & !y d n fade4 ,!y w be z p]fect 9 t5 ye>s z :5 f\nd4 ,we are all naturally cr[s1 & love to ga!r ! objects :i* int]e/ u4 ,x is n a bad habit1 & only ne$s direct+4 ,cultivate x4 ,h a hobby1 & m9]als & rocks are a good "o2 = !y are l treasures 9 ,heav5 :i* 8nei!r mo? nor ru/ do? corrupt40 ,n only w !y give y pleasure1 b !y w be a con/ructive education1 tra9+ ! eye to see1 & ! m9d to ?9k /raight4 ,no "o ev] regrett$ ! "t & ef=t sp5t 9 collect+ ei!r m9]als or rocks4 ,collect+ ,9 ord] to make a collection valuable two or ?ree rules mu/ be obs]v$4 ,9 ! case ( rocks1 collect l>ge en\gh samples s t !y w be *>act]i/ic1 & cle> 9 _! make-up4 ,! /&>d size = rocks is #c #d in*es on top & "o to two in*es ?ick accord+ to ! nature ( ! rock4 ,t9y fragm5ts d n give ! "* ( ! rock z well1 & !y are all ! "t gett+ into confusion4 ,e specim5 %\ld be label$1 ) at lea/ its "n & ! exact locality f :i* x came4 ,composition1 /ructural features1 associations1 & classification may be add$1 ! m ! bett]2 = ea* item adds to ! in=mation & int]e/ ( ! specim54 ,"o may make 8 own labels or h pr9t$ blanks1 & may put z mu* c>e & art into ! labels z desir$1 ! m ! bett]4 ,"o ?+ is v important & t is to h a numb] on ! label ) a correspond+ "o on ! specim51 s t 9 case !y %\ld get sep>at$1 !y may be readily br\ght toge!r1 ev5 by "o :o is n famili> ) ! individual specim5s4 ,la/ly1 give y\r collection z good a place z possible1 ei!r 9 draw]s1 boxes or 9 a case4 ,! specim5s are wor? be+ kept 9 ord] & :]e !y c be readily se5 & comp>$4 ,nature is sy/ematic1 & !re is a reason = ! ord] 9 :i* rocks & m9]als are tak5 up4 ,x is desirable ei!r t ?is ord]1 or "s "o ( ! ord]s ( ,nature appe> 9 ! collection4 ,9 ?is book ! metals are ! basis ( classification1 all ^? m9]als prim>ily relat$ to "o ( ! metals be+ gr\p$ toge!r4 ,9 collect+ m9]als1 ! size ( ! specim5s c n be s regul>ly foll[$1 b x %\ld be foll[$ :5 collect+ non-cry/all9e m9]als1 & :5 possible4 ,cry/als h[ev] are *os5 f a v>iety ( po9ts ( view1 z p]fection ( =m1 color1 examples ( cleavage1 tw9n+1 etc42 s t 9 _m cases small] or l>g] examples mu/ appe> 9 ! collection4 ,x is always desirable t z _m v>iations ( a rock or m9]al z possible %\ld appe> 9 ! collection1 & 9 _m cases examples ( ! matrix f :i* ! cry/als came4 ,:5 cry/als are t9y1 x is well to place !m 9 vials1 t !y may n be lo/4 ,:]e ,:]e %all we />t 9 mak+ a collection8 ,ne> home4 ,get ! local m9]als & rocks fir/1 & !n range z widely z possible4 ,! be/ places are b>e & expos$ rocks1 especially :]e fre% & un-wea!r$ surfaces are available4 ,qu>ries & :]e !re has be5 bla/+ along roads (f] f9e opportunities4 ,fissures & cavities 9 ! rocks are especially likely to h f9e cry/als1 & 9 all localities cont9u$ se>* w reveal a surpris+ numb] ( diff]5t m9]als4 ,! greate/ v>iety occur 9 metamorphic rocks1 or :]e igne\s rocks come 9 contact ) o!r rocks1 b ev5 ! s$im5t>y rocks h a goodly range ( m9]als4 ,all ?r\gh ! glaciat$ regions ( ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates lie scatt]$ b\ld]s br\ght f af>1 :i* w yield a surpris+ numb] ( m9]als & v>iety ( rocks4 ,equipm5t ,"o may />t ) a v simple equipm5t1 a geologi/'s or /one mason's hamm] :i* c be obta9$ at any h>dw>e /ore1 be+ suffici5t = field "w4 ,rocks %\ld be brok51 s z to %[ fre% surfaces & to get bel[ ! dis9tegrat+ effects ( wea!r+4 ,at home "o %\ld h a /reak plate 7a piece ( unglaz$ porcela971 a set ( h>dness m9]als 7see page #bj71 & a small bottle ea* ( hydro*loric & nitric acid4 ,a pocket l5s is useful 9 ord] to see m cle>ly ! =m ( small m9]als4 ,^! ?+s c be pur*as$ ( any ,naturali/'s ,supply ,co41 l ,w>d's ,natural ,sci5ce ,e/abli%m5t1 ,p4,o4 #bd1 ,bea*wood ,/a41 ,ro*e/]1 ,n4 ,y41 or ! ,kny-,s*e]] ,corp41 #dhc ,fir/ ,ave41 ,new ,york ,city4 ,success dep5ds ^u a quick eye1 & p]si/5t hunt+4 ,:5 travel+1 opportunities are (f]$ at frequ5t int]vals to see & get new specim5s4 ,/udy ,y\r ,collection ,be sure & see ! mean+ 9 ea* rock & m9]al4 ,! hi/ory ( ! c\ntry is reveal$ 9 its rocks & m9]als4 ,note :e!r ! rocks are horizontal or fold$1 :e!r !y *ange "* f place to place1 or v]tically4 ,9 go+ ov] a piece ( c\ntry y may locate an anci5t m\nta9 sy/em n[ level$1 by not+ a s]ies ( metamorphic rocks1 ) a c5tral core ( granite1 ! roots ( =m] m\nta9s4 ,don't be afraid to draw conclusions f :at y see4 ,lat]1 :5 ! opportunity (f]s1 look up ! region 9 ! geological folio1 bullet91 or map ( t section1 & *eck up y\r f9d+s4 ,^! geological folios & bullet9s1 ( :i* !re is "o = ne>ly e region1 are a great help to collectors 9 sugge/+ :]e to look = v>i\s rocks & m9]als4 ,write to ! ,director ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 = a catalogue ( ! publications ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,survey1 or f9d out f him :at are ! maps or folios = ! region 9 :i* y are int]e/$4 ,^! ,u4 ,s4 publications co/ b little4 ,:5 opportunity pres5ts itself1 visit o!r collections4 ,9 !m y w see "s ( ! m9]als or rocks :i* h puzzl$ y1 & !re is no?+ q s satisfactory z see+ ! rocks or m9]als !mselves4 ,no description c always be s conv9c+4 ,!n too y w get sugge/ions z to localities t y c visit4 ,lit]ature ,z y\r collection gr[s1 if y f9d y h special int]e/ 9 "o or ano!r bran* ( ! field1 y c get books giv+ m details 9 t l9e2 & at ! back ( ?is book w be f\nd a li/ ( su* books4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,on ,,! ,,=ms ,,& ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,m9]als ,rocks ,all we "k ( ! e>? by direct obs]vation is conf9$ to less ?an f\r miles dep?2 ?\gh by project+ d[nw>d ! lay]s ( rock t come to ! surface1 we may fairly assume a k ( ! /ructure d[n to six or eight miles dep?4 ,?is out] portion is (t5 ref]r$ to z ! 8cru/ ( ! e>?10 b ! idea t ! deep] portions are molt5 is no long] held4 ,?is out] portion is made ( rocks1 & a rock may be def9$ z1 a mass ( mat]ial1 loose or solid1 :i* makes up an integral "p ( ! e>?1 z granite1 lime/one1 or s&4 ,! rocks 7except glassy igne\s ones7 are aggregates ( "o or m m9]als2 ei!r 9 _! orig9al =m l ! qu>tz1 feldsp> & mica ( granite1 or 9 a second>y gr\p+1 result+ f ! units hav+ be5 dislodg$ f _! prim>y position & regr\p$ a second "t1 z 9 s&/one or clay4 ,m9]als ,s9ce ! rocks are aggregates ( m9]als1 x is be/ to take up ! m9]als fir/4 ,a m9]al may be def9$ z a natural inorganic sub/ance ( def9ite *emical composition4 ,x is usually solid1 g5]ally has cry/all9e /ructure1 & may or may n be b\nd$ by cry/al faces4 ,a cry/al is a m9]al1 b\nd$ by symmetrically gr\p$ faces1 :i* h def9ite relation%ips to a set ( imag9>y l9es call$ axes4 ,!re are betwe5 #aajj & #abjj m9]als1 ( :i* #cj are s frequ5tly pres5t1 & s dom9ant 9 mak+ up ! rocks1 t !y are t]m$ rock-=m+ m9]als4 ,ab\t #aej m occur frequ5tly en\gh s t !y c be t]m$ common m9]als1 & "o may expect to f9d a fairly l>ge proportion ( !m4 ,"s ( ^! are abundant 9 "o "p ( ! c\ntry & r>e 9 o!rs1 b ?is book is writt5 to cov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & s all ^? :i* h a fair abundance are includ$1 ?\gh "s w only be f\nd 9 ! we/ & o!rs mo/ly 9 ! ea/4 ,!n !re are "s m m9]als :i* are really r>e1 b :i* are *]i%$ because ( _! beauty ( color1 & are us$ z gems4 ,^! are m5tion$1 & _m ( ! gems are simply cle> & beautiful examples ( m9]als1 :i* 9 d>k or cl\dy =ms are mu* m common4 ,if "o f9ds any ( ^! r>e m9]als :i* are n m5tion$ 9 ?is book1 he mu/ turn to "o ( ! l>g] m9]alogies m5tion$ 9 ! lit]ature li/ to det]m9e !m4 ,cry/al ,/ructure ,a cry/al is a mass ( molecules1 all ( ! same composition4 ,a molecule 9 its turn is made up ( atoms1 & ea* atom is a unit mass ( an elem5t4 ,?us ! calcite molecule is made up ( "o unit or atom ( calcium1 "o ( c>bon1 & ?ree ( oxyg5 7,ca,c,o74 ,^! atoms are held toge!r by an attraction1 & make a molecule1 & = ! /udy ( m9]als ! molecule is ! unit4 ,! m9]al1 calcite1 is a mass ( molecules all l ! "o above1 & ea* molecule s small z to be invisible ev5 ) ! aid ( ! mo/ p[]ful microscope4 ,:5 calcite is 9 cry/al =m1 ! molecules1 l ranks ( soldi]s1 are arrang$ ea* 9 its place1 ea* at a def9ite di/ance f ! o!r4 ,:ile ea* molecule may vibrate or wiggle )9 c]ta9 limits x does n leave its place4 7,! comp>ison ) soldi]s is a good "o = ! molecules ( "o lay]1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 a cry/al !re are also l spac+s & ranks up & d[n z well47 ,z long z ! molecules rema9 9 fix$ ranks1 up & d[n1 =w>d & back1 & sideways1 ! cry/al is p]fect4 ,calcite may be heat$ until x melts & becomes liquid4 ,!n ! molecules leave _! def9ite arrangem5t & move ab\t 9 all sorts ( directions1 l ! soldi]s aft] ranks h brok54 ,s long z ! molecules are ?us free to move ab\t b keep toge!r1 ! sub/ance is a liquid4 ,!re are cases :5 ! molecules 9 ?is disord] take fix$ positions )\t fall+ into ranks4 ,su* m9]als are non-cry/all9e & usually appe> glassy4 ,if /ill great] heat is appli$ to ! m9]al 9 liquid =m1 a po9t is rea*$ 7! vapor po9t71 above :i* ! molecules g fly+ away f ea* 7l soldi]s 9 a panic71 ea* seek+ to get z f> f ! o!r z possible1 s only a conta9] w prev5t _! dissipation4 ,:5 9 ?is condition a m9]al is gase\s4 ,:5 cool$1 ! rev]se ord] obta9s4 ,! molecules ( gas ga!r into a miscellane\s mob or liquid3 & if ?is is fur!r cool$ 7b n too sudd5ly71 !y fall into ranks & make a cry/al4 ,?is may be illu/rat$ ) wat]4 ,:5 above #bab ,f4 x is /eam 7molecules wildly dissipat$72 :5 betwe5 #bab & #cb x is wat] 7molecules close to ea* o!r1 b mill+ l a h]d ( cattle72 & :5 bel[ #cb x is ice1 ! molecules rang$ 9 p]fect ord]1 rank on rank4 ,cry/al ,sy/ems ,) all ! possible =ms t cry/als c & d take1 !re are six sy/ems ( arrangem5t4 ,fir/ !re is ! case :]e ranks1 files1 & v]tical r[s are all equal1 & n[ to be sci5tific1 in/ead ( talk+ ab\t ranks1 files1 etc41 we use ! t]m axes to express ^! ideas2 ! files or arrangem5ts f front to back1 be+ call$ ! a axis1 ! ranks1 or side to side arrangem5t ! b axis1 & ! v]tical arrangem5t ! c axis4 7,see ,plate #a47 ,^! axes are imag9>y l9es1 b !y repres5t real =ces4 ,isometric sy/em ,:5 ! axes are all equal & at "r angles to ea* o!r1 a cry/al is said to be 9 ! isometric sy/em4 ,! cube is ! basal =m & ea* side is kn[n z a face4 ,! ends ( ! axes come to ! middle ( ! cube faces4 ,! ess5tial feature ( ?is sy/em is t :atev] happ5s to "o axis mu/ happ5 to all1 :i* is ano!r way ( say+ t all ! axes are equal4 ,if we ?9k ( ! cube z hav+ ! corn]s cut (f1 we w\ld h a new face on ea* ( ! eight corn]s1 9 addition to ! six cube faces4 ,!n if ea* ( ^! new faces 7 enl>g$ until !y met & oblit]at$ ! cube faces1 an eight-sid$ figure1 ! octah$ron1 w\ld result4 ,9 ?is ! axes w\ld ran to ! corn]s4 ,ano!r modification ( ! cube w\ld be to bevel ea* ( its twelve edges1 mak+ twelve new faces 9 addition to ! six cube faces4 ,if we ?9k ( ^! new faces be+ develop$ until !y meet & oblit]ate ! cube faces1 !re w result a twelve-sid$ figure1 ! dodecah$ron4 ,& ! #bd edges ( ! dodecah$ron c\ld be bevel$ to make a #bd-sid$ figure1 & s on4 ,( c\rse 9 ,nature ! corn]s are n cut1 nor ! edges bevel$1 b z a result ( ! int]action ( ! =ces express$ by ! axes & ! di/ribution ( ! molecules1 ! molecules arrange !mselves 9 a cube1 octah$ron1 dodecah$ron or comb9ation ( ^! basal =ms4 ,cry/al =mation ,cry/als are =m$ 9 liquids z !y cool or evaporate & c no long] hold ! m9]als 9 solution4 ,cry/als />t ab\t a c5t] or nucleus1 & molecule by molecule1 ! ord]ly arrangem5t is increas$ & ! cry/al gr[s1 !re be+ no size :i* is *>act]i/ic4 ,if free 9 ! liquid ! cry/al gr[s p]fectly on all sides1 b if cry/als are gr[+ side by side1 !re comes a "t :5 !y int]f]e ) ea* o!r4 ,!n ! free faces cont9ue to gr[ & ! ord]ly int]nal arrangem5t is ma9ta9$1 ?\gh ext]nally !re is int]f]5ce4 ,tetragonal sy/em ,9 ! second or tetragonal sy/em "o axis 7! c axis7 is diff]5t f ! o!r two1 b all ?ree are /ill at "r angles ) ea* o!r4 ,?is is say+ sci5tifically t ! l9es ( =ce are great] or less 9 "o direction ?an 9 ! o!r two1 b !y act at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! a & ! b axes are equal & any?+ t happ5s to "o ( ^! two mu/ happ5 to ! o!r1 b ne$ n happ5 to ! c axis4 ,?9k+ ( ! molecules t arrange !mselves "u ?is sy/em ( =ces1 x is cle> t ! simple/ =m w be a squ>e prism1 i4e41 front to back1 & f side to side ! numb]s ( molecules w be equal1 b up & d[n !re w be a great] or less] numb]4 ,if ! eight corn]s ( ?is prism 7 cut1 & ^! corn] faces increas$ 9 size until !y met1 ! result+ octah$ron w\ld be long] 7or %ort]7 f top to bottom ?an f side to side or front to back1 b ! measurem5t f front to back w\ld be equal to ! "o f side to side4 ,9 ?is sy/em we may h ! v]tical edges ( ! prism bevel$1 & n h to bevel ! horizontal ones1 or we may bevel ! horizontal edges & n ! v]tical ones4 ,!re is no dodecah$ron 9 ?is sy/em or 9 any o!r sy/em ?an ! isometric4 ,! =ms 9 ?is tetrah$ral sy/em are really a comb9ation ( ! f\r sides ( ! squ>e prism ) su* modifications z equally affect !m all1 ) two ends :i* may be flat1 or pyramidal1 or modifi$ pyramidal faces4 ,or?orhombic sy/em ,! ?ird sy/em has all ?ree axes unequal1 b all ?ree are /ill at "r angles ) ea* o!r4 ,?is is say+ t ! l9es ( =ce 9 ! cry/als are all at "r angles to ea* o!r b ( unequal value4 ,! faces 9 ?is case are all 9 pairs4 ,:at happ5s at "o end ( an axis mu/ happ5 at ! opposite end1 b does n ne$ to happ5 at ! ends ( any ( ! o!r axes4 ,we are deal+ ) pairs ( faces 7"o at ei!r end ( an axis71 & if ?ree su* pairs are comb9$ 9 ! simple/ mann]1 ! result+ figure w be a rectangul> prism4 ,if we cut ! eight corn]s ( ?is prism & enl>ge ! faces until !y meet1 ! result is an octah$ron1 9 :i* ! di/ance f top to bottom1 f side to side1 or f front to back is n ! same 9 any two cases4 7,see ,plate #b47 ,9 ?is sy/em if a face is made by bevel+ "o edge ( ! prism !re mu/ be a correspond+ face on ! edge diagonally opposite1 b !re does n h to be "o on any ( ! o!r edges4 ,h[ev] if a corn] is cut1 t face affects all ! axes & s all ! corn]s mu/ be cut4 ,a great _m cry/als occur 9 ?is sy/em1 & "s ( !m :i* are prismatic 9 %ape may give tr\ble1 = x is n uncommon = ! v]tical edges ( ! prism to be s bevel$1 t two ( ! orig9al prism faces are oblit]at$1 & ! two rema9+ faces add$ to ! f\r new faces make a six-sid$ prism1 :i* at fir/ glance seems to belong to ! hexagonal sy/em4 7,see ,plate #c1 fig4 #c47 ,close exam9ation h[ev] w %[ t1 in/ead ( all ! prism faces be+ alike1 z w\ld be necess>y = ! hexagonal sy/em1 !y are really 9 pairs1 & "o pair at lea/ w be di/+ui%$ 9 "s way1 su* z be+ /riat$1 pitt$1 or dull]4 ,monocl9ic sy/em ,! f\r? sy/em has all ! axes unequal1 ! a axis & ! b axis at "r angles to ea* o!r1 b ! c axis is incl9$ to ! a axis1 meet+ x at "s o!r ?an a "r angle4 ,! monocl9ic sy/em is l ! or?orhombic sy/em except t x leans1 or is askew1 9 "o direction4 ,! result is t ! faces at ! ends ( ! b axis are rhomboh$ral1 :ile ! o!rs are rectangul>4 ,z 9 ! =ego+ sy/em1 ! faces are 9 pairs at opposite ends ( ! axes2 & z 9 ! or?orhombic sy/em1 a face may occur on "o edge & only h to be repeat$ on ! edge diagonally opposite4 ,! simple/ =m 9 ?is sy/em w be made by comb9+ ! ?ree pairs ( faces at ! opposite ends ( ! axes1 :i* gives a prism1 :i* is rectangul> 9 cross section1 b leans backw>d 7or =w>d7 if plac$ on end4 ,z 9 all ! sy/ems1 if a corn] is cut1 all mu/ be cut2 & if ^! corn] faces are ext5d$ to meet ea* o!r1 an octah$ron results1 9 :i*1 z 9 ! prism1 no two axes are equal4 ,if ?is octah$ron is prop]ly ori5tat$ 7i4e4 ) ! a & b axes horizontal71 x w lean =w>d or backw>d4 ,_m m9]als belong to ?is sy/em2 &1 z 9 ! or?orhombic sy/em1 x is n uncommon to h ! v]tical edges s bevel$ t two ( ! prism faces are oblit]at$1 & ! rema9+ two prism faces ) ! f\r new faces make a six-sid$ prism1 :i* seems hexagonal4 7,see plate #c1 figure #c47 ,h[ev]1 su* a pseudo-hexagonal prism may be recogniz$ by at lea/ "o pair ( ! faces hav+ di/+ui%+ m>ks 7/ri1 pits1 or dullness71 in/ead ( all be+ j alike4 ,tricl9ic sy/em ,! fif? or tricl9ic sy/em has all ! axes unequal1 & no two ( !m int]sect at "r angles4 ,z 9 ! two prec$+ sy/ems ! faces occur 9 pairs at ! opposite ends ( ! axes4 ,?is is ! mo/ difficult sy/em 9 :i* to ori5tate a cry/al1 b =tunately only a few cry/als occur 9 ?is sy/em1 su* z ! feldsp>s4 ,hexagonal sy/em ,la/ly !re is a gr\p ( cry/als :i* h f\r axes1 "o v]tical1 & ?ree 9 ! horizontal plane :i* int]sect ea* o!r at angles ( #fj1 all ^! ?ree be+ equal to ea* o!r1 b diff]5t f ! v]tical axis4 ,! simple/ =m 9 ?is sy/em is ! six-sid$ prism4 ,if "o corn] ( ?is prism is cut all mu/ be1 & if ^! corn] faces are ext5d$ to meet ea* o!r1 a d\ble-six-sid$ pyramid results4 ,9 ?is sy/em if "o ( ! v]tical edges ( ! prism is bevel$1 all mu/ be1 b ! horizontal edges ne$ n be2 or ! horizontal edges may be bevel$ & ! v]tical ones n4 ,! ends z !y are relat$ to ! c axis may be develop$ indep5d5tly ( ! prism1 & s ! prism may be simply truncat$ by a flat end1 or h pyramids on ei!r end4 ,hemih$ral =ms ,9 ?is sy/em x is q common to h =ms :i* result f ! developm5t ( ea* alt]nate face ( ei!r ! prism or ! d\ble pyramid4 ,9 ! case ( ! prism1 if e alt]nate face is develop$ 7& ! o!rs omitt$7 a ?ree-sid$ prism results1 z 9 t\rmal9e4 ,9 ! case ( ! d\ble pyramid if ! ?ree alt]nate faces above are unit$ ) ! ?ree alt]nate faces bel[1 a six-sid$ figure is =m$1 :i* is kn[n z ! rhomboh$ron1 z all ! faces are rhomboh$ral 9 out-l9e & all equal4 ,^! =ms 9 :i* only half ! faces are develop$ are kn[n z hemih$ral =ms4 ,! same sort ( ?+ may happ5 9 ! isometric sy/em 9 ! case ( ! octah$ron1 & also 9 ! case ( ! octah$ron ( o!r sy/ems4 ,:5 half ! faces ( ! octah$ron are develop$1 two above unite ) two bel[ & make a f\r-sid$ figure1 kn[n z a tetrah$ron4 7,see plate #aj47 ,:ile tetrah$rons may occur 9 any ( ! fir/ five sy/ems !y are n common outside ! isometric sy/em4 ,tw9n+ ,ano!r modification ( ! simple =ms :i* w be met occasionally is tw9n+4 ,by ?is is meant two cry/als gr[+ toge!r z ?\gh plac$ side by side on "s "o ( ! faces1 & !n revolv$ until ! two axes :i* w\ld normally be p>allel are at "s def9ite angle ) ea* o!r1 #fj1 or #ahj :i* is common]4 ,! surface ( contact betwe5 ! two cry/als is call$ ! composition face1 & z no m mat]ial c be add$ on t face ! cry/als cont9ue to gr[ develop+ ! o!r faces1 & we f9d faces 9 contact ) ea* o!r :i* %\ld be at ! opposite end or o!r side ( ! cry/als4 ,?is contact ( faces :i* %\ld n come 9 contact1 & ! pres5ce ( re5trant angles are indications ( tw9n+4 ,9 "s m9]als ! tw9n+ may be repeat$ "t & aga91 & if ! tw9n+ is on "o ( ! end faces a bran*+ /ructure results1 z 9 fro/ & sn[ cry/als1 or ! multiple tw9n+ may be ( cry/als gr[+ side by side :5 ! f9al =m w approximate a s]ies ( ?9 %eets plac$ side by side z 9 "s feldsp>s4 ,! peculi> =ms *>act]i/ic ( individual m9]als are tak5 up "u ! respective m9]als4 ,o!r important prop]ties ( m9]als are h>dness1 cleavage1 specific gravity1 /reak1 lu/]1 & color4 ,h>dness ,h>dness may be def9$ z ! m9]al's resi/ance to abrasion or scrat*+4 ,x is measur$ by comp>+ a m9]al ) ,moh's scale1 a set ( t5 m9]als arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( increas+ h>dness1 z foll[s3 #a talc #b gypsum #c calcite #d fluorite #e apatite #f feldsp> #g qu>tz #h topaz #i corundum #aj diamond ,a set = measur+ h>dness may be pur*as$ f any deal] 9 m9]al supplies4 ,= r\gh det]m9ation1 z 9 ! field1 ! foll[+ objects h ! h>dness indicat$2 ! f+] nail #b1 a p5ny #c1 a knife blade ab\t #e4e1 & glass n ov] #f4 ,9 te/+1 a m9]al is h>d] ?an ! "o x w scrat*1 & s(t] ?an ! "o by :i* x is scrat*$4 ,= in/ance1 if a m9]al w scrat* calcite & is scrat*$ by fluorite1 x is betwe5 #c & #d 9 h>dness1 say #c4e4 ,:5 two samples mutually scrat* ea* o!r !y are ( equal h>dness4 ,c>e mu/ be us$ 9 det]m9+ h>dness1 especially ) ! h>d] m9]als2 = (t51 :5 te/+ a m9]al1 ! s(t] "o w leave a /reak ( p[d] on ! h>d] "o1 :i* is n a scrat*4 ,"o %\ld always rub ! m>k to make sure x is really a groove made by scrat*+4 ,cleavage ,cleavage is ! t5d5cy1 *>act]i/ic ( mo/ m9]als1 & due to ! arrangem5t ( _! molecules1 to cleave or break along def9ite planes4 ,! cleavage ( any m9]al is n irregul> or indef9ite1 b *>act]i/ic = ea* m9]al1 & always p>allel to possible or actual faces on ! cry/al1 & always s describ$4 ,= in/ance gal5a has ?ree cleavages1 all equally good1 & p>allel to ! cube faces2 s x is said to h cubic cleavage4 ,9 ! same way fluorite has octah$ral cleavage1 & calcite rhombic cleavage4 ,9 "s m9]als cleavage is well develop$ 9 "o plane1 & less develop$ 9 o!r planes1 or x may be lack+ altoge!r4 ,! v>y+ degrees ( p]fection by :i* a m9]al cleaves are express$ z1 p]fect or imp]fect1 di/9ct or indi/9ct1 good or poor1 etc4 ,specific gravity ,! specific gravity ( a m9]al is its weight comp>$ ) ! weight ( an equal volume ( wat]1 & is !re=e ! expression ( h[ _m times z heavy z wat] ! m9]al is4 ,= in/ance ! specific gravity ( pyrite is #e4a1 :i* is say+ x is #e4a times z heavy z wat]4 ,9 a pure m9]al ! specific gravity is con/ant1 & an important factor 9 mak+ f9al det]m9ations4 ,z ord9>ily obta9$1 a piece ( pure m9]al is weigh$ 9 air1 :i* value may be call$ x4 ,x is !n imm]s$ 9 wat] & aga9 weigh$1 & ?is value is call$ y4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weight 9 air & t 9 wat] is ! weight ( an equal volume ( wat]4 ,!n we h ! foll[+ =mula3 specific gravity 7x7_/7x-y74 ,v>i\s balances h be5 devis$ = mak+ ^! measurem5ts1 b any balance :i* w weigh small objects accurately1 may be adapt$ to specific gravity "w1 by hang+ a small pan "u ! regul> weigh+ pan4 ,:5 us+ ?is balance1 c>e is tak5 to see t ! l[] pan is always subm]g$ 9 wat]1 ev5 :ile ! m9]al is be+ weigh$ 9 air1 s t :5 weigh$ 9 wat] 9 ! l[] pan1 ! weight ( ?is l[] pan has already be5 consid]$4 ,/reak ,by /reak is meant ! color ( ! m9]al :5 p[d]$4 ,= "s m9]als1 especially metallic ores1 x is ( great importance1 = x rema9s con/ant1 ?\gh ! color ( ! surface ( ! m9]al *anges mat]ially4 ,x is mo/ readily det]m9$ by rubb+ a corn] ( ! m9]al on a piece ( unglaz$ porcela94 ,small plates1 kn[n z 8/reak plates0 are made = ?is purpose4 ,lu/] ,! lu/] ( a m9]al is ! appe>ance ( its surface by reflect$ light1 & x is an important aid 9 det]m9+ _m m9]als4 ,two types ( lu/] are recogniz$2 metallic1 ! lu/] ( metals1 mo/ sulphides & "s oxides1 all ( :i* are opaque on _! ?9 edges2 & non-metallic1 ! lu/] ( m9]als :i* are m or less transp>5t on _! ?9 edges1 & mo/ ( :i* are light color$4 ,! common non-metallic lu/]s are2 vitre\s1 ! lu/] ( glass2 res9\s1 ! appe>ance ( res92 greasy1 oily appe>ance2 pe>ly1 ! appe>ance ( "m-(-pe>l2 silky1 l silk due to ! fibr\s /ructure2 adamant9e1 brilliant l a diamond2 & dull1 z is *alk4 ,color ,:5 us$ ) caution color is ( ! utmo/ importance 9 det]m9+ m9]als1 especially 9 mak+ rapid det]m9ations4 ,9 metallic m9]als x is con/ant & dep5dable2 b 9 ! non-metallic m9]als x may v>y1 due to ! pres5ce ( small am\nts ( impurities :i* act z pigm5ts4 ,color dep5ds on *emical composition1 & :5 n influ5c$ by impurities is t]m$ natural2 b :5 ! color is due to "s inclos$ impurity x is t]m$ exotic4 ,9 ?is latt] case caution mu/ be us$ 9 mak+ det]m9ations4 ,_m m9]als are prim>ily colorless1 b take on exotic colors z a result ( ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( impurities2 = in/ance1 pure corundum is colorless1 b ) a trace ( iron oxide pres5t becomes r$1 & is call$ ! ruby1 or ) a trace ( cobalt becomes blue & is call$ sapphire4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,m9]als ,,key ,,to ,,! ,,m9]als1 ,,bas$ ,,on ,,h>dness1 ,,color1 ,,etc4 ,,opaque ,,colors ,color ,h>dness ,/reak ,rem>ks ,m9]al ,r$ sc>let #b4e sc>let surface t>ni%es pr\site black #b4e v]milion surface sc>let to c9nab> d>k r$ o*re #g :ite non-cry/all9e jasp] #f o*re r$ color r$ to hematite almo/ black rose #d :ite eff]vesces 9 rhodo*rosite w>m acid d>k #d orange z9cite #b4e purpli% r$ surface t>ni%es pyr>gyrite black br[ni% #c4e br[ni% r$ cuprite ,orange #c4e :ite to pyromorphite yell[i% #a-a orange realg> ,blue #e4e-f :ite 9 igne\s rocks sodalite azure #d azure azurite sky #g #d4e :ite blade-l cry/als cyanite turquoise #f blue non-cry/all9e turquois #b-d :ite *rysocolla ,gre5 mala*ite #c4e light] gre5 mala*ite olive #f4e-g :ite 9 igne\s rocks oliv9e #c4e :ite to yell[ pyromorphite #b :ite mica-l cleavage *lorite #a :ite greasy feel1 color talc light to d>k olive gre5 yell[i% #f4e :ite epidote #b4e-d :ite color yell[ gre5 s]p5t9e to olive ,yell[ gold5 #b4e %9+ non-cry/all9e gold brassy #f gre5i%-black usually cry/all9e pyrite #f gre5i%-gray color pale brassy m>casite yell[1 usually non-cry/all9e #e4e gre5i%-black colors nitric acid mill]ite gre5 #d gre5i%-black color gold5 *alcopyrite simil> to gold #c4e d>k br[n purpli% t>ni% tetrah$rite on surface bronze #e4e pale color ) copp]y niccolite br[ni%-black ca/ #d d>k gray-black ) spe$y black pyrrhotite t>ni% #c gray-black br[ni% ) bornite blui% t>ni% #b4e %9+ copp]y r$ color copp] sulphur #c4e :ite to compact masses pyromorphite yell[i% #b yell[ sulphur #a-c e>?y masses c>notite ,br[n violet #a %9+ t>ni%es black c]>gyrite yell[i% #g4e :ite #d-sid$ prisms zircon #f4e gray cassit]ite #e4e o*re yell[ compact to e>?y limonite masses #e br[ni%-yell[ goe?ite #d4e black wolframite #c4e yell[i%-br[n sphal]ite #c4e :ite sid]ite grayi% #g4e :ite (t5 tw9n$ /aurolite #f4e pale br[n rutile #c4e :ite to e>?y masses pyromorphite yell[i% r$di% #g :ite dodecah$rons g>net trapezoh$rons ,black #f4e gray cassit]ite #f r$di%-br[n frankl9ite #f black magnetic magnetite #e4e d>k br[n *romite #e4e black yell[ precipitate wolframite 9 sulphuric acid #e-f black non-magnetic ilm5ite #e-f br[ni%-black compact masses psilomelane #e br[ni%-yell[ surface (t5 goe?ite br[ni% #c4e d>k br[n tetrah$rons tetrah$rite #b4e silv]y fre% surfaces silv] silv] color #b4e sc>let fre% surfaces pr\site bright r$ #b4e purpli% r$ fre% surfaces r$ pyr>gyrite #b black e>?y masses pyrolusite #a /eel gray greasy feel graphite ,metallic #b4e black t>ni%es black1 *alcocite ,gray blui%1 or gre5 #b4e lead gray sectile arg5tite #b4e lead gray cubic cleavage gal5a #b lead gray long prismatic /ibnite cry/als #a4e blui% gray 9 scales molybd5ite /eel #e4e gray black rose color 9 smaltite nitric acid #d4e /eel gray v heavy plat9um #d r$di% black (t5 9 /riat$ manganite prisms #a gray ) greasy feel graphite silv]y #e4e black ars5opyrite #b4e silv]y t>ni%es black on silv] exposure r$di% #e4e gray black rose color 9 cobaltite nitric acid pe>ly #a-a %9+ expos$ surfaces c]>gyrite violet br[n ,:ite1 ) #d :ite porcela9\s magnesite impurities masses1 eff]vesces 9 acid grayi% #b :ite e>?y masses1 kaol9ite or greasy feel yell[i% #a-c :ite e>?y masses bauxite #a :ite greasy feel1 talc fibr\s or scaly ,,transp>5t ,,or ,,transluc5t ,,colors ,color ,h>dness ,rem>ks ,m9]al ,colorless or ) fa9t t+es ( color due to impurities #aj 9 octah$rons diamond #i 9 hexagonal prisms corundum #h 9 hexagonal prisms topaz #g 9 ?ree-sid$ prisms t\rmal9e #g 9 hexagonal prisms qu>tz #g non-cry/all9e *alc$ony #g or #d4e cubes ) bevel$ edges boracite #f non-cry/all9e1 pe>ly lu/] opal #e4e rhomboh$rons willemite #e4e trapezoh$rons analcite #e4e tufts ( ne$le-l cry/als natrolite #e4e %eaf-l bundles ( cry/als /ilbite #e hexagonal prisms ) basal cleavage apatite #e eff]vesces 9 acid smi?sonite #e becomes jelly-l 9 acid calam9e #d4e monocl9ic prisms colemanite #d 9 cubes fluorite #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid1 b "o cleavage aragonite #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid1 heavy c]rusite #c eff]vesces 9 acid1 rhomboidal calcite cleavage #c no eff]vesc5ce1 b soluble 9 anglesite nitric acid #b4e 9 cubes ta/es ( salt halite #b soluble 9 wat]1 sweeti% ta/e borax #b #a p]fect cleavage1 & two imp]fect gypsum cleaves at #ff ) ea* o!r ,:ite or ) fa9t t+es ( color due to impurities1 su* z p9k1 blui%1 etc4 #g hexagonal prisms qu>tz #g non-cry/all9e *alc$ony #g or #d4e cubes ) bevel$ edges boracite #f non-cry/all9e1 pe>ly lu/] opal #f cleavage 9 #c directions1 good 9 #b feldsp> & imp]fect 9 ! o!r #e4e %ort eight-sid$ prisms pyrox5e #e4e long six-sid$ prisms amphibole #e4e trapezoh$rons analcite #e4e tufts ( ne$le-l cry/als natrolite #e4e %eaf-l bundles ( cry/als /ilbite #e4e rhomboh$rons willemite #e eff]vesces 9 acid smi?sonite #e becomes jelly-l 9 acid calam9e #d4e #g cubes ) bevel$ edges boracite #d4e monocl9ic prisms colemanite #d eff]vesces 9 acid1 porcela9\s magnesite #c4e-d eff]vesces 9 acid1 heavy1 r$ color /rontianite 9 flame #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid1 heavy1 gre5 )]ite color 9 flame #c4e eff]vesces 9 w>m acid1 rhomboidal dolomite cleavage #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid1 cleavage 9 "o aragonite direction only #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid1 heavy1 does n c]rusite color flame #c-c4e no eff]vesc5ce1 cleavage 9 ?ree anhydrite directions at "r angles #c eff]vesces 9 acid1 rhomboidal calcite cleavage #c tabul> cry/als1 heavy1 gre5 color b>ite 9 flame #b-c cleaves 9 ?9 ela/ic %eets mica #b4e cleaves 9 cubes cryolite #b4e cubes1 soluble 9 wat]1 salty ta/e halite #b #a p]fect cleavage1 & #b less p]fect gypsum ones #b cleaves 9 ?9 non-ela/ic %eets *lorite #b soluble 9 wat]1 ta/es sweet borax #a greasy feel talc ,gre5 #i hexagonal prisms ori5tal em]ald #h octah$rons sp9el #g4e hexagonal prisms b]yl #g ?ree-sid$ prisms t\rmal9e #g dodecah$rons or trapezoh$rons g>net #g non-cry/all9e prase or plasma #f4e-g non-cry/all9e1 olive color oliv9e #f4e yell[ gre5 color1 r opaque epidote #f non-cry/all9e1 pe>ly lu/] opal #e4e %ort eight-sid$ prisms pyrox5e #e4e long six-sid$ prisms amphibole #e hexagonal prisms apatite #d cubes fluorite #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid c]rusite #b4e-d some:at greasy feel1 massive or s]p5t9e fibr\s #b 9 mica-l scales1 non-ela/ic *lorite #a greasy feel1 fibr\s or scaly talc ,r$ #i hexagonal prisms ruby #h octah$rons sp9el #g ?ree-sid$ prisms t\rmal9e #g dodecah$rons or trapezoh$rons g>net #g hexagonal rose qu>tz #g non-cry/all9e jasp] or c>nelian #f pe>ly lu/] fire opal #d cubes1 rose t9ts fluorite #b-c p9k mica-l scales lepidolite ,blue #i hexagonal prisms sapphire #g #d4e blade-l cry/als cyanite #f non-cry/all9e masses turquois #e4e-f 9 igne\s rocks sodalite #d azure color azurite #c4e eff]vesces 9 acid1 heavy c]rusite #b-d e>?y masses1 turquoise color *rysocolla ,violet #g hexagonal prisms ame?y/ #d cubes fluorite ,yell[ #i hexagonal prisms ori5tal topaz #h octah$rons sp9el #h hexagonal prisms topaz #d cubes fluorite ,br[n #i hexagonal prisms corundum #h octah$rons sp9el #g4e f\r-sid$ prisms zircon #g hexagonal prisms smoky qu>tz #g ?ree-sid$ prisms t\rmal9e #g non-cry/all9e fl9t #f non-cry/all9e opal #e4e %ort eight-sid$ prisms pyrox5e #e4e long six-sid$ prisms amphibole #b-c cleaves into ?9 %eets mica ,black #i hexagonal prisms corundum #h octah$rons sp9el #g ?ree-sid$ prisms t\rmal9e #e4e %ort eight-sid$ prisms pyrox5e #e4e long six-sid$ prisms amphibole #b-c cleaves 9 ?9 %eets mica ,! ,gold ,gr\p ,gold 0 und\bt$ly ! fir/ metal to be us$ by primitive man2 =1 occurr+ z x did 9 ! /ream b$s1 its bright color quickly attract$ ! eye1 & x 0 s s(t1 t x 0 easily work$ into v>i\s %apes1 :i*1 because !y did n t>ni%1 became p]man5t ornam5ts4 ,! metal is associat$ ) ! v e>lie/ civilizations1 be+ f\nd 9 su* anci5t tombs z ^? at ,k]ts* 9 ,crimea & 9 nor!rn ,africa & ,asia ,m9or4 ,x 0 us$ 9 ! cloisonn "w ( ,egypt #cjjj ye>s ,b4,c4 ,9 ,am]ica ! ,indians1 especially to ! s\?1 7 us+ x long be=e ! cont95t 0 discov]$4 ,( all ! metals gold is ! mo/ malleable1 & its ductility is rem>kable1 = a piece ( a gra9's weight 7less ?an ! size ( a p9 head7 c be drawn out into a wire #ejj feet long2 & x c be beat5 into a ?9 leaf z ?9 z _/ ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 & ?us a bit1 weigh+ only a gra91 c ?us be spread ov] #ef squ>e in*es4 ,x =ms v few comp\nds1 b has a consid]able t5d5cy to make alloys 7i4e41 mixtures ) o!r metals )\t ! result+ comp\nd los+ its metallic "*74 ,9 ,nature gold is nev] entirely pure1 b is an alloy1 usually ) silv]1 !re be+ f a fraction ( #a up to #cj ( ! silv] ) ! gold1 ! m silv] 9 ! alloy1 ! pal] ! color ( ! gold4 ,au/ralian gold is ! pure/1 hav+ b ab\t 4#c ( silv] 9 x1 :ile ,cali=nian gold has ar\nd #aj & ,hung>ian gold runs z high z #cj ( silv]4 ,ano!r alloy fairly abundant 9 ,nature is t ) tellurium1 su* z calav]ite 7,au,te7 :i* is a pale brassy yell[1 simil> to pyrite1 b ) ! h>dness ( b #b4e4 ,ano!r comb9ation includes gold1 silv] & tellurium1 sylvanite1 7,au,ag,te7 a silv]y :ite m9]al ) a h>dness ( b #b4 ,su* comb9ations are kn[n z tellurides & ! calav]ite is m9$ z a s\rce ( gold at ,cripple ,creek1 ,colo41 :ile ! sylvanite is "o ( ! important ores ( gold 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,occasionally gold is also f\nd alloy$ ) plat9um1 copp]1 iron1 etc4 ,jewel]s make sev]al alloys1 8r$ gold0 be+ #c p>ts gold & #a ( copp]1 8gre5 gold0 be+ ! same proportions ( gold & silv]1 & 8blue gold0 be+ ! comb9ation ( gold & iron4 ,our gold co9s are alloys1 n9e p>ts gold & "o ( copp]1 to give !m great] durability4 ,mo/ ( ! gold recov]$ f nature is f\nd native1 i4e41 ! pure metal1 or ) "s alloy4 ,gold ,au ,pl4 #e ,usually non-cry/all9e1 b occasionally %[+ cube or octah$ral faces ( ! isometric sy/em2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #ai4c2 color gold5 yell[2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,gold is mo/ly f\nd z ! metal & is readily recogniz$ by its color1 consid]able weight1 h>dness1 malleability1 & ! fact t x does n t>ni%4 ,x usually occurs 9 qu>tz ve9s 9 f9e to ?ick ?reads1 scales or gra9s1 & occasionally 9 l>g] masses t]m$ 8nuggets40 ,x is insoluble 9 mo/ liquids s t :5 wea!r$ f its orig9al sites1 x 0 (t5 wa%$ d[n into /ream b$s1 to be f\nd lat] 9 ! s&s or gravels1 or ev5 9 ! sea bea*es4 ,:5 ?us f\nd x is t]m$ 8plac] gold10 & its recov]y is plac] m9+4 ,mo/ ( ! orig9al discov]ies ( gold h be5 9 ^! plac] deposits2 & f !m x has be5 trac$ back to ! l$ges f :i* x orig9ally wea!r$4 ,9 ! plac] deposits ! size ( ! p>ticles v>ies f f9e 8du/0 up to l>ge nuggets1 ! l>ge/ f\nd 9 ,cali=nia weigh+ #afa p\nds2 b ! l>ge/ "o f\nd 9 ! _w 0 ! 8,welcome ,nugget10 f\nd 9 ,au/ralia1 & weigh+ #bdh p\nds4 ,:5 gold 0 discov]$ 9 ,cali=nia 9 #ahdh1 ?is became ! *ief s\rce = ! _w1 b lat] ?is di/9ction w5t to ,au/ralia1 & n[ belongs to ,s\? ,africa1 :i* today yields ov] half ! annual supply4 ,! ultimate s\rce ( gold is f ! light] color$ igne\s rocks1 l granites1 sy5ites1 & diorites1 ?r\gh\t :i* x is diffus$ 9 quantities too small to be ei!r visible or wor? :ile to extract4 ,x becomes available only :5 x has be5 dissolv$ out by p]colat+ wat]s & segregat$ 9 fissures or ve9s1 ei!r 9 or lead+ f ^! igne\s rocks4 ,g5]ally ?is transf] ( gold has tak5 place :5 ! rocks 7 at high temp]atures1 & by ! aid ( wat] 7& p]haps o!r solv5ts7 :i* 0 also at high temp]atures4 ,! pres5ce ( gold 9 s&/ones1 lime/ones1 etc41 is second>y1 z is also its pres5ce 9 sea wat]1 9 :i* !re is report$ to be ne>ly a gra9 7ab\t five c5ts wor?7 9 e ton ( wat]4 ,beside ! direct recov]y ( gold f gold m9+1 a great deal is obta9$ f its association ) iron1 copp]1 silv]1 lead & z9c sulphides1 9 :i* x is includ$ 9 p>ticles too f9e to be visible1 b 9 quantities l>ge en\gh to be sep>at$ f ! o!r metals aft] !y are smelt$4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates gold is f\nd 9 ! ,cordill]an region f ,cali=nia to ,alaska1 9 ,colorado1 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 ,utah1 ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota1 & 9 small quantities 9 ! metamorphos$ slates ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,georgia1 & 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,! ,silv] ,gr\p ,?\gh mu* common] ?an gold1 silv] did n attract ! eye ( man z e>ly1 probably because x t>ni%es :5 expos$ to air or any o!r ag5t hav+ sulphur comp\nds 9 x1 & a black film ( silv] sulphide cov]s ! surface4 ,its fir/ use 0 = ornam5ts1 & "s ( ^! f\nd 9 ! ru9s ( anci5t ,troy indicate its use z e>ly z #bejj ,b4,c4 ,a ?\s& ye>s lat] x 0 be+ us$ to make bas9s1 vases & o!r vessels4 ,silv] is next to gold 9 malleability & ductility1 s t a gra9 ( silv] c be drawn out into a wire #djj feet long1 or beat5 into leaves _/ ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,z a conductor ( electricity x is unsurpass$1 be+ rat$ at #ajj :ile copp] rates #ic4 ,silv] is also l gold 9 ! fre$om ) :i* x alloys ) o!r metals1 su* z gold1 copp]1 iron1 plat9um1 etc4 ,all our silv] co9s1 tablew>e1 etc41 h "s copp] alloy$ ) ! silv] to give x great] h>dness & durability4 ,unlike gold1 silv] freely ent]s into comp\nds ) ! non-metals1 :i* is ! reason t x is n f\nd prim>ily 9 its native /ate1 b usually z a sulphide4 ,its ultimate s\rce is 9 ! igne\s rocks1 few granites or lavas1 on analysis1 fail+ to %[ at lea/ traces ( silv]4 ,be=e x is available z an ore1 or m9]al1 x has be5 dissolv$ f ! orig9al magma1 & segregat$ 9 fissures or ve9s1 along ) su* m9]als1 z qu>tz1 fluorite1 calcite1 etc4 ,?is seems to h tak5 place :ile ! igne\s rocks 7 /ill hot1 & by ! ag5cy ( vapors & liquids :i* 7 also hot4 ,! pres5ce ( silv] 9 s$im5t>y & metamorphic rocks1 or ev5 9 sea wat]1 is second>y4 ,! prim>y deposition ( silv] is usually 9 ! =m ( sulphides1 ! common] ( :i* are1 arg5tite or silv] sulphide1 pyr>gyrite or silv] & antimony sulphide1 & pr\site1 or silv] & ars5ic sulphide4 ,its occurr5ce z native silv]1 or ! *loride1 c]>gyrite1 is second>y & due to ! reactions :i* h tak5 place :5 sulphide deposits h be5 subject$ to wea!r+ ag5ts4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ab\t #be ( ! _w's supply1 ,mexico "s #ce4 ,x is especially f\nd along ! ,cordill]an ranges ( bo? ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,silv] ,ag ,pl4 #f ,usually non-cry/all9e1 b occasionally %[+ cube or octah$ron faces ( ! isometric sy/em2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #aj4e2 color silv]y :ite2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,:5 f\nd 9 its native /ate silv] is usually 9 wirey1 flakey1 or mossy masses2 b sometimes masses ( consid]able size occur1 ! mo/ fam\s be+ an #hjj p\nd nugget f\nd 9 ,p]u1 & ano!r ( #ejj p\nds weight f\nd at ,konsb]g1 ,norway1 & n[ pres]v$ 9 ,cop5hag54 ,:5 expos$ to ! air ! surface soon t>ni%es & takes on a black color :i* mu/ be scrap$ (f to see ! real color4 ,l gold1 silv] is usually f\nd associat$ ) o!r metals1 l iron1 copp]1 lead & z9c2 & mu* ( ! silv] recov]$ is obta9$ 9 connection ) ! m9+1 especially ( copp] & lead4 ,"s lead ores h s mu* silv] 9 !m t !y are bett] wor? m9+ = ! silv]2 gal5a1 = in/ance1 "u su* circum/ances be+ t]m$ arg5tif]\s gal5a4 ,native silv] is a second>y m9]al1 hav+ be5 =m$ by ! r$uction ( "s "o ( its sulphides by wat]1 c>ry+ v>i\s elem5ts :i* _h a great] aff9ity = ! sulphur4 ,silv] is f\nd along ) copp] 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 & 9 ,idaho1 ,nevada1 & ,cali=nia4 ,arg5tite ,ag,s ,pl4 #f silv] glance ,usually 9 irregul> masses1 b sometimes 9 cubes2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #g4c2 color & /reak lead gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,arg5tite1 ! simple sulphide ( silv]1 is ! *ief s\rce f :i* silv] is obta9$4 ,x looks l gal5a1 & has ! same h>dness1 /reak & specific gravity1 b c be di/+ui%$ by ! gal5a hav+ a v p]fect cubic cleavage :ile ! arg5tite has no cleavage4 ,arg5tite is easily cut ) a knife 7sectile74 ,x is usually f\nd 9 irregul> masses1 b sometimes 9 cubes :i* make v *oice cab9et specim5s2 & is associat$ ) su* o!r m9]als z gal5a1 sphal]ite1 *alcopyrite1 pyrite1 fluorite1 qu>tz1 & calcite4 ,x occurs 9 fissures & ve9s all ?r\gh ! ,cordill]an regions1 especially 9 ,cali=nia1 ,colorado1 ,nevada 7,com/ock ,lode71 ,arizona 7,silv] ,k+ ,m9e7 & ab\t ! %ores ( ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,pyr>gyrite ,ag,sb,s ,pl4 #g ruby silv] or d>k r$ silv] ,usually occurs 9 irregul> masses2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #e4h2 color d>k r$ to black2 /reak purpli% r$2 lu/] metallic to adamant9e2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,pyr>gyrite1 ! sulphide ( silv] & antimony1 is di/+ui%$ by its d>k r$ color & ! purpli% /reak4 ,x may look l pr\site1 b is easily di/+ui%$ f ! latt] :i* has a sc>let /reak4 ,x also at times looks l hematite & c9nab>1 b ! hematite has a h>dness ( #f1 & ! latt] has ! bright r$ color ?r\gh\t1 :ile pyr>gyrite turns black :5 expos$ to ! light1 s t ! *>act]i/ic r$ color w be se5 only on fre% surfaces4 ,! *>act]i/ic r$ color c only be kept on ! m9]al if x is con/antly protect$ f ! light4 ,sometimes pyr>gyrite occurs 9 cry/als & ^! belong to ! hexagonal sy/em1 & are prisms ) l[ faces on ! ends1 z on plate #g1 & ! m9]al is peculi> 9 t ! faces on ! opposite ends are unlike4 ,pyr>gyrite is f\nd mo/ly 9 fissures & ve9s ( qu>tz1 fluorite1 calcite1 etc41 & associat$ ) pyrite1 *alcopyrite1 gal5a1 etc4 ,x is fairly common 9 ,colorado 9 ,gunnison & ,ouray c\nties1 9 ,nevada1 ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 etc4 ,pr\site ,ag ,as,s ,pl4 #g light r$ silv] ,usually occurs 9 irregul> masses2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #e4f2 color sc>let to v]milion2 /reak ! same2 lu/] adamant9e2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,9 g5]al ?is m9]al is v l pyr>gyrite1 b has ! sc>let color & /reak :i* are entirely *>act]i/ic4 ,x is likely to h ! surface t>ni%$ black1 :i* happ5s on exposure to light1 s t x is ess5tial to be sure t fre% surfaces are be+ exam9$4 ,occasionally x is f\nd 9 cry/als1 ( ! same type z ! prec$+ m9]al4 ,x is g5]ally f\nd associat$ ) pyr>gyrite4 ,c]>gyrite ,ag,cl horn silv] ,usually f\nd 9 irregul> masses or incru/ations2 h>dness #a to #a2 specific gravity #e4e2 color pe>ly gray1 grayi% gre5 to colorless1 b turn+ violet br[n on exposure to light2 lu/] res9\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is m9]al is usually f\nd 9 ?9 seams or waxy incru/ations1 b x may occur 9 cry/als 9 :i* case !y are cubes4 ,x is v s(t & easily cut ) a knife1 :i* ) its t5d5cy to turn violet-br[n on exposure to light1 makes x easy to id5tify4 ,c]>gyrite is a second>y m9]al1 result+ f ! action ( *lor9e-be>+ wat] on "s "o ( ! sulphides ( silv]4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! upp] portions ( m9es1 especially ^? 9 arid regions4 ,! ,copp] ,gr\p ,aft] gold ! next metal to be utiliz$ 0 copp]4 ,ab\t #djjj ,b4,c4 our e>ly =efa!rs f\nd t by heat+ c]ta9 rocks1 !y obta9$ a metal :i* c\ld be p\nd$1 gr\nd & c>v$ into useful %apes4 ,curi\sly en\gh ! rocks :i* _h ! copp] also _h "s t9 9 !m1 s t ?is fir/-f\nd copp] 0 n pure1 b _h f five to t5 p] c5t ( t9 9 x1 mak+ ! result+ metal h>d]1 & :at we call bronze4 ,x 0 "s ?\s&s ( ye>s lat] be=e !y di/+ui%$ ! copp] z a pure metal1 b x work$ & made good tools4 ,! newly f\nd metal 0 n z ornam5tal z gold2 b1 because x c\ld be made into tools1 x _h a trem5d\s influ5ce on man's developm5t4 ,z ! bronze tools began to take ! place ( ! /one implem5ts1 ! 8,age ( ,bronze0 0 u%]$ 94 ,9 ,am]ica ! ,indians 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region f\nd native copp] wea!r$ out ( ! rocks & lat] m9$ x1 & !y too p\nd$ x into knives1 axes1 ne$les1 & ornam5ts1 b probably nev] le>n$ to melt x & mold _! tools4 ,at any rate !y 7 n z f> advanc$ 9 us+ ?is metal :5 ,columbus l&$ z 7 ! s\!rn ,europeans #fejj ye>s e>li]4 ,s9ce ! use ( iron became g5]al1 copp] has n held su* a dom9ant place1 b x /ill is 8! r$ metal0 :i* holds ! second mo/ important place4 ,x is malleable & ductile1 ?\gh n equal to gold or silv] 9 ^! respects4 ,x is a good conductor ( electricity & a v l>ge am\nt ( copp] is us$ 9 electrical manufacture1 ro(+1 wire1 etc4 ,x alloys ) o!r metals2 t5 p>ts copp] & "o ( t9 be+ bronze1 t5 ( copp] & "o ( z9c is brass1 & copp] ) alum9um is alum9um bronze4 ,l silv] & gold1 copp] is widely diffus$ ?r\gh ! igne\s rocks1 b be=e x is available1 x mu/ be lea*$ out by solv5ts & conc5trat$ 9 ve9s1 fissures1 or def9ite p>ts ( ! lavas or granites4 ,! prim>y ores are ^? :i*1 :ile ! igne\s rock 0 /ill hot1 7 c>ri$ by hot vapors & liquids into ! fissures & !re deposit$1 mo/ly z sulphides4 ,!re is a long li/ ( ^!1 b 9 ?is c\ntry1 ! foll[+ are ! common] ones2 *alcocite ! sulphide ( copp]1 *alcopyrite ! sulphide ( copp] & iron1 bornite ano!r comb9ation ( copp]1 iron & sulphur1 & tetrah$rite copp] & antimony sulphide4 ,:5 ^! prim>y ores are ne> en\gh to ! surface to come 9 contact ) wat]s c>ry+ oxyg51 c>bon dioxide or silica 9 solution1 !y may give up _! sulphur & take "s "o ( ^! new elem5ts & we h su* =ms z cuprite1 ! oxide ( copp]1 mala*ite & azurite1 c>bonates ( copp]1 or *rysocolla1 ! silicate ( copp]4 ,native copp] is also a second>y deposit laid d[n 9 its pres5t /ate by a comb9ation ( circum/ances :i* depriv$ x ( its orig9al sulphur4 ,9 g5]al copp] m9+ c n be pr(itably c>ri$ on = ores ) any?+ less ?an a half ( "o p]c5t 9 !m2 & ! use ( su* l[ grade ores has only be5 possible = a few ye>s1 z ! result ( inv5t+ mo/ delicate processes 9 ! smelt+4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces ab\t a qu>t] ( ! _w's supply ( copp]1 ) ,*ile rank+ second ) ab\t #ag4 ,copp] ,cu ,pl4 #h ,usually 9 irregul> masses2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #h4i2 color copp] r$2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,native copp]1 easily det]m9$ by its color & h>dness1 is g5]ally f\nd 9 irregul> gra9s1 %eets1 or masses1 on :i* may sometimes be detect$ traces ( a cube or an octah$ral face1 %[+ t x belongs to ! isometric sy/em4 ,! mo/ fam\s locality is ! ,upp] ,p59sula ( ,mi*igan :i* may be tak5 z typical4 ,"h1 long be=e x 0 kn[n hi/orically1 ! ,indians f\nd & dug out copp] to make knives1 awls1 & ornam5ts4 ,9 ?is region1 b$s ( lava alt]nate ) s&/ones & conglom]ates4 ,! copp] 0 orig9ally 9 ! lavas1 b has be5 dissolv$ out1 & n[ fills cracks & gas cavities 9 ! lavas1 & also ! spaces betwe5 ! pebbles ( ! conglom]ate4 ,?is locality has be5 v fam\s bo? because ( ! quantity m9$1 & also because ( ! /rik+ly l>ge masses sometimes f\nd4 ,today b little ( ! ore runs above #b p]c5t copp]1 & x is m9$ if x has z little z ( "o p]c5t4 ,:ile n[h]e ne> z abundant1 native copp] occurs 9 ! same way 9 cavities & cracks 9 ! trap rocks ( ,new ,j]sey1 & along ! s\? %ore ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy4 ,x is also kn[n f ,oregon1 ! ,:ite ,riv] region ( ,alaska1 & 9 ,arctic ,canada4 ,*alcopyrite ,cu,fe,s ,pl4 #h copp] pyrites or yell[ copp] ore ,occurs 9 cry/als ( irregul> masses2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #d4b2 color bronze yell[2 /reak gre5i% black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,*alcopyrite resembles pyrite1 b its color is a m gold5 yell[1 & its surface t>ni%es ) iridesc5t colors4 ,!n too ! h>dness ( *alcopyrite is b #d z comp>$ ) #f = pyrite4 ,:5 9 cry/als ?is m9]al belongs to ! tetrah$ral sy/em z ! c axis is b 4#ihe 9 l5g? z comp>$ ) ,i = ! two o!r axes4 ,?is diff]5ce is s little t1 to ! eye1 ! octah$ron appe>s to belong to ! isometric sy/em4 ,*alcopyrite occurs 9 octah$rons & tetrah$rons 7z on plate #h71 ! latt] be+ ! =m :]e b half ( ! octah$ral faces are develop$4 ,h[ev] by f> ! mo/ frequ5t mode ( occurr5ce is 9 irregul> masses4 ,?is is ! mo/ important prim>y ore ( copp]1 & is widely di/ribut$1 be+ f\nd ei!r 9 lavas1 or 9 ve9s1 or 9 fissures connect$ ) igne\s rocks4 ,app>5tly ! deposits 7 made1 ei!r at ! "t ( eruptive di/urbances or %ortly aft]w>d1 f vapors or hot solutions c>ry+ ! copp] sulphides 7& o!r sulphides7 f ! molt5 igne\s rocks4 ,*alcopyrite is usually associat$ ) pyrite1 gal5a1 sphal]ite & *alcocite1 z well z qu>tz1 fluorite & calcite4 ,x is f\nd 9 all ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 9 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,t5nessee1 ,miss\ri1 & all ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 & ,pacific ,coa/ ,/ates4 ,bornite ,cu,fe,s purple copp] ore ,occurs 9 granul> or compact masses2 h>dness #c2 specific gravity1 #e2 color bronze-br[n ) a blui% t>ni%2 /reak gray-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,bornite is also kn[n z erubescite1 blu%+ ore1 v>iegat$ copp]1 peacock copp]1 etc41 all ( :i* names ref] to ! highly iridesc5t t>ni% :i* fre% faces soon take on :5 expos$ to ! air4 ,?\gh usually 9 masses1 x is sometimes f\nd 9 r\gh cubes ( ! isometric sy/em4 ,9 ?is c\ntry x is n abundant en\gh to be us$ z an ore1 b is likely to be f\nd ) o!r ores l *alcopyrite or *alcocite4 ,9 ! ea/ x has be5 f\nd at ,bri/ol1 ,conn41 & ne> ,wilkesb>re1 ,p5n41 :ile 9 ! we/ x may be expect$ to occur :]ev] o!r sulphide m9]als ( copp] are f\nd4 ,*alcocite ,cu,s ,pl4 #i copp] glance ,occurs 9 f9e gra9$ compact masses2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #e4g2 color d>k lead5 gray2 /reak black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,*alcocite is "o ( ! important ores ( copp]1 especially 9 ,arizona & ! ,butte ,di/rict ( ,montana4 ,x resembles arg5tite 9 color & g5]al appe>ance1 b is readily di/+ui%$ by be+ brittle & hav+ a t5d5cy to t>ni% to blui% or gre5i% colors on fre% surfaces4 ,occasionally x occurs 9 cry/als :i* are 9 ! or?orhombic sy/em2 b ! edges ( ! prism are s bevel$ t !re are six sides & ! prism resembles a hexagonal prism 7see page #af74 ,9 ! ,butte1 ,mont41 di/rict1 ! mo/ important copp] region 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 fully #ej ( ! ore is *alcocite1 :i* is a d]ivative ( ! orig9ally deposit$ *alcopyrite1 ! latt] hav+ lo/ its iron4 ,9 ! ve9s ( ?is di/rict *alcopyrite1 b\rnite1 tetrah$rite1 & sev]al o!r copp] m9]als n describ$ 9 ?is book1 occur all toge!r1 & ) !m also gold1 silv] & ars5ic m9]als4 ,! gold am\nts to ab\t #b c5ts p] p\nd ( copp]1 & ! silv] is 9 some:at less quantity4 ,^! ve9s 7 fir/ op5$ to get ! silv] ores1 :i* 7 ! m important ones d[n to a dep? ( #bjj to #djj feet4 ,bel[ ^! dep?s ! copp] became mu* m important4 ,x 0 ! wea!r+ :i* _h remov$ a l>ge "p ( ! copp] m9]als 9 ! upp] levels ( ! ve9s1 b _h left a l>ge "p ( ! silv]4 ,*alcocite is also important 9 mo/ ( ! ,utah & ,arizona m9es4 ,9 ! ea/ x has be5 f\nd at ,bri/ol1 ,simsbury & ,*e%ire1 ,conn41 & 9 ! we/ x is f\nd 9 all ! ,cordill]an ,/ates4 ,tetrah$rite ,cu,sb,s ,pl4 #i #aj gray copp] ore ,occurs 9 irregul> masses & 9 tetrah$rons ( ! isometric sy/em2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #d4g2 /reak d>k br[n2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,9 its cry/all9e =m ! tetrah$rite occurs 9 tetrah$rons1 :i* g5]ally h faces =m$ by bevel+ ! edges & by cutt+ ! corn]s1 z 9 ! two figures ( plate #aj4 ,*alcopyrite may also occur 9 tetrah$rons1 b its gold5 yell[ color is entirely diff]5t f ! gray-black ( ! tetrah$rite4 ,:5 9 masses ! h>dness & ! /reak :i* is d>k br[n1 are v *>act]i/ic4 ,9 ,engl& & ,bolivia tetrah$rite is an important ore ( copp]1 b 9 ?is c\ntry x is simply a copp] m9]al :i* is widely di/ribut$1 & associat$ ) mo/ ( ! m9+ ent]prises1 b is 9 no case ! important ore4 ,x has be5 f\nd sp>+ly ?r\gh ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 at ! ,kellogg ,m9es 9 ,arkansas1 & abundantly 9 ,colorado1 ,montana1 ,utah1 ,arizona1 ,nevada & ,new ,mexico4 ,cuprite ,cu,o ,pl4 #i #aj r$ copp] ore ,occurs 9 isometric cubes1 octah$rons1 & dodecah$rons1 or 9 masses2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #f2 color d>k br[ni%-r$2 /reak br[ni%-r$2 lu/] metallic2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,:5 9 cry/als cuprite is easily det]m9$1 b :5 9 masses its fre% surfaces may sugge/ pr\site1 b ! /reak & h>dness are q diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 ,sometimes its color sugge/s hematite1 b ! latt] has ! h>dness ( #f4 ,:5 f\nd x is (t5 coat$ ) a ?9 film ( gre51 :i* is mala*ite4 ,except :5 f\nd z native copp]1 ! ore :i* conta9s ! greate/ p]c5tage ( copp] is cuprite ) #hh4h ( copp]4 ,x is likely to occur 9 any ( ! deposits ( copp] ore1 :]e !y are 9 arid climates & above ! level ( ! und]gr\nd wat]1 & is v frequ5tly associat$ ) mala*ite & azurite4 ,9 ! ,bisbee1 ,arizona1 di/rict cuprite is "o ( ! important ores4 ,besides ! normal occurr5ce describ$ above1 cuprite may be f\nd 9 two o!r v>ieties2 "o :]e ! cry/als h gr[n side by side & s only ! ends h be5 free = cont9u\s additions ( ! m9]al1 :i* has result$ 9 a fibr\s mass kn[n z 8plu% copp] ore0 or *alcotri*ite2 ! o!r an e>?y mixture ( limonite & cuprite1 :i* is brick r$ 9 color1 & t]m$ 8tile ore40 ,cuprite is f\nd sp>+ly 9 ,new ,engl&1 m abundantly at su* places z ,summ]ville & ,flem+ton1 ,n4 ,j41 ,cornwall1 ,p5n41 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 & fairly abundantly 9 ! ,cordill]an ,/ates4 ,mala*ite ,cu,c,o,cu7,,oh7 ,pl4 #aa ,usually occurs 9 nodul> or incru/+ masses2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #d2 color gre52 /reak a light] gre52 lu/] adamant9e1 silky or dull2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,! vivid gre5 ( mala*ite is usually en\gh to det]m9e x at once1 b "o may be sure by try+ a drop ( acid on x1 9 :i* case x eff]vesces z is *>act]i/ic ( s _m c>bonates1 b ?is is ! only c>bonate :i* is vivid gre54 ,g5]ally ! mala*ite is 9 irregul> masses1 b cry/als are occasionally f\nd4 ,^! are extremely small & ne$le-l1 & belong to ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s !re is a locality :]e ^! cry/als gr[ 9 fibr\s masses1 usually radiat+ f ! c5t]4 ,mala*ite 9 su* nodules has a silky lu/]4 ,^! r>e nodules h furni%$ ! rul]s ( ,russia ) a unique & mu* priz$ mat]ial = mak+ royal gifts4 ,9 ,european museums & palaces "o f9ds _m objects c>v$ f ?is =m ( mala*ite1 & m>k$ z gifts ( ! cz>s ( ,russia4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates mala*ite is widely di/ribut$1 appe>+ z gre5 /reaks & /a9s :]e copp] m9]als h be5 expos$ to ! air4 ,x is ! gre5 t>ni% :i* appe>s on bronze & copp] :5 expos$ to ! wea!r4 ,x is f\nd 9 l>ge quantities 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,wiscons91 ,nevada1 ,arizona1 ,utah1 ,new ,mexico1 etc4 ,! ,bisbee m9e 9 ,arizona is ! place t has furni%$ museums ) s _m ( ! h&some specim5s ( mala*ite associat$ ) azurite4 ,^! are ! mo/ /rik+ specim5s = ! vividness ( _! colors t appe> 9 any collections4 ,mala*ite has be5 kn[n s9ce ab\t #djjj ,b4,c41 ! ,egyptians hav+ m9es :]e !y obta9$ x betwe5 ! ,suez & ,mt4 ,s9ai4 ,9 ^? e>ly days x 0 p>ticul>ly a *ild's *>m1 protect+ ! we>] f evil spirits4 ,x is /ill us$ z a /one ( less] value 9 mak+ "s sorts ( jewelry4 ,azurite #b;,cu,c,o,cu7,,oh7 ,pl4 #aa ,occurs z %ort prismatic or tabul> cry/als ( ! monocl9ic sy/em2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #c4h2 color azure blue2 /reak light] blue2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,azurite is ano!r v /rik+ m9]al fully *>act]iz$ by its color & /reak4 ,l mala*ite x eff]vesces 9 acid4 ,x is v ne> to mala*ite 9 composition1 & by increas+ its wat] cont5t1 c & freely does *ange to ! gre5 m9]al2 s t few specim5s ( azurite are )\t traces ( mala*ite4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! same places z mala*ite1 b is n z abundant 9 ! ea/4 ,azurite ) ! accompany+ mala*ite is cut & poli%$ to make semi-preci\s /ones = "s =ms ( jewelry4 ,*rysocolla ,cu,si,o#b;,h,o ,nev] occurs 9 cry/als1 b 9 seams & incru/ations2 h>dness #b-d2 specific gravity #b4a2 color blui%-gre52 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is r r>e m9]al (t5 appe>s 9 opal- or enamel-l incru/ations1 & its color is v>iable rang+ f ! typical blui%-gre5 to sky-blue or ev5 turquoise blue4 ,?is is a m9]al result+ f ! action ( silica be>+ wat]s1 com+ 9 contact ) mo/ any ( ! copp] m9]als1 & is f\nd accompany+ cuprite1 mala*ite1 azurite1 etc4 ,x is nev] 9 l>ge en\gh quantities to be us$ z an ore1 b its /rik+ color attracts att5tion & x c be f\nd fairly frequ5tly1 especially 9 ! we/4 ,! ,iron ,gr\p ,pure iron is a *emical curiosity :i* looks v mu* l silv]4 ,z obta9$ f its ores1 or z x occurs 9 ,nature1 iron always has "s impurities ) x1 su* z c>bon1 silicon1 sulphur & phosphorus1 & ^! are highe/ 9 ! crude/ iron su* z 8pig-iron40 ,its malleability & ductility are only a little less ?an = gold & silv]1 & s x has a wide range ( qualities = use by man4 ,x is only r>ely f\nd native 9 m9ute gra9s 9 "s ( ! d>k lavas4 ,!re is h[ev] "o rem>kable exception to ?is /atem5t1 9 t on ,disco ,isl&1 ,gre5l&1 !re is a basaltic rock1 f :i* are wea!r$ great b\ld]s ( native iron up to #bj tons 9 weight4 ,?is iron is v l t occurr+ 9 meteorites1 & probably came f great dep?s 9 ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,! specific gravity ( iron is #g4h4 ,x makes up ar\nd #e ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & probably occurs 9 mu* l>g] p]c5tages 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,iron 0 discov]$ by man lat] ?an gold or silv] or copp]1 ab\t #ajjj ,b4,c42 b once f\nd x 0 s mu* m abundant ?an any ( ^! t x soon dom9at$ ov] copp]1 & f ,roman times to ! pres5t has be5 ! basis ( progress 9 civilization1 & ^! times are well call$ 8! iron age40 ,iron unites freely ) ! non-metals1 & occurs z sulphides1 oxides1 c>bonates1 etc41 & is also pres5t z a second>y metal 9 t great gr\p ( m9]als kn[n z ! silicates 7see page #ig74 ,x alloys ) a wide range ( o!r metals1 e comb9ation alt]+ ! prop]ties ( ! iron1 & ?us mak+ x useful 9 a /ill great] range ( manufacture4 ,! introduction ( to #b ( c>bon into iron makes /eel1 :i* is h>d] 79 proportion to ! am\nt ( c>bon7 & /rong] ?an ! pure iron4 ,iron comp\nds are among ! mo/ num]\s & important ( ! colors 9 ,nature's pa9t box1 limonite furni%+ ! br[ns :i* color ! soil & s _m ( ! rocks1 hematite giv+ ! r$ color to o!r abundant rocks1 & magnetite (t5 color+ igne\s rocks black1 :ile ! *lorophyll :i* gives ! gre5 color to plants is an iron comp\nd1 z is also ! hemoglob9 :i* gives ! r$ to our blood4 ,iron is pres5t 9 all igne\s rocks1 & second>ily 9 ! s$im5t>y & metamorphic rocks4 ,x is soluble 9 wat]1 & s is be+ con/antly transf]r$ f place to place1 & *anges f "o comp\nd to ano!r1 accord+ to ! circum/ances 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,! prim>y =ms are pyrite1 magnetite & ! silicates4 ,:5 9 wea!r$ rocks ! iron is *ang$ to limonite1 sid]ite or hydrat$ silicates4 ,hematite is an int]m$iate oxide f :i* ! wat] conta9$ 9 limonite has be5 driv5 (f by mod]ate heat or bact]ial action4 ,limonite #b;,fe,o#c;,h,o ,pl4 #ab ,nev] cry/all9e1 occurs 9 mammill>y1 botryoidal & /alactitic =ms1 or 9 fibr\s1 compact1 oolitic1 nodul> or e>?ly masses2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #c4h2 color yell[-br[n to black2 /reak yell[-br[n2 lu/] metallic to dull2 opaque4 ,limonite is a v common m9]al1 ! color1 /reak & h>dness id5tify+ x readily4 ,iron ru/ is its mo/ famili> =m4 ,:5 p[d]$ x is ! o*re yell[ us$ 9 pa9ts4 ,be+ s univ]sally di/ribut$1 x is to be expect$ x w occur 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,fir/1 !re is ! fibr\s type f\nd l9+ cavities1 9 geodes1 or hang+ 9 /alactites 9 caves4 ,?is has a silky lu/]1 an opalesc5t1 glaz$ or black surface1 & is 9 mammillat$ or botryoidal masses4 ,second1 x may occur 9 compact masses 9 ve9s1 :]e x 0 deposit$ by wat]s2 :i*1 circulat+ ?r\gh ! adjac5t rocks1 ga!r$ x f ! rocks1 &1 on rea*+ ! op5 seams1 gave x up aga94 ,?ird1 x may occur 9 b$s on ! bottom ( ponds1 :]e x 0 deposit$ by wat]s :i* ga!r$ x z !y fl[$ ov] ! surface ( ! c\ntry rocks4 ,measurem5ts 9 ,sw$5 %[ t x may accumulate 9 su* places z mu* z six in*es 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty ye>s4 ,9 ponds & swamps1 ! decay+ vegetation =ms organic comp\nds1 :i* cause ! precipitation ( ! iron f ! wat]1 z x is br\ght 9 by ! /reams4 ,?is sort ( iron 9 ! bottom ( ponds or swamps is also kn[n z 8bog iron40 ,ano!r =m 9 :i* limonite may occur 9 ponds1 lakes1 or ev5 ! sea1 is 9 oolitic masses4 ,9 ?is case ! iron =ms 9 t9y balls1 ) p]haps a gra9 ( s& at ! c5t]1 & "o coat ( iron aft] ano!r =m$ ar\nd x1 l ! lay]s ( an onion4 ,if ! result+ balls are t9y ?is is call$ oolitic 7l fi% eggs71 b if ! balls are l>g] x is pisolitic 7l peas74 ,bact]ia probably h a good deal to d ) ! precipitation ( limonite 9 ?is mann]4 ,f\r?1 limonite occurs 9 e>?y masses1 usually mix$ ) impurities l clay & s&1 :i* are ! residue left beh9d1 :]e lime/ones h be5 dissolv$ by wea!r+4 ,! fif? mode ( occurr5ce is kn[n z gossan1 or 8! iron hat10 :i* is a mass ( limonite capp+ a ve9 ( "s sulphide m9]al1 l pyrite1 *alcopyrite or pyrrhotite1 :i* has be5 expos$ to wea!r+2 & 9 ^! m9]als ! sulphur has be5 remov$1 leav+ a mass ( limonite ov] ! ve94 ,?is is p>ticul>ly common 9 ! we/4 ,limonite is q easily fusible & s 0 probably ! fir/ ore f :i* e>ly man extract$ iron4 ,limonite is iron oxide1 ) #c molecules ( wat] ( cry/allization 7or con/itution7 associat$ ) e #b molecules ( ! oxide4 ,if limonite is mod]ately heat$ ! wat] is driv5 out & ! result+ comp\nd is hematite1 ! same oxide1 b )\t ! wat]4 ,9 ?is case & _m o!r simil> cases1 z gypsum1 opal1 etc41 we h two or m m9]als result+ f ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( wat] 9 ! m9]al4 ,! wat] molecules h a def9ite place 9 ! arrangem5t ( molecules :i* det]m9es ! /ructure ( ! m9]al4 ,sometimes ! wat] is driv5 out at a temp]ature ar\nd #bab ,f41 9 :i* case x is call$1 wat] ( cry/allization1 b 9 o!r cases z gypsum1 a consid]ably high] temp]ature is requir$ to drive out ! wat]1 & !n x is call$1 wat] ( con/itution4 ,9 all cases ! removal ( ! wat] *anges ! arrangem5t ( molecules & a new m9]al results1 ) *>act]i/ics ( its own4 ,9 ?is case limonite is only "o ( a s]ies ( m9]als :i* h ! ,fe,o molecule z a basis1 & t incorporate m or less wat] into _! molecul> con/ruction z foll[s3 ,turgite #b;,fe,o,h,o ,goe?ite ,fe,o,h,o ,limonite #b;,fe,o#c;,h,o ,xan?osid]ite ,fe,o#b;,h,o ,limonite ,fe,o#c;,h,o ,( ^! goe?ite is cry/all9e1 ! o!rs non-cry/all9e4 ,!y may occur pure or 9 all sorts ( mixtures1 ! mixtures usually be+ lump$ "u limonite4 ,! limonite is f> ! commone/ ( ! s]ies1 goe?ite is fairly common1 b ! o!rs are r>e z pure m9]als4 ,limonite is f\nd 9 all p>ts ( all /ates & 9 e c\ntry4 ,?\gh s common1 x is by no means an important s\rce ( iron today1 only ab\t "o p]c5t ( ! iron m9$ 9 ?is c\ntry com+ f ?is s\rce1 ?\gh 9 ,g]many1 ,sw$5 & ,scotl& x is relatively mu* m important4 ,goe?ite ,fe,o,h,o ,pl4 #ab ,occurs 9 lu/r\s br[n to black or?orhombic prisms1 usually t]m9at$ by l[ pyramids2 h>dness #e2 specific gravity #d2 color br[n to black2 /reak br[ni%-yell[2 lu/] imp]fect adamant9e2 opaque4 ,goe?ite1 nam$ = ! poet ,goe!1 :o 0 int]e/$ 9 m9]alogy1 is mu* less abundant ?an limonite or hematite1 b occurs ) !m1 :5 !y are 9 ve9s4 ,its usual =m is an or?orhombic prism ) ! edges bevel$1 & a l[ pyramid on ei!r end4 ,! cry/als usually gr[ 9 clu/]s1 mak+ a fibr\s mass1 (t5 radiat$1 9 :i* case x is kn[n z 8ne$le iron /one02 or ! prisms may be s %ort z to be almo/ scales2 :51 because ( ! yell[i%-r$ color1 x is call$ 8ruby mica04 ,x is f\nd 9 _m /ates1 includ+ ,connecticut1 ,mi*igan1 ,colorado1 etc4 ,hematite ,fe,o ,pl4 #ac #ad specul> iron ,occurs 9 compact1 mammill>y1 botryoidal1 or /alactitic masses ( d>k r$ to black color1 or 9 e>?y masses ( bright to d>k r$2 h>dness #f2 specific gravity #e4b2 color o*re r$ to black2 /reak *]ry r$ to d>k r$2 lu/] metallic1 vitre\s1 or dull2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,hematite is readily di/+ui%$ f o!r r$ m9]als by its h>dness & /reak4 ,x may occur 9 cry/als1 :i* belong to ! hexagonal sy/em1 & are usually hemih$ral =ms ( ! d\ble pyramid1 or rhomboh$rons4 ,^! rhomboh$rons usually h ! edges bevel$1 z 9 ,pl4 #ac1 ,a2 or are tabul> 9 =m z a result ( ! bevel+ ( two ( ! opposite edges to su* an ext5t t a =m l ,pl4 #ac ,b results4 ,h[ev] ! usual occurr5ce is 9 non-cry/all9e masses1 :i* repres5t trans=mations f limonite by ! loss ( wat] ( cry/allization on ! "p ( ! limonite4 ,9 su* cases we h fibr\s1 oolitic or compact masses1 accord+ to ! =m 9 :i* ! limonite occurr$4 ,! trans=mation f limonite into hematite involves "s heat to drive out ! wat] ( cry/allization1 b no?+ l :at is involv$ 9 metamorphism4 ,hematite is ! s\rce ( #ij ( ! iron m9$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,"p ( x comes f ! fam\s ,cl9ton iron ore1 a lay] a foot or m 9 ?ickness2 />t+ 9 ,new ,york ,/ate1 & ext5d+ all d[n ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s to ,alabama1 :]e x is t5 or m feet ?ick & ! basis ( ! ,birm+ham iron indu/ries4 ,!n !re are trem5d\s deposits ( e>?y to compact hematite1 probably d]iv$ f limonite1 ar\nd ! we/ end ( ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,?is latt] region yields today ar\nd #ge ( ! iron = ?is c\ntry4 ,loose e>?y masses ( hematite are (t5 kn[n z 8o*re r$10 & 7 us$ by ! ,indians = w> pa9t4 ,today ! same sort ( mat]ial is obta9$ by p[d]+ hematite & us+ x = r$ pa9t4 ,! r$ color 9 great /ret*es ( rock is due to ! pres5ce ( small am\nts ( hematite1 act+ z cem5t+ mat]ial4 ,! r$ ( ! ruby1 g>net1 sp9el1 & ! p9k ( feldsp>s & calcite are due to traces ( hematite4 ,?is m9]al is v common & f\nd 9 e /ate4 ,magnetite ,fe,o ,pl4 #ad ,magnetic iron ore ,occurs 9 masses or 9 isometric octah$rons or dodecah$rons2 h>dness #f2 specific gravity #e4h2 color black2 /reak black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,magnetite is ano!r important ore ( iron1 & is peculi> 9 be+ /rongly magnetic2 its "n be+ d]iv$1 accord+ to ,pl9y1 f t ( ! %eph]d ,magnes1 :o f\nd 8 iron po9t$ /aff attract$ by ! m9]al :5 he 0 w&]+ on ,m\nt ,ida4 ,?is magnetic prop]ty has be5 repeat$ly us$ to locate b$s ( magnetite1 & is v helpful 9 sep>at+ magnetite f ! 8black s&s10 ( :i* x s (t5 =ms a "p4 ,^! s&s h[ev] g5]ally h magnetite ) s mu* titanium 9 x t !y are unfit = smelt+4 ,magnetite is f\nd 9 association ) igne\s or metamorphic rocks1 & (t5 repres5ts limonite or hematite :i* has be5 alt]$ z ! result ( high temp]atures4 ,"s ( x1 9 ! igne\s rocks especially1 0 und\bt$ly 9 ! molt5 magma & has cry/alliz$ out f ! magma :ile x 0 /ill hot4 ,x is ! =m ( iron always indicative ( =m] high temp]atures4 ,x is an ore m9]al = ab\t #c ( ! iron 9 ?is c\ntry1 b 9 ,sc&9avia & "s o!r c\ntries1 x plays a lead+ role z ! s\rce ( iron4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s1 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,arkansas1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,new ,mexico1 & ,cali=nia4 ,sid]ite ,fe,c,o ,pl4 #ac #ad ,spa?ic iron ,occurs 9 fibr\s botryoidal masses or rhomboh$ral cry/als1 sometimes ) curv$ faces2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #c4h2 color gray-br[n2 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,l hematite ?is m9]al belongs to ! hexagonal sy/em1 & cry/allizes 9 hemih$ral =m1 mak+ ! rhomboh$ron4 ,its faces are (t5 curv$1 :i* is r>e 9 m9]als1 only a few =ms l ?is & dolomite hav+ o!r ?an plane faces4 ,:5 sid]ite cry/als gr[ 9 clu/]s1 ! cr[d+ (t5 results 9 gr[? on "o face only1 mak+ a mass ( fibr\s "*1 & 9 su* cases ! surface ( ! mass is botryoidal 9 cont\r4 ,! m9]al is likely to oxidize1 los+ its gray-br[n color1 & becom+ limonite4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is sc>cely ev] us$ z an ore = iron1 b 9 ,g]many & ,engl& a great deal ( iron is smelt$ f ?is m9]al4 ,x occurs 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ?r\gh\t ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s1 & also 9 ,ohio4 ,pyrite ,fe,s ,pl4 #ae #af iron pyrites ,occurs z cubes1 octah$rons & pyritoh$rons1 or 9 compact masses1 scales or gra9s2 h>dness #f2 specific gravity #e4a2 color brassy yell[2 /reak gre5i%-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,?is is "o ( ! commone/ ( all m9]als4 ,x is f\nd 9 all k9ds ( rocks1 ) all k9ds ( associations1 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,its cry/als are isometric1 & cubes & octah$rons are abundant4 ,! pyritoh$ron is also a common =m1 & *>act]i/ic ( ?is m9]al4 ,x is a hemih$ral =m d]iv$ f a #bd-sid$ =m1 i4e4 ! cube ) f\r faces on ea* side4 ,on ?is #bd-sid$ =m ea* alt]nate face has develop$ & ! o!rs h disappe>$1 result+ 9 a #ab-sid$ =m1 kn[n z ! pyritoh$ron1 :i* diff]s f ! dodecah$ron 9 t ea* ( its faces is five-sid$ in/ead ( rhomboidal4 ,:5 9 cry/als pyrite c n be easily confus$ ) any o!r m9]al2 b :5 9 masses x is (t5 mi/ak5 = gold1 *alcopyrite1 pyrrhotite or m>casite4 ,f ! fir/ two1 ! color %\ld be suffici5t to di/+ui% x1 = !y are gold5 yell[4 ,pyrrhotite is bronze yell[1 & m>casite is pal] yell[4 ,!n too 9 h>dness pyrite is mu* h>d] ?an any ( ^! m9]als except m>casite4 ,?is la/ is ! "o :i* is mo/ likely to cause real difficulty4 ,its light] color1 & ! fact t x usually comes 9 fibr\s masses are ! be/ di/9ctions4 ,9 spite ( be+ s abundant pyrite is sc>cely ev] us$ z an ore = iron1 because ! sulphur makes ! metal 8%ort10 or brittle1 & ! sulphur is n easily gott5 entirely out ( ! iron2 b pyrite is us$ l>gely 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 s important to _m ( our indu/ries4 ,o!r sulphides are commonly mix$ ) pyrite1 su* z *alcopyrite1 ars5opyrite1 arg5tite1 etc42 b ! mo/ important impurity is gold1 :i* is (t5 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! pyrite 9 invisible p>ticles1 & sometimes 9 quantities en\gh to make x wor? :ile to smelt x = ! gold4 ,pyrite is p>ticul>ly ! =m 9 :i* ! sulphur comp\nds ( iron appe> 9 rocks :i* h be5 highly heat$1 & is to be expect$ 9 metamorphic rocks & also igne\s rocks1 especially 9 fissures & ve9s lead+ f ! igne\s rocks4 ,x may occur 9 s$im5t>y rocks1 b 9 ^! la/ x is usually m>casite4 ,m>casite ,fe,s ,pl4 #ae :ite pyrite ,occurs 9 or?orhombic cry/als1 usually gr\p$ to make fibr\s or radiat+ masses1 or non-cry/all9e 9 masses2 h>dness #f2 specific gravity #d4h2 color pale brassy-yell[2 /reak gre5i%-gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,m>casite has ! same *emical composition1 z pyrite1 & looks l x1 b is light] color$ & usually occurs 9 fibr\s masses4 ,x is ! common] =m 9 lime/ones & %ales1 :ile pyrite is m likely to occur 9 igne\s & metamorphic rocks4 ,x seems probable t m>casite is due to a m ha/y precipitation f cold solutions1 :ile pyrite is deposit$ m sl[ly f hot solutions4 ,isolat$ cry/als ( m>casite are r>e2 b1 if =m$1 !y belong to ! or?orhombic sy/em4 ,usually "s =m ( tw9n+ is pres5t1 & because ( ! multiple "* ( ! tw9n+1 m>casite cry/als usually %[ a ragg$ outl9e1 ) re5trant angles4 ,x is mo/ abundant 9 radiat$ masses1 :i* appe> fibr\s on ! brok5 surfaces4 ,x decomposes easily1 tak+ oxyg5 f ! air & =m+1 ev5 9 museum cases1 a :ite effloresc5ce or 8fl[]10 :i* is iron sulphate or melant]ite4 ,9 moi/ air x takes wat] & decomposes to sulphuric acid :i* may *ange ! surr\nd+ lime/one to gypsum4 ,m>casite is f\nd :]ev] lime/ones & %ales are ! c\ntry rock4 ,pyrrhotite ,fe,s ,magnetic pyrites ,occurs 9 masses2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #d4f2 color bronze2 /reak grayi%-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,tabul> cry/als are kn[n1 b are v r>e4 ,!y belong to ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,?is =m is easily di/+ui%$ f ! o!r yell[ m9]als by be+ magnetic4 ,x is by no means z abundant z ! two prec$+ sulphides ( iron1 b does occur fairly frequ5tly 9 ve9s 9 igne\s rocks1 & less frequ5tly 9 lime/ones1 l>ge quantities ( sulphuric acid be+ made f a deposit 9 lime/one at ,duckt[n1 ,t5n4 ,x w be f\nd 9 mo/ /ates4 ,:5 associat$ ) nickel x is an important s\rce = ! latt] m9]al1 z at ,sudbury1 ,canada4 ,pyrrhotite is v l a sub/ance f\nd 9 meteorites1 kn[n z troilite4 ,! ,lead ,gr\p ,aft] le>n+ h[ to get iron f ! rocks by rude smelt+ me?ods1 ! e>ly peoples tri$ heat+ v>i\s rocks1 & "s "t ar\nd #ejj ,b4,c4 /umbl$ ^u lead1 :i* is r easily sep>at$ f its ores4 ,?is metal 0 us$ ?r\gh ,roman times to make pipes1 gutt]s1 etc4 ,lead is a s(t metal1 fairly malleable1 b ) little ductility1 & /ill less t5sile /r5g?4 ,?\gh "o ( ! common] metals1 x does n occur z pure metal 9 ,nature4 ,x is diffus$ 9 m9ute quantities ?r\gh ! igne\s rocks1 & also is f\nd 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks & 9 ! sea wat]4 ,its m9]als are few1 gal5a1 ! sulphide ( lead1 be+ ! commone/1 & at ! same "t ! =m 9 :i* lead is prim>ily deposit$4 ,gal5a may also repres5t a second>y deposition4 ,! o!r m9]als1 c]rusite1 anglesite1 & pyromorphite are results ( modification ( ! gal5a :5 x lies ne> en\gh to ! surface to be act$ on by wea!r+ ag5ts1 l wat] & air4 ,lead m9]als are usually associat$ ) z9c m9]als1 !re be+ b few places :]e ! m9]als ( ! "o gr\p occur )\t ! o!r4 ,mo/ lead :5 fir/ smelt$ f its ore1 conta9s a great] or less am\nt ( silv] 9 x1 sometimes en\gh s t ! lead ore is bett] wor? work+ = ! silv] ?an = ! lead4 ,lead is us$ 9 mak+ pipes1 gutt]s1 bullets1 etc41 & 9 its oxide =ms 9 ! manufacture ( pa9ts & glass4 ,eighty-?ree p>ts ( lead ) #ag p>ts ( antimony make type metal4 ,lead & t9 alloy to make sold]4 ,lead & t9 ) small am\nts ( copp]1 z9c & antimony make pewt]4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produce ab\t #bj ( ! _w's supply ( ?is metal4 ,gal5a ,pb,s ,pl4 #ag lead glance ,occurs 9 cubes or cleavable masses2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #g4e2 color lead-gray2 /reak lead-gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,:ile !re is q a gr\p ( lead-gray m9]als1 gal5a is easily id5tifi$ by its cleavage1 :i* is p]fect 9 ?ree directions p>allel to ! cube faces4 ,ev5 a mod]ate bl[ ( ! hamm] w %att] a mass ( gal5a into small cubic pieces4 ,! cry/als (t5 h ! corn]s cut by octah$ral faces1 & occasionally ! edges are bevel$ by dodecah$ral faces4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d cry/als ( l>ge size1 sev]al in*es across4 ,if gal5a has #a to #b ( bismu? z an impurity1 curi\sly en\gh1 ! cleavage *anges to octah$ral1 b ?is is a r>e occurr5ce4 ,gal5a may occur z a prim>y m9]al 9 ve9s associat$ ) igne\s intrusions1 or 9 irregul> masses 9 metamorphic rocks2 b x is m (t5 f\nd 9 irregul> masses 9 lime/ones1 :]e ! lime/one has be5 dissolv$1 & ! cavities ?us =m$1 fill$ ) second>y deposits ( gal5a4 ,x also occurs at ! contact betwe5 igne\s rocks & ! adjac5t rock1 :atev] ?is may be4 ,sometimes x is f\nd 9 residual clays4 ,among ! mo/ important lead deposits are ! ,cur d',al5e di/rict 9 ,idaho1 :]e gal5a ) a high p]c5tage ( silv] is m9$2 ! ,leadville1 ,colo41 di/rict :]e lead1 silv] & gold occur toge!r 9 ve9s2 ! ,jopl91 ,mo41 di/rict1 :]e lead & z9c ores occur toge!r 9 irregul> masses 9 lime/ones2 & ! ,wiscons9 di/rict ( simil> "*4 ,:5 f\nd gal5a is usually associat$ ) sphal]ite1 arg5tite *alcopyrite1 pyrite & calcite4 ,x w be f\nd 9 e /ate4 ,c]rusite ,pb,c,o ,pl4 #ah ,:ite lead ore ,occurs 9 fibr\s or compact masses1 or 9 or?orhombic cry/als1 usually on gal5a2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #f4e2 colorless2 /reak :ite2 lu/] adamant9e2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,:ile ! cry/als ( ?is m9]al simulate hexagonal1 !y are actually or?orhombic1 ! simple =m be+ an octah$ron ) two ( its edges bevel$1 mak+ d\ble six-sid$ pyramids 7see ,pl4 #ah ,a47 ,usually prism faces are pres5t4 ,tw9n+ is common1 bo? ! simple contact sort1 z %[n on ,plate #ah ,b1 & also ! sort 9 :i* ?ree cry/als h gr[n ?r\gh ea* o!r1 s z to make a six-ray$ cry/al4 ,! consid]able weight1 & ! fact t x eff]vesces 9 acid s]ve to id5tify c]rusite4 ,:5 pure x is colorless1 b impurities cause x to appe> :ite1 gray or grayi%-black1 & sometimes x has a t+e ( blue or gre54 ,x is likely to occur :]ev] gal5a is f\nd1 z a second>y m9]al d]iv$ f ! gal5a4 ,9 ?is c\ntry x is n us$ z an ore1 =1 z 9 ! ,leadville di/rict1 ve9s :i* h c]rusite ne> ! surface *ange at mod]ate dep?s1 & gal5a takes ! place ( ! c]rusite4 ,x is f\nd all d[n ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s1 & 9 all ! ,cordill]an ,/ates4 ,especially f9e specim5s h come f ! ,cur d',al5e di/rict 9 ,idaho4 ,anglesite ,pb,s,o ,pl4 #ah ,occurs 9 gra9s & masses1 or 9 tabul> & prismatic or?orhombic cry/als2 h>dness #c2 specific gravity #f4c2 colorless2 lu/] adamant9e2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,two modes ( occurr5ce are *>act]i/ic1 "o 9 cavities 9 gal5a1 ! o!r 9 conc5tric lay]s ar\nd a nucleus ( gal5a4 ,9 ! =m] case f9e cry/als are develop$1 9 ! latt] ! m9]al is 9 masses4 ,! cry/als look l ^? ( b>ite1 b are soluble 9 nitric acid :ile ! b>ite is insoluble4 ,sometimes ! cry/als are prismatic ) pyramidal faces in/ead ( ! tabul> =m4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! lead m9es associat$ ) gal5a1 & 9 ?is c\ntry is n us$ z an ore = lead1 b 9 ,mexico & ,au/ralia x is abundant en\gh to be m9$ z an ore4 ,expos$ to wat] :i* has c>bon dioxide 9 x1 & mo/ surface wat]s h "s1 x readily *anges to c]rusite4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,miss\ri1 ,wiscons91 ,kansas1 ,colorado1 & ,mexico4 ,pyromorphite ,pb,cl7,,po7 ,pl4 #ag ,gre5 lead ore ,occurs 9 small b>rel-%ap$ hexagonal cry/als1 & 9 fibr\s or e>?ly masses2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #g2 color gre5 to br[n2 lu/] res9\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,pyromorphite is f\nd 9 ! upp] levels ( lead m9es1 & is =m$ by ! decomposition ( gal5a4 ,its gre5 color 7sometimes %ad+ (f t[>d br[n71 consid]able weight & res9\s lu/]1 s]ve to di/+ui% ?is m9]al4 ,! cry/al =m is t ( a simple hexagonal prism1 ) ! ends truncat$4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,phnixville1 ,p5n41 ,miss\ri1 ,wiscons91 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 etc4 ,! ,z9c ,gr\p ,z9c & copp] made ! brass ( e>ly ,roman times2 b ev5 !n1 z9c 0 n kn[n z a sep>ate metal1 ! brass be+ made by smelt+ rocks 9 :i* bo? z9c & copp] occurr$1 ! z9c nev] be+ isolat$ until mu* lat]4 ,"s "t 9 ! lat] ,roman times x seems to h be5 obta9$ sep>ately1 b !n & all d[n ?r\gh ! ,middle ,ages z9c & bismu? 7 confus$4 ,our e>lie/ record ( z9c be+ smelt$1 z we "k x today1 0 ab\t #agcj 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ^? e>li] days1 ! product1 z9c1 or bismu?1 or bo? toge!r1 7 kn[n z 8spelt]10 & ?is "n has clung to z9c 9 m9+ & comm]cial circles2 s t today1 if "o looks = quotations 9 ! newspap]1 he (t5 f9ds z9c "u ! head ( spelt]4 ,z9c1 l lead1 is diffus$ 9 small quantities ?r\gh all ! igne\s rocks4 ,9 places x is segregat$ 9 fissures or ve9s lead+ f ! igne\s rocks1 along ! contact betwe5 igne\s rocks & ei!r s$im5t>y or metamorphic rocks1 9 lime/ones :]e solution cavities h be5 =m$ & lat] fill$ ) z9c m9]als1 & z a residue :]e lime/ones h be5 wea!r$ away4 ,9 all ^! places x is closely associat$ ) lead4 ,! sulphide1 sphal]ite1 is ! prim>y m9]al1 & ! o!r m9]als1 l z9cite1 smi?sonite1 calam9e1 willemite1 frankl9ite1 etc41 are second>y1 result+ f modifications ( ! orig9al sphal]ite4 ,9 connection ) z9c m9]als ! region ( ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,n4 ,j41 is especially int]e/+1 = at t place are f\nd two l>ge metamorphos$ deposits conta9+ a wide range ( z9c m9]als1 sev]al ( :i* are n f\nd any:]e else4 ,z9c is s(t & malleable1 b is only slightly ductile1 & has little t5sile /r5g?4 ,x alloys ) sev]al metals1 & 9 ?is =m is mo/ useful today2 ?ree p>ts ( copp] to "o ( z9c mak+ brass2 f\r or m p>ts ( copp] & "o ( z9c1 mak+ 8gold foil02 copp] & z9c 7a little m z9c ?an copp]7 mak+ 8:ite metal02 ?ree p>ts ( copp] to "o ( z9c & "o ( nickel mak+ ,g]man silv]2 etc4 ,z9c is also us$ 9 l>ge quantities 9 galvaniz+ iron1 %eets ( iron be+ dipp$ into melt$ z9c & ?us ?9ly coat$4 ,x is also us$ 9 batt]ies & a wide range ( *emical indu/ries4 ,sphal]ite ,zn,s ,pl4 #ai #bj z9c bl5de1 black jack ,occurs 9 gra9s1 9 fibr\s or lay]$ masses1 or 9 isometric cry/als2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #d2 color yell[-br[n to almo/ black2 /reak light yell[ to br[ni%2 lu/] res9\s to adamant9e2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,:5 9 cry/als sphal]ite occurs mo/ commonly ei!r 9 dodecah$rons or 9 tetrah$rons 7hemih$ral =ms ( ! isometric octah$ron74 ,! cleavage is fairly good & p>allel to ! faces ( ! dodecah$ron4 ,! difficulty usually is to get l>ge en\gh cry/all9e masses to see ?is cleavage cle>ly1 b by exam9+ ! angles betwe5 ! faces ( cleavage pieces !y w be f\nd to be ! same z ^? on a dodecah$ron4 ,:5 ! m9]al is pure1 x has ! color ( res91 b sometimes x is r$di% to r$-br[n1 & !n x is call$ 8ruby z9c10 m (t5 x is d>k br[n due to ! pres5ce ( iron z an impurity4 ,?is is :at ! m9]s call 8black-jack40 ,! pres5ce ( iron also t5ds to make ! /reak d>k]4 ,! h>dness1 /reak & cleavage w usually det]m9e ?is m9]al readily4 ,sphal]ite is ! prim>y ore ( z9c & is usually f\nd 9 fissures & ve9s lead+ f masses ( igne\s rocks1 or along ! surface ( contact :]e igne\s rocks l granite or lavas come aga9/ su* metamorphic rocks z gneisses1 s*i/s1 or cry/all9e lime/ones4 ,9 ! region ( ,jopl91 ,mo41 h[ev]1 ! sphal]ite is ( second>y "*1 hav+ be5 ga!r$ by wat]s circulat+ ?r\gh ! lime/ones1 & deposit$ 9 !m 9 irregul> pockets4 ,?is ,jopl9 di/rict has produc$ m z9c ?an any o!r 9 ! _w4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates annually produces ab\t #be ( ! _w's supply ( ?is metal4 ,sphal]ite is always associat$ ) gal5a1 & su* o!r m9]als z arg5tite1 pyrite1 *alcopyrite1 fluorite1 qu>tz1 calcite & b>ite1 are v apt to be pres5t4 ,x w be f\nd 9 almo/ e /ate1 especially 9 fissures & ve9s1 & less frequ5tly 9 cavities 9 lime/ones4 ,z9cite ,zn,o ,pl4 #ai #bj r$ z9c ore ,usually occurs massive1 b may be f\nd 9 cry/als2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #e4f2 color deep r$2 /reak orange2 lu/] subadamant9e2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,:5 9 cry/als z9cite =ms 9 hexagonal prisms ) hexagonal pyramids on ! ends4 ,?is is r r>e1 mo/ ( ! z9cite be+ f\nd 9 massive =m4 ,! cleavage is p>allel to ! prism faces & p]fect4 ,! deep r$ color & orange /reak are :olly *>act]i/ic4 ,?is m9]al is s common at ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,n4 ,j41 z to be an important ore1 b x is v seldom f\nd else:]e4 ,?is di/rict1 z m5tion$ be=e1 is a peculi> "o = z9c m9]als4 ,! z9c b$s are 9 a metamorphos$ lime/one1 & into ?is are intrud$ num]\s dikes ( granite4 ,probably ! z9c 0 orig9ally pres5t 9 ! b$ ( lime/one z smi?sonite1 calam9e & o!r second>y m9]als ( z9c4 ,:5 intrud$ by ! hot granite ! smi?sonite 7c>bonate7 may well h be5 alt]$ to ! oxide1 z9cite2 :ile ! calam9e 7hydr\s silicate7 became ! simple silicate1 willemite4 ,willemite ,zn,si,o ,pl4 #bj ,occurs 9 masses or 9 cry/als2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #d4a2 color pale yell[ :5 pure2 lu/] res9\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,willemite is ano!r ( ! m9]als :i* are di/9ctively *>act]i/ic ( ,frankl9 ,furnace1 & f\nd else:]e v r>ely4 ,x is s common !re z to be "o ( ! pr9cipal ores1 & mo/ly occurs 9 irregul> masses1 b is also f\nd 9 cry/als4 ,^! are hexagonal prisms1 ) a ?ree-sid$ 7rhomboh$ral7 pyramid on ! ends4 ,! color :5 pure is :iti% or gre5i%-yell[1 b ) small am\nts ( impurities x may be fle%-r$1 grayi%-:ite or yell[i%-br[n4 ,:5 9 cry/als x is easily det]m9$2 b :5 massive x looks l calam9e1 & c only be di/+ui%$ by plac+ a bit ( ! m9]al 9 a clos$ tube & heat+ x1 9 :i* case calam9e w give (f wat] vapor1 :ile willemite w n4 ,?is m9]al is "o ( ^? result+ f metamorphic alt]ation & is d]iv$ f calam9e1 :5 ! latt] loses its wat] ( cry/allization4 ,x is common at ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,n4 ,j41 & also f\nd occasionally else:]e1 z at ,salida1 ,colo41 & 9 ,socorro ,co41 ,new ,mexico4 ,calam9e ,zn7,,oh7,si,o ,occurs z cry/all9e l9+s 9 cavities1 or z botryoidal or /alactitic masses2 h>dness #e2 specific gravity #c4d2 colorless to :ite2 lu/] vitre\s4 ,calam9e resembles bo? smi?sonite & willemite :5 9 non-cry/all9e masses4 ,f ! smi?sonite x is easily sep>at$ by ! fact t 9 nitric acid ! smi?sonite eff]vesces & ! calam9e does n4 ,f willemite x is h>d] to di/+ui%1 b a piece may be plac$ 9 a clos$ tube & heat$4 ,if x is calam9e wat] vapor w be giv5 (f1 if willemite no?+ happ5s4 ,:5 calam9e occurs 9 cry/als ^! are or?orhombic & mo/ly tabul>1 & ! cry/als are peculi> 9 t ! two ends are t]m9at$ diff]5tly4 ,bo? ?is & smi?sonite are second>y m9]als & usually occur toge!r :5 z9c is f\nd 9 lime/ones4 ,x is abundant at ,frankl9 ,furnace & ,/]l+ ,hill1 ,n4 ,j41 & also f\nd at ,phnixville1 ,p5n41 9 ,wy! ,co41 ,va41 & ,granby1 ,mo4 ,smi?sonite ,zn,c,o ,pl4 #ba ,dry bone ,usually occurs z incru/ations1 gra9s1 e>?y or compact masses1 & z cry/als2 h>dness #e2 specific gravity #d4d2 color :ite1 yell[1 gre5i% or blui%2 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,:5 pure ?is m9]al is colorless1 b1 z x occurs1 x is usually :ite1 or t+$ ) "s %ade ( yell[1 gre51 or blue1 b 9 all cases its /reak is :ite4 ,! cry/als are rhomboh$rons (t5 ) edges bevel$ or corn]s cut by o!r faces4 ,x resembles calam9e & willemite1 b is readily sep>at$ f ei!r ( ^! by ! acid te/1 = smi?sonite eff]vesces :5 acid is plac$ on x4 ,next to sphal]ite1 smi?sonite is ! commone/ ( ! z9c m9]als4 ,x is a second>y m9]al1 result+ f ! action ( lime-*>g$ wat] act+ on sphal]ite1 & s is likely to be f\nd :]ev] z9c m9]als occur 9 a lime/one region4 ,9 ! ,wiscons9-,ill9ois-,i[a di/rict x s]ves z a m9or ore ( z9c1 & is t]m$ "h 8dry bone40 ,x is also f\nd 9 ! ,miss\ri & ,arkansas di/ricts1 & 9 ,europe is an important ore = z9c4 ,frankl9ite 7,zn,mn7,fe,o ,pl4 #ba ,occurs 9 compact gra9s or masses1 & 9 isometric octah$rons2 h>dness #f2 specific gravity #e2 color black2 /reak r$di%-br[n2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,?is is a m9]al peculi> to ! ,frankl9 ,furnace region1 f :i* x gets its "n4 ,x looks l magnetite1 b its r$di%-br[n /reak & lack ( magnetism di/+ui% x4 ,:5 x occurs 9 octah$rons1 ! edges are r\nd$1 :ile ^? ( magnetite are %>p4 ,x is a complex & v>iable oxide ( z9c1 iron & manganese1 :i* has result$ f ! metamorphism ( ! b$s 9 :i* x occurr$ probably be+ orig9ally some?+ q diff]5t4 ,! ,manganese ,gr\p ,?\gh manganese 0 kn[n 9 ! m9]al pyrolusite 9 e>ly times1 x 0 !n ?\ght to be magnetite or magnetic iron ore4 ,x 0 n until #aggd t x 0 isolat$ & recogniz$ z a di/9ct elem5t4 ,manganese is "o ( ! less] elem5ts 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 mak+ less ?an 4#jg ( "o p]c5t1 b z an alloy ) o!r metals1 especially iron1 x has atta9$ a consid]able importance to man4 ,x is us$ *iefly ) iron1 #bj ( manganese mak+ ! alloy1 spiegeleis51 a comb9ation :i* occurs 9 ,nature 9 ,g]many1 & f #bj to #hj mak+ f]romanganese4 ,^! alloys are 9 great dem& because !y make an especially t\gh /eel ess5tial 9 ! manufacture ( munitions4 ,! s\rces = manganese are ! oxide ores1 manganite1 pyrolusite & psilomelane1 :i* h be5 =m$ z second>y m9]als1 z a result ( ! wea!r+ ( silicates :i* c>ry manganese4 ,!y occur widely en\gh1 b ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! deposits are small1 & ?is is "o ( ! elem5ts 9 :i* ?is c\ntry is n self-suffici5t4 ,! l>ge/ produc] ( manganese is ,russia2 h[ev] %e consumes almo/ all ( h] output at home1 & our supply comes f ! next l>ge/ produc]s1 ,india1 ! ,union ( ,s\? ,africa1 & ! ,gold ,coa/4 ,a %ift 9 trade may be expect$ :5 ,brazil's rec5tly discov]$ ore body 9 ,matto ,grosso is br\ght into full production4 ,besides be+ us$ z an alloy1 manganese is employ$ 9 mak+ pa9ts & dyes1 = cle>+ glass1 & = "s types ( electric batt]ies4 ,pyrolusite ,mn,o ,occurs 9 e>?y or fibr\s masses2 h>dness #a-b2 specific gravity #d4h2 color black2 /reak black2 lu/] dull2 opaque4 ,pyrolusite occurs 9 s(t masses & incru/ations1 usually leav+ a sooty m>k on ! f+]s4 ,sometimes x seems to be 9 cry/als1 b ^! are pseudomorphs :i* h ! =m ( manganite1 f :i* ! pyrolusite has =m$ z a result ( ! wat] hav+ be5 driv5 f ! manganite4 ,frequ5tly pyromorphite & manganite w be f\nd toge!r1 & 9 "s cases ! out] "p ( a mass or cry/al w be pyrolusite1 :ile ! c5t] is /ill manganite4 ,psilomelane is ano!r oxide ( manganese ) wat] & may appe> v l pyrolusite1 b bo? manganite & psilomelane h mu* great] h>dness ?an does pyrolusite4 ,if !re is difficulty 9 decid+ ab\t pyrolusite1 x may be plac$ 9 a clos$ tube & heat$4 ,x w n be affect$ by ! heat1 :ile1 "u ! same circum/ances1 bo? manganite & psilomelane w give (f wat] vapor4 ,pyrolusite usually occurs 9 black /reaks or pockets 9 residual clays :i* h =m$ z a result ( ! decomposition ( lime/ones4 ,x may also occur 9 d5dritic =ms 9 seams & crevices 7see manganite74 ,x is f\nd 9 ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 ,virg9ia1 ,arkansas1 ,colorado1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,psilomelane ,mn,o,h,o ,occurs 9 compact botryoidal or /alactitic masses2 h>dness #e-f2 specific gravity #d4b2 color black2 /reak br[ni%-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,psilomelane is v l pyrolusite1 & (t5 occurs ) x4 ,x is di/+ui%$ by its great] h>dness1 & ! fact1 t :5 heat$ 9 a clos$ tube1 x gives (f wat] vapor4 ,f manganite x is m easily di/+ui%$1 = x nev] occurs 9 cry/als1 :ile ! manganite is usually cry/all9e4 ,?is & pyrolusite are ! pr9cipal ores ( manganese4 ,wad is an impure =m ( psilomelane1 hav+ "s iron oxide mix$ ) ! manganese oxide1 usually limonite2 or ! impurity may take ! =m ( a copp]1 cobalt1 li?ium or b>ium oxide4 ,psilomelane is f\nd at ,br&on1 ,vt41 9 ,arkansas1 ,colorado1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,manganite ,mn,o,h,o ,pl4 #bb ,occurs 9 prismatic cry/als1 or 9 column> or fibr\s masses2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #d4d2 color /eel gray2 /reak r$di%-black2 lu/] submetallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,?is is ! =m tak5 by manganese oxide :5 x cry/allizes 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure1 & pyrolusite frequ5tly *anges to manganite :5 expos$ to moi/ure4 ,! cry/als are or?orhombic prisms1 ) /riat$ sides & ! ends truncat$4 ,^! prisms usually occur 9 bundles & give ! m9]al a fibr\s appe>ance4 ,manganite is n h>d to id5tify1 ! /riations on ! cry/als & ! /reak be+ v *>act]i/ic4 ,9 seams & t9y crevices ?is m9]al1 & (t5 pyrolusite1 gr[s 9 a bran*+ mann]1 resembl+ tree-l or 8mossy0 masses4 ,?is is t]m$ d5dritic1 & ! gr[?s ( manganese m9]als are call$ d5drites4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s ( ^! is :5 ! 8mossy0 gr[? is inclos$ 9 *alc$ony1 mak+ ! s-call$ moss agate4 ,^! moss agates are abundant ?r\gh ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & are frequ5tly cut = semi-preci\s /ones4 ,! f9e/ ones h[ev] come f ,india & ,*9a4 ,manganite is f\nd 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 ,colorado1 etc4 ,rhodo*rosite ,mn,c,o ,occurs 9 compact cleavable masses2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #c4e2 color rose to d>k r$2 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is usually occurs 9 p9k to r$ masses :i* cleave readily p>allel to ! faces ( ! rhomboh$ron4 ,:5 x is f\nd 9 cry/als1 :i* are r>e1 ^! too are rhomboh$rons4 ,x is usually f\nd 9 ve9s z a gangue m9]al ) copp]1 silv] or z9c ores4 ,its beautiful color & ! fact t x eff]vesces 9 acid s]ve to di/+ui% ?is m9]al4 ,x is f\nd at ,bran*ville1 ,conn41 at ,frankl9 ,furnace1 ,n4 ,j41 & 9 ve9s ) silv] 9 ,colorado1 ,nevada1 & ,montana4 ,! ,alum9um ,gr\p ,?\gh alum9um is "o ( ! mo/ abundant ( all ! metals1 mak+ "s #h ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 its union ) o!r elem5ts is s firm1 t only rec5tly h me?ods be5 f\nd = gett+ ! metal free4 ,x 0 fir/ isolat$ 9 #ahdf1 b up to #ahij ! extraction ( alum9um 0 s exp5sive1 t x c\ld n be widely us$4 ,ab\t t "t electrical processes 7 appli$ to its extraction1 & s9ce !n ! price has /eadily dropp$1 until n[ x is "u 4#bj p] p\nd4 ,x is v malleable1 & ductile1 & has high t5sile /r5g?4 ,expos$ to ! air1 wat] or ord9>y gases1 x does n t>ni%2 & x is v light1 an equal bulk weigh+ ab\t a ?ird z mu* z iron4 ,! comb9ation ( lightness & /r5g?1 & ! fact t x is a good conductor ( electricity1 h made x available = a wide range ( uses1 su* z electrical app>atus1 delicate in/rum5ts1 boats1 a]oplanes1 & dome/ic ut5sils4 ,x is an ess5tial compon5t ( all ! important rocks1 except s&/one & lime/one1 & comb9es to a great] or less degree 9 a ho/ ( m9]als4 ,?\gh pres5t 9 clays1 %ales1 argillites1 feldsp>s1 & micas1 x is only f bauxite t x has be5 successfully extract$4 ,aside f ! small numb] ( simple comp\nds ( alum9um gr\p$ "h1 x also takes a "p 9 ! make-up ( a l>ge s]ies ( m9]als t]m$ silicates1 treat$ a little fur!r on 9 ?is book4 ,x alloys ) o!r metals1 especially copp]4 ,! union ( copp] & a small am\nt ( alum9um makes alum9um-bronze1 :i* looks l gold & is us$ = wat* *a9s1 p5cil-cases1 etc41 & also = ! antifriction be>+s ( heavy ma*9]y4 ,a small am\nt add$ to /eel prev5ts air holes & cracks 9 ca/+4 ,corundum ,al,o ,pl4 #bc ,occurs 9 cleavable masses or 9 hexagonal cry/als2 h>dness #i2 specific gravity #d2 colorless1 r$1 yell[1 blue1 or gray2 lu/] vitre\s to adamant9e2 transluc5t to transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,corundum is readily recogniz$ by its h>dness1 second only to t ( ! diamond4 ,! cry/als may be simple six-sid$ prisms1 hexagonal pyramids or comb9ations ( ! two4 ,! cleavage is usually describ$ z p>t+1 = x is by no means p]fect1 b :5 x is recognizable x is p>allel to ! faces ( a rhomboh$ron1 & cleavage pieces may appe> almo/ cubic4 ,:5 9 cle> & p]fect cry/als ?is m9]al is "o ( ! mo/ highly priz$ ( all ! gems4 ,cle> & colorless x is kn[n z ! 8,ori5tal :ite sapphire02 :5 t+$ ) blue x is ! sapphire2 :5 color$ yell[1 ! 8,ori5tal topaz02 :5 gre51 ! 8,ori5tal em]ald02 :5 purple1 ! 8,ori5tal ame?y/0 & :5 r$1 ! ruby4 ,sapphires range f colorless to deep blue1 ! value dep5d+ on ! %ade ( ! blue1 & increas+ z ! color deep5s4 ,! ,ori5tal topaz c easily be confus$ ) ! true topaz1 :i* is a mu* common] & less valuable gem1 b c be di/+ui%$ by ! h>dness1 topaz hav+ a h>dness ( b #h4 ,! "n em]ald is appli$ to sev]al gre5 gems1 mo/ly to b]yl1 :i* is n s h>d & is ! true em]ald4 ,! ,ori5tal em]alds h a value ab\t ! same z diamonds4 ,rubies ( cle> & deep color are ! r>e/ ( all gems1 rang+ 9 value ab\t ?ree times z high z diamonds ( equal size4 ,! mo/ s\ght-= %ade is ! s-call$ 8pigeon-blood r$10 & ! value ( a /one ( ?is sort is almo/ dep5d5t on ! :im ( ! buy]4 ,! be/ ( ! rubies come f granites or metamorphos$ lime/ones 9 ,burma2 ! be/ sapphires f ,ceylon1 ?\gh bo? ( ^!1 & "s ( ! o!r corundums ( gem quality1 h be5 f\nd 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,montana4 ,ar\nd ^! /ones1 :i* h be5 us$ s long among ! ,h9dus1 ,p]sians1 ,jews1 ,egyptians1 & ,*ri/ians1 a weal? ( lore has be5 wov54 ,! sapphire 0 ,saturn's /one1 & a talisman to attract ,div9e favor4 ,:]e tradition makes ! /one on :i* ! t5 comm&m5ts 7 writt5 ! sapphire1 x is probable t1 :at 0 really meant1 is lapis lazuli1 z is also ! case :5 sapphires are m5tion$ z build+ /ones = ! cele/ial gates4 ,! ruby 9 anci5t lore is t]m$ 8"l ( /ones10 8gem ( gems0 etc41 & s protect$ its we>] t he 0 safe f injury 9 peace or w>4 ,:5 corundum is color$ br[n by impurities ( iron1 x is t]m$ corundum1 :5 black by great] quantities ( iron1 x is em]y4 ,^! v>ieties are f> ! commone/ =m 9 :i* corundum occurs1 & :5 gr\nd to f9] or co>s] p[d] make ! comm]cial em]y4 ,em]y is likely to be f\nd 9 s&s1 mak+ s-call$ 8black s&s10 :]e x has accumulat$ z a result ( ! wea!r+ to bits corundum-be>+ rocks4 ,9 "s "o ( its =ms1 corundum is f\nd 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 & all d[n ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s1 also 9 ,colorado1 ,montana1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,bauxite ,al,o#b;,h,o ,occurs 9 gra9s1 or oolitic or clay-l masses2 h>dness #a-c2 specific gravity #b4e2 color :ite to yell[i%-:ite or r$di%-br[n4 ,bauxite nev] comes 9 cry/als1 b is usually 9 e>?y masses1 :i* h result$ f ! decomposition ( granitic or volcanic rocks1 9 circum/ances :]e hot alkal9e wat]s 7 pres5t4 ,?is explanation seems to apply especially to ! deposits 9 ,france1 :i* 7 fir/ ! *ief s\rce ( ! bauxite1 & may be applicable to ^? 9 ,georgia & ,alabama4 ,"s ( ! o!r deposits1 h[ev]1 d n seem to h _h any hot wat] available1 & ! deposit appe>s m l simple decomposition ( ! und]ly+ rocks by alkal9e wat]s4 ,9 _m cases bauxite resembles limonite 9 be+ a mixture ( two or m alum9um oxides ) wat] ( cry/allization1 su* z ,al,o,h,o1 ,al,o#b;,h,o & ,al,o#c;,h,o4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ! bauxite :i* result$ f ! decomposition ( rocks by surface wat]4 ,bauxite is ! ore f :i* alum9um is obta9$4 ,! deposits are n l>ge1 b ! ,unit$ ,/ates has its %>e ( !m4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,alabama1 ,arkansas1 ,georgia1 ,miss\ri1 ,t5nessee1 & ,cali=nia4 ,cryolite ,na,al,f ,ice /one ,occurs 9 pseudo-cubic cry/als or massive2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #c2 color :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,cryolite is a relatively s(t m9]al1 colorless to :ite z sn[2 = :i* reason1 & p>tly also because x comes mo/ly f ,gre5l& x is call$ 8ice /one40 ,x is really monocl9ic b ! incl9ation ( ! c axis is s slight1 t1 unless exam9$ c>efully1 ! cry/als appe> to be cubic4 ,until ab\t #aijj great quantities ( ?is m9]al 7 %ipp$ f ,we/ ,gre5l&1 & f !m ! metal alum9um 0 extract$4 ,:5 bauxite 0 discov]$1 x 0 f\nd to be consid]ably *eap] to make ! alum9um f t m9]al1 & n[ cryolite is no long] s\ght4 ,aside f its occurr5ce 9 ,gre5l& "s cryolite is f\nd 9 ,colorado1 ne> ,pike's ,peak4 ,! ,ars5ic ,gr\p ,! metal1 ars5ic1 is a d>k /eel gray 9 color1 :5 ! surface is fre%1 b x soon t>ni%es4 ,x is v brittle & easily p[d]$ "u ! hamm]1 & its only use z a metal1 is = an alloy ) lead 9 mak+ %ot4 ,its comp\nds f9d a wid] use4 ,! :ite p[d] call$ 8ars5ic0 is ars5\s acid1 & is us$ mo/ly 9 mak+ poisons1 :i* =tunately are easily detect$ 9 animal tissues4 ,copp] ars5ate1 7,s*eele's gre57 is a pigm5t us$ 9 mak+ gre5 pa9t1 & =m]ly 9 ! gre5 colors ( wall pap]4 ,a comb9ation ( ars5\s acid1 copp] oxide & acetic acid is ! well kn[n ,p>is ,gre51 s mu* us$ = an insecticide4 ,beside ^! uses1 ars5ic s]ves a l>ge numb] ( o!r purposes1 z 9 mak+ glass & enamel1 embalm+ fluids1 & v>i\s m$ic9es4 ,curi\sly ars5ic plays a d\ble "p1 act+ "p ( ! "t z a metal1 z 9 ! two foll[+ m9]als1 & "p ( ! "t z a non-metal1 z 9 cobaltite1 niccolite1 etc4 ,ars5opyrite ,fe,as,s ,pl4 #bd ,occurs 9 well =m$ cry/als1 gra9s1 or masses2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #f2 color silv]-:ite2 /reak black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,:5 9 cry/als1 !y are usually %ort prisms ( ! or?orhombic sy/em1 ei!r end be+ t]m9at$ ) a l[ ro(4 ,?\gh usually describ$ z silv]-:ite 9 color1 !re is always a brassy ca/ to ! color4 ,its appe>ance is mu* l cobaltite & smaltite1 b x c be easily di/+ui%$ f bo? ^! by putt+ a piece 9 nitric acid4 ,! ars5opyrite w n mat]ially *ange ! color ( ! fluid1 b ! o!r two turn x rose-r$1 & all give (f ! smell ( sulphur4 ,x looks sometimes l m>casite1 b t is yell[]1 & has ! fibr\s /ructure1 n f\nd 9 ars5opyrite4 ,x is f\nd 9 ve9s or 9 metamorphic rocks1 associat$ ) arg5tite1 gal5a1 sphal]ite1 *alcopyrite & pyrite4 ,x is di/9ctly a m9]al =m$ by deposition f hot vapors or hot wat] ris+ f ei!r lavas1 or 9 ! c\rse ( metamorphism4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,realg> ,as,s ,pl4 #bd ,occurs 9 incru/ations or scatt]$ gra9s2 h>dness #a4e to #b2 specific gravity #c4e2 color orange2 /reak orange2 lu/] res9\s2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,cry/als are v r>e1 b :5 f\nd are %ort monocl9ic prisms4 ,! color is aurora-r$1 *ang+ to orange z soon z x is expos$ to ! air4 ,?is & ! /reak are entirely *>act]i/ic4 ,x is a m9]al associat$ ) hot vapors or hot wat]s1 & is f\nd ab\t volcanoes1 z deposits f ! hot wat] ( ! geys]s 9 ,norris ,bas91 ,yell[/one ,p>k1 & 9 ve9s1 associat$ ) b>ite1 /ibnite1 qu>tz1 etc41 z 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,utah1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,orpim5t ,z,s ,occurs z incru/ations or p[d]y masses2 h>dness #a to #b2 specific gravity #c4e2 color lemon yell[2 /reak yell[2 lu/] res9\s4 ,?is m9]al is v l realg> 9 its physical prop]ties1 & likely to occur ) x4 ,x gives ! lemon yell[ color to ! bas9s ab\t hot spr+s1 z 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 & ab\t volcanoes4 ,x also comes 9 ve9s ) realg>4 ,molybd5um ,molybd5um is a r>e metal1 silv]y-:ite 9 color1 brittle & v difficult to fuse4 ,x is us$ mo/ly z an alloy ( /eel1 to make c]ta9 grades ( tool /eel4 ,! _w's greate/ supply is obta9$ f ,climax1 ,colorado1 :]e ! pr9cipal ore m9]al is molybd5ite4 ,molybd5ite ,mo,s ,occurs 9 scales or scaly masses1 occasionally 9 tabul> hexagonal cry/als2 h>dness #a4e2 specific gravity #d4g2 color lead-gray2 /reak blui%-gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,?is m9]al is ! *ief s\rce = ! metal molybd5um4 ,its extreme s(tness & greasy feel w di/+ui% x at once f any o!r m9]al except graphite1 :i* has mu* ! same qualities1 b its scaly "* & ! m blui% t+e 9 /reak & color w di/+ui% ^! two4 ,x occurs 9 granites1 gneisses1 & metamorphic rocks 9 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 ,ma9e1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 etc4 ,antimony ,antimony is ano!r h>d1 brittle metal1 ( blui%-:ite color4 ,expos$ to ! air at ord9>y temp]atures x does n t>ni%2 & ?is comb9$ ) its h>dness make x useful = su* alloys z ,britannia metal1 type metal1 & pewt]4 ,only "o ( its m9]als1 /ibnite1 is common en\gh = m5tion4 ,/ibnite ,sb,s ,pl4 #be gray antimony ,occurs 9 prismatic or ne$le-l cry/als2 h>dness #b2 specific gravity #d4e2 color lead-gray2 /reak lead-gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,! cry/als ( /ibnite are or?orhombic & usually elongat$1 ! sides /riat$ & ! ends ) l[ pyramids on !m4 ,sometimes ! long cry/als are curv$ or ev5 twi/$4 ,!re is a well-develop$ cleavage p>allel to face b 9 ! figure4 ,:ile ! color is simil> to t ( gal5a1 ! =m & cleavage are s diff]5t t /ibnite is easily det]m9$4 ,! anci5ts us$ /ibnite to color _! eyebr[s1 n[ x is ! s\rce = ! metal antimony4 ,hung>y & ,japan are fam\s = ! f9e l>ge cry/als !y produce2 b mod]ate siz$ cry/als may be f\nd 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,x occurs 9 ve9s along ) pyrite1 gal5a1 c9nab>1 & realg>1 ) qu>tz1 calcite or b>ite z gangue m9]als4 ,/ibnite has be5 f\nd 9 ,arkansas1 ,cali=nia1 ,nevada1 & ,utah4 ,! ,nickel ,gr\p ,nickel z a metal is silv]y-:ite 9 color1 r h>d1 & does n t>ni% :5 expos$ to ! air4 ,:5 pure x is malleable & fairly ductile4 ,x is highly useful = plat+ o!r metals to protect _! surfaces4 ,alloy$ ) /eel1 x makes a product ( extreme h>dness4 ,copp]1 z9c1 & nickel make ! well kn[n ,g]man silv]4 ,nickel has a fairly l>ge range ( m9]als1 b !y d n occur ) any abundance 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s t we h to import mo/ all ( our nickel4 ,9 ! e>li] days ,new ,cal$onia produc$ mo/ ( ! _w's supply1 b rec5tly s9ce ! f9d+ ( l>ge nickel deposits ne> ,sudbury1 ,canada1 ?is locality has n only out/ripp$ ,new ,cal$onia1 b n[ produces f\r-fif?s ( ! _w's supply4 ,9 ?is c\ntry b two nickel m9]als w be f\nd at all common4 ,niccolite ,ni,as ,pl4 #be copp] nickel ,occurs 9 masses2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #g4d2 color pale copp]y-yell[2 /reak pale br[ni%-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,niccolite is v seldom 9 cry/als1 b if !y d occur !y are hexagonal4 ,! m9]al looks a little l smaltite1 b 9 case !re is any "q ( ! det]m9ation1 dissolve a piece 9 nitric acid1 & if niccolite1 x w color ! solution gre54 ,niccolite is usually associat$ ) copp] & silv] ores1 & 9 ?is c\ntry has be5 f\nd at ,*a?am1 ,conn41 & ,silv] ,cliff1 ,colo4 ,x may be associat$ ) p5tl&ite1 a sulphide ( iron & nickel1 :i* is simil> 9 appe>ance1 b n s h>d1 & occurs 9 small gra9s ?r\gh\t d>k lavas4 ,! p>ticles ( p5tl&ite are h[ev] s small1 t !y are seldom noticeable1 b at ,sudbury1 ,canada1 ?is is ! *ief ore ( nickel4 ,mill]ite ,ni,s capill>y pyrites ,occurs 9 ne$le-l or fibr\s cry/als2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #e4e2 color brass-yell[2 /reak gre5i% black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,! fibr\s cry/als ( mill]ite belong to ! or?orhombic sy/em4 ,! color & /reak sugge/ pyrite1 b ! cry/als are long & sl5d]1 :ile pyrite is 9 cubes1 octah$rons1 etc4 ,if !re is any d\bt ( ! id5tity ( ?is =m1 place a piece 9 nitric acid1 & if x is mill]ite1 x w color ! acid gre54 ,x may occur 9 ve9s associat$ ) cobalt & silv] m9]als1 or z a second>y m9]al z at ,gap ,m9e1 ,p5n41 or 9 cavities 9 s$im5t>y rocks4 ,9 ! la/ case x usually is 9 ne$le-l cry/als gr[+ ?r\gh calcite cry/als1 z at ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo41 ,keokuk1 ,i[a1 & ,antw]p1 ,n4 ,y4 ,! ,cobalt ,gr\p ,z a metal1 cobalt is h>d1 brittle1 & ( a grayi% color1 t+$ ) r$4 ,x 0 n recogniz$ z a sep>ate elem5t until #agce1 & ev5 today is "o ( ! m9or metals4 ,cobalt1 *romium & a little tung/5 make ! alloy /ellite1 :i* has come into l>ge use 9 mak+ high-spe$ tools4 ,! oxide ( cobalt 7,co,o7 is 8smalt10 us$ to give ! blue color to porcela91 pott]y1 glass1 tiles1 etc4 ,invisible ink is made by dilut+ cobalt *loride 9 a l>ge quantity ( wat]4 ,?is solution is a fa9t p9k color & practically invisible on pap]1 b if heat$ x loses wat] & turns blue 9 color1 & is p]fectly visible4 ,cobalt is ano!r ( ! metals1 ( :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates does n h an adequate supply4 ,sw$51 ,norway & ,india 7 ! *ief s\rces ( supply until cobalt 0 f\nd ne> ! t[n ( ,cobalt 9 ,ont>io1 ,canada1 & n[ ?is di/rict furni%es #ij ( ! _w's supply4 ,cobaltite ,co,as,s ,pl4 #bf cobalt glance ,usually cry/all9e 9 cubes1 pyritoh$rons or octah$rons2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #f4a2 color r$di% silv]-:ite2 /reak grayi%-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,9 color cobaltite may appe> v l ars5opyrite1 especially if ! r$di% t+e is n /rong1 9 :i* case ! m9]al c be def9itely det]m9$ by putt+ a piece 9 nitric acid4 ,if x is cobaltite ! solution w be color$ rose-r$1 if ars5opyrite !re w be no *ange ( color4 ,! =ms ( ! cry/als are ! same z ^? ( pyrite1 b ! color w easily di/+ui% cobaltite f pyrite4 ,?is p9k color is *>act]i/ically pres5t ei!r 9 or ab\t cobalt m9]als1 be+ sometimes call$ 8cobalt bloom40 ,x is a cobalt-ars5ic-oxide ) wat] ( cry/allization 7,co,z,o#h;,h,o71 :i* results f ! exposure ( cobalt & ars5ic m9]als to air & moi/ure4 ,x is ! p9k color on ! figures ( bo? cobaltite & smaltite4 ,9 ,sw$51 ,norway & ,india1 ?is is ! *ief ore = cobalt1 b 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is r r>e1 b is f\nd 9 ,oregon1 & at ,cobalt1 ,canada4 ,smaltite 7,co,ni7,z ,pl4 #bf gray cobalt ore ,usually occurs 9 masses2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #f4b2 color t9-:ite to /eel-gray2 /reak grayi%-black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,:ile v l cobaltite1 smaltite is almo/ nev] f\nd 9 cry/als1 b :5 cry/als are f\nd1 !y are cubes4 ,! color is t9-:ite b !re is usually a p9k t+e visible due to ! pres5ce ( small am\nts ( 8cobalt bloom40 ,if 9 any d\bt ab\t ! det]m9ation ( ?is m9]al1 put a piece 9 nitric acid4 ,if x colors ! acid rose-p9k1 & is non-cry/all9e x is pretty surely smaltite2 if ! acid is n affect$ x is ars5opyrite4 ,smaltite is f\nd 9 ,k5tucky1 ,miss\ri1 ,colorado1 ,idaho1 ,cali=nia1 & at ,cobalt 9 ,canada4 ,*romium ,?is metal gets its "n 9 recognition ( ! _m colors 7*roma 8color071 9 :i* its comp\nds appe>4 ,*romic oxide is a vivid gre51 us$ to color porcela9s1 pott]y1 tiles1 etc41 & also z a sub/itute = ! ars5ical gre5s =m]ly us$ 9 wall-pap]4 ,! *romate ( lead is ! pigm5t1 well kn[n to arti/s z 8*rome yell[10 & ! bi*romate ( potassium is bright r$4 ,! metal is obta9$ 9 at lea/ two diff]5t =ms2 "o h>d1 brittle & s resi/ant to heat z to be infusible at temp]atures :i* w\ld volatilize plat9um2 ! o!r z a p[d] :i* burns brightly if heat$ 9 air4 ,:ile us$ 9 pa9ts1 dyes1 etc41 its greate/ importance is = ! mak+ ( f]ro-*rome /eel1 :i* is us$ :]e resi/ance to sudd5 %ock is requir$1 z 9 armor plate1 automobile spr+s1 ball be>+s1 etc4 ,) tung/5 & cobalt x makes ! alloy1 /ellite1 z not$ above4 ,*romium 0 us$ 9 relatively small quantities be=e ! fir/ _w w>1 & we import$ our supplies f ,turkey1 ,india1 ,new ,cal$onia1 & ,rhodesia4 ,dur+ ! la/ w> we />t$ a l>ge-scale developm5t ( l[-grade ores 9 ,montana1 & c n[ supply all ( our ne$s f ?is s\rce4 ,*romite ,fe,cr,o *romic iron ,occurs 9 gra9s1 masses1 or isometric octah$rons2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #d4d2 color black2 /reak d>k-br[n2 lu/] submetallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,9 =m1 color & /reak *romite resembles magnetite & frankl9ite4 ,f ! magnetite x is di/+ui%$ by be+ non-magnetic2 f ! frankl9ite1 by be+ insoluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 :ile ! frankl9ite is soluble4 ,*romite furni%es practically all ! *romium us$ 9 ! arts & manufactures4 ,x is a m9]al associat$ ) high temp]atures1 & !re=e f\nd 9 d>k lavas1 s]p5t9e1 & oliv9e4 ,x occurs 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,montana1 ,oregon1 ,wyom+1 & ,cali=nia4 ,tung/5 ,?is elem5t is obta9$ ei!r z a heavy d>k-gray metal1 :i* is v h>d & difficult to fuse1 or z a d>k-gray p[d]4 ,x is us$ z an alloy ) iron1 "o "p ( tung/5 to n9e ( /eel1 to make ! f]rotung/51 :i* has extraord9>y h>dness1 & is us$ mo/ly = high-spe$ tools4 ,tung/5 is also "o ( ! ?ree metals 7cobalt1 *romium & tung/57 :i* are alloy$ toge!r to make /ellite4 ,"s ( ! tung/5 supply is also us$ to make ! films 9 inc&esc5t lamps1 & 9 "s ( ! *emical indu/ries4 ,x has b "o important ore1 wolframite1 & ?is is f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 b small quantities2 s t we ord9>ily h to import ! great] "p ( :at we use4 ,dur+ ! la/ w>1 "u ! /imulus ( high prices & ! urge ( necessity1 we did f9d & produce sub/antial quantities ( tung/54 ,*9a is ! _w's l>ge/ produc] ( tung/5 ore ) ,burma second1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates a poor ?ird4 ,wolframite 7,fe,mn7,,wo ,occurs 9 monocl9ic cry/als or 9 cry/all9e masses2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity #g4d2 color d>k-br[n to black2 /reak ne>ly black2 lu/] submetallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,if 9 cry/als ! =m w s]ve to di/+ui% ?is m9]al f cassit]ite & ilm5ite1 ! two :i* x mo/ resembles2 b if x is massive ! only sure way to decide is to put a piece 9 /rong sulphuric acid2 if x dissolves & ?r[s d[n a yell[ precipitate 7tung/ic acid7 x is wolframite4 ,l ! two o!r m9]als m5tion$ above x occurs 9 ve9s 9 igne\s rocks1 be+ associat$ ) high temp]atures4 ,z x is almo/ insoluble 9 wat]1 l cassit]ite & ilm5ite1 x is likely to occur ) !m 9 ! s&s :i* are ! result ( ! dis9tegration ( ! rocks :i* c>ri$ ! m9]als2 & s a l>ge "p ( ! supply today comes f plac] deposits4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,connecticut1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,miss\ri1 ,colorado1 & ,cali=nia4 ,radium1 ,uranium & ,vanadium ,^! ?ree metals are all r>e & occur toge!r4 ,radium1 discov]$ 9 #ahih1 is a heavy metal :i* has prov$ v useful because ( its radio-activity1 t is1 its p[] ( giv+ (f or radiat+ t9y p>ticles ( matt] kn[n z ,x-rays1 "p ( :i* are *>g$ ) positive electricity1 & "p ( !m ) negative electricity4 ,! ability ( ^! rays to pass ?r\gh o!r sub/ances has made possible photograph+ ! d5s] sub/ances )9 ^? less d5se1 z ! bones )9 ! fle%1 or metal )9 lea!r or wood1 etc4 ,! rays h prov$ ( great value m$ic9ally1 & are also us$ to make objects lum9\s 9 ! d>k4 ,^! ,x-rays are also us$ 9 ! /udy ( ! ultimate /ructure ( matt]1 z x c be ?us obta9$ 9 su* small units4 ,uranium is ano!r elem5t :i* is radio-active & c be us$ = _m ( ! same purposes z radium4 ,vanadium1 ! ?ird ( ^! associat$ metals1 & ! commone/ ( ! gr\p1 is n radio-active4 ,x is a silv]y-:ite metal1 mo/ly us$ z an alloy ) /eel to give x great h>dness4 ,c>notite ,k,o#b,u,o,v,o#c;,h,o ,pl4 #bg ,occurs 9 e>?y masses2 color yell[4 ,?is m9]al is includ$ "h1 n because x is common1 b because x is ( su* great int]e/4 ,x is ! *ief s\rce ( supply 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( radium1 uranium & vanadium4 ,x is a lemon-yell[ e>? or p[d]1 :i* looks a little l orpim5t4 ,x is h[ev] f\nd 9 a s&/one1 in/ead ( :]e hot wat]s h depos$ m9]als4 ,f a ton ( ?is ore ab\t #aj p\nds ( uranium oxide1 #ee p\nds ( vanadium & _/? ( a gram ( radium are obta9$4 ,c>notite is f\nd 9 s\?-we/ ,colorado & s\?-ea/ ,utah1 & on ,c>rizo ,m\nta9 on ! l9e betwe5 ,arizona & ,new ,mexico4 ,m]cury ,m]cury1 or quicksilv]1 is ! only metal :i* is liquid at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,x is silv]y-:ite 9 color1 ) a /rik+ metallic lu/]1 & at ! l[ temp]ature ( #ffb ,f41 boils & *anges to a colorless vapor4 ,m]cury alloys ) c]ta9 metals1 ^! alloys be+ kn[n z amalgams4 ,9 ?is way x is especially useful = ! recov]y ( gold & silv]1 ! m]cury be+ add$ to cru%$ ore1 ! gold or silv] unit+ ) ! m]cury 9 a liquid amalgam1 :i* is !n drawn (f & heat$ to a temp]ature above #ffb ,f41 at :i* temp]ature ! m]cury volatilizes & is recov]$1 :ile ! gold or silv] rema9s beh9d4 ,m]cury also =ms a solid amalgam ) t9 :i* is us$ to coat glass1 ! high metallic lu/] mak+ ! mo/ effective look+ glass4 ,x is also us$ 9 m$ic9es 7calomel1 corrosive sublimate1 etc471 = sci5tific in/rum5ts 7!rmomet]s1 b>omet]s1 etc471 9 cosmetics1 9 pa9ts = %ip bottoms1 etc4 ,?\gh !re are "s #be m9]als ( m]cury1 only "o is common or important z a s\rce ( ! metal1 c9nab>4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is self-suffici5t z f> z m]cury is conc]n$1 produc+ j ab\t z mu* z x uses4 ,! lead+ produc]s are ,spa91 ,au/ria1 ,italy1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,comm]cially m]cury is quot$ z quicksilv]1 & 9 flasks ( #ge p\nds ea*4 ,c9nab> ,hg,s ,pl4 #bg ,occurs 9 massive or e>?y =m1 or 9 m9ute cry/als 9 cavities2 h>dness #b4e2 specific gravity #h2 color sc>let to d>k r$2 /reak v]milion2 lu/] adamant9e2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,! bright-r$ color & ! /reak are usually en\gh to id5tify ?is m9]al at once1 b "s ( ! d>k] v>ieties resemble hematite or z9cite 9 appe>ance1 b bo? ^! h mu* great] h>dness4 ,:5 9 cry/als !y are t9y hexagonal prisms ) pyramids on ! end4 ,c9nab> is usually f\nd 9 or ne> metamorphic or igne\s rocks1 ei!r 9 ve9s lead+ f ! igne\s rocks1 or 9 metamorphic rocks1 or x may occur dissem9at$ ?r\gh metamorphic rocks4 ,x is associat$ ) qu>tz or calcite1 & may occur ) o!r sulphides l pyrite1 gal5a1 arg5tite1 etc4 ,x is mo/ abundant 9 ,cali=nia1 b is also f\nd 9 ,oregon1 ,wa%+ton1 ,idaho1 ,arizona1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,texas1 & ,montana4 ,t9 ,t9 has be5 kn[n s9ce e>ly ,roman times1 & ! m9es at ,cornwall1 ,engl&1 7 work$ f t "t all ?r\gh d[n to ! pres5t1 b n[ !y are becom+ ( m9or importance z !y approa* exhau/ion4 ,! metal is silv]y-:ite1 does n easily t>ni%1 is malleable1 b has little ductility & little t5sile /r5g?4 ,t9 is mo/ly us$ 9 mak+ t9 plate1 a ?9 %eet ( /eel cov]$ ) t91 ! t9 be+ only #a to #b ( ! total weight4 ,?is t9 plate is mo/ly made into t9 cans1 & us$ z conta9]s = food4 ,"s t9 is us$ 9 mak+ sold]1 t9-foil1 tubes = pa/e1 vasel9e1 etc41 & ar\nd #ajjj tons p] ye> = weight+ silk4 ,?is 8weight+0 makes ! silk heavi] by ab\t #be & gives x a 8ru/le10 :i*1 :ile mu* 9 evid5ce1 is really indicative t ! silk is n pure4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produces v little t91 mo/ ( ! _w's supply com+ f ! ,malay ,p59sula1 ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies1 ,*9a1 & ,bolivia1 ) small am\nts f sev]al o!r c\ntries4 ,cassit]ite ,sn,o ,pl4 #bh t9 /one ,occurs 9 tetragonal cry/als1 massive1 or 9 gra9s & pebbles2 h>dness #f4e2 specific gravity #g2 color black or d>k-br[n2 /reak gray2 lu/] adamant9e2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,! cry/als are %ort prisms ) pyramidal ends4 ,tw9n+ is common4 ,cassit]ite also occurs 9 fibr\s masses1 & :5 x is wea!r$ f its orig9al location1 is s insoluble & h>d1 t x rema9s z gra9s & pebbles1 mak+ plac]-deposits1 f :i* today ?ree qu>t]s ( ! supply is obta9$4 ,if pure1 ! cry/als w\ld be colorless1 b impurities ( iron & titanium give x ! d>k-br[n to black color4 ,cassit]ite may appe> v l rutile1 ! cry/all9e =ms be+ id5tical1 b ! r$di% t+e ( color 9 ! rutile w sep>ate ! two4 ,cassit]ite is "o ( ^? m9]als :i* result f deposition at v high temp]atures1 probably f vapors1 & is f\nd 9 ! ve9s 9 igne\s rocks1 su* z light-color$ granites1 gneisses1 sy5ites1 etc4 ,:ile n m9$ 9 ?is c\ntry x is f\nd 9 small quantities 9 ,ma9e1 ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,virg9ia1 ,alabama1 ,wyom+1 ,montana1 & ,cali=nia4 ,titanium ,titanium1 z a metal1 is a heavy1 gray1 iron-l p[d]1 :i* is *iefly useful z an alloy ) iron1 giv+ x t\ghness1 & prev5t+ bubbles & cracks 9 ca/+4 ,x is n z r>e z "s o!r metals :i* h f\nd a wid] use4 ,rutile ,ti,o ,pl4 #bh ,occurs 9 tetragonal cry/als1 & 9 gra9s2 h>dness #f4e2 specific gravity #d4b2 color r$ to r$di%-br[n2 /reak yell[i%-br[n2 lu/] metallic to adamant9e2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,rutile usually occurs 9 cry/als1 :i* are ei!r %ort & /\t1 or 9 ne$le-l cry/als4 ,tw9n+ is common4 ,9 =m & g5]al appe>ance x resembles cassit]ite1 b ! r$di% color1 & ! yell[i%-br[n /reak w di/+ui% ! rutile4 ,x is f\nd 9 simil> rocks1 granites1 gneisses1 sy5ites1 & mica-s*i/s1 ! two m9]als cassit]ite & rutile (t5 occurr+ toge!r4 ,?is is also true ( ! gra9s1 :i* h be5 wea!r$ out & are f\nd 9 s&s & gravels ( plac] deposits4 ,x is f\nd 9 small quantities 9 all ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 ,new ,york1 & all d[n ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s1 especially at ,graves ,m\nta91 ,ga41 & 9 ,arkansas & ,alaska4 ,ilm5ite ,fe,ti,o ,occurs 9 granul> masses1 z black s&1 or z tabul> hexagonal cry/als2 h>dness #e-f2 specific gravity #d4g2 color black2 /reak br[ni%-r$ to black2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,:5 ilm5ite occurs 9 cry/als !y are tabul> & resemble hematite 9 its d>k] v>ieties1 b ! /reak readily di/+ui%es ! two4 ,9 masses x looks l magnetite1 b ! lack ( magnetism s]ves to di/+ui% ^! two m9]als4 ,x is v likely to be associat$ ) cassit]ite1 rutile1 or magnetite 9 gra9s :i* h wea!r$ out ( ! orig9al rock1 & h resi/$ solution & we>4 ,s&s ) a l>ge am\nt ( ! above m5tion$ m9]als are t]m$ 8black s&s10 "s ( :i* are important = "o or ano!r ( ^! m9]als4 ,ilm5ite is a m9]al =m$ at high temp]atures1 & probably (t5 deposit$ f hot vapors4 ,x is f\nd 9 granites1 sy5ites1 & gneisses4 ,among ! bett] kn[n localities are ,orange1 ,n4 ,y41 ,lit*field1 ,conn41 ,florida1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,plat9um ,?is metal is /eel-gray 9 color1 v malleable & ductile1 almo/ infusible & resi/s ! action ( acids4 ,x is "o ( ! 8noble0 metals1 mu* r>] ?an gold1 & s has become popul> = jewelry4 ,x is also us$ 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric-acid1 9 nitrog5-fixation plants1 = *emical ut5sils1 9 ! electrical indu/ries1 & 9 d5ti/ry4 ,plat9um 9 its occurr5ce is associat$ ) ! c]ta9 o!r equally r>e elem5ts1 l iridium1 palladium & osmium4 ,its use has increas$ rapidly ( late1 b ! supply has n kept up ) ! dem&1 s t1 :]eas 9 #aijf plat9um & gold 7 ab\t equally valuable1 n[ ! plat9um br+s ab\t five times z mu* z ! gold4 ,plat9um ,pt ,occurs 9 gra9s or nuggets2 h>dness #d4e2 specific gravity #ai 7#ba if pure72 color /eel-gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque4 ,?is r>e metal is mo/ly f\nd 9 plac]-deposits1 (t5 ) gold4 ,x comes orig9ally f d>k igne\s rocks1 l p]idotite1 pyrox5ite1 etc41 & plat9um is f\nd to be associat$ ) ! nickel ores ( ,sudbury1 ,canada4 ,:ile =m]ly #ij ( ! _w's supply ( plat9um came f plac] m9es 9 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 today m ?an half is produc$ 9 ,canada & ab\t a fif? 9 ,russia4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is f\nd 9 ,cali=nia1 ,oregon1 ,nevada1 & ,alaska4 ,! ,magnesium ,gr\p ,magnesium is a silv]y-:ite metal1 easily t>ni%$ by exposure to moi/ air4 ,because ( its light weight1 less ?an twice ! weight ( wat]1 & /r5g?1 x is be+ sub/itut$ = alum9um1 especially 9 airplanes1 :]e ! "q ( weight is crucial4 ,x is also us$ 9 automobile & %ip production & o!r ma*9e indu/ries1 & 9 ! manufacture ( fl>es & inc5di>y bombs4 ,magnesium is obta9$ *iefly f magnesite1 dolomite1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a result ( a rec5tly develop$ process1 f sea wat]4 ,magnesium has a consid]able numb] ( m9]als1 ( :i* ?ree are tak5 up "h & sev]al m "u ! head ( silicates1 :]e bo? magnesium & silicon are comb9$ 9 a m9]al4 ,sp9el ,mg,al,o ,pl4 #bi ,occurs mo/ly z isometric octah$rons2 h>dness #h2 specific gravity #c4e2 color1 r$1 yell[1 gre51 or black2 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is is a r r>e m9]al1 b1 :5 9 cle> cry/als is consid]$ "o ( ! gems4 ,x 0 e>ly confus$ ) corundum1 & ! r$ v>iety call$ ruby1 z x 0 f\nd 9 ! same gem-be>+ s&s 9 ,ceylon1 ,burma1 & ,siam4 ,h[ev] ! =m ( ! isometric octah$ron z comp>$ ) ! hexagonal prism ( ! corundum1 toge!r ) ! less] h>dness are suffici5t to di/+ui% ! two easily4 ,! cry/als are usually octah$rons1 b may h ! corn]s cut or ! edges bevel$4 ,tw9s are n uncommon4 ,! /&>d color is a cle> deep-r$1 & su* a sp9el is kn[n 9 ! gem trade z a sp9el-ruby4 ,if ! color is rose-r$1 x is a ,balas ruby2 if orange1 x is rubicelle1 if ( a violet t+e1 alm&9e4 ,:5 small quantities ( o!r elem5ts replace ! magnesium1 ! color is greatly *ang$4 ,= example a little iron pres5t gives ! cry/als a d>k-gre5 to black color1 & ! sp9el is kn[n z ceylonite4 ,if !re is bo? iron & *romium pres5t1 ! color becomes yell[i% or gre5i%-br[n1 & ?is v>iety is picotite4 ,:5 ! impurities are iron & copp]1 ! color becomes grass-gre51 & x is call$ *lorosp9el4 ,a =m1 9 :i* ! magnesium is completely replac$ by iron1 is black 9 color & t]m$ h]cynite1 & occurs fairly abundantly 9 ,we/*e/] ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,f ,amity1 ,n4 ,y41 to ,&ov]1 ,n4 ,j41 !re is a belt ( granul> lime/one 9 :i* sp9el ( all colors is f\nd4 ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 is also a ri* locality4 ,bolton1 ,mass41 ,newton1 ,/]l+1 & ,sp>ta1 ,n4 ,j41 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,alabama1 & ,cali=nia all yield sp9el4 ,magnesite ,mg,c,o ,occurs 9 cleavable or compact porcela9-l masses2 h>dness #d2 specific gravity #c4a2 color :ite to gray2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,magnesite is :ite & brittle1 & cleaves p]fectly p>allel to ! faces ( ! rhomboh$ron1 b x seldom occurs 9 cry/als4 ,x w eff]vesce 9 w>m hydro*loric acid & has "s resemblance to calcite1 b c be di/+ui%$ by ! great] h>dness4 ,x is /ill m l dolomite1 bo? hav+ ! same color & cleavage1 bo? eff]vesc+ 9 w>m hydro*loric acid2 b ! magnesite has half a po9t great] h>dness & ! porcela9\s appe>ance4 ,magnesite is us$ 9 toilet prep>ations1 pap] mak+1 & mix$ ) asbe/os1 z a cov]+ = heat+ pipes4 ,magnesite is f\nd 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,texas1 & 9 l>ge deposits 9 ,cali=nia & ,wa%+ton4 ,dolomite 7,mg,ca7,,co ,pl4 #ai #bi ,occurs 9 cry/als1 or 9 cleavable or granul> masses2 h>dness #c4e2 specific gravity #b4h2 color :ite to p9k or gray2 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,dolomite cry/allizes 9 ! hexagonal sy/em1 9 rhomboh$rons 7hemih$ral =m71 :i* are m or less modifi$ by faces on ! corn]s or edges4 ,! cleavage is p>allel to ! rhomboh$ron1 & x w eff]vesce 9 w>m hydro*loric acid4 ,sometimes ! cry/al faces are curv$1 & :5 ?is is ! case1 dolomite is easily det]m9$4 ,usually h[ev] dolomite resembles bo? calcite & magnesite4 ,f ! calcite x is di/+ui%$ by ! great] h>dness1 & f magnesite by less] h>dness & n be+ porcela9\s 9 appe>ance4 ,"s ( ! common] =ms are %[n on ,plate #bi1 cry/als l ,c be+ f\nd emb$d$ 9 anhydrite & gypsum4 ,magnesium is a common elem5t & is likely to be pres5t :]ev] lime is be+ deposit$1 s dolomite cry/als are common1 & mu* ( ! lime/one is dolomitic4 ,x may be f\nd 9 almo/ any lime/one section ( ! c\ntry4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ cry/als ( dolomite h[ev] come f ,roxbury1 ,vt41 ,smi?field1 ,r4 ,i41 ,hobok51 ,n4 ,j41 ,lockport1 ,ro*e/]1 & ,niag>a ,falls1 ,n4 ,y41 etc4 ,silicon1 ,silica & ! ,silicates ,silicon is "o ( ! non-metallic elem5ts1 & does n occur z su* 9 ,nature4 ,:5 isolat$ x is ei!r a d>k-br[n p[d]1 or /eel-gray cry/als4 ,h[ev] silicon is next to oxyg5 9 its importance 9 mak+ ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,=ty-sev5 p] c5t ( ! surface rocks are compos$ ( oxyg51 & #bh ( silicon1 ! latt] appe>+ 9 a ho/ ( m9]als4 ,! oxide ( silicon is t]m$ silica 7,si,o71 its cry/al =m be+ qu>tz1 ! commone/ ( all m9]als4 ,9 non-cry/all9e =m silica is also widely di/ribut$1 z *alc$ony & opal1 ev5 appe>+ 9 ! tissues ( animals & plants1 z 9 ! fea!rs ( birds1 ! %ells ( c]ta9 ,protozoa 7,radiol>ia71 ! spicules ( sponges2 & 9 plants1 z ! %ells ( diatoms1 & 9 ! /alks ( grasses1 especially c]eals & bamboo4 ,silica 9 ! =m ( s& is widely us$ 9 mak+ glass1 porcela91 *9a1 etc41 & 9 ! v>i\s cem5ts4 ,!n !re are a consid]able numb] ( acids ( silicon1 :i* d n occur 9 ,nature1 b _! salts d1 & make a ho/ ( m9]als1 :i* are kn[n z ! silicates1 su* z mica1 feldsp>1 hornbl5de1 etc4 ,ei!r z qu>tz1 or z silicates1 silicon is repres5t$ 9 mo/ all ! igne\s & metamorphic rocks & 9 _m ( ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,qu>tz ,si,o ,pl4 #cj ,occurs z hexagonal cry/als1 or 9 gra9s or masses2 h>dness #g2 specific gravity #b4fe2 colorless :5 pure2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,qu>tz is n h>d to id5tify4 ,its h>dness & ! cry/al-=m sep>ate x f mo/ all o!r m9]als4 ,x is ! mo/ common m9]al1 mak+ #ab ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! usual cry/al =m is a hexagonal prism ) ! sides horizontally /riat$1 & a six-sid$ pyramid on "o or bo? ends4 ,?is six-sid$ pyramid is really two rhomboh$rons1 a "r-h&$ "o & a left-h&$ "o1 s t ! alt]nate faces ( ! pyramid may %[ peculi>ities1 = in/ance ?ree may be l>ge & ?ree small1 z 9 ,fig4 ,b1 ,plate #cj1 or ! alt]nate ones may be dull] or et*$ 9 "s mann]4 ,! cry/als are cle> & :5 pure colorless1 b !re is a t5d5cy = "s slight impurity to color !m almo/ any hue4 ,! mo/ p]fect d\ble-end$ cry/als =m only :]e gr[? is possible 9 all directions1 z 9 clay4 ,9 cavities & caves !re is an opportunity = ! cry/als to gr[ 9 t[>d ! op5 spaces1 & 9 su* places1 "o f9ds f9e l>ge cry/als2 ! ,alps1 ,brazil1 ,japan1 & ,madagasc> be+ especially fam\s localities4 ,! l>ge/ qu>tz cry/al on record is "o #be feet 9 circumf]5ce :i* came f ,madagasc>4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! caves at ,little ,rock1 ,ark41 h furni%$ "s v f9e l>ge cry/als4 ,small]1 b v cle> cry/als1 come f ab\t ,h]kim]1 ,n4 ,y4 ,"s ( ^! h be5 us$ z 8,rh9e-/ones0 & z *eap imitations ( diamonds4 ,cle> qu>tz is beautiful en\gh to be a gem1 b x is too common to int]e/ p z jewelry1 h[ev] _m objects ( art h be5 c>v$ f x4 ,"o ( ^! took ! =m ( cry/al balls1 :i*1 ?r\gh ! ,middle ,ages p>ticul>ly1 develop$ into a =m ( my/icism4 ,! gaz+ into ! cry/al ball 0 suppos$ to give "s p sup]natural vision4 ,x seems to be a =m ( hypnotism1 gaz+ at ! bright reflect+ surface tir+ ! eye1 & mak+ possible visions1 :i* are subjective r ?an any?+ ext]nal4 ,silica is slightly soluble 9 wat]1 especially :5 x is alkal9e2 s t mo/ riv]-1 lake-1 & sea-wat]s h "s silica 9 solution1 & are c>ry+ x f "o place to ano!r4 ,! wat]s1 :i* p]colate ?r\gh ! rocks1 c>ry ev5 m1 & :5 !y come out into op5 spaces1 !y give up "s ( ! silica1 mak+ cry/als l9+ ^! op5+s1 :e!r fissures or cavities4 ,n infrequ5tly ^! silica-be>+ wat]s dissolve out "s o!r cry/al1 & !n deposit 9 its place silica1 ?us mak+ a cry/al :i* has ! =m ( :at 0 dissolv$1 r ?an t ( qu>tz4 ,su* a =m is kn[n z a pseudomorph4 ,:5 molt5 masses ( igne\s rock 7 cool+ ! qu>tz cry/als _h _! faces int]f]$ ) z !y grew1 & we h result+ cry/all9e qu>tz1 simply fill+ 9 ! spaces betwe5 ! o!r cry/als1 su* z feldsp> & mica1 9 ! granite4 ,qu>tz is a l>ge compon5t 9 _m igne\s rocks1 also 9 metamorphic rocks1 & c]ta9 s$im5t>y rocks l s&/one are almo/ :olly made up ( qu>tz gra9s4 ,qu>tz is also ! gangue m9]al 9 _m ve9s4 ,9 ?is case x seems to h be5 deposit$ f hot wat] or vapors1 z !y rose f cool+ magmas4 ,) x are associat$ all sorts ( metallic ores z has be5 sugge/$4 ,qu>tz has be5 l>gely us$ to make imitations ( o!r mu* r>] m9]als1 sometimes 9 its cry/all9e =m to imitate ! diamond1 at o!r times gr\nd & made into a 8pa/e10 :i* is color$ to imitate o!r gems4 ,?is pa/e is a mixture ( ab\t #d p>ts ( qu>tz1 #e p>ts ( r$ lead & #a "p ( potassium c>bonate1 melt$ & cool$ sl[ly4 ,x is cle> & has a brilliant lu/] l ! diamond4 ,if "s color+ matt] is put into x x c be us$ = rubies1 sapphires1 etc4 ,:5 !re is any reason to ?9k t ?is is be+ us$1 x is easily detect$ by be+ s mu* s(t] ?an any ( ! true gems1 & ev5 ?an true qu>tz4 ,qu>tz w scrat* glass readily1 b ?is imitation has only ! h>dness ( v s(t glass1 or ab\t #e4 ,v>ieties ( ,qu>tz ,rock cry/al is ! t]m appli$ to qu>tz :5 x is cle> & colorless4 ,milky qu>tz is ! milky v>iety1 ! :it5ess be+ due to imp]fections 9 ! cry/allization1 su* z cracks1 bubbles1 etc4 ,smoky qu>tz is ! cl\dy br[n-color$ v>iety1 :i* results f ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( organic matt] 7hydroc>bons7 9 ! qu>tz4 ,if ! color is s d>k z to be almo/ black x is t]m$ morion4 ,9 ! above cases ! color w disappe> if ! /one is heat$4 ,pebbles ( smoky qu>tz f ,cairngorm1 ,scotl&1 h be5 s widely us$ z semipreci\s /ones t !y h come to be kn[n z cairngorms4 ,citr9e1 or false topaz1 is a cle> yell[ v>iety1 ! color aga9 due to ! pres5ce ( organic matt]4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f true topaz by ! less] h>dness1 ?is hav+ ! h>dness ( #g1 :ile true topaz has a h>dness ( #h4 ,ame?y/ is qu>tz ) a violet color1 due to ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( manganese4 ,to be suitable = cutt+ into gems1 ! color mu/ be deep or ! small pieces w appe> almo/ colorless4 ,x is widely us$ today z a semipreci\s /one 9 jewelry2 & 9 ! fifte5? c5tury x _h ! traditional virtue ( mak+ ! we>] sob]-m9d$1 :e!r he _h tak5 too freely ( w9e1 or 0 ov] excit$ by love-passion4 ,rose qu>tz gets its pale-r$ color f ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( titanium4 ,x is widely di/ribut$1 b is m abundant 9 ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota4 ,av5tur9e is qu>tz :i* has inclos$ t9y scales ( mica or hematite giv+ x a spangl$ appe>ance4 ,prase is a gre5 qu>tz1 ! color be+ due to ! inclusion ( fibr\s cry/als ( gre5 act9olite4 ,cat's ,eye is a qu>tz :i* has inclos$ silky fib]s ( asbe/os4 ,:5 ?is is cut p>allel to ! fib]s1 ! effect is opalesc5t4 ,! colors are gre5i%1 yell[i%-gray1 & br[n4 ,?is =m1 h[ev]1 is n to be confus$ ) ! true or ,ori5tal ,cat's ,eye1 :i* is *rysob]yl & has ! h>dness ( #h4 ,*alc$ony ,si,o ,non-cry/all9e1 occurr+ 9 botryoidal1 /alactitic or concretion>y masses2 h>dness1 #g2 specific gravity1 #b4fe2 color :ite :5 pure2 lu/] waxy2 transluc5t to transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,9 addition to ! cry/all9e =m1 silica is freely deposit$ 9 an amorph\s or cryptocry/all9e =m :i* has ! same prop]ties z qu>tz1 except ! cry/al faces4 ,?is is call$ *alc$ony1 & x occurs 9 seams1 cavities & free surfaces4 ,:5 ! surface ( a *alc$ony deposit is free x has a waxy lu/]4 ,x is g5]ally v brittle & breaks 9 a peculi> spl9t]y mann]4 ,l qu>tz x also has a great _m v>ieties1 accord+ to ! impurities pres5t4 ,its wide di/ribution1 h>dness1 & ! mann] 9 :i* x c be *ipp$ h made ?is a mo/ important /one 9 ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( civilization4 ,! e>ly m5 fir/ broke x into r\gh tools1 su* z knives1 axes1 spe> po9ts1 etc41 & us$ ^! z cutt+ tools1 ( "o sort or ano!r1 because !y held _! edge bett] ?an mo/ /ones4 ,we apply1 to ! p :o us$ only ^! *ipp$ /ones z tools1 ! t]m 8,m5 ( ! ,old ,/one ,age10 or ! p]iod is t]m$ ! ,paloli?ic ,age4 ,lat] m5 le>n$ h[ to gr9d ! edge to a smoo!r outl9e1 & ?is mu* %ort] p]iod is t]m$ ! ,neoli?ic ,age4 ,! use ( fl9ts = ! fir/ tools is _w-wide1 & ! ,am]ican ,indian :5 discov]$ 0 /ill us+ *alc$ony 9 its r\gh-hewn /ate4 8,!re ! anci5t ,arr[-mak] ,made 8 arr[ heads ( s&/one1 ,arr[ heads ( *alc$ony1 ,arr[ heads ( fl9t & jasp]1 ,smoo!d & %>p5$ at ! edges1 ,h>d & poli%$1 ke5 & co/ly40 ,*alc$ony is ! prop] t]m to use :5 ! color is :ite to transluc5t1 9 :i* case ! surfaces are usually botryoidal & waxy4 ,c>nelian is *alc$ony :i* is cle> r$ 9 color & transluc5t4 ,?is is "o ( ! fir/ /ones us$ = ornam5tal purposes & = engrav+4 ,c>nelians ) figures engrav$ on !m 7 us$ by ! ,egyptians1 ,assyrians & ,! ,*ildr5 ( ,israel1 at lea/ #bjjj ,b4,c42 & ! ,egyptian sc>abs ( ! fif? or six? c5tury ,b4,c41 7 (t5 c>v$ f ?is v>iety ( *alc$ony1 z well z f jasp] & agates4 ,! br[ni% v>ieties are t]m$ s>d4 ,*rysoprase is an apple-gre5 v>iety ( *alc$ony ! color be+ due to ! pres5ce ( nickel oxide4 ,?is is by no means z common z mo/ ( ! v>ieties ( *alc$ony1 & 0 long priz$ z a gem4 ,plasma is *alc$ony ) a leek- to em]ald-gre5 color1 & ! same /one :5 x has small r$ spots ( jasp] 9 x is t]m$ blood-/one1 or heliotrope4 ,^! r$ spots are said by tradition to be drops ( ! blood ( ,*ri/4 ,jasp] is a deep r$ *alc$ony1 ! color be+ due to hematite1 :i* is s abundant z to make x opaque4 ,a br[n v>iety color$ by limonite is also call$ jasp]1 & ev5 gre5 jasp]s are f\nd4 ,9 all cases ! opaque "* is common4 ,fl9t is an impure br[n *alc$ony1 usually =m+ concretions4 ,! color is due to organic matt]4 ,fl9t is mo/ly f\nd 9 lime/one or *alk1 & ! concretions are ! result ( ! small p>ticles ( silica scatt]$ ?r\gh ! rock be+ dissolv$1 & !n reprecipitat$ ab\t "s organic c5t]4 ,g5]ally ! silica 0 obta9$ by ! dissolution ( small fossils1 l ! %ells ( diatoms or sponge spicules4 ,horn/one & ,*]t are simply impure v>ieties ( fl9t1 br[n 9 color1 & ) a spl9t]y fracture4 ,agate1 ,plate #cb1 is a b&$ or cl\dy *alc$ony :i* has =m$ 9 a cavity1 ! lay]s ( diff]5t color repres5t+ deposition f wat]1 c>ry+ fir/ silica ) "o impurity1 !n lat]1 silica ) ano!r impurity4 ,gradually ! cavity has be5 ?us fill$ ) silica2 & :5 ! mass is fre$ by ! wea!r+ away ( ! surr\nd+ rock1 ^! b&$ masses are f\nd4 ,sometimes ! mann] ( deposition has *ang$1 & :ile ! out] "p ( ! cavity 0 fill$ ) *alc$ony1 ! c5tral "p w conta9 qu>tz cry/als4 ,on acc\nt ( ! beauty ( ! colors1 & ! unusual way 9 :i* !y may be develop$1 agates are widely us$ = semipreci\s jewelry & objects ( art1 & ?is has be5 true s9ce anci5t times1 ! "n itself com+ f ! ,riv] ,a*ates 9 ,sicily4 ,! c5t] = cutt+ & poli%+ agates is at ,ob]/e91 ,g]many1 :]e ?is "w has be5 c>ri$ on s9ce ! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,9 spite ( ! _m f9e natural colors 9 agates1 !y are sometimes artificially color$1 9 _m cases by me?ods :i* are kept z 8trade secrets40 ,! color seldom p5etrates f>2 s t ev5 slight *ipp+ reveals :e!r an inf]ior agate has be5 tak5 & color$ up1 or :e!r ! /one is natural4 ,moss agates are *alc$ony :i* has inclos$ d5dritic masses ( "s "o ( ! manganese comp\nds z %[n "u manganite1 p4 #gc4 ,onyx is a v>iety ( agate :]e ! b&s are alt]nately black & :ite2 :ile s>donyx is agate ) r$ or br[n b&s alt]nat+ ) ! :ite4 ,su* agates z ^! are especially desirable = cameo "w1 :]e ! figure is c>v$ 9 ! *alc$ony ( "o color1 & ! o!r color makes ! backgr\nd4 ,silicifi$ or agatiz$ wood is a =m ( *alc$ony1 :]e silica has replac$ wood1 molecule by molecule2 s t 9 good specim5s1 all ! /ructure ( ! wood is /ill reta9$1 & :5 ?9 sections are made x c be /udi$ "u ! microscope almo/ z well z mod]n wood4 ,?is takes place "u wat]1 usually1 if n always1 9 fre% wat]4 ,su* fossiliz$ wood is widely di/ribut$ 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! mo/ fam\s cases be+ ! ,fossil ,=e/ ( ,arizona1 n[ a ,national ,res]vation1 & ! fossil trees 9 ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 ,opal ,si,o,h,o ,pl4 #cc ,non-cry/all9e1 massive1 /alactitic or nodul>2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity #b2 all colors2 lu/] vitre\s1 res9\s1 or pe>ly2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,opal diff]s f *alc$ony 9 hav+ wat]1 usually ab\t #aj1 incorporat$ 9 its /ructure4 ,?is is wat] ( cry/allization1 & n firmly held2 s t1 if opal is heat$ 9 a clos$ tube to above #ajj ,c41 x is giv5 (f z a vapor4 ,opal is di/+ui%$ f *alc$ony by its less] h>dness1 & ! res9\s to pe>ly lu/]4 ,x =ms 9 cavities1 9 lay]s (t5 ( extreme ?9ness4 ,opal is orig9ally ! product ( ! dissolution ( silicate m9]als 9 hot acid wat]s1 ! result+ gelat9\s silica1 :5 x is deposit$ & h>d5$1 becom+ ! opal4 ,!re are _m v>ieties1 "s ( !m highly priz$ z gems 9 spite ( ! mod]ate h>dness & opacity ( ! m9]al4 ,gem-quality opal gets its opalesc5t "* f ! successive deposition ( ?9 films ( opal1 ! light p5etrat+ & be+ reflect$ f diff]5t films4 ,?is breaks up ! :ite light & causes ! play ( colors :i* is ! *>m ( ?is gem4 ,preci\s opal1 9 :i* ! play ( colors is f9e/1 comes mo/ly f ,hung>y1 ,mexico1 & ,que5sl&4 ,! opal 0 a favorite /one f be=e ,roman times1 & 9 its e>ly hi/ory 0 a *>m aga9/ ! 8evil eye40 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury = "s reason x came to be consid]$ an unlucky /one4 ,fire opal is a hyac9?-r$ to honey-yell[ v>iety1 :i* has a fire-l play ( color1 & is f\nd 9 ,mexico & ,honduras4 ,common opal does n h ! play ( color1 b comes 9 a v>iety ( colors2 is waxy or greasy 9 lu/]2 & occurs mo/ly z fill+s ( seams or cavities1 especially ^? 9 igne\s rocks1 l ! /eam holes 9 lavas1 etc4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,cornwall1 ,p5n41 9 ,colorado1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,opal-agate is a v>iety 9 :i* !re are color b&s1 & x is widely di/ribut$4 ,opaliz$ wood is =m$ 9 exactly ! same mann] z agatiz$ wood1 mu* ( ! fossil wood call$ silicifi$ be+ really opaliz$4 ,silice\s s9t] is ! por\s mass ( opal :i* is s frequ5tly deposit$ ab\t hot spr+s & geys]s4 ,x is readily recogniz$ by its por\s "*4 ,! %ells ( ! diatoms1 :i* are microscopic plants1 are made ( opal2 & :ile !y are s small1 !re is c]ta9ly no o!r plant s abundant or omnipres5t1 liv+ z x does 9 e pool1 lake1 or sea by ! millions4 ,^! %ells are v inde/ructible s t !y accumulate at ! bottom ( ponds1 bogs1 & sea-bottoms1 mak+ at times ext5sive deposits4 ,?is mat]ial 9 quantities is t]m$ diatomace\s e>?1 or tripolite 7f ,tripoli :]e x 0 fir/ us$ comm]cially74 ,x is us$ z a poli%+ p[d] = metals1 m>ble1 glasses1 etc4 ,! ,feldsp>s ,! t]m feldsp> is a family "n = a l>ge v>iety ( v common m9]als1 :i* altoge!r make up ne>ly #fj ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 be+ ! pr$om9ant "p ( granites1 gneisses1 & lavas4 ,9 composition !y are silicates ( alum9um1 toge!r ) potassium1 sodium & calcium1 & _! mixtures4 ,!y may be tabulat$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,k,al,si,o1 or?oclase1 ! silicate ( alum9um & potassium4 #b4 ,na,al,si,o1 albite1 ! silicate ( alum9um & sodium4 #c4 ,ca,al,si,o1 anor?ite1 ! silicate ( alum9um & calcium4 #d4 ,mixtures ( #a & #b are alkalic feldsp>4 #e4 ,mixtures ( #b & #c are plagioclase feldsp>4 ,or?oclase is monocl9ic1 b ! re/ ( ! feldsp>s are tricl9ic4 ,if cry/als are available !y may be %ort & /\t1 or tabul> & ?91 b z ! feldsp>s are mo/ly compon5ts ( ! igne\s rocks1 :]e p]fect cry/als h n _h a *ance to gr[1 !y are mo/ly det]m9$ by _! h>dness & cleavage4 ,! h>dness ( all ! feldsp>s is #f or v close to x4 ,!y all h ?ree planes ( cleavage1 two ( :i* are good & int]sect ei!r at #ij z 9 or?oclase1 or at ab\t #hf z 9 ! plagioclase s]ies2 :ile ! ?ird cleavage plane is imp]fect4 ,9 figure #a1 ,plate #cd1 a & b are ! two p]fect cleavages1 :ile c is ! imp]fect "o4 ,break+ into su* cleavage masses z ! "o illu/rat$ is *>act]i/ic ( feldsp>4 ,! specific gravity ranges f #b4ee to #b4ge4 ,! lu/] is vitre\s1 & ! color :ite1 rang+ to v>i\s %ades ( gray & p9k1 &1 sometimes 9 rec5t lavas1 colorless4 ,tw9n+ is v common & helps to di/+ui% or?oclase f ! plagioclase feldsp>s4 ,9 or?oclase ! tw9s are simple1 t is1 only two cry/als gr[+ toge!r1 & are unit$ on "o ( ! faces1 z if "o ( !m _h be5 revolv$ #ahj ) ! o!r2 or1 :ile relat$ to ea* o!r z 9 ! prec$+ case1 !y may seem to gr[ ?r\gh ea* o!r4 ,on plate #cd are ?ree or?oclase cry/als %[+ ?is simple type ( tw9n+4 ,! fir/ 7,a7 is a simple cry/al2 ! second 7,b7 %[s ! simple/ type ( tw9n+ :]e ! left-h& cry/al has revolv$ #ahj on ! p face1 & ! end is compos$1 half ( ! upp] end ( "o cry/al1 & half ( ! l[] end ( ! adjac5t cry/al4 ,! pres5ce ( rentrant angles calls att5tion to ! tw9n+4 ,! ?ird figure 7,c7 is a case ( int]gr[+ cry/als4 ,9 ! plagioclase feldsp>s tw9n+ is multiple1 a l>ge numb] ( cry/als1 ea* ?91 sometimes z ?9 z pap]1 gr[+ side by side1 ! fir/ "o 9 normal position1 ! next at #ahj ) x1 ! ?ird revolv$ #ahj to ! second & ?us p>allel to ! fir/1 & s on4 ,! result is fir/ ( all a /riat$ appe>ance1 & second t1 z plagioclase cry/als h _! prism faces int]sect+ at #hf1 !re is a s]ies ( l[ ro(s & valleys1 :i* are be/ se5 by hold+ ! piece ( feldsp> s ! light reflects f a cleavage face1 :5 x w appe> /riat$2 !n by tilt+ x ab\t #h degrees a second set ( reflections1 also appe>+ /riat$1 w appe>4 ,! light 0 fir/ reflect$ f "o side ( ! ro(s1 & 9 ! second case f ! o!r side4 ,figure ,d1 ,pl4 #cd1 is a diagram %[+ ! relation ( ! individual cry/als 9 a multiple tw9n$ piece ( plagioclase1 9 :i* ! cry/als are repres5t$ z r l>ge4 ,plate #ce1 "u labradorite1 %[s a photograph ( a cleavage piece1 on :i* is readily se5 ! /riation :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! plagioclase feldsp>s4 ,mixtures ( albite & anor?ite occur 9 bewild]+ numb]s1 "o or ! o!r pr$om9at+1 & ea* mixture be+ uni=m ?r\gh\t ! cry/al & 9 ! :ole mass2 s ea* comb9ation is a m9]al1 ea* ) its special prop]ties2 b ! diff]5t plagioclase feldsp>s are s simil> 9 appe>ance1 t by ! nak$ eye x is impossible to sep>ate ! closely relat$ ones4 ,?is c be done "u ! microscope by /udy+ ! angles at :i* light is cut (f1 & also by *emical analyses4 ,= our purposes six types w suffice to illu/rate ! gr\p1 & _! composition may be indicat$ z foll[s4 ,albite is albite ) up to #ae ( anor?ite mix$ ) x4 ,oligoclase is albite ) f #ae-be ( anor?ite mix$ ) x4 ,&esite is albite ) f #be-ej ( anor?ite mix$ ) x4 ,labradorite is anor?ite ) f #be-ej ( albite mix$ ) x4 ,byt[nite is anor?ite ) f #ae-be ( albite mix$ ) x4 ,anor?ite is anor?ite ) up to #ae ( albite mix$ ) x4 ,! be/ me?od = di/+ui%+ ^! feldsp>s ( ! plagioclase gr\p is to measure ! angle betwe5 ! two p]fect cleavage faces1 & ev5 ?is requires c>eful measurem5t4 ,! angles betwe5 ^! faces are z foll[s3 ,or?oclase #ij ,microcl9e #hi #cj ,oligoclase #hf #cb ,&esite #hf #ad ,labradorite #hf #ad ,byt[nite #hf #ad ,anor?ite #hf #ej ,or?oclase ,k,al,si,o ,occurs 9 granites1 sy5ites1 gneisses & light-color$ lavas2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity1 #b4eg2 color :ite to gray or p9k2 cleavage 9 two directions p]fect & at #ij1 9 ! ?ird direction imp]fect2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,or?oclase is monocl9ic1 & :5 =m$ 9 cavities develops z cry/als1 b x is usually a con/itu5t ( igne\s rocks1 9 :i* case ! cry/als h n _h ! opportunity to develop ! cry/al faces1 & ! or?oclase is 9 gra9s or irregul> masses2 & ! be/ way ( det]m9+ ! m9]al is ! cleavage1 ! two p]fect cleavage planes int]sect+ at "r angles4 ,tw9n+ is frequ5t b ( ! simple type1 only two cry/als be+ unit$1 simil> to ei!r ,b or ,c on plate #cd4 ,x is f\nd 9 granites1 gneisses or lavas1 :]ev] !y occur1 be+ especially *>act]i/ic ( ! granites ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,microcl9e ,k,al,si,o ,pl4 #ce ,occurs 9 granites & gneisses z cry/als or irregul> masses2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity1 #b4ef2 color :ite to gray1 p9k1 or gre5i%2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,microcl9e has ! same composition z or?oclase1 b is 9 ! tricl9ic sy/em1 ! c axis be+ incl9$ a half degree away f a "r angle ) ! b axis4 ,?is is be/ se5 9 ! cleavage pieces1 ! two p]fect cleavage planes meet+ at #hi #cj1 & ?is is ! only te/ = det]m9+ ?is m9]al by ! unaid$ eye4 ,pike's ,peak is ! be/ kn[n locality = microcl9e1 & !re x occurs 9 f9e l>ge cry/als ( gre5i% color1 :i* are kn[n z ,amazon /one4 ,albite ,na,al,si,o ,occurs 9 small cry/als1 or m (t5 9 lamell> masses 9 granites or 9 seams 9 metamorphic rocks2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity1 #b4fb2 color :ite to gray2 lu/] vitre\s4 ,albite may occur 9 simple cry/als1 9 :i* case ! two p]fect cleavage planes meet at an angle ( #hf #bd4 ,h[ev]1 x is mu* m frequ5tly f\nd tw9n$ 9 ! multiple mann]1 ! individual cry/als (t5 be+ z ?9 z pap]4 ,?is gives rise to a f9e /riation on ! end ( a cry/al1 or on ! surface made by ! imp]fect cleavage plane4 ,:]e ! cry/als are extremely ?91 ! surface may h a pe>ly lu/]4 ,albite types ( granite (t5 inclose second>y m9]als1 t are priz$ z gems1 su* z topaz1 t\rmal9e1 & b]yl4 ,x is f\nd at ,p>is1 ,me41 ,*e/]field1 ,mass41 ,acwor?1 ,n4 ,h41 ,essex ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 ,unionville1 ,p5n41 & 9 ,virg9ia1 & ?r\gh\t ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,oligoclase 7,na,ca7,al,si,o ,g5]ally f\nd 9 cleavable masses 9 granites & lavas1 r>ely 9 cry/als2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity1 #b4fe2 color :ite1 gre5i% or p9k2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,oligoclase is a plagioclase feldsp> & is di/+ui%$ by its two p]fect cleavage planes meet+ at an angle ( #hf #cb1 b o!rwise x is v l albite4 ,cry/als are n common1 & x occurs mo/ly 9 masses1 mak+ "o ( ! compon5ts ( granite or lava4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 ,danbury & ,haddam1 ,conn41 ,*e/]1 ,mass41 ,unionville1 ,p5n41 ,bak]sville1 ,n4 ,c41 etc4 ,labradorite 7,na,ca7,al,si,o ,pl4 #ce ,usually f\nd 9 cleavable masses 9 granites & lavas2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity1 #b4ga2 color gray or :ite1 (t5 ) a play ( colors2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,labradorite is di/+ui%$ by hav+ ! two p]fect cleavage planes meet at #hf #ad4 ,! iridesc5t play ( color is also v *>act]i/ic & is g5]ally pres5t4 ,x is due to ! inclusion ( m9ute impurities4 ,?is feldsp> is usually associat$ ) granites or lavas 9 :i* ! d>k m9]als pr$om9ate4 ,x gets its "n f be+ ! feldsp> ( ! granites ( ,labrador1 & is also f\nd 9 ! granites ( ! c5tral "p ( ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s & ! ,wi*ita ,m\nta9s ( ,arkansas4 ,! ,pyrox5e ,gr\p ,! m9]als ( ?is gr\p are g5]ally associat$ ) feldsp>s1 & make ! d>k-color$ compon5t ( granites1 gneisses & lavas4 ,?is is especially true ( ^? :i* h "s iron 9 ! cry/al4 ,pyrox5es are salts ( metasilicic acid 7,h,si,o71 9 :i* ! hydrog5 7,h7 has be5 replac$ by calcium1 magnesium1 iron1 etc4 ,! common] m9]als are or?orhombic or monocl9ic1 & all agree 9 _! cry/al habit1 be+ %ort /\t prisms1 ) ! v]tical edges s bevel$ t a cross section is eight-sid$4 ,! cleavage is good 9 two directions1 p>allel to ! bevel+ faces 7m 9 figure b1 ,plate #cf71 & !y int]sect at an angle ( #hg4 ,?is is v *>act]i/ic1 & if "o has a cry/al brok5 across1 x is easy to see & measure ?is angle ( int]section4 ,^! pyrox5es h ! same *emical composition z ! correspond+ s]ies ( amphiboles1 b ! two are di/+ui%$ by sev]al features4 ,pyrox5es are %ort & /\t cry/als1 :ile amphiboles are long & ei!r blade- or ne$le-l2 pyrox5es are eight-sid$ 9 cross section1 :ile amphiboles are six-sid$2 9 pyrox5es ! cleavage planes int]sect at #hg1 :ile 9 amphiboles !y int]sect at #ee4 ,! m9]als ( ?is gr\p are mo/ frequ5tly "o ( ! compon5ts ( a lava or granite1 & are less frequ5tly associat$ ) metamorphic rocks4 ,?ree are common2 en/atite1 hyp]/h5e1 & augite4 ,en/atite ,mg,si,o ,usually occurs 9 lamell> or fibr\s-lamell> masses 9 d>k lavas2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity1 #c4c2 color gray1 bronze or br[n2 lu/] vitre\s1 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,en/atite r>ely occurs 9 cry/als1 b :5 x does !y are or?orhombic4 ,usually x is 9 irregul> masses ) ! cleavage angles1 typical ( pyrox5e4 ,! color is light1 t is gray or br[ni%1 & ! /reak :ite or ne>ly s4 ,9 mo/ respects x is simil> to hyp]/h5e1 :i* has ! same composition1 except t a l>ge "p ( ! magnesium is replac$ by iron1 & !re are all sorts ( gradations betwe5 ! two m9]als4 ,:5 "s iron takes ! place ( magnesium1 ! color d>k5s to1 or t[>ds bronze1 until :5 ab\t a ?ird ( ! magnesium is s replac$1 & ! color is fully bronze1 ?is v>iety is call$ bronzite4 ,bronzite is pres5t 9 "s ( ! d>k lavas l gabbro & p]idotite4 ,en/atite is f\nd 9 ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s1 at ,brew/] & ,edw>ds1 ,n4 ,y41 etc4 ,hyp]/h5e 7,mg,fe7,si,o ,occurs 9 cleavable masses 9 d>k lavas2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity1 #c4d2 color d>k-br[n or gre5i%-br[n2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,hyp]/h5e is a pyrox5e 9 :i* magnesium & iron are pres5t 9 ab\t equal quantities4 ,x is simil> to en/atite1 except t ! color is d>k]1 & ! /reak gray or br[ni%-gray 9 color4 ,^! two m9]als grade into ea* o!r1 s t !re are cases :]e x is simply a matt] ( pref]5ce z to :i* "n %\ld be giv5 to ! m9]al4 ,?is =m is associat$ ) d>k lavas1 ( ! gabbro or p]idotite type1 9 su* places z ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s1 ,m\nt ,%a/a 9 ,cali=nia1 ,buffalo ,peaks1 ,colo41 etc4 ,augite ,ca,mg7,si,o71 ,mg,al,si,o ,fe,o ,pl4 #cf ,usually occurs 9 %ort /\t monocl9ic cry/als2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity1 #c4c2 color d>k-gre5 to black2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,augite is a complex pyrox5e hav+ "s iron & alum9um always pres5t 9 x1 b ! am\nt n a fix$ quantity4 ,x is by f> ! commone/ ( ! pyrox5es & has a wide di/ribution1 bo? 9 ! sorts ( lavas 9 :i* x appe>s1 & 9 ! _w4 ,x is commonly ! d>k compon5t ( su* lavas1 z gabbros & p]idotites1 & also is common 9 metamorphic rocks1 especially impure cry/all9e lime/ones4 ,x is f\nd at ,raymond & ,mum=d1 ,me41 ,!t=d1 ,vt41 ,canaan1 ,conn41 9 ,we/*e/]1 ,orange1 ,lewis & ,/4 ,lawr5ce ,c\nties ( ,n4 ,y41 9 ,*e/] ,co41 ,p5n41 at ,duckt[n1 ,t5n41 ,templeton1 ,canada1 etc4 ,! ,amphibole ,gr\p ,! amphiboles are a gr\p ( m9]als made up ( ! same *emical elem5ts z ! pyrox5es1 b ) ! molecul> arrangem5t diff]5t1 :i* appe>s 9 ! =ms ( ! cry/als4 ,! common] ones are all monocl9ic b contra/ ) ! pyrox5es z foll[s4 ,amphiboles are long & sl5d] cry/als1 :ile pyrox5es are %ort & /\t2 amphiboles are six-sid$1 :ile pyrox5es are eight-sid$2 amphiboles h ! two p]fect cleavages int]sect+ at #ee & #abe1 :ile ^? ( pyrox5e int]sect at #hg & #ic4 ,) ! above 9 m9d x is easy to place ! m9]als 9 _! prop] gr\p1 b inside ! gr\p x is n always s easy to di/+ui% "o f ano!r4 ,?is gr\p is associat$ r ) metamorphic rocks ?an ) igne\s rocks1 ) :i* ! pyrox5es are mo/ly associat$4 ,! ?ree common] m9]als ( ! gr\p are tremolite1 act9olite1 & hornbl5de4 ,tremolite 7,ca,mg77,si,o7 ,pl4 #cg ,occurs 9 long prismatic cry/als or 9 column> or fibr\s masses2 h>dness #e4e2 specific gravity1 #c2 color :ite to gray2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,! long prismatic cry/als ( tremolite occur especially :]e dolomitic lime/ones h be5 alt]$ by metamorphism4 ,sometimes ^! cry/als gr[ side by side1 mak+ fibr\s masses1 :]e ! long sl5d] cry/als c be pick$ ap>t ) ! f+]s1 & yet are flexible1 & t\gh en\gh s t !y c be felt$ toge!r4 ,?is is t]m$ asbe/os1 :i*1 because x is infusible & a poor conductor ( heat1 is mu* us$ to make insulators1 fire-pro( %+les1 & all sorts ( firepro( mat]ials4 ,! v>ieties 9 :i* ! cry/als are f9] & silky 9 appe>ance1 l ! "o illu/rat$ on ,plate #ch are t]m$ amian?us4 ,!re are o!r m9]als1 su* z act9olite & s]p5t9e1 :i* occur 9 ! same mann]1 & are also call$ asbe/os1 ! s]p5t9e v>iety be+ j n[ ! mo/ important comm]cially4 ,tremolite is f\nd at ,lee1 ,mass41 ,canaan1 ,conn41 ,byram1 ,n4 ,j41 9 ,georgia1 etc4 ,act9olite 7,ca,mg,fe77,si,o7 ,occurs 9 radiat+ cry/als1 or 9 fibr\s masses2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity #c2 color pale- to d>k-gre52 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,except = its gre5 color1 ?is m9]al is v l tremolite4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two is due to ! small am\nt ( iron 9 ! act9olite4 ,x is usually f\nd 9 s*i/s1 & ! radiat+ "* ( ! cry/al gr\ps is en\gh to det]m9e ! m9]al1 if x is already cle> t x is "o ( ! amphiboles4 ,occasionally x occurs ) ! cry/als p>allel to ea* o!r1 mak+ "o ( ! =ms ( asbe/os4 ,act9olite is f\nd at ,w>wick1 ,ed5ville1 & ,amity 9 ,orange ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 at ,frankl9 & ,newton1 ,n4 ,j41 ,m9]al ,hill & ,unionville1 ,p5n41 ,b>e ,hills1 ,md41 ,willis ,mt41 ,va41 etc4 ,hornbl5de 7,ca,mg,fe77,si,o7,ca,mg,al7,si,o7 ,pl4 #cg ,occurs 9 well-def9$ cry/als1 9 gra9s & 9 masses2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity #c4b2 color black1 d>k-gre51 or d>k-br[n2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,9 composition hornbl5de corresponds to augite1 b occurs 9 long sl5d]1 six-sid$ cry/als ) cleavage planes int]sect+ at #ee1 s t x is a typical amphibole4 ,x occurs 9 a v wide range ( rocks1 su* z granite1 sy5ite1 diabase1 & gabbro2 & 9 su* metamorphic rocks z s*i/s & gneisses2 & sometimes igne\s rocks are made up almo/ entirely ( hornbl5de1 :5 !y are kn[n z amphibolites or hornbl5dite4 ,x is f\nd all ?r\gh ! ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 d[n along ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 ?r\gh ! ,blue ,ridge ,m\nta9s1 & 9 _m ( ! we/]n m\nta9\s areas4 ,! ,g>net ,gr\p ,! g>nets are a s]ies ( d\ble silicates1 :i* occur ) surpris+ly uni=m *>act]s4 ,!y are all isometric1 & occur ei!r z dodecah$rons1 or z ! #bd-sid$ figure 7! trapezoh$ron71 :i* is =m$ by ! bevel+ ( ! edges ( ! dodecah$ron1 & develop+ ^! new faces to ! exclusion ( ! dodecah$ron faces4 ,comb9ations ( ! dodecah$ron & trapezoh$ron 7#cf faces7 may occur4 ,all ! g>nets h a h>dness ( #g to #g4e1 & ! specific gravity runs f #c4b to #d4c1 accord+ to ! composition4 ,9 size !y run f z small z a gra9 ( s& up to z l>ge z a boy's m>ble1 & occasionally ev5 to f\r in*es 9 diamet]4 ,! color v>ies ) ! composition1 f colorless to yell[1 r$1 violet1 or gre54 ,!re is no cleavage1 & ! lu/] is always vitre\s4 ,g>nets are usually accessory m9]als1 f\nd 9 metamorphic rocks1 ?\gh !y are sometimes also pres5t 9 granites & lavas4 ,!y are always segregations :i* h tak5 place 9 ! pres5ce ( high temp]atures4 ,:5 cle> & p]fect sev]al ( ! g>nets are us$ z gems4 ,on ! o!r h& "s ( ! common g>nets occur 9 su* quantities t !y are cru%$ & us$ z abrasives1 = su* "w z d5tal poli%es1 or = lea!r & wood poli%+4 ,! foll[+ is ! composition ( "s ( ! common] g>nets4 ,ca,al7,si,o7 grossul>ite ,mg,al7,si,o7 pyrope ,fe,al7,si,o7 alm&ite ,mn,al7,si,o7 spess>tite ,ca,fe7,si,o7 &radite ,ca,cr7,si,o7 uv>ovite ,grossul>ite is *iefly f\nd 9 cry/all9e lime/ones1 :i* h result$ ei!r f contact ) lavas1 or f g5]al metamorphism ( impure lime/ones4 ,^! g>nets are colorless to :ite1 or m (t5 %ades ( yell[1 orange1 p9k1 gre5 or br[n1 accord+ to traces ( impurity :i* !y may conta94 ,! c9namon-color$ v>iety f ,ceylon is t]m$ c9namon /one1 & is a fairly popul> gem4 ,pyrope is a deep-r$ color & :5 p]fect is highly priz$ z a gem4 ,x is f\nd 9 d>k-color$ igne\s rocks1 l lavas1 or s]p5t9es4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ come f ,s\? ,africa1 :]e !y are f\nd 9 company ) ! diamond4 ,alm&ite is d>k-r$ to br[n 9 color1 ! br[ni%-ca/ di/+ui%+ x f pyrope4 ,x is "o ( ! g>nets kn[n z 8common g>net40 ,9 "s cases x is cle> & deep color$ en\gh to be us$ z a gem1 b mo/ly x is muddy 9 appe>ance4 ,! "n alm&ite comes f ,alab&a1 a city ( ! anci5t di/rict ( ,c>ia1 ,asia ,m9or1 :5ce g>nets 7 trad$ to anci5t ,rome4 ,! f9e/ g>nets 8,sirian g>nets0 came f ! city ( 8,sirian0 9 ,l[] ,burma1 & 7 suppos$ to h be5 f\nd ne> !re1 b c>eful inve/igation %[s t no g>nets occurr$ ne> !re1 & ?is t[n 0 !re=e1 ev5 at t e>ly "t1 a di/ribut+ po9t = g>nets1 f\nd probably fur!r to ! ea/4 ,! 8,sirian0 g>net _h a violet ca/ & n[ ! t]m is us$ to indicate a type ( g>net1 r ?an a locality4 ,spess>tite is d>k-hyac9?-r$1 or r$ ) a violet-t+e1 & is "o ( ! less-common g>nets4 ,x is usually f\nd 9 granites4 ,! f9e/ g>nets ( ! type come f ,amelia ,c\rt ,h\se1 ,va41 :i* has yield$ "s rang+ f "o up to a hundr$ c>ats4 ,&radite is ano!r g>net :i* is t]m$ 8common g>net40 ,x is r$ 9 color1 b ) a yell[i%-ca/ :i* di/+ui%es x f alm&ite1 b ^! two are n easy to sep>ate4 ,x is f\nd mo/ly 9 metamorphos$ lime/ones4 ,"o v>iety is black 9 color & call$ malanite4 ,x is f\nd 9 lavas4 ,! common yell[i%-r$ g>nets are f\nd ?r\gh ,new ,engl& & ! ,pi$mont ,plateau4 ,uv>ovite is a r>e g>net ( em]ald-gre5 color1 f\nd 9 association ) *romium ores4 ,! numb] ( localities = g>nets is s great t a li/ w\ld sugge/ mo/ ( ! regions :]e metamorphic rocks occur1 z all ov] ,new ,engl&1 ?r\gh\t ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 etc4 ,c]ta9 f9e cle> g>nets1 f\nd 9 ,montana1 nor!a/]n ,arizona1 & nor?we/]n ,new ,mexico are sold "u ! trade "n ( 8,montana1 ,arizona or ,new ,mexico rubies40 ,^! are ( f9e quality & are mo/ly collect$ by ! ,indians f ! ant hills & scorpion's ne/s ( ^? regions4 ,g>nets are among ! e>lie/ /ones m5tion$ 9 anci5t languages1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! way ^! h>d & beautiful cry/als wea!r out ( ! mu* s(t] metamorphic rocks1 l s*i/s4 ,9 ! pa/ !y1 ) mo/ any o!r transluc5t r$ /one1 7 includ$ "u ! "n c>buncle4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! "n ( any m9]al1 b ref]s r to a mode ( cutt+1 en cabo*on or ) a convex surface4 ,gluc9um ,gluc9um is a r>e metal1 silv]y-:ite 9 color1 malleable1 & melt+ at a fairly l[ temp]ature4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! m9]al b]yl1 f :i* has come ! alt]native "n b]yllium4 ,! "n comes f ! sweet ta/e ( its salts4 ,except = b]yl its m9]als are r>e1 & ! metal has f\nd b few uses = man4 ,b]yl ,gl,al7,si,o7 ,pl4 #ci ,occurs 9 hexagonal cry/als 9 granites1 gneisses & mica s*i/s2 h>dness1 #g4e2 specific gravity1 #b4g2 color usually "s t9t ( gre52 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,:5 ?is m9]al occurs 9 co>se hexagonal prisms1 ) or )\t faces on ! ends1 x is kn[n z b]yl2 :5 ! cry/als are cle> & p]fect & ( a d>k-gre5 color1 !y are ( gem value & are t]m$ em]ald2 :5 ( a light-gre5 color1 !y are aquam>9e2 & :5 bright-yell[ 9 color1 !y are ! gold5 b]yl4 ,!re is little difficulty 9 det]m9+ b]yl1 = only apatite occurs 9 su* cry/als1 & is gre51 & ?is latt] m9]al has a h>dness ( only #e4 ,!re is an imp]fect basal cleavage4 ,ord9>y b]yl is fairly common 9 granites ( ! pegmatite sort1 & less common 9 gneisses & mica-s*i/s4 ,?is type (t5 furni%es cry/als ( l>ge size1 up to two & ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,b]yl :i* is free f cracks & inclosures1 s x c be us$ z a gem1 is s r>e1 t ! em]ald has a value above t ( ! diamond1 & second only to ! ruby4 ,x is "o ( ! gems ) a long hi/ory1 hav+ be5 qu>ri$ on ! we/ coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea at lea/ #afej ,b4,c4 by ! ,egyptians4 ,to e>ly p x _h a p[] to quick5 ! prophet in/9ct & made ! we>] see m cle>ly4 ,! ,spani% conqui/adores f\nd f9e em]alds among ! treasures ( bo? ,mexico & ,p]u4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,/ony ,po9t1 ,n4 ,c41 0 a notable locality = ^! gems1 b n[ seems to h be5 exhau/$4 ,! "n em]ald has be5 appli$ to _m o!r gre5 /ones1 usually ) "s geographical modification1 z 8,ori5tal em]ald0 :i* is gre5 corundum1 8,brazilian em]ald0 :i* is t\rmal9e1 etc4 ,giant b]yls h be5 f\nd at ,acwor? & ,grafton1 ,n4 ,h41 & at ,royal/on1 ,mass4 ,localities = ord9>y b]yl are ,albany1 ,norway1 ,be!l1 ,hebron1 ,p>is1 & ,top%am1 ,me41 ,b>re1 ,go%5 & ,*e/]field1 ,mass41 ,new ,mil=d & ,bran*ville1 ,conn41 ,*e/] & ,m9]al ,hill1 ,p5n41 ,/ony ,po9t1 ,n4 ,c41 & _m o!r localities 9 ! ,appala*ians2 also ,m\nt ,ant]o1 ,colo41 & 9 ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota4 ,sodalite ,na,al,cl7,si,o7 ,occurs 9 irregul> masses1 sometimes 9 dodecah$rons2 h>dness1 #e4e-f2 specific gravity1 #b4c2 color deep-blue to colorless2 /reak :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is /rik+ m9]al1 ) its deep-blue to azure color1 is n easily confus$ ) any o!r4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( soda-ri* igne\s rocks su* z sy5ite & "s lavas4 ,9 ?is c\ntry x is f\nd at ,lit*field1 ,me41 & ,salem1 ,mass4 ,zircon ,zr,si,o ,pl4 #ci ,usually occurs 9 tetrah$ral cry/als 9 igne\s rocks2 h>dness1 #g4e2 specific gravity1 #d4g2 color br[n2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,zircon1 ! m9]al ( ! r>e e>? elem5t zirconium1 ne>ly always occurs 9 light-color$ igne\s rocks1 l sy5ite4 ,x may occur 9 s*i/s or gneisses1 b 9 ^! rocks ! cry/als are ( microscopic size4 ,because ( _! great h>dness & insolubility1 zircon cry/als resi/ wea!r+ & are (t5 f\nd1 along ) gold1 cassit]ite1 or magnetite1 9 s&s :i* h result$ f ! dis9tegration ( sy5ite rocks4 ,zircon refracts & disp]ses light to a degree second only to ! diamond1 s t cle> cry/als are s\ght z gems4 ,!y are (t5 call$ 8,matura diamonds0 because ( _! abundance at ,matura1 ,ceylon4 ,:5 ! cry/als are colorless or smoky !y are t]m$ j>gons or j>goons2 :5 ( a r$-orange hue1 !y are hyac9? or jac9?4 ,mo/ ( ! zircon ( gem-quality comes f ,ceylon1 :]e x is pick$ up z roll$-pebbles f ! b$s ( brooks4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ,am]ican locality = zircon is ne> ,gre5 ,riv]1 9 ,h5d]son ,co41 ,n4 ,c41 :]e x is f\nd abundantly 9 a decompos$ pegmatite dike1 f :i* _m tons h be5 obta9$4 ,x is also f\nd at ,moriah1 ,w>wick1 ,amity & ,diana1 ,n4 ,y41 at ,frankl9 ,furnace1 & ,tr5ton1 ,n4 ,j41 9 ! gold-be>+ s&s ( ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,cyanite ,al,si,o ,pl4 #dj ,occurs 9 long blade-l cry/als 9 gneisses & s*i/s2 h>dness1 #g at "r angles to ! l5g?1 & #d4e p>allel to ! l5g?2 specific gravity1 #c4f2 color blue2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,!re are only a few blue m9]als1 & ! way 9 :i* cyanite occurs 9 long ?9 blade-l cry/als is entirely *>act]i/ic4 ,if m is /ill want$ to det]m9e ?is m9]al1 its unique "* 9 hav+ ! great h>dness #g :5 scrat*$ p>allel to ! l5g?1 & only #d4e :5 scrat*$ crossways1 w settle any d\bts4 ,! m9]al sillimanite has ! same composition z cyanite1 b is fibr\s 9 habit & has ! h>dness #f4e4 ,if cyanite is heat$ to #acej ,c4 x *anges its "* & becomes sillimanite4 ,cyanite is f\nd z an accessory m9]al 9 metamorphic rocks1 su* z gneiss & s*i/1 at ,*e/]field1 ,mass41 ,lit*field & ,ox=d1 ,conn41 9 ,*e/] ,co41 ,p5n41 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 etc4 ,! ,mica ,gr\p ,! micas are v common m9]als1 easily recogniz$ by _! v p]fect basal cleavage1 z a result ( :i* ?9 %eets1 (t5 less ?an a ?\s&? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 readily split (f4 ,^! are t\gh & ela/ic1 :i* di/+ui%es mica f ! *lorite gr\p 9 :i* !re is simil> basal cleavage1 b ! %eets are n ela/ic4 ,micas are complex silicates ( alum9um1 ) potassium1 iron1 li?ium1 magnesium & hydrog54 ,!y are "o ( ! pr9ciple compon5ts ( _m granites1 gneisses1 & s*i/s4 ,?is m9]al is always cry/all9e1 be+ 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em1 b occurr+ 9 six-sid$ prisms4 ,! cleavage is s dom9ant a "* t ! cry/al =m is usually ov]look$1 z x is seldom requisite 9 det]m9+ ?is m9]al4 ,! size ( ! %eets ( mica dep5d on ! size ( ! cry/als1 ! l>g] %eets express+ great sl[ness 9 cool+ f ! orig9al magmas4 ,sometimes ! cry/als may be two or ev5 ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,! h>dness is n great1 rang+ betwe5 #b & #c4 ,! specific gravity lies betwe5 #b4g & #c4b4 ,! color v>ies accord+ to ! composition1 f silv]y-:ite1 ?r\gh gray1 p9k1 & gre5 to black4 ,! lu/] is vitre\s to pe>ly1 sometimes gleam+ 9 ! d>k]-color$ v>ieties4 ,! common] types ( mica are z foll[s3 ,muscovite1 ,h,k,al7,si,o7 or pota% mica4 ,lepidolite1 ,li,k7,al,,oh,f7,al7,si,o7 or li?ia mica4 ,biotite1 7,,hk77,mg,fe7,al7,si,o7 or iron mica4 ,phlogopite1 ,h,k,mg,al7,si,o7 or magnesia mica4 ,muscovite is colorless1 silv]y-:ite1 gray or sometimes pale-gre5 or br[n4 ,x gets its "n f ,mosc[ :]e x 0 e>ly us$ = w9d[ panes1 & x is /ill us$ = /ove & furnace doors1 z well z 9 electric "w1 = a lubricant1 etc4 ,! be/ cry/als occur 9 granites1 9 ! co>se v>ieties ( :i* l>ge cry/als may be obta9$4 ,x is f\nd also z small scales 9 gneisses & s*i/s1 & :5 wea!r$ f its orig9al rocks x may be pres5t 9 s&/ones & %ales4 ,muscovite is always 9 its orig9 an elem5t>y compon5t ( deep-seat$ igne\s rocks1 l granite2 b is nev] a compon5t ( extrud$ lavas4 ,s]icite is muscovite :i* has be5 second>ily produc$ by ! alt]ation ( o!r m9]als into muscovite1 z :5 feldsp>1 cyanite1 topaz1 etc41 h be5 modifi$ by ! pres5ce ( heat & hot vapors1 :5 ne> lavas t h come 9 contact ) o!r rocks4 ,muscovite is v resi/ant to alt]ation by wea!r+1 b :5 x does *ange1 ! great] "p ( x becomes kaol94 ,x is f\nd at ,acwor? & ,grafton1 ,n4 ,h41 9 plates1 sometimes a y>d across at ,p>is1 ,me41 ,*e/]field & ,go%51 ,mass41 ,portl& & ,middlet[n1 ,conn41 at ,w>wick1 ,ed5ville1 etc41 ,n4 ,y41 & all d[n ! ,appala*ian ,mts41 also 9 ! ,rocky ,mts41 ! ,cascade ,range1 etc4 ,lepidolite is p9k or lilac 9 color & occurs 9 scaly masses1 mo/ly 9 granites4 ,x does n come 9 l>ge cry/als4 ,lepidolite is f\nd at ,p>is & ,hebron1 ,me41 ,middlet[n1 ,conn41 ,pala1 ,calif41 etc4 ,biotite is d>k-br[n or black mica4 ,l muscovite x is v common1 mak+ "o ( ! *ief compon5ts ( granites1 gneisses & s*i/s2 &1 unlike muscovite1 x may occur 9 extrusive lavas1 l tra*yte1 &esite1 & basalt4 ,x resi/s wea!r+ mu* less ?an muscovite1 s t1 :5 ! rocks ( :i* x is a compon5t dis9tegrate1 biotite is usually alt]$ to kaol9 & o!r comp\nds4 ,x is likely to occur 9 good-siz$ cry/als1 especially at ,topsam1 ,me41 ,moriah1 ,n4 ,y41 ,ea/on1 ,p5n41 etc4 ,phlogopite is pale-br[n1 (t5 copp]y 9 color1 & is mo/ likely to occur 9 s]p5t9es1 or cry/all9e lime/ones or dolomites1 (t5 9 f9e cry/als1 ( good size4 ,:ile "o ( ! less abundant micas1 ?is is f\nd at ,g\v]neur1 ,edw>ds1 & ,w>wick1 ,n4 ,y41 ,newton1 ,n4 ,j41 & ,burgess1 ,canada4 ,topaz ,al,f,si,o ,pl4 #da ,occurs 9 cry/als mo/ly2 h>dness1 #h2 specific gravity1 #c4e2 colorless to pale-yell[2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,topaz may be colorless1 b is m (t5 "s %ade ( yell[1 & at times br[n or ev5 blue4 ,its h>dness is *>act]i/ic1 !re be+ b few m9]als z h>d1 & x is us$ to repres5t ! h>dness #h 9 ! ,moh's scale4 ,! cry/als are or?orhombic prisms1 ) ! edges ( ! prism bevel$ & (t5 /riat$4 ,! ends ( cry/als usually t]m9ate ) a basal plane1 p>allel to :i* !re is good cleavage4 ,betwe5 ?is basal plane & ! prism faces !re are usually sev]al sets ( small faces z indicat$ on ,plate #da4 ,?is m9]al1 z is also true ( mo/ m9]als conta9+ fluor9e1 is "o ( ^? :i* h cry/alliz$ out f hot vapors1 escap+ f igne\s magmas4 ,x is associat$ ) su* m9]als1 z t\rmal9e1 b]yl1 fluorite1 & cassit]ite1 & occurs mo/ly 9 cavities or seams1 9 or ne> granites4 ,ord9>y topaz1 :i* means cry/als t are imp]fect by reason ( t9y cracks & impurities is n v r>e1 b cry/als :i* are p]fect & cle> 9 color are consid]$ gems4 ,mo/ ( ! gem-topaz is "s %ade ( yell[1 b may be br[n or blue1 nev]1 h[ev]1 p9k1 z is (t5 se5 9 jewelry4 ,! 8p9k+0 is artificial1 & done by pack+ yell[ or br[n topaz 9 magnesia1 asbe/os1 or lime1 & !n heat+ x sl[ly to r$ heat1 aft] :i* x is cool$ sl[ly4 ,if und]heat$ ! color is salmon1 if ov]heat$ all color disappe>s4 ,topaz has be5 a gem = c5turies1 ! e>lie/ records com+ f ,egypt4 ,! "n comes f topazios1 mean+ to seek1 because ! e>lie/ kn[n locality1 f :i* x 0 ga!r$1 0 a little isl& ( t "n 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & ?is isl& 0 (t5 surr\nd$ by fog & h>d = ^? e>ly m>9]s to f9d4 ,"h by m&ate ( ! ,egyptian k+s ! inhabitants _h to collect topazes1 & deliv] !m to ! gem-cutt]s ( ,egypt = poli%+4 ,sev]al yell[ /ones are call$ topaz1 z ! 8,ori5tal topaz0 :i* is corundum & m valuable ?an topaz itself2 & sev]al v>ieties ( yell[ qu>tz1 :i* g "u su* names z 8,saxon10 8,scot*10 8,spani%10 & 8smoky0 topaz4 ,:5 topaz occurs colorless z 9 ,sib]ia1 ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 & 9 ! /ate ( ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,brazil1 9 all ( :i* places x is f\nd z pebbles 9 brooks1 x goes "u ! "n ( 8slave's diamonds40 ,brazil is today ! *ief s\rce ( gem-quality topaz4 ,ord9>y topaz is f\nd 9 ?is c\ntry at ,trumbull1 ,conn41 ,cr[d]'s ,mt41 ,n4 ,c41 ,?omas ,mts41 ,utah1 9 ,colorado1 ,miss\ri1 & ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,/aurolite ,fe,al,,oh7,si,o7 ,pl4 #da ,occurs 9 or?orhombic cry/als2 h>dness1 #g4e2 specific gravity1 #c4g2 color br[n2 lu/] res9\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is m9]al occurs ab\t equally abundantly 9 simple cry/als simil> to ! outl9e on ,plate #da1 & 9 tw9s :i* h gr[n ?r\gh ea* o!r ei!r at #ij or at #fj4 ,! color is ei!r br[n or r$di%-br[n4 ,9 all cases x is an accessory m9]al1 occurr+ 9 metamorphic rocks1 usually s*i/s1 ?\gh less frequ5tly 9 slates & gneisses4 ,f ! sev5te5? c5tury on1 x has be5 us$ z a baptismal /one1 & worn z a *>m1 leg5ds /at+ t x fell f ! heav5s4 ,f9e cry/als h be5 f\nd 9 ,patrick ,c\nty1 ,va41 & !re is 9 ?is region ! leg5d1 t :5 ! fairies he>d ( ! crucifixion ( ,*ri/1 !y wept & _! te>s fall+ cry/alliz$ 9 ! =m ( crosses1 su* z ! "o %[n on ,plate #da4 ,/aurolite is f\nd 9 ! s*i/s ( ,new ,engl& z at ,w9dham1 ,me41 or ,*e/]field1 ,mass41 & all d[n ! ea/ side ( ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s to ,georgia4 ,oliv9e 7,mg,fe7,si,o ,p]idot or ,*rysolite ,occurs 9 gra9s & irregul> masses 9 d>k lavas2 h>dness #f4e to #g2 specific gravity #c4c2 color bottle- to olive-gre52 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,oliv9e r>ely occurs 9 cry/als1 b :5 x does !y belong to ! or?orhombic sy/em4 ,! d>k-gre5 gra9s or masses are recogniz$ by ! color1 consid]able h>dness & indi/9ct cleavage4 ,s]p5t9e may h a simil> color1 b its h>dness is only #d4 ,9 hydro*loric acid oliv9e decomposes to a gelat9\s mass4 ,oliv9e is typically "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! d>k lavas1 l basalt1 gabbro1 or p]idotite4 ,x is also a common m9]al 9 meteorites4 ,oliv9e1 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 alt]s to o!r m9]als1 especially s]p5t9e1 ) great facility4 ,x occurs fairly widely :]ev] ! d>k lavas are pres5t1 z 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s ( ,n4 ,h41 9 ,l\d\n ,co41 ,va41 9 ,lanca/] ,co41 ,p5n41 & 9 _m localities 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ,cascade ,range4 ,epidote ,ca7,al,o,h77,al,fe77,si,o7 ,pl4 #db ,occurs 9 gra9s or column> masses2 h>dness1 #f4e2 specific gravity #c4d2 color gre51 usually a pi/a*io or yell[-gre52 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,r>ely epidote occurs 9 cry/als1 :i* belong to ! monocl9ic sy/em1 & may be ei!r %ort l ! diagrams on plate #db or long & ne$le-l4 ,! color & h>dness w suffice to det]m9e ?is m9]al1 z almo/ no o!r has ! peculi> yell[i%-gre5 color :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ?is =m4 ,epidote occurs prim>ily 9 metamorphic rocks at or ne> ! contact ) igne\s rocks2 or x may be a second>y m9]al result+ f ! wea!r+ ( granites1 especially along seams4 ,x sometimes occurs ) hornbl5de 9 highly fold$ s*i/s1 z 9 ,new ,york ,city4 ,x is (t5 a m9]al :i* has result$ f ! alt]ation ( o!r m9]als1 z pyrox5e1 amphibole1 biotite1 or ev5 feldsp>s4 ,x is f\nd at ,*e/] & ,a?ol1 ,mass41 ,haddam1 ,conn41 ,amity1 ,munroe & ,w>wick1 ,n4,y41 ,ea/ ,bran*1 ,p5n41 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 etc4 ,t\rmal9e 7,fe,cr,na,k,li7,mg,b,al,h,si,o ,pl4 #db frontispiece ,occurs 9 ?ree-sid$ prismatic cry/als2 h>dness1 #g2 specific gravity1 #c4a2 colorless1 r$1 gre51 br[n1 or black2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,t\rmal9e is readily di/+ui%$ f o!r m9]als1 z x always occurs 9 long to %ort prisms1 :i* are ?ree-sid$ 9 cross section4 ,!re is also a t5d5cy = ! sides to be curv$ z se5 on ! end view ( ,d1 ,pl4 #db4 ,frequ5tly ! v]tical edges ( ! prism are bevel$ ) "o1 two or ?ree faces1 gr\p$ ab\t ea* ( ! ?ree orig9al edges1 & !re are (t5 /riations on ! prism faces4 ,! ends are t]m9at$ by a l[ rhomboh$ron & aga9 !re may be a ho/ ( modify+ faces on ! edges & corn]s ( ! end4 ,! common v>ieties are br[n or black 9 color1 b occasionally !re may occur gre51 r$1 yell[ or almo/ any color4 ,:5 ! cry/als are p]fect1 t is free f impurities & )\t t9y cracks1 t\rmal9e becomes a gem ( popul>ity & value4 ,t\rmal9e is v complex 9 composition & may v>y consid]ably1 ! sodium1 potassium1 li?ium1 magnesium1 & iron be+ ei!r m or less abundant or ev5 lack+4 ,! color is to "s ext5t dep5d5t on ! proportions ( ^! elem5ts pres5t1 ! d>k v>ieties hav+ m iron1 & ! light color$ t\rmal9es lack+ x4 ,?is m9]al is "o ( ^? :i* =m f sup]heat$ vapors1 escap+ f molt5 magmas4 ,x w !re=e occur 9 ve9s1 (t5 associat$ ) copp] m9]als1 9 cry/all9e lime/ones1 or 9 cavities 9 granites1 :]e x is associat$ ) su* m9]als1 z b]yl1 apatite1 fluorite1 topaz1 etc4 ,if heat$ t\rmal9e cry/als develop electricity1 ) ! effect ( mak+ "o end a positive & ! o!r a negative pole1 & !n w attract bits ( /raw1 a%es1 etc4 ,x 0 fir/ introduc$ into ,europe ab\t #agjc f ,india1 & its vogue z a gem has greatly increas$ s9ce x 0 f\nd on ,m\nt ,mica ne> ,p>is1 ,me4 ,?is ,p>is1 ,me41 locality 0 discov]$ by two boys1 amateur m9]alogi/s1 ,elijah ,l4 ,haml9 & ,ezekiel ,holmes1 :o 9 #ahbj 7 return+ home f a trip hunt+ = m9]als1 :51 at ! root ( a tree1 !y discov]$ "s gleam+ gre5 sub/ance4 ,x prov$ to be gem-quality t\rmal9e4 ,a sn[ /orm t night buri$ _! 8claim10 b next spr+ x 0 visit$ & sev]al f9e cry/als f\nd4 ,lat] ?is locality 0 sy/ematically work$1 & ov] #ej1jjj wor? ( t\rmal9e tak5 f ! pegmatite seam 9 ! granite1 :i* lay "u ! cry/als f\nd on ! surface4 ,! figure 9 ! frontispiece is "o ( ! cry/als f !re4 ,well kn[n localities are ,p>is & ,hebron1 ,me41 ,go%5 & ,*e/]field1 ,mass41 ,acwor? & ,grafton1 ,n4 ,h41 ,haddam & ,munroe1 ,conn41 ,ed5ville & ,port ,h5ry1 ,n4 ,y41 ,jeff]son ,co41 ,colo41 ,san ,diego ,co41 ,calif41 etc4 ,kaol9ite ,h,al,si,o ,kaol9 ,usually f\nd 9 :iti% clay-l masses2 h>dness1 #b2 specific gravity1 #b4f2 color :ite to grayi% or yell[i%2 lu/] dull4 ,kaol9ite does n g5]ally occur 9 cry/als1 ?\gh cry/als ( microscopic size & monocl9ic =ms h be5 f\nd4 ,x is a second>y m9]al result+ f ! decomposition by wea!r+ ( feldsp>s1 ! calcium1 potassium or sodium hav+ be5 replac$ by wat]4 ,:5 f\nd 9 place x is g5]ally :ite or ne>ly :ite1 & is *>act]iz$ by its greasy feel4 ,z granites or o!r feldsp>-be>+ rocks are wea!r$ away1 ! kaol9 is wa%$ out by wat]1 & ) o!r f9e mat]ial is c>ri$ d[n into lakes or ! sea1 :]e x settles to ! bottom & is kn[n z clay4 ,clay is kaol9 ) m or less impurities4 ,pure kaol9 is us$ = ! manufacture ( *9a & :ite porcela9 w>e2 b :5 x is impure1 especially :5 x has iron 9 x1 bak+ causes ! product to turn r$ or br[n1 s t x is only suitable = mak+ tile1 bricks1 etc4 ,x is f\nd almo/ any:]e t feldsp> rocks are1 or h be51 expos$ to wea!r+4 ,talc ,h,mg7,si,o7 ,occurs 9 scales1 or 9 fibr\s1 scaly or compact masses2 h>dness1 #a2 specific gravity1 #b4g2 color :ite1 gray or pale-gre52 lu/] pe>ly2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,?is m9]al is z s(t z any1 only graphite & molybd5ite be+ ( ! same h>dness1 b bo? ^! latt] two h a black /reak1 :ile ! /reak ( talc is :ite4 ,! greasy feel is also *>act]i/ic4 ,talc is v seldom f\nd 9 cry/als1 b if !y are f\nd1 !y w appe> l flakes & h a hexagonal cross section1 ?\gh 9 reality !y belong to ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,talc is a second>y m9]al :i* usually results f ! exposure ( magnesium silicates1 su* z pyrox5es or amphiboles1 to moi/ure4 ,9 ?is case1 9-z-mu* z ! orig9al rocks 7 metamorphic 9 orig91 ! talc !refrom w occur 9 old metamorphic regions4 ,"s talc is also =m$ by ! action ( silica-be>+ wat]s on dolomite4 ,?is is likely to be ! case ne> ! contact betwe5 dolomite & igne\s rocks4 ,talc is closely relat$ to s]p5t9e & likely to be f\nd 9 ! same regions4 ,talc has come to h a consid]able use4 ,"s ( x is compact & !n call$ soap/one1 & ?is 0 us$ by ! anci5t ,*9ese to make images & ornam5ts2 & our ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians us$ x to make l>ge pots1 to s]ve z conta9]s = liquids4 ,"s ( ^! pots h be5 c>v$ out ) great skill1 s z to be fairly light 9 proportion to :at !y w\ld hold4 ,pipes & images 7 also c>v$ f soap/one4 ,today we /ill cut soap/one into slabs to make mantels1 laundry tubs & s9ks4 ,! scaly & fibr\s v>ieties are gr\nd1 & us$ 9 mak+ pap]1 pa9t1 ro(+1 rubb]1 soap1 crayons1 toilet p[d]s1 etc4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates produce & use ov] half ! _w's production1 our indu/ries requir+ ov] #ajj1jjj tons ( talc a ye>4 ,( ?is #ch goes into pap]1 #bc into pa9t1 #ah into ro(+1 & s on d[n to toilet p[d] :i* uses #b1 or #b1ejj tons a ye>4 ,talc is f\nd 9 metamorphos$ regions1 t is 9 ,new ,engl&1 all d[n ! ea/ side ( ! ,appala*ian ,mts41 9 ! ,rocky ,mts41 & ! ,cascade ,ranges1 ) a l>ge numb] ( local occurr5ces4 ,new ,york ,/ate is ! lead+ produc]4 ,s]p5t9e ,h,mg,si,o ,pl4 #dc ,occurs 9 compact1 granul> or fibr\s masses2 h>dness1 #c2 specific gravity1 #b4f2 color gre52 lu/] greasy2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,s]p5t9e is nev] 9 cry/als4 ,its color & h>dness s]ve to di/+ui% x4 ,l talc x is a second>y m9]al result+ f ! alt]ation1 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure1 ( pyrox5es1 amphiboles1 & especially1 oliv9e4 ,z ^! are (t5 9 metamorphic rocks1 ! s]p5t9e is likely to be associat$ ) metamorphic rocks4 ,"s s]p5t9e is also ! result ( ! action ( silica-be>+ wat] on dolomite1 & ?is is likely to occur 9 areas ( s$im5t>y rocks4 ,! fibr\s v>iety ( s]p5t9e1 *rysolite1 usually occurs 9 seams or ve9s1 & :5 ! fib]s are long1 x is us$ z asbe/os4 ,?is =m ( asbe/os is ! "o mo/ us$ comm]cially today1 z !re are rem>kably l>ge deposits ( x 9 ! ,prov9ce ( ,quebec1 :i* provide ! major "p ( ! _w supply4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is also f\nd 9 ,cali=nia & ,arizona b only 9 mod]ate quantities4 ,massive s]p5t9e is us$ 9 consid]able quantities z an ornam5tal /one1 ! gre5 color v>i$ ) /reaks & blot*es ( :ite1 yell[ & r$1 due to v>i\s impurities1 mak+ x v effective4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only suitable = int]ior "w z ! wea!r quickly spoils ! poli%$ surface4 ,?is is fur!r discuss$ "u s]p5t9e rock1 page #bde4 ,s]p5t9e is f\nd at ,newfane1 ,vt41 ,newburyport1 ,mass41 ,brew/]1 ,antw]p1 etc41 ,n4 ,y41 ,hobok51 ,n4 ,j41 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 etc4 ,*lorite ,h7,mg,fe7,al7,si,o7 ,pl4 #dc ,occurs 9 monocl9ic cry/als ( six-sid$ outl9e1 or 9 scaly flakes or masses2 h>dness1 #b2 specific gravity #b4h2 color gre52 lu/] pe>ly on cleavage faces2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,*lorite is a family "n1 cov]+ a s]ies ( closely relat$ m9]als1 s simil> 9 appe>ance t !y are be/ consid]$ "u ?is common "n4 ,9 _m respects !y resemble mica1 9 ! %ape ( ! cry/als & ! rem>kable basal cleavage4 ,at fir/ glance x is easy to confuse ! two1 b *lorite scales are n ela/ic1 & :5 b5t1 /ay b5t1 in/ead ( snapp+ back l mica4 ,9 fact !y look l m or less rott$ micas4 ,?is is m ?an appe>ance1 = *lorites =m z a result ( ! alt]ation ( micas 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure4 ,!y are !n second>y1 & w be f\nd :]e mica-rocks h be5 wea!r$1 z 9 granites & s*i/s4 ,!y may be expect$ any:]e t micas h be5 long expos$1 z 9 ,new ,engl&1 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 or ! ,si]ra ,nevada or ,cascade ,ranges4 ,special localities are ,brew/]1 ,n4 ,y41 ,unionville & ,texas1 ,p5n41 etc4 ,! ,zeolites ,! zeolites are a gr\p ( :ite m9]als1 ) a pe>ly lu/]1 light weight1 & easy solubility 9 acids2 :i*1 because _! conta9$ wat] is lightly held1 readily boil be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,!y are all second>y m9]als1 :i* result f ! decomposition ( feldsp>s1 :5 expos$ to wea!r+4 ,!y are almo/ univ]sally f\nd 9 seams & cavities ( dis9tegrat+ lavas4 ,f a gr\p ( a doz5 or s1 ?ree are common en\gh to be consid]$ "h4 ,!y may be f\nd by wat*+ su* places1 z :]e trap rock is be+ qu>ri$ = road mat]ial1 or be+ bla/$ = any reason4 ,analcite ,na,al,si,o #b;,h,o ,pl4 #dd ,occurs z trapezoh$rons 9 seams & cavities 9 lavas2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity1 #b4b2 colorless1 :ite or p9k2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,analcite usually occurs 9 ! #bd-sid$ =m1 kn[n z a trapezoh$ron1 z illu/rat$ 9 figure ,a1 ,pl4 #dd2 b x may also occur 9 cubes ) ! ?ree faces ( ! trapezoh$ron on ea* corn]4 ,small cry/als are (t5 colorless1 b ! l>g] ones are ei!r :ite or p9k1 & are opaque4 ,:ile ! =m is ! same z t ( g>nets1 ! color1 less] h>dness1 & ! occurr5ce 9 lavas w s]ve to di/+ui% ?is m9]al4 ,if plac$ 9 hydro*loric acid analcite dissolves to a gelat9\s mass4 ,x is always f\nd 9 seams & cavities 9 lavas1 z at ,b]g5 ,hill & ,weehawk51 ,n4 ,j41 ,we/field1 ,mass41 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 etc4 ,natrolite ,na,al,si,o #b;,h,o ,plate #dd ,occurs z bri/l+ cry/als 9 seams & cavities 9 lavas2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity1 #b4b2 colorless2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,natrolite occurs z beautiful bri/l+ tufts ( ne$le-l cry/als1 ea* cry/al an or?orhombic prism ) a v l[ pyramid on ! end4 ,?is m9]al is s easily fusible t x c be melt$ 9 a c&le flame1 giv+ to ! flame ! *>act]i/ic yell[ color due to sodium4 ,9 hydro*loric acid x dissolves to a gelat9\s mass4 ,x is always a second>y m9]al 9 cavities & seams 9 dis9tegrat+ lavas1 & ! tuft-l mann] ( gr[? is s *>act]i/ic1 t once se51 x w always be recogniz$4 ,natrolite is f\nd at ,weehawk5 & ,b]g5 ,hill1 ,n4 ,j41 at ,we/field1 ,mass41 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 etc4 ,/ilbite ,h7,ca,na7,al7,si,o7 #d;,h,o ,pl4 #dd ,usually occurs 9 %eaf-l bundles ( fibr\s cry/als2 h>dness1 #e4e2 specific gravity #b4b2 colorless to :ite1 yell[ or br[n2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,/ilbite cry/als are really monocl9ic1 b on acc\nt ( almo/ univ]sal tw9n+1 appe> z if or?orhombic4 ,l ! two =ego+ m9]als1 /ilbite is f\nd 9 ! seams & cavities ( dis9tegrat+ lavas4 ,x is readily recogniz$ by its habit ( =m+ 9 %eaf-l bundles ( fibr\s cry/als4 ,x may also1 b m r>ely1 occur 9 radiat+ masses4 ,9 hydro*loric acid x is completely dissolv$4 ,x is f\nd 9 lavas1 at ,weehawk5 & ,b]g5 ,hill1 ,n4 ,j41 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 etc4 ,calcium ,calcium is "o ( ! mo/ abundant ( metals1 b nev] occurs z su* 9 nature1 nor is x us$ z a metal by man4 ,9 its metallic =m x is yell[i%-:ite1 & int]m$iate betwe5 lead & gold 9 h>dness4 ,expos$ to air x soon t>ni%es by oxidation1 & 9 wat] rapidly decomposes ! wat]1 =m+ ! oxide4 ,h[ev]1 x has a great aff9ity = o!r elem5ts1 & makes a l>ge numb] ( m9]als1 ! mo/ important ( :i* are calcite1 aragonite1 gypsum & fluorite1 :ile x is an ess5tial compon5t ( "s g>nets1 anor?ite1 epidote1 amphibole & pyrox5e4 ,x is v widely di/ribut$ z lime/one1 & is f\nd 9 solution 9 mo/ all natural wat]s1 & 9 ! %ells & bones ( _m animals & "s plants4 ,calcite ,ca,c,o ,pl4 #de ,occurs 9 well def9$ cry/als 9 incru/ations1 & 9 /alactitic1 oolitic1 & granul> masses2 h>dness1 #c2 specific gravity #b4g2 colorless to :ite1 or :5 impure1 yell[1 br[n1 gre51 r$ or blue2 lu/] vitre\s to dull2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,next to qu>tz1 calcite is ! mo/ abundant ( all m9]als1 & occurs 9 an almo/ endless v>iety ( =ms1 ov] #cjj hav+ be5 describ$4 ,x belongs to ! hemih$ral section ( ! hexagonal sy/em1 ! =m ( ! cry/als be+ all sorts ( v>iations ( ! rhomboh$ron1 & comb9ations ( left & "r h&$ rhomboh$rons4 ,! cleavage is entirely uni=m1 9 ?ree directions1 p>allel to ! faces ( ! rhomboh$ron1 & at an angle ( #gd #ee ) ea* o!r4 ,cry/als may occur 9 ! =m *>act]i/ic ( ! cleavage1 b n (t54 ,! commone/ =ms are a m or less elongat$ scal5oh$ron1 made by comb9+ "r & left h&$ rhomboh$rons1 s t ! result+ pyramid is six-sid$1 z 9 figure ,c1 ,plate #de4 ,su* a scal5oh$ron may be comb9$ ) o!r =ms 9 a great v>iety ( ways4 ,! six-sid$ prism ) ! ends t]m9at$ by "o or m sets ( rhomboh$ral faces is also fairly common4 ,tw9n+ occurs occasionally4 ,! quicke/ way to det]m9e calcite is by ! h>dness 7#c71 comb9$ ) ! fact t x eff]vesces1 :5 hydro*loric acid is dropp$ ^u x4 ,an int]e/+ feature ( ?is m9]al is its m>k$ prop]ty ( deflect+ light rays1 s t a l9e or object plac$ beh9d a piece ( cle> calcite appe>s d\ble4 ,x 0 ) pieces ( calcite f ,icel& t ?is 0 fir/ se52 s t l>ge transp>5t cry/als ( calcite are /ill call$ ,icel& sp>2 & su* calcite is us$ to make ! ,ni*ol's prisms = microscopes1 :i* are s useful 9 ! /udy ( m9]als4 ,?is p[] ( refract+ light is pres5t 9 all m9]als1 b n to su* a m>k$ degree z 9 calcite4 ,! elongat$ scal5oh$rons ( calcite are (t5 call$ 8dog-too!d sp>0 f a fanci$ resemblance betwe5 !m & ! dog's too?4 ,calcite is pres5t 9 solution 9 ! wat] ( ! sea & mo/ /reams1 f :i* x is )drawn by _m animals & "s plants1 to make _! %ells1 & bones4 ,! =am9if]a1 "s sponges1 ! e*9od]ms1 corals & molluscs all draw l>ge quantities f ! wat] 9 :i* !y live1 & build m or less p]man5t /ructures f x4 ,^! %ells :5 !y fall to ! bottom1 or aft] be+ brok5 to bits1 accumulate on ! bottom & make lime/one1 :i* is widely di/ribut$ ov] ! c\ntry4 ,?is same lime/one1 :5 metamorphos$ & cry/all9e1 is m>ble4 ,calcite !n is readily soluble 9 wat]1 & /reams fl[+ along crevices & fissures 9 lime/one dissolve out great cavities or caves1 l ! ,mammo? ,cave ( ,k5tucky4 ,o!r wat]1 p]colat+ ?r\gh ! lime/one1 comes to ^! cavities saturat$ ) lime 9 solution & drips f ! ro(s & walls2 !n z "p ( ! wat] evaporates1 x deposits "p ( its lime 9 icicle-l masses1 hang+ f ! ro(4 ,su* masses ( non-cry/all9e calcite are call$ /alactites4 ,bel[ on ! floor ( ! cave1 conical masses are built up 9 ! same mann] :]e ! dripp+ wat] falls on ! floor4 ,^! are /alagmites4 ,9 ^! lime/one caves & 9 small] cavities _m ( ! mo/ beautiful cry/als gr[4 ,some:at simil>ly1 :5 hot wat] f deep spr+s comes to ! surface1 x cools & c n c>ry z mu* lime1 & s ar\nd ! spr+ is laid d[n lay] aft] lay] ( non-cry/all9e calcite mak+ a mass kn[n z trav]t9e4 ,sometimes ?is is color$ by iron or o!r impurities & a b&$ effect results4 ,su* trav]t9e z ! 8,suisun m>ble0 f ,cali=nia1 8,cali=nia onyx10 8,mexican onyx10 & 8sat9 sp>0 all belong to ?is class4 ,! coral animals1 especially 9 tropical wat]s precipitate an enorm\s am\nt ( lime1 until :ole reefs are built ( lime 9 ?is non-cry/all9e =m4 ,9 places x is hundr$s ( feet ?ick & hundr$s ( miles 9 ext5t4 ,"s ( ?is coral has become popul> = p]sonal adornm5t4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly a small1 f9e-gra9$ v>iety1 ,corallum rubrum1 :i* lives almo/ exclusively 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea4 ,?is coral is r$ 9 color1 v>y+ all ! way f a deep r$ to :ite4 ,x gr[s 9 small masses1 ?ree p\nds be+ a good siz$ mass1 9 wat] #fj to #ajj feet deep1 requires "s t5 ye>s to develop a full-siz$ mass4 ,! mak+ ( ?is into beads & ornam5ts is an ,italian indu/ry4 ,! dem& is gr[+1 :ile at ! same "t ! supply is dim9i%+1 & se>* is be+ widely made = m su* coral1 b up to ! pres5t "t ) little success4 ,?is preci\s coral is mu* worn z a protection aga9/ ! 8evil eye0 & is widely imitat$1 app>5tly ) z mu* protection to ! we>]4 ,:5 coral beads are (f]$ *eap1 !y are probably some?+ else1 r$ gypsum be+ mu* us$4 ,?is & all imitations c be readily detect$ by try+ a drop ( acid 9 ! bead4 ,coral w eff]vesce1 b gypsum & o!r sub/itutes w n4 ,! bulk ( ! %ells ( mo/ molluscs is made ( lime1 b ! "m-(-pe>l lay] inside is usually aragonite4 ,! *alk ( ! cliffs on ei!r side ( ! ,engli% *annel is lime1 & compos$ ( ! %ells ( s+le cell$ animals4 ,see p4 #bac4 ,:5 lime is deposit$ 9 loose por\s masses1 z ar\nd grass1 etc41 & bel[ hot spr+s1 ?is mass is t]m$ calc>e\s tufa4 ,calcite w be f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e1 "s ( ! localities = ! f9e/ cry/als be+ ,antw]p & ,lockport1 ,n4 ,y41 ,middlet[n1 ,conn41 ! caves ( ,k5tucky1 ,w>saw1 ,ill41 ,jopl91 ,mo41 ,hazel ,gre51 ,wis41 etc4 ,aragonite ,ca,c,o ,pl4 #df ,occurs 9 cry/als1 9 column> or fibr\s masses1 or incru/ations2 h>dness1 #c4e2 specific gravity1 #b4i2 colorless1 :ite or amb]2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,aragonite has ! same *emical composition z calcite1 b x cry/allizes 9 ! or?orhombic sy/em1 ei!r 9 simple =ms l ,a on ,plate #df1 or tw9n$1 s z to make =ms :i* seem hexagonal4 ,:5 9 simple cry/als its =m easily di/+ui%es x f calcite & dolomite1 b :5 tw9n$ x appe>s mu* l ei!r ( ^! two m9]als4 ,f calcite x c !n be di/+ui%$ by its great] h>dness & ! fact t x has cleavage 9 "o direction only1 & t imp]fect4 ,! cleavage is ! only easy me?od ( di/+ui%+ x f dolomite4 ,h[ev]1 aragonite is mo/ always easily di/+ui%$ by its habits1 = x g5]ally =ms long sl5d] cry/als1 :i* appe> m l fib]s ?an cry/als4 ,nei!r calcite nor dolomite is at all fibr\s4 ,aragonite is mu* less abundant ?an calcite1 & has result$1 ei!r f deposition f hot wat]s1 or f wat]s hav+ sulphates 9 solution z well z lime4 ,mu* ( ! trav]t9e1 & _m /alagmites & /alactites are compos$ ( aragonites1 =m+ z outl9$ "u calcite4 ,! "m-(-pe>l lay] 9 ! %ells ( bivalves is g5]ally aragonite4 ,! pe>ly lu/] ( ?is lay] is due to its be+ =m$ by ! successive deposition ( "o ?9 lay] ^u ano!r2 s t light fall+ on ! "m-(-pe>l1 p5etrates1 "p ( x to "o lay] & "p to ano!r1 & is !n reflect$4 ,c]ta9 molluscs h ?is lay] compos$ ( especially ?9 lay]s1 "o1 ! ,unios or fre%wat] clams1 ! o!r1 ! 8pe>l oy/]s0 or ,aviculid1 ^! latt]1 h[ev]1 be+ only di/antly relat$ to ! edible oy/]s4 ,9 ! cases1 :]e molluscs ( ei!r ( ^! two families are ( l>ge size1 l>ge pieces ( "m-(-pe>l c be recov]$1 & are us$ = buttons1 h&les1 & v>i\s ornam5tal objects4 ,a fur!r peculi>ity ( ^! same molluscs is ! =mation ( pe>ls 9 ! %eet ( fle%1 l9+ ! %ells4 ,! pe>ls are r\nd or r\nd$ concretions ( aragonite4 ,at ! c5t] !re is a gra9 ( s&1 or m (t5 a t9y dead p>asite4 ,ei!r 0 an irritant to ! mollusc1 & to be rid ( x1 a lay] ( aragonite 0 secret$ ar\nd x4 ,!n z ! mollusc cont9u$ to gr[ & secrete lay]s = its %ell1 x also add$ ea* "t ano!r lay] ar\nd ! s&-gra9 or p>asite1 until 9 "t a pe>l ( noticeable1 & !n ( consid]able size result$4 ,^! h all ! pe>ly lu/] ( ! "m-(-pe>l 9 a sph]e :i* t5ds to make ! lu/] ev5 m m>k$4 ,pe>ls 7 9 use z ornam5ts 9 ,*9a "s tw5ty-?ree c5turies be=e ,*ri/1 & 9 ,india ov] #ejj ,b4,c4 ,!y 7 v highly priz$ by ! ,romans & s9ce _! times ! rul]s ( ,india h %[n a rem>kable fondness = !m4 ,today ! f9e/ come f ! ,gulf ( ,p]sia & ! ,r$ ,sea1 :ile /ill o!rs are f\nd ab\t ,au/ralia & 9 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates n a few are collect$ e ye> f ! fre% wat] clams1 "s ( !m beautifully t9t$ ) p9k or yell[4 ,aragonite is f\nd widely1 z at ,haddam1 ,conn41 ,ed5ville1 ,n4 ,y41 ,hobok51 ,n4 ,j41 ,new ,g>d51 ,p5n41 ,w>saw1 ,ill41 etc4 ,anhydrite ,ca,s,o ,pl4 #df ,occurs 9 cleavable or granul> masses1 r>ely 9 cry/als2 h>dness1 #c-c4e2 specific gravity1 #b4i2 color :ite1 gray1 blui% or r$di%2 lu/] pe>ly on cleavage faces2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,:5 anhydrite occurs 9 cry/als1 !y are or?orhombic1 l ! diagram on ,plate #df4 ,usually1 h[ev]1 x is f\nd 9 b$s or lay]s1 :i* 7 deposit$ by ! evaporation ( sea wat]1 & s x is associat$ ) salt4 ,anhydrite has ?ree cleavage planes :i* are at "r angles to "o ano!r1 :i* produce rectangul> or cube-l =ms4 ,mo/ly anhydrite is associat$ ) gypsum1 f :i* x diff]s by its great] h>dness1 pseudo-cubic cleavage1 & ! fact t anhydrite is n readily soluble 9 acid1 :ile gypsum is4 ,*emically x diff]s f gypsum 9 n hav+ wat] ( cry/allization1 :i* gypsum does h4 ,! anhydrite is likely to occur z ve9s & irregul> masses 9 b$s ( gypsum4 ,calcium sulphate is precipitat$ f sea wat] :5 #cg ( ! wat] has be5 evaporat$1 & x may be deposit$ ei!r z anhydrite or z gypsum1 ! factors1 :i* decide z to :i* ( ^! two m9]als x w be1 be+ z yet unkn[n4 ,aft] deposition1 if expos$ to moi/ure1 ! anhydrite may *ange to gypsum1 irregul> masses (t5 rema9+ un*ang$4 ,x is f\nd 9 salt m9es 9 ,elswor? ,co41 ,kan41 9 lime/one cavities at ,lockport1 ,n4 ,y41 9 ve9s 9 ,%a/a ,co41 ,calif41 etc4 ,gypsum ,ca,s,o #b;,h,o ,pl4 #dg ,occurs 9 cry/als1 9 cleavable masses1 or 9 fibr\s masses2 h>dness1 #b2 specific gravity1 #b4c2 colorless1 :ite1 amb]1 gray1 or p9k2 lu/] vitre\s1 silky or pe>ly2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,gypsum cry/als are monocl9ic z se5 on ,plate #dg1 ! p]fect ones usually occurr+ 9 clay1 z at ,ox=d1 ,o41 or 9 cavities2 :ile cry/als ( less p]fect outl9e1 b ) f9e cleavages1 are f\nd 9 ,utah1 ,kansas1 & ,colorado4 ,! cleavage is v p]fect 9 "o direction1 mak+ x possible to /rip (f ?9 %eets almo/ l mica1 & less p]fect 9 two o!r directions1 :i* appe> on ! smoo? surface ( ! fir/ cleavage z l9es int]sect+ at #ff #ad4 ,tw9n+ is also common 9 su* a way1 t ! two unit$ cry/als make =ms simil> to arr[heads4 ,^! cleavages & ! tw9n+ %[ nicely 9 ! photograph ( gypsum on ,plate #dg4 ,gypsum is di/+ui%$ f anhydrite by its less] h>dness1 its cleavage & by be+ soluble 9 acids4 ,mo/ gypsum occurs 9 b$s or granul> masses :i* 7 deposit$ f evaporat+ sea-wat]1 com+ d[n :5 #cg ( ! wat] 0 lo/4 ,su* b$s are (t5 v ext5sive & are qu>ri$ z a s\rce ( gypsum to make pla/] ( ,p>is1 /ucco1 neat pla/]1 ,ke5e's cem5t1 pla/] & wall bo>d1 p>tition tiles1 etc4 ,! use ( ! gypsum = pla/] ( ,p>is & all ^! o!r uses is bas$ on its aff9ity = wat] ( cry/allization4 ,! gypsum is fir/ heat$ to ab\t #djj ,c41 :i* drives (f ! wat] ( cry/allization1 & causes x to crumble to a p[d]1 :i* is ! pla/] ( ,p>is4 ,:5 wat] is add$1 x is tak5 up & ! p[d] 8sets10 or recry/allizes back to gypsum4 ,?is simple reaction has made x v useful1 = mak+ m\lds1 ca/s1 h>d f9i% on walls1 z /ucco1 etc4 ,:5 ! granul> type ( gypsum is f9e gra9$1 x is kn[n z alaba/]1 :i* is us$ = c>v+ vases1 /atuettes1 ornam5ts1 etc4 ,! fibr\s v>iety is call$ sat9 sp>1 & is sometimes us$ = *eap jewelry & ornam5ts1 b x is v s(t & quickly we>s out4 ,at ,niag>a ,falls !re is a consid]able trade 9 objects c>v$ f ?is sat9 sp>1 t\ri/s buy+ !m on ! assumption t ! m9]al is native & comes f "u ! falls4 ,mo/ ( x1 h[ev]1 comes f ,wales1 ! small am\nt ( gypsum ( t region be+ mo/ly granul>4 ,gypsum is f\nd all across ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z 9 ,new ,york1 ,mi*igan1 ,virg9ia1 ,ohio1 ,alabama1 ,s\? ,dakota1 ,wyom+1 ,colorado1 ,utah1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,! ,/rontium ,gr\p ,/rontium is a pale-yell[ metal1 ductile & malleable1 b oxidiz+ quickly :5 expos$ to ! air4 ,x does n occur 9 its native /ate 9 ,nature1 b always z "s comp\nd1 usually ei!r ! c>bonate or sulphate4 ,x resembles b>ium1 b diff]s 9 giv+ to ! flame a brilliant r$ color1 on :i* acc\nt ! comp\nds ( /rontium are us$ mo/ly 9 mak+ r$ fire 9 fireworks4 ,/rontianite ,sr,c,o ,occurs 9 ne$le-l cry/als1 or 9 column> or fibr\s masses2 h>dness1 #c4e-d2 specific gravity1 #c4f2 color :ite1 pale-gre5 or pale %ades ( yell[2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,/rontianite is or?orhombic1 b appe>s z if hexagonal1 s9ce its g5]al habit is to h ?ree tw9 cry/als gr[ toge!r 9 su* a way z to make a six-sid$ d\ble pyramid4 ,9 ?is x is v l )]ite1 bo? ^! m9]als appe>+ ext]nally mu* alike4 ,!y c be readily di/+ui%$1 h[ev]1 by hold+ a piece 9 ! flame4 ,if x gives a r$ color to ! flame x is /rontianite1 if gre51 x is )]ite4 ,x eff]vesces readily 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,/rontianite is f\nd 9 ve9s & cavities 9 lime/one1 :]e x has be5 deposit$ aft] be+ lea*$ f ! lime/one by p]colat+ wat]s4 ,?\gh kn[n at sev]al localities x is n n[ be+ m9$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 :at we use be+ import$ mo/ly f ,g]many4 ,x is f\nd at ,s*oh>ie1 ,*aumont ,bay & ,!resa1 ,n4 ,y41 9 ,miffl9 ,co41 ,p5n41 etc4 ,cele/ite ,sr,s,o ,occurs 9 cry/als1 cleavable masses & fibr\s2 h>dness1 #c2 specific gravity1 #c4i2 colorless1 :ite1 pale-blue1 or r$di%2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,cele/ite1 ! sulphate ( /rontium1 is v l b>ite 9 ext]nal appe>ance & habit4 ,x is or?orhombic & occurs 9 tabul> cry/als4 ,its cleavage is p]fect on ! basal plane1 & imp]fect 9 "o o!r direction4 ,! ready way ( di/+ui%+ cele/ite f b>ite is to hold a piece 9 ! flame4 ,if x is cele/ite x w color ! flame r$1 if b>ite1 gre54 ,cele/ite is mo/ly f\nd 9 ve9s or cavities 9 lime/one1 :]e x has be5 deposit$ by p]colat+ wat]s1 aft] hav+ be5 lea*$ f ! lime/one4 ,"s ye>s ago an important deposit ( cele/ite 0 f\nd on ,/rontian ,isl& 9 ,lake ,erie1 b t 0 soon work$ out & n[ no ve9s are be+ work$ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,x is also f\nd at ,*aumont ,bay1 ,s*oh>ie & ,lockport1 ,n4 ,y41 9 ,kansas1 ,texas1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ,t5nessee1 etc4 ,! ,b>ium ,gr\p ,b>ium is ano!r metal :i* does n occur 9 its native /ate 9 ,nature4 ,x has only be5 isolat$ z a yell[ p[d]1 :i*1 expos$ to air or wat]1 soon *anges to "o ( ! oxides4 ,bo? b>ium & its comp\nds are peculi> 9 caus+ a gre5 color1 :5ev] expos$ to ! flame4 ,two ( its comp\nds are fairly abundant1 ! sulphate1 b>ite1 & ! c>bonate1 )]ite4 ,! =m] is ! m abundant & has come to be fairly widely us$1 some?+ ov] #ajj1jjj tons be+ annually consum$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to make ! body 9 flat f9i% pa9ts = int]ior "w & light colors1 = a fill] 9 rubb] goods1 l9oleum1 oil clo?1 glaz$ pap]1 & = a wide range ( *emical comp\nds4 ,b>ite ,ba,s,o ,pl4 #dh heavy sp> ,occurs 9 cry/als or 9 lamell>1 nodul> or granul> masses2 h>dness #c2 specific gravity1 #d4e2 colorless1 :ite or almo/ any color2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,b>ite occurs 9 or?orhombic cry/als1 :i* are tabul> 9 =m1 & usually h ! edges bevel$1 z 9 figure ,a1 ,plate #dh4 ,!re is cleavage 9 ?ree directions1 a r p]fect basal cleavage1 & two less p]fect cleavages1 :i* are at "r angles to ! basal cleavage plane1 & int]sect ea* o!r at #gh4 ,! tabul> =m1 ! cleavage1 ! heavy weight1 & ! fact t a piece ( b>ite put into ! flame colors x gre51 all s]ve to di/+ui% ?is m9]al4 ,b>ite is a second>y m9]al ( aque\s orig91 :i* has be5 deposit$ 9 ve9s & cavities 9 igne\s1 metamorphic1 or sometimes s$im5t>y rocks4 ,x is mo/ likely to occur 9 ve9s 9 igne\s or metamorphic rocks1 ! b>ium hav+ be5 dissolv$ f c]ta9 feldsp>s & micas by p]colat+ wat]1 & !n r$eposit$ 9 ! fissures1 z ! wat] came into !m4 ,if 9 s$im5t>y rocks1 ! b>ite ve9s are usually 9 lime/ones4 ,b>ite is q likely to be a gangue m9]al = ! ores ( lead4 ,x is f\nd at ,hatfield & ,lev]ett1 ,mass41 ,*e%ire1 ,conn41 ,pill> ,po9t1 ,n4 ,y41 ,c>t]sville1 ,ga41 9 ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,miss\ri1 ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 ,alabama1 ,ill9ois1 ,wiscons91 ,nevada1 ,cali=nia1 ,alaska1 etc4 ,)]ite ,ba,c,o ,pl4 #dh ,occurs 9 cry/als1 or 9 granul> or column> masses2 h>dness1 #c4e2 specific gravity1 #d4c2 color :ite to gray2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,)]ite is n an abundant m9]al4 ,its cry/als are really or?orhombic1 b !y are usually tw9n$1 ?ree cry/als gr[+ ?r\gh ea* o!r 9 su* a mann] t ! result+ cry/al appe>s l a six-sid$ d\ble pyramid1 simil> to ! "o figur$ on ,plate #dh4 ,! commone/ mode ( occurr5ce is 9 compact masses4 ,)]ite eff]vesces :5 cold acid is dropp$ ^u x1 :i*1 ) its heavy weight1 & ! gre5 color x gives to ! flame1 s]ves to di/+ui% ! m9]al4 ,x is us$ = m$ic9es1 9 *emical indu/ries1 & a consid]able am\nt is made into rat poisons4 ,! *ief locality = )]ite is 9 nor!rn ,engl&1 b 9 ?is c\ntry x is f\nd along ) b>ite1 especially at ,lex+ton1 ,ky41 & 9 ,mi*igan4 ,c>bon ,c>bon is an elem5t widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 occasionally appe>+ 9 its elem5t>y =m1 z graphite or ! diamond1 b mu* m important 9 its comp\nds4 ,small quantities are pres5t 9 ! air z c>bon dioxide1 ,,co1 imm5se quantities occurr+ 9 ! c>bonate m9]als1 :i* h be5 consid]$ "u _! respective metallic salts1 z calcite1 mala*ite1 sid]ite1 c]rusite1 smi?sonite1 )]ite1 etc41 & /ill o!r l>ge quantities be+ repres5t$ 9 organic comp\nds1 :i* occur z rocks "u ! heads ( petroleum1 coal1 etc4 ,! occurr5ce ( lime/ones1 graphite1 coal or petroleum is always indicative ( ! activity ( liv+ organisms1 & 9 "s cases is ! only indication ( life 9 ! e>li] rocks4 ,graphite ,c ,plumbago ,occurs 9 hexagonal scales or flakes1 9 lay]$ masses1 or e>?y lumps2 h>dness1 #a2 specific gravity1 #b4a2 color black or /eel-gray2 /reak gray2 lu/] metallic2 opaque on ?9 edges4 ,l ! diamond graphite is pure c>bon1 b 9 ?is case x is 9 non-cry/all9e =m4 ,x occurs 9 bo? igne\s & metamorphic rocks4 ,9 ! =m] case x is ei!r 9 flakes 9 ! rock1 or 9 ve9s1 & has be5 d]iv$ directly f ! molt5 magmas1 hav+ ei!r precipitat$ 9 ! h>d5+ granite or lava1 or hav+ be5 c>ri$ into ! fissures & !re precipitat$ to make ! ve9s ( graphite4 ,9 ei!r case ! graphite probably repres5ts organic deposits :i* h be5 melt$ into ! igne\s magma at ! "t ( its =mation4 ,graphite may also occur 9 metamorphic rocks1 b$s ( coal or o!r organic deposits be+ alt]$ by ! heat4 ,su* b$s are (t5 ( consid]able ext5t & economic importance4 ,! extreme s(tness1 greasy feel1 & ! d>k-gray /reak readily di/+ui% graphite4 ,x is widely us$ 9 mak+ crucibles & furnace l9+s = f\ndries1 lead p5cils1 pa9t1 lubricat+ p[d]s1 etc4 ,graphite is f\nd at ,br&on1 ,vt41 ,/urbridge1 ,mass41 ,a%=d1 ,conn41 9 ,essex1 ,w>r5 & ,wa%+ton ,cos41 ,n4 ,y41 ,clay1 ,*ilton & ,coosa ,cos41 ,ala41 ,raton1 ,n4 ,m41 ,dillon1 ,mont41 etc4 ,diamond ,c ,occurs 9 octah$ral cry/als2 h>dness1 #aj2 specific gravity1 #c4e2 colorless to yell[1 br[n1 blue1 etc41 lu/] adamant9e2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,l graphite ! diamond is pure c>bon1 b 9 ?is case 9 cry/al =m4 ,x is ! h>de/ ( all m9]als1 & z brilliant z any2 s t 9 spite ( be+ by no means ! r>e/1 x may easily be consid]$ ! mo/ popul> ( all gems4 ,t9y diamonds h be5 made artificially "u great heat & pressure2 s t ?is m9]al is ?\ght ( z =m+ 9 ,nature 9 d>k igne\s lavas at great dep?s4 ,! diamond has good cleavage p>allel to ! octah$ron faces1 &1 9 spite ( "s traditions to ! contr>y1 is brittle4 ,!re are n _m diamond localities1 ! mo/ fam\s be+ ! ,kimb]ley di/rict ( ,s\? ,africa1 :i* produces _m times z _m diamonds z all ! o!rs put toge!r1 ?\gh all ! "t "s are be+ f\nd 9 ,borneo & ,brazil4 ,a v few h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 only "o locality h[ev] yield+ !m 9 ! orig9al matrix4 ,t is at ,murfreesboro1 ,ark41 :]e !y are m9$ 9 a dis9tegrat+ p]idotite 7a d>k lava1 mo/ly p]idot71 :i* has be5 extrud$ ?r\gh ! s$im5t>y rocks ( t region4 ,?is matrix is simil> to ! 8blue e>?10 ! matrix ( ! diamonds ( ,s\? ,africa1 :i* occurs 9 8pipes10 repres5t+ ! necks ( anci5t volcanoes4 ,! ,am]ican diamonds are ( small size1 av]ag+ consid]ably less ?an a ?ird ( a c>at 9 weight1 :i* does n all[ great value to ! individual diamonds4 ,f "t to "t1 especially l>ge diamonds h be5 f\nd 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 ! l>ge/ be+ ! ,cull9an diamond1 f\nd at ! ,premi] ,diamond ,m9e ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,x weigh$ #cjbe c>ats or ab\t a p\nd & a qu>t]1 & 0 valu$ at ov] #c1jjj1jjj4 ,x 0 pres5t$ to ,k+ ,edw>d ,,vii1 :o _h x cut into #aa brilliants1 f\r ( :i* are l>g] ?an any o!r diamond yet f\nd4 ,o!r fam\s diamonds1 l ! ,koh9oor1 #ajf c>ats1 f\nd 9 ,india 9 #acjd2 ! ,reg5t1 #acf c>ats1 also f\nd 9 ,india2 ! ,orl(f1 #aic c>ats1 set 9 ! eye ( an ,indian idol2 ! ,s\? ,/>1 #abe c>ats1 ! l>ge/ ev] f\nd 9 ,brazil2 ! blue ,hope1 etc41 h 9 _m cases romantic & int]e/+ /ories wov5 ab\t !m4 ,?\gh = ages diamonds h be5 highly priz$ gems1 x is only 9 comp>atively rec5t times t cutt+ & poli%+ h be5 resort$ to1 = ! purpose ( enhanc+ _! brilliancy4 ,?is is done by gr9d+ reflect+ faces on ! orig9al /one1 by ! aid ( discs ( iron or t9 9 :i* diamond du/ has be5 emb$d$4 ,diamond *ips & cl\dy or imp]fect diamonds are us$ = mak+ tools = cutt+ glass1 rock drills1 etc4 ,phosphorus ,! elem5t phosphorus at ord9>y temp]atures is an almo/ colorless1 fa9tly yell[1 solid sub/ance ( gli/5+ appe>ance & waxy consi/5cy4 ,9 ,nature x does n occur pure1 b always z "o ( its comp\nds4 ,x is ( great importance to man = x is "o ( ! ess5tials = plant gr[? & also = ! high] animals1 be+ requir$ = ! bones & to "s ext5t = n]v\s tissue4 ,orig9ally x is f\nd 9 all ! igne\s rocks4 ,"s ( ! phosphorus is remov$ by solution & c>ri$ to o!r regions & to ! sea4 ,f ?is di/ribution x comes into ! s$im5t>y rocks1 &1 :5 !y are alt]$ by heat1 into ! metamorphic rocks4 ,?us x has a wide1 ?\gh by no means ev51 di/ribution4 ,! soils =m$ by dis9tegration ( ^! rocks probably all h "s phosphorus 9 !m2 b :]e !re is vigor\s plant gr[?1 x soon t5ds to become exhau/$1 & mu/ be r5ew$4 ,= ?is reason ! use ( phosphates has become ( prime importance 9 ,agriculture4 ,! possession ( b$s ( rock c>ry+ phosphorus has come to be ( int]national importance4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is p>ticul>ly =tunate 9 ?is respect1 & produces ov] #be ( ! _w's supply ( phosphates4 ,mo/ all ! phosphorus is recov]$ ei!r f phosphate m9]als1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is apatite1 or f ! non-cry/all9e & impure mixtures ( phosphate m9]als & o!r sub/ances1 discuss$ "u phosphate rock4 ,apatite ,ca,f7,,po7 ,pl4 #di ,occurs 9 cry/als1 concretion>y nodules1 or 9 b$d$ masses2 h>dness1 #e2 specific gravity1 #c4b2 color r$di%-br[n or gre51 r>ely :ite or colorless2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,apatite occurs 9 hexagonal prisms1 usually ) ! ends truncat$ by a basal plane1 & ) "o or m sets ( pyramidal faces betwe5 ! prism & ! basal plane4 ,cry/als range 9 size f t9y to ov] a foot 9 diamet]4 ,!re is b "o cleavage & t is basal4 ,! cry/al =m1 cleavage1 & h>dness w easily det]m9e ?is m9]al4 ,apatite is usually associat$ ) igne\s or highly metamorphic rocks1 su* z granites1 gneisses1 & cry/all9e lime/ones4 ,:ile ! phosphoric acid ( apatite is highly desirable = use 9 f]tiliz]s1 ! cry/als d n occur 9 suffici5t abundance to make !m comm]cially available1 & non-cry/all9e phosphate rocks are resort$ to = ?is purpose4 ,cry/als ( apatite are f\nd at ,norwi* & ,bolton1 ,mass41 ,rossie & ,ed5ville1 ,n4 ,y41 ,suckasunny & ,hurd/[n1 ,n4 ,j41 ,leip]ville1 ,p5n41 ,wilm+ton1 ,del41 etc4 ,templeton1 ,canada1 is p]haps ! be/ kn[n locality = f9e apatite4 ,turquois ,h,al7,,oh7,cu7,,oh77,,po7 ,occurs 9 seams & incru/ations2 h>dness1 #f2 specific gravity1 #b4g2 color blui%-gre52 /reak blue2 lu/] waxy2 transluc5t to opaque on ?9 edges4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ?is complex phosphate ( alum9um & copp] is f\nd 9 /reaks & pat*es 9 volcanic rocks1 b 9 ,p]sia comes f metamorphic rocks4 ,to ! ,p]sians x 0 a magical /one1 protect+ ! we>] f injuries1 & among ! ,pueblo ,indians x 0 reg>d$ z ( religi\s value 9 w>d+ (f evil4 ,! be/ turquois comes f ,p]sia1 b x has be5 f\nd at sev]al po9ts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z 9 ,los ,c]rillos & ,burro ,mts41 ,n4 ,m41 9 ,mohave ,co41 ,ariz41 ,san ,b]n>d9o ,co41 ,cal41 9 ,nevada & ,colorado4 ,fluor9e ,at ord9>y temp]atures ! elem5t fluor9e is a colorless gas1 :i* 0 n obta9$ pure until #ahhh1 because x c\ld n be conta9$ 9 vessels ( glass1 gold1 plat9um1 etc4 ,at t "t x 0 made & kept 9 a vessel compos$ ( an alloy ( plat9um & iridium4 ,its mo/ important comp\nd is hydr(luoric acid1 a fum+ liquid1 :i* is mo/ly us$ to et* or dissolve glass4 ,x occurs 9 sev]al m9]als1 l t\rmal9e1 turquois1 etc41 b ! only "o us$ to obta9 ! hydr(luoric acid is fluorite4 ,fluorite ,ca,f ,pl4 #ej ,fluor sp> ,occurs 9 cry/als & cleavable masses2 h>dness1 #d2 specific gravity1 #c4b2 colorless or "s %ade ( violet1 gre51 yell[1 or rose2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,fluorite usually occurs 9 beautiful cubic cry/als1 (t5 ) ! edges & corn]s bevel$ by small] faces1 & occasionally 9 tw9s1 :i* seem to h gr[n ?r\gh ea* o!r4 ,!re is p]fect cleavage p>allel to ea* ( ! octah$ral faces1 :i* (t51 z 9 ! illu/ration on ,plate #ej1 %[ z cracks cutt+ (f ! corn]s4 ,s9ce fluorite loses weight & color on heat+1 x is conclud$ t ! colors are due to ! pres5ce ( hydroc>bon comp\nds4 ,! r$ & ! gre5 fluorite :5 heat$ to above #bab ,f4 become phosphoresc5t1 z may be se5 if !y are ?us heat$ & expos$ to ! light1 !n tak5 into ! d>k4 ,fluorite is q commonly ! gangue m9]al associat$ ) metallic ores1 & is also likely to occur ) topaz1 apatite1 etc4 ,x is g5]ally 9 su* places t x seems to h be5 deposit$ f hot vapors1 ris+ f igne\s magmas4 ,x is ! only m9]al at all common f :i* fluor9e c be obta9$1 & is us$ = mak+ hydr(luoric acid1 & o!r *emical comp\nds ( ?is elem5t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( mu* great] importance z a flux 9 r$uc+ iron1 silv]1 lead & copp] ores4 ,9 ! indu/ries x f9ds a place1 be+ us$ to make apo*romatic l5ses1 *eap jewelry1 & = ! electrodes 9 flam+ arc lamps4 ,fluorite is widely di/ribut$1 "s ( ! bett] kn[n localities be+ ,trumbull & ,plym\?1 ,conn41 ,rossie & ,muscalonge ,lake1 ,n4 ,y41 ,gallat9 ,co41 ,ill41 ,?und] ,bay1 ,lake ,sup]ior1 ,miss\ri1 etc4 ,halite ,na,cl ,pl4 #ej ,salt ,occurs 9 cry/als1 & 9 cleavable & granul> masses2 h>dness1 #b4e2 specific gravity1 #b4a2 colorless to :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,halite is common salt1 occurr+ 9 cubic cry/als1 ) p]fect cubic cleavage4 ,its =m1 h>dness1 ta/e1 & solubility 9 wat] make x easy to det]m9e4 ,halite is ! mo/ abundant salt 9 sea wat]1 mak+ ab\t #b4e out ( ! total ( #c4e ( solids 9 solution4 ,x is also a prom95t1 :5 n ! lead+1 salt 9 solution 9 ! wat]s ( inl& lakes1 l ,great ,salt ,lake1 or ! ,dead ,sea1 !re be+ #bj ( halite 9 ! =m] & #h 9 ! latt]1 ?\gh ! total ( solid 9 solution 9 ! wat] ( ! ,dead ,sea is great] ?an t 9 ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,! great salt deposits are mo/ly ! result ( ! evaporation ( ! wat] ( arms or isolat$ portions ( =m] oceans2 ! salt1 gypsum1 etc41 left by ! dry+ sea1 hav+ be5 buri$ b5ea? lat] s$im5ts4 ,o!r bodies ( salt repres5t ! disappe>ance ( anci5t lakes4 ,!re are also ! curi\s 8salt domes0 ( ,l\isiana & ,texas1 :i* are imm5se1 r\ghly circul>1 subt]ranean masses ( salt ext5d+ to z yet unkn[n dep?s :i* are ?\ght to h be5 =m$ by masses ( salt f "s deep s\rce b$ pu%+ _! way upw>d ?r\gh ! ov]ly+ =mations by pla/ic fl[age4 ,z ! up?ru/ took place ! s$im5ts 7 ar*$ into domes4 ,"s ( ^! domes are today important s\rces ( rock salt4 ,!re are ext5sive b$s ( salt "u p>ts ( ,new ,york1 ,mi*igan1 ,ohio1 ,oklahoma1 ,kansas1 etc41 :i* are mo/ly work$ by drill+ wells into ! salt lay]1 !n introduc+ hot wat] to dissolve ! salt4 ,! br9e ?us =m$ is pump$ to ! surface1 & ! salt recov]$ by evaporation 9 pans4 ,dur+ ! process1 skeleton cry/als ( salt ) concave faces may =m1 b 9 ,nature ! cry/als are uni=mly solid cubes4 ,boracite ,mg,cl,b,o ,occurs 9 small cry/als or granul> masses2 h>dness ( cry/als1 #g2 ( ! masses1 #d4e2 specific gravity #c2 colorless to :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transp>5t to transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,small cry/als1 associat$ ) salt & gypsum1 occur 9 ! b$s & incru/ations1 :i* result f ! dry+ up ( alkal9e lakes1 especially 9 ,nevada & s\!rn ,cali=nia4 ,! cry/als are or?orhombic1 b appe> l p]fect cubes1 ) ! edges bevel$ & "p ( ! corn]s cut4 ,!y are n easily dissolv$ 9 wat]1 b quickly g into solution 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,colemanite ,ca,b,o #e;,h,o ,occurs 9 cry/als or compact masses2 h>dness1 #d4e2 specific gravity1 #b4d2 colorless to :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,! cry/als :5 !y occur1 are monocl9ic2 b usually colemanite is a b$d$ deposit1 :i* has result$ f ! dry+ up ( a sal9e lake4 ,x 0 fir/ f\nd 9 ,dea? ,valley1 ,cal41 9 #ahhb1 !n ne> ,daggett1 ,cal41 & s9ce !n 9 sev]al simil> locations 9 ,nevada & ,oregon4 ,! deposits are ( all grades ( purity1 ! colemanite be+ mix$ ) v>y+ quantities ( mud4 ,today ?is m9]al is ! *ief s\rce ( borax1 :i* is us$ 9 m$ic9es1 cosmetics1 color$ glazes1 enamel1 & z a pres]vative4 ,borax ,na,b,o #aj;,h,o ,occurs 9 cry/als or 9 p[d]y incru/ations2 h>dness1 #b2 specific gravity1 #a4g2 colorless to :ite2 lu/] vitre\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,! cry/als are t9y & monocl9ic1 ?is m9]al be+ usually obta9$ by ! evaporation ( ! sal9e wat]s ( su* lakes z ,cle> & ,borax ,lakes 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia1 or f ! muds ( salt m>%es1 l ,se>les ,borax ,m>% 9 ,cali=nia4 ,orig9ally mo/ ( our borax came f a l>ge sal9e lake 9 ,tibet1 b n[ mo/ ( x is obta9$ f colemanite4 ,borax is soluble 9 wat]1 giv+ x a sweeti% ta/e4 ,sulphur ,s ,pl4 #ea ,occurs 9 cry/als1 incru/ations or compact masses2 h>dness1 #b2 specific gravity1 #b2 color yell[2 /reak yell[2 lu/] res9\s2 transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,aside f ! num]\s comp\nds1 su* z ! sulphides ( ! metals l pyrite1 gal5a1 sphal]ite1 etc41 & ! sulphates1 l gypsum1 b>ite1 anglesite1 etc41 sulphur occurs 9 its elem5tal =m 9 ,nature4 ,9 ?is case x may be 9 cry/als1 :i* are or?orhombic & usually occur z octah$rons1 ) ! upp] & l[] ends truncat$1 ei!r by a basal plane1 or by a l[] octah$ron1 or by bo?4 ,incru/ations & compact masses are1 h[ev]1 mu* ! common] mode ( occurr5ce4 ,! incru/ations are f\nd mo/ly ab\t volcanic regions1 :]e ! sulphur has ris5 f ! molt5 lavas z a sublimate1 & on cool+ has be5 deposit$ 9 crevices or on ! adjac5t surfaces4 ,irregul> masses ( sulphur are (t5 f\nd :]e sulphide m9]als1 l pyrite or gal5a h be5 decompos$ 9 su* a way z to leave ! sulphur beh9d4 ,! ext5sive b$s ( sulphur are usually associat$ ) gypsum1 & are ?\ght to be ! result ( wat]1 conta9+ bitum9\s matt]1 s act+ on gypsum z to remove ! calcium & oxyg5 z lime1 & leave ! sulphur4 ,f9ally _m wat]s c>ry sulphates 9 solution1 f :i* ! sulphur may be precipitat$ by c]ta9 sulphur bact]ia1 mak+ ?us incru/ations on ! bottom ( ponds or lakes4 ,sulphur is us$ = mak+ mat*es1 gunp[d]1 fireworks1 insecticides1 9 m$ic9e1 vulcaniz+ rubb]1 etc4 ,x is widely di/ribut$1 h[ev]1 mo/ ( ! pres5t _w's production is f deposits associat$ ) ! 8salt domes0 ( ,texas & ,l\isiana4 ,a 8caprock0 ( gypsum & anhydrite ov]lies _m ( ^! :i* (t5 conta9s elem5tal sulphur4 ,wells are drill$ into ?is1 & ! sulphur is melt$ by ! introduction ( hot /eam4 ,?is melt$ sulphur is !n pump$ to ! surface & run into molds4 ,"s ( ! be/ kn[n localities are ,sulphurdale1 ,utah1 ,cody & ,!rmopolis1 ,wyo41 ,santa ,b>b>a ,co41 ,cal41 ,humboldt ,co41 ,nev41 & ab\t ! hot spr+s ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k4 ,ice ,h,o ,pl4 #ea wat] ,occurs solid z ice1 sn[ & fro/1 or liquid z wat]2 h>dness1 #b2 specific gravity1 4#ib2 colorless to :ite2 lu/] adamant9e2 transp>5t on ?9 edges4 ,?\gh we seldom ?9k ( ice1 & its liquid =m1 wat]1 z a m9]al1 /ill x is "o1 & p]haps ! mo/ important ( all m9]als1 z well z ! mo/ common4 ,ice melts at #cb ,f4 & vaporizes at #bab ,f41 be+ !n t]m$ /eam4 ,because x is s common & liquid at ord9>y temp]atures x acts z a solv5t = a ho/ ( o!r m9]als1 & is !re=e ! ag5t by :i* !y are transport$ f place to place & r$eposit$ 9 ve9s & b$s4 ,n only does wat] act z a transportation ag5t = m9]als 9 solution1 b is also ! ag5t ( erosion & wea!r+4 ,wat] vaporizes sl[ly :5 expos$ to ! air at all temp]atures above freez+1 & s x is sl[ly ris+ f ! surface ( ! sea or lakes or moi/ gr\nd into ! air1 :]e x w\ld accumulate until ! air 0 saturat$1 if ! air w\ld only keep /ill & at a uni=m temp]ature4 ,! air w hold a giv5 am\nt ( wat] vapor1 :i* is1 = example1 #ag grams p] cubic met] :5 ! temp]ature is #fh ,f41 b at #ei ,f4 x w hold only #ab grams1 or at #ej ,f4 only #i grams4 ,?us ! air is m or less completely saturat$ at high] temp]atures1 & :5 ! temp]ature is l[]$ ! air c n hold all x has tak5 up1 & x is precipitat$ 9 dew1 ra9 or sn[1 mo/ (t5 z ra94 ,:5 ! ra9 falls x me*anically c>ries away1 & m or less sl[ly transports to o!r places p>ticles ( rock1 be+ ?us ! ag5t ( erosion2 & :5 x is sl[$ d[n1 z on ent]+ ! quiet wat] ( a lake or ! sea1 x drops ! me*anically c>ri$ s$im5t & makes s$im5t>y deposits4 ,ano!r v important & unique feature ( wat] is t on freez+ x exp&s ab\t _/? ( its =m] bulk1 s t1 z a result1 ice floats1 & also :]ev] wat] 9 crevices is froz51 ! crevices are enl>g$4 ,9 locations :]e ?is freez+ & melt+ take place repeat$ly ?r\gh\t a ye>1 !re ! break+ up ( rocks is rapid4 ,?is is h>dly ! place to take up a complete discussion ( wat]1 b its action z a solv5t1 me*anically1 & 9 freez+1 melt+1 & vaporiz+ is ! basis ( a l>ge "p ( ! /udy ( geology4 ,:5 wat] cry/allizes1 z 9 =m+ ice1 x is 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,x t5ds to tw9n+ & a sn[-flake is made up ( a l>ge numb] ( tw9n$ cry/als1 ea* div]g+ f ! o!r at #fj4 ,:5 ice is =m$ 9 ! air or on ! surface ( wat] x =ms ^! complex & beautiful multiple tw9s1 ( :i* b a c\ple are sugge/$ "h4 ,b5ea? ! surface ! hexagonal cry/als gr[ d[nw>d into ! wat]1 p>allel to ea* o!r1 mak+ a fibr\s /ructure1 :i* is v app>5t :5 ice is 8rott510 :i* is ! "t at :i* ! surfaces ( ! prisms are sep>at+1 because ! molecules leave ! cry/al 9 ! rev]se ord] to :i* !y unit$ ) x4 ,fro/ 9 m>%y or spongy gr\nd w (t5 %[ ?is fibr\s gr[? beautifully4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,rocks ,broadly speak+ a rock is an ess5tial "p ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & includes loose mat]ial1 l s&1 mud1 or volcanic a%es1 z well z compact & solid masses1 l s&/one & granite4 ,rocks are aggregates ( m9]als1 ei!r sev]al m9]als gr\p$ toge!r1 z are mica1 qu>tz & feldsp> to make granite1 or l>ge quantities ( a s+le m9]al1 l qu>tz gra9s to make s&/one4 ,! rocks are mo/ conv5i5tly classifi$ accord+ to _! mode ( orig91 into ?ree ma9 gr\ps1 igne\s1 s$im5t>y1 & metamorphic4 ,! igne\s rocks are ^? :i* h solidifi$ f a molt5 magma1 l lavas1 granites1 etc4 ,! s$im5t>y rocks are ^? :i* repres5t accumulations ( fragm5ts or gra9s1 d]iv$ f v>i\s s\rces1 usually ! wea!r+ ( o!r rocks1 & deposit$ by su* ag5ts z wat]1 w9d & organisms4 ,metamorphic rocks are ^? :i* 7 orig9ally ei!r igne\s or s$im5t>y1 b h be5 alt]$ by ! actions ( heat1 pressure & wat]1 s t ! prim>y "* has be5 *ang$1 (t5 to su* an ext5t z to be obscur$4 ,rocks once =m$ 9 any ( ! above ways are be+ con/antly alt]$ 9 "* by ! v>i\s processes ( nature4 ,^? expos$ on ! surface are wea!r$ to pieces1 & ! fragm5ts are transport$ by w9d or wat] to accumulate else:]e z s$im5t>y rocks4 ,^? buri$ deep b5ea? ! surface are affect$ by ! high temp]ature & pressure ( ! dep?s ( ! e>? & ?us metamorphos$4 ,= in/ance a granite expos$ on ! surface is sl[ly wea!r$1 "s p>ts be+ c>ri$ away 9 solution by ! ra9 wat]1 o!rs less soluble rema9+ z gra9s ( qu>tz1 mica or kaol94 ,^! are transport$ by wat] & sort$1 ! f9] kaol9 be+ c>ri$ to /ill & deep wat]1 ! qu>tz & mica accumulat+ 9 "s l[l& z s&4 ,?is s& w 9 "t be cem5t$ to a s&/one1 lat] sl[ly buri$ b5ea? ! surface4 ,if buri$ deep x w feel ! effect ( ! int]ior temp]ature1 :i* increases z "o goes d[n at ! rate ( "o degree ,f4 = e #ej feet4 ,if ?is %\ld be 9 a region :]e fold+ & m\nta9-mak+ takes place1 ! mat]ial "u ! folds w\ld be melt$ 7because ( ! relief f pressure :i* w\ld p]mit ! high temp]ature to act freely7 & become igne\s rock1 ei!r com+ to ! surface z lava1 or rema9+ bel[ ! surface & mak+ a granite or simil> rock2 :ile ! s$im5t>y mat]ial n melt$ b ne> en\gh to ! molt5 mat]ial to be affect$1 w\ld be metamorphos$1 9 ?is case to a qu>tzite4 ,mu* ( ! int]e/ & pr(it 9 /udy+ rocks1 w come f ! und]/&+ :i* !y w give z to ! hi/ory ( t p>ticul> "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ :]e !y are f\nd4 ,igne\s ,rocks ,igne\s rocks are ^? :i* h =m$ f mat]ial t has be5 melt$1 :i* involves temp]atures ar\nd #acjj ,c42 or1 if !re is wat] 9 ! orig9al mat]ial1 temp]atures z l[ z #hjj ,c4 w suffice4 ,consid]+ ! increase ( temp]ature to be a degree = e #ej feet d[nw>d1 ?is involves ! rocks hav+ be5 at dep?s ( #e to #aj miles bel[ ! surface4 ,:ile at su* dep?s ! temp]ature mu/ be high en\gh to melt rocks1 ! great pressure ( ! ov]ly+ rocks seems to keep !m solid2 = we "k t ! c5t] ( ! e>? is solid1 z is %[n by a v>iety ( obs]vations1 su* z ! rate at :i* e>?quake waves are transmitt$ ?r\gh ! e>?1 ! lack ( tidal effects1 etc4 ,h[ev]1 !re is e reason to believe t if ! pressure is remov$ f ! rocks :i* are five to t5 miles bel[ ! surface1 !re is heat en\gh at ^? dep?s to melt !m4 ,:5 ! cru/ ( ! e>? is fold$1 z :5 m\nta9 ranges are =m$1 ! areas "u ! ar*es or upw>d folds are reliev$ ( pressure4 ,!n ^? rocks1 :i* are "u ! ar*es & are reliev$1 become molt54 ,! molt5 magma may well up & fill ! space b5ea? ! ar* :]e x w\ld cool aga9 v sl[ly2 or1 if !re is fissur+ dur+ ! fold+1 "s ( ! molt5 mat]ial may be =c$ out ?r\gh ! fissures & p\r out ov] ! surface z lava4 ,ano!r area 9 :i* pressures may be locally reliev$ is 9 ! region ( fault+1 :]e ! cru/ ( ! e>? is brok5 into blocks1 betwe5 :i* !re are readju/m5ts1 "s be+ tipp$ "o way1 "s ano!r1 "s uplift$4 ,"h aga9 !re w\ld be areas ( reliev$ pressure & molt5 magmas w\ld =m1 "s ( !m solidify+ 9 place1 o!rs ris+ to ! surface4 ,! molt5 mat]ial is t]m$ ! magma1 & :5 x rea*es ! surface1 great quantities ( wat] vapor & o!r gases escape3 or ^! gases may ev5 escape f magmas :i* d n rea* ! surface1 ris+ ?r\gh fissures4 ,z ^! hot vapors pass ?r\gh ! fissures1 !y are cool$1 & may deposit "p or all ( _! dissolv$ comp\nds 9 ! fissure1 mak+ ve9s4 ,lava is ! magma m9us ! vapors4 ,magmas v>y greatly f place to place1 indicat+ t !y are =m$ locally & d n come f any g5]al int]ior res]voir1 z has sometimes be5 sugge/$4 ,:5 ! molt5 magmas escape to ! surface1 !y are t]m$ extrusive1 & z !y spread out 9 a lay] ?is is t]m$ a %eet4 ,?is rise & ov]fl[ may be quiet1 & f "t to "t "o outp\r+ may foll[ ano!r mak+ %eet aft] %eet4 ,or aft] "o outp\r+1 ! pressure bel[ may cease = a "t & all[ ! lava to solidify & make a cap or cov] ov] ! op5+4 ,be=e m lava c rise1 ?is cov] mu/ be remov$4 ,?is usually happ5s 9 an explosive mann]1 ! lava bel[1 ) ! increas+ pressure ex]t$ by its exp&+ gases1 f9ally ex]t+ en\gh pressure1 s t ! cov] is brok51 or %att]$ & ?r[n 9 ?\s&s ( fragm5ts into ! air1 z happ5$ at ,mt4 ,pele on ! ,isl& ( ,m>t9ique 9 #aijb4 ,! fragm5ts ?r[n into ! air are (t5 t]m$ volcanic a%es1 ?\gh ?is is n a good ^w = !m1 = !y h n be5 burn$4 ,9 case ! molt5 magmas "u ! reliev$ areas d n rea* ! surface !y are t]m$ intrusive4 ,su* magmas may rema9 9 ! space "u a m\nta9 fold1 or be =c$ 9 fissures "p way to ! surface4 ,:5 ! magma is =c$ into m or less v]tical cracks & !re solidifies1 & ^! are expos$ by erosion1 !y are t]m$ dikes4 ,sometimes ! magmas h ris5 "p way to ! surface & !n pu%$ _! way betwe5 two horizontal lay]s ( rock & !re h>d5$1 9 :i* case !y are t]m$ sills1 :5 uncov]$4 ,! ,palisades along ! ,hudson ,riv] are ! expos$ edge ( a sill4 ,aga9 ! molt5 magmas may well up & spread betwe5 two horizontal lay]s1 b come fa/] ?an !y c spread horizontally1 & !n ! magma takes ! =m ( a half sph]e1 & ! ov]ly+ lay]s ( rock are dom$ up ov] x4 ,su* a mass is t]m$ a laccoli?4 ,9 all ^! cases ! mass ( igne\s rock is only discov]$ :5 ! ov]ly+ rocks h be5 erod$ (f4 ,! great mass ( molt5 magma "u ! ar*es ( m\nta9 ranges simply cools sl[ly into a granitic type ( rock4 ,^! masses are expos$ :5 ! ?\s&s ( feet ( ov]ly+ rock are erod$ (f4 ,:5 ^! masses are expos$1 if ( b a few miles 9 ext5t1 !y are call$ /ocks1 b1 if ( _m miles 9 l5g? & bread?1 !y are ba?oli?s1 & are v *>act]i/ic ( ! he>t ( m\nta9 ranges4 ,9 all ! above cases ! ext]ior ( ! molt5 mass cools fir/1 & =ms a %ell ar\nd ! re/4 ,! %ell det]m9es ! size ( ! mass4 ,z ! cool+ cont9ues into ! int]ior1 x also solidifies1 & z all rocks %r9k on cool+1 cracks develop1 sep>at+ ! mass into small] pieces4 ,!re is usually no regul>ity ab\t ^! cracks & ! mass is divid$ into blocks f six in*es to ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,h[ev]1 9 "s cases1 especially 9 sills & laccoli?s :]e ! cool+ is sl[]1 ! %r9kage may be m>k$ by a regul> sy/em ( cracks :i* b\nd ! rock into m or less regul> hexagonal columns4 ,! ,palisades & ! ,devil's ,t[] 9 ,wyom+ 7,see ,plate #eb7 %[ ?is /ructure4 ,! ,devil's ,t[] is ! remnant ( a laccoli?1 all except ! c5tral core ( :i* has be5 erod$ away4 ,all ( ! above t]ms h no?+ to d ) composition1 b ref] entirely to ! mann] ( occurr5ce4 ,:ile ! igne\s rocks are classifi$ accord+ to _! composition1 ! rate at :i* !y cool$ has mu* to d ) _! texture1 & c]ta9 names apply to ! texture4 ,= in/ance :5 ! molt5 lava cools v rapidly1 !re is no "t = ! =mation ( cry/als1 & ! result+ rock is glassy or non-cry/all9e4 ,if ! cool+ is sl[ z 9 l>ge bodies1 cry/als h "t to =m & gr[ to consid]able size z 9 granites4 ,betwe5 ^! all grades may occur2 & "o classification ( igne\s rocks expresses _! rate ( cool+1 9 su* t]ms z ! foll[+4 ,glassy--lavas :i* h cool$ s quickly t !y are )\t di/9ct cry/allization1 su* z obsidian1 pit*/one1 etc4 ,d5se or felsitic--lavas :i* h cool$ less rapidly1 s t cry/als h =m$1 b 9 :i* ! cry/als are too small to be id5tifi$ by ! unaid$ eye1 su* z felsite or basalt4 ,porphyritic--magmas f :i*1 9 solidify+1 "o m9]al has cry/alliz$ out fir/ & ! cry/als h gr[n to consid]able size1 :ile ! re/ h rema9$ small4 ,granitoid--magmas :i* h solidifi$ sl[ly1 s t all ! m9]als h cry/alliz$ completely1 & ! compon5t cry/als are l>ge en\gh to be recogniz$ readily1 z 9 granite4 ,fragm5tal--a t]m appli$ to ! fragm5ts :i* h result$ f explosive eruptions ( igne\s rocks4 ,^! fragm5ts may be loose or consolidat$4 ,volcanic a%es are typical4 ,por\s--a t]m appli$ to ! lava ne> ! upp] surface1 :i* is fill$ ) gas cavities1 su* z pumice4 ,amygdoloidal--is ! t]m appli$ to por\s lavas1 :5 ! cavities h be5 fill$ by o!r m9]als1 su* z calcite or "s ( ! zeolites4 ,9 det]m9+ a rock1 fir/ decide :e!r x is igne\s1 s$im5t>y or metamorphic4 ,! igne\s "* is recogniz$ by its be+ ei!r glassy1 or compos$ ( masses ( cry/als irregul>ly arrang$1 !re be+ nei!r lay]+ nor b$d+4 ,,classification ,,( ,,igne\s ,,rocks ,texture ,excess ( light color$ m9]als ,excess ( d>k color$ m9]als ,glassy obsidian1 p]lite1 pumice1 pit*/one scorias1 tra*ylyte1 basalt-obsidian ,feldsp> or?oclase ,feldsp> ,plagioclase ,no feldsp> ,mica &_/or hornbl5de &_/or augite ,mica &_/or hornbl5de ) pyrox5e augite &_/or hornbl5de &_/or mica qu>tz -qu>tz qu>tz -qu>tz oliv9e -oliv9e oliv9e -oliv9e ,d5se rhyolite tra*ite dacite 7felsite7 &esite 7felsite7 basalt augitite or hornbl5dite ,porphyritic rhyolite-porphyry tra*ite-porphyry dacite-porphyry &esite-porphyry basalt-porphyry augitite-porphyry ,granitoid granite sy5ite qu>tz-diorite diorite oliv9e-gabbro gabbro p]idotite pyrox5ite ,fragm5tal rhyolite1 tuff tra*ite1 tuff ,dacite1 tuff or &esite tuff or ,basalt tuffs & breccias or breccia or breccia breccia breccia ,:5 x is locat$ z igne\s1 turn to ! key on page #agg & decide z to :i* type ( texture is pres5t4 ,if glassy1 ! color1 lu/] & type ( con/ruction w place x4 ,if ! rock is cry/all9e1 fir/ decide :e!r feldsp> is pres5t1 & if pres5t1 :at type3 !n det]m9e ! d>k m9]al1 & la/ly :e!r qu>tz or oliv9e is pres5t4 ,9 d5se rocks ! pres5ce ( qu>tz may be det]m9$ by try+ ! h>dness1 = none ( ! o!r con/itu5ts ( igne\s rocks h s great h>dness4 ,= example1 if x is f\nd t a rock is compos$ ( or?oclase hornbl5de & qu>tz1 & ! texture is granitoid1 x is granite3 or if ! rock is plagioclase feldsp> & pyrox5e ( any sort1 x is gabbro1 etc4 ,granite ,pl4 #ec ,! comb9ation ( or?oclase feldsp> 7or microcl9e71 qu>tz1 & ei!r mica1 hornbl5de or augite is t]m$ granite1 if ! texture is co>se en\gh s ! individual m9]als c be recogniz$ ) ! unaid$ eye4 ,! rock is light-color$ because ! feldsp> & qu>tz dom9ate4 ,accessory m9]als may be pres5t su* z apatite1 zircon1 b]yl or magnetite4 ,v>ieties ( granite are di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! d>k m9]al pres5t4 ,:5 ?is is muscovite1 x is a muscovite-granite2 :5 x is biotite1 a biotite-granite2 if x is hornbl5de1 a hornbl5de-granite2 etc4 ,! size ( cry/als 9 granite v>ies widely4 ,:5 !y are z small z _/ ( an in* 9 diamet]1 x is t]m$ f9e gra9$2 f _/ to ( an in*1 x is m$ium-gra9$2 :5 l>g]1 x is co>se-gra9$4 ,9 "s cases ! cry/als may be ov] a foot 9 diamet] :i* is kn[n z giant granite4 ,orig9ally granite 0 a great mass ( molt5 magma1 :i* has cool$ v sl[ly1 hav+ be5 intrud$ or ?ru/ up 9 great /ocks or ba?oli?s b5ea? ov]ly+ rocks1 :i* act$ z a blanket to prev5t rapid cool+4 ,^! ov]ly+ rocks1 9 _! turn1 h be5 act$ ^u by ! heat & metamorphos$4 ,granite is p>ticul>ly likely to h be5 =m$ "u m\nta9 folds2 s t1 aft] ! m\nta9s h be5 m or less completely erod$ away1 ! great masses ( granite h come to ! surface to m>k ! axes ( ! ranges2 & ev5 aft] ! m\nta9s h be5 :olly worn away1 ! granite rema9s to m>k ! sites on :i* !y /ood4 ,9 ! granite mass itself1 !re are (t5 ve9s & dikes1 :i* probably result$ f ! %r9kage ( ! cool+ granite1 & !y are fill$ ) a diff]5t & usually co>s] granite kn[n z pegmatite4 ,?is pegmatite =m$ f ! residual magmatic mat]ial1 s t z "s ( ! elem5ts _h already cry/alliz$ out1 ! granite 9 ^! dikes is ( diff]5t composition4 ,! extreme co>s5ess ( ^! pegmatites seems to be due to ! "* ( ! m9]aliz+ ag5ts left 9 ! dikes4 ,9 "s ( ^! pegmatites ! feldsp> & qu>tz are s int]gr[n1 t :5 brok5 along ! cleavage surface ( ! feldsp>1 ! qu>tz appe>s l cunei=m *>act]s1 & ?is v>iety has be5 giv5 ! "n graphic granite 7,see ,plate #ec74 ,:5 granite is expos$ to wea!r+1 ! feldsp> is ! fir/ m9]al to be decompos$1 alt]+ ev5tually into c>bonates1 qu>tz & kaol94 ,! d>k m9]als are only slightly less susceptible & !y break d[n into c>bonates1 iron oxides & kaol94 ,! orig9al qu>tz rema9s un*ang$4 ,( ^! products ! c>bonates1 "s ( ! iron oxide & a little ( ! qu>tz are c>ri$ away 9 solution4 ,! kaol9 & "s ( ! iron oxide is 9 f9e p>ticles & !y are c>ri$ by ! wat] until x comes to ! lakes or ! sea4 ,! qu>tz is left 9 co>s] gra9s1 :i* are m sl[ly transport$1 & deposit$ 9 co>s] or f9] s& & gravel b$s4 ,granites are widely us$ = build+ /one1 because !y c be work$ readily 9 all directions1 & h great /r5g? & beauty4 ,! color dep5ds l>gely on ! color ( ! feldsp>1 :i* may be :ite or p9k1 9 :i* case ! granite w be gray to p9k4 ,granites occur ?r\gh\t ,new ,engl&1 ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 ! ,lake ,sup]ior ,region1 ! ,black ,hills1 ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ,si]ra ,nevada1 etc4 ,sy5ite ,pl4 #ed ,! comb9ation ( or?oclase & ei!r mica1 hornbl5de1 or augite is sy5ite1 ! texture be+ co>se en\gh s t ! individual m9]als c be di/+ui%$ by ! unaid$ eye4 ,x diff]s f granite 9 ! abs5ce ( qu>tz4 ,sy5ite is a light-color$ rock ) ! feldsp> pr$om9at+4 ,m9]als l apatite1 zircon1 or magnetite may occur 9 x1 z accessory m9]als4 ,! =ego+ w\ld be an ideal sy5ite1 b usually !re is "s plagioclase feldsp> also pres5t4 ,if ?is occurs 9 su* quantities z to ne>ly equal ! or?oclase feldsp>1 ! rock is t]m$ a monzonite2 if x pr$om9ates1 ! rock becomes a diorite4 ,! pres5ce ( qu>tz w\ld make ?is rock into a granite4 ,su* a comp\nd rock has its type =m1 & :5 ! proportions ( ! compon5t m9]als are *ang$1 x grades into o!r types4 ,l ! granite1 sy5ite is an intrusive rock1 :i* occurs 9 /ocks & ba?oli?s along ! axes ( pres5t or pa/ m\nta9 ranges4 ,! orig9al magma well$ up "u ! m\nta9 folds1 :]e x cool$ sl[ly1 metamorphos+ ! adjac5t rocks4 ,l granite x has only be5 expos$ aft] a long p]iod ( erosion has remov$ ! ov]ly+ lay]s ( rock4 ,sy5ites are n z abundant z granites1 b !y occur 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 ne> ,little ,rock1 ,ark41 9 ,cu/] ,co41 ,colo41 etc4 ,qu>tz-,diorite ,! comb9ation ( plagioclase feldsp>1 qu>tz & ei!r mica or hornbl5de makes qu>tz-diorite1 sometimes call$ tonalite4 ,! above w\ld be ! typical qu>tz-diorite1 b !re is usually "s or?oclase pres5t1 :i* if x equals ! plagioclase feldsp> 9 am\nt makes ?is into a monzonite2 or if x dom9ates1 x makes ! rock a granite4 ,qu>tz-diorite is d>k] color$ ?an ! two prec$+ rocks1 ! d>k m9]als be+ ab\t z abundant z ! light-color$ ones1 su* z feldsp> & qu>tz4 ,= ?is reason ! weight is also some:at great]4 ,l ! o!rs ?is is an intrusive rock1 occurr+ 9 /ocks & ba?oli?s1 & indicative ( great molt5 masses ?ru/ up "u m\nta9 folds1 & only expos$ aft] ! ov]ly+ rocks h be5 wea!r$ away4 ,x is by no means an abundant type ( rock1 b occurs at ,bel*]t[n1 ,mass41 ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y41 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 etc4 ,diorite ,plagioclase feldsp> ) hornbl5de or mica1 or ) bo?1 is kn[n z diorite4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f qu>tz-diorite by ! abs5ce ( qu>tz4 ,!re is g5]ally "s augite 9 x1 b if ?is %\ld be equal to1 or exce$ ! hornbl5de1 ! rock is !n a gabbro4 ,!re may also be a small am\nt ( or?oclase pres5t1 )\t tak+ ?is rock out ( ! diorite class1 b if ! or?oclase feldsp> becomes dom9ant1 !n ! rock is a sy5ite4 ,?us !re is gradation into o!r gr\ps 9 all directions4 ,apatite1 magnetite1 zircon1 & titanite (t5 occur 9 small quantities z accessory m9]als4 ,g5]ally ! hornbl5de is 9 excess ( ! feldsp>1 s t ! rock is a d>k-color$ "o4 ,diorites occur 9 mu* ! same mann] z granites1 be+ 9 /ocks1 ba?oli?s or dikes1 & are (t5 associat$ ) granites & gabbros4 ,!y are great intrud$ masses1 associat$ ) m\nta9 mak+1 & l ! prec$+ rocks1 cool$ f> bel[ ! surface1 & h be5 expos$ only aft] great ?icknesses ( ov]ly+ rocks h be5 wea!r$ away4 ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y41 ! ,sudbury nickel di/rict 9 ,canada1 ,mt4 ,davidson above ! ,com/ock ,lode 9 ,nevada1 etc41 are typical localities = f9d+ diorite4 ,oliv9e-,gabbro ,! comb9ation ( plagioclase feldsp> ) augite 7or any ( ! pyrox5es7 & oliv9e makes oliv9e-gabbro4 ,! feldsp> is usually "o ( ^? ) consid]able calcium 9 x1 l labradorite2 & z ! d>k m9]als pr$om9ate1 ! rock is d>k-color$4 ,x is an intrusive rock1 usually 9 dikes or /ocks1 :]e x solidifi$ f> bel[ ! surface1 & 0 only expos$ aft] ! ov]ly+ rocks 7 wea!r$ (f4 ,x is by no means an abundant type ( rock1 b is f\nd 9 ! ,lake ,sup]ior ,region1 & ne> ,bir* ,lake1 ,m9n4 ,gabbro ,pl4 #ed ,plagioclase feldsp> ) any "o ( ! pyrox5es1 mo/ commonly augite1 is gabbro4 ,!re is a wide range 9 ! relative proportions ( ! two m9]als mak+ gabbro4 ,at "o extreme are rocks made entirely1 or almo/ entirely1 ( plagioclase feldsp>1 :i* are kn[n z anor?osites1 & occur 9 p>ts ( ! high] m\nta9s ( ! ,adirondacks l ,mt4 ,m>cy1 9 sev]al places 9 ea/]n ,canada1 etc4 ,!n !re are ! typical gabbros :]e ! feldsp> & augite are m or less equally repres5t$4 ,at ! o!r extreme come ^? gabbros 9 :i* ! pyrox5e pr$om9ates1 9 ! mo/ m>k$ cases ! feldsp> be+ entirely lack+1 & ! rock be+ t]m$ a pyrox5ite4 ,:5 ! pyrox5e ( a gabbro is ei!r en/atite or hypo/h5e 7usually ! latt]7 ! gabbro is (t5 call$ norite4 ,magnetite1 biotite1 & hornbl5de may occur 9 small quantities z accessory m9]als4 ,gabbro is a common intrusive rock1 occurr+ 9 /ocks1 ba?oli?s1 & dikes1 & (t5 v>ies consid]ably 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! mass4 ,l granite ! mass solidifi$ f> bel[ ! surface1 "u "s m\nta9 fold1 & has only be5 expos$ z ! result ( wea!r+ away ! lay]s ( ov]ly+ rock4 ,gabbros appe> mu* l diorites1 b are di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! d>k m9]al is "o ( ! pyrox5es1 in/ead ( an amphibole or a mica4 ,!y are widely di/ribut$1 be+ f\nd 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 ne> ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y41 ,baltimore1 ,md41 ab\t ,lake ,sup]ior1 9 ,wyom+1 ! ,rocky ,mts41 etc4 ,p]idotite ,a rock made up ( oliv9e & augite 7or any ( ! pyrox5es7 is p]idotite4 ,z x conta9s no feldsp>1 & bo? augite & oliv9e are d>k-gre5 to black 9 color1 ^! rocks are always d>k gre5 to black 9 color & ( consid]able weight4 ,!y are usually r co>sely cry/all9e4 ,p]idotite is usually associat$ ) gabbro1 mak+ dikes :i* lead f ! ma9 gabbro mass4 ,less frequ5tly x occurs indep5d5tly1 mak+ up an intrusive mass4 ,hornbl5de & mica may be pres5t 9 small quantities1 z accessory m9]als4 ,9 g5]al ^! are r r>e rocks1 mak+ dikes connect$ ) /ocks or ba?oli?s ( gabbro4 ,p]idotite is f\nd ne> ,baltimore1 ,md41 9 ,cu/] ,co41 ,colo41 9 ,k5tucky1 etc4 ,pyrox5ite ,?is repres5ts ! extreme among co>sely cry/all9e igne\s rocks1 a :ole mass made up ( "o m9]al1 & t "s "o ( ! pyrox5e gr\p4 ,if ! m9]al c be exactly det]m9$1 ! rock may be /ill m def9itely nam$4 ,= in/ance if x is all augite1 !n ! rock w\ld be call$ augitite4 ,l ! prec$+ rocks1 pyrox5ite is an intrusive rock1 usually f\nd 9 dikes1 :i* are connect$ ) gabbro1 & x repres5ts ! segregation ( "o m9]al out ( ! gabbro1 & its solidification at "o po9t4 ,hornbl5de1 magnetite & pyrrhotite may be pres5t z accessory m9]als4 ,?is is n a common rock1 b x illu/rates ! fact t all possible comb9ations d occur1 if ! circum/ances h w>rant$ x4 ,x is f\nd ne> ,baltimore1 ,md41 ,web/]1 ,n4 ,c41 & 9 ,montana4 ,rhyolite ,?is is a comb9ation ( or?oclase feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & ei!r hornbl5de1 mica or augite 9 :i* ! cry/als are ( su* small size t !y c n be id5tifi$ ) ! nak$ eye4 ,9 composition x corresponds to granite1 b x is mu* f9] 9 texture4 ,x diff]s f tra*ite by hav+ qu>tz :ile ! latt] has none4 ,?is c usually be det]m9$ by try+ ! h>dness z none ( ! o!r m9]als are z h>d z #g4 ,x is mu* h>d] to di/+ui% x f dacite :i* diff]s only 9 hav+ plagioclase feldsp> 9 place ( ! or?oclase1 & only ! microscope w enable "o to make ?is di/9ction4 ,:]e ! di/9ction _c be made ^! light-color$ lavas are (t5 call$ felsite4 ,rhyolite is usually an extrusive lava1 occurr+ 9 %eets1 b sometimes x is intrusive1 occurr+ 9 sills1 dikes1 & laccoli?s4 ,9 all ^! cases ! lava has solidifi$ s rapidly1 t ! cry/als are t9y1 & only ! g5]al effect ( a cry/all9e /ructure is di/+ui%able4 ,rhyolites may occur ) porphyritic /ructure1 9 :i* case ! pres5ce ( ! l>g] feldsp> cry/als w help to di/+ui% :e!r !y are or?oclase or n1 mak+ ! det]m9ation easi]4 ,! color ( rhyolites is gre51 r$ or gray1 always a decid$ light %ade4 ,rhyolites are abundant 9 ! we/]n /ates1 z 9 ! ,black ,hills1 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 ,colorado1 ,nevada1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,tra*ite ,! comb9ation ( or?oclase feldsp> ) mica1 hornbl5de or augite is t]m$ tra*ite1 if ! texture is d5se4 ,x is usually an extrusive lava ( light color 7gre51 r$ or gray71 & corresponds 9 composition to sy5ite4 ,x c be di/+ui%$ f rhyolite by hav+ no qu>tz1 & s no?+ to %[ a h>dness above #e4e2 b x is difficult to di/+ui% x f &esite1 :i* diff]s only 9 hav+ plagioclase feldsp> 9 place ( or?oclase4 ,x sometimes occurs ) a porphyritic /ructure1 9 :i* case ! feldsp> cry/als are usually l>ge en\gh to be di/+ui%$4 ,tra*ites are n abundant 9 ,am]ica1 b "s are f\nd 9 ! ,black ,hills ( ,s\? ,dakota1 9 ,cu/] ,co41 ,colo41 & 9 ,montana4 ,dacite ,! union ( plagioclase feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & ei!r hornbl5de or mica is t]m$ dacite1 if ! texture is d5se4 ,x is an extrusive lava1 occurr+ mo/ly 9 %eets & dikes4 ,x corresponds 9 composition to qu>tz-diorite4 ,z ! texture is d5se x is difficult to di/+ui% dacite f rhyolite1 = bo? h qu>tz & diff] only 9 ! "* ( ! feldsp>1 s x is q common to use ! t]m felsite :i* does n di/+ui% betwe5 ! two1 & only /ates t ! rock is d5se1 light-color$ & extrusive4 ,:51 z (t5 occurs1 ! texture is porphyritic1 & ! feldsp>s are ! l>ge cry/als1 !n exact det]m9ation is fairly easy4 ,dacites are r common1 occurr+ on ,mc,clelland ,peak1 ,nev41 9 ! ,eureka di/rict1 ,nev41 on ,lass5's ,peak1 ,calif41 ,sepul*re ,mt4 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 etc4 ,&esite ,! union ( plagioclase feldsp> ) mica1 hornbl5de or augite1 makes &esite if ! texture is d5se4 ,! lack ( qu>tz1 & s no m9]al :i* has a h>dness ( ov] #e4e1 makes x possible to di/+ui% &esite f dacite or rhyolite1 b x is h>d to di/+ui% ?is rock f tra*ite1 :i* diff]s only on hav+ or?oclase feldsp> 9 place ( plagioclase4 ,:5 ! texture is porphyritic & ! feldsp>s are ! l>ge cry/als1 !n x is easy to make ! di/9ction4 ,&esite gets its "n f be+ ! *>act]i/ic lava ( ! ,&es ,m\nta9s1 & is ! commone/ ( all ! extrud$1 light-color$ lavas1 be+ ! lava ( hundr$s ( fl[s ?r\gh\t ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! union ( plagioclase feldsp> & biotite is ! commone/ type4 ,plagioclase ) hornbl5de or augite is less common1 &1 :5 !y d occur1 !y are usually di/+ui%$ z hornbl5de-&esite or augite-&esite4 ,magnetite1 apatite & zircon may be pres5t z accessory m9]als4 ,! lavas ( ,mt4 ,hood1 ,%a/a1 ,ra9i] & o!rs ( ! volcanic peaks ( ! ,cascade ,range1 ^? at ,eureka & ,com/ock 9 ,nevada1 9 ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k1 & ! porphyries ( _m peaks 9 ,colorado1 l ! ,h5ry ,mts41 etc41 :i* are expos$ laccoli?ic intrusions1 are all &esites1 z are _m m4 ,basalt ,! comb9ation ( plagioclase feldsp> ) oliv9e & augite 7or any o!r pyrox5e7 makes a heavy1 d>k-color$1 black to d>k-br[n rock :i*1 if its texture is d5se or porphyritic1 is t]m$ basalt4 ,?is usually has m or less magnetite 9 x z an accessory m9]al1 inde$ ! magnetite may be s abundant z to be a compon5t "p ( ! rock4 ,?is magnetite makes tr\ble = anyone try+ to use a compass on or ab\t basalt rocks4 ,^! are extrusive or intrusive rocks & correspond 9 composition to gabbro4 ,basalts are among ! commone/ ( igne\s rocks1 & are popul>ly designat$ 8trap10 mu* us$ z a road balla/ on acc\nt ( its t\ghness1 :i* is l>gely due to its d5se texture4 ,! coa/ ( ,new ,engl& is seam$ ) dikes ( basalt1 & ?r\gh ! ,adirondack & ,:ite ,m\nta9s !re are a ho/ ( ^! dikes4 ,! cre/s ( su* m\nta9s1 z ! ,holyoke ,range1 ! ,tom ,range1 ! ,talcott ,mts41 ,ea/ & ,we/ ,rocks at ,new ,hav51 etc41 are all basalt %eets4 ,! ,palisades1 ,fir/ ,wa*ung & ,second ,wa*ung ,m\nta9s ( ,new ,j]sey are sills ( basalt4 ,! ,lake ,sup]ior region is crisscross$ ) basalt dikes4 ,t greate/ ( all lava fields ! ,columbia ,plateau1 cov]+ ov] #bjj1jjj squ>e miles on ! ,snake & ,columbia ,riv]s 9 ,oregon1 ,wa%+ton & ,idaho1 is all basalt4 ,s x goes all d[n ?r\gh ,nevada1 ,new ,mexico & ,cali=nia4 ,porphyry ,pl4 #ee ,?is is a t]m :i* prop]ly ref]s to texture alone1 indicat+ a lava1 :i* has cool$ 9 su* a mann] t "o m9]al has cry/alliz$ out ( ! magma fir/ & develop$ to a l>g] size1 :ile ! mass ( ! mat]ial =m$ t9y cry/als 9 :i* ! l>g] ones are emb$d$4 ,! l>ge cry/als are te*nically kn[n z ph5ocry/s4 ,! surr\nd+ mass ( t9y cry/als is t]m$ ! matrix4 ,?is porphyritic /ructure is especially *>act]i/ic ( lavas :i* h be5 extrud$ 9 l>ge masses1 & ( intrud$ lavas 9 su* places z sills & laccoli?s4 ,! t]m porphyry today has ! above precise mean+4 ,x is a mu* abus$ ^w1 & has _h all sorts ( mean+s4 ,9 ! pa/ x 0 fir/ us$ to ref] to lavas 9 g5]al1 !n x came to be appli$ to lavas :i* _h be5 erupt$ be=e ,t]ti>y times1 t is to all anci5t lava %eets4 ,?is idea soon prov$ incorrect1 lavas be+ ( ! same composition :e!r anci5t or rec5t4 ,9 ! ,we/ ! ^w is (t5 colloquially us$ today to designate almo/ e k9d ( igne\s rock occurr+ 9 %eets or dikes1 if 9 any way connect$ ) ore deposits4 ,:5 ! composition ( a rock ) porphyritic textures c be det]m9$1 ! "n due to ! composition is c\pl$ ) t due to texture1 mak+ su* t]ms z tra*ite-porphyry1 basalt-porphyry1 etc4 ,tuff ,tuff1 a t]m n to be confus$ ) tufa on page #bae1 is ! "n us$ to designate ! f9] fragm5tal ejecta ( volcanic eruptions1 :i* are also (t5 ref]r$ to z 8volcanic a%10 b ! ^w1 a%1 conveys ! false impression t ! rock is a remnant ( some?+ burn$1 & is !re=e n a good t]m4 ,:5 fir/ eject$1 tuff is loose mat]ial1 b x is usually soon cem5t$ to make a m or less firm mass ( rock1 = :i* ! t]m1 tuff1 is /ill reta9$4 ,9 "s cases1 :ile /ill loose1 x is c>ri$ by /reams to a di/ance & deposit$ 9 m or less sort$ & lay]$ b$s3 & ! f9] tuff is (t5 c>ri$ by ! w9ds & laid d[n1 at a consid]able di/ance f its s\rce1 9 s call$ 8a% b$s40 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 s$im5t>y *>act]i/ics h be5 add$ to ! tuff1 & lay]+ :i* is *>act]i/ic ( s$im5t>y deposits1 is pres5t4 ,^! transport$ tuff b$s are really s$im5t>y1 b z !re is little *ange 9 ! mat]ial1 !y are ref]r$ to "h & n aga94 ,^! tuff b$s are n at all uncommon 9 ! s$im5t>y deposits ( ,t]ti>y age 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region4 ,! co>s] mat]ial ( volcanic eruptions usually goes "u ! head ( breccia4 ,breccia ,?is t]m is us$ to describe ! co>se fragm5tal ejecta ( volcanic eruptions4 ,x is also us$1 9 ! section "u s$im5t>y rocks1 9 a broad s5se to include all angul> unworn fragm5tal mat]ial1 :e!r ( igne\s or s$im5t>y orig94 ,= ?is reason1 :5 deal+ ) igne\s rocks1 x is usual to designate ! fragm5ts accord+ to _! composition1 mak+ su* t]ms z tra*ite-breccia1 rhyolite-breccia1 etc4 ,:ile /ill loose 7& also ev5 :5 cem5t$ into b$s ( rock71 x is cu/om>y to designate ! small] fragm5ts1 f ! size ( a gra9 ( :eat up to an in* or two 9 diamet]1 z lapilli2 ! l>g] fragm5ts1 f two in*es up to a foot or s 9 diamet]1 z bombs2 & ! l>ge/ masses1 (t5 tons 9 weight1 z volcanic blocks4 ,obsidian ,pl4 #ee ,lavas1 :i* h cool$ s quickly t cry/als h n _h "t to =m1 h a glassy appe>ance1 & are t]m$ obsidian4 ,if ! color is d>k1 due to ! pres5ce ( l>ge am\nts ( ^? elem5ts :i* make d>k m9]als1 ?is lava is t]m$ basalt-obsidian4 ,obsidian is *>act]iz$ by its glassy texture1 a h>dness ar\nd #f1 & by break+ ) a con*oidal fracture1 s call$ because ! surface is m>k$ by a s]ies ( conc5tric ridges1 some?+ l ! l9es ( gr[? on a %ell4 ,obsidians v>y greatly 9 color1 b are usually r$ or gre5 to black1 & transluc5t on ?9 edges4 ,:ile glassy1 all ! obsidians conta9 embryonic cry/als1 :i* appe> l du/ p>ticles float+ 9 ! glassy matrix1 or !re may ev5 be a few l>g] cry/als pres5t1 :i* are (t5 arrang$ 9 fl[ l9es4 ,mo/ all l>ge masses ( obsidian h /reaks or lay]s ( /ony mat]ial 9 !m :]e cry/allization has set 91 9 a limit$ way4 ,ne> ! upp] surface1 obsidians usually h gas cavities scatt]$ ?r\gh !m1 & ^! may be small & few1 or l>ge & num]\s4 ,inde$ ! cavities may be s num]\s z to dom9ate & give ! rock a fro?y appe>ance4 ,9 ?is case1 if ! cavities are small & m or less uni=m1 ! rock is call$ pumice2 if !y are l>g] x is scoria4 ,if1 z (t5 happ5s :5 ! lava is anci5t & has be5 buri$ b5ea? o!r rocks1 ! cavities h be5 fill$ ) "s second>y m9]al1 !n ! lava is call$ an amygdoloid4 ,obsidian is f\nd 9 _m localities1 especially :]e !re are rec5t volcanoes1 ! mo/ fam\s places be+ ! obsidian cliffs 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 ^? ne> ,mono ,lake 9 ,cali=nia1 & _m o!r localities 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ! ,si]ra ,nevadas1 & ! ,cascade ,m\nta9s4 ,pit*/one ,?is is v l obsidian 9 appe>ance1 b diff]s 9 t ! glassy mat]ial conta9s f five to t5 p] c5t ( wat] 9 its composition1 ! mo/ obvi\s effect ( :i* is to make ! lu/] res9\s1 in/ead ( vitre\s1 z is *>act]i/ic ( obsidian4 ,! colors are commonly r$1 gre5 or br[n4 ,pit*/one is associat$ ) rec5t volcanoes1 & "s f9e specim5s h come f ,silv] ,cliffs1 ,colo41 & v>i\s p>ts ( ,new ,mexico & ,nevada4 ,p]lite pe>l/one ,p]lite is a glassy lava1 conta9+ two to f\r p] c5t ( wat]1 :i*1 on cool+1 has crack$ into num]\s r\nd$ masses1 ) a conc5tric /ructure1 rem9d+ "o ( ! lay]s ( an onion4 ,scoria ,:ile lava is cool+1 !re is a con/ant escape ( gases1 mo/ly /eam1 & z ^! rise ?r\gh ! molt5 mass !y make cavities1 ne> ! upp] surface1 t portion on top (t5 becom+ fro?y4 ,if ?is solidifies quickly s t ! gas cavities are pres]v$ x is scoria4 ,:5 ! gas cavities are small & uni=mly di/ribut$1 ! rock is call$ pumice1 & (t5 us$ z a sc\r+ ag5t4 ,:5 ! cavities are l>ge & irregul> ! t]m scoria is g5]ally us$4 ,molt5 lavas may =m v>i\s /ructures1 accord+ to ! conditions "u :i* !y cool1 dripp+ ?r\gh cracks or f ! ro( ( caves1 :i* (t5 =m :]e ! molt5 lava escapes f a h>d5$ %ell1 & mak+ /alactites1 /alagmites1 etc4 ,! v ?9 lava ( ! ,hawaiian volcanoes may ev5 be bl[n by ! w9d into f9e ?reads1 kn[n z 8,pele's hair40 ,! pres5ce ( ! gas cavities is s *>act]i/ic ( ! upp] surface ( lavas :i* h be5 extrud$2 t1 :]e "o is deal+ ) old] lavas1 n[ buri$ b5ea? o!r rocks1 ?is fact helps to det]m9e :e!r ! mass is a %eet1 r ?an a sill2 =1 9 ! case ( ! sill1 ! lava 0 =c$ betwe5 lay]s ( s$im5t>y rocks1 & ! burd5 ( ! ov]ly+ rocks did n p]mit ! escape ( /eam & !re=e ! upp] surface ( sills does n h ! scoriace\s /ructure4 ,amygdoloid ,pl4 #ef ,:5 ! upp] surface ( a lava is fill$ ) /eam holes1 & ?is lava has be5 buri$ b5ea? o!r rocks1 ! seep+ wat]s sl[ly br+ su* m9]als z qu>tz1 calcite & zeolites & fill ! cavities4 ,su* a rock is kn[n z an amygdoloid4 ,x is (t5 confus$ ) porphyry2 b1 if exam9$ closely1 x w be se5 t ! outl9es ( ! gas cavities are r\nd$1 :ile ! outl9es ( a cry/al1 l a ph5ocry/1 are always angul>4 ,?is w be cle> if ! amygdoloid on ,plate #ef is comp>$ ) ! porphyry on ,plate #ee4 ,! ,s$im5t>y ,rocks ,to ?is class belong all ^? rocks :i* h be5 laid d[n by wat] or w9d1 or are ! results ( organic depositions4 ,!y include loose mat]ial l s& or day1 & also ! same mat]ials1 :5 cem5t$ into m or less solid rocks1 l s&/one or %ale4 ,s long z ! mat]ial has n be5 alt]$ f :at x 0 :5 laid d[n1 ! rock is t]m$ s$im5t>y4 ,9 g5]al ! mat]ial ( :i* ^! rocks are compos$ comes f ! wea!r+ & dis9tegration ( o!r rocks4 ,?is does n apply to ! organic deposits1 = ea* type ( :i* !re is a peculi> mode ( =mation4 ,to illu/rate ! typical =mation ( s$im5t>y rocks1 we may look at ! fate ( a granite :5 expos$4 ,at once ! surface is attack$ by *anges ( temp]ature1 fro/ & ra94 ,! v>i\s m9]als ( ! granite exp& & contract ) e *ange ( temp]ature1 b ea* compon5t m9]al has a diff]5t coeffici5t ( expansion "u heat1 s t m9ute cracks are quickly =m$ betwe5 ! m9]als4 ,wat] gets into ^! cracks & beg9s to dissolve ! m9]als4 ,feldsp> is ! mo/ easily attack$1 "p ( x be+ dissolv$ & c>ri$ away1 a small "p *ang+ to qu>tz1 & by f> ! l>ge/ "p *ang+ to kaol94 ,! d>k m9]al is also attack$ & p>tly dissolv$1 & p>tly *ang$ to kaol9 & iron oxides4 ,! qu>tz resi/s solution almo/ completely4 ,( ^! products ! kaol9 & iron oxides are c>ri$ f> away & deposit$ 9 /ill wat]4 ,! qu>tz & p]haps "s ( ! d>k m9]al are heavi] & c>ri$ m sl[ly1 be+ deposit$ z s&4 ,?is happ5s to granite ev]y:]e1 b 9 ! regions :]e !re is fro/ ! action is greatly ha/5$2 = wat] gets into ! cracks & exp&s e "t x freezes & ?us wid5s ! cracks rapidly1 :i* greatly facilitates ! entrance & movem5t ( wat] 9 ! rock4 ,9 a simil> way any orig9al rock w be dis9tegrat$1 & ! residue1 aft] ! soluble "p has be5 c>ri$ away1 becomes s& or clay or mud4 ,p>ticles ( qu>tz1 kaol91 & lime1 sep>ately1 or mix$1 loose or m or less cem5t$1 ) accompany+ impurities1 make up ! great bulk ( ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,!y are usually arrang$ 9 lay]s1 ( v>y+ ?ickness1 z !y 7 laid d[n by wat] or ! w9d4 ,9 ! same way lay]$ accumulations :i* are ei!r products ( plants or animals1 or p>ts ( ! plants or animals1 are consid]$ s$im5t>y1 z = in/ance1 coal1 *alk1 petroleum1 etc4 ,a ,classification ( ,s$im5t>y ,rocks ,inorganic orig93 #a4 ,co>se fragm5t>y mat]ial talus result+ f wea!r+ #b4 ,! same fragm5t>y mat]ial breccia cem5t$ #c4 ,unsort$ mat]ial result+ f soil rock wea!r+ #d4 ,co>se fragm5ts r\nd$ by ! gravel action ( wat] & w9d #e4 ,! same mat]ial cem5t$ conglom]ate #f4 ,f9] mat]ial deposit$ by wat] s& or w9d #g4 ,! same mat]ial cem5t$ s&/one #h4 ,! f9e/ mat]ial1 mo/ly clay kaol91 deposit$ by wat] #i4 ,! f9e/ mat]ial1 deposit$ by loess w9d #aj4 ,! same mat]ial cem5t$ %ale #aa4 ,f9e p>ticles ( lime1 pure or m>l impure #ab4 ,! same mat]ial cem5t$ lime/one #ac4 ,unassort$ mat]ial left by ! till glacial ice #ad4 ,! same mat]ial cem5t$ tillite ,organic ,orig93 #ae4 ,limes made f %ells1 etc4 coqu9a1 *alk1 coral rock1 etc4 #af4 ,silica f ! %ells ( plants1 diatomace\s e>?1 etc4 etc4 #ag4 ,c>bon f plants peat1 lignite1 coal1 etc4 #ah4 ,hydroc>bons f animals petroleum1 asphalt1 amb]1 etc4 #ai4 ,phosphates f animals guano1 phosphate rock1 etc4 ,talus ,:]e wea!r+ is v active1 especially on or bel[ /eep m\nta9 slopes1 a mass ( loose1 angul> fragm5ts accumulates4 ,?is mat]ial is t]m$ talus1 a t]m :i* ref]s only to ! physical "* ( ! mat]ial1 & n at all to its composition4 ,if wea!r+ cont9ues ^! fragm5ts w be fur!r brok5 up into "o ( ! f9] gra9$ rocks1 :i* ! wat] c c>ry away & deposit else:]e4 ,!re is little or no lay]+ 9 talus4 ,if ! talus is n c>ri$ away b is cem5t$ :]e x 0 =m$1 ! result+ mass is t]m$ breccia1 b ?is is n v commonly ! case4 ,breccia ,pl4 #eh ,! t]m breccia is us$ to cov] all ^? rocks :i* are compos$ ( angul> fragm5ts1 ( any composition1 & above s& 9 size1 :5 !y are cem5t$ into a solid mass1 by any sort ( cem5t+ ag5t4 ,"h ! t]m is us$ 9 its broad s5se1 z comp>$ ) ! way x 0 us$ "u igne\s rocks4 ,breccias may result f ! cem5t+ ( talus1 b m (t5 ! break+ up ( ! mat]ial into angul> fragm5ts 0 due to o!r causes1 su* z cru%+ along a fault plane1 or 9 ! movem5ts involv$ 9 m\nta9 mak+4 ,9 su* cases ! breccia is ( limit$ ext5t1 b may occur repeat$ly 9 ! same neighborhood4 ,lime/one1 :i* has be5 cru%$ & !n recem5t$1 (t5 makes a rock :i* takes a good poli% & is us$ 9 sev]al localities z an ornam5tal /one 9 place ( m>ble1 9 fact (t5 goes 9 trade circles "u ! "n ( 8m>ble40 ,! breccia figur$ on ,plate #eh is su* a lime/one4 ,soil ,ov] mo/ ( ! e>?'s surface !re is a cov]+ ( rock wa/e1 ! product ( wea!r+1 "s ( :i* is unassort$1 & "s ( x sort$ by wat] or w9d4 ,?is is all t]m$ soil4 ,x is an ev]-mov+ cov] result+ f ! decomposition ( ! und]ly+ rocks1 to :i* h be5 add$ 9 places lay]s ( rock wa/e br\ght f af> by ! /reams4 ,"s soils are rock wa/e :i* _h be5 c>ri$ cle> to ! ocean & deposit$ on ! floor ( ! sea1 & is n[ above sea level1 because ! floor ( ! sea has be5 elevat$4 ,inasmu* z ! und]ly+ rocks v>y 9 composition1 & z !re are areas ( transport$ mat]ial1 x is cle> t ! composition ( soils mu/ v>y f place to place1 bo? z to composition & texture4 ,soils range f ! f9e/1 compos$ mo/ly ( clay1 to co>se ones1 compos$ ( s&1 gravel or ev5 b\ld]s4 ,clay1 ! f9e/ gra9$ soil1 is compos$ ( p>ticles only ab\t _/? ( a millimet] 9 diamet]1 ( :i* x w\ld take #gbj1jjj billion p>ticles to make a gram's weight4 ,ord9>y soils h[ev] h ab\t #b to #e million p>ticles to ! gram4 ,! av]age specific gravity ( soil ) ! usual am\nt ( humus 9 x is f #b4ee to #b4ge4 ,9 ?is case h[ev] ! specific gravity is ( less importance ?an is ! volume weight4 ,a cubic foot ( wat] weighs #fb p\nds1 t ( soil f #ge to #hj p\nds1 ! extremes be+ #cj lb4 = peaty soil & #aaj lb4 = calc>e\s s&4 ,! t]ms 8heavy0 & 8light10 us$ 9 agriculture d n ref] to ! volume weight1 = clay :i* is actually relatively light 7#gj-ge lb4 p] cubic foot7 is class$ z a 8heavy0 soil2 :ile s&1 ( mu* great] actual weight1 is class$ z a 8light0 soil4 ,^! t]ms z us$ 9 agriculture ref] to ! ease ) :i* ! soils are work$1 & to _! p5etrability by plant roots4 ,soil is usually divid$ into an upp] d>k]-color$ lay]1 t]m$ loam1 & into a l[]1 light]-color$ lay]1 t]m$ subsoil4 ,! pres5ce ( humus1 result+ f ! decomposition ( plant & animal rema9s is ! factor :i* d>k5s ! color & di/+ui%es ! loam2 s t loam is a complex ( inorganic rock p>ticles plus m or less humus1 colloid comp\nds1 bact]ia1 liv+ plants & animals4 ,! subsoil is ma9ly rock p>ticles4 ,! di/9ctions betwe5 ^! two lay]s break d[n 9 arid soils1 & (t5 also 9 swampy regions4 ,x is ?is lay] ( soil on :i* ! wat] ( e ra9 & flood works1 pick+ "p ( x up & c>ry+ x along1 /ep by /ep1 to ! sea4 ,?\gh ! am\nt mov$ on any "o day is small1 ! sum ( all ! soil transport$ is enorm\s1 a l>ge riv] c>ry+ annual incr$ible am\nts4 ,= in/ance ! ,mississippi annually deposits 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico #dgf1ijj1jjj metric tons 7#bbjd lb4 to ! metric ton71 ( :i* ab\t a ?ird is 9 solution4 ,at ?is rate x takes ab\t #gjjj to #ijjj ye>s to remove a foot f ov] ! :ole dra9age bas94 ,?is is consid]ably sl[] ?an is ! case ( "s o!r riv]s4 ,:ile on ! "o h& soil is be+ cont9u\sly c>ri$ away f ! surface1 on ! o!r h& x is be+ con/antly r5ew$ f bel[1 by ! wea!r+ action ( wat]1 air & temp]ature4 ,gravel ,gravel is a mass ( loose fragm5ts ( rock1 :i* h be5 r\nd$ by wat] & deposit$ ) little or no sort+1 s t l>g] & small] pebbles & s& all occur toge!r4 ,x is ! deposit laid d[n by comp>atively fa/ wat] 9 inl& lakes or along ! /orm-beat5 %ores ( ! sea4 ,:]e a swift /ream ent]s quiet wat]1 z :]e x empties into a lake1 !re x quickly drops its co>se mat]ial z gravel1 usually ?us build+ a delta4 ,gravel also occurs 9 /ream b$s1 :]e = any reason ! rate ( fl[ is *eck$4 ,dur+ ! rec5t glacial p]iod1 ! ice %eet br\ght d[n great masses ( unsort$ mat]ial1 :i* 0 deposit$ z till1 or 9 mora9es4 ,mu* ( ?is 0 !n pick$ up by ! runn+ wat] & mov$ long] or %ort] di/ances1 s t1 all ov] ! glaciat$ c\ntry ( ! nor!rn & ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are unusually l>ge numb]s ( gravel deposits4 ,gravels are all wat] laid1 & usually %[ m or less cle>ly ! b$d$ or /ratifi$ /ructure4 ,! size ( ! compon5t pebbles ( gravel ranges f great b\ld]s to f9e s&1 & ! f9] gravels grade into ! co>s] s&s1 ! l9e betwe5 gravel & s& be+ drawn at ab\t ! size ( a pea1 ! co>s] be+ gravel1 ! f9] s&4 ,gravel is widely us$ z balla/ = railroads & 9 mak+ highways1 because ( its t5d5ce to pack well1 :ile ! h>d pebbles resi/ we>4 ,x is also widely us$ 9 concrete "w1 bond+ 9 well ) ! cem5t1 & mak+ x g f ?ree to five times z f>4 ,conglom]ate ,pl4 #eh ,conglom]ates are compos$ ( r\nd$ pebbles & s& ( v>y+ sizes1 cem5t$ toge!r into a solid rock4 ,! pebbles may run up to b\ld]s 9 size1 b !y h all be5 m or less r\nd$ by wat]1 & transport$ "s di/ance4 ,! pebbles may all be ( ! same composition1 or may repres5t a v>iety ( rocks4 ,:5 ! pebbles are all1 or mo/ all1 ( "o sort1 ! result+ conglom]ate is t]m$ a qu>tz-conglom]ate1 a lime/one-conglom]ate1 a gneiss-conglom]ate1 etc4 ,s too ! cem5t+ mat]ial v>ies 9 k9d1 silica1 calcite & iron oxide be+ ! commone/4 ,! color w dep5d on bo? ! compon5t pebbles & ! cem5t1 sometimes "o dom9at+1 sometimes ! o!r4 ,!re are "s ( ! qu>tz- & lime/one-conglom]ates :i* c be cut & poli%$ to make v h&some /one4 ,conglom]ates repres5t consolidat$ gravels1 & always indicate an aque\s orig91 q (t5 ! delta ( an anci5t /ream1 or ! invasion ( ! sea ov] ! l&2 s !y h become ( importance to geologi/s 9 int]pret+ pa/ ev5ts4 ,s& ,s& is a mass ( small rock p>ticles1 f ! size ( a pea d[n to _/ ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,! mat]ial may be any sort ( rock1 or a mixture ( two or m k9ds4 ,s& may be ! result ( ! dis9tegration ( old] rocks at ! po9t :]e x is n[ f\nd1 9 :i* case ! gra9s h ! %apes !y _h 9 ! orig9al rock2 b m (t5 ! s& gra9s h be5 transport$ great] or less] di/ances1 & 9 ! process h be5 m or less r\nd$4 ,^? s&s1 :i* lie :]e !y 7 =m$ are call$ residual1 & su* s& is usually compos$ ( a mixture ( angul> gra9s1 "s h>d] & o!rs s(t]1 su* z qu>tz1 feldsp>1 mica & hornbl5de1 all mix$ toge!r4 ,:]e ! s& has be5 transport$1 only ! m resi/ant m9]als h rema9$1 su* z qu>tz1 magnetite1 cassid]ite1 etc42 ) :i* !re are at times r>] m9]als1 su* z gold1 plat9um1 g>nets or topaz4 ,su* s&s are kn[n z gold-be>+1 topaz-be>+1 etc4 ,! s&s f diff]5t localities diff] greatly4 ,! /reams ga!r ! rock p>ticles1 & sort !m accord+ to ! size1 :i* ! wat] fl[+ at any giv5 rate c c>ry4 ,:5 ! wat] is sl[$ d[n1 x drops all ! p>ticles above ! size :i* ! new rate ( spe$ c h&le4 ,! gra9s ( s& f ! b$ ( a /ream are usually m or less angul>4 ,! fur!r !y are c>ri$1 ! m !y are knock$ toge!r & r\nd$2 s t aft] be+ c>ri$ to ! sea1 & !n ?r[n up on ! bea*es1 !y h be5 well r\nd$1 especially ! l>g] gra9s4 ,z ! air is less viscid ?an ! wat]1 s& :i* is transport$ by ! w9d1 is ev5 m r\nd$2 s t des]t s&s %[ ! mo/ complete r\nd+1 inde$ are ev5 poli%$2 & ?is is true ev5 ( ! small] gra9s4 ,x is ! w9d-bl[n1 or des]t s&s1 :i* fl[ s ev5ly 9 an h\rglass4 ,betwe5 ! angul> residual s&s & ! poli%$ des]t s&s1 !re are ( c\rse all grades4 ,glacial s&s are angul> or 8%>p0 almo/ to ! degree *>act]i/ic ( residual s&s2 & lake-%ore s&s are betwe5 riv] s&s & sea s&s 9 ! degree ( r\nd+4 ,s&s made ( p>ticles ( lime1 calc>e\s s&s1 are less resi/ant to we> ?an are ^? ( qu>tz4 ,9 regions :]e ! wat] is 8s(t0 7free f lime71 !y d n la/ long1 z !y are dissolv$2 b 9 a lime/one region :]e ! wat] is 8h>d0 7saturat$ ) lime71 ! gra9s are n s quickly dissolv$ & may accumulate into b$s ( great ?ickness1 z 9 ,florida4 ,along "s %ores ( ! ocean1 !re occur 8gre5 s&s10 :i* are ord9>y qu>tz s&s mix$ ) ! d>k gre5 m9]al glauconite1 :i* is a potassium iron silicate1 =m+ on ! ocean bottom z a result ( ! action ( decay+ animal matt] on iron-be>+ clays & potassium-be>+ silicates1 l feldsp>4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( "s ( ! s&s along ! coa/ ( ,new ,j]sey4 ,9 places1 especially 9 ! b$s ( riv]s1 !re occur 8quicks&s40 ,?is is a deposit ( f9e s&1 mix$ ) a consid]able am\nt ( clay1 & saturat$ ) wat]2 s t x w n support ! weight ( a man or an animal4 ,mu* t goes "u ! "n ( quicks& is a fluid mud1 cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( s&4 ,s& is us$ = a wide v>iety ( comm]cial purposes1 & "u ^! conditions gets v>i\s trade names2 = in/ance 8glass s&0 is a pure1 colorless to :ite1 qu>tz s&1 :i* is us$ z "o ( ! compon5ts 9 mak+ glass4 ,x mu/ be free f impurities1 z ^! color ! glass1 & mu* ( ! s& us$ = ?is purpose is qu>tz1 cru%$ to a f9e s&-l condition4 8,m\ld+ s&0 is a r f9e-gra9$ qu>tz s&1 ) a small b v def9ite admixture ( clay1 & ?is is us$ to make ! m\lds = ca/+s 9 f\ndries4 8,poli%+ s&0 is "o compos$ ( angul> fragm5ts ( qu>tz1 usually f /ream b$s or glacial deposits1 or ev5 cru%$ qu>tz1 & is us$ = cutt+ & poli%+ m>ble1 = s&pap]1 & = poli%+ wood & s(t] /ones4 ,!re are _m o!r special uses1 l build+1 balla/1 filt]s1 furnaces1 etc41 9 :i* qu>tz s& is us$1 be+ scre5$ if necess>y to get ! "r sizes4 ,s&/one ,:5 s& ( any sort is cem5t$ s z to make a solid rock1 x is t]m$ s&/one1 :i* v>ies widely accord+ to ! size1 color & composition ( ! gra9s1 & also ) ! sort & am\nt ( ! cem5t4 ,:5 ! size ( ! gra9s is l>g] ?an t ( a pea1 s&/one grades into conglom]ate2 :5 small] ?an _/? ( an in*1 especially if mix$ ) clay1 x grades into %ale4 ,!re are all grades ( firmness1 due to ! am\nt & k9d ( cem5t1 rang+ f ^? :i* h little or no cem5t1 b are compact z a result ( ! pressure ( ! ov]ly+ rocks1 to ^? 9 :i* ! cem5t has fill$ all ! pore spaces4 ,9 g5]al !re is a consid]able am\nt ( space betwe5 ! gra9s ( s&2 s t a s&/one w absorb l>ge am\nts ( wat]1 up to #be ( its bulk4 ,9 moi/ climates :]e x freezes1 ?is makes _m s&/ones unsuitable = use z build+ /ones1 z !y are likely to spale1 or *ip (f1 z is se5 9 ! 8br[n /one0 s mu* us$ 9 ,new ,york ,city4 ,s&/ones are usually b$d$ rocks & are relatively easy to qu>ry1 & mo/ ( !m are n s firmly cem5t$1 b t !y c be readily work$ or cut into %ape by ! /one cutt]2 & s1 c]ta9 s&/ones are v popul> = build+ /one or = trimm+ on build+s1 :]e !y are n too mu* expos$ to ! wea!r4 ,s&/one gets a v>iety ( names accord+ to ! cem5t4 ,silice\s s&/one is cem5t$ ) silica & usually v h>d4 ,calc>e\s s&/one is cem5t$ ) lime & usually r s(t4 ,f]rug9\s s&/one is cem5t$ ) "o ( ! iron oxides4 ,argillace\s s&/one is held toge!r ) clay impurities1 & is usually bo? s(t & ( undesirable color4 ,accord+ to _! composition !re is also a numb] ( v>ieties4 ,arkose is a s&/one compos$ ( qu>tz & feldsp> gra9s1 usually d]iv$ f ! dis9tegration ( granite & n transport$ f>4 ,graywacke is a s&/one compos$ ( qu>tz1 feldsp>1 & "s o!r m9]al1 l hornbl5de-augite1 etc41 also d]iv$ f ! dis9tegration ( granites & n transport$ f>4 ,grit is a t]m appli$ to a co>se s&/one1 compos$ ( angul> qu>tz fragm5ts1 & us$ to a consid]able ext5t = mill/ones4 ,flag/one is a ?9 b$d$ s&/one1 (t5 ) mica1 :i* splits easily & uni=mly along ! b$d+ planes2 s t x c be qu>ri$ 9 l>ge slabs4 ,x 0 widely us$ = sidewalks be=e ! adv5t ( concrete4 ,free/one is a ?ick-b$d$ s&/one1 n ov] h>d1 s call$1 because x c be work$ freely & equally well 9 all directions4 ,clay ,clay is a t]m us$ to describe a mass ( f9e p>ticles1 ! mo/ prom95t prop]ty ( :i* is pla/icity :5 wet4 ,clays range f masses ( pure kaol9 to masses ( kaol9 & relat$ m9]als mix$ ) z mu* z #fj ( impurities1 :i* may be s&1 lime1 iron oxides1 etc4 ,! p>ticles ( a f9e clay range ar\nd _/ ( a millimet] 9 diamet]1 :ile ! impurities may be1 & usually are1 ( l>g] size1 up to ! size ( s& gra9s4 ,all clays are ( second>y orig91 ! result ( wea!r+1 especially ( feldsp>s1 ?\gh clays may also result f ! wea!r+ ( s]p5t9es1 gabbros1 etc4 ,9 "s cases aft] ! wea!r+ ( feldsp> or lime/ones1 ! clay may rema9 j :]e x 0 =m$1 z a residual deposit2 b1 be+ s f9e-gra9$1 x is usually transport$ by ra9 wat] or by ! w9d & deposit$ some:]e else z a s$im5t>y b$4 ,! quiet wat]s ( a lake are favorable places = su* deposits1 & _m clay b$s repres5t =m] lake bottoms4 ,impure clays are (t5 laid d[n on ! flood pla9s ( sluggi% /reams4 ,9 fre% wat] ! settl+ ( ! clay is a v sl[ process1 requir+ days1 or :5 v f9e1 weeks1 be=e ! wat] :olly cle>s4 ,9 salt wat]1 h[ev]1 ! clay sort ( coagulates1 ! p>ticles ga!r+ toge!r 9 t9y balls1 :i* settle rapidly1 s t ! wat] is soon cle>4 ,accord+ to _! mode ( orig9 clays are classifi$ z residual1 s$im5t>y1 m>9e1 swamp1 lake1 flood-pla91 eolian1 etc4 ,b :5 _! uses are consid]$ a v diff]5t classification is made1 bas$ mo/ly on _! composition1 & we speak ( ,*9a clays or kaol9s1 fire or refractory clays1 pav+-brick clays1 sew]-pipe1 /one-w>e1 brick1 gumbo & slip clays4 ,! kaol9 or *9a clays are residual clays1 usually result+ f ! decomposition ( pegmatite dikes4 ,!y mu/ be :ite :5 burn$1 free f iron oxides1 & fairly pla/ic4 ,a good deal ( *9a clay is made by cru%+ feldsp>4 ,ball clays are s$im5t>y clays :i* rema9 :ite :5 burn$1 are usually v pla/ic1 & free f iron oxides4 ,!y are mo/ly us$ 9 ! mak+ ( v>i\s sorts ( *9a4 ,fire clays may or may n h iron oxides 9 !m1 b !y mu/ be free or ne>ly free f flux+ mat]ials1 su* z lime1 magnesia & ! alkalies 7sodium & potassium comp\nds74 ,!y may be m or less pla/ic1 ! ess5tial quality be+ _! ability to )/& high temp]atures )\t fus+4 ,silica 7z s&7 t5ds to dim9i% ! refractory quality2 s t a clay o!rwise suitable1 if x has s& 9 x1 becomes at be/ a second grade fire clay4 ,9 coal m9+ sections x is cu/om>y to t]m ^? b$s ( clay ei!r above or bel[ ! coal1 8fire clay02 b ?is is an un=tunate designation1 = ?\gh "s ( !m are true fire clays1 ! mo/ ( !m are n4 ,/one-w>e clays are ^? ) consid]able s& & up to five p] c5t ( flux+ mat]ials4 ,!y mu/ be pla/ic en\gh to be readily work$1 & !n burn to a d5se body at comp>atively l[ temp]atures4 ,sew]-pipe clays mu/ be pla/ic1 & c>ry a consid]able am\nt ( flux+ mat]ial1 z ! surface ( ! pipe is expect$ to vitrify 9 ! burn+4 ,brick clays are l[ grade clays & v>y greatly 9 composition4 ,! ma9 requisites are t !y m\ld easily & bake h>d at relatively l[ temp]atures ) z little w>p+ & crack+ z possible4 ,z mo/ clays %r9k bo? 9 ! air dry+ & 9 ! bak+1 s& is add$ :5 ! clay is be+ mix$4 ,! color is mo/ly due to ! pres5ce ( iron impurities4 ,if !re are iron oxides & little or no lime1 ! brick bakes to a r$ color1 b if !re is an excess ( lime ov] ! iron oxides1 x bakes to a cream or buff color1 :i* on vitrify+ turns gre54 ,pav+-brick clays range f surface clays1 to semirefractory clays1 %ale be+ (t5 us$4 ,! ess5tial compon5t is en\gh flux+ mat]ial1 s t ! bricks %all beg9 to vitrify1 or fuse1 at n too high temp]atures4 ,slip clays are ^? ) a high p]c5tage ( flux+ mat]ial2 s t1 :5 bak$ at mod]ate temp]atures1 ! surface fuses into a glassy br[n or gre5 glaze4 ,adobe is an impure calc>e\s clay1 widely us$ 9 ! we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates = mak+ sun-dri$ bricks4 ,gumbo is a t]m appli$ to f9e-gra9$ pla/ic clays :i* %r9k too mu* 9 ! burn+ to be useful 9 manufactures4 ,!y c be burn$ to make an excell5t balla/ = railroads & highways4 ,!y are especially abundant 9 ! ,middle ,we/]n ,/ates4 ,loess ,?is is ! "n giv5 to a f9e gra9$ homog5e\s clay-l mat]ial1 :i* is a mixture ( clay1 f9e angul> fragm5ts ( s&1 flakes ( mica & m or less calc>e\s matt]4 ,x is usually )\t /ratification1 & cleaves v]tically1 s t1 :5 erod$1 x =ms /eep cliffs4 ,loess cov]s great areas 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley1 9 ! ,rh9e ,valley1 & 9 ,nor? ,c5tral ,*9a4 ,by "s x is ?\ght to be an accumulation ( du/ 9 ^? regions :]e ! prevail+ w9ds 7 ( dim9i%$ velocity & :]e ! grass or o!r vegetation has s]v$ to cat* & hold ! mat]ial2 by o!rs x is ?\ght ( z a riv] & lake deposit2 & by /ill o!rs x is ?\ght to be due to ! comb9ation ( ! two modes1 w9d & flood4 ,! writ] incl9es to ! fir/ view express$4 ,%ale ,pl4 #ei ,:5 pure or impure clays1 or loess1 are consolidat$1 !y are all gr\p$ "u ! "n %ale4 ,x usually possesses a lay]$ or /ratifi$ /ructure1 :i* makes x possible to split x into ?9 lay]s4 ,( all ! s$im5t>y rocks %ale is ! commone/1 & x may occur 9 all ! places :]e clay c\ld occur1 b ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ %ale is t :i* made ! sea bottom ( =m] times & is m or less calc>e\s1 l ! piece on ,plate #ei1 9 :i* bits ( %ells are /ill visible4 ,%ale has ! same wide v>iation 9 composition z has clay1 ! v>i\s types be+ designat$ accord+ to ! impurity :i* is pres5t1 z3 argillace\s %ale1 made mo/ly ( clay1 ar5ace\s %ale1 %ale ) m or less s& z an impurity1 calc>e\s %ale1 or "o ) m or less lime z an impurity1 f]rug9\s %ale1 or "o ) iron comp\nds z impurities1 bitum9\s %ale1 or "o color$ black by ! pres5ce ( organic matt]1 rema9s ( ei!r plants or animals4 ,:ile ( no value z build+ mat]ial1 %ale may be gr\nd or cru%$1 & us$ z a sub/itute = any correspond+ clay1 & ?us _m manufactur]s use %ale 9 mak+ fire-clay products1 bricks1 tile1 etc4 ,m>l ,:]e lime/ones or %ells ( any sort h be5 pulv]iz$1 & mix$ ) m or less impurities1 especially clay1 ! result+ unconsolidat$ mass is kn[n z m>l4 ,x is usually associat$ ) m>9e =mations1 & is ! f9] dbris :i* has settl$ on ! ocean bottom well out f %ore1 t is out beyond ! s&y & mud deposits4 ,f9d+ x !re=e usually indicates a sea bottom rec5tly elevat$4 ,x is v *>act]i/ic ( ! s\!rn coa/al /ates1 f ,m>yl& all along to ,texas4 ,lime/one ,any mass ( m>l1 or aggregate ( calc>e\s %ells1 corals1 etc41 :i* has become consolidat$ is kn[n z lime/one4 ,x may1 & usually does1 h a wide range ( impurities1 *ief ( :i* are clay1 s&1 iron oxides1 & bitum9\s matt]1 l plant or animal rema9s4 ,pure lime/one is :ite1 b due to impurities x ranges ?r\gh grays1 gre5s1 br[ns1 to black1 & ev5 r$1 b ?is la/ is r>]4 ,x is easily id5tifi$ by ! pres5ce ( calcium c>bonate1 :i* eff]vesces 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,x mo/ (t5 repres5ts deposits 9 fairly deep wat] on ocean bottoms ( ! pa/1 b !re is also a wide range ( lime/ones :i* 7 =m$ 9 fre% wat]4 ,lime/one is (t5 burn$ at temp]atures j above #ijj ,c1 at :i* po9t c>bon dioxide goes (f z a gas1 & leaves calcium oxide1 or lime4 ,:5 ?is is mix$ ) wat] x makes calcium hydroxide1 or slak$ lime1 :i* is mix$ ) s& to give x body1 & is us$ z mort>4 ,:5 expos$ to ! air1 ! slak$ lime gives up wat]1 & takes back f ! air c>bon dioxide1 & aga9 becomes calcium c>bonate ) its orig9al h>dness4 ,lime/one is also us$ z "o ( ! elem5ts 9 all cem5ts4 ,x is also consid]ably us$ z a build+ /one1 :i*1 h[ev]1 suff]s 9 moi/ climates f ! solution ( its lime by ra9s1 b has /ood up v well 9 dry climates4 ,! v>ieties ( lime/one are mo/ly di/+ui%$ accord+ to _! mode ( orig91 "s ( !m be+ z foll[s4 ,bog ,lime is a :ite calc>e\s p[d]y deposit on ! bottom ( ponds 9 lime/one regions1 a deposit precipitat$ f solution by ! action ( ! plants inhabit+ ! ponds4 ,coqu9a 7,plate #ei7 is ! rock =m$ by ! r loose consolidation ( %ells & %ell fragm5ts4 ,x is p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( tropical regions1 & is v abundant ne> ,/4 ,augu/9e1 ,fla41 9 :i* region x 01 & /ill is1 cut into blocks & us$ = build+ /one4 ,9 t mild climate x has /ood v well4 ,*alk 7,plate #fj7 is a s(t f9e-gra9$ lime/one1 =m$ 9 ! ocean by ! accumulation ( myriads ( ! t9y %ells ( ,=am5if]a1 :i* are s+le cell$ animals1 liv+ ei!r a float+ life ne> ! surface ( ! sea1 or a creep+ life on ! bottom4 ,*alk is compos$ mo/ly ( ! %ells ( float+ ,=am5if]a1 :i* :5 ! animals di$1 settl$ to ! bottom & !re accumulat$1 mo/ly at dep?s ( #fjj feet or m4 ,:5 ! mass ( unconsolidat$ %ells is dr$g$ up f dep?s ( #ej to #bjjj fa?oms1 x is kn[n z ,=am5if]a ooze4 ,*alk b$s are !n indications ( an uplift$ sea bottom4 ,:5 consolidat$1 if pure or ne>ly s1 x makes a :ite *alk1 & ! b$s may be ( consid]able ?ickness1 z is ! case ( ! fam\s cliffs ne> ,dov] on ei!r side ( ! ,engli% ,*annel4 ,"o ( ,huxley's mo/ fam\s lectures is ! "o on *alk1 f\nd 9 8 ,essays & ,lay ,s]mons4 ,coral ,rock is made by ! cem5tation ( fragm5ts ( corals4 ,! b9d+ mat]ial1 z 9 mo/ /ones1 is lime2 & ?is sort ( rock is associat$ ) coral reefs ( ei!r ! pa/ or ! pres5t4 ,"o ( ! be/ illu/rations ( ?is be+ ! 8,dolomite ,m\nta9s0 9 ,tyrol4 ,coral rock1 l coqu9a1 has be5 cut into blocks & us$ z build+ /one1 z 9 ,b]muda4 ,encr9al ,lime/one 7,plate #fj7 is a rock made by ! cem5tation ( fragm5ts ( ! skeleton ( cr9oids4 ,^! animals belong to ! gr\p1 e*9od]ms1 & are n[ ext9ct except = a few s call$ 8sea-lilies40 ,!y 7 animals ) a c5tral m\? surr\nd$ by long1 jo9t$1 flexible arms 9 multiples ( five1 & bel[ ?is a small body inclos$ 9 calc>e\s plates1 all at ! top ( a long jo9t$ /em4 ,!y liv$ 9 ! sea & 9 ! e>li] geological times mu/ h be5 v abundant2 = _! rema9s are s common 9 places z to make :ole lay]s ( lime/one4 ,hydraulic ,lime/one is a f9e-gra9$1 compact1 yell[i% lime/one ) f #ac to #ag ( s&1 & "s clay2 :i*1 :5 x is burn$ at a temp]ature a little high] ?an t us$ 9 burn+ lime1 makes a product1 t1 :ile n z /rong z ,portl& cem5t1 /ill l x sets "u wat]4 ,li?ographic ,lime/one is a v f9e-gra9$1 compact lime/one ) clay impurities1 ! f9e/ ( ! gra9 mak+ x usable = mak+ ! /one plates us$ 9 li?ographic pr9t+4 ,on slabs ( ?is lime/one figures are drawn 9 rev]se ) a special crayon4 ,!n ! slab is treat$ ) acid1 ^? p>ts :i* are n protect$ by ! draw+ be+ et*$ away1 :ile ! po9ts protect$ by ! draw+ rema9 9 l[ relief4 ,f ?is slab figures c !n be pr9t$4 ,trav]t9e is a g5]al "n1 appli$ to calc>e\s deposits f fre% wat] lakes or /reams1 & has be5 precipitat$ ei!r z a result ( cool+ or evaporation4 ,"s trav]t9es are por\s1 :ile o!rs are d5se2 "s are :ite1 :ile o!rs are color$1 (t5 beautifully1 by impurities 9 ! wat]4 ,por\s deposits ( trav]t9e1 :5 made on grass or o!r l sub/ances1 are kn[n z tufa or calc s9t]4 ,su* masses are common ar\nd ,cal$onia1 ,n4 ,y41 ,mammo? ,hot ,spr+s 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 etc4 ,onyx m>ble is a d5se trav]t9e1 usually =m$ z a result ( ! deposition ( lime f ! wat] ( spr+s4 ,x is (t5 b&$1 due to ! pres5ce ( impurities 9 ! wat] at "o "t1 & _! abs5ce at o!r times4 ,till ,till is an unconsolidat$ mass ( b\ld]s1 pebbles1 s& & f9e clay1 ! unsort$ mat]ial left beh9d by glaci]s :5 !y melt$4 ,! b\ld]s & pebbles1 :ile !y %[ "s we>1 are n r\nd$ l ^? t h be5 transport$ by /reams1 b h a m or less angul> %ape2 & "s ( !m are poli%$ or /riat$ on "o side1 :]e1 :ile froz5 9 ! ice1 !y 7 rubb$ along ! bottom4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rec5t geological ev5ts 9 ,am]ica 0 ! ext5sion ( ! ice %eet1 n[ cov]+ ,gre5l&1 d[n ov] nor? & nor!a/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 until x ext5d$ z f> s\? z nor!rn ,new ,j]sey1 ! ,ohio ,riv] & ! ,miss\ri ,riv]1 & z f> we/ z ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 b n ov] ! ,great ,bas91 ! ,cascade ,ranges or ,alaska4 ,?is great mass ( ice1 ?\s&s ( feet ?ick1 mov$ f two c5t]s1 "o ei!r side ( ,hudson ,bay1 scrap+ up ! loose soil1 & gr9d+ (f ! expos$ surfaces ( ! und]ly+ rock4 ,all ?is mat]ial x c>ri$ s\?w>d1 until ! melt+ along its l[] m>g9 equal$ ! rate at :i* x advanc$4 ,:5 ! melt+ 0 fa/] ?an ! advance ! glacial %eet retreat$4 ,at ! s\!rn limit ( ! advance ?is dbris 0 dropp$1 ei!r mak+ long ridges 7mora9es7 or :ile ! ice 0 retreat+1 ?ick] or ?9n] %eets4 ,?is deposit$ dbris is till4 ,! soil1 & especially ! subsoil1 9 all ! regions =m]ly cov]$ by ! ice %eet1 is made up v l>gely ( ?is till2 :i*1 :]e x is undi/urb$ is (t5 call$ 8h>dpan40 ,:5 till is mix$ ) humus x becomes loam4 ,?is mixture ( mat]ial1 v>y+ all ! way f ! f9e p[d]$ products ( ! ice gr9d+ to ! great b\ld] x pick$ up & c>ri$ s\?1 is *>act]i/ic ( ?is or any o!r glaciat$ c\ntry4 ,:5 ?is section ( c\ntry 0 settl$1 ! b\ld]s & /one 7 a h9drance to cultivation1 & 7 pick$ up & pil$ into /one walls1 :i* are "o ( ! fir/ features to /rike ! eye4 ,tillite ,:5 till is consolidat$ into solid rock1 x is kn[n z tillite4 ,9 sev]al cases x has be5 f\nd buri$ f> b5ea? ! m rec5t s$im5t>y rocks2 te/ify+ t !re 7 o!r glacial p]iods beside ! la/ "o :i* furni%$ ! till4 ,! ,coal ,s]ies ,disreg>d+ m9or con/itu5ts1 ! plants are l>gely made up ( cellulose1 :i* is a comb9ation ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 7,c,h,o74 ,if ?is is heat$ 9 ! air1 :]e !re is pl5ty ( oxyg51 x dis9tegrates1 or burns1 mak+ c>bon dioxide & wat]2 b if ! heat+ is done :]e ! oxyg5 is exclud$1 z 9 a kiln1 ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 w be driv5 (f & ! c>bon w rema9 beh9d z *>coal4 ,9 ,nature simil> reactions g on1 b m sl[ly4 ,vegetable matt]1 expos$ to ! air1 dis9tegrates into c>bon dioxide & wat]1 & !re is no solid residue4 ,h[ev]1 if ! vegetable matt] is "u wat]1 :i* excludes ! air m or less completely includ+ ! oxyg5 9 x1 !n dis9tegration /ill takes place1 b ! products =m$ are wat]1 7,h,o7 m>% gas 7,,*71 & "s c>bon dioxide 7,,co71 b a consid]able "p ( ! c>bon rema9s beh9d & accumulates4 ,?us 9 bogs1 swamps & ponds1 :]e dead vegetation1 especially t gr[+ 9 ! wat]1 piles up1 ! oxidation is incomplete2 s t !re gradually accumulates on ! bottom a lay] ( br[n to black mud1 kn[n z peat4 ,m plant rema9s are con/antly be+ add$1 & ! lay] may increase to sev]al feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! decomposition is incomplete & "s oxyg5 & hydrog5 rema91 b ! c>bon is 9 a con/antly increas+ ratio & 9 proportion f> above t 9 cellulose4 ,9 ! cold nor!rn climates sphagnum moss is ! mo/ effici5t peat produc+ plant1 b 9 temp]ate & tropical climates ! moss is replac$ by ! leaves1 twigs1 trunks1 etc41 ( trees1 bu%es1 & v9es4 ,if ^! peat b$s are buri$ b5ea? a lay] or lay]s ( s$im5t1 especially clay1 ! peat is seal$ up & oxidation /ops almo/ entirely4 ,) ! pressure ( ! sup]9cumb5t b$s1 ! peat becomes m & m compact1 & *anges to a d>k-br[n or black color4 ,x is !n kn[n z lignite4 ,if ?is lignite is buri$ /ill deep]1 ) consequ5tly m pressure & m "t1 x *anges into ! /ill d5s] black bitum9\s coal4 ,?is is z f> z x w g unless "s new ag5t is add$ to ! =ces already work+4 ,! next /ep 9 ! s]ies ( *anges =m+ coal is associat$ ) m\nta9 mak+4 ,9 case ! lay]s ( rock conta9+ b$s ( coal are fold$1 & t presupposes at lea/ a mod]ate increase 9 heat1 ! bitum9\s coal is alt]$ to an?racite1 :i* is /ill d5s]1 & s h>d t x breaks ) a con*oidal fracture4 ,alt]ation may be c>ri$ a /ep /ill f>!r1 9 case ! rocks betwe5 :i* lie b$s ( coal are effect$ by su* high temp]atures z accompany metamorphism4 ,!n all ! associat$ hydrog51 oxyg5 & moi/ure are driv5 (f1 & only ! c>bon rema9s1 :i* is !n kn[n z graphite4 ,all /eps betwe5 ! /ages especially designat$ occur4 ,! foll[+ repres5t /eps only 9 ! s]ies ( *anges4 ,peat ,peat is a mass ( unconsolidat$ vegetable matt]1 :i* has accumulat$ "u wat]1 & 9 :i* ! orig9al plant rema9s are /ill1 at lea/ 9 "p1 disc]nible4 ,x conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( wat]1 s t be=e x c be us$ z a fuel1 x is cut out 9 blocks1 :i* are pil$ up & left = a "t to dry be=e us+4 ,x burns ) a long flame & consid]able smoke4 ,?is c\ntry is s well suppli$ ) o!r fuels1 t s f> peat has be5 b little us$4 ,lignite br[n coal ,lignite is m compact ?an peat1 & is f\nd buri$ to "s dep? "u lay]s ( clay or s&/one4 ,x is d>k br[n to black 9 color1 & /ill reta9s pretty cle> traces ( ! plants f :i* x 0 d]iv$4 ,x also usually conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( moi/ure1 & :5 ?is is dri$ out1 x t5ds to crumble badly1 s t x is undesirable to h&le x mu*1 or to %ip x f>1 be=e us+4 ,x has a fair fuel value & is fairly widely us$2 b x is v desirable t "s me?od be f\nd1 by :i* lignite c\ld be treat$ to obta9 its by-products1 & at ! same "t make x m compact1 s x w\ld n crumble ) ! h&l+ incid5t to us+ x 9 furnaces4 ,!re are ext5sive lignite deposits 9 ?is c\ntry 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,dakota1 ,montana1 ,wyom+1 ,colorado1 ,new ,mexico1 ,texas1 ,l\isiana1 & ,mississippi4 ,bitum9\s ,coal s(t coal ,?is type ( coal is compact1 black 9 color1 & breaks readily1 b does n crumble z badly z lignite4 ,x conta9s consid]able wat]1 & /ill has "s hydrog5 & oxyg5 comp\nds 9 x4 ,bitum9\s coal is ! product ( plant rema9s :i* h be5 pres]v$ = long p]iods1 7millions ( ye>s71 seal$ f ! air by ! ov]ly+ b$s ( rock4 ,! pressure has made x compact1 & ne>ly all traces ( ! orig9al plants h disappe>$4 ,bitum9\s coal is our mo/ abundant fuel1 occurr+ ! _w ov] 9 seams f less ?an an in* 9 ?ickness to "s ov] fifte5 feet ?ick4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is peculi>ly =tunate 9 ! abundant & easily accessible deposits ( ?is type ( coal1 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ,ohio1 ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan1 ,i[a1 ,miss\ri1 ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 ,texas1 ,utah1 & ,colorado4 ,! volatile con/itu5ts1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 comp\nds1 ( bitum9\s coal may be driv5 (f by heat+ ! coal 9 clos$ ov5s1 & ! residual mass is kn[n z coke1 almo/ pure c>bon4 ,?is is di/illation1 & ! ov5s 9 :i* ?is is done1 )\t try+ to save ! volatile products1 are call$ bee-hive ov5s1 :ile ! m mod]n ov5s :i* save ! by-products are call$ by-products ov5s4 ,a ton ( bitum9\s coal treat$ 9 ! typical by-products ov51 w yield on ! av]age #adaj lb4 ( coke1 #g4a gallons ( t>1 #ah4i p\nds ( ammonia sulphate1 etc41 #b4d gallons ( light oils1 #ajddj cubic feet ( illum9at+ gas1 ab\t half ( ?is la/ be+ us$ to furni% ! heat = ! di/illation4 ,! coal-t> dye indu/ry is built on ! t> ?us produc$4 ,toluol1 b5zol1 etc41 come f ! light oils2 & half ! gas produc$ is available = h\sehold illum9ation1 etc4 ,coke is dem&$1 z x is a sup]ior fuel = melt+ iron ores1 iron & /eel1 & is made reg>dless ( :e!r ! by-products are us$4 ,! coke ?us produc$ is h>d1 clean1 & vesicul>2 b = "s reason z yet unkn[n1 by no means all bitum9\s coal w produce a coke :i* has ?is por\s /ructure4 ,^! latt] are kn[n z 8non-cok+10 & are ( little use to ! /eel indu/ry4 ,cannel ,coal ,?is is a compact v>iety ( non-cok+ bitum9\s coal1 ) a dull lu/] & a con*oidal fracture4 ,x conta9s ! l>ge/ proportion ( volatile hydroc>bon comp\nds ( any v>iety ( coal2 s t :5 ! supply ( petroleum & natural gas gives out1 ?is w be "o ( ! important s\rces ( obta9+ sub/itutes4 ,cannel coals occur 9 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & ea/]n ,k5tucky4 ,?is cannel coal owes its peculi> fatty nature to ! mat]ial f :i* x is d]iv$1 x be+ suppos$ to h result$ f ! accumulation ( ! spores ( lycopod trees1 & _! conv]sion to jelly-l masses by bact]ia 9 ! fre%-wat] m>%es ( ^? anci5t days4 ,an?racite h>d coal ,an?racite coal is h>d1 black1 has a lu/]1 & breaks ) a con*oidal fracture4 ,x conta9s b a l[ p]c5tage ( volatile matt]1 & s burns ) a %ort flame1 & less smoke1 ?an is ! case ) ! o!r coals4 ,x is always associat$ ) fold$ rocks1 & appe>s to h be5 =m$ z a result ( ! comb9$ pressure & ! high] temp]atures1 :i* accompani$ m\nta9 mak+4 ,/ill ! temp]ature 0 n high en\gh to metamorphose ! adjac5t rocks4 ,mo/ ( our an?racite comes f nor!a/]n ,p5nsylvania4 ,c>bonite ,c>bonite is natural coke4 ,x occurs 9 coal seams :i* h be5 cut by dikes or intrusions ( igne\s rocks1 ! coal hav+ be5 ?us cok$ by natural processes4 ,x is n vesicul> l artificial coke1 = :i* reason x is n useful z a fuel4 ,"s c>bonite is f\nd 9 ! ,c]illos coal field ( ,new ,mexico1 9 ,colorado1 & ,virg9ia4 ,jet ,jet is a d5se v>iety ( lignite1 a fossil wood ( black color1 :i* takes a high poli% & cuts easily into v>i\s ornam5tal %apes4 ,x has be5 us$ = ornam5ts s9ce e>ly anci5t times1 beads ( jet be+ f\nd 9 ! e>ly bronze p]iod 9 ,engl&1 ! supply probably com+ f ! ,york%ire coa/1 :5ce ! pr9cipal supply comes ev5 to ! pres5t day4 ,9 ,switz]l& & ,belgium x 0 us$ /ill e>li]1 ev5 z f> back z ! ,paloli?ic age4 ,jet seems !n to h _h a talismanic value1 & to h be5 worn to protect ! own]4 ,ab\t #gjj ,a4,d4 crosses & ros>ies began to be made ( jet1 ! cu/om />t+ at ,:itby ,abbey1 ! mat]ial be+ obta9$ ne>by1 s t x came to be kn[n z 8,:itby jet10 & 9 ! eighte5? c5tury became v popul>4 ,9 rec5t times x has be5 us$ mo/ly z jewelry suitable = m\rn+4 ,amb] ,pl4 #fa ,amb] is a gum :i* ooz$ f conif]\s trees & 0 petrifi$4 ,x is associat$ ) lignite b$s ( middle ,t]ti>y age4 ,x is usually pale-yell[ 9 color1 b at times has a r$di% or br[ni% t+e1 & is m or less transp>5t4 ,x occurs 9 r\nd$ irregul> lumps1 up to t5 p\nds 9 weight1 ?\gh mo/ pieces are small]2 & is mo/ly pick$ up along c]ta9 coa/s :]e x is wa%$ a%ore by ! waves4 ,s9ce ! e>lie/ records amb] has be5 ca/ up on ! %ores ( ! ,baltic1 & x 0 us$ by peoples z e>ly z 9 ! /one age = ornam5ts & amulets4 ,x has be5 f\nd among ! rema9s ( ! cave dwell]s ( ,switz]l&1 9 ,assyrian & ,egyptian ru9s ( prehi/oric age1 & 9 ,myc5 9 ! prehi/oric graves ( ! ,greeks1 ! fir/ record$ ref]5ce to x be+ 9 ,hom]1 & ! ,greek "n = amb] be+ elektron f :i* our ^w electricity comes4 ,all ^! f9ds 7 ( ,baltic amb] :i* 0 d\btless ga!r$ & trad$ by ^? e>ly m54 ,ev5 d[n to ! pres5t _m m5 make _! liv+1 rid+ along ! %ore at l[ tide & hunt+ = ! amb] wa%$ a%ore by ! waves4 ,z e>ly z #ahfj ! ,g]man geologi/s conclud$ t ! s\rce ( ! amb] mu/ be lignite b$s outcropp+ b5ea? ! sea level1 & />t$ m9+ = ! amb] ) fair success1 s t today two types ( ,baltic amb] are di/+ui%$1 8sea /one0 :i* is wa%$ a%ore1 & 8m9e /one0 tak5 f ! m9es4 ,beside ! ,baltic locality1 x is f\nd along ! %ores ( ! ,adriatic1 ,sicily1 ,france1 ,*9a1 & occasionally ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,"s pieces ( amb] are f\nd ) insects inclos$ & pres]v$ almo/ z p]fectly z if collect$ ye/]day4 ,!y 7 app>5tly entangl$ 9 ! gum :ile /ill viscid & completely emb$d$1 be=e fossilization4 ,! ,petroleum ,s]ies ,c]ta9 s$im5t>y rocks conta9 l>g] or small] quantities ( natural gas1 petroleum1 m9]al t> & asphalt4 ,^! are comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog51 or hydroc>bons1 & range f gases to solids1 ea* be+ a mixture ( two or m hydroc>bon comp\nds4 ,! crude petroleum may h ei!r a p>aff9 base or an asphalt base3 9 ! =m] case1 :5 ! gas1 gasol9e1 k]os5e1 etc41 h be5 remov$ by di/illation1 ! solid residue w be p>aff91 z 9 mo/ ( ! ,p5nsylvania crude oils2 :ile 9 ! latt] case1 ! solid residue w be an asphalt1 z 9 mo/ ( ! ,cali=nia & ,texas crude oils4 ,9 ! case ( ! p>aff9 s]ies all ! comp\nds belong to ! p>aff9 gr\p1 :ile ! asphalt is due to ! pres5ce1 9 addition to ! p>aff9 gr\p1 ( "s ( ! b5z9e s]ies ( hydroc>bons4 ,petroleum is f\nd 9 s&s & %ales1 :i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ on anci5t sea bottoms1 ! %ales g5]ally be+ ! real s\rce ( ! petroleum4 ,! oil 0 once ! fatty portion ( animal bodies 7p]haps to "s ext5t ( plant bodies71 & 0 sep>at$ dur+ decomposition z a result ( bact]ial activity4 ,oil ?us produc$ is 9 t9y droplets1 :i* h a great aff9ity = clay4 ,aft] be+ fre$ by ! bact]ia1 ! oil droplets 9 muddy wat] atta* !mselves to p>ticles ( clay1 & z ! clay settles ! oil is c>ri$ d[n ) x1 ! two ev5tually mak+ a bitum9\s %ale4 ,9 cle> wat]1 or 9 wat] :i* is 9 motion1 ! oil droplets rise to ! surface & ev5tually di/ill into ! air4 ,! oil1 or petroleum1 may /ay diffus$ ?r\gh ! %ales1 9 :i* case we h oil-be>+ %ales1 ) sometimes z mu* z #bj ( oil4 ,7 !re b _/ ( a p] c5t ( oil 9 a lay] ( %ale #aejj feet ?ick1 ?is w\ld am\nt to #gej1jjj b>rels p] squ>e mile :i* is equal to a ri* production f wells4 ,:5 ! oil 9 %ale am\nts to ?ree p] c5t or m1 x is comm]cially usable4 ,!re are l>ge /ret*es ( petroleum-be>+ rocks 9 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 & all ! way out to ! ,pacific coa/1 "s ( !m ) oil s abundant1 t a bl[ ( ! hamm] w cause !m to smell ( petroleum4 ,9 case ^! oil-be>+ %ales h be5 heavily ov]burd5$ & compress$1 ! petroleum may h be5 m or less completely press$ out ( !m4 ,!n ! droplets unit+ h =m$ a liquid1 :i* has mov$ out f ! %ale1 & gone :]ev] x c\ld f9d op5 spaces4 ,s&/ones h frequ5tly (f]$ _! pore space1 & z x fill$1 h be5 ?us saturat$ ) petroleum4 ,if ! s&/ones 7 op5 to ! air1 or if fissures ext5d$ f !m to ! surface1 ! oil has escap$ to ! surface & evaporat$ into ! air4 ,b 9 ^? cases :]e ! s&/one 7or o!r p]meable rocks7 0 cov]$ by an imp]vi\s lay]1 l a d5se %ale or clay1 ! oil 0 conf9$ bel[ ! cov]+ lay] ( rock4 ,crude oil is light] ?an wat]2 s t :5 natural gas1 petroleum & wat] 7 all pres5t 9 ! rocks1 ! gas lies on top1 ! petroleum next1 & ! wat] und]nea?4 ,) ?is 9 m9d x is easy to see1 t 9 slightly fold$ or undulat+ lay]s ( rock1 ! gas & petroleum w\ld be caught "u uprais$ folds & domes4 ,?is is ! basis ( prospect+ = oil4 ,if petroleum-be>+ lay]s are depress$ f> en\gh b5ea? ! surface to be affect$ by ! high temp]atures ( ! e>?'s int]ior1 or h be5 ne> volcanic activity1 ( c\rse ! petroleum has be5 di/ill$ by natural processes1 & at mo/ only ! residues1 l p>aff9 or asphalt1 h rema9$4 ,= ?is reason x is impossible to f9d petroleum 9 igne\s or metamorphic rocks4 ,natural gas ,natural gas is ! lighte/ portion ( crude oil1 & consi/s mo/ly ( m>% gas 78fire damp10 ,,*7 toge!r ) o!r light hydroc>bons1 l e?ane 7,c,h71 e?yl5e 7,c,h71 & "s c>bon dioxide & monoxide4 ,x is colorless1 odorless1 & burns ) a lum9\s flame4 ,mix$ ) air x is explosive4 ,x is f\nd 9 s$im5t>y rocks1 mo/ly s&/ones1 ei!r ) or )\t petroleum4 ,usually x is "u consid]able pressure1 & escapes ) great =ce :]ev] a hole p]mits4 ,9 "t ! gas all escapes ?r\gh ! hole or well1 & !n ! well 8runs out40 ,if petroleum is pres5t "u ! natural gas1 ! hole may become an 8oil well10 f :i* petroleum may be pump$1 until x 9 turn is exhau/$4 ,! end ( an oil supply is usually indicat$ by ! appe>ance ( wat] 9 ! well4 ,natural gas is mo/ly associat$ ) oil di/ricts1 z 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,ill9ois1 ,texas1 ,cali=nia1 etc4 ,petroleum ,crude ,oil ,pl4 #fa ,petroleum is a mixture ( p>aff9 comp\nds all ! way f ! gases1 ?r\gh gasol9e1 k]os5e1 lubricat+ oils1 & vasol9e to p>aff94 ,9 "s ( ! crude oils !re is also an admixture ( comp\nds f ! b5z9e s]ies1 9 :i* case1 :5 all ! volatile comp\nds h be5 di/ill$ (f1 an asphalt rema9s4 ,! diff]5t compon5ts ( petroleum may be sep>at$ out by heat+ ! crude oil 9 clos$ tanks1 & draw+ (f ! v>i\s sub/ances at ! prop] temp]atures4 ,petroleum occurs 9 s$im5t>y rocks ( m>9e orig91 usually rocks :i* also conta9 ! %ells ( "s ( ! animals1 ! s(t p>ts ( :i* made ! oil4 ,to h be5 pres]v$ ! millions ( ye>s s9ce ! petroleum 0 fir/ =m$1 ! oil-be>+ lay]s mu/ h be5 cov]$ by "s imp]vi\s lay] ( rock1 b5ea? ! domes & anticl9es ( :i* ! oil has la9 ev] s9ce4 ,:5 su* a dome or anticl9al fold is p]=at$ by a well1 ! releas$ oil fl[s to ! surface ) a great] or less ru%1 accord+ to ! pressure4 ,wells may keep fl[+ = #bj ye>s1 sometimes m1 sometimes mu* less4 ,^? :i* fl[ ) ! greate/ pressure usually are relatively %ort liv$1 at times la/+ only a ye> or two4 ,:5 ?is easily obta9$ oil is exhau/$1 !re is an ev5 great] supply to be obta9$ by ! di/illation ( ! bitum9\s %ales4 ,petroleum nev] occurs 9 igne\s or metamorphic rocks1 b is f\nd 9 ei!r s&/ones or %ales1 9 places favorable = accumulation1 all across t great /ret* ( anci5t sea bottoms1 ext5d+ f ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 & 9 ! ,great ,bas9 betwe5 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! ,si]ra ,nevada ,range1 & also to ! we/ ( ! ,si]ras4 ,bitum5 ,:]e petroleum has escap$ ?r\gh pores 9 ! rocks1 or by way ( fissures1 & has come to ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! light] compon5ts1 ?us expos$ to ! air1 h vaporiz$ & escap$1 leav+ beh9d a m or less solid residue1 :i* is kn[n z bitum54 ,if ! escape 0 ?r\gh a fissure1 ! bitum5 may h accumulat$ 9 ! fissure until x 0 fill$1 mak+ ve9 bitum54 ,or ! escape may h be5 s rapid t ! petroleum =m$ a pool or lake f ! surface ( :i* evaporation took place4 ,9 "t su* a pool w give (f ! gases & volatile comp\nds1 only a residue rema9+ to make a pit* lake1 l ! "o at ,ran*o ,le ,brea ne> ,los ,angeles1 or an asphalt lake l ! "o on ! isl& ( ,tr9idad4 ,on acc\nt ( _! v>y+ h>dness & composition1 "s ( ^! bitum5s h receiv$ special names2 z3 ,alb]tite1 a black bitum5 ) a brilliant lu/] on brok5 surfaces1 a h>dness betwe5 #a & #b1 & a specific gravity a %ade ov] #a4 ,grahamite1 a black bitum51 :i* is brittle1 b has a dull lu/]1 a h>dness ( #b1 & a specific gravity ( #a4ae4 ,gilsonite or ,u9taite1 a black bitum5 ) a brilliant lu/] & a con*oidal fracture1 a h>dness ( #b to #b1 & a specific gravity ( #a4jf4 ,malta is a semi-liquid viscid natural bitum51 :i* has a consid]able di/ribution 9 ,cali=nia4 ,! above v>ieties ( bitum5 look a good deal l coal1 b are easily di/+ui%$ by _! lightness 7weight ab\t half t ( coal71 & ! fact t ) only mod]ate heat !y melt1 & become a ?ick liquid l t>4 ,guano ,guano is ! accumulation ( ! excrem5t ( birds 7or ( o!r animals l bats7 on areas s dry t1 ?\gh soluble1 x is n lea*$ & wa%$ away4 ,x may also conta9 "s ( ! bones & mummifi$ c>casses ( ! birds :i* di$ on ! spot4 ,! greate/ ( ^! deposits are on sev]al small isl&s1 j (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,p]u1 & n[ 8f>m$0 by ! ,p]uvian gov]nm5t4 ,9 ?is c\ntry !re are no true guano b$s1 except a few accumulations ( bat guano 9 c]ta9 caves ( ,k5tucky & ,texas1 b ^! are n l>ge en\gh to become ( comm]cial importance4 ,phosphate ,rock ,phosphate rock is "o compos$ *iefly ( calcium phosphate along ) v>i\s impurities1 su* z clay & lime4 ,x occurs 9 b$s1 irregul> masses1 or z concretion>y nodules 9 lime/one or s&4 ,! b$d$ v>ieties are 9 ! old] s$im5t>y rocks1 9 :i* ! phosphate runs f a small p]c5tage up to z high z #he4 ,ultimately ! phosphate came f ei!r animal excrem5t1 or f bact]ial decomposition ( animal c>casses & bones4 ,9 all ! b$s x seems to be true t 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! phosphate 0 laid d[n z a dissem9at$ deposit 9 m>9e b$s1 usually lime/ones4 ,lat] by ! action ( wat] lea*+ ?r\gh ! rocks1 ! phosphate 0 dissolv$1 & !n r$eposit$ else:]e 9 a m conc5trat$ =m4 ,?is may be ei!r 9 ! und]ly+ s&/ones1 b is m (t5 9 lime/ones1 replac+ ! orig9al lime4 ,9 ^! second>y deposits1 if ! phosphate has be5 laid d[n 9 cavities1 ! result+ phosphate w be 9 nodul> masses4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,florida & ,c>ol9a deposits1 ^! nodules h be5 fre$ f _! matrix & wa%$ along ! riv] b$s1 rema9+ z pebbles 9 ! riv] s&s4 ,! b$ deposits are mo/ly 9 ,k5tucky & ,idaho4 ,! comm]cial use = su* phosphate rocks is ( c\rse ! mak+ ( f]tiliz]s4 ,diatomace\s ,e>? ,pl4 #fb ,diatoms are t9y s+le-cell$ plants liv+ 9 unc\nt$ millions 9 ! fre% & salt wat]4 ,ea* diatom builds ar\nd itself two %ells :i* fit into ea* o!r l ! cov] & box ( a pill-box1 & ea* %ell is m>vel\sly ornam5t$4 ,! %ells are compos$ ( silica ( ! opal type4 ,9 size ! diatoms range f _/ ( an in* 9 diamet] up to ! size ( a p9 head1 & !y live 9 su* numb]s t ord9>y surface wat]s h hundr$s ( !m to ! qu>t1 & :]e !y are fl\ri%+ up to #bej1jjj 9 a qu>t4 ,:5 ! plants die1 or 9 ord] to reproduce ab&on ! %ells1 ^! %ells fall to ! bottom ( ! pond or ! sea1 & !re accumulate1 (t5 mak+ a lay] f a few in*es ?ick up to hundr$s ( feet 9 extreme cases4 ,if unconsolidat$1 ?is mass ( t9y %ells is kn[n z diatomace\s e>?2 b if !y are consolidat$ x is call$ tripolite1 s nam$ because ! fir/ ( !m us$ comm]cially came f ,tripoli4 ,z ! %ells are t9y & uni=m 9 size & h a h>dness ( #f1 ! diatomace\s e>? is us$ to make a great v>iety ( poli%es1 sc\r+ soaps1 too? pa/e1 z a fill] 9 c]ta9 k9ds ( pap]1 9 mak+ wat]glass1 z an absorb5t = nitroglyc]9e1 & z pack+ 9 insulat+ comp\nds1 :]e asbe/os w\ld o!rwise be us$4 ,deposits ( fre%wat] diatoms are f\nd all ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 usually 9 ?9 lay]s ( limit$ ext5t1 especially 9 ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,york1 ,mi*igan1 etc4 ,! m>9e deposits ( diatoms are on a mu* l>g] scale1 !re be+ b$s ( diatoms 9 ,anne ,arundel1 ,calv]t & ,*>les ,c\nties1 ,md41 up to #be or #cj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 ,santa ,b>b>a ,c\nty1 ,cal41 !re is "o b$ #bdjj feet ?ick & ano!r #dgjj feet ?ick1 beside _m o!r small] ones4 ,! enorm\s =m] weal? ( life indicat$ by ^! great deposits may be sugge/$1 :5 x is rememb]$ t x takes ab\t #abj1jjj1jjj to make an ounce 9 weight4 ,!y reproduce on an av]age ab\t once 9 five days1 s t f a s+le diatom ! (fspr+ possible "u favorable conditions w\ld am\nt to ov] #af1jjj1jjj 9 f\r mon?s or ov] #fj tons 9 a ye>4 ,( su* an ord] is ! pot5tial increase ( animals or plants1 no matt] h[ small1 if ! rate ( reproduction is high4 ,metamorphic ,rocks ,ei!r a s$im5t>y or an igne\s rock1 :i* has be5 alt]$ by ! comb9$ activities ( heat1 pressure & *emical action1 becomes a metamorphic rock4 ,! process is ess5tially "o1 dur+ :i* ! lay]s ( rock come "u ! influ5ce ( su* temp]atures z are associat$ ) ! =mation ( granite or lavas4 ,su* mat]ial z is actually melt$ becomes igne\s rock1 b adjac5t to ! masses actually melt$ are o!r rocks :i* d n melt b1 accord+ to ! temp]ature1 are m or less *ang$1 & ^! are ! metamorphic rocks4 ,at a di/ance f ! molt5 masses ! *anges are m9or1 b close to ! molt5 magmas ext5sive *anges take place4 ,?\gh n actually melt$ ! rock ne> ! heat c5t] may be s(t5$1 usually is1 9 :i* case pebbles & gra9s or ev5 cry/als become s(t & pla/ic1 &1 z a result ( ! great pressure1 are flatt5$1 giv+ ! rock1 :5 x cools aga91 a /riat$ appe>ance4 ,at ^! high temp]atures ! wat] 9 ! rock & also "s o!r sub/ances vaporize1 & ! hot /eam & vapor are active ag5ts 9 mak+ a great _m *emical *anges4 ,9 "s cases mat]ial l clay is *ang$ into micas1 or *lorite1 etc42 9 o!r cases ! elem5ts ( a m9]al w be segregat$ & l>ge cry/als w appe> scatt]$ ?r\gh ! metamorphic rock1 su* z g>nets1 /aurolites1 etc4 ,if "o /udies a lay] ( rock bo? ne> & f> f ! molt5 mass1 all grades ( *ange w appe>4 ,= example1 at a di/ance a conglom]ate maybe unalt]$2 some:at ne>] ! molt5 mass1 ! heat & /eam may h s(t5$ 7b n melt$7 ! pebbles & !n ! pressure has flatt5$ !m z ?\gh !y 7 d\gh2 & ne>e/ ! molt5 mass1 ! outl9es ( ! pebbles are lo/1 only a lay]$ effect rema9+1 & _m ( ! mat]ials h *ang$ into new m9]als1 l mica1 g>nets1 etc41 b /ill ! lay]$ effect is pres]v$4 ,"o ( ! effects ( heat & pressure is to flatt5 ! compon5t p>ticles ( ! rock1 s t x t5ds to split 9 a direction at "r angles to ! direction ( ! pressure1 j z p>ticles ( fl\r are s(t5$ & flatt5$ "u ! pressure ( ! roll]2 & !n :5 ! cru/ is bak$ x splits or cleaves at "r angles to ! direction 9 :i* ! pressure 0 ex]t$ by ! roll]4 ,?is t5d5cy to split is n to be confus$ ) ei!r ! lay]+1 *>act]i/ic ( s$im5t>y rocks1 nor ! cleavage *>act]i/ic ( m9]als4 ,x has no?+ to d ) ! way ! p>ticles 7 orig9ally deposit$1 nor ) _! cleavage2 b is due to ! pressure1 & resembles ! pie cru/ splitt+1 be+ irregul> & flaky4 ,?is is designat$ s*i/osity if irregul> & slaty cleavage if regul>4 ,s*i/osity ref]s to ! flaky mann] ( splitt+ into ?9 scales z 9 mica s*i/s4 ,slaty cleavage is m regul>1 ?is be+ due to ! fact t ! mat]ial ( :i* slate is made is small p>ticles ( clay ( uni=m size4 ,! metamorphic rocks are g5]ally m or less fold$1 z !y are always associat$ ) m\nta9 mak+4 ,^! major folds are ( l>ge size1 f a hundr$ feet across to sev]al miles f "o side to ! o!r4 ,su* folds may also occur 9 s$im5t>y rocks or ev5 9 igne\s rocks & simply express ! great l9es ( yield+1 or movem5t ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,9 addition to ?is !re is m9or fold+ or contort+ :i* is *>act]i/ic ( metamorphic rocks only4 ,:5 ! rocks 7 heat$ by _! ne>ness to ! molt5 igne\s magmas1 !y mu/ exp&1 b be+ ov]burd5$ by ?ick lay]s ( o!r rocks1 !re is no opportunity = yield+ v]tically1 s ! lay]s crumple1 mak+ m9or folds f a fraction ( an in* to a few feet across4 ,su* crumpl+1 :i* is s v conspicu\s especially :]e !re are b&s ( qu>tzite 9 ! rock1 is entirely *>act]i/ic ( metamorphic rocks4 ,x is se5 on ho/s ( ! rocks ab\t ,new ,york ,city1 all ov] ,new ,engl&1 & 9 any o!r metamorphic region4 ,plate #fc is a photograph ( su* a crumpl$ rock :i* has be5 smoo!d by ! glacial ice4 ,! metamorphic rocks are ! mo/ difficult ( all ! rocks to det]m9e & und]/&1 because ! am\nt ( *ange ?r\gh :i* !y h gone is greate/1 b = ?is same reason !y (f] ! mo/ int]e/1 = ! ag5ts :i* caus$ ! *anges are ( ! mo/ dramatic type ( any t occur 9 ,nature4 ,f "o place to ano!r a s+le lay] ( metamorphic rock *anges accord+ to ! great] or less heat to :i* x 0 subject$1 mak+ a s]ies ( relat$ rocks ( ! same composition b ) v>i$ am\nt ( alt]ation4 ,= ?is reason 9 nam+ metamorphic rocks1 a type is nam$1 & f t !re w be gradations 9 "o or m directions1 bo? accord+ to composition1 & accord+ to am\nt ( heat involv$4 ,if x is possible to foll[ a giv5 lay] ( metamorphic rock f "o place to ano!r ?is is ( great int]e/2 = by ?is means1 _m v>iations 9 ! type w be f\nd1 bo? ^? result+ f a diff]5t am\nt ( heat1 & ^? due to ! local *anges 9 ! composition ( ! orig9al rock4 ,"o fur!r consid]ation has to be kept 9 m9d4 ,:5 a rock is metamorphos$ ! high temp]atures ei!r drive (f all wat]1 or ! wat] may be us$ up 9 ! mak+ ( "s ( ! complex m9]als4 ,:5 su* a metamorphic rock lat] comes ne> ! surface & is expos$ to ! pres5ce ( gr\nd wat]1 & t lea*+ d[n f ! surface into ! rocks1 sev]al ( ! m9]als =m$ at high temp]atures w take up ?is wat] & make new m9]als su* z s]p5t9e1 *lorite1 etc4 ,!y are always associat$ ) metamorphic rocks1 & h be5 metamorphic rocks1 b s9ce !n h become hydrat$1 =m+ m9]als n at all *>act]i/ic ( high temp]ature4 ,! foll[+ %[s ! relation ( ! s$im5t>y & igne\s rocks to _! metamorphic equival5ts4 ,loose s$im5t ,consolidat$ s$im5t ,metamorphic equival5t gravel conglom]ate gneiss s& 7qu>tz7 s&/one qu>tzite mud 7s& & clay7 %ale s*i/ clay %ale slate or phyllite m>l lime/one m>ble peat bitum9\s coal an?racite to graphite co>se igne\s rocks su* z gneiss granite1 sy5ite1 etc4 f9e igne\s rocks su* z s*i/ tra*ite1 rhyolite1 etc4 ,9 work+ out ! pa/ hi/ory ( any giv5 region1 mu* ( x is done on ! basis ( ?is s]ies ( equival5ts4 ,! f9d+ ( lime/one1 = in/ance1 indicates t ! giv5 area 0 at "o "t "u ! sea to a consid]able dep?1 t is f #ajj to #ajjj feet1 b n ocean-bottom dep?s :i* run 9 t5s ( ?\s&s ( feet4 ,m>ble indicates ! same ?+1 & s "o c g on ?r\gh all ^! types ( rock4 ,gneiss ,pl4 #fd ,gneiss is an old ^w us$ by ! ,saxon m9]s1 & is (t5 v loosely us$4 ,"h x is us$ 9 its /ructural s5se1 & a gneiss may be def9$ z3 a b&$ metamorphic rock1 d]iv$ ei!r f a s$im5t>y or an igne\s rock1 & is compos$ ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica or hornbl5de1 & is co>se en\gh1 s t ! con/itu5t m9]als c be det]m9$ by ! eye4 ,x corresponds to a granite1 or "s s$im5t>y rock l gravel or conglom]ate4 ,due to ! action ( pressure1 all ! gneisses are b&$1 & ! orig9al con/itu5t p>ticles or cry/als are di/ort$4 ,! l9es ( b&+ may be long or %ort1 /raight1 curv$ or contort$4 ,:5 ! b&+ is n conspicu\s1 ! gneiss t5ds t[>d a granite4 ,:5 ! b&+ is ?9 & ! /ructure appe>s flaky1 ! gneiss t5ds t[>d a s*i/4 ,! color v>ies accord+ to ! con/itu5t m9]als1 f ne>ly :ite1 ?r\gh r$1 gray1 br[n1 or gre5 to ne>ly black4 ,plate #fd %[s "o gneiss :i* is 9 a less advanc$ /age1 ! pebbles be+ simply flatt5$ & ! matrix p>tly alt]$ to micace\s m9]als1 & a second gneiss :i* is s f> advanc$ t ! orig9al con/itu5ts are all alt]$ to o!r m9]als & only ! b&$ /ructure rema9s4 ,?is latt] type w\ld h requir$ b little m heat to h complet$ ! melt+ & *ang$ ?is to a granite4 ,gneisses are v compact & h little or no pore space 9 !m4 ,!y are h>d & /rong & resi/ wea!r+ well1 s t !y are widely us$ z build+ /one3 b !y are n z good z granite = ?is purpose1 z !y split m readily 9 "o direction & c n !re=e be work$ s uni=mly z c granite4 ,!re are _m v>ieties ( gneiss1 bas$ ei!r on _! orig91 composition1 or _! /ructure1 z foll[s3 ,granite-gneiss is "o d]iv$ by metamorphism f granite4 ,sy5ite-gneiss is "o d]iv$ by metamorphism f sy5ite4 ,diorite-gneiss is "o d]iv$ by metamorphism f diorite4 ,gabbro-gneiss is "o d]iv$ by metamorphism f gabbro4 ,biotite-gneiss is "o compos$ ( qu>tz1 feldsp> & biotite4 ,muscovite-gneiss is "o compos$ ( qu>tz1 feldsp> & muscovite4 ,hornbl5de-gneiss is "o compos$ ( qu>tz1 feldsp> & hornbl5de4 ,b&$-gneiss is "o 9 :i* ! b&$ /ructure %[s cle>ly4 ,foliat$-gneiss is "o 9 :i* !re is ?9 irregul> lay]+4 ,aug5-gneiss is "o :i* has concretion>y lumps scatt]$ ?r\gh x4 ,gneisses h a wide di/ribution ov] all ,new ,engl&1 mo/ ( ,canada1 ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ! ,si]ra ,nevada & ! ,cascade ,ranges4 ,qu>tzite ,qu>tzite is metamorphos$ s& or s&/one1 & frequ5tly grades into "o or ! o!r4 ,x is a h>d compact cry/all9e rock1 :i* breaks ) a spl9t]y or con*oidal fracture4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f s&/one by ! almo/ complete lack ( pore spaces1 its great] h>dness & by its cry/all9e /ructure4 ,9 practice x may be di/+ui%$ by ! fact t a s&/one 9 break+ sep>ates betwe5 ! gra9s ( s&1 :ile a qu>tzite breaks ?r\gh ! gra9s4 ,"s qu>tzites are almo/ pure qu>tz1 b o!rs conta9 impurities ( clay1 lime or iron1 :i* 7 9 ! orig9al s&/one4 ,^! alt] 9 ! metamorphism to su* accessory m9]als z feldsp>1 mica1 cyanite1 magnetite1 hematite1 calcite1 graphite1 etc4 ,! color ( qu>tzite :5 pure is :ite1 b may be alt]$ to r$1 yell[1 or gre5 by ! pres5ce ( ^! accessory m9]als4 ,on acc\nt ( ! difficulty ( work+ ! qu>tzites1 !y are n mu* us$ 9 build+1 ?\gh !y are v durable4 ,:5 cru%$ !y (t5 make excell5t road balla/1 or fill+ = concrete "w4 ,! pure v>ieties are sometimes gr\nd & us$ 9 ! manufacture ( glass4 ,accord+ to ! accessory m9]al1 ! foll[+ v>ieties may be di/+ui%$2 *loritic-qu>tzite1 micace\s-qu>tzite1 feldspa?ic-qu>tzite1 etc4 ,qu>tzites are common 9 ! ,new ,engl&1 ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 & ,lake ,sup]ior metamorphic regions1 & also 9 _m we/]n localities4 ,s*i/ ,pl4 #fe ,s*i/ is a loosely us$ t]m1 b is us$ "h 9 its /ructural s5se4 ,x includes ^? metamorphic rocks :i* are foliat$ or compos$ ( ?9 scaly lay]s1 all m or less alike4 ,! pr9ciple m9]als are recognizable ) ! nak$ eye4 ,9 g5]al s*i/s lack feldsp>1 b !re are "s special cases 9 :i* x may be pres5t4 ,qu>tz is an abundant compon5t ( s*i/s2 & ) x !re w be "o or m m9]als ( ! foll[+ gr\ps3 mica1 *lorite1 talc1 amphibole or pyrox5e4 ,frequ5tly !re are also accessory m9]als pres5t1 l g>net1 /aurolite1 t\rmal9e1 pyrite1 magnetite1 etc4 ,all s*i/s h ! s*i/ose /ructure1 & split 9 "o direction ) a m or less smoo?1 ?\gh (t5 irregul>1 surface4 ,at "r angles to ?is surface !y break ) great] or less difficulty & ) a fray$ edge4 ,z !y get co>s]1 ! s*i/s may grade into gneisses1 los+ _! scaly /ructure3 :ile on ! o!r side1 z ! con/itu5t m9]als become f9] & s small z to be difficult ( recognition1 s*i/s may grade into slates4 ,! v>ieties ( s*i/ are bas$ on ! m9]al associat$ ) ! qu>tz2 z mica-s*i/1 *lorite-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 talc-s*i/1 etc4 ,! color also is due to ! con/itu5t m9]als o!r ?an qu>tz & ranges widely1 mica-s*i/s be+ :ite to br[n or ne>ly black1 *lorite-s*i/s "s %ade ( gre51 hornbl5de-s*i/s f d>k gre5 to black1 talc-s*i/s :ite1 pale-gre51 yell[i% or gray1 etc4 ,s*i/s are f\nd all ov] ! same regions z gneisses & qu>tzites1 i4e41 ,new ,engl& 7especially good exposures ( s*i/ be+ se5 ab\t ,new ,york ,city71 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 etc4 ,beside ^! regions :]e x occurs native1 !re are b\ld]s ( s*i/ all ov] ! glaciat$ areas ( ea/]n & nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,slate ,slate is a metamorphic rock :i* w split into ?9 or ?ick %eets1 & is compos$ ( gra9s s f9e z to be indi/+ui%able to ! unaid$ eye4 ,! cleavage is ! result ( pressure dur+ metamorphism1 & has no?+ to d ) ! b$d+ or /ratification ( ! s$im5t>y rock f :i* x 0 d]iv$4 ,! orig9al b$d+ planes may appe> z /reaks1 (t5 m or less plicat$1 & runn+ at any angle ) ! cleavage4 ,if ^! b$d+ /reaks are abundant or v m>k$1 !y may make a slate unsuitable = comm]cial uses4 ,! slaty cleavage may be v p]fect & smoo? s t ! rock splits into f9e %eets1 9 :i* case x is (t5 us$ = ro(+ slate2 b by f> ! great] "p ( ! slates h a cleavage :i* is n smoo? or p]fect en\gh s t !y c be s us$4 ,slates are ! metamorphic equival5ts ( %ales & muds1 & repres5t ! effect ( great pressure b ) less heat ?an is associat$ ) s*i/s or phyllite1 & consequ5tly ) less alt]ation ( ! orig9al m9]al gra9s4 ,! color ranges f gray ?r\gh r$1 gre5 & purple to black4 ,! grays & black are due to ! pres5ce ( m or less c>bonace\s mat]ial 9 ! orig9al rock1 ! c>bon comp\nds hav+ *ang$ to graphite4 ,! r$s & purple are due to ! pres5ce ( iron oxides1 & ! gre5 to ! pres5ce ( *lorite4 ,:ile ! p>ticles ( slate are s small z to be indi/+ui%able to ! unaid$ eye1 ! use ( ?9 sections "u ! microscope %[s t slate is compos$ mo/ly ( qu>tz & mica1 ) a wide range ( accessory m9]als1 l *lorite1 feldsp>1 magnetite1 hematite1 pyrite1 calcite1 graphite1 etc4 ,accord+ to _! *ief con/itu5ts slates may be di/+ui%$ z argillace\s-slate or argillite1 bitum9\s-slate1 calc>e\s-slate1 silice\s-slate1 etc4 ,slate w be f\nd "h & !re 9 ! metamorphic areas ( ,new ,engl&1 ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 ! ,lake ,sup]ior region1 & 9 _m places 9 ! we/4 ,phyllite ,pl4 #ff ,phyllite is a ?9ly cleavable1 f9ely micace\s rock ( uni=m composition1 :i* is int]m$iate betwe5 slate & mica s*i/4 ,9 ?is case ! flakes ( mica are l>ge en\gh to be di/+ui%able to ! eye1 b mo/ ( ! re/ ( ! mat]ial c only be id5tifi$ ) ! aid ( a microscope4 ,x is mo/ly qu>tz & s]icite4 ,phyllite repres5ts a degree ( metamorphism great] ?an = slate1 b less ?an = s*i/2 & x may grade into ei!r ( ^! o!r rocks4 ,g>nets1 pyrite1 etc41 may be pres5t z accessory m9]als4 ,! color ranges f ne>ly :ite to black1 & x is likely to occur 9 ! same places z d slates4 ,m>ble ,pl4 #ff ,?is is a broad t]m1 & includes all ^? rocks compos$ ess5tially ( calcium c>bonate 7lime/ones7 or its mixture ) magnesium c>bonate 7dolomite71 :i* are cry/all9e1 or ( granul> /ructure1 z a result ( metamorphism4 ,x takes less heat to metamorphose a lime/one1 & = ?is reason ! m>bles h a m cry/all9e /ructure ?an mo/ metamorphic rocks2 & !y d n h ! t5d5cy to split or cleave :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( mo/ metamorphic rocks4 ,x is only :5 !re is a l>ge am\nt ( mica pres5t t ! typical s*i/osity appe>s4 ,comm]cially ! t]m m>ble is us$ to include true m>ble & also ^? lime/ones :i* w take a high poli%2 b 9 ?is book1 & geologically speak+1 no rock is a m>ble unless x has cry/all9e /ructure4 ,m>bles range widely 9 color accord+ to _! impurities4 ,pure m>ble is :ite4 ,c>bonace\s mat]ial 9 ! antec$5t lime/one is *ang$ to graphite 9 ! metamorphic process1 & makes ! m>ble black1 b appe>s usually 9 /reaks or spots1 r ?an 9 any uni=m color4 ,an all black 8m>ble0 is usually a lime/one4 ,! pres5ce ( iron colors ! m>ble r$ or p9k4 ,*lorite makes x gre51 etc4 ,v>i\s accessory m9]als are common 9 m>bles1 su* z mica1 pyrox5e1 amphibole1 grossul>ite among ! g>nets1 magnetite1 sp9el1 pyrite1 etc41 ?r\gh a long li/4 ,because x cuts readily 9 all directions & takes a high poli%1 m>ble is widely us$ z a build+ /one4 ,9 ! moi/ climate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates x suff]s 9 be+ soluble 9 ra9 wat] :5 us$ on ! outside ( a build+3 b = int]ior decoration x furni%es "s ( ! f9e/ effects4 ,! l>ge/ m>ble qu>ries are develop$ 9 ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,georgia1 ,alabama1 ,colorado1 ,cali=nia1 & ,wa%+ton4 ,/eatite ,soap/one ,/eatite is a rock compos$ ess5tially ( talc1 :i* is associat$ ) m or less impurities1 su* z mica1 tremolite1 en/atite1 qu>tz1 magnetite1 etc4 ,x is f\nd 9 & ) metamorphic rocks1 & is a rock :i* has be5 modifi$ by hydration f a metamorphic pr$ecessor4 ,x 0 probably fir/ a tremolite or en/atite s*i/1 9 :i*1 aft] ! metamorphic rock came into ! zone :]e gr\nd wat] exi/s1 ! tremolite or en/atite 0 alt]$ to talc1 ! impurities rema9+ mu* z !y 7 9 ! fir/ place4 ,x is blui%-gray to gre5 9 color1 (t5 s(t en\gh to cut ) a knife1 & has a greasy feel4 ,x is v resi/ant to heat & acids2 = :i* reasons x has prov$ v useful comm]cially 9 mak+ he>?/ones1 laundry tubs1 & fire backs2 &1 :5 p[d]$1 9 mak+ c]ta9 lubricants4 ,! ,indians1 9 ! days be=e ,columbus1 took advantage ( ! ease ) :i* x is cut1 to make f x l>ge pots = hold+ liquids1 :i* are today among ! greate/ treasures 9 collections ( ,indian relics4 ,!y also c>v$ pipe-b[ls & v>i\s ornam5ts & amulets f soap/one4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,georgia & ,cali=nia4 ,s]p5t9e ,pl4 #fg ,pure s]p5t9e is ! hydrat$ silicate ( magnesium1 z describ$ among ! m9]als on page #ach4 ,s]p5t9e rock is s]p5t9e ) m or less impurities1 su* z pyrox5e1 amphibole1 oliv9e1 magnetite1 *romite1 calcite1 magnesite1 etc4 ,x (t5 also conta9s mica & su* g>nets z pyrope1 z accessory m9]als4 ,s]p5t9e1 l /eatite1 always occurs 9 & ) metamorphic rocks1 & 0 orig9ally a metamorphic rock1 b has s9ce be5 *ang$ by ! hydration ( its silicates1 :5 x came into ! zone 9 :i* gr\nd wat] is pres5t4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance x 0 "s sort ( %ale1 clay & dolomite1 :i* 0 metamorphos$ to an amphibole or pyrox5e s*i/4 ,:5 ?is 0 expos$ to ! action ( gr\nd wat]1 ! amphibole or pyrox5e m9]als 7 *ang$ to s]p5t9e1 result+ 9 a rock compos$ mo/ly ( s]p5t9e1 b reta9+ ! impurities :i* 7 9 ! metamorphic rock1 & p]haps add+ to !m su* amphiboles & pyrox5es z 7 n alt]$ dur+ ! hydration process4 ,! above is ! commone/ type ( s]p5t9e rock4 ,x c & sometimes has be5 =m$ 9 a simil> way f an igne\s pr$ecessor1 by ! hydration ( its silicate m9]als4 ,9 ?is latt] case ! s]p5t9e w\ld n be a modifi$ metamorphic rock1 b a modifi$ igne\s "o4 ,x is a case :]e su* a rock z a diorite or a gabbro is expos$ to gr\nd wat] & ! pyrox5e pres5t alt]$ to s]p5t9e4 ,a s]p5t9e =m$ 9 ?is way w\ld be a v impure "o4 ,s]p5t9e rock is us$ z an ornam5tal /one = int]ior decoration1 because x takes a high poli% & has pleas+ colors1 v>i\s %ades ( gre54 ,x is h[ev] decid$ly s(t & w /& v little exposure to wea!r1 & x is also fill$ ) seams :i* make x difficult to get out l>ge slabs4 ,s]p5t9e rock occurs fairly commonly 9 ! metamorphic belt ( ,new ,engl& & ! ,pi$mont ,plateau1 & 9 "s ( ! we/]n /ates1 especially ,cali=nia1 ,oregon1 & ,wa%+ton4 ,ophiolite ,ophicalcite ,?is "n is giv5 to m>bles :i* are /reak$ & spott$ ) s]p5t9e4 ,!y are a mixture ( gre5 s]p5t9e & a :ite or ne>ly :ite calcite1 magnesite or dolomite 9 v>iable proportions4 ,ophicalcite occurs 9 & ) metamorphic rocks1 & repres5ts an impure lime/one :i* has be5 metamorphis$1 ! lime becom+ m>ble1 & ! impurities becom+ su* silicates z pyrox5e1 amphibole1 or oliv9e4 ,?is metamorphic rock has !n come into ! zone ( gr\nd-wat] & ! silicate m9]als h be5 *ang$ by hydration to s]p5t9e4 ,ophicalcite is !n a metamorphic rock1 9 :i* second>y *emical *anges h s9ce tak5 place4 ,x may h a wide range ( accessory m9]als pres5t1 su* z magnetite1 *romite1 pyrope among ! g>nets1 oliv9e1 etc4 ,v]de antique is a trade "n = "o ( ! ophiolites4 ,:ile n abundant1 ophicalcite is 9 good dem& z an ornam5tal /one = int]ior "w2 = x takes a high poli%1 & is beautiful2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x w n /& exposure to ! wea!r = ! calcite is soluble1 & !re are num]\s seams & cracks 9 x mak+ x difficult to obta9 l>ge slabs4 ,x occurs 9 ,quebec1 ,canada1 9 ! ,gre5 ,m\nta9s ( ,v]mont1 & 9 ! ,adirondack ,m\nta9s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,miscellane\s ,,rocks ,!re are a few rocks :i* d n fit into any ( ! ?ree gr\ps describ$1 su* z concretions1 geodes1 meteorites1 etc41 & !y are ga!r$ toge!r "h4 ,!re is also "o type ( rock1 :i* really belongs among ! m9]als1 b is likely n to be s recogniz$ at fir/ glance1 & t is ! mat]ial fill+ ve9s4 ,^! la/ are sometimes designat$ 8ve9 rocks10 b are really massive deposits ( "o1 two or m m9]als1 & %\ld be ref]r$ to ! m9]als :5 f\nd4 ,concretions ,9 ! s$im5t>y rocks !re frequ5tly occur inclusions ( a nature diff]5t f ! surr\nd+ rock4 ,9 %ape !y are usually r\nd$1 nodul>1 sph]ical1 discoidal1 ovate1 flatt5$1 elongat$ or r+-%ap$1 or comb9ations ( ! =ego+1 mak+ (t5 curi\s & fanta/ic =ms4 ,9 size !y range f a fraction ( an in* 9 diamet] to sev]al feet ?r\gh4 ,:5 brok51 !y may %[ a nucleus1 ar\nd :i* m or less conc5tric lay]s h =m$1 or nei!r nucleus nor conc5tric /ructure may be visible4 ,! lay]$ /ructure ( ! surr\nd+ rock 9 "s cases cont9ues "r ?r\gh ! nodul> mass4 ,^! /ructures are call$ concretions1 & _! =mation 9 all cases is at lea/ due to simil> reactions4 ,9 g5]al ! concretions diff] f ! surr\nd+ rock 9 composition1 b are usually compos$ ( "s "o ( its impurities1 ( lime 9 ! clays or silica 9 lime/ones1 ( iron oxide 9 s&/one1 etc4 ,!y seem to h orig9at$ z a result ( ! solution ( ! m9or m9]al1 & !n its r$eposition ar\nd "s c5t] or nucleus4 ,9 _m cases ! nucleus is organic1 su* z a leaf1 a %ell1 a bone1 etc41 s t :5 ! concretion is split1 9 its c5t] w be f\nd ! p]fect impr9t ( ! leaf1 or ! %ell ( a mollusk1 or a bone ( a high] animal1 sometimes a :ole skeleton4 ,aga9 ! nucleus may be inorganic l a gra9 ( s&2 & 9 /ill o!r cases no nucleus c be f\nd1 ?\gh !re 0 probably "o 9 ! beg9n+4 ,:at has happ5$ is some:at l ! case ( accessory m9]als 9 igne\s & metamorphic rocks4 ,a lay] ( s$im5t 0 laid d[n1 includ+ 9 x1 "h & !re1 some?+ =eign to ! run ( ! rock4 ,lat] :5 ! wat] lea*es ?r\gh ?is rock1 impregnat$ ) lime = in/ance1 x comes to ! po9t :]e a leaf is decompos+4 ,! products ( ! leaf decomposition are diff]5t f :at is already pres5t 9 solution1 & may precipitate "s ( ! lime 9 t neighborhood4 ,z long z leaf decomposition cont9ues ! precipitation 9 t region w cont9ue & increase ! size ( ! concretion4 ,?is sort ( action acc\nts = _m ( ! concretions1 especially ^? ab\t organic rema9s4 ,9 "s o!r cases :]e !re is no nucleus1 z ! fl9t 9 *alk1 :at has tak5 place is t ! small am\nts ( silica 9 ! lime h be5 dissolv$1 & !n ar\nd "s c5t] has con/antly be5 add$ m & m non-cry/all9e silica until a mass ( fl9t has accumulat$4 ,!re may be a consid]able v>iety ( ways to acc\nt = diff]5t concretions1 b 9 all cases solutions ( "o m9]al h come 9 contact ) solutions ( a diff]5t k9d1 & precipitation ab\t a c5t] has result$4 ,clay /ones ,pl4 #fh ,( all ! concretions ^! are p]haps ! commone/1 be+ f\nd 9 ! clays ( all types & 9 _m regions4 ,!y are made ( lime & precipitat$ ar\nd "s nucleus ( =eign matt]4 ,! %apes v>y widely1 usually discs1 flatt5$ ovals or ev5 r+s1 9 mo/ all cases h[ev] flatt5$4 ,?is is indicative ( ! wat] mov+ ?\gh ! clay m freely 9 "s lay]s ?an o!rs4 ,(t5 clay /ones occur s abundantly t two or m h gr[n toge!r mak+ fanta/ic %apes1 sometimes resembl+ animals1 & all sorts ( fanci$ b unrelat$ objects4 ,z ! clay /ones h gr[n ! clay has n be5 pu%$ aside1 b has be5 incorporat$ )9 ! concretion2 s t :5 a concretion is dissolv$ 9 acid1 x yields n only ! lime1 :i* is its reason = be+1 b also a l>ge am\nt ( clay4 ,clay/ones are f\nd 9 clays mo/ any:]e1 usually occurr+ 9 c]ta9 lay]s & be+ abs5t f o!rs4 ,lime concretions ,^! are f\nd mo/ly 9 %ales :i* c>ry a high p]c5tage ( clay z impurities1 & are *>act]i/ic ( ! old] geological =mations1 especially anci5t sea bottoms4 ,!y are likely to h z a nucleus "s %ell1 fi% bone1 or a leaf1 :i* :5 ! concretion is split1 reveals a wond]fully pres]v$ portion ( an animal or a plant1 :i* 0 buri$ millions ( ye>s ago4 ,! lime concretion is closely relat$ to ! clay/one1 & is really a clay/one :i* has be5 buri$ s long t ! surr\nd+ matrix has *ang$ to a %ale in/ead ( rema9+ clay4 ,"o ( ! mo/ fam\s localities = ^! lime concretions is ,mazon ,creek1 ,ill9ois1 :]e ?\s&s ( ^! concretions h be5 pick$ up & split to /udy ! organic rema9s includ$4 ,! commone/ objects f\nd are f]n leaves1 l ! "o on ,plate #fh4 ,b ab\t once 9 a ?\s& times !y inclose a spid] or insect1 & once 9 t5 ?\s& times ! skeleton ( an amphibian1 :i* is ( especial int]e/1 z "h h be5 ?us f\nd ! rema9s ( ! v e>lie/ ( ! l& animals4 ,^! rema9s 7 inclos$ 9 ^! concretions dur+ ! coal age1 probably #ej1jjj1jjj ye>s ago1 & once inclos$ all ! h>d p>ts h be5 z well pres]v$ aft] t long int]val1 z !y 7 imm$iately aft] be+ inclos$ 9 ! concretion4 ,lime concretions range f less ?an an in* 9 diamet] to sev]al feet ?r\gh4 ,!y are n conf9$ to %ales1 b sometimes occur 9 s&/ones1 9 ?is case also usually hav+ z a nucleus ei!r a %ell1 or ! bone1 or bones1 ( "s animal4 ,!y are likely to be f\nd any:]e 9 ! lime/one belt1 f ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 or 9 ! ,great ,bas91 or on ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,(t5 !y h be5 mi/ak5 = turtles & o!r objects4 ,a good _m ( ! cases :]e ! head or body ( animals 8petrifi$ ) all ! fle%0 are report$1 x is "o ( ^! concretions :i* has a %ape suffici5tly l ! "p describ$1 = ! imag9ation to con/ruct ! re/4 ,sept]ia ,pl4 #fi ,sept]ia are lime concretions1 :i*1 aft] !y _h =m$1 h %runk & develop$ a s]ies ( cracks runn+ ?r\gh !m 9 all sorts ( directions1 & s9ce !n ! cracks h be5 fill$ ) v>i\s m9]als1 su* z calcite1 dolomite1 & sid]ite4 ,^! make a s]ies ( ve9s :i* int]sect ! concretion1 9 a sort ( network4 ,sept]ia are mo/ly ( consid]able size1 rang+ f six in*es 9 diamet] to sev]al feet ?r\gh4 ,!y are *>act]i/ic ( ! %ales ( anci5t sea bottoms1 especially ^? ( ,devonian age 9 ,new ,york1 & ,p5nsylvania1 & ^? ( ,cretace\s age 9 ,wyom+1 ,montana & ! ,dakotas4 ,fl9t concretions ,! silica 9 lime/ones is (t5 segregat$ into nodul> masses ( v>y+ sizes1 to make concretions ( fl9t4 ,su* masses h gr[n 9 ! lime/one1 &1 :ile gr[+1 h ei!r pu%$ away1 or dissolv$ ! adjac5t lime/one1 s t ! fl9t nodule is pure silica4 ,!y are especially *>act]i/ic ( ! *alk b$s1 & ( anci5t lime/ones :i* =m$ on ! floor ( ! sea1 l ! ,held]b]g ,lime/one ( ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 etc4 ,:5 ?9 sections are cut ?r\gh ^! fl9ts1 & exam9$ "u ! microscope1 _m remnants ( ! %ells ( plants & animals are /ill recognizable4 ,a nucleus is seldom f\nd1 b 9 "s cases !re is a fossil 9 ! nodule ab\t :i* ! concretion d\btless =m$4 ,! spicules ( sponges1 %ells ( diatoms1 & ( radiol>ians seem to h contribut$ mo/ ( ! mat]ial f :i* fl9t concretions are =m$4 ,9 addition to ! silica !re are frequ5tly inclos$ 9 ^! nodules ! horny jaws ( v>i\s sea worms1 & a ho/ ( sp9y balls ! relation%ips ( :i* are /ill unkn[n4 ,s&/one concretions ,!re are two types ( s&/one concretions1 fir/ ^? :i* are cem5t$ ) lime1 & second ^? cem5t$ ) iron oxide4 ,! concretions b\nd by lime are especially *>act]i/ic ( s&/ones :i* 7 laid d[n z riv] deposits1 ei!r 9 ! *annels or on ! flood pla9s1 & also ! s&y deposits result+ f w9d deposition4 ,9 ^! cases ! concretions w mo/ly be f\nd to h =m$ ar\nd "s organic nucleus1 mo/ frequ5tly ab\t a bone1 or gr\p ( bones1 ( "s anci5t animal4 ,9 ?is c\ntry !y are mo/ly f\nd 9 ! arid & semi>id sections ( ! ,we/1 :]e ! pres5t day w9d erosion exposes ! h>d] p>ts ( bluffs1 etc4 ,! second type ( s&/one concretion is ! "o 9 :i* ! cem5t is mo/ (t5 limonite1 less (t5 hematite4 ,^! concretions are less d5se ?an ! lime ones1 & 9 "s cases ! limonite is only precipitat$ at a di/ance f ! nucleus1 :i* has result$ 9 ! =mation ( a holl[ %ell1 fill$ ) loose s&4 ,?is is especially *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 concretions1 f\nd 9 a gravel or co>se s& 9 ! region ( ,middlet[n1 ,del4 ,oolites ,9 l>ge bodies ( wat] l ! sea & "s l>g] lakes we f9d concretions :i* h =m$1 or are /ill =m+1 ab\t t9y gra9s ( s&1 :i* are /ill be+ mov$ ab\t by ! waves & curr5ts4 ,9 su* cases n only are great masses ( concretions =m$ b !y h v cle>ly m>k$ ! conc5tric lay]+1 :i* %[s t !y h increas$ 9 size1 sometimes m rapidly & sometimes m sl[ly4 ,:]e great masses ( su* concretions h =m$ ! result+ rock appe>s l a great mass ( small eggs1 :5ce ! t]m oolite4 ,! cem5t may be any "o ( sev]al sub/ances1 b lime1 silica1 & hematite are p]haps ! mo/ common4 ,"h & !re are f\nd l>g] or small] masses ( ?is oolite4 ,9 "s cases x w\ld appe> t ! mat]ial 0 precipitat$ by ! action ( bact]ia4 ,su* = in/ance is probably ! orig9 ( ! ,cl9ton iron ore1 a b$ ( oolitic hematite1 ext5d+ f ,new ,york ,/ate all d[n ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s to ,alabama4 ,pisolite ,pl4 #fi ,:5 ! concretions1 =m$ 9 exactly ! same mann] z 9 ! case ( oolite1 are ( a size bigg] ?an a pea1 !n ! rock is kn[n z pisolite4 ,o!r ,concretions ,?\gh less abundant concretion may =m f /ill o!r sub/ances4 ,hematite has be5 m5tion$1 & :5 concretions are made ( ?is mat]ial1 ei!r !y h be5 deposit$ by bact]ia1 or 7 =m$ z limonite & ! wat] ( cry/allization ( ?is latt] m9]al driv5 (f4 ,manganese concretions are f\nd on ! floor ( ! ocean at maximum dep?s1 & br\ght to ! surface by dr$g+4 ,geodes ,geodes are nodules1 :i*1 :5 brok5 op51 are f\nd to be holl[ & ! cavity l9$ ) "o or m m9]als4 ,!y repres5t a special case ( m9]als 9 a cave4 ,!re 0 9 ! fir/ place a cavity 9 ! surr\nd+ rock1 usually ( s& or clay4 ,z ! wat] lea*$ ?r\gh ! surr\nd+ rock1 x became saturat$ ) "o or m m9]als & !n com+ into ! cavity1 deposit$ ! m9]als1 ei!r z cry/als1 or z a non-cry/all9e mass1 l9+ ! cavity4 ,?us ! inside is (t5 a beautiful clu/] ( bri/l+ cry/als1 or x may be simply lay] on lay] ( *alc$ony ( any color4 ,be=e ?is process _h gone s f> z to completely fill ! cavity1 erosion _h dislodg$ ! mass1 & x has be5 f\nd4 ,"o usually recognizes t x is a geode by ! fact t x is f> too light to be a solid rock1 & !n x may be c>efully brok54 ,!y are *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 =mations2 s t hav+ accid5tally brok5 ! fir/ "o1 o!rs c be c>efully op5$ to display ! beauty ( ! int]ior4 ,! geode illu/rat$ on ,plate #gj is l9$ ) qu>tz cry/als1 b ne> by 7 f\nd _m o!rs1 "s ( :i* _h *alc$ony & "s jasp] z a l9+4 ,su* cry/all9$ nodules are usually call$ geodes s long z !y occur 9 a s(t] matrix s t !y are easily dislodg$1 & until !y rea* a size ( ?ree or f\r feet 9 diamet]4 ,pebbles ,:5 pick$ up ei!r f brook b$s1 sea bea*es1 or ! op5 pla91 !re are few =ms ( rock :i* tell a /ory ( ! pa/ m completely ?an d pebbles2 & any "o1 :o enjoys read+ a /ory writt5 9 =m1 /ructure & composition1 w f9d 9 pebbles "o ( ! mo/ satisfy+ & at ! same "t te/+ ex]cises4 ,! /ory may be complex or simple accord+ to :at has happ5$ to ! p>5t rock1 & to t is add$ :at happ5$ s9ce ! pebble left ! l$ge :]e x 0 a "p ( a great mass4 ,"o mu/ n =get to take into consid]ation :]e ! pebble 0 f\nd & ! "* ( its associates4 ,?is sort ( ex]cise is recomm5d$ to all int]e/$ 9 rocks4 ,x w yield some?+ ^u fir/ try+1 & m on prolong$ /udy2 & ! fullness ) :i* x is done w te/ "o's k ( ! mean+ ( rocks z no?+ else w d4 ,z a sample ( ?is sort ( ex]cise let u take ! two pebbles illu/rat$ on ,plate #ga4 ,! upp] "o is a common qu>tz pebble pick$ up 9 a ,new ,engl& brook b$4 ,su* pebbles are common all ov] ! c\ntry =m]ly cov]$ by ! glacial ice %eet4 ,x is cry/all9e qu>tz1 b ! individual cry/als are n di/+ui%able1 & su* qu>tz is typical z ! fill+ ( ve9s4 ,x !re=e goes back to a "t :5 ! rocks 7 fissur$1 probably 9 connection ) ! fold+ accompany+ m\nta9 mak+ f> to ! nor? 9 ,canada4 ,into ! fissures ?us =m$ seep$ ! wat] :i* _h be5 lea*+ ?r\gh ! adjac5t rocks1 & x 0 saturat$ ) silica :i* x _h dissolv$ f ^? rocks4 ,9 ! op5 fissure ! qu>tz 0 deposit$ z cry/als1 :i* grew f9ally fill+ ! fissure & cr[d+ ea* o!r s t all ! faces 7 oblit]at$4 ,! qu>tz ve9 0 complete1 b x mu/ h be5 f> bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,"t mu/ h pass$1 ?\s&s ( ye>s ( x1 until1 9 ! wea!r+ away ( ! m\nta9 sy/em1 ! _m feet ( ov]ly+ rock 7 remov$ & ?is ve9 0 br\ght to ! surface4 ,z ! qu>tz is h>d] ?an ! adjac5t rocks1 ! ve9 soon project$ z a l$ge4 ,! effect ( *anges ( temp]ature 9 alt]nately exp&+ & contract+ ! rocks develop$ cracks1 into :i* wat] work$ its way1 & !n ! break+ 0 ha/5$ by ! expansion :i* takes place :5 wat] freezes1 & 9 expos$ regions is s effective1 because ! freez+ & ?aw+ are s (t5 repeat$4 ,f9ally an angul> fragm5t ( qu>tz 0 dislodg$ & lay on ! surface1 resi/ant to ! solv5t p[] ( ! ra94 ,9 ?is case ?is happ5$ j be=e ! advance ( ! great ice %eet4 ,:5 t came to ! place :]e ! fragm5t lay1 x 0 pick$ up along ) all o!r loose mat]ial & p>tly %ov$ 9 front (1 b probably mo/ly c>ri$ froz5 9 ! ice1 & j\rney$ "o1 two1 ?ree hundr$1 p]haps a ?\s& miles4 ,?is took _m ye>s = ! ice mov$ only a few feet a day4 ,f9ally h[ev] x came to ! po9t :]e ! ice melt$ z fa/ z x advanc$1 & our qu>tz fragm5t 0 dropp$ at ! front ( ! ice %eet along ) o!r great masses ( till4 ,"h !re 0 abundant wat]1 p>tly f ! melt+ ( ! ice1 & p>tly f ! /orms :i* mu/ develop :]e !re are su* contra/s 9 temp]ature1 z !re w\ld be ov] ! ice1 on "o h&1 & ov] ! b>e l& 9 front ( ! ice on ! o!r h&4 ,a torr5t pick$ up our fragm5t & />t$ x on a second j\rney1 bang+ aga9/ o!r /ones z x roll$ along d[n ! /ream b$1 e "t x /ruck ano!r /one bruis+ ! corn]s :i* soon became r\nd$4 ,?us f "t to "t dur+ high wat] ! qu>tz fragm5t1 becom+ r\nd] e "t x mov$1 j\rney$ d[n /ream1 until x came to ! po9t :]e ! /ream empti$ into a lake4 ,"h ! curr5t 0 *eck$ & ! /one dropp$ to ! bottom along ) o!r l>g] /ones to make ! delta at ! m\? ( ! /ream4 ,!re x lay z long z ! lake exi/$1 & w\ld be ly+ n[1 b t 9 ,new ,engl& a tilt+ movem5t ( ! l& tipp$ ! nor? end ( ! lake up & ! wat] all ran out4 ,!n ! /ream began to fl[ ov] its own delta & 9 "t ( fre%et tore a *annel d[n ?r\gh ! old delta c>ry+ ! pebble /ill fur!r d[n1 until x came to ! level /ret* :i* repres5t$ ! old lake's bottom & !re x dropp$ ! pebble 9 its b$4 ,& !re x 0 f\nd & pick$ up to become ! pebble :i* told ! above /ory ( its life1 & to repeat x z (t5 z anyone w look at x ) a see+ eye4 ,! second pebble is q a diff]5t "o4 ,x 0 pick$ up 9 a gravel bank along a railroad cut1 j at ! foot ( ,mt4 ,toby 9 ,massa*ussetts1 & ! writ] has us$ x _m times to te/ 8 /ud5ts1 to see if !y c\ld read ! /ory :i* x tells4 ,x consi/s ( two sorts ( rock1 ! "o1 angul> fragm5ts ( a hornbl5de s*i/1 ! o!r1 a f9e-gra9$ granite fill+ all ! spaces betwe5 ! fragm5ts ( s*i/1 ev5 9 cracks less ?an a qu>t] ( an in* wide4 ,! s*i/ is ! old] rock & 9 its fir/ appe>ance repres5ts a deposit ( mud 7clay & s&7 on ! floor ( ! ocean1 well out f ! %ore1 & some:]e (f to ! ea/ ( ,mt4 ,toby1 p]haps t5 miles1 p]haps m1 f ! place :]e x 0 f\nd4 ,?is 0 back 9 e>ly ,palozoic times1 millions ( ye>s ago4 ,?is deposit 0 buri$ by fur!r lay]s ( s$im5t on ! sea bottom & cem5t$ into a %ale4 ,!n dur+ a m\nta9 mak+ p]iod ! region 0 fold$1 & ! s$im5ts 7 alt]$ by ! comb9$ pressure & heat1 our lay] ( rock becom+ a hornbl5de s*i/4 ,aft] t happ5$ consid]able "t mu/ h pass$1 b j h[ mu* is n indicat$ by ! pebble1 be=e ano!r p]iod ( di/urbance took place1 dur+ :i* ?is deep seat$ s*i/ 0 fault$1 & %att]$ to fragm5ts along ! l9e ( break+4 ,?is acc\nts = ! angul> fragm5ts4 ,!n into ! fissure ?us =m$ 0 press$ a molt5 magma1 :i* :ile liquid en\gh to fl[ & be squeez$ into e op5+ c\ld n h be5 v hot2 = n ev5 ! corn]s ( ! s*i/ fragm5ts are melt$ or alt]$1 s z to appe> any diff]5t f ! mass ( ! s*i/4 ,! molt5 magma cool$ r sl[ly1 mak+ a f9e-gra9$ granite4 ,?is mu/ all h tak5 place f> bel[ ! surface1 or ! magma w\ld h cool$ into a felsite or d5se lava4 ,aga9 a long "t mu/ h elaps$1 :ile ! rock ov]ly+ our piece 0 erod$ away1 s x c\ld come to ! surface4 ,j ab\t ! "t x did come to ! surface1 ! ,connecticut ,valley 0 =m$ by a great block1 #ie miles long by fifte5 to tw5ty miles wide1 dropp+ d[n six or eight ?\s& feet 7probably n all at once b by "o or two hundr$ feet at a "t7 betwe5 two nor? & s\? faults4 ,?is took place 9 ! ,triassic ,p]iod4 ,( c\rse ! /reams !n began to wa% s& & /ones ( all sizes into ! hole4 ,our pebble 0 "o ( ^!4 ,:ile /ill an angul> fragm5t1 ly+ p]haps t5 miles ea/ ( ! ,connecticut ,valley1 a /ream />t$ x mov+1 & z x roll$ along ! brook b$1 x 0 batt]$ & r\nd$ to its pres5t %ape1 & f9ally tumbl$ ov] a wat]fall to ! bottom ( ! great hole1 :i* _h be5 =m$ z describ$ above4 ,"h ) o!r /ones x =m$ "p ( a co>se gravel1 co>se/ ne> ! sides ( ! hole1 & f9] t[>d ! middle2 = ! mat]ial 0 fur!r di/ribut$ 9 ! bottom ( ! valley4 ,our /one /ay$ pretty ne> ! side & 0 soon buri$ b5ea? hundr$s ( feet ( simil> mat]ial4 ,! lea*+ wat] dissolv$ en\gh iron ru/ s t ?is act$ on ! l[] lay]s z a cem5t & b\nd ! :ole mass into a conglom]ate4 ,"h = "s millions ( ye>s our pebble re/$1 :ile above x 0 pil$ s& & gravel & a c\ple ( %eets ( lava1 until ! hole 0 fill$1 & our pebble 0 ne> ! bottom ( ! mass4 ,lat] movem5ts ( ! l& rais$ ! :ole region1 fully six ?\s& feet1 & erosion w5t on = o!r millions ( ye>s4 ,! conglom]ate & s&/one wore away fa/] ?an ! metamorphos$ rocks on ei!r side ( ! fill$ valley1 s t a new valley1 ! pres5t ,connecticut ,valley1 came into exi/5ce4 ,:5 our pebble f9ally came ne> to ! surface on ! side ( ,mt4 ,toby 7a m\nd ( conglom]ate :i* someh[ 0 protect$ & wore d[n a little less rapidly ?an ! conglom]ate on ei!r side ( x71 x 0 j ab\t ! "t ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,! great ice %eet w5t ov] ! m\nta9 remov+ all ! loose mat]ial & "s m ( ! solid conglom]ate4 ,?is br\ght our pebble to ! surface1 b too late to be mov$ by ! ice4 ,h[ev] z soon z ! ice left ! ,mt4 ,toby region1 ! ra9s fell1 & 9 ! fur!r wea!r+ ( ! conglom]ate1 ! cem5t hold+ our pebble 9 place 0 dissolv$ & x 0 fre$4 ,at once a t9y brook />t$ x roll+ d[n ! side ( ! m\nta91 a brook s small t :5 ! pebble rea*$ ! foot ( ! slope x did n h p[] to c>ry x fur!r4 ,"h !re ga!r$ a fan-%ap$ m\nd ( su* pebbles1 kn[n z an alluvial fan4 ,x re/$ "h n ov] a c\ple ( ?\s& ye>s1 :5 ! ,c5tral ,v]mont ,r4 ,r4 cut a groove ?r\gh ! fan1 us+ ! mat]ial = balla/1 & "h ! pebble 0 f\nd & br\ght home4 ,meteorites ,meteorites c h>dly be call$ common1 b !re is always a *ance ( f9d+ "o1 & _! int]e/ is s great1 t none %\ld escape because unrecogniz$4 ,meteorites are visitors to ! e>? f space1 & !y br+ to u k ( ! composition ( planets & sol> sy/ems1 o!r ?an our own4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note1 t :ile !y h br\ght to u "s comb9ations ( elem5ts :i* d n occur 9 ! e>?1 /ill !y h n br\ght any elem5t ) :i* we 7 n already famili>4 ,!y are popul>ly kn[n z 8fall+0 or 8%oot+ />s10 ?\gh ( c\rse !y are n />s1 b only small masses ( matt] :i* are entirely invisible until !y come inside our atmosph]e4 ,9 space !re are _m small 7comp>$ ) ! size ( ! e>?7 *unks ( matt]1 ea* pursu+ its solit>y way ar\nd ! sun1 or w&]+ ?r\gh space along pa?s entirely unrelat$ to ! sun4 ,f "t to "t "o ( ^! passes ne> en\gh to ! e>?1 s z to be influ5c$ by its attraction1 & !n comes ru%+ t[>d x at trem5d\s spe$1 #bj to #cj miles p] second4 ,z soon z x comes into ! atmosph]e1 ev5 ! v att5uat$ atmosph]e1 a c\ple ( hundr$ miles above ! surface1 friction heats ! surface ( ! meteor until x gl[s1 & by t light we see ! s-call$ %oot+ />1 (t5 ) a trail ( lum9\s matt] /ream+ out beh9d4 ,( c\rse 9 us+ ?is t]m 8%oot+ />10 we und]/& ! meteor is no />1 = !y are bodies z big z our sun1 %9+ at di/ances billions ( miles away4 ,z ! meteor ru%es ?r\gh ! atmosph]e x may all burn up1 no l>ge fragm5t rea*+ ! e>?'s surface4 ,! lum9\s matt] /ream+ out beh9d is mat]ial :i* has melt$ & dripp$ (f ! ma9 mass4 ,z ?is oxidizes & cools1 t "p :i* did n become gase\s w f9ally fall to ! e>? z f9e du/4 ,:5 h[ev] a meteor actually falls to ! e>?1 its surface is /ill hot1 ?\gh probably !re has n be5 "t en\gh = mu* heat to be transmitt$ to ! int]ior4 ,at any rate !y d n %[ any alt]ation due to ?is cause4 ,on l&+ & sometimes be=e !y l& meteors break into two or m pieces4 ,:5 f\nd ! surface always %[s ! effects ( ! heat g5]at$ by ! friction ( pass+ ?r\gh ! air1 ! surface be+ smoo!d1 & cov]$ ) /ream l9es & melt$ out pits & holl[s1 & ! out] surface consi/+ ( a ?9 cru/1 mak+ an appe>ance1 :i* once se51 c h>dly be mi/ak54 ,!re are two types ( meteorites1 ^? made :olly or l>gely ( iron ) "s nickel1 & appe>+ l great *unks ( iron1 & ^? :i* are /ony & resemble a granite b\ld]4 ,9 collections ! fir/ sort1 i4e4 iron meteorites1 are mo/ abundantly repres5t$1 because mo/ easily recogniz$ :5 f\nd4 ,!y consi/ ( masses ( iron & nickel ) small am\nts ( o!r elem5ts1 rang+ 9 size f ! ,cape ,york meteorite1 :i* fell 9 nor!rn ,gre5l& 9 #ahid & 0 lat] br\ght by ,pe>y to ! ,am]ican ,museum1 & weighs "s #cf tons1 d[n to small gra9s z small z a gra9 ( :eat4 ,! l>ge/ "o :i* has fall5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 ! ,willamette meteorite weigh+ "s #ae tons1 & fall+ #ai miles s\? ( ,portl&1 ,oregon4 ,^! & all iron meteorites h ! iron 9 cry/all9e =m :i* is readily se5 if ! meteorite is cut1 & ! surface ?us made poli%$1 !n et*$ ) acid1 :i* is put on & quickly wa%$ (f4 ,e meteorite has its p>ticul> patt]n1 z illu/rat$ on ,plate #gb1 & by ^! patt]ns c be id5tifi$4 ,meteorites h a high value & are eag]ly s\ght by c]ta9 l>ge in/itutions & collectors4 ,s9ce ! cry/all9e /ructure is s *>act]i/ic ( ea* fall1 :5 a new meteorite is f\nd1 x is usually cut 9 two1 & "o "p reta9$ by ! f9d] or "s in/itution2 :ile ! o!r "p is cut into small pieces1 an in* or two on a side & a qu>t] ( an in* ?ick1 b ea* l>ge en\gh to %[ ! *>act]i/ic patt]n4 ,^! are di/ribut$ l>gely by sale to o!r collectors4 ,?us a great meteorite collection consi/s ( a few l>ge meteorites & a great _m small portions ( o!r meteorites4 ,! second type ( meteorite is ! /ony meteorite4 ,:]e meteorites h be5 locat$ z !y fell & recov]$1 ! majority ( !m 7 ( ?is type1 s t probably m ?an half ( ! meteorites :i* fall are ( ! /ony type4 ,h[ev] :5 ! /ony meteorite is expos$ to wea!r+ x takes only a v %ort "t be=e ! surface is erod$ (f & !n su* a meteorite looks l any o!r b\ld] & probably mo/ ( !m fail to be recogniz$1 & s h be5 lo/4 ,because !y h s mu* great] v>iety1 !y are 9 _m ways ( great] int]e/ ?an ! iron type4 ,x is desirable t e "o h 8 eye out = meteorites1 & :5 f\nd x is desirable t ! fact %\ld be report$ to "s "o ( ! great in/itutions :i* collect !m1 su* z ! ,national ,museum 9 ,wa%+ton1 or ! ,am]ican ,museum 9 ,new ,york4 ,ea* "o %\ld be on record ev5 if x is desir$ to keep x 9 a private collection4 ,fossils ,9 ! s$im5t>y rocks "o is apt to f9d rema9s ( "s ( ! animals & plants t liv$ at ! "t ! rock 0 =m+4 ,:ile ! s(t p>ts ( animals decompose rapidly1 %ells & bones are likely to be buri$ 9 ! s$im5ts1 & if ! conditions h be5 favorable1 ^! rema9s may be pres]v$ m or less p]fectly4 ,all ?r\gh ! millions ( ye>s t s$im5t>y rocks h be5 =m+ 9 ! sea1 9 lakes1 on riv] flood pla9s & 9 w9d swept des]ts1 !re 0 an abundance ( life1 z mu* z !re is today2 & our k ( t life is d]iv$ f ^! buri$ fossil rema9s1 s t fossils h a great hi/oric int]e/4 ,h[ev] z !re h liv$ & di$ sev]al times z _m diff]5t k9ds ( animals z live today1 ! /udy ( fossils becomes a sep>ate subject1 :i* _c be treat$ 9 ?is book4 ,%\ld any collector ( rocks & m9]als come ^u fossils1 he is op5+ a new field1 & x w be necess>y to turn to o!r s\rces = _! id5tification4 ,g5]al books on ?is subject are sc>ce1 b "o or two are giv5 9 ! lit]ature li/4 ,a ,li/ ( ! ,elem5ts1 ! ,abbreviations ,us$ = ,!m1 & ,_! ,atomic ,weight1 ,:i* ,is ,approximately ! ,numb] ( ,times ,heavi] ,!y ,are ,?an ,hydrog54 ,"n ,oxyg5 #af ,alum9ium1 ,al #bg ,antimony1 ,sb #abb ,argon1 ,ar #dj ,ars5ic1 ,z #ge ,b>ium1 ,ba #acg ,b]yllium1 ,be #i ,bismu?1 ,bi #bji ,boron1 ,b #aa ,brom9e1 ,br #hj ,cadmium1 ,cd #aab ,csium1 ,cs #acb ,calcium1 ,ca #dj ,c>bon1 ,c #ab ,c]ium1 ,ce #adj ,*lor9e1 ,cl #ce ,*romium1 ,cr #eb ,cobalt1 ,co #ei ,columbium1 ,cb #ic ,copp]1 ,cu #fd ,dysprosium1 ,dy #afb ,erbium1 ,er #afg ,europium1 ,eu #aeb ,fluor9e1 ,f #ai ,gadol9ium1 ,gd #aeg ,gallium1 ,ga #gj ,g]manium1 ,ge #fc ,gluc9um1 ,gl #i ,gold1 ,au #aig ,hafnium1 ,hf #agi ,helium1 ,he #d ,holmium1 ,ho #afe ,hydrog51 ,h #a ,indium1 ,9 #aae ,iod9e1 ,i #abg ,iridium1 ,ir #aic ,iron1 ,fe #ef ,krypton1 ,kr #hd ,lan?anum1 ,la #aci ,lead1 ,pb #bjg ,li?ium1 ,li #g ,lutecium1 ,lu #age ,magnesium1 ,mg #bd ,manganese1 ,mn #ee ,m]cury1 ,hg #bja ,molybd5um1 ,mo #if ,neodymium1 ,nd #add ,neon1 ,ne #bj ,nickel1 ,ni #ei ,nitrog51 ,n #ad ,osmium1 ,os #aij ,oxyg51 ,o #af ,palladium1 ,pd #ajg ,phosphorus1 ,p #ca ,plat9um1 ,pt #aie ,potassium1 ,k #ci ,prseodymium1 ,pr #ada ,protoact9ium1 ,pa #bca ,radium1 ,ra #bbf ,radon1 ,rn #bbb ,rh5ium1 ,re #ahf ,rhodium1 ,rh #ajc ,rubidium1 ,rb #he ,ru!nium1 ,ru #ajb ,sam>ium1 ,sm #aej ,sc&ium1 ,sc #de ,sel5ium1 ,se #gi ,silicon1 ,si #bh ,silv]1 ,ag #ajh ,sodium1 ,na #bc ,/rontium1 ,sr #hh ,sulphur1 ,s #cb ,tantalum1 ,ta #aha ,tellurium1 ,te #abh ,t]bium1 ,tb #aei ,?allium1 ,tl #bjd ,?orium1 ,? #bcb ,?ulium1 ,tu #afi ,t91 ,sn #aai ,titanium1 ,ti #dh ,tung/51 ,w #ahd ,uranium1 ,u #bch ,vanadium1 ,v #ea ,x5on1 ,xe #aca ,ytt]bium1 ,yt #agc ,yttrium1 ,y #hi ,z9c1 ,zn #fe ,zirconium1 ,zr #ia ,table ( ,geologic ,"t ,eras ,p]iods & _! ,important ,physical ,important ,duration 9 ,millions ,ev5ts ,organic ,ev5ts ( ,ye>s ,c5ozoic ,quat]n>y ,rec5t ,y\?ful l& =ms ,dom9ance ( man4 hav+ high relief =m$4 ,plei/oc5e ,epo* #b ,m4,y4 ,p]iod ( ,heidelb]g1 glaciation2 f\r ,ne&]?al1 & great ice advances4 ,cr-,magnon man2 ext9ction ( l>ge mammals4 ,t]ti>y ,plioc5e ,epo* #aj ,m4,y4 ,cont9u+ ,int]migration ( _w-wide l& ,nor? & ,s\? elevation4 ,am]ican mammals4 ,trans=mation ( ape to man4 ,mioc5e ,epo* #ah ,m4,y4 ,cordill]as1 ,alps1 ,culm9ation ( ,himalayas =m$4 mod]n types ( ,widespread mammals4 ,apes vulcanism-basalt appe> 9 ,old fl[s 9 ,_w4 nor?we/]n ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,oligoc5e ,epo* #aj ,m4,y4 ,l& dom9ant2 seas ,c>nivores & m>g9al4 ungulates develop into importance4 ,eoc5e ,epo* #bj ,m4,y4 ,ext5sive ,dawn ( ! s$im5tation2 seas dom9ance ( m>g9al4 mammals4 ,reptiles subord9ate4 ,cretace\s #fe ,m4,y4 ,widespread ,climax & epicont95tal culm9ation ( seas4 ,l>amide reptiles1 revolution at close especially ( p]iod--,rocky d9osaurs2 fir/ ,m\nta9s =m$4 fl[]+ plants & grasses4 ,mesozoic ,jurassic #ch ,m4,y4 ,cont95t em]g5t2 ,rise ( birds & %all[ seas on fly+ reptiles1 we/]n ,nor? fir/ mod]n ,am]ica4 trees4 ,triassic #ce ,m4,y4 ,cont95t em]g5t2 ,rise ( seas m>g9al4 d9osaurs1 cycads1 & ammonites4 ,paleozoic ,p]mian #ce ,m4,y4 ,_w-wide ,ext9ction ( cont95tal uplift mo/ ,paleozoic & m\nta9 fauna & flora4 build+4 ,fir/ mod]n ,widespread insects4 glaciation4 ,p5nsylvanian #dh ,m4,y4 ,cont95t ,great alt]nately ris+ coal-=m+ & s9k+4 =e/s1 ( f]ns & se$-f]ns4 ,mississippian #ce ,m4,y4 ,l[ l&s & ,culm9ation ( widespread cr9oids1 subm]g5ce4 num]\s %>ks4 ,devonian #dj ,m4,y4 ,widespread ,fir/ kn[n l& subm]g5ce1 local animals1 fir/ vulcanism4 =e/s4 ,silurian #bh ,m4,y4 ,widespread ,fir/ lung fi%es subm]g5ce1 local & scorpions1 des]ts4 abundant corals4 ,ordovician #fe ,m4,y4 #fj ( ,nor? ,climax ( ,am]ica bel[ sea4 inv]tebrate dom9ance1 fir/ v]tebrate4 ,cambrian #aje ,m4,y4 ,widespread ,fir/ abundant subm]g5ce4 inv]tebrate fauna1 trilobites dom9ant4 ,prot]ozoic #gjj ,m4,y4 ,long p]iods ( ,bact]ia & granite intrusion1 seawe$s pres5t4 s$im5tation1 & ,mo/ m\nta9 build+4 inv]tebrates probably pres5t1 b rema9s are lack+4 ,ar*eozoic #hjj ,m4,y4 ,_w-wide ,blue-gre5 algae intrusive igne\s pres5t1 activity2 "s primitive s$im5ts4 "o-cell$ plants & animals probably pres5t4 ,,bibliography ,,m9]alogy ,gett+ ,acqua9t$ ) ,m9]alogy4 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,engli%1 #aicf1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,a beg9n+ textbook ( m9]alogy4 ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,m9]als & ,rocks4 #crd ,edition1 by ,a4 ,f4 ,rog]s1 #aicg1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,describes ! common] m9]als sy/ematically4 ,dana's ,textbook ( ,m9]alogy4 #d? ,edition1 revis$ by ,w4 ,e4 ,=d1 #aicb1 ,john ,wiley & ,sons4 ,detail$ descriptions ( m9]als1 _! physical prop]ties1 & _! occurr5ce4 ,manual ( ,m9]alogy4 #ae? ,edition1 by ,e4 ,s4 ,dana1 revis$ by ,c4 ,s4 ,hurlburt1 #aida1 ,john ,wiley & ,sons4 ,a textbook ( m9]alogy4 ,,m9]al ,,economics1 ,,geopolitics ,_w ,m9]als & ,_w ,peace4 ,by ,c4 ,k4 ,lei?1 ,j4 ,w4 ,furness1 & ,cleona ,lewis1 #aidc1 ,! ,brook+s ,in/itution4 ,physical1 economic1 & political tr5ds 9 ! m9]al indu/ry4 ,m9]als 9 ,_w ,affairs4 ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,lov]+1 #aidc1 ,pr5tice-,hall4 ,m9]als ,ye>book4 ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,m9es4 ,an annual volume pres5t+ /ati/ical data on ! production ( ! m9]al res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,reports on individual m9]als or rocks may be _h sep>ately4 ,,economic ,,geology ,m9]al ,deposits4 #d? ,edition1 by ,w4 ,l9dgr51 #aicc1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,! mann] ( occurr5ce & orig9 ( m9]al deposits4 ,elem5ts ( ,eng9e]+ ,geology4 #bnd ,edition1 by ,h4 ,ries & ,t4 ,l4 ,watson1 #aidg1 ,john ,wiley & ,sons4 ,?is ,fasc9at+ ,oil ,bus9ess4 ,by ,m4 ,w4 ,ball1 #aidj1 ,bobbs-,m]rill ,co4 ,a simple & elem5t>y description ( ! petroleum indu/ry4 ,geology ( ,coal4 ,by ,o4 ,/utz] & ,a4 ,c4 ,noe1 #aidj1 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press4 ,,g5]al ,,geology ,d[n to ,e>?4 ,by ,c4 ,croneis & ,w4 ,c4 ,krumbe91 #aicf1 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press4 ,an introduction to geology1 pr(usely illu/rat$4 ,textbook ( ,geology ,"p ,i--,physical ,geology4 #d? ,edition1 by ,c4 ,r4 ,longwell1 ,a4 ,knopf1 & ,r4 ,f4 ,fl9t1 #aici1 ,john ,wiley & ,sons4 ,a /&>d text on geology4 ,field ,geology4 #d? ,edition1 by ,f4 ,h4 ,lahee1 #aida1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,recognition & int]pretation ( geologic /ructures & topographic =ms z !y are obs]v$1 & me?ods ( geologic "w4 ,,preci\s ,,/ones ,a ,book ( ,preci\s ,/ones4 ,by ,j4 ,wodiska1 #aiaj1 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,writt5 = jewel]s1 b ( g5]al int]e/4 ,! ,curi\s ,lore ( ,preci\s ,/ones4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,kunz1 #aiac1 ,lipp9cott4 ,leg5ds & /ories ( ! gem m9]als4 ,! ,magic ( ,jewels & ,*>ms4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,kunz1 #aiae1 ,lipp9cott4 ,popul> ,gemology4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,pe>l1 #aidh1 ,john ,wiley & ,sons4 ,sci5tific & indu/rial uses ( gems1 curr5t in=mation ab\t _! locality & production4 ,,fossils ,an ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,fossils4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,%im]1 #aicc1 ,macmillan ,co4 ,an introductory textbook ab\t fossil plants & animals4 ,inv]tebrate ,paleontology4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,tw5h(el & ,r4 ,p4 ,%rock1 #aice1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,textbook ( ,geology ,"p ,,ii--,hi/orical ,geology4 #d? ,edition1 by ,c4 ,s*u*]t & ,c4 ,o4 ,dunb>1 #aida1 ,john ,wiley & ,sons4 ,! /ory ( ! developm5t ( life ?r\gh ! ages4 ,,index ,a ,act9olite1 #abj ,adobe1 #baj ,agate1 #ajg ,agate1 moss1 #gc1 #ajh ,alaba/]1 #aeb ,alb]tite1 #bbi ,albite1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aae ,alm&9e1 #ig ,alm&ite1 #abb1 #abc ,alum9um bronze1 #gd ,alum9um gr\p1 #gc ,amazon /one1 #aad ,amb]1 #bbc ,ame?y/1 #ajd ,ame?y/1 ,ori5tal1 #ge ,amian?us1 #abj ,amphibole gr\p1 #aai ,amygdoloid1 #aid ,amygdoloidal1 #agf ,analcite1 #ada ,&esite1 #aac1 #ahg ,&radite1 #abb1 #abd ,anglesite1 #fb ,anhydrite1 #adi ,anor?ite1 #aaj1 #aac ,anor?osite1 #ahc ,an?racite1 #bah1 #bbb ,antimony1 #ha ,antimony1 gray1 #ha ,apatite1 #afj ,aquam>9e1 #abe ,aragonite1 #adg ,arg5tite1 #ce ,argillite1 #bdb ,arkose1 #bjf ,ars5ic gr\p1 #gh ,ars5opyrite1 #gi ,asbe/os1 #abj1 #adj ,augite1 #aah ,av5tur9e1 #ajd ,azurite1 #df ,b ,b>ite1 #aed ,b>ium gr\p1 #aed ,basalt1 #ahh ,ba?oli?1 #agd ,bauxite1 #gg ,b]yl1 #abe ,b]yl1 gold51 #abe ,b]yllium1 #abe ,bibliography1 #bgj ,biotite1 #abi1 #acj ,bitum51 #bbh ,black jack1 #fe ,blood/one1 #ajf ,bog lime1 #bac ,bombs1 #aia ,boracite1 #afd ,borax1 #afe ,bornite1 #da ,brass1 #fd ,breccia1 #aia1 #aih ,brittania metal1 #ha ,bronze1 #ch ,bronze ,age1 #ch ,bronzite1 #aah ,byt[nite1 #aac ,c ,calam9e1 #fh ,calav]ite1 #cj ,calcite1 #add ,calcium1 #adc ,c>bon1 #aef ,c>bonite1 #bbb ,c>buncle1 #abd ,c>nelian1 #ajf ,c>notite1 #ij ,cassit]ite1 #ic ,cat's eye1 #ajd ,cele/ite1 #aec ,c]>gyrite1 #cg ,c]rusite1 #fa ,ceylonite1 #ig ,*alc$ony1 #ajd1 #ajf ,*alcocite1 #db ,*alcopyrite1 #dj ,*alcotri*ite1 #de ,*alk1 #bac ,*]t1 #ajg ,*lorite1 #adj ,*lorosp9el1 #ih ,*romite1 #hg ,*romium1 #hf ,*rysocola1 #dg ,*rysolite1 #acd1 #adj ,*rysoprase1 #ajf ,c9nab>1 #ia ,c9namon /one1 #abc ,citr9e1 #ajc ,clay1 #bjg ,clay1 ball1 #bjh ,clay1 brick1 #bji ,clay1 *9a1 #bjh ,clay1 fire1 #bjh ,clay1 pav+ brick1 #bji ,clay1 sew]-pipe1 #bji ,clay1 slip1 #bji ,clay1 /onew>e1 #bji ,clay /ones1 #bej ,cleavage1 #ba ,cleavage1 slaty1 #bcd ,coal1 #bag ,coal1 bitum9\s1 #bab1 #bbj ,coal1 cannel1 #bba ,coal1 h>d1 #bbb ,coal1 s(t1 #bbj ,cobalt1 #hd ,cobalt bloom1 #he ,cobalt glance1 #he ,cobalt gray ore1 #he ,cobaltite1 #hc ,coke1 #bbj ,colemanite1 #afe ,collect+1 #e1 #g ,color1 #bc ,concretions1 #bdh ,concretions1 fl9t1 #bec ,concretions1 lime1 #bea ,concretions1 o!r1 #bee ,concretions1 s&/one1 #bec ,conglom]ate1 #bjb ,copp]1 #cg1 #ci ,copp]1 blu%+1 #db ,copp]1 glance1 #db ,copp]1 grey1 #dc ,copp]1 peacock1 #db ,copp]1 plu%1 #de ,copp]1 purple1 #da ,copp]1 r$1 #dd ,copp]1 v>iegat$1 #db ,copp]1 yell[1 #dj ,coqu9a1 #bac ,coral1 #adf ,coral rock1 #bad ,corundum1 #ge ,crude oil1 #bbg ,cryolite1 #gh ,cry/al balls1 #aja ,cry/al =mation1 #ad ,cry/al rock1 #ajc ,cry/al /ructure1 #aa ,cry/al sy/ems1 #ac-ah ,cuprite1 #dd ,cyanite1 #abh ,d ,dacite1 #ahg ,d5se1 #agf ,diamond1 #aeg ,diamonds1 ,matura1 #abg ,diamonds1 slave's1 #acc ,diatoms1 #bca ,dikes1 #agd ,diorite1 #ahb ,dog-too? sp>1 #ade ,dolomite1 #ii ,dry bone1 #fh ,e ,e>?1 diatomace\s1 #bc ,elem5ts1 li/$1 #bfg ,em]ald1 #abe ,em]ald1 ,ori5tal1 #ge ,em]y1 #gf ,en/atite1 #aag ,epidote1 #acd ,equipm5t1 #g ,erubescite1 #db ,extrusive1 #agc ,f ,feldsp>1 #aaj ,feldsp>1 alkalic1 #aaa ,felsite1 #ahf ,felsitic1 #agf ,f]romanganese1 #gj ,flag/one1 #bjg ,fl9t1 #ajf ,fluor9e1 #afb ,fluorite1 #afb ,fossils1 #bff ,fragm5tal1 #agf ,frankl9ite1 #fi ,free/one1 #bjg ,g ,gabbro1 #ahc ,gal5a1 #fj ,g>net gr\p1 #aba ,g>net1 ,sirian1 #abc ,geodes1 #bee ,g]man silv]1 #hb ,gilsonite1 #bbi ,glassy1 #agf ,gluc9um1 #abe ,gneiss1 #bcg ,goe?ite1 #ea1 #eb ,gold1 #ca ,gold foil1 #fd ,gold gr\p1 #bi ,gossan1 #ej ,granite1 #agh ,granite1 graphic1 #agi ,granitoid1 #agf ,graphite1 #aef1 #bai ,gravel1 #bja ,graywacke1 #bjf ,grit1 #bjf ,grossul>ite1 #abb1 #abc ,guano1 #bcj ,gumbo1 #baj ,gypsum1 #aej ,h ,halite1 #afc ,h>dness1 #bj ,h>dpan1 #baf ,heavy sp>1 #aed ,heliotrope1 #ajf ,hematite1 #ec ,hemih$ral =ms1 #ai ,h]cynite1 #ih ,hexagonal sy/em1 #ah ,hornbl5de1 #aba ,horn/one1 #ajg ,hyac9?1 #abg ,hyp]/h5e1 #aah ,i ,ice1 #afg ,icel& sp>1 #ade ,ice /one1 #gh ,ilm5ite1 #id ,intrusive1 #agd ,iron1 #dg ,iron1 bog1 #ej ,iron1 *romic1 #hg ,iron1 magnetic1 #ed ,iron pyrites1 #ef ,iron1 spa?ic1 #ee ,iron1 specul>1 #ec ,isometric sy/em1 #ac ,j ,jac9?1 #abg ,j>gons1 #abg ,j>goons1 #abg ,jasp]1 #ajf ,jet1 #bbb ,k ,kaol91 #acg1 #bjh ,kaol9ite1 #acg ,l ,labels1 #e ,labradorite1 #aac1 #aaf ,laccoli?1 #agd ,lapilli1 #aia ,lava1 #agc ,lead1 #ei ,lead glance1 #fj ,lead1 gre5 ore1 #fc ,lead1 :ite ore1 #fa ,lepidolite1 #abi1 #acj ,lignite1 #bah1 #bai ,lime/one1 #bab ,lime/one1 encr9al1 #bad ,lime/one1 hydraulic1 #bad ,lime/one1 li?ographic1 #bad ,limonite1 #di1 #ea ,loess1 #baj ,lu/]1 #bc ,m ,magma1 #agc ,magnesite1 #ih ,magnesium gr\p1 #if ,magnetite1 #ed ,mala*ite1 #de ,malanite1 #abd ,malta1 #bbi ,manganese gr\p1 #gj ,manganite1 #gb ,m>ble1 #bdc ,m>ble1 ,suisun1 #adf ,m>casite1 #eg ,m>l1 #baa ,m]cury1 #ij ,meteorites1 #bfb ,mica gr\p1 #abh ,microcl9e1 #aac1 #aad ,mill]ite1 #hc ,m9]al tables1 #be ,m9]als1 def9$1 #aj ,molybd5ite1 #ha ,molybd5um1 #hj ,monocl9ic sy/em1 #ag ,monzonite1 #aha ,morion1 #ajc ,"m-(-pe>l1 #adh ,muscovite1 #abi ,n ,natrolite1 #adb ,natural gas1 #bbg ,ne$le iron /one1 #eb ,niccolite1 #hc ,nickel1 copp]1 #hc ,nickel gr\p1 #hb ,o ,obsidian1 #aia ,o*re r$1 #ed ,o*re yell[1 #di ,oligoclase1 #aac1 #aae ,oliv9e1 #acd ,oliv9e-gabbro1 #ahc ,onyx1 #ajh ,onyx1 ,cali=nian1 #adf ,onyx m>ble1 #bae ,onyx1 ,mexican1 #adf ,oolites1 #bed ,opal1 #ajh ,opal-agate1 #aji ,opal1 common1 #aji ,opal1 fire1 #aji ,opal1 preci\s1 #aji ,ophicalcite1 #bdf ,ophiolite1 #bdf ,orpim5t1 #hj ,or?oclase1 #aaj1 #aac ,or?orhombic sy/em1 #af ,p ,pa/e1 #ajc ,pe>ls1 #adh ,pe>l/one1 #aic ,peat1 #bah1 #bai ,pebbles1 #bef ,pegmatite1 #agi ,p]idot1 #acd ,p]idotite1 #ahd ,p]lite1 #aic ,petroleum s]ies1 #bbd1 #bbg ,pewt]1 #fj ,ph5ocry/s1 #ahi ,phlogopite1 #abi1 #aca ,phosphate1 #afj1 #bcj ,phosphorus1 #aei ,phyllite1 #bdb ,picotite1 #ig ,pisolite1 #bee ,pit*/one1 #aic ,plagioclase1 #aaa ,plasma1 #ajf ,plat9um1 #ie ,plumbago1 #aef ,por\s1 #agf ,porphyritic1 #agf ,porphyry1 #ahi ,prase1 #ajd ,pr\site1 #cf ,psilomelane1 #gb ,pumice1 #aic ,pyr>gyrite1 #ce ,pyrite1 #ef ,pyrite1 capill>y1 #hc ,pyrite1 magnetic1 #eh ,pyrite1 :ite1 #eg ,pyritoh$ron1 #ef1 #cah ,pyrolusite1 #ga ,pyromorphite1 #fc ,pyrope1 #abb1 #abc ,pyrox5e gr\p1 #aaf ,pyrox5ite1 #ahe ,pyrrhotite1 #eh ,q ,qu>tz1 #ajj ,qu>tz-diorite1 #aha ,qu>tz1 milky1 #ajc ,qu>tz1 rose1 #ajd ,qu>tz1 smoky1 #ajc ,qu>tzite1 #bci ,quicks&s1 #bjd ,quicksilv]1 #ij ,r ,radium1 #hi ,realg>1 #hj ,rh9e/ones1 #aja ,rhodo*rosite1 #gc ,rhyolite #ahe ,rock1 phosphate1 #bcj ,rocks1 #agj ,rocks1 def9$1 #aj ,rocks1 igne\s1 #agb ,rocks1 igne\s1 classifi$1 #agg ,rocks1 metamorphic1 #bcb ,rocks1 metamorphic1 classifi$1 #bcf ,rocks1 s$im5t>y1 #aid ,rocks1 s$im5t>y1 classifi$1 #aif ,rubicelle1 #ig ,ruby1 #ge ,ruby1 ,balas1 #ig ,ruby mica1 #eb ,rutile1 #id ,s ,salt1 #afc ,s&1 #bjb ,s&/one1 #bje ,sapphire1 #ge ,sapphire1 ,ori5tal :ite1 #ge ,s>donyx1 #ajh ,sat9 sp>1 #adf ,s*i/1 #bdj ,s*i/osity1 #bcd ,scoria1 #aib1 #aic ,sept]ia1 #beb ,s]icite1 #acj ,s]p5t9e1 #aci1 #bde ,%ale1 #baj ,%ale1 oil-be>+1 #bbe ,%eet1 #agc ,sid]ite1 #ee ,silica1 #ii ,silicates1 #ii ,silicon1 #ii ,sill1 #agd ,sillimanite1 #abh ,silv]1 #cd ,silv]1 d>k r$1 #ce ,silv]1 ,g]man1 #fe ,silv] glance1 #ce ,silv] gr\p1 #cb ,silv]1 horn1 #cg ,silv]1 light r$1 #cf ,silv]1 ruby1 #ce ,s9t]1 #aaj ,slate1 #bda ,smalt1 #hd ,smaltite1 #he ,smi?sonite1 #fh ,soap/one1 #bdd ,sodalite1 #abf ,soil1 #aih ,sold]1 #fj ,specific gravity1 #bb ,speigeleis51 #gj ,spelt]1 #fd ,spess>tite1 #abb1 #abc ,sphal]ite1 #fe ,sp9el1 #ig ,sp9el-ruby1 #ig ,/alactites1 #adf ,/alagmites1 #adf ,/aurolite1 #acc ,/eatite1 #bdd ,/ellite1 #hd1 #hh ,/ibnite1 #ha ,/ilbite1 #adc ,/ock1 #agd ,/reak1 #bc ,/rontianite1 #aeb ,/rontium gr\p1 #aeb ,sulphur1 #aff ,sy5ite1 #ahj ,sylvanite1 #cj ,t ,talc1 #ach ,talus1 #aig ,tetragonal sy/em1 #ae ,tetrah$rite1 #dc ,tile ore1 #de ,till1 #bae ,tillite1 #bag ,"t *>t1 #bfh ,t91 #ib ,t9 /one1 #ic ,titanium1 #ic ,tonalite1 #aha ,topaz1 #aca ,topaz1 false1 #ajc ,topaz1 ,ori5tal1 #ge ,topaz1 ,saxon1 #acb ,topaz1 ,scot*1 #acb ,topaz1 smoky1 #acb ,topaz1 ,spani%1 #acb ,t\rmal9e1 #ace ,tra*ite1 #ahf ,trap1 #ahh ,trav]t9e1 #adf1 #bae ,tremolite1 #abj ,tricl9ic sy/em1 #ah ,tripolite1 #aaj ,tufa1 calc>e\s1 #adg ,tuff1 #aij ,tung/51 #hg ,turgite1 #ea ,turquois1 #afa ,tw9n+1 #ai ,type metal1 #fj ,u ,u9taite1 #bbi ,uranium1 #hi ,uv>ovite1 #abb1 #abc ,v ,vanadium1 #hi ,v]de antique1 #bdg ,volcanic a%1 #aij ,volcanic blocks1 #aia ,w ,wat]1 #afg ,:ite metal1 #fd ,willemite1 #fg ,)]ite1 #aec ,wolframite1 #hh ,wood1 agatiz$1 #ajh ,wood1 opaliz$1 #aji ,wood1 silicifi$1 #ajh ,x ,xan?osid]ite1 #ea ,z ,zeolites1 #ada ,z9c1 #fc ,z9c bl5de1 #fe ,z9c r$ ore1 #ff ,z9c1 ruby1 #fe ,z9cite1 #ff ,zircon1 #abg ,plate ,frontispiece ,illu/ration3 ,t\rmal9e cry/als1 gr[+ amid feldsp> cry/als 9 a cavity 9 granite1 f ,p>is1 ,me4 ,plate #e ,illu/ration3 ,gold 9 qu>tz1 f ,cali=nia ,plate #f ,illu/ration3 ,native silv] 9 calcite ,illu/ration3 ,arg5tite1 ! black masses ?r\gh\t ! :ite qu>tz ,plate #g ,illu/ration3 ,pyr>gyrite z x appe>s aft] mod]ate exposure to ! light4 ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al =m ( ,pyr>gyrite ,illu/ration3 ,pr\site z x appe>s aft] mod]ate exposure to ! light ,plate #h ,illu/ration3 ,native copp] f ,mi*igan ,illu/ration3 ,*alcopyrite 9 tetrah$rons & an occasional octah$ron4 ,plate #i ,illu/ration3 ,*alcocite cry/als ) ! blui% t>ni% ,illu/ration3 ,tetrah$rite cry/als ,plate #aa ,illu/ration3 ,cuprite1 ! r$ cry/als %[+ *>act]i/ic color1 o!r %[+ ! gre5 t>ni% ( mala*ite ,illu/ration3 ,mala*ite 7gre57 & azurite 7blue71 ! two m9]als %[n toge!r z !y v commonly occur ,plate #ab ,illu/ration3 ,limonite ,illu/ration3 ,! cry/al =m 9 :i* goe?ite is f\nd1 p is ! prism faces1 b & c are faces =m$ by bevel+ ! edges ( ! prism1 o is ! pyramidal face *>act]i/ic ( ! ends ,plate #ac ,illu/ration3 ,hematite1 ,cl9ton iron ore1 oolitic ,illu/ration3 ,sid]ite cry/als ,plate #ae ,illu/ration3 ,pyrite cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,m>casite 9 concretion>y =m ) radiate /ructure ,plate #ag ,illu/ration3 ,gal5a 9 cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,pyromorphite cry/als 7gre57 ,plate #ai ,illu/ration3 ,sphal]ite1 "s ! normal yell[ & "s cry/als ) ! r$di% t+e4 7,:ite is dolomite7 ,illu/ration3 ,z9cite ,plate #ba ,illu/ration3 ,smi?sonite 9 yell[ cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,frankl9ite 9 octah$ral cry/als ,plate #bd ,illu/ration3 ,ars5opyrite1 %[+ cry/als mass$ s z to be incompletely develop$ ,illu/ration3 ,realg> z x usually occurs 9 p[d]y incru/ations ,plate #be ,illu/ration3 ,l>ge cry/al ( /ibnite1 ! light color$ face is ! "o p>allel to :i* cleavage occurs ,illu/ration3 ,niccolite z a ve9 9 slate ,plate #bf ,illu/ration3 ,cobaltite1 silv] color1 ) p9k t+e ,illu/ration3 ,smaltite1 p9k is cobalt bloom ,plate #bg ,illu/ration3 ,c>notite f s\?we/ ,colorado ,illu/ration3 ,c9nab> ,plate #ca ,illu/ration3 ,ame?y/1 n h[ev] deep en\gh color$ = gems ,illu/ration3 ,jasp]1 ) botryoidal surface ,plate #cb ,illu/ration3 ,b&$ ,agate f ,brazil ,plate #cc ,illu/ration3 ,common ,opal f ,arizona ,illu/ration3 ,silice\s s9t] or ,geys]ite f ,! ,yell[/one ,p>k ,plate #ce ,illu/ration3 ,a gr\p ( ,microcl9e cry/als f ,pike's ,peak1 ,colo4 ,illu/ration3 ,labradorite1 %[+ multiple tw9n+ 7! /riation71 & ! iridesc5t play ( colors ,plate #cf ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al =m ( a pyrox5e2 a & b prism faces1 m ! bevel$ edge betwe5 two prism faces ,illu/ration3 ,cross section ( a pyrox5e cry/al %[+ ! l9es ( int]section ( ! two cleavage planes ,illu/ration3 ,cross sections ( pyrox5es1 %[+ typical =ms tak5 by cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,augite cry/als1 9 cry/all9e lime/one ,plate #ch ,illu/ration3 ,! dodecah$ron & ! #bd-sid$ figure *>act]i/ic ( g>nets ,illu/ration3 ,! g>net1 grossul>ite ,illu/ration3 ,! g>net alam&ite ,plate #ci ,illu/ration3 ,b]yl ( gem quality ,illu/ration3 ,zircon 9 sy5ite ,plate #dj ,illu/ration3 ,cyanite cry/als 9 s*i/ ,illu/ration3 ,a cry/al ( mica1 %[+ basal cleavage ,plate #da ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al =m typical ( topaz ,illu/ration3 ,a topaz cry/al f ,brazil ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al =m typical ( /aurolite :5 simple ,illu/ration3 ,a typical tw9 ( /aurolite ,plate #dc ,illu/ration3 ,s]p5t9e ,illu/ration3 ,*lorite ,plate #di ,illu/ration3 ,apatite cry/als 9 cry/all9e calcite ,illu/ration3 ,! ends ( apatite cry/als %[+ common modes ( t]m9ation ,plate #ej ,illu/ration3 ,a gr\p ( fluorite cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,a gr\p ( halite cry/als ,plate #fa ,illu/ration3 ,amb] ,illu/ration3 ,two bottles ( petroleum1 ! left h& "o ) a p>aff9 base1 ! "r h& "o ) an asphalt base ,plate #fe ,illu/ration3 ,mica s*i/1 ) g>nets ,illu/ration3 ,*lorite s*i/ ,plate #fg ,illu/ration3 ,s]p5t9e1 compos$ ( s]p5t9e1 hematite1 & "s calcite ,plate #a ,basal =ms ( ! isometric sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,cube ,illu/ration3 ,octah$ron ,illu/ration3 ,dodecah$ron ,plate #b ,basal =ms ( ! tetragonal sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,a squ>e prism ,illu/ration3 ,octah$ron ,basal =ms ( ! or?orhombic sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,a ,rectangul> prism ,illu/ration3 ,octah$ron ,plate #c ,basal =ms ( ! monocl9ic sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,! rectangul> prism askew ,illu/ration3 ,! octah$ron ,illu/ration3 ,a cross section ( ! prism ) its edges bevel$ s t ! b faces are oblit]at$ by ! m faces1 & a six-sid$ prism is =m$ 7pseudo-hexagonal7 ,illu/ration3 ,basal =m ( ! tricl9ic sy/em ,plate #d ,basal =ms ( ! hexagonal sy/em ,illu/ration3 ,! six-sid$ prism ,illu/ration3 ,! d\ble pyramid ,illu/ration3 ,! rhomboh$ron ,plate #aj ,illu/ration3 ,tetrah$rons %[+ *>act]i/ic mann] 9 :i* tetrah$rite occurs ,illu/ration3 ,a cube ) ! edges bevel$ & ! corn]s cut 9 a =m *>act]i/ic ( cuprite ,plate #cj ,illu/ration3 ,two int]gr[+ or tw9n$ qu>tz cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( ! typical qu>tz cry/al1 p prism faces1 l left h& rhomboh$ron1 r "r h& rhomboh$ron ,illu/ration3 ,a qu>tz cry/al on :i* ! left h& rhomboh$ron is repres5t$ by small faces :ile ! "r h& rhomboh$ron has l>ge faces ,plate #ad ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al =ms ( hematite1 ,a ! rhomboh$ron ) ! edges bevel$2 ,b ! tabul> =m1 result+ f ! excessive developm5t ( ! two o faces opposite ea* o!r ,illu/ration3 ,a typical cry/al ( magnetite ,illu/ration3 ,! rhomboh$ron typical ( sid]ite ,plate #af ,illu/ration3 ,! pyritoh$ron ,illu/ration3 ,! pyritoh$ron ) c]ta9 ( its edges bevel$ by ! cube faces1 to %[ ! relation%ip ( ^! two =ms ,plate #ah ,typical =ms = c]rusite ,illu/ration3 ,! pyramid1 n ! prism face1 m ! bevel$ prism1 p ! octah$ral face1 & o ! edge ( ! octah$ral faces bevel$ ,illu/ration3 ,! simple type ( tw9n+ ,illu/ration3 ,a multiple tw9 :]e ?ree cry/als gr[ ?r\gh ea* o!r ,illu/ration3 ,=ms 9 :i* anglesite occurs3 l ! pyramid face1 p ! prism face1 o ! v]tical edge ( ! prism bevel$1 m ! horizontal edge ( ! prism bevel$1 n a fur!r bevel+ ( ! horizontal edge ( ! prism4 ,d ! tabul>1 ,e ! prismatic =m ,plate #bj ,illu/ration3 ,a *>act]i/ic =m 9 :i* sphal]ite may occur2 be+ ! comb9ation (1 d ! dodecah$ron1 o ! octah$ron1 & t1 a #bd-sid$ figure ,illu/ration3 ,*>act]i/ic =m = z9cite cry/als1 n ! hexagonal prism1 & p pyramidal faces on x ,illu/ration3 ,typical =m ( cry/al ( willemite3 p ! prism1 r rhomboh$ron faces on end1 r a second l[] rhomboh$ron ,plate #bb ,illu/ration3 ,moss agates1 %[+ ! d5dritic gr[? ( manganitic m9]als1 l manganite or pyrolusite ,illu/ration3 ,moss agates ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al =m ( manganite ,plate #bc ,illu/ration3 ,cry/als ( gre5 corundum 9 sy5ite1 f ,montana ,illu/ration3 ,typical cry/al =ms ( corundum3 ,a ! elongat$ prism ) ! alt]nate corn]s cut by rhomboh$ral faces1 ,b ! tabul> prism1 ,c ! d\ble pyramid ,plate #bh ,illu/ration3 ,cassit]ite1 tw9n$ cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,! cry/al =m 9 :i* bo? cassit]ite & rutile occur :5 9 simple cry/als1 p prism faces1 m bevel+ ( ! prism1 o octah$ral face1 n bevel+ ( ! edge betwe5 octah$ral faces ,illu/ration3 ,multiple tw9n+ *>act]i/ic ( rutile ,plate #bi ,illu/ration3 ,cry/al ( ,sp9el ,cry/al =ms 9 :i* dolomite occurs ,illu/ration3 ,a ! cleavage =m1 rhomboh$ron ) ! faces curv$ ,illu/ration3 ,b ! rhomboh$ron ) ! corn]s cut1 z x (t5 occurs ,illu/ration3 ,c ! =m f\nd 9 gypsum or anhydrite ,plate #cd ,illu/ration3 ,or?oclase1 a cleavage piece1 a & b ! p]fect cleavage planes1 & c ! imp]fect cleavage plane ,cry/al =ms ( or?oclase ,illu/ration3 ,a ! simple cry/al ,illu/ration3 ,b ! tw9n$ =m ,illu/ration3 ,c ! tw9n$ =m 9 :i* ! cry/als are int]gr[+ ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( a multiple tw9 ( a plagioclase feldsp> ,plate #cg ,diagrams ( amphibole cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,a a typical cry/al ,illu/ration3 ,b cross section %[+ ! int]section ( cleavage planes ,illu/ration3 ,c & ,d cross sections to %[ v>iations 9 outl9e ,illu/ration3 ,tremolite 9 silky fibr\s cry/als4 ,asbe/os ,illu/ration3 ,hornbl5de cry/als 9 qu>tzite ,plate #db ,illu/ration3 ,epidote cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,typical =ms ( epidote cry/als2 p prism faces1 m1 n1 x1 & y bevel$ edges ( ! prism1 o octah$ral faces ,typical =ms ( t\rmal9e ,illu/ration3 ,a side view2 ,b & ,c ends to %[ t]m9ations2 p prism faces1 m bevel+ ( prism edges1 r a l[ rhomboh$ron on ! end1 s ! opposite rhomboh$ron1 b basal face1 & ! o!r faces repres5t bevel+s ,plate #dh ,illu/ration3 ,a gr\p ( b>ite cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,outl9e ( ! typical tabul> b>ite cry/al ,illu/ration3 ,! six-sid$ d\ble pyramid1 compos$ ( ?ree int]p5etrat+ cry/als1 typical ( )]ite & /rontianite ,plate #dd ,illu/ration3 ,! typical =m ( analcite ,illu/ration3 ,a typical natrolite cry/al ,illu/ration3 ,! typical cry/al =m ( /ilbite ,illu/ration3 ,a %eaf-l bundle ( fibr\s cry/als1 typical ( /ilbite ,plate #de ,illu/ration3 ,a gr\p ( calcite cry/als ,typical =ms ( calcite ,illu/ration3 ,a ! rhomboh$ron =m$ by cleavage ,illu/ration3 ,b a rhomboh$ral cry/al truncat$ by ! basal plane ,illu/ration3 ,c ! scal5oh$ron ,illu/ration3 ,d ! scal5oh$ron truncat$ by ! rhomboh$ron ,illu/ration3 ,e ! scal5oh$ron on a prism ,plate #df ,typical =ms ( aragonite ,illu/ration3 ,a ! simple cry/al ,illu/ration3 ,b a ne$le-l =m1 tw9n$ ,illu/ration3 ,c cross section to %[ h[ ! =m may appe> six-sid$ ,illu/ration3 ,typical =m ( ! anhydrite cry/al ,plate #dg ,illu/ration3 ,a piece ( gypsum look+ on ! surface ( ! p]fect cleavage1 & %[+ ! two o!r cleavages z l9es1 int]sect+ at #ff4 ,tw9n+ is also %[n ,illu/ration3 ,a simple cry/al ( gypsum ,illu/ration3 ,tw9 cry/als ( gypsum ,plate #ea ,illu/ration3 ,sulphur cry/als ,illu/ration3 ,ice cry/als1 ! top "o1 ! end ( a hexagonal prism2 ! two l[] figures multiple tw9s z 9 sn[ flakes ,plate #eb ,illu/ration3 ,! ,devil's ,t[]1 ,wyom+1 an example ( igne\s rock ) column> /ructure1 & re/+ on s$im5t>y rocks4 ,c\rtesy ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,plate #ec ,illu/ration3 ,a co>se granite ,illu/ration3 ,graphic granite ,plate #ed ,illu/ration3 ,sy5ite ,illu/ration3 ,gabbro ,plate #ee ,illu/ration3 ,basalt-porphyry4 ,! l>ge :ite cry/als are ph5ocry/s ( plagioclase feldsp> ,illu/ration3 ,basalt-obsidian ,plate #ef ,illu/ration3 ,amgydoloid ,plate #eg ,illu/ration3 ,! nor? face ( ,scott's ,bluff1 ,neb41 %[+ s$im5t>y s&/ones above & clays bel[4 ,! type ( erosion is *>act]i/ic ( arid regions4 ,c\rtesy ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey ,plate #eh ,illu/ration3 ,breccia ,illu/ration3 ,conglom]ate ,plate #ei ,illu/ration3 ,calc>e\s %ale ,illu/ration3 ,coqu9a ,plate #fj ,illu/ration3 ,=am5if]a f ,*alk2 enl>g$ ab\t #be diamet]s ,illu/ration3 ,encr9al ,lime/one2 fragm5ts ( ! /ems1 arms & body ( ,cr9oids ,plate #fb ,illu/ration3 ,a diatomace\s e>? magnifi$ #ej times ,illu/ration3 ,b & ,c two diatoms f ! above enl>g$ #bej times4 ,aft] ,gravelle1 by ! c\rtesy ( ,natural ,hi/ory ,plate #fc ,illu/ration3 ,a metamorphic rock1 %[+ ! contortion ( lay]s due to expansion "u heat ,plate #fd ,illu/ration3 ,a conglom]ate p>tly metamorphos$ to a gneiss4 ,note ! flatt5$ pebbles & ! alt]nation ( ! int]m$iate mat]ial to mica scales1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,a typical gneiss ,plate #ff ,illu/ration3 ,phyllite ,illu/ration3 ,a :ite m>ble1 ) black /reaks due to graphite ,plate #fh ,illu/ration3 ,clay/ones1 simple & comp\nd ,illu/ration3 ,a l9e concretion1 :i* on splitt+ disclos$ a f]n leaf ( ! age ( ! coal measures ,plate #fi ,illu/ration3 ,a sept]ia f ,s5eca ,lake1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illu/ration3 ,pisolite ,plate #gj ,illu/ration3 ,a geode fill$ ) qu>tz cry/als ,plate #ga ,illu/ration3 ,a qu>tz pebble f ! b$ ( a ,new ,engl& brook ,illu/ration3 ,a pebble ( s*i/ & granite f ! foot ( ,mt4 ,toby1 ,mass4 ,plate #gb ,illu/ration3 ,an iron-nickel meteorite1 ( #bc lbs4 :i* fell 9 ,claiborne ,co41 ,t5n4 ,illu/ration3 ,an et*$ slice ( an iron meteorite :i* fell 9 ,re$ ,city1 ,osceola ,co41 ,mi*4 ,plate #gc ,illu/ration3 ,a /ony meteorite1 ab\t natural size1 :i* fell 9 #ahge1 9 ,i[a ,co41 ,i[a ,,putnam',s ,,nature ,,field ,,books ,companion books to ?is "o ,ma!ws ,am]ican ,wild ,fl[]s ,am]ican ,trees & ,%rubs ,wild ,birds & ,_! ,music ,dur& ,wild ,fl[]s 9 ,homes & ,g>d5s ,my ,wild ,fl[] ,g>d5 ,common ,f]ns ,lutz ,insects ,loomis ,rocks & ,m9]als ,eliot ,birds ( ! ,pacific ,coa/ ,arm/rong ,we/]n ,wild ,fl[]s ,alex&] ,birds ( ! ,ocean ,an?ony ,nor? ,am]ican ,mammals ,?omas ,common ,mu%rooms ,/urgis ,birds ( ! ,panama ,canal ,zone ,m9] ,sea%ore ,life ,br$] ,m>9e ,fi%es ( ! ,atlantic ,coa/ ,morgan ,ponds & ,/reams ,longye> ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,trees & ,%rubs ,olcott ,field ,book ( ! ,skies ,putnam ,beebe ,! ,%ore ,fi%es ( ,b]muda ,tee-,van ,s*r5keis5 ,fre%-,wat] ,fi%es ( ,nor? ,am]ica ,nor? ( ,mexico ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,reta9$ publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3 ?is e,book is public-doma9 9 ! c\ntry ( publication4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 text 9 italics is delimit$ by und]scores4 --,sil5tly correct$ a few typos4 --,recon/ruct$ an image caption 7,pisolite7 on ,plate #fi4 --,g5]at$ a cov] image bas$ on elem5ts 9 ! book4