,,under ,,the ,,superintendence ,,of    
,,the ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,diffusion 
,,of ,,useful                           
,,knowledge4                            
,,the                                   
,,gallery ,,of ,,portraits3             
,,with                                  
,,memoirs4                              
,,volume ,v4                            
,,london3                    ,,charles  
,,knight1 #bb1 ,,ludgate-,,street4      
#ahce4                      ,,price     
,,one ,,guinea1 ,,bound ,,in ,,cloth4   
,,london3                    ,,printed  
,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1   
,duke-,street1 ,lambeth4                
,,portraits ,,and ,,biographies         
,,contained ,,in ,,this ,,volume4       
,page4                              #a4 
,taylor           #a                    
#b4 ,lavoisier        #i                
#c4 ,sydenham        #ah                
#d4 ,clarendon       #be                
#e4 ,reynolds        #ce                
#f4 ,swift           #de                

#g4 ,locke           #ec                
#h4 ,selden          #fa                
#i4 ,par            #fi                 
#aj4 ,blake           #gg               
#aa4 ,l',hpital       #he               
#ab4 ,mrs4 ,siddons    #id              
#ac4 ,herschel       #aje               
#ad4 ,romilly        #aaa               
#ae4 ,shakspeare     #abb               
#af4 ,euler          #abi               
#ag4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones   #acd             
#ah4 ,rousseau       #adc               
#ai4 ,harrison       #aec               
#bj4 ,montaigne      #aeg               
#ba4 ,pope           #afd               
#bb4 ,bolivar        #agc               
#bc4 ,arkwright      #aha               
#bd4 ,cowper         #ahi               
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,w4    
,holl4      ,,jeremy ,,taylor4          
,from the original ,picture in the ,hall
 of ,all ,souls ,college1 ,oxford4      
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 

,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,taylor4      ,if this great ornament  
of our church did not boast of an       
exalted  lineage1 he numbered among his 
forefathers one at least1 the worthy    
ancestor of such a descendant1 ,dr4     
,rowland ,taylor1 chaplain to ,cranmer1 
and rector of ,hadleigh1 distinguished  
among the divines of the  ,reformation  
for his abilities1 learning1 and piety1 
as well as for the  courageous          
cheerfulness with which he suffered     
death at the stake in the  reign of     
,queen ,mary4 ,jeremy ,taylor was the   
son of a barber1 resident in  ,trinity  
parish1 ,cambridge2 and was baptized in 
,trinity church1 ,august  #ae1 #afac4   
,he was 8grounded in grammar and        
mathematics0 by his father1  and entered
 as a sizar at ,caius ,college1 ,august 
#ah1 #afbf4 ,of his  deportment1 his    
studies1 even of the honours and        
emoluments of his  academical life1 we  
have no certain knowledge4 ,it is stated

 by ,dr4 ,rust1  in his ,funeral        
,sermon1 that ,taylor was elected       
fellow3 but this is at  least doubtful1 
for no record of the fact exists in the 
registers of the  college4 ,he proceeded
 to the degree of ,m4 ,a4 in #afcc2 and 
in the same  year1 though at the early  
age of twenty1 we find him in orders1   
and  officiating as a divinity lecturer 
in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,his talents
  as a preacher attracted the notice of 
,archbishop ,laud1 who sent for him  to 
preach at ,lambeth1 and approved of his 
performance1 but thought him  too young4
 ,taylor begged his ,grace's pardon for 
that fault1 and promised  that1 if he   
lived1 he would mend it4 ,by that       
prelate's interest he was  admitted to  
the degree of ,m4 ,a4 ad eundem1 in     
,university ,college1  ,oxford1 ,october
 #bj1 #afce1 and shortly after nominated
 to a fellowship at  ,all ,souls        
,college4 ,it was probably through the  
interest of the same  powerful patron   
that he obtained the rectory of         

,uppingham in  ,rutlandshire1 tenable   
with his fellowship1 ,march #bc1 #afch4 
,the  fellowship1 however1 he vacated by
 his marriage with ,phbe ,langsdale1    
,may #bg1 #afci1 who died in little more
 than three years1 leaving two  sons4   
,taylor attracted notice at ,oxford by  
his talents as a preacher2 but he  does 
not seem to have commenced1 during this 
period of ease and  tranquillity1 any of
 those great works which have rendered  
him  illustrious as one of the most     
laborious1 eloquent1 and persuasive of  
,british divines4 ,the only sermon      
extant which we can distinctly refer to 
this period1 is one preached by command 
of the ,vice-chancellor on the          
anniversary of the ,gunpowder ,plot1    
#afch4 ,this piece requires notice1     
because it is connected with a report1  
circulated both during ,taylor's        
residence at ,oxford and afterwards1    
that he was secretly inclined to        
,popery4 ,it is even said that he       
8wished to be confirmed a member of the 

church of ,rome10 7,wood1 ,athen ,oxon47
 but was rejected with scorn in         
consequence of the things advanced      
against that church in this sermon4  ,of
 this whole statement ,bishop ,heber1 in
 his #8,life of ,taylor1' has  expressed
 his disbelief2 and the arguments on    
which his opinion is  founded appear to 
us satisfactory4 ,not even during his   
peaceable abode  at ,uppingham do       
,taylor's great works appear to have    
been projected1 as  if his amiable1     
affectionate1 and zealous temper had    
been fully occupied  by domestic cares  
and pleasures1 and by the constant      
though quiet duties  of a parish priest4
 ,the year #afdb1 as it witnessed the   
overthrow of his  domestic happiness by 
his wife's death1 saw also the beginning
 of those  troubles which cast him out  
of his church preferment1 a homeless    
man4 ,we  do not know the date of the   
sequestration of his living2 but as he  
joined ,charles ,i4 at ,oxford in the   
autumn of the year2 published in the    

same year1 by the ,king's command1 his  
treatise #8,of the sacred ,order and    
,offices of ,episcopacy1 c42' was       
created ,d4 ,d4 by royal mandate2       
appointed chaplain to the ,king1 in     
which capacity he frequently preached   
at ,oxford1 and attended the royal army 
in the wars2 it is probable that  he was
 among the first of those who paid the  
penalty of adhering to the  losing      
cause4 ,little is known of this portion 
of ,taylor's history4 ,it  appears that 
he quitted the army1 and retired into   
,wales1 where he  married1 became again 
involved in the troubles of war1 and was
 taken  prisoner at ,cardigan1 ,feb4 #d1
 #afdd4 ,we do not know the date of his 
release1 or of his marriage to his      
second wife1 ,joanna ,bridges1 a lady   
possessed of some landed property at    
,mandinam1 near ,golden ,grove1 in the  
,vale of ,towy1 in ,carmarthenshire1 who
 was commonly said to be a natural      
daughter of ,charles ,i41 born before   
his marriage4 ,but ,heber conjectures   

that ,taylor's marriage was anterior to 
his imprisonment1 and that his  wife's  
estate was amerced in a heavy fine1 in  
consequence of his being  found engaged 
in the royal cause at ,cardigan4 ,it is 
at least certain  that until the        
,restoration he was very poor1 and that 
he supported  himself during part of the
 time by keeping a school4    ,during   
this period of public confusion and     
domestic trouble1 ,taylor  composed an  
#8,apology for authorized and set ,forms
 of ,liturgy1' published  in #afdf1 and 
his great work1 a #8,discourse on the   
,liberty of  ,prophesying1' published in
 #afdg1 8the first attempt on record to 
conciliate the minds of ,christians to  
the reception of a doctrine which1      
though now the rule of action professed 
by all ,christian sects1 was  then1 by  
all sects alike1 regarded as a perilous 
and portentous  novelty40#a ,as such1 it
 was received with distrust1 if not     
disapprobation1 by all parties2 and if  
it was intended to inculcate upon  the  

,episcopalians the propriety of         
conceding something to the prejudices   
of their opponents1 as well as to       
procure an alleviation of the           
oppression exercised on the ,episcopal  
church1 we may see in the conduct  of   
the government after the ,restoration1  
that ,taylor preached a doctrine  for   
which neither the one nor the other were
 then ripe4 ,it is the more  to his     
honour that in this important point of  
,christian charity he had  advanced     
beyond his own party1 as well as those  
by whom his party was  then persecuted4 
,but though his views were extended     
enough to meet with  disapprobation from
 his contemporaries1 he gives a greater 
latitude to  the civil power in         
repressing error by penal means1 than   
the general  practice1 at least in      
,protestant countries1 would now grant4 
8,the  forbearance which he claims1 he  
claims for those ,christians only who   
unite in the confession of the          
,apostles' ,creed10 and he advocates the

  drawing together of all who will      
subscribe to that ancient and           
comprehensive form of belief into one   
church1 forgetting differences  which do
 not involve the fundamental points of  
,christianity4 ,and he  inculcates the  
8danger and impropriety of driving men  
into schism by  multiplying symbols and 
subscriptions1 and contracting the      
bounds of  communion1 and the still     
greater wickedness of regarding all     
discrepant  opinions as damnable in the 
life to come1 and in the present        
capital40  ,for a fuller account of this
 remarkable work1 we refer to the ,life 
by  ,heber1 p4 #bja-bah1 or still       
better1 to the original4    ,footnote   
#a3      ,heber's ,life of ,taylor1 p4  
xxvii4    ,it was followed at no long   
interval by the #8,great ,exemplar of   
,sanctity  and ,holy ,life1 described in
 the ,life and ,death of ,jesus         
,christ4' ,this1  the first of ,taylor's
 great works which became extensively   
popular1 is  almost entirely practical  

in its tendency1 having been composed1  
as the  author tells us1 with the       
intention of drawing men's minds from   
controverted doctrines1 to the vital    
points on which all men are agreed1  but
 which all men forget so easily4 ,it is 
not an attempt to connect the  relations
 of the four ,evangelists into one      
complete and chronologically  consistent
 account2 but a 8series of devout       
meditations on the different  events    
recorded in the ,new ,testament1 as well
 as on the more remarkable  traditions  
which have usually been circulated      
respecting the ,divine  ,author of our  
religion1 his earthly parent1 and his   
followers10 set off  by that majestic   
style1 that store of illustrations      
derived from the  most recondite and    
miscellaneous learning1 and1 above all1 
that fervent  and poetical imagination1 
by which ,taylor is distinguished       
perhaps above  all the prose writers in 
our language4 ,such qualities1 even     
without a  digested plan and connected  

strain of argument1 which1 requiring a  
more  continuous and attentive perusal1 
would not perhaps have made the book    
more acceptable or useful to the bulk of
 readers1 ensured for it a  favourable  
reception2 and the author followed up   
the impression which he  had produced1  
at no distant period1 by two other      
treatises of a similar  practical       
tendency1 which1 from their comparative 
shortness1 are better  known than any   
other of ,taylor's works1 and probably  
have been as  extensively read as any   
devotional books in the ,english        
language4 ,we  speak of the treatises on
 ,holy ,living and on ,holy ,dying4     
,it has been mentioned that near        
,mandinam stood ,golden ,grove1 the seat
 of  the ,earl of ,carbery1 a nobleman  
distinguished by his abilities and zeal 
in the ,royal cause4 ,he proved a       
constant and sincere friend to ,taylor2 
and the grateful scholar has conferred  
celebrity upon the name and  hospitality
 of ,golden ,grove by his #8,guide to   

,infant ,devotion1' or manual  of daily 
prayers1 which are called by the name of
 that place1 in which  they1 and many   
other of the author's works1 were       
meditated2 especially  his ,eniautos1 or
 course of sermons for all the ,sundays 
in the year4    ,considerable obscurity 
hangs over this portion of ,taylor's    
life3 but it  appears that in the years 
#afed-e he was twice imprisoned1 in     
consequence  of his advocacy of the     
fallen causes of ,episcopacy and        
,royalty4 ,at some  time in #afed he    
formed an acquaintance with ,evelyn1    
which proved  profitable and honourable 
to both parties2 for the layman1 as is  
evident  from his ,memoirs and ,diary1  
highly valued and laid to heart the     
counsels  of the man whom he selected as
 his 8ghostly father10 and to whose     
poverty he liberally ministered in      
return out of his own abundance4    ,we 
learn from ,evelyn's ,diary that ,taylor
 was in ,london in the spring of  #afcg1
 and his visits1 if not annual1 were at 

least frequent4 ,he made  many friends1 
and among them the ,earl of ,conway1 a  
nobleman possessed of  large estates in 
the north-east of ,ireland1 who         
conceived the desire of  securing       
,taylor's eminent abilities for the     
service of his own  neighbourhood1 and  
obtained for him a lectureship in the   
small town of  ,lisburne4 ,taylor       
removed his family to ,ireland in the   
summer of #afeh4 ,he  dwelt near        
,portmore1 his patron's splendid seat on
 the banks of ,lough  ,neagh2 and some  
of the islands in that noble lake1 and  
in a smaller  neighbouring piece of     
water called ,lough ,beg1 are still     
recorded1 by the  traditions of the     
peasantry1 to have been his favourite   
places of study  and retirement4 ,to    
this abode his letters show him to have 
been much  attached4    ,in the spring  
of #affj ,taylor visited ,london1 to    
superintend in its  passage through the 
press the #8,rule of ,conscience1 or    
,ductor  ,dubitantium4' ,this1 it       

appears from the author's letters1 was  
considerably advanced so early as the   
year #afee4 ,it was the fruit of  much  
time1 much diligence1 and much prayer2  
and that of all his writings  concerning
 the execution of which he seems to have
 felt most anxiety4 ,in  this case1 as  
it often happens1 the author seems to   
have formed an  erroneous estimate of   
the comparative value of his works4     
,neither on its  first appearance1 nor  
in later times1 did the #8,ductor       
,dubitantium'  become extensively       
popular4 ,its object1 which even at the 
first was  accounted obsolete1 was to   
supply what the ,romish church obtained 
by the  practice of confession1 a set of
 rules by which a scrupulous conscience 
may be guided in the variety of doubtful
 points of duty which may occur4  ,the  
abuses are well known1 to which the     
casuistic subtlety of the ,romish       
doctors gave birth2 and it may be       
doubted whether it were wise to lay  one
 stone towards rebuilding an edifice1   

which the general diffusion of  the     
,scriptures1 a sufficient rule1 if      
rightly studied1 to solve all  doubts1  
had rendered unnecessary4 ,the work1 in 
spite of its passages of  eloquence and 
profusion of learning1 is too prolix to 
be a favourite in  these latter days1   
but it is still1 says his biographer1   
7p4 ccxciii47  one 8which few can read  
without profit1 and none1 ,i think1     
without  entertainment4 ,it resembles in
 some degree those ancient inlaid       
cabinets1 7such as ,evelyn1 ,boyle1 or  
,wilkins might have bequeathed to  their
 descendants17 whose multifarious       
contents perplex our choice1 and  offer 
to the admiration or curiosity of a more
 accurate age a vast  wilderness of     
trifles and varieties with no           
arrangement at all1 or an  arrangement  
on obsolete principles1 but whose ebony 
drawers and perfumed  recesses contain  
specimens of every thing that is        
precious or uncommon1  and many things  
for which a modern museum might be      

searched in vain40    ,taylor's         
accidental presence in ,london at this  
period1 when the hopes of  the          
,royalists were reviving1 was probably  
serviceable to his future  fortunes4 ,he
 obtained by it the opportunity of      
joining in the ,royalist  declaration of
 ,april #bd2 and he was among the first 
to derive benefit  from the restoration 
of that ,king and that ,church1 of whose
 interests he  had ever been a most     
zealous1 able1 and consistent supporter4
 ,he was  nominated ,bishop of ,down and
 ,connor1 ,august #f1 #affj1 and        
consecrated in  ,st4 ,patrick's         
,cathedral ,january #bg1 #affa4 ,in the 
interval he was  appointed              
,vice-chancellor of the ,university of  
,dublin1 which during past  troubles had
 been greatly dilapidated and           
disordered1 in respect both of  its     
revenues and discipline4 ,he was the    
principal instrument in  remodelling and
 completing the statutes1 and settling  
the ,university in  its present form4   

,in the spring of #affa ,taylor was made
 a member of the ,irish ,privy          
,council1 and the small diocese of      
,dromore1 adjacent to ,down1 was        
assigned to his charge1 8on account10 in
 the words of the writ under the  ,privy
 ,seal1 8of his virtue1 wisdom1 and     
industry40 ,this praise was well        
deserved by his conduct in that         
difficult time1 when those who had      
displaced the episcopal clergy were     
apprehensive of being in their turn     
obliged to give way1 and religious      
differences were embittered by  thoughts
 of temporal welfare4 ,taylor had to    
deal chiefly with the wilder  and most  
enthusiastic party1 and his advances    
towards an intercourse of  ,christian   
charity were met with scorn and insult4 
,but his exemplary  conduct1 and        
persevering gentleness of demeanour1 did
 much to soften at  least the laity of  
his opponents2 for we are told that the 
nobility and  gentry of the three       
dioceses over which he presided came    

over1 with one  exception1 to the       
,bishop's side4    ,his varied duties   
can now have left little time for the   
labour of the  pen2 still he published  
sermons from time to time1 and in #affd 
completed  and published his last great 
work1 a #8,dissuasive from ,popery1'    
undertaken by desire of the collective  
body of ,irish bishops4 ,he  continued  
after his elevation to reside           
principally at ,portmore1  occasionally 
at ,lisburne4 ,of his habits1 and the   
incidents of this  latter part of his   
life1 we know next to nothing2 except   
that he  suffered the severest          
affliction which could befal a man of   
his  sensibility and piety1 in the      
successive deaths of his three surviving
  sons1 and the misconduct of two of    
them4 ,one died at ,lisburne1 in ,march1
  #affa2 one fell in a duel1 his        
adversary also dying of his wounds2 the 
third became the favourite companion of 
the profligate ,duke of  ,buckingham1   
and died of a decline1 ,august #b1      

#affg4 ,of the latter event  the ,bishop
 can scarcely have heard1 for he died on
 the #acth of the same  month1 after ten
 days' sickness4 ,he was buried at      
,dromore4 ,two of his  daughters married
 in ,ireland1 into the families of      
,marsh and ,harrison2  and several      
,irish families of repute claim to be   
connected with the  blood of this       
exemplary prelate by the female line4   
,the materials for ,bishop ,taylor's    
life are very scanty4 ,the earliest     
sketch of it is to be found in the      
funeral sermon preached by his friend   
and successor in the see of ,dromore1   
,dr4 ,rust1 who sums up the virtues  of 
the deceased in a peroration of         
highly-wrought panegyric1 of which  the 
following just eulogy is a part--8,he   
was a person of great humility2  and    
notwithstanding his stupendous parts1   
and learning1 and eminency of  place1 he
 had nothing in him of pride and humour1
 but was courteous and  affable1 and of 
easy access1 and would lend a ready ear 

to the  complaints1 yea1 to the         
impertinence of the meanest persons4    
,his  humility was coupled with an      
extraordinary piety2 and ,i believe he  
spent  the greatest part of his time in 
heaven4444 ,to all his other virtues he 
added a large and diffusive charity2 and
 whoever compares his plentiful  income 
with the inconsiderable estate he left  
at his death1 will be  easily convinced 
that charity was steward for a great    
proportion of his  revenue4 ,but the    
hungry that he fed1 and the naked that  
he clothed1 and  the distressed that he 
supplied1 and the fatherless that he    
provided  for1 the poor children that he
 put to apprentice1 and brought up at   
school1 and maintained at the           
university1 will now sound a trumpet to 
that charity which he dispensed with his
 right hand1 but would not  suffer his  
left hand to have any knowledge of it4  
8,to sum up all in a few words1 this    
great prelate had the good humour of  a 
gentleman1 the eloquence of an orator1  

the fancy of a poet1 the  acuteness of a
 schoolman1 the profoundness of a       
philosopher1 the wisdom  of a           
counsellor1 the sagacity of a prophet1  
the reason of an angel1 and  the piety  
of a saint2 he had devotion enough for a
 cloister1 learning  enough for an      
university1 and wit enough for a college
 of virtuosi2 and  had his parts and    
endowments been parcelled out among his 
poor clergy  that he left behind him1 it
 would perhaps have made one of the best
  dioceses in the world4 ,but1 alas6    
#8,our ,father6 our ,father6 the horses 
of  our ,israel1 and the chariot        
thereof6' he is gone1 and has carried   
his  mantle and his spirit along with   
him up to heaven2 and the sons of the   
prophets have lost all their beauty and 
lustre which they enjoyed only  from the
 reflection of his excellencies1 which  
were bright and radiant  enough to cast 
a glory upon a whole order of men40     
,there is a life of ,taylor by          
,archdeacon ,bonney2 and a copious      

memoir1  enriched by a minute analysis  
of all the more remarkable compositions 
of  our author1 is prefixed to ,bishop  
,heber's edition of ,taylor's works4    
,from this the materials of the present 
sketch are taken4 ,nor can we  better   
conclude than with the eloquent estimate
 of ,taylor's merits1 with  which the   
accomplished biographer concludes his   
work4 8,it is on  devotional and moral  
subjects that the peculiar character of 
,taylor's  mind is most1 and most       
successfully1 developed4 ,to this       
service he  devotes his most glowing    
language2 to this his aptest            
illustrations1 his  thoughts1 and his   
words1 at once burst into a flame1 when 
touched by the  coals of this altar2 and
 whether he describes the duties1 or    
dangers1 or  hopes of man1 or the mercy1
 power1 and justice of the ,most ,high2 
whether  he exhorts or instructs his    
brethren1 or offers up his supplications
 in  their behalf to the common ,father 
of all1 his conceptions and his         

expressions belong to the loftiest and  
most sacred description of  poetry1 of  
which they only want1 what they cannot  
be said to need1 the  name and the      
metrical arrangement4    8,it is this   
distinctive excellence1 still more than 
the other  qualifications of learning   
and logical acuteness1 which has placed 
him1  even in that age of gigantic      
talent1 on an eminence superior to any  
of  his immediate contemporaries2 and   
has seated him1 by the almost  unanimous
 estimate of posterity1 on the same     
lofty elevation with ,hooker  and with  
,barrow4    8,of such a triumvirate1 who
 shall settle the precedence8 ,yet it   
may1  perhaps1 be not far from the      
truth1 to observe that ,hooker claims   
the  foremost rank in sustained and     
classic dignity of style1 in political  
and pragmatical wisdom2 that to ,barrow 
the praise must be assigned of  the     
closest and clearest views1 and of a    
taste the most controlled and           
chastened2 but that in imagination1 in  

interest1 in that which more  properly  
and exclusively deserves the name of    
genius1 ,taylor is to be  placed before 
either4 ,the first awes most1 the second
 convinces most1  the third persuades   
and delights most3 and1 according to the
 decision of  one whose own rank among  
the ornaments of ,english literature yet
 remains  to be determined by posterity 
7,dr4 ,parr71 ,hooker is the object of  
our  reverence1 ,barrow of our          
admiration1 and ,jeremy ,taylor of our  
love40    ,illustration3      ,engraved 
by ,c4 ,e4 ,wagstaff4      ,,lavoisier4 
,from the original ,picture by ,david in
 a ,private ,collection at ,paris4      
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,lavoisier4      ,antoine ,laurent     
,lavoisier was born in ,paris1 ,august  
#bf1 #agdc4 ,he was  educated under the 
eye of his father1 a man of opulence1   

with  discernment to appreciate his     
son's abilities1 and liberality to      
cultivate them without regard to cost4  
,lavoisier early showed a decided       
inclination for the physical sciences2  
and before he was twenty years  old1 had
 made himself master of the principal   
branches of natural  philosophy4    ,in 
#agfd the government proposed an        
extraordinary premium for the best  and 
cheapest project of lighting the streets
 of ,paris1 and other large  cities4 ,to
 this subject1 involving a knowledge of 
several branches of  science1 ,lavoisier
 immediately devoted his attention4 ,he 
produced so  able a memoir1 full of the 
most masterly1 accurate1 and practical  
views1  that the gold medal was awarded 
to him4 ,this production was the means  
of  introducing him into the ,academy of
 ,sciences1 of which1 after a severe    
contest1 he was admitted a member1 ,may 
#ac1 #agfh2 and he proved himself       
through life one of its most useful and 
valuable associates4    ,at this time   

the whole range of chemical and         
physico-chemical science  was in an     
extremely imperfect state2 and the first
 steps to a more  improved system       
involved the necessity of clearing away 
a vast mass of  error which encumbered  
the path to truth4 ,for instance1 one of
 the  fanciful ideas1 the offspring of  
the alchemy of the dark ages1 which     
still continued to haunt the regions of 
science1 was the belief of the          
conversion of water into earth by       
gradual consolidation4 ,this subject    
,lavoisier treated in the true spirit of
 the experimental method1 and  clearly  
showed that the pretended conversion was
 either a deposition of  earthy         
particles1 or a sediment arising from   
the action of the water on  the internal
 surface of the retort4 ,he also        
laboured on the analysis of  the gypsum 
found in the neighbourhood of ,paris1   
and on the  crystallization of salts4   
,he discussed the project of conveying  
water  from ,l',yvette to ,paris1 and   

the theory of congelation2 and to these 
researches added extensive observations 
on the phenomena of thunder and  the    
,aurora ,borealis4    ,he next directed 
his attention more especially to        
mineralogy2 and made  excursions1 in    
conjunction with ,guettard1 into all    
parts of ,france1  endeavouring to form 
from different districts a complete     
collection of  their characteristic     
mineral productions4 ,he made advances  
towards a  systematic classification of 
facts connected with the localities of  
fossils1 which afterwards served as the 
basis of his work on the  revolutions of
 the globe and the formation of         
successive strata1 of  which two        
admirable abstracts were inserted in the
 ,memoirs of the  ,academy of ,sciences1
 for #aggb and #aghg4    ,thus during   
the earlier part of his life1 ,lavoisier
 does not seem to  have devoted himself 
in particular to any one branch of      
science4 ,but  about the year #aggj the 
announcement of the existence of more   

than one  species of gaseous matter1    
arising out of the successive researches
 of  ,black1 ,scheele1 ,priestley1 and  
,cavendish1 had the effect of fixing his
  attention to the subject of pneumatic 
chemistry4 ,the invaluable  discoveries 
just alluded to had opened a new world  
to the inquirer into  nature2 and the   
labours of those distinguished          
experimentalists had  conspired to      
commence a fresh era in science4        
,lavoisier was one of the  first to     
appreciate at once the importance of the
 results they had  arrived at1 and the  
immense field of further research to    
which those  results had opened the way4
 ,he perceived by a sort of instinct the
  glorious career which lay before him2 
and the influence which this new        
science thus1 as it were1 created1 must 
have over every sort of physical        
research4 ,priestley possessed precisely
 those qualifications which are  most   
available for striking out new and      
brilliant discoveries of facts2  a      

boundless fertility of invention2 a     
power of rapidly seizing remote         
analogies2 and an equal readiness in    
framing and in abandoning  hypotheses1  
which have no value1 but as guides to   
experiment4 ,lavoisier1  less eminent in
 these respects1 possessed in a more    
peculiar degree the  mental             
characteristics which enable their owner
 to advance to grand  generalizations   
and philosophical theories upon the sure
 basis of facts4  ,he possessed1 in its 
fullest sense1 the true spirit of       
inductive  caution1 and even geometrical
 rigour2 and his observations1 eminently
  precise and luminous1 always pointed  
to more general views4    ,in #aggd1 he 
published his #8,opuscules ,chimiques1' 
in which1 after a full  and truly       
philosophical examination of the labours
 of preceding  experimenters in the     
discovery of the gases and their        
characteristic  properties1 he proceeds 
to describe his own beautiful and       
fundamentally  important researches1    

from which resulted the #8,true ,theory 
of  ,combustion1' which may be termed   
the very sun and centre of the whole    
modern system of chemistry4    ,to the  
vague dreams of the alchemist had       
succeeded the remarkable theory  of     
,hooke1 who maintained that a certain   
ingredient of the atmospheric  air      
7which also enters as an ingredient into
 several other bodies1  especially      
nitre7 was the solvent which absorbed a 
portion of the  combustible4 ,this      
process was continued in proportion as  
more of the  solvent was supplied4 ,the 
solution took place with such rapidity1 
as to  occasion those motions or        
pulsations in which ,hooke believed heat
 and  light to consist4    ,this near   
approach to the truth was thrown into   
discredit by the more  brilliant and    
imposing theory of ,stahl1 who          
captivated the imaginations  of chemists
 by his doctrine of phlogiston1 the     
principle or element of  fire1 a sort of
 metaphysical something1 which conferred

 the property of  being combustible4    
,stahl taught that the process of       
combustion deprived  bodies of their    
phlogiston1 which1 in the act of        
separation1 exhibited  its latent       
energies in the evolution of light and  
heat4    ,this wild chimera long        
maintained its ground1 and received     
successive  modifications in the hands  
of several distinguished chemists1 the  
most  important of which was that of    
,kirwan2 but these all retained the     
fundamental error that something was    
abstracted from the burning body4  ,yet 
,rey1 so early as #afcj1 and ,bayer     
afterwards1 had both shown that  metals 
by calcination increase in weight1 or   
have something added to  them4          
,lavoisier turned his attention to the  
defects of the existing  theory about   
#aggj2 and the last-named experiments   
probably directed him  more specifically
 to the essential point of the inquiry4 
,he pursued his  researches with        
unwearied industry2 and by a long series

 of experiments  of the most laborious  
and precise nature1 he succeeded in     
determining  that1 in all cases of      
combustion1 that substance which is the 
real  combustible invariably receives an
 addition1 or enters into a new         
combination2 and the matter with which  
it combines is in all cases that  same  
substance which had now been shown by   
,priestley to be one of the             
constituents of the atmosphere1 and     
which was then known by the name of     
vital air4    ,it was however long      
before ,lavoisier gained a single       
convert4 ,at length  ,m4 ,berthollet1 at
 a meeting of the ,academy in #aghe1    
publicly renounced  the old opinions and
 declared himself a convert4 ,fourcroy  
followed his  example4 ,in #aghg1       
,morveau1 during a visit to ,paris1     
became convinced1  and declared the     
conclusions of ,lavoisier irresistible4 
,the younger  chemists speedily embraced
 the new views2 and their establishment 
was  thus complete4 ,there only remained

 some lurking prejudices in ,england1   
where the ,essay of ,kirwan retained its
 credit4 ,lavoisier and his  coadjutors 
translated this essay into ,french1     
accompanying each section  by a         
refutation4 ,so completely was this     
done1 that the author himself  was      
convinced2 and1 with that candour which 
distinguishes superior  minds1 gave up  
his views as untenable1 and declared    
himself a convert4    ,these discoveries
 introduced ,lavoisier to the notice of 
the most eminent  persons in the ,state2
 and in #aggf1 ,turgot engaged him to   
superintend the  manufacture of         
gunpowder for the ,government4 ,he      
introduced many valuable  improvements  
in the process1 and many judicious      
reforms into the  establishment4    ,in 
#aggh1 ,lavoisier having been           
incessantly engaged on the subject of   
gases and combustion1 announced another 
great discovery1 8that the  respirable  
portion of the atmosphere is the        
constituent principle of  acids10 which 

he therefore denominated oxygen4    ,the
 question as to 8the acidifying         
principle0 had long formed the  subject 
of discussion4 ,the prevalent theory was
 that of ,beccher with  various         
modifications1 which made the acid      
principle a compound of earth  and water
 regarded as elements4 ,lavoisier found 
in the instance of a  great number of   
the acids1 that they consisted of a     
combustible  principle united with      
oxygen4 ,he showed this both            
analytically and  synthetically1 and    
hence proceeded to the conclusion that  
oxygen is the  acidifying principle in  
all acids4 ,berthollet opposed this     
doctrine1 and  contended that1 in       
general1 acidity depended on the manner 
and  proportion in which the            
constituents are combined4 ,the fact is1
 that1 in  this instance1 ,lavoisier had
 advanced a little too rapidly to his   
conclusion4 ,had he contented himself   
with stating it as applying to a  great 
number of acids1 it would have been     

strictly true2 but he had  certainly no 
proof of its being universally the case4
 ,when ,sir ,h4  ,davy1 some years      
after1 showed that one of the most      
powerful acids 7the  muriatic7 does not 
contain a single particle of oxygen1 and
 when the  researches of ,guy ,lussac   
and others had exhibited other proofs of
 the  same thing1 it became evident that
 ,lavoisier's assertion required        
considerable modification4 ,and though  
nearly all acids have been since        
included under the general law of       
containing some supporter of            
combustion1 yet there appear to be      
exceptions even to this2 the  cautious  
language of ,berthollet has been        
completely justified2 and a  perfect    
theory of acidity is perhaps yet        
wanting4 ,nevertheless1  ,lavoisier's   
discovery is one of first-rate magnitude
 and importance1 and  with this         
qualification1 certainly forms the basis
 of all our present  knowledge of the   
subject4    ,another important research 

in which ,lavoisier engaged1 in         
conjunction  with ,laplace1 was the     
determination of the specific heats of  
bodies1 by  means of an ingenious       
apparatus1 which they denominated the   
calorimeter3  these were by far the most
 precise experiments on the subject     
which had  as yet been made1 though some
 inaccuracies in the method have since  
been  pointed out4    ,lavoisier owed   
much1 it must be owned1 to those        
external advantages of  fortune1 the    
absence of which1 though it cannot      
confine the flights of  real genius1 yet
 may seriously impair the value and     
efficiency of its  exertions2 and the   
presence of which1 though it cannot     
confer the powers  of intellect1 may yet
 afford most invaluable aids to the     
prosecution of  research1 and the       
dissemination of knowledge4 ,in the     
instance before us1  these advantages   
were enjoyed to the full extent1 and    
turned to the best  use4 ,lavoisier was 
enabled to command the most unlimited   

resources of  instrumental aid2 he      
pursued his researches in a laboratory  
furnished  with the most costly         
apparatus1 and was able to put every    
suggestion to  the test of experiment1  
by the assistance of the most skilful   
artists1  and instruments of the most   
perfect construction4    ,but as he     
could thus command these essential      
advantages for the  prosecution of his  
own investigations1 he was equally      
mindful of the  extension of similar    
advantages to others3 he always evinced 
himself  ready to assist the inquiries  
of those who had not the same means at  
their disposal2 and was no less liberal 
in aiding them by his stores of         
information and able advice4 ,indeed no 
one could be more sensible how  much    
there is of mutual advantage in such    
intercourse between those  engaged in   
the same scientific labours2 and this   
conviction1 joined with  a full         
perception of the immense benefits      
accruing from personal  acquaintance    

among men of kindred pursuits1 and the  
interchange of  social good offices1 led
 him to the regular practice of opening 
his  house on two evenings in every     
week1 for an assembly of all the        
scientific men of the ,french capital2  
which very soon became a point of       
general resort and reunion to the       
philosophers of ,europe4    ,at these   
meetings general discourse and          
philosophic discussion were  agreeably  
intermingled2 the opinions of the most  
eminent philosophers  were freely       
canvassed2 the most striking and novel  
passages in the  publications of foreign
 countries were made known1 recited1 and
  animadverted upon2 and the progress of
 experiment was assisted by candid      
comments and comparison with theory4 ,in
 these assemblies might be found1       
mingling in instructive and delightful  
conversation1 all those whose  names    
made the last century memorable in the  
annals of science4  ,priestley1         
,fontana1 ,landriani1 ,watt1 ,bolton1   

and ,ingenhouz1 were  associated with   
,laplace1 ,lagrange1 ,borda1 ,cousin1   
,monge1 ,morveau1 and  ,berthollet4     
,there was also an incalculable         
advantage in bringing into              
communication and intimacy men engaged  
in distinct branches of science3  the   
intercourse of the mathematician with   
the geologist1 of the  astronomer with  
the chemist1 of the computer with the   
experimenter1 and  of the artist with   
the theorist1 could not fail to be of   
mutual  advantage4 ,in no instance were 
the beneficial effects of such          
intercourse more strikingly displayed   
than in the chemical sciences2  which1  
from this sort of comparison of ideas   
and methods1 began now to  assume a     
character of exactness from an infusion 
of the spirit of  geometry2 and a       
department hitherto abandoned to the    
wildest  speculations1 and encumbered   
with the most vague and undefined       
phraseology 7derived from the jargon of 
the alchemists71 began to assume        

something like arrangement and method in
 its ideas1 and precision and  order in 
its nomenclature4 ,this influence was   
strongly marked in the  physical memoirs
 produced in ,france from this period   
downwards4 ,the  precision and severity 
of style1 and the philosophical method  
of the  mathematicians1 was insensibly  
transfused into the papers of the       
physical and chemical philosophers4     
,lavoisier individually profited greatly
 by the sources of improvement  and     
information thus opened4 ,whenever any  
new result presented itself to  him1    
which1 perhaps1 from contradicting all  
received theories1 seemed  paradoxical1 
or at variance with all principles      
hitherto recognised1 it  was fully laid 
before these select assemblies of       
philosophers2 the  experiment was       
exhibited in their presence1 and they   
were invited with  the utmost candour to
 offer their criticisms and objections4 
,in perfect  reliance on the mutual     
spirit of candour1 they were not        

backward in  urging whatever            
difficulties occurred to them1 and the  
truth thus  elicited acquired a firmness
 and stability in its public reception  
proportioned to the severity of the test
 it had undergone4 ,lavoisier  seldom   
announced any discovery until it had    
passed this ordeal4    ,at length he    
combined his philosophical views into a 
connected system1  which he published in
 #aghi1 under the title of #8,elements  
of ,chemistry3'  a beautiful model of   
scientific composition1 clear and       
logical in its  arrangement1 perspicuous
 and even elegant in its style and      
manner4 ,these  perfections are rarely  
to be found in elementary works written 
by  original discoverers4 ,the genius   
which qualifies a man for enlarging the 
boundaries of science by his own        
inventions and researches is of a very  
different class from that which confers 
the ability to elucidate1 in a  simple  
and systematic course1 the order and    
connexion of elementary  truths4 ,but in

 ,lavoisier these different species of  
talent were most  happily blended4 ,he  
not only added profound truths to       
science1 but  succeeded in adapting them
 to the apprehension of students1 and   
was able  to render them attractive by  
his eloquence4    ,in #agia he entered  
upon extensive researches1 having for   
their object  the application of        
pneumatic chemistry to the advancement  
of medicine1  in reference to the       
process of respiration4 ,with this view 
he examined  in great detail the changes
 which the air undergoes1 and the       
products  generated in that process of  
the animal economy4 ,he had previously1 
however1 as far back as #aghj1 detailed 
a series of experiments to  determine   
the quantity of oxygen consumed and     
carbonic acid generated by  respiration1
 in a given time1 in the ,memoirs of the
 ,french ,academy4    ,in the twenty    
volumes of the ,academy of ,sciences1   
from #aggb to #agic1 are  not less than 
forty memoirs by ,lavoisier1 replete    

with all the grand  phenomena of the    
science3--the doctrine of combustion in 
all its  bearings2 the nature and       
analysis of atmospheric air2 the        
generation and  combinations of elastic 
fluids2 the properties of heat2 the     
composition  of acids2 the decomposition
 and recomposition of water2 the        
solutions of  metals2 and the phenomena 
of vegetation1 fermentation1 and        
animalization4 ,these are some of the   
most important subjects of his  papers2 
and during the whole of this period he  
advanced steadily in the  course which  
was pointed out to him by the unerring  
rules of inductive  inquiry1 to which   
his original genius supplied the        
commentary4 ,so well  did he secure     
every point of the results to which he  
ascended1 that he  never made a false   
step4 ,it was only in one subject1      
before alluded to1  that he may be said 
to have gone a few steps too far4 ,nor  
did he ever  suffer himself to be       
discouraged1 or his ardour to be damped 

by the  difficulties and obstacles which
 perpetually impeded his progress4 ,he  
traced new paths for investigation1 and 
founded a new school of science2  and   
his successors had ample employment in  
following out the inquiries  which he   
had indicated1 and exploring those      
recesses to which he had  opened the    
way4    ,in the relations of social and 
civil life ,lavoisier was exemplary2 and
  he rendered essential service to the  
state in several capacities4 ,he was    
treasurer to the ,academy1 and          
introduced economy and order into its   
finances3 he was also a member of the   
board of consultation1 and took an      
active share in its business4 ,when the 
new system of measures was in           
agitation1 and it was proposed to       
determine a degree of the meridian1 he  
made accurate experiments on the        
dilatation of metals1 in conjunction    
with ,laplace 7#aghb71 to ascertain the 
corrections due to changes of           
temperature in the substances used as   

measuring rods in those delicate        
operations4    ,by the ,national        
,convention he was consulted on the     
means of improving  the manufacture of  
assignats1 and of increasing the        
difficulty of  forgery4 ,he turned his  
attention to matters of rural economy1  
and1 by  improved methods of            
cultivation1 on scientific principles1  
he increased  the produce of an         
experimental farm nearly one half4 ,in  
#agia he was  invited by the            
,constituent ,assembly to digest a plan 
for simplifying the  collection of      
taxes3 the excellent memoir which he    
produced on this  subject was printed   
under the title of #8,the ,territorial  
,riches of  ,france4' ,he was likewise  
appointed a ,commissioner of the        
,national  ,treasury1 in which he       
effected some beneficial reforms4       
,during the terrors of ,robespierre's   
tyranny1 ,lavoisier remarked that he    
foresaw he should be stripped of all his
 property1 and accordingly would        

prepare to enter the profession of an   
apothecary1 by which he should be  able 
to gain a livelihood4 ,but the ignorant 
and brutal ruffians who were  then in   
power had already condemned him to the  
scaffold1 on which he was  executed1    
,may #h1 #agid1 for the pretended crime 
of having adulterated  snuff with       
ingredients destructive to the health of
 the citizens6 ,on  being seized1 he    
entreated at least to be allowed time to
 finish some  experiments in which he   
was engaged2 but the reply of           
,coffinhall1 the  president of the gang 
who condemned him1 was characteristic of
 the  savage ignorance of those monsters
 in human form3--8,the ,republic does   
not  want savans or chemists1 and the   
course of justice cannot be suspended40 
,lavoisier in person was tall and       
graceful1 and of lively manners and     
appearance4 ,he was mild1 sociable1 and 
obliging2 and in his habits             
unaffectedly plain and simple4 ,he was  
liberal in pecuniary assistance to      

those in need of it2 and his hatred of  
all ostentation in doing good  probably 
concealed greatly the real amount of his
 beneficence4 ,he  married1 in #agga1   
,marie-,anni-,pierrette ,paulze1 a lady 
of great talents  and accomplishments1  
who after his death became the wife of  
,count  ,rumford4          ,illustration
                                        
,,sydenham4      ,the celebrated        
physician1 ,thomas ,sydenham1 in many   
respects the most  eminent that ,england
 has produced1 was born in the year     
#afbd1 at  ,wynford-,eagle1 in          
,dorsetshire1 where his father1 ,william
 ,sydenham1  enjoyed a considerable     
estate4 ,the mansion in which he was    
born is now  converted into a           
farm-house1 and stands on the property  
of ,lord ,wynford4    ,in the year      
#afdb1 when eighteen1 he was admitted as
 a commoner at  ,magdalen-,hall1        
,oxford2 but quitted it in the same     
year1 when that city  became the head   
quarters of the royal army1 after the   

battle of  ,edge-hill4 ,he was probably 
induced to take this step by reasons of 
a  political nature2 for we find that   
his family were active adherents of  the
 opposite party4 ,indeed he is said1    
though on doubtful authority1 to  have  
held a commission himself under the     
,parliament during his absence  from    
,oxford2 and his elder brother1         
,william1 is known to have attained     
considerable rank in the republican     
army1 and held important commands  under
 the ,protectorate4    ,the political   
bias of his family is not without       
interest1 as affording a  probable      
explanation of some circumstances in his
 life which would  otherwise be rather  
unaccountable1--such as the fact1 that  
though he  reached the first eminence as
 a practising physician1 he was never   
employed at court1 and was slighted by  
the college1 who invested him  with none
 of their honours1 nor even advanced him
 to the fellowship1  though a licentiate
 of their body1 and qualified by the    

requisite  ,university education4       
,when ,oxford was surrendered to the    
,parliament1 ,sydenham determined to    
resume his academical studies2 and      
passing through ,london                 
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,e4    
,scriven4      ,,sydenham4      ,from   
the ,picture in the ,hall of ,all ,souls
 ,college1 ,oxford4      ,under the     
,superintendence of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4      on his way1 he  
met accidentally with ,dr4 ,thomas      
,coxe1 a physician of  some repute at   
that time1 who was attending his        
brother4 ,the choice of a  profession   
became the subject of a conversation    
between them1 which  determined him in  
favour of medicine2 for in a letter     
addressed to ,dr4  ,mapletoft1 thirty   
years after this time1 which forms the  
preface to one  of his writings1 he     
refers with much warmth to this         
conversation as the  origin of his      

professional zeal1 and1 consequently1 of
 whatever useful  advances he had made  
in medicine4 ,thus his success1 both in 
the practice  and reformation of his    
art1 may show the advantage of waiting  
till the  faculties are fully matured1  
before they are exercised in a study    
which  requires independence as well as 
vigour in thinking3 for the             
circumstances of his family being       
sufficiently affluent to place him      
above the necessity of choosing a       
profession early1 he had not turned  his
 attention to physic till an age at     
which the medical education is          
generally almost completed4 ,we are not1
 however1 to believe in the  justice of 
an accusation brought against him1 that 
he had never studied  his profession    
till he began to practise it2 for though
 we do not know  what particular line of
 study he pursued on his return to      
,oxford1 it is  clear from many passages
 in his works that he had studied the   
writings  of the ancient physicians with

 no common care2 and as his own show no 
defect of acquaintance with whatever    
real information had been collected     
before his time1 we may reasonably      
conclude that this contemporary  censure
 was mistaken or malicious4 ,he         
certainly held the opinions of his      
modern predecessors in very little      
respect1 for he does not often  mention 
them1 even for the purpose of           
confutation2 and in the letter to  ,dr4 
,mapletoft already referred to1 he says 
that he had found the best1  and1 in    
fact1 the only safe guide1 through the  
various perplexities he  had met with in
 his practice1 to be the method of      
actual observation and  experiment      
recommended by ,lord ,bacon4 ,this      
sentiment is often repeated  in his     
works2 but it surely does not           
countenance the idea that he had  begun 
to practise without endeavouring to make
 what preparation he  could1 or would   
have had others follow such an example2 
for the charge  against him goes to this

 length4 ,the notion might arise from a 
foolish  anecdote related by his        
admirer1 ,sir ,richard ,blackmore1 of   
his having  recommended ,don ,quixote as
 the best introduction he knew to the   
practice  of medicine1 which ,sydenham  
must have intended as a jest1 or perhaps
 as  a sarcasm on the narrator himself4 
,at ,oxford he formed a close friendship
 with ,john ,locke1 better known        
afterwards as a philosopher than as a   
physician4 ,their intimacy1 which       
lasted to the end of ,sydenham's life1  
probably contributed not a little  to   
give form to the disgust which he soon  
displayed at the  unsatisfactory and    
fluctuating state of medical opinion1   
and to the zeal  with which he sought to
 establish it on surer grounds2 for he  
appeals1  as to the highest authority1  
in confirmation of some of his new views
 on  the treatment of fever1 to the     
approval of his illustrious friend1 who 
even paid him the compliment of         
prefixing a eulogy in indifferent ,latin

  verse to the treatise in which these  
views are developed4    ,on the #adth of
 ,april1 #afdh1 he took the degree of   
bachelor of medicine1  being then       
twenty-four years old2 and in the same  
year obtained a  fellowship at ,all     
,souls ,college1 by the interest of a   
relation4 ,the  degree of doctor he     
subsequently took at ,cambridge1 where1 
being among  those who thought with him 
in politics1 he probably found himself  
more  at his ease4 ,after a visit of    
some length at ,montpellier1 then       
considered the best practical school of 
medicine on the continent1 he  settled  
in ,westminster1 and soon after married4
    ,his progress to eminence in his    
profession must have been unusually     
rapid1 which might be owing1 in some    
measure1 to the call for men of  good   
capacity to the more stirring scenes of 
civil strife2 for at  thirty-six he had 
succeeded in establishing a first-rate  
reputation1  which he continued to      
sustain in spite of much hostility and  

ill-health  for upwards of twenty years4
    ,he witnessed the breaking out of   
the plague in #affe1 but when it reached
  the house adjoining his own1 he was   
induced to remove with his family  some 
miles out of town4 ,of this desertion of
 his post1 however1 he seems  to have   
repented2 for he afterwards returned1   
and occupied himself  diligently in     
visiting the victims of that devastating
 malady1 and has  left a short but      
interesting account of his opinions     
respecting it1 and  of the treatment he 
adopted2 for the comparative success of 
which1 he  appeals to the physicians who
 had witnessed or followed his practice4
    ,at the age of #be1 though a man of 
remarkably temperate and regular        
habits1 he became afflicted with gout   
and stone1 from which he suffered       
extreme torment with great resignation  
and patience for the rest of his  life4 
,of course he did not neglect the       
opportunity of studying those  diseases 
in his own person1 and recording the    

result of his  observations4 ,his       
account of gout1 especially1 is         
considered to be a  most accurate and   
able history of that disease4    ,he    
died1 leaving a family1 at his house in 
,pall-,mall1 on the #bith of  ,december1
 #afhi1 in the #ffth year of his age1   
and was buried in the  parish church of 
,st4 ,james1 ,westminster1 where1 in    
#ahaj1 a tablet was  erected to his     
memory by the ,college of ,physicians1  
who became1 as a  body1 tardily but     
fully convinced of his extraordinary    
merit and eminent  claims to the        
gratitude and respect of his profession4
    ,he is said to have been a man of   
the most retiring and unobtrusive       
disposition1 and the utmost placidity of
 temper4 ,in a biographical  sketch by  
,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson1 prefixed to an   
,english edition of his  works by ,swan1
 in #agdb1 it is remarked1 that if he   
could not teach us in  his writings how 
to cure the painful disorders from which
 he suffered1  he has taught us by his  

example the nobler art to bear them with
  serenity4 ,nor was he less patient of 
mental than of bodily inflictions2  for 
though he was the object of much        
asperity among the physicians of  his   
time1 he made no reprisals upon the     
reputations of those who  slandered him3
 though he often speaks of their        
bitterness1 he never even  mentions     
their names1--a forbearance to which1 as
 his biographer  pungently remarks1 they
 are indebted for their escape from a   
discreditable immortality4 ,his writings
 breathe throughout a spirit of  warm   
piety1 candour1 and benevolence3 he is  
said to have been extremely  generous in
 his dealings with his patients2 for    
which1 with other  reasons1 his practice
 though large was not very gainful1 and 
he did not  leave much wealth behind    
him4 ,he never was sought after by the  
great1  like his successor and disciple 
,radcliffe2 and had none of the talents 
by which that singular man was able to  
push his fortune and establish a  kind  

of professional despotism4 ,yet1        
whatever medical skill the latter       
evinced seems to have been derived from 
,sydenham1 whose doctrines and          
treatment he contrived to bring into a  
much more early and general  repute in  
,england than they would probably have  
otherwise obtained4 ,each  had his      
reward3 the one will be long remembered 
as the founder of a  magnificent        
library2 the other can never be         
forgotten as the author of  modern      
medicine4    ,the bent of ,sydenham's   
mind was eminently practical2 he thought
 that the  business of a physician is to
 acquire an accurate knowledge of the   
causes and symptoms of diseases1 and the
 effects of different remedies  upon    
them1 that if he cannot prevent them1 he
 may at least recognise  them with      
certainty1 and apply with promptitude   
the means most likely to  cure them3    
with ,hippocrates and the ancient       
empirical physicians1 whose  tenets he  
professed to follow1 he condemned all   

curious speculations  upon the intimate 
nature of disease1 as incapable of      
proof1 and  therefore always useless1   
and often hurtful2 and maintained that  
the  only trustworthy source of opinion 
in medicine is experience resulting     
from observations frequently repeated1  
and experiments cautiously  varied2 and 
that no theories worth attention can be 
framed until the  recorded experience of
 many observers1 under many different   
circumstances1 and even through         
successive ages1 shall be embodied into 
one general system2 and he boldly       
declared his belief that every acute    
disease might then be cured4 ,an        
instance1 which unfortunately as yet    
stands alone in support of this rather  
sanguine expectation1 may be  taken from
 the history of small-pox4 ,the         
observation of its contagious  nature   
led to the general practice of          
inoculation1 and this to the  immortal  
discovery of ,jenner1 by which a disease
 but yesterday the  scourge of the earth

 has been almost extinguished4 ,it is   
remarkable that  ,sydenham1 who first   
pointed out the important difference    
between its  distinct and confluent     
forms1--who so materially improved the  
treatment  by changing it from stifling 
to cooling1--and who studied and has    
described it with a laborious accuracy  
hardly paralleled in the history  of    
medicine1--was not aware of this1 to us1
 its most striking  characteristic of   
contagion4 ,a person conversant with    
such subjects will  feel no surprise at 
this3 to the general reader it may be a 
sufficient  explanation1 that it lies   
dormant for ten days2 and that as it can
 only  be taken once1 and was always    
prevalent in ,london1 the number of     
persons  susceptible at any given time1 
and in obvious communication with each  
other1 were comparatively few3 so that  
opportunities were not so likely  to    
arise as might be imagined of tracing   
its progress in single families  or     
neighbourhoods from one source of       

contagion4    ,sydenham is justly       
celebrated for the happiness of his     
descriptions1 and  his skilful          
application of simple methods of cure1  
which are as  effectual as they were    
novel in that age when a medical        
prescription  sometimes contained a     
hundred different substances2 but he has
 merit of  a higher kind1 as a          
discoverer of general laws4 ,among      
others1 he was the  first to notice that
 there is a uniformity in the fevers    
prevailing at  any one time1 which is   
subject to periodical changes2 and that 
other  acute diseases often partake     
largely of the same general character1  
and  sometimes even merge in it         
altogether1 as the plague is said to    
have  swallowed up all other diseases4  
,this1 which he ascribed to some        
peculiar state of the atmosphere1 he    
called its epidemic constitution2  and  
to be aware of its vicissitudes must of 
course be very important to  the        
physician as a guide to practice4 ,the  

value of these laws1 which  ,sydenham   
deduced from a multitude of             
observations1 has been attested by      
almost every medical writer since his   
time4    ,his works have been repeatedly
 printed in the original ,latin1 as well
 as  in ,english and the continental    
languages4 ,the first was published     
after  he had been sixteen years in     
practice2 the last he edited himself1 is
  dated three years before his death2   
and an elegant compendium of his        
experience was published posthumously by
 his son4 ,they all appear to  have been
 extorted by the importunity of his     
friends or the  misrepresentations of   
his enemies4 ,it is said that they were 
composed in  ,english1 and translated   
into ,latin by his friends ,mapletoft   
and ,havers3  there is1 however1 little 
reason for attaching credit to this     
report1 as  we are assured1 on the      
authority of ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 who    
knew him well1  that ,sydenham was an   
excellent classical scholar1 and        

perfectly capable  of expressing himself
 elegantly in ,latin4 ,they are most    
carefully  written and clearly          
expressed1 and bear marks of the utmost 
truth and  impartiality in the narration
 of facts1 and judgment in arranging    
them4  ,they are not voluminous1 as he  
studiously refrained from overloading   
them with trivial matter1 and from      
entering into the detail of a greater   
number of cases than might be sufficient
 to illustrate his method of  practice4 
,his object was to confine himself to   
the results of his own  observation3 to 
this he pretty strictly adhered1 so that
 little space is  occupied in his       
writings by quotations or criticism4 ,it
 must be admitted  that he occasionally 
lapses into theoretical discussion1 in  
violation of  his own principles2 but as
 he seldom or never permitted his fancy 
to  divert him from what was practically
 useful1 he may be pardoned1 if in  that
 age of speculation he could not        
entirely resist the seduction4 ,a       

graver charge against him is1 that he   
overlooked or undervalued the  immense  
body of information to be obtained from 
examining the effects of  diseased      
actions after death1 and devoted himself
 too exclusively to the  study of the   
symptoms during life1 and the effect of 
remedies upon them4  ,it is hardly a    
sufficient justification of a man of so 
much independence  of spirit to reply1  
that such examinations were opposed by  
the  prejudices of the age in which he  
lived4 ,others have overcome the same   
obstacles1 and with them many of those  
difficulties which perplexed and  misled
 even the mind of ,sydenham4 ,he had    
equal or greater difficulties  to       
contend against in the deep-rooted      
absurdities of the chemical and         
mechanical schools1 which in the early  
part of his life held an almost  equally
 divided sway in medicine3 the former   
originated with ,paracelsus  and his    
disciples1 and had the advantage of a   
longer prescription2 and  the latter had

 received a fresh accession of strength 
from the recent  discoveries of ,harvey3
 both1 however1 gave way before his     
energetic  appeal to fact and           
experience4 ,scarcely less credit is due
 to him for  his successful opposition  
to the popular superstition in favour of
 a  host of futile remedies1 which are  
now happily consigned to oblivion  with 
the family receipt books and herbals in 
which their virtues were  paraded1 than 
for his victory over false principles   
and dangerous rules  of practice4    ,on
 the whole1 it may be safely advanced   
that medicine1 as a practical  science1 
owes more to the closely-printed octavo1
 in which the results  of his toilsome  
exertions are comprised1 than to any    
other single source  of information4    
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,c4 ,e4
 ,wagstaff4      ,,lord ,,clarendon4    
,from the ,picture in the ,bodleian     
,library1 ,oxford4      ,under the      
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 

,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,clarendon4      ,edward ,hyde1 ,earl  
of ,clarendon1 the third son of ,henry  
,hyde1 of ,dinton1  ,esquire1 a younger 
branch of an ancient family long        
established in  ,cheshire1 was born at  
,dinton1 near ,salisbury1 ,february #ah1
 #afji4 ,the  most valuable part of his 
early education he received from his    
father1  who was an excellent scholar3  
from his residence at ,magdalen ,hall1  
,oxford1 where he entered in #afbb1 and 
took his bachelor's degree in  #afbe1   
according to his own account he obtained
 little benefit4 ,in  ,february #afbg1  
he was entered at the ,middle ,temple4  
,at the age of  twenty-one1 he married  
his first wife1 who died within six     
months of  their union4 ,after the lapse
 of three years he was again married1 to
 the  daughter of ,sir ,thomas          
,aylesbury1 ,master of ,requests to the 
,king1 by  whom he left a numerous      

family4 ,he was called to the bar in    
,michaelmas  term1 #afcc4 ,to the study 
of law he entertained in the first      
instance a  strong dislike1 and applied 
himself chiefly to history and general  
literature4 ,but from the time of his   
second marriage he devoted himself      
steadily to the pursuit of his          
profession1 in which he early acquired  
considerable practice and reputation4   
,his business was1 however1 more        
frequent in the ,court of ,requests1 in 
the ,star ,chamber1 than in the  courts 
of common law1 and his name rarely      
appears in the reports of that  period4 
,soon after he was called to the bar1   
,mr4 ,hyde was concerned in a           
transaction of considerable moment1     
which produced important  consequences  
in his future life1 by introducing him  
to the favourable  notice of ,archbishop
 ,laud4 ,it arose out of certain        
,custom-,house  regulations1 by which   
the ,london merchants found themselves  
aggrieved4  ,the leading men among them 

applied to ,mr4 ,hyde1 who1 on finding  
all  remonstrances with the ,lord       
,treasurer unavailing1 advised them to  
state  their grievances in a petition to
 the ,king1 which he drew for them4 ,on 
the death of the ,lord ,treasurer1 the  
,earl of ,portland1 the affairs of  the 
,treasury were placed under the         
management of several commissioners1  of
 whom ,laud was one4 ,the ,archbishop   
soon found occasion to investigate  the 
complaint of the merchants2 and in      
consequence he sent for1 and held       
several interviews with1 ,mr4 ,hyde3 to 
whom he became a valuable and  efficient
 patron1 noticing him particularly when 
he appeared as counsel  in the ,star    
,chamber1 and consulting and employing  
him on many public  occasions4          
,laud's favour introduced ,mr4 ,hyde to 
the ,lord ,keeper ,coventry1 the ,earl  
of ,manchester1 then ,lord ,privy ,seal1
 and other political and legal          
characters of high rank1 of the court   
party4 ,with the leaders of the         

popular1 or country party also he was   
upon friendly terms1 8having10 as  he   
says1 8that rare felicity1 that even    
they who did not love many of  those    
upon whom he most depended1 were yet    
very well pleased with him  and with his
 company40    ,upon the summoning of    
what was called the ,short ,parliament1 
which met  ,april #c1 #afdj1 ,mr4 ,hyde 
was elected member for ,wootton-,basset1
 and for  ,shaftesbury4 ,he chose to    
take his seat for the former place4 ,his
 first  and only speech during the      
session was in the celebrated debate on 
the  subject of grievances1 introduced  
by a motion of ,mr4 ,pym2 on which      
occasion ,mr4 ,hyde directed the        
attention of the house to the enormous  
abuses of the ,earl ,marshal's ,court4  
,whitelocke says that 8he gained much   
credit by his conduct in this business40
 ,in the warm debate which took  place  
in the ,house of ,commons upon the      
question of a supply1 it was  hinted by 
members of the house connected with the 

court1 that ,charles1  upon hearing of  
their proceedings1 would probably       
dissolve the  parliament in displeasure4
 ,mr4 ,hyde perceived the injurious     
tendency of  such a measure1 and        
immediately went from the house to      
,archbishop ,laud1  to entreat him to   
dissuade the ,king from so injudicious a
 course4 ,the  ,archbishop heard him as 
usual with patience1 but refused to     
interfere3  and the ,parliament was     
dissolved in less than three weeks after
 its  first meeting4    ,the necessities
 of the ,king compelled him to call the 
,long ,parliament in  the following     
,november1 of which ,mr4 ,hyde was also 
a member4 ,the  elections having in     
general favoured the popular party1 the 
temper of  this parliament was at its   
commencement decidedly more opposed to  
the  court than the last4 ,at first1    
,mr4 ,hyde1 whose familiarity with ,laud
 was  well known1 was an object of      
jealousy and dislike4 ,his conduct as   
chairman of the committee appointed to  

consider the abuses of the ,earl        
,marshal's ,court1 which led to the     
total abolition of that unauthorized    
jurisdiction1 and his avowed            
disapprobation of several obnoxious     
branches of the prerogative1 restored   
him in some degree to the good  opinion 
of the house1 while his influence with  
the moderate party1 both  in the court  
and the parliament1 daily increased4    
,having given up his  professional      
practice since the beginning of the     
parliament1 he was much  employed in the
 ordinary business of the house4 ,he was
 chairman of the  committee appointed to
 inquire into the legality and          
expediency of the  courts of the        
,president and ,council of the ,north1  
commonly called the  ,courts of ,york2  
and in ,april1 #afda1 he was            
commissioned to communicate  to the     
,house of ,lords the resolutions of the 
,commons against those  courts4 ,the    
performance of this duty he accompanied 
by a speech1 in  which he explained to  

the ,lords1 with much clearness and     
precision1 the  origin and nature of    
this obnoxious jurisdiction1 and which  
he says in  his ,history1 8met with good
 approbation in both houses40 ,in ,july 
following he was chairman of the        
committee for inquiring into the        
conduct of the judges in the case of    
ship-money2 and the management of  the  
impeachment of the ,lord ,chief ,baron  
,davenport1 ,baron ,weston1 and  ,baron 
,trevor1 before the ,lords1 was         
afterwards entrusted to him4 ,upon  this
 occasion1 he delivered an excellent    
speech1 exhibiting1 in eloquent         
language1 the destructive effects of the
 corruption of the judges upon  the     
liberty of the subject and the security 
of property4 ,during the same  year1 he 
appears from the ,commons' journals to  
have been usually named  on the most    
important committees both of a public   
and private nature4    ,the course      
adopted by ,mr4 ,hyde with reference to 
the ,earl of ,strafford's  prosecution  

cannot be precisely ascertained4 ,that  
he was employed in  arranging the       
preliminary steps for the impeachment1  
appears from the  journals2 but in his  
,history he does not explicitly declare 
what part he  took upon the introduction
 of the bill of attainder4 ,some of his 
biographers state that he warmly opposed
 it2 but no evidence is given in        
support of the assertion2 and it is     
quite clear that neither his name1  nor 
that of ,lord ,falkland1 his political  
and personal friend1 appear  amongst    
those which were posted as              
8,straffordians1 ,betrayers of their    
,country10 for having voted against the 
measure4 ,though he cordially           
acquiesced in many of the measures at   
this time introduced by the  popular    
leaders for the redress of grievances1  
his political opinions1  as well as his 
ultimate views and intentions1 differed 
widely from those  of the predominant   
party4 ,he strenuously opposed a bill   
for depriving  the bishops of their     

seats in parliament1 which passed the   
,house of  ,commons1 though it was      
rejected in the ,house of ,lords by a   
great  majority4 ,in no degree          
discouraged by this discomfiture1 the   
leaders of  the ,puritan party soon     
afterwards introduced a measure for the 
total  abolition of episcopacy1 known by
 the title of #8,the ,root and ,branch  
,bill1' which was read a first time and 
committed4 ,mr4 ,hyde was appointed     
chairman of the committee1 by common    
consent of both parties2 the one        
wishing to get rid of his opposition in 
the committee1 the other to  secure a   
chairman of their own views4 ,the result
 proved the latter party  to be in the  
right2 for ,hyde contrived so to baffle 
the promoters of the  measure1 that they
 at last thought proper to withdraw it1 
,sir ,arthur  ,haselrig declaring in the
 house1 that 8he would never hereafter  
put an  enemy into the chair40 ,his     
conduct respecting this measure was     
warmly  approved by the ,king2 who      

before he went to ,scotland in #afda1   
sent for  ,mr4 ,hyde1 to express how    
much he was beholden to him for his     
services1  8for which he thought fit to 
give him his own thanks1 and to assure  
him  that he would remember it to his   
advantage40    ,before the ,king left   
,whitehall1 in consequence of the       
tumults occasioned  by his indiscretion 
in demanding the ,five ,members1 he     
charged ,mr4 ,hyde1  in conjunction with
 ,lord ,falkland and ,sir ,john         
,colepeper1 to consult  constantly      
together upon the state of affairs in   
his absence1 and to  give him on every  
occasion their unreserved advice1       
without which he  declared solemnly that
 he would take no step in the           
parliament4 ,though  much discouraged by
 the previous conduct of the ,king      
respecting the ,five  ,members1 which he
 had adopted without consulting them1   
and entirely  against their judgment1   
they undertook and faithfully executed  
the  charge imposed upon them2 and after

 the ,king had left ,london1 they met   
every night at ,mr4 ,hyde's house in    
,westminster1 to communicate to each    
other their several intelligences and   
observations1 and to make such          
arrangements as they thought best       
adapted to stay the falling fortunes  of
 the royal cause4    ,mr4 ,hyde's good  
understanding with the leaders of the   
popular party had  rapidly declined1    
since his opposition to the proposed    
measure for  ejecting the bishops from  
the ,house of ,lords2 and after his     
conduct in  the committee for abolishing
 episcopacy he was regarded as a        
declared  enemy1 and his nightly        
consultations with ,falkland and        
,colepeper were  watched with the utmost
 jealousy4 ,though his situation at this
 time was  one of considerable danger1  
he remained at his post after the       
,king's  departure to ,york1 and        
constantly took his seat in the ,house  
of ,commons4  ,about the latter end of  
,april1 #afdb1 ,mr4 ,hyde received a    

letter from the  ,king1 requiring him   
immediately to repair to him at ,york2  
with which  requisition he complied in  
the course of the next month1 having    
first  rendered a signal service to the 
royal cause by persuading the ,lord     
,keeper ,littleton to send the ,great   
,seal and also to go himself to the     
,king4 ,in consequence of this step the 
,house of ,commons passed a  resolution1
 in ,august1 #afdb1 disabling him from  
sitting again in that  parliament2 and  
their indignation was raised to such a  
degree1 that ,mr4  ,hyde was one of the 
few persons who were excepted from the  
pardon which  the ,earl of ,essex was   
afterwards instructed to offer to those 
who might  be induced to leave the ,king
 and submit to the parliament4 ,on      
joining  the ,king at ,york1 ,mr4 ,hyde 
continued to be one of his most         
confidential  advisers1 and was soon    
afterwards knighted and made ,chancellor
 of the  ,exchequer4 ,in this capacity  
he negotiated with the parliamentary    

commissioners sent to ,oxford in #afdc2 
and in #afde he acted as one of the     
,king's commissioners at the treaty of  
,uxbridge4 ,after the breaking off  of  
that treaty it was thought expedient to 
send the ,prince of ,wales into  the    
west of ,england1 both to secure his    
person from the dangers with  which his 
father was environed1 and to give       
encouragement to the  ,royalists in that
 part of the country4 ,sir ,edward ,hyde
 accompanied him  as one of his council4
 ,the parliamentary successes in the    
west compelled  the ,prince to migrate1 
first to ,scilly1 thence to ,jersey1    
from which  place he departed into      
,france in ,july1 #afdf4 ,hyde remained 
in ,jersey for  the space of two years1 
devoting himself wholly to his ,history 
of the  ,rebellion1 which he had        
commenced in the ,scilly ,islands1 and  
of which he  completed the four first   
books at that time4 ,while engaged in   
this  manner1 he received several       
letters from the ,king1 expressive of   

his  approbation of his undertaking1 and
 supplying him with a particular        
relation of the occurrences which had   
taken place from the departure of  the  
,prince until the period of his joining 
the ,scotch army4    ,in ,may1 #afdh1   
,hyde received the ,king's commands to  
join the ,prince of  ,wales at ,paris4  
,on the way thither1 he met ,lord       
,cottington and others at  ,rouen1 where
 he learned that the ,prince was gone to
 ,holland1 and was  ordered to follow   
him4 ,after many difficulties and       
dangers1 ,cottington  and ,hyde met     
their young master at the ,hague in the 
month of ,august1 and  were soon        
afterwards joined by several other      
members of the ,king's  council4    ,on 
the announcement of the execution of his
 father1 ,charles despatched  ,sir      
,edward ,hyde and ,lord ,cottington as  
his ambassadors to ,spain4 ,after a     
fruitless negotiation of fifteen months1
 they received a message from  court    
shortly after the arrival of the news of

 ,cromwell's victory at  ,dunbar1       
desiring them to quit the ,spanish      
dominions4 ,hyde then repaired  to      
,antwerp1 where he resided with his wife
 and family1 until1 at the end  of      
#afea1 he was summoned to ,paris1 to    
meet ,charles ,,ii41 after his          
memorable escape from the battle of     
,worcester4 ,he resided at ,paris with  
the exiled court for nearly three years1
 and during this period enjoyed  the    
unlimited confidence of his master1 who 
left the arduous and  difficult task of 
corresponding and negotiating with the  
,english  royalists entirely to his     
management4 ,at this period the exiled  
royalists were frequently reduced to    
great pecuniary distress4 ,the          
miserable dissensions and petty         
jealousies which prevailed among them   
are fully described in the ,history of  
the ,rebellion4 ,at length ,charles1    
wearied and disgusted by the intrigues  
and broils which perpetually  disturbed 
his council1 while subject to the       

interference of the ,queen  ,mother1    
determined to leave ,paris2 and         
accordingly he quitted that city  in    
,june1 #afed1 and went to reside at     
,cologne1 ,sir ,edward ,hyde and the    
rest of his court still following his   
humble fortunes4 ,upon the  execution of
 the treaty with ,spain1 ,charles       
removed from ,cologne to  ,bruges in    
#afeg1 and in the course of that year   
bestowed upon ,sir ,edward  ,hyde the   
then empty dignity of ,lord ,high       
,chancellor of ,england4 ,soon  after   
this event the prospects of the         
,royalists began to brighten4 ,the      
government of ,cromwell had been for    
some time growing infirm1 in            
consequence of domestic dissensions1 the
 exhausted state of the revenue1  and   
the distrust entertained towards the    
,protector1 who had successively        
deceived and disappointed all parties4  
,these seeds of discord were  sedulously
 cultivated by the ,english royalists2  
and at last the death of  that          

extraordinary man led to a series of    
events which introduced the  restoration
 of ,charles ,,ii4    ,at the           
,restoration ,sir ,edward ,hyde was     
continued as ,lord ,chancellor2 and     
notwithstanding the constant hostility  
of the ,queen ,mother and her  faction  
at court1 he maintained for some time a 
paramount influence with  the ,king1 who
 treated him with the confidence and    
friendship which his  great industry and
 talents for business1 and his faithful 
attachment to  himself and his father so
 well deserved4 ,in ,november1 #affj1 he
 was  raised to the peerage1 by the     
title of ,baron ,hyde of ,hindon in the 
county of ,wilts1 and in the spring of  
the following year he was created       
,viscount ,cornbury and ,earl of        
,clarendon4 ,he was also about this time
  elected ,chancellor of the ,university
 of ,oxford4 ,among the tribes of       
expectant cavaliers who now flocked to  
the court of the restored  monarch1 all 
impatient to obtain something in        

recompense for their  alleged services  
and sufferings in the royal cause1 these
 honours and  distinctions bestowed upon
 the ,earl of ,clarendon raised a storm 
of envy  and malice which eventually    
caused his ruin4 ,the ,king's easiness  
of  access1 and1 as ,lord ,clarendon    
calls it1 that 8imbecillitas frontis1   
which kept him from denying10 together  
with the moral cowardice which  induced 
him to escape from the most troublesome 
importunities1 by  sending petitioners  
to the ,chancellor for their answers1   
necessarily  increased the dislike with 
which he was regarded4 ,the discovery of
 the  marriage of his daughter to the   
,duke of ,york1 afterwards ,james ,,ii41
  though it probably took place without 
the knowledge of the ,chancellor1  gave 
ample opportunity to the malice of his  
enemies4 ,the ,king1 however1  behaved  
on this occasion in a manner which did  
him credit4 ,he not only  required the  
,duke to acknowledge his wife1 on being 
certified that the  ceremony had been   

duly performed1 but refused with passion
 the proffered  resignation of the      
,chancellor1 who offered to reside in   
future beyond  seas1 and conjured him   
8never more to think of those           
unreasonable  things1 but to attend and 
prosecute his business with his usual   
alacrity1 since his kindness should     
never fail him40    ,the first open act 
of hostility against ,lord ,clarendon   
was undertaken by  the ,earl of         
,bristol1 who1 in #affc1 exhibited      
articles of high treason  and other     
misdemeanors against him in the ,house  
of ,lords4 ,these  articles1 which      
contained a great variety of vague and  
inconsistent  charges1 were forwarded by
 the ,house of ,lords to the ,king1 who 
informed  them1 that 8he found several  
matters of fact charged1 which upon his 
own  certain knowledge were untrue2 and 
that the articles contained many        
scandalous reflections upon himself and 
his family1 which he looked upon  as    
libels against his person and           

government40 ,upon a reference by the   
,house of ,lords to the judges1 they    
reported that 8the whole charge did  not
 amount to treason though it were all   
true20 and upon this the  proceedings   
were abandoned4    ,but it was at last  
the fate of ,lord ,clarendon to         
experience the  proverbial ingratitude  
of princes4 ,from the period of the     
,restoration a  powerful union of       
discontented parties had gradually      
combined against  him4 ,all hated       
him--the old cavaliers1 because they    
thought he neglected  their just claims 
upon the bounty of the ,king2 the       
papists and the  dissenters1 because    
they found him an uncompromising        
opponent of all  concessions to those   
whom he regarded as enemies of the      
established  church2 the licentious     
adherents of an unprincipled court1     
because his  honest endeavours to       
withdraw the ,king from his levity and  
profligacy to  serious considerations1  
thwarted their intentions and           

interrupted their  pleasures4 ,their    
united efforts erased from ,charles's   
mind the  recollection of services of no
 common value1 and caused him to abandon
  his best and most faithful counsellor1
 without having even the  appearance of 
a reason for his conduct1 beyond what he
 called 8the  ,chancellor's intolerable 
temper40    ,the ,great ,seal was taken 
from ,lord ,clarendon in ,august1 #affg2
 and in the  month of ,november         
following1 after an angry debate1 he was
 impeached by  the ,commons1 in general 
terms1 of high treason and other crimes 
and  misdemeanors2 but the ,lords1 upon 
the impeachment being carried up1       
refused to commit him1 or to sequester  
him from parliament1 on the  ground of  
the generality of the charge4 ,before   
the formal articles of  impeachment were
 prepared1 ,lord ,clarendon left        
,england1 in consequence  of repeated   
messages from the ,king advising him to 
take that course1  having previously    
addressed to the ,lords a vindication of

 his conduct4  ,immediately after his   
departure a bill was introduced into the
 ,house of  ,lords1 and rapidly passed1 
by which he was condemned to perpetual  
banishment1 and declared to be for ever 
incapable of bearing any public  office 
or employment in ,england4    ,the      
charges made against ,lord ,clarendon at
 this time were scarcely less           
multifarious and inconsistent than those
 which were instituted by ,lord         
,bristol a few years before4 ,he was    
accused of designing to govern by a     
standing army1--of accusing the ,king of
 popery1--of receiving bribes for       
patents1--of selling offices1--of       
acquiring a greater estate than he      
could lawfully have gained in a short   
time1--of advising the sale of  ,dunkirk
 to the ,french1--of causing ,quo       
,warrantos to be issued against         
corporations in order that he might     
receive fines on renewals of  charters1 
and many other particulars of alleged   
corruption4 ,from most of  these        

accusations ,lord ,clarendon vindicated 
himself in an address  delivered to the 
,house of ,lords upon his departure2 but
 during his  retirement at ,montpellier1
 he prepared1 and transmitted to his    
children  in ,england a fuller apology1 
in which he answered each article of the
  charges objected to him by the        
,commons4    ,after some hesitation1    
,lord ,clarendon determined to reside at
  ,montpellier1 where he arrived in     
,july1 #affh4 ,he was treated with much 
courtesy and respect by the governor of 
the city1 as well as the ,french  and   
,english inhabitants of all ranks4 ,his 
first task was to write the  vindication
 of his conduct above-mentioned4 ,during
 his retirement he  made himself master 
of ,french and ,italian1 and read the   
works of the  most eminent writers in   
both those languages4 ,he also completed
 his  ,history of the ,rebellion1 and   
wrote an answer to ,hobbes's ,leviathan1
 an  ,historical ,discourse on ,papal   
,jurisdiction1 a volume of ,essays1     

divine1  moral1 and political1 and also 
those fragments of his ,life1 which were
  first published by the ,university of 
,oxford in #agei4 ,engaged in these     
pursuits he passed nearly three years at
 ,montpellier in great  tranquillity and
 cheerfulness4 ,he left that city in    
#afgb1 and went first  to ,moulins1 then
 to ,rouen1 where he died1 ,december #i1
 #afgc4 ,his remains  were brought to   
,england and interred in ,westminster   
,abbey4    ,the political conduct of    
,lord ,clarendon1 though variously      
described by  writers of opposite       
parties1 appears to have been generally 
as  consistent and upright as can       
reasonably be expected from men of warm 
tempers1 deeply interested in the most  
violent civil dissensions4 ,his         
earliest impressions were decidedly in  
favour of the popular party2 and  even  
after he had become familiar with       
,archbishop ,laud1 and was  favourably  
noticed by ,charles ,i41 he strenuously 
supported that party in  the removal of 

actual grievances1 and resisted with    
zeal and energy the  encroachments of   
prerogative4 ,that he afterwards refused
 to join in the  wild and intemperate   
actions committed by the ,parliament1   
and supported  the royal cause against  
the continually increasing demands of   
those with  whom he had previously      
acted1 is not to be ascribed to         
inconsistency in  his conduct1 but to   
the development of designs and measures 
at all times  repugnant to his          
principles4 ,his advice to ,charles ,i4 
and to ,laud was  always temperate and  
wise1 and was given with boldness and   
candour4  ,after the ,restoration1 in   
the height of his power and influence1  
he  displayed the same moderation in his
 opinions and conduct1 and acted  upon  
the same principles of dislike to       
fundamental changes1 which had          
influenced him as a member of the ,long 
,parliament4 ,it has been imputed  to   
,lord ,clarendon that he neglected to   
exert himself for the relief of  those  

unfortunate cavaliers whose attachment  
to the ,king had involved  them in      
penury and ruin4 ,it is difficult to    
ascertain the exact truth of  this      
charge2 but1 whether true or false1 such
 an accusation was sure to  be made in a
 case where the applicants for          
compensation were numerous1  and the    
means of satisfying them inconsiderable4
    ,in the discharge of the legal      
functions of his office of ,lord        
,chancellor1 as presiding in the ,court 
of ,chancery1 he was by no means        
distinguished2 he promoted some reforms 
in the practice of his court1  and      
continued the judicious improvements    
effected during the  ,commonwealth2 but 
,evelyn says 8he was no considerable    
lawyer10 and the  circumstance that he  
never decided a case without requiring  
the presence  of two judges is1 if true1
 a sufficient acknowledgment of his     
judicial  incompetency4    ,for his     
judicial appointments ,lord ,clarendon  
is entitled to unqualified  praise4     

,hale1 ,bridgeman1 and other judges of  
the highest eminence for  learning and  
independence1 were appointed by him     
immediately after the  ,restoration1 and
 contributed in a great degree to give  
stability and  moral strength to the new
 government1 by the confidence which    
their  characters inspired in the due   
administration of the law4    ,as an    
historian ,lord ,clarendon was          
unquestionably careless and inexact  to 
a surprising degree1 which may in some  
measure be excused by the  necessity of 
writing very much from recollection2 and
 he was a perpetual  advocate and       
partisan of the ,royal cause1 though by 
no means of most of  its supporters4    
,but though his narration constantly    
betrays the bias of  party1 and cannot  
therefore be safely relied upon for our 
historical  conclusions1 his            
misrepresentations arise from the avowed
 partiality and  intense concern he     
feels for the cause he is advocating1   
and not from  any design to suppress or 

distort facts4 ,his style is luxuriant  
and  undisciplined1 and his expression  
in the narrative parts of his history   
is diffuse and inaccurate2 but his      
fervent loyalty and the warmth of his   
attachment to his political friends have
 infused a richness of eloquence  into  
his delineations of character1 which has
 perhaps never been  surpassed in any   
language4    ,illustration     ,medal of
 ,clarendon4                    ,medal  
in ,commemoration of the                
,restoration4    ,illustration3         
,engraved by ,j4 ,posselwhite4          
,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds4      ,from a 
,picture by himself in his ,majesty's   
,collection4      ,under the            
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,sir ,j4 ,,reynolds4      8,sir ,joshua
 ,reynolds10 says ,burke1 8was the first
 ,englishman who added  the praise of   

the elegant arts to the other glories of
 his country40  ,without staying to     
inquire how far the literal truth of    
this assertion  may be affected by the  
priority in date of ,wilson and         
,hogarth1 not to  mention their less    
illustrious predecessors1 it may safely 
be affirmed1  not only that ,reynolds   
was the founder of the ,english school1 
but that  the most valuable qualities in
 the art of painting were almost lost   
sight of throughout ,europe when he     
began his career4 ,in ,holland1 the     
rich manner of ,rembrandt1 feebly       
sustained by his imitators1 had been    
succeeded by no less opposite a style   
than that of ,vanderwerf2 the still     
more laboured finish of ,denner1 a      
native of ,hamburgh1 followed2 while    
the minute perfection which was in vogue
 found a more legitimate  application in
 the flower-pieces of ,van ,huysum4     
,reynolds was twenty-four  years old at 
the decease of ,denner1 who had twice   
visited ,london1 and  had been much     

employed there4 ,the ,french school     
about the middle of the  last century   
took its tone from ,boucher1 a name now 
almost forgotten1  and if remembered1   
synonymous with the extreme of          
affectation2 he was  principal painter  
to ,louis ,,xv4 ,the native country of  
,claude and ,poussin  was indeed more   
illustrious during this time in the     
department of  landscape1 as ,vernet    
produced his views of sea-ports about   
the period  alluded to2 but this        
example1 however respectable1 was itself
 indicative  of a declining taste1 and  
the style of view-painting in the hands 
of the  foreign artists who practised it
 in ,italy1 with the ,prussian ,hackert 
at  their head1 had the effect of       
extinguishing for a time all invention  
in  landscape4 ,the academy at ,berlin  
was under the direction of a ,frenchman2
  ,oeser was the greatest name at       
,leipzic and ,dresden2 and the south of 
,germany still imported imitations of   
the latest ,italian styles in  fashion4 

,the state of the arts in ,spain may be 
judged of by the fact1  that when1 in   
#agfa1 ,mengs1 who was himself a native 
of ,germany1 repaired  to ,madrid in the
 service of ,charles ,,iii41 the chief  
painters established  there were a      
,venetian and a ,neapolitan1 ,tiepolo   
and ,corrado ,giaquinto4  ,the ,venetian
 school1 sometimes entirely losing its  
original character1  seemed at least to 
maintain a consistent degeneracy in the 
styles of  ,sebastian ,ricci and the    
above-named ,giambattista ,tiepolo1 both
 weak and  mannered imitators of ,paul  
,veronese1 but still preserving1 at     
least the  latter1 some brilliancy of   
colour and pleasing execution4 ,with    
,tiepolo  the characteristic merits of  
the school seem however to have ceased  
altogether3 towards the latter part of  
the century1 the chief employment  of   
the ,venetian painters was the          
restoration of old pictures4#b ,a       
particular school was established in    
#aggh for this purpose1 and a           

description of the extraordinary labours
 of the artists is preserved in  the    
thirty-eighth volume of ,gothe's works4 
,in ,rome1 the talents of  ,maratta and 
,sacchi1 and 8the great but abused      
powers of ,pietro da  ,cortona10 had    
been succeeded by feebler efforts1      
descending or  fluctuating through the  
styles of ,cignani1 ,trevisani1 and     
others1 till  the time of ,sebastian    
,conca1 and ,pompeo ,battoni4 ,the      
last-named was  approaching the zenith  
of his short-lived reputation1 and      
almost without  a rival 7for ,mengs was 
as yet young1 and ,conca already aged71 
when  ,reynolds visited ,rome4          
,footnote #b3      ,it is worthy of     
remark that about the same time the     
sculptors in ,rome    were as           
exclusively employed in restoring       
antique statues4    ,laborious detail on
 the one hand1 and empty facility on the
 other1  formed the distinguishing      
characteristics of these different      
schools2  but however opposite in       

execution1 mind was alike wanting in    
both4  ,denner may be considered the    
representative of the microscopic style2
 a  style1 if it deserves the name1     
which he applied even to heads the size 
of life2 and as mere finish never was1  
and probably never will be  carried to a
 more absurd length1 his name1 though   
comparatively obscure1  marks an epoch  
in the art4 ,the same scrupulous        
minuteness obtained about  the same time
 in landscape2 among the view-painters1 
,hendrick ,van ,lint1  surnamed ,studio1
 may be named as the most remarkable of 
his class4  ,reynolds alludes to him in 
one of his discourses1 as noted1 when he
 knew  him in ,rome1 for copying every  
leaf of a tree4 ,the opposite style1    
which  aimed at quantity and rapidity1  
was derived from the expert painters of 
galleries and ceilings1 called          
8,machinisti10 and more immediately from
  ,luca ,giordano4 ,facility and        
despatch1 at the expense of every solid 
quality of art1 were the characteristics

 of the school which was  represented in
 the earlier part of ,reynolds's career1
 principally by  ,sebastian ,conca in   
,italy1 and by ,corrado ,giaquinto in   
,spain4    ,the changes which took place
 in this state of things1 towards the   
latter  part of the century1 may be     
traced partly to the renewed            
appreciation of  the antique statues 7a 
taste which1 however beneficial to      
sculpture1 had  an unfortunate influence
 on the sister art71 and subsequently to
  political circumstances4 ,the         
fluctuations of taste1 however          
deliberately  estimated by retrospective
 criticism1 are indeed generally the    
result of  accident1 and depend on      
causes but seldom derived from a just   
definition  of the nature and object of 
art4 ,it appears1 however1 that         
,reynolds1  alone as he was1 the founder
 rather than the follower of a school1  
enjoyed the rare privilege of making the
 taste of his time instead of  being    
made by it2 and although it would be    

absurd to suppose that he  could be     
independent of the accidents with which 
he was brought in  contact1 it will not 
appear1 upon a candid inquiry1 that this
 great  artist was in any respect       
directly influenced by the practice of  
his  age4    ,joshua ,reynolds was born 
at ,plympton1 near ,plymouth1 in        
,devonshire1 ,july  #af1 #agbc2 he was  
the son of the ,rev4 ,samuel ,reynolds1 
who taught the  grammar school of       
,plympton4 ,the young artist's fondness 
for drawing  manifested itself early1   
and at eight years of age he had become 
so well  acquainted with the 8,jesuits' 
,perspective10 as to apply its          
principles  with some effect in a       
drawing of his father's school1 a       
building  elevated on stone pillars4    
,among other books connected with art to
 which  he had access1 ,richardson's    
#8,treatise on ,painting' had a powerful
 effect  in exciting his ambition4 ,the 
earliest known picture he attempted is a
  portrait of the ,rev4 ,thomas ,smart1 

who was the vicar of ,maker1 the  parish
 in which ,mount ,edgecumbe is situated4
 ,reynolds1 then a schoolboy  about     
twelve years of age1 sketched the       
portrait of the vicar at church1  and   
afterwards copied it on canvass4 ,this  
picture is now in the  possession of    
,john ,boger1 ,esq41 of ,east           
,stonehouse near ,plymouth4 ,the  taste 
of the young painter becoming every day 
more decided1 his father1  urged by the 
advice of some friends1 placed him at   
the age of seventeen  as a pupil with   
,hudson1 who had at that time the chief 
business in  portrait painting1 although
 a very indifferent artist4 ,in #agdc   
,reynolds  returned to ,devonshire1 in  
consequence of a disagreement with his  
master1 and set up as a portrait painter
 in the town of ,plymouth ,dock1  since 
called ,devonport4 ,he here painted     
various portraits1 chiefly of  naval    
officers4 ,one of these works1          
containing the portraits of ,mr4 and    
,mrs4 ,eliot and family1 is in the      

possession of the ,earl of ,st4         
,germains4  ,the composition of this    
picture1 the artist's first attempt at a
 group1  approaches the pyramidal form1 
and ,reynolds1 after contemplating it   
when  finished1 observed1 #8,i see ,i   
must have read something about a        
pyramid1  for there it is4' ,six other  
pictures of the artist are preserved in 
the  same collection1 at ,port ,eliot in
 ,cornwall4 ,an admirable picture of a  
boy reading by a reflected light was    
also executed about this time4 ,many    
interesting works of ,reynolds1 some of 
them belonging to his earlier  practice1
 are preserved in the immediate         
neighbourhood of ,plymouth1 in  the     
collections of the ,earl of ,morley1    
,mr4 ,pole ,carew of ,antony1 ,mr4      
,rosdew of ,beechwood1 ,mr4 ,lane of    
,coffleet1 and others4 ,the artist's    
early works1 although sometimes         
carelessly drawn1 are distinguished by  
breadth of colour1 by freedom of        
handling1 and not unfrequently by great 

truth of expression3 in short1 he seems 
to have contracted none of the  defects 
of ,hudson1 except1 according to some of
 his biographers1 a  certain stiffness  
and sameness in the attitudes of his    
portraits2  defects which he afterwards 
exchanged for such grace1 spirit1 and1  
above  all1 endless variety1 that it was
 said 8his inventions will be the       
future grammar of portrait painters40   
,the earliest portrait he painted  of   
himself is in the collection of ,mr4    
,gwatkin of ,plymouth1 who married  a   
niece of ,reynolds3 the same gentleman  
also possesses the last portrait  of the
 artist by himself1 together with many  
other interesting specimens  of his     
pencil4 ,in #agdg ,reynolds repaired    
again to ,london1 and took  lodgings in 
,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 then and long     
afterwards the favourite  residence of  
artists4 ,in #agdi he sailed to the     
,mediterranean1 by the  invitation1 and 
in the company of ,captain 7afterwards  
,lord7 ,keppel4  ,reynolds spent two    

months in ,minorca1 where he painted    
several portraits  of military and naval
 officers1 and proceeded thence1 by way 
of ,leghorn1  to ,rome4    ,he was fully
 alive to the sources of inspiration    
which this city of the  arts contained4 
,in the midst of his enthusiasm1        
however1 he was secretly  humiliated by 
discovering in himself an absence of all
 relish for the  grand works of         
,raffaelle in the ,vatican4 ,richardson 
had inspired him  with the most exalted 
admiration of ,raffaelle2 and whatever  
may be  supposed1 ,reynolds could not be
 entirely unacquainted with the subjects
  and designs of the works alluded to4  
,indeed1 in some notes of his own  that 
have been preserved1 he only confesses a
 feeling of disappointment1  and        
afterwards says1 8,in justice to myself1
 however1 ,i must add1 that  though     
disappointed and mortified at not       
finding myself enraptured with  the     
works of this great master1 ,i did not  
for a moment conceive or  suppose that  

the name of ,raffaelle1 and these       
admirable paintings in  particular1 owed
 their reputation to the ignorance and  
prejudice of  mankind3 on the contrary1 
my not relishing them1 as ,i was        
conscious ,i  ought to have done1 was   
one of the most humiliating             
circumstances that  ever happened to me4
 ,i found myself in the midst of works  
executed upon  principles with which ,i 
was unacquainted2 ,i felt my ignorance1 
and stood  abashed2 all the indigested  
notions of painting which ,i had brought
 with  me from ,england1 where art was  
in the lowest state it had ever been in 
7indeed it could not be lower71 were to 
be totally done away and  eradicated    
from my mind40 ,the union of candour and
 docility with good  sense1 which the   
above account evinces1 was the means of 
emancipating  ,reynolds from the taste  
or fashion of the day4 ,instead of      
enrolling  himself among the scholars of
 ,pompeo ,battoni1 as he was strongly   
recommended to do before his departure  

from ,england by his kind patron  ,lord 
,edgecumbe1 he endeavoured during the   
practice of his art to  penetrate the   
principles on which the great works     
around him1  particularly those of      
,michael ,angelo and ,raffaelle1 were   
produced4 ,his  general theory will be  
found embodied in his writings1 and if  
his  principles sometimes appear to be  
pushed too far1 we may perhaps          
attribute it to the wish to counteract  
certain prevailing errors among  his    
contemporaries4 ,it is a general notion 
that1 considering the  difference in    
style between the paintings of ,reynolds
 and those of the  great models he      
professes to admire 7,michael ,angelo   
received his more  especial homage71 he 
could not have been sincere in          
acknowledging so  thorough a conviction 
of their excellence4 ,to decide fairly  
on this  difficult and often-discussed  
point1 it is necessary to remember the  
state of the arts when ,reynolds formed 
his style4 ,the great vice of the  age  

was a routine practice1 seldom informed 
by any reference to the  general nature 
of the art1 and as little remarkable for
 a just  discrimination of its various  
styles4 ,in such a state of things it   
cannot excite surprise that a sagacious 
and unprejudiced mind1 in  endeavouring 
to retrace the leading principles of the
 art1 should at the  same time see the  
necessity of modifying them in their    
application to a  particular1 and in    
some respects a limited1 department4 ,as
 portrait  painting1 the imitation of   
individuals1 was to be ,reynolds's chief
  occupation1 it certainly did not occur
 to him that the abstract               
representations of ,michael ,angelo1 or 
even of ,raffaelle1 could be fit  models
 for him to follow1 as far as execution 
was concerned4 ,he saw  however that    
these masters were probably right even  
in this respect1  when the dignity and  
purity of their aim1 and when subject1  
place1 and  dimensions are duly         
considered4 ,his imitation of them      

therefore began  when he endeavoured to 
define the end and object of the        
particular style  of art which he       
himself professed2 and although he soon 
concluded that  it required a widely    
different treatment1 he failed not to   
translate1 if  we may so say1 the causes
 of the grandeur he admired into the    
language  which belonged to his own     
department4 ,what he considered the     
distinctive  and desirable requisites of
 portrait painting to consist in1 may be
 best  learnt from his own works4 ,in   
the first place1 the more delicate      
refinements of colouring and            
chiaro-scuro1 by no means essential in  
the  grander and more abstract          
department of the art1 are indispensable
 where  the imitation is confined to a  
single and generally a defective person4
  ,it is thus that ,rembrandt made up   
the sum of beauty by the  fascinations  
of gradation and contrast1 while the    
forms he had to deal  with were often of
 the most ordinary description4 ,the    

just imitation of  the colour of flesh1 
the most beautiful and at the same time 
the most  nameless hue in nature1 has   
ever been considered the triumph of     
imitative art1 and confers value and    
dignity on the work wherever it  is     
fully accomplished4 ,again1 it must be  
remembered that the domain of           
expression begins with the accidents of 
form2 that it belongs to and  often     
recommends individuality and redeems    
deformity2 and that its vivid  interest 
is to be sought less in the abstract    
personifications of  ,michael ,angelo1  
far less in the higher region of beauty 
which the ,greeks  justly placed above  
the atmosphere of the passions1 than in 
the  varieties of accidental nature4    
,reynolds seized on the delicacies of   
expression as strictly harmonizing with 
the individual forms he had to  copy3   
and1 while thus adding a charm to his   
class of art1 he became at  the same    
time the abler portrait painter2 for the
 character and  expression of the       

individual are the chief points which   
are demanded4  ,lastly1 the conduct and 
execution of his pictures were in strict
  conformity with the same principles1  
and may be said to have been  dictated  
by the largest view of the nature and   
means of the art4    ,in his works the  
attention is always attracted by the    
important objects1  or diverted from    
them1 when diverted1 only to conceal the
 artifice which  thus commands the eye  
of the spectator4 ,it is evident that   
the general  degree of completeness will
 depend on that of the principal object2
 and  assuming that ,reynolds's style of
 painting a head was sufficiently       
elaborate 7it is generally less so than 
,vandyck's71 the unfinish of  the       
accessories could hardly be otherwise   
than it is1 consistently with  due      
subordination4 ,the truth of this       
consistency of style was ultimately     
acknowledged1 and although so opposite  
from what had before been in  fashion1  
and so different in many respects from  

what the vulgar admire1  the pictures of
 ,reynolds soon won the favour of the   
public4 ,if the  admiration of his works
 had any ill effect1 it was that it     
tended to  produce an imitation of the  
same mode rather than of the same       
consistency4    ,on his return to       
,england in #ageb1 which has been       
somewhat anticipated in  the foregoing  
remarks on his style1 ,reynolds repaired
 to his native  county1 and painted one 
or two pictures at ,plymouth3 perhaps   
the  earliest of the fine portraits of  
,mr4 ,zachary ,mudge1 ,vicar of ,st4    
,andrews1 was one of these4 ,he returned
 to ,london accompanied by his  sister  
,frances4 ,for a short time he again    
occupied lodgings in ,st4  ,martin's    
,lane1 and produced there the portrait  
of ,giuseppe ,marchi1 an  ,italian whom 
he had brought home as an assistant4    
,this picture1 which  was in the style  
of ,rembrandt1 attracted general        
admiration2 and when  his former master 
,hudson saw it1 he exclaimed1 stung with

 jealousy1  8,reynolds1 you don't paint 
so well as when you left ,england60     
,soon after  this1 in consequence of his
 increased fame and employment1         
,reynolds took  a house in ,great       
,newport ,street1 where he resided for  
some years4 ,the  whole length portrait 
of ,admiral ,keppel was the next work of
 importance  which he produced3 it      
exhibited such powers that it completely
  established the fame of the artist1   
and he was generally acknowledged to  be
 the greatest painter ,england had seen 
since the time of ,vandyck4 ,from  this 
period his career was one of            
uninterrupted success and improvement2  
for his reputation was never greater    
than at the close of his laborious      
life4 ,the detraction which such        
extraordinary merit soon excited was    
compelled to vent itself in attempting  
to undervalue the department of  art in 
which he excelled3 in consequence of    
these insinuations1 a  defence of       
portrait painting1 from the pen of ,dr4 

,johnson1 appeared in  the forty-fifth  
number of the ,idler4 ,johnson in that  
essay1 after all1  only proved that     
portrait painting is interesting to a   
few--that in the  hands of ,reynolds it 
was 8employed in diffusing friendship1  
in renewing  tenderness1 in quickening  
the affections of the absent1 and       
continuing  the presence of the dead40  
,reynolds himself1 however1 without     
forgetting  these important             
prerogatives1 evidently took a more     
extended view of the  matter2 he seems  
early to have felt that the chief       
difficulty of  portrait painting 7a     
difficulty perhaps greater than any in  
the other  branches of art7 is to make  
the representation generally            
interesting4  ,it is quite obvious that 
this end can only be attained           
7especially as  beauty of form is not   
always at command7 by a high degree of  
perfection  in all that constitutes the 
charm of art2 for no interest that      
attaches  itself to the individual      

pourtrayed1 however celebrated1 can be  
so  universal or so independently       
intelligible as that which arises from a
  large and true imitation of nature1 to
 which all are more or less alive4  ,the
 perfection of art as applicable to     
portrait painting1 was therefore        
,reynolds's great object1 and it was    
only in subservience to this that he    
ventured to introduce what in his hands 
might be considered a novelty in  this  
department4 ,that novelty was the       
historic air he often gave his          
portraits1 by happy allusions to some   
important circumstance in the life  of  
the individual4 ,his consummate         
knowledge of effect enabled him to do   
this by means which never interfere with
 the mere portrait1 a difficulty  which 
had been in a great measure evaded by   
preceding painters4 ,it will  be        
remembered that in most of the portraits
 even of ,titian and ,vandyck  the      
attention is literally confined to the  
individual pourtrayed 7after  all1 the  

subject of the picture71 and it was not 
lightly or  inconsiderately that        
,reynolds occasionally departed from    
this judicious  practice4 ,if ever a    
painter could depend on the mere        
character and  expression of his heads1 
to say nothing of the charm of their    
execution1  ,reynolds undoubtedly would 
have been secure of the public          
approbation on  those grounds alone2 and
 it was only where historic interest    
happened to  coincide or to interfere   
but little with picturesque effect1 that
 he  ventured on the additions alluded  
to4 ,a better instance perhaps cannot   
be given than the portrait of ,lord     
,heathfield 7celebrated for his  defence
 of ,gibraltar71 in the ,national       
,gallery2 in the background of  which a 
cannon pointed downwards indicates1 by  
its angle of depression1  the elevation 
of the spot where the veteran stands1   
grasping the keys of  the fortress which
 he defended so bravely4 ,in his        
allegorical portraits1  such as ,garrick

 between ,tragedy and ,comedy1 ,mrs4    
,siddons as the ,tragic  ,muse1 c41     
,reynolds encountered a much greater    
difficulty1 and it may be  questioned   
whether any painter who has yet appeared
 would have succeeded  better4 ,the     
mixture of real and imaginary beings1 of
 individual and  abstract               
personifications1 the treatment of which
 would seem to require  so different a  
style1 was so managed by ,reynolds as to
 satisfy1 in this  respect1 the most    
fastidious taste4 ,the secret of the    
greatness of his  style in these        
subjects1 and indeed in most of his     
portraits1 is to be  sought in his      
colouring1 the idea of which is large   
and general2 and  under its dignified   
influence the individuality of forms and
 locality of  dress are rendered with   
all sufficient fidelity without         
offending4 ,it is  thus we find in many 
,venetian1 ,flemish1 and ,dutch         
pictures1 where the  subject and forms  
are most homely1 an air of refined      

taste1 and even of  grandeur1 which     
seems unaccountable1 till we discover   
that the colouring  is true to the      
largest idea of nature2 and thus1 to a  
certain extent1  the art is raised by   
raising its characteristic quality4 ,in 
short1 to  return to the question of his
 imitation of ,michael ,angelo1 we      
should  find that1 keeping the main     
requisites and attainable excellences of
  portrait painting in view1 ,reynolds  
contrived to infuse into it as much     
elevation as was calculated to improve  
it without injuring its  character2 and 
when we find that he applied this even  
to execution1 and  that his breadth of  
manner1 his disdain of non-essentials1  
is evidently  inspired by the same      
feeling1 we shall no longer wonder at   
his  admiration of the highest style of 
art1 or doubt the sincerity of his      
recorded professions on the subject4    
,the very indirectness of his           
imitation1 in which the whole mystery   
lies1 so sure a proof of his  having    

penetrated the principle of the great   
master1 establishes his  claim to       
originality as well as to consummate    
judgment and taste4    ,in #agfh the    
,royal ,academy was instituted1 and ,mr4
 ,reynolds1 holding  unquestionably the 
first rank in his profession1 was       
elected ,president4  ,on his elevation  
to this office he received the honour of
 knighthood4 ,as  ,president he         
delivered to the students and professors
 those celebrated  discourses1 which    
have reflected so much lustre on his    
name4 ,their  excellence in a           
theoretical point of view1 the elegance 
of their  composition1 and on the other 
hand the apparent contradictions they   
sometimes contain1 have been the theme  
of frequent observation and  discussion4
 ,the other writings of ,sir ,joshua are
 the #8,tour to ,flanders  and          
,holland1' consisting of notes on the   
paintings seen by him in those          
countries in the year #agha2 #8,notes on
 ,du ,fresnoy's ,poem2' and three       

papers in the ,idler4 ,among the last1  
the ,essay on ,beauty was not so        
original as is generally supposed1 the  
same theory having been  previously     
promulgated by the ,pre ,buffier in his 
#8,cours des ,sciences  par des         
principes nouveaux4 ,paris1 #agcb4'     
,among the historical and  mythological 
pictures produced by ,sir ,joshua1 that 
of the ,infant  ,hercules strangling the
 ,serpents1 executed in #aghf for the   
,empress of  ,russia1 is one of the most
 considerable3 it is pretty closely     
copied1 as  to invention and            
composition1 from a description of an   
antique painting  of the same subject in
 ,philostratus4 ,this work1 so different
 from the  taste of the ,russian        
painters and connoisseurs1 was long     
treated with  neglect2 but in           
consequence of the enquiries of ,english
 travellers it  has lately been cleaned1
 and placed in the gallery of the       
,hermitage4 ,it  is said to be in a fine
 state of preservation1 and one of the  

best works  of ,reynolds4 ,the          
celebrated picture of ,ugolino was      
produced by an  accidental circumstance4
 ,the subject was suggested to ,sir     
,joshua by  ,goldsmith1 or1 according to
 others1 by ,burke1 who was struck with 
the  expression of an old emaciated     
head1 among the unfinished studies of   
the  painter1 and observed that it      
corresponded exactly with ,dante's      
description of ,count ,ugolino4 ,the    
head was inserted in a larger canvas1   
and the rest of the composition added4  
,for the ,shakspeare ,gallery ,sir      
,joshua painted three pictures1--the    
,death of ,cardinal ,beaufort1 the      
,cauldron ,scene in ,macbeth1 and ,puck 
from ,midsummer ,night's ,dream4 ,the   
designs for the window of the ,new      
,college ,chapel in ,oxford are among   
the  finest of his sacred compositions4 
,in #aghi1 finding his eyesight begin to
 fail1 ,sir ,joshua was compelled to    
give up the practice of his art4 ,in    
,december1 #agij1 he pronounced his     

farewell ,address at the ,royal         
,academy1 and on that occasion repeated 
and  confirmed1 as with his dying voice1
 his admiration of ,michael ,angelo4    
,his infirmities confined him much      
during the short remaining portion of   
his life1 and he died at his house in   
,leicester ,fields1 ,february #bc1      
#agib4 ,he was buried in the crypt of   
the cathedral of ,st4 ,paul1 near the   
tomb of ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 ,the   
honours of his funeral1 as may be       
imagined1 corresponded with his         
justly-earned fame2 and the day after   
his death a well-known eulogium by      
,burke appeared in the public papers1   
so characteristic both of the writer and
 the great artist to whose  memory it   
was dedicated1 that it was called the   
panegyric of ,apelles1  pronounced by   
,pericles4 ,it concludes thus3--8,his   
talents of every kind1  powerful from   
nature1 and not meanly cultivated by    
letters1 his social  virtues in all the 
relations and all the habitudes of life1

 rendered him  the centre of a very     
great and unparalleled variety of       
agreeable  societies1 which will be     
dissipated by his death4 ,he had too    
much merit  not to excite some jealousy1
 too much innocence to provoke any      
enmity4  ,the loss of no man of his time
 can be felt with more sincere1 general1
  and unmixed sorrow40    ,for a list of
 the pictures of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1
 and ample details of  his life1 the    
memoir of him by ,northcote1 who had    
been his scholar1 may  be consulted2 as 
well as the accounts prefixed to the    
various editions  of his literary works2
 and that by ,allan ,cunningham1 in his 
,lives of the  most eminent ,british    
,painters1 ,sculptors1 and ,architects4 
,illustration3 ,sketch for the picture  
of ,mr4 ,eliot and his family4          
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,b4    
,holl4      ,,swift4      ,from the     
,picture in the ,bodleian ,library1     
,oxford4      ,under the                
,superintendance of the ,society for the

 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,swift4      ,jonathan ,swift1 by an   
account in his own handwriting1 was the 
son of an  attorney in the city of      
,dublin4 ,he was born in #affg4 ,some   
doubt has been  felt concerning his     
origin1 in consequence of his own angry 
or  capricious declaration1 when out of 
humour with ,ireland1--8,i am not of    
this vile country2 ,i am an             
,englishman20 and ,sir ,william ,temple 
has been  said to be his real father4   
,this piece of scandal1 however1 is     
disproved  by circumstances of time and 
place4 ,swift was placed at ,trinity    
,college1  ,dublin1 at the age of       
fourteen4 ,whether through idleness1 or 
contempt of  the prescribed studies1 at 
the end of four years he could only     
obtain  his ,bachelor's degree speciali 
grati2 a term denoting want of merit4   
,this disgrace so affected him1 that for

 the following seven years he  studied  
eight hours a day4 ,in #afhh ,sir       
,william ,temple1 whose lady was        
related to ,swift's mother1 took him    
under his protection1 and paid the      
expenses of his residence at ,oxford for
 a ,master's degree4 ,on quitting  that 
,university1 ,swift lived with ,temple  
as his domestic companion4 ,to a  long  
illness contracted during this period in
 consequence of a surfeit  he ascribed  
that frequently recurring giddiness     
which annoyed him  through life1 and    
sent him to the grave deprived of       
reason4    ,while under ,sir ,william   
,temple's roof1 ,swift rendered material
  assistance in the revision of his     
patron's works1 and corrected and       
improved his own #8,tale of a ,tub1'    
which had been sketched out previously  
to his quitting ,dublin4 ,it was        
published in #agjd4 ,he never avowed    
himself its author2 but he did not deny 
it when ,archbishop ,sharpe and  the    
,duchess of ,somerset1 according to some

 accounts1 showed it to ,queen  ,anne1  
and thereby debarred him from a         
bishopric4 ,from ,temple's  conversation
 ,swift much increased his political    
knowledge2 and his early  impressions   
were naturally in favour of the ,whigs3 
but he suspected his  patron of         
neglecting to provide for him1 from a   
desire of retaining his  services4 ,this
 produced a quarrel1 and the friends    
parted in #afid4 ,swift  took orders1   
and obtained a prebend in the north of  
,ireland2 but at  ,temple's earnest     
request he soon resigned that           
preferment1 and returned  to ,england4  
,a sincere reconciliation took place1   
and they lived together  in the utmost  
harmony till ,sir ,william's death in   
#afii4 ,swift1 in  testimony of his     
esteem1 wrote #8,the ,battle of the     
,books1' of which his  friend is the    
hero2 and ,temple by his will left him a
 legacy in money1  and the profit as    
well as care of his posthumous works4   
,swift had  indulged hopes1 not without 

good reason1 of being well provided for 
in  the ,english church1 through        
,temple's interest4 ,failing in these   
hopes1  he accepted the post of private 
secretary and chaplain to the ,earl of  
,berkeley1 on the appointment of that   
nobleman to be one of the ,lords        
,justices of ,ireland4 ,by this new     
patron he seems to have been ill used4  
,he was soon displaced from his post1 on
 the plea of its unfitness for a        
clergyman4 ,he was then promised the    
rich deanery of ,derry2 but that        
preferment was bestowed on another      
person1 and ,swift could only procure   
the livings of ,laracor and ,rathbeggin1
 which together did not amount to  more 
than half the value of the deanery4     
,during his residence at  ,laracor1 he  
performed the duties of a parish priest 
with punctuality and  devotion1         
notwithstanding some occasional sallies 
of no very decorous or  well-timed      
humour1 which coupled with the          
suspicions founded on the  anonymous    

#8,tale of a ,tub1' fixed on him an     
imputation of insincerity in  his       
,christian profession1 from which the   
opinion of posterity seems to  have     
absolved him4    ,during his incumbency 
at ,laracor1 he invited to ,ireland a   
lady with whom  he became acquainted    
while with ,sir ,william ,temple4 ,she  
was the daughter  of ,temple's steward1 
whose name was ,johnson4 ,about the year
 #agja1 at the  age of eighteen1 she    
went to ,ireland1 to reside near ,swift1
 accompanied  by ,mrs4 ,dingley1 a lady 
fifteen years older than herself4 ,miss 
,johnson  was ,swift's celebrated       
,stella4 ,whether ,swift's first impulse
 in giving  this invitation had a view  
to marriage1 or the cultivation of      
friendship  only1 is uncertain4 ,his    
whole conduct with respect to women was 
most  mysterious3 apparently highly     
capricious1 and1 whatever might be its  
secret motive1 utterly unwarrantable4   
,the reason assigned by the two  ladies 
for transferring their residence to     

,ireland was1 8that the  interest of    
money was higher than in ,england1 and  
provisions cheap40  ,every possible     
precaution was taken to prevent scandal3
 ,swift and ,miss  ,johnson did not live
 together1 nor were they ever known to  
meet except  in presence of a third     
person4 ,owing to this scrupulous       
prudence1 the  lady's fame1 during      
fifteen years1 was never questioned1 nor
 was her  society avoided by the most   
scrupulous4 ,in #agaf they were         
privately  married1 but with no change  
in their mode of life3 she never lodged 
in  the ,deanery1 except during those   
fits of giddiness and approaching       
mental aberration1 during which a woman1
 then of middle age1 might  venture     
without breach of decorum to nurse an   
elderly man4    ,in #agja ,swift had    
published his #8,dissensions in ,athens 
and ,rome2' his  first political work1  
in behalf of ,king ,william and his     
ministers1  against the violent         
proceedings of the ,house of ,commons4  

,according to  ,lord ,orrery1 from that 
year to #agjh he did not write any      
political  pamphlet2 but he made        
frequent journeys to ,england during the
 whole of  ,queen ,anne's reign4        
,between #agjh and #agaj he changed his 
politics1  worked hard against the      
,whigs among whom he had been educated1 
and  plunged into political controversy1
 with a view to open the road to  power 
for the ,tories4 ,the year #agaj        
produced the #8,examiner1' of which he  
wrote thirty-three papers4 ,in that year
 commenced his acquaintance with        
,harley1 who introduced him to ,st4     
,john and the rest of the ministers4 ,at
  this period he dined every ,saturday  
at ,harley's1 with the ,lord ,keeper1   
,mr4 ,secretary ,st4 ,john1 and ,lord   
,rivers1 to the exclusion of all other  
persons4 ,he may1 therefore1 be         
considered at this time as the          
confidential friend of the ministry1 and
 almost a member of their  cabinet4 ,the
 company was afterwards enlarged to     

sixteen1 including  ,swift2 all men of  
the first class in society4 ,he now put 
forth all his  strength in support of   
the ,tory party1 in pamphlets1          
periodical papers1  and political poems4
 ,amidst all this political agitation1  
he wrote down  the occurrences of every 
day1 whether consisting of conferences  
with  ministers1 or quarrels with his   
own servant1 in a regular journal to    
,stella4    ,in #agab1 ten days before  
the meeting of parliament1 he published 
a  pamphlet1 entitled #8,the ,conduct of
 the ,allies1' to facilitate peace1 on  
which the stability1 almost the personal
 safety of the ministers1 seemed  to    
depend4 ,he professes that this piece   
cost him much pains1 and no  writer was 
ever more successful4 ,a sale of eleven 
thousand copies in two  months was in   
those days unprecedented3 the ,tory     
members in both houses  drew their      
arguments from it1 and the resolutions  
of parliament were  little more than a  
string of quotations4 ,during that year 

and the next  he continued to exert     
himself with unwearied diligence4 ,in   
#agac he  carried to the then latest    
date the first sketch of the #8,history 
of the  last four ,years of ,queen      
,anne4' ,lord ,bolingbroke1 when called 
on for his  opinion1 was sincere enough 
to speak of it as 8a seasonable pamphlet
 for  the administration1 but a         
dishonour to just history40 ,swift      
himself was  proud of it1 but professed 
his willingness to sacrifice it to his  
friend's opinion4 ,it was1 however1     
published1 but with no addition to  the 
author's fame4    ,the ,queen is said to
 have intended to promote him to a      
bishopric2 but  the story is involved in
 obscurity4 ,that ,archbishop ,sharpe   
had dissuaded  her from so doing by     
representing his belief in ,christianity
 as  questionable1 is not ascertained by
 any satisfactory evidence2 but  whether
 that were so or not1 ,johnson's        
suggestion seems probable1 that  the    
difficulty arose from those clerical    

supporters of the ministry1  8who were  
not yet reconciled to the author of the 
#8,tale of a ,tub1' and  would not1     
without much discontent and indignation1
 have borne to see  him installed in an 
,english cathedral40 ,the deanery of    
,st4 ,patrick1 in  ,dublin1 was         
therefore offered to him1 and he        
accepted it4 ,with high  pretensions to 
independent equality with the ministers1
 and a  disinterested support of their  
measures1 it cannot be doubted that he  
viewed this ,irish preferment as a      
sentence of exile1 and was bitterly     
disappointed4 ,but his temper was too   
intractable to submit to play the  part 
of a courtier2 and it is probable that  
his ,english friends were not  ill      
pleased to promote him to competence and
 dignity at a distance4 ,his  feelings  
are characteristically expressed in one 
of his letters3 8,i use  the ministry   
like dogs1 because ,i expect they will  
use me so4 ,i never  knew a ministry do 
anything for those whom they made       

companions of their  pleasures2 but ,i  
care not40    ,he had indeed little     
reason to rejoice at first in the land  
where his  lot had fallen3 on his       
arrival in ,ireland to take possession  
of his  deanery1 he found the country   
under the strongest excitement of party 
violence4 ,the populace looked on him as
 a ,jacobite1 and threw stones at  him  
as he walked the streets4 ,his chapter  
received him with reluctance1  and      
thwarted him in whatever he proposed4   
,ordinary talents and firmness  must    
have sunk under such general hostility4 
,but the revolutions of the  ,dean's    
life were strange2 and he1 who began    
with the hatred of the ,irish  mob1     
lived to govern them with the authority 
of a despot4    ,he had not been in     
,ireland more than a fortnight when he  
returned to  ,england for the purpose of
 attempting1 but in vain1 a             
reconciliation  between the ,lords      
,oxford and ,bolingbroke4 ,while in     
,england1 he wrote his  #8,free         

,thoughts on the ,present ,state of     
,affairs4' ,he was probably still       
watching the issues of time or chance2  
but the ,queen's death sealed his       
political and clerical doom1 and he     
returned to ,ireland4 ,to the interval  
between #agad and #agbj ,lord ,orrery   
ascribes #8,gulliver's ,travels4' ,his  
mind was at this time much engrossed by 
a remarkable circumstance4 ,he  had     
formed an intimacy in ,england with the 
family of a ,dutch merchant1  named     
,vanhomrigh4 ,the eldest daughter1      
strangely enough1 became  enamoured of  
,swift's mind1 for it could not be of a 
most homely person1  nearly fifty years 
of age4 ,she proposed marriage3 this he 
declined1 and  wrote his poem of        
#8,cadenus and ,vanessa' on the         
occasion4 ,on her mother's  death1 the  
young lady and her sister followed him  
to ,ireland2 the  intercourse was       
continued1 and the proposal renewed on  
her part4 ,this it  was absolutely      
necessary to decline1 as the ,dean was  

already married2  but he lived with     
,stella on the same distant footing as  
before1 and was  reluctant either to    
inflict pain1 or to forego his own      
pleasure1 by an  avowal of the          
insuperable obstacle4 ,vanessa continued
 to receive his  visits1 but so         
guardedly as not absolutely to forfeit  
her good name4 ,she  became however more
 and more urgent2 and peremptorily      
pressed him to  accept or reject her as 
his wife4 ,failing to obtain a direct   
answer1 she  addressed a note to ,miss  
,johnson1 desiring to know whether she  
were  married to him1 or not4 ,stella   
sent this note to ,swift1 who in a      
paroxysm of anger rode to ,vanessa's    
house1 threw a paper containing her  own
 note on the table1 and quitted her     
without a word4 ,this blow she did  not 
survive many weeks4 ,she died in #agbc1 
having first cancelled a will  in the   
,dean's favour4    ,vanessa by will     
ordered her correspondence with ,swift  
to be published1  as well as #8,cadenus 

and ,vanessa1' in which he had          
proclaimed her  excellence and confessed
 his love4 ,the letters were suppressed2
 the poem  was published4 ,this1 whether
 meant as an apology for herself1 or as 
a  posthumous triumph over her more     
successful rival1 occasioned a great    
shock and distress both to ,stella and  
the ,dean4 ,it is said that at  length1 
probably as a softening to the          
mortification incident to the  public   
discovery of his passion for ,vanessa1  
he desired that ,stella  might be       
publicly owned as his wife2 but her     
health was rapidly  declining4 ,she     
said1 perhaps petulantly1 8,it is too   
late10 and insisted  that they should   
continue to live as before4 ,to this the
 ,dean consented1  and allowed her to   
dispose of her fortune1 by her own name1
 in public  charity4 ,she died in #agbg4
    ,by ,stella's death ,swift's        
happiness was deeply affected4 ,he      
became by  degrees more misanthropic1   
and ungovernable in temper2 and more    

miserly  in his personal habits1 while  
at the same time he devoted to charity a
  large part1 it is said one-third1 of  
his income4 ,in #agcf his deafness  and 
giddiness became alarming1 and his      
mental powers gradually declined4  ,in  
#agda his friends found it necessary    
that guardians should be  appointed over
 his person and estate4 ,in #agdb his   
reason was entirely  overthrown2 he     
became lethargic and1 except at short   
intervals1  speechless4 ,on the #cjth of
 ,november his housekeeper told him that
 the  customary preparations were making
 to celebrate his birthday3 he found    
words to answer1 8,it is all folly2 they
 had better let it alone40 ,he  died the
 latter end of ,october1 #agde2 in his  
seventy-eighth year4 ,with  the         
exception of some few legacies1 he left 
his fortune1 amounting to  about twelve 
thousand pounds1 to the building of an  
hospital for idiots  and lunatics4      
,the extent and variety of ,swift's     
writings render it necessary to  confine

 our notice to two or three of his most 
curious productions4 ,of  the #8,tale of
 a ,tub1' which1 being regarded as an   
attack upon all  religion1 brought down 
a weight of censure on the author1      
against which  he protested in the      
preface to a later edition1 ,dr4        
,johnson says that  8it has little      
resemblance to his other pieces4 ,it    
exhibits a vehemence  and rapidity of   
mind1 a copiousness of images1 and      
vivacity of diction1  such as he        
afterwards never possessed or never     
exerted4 ,it is a mode so  distinct and 
peculiar1 that it must be considered by 
itself2 what is  true of that is not    
true of anything else which he has      
written4 ,in his  other works is found  
an equable tenor of easy language1 which
 rather  trickles than flows40          
#8,gulliver's ,travels' are now probably
 better known to the public than  any   
other of his productions4 ,that work is 
a moral and political  romance1         
exhibiting a wonderful specimen of      

irregular genius4 ,not only  are human  
actions placed in the most unfavourable 
light1 but human  nature itself is      
libelled4 ,his wayward temper and his   
ill-concealed  disappointment had put   
him out of conceit with the world2      
misanthropy  had made some inroad into  
his heart1 and1 with his pen in his     
hand1 he  indulged in the expression of 
it with affected exaggeration4 ,but     
however  offensive to good feeling the  
satire might be1 the imagination and wit
  which pervade this extraordinary work 
will always attract some readers1  while
 the simple1 circumstantial air of truth
 with which such  extravagant fictions  
are related is a source of amusement to 
less  refined tastes4    ,neither are   
the #8,drapier's ,letters1' written in  
#agbd1 less remarkable1  although the   
temporary nature of the subject has     
divested them of all  interest1 except  
as samples of the powers of his mind and
 the character  of his style4 ,lord     
,orrery calls them 8those brazen        

monuments of his  fame40 ,a patent had  
been taken out by one ,wood for a copper
 coinage for  ,ireland1 to the amount of
 one hundred and eighty thousand pounds 
in  halfpence and farthings1 by which   
the projector1 at least as was alleged  
by the opponents of the ministry1 would 
have gained exorbitant profit1  and the 
nation would of course have incurred    
proportionate loss4 ,the  ,dean1 in the 
character of a ,drapier1 wrote a series 
of letters1 exposing  the folly and     
mischief of giving gold and silver for a
 debased coin  probably not worth a     
third of its nominal value4 ,he urged   
the people to  refuse this copper money2
 and the nation acted on the ,drapier's 
advice4  ,the government took the alarm 
at this seditious resistance to the     
,king's  patent1 and offered three      
hundred pounds reward for the discovery 
of the  author of the fourth letter2 but
 his precautions were so well taken1 and
  his popularity so universal1 that1    
though known to be the author1 the      

proclamation failed to touch him4 ,the  
popular indignation rose to such a      
height that ,wood was compelled to      
withdraw his patent1 and the base  money
 was totally suppressed4 ,from this time
 forward the ,dean1 who at  his first   
arrival in ,ireland had been most       
unpopular1 possessed  unlimited         
influence2 he was consulted on all      
measures of domestic  policy2 persons of
 all ranks either courted or feared him2
 national  gratitude was expressed by   
all ranks in their various ways2 the    
,drapier  was a toast at every convivial
 meeting1 and the sign of his head      
insured  custom to an ale-house4    ,his
 letters are remarkable for the pure    
,english of their style3 there is       
little of solid information to be       
derived from them2 but the most         
trifling anecdotes of distinguished men 
find ready acceptation with a  large    
class of readers4    ,as a poet1 in the 
higher sense of the word1 we rank       
,swift's claims to  honour very humbly4 

,but he possessed uncommon power of     
correct1 easy1  and familiar            
versification2 which1 with his racy vein
 of humour1 will  secure him admirers   
among those who can pardon his offensive
 grossness4    ,delany1 an ,irishman to 
the backbone1 gives the following       
character of  him3 8,no man ever        
deserved better of any country1 than    
,swift did of his2  a steady1           
persevering1 inflexible friend2 a wise1 
a watchful1 and a  faithful counsellor1 
under many severe trials and bitter     
persecutions1  to the manifest hazard   
both of his liberty and fortune40 ,with 
respect to  his conversation and private
 economy some particulars may be worth  
mentioning4 ,his rule never to speak    
more than a minute at a time1 and to    
wait for others to take up the          
conversation1 it were well if professed 
talkers would adopt4 ,he excelled in    
telling a story1 but told the same  too 
often2 an infirmity which grew on him1  
as it does on others1 in  advancing     

life4 ,he was churlish to his servants1 
but in the main a kind  and generous    
master4 ,he was unceremonious and       
overbearing1 sometimes  brutal2 but in  
company which he respected1 not coarse1 
although his  politeness was in a form  
peculiar to himself4 ,he considered     
wealth as  the pledge of independence2  
but his frugality towards the close of  
his  life amounted to avarice4 ,as we   
have represented some features of his   
character in no very amiable light1 we  
will conclude with an anecdote  which   
shows the kindly portion of his nature  
to advantage4 ,in the high  tide of his 
influence1 he was often rallied by the  
ministers for never  coming to them     
without a ,whig in his sleeve3 whatever 
might have been  his expectations from  
the unsolicited gratitude of his party1 
he never  pressed his own claims        
personally2 but he often solicited      
favours from  ,lord ,oxford in behalf of
 ,addison1 ,congreve1 ,rowe1 and        
,steele4 ,personal  merit rather than   

political principles directed his choice
 of friends4  ,his intimacy with        
,addison was formed when they used to   
meet at the  parties of ,lord ,halifax  
or ,lord ,somers1 who were leaders of   
the ,whigs2  but it continued unabated  
when the ,tories had gained the         
ascendency4    ,swift's works have gone 
through many editions in various forms4 
,the  latest and best is that of ,sir   
,walter ,scott4 ,that man must be       
considered  fortunate in his            
biographers1 of whom memoirs have been  
handed down1  with more or less detail1 
by ,lord ,orrery1 ,dr4 ,delany1 ,dr4    
,hawkesworth1  ,dr4 ,sheridan1 ,dr4     
,johnson1 and ,sir ,w4 ,scott4          
,illustration3 ,gulliver in ,lilliput1  
from a ,design by ,stothard4            
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,j4    
,posselwhite4      ,,locke4      ,from  
the original ,picture by ,sir ,g4       
,kneller in the ,hall of ,christ        
,church1 ,oxford4      ,under the       
,superintendance of the ,society for the

 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,locke4      ,john ,locke was born     
,august #bi1 #afcb1 at ,wrington1 a     
village of  ,somersetshire1 about eight 
miles from ,bristol4 ,he was the eldest 
of two  sons of ,john ,locke1 a man of  
some property1 who had been bred to the 
law1 but became afterwards a captain    
under ,cromwell4 ,in those turbulent    
times he met with losses which          
diminished his fortune1 and he left an  
inconsiderable inheritance to his son4  
,locke received his education at        
,westminster ,school1 and ,christ       
,church1 ,oxford4 ,while an             
undergraduate he  was chosen to write a 
welcome on the occasion of a visit which
 ,cromwell  paid to that ,university1   
just after the conclusion of his peace  
with the  ,dutch4 ,this he did in a     
laudatory copy of verses in ,english and
 ,latin1  comparing the great ,protector

 to ,julius for warlike1 and to         
,augustus for  peaceful1                
accomplishments4 ,this and some ,latin  
verses1 prefixed to a  work of          
,sydenham's1 are ,locke's only poetical 
attempts4 ,there is little  merit in    
either4 ,he was a great admirer of the  
meagre verse of ,sir  ,richard          
,blackmore1 which is no great evidence  
of his poetical taste4  ,between the    
degrees of ,bachelor and ,master of     
,arts he was elected  ,student of his   
college4 ,from that time he applied     
himself diligently1  for many years1 to 
the study of medicine1 without1 however1
 practising  it as a matter of gain4    
,the weakness of his health probably    
gave this  turn to his thoughts3 his    
brother died of consumption2 and he     
himself  was apprehensive through life  
of falling a victim to the same disease4
  ,in #affd he went abroad as secretary 
to ,sir ,w4 ,swan1 envoy to the court   
of ,brandenburg2 and on his return to   
,oxford the year following1 he  applied 

himself to the discovery of the effects 
of the air on the human  frame4 ,his    
first work1 published in #affg1 was a   
register of the  variations in the      
atmosphere1 determined between certain  
periods by the  common instruments1 as a
 supplement to a work by ,boyle4    ,he 
was amusing himself with such enquiries1
 when one of the slight but  important  
accidents of life brought him an        
acquaintance1 whose influence           
determined his future course4 ,a friend1
 being obliged to take a journey1       
desired ,locke to make his excuses to   
,lord ,ashley 7afterwards ,earl of      
,shaftesbury7 for not having procured   
for him some mineral waters against  his
 arrival in ,oxford4 ,when ,lord ,ashley
 did arrive1 ,locke carried this        
message to him4 ,they were mutually     
pleased with each other1 and this       
acquaintance speedily grew up into a    
strict friendship4 ,locke's advice      
determined ,lord ,ashley to submit to a 
surgical operation1 by which1 it  is    

said1 the life of the patient was saved2
 and he was received into the  house1   
and practised his profession in the     
family and amongst a few  private       
friends of his noble patron4 ,while     
living in this way1 his  thoughts were  
turned into the channel of politics by  
the advice of his  new associates2 and1 
taking up that study earnestly1 he was  
soon able to  advise and assist ,ashley 
in all his plans of state1 becoming at  
the same  time the referee of his       
private affairs4 ,this warm friendship  
is  singular1 considering the purity of 
,locke's life1 and the notoriously  bad 
character1 public and private1 of his   
noble patron4 ,but the latter  was an   
eloquent orator1 and an admirable       
talker2 and it was probably  this latter
 quality which attached ,locke so much4 
,he had so great an  esteem for good    
conversation1 as to give it a first     
place in the  formation of a man's mind1
 calling books the raw material1 and    
social  talk1 with meditation1 the true 

architects of our mental constructions4 
,in #affh ,locke attended the ,earl and 
,countess of ,northumberland to         
,france4 ,but some accident caused him  
soon to return to his old residence     
with ,shaftesbury1 for whom he drew up  
the fundamental laws of ,carolina1      
which had just been granted to him and  
other lords4 ,two of the articles  of   
this settlement gave great offence to   
the clergy1 and were expunged4  ,they   
are remarkable1 and should be mentioned4
 ,one was1 8,that no man that  doth not 
acknowledge a ,god1 and that ,god       
publicly worshipped1 should be  a       
freeman or inhabitant of ,carolina40    
,the other was a proposition1 that  any 
seven persons agreeing in a form of     
worship should be esteemed a  church1   
and be supported by the state4 ,the     
,church of ,england1 however1  was alone
 established in that colony4 ,in #afga  
,locke began to form his  great ,essay  
on the ,human ,understanding2 but his   
engagements with  ,shaftesbury prevented

 its immediate completion4 ,the year    
following1 his  patron becoming         
,chancellor1 ,locke was made secretary  
of presentations1  which office he      
speedily lost on the partial disgrace of
 the ,earl1 who1  still remaining       
,president of the ,board of ,trade1     
appointed him secretary  to a commission
 of inquiry into the state of trade1 and
 the colonial  plantations4 ,this office
 he also lost in the same manner1 upon  
,lord  ,shaftesbury's total disgrace in 
#afgd4    ,having retained his          
studentship1 ,locke then retired to     
,oxford1 partly  for his health's sake1 
and partly to pursue his old medical    
studies4 ,he  took the degree of        
,bachelor of ,medicine in this year4 ,it
 appears that he  continued to pay some 
attention to these studies until an     
advanced age3  for in #afig he          
communicated to the ,royal ,society the 
history of a  curious case which he had 
seen at the great hospital of ,la       
,charit1  during his residence in       

,paris4 ,in #afge1 in hope of obtaining 
relief from  an asthmatical complaint1  
he went to ,montpellier4 ,there was also
 another  reason for this journey4 ,he  
had just published an anonymous pamphlet
 for  ,shaftesbury1 blaming the conduct 
of the ,house of ,lords in the matter of
  the ,test ,act1 containing a vehement 
abuse of the bishops1 and of what he    
called their favourite doctrine1 8the   
divine right0 of kings and  priests4    
,this pamphlet does not appear in the   
folio edition of his  works2 it was     
anonymous1 like most of his other       
productions4 ,the odium  consequent upon
 it made his absence from ,england      
expedient1 if not  necessary4 ,during   
his stay abroad ,locke kept a journal of
 what he saw1  did1 and thought4 ,in it 
we find the heads of many of his future 
works1  which are very concise and      
valuable2 but the narrative is dry1 and 
the  attempts at humour not very        
successful3 he seems however to have    
been as  observant of what relates to   

the external world1 as he was of the    
intellectual4 ,in #afgi1 ,shaftesbury1  
on being made ,president of the         
,council1 summoned ,locke to ,england4  
,but the old statesman's favour was     
short lived3 he was committed to the    
,tower in ,july1 #afha1 and soon after  
his release1 retired to ,holland1 where 
he died in ,january1 #afhc4 ,locke      
accompanied him1 and continued his      
faithful services until death4 ,for     
seventeen years he had been             
,shaftesbury's constant partizan and    
adviser2  and the odium attached to that
 nobleman clung to himself1 and         
prevented  his return to ,england for   
many years4 ,in #afhc he was reported by
 the  ,english envoy at the ,hague to be
 on terms of intimacy with the          
malcontents in ,holland2 upon which the 
secretary 7,sunderland7 wrote to  ,dr4  
,fell1 the ,dean of ,christ ,church1    
ordering his expulsion from  college4   
,this mandate was not immediately       
complied with3 the ,dean  declared that 

for many years he had watched the       
conduct of ,locke1 and  even tried to   
entrap him into an exposure of his      
political sentiments1  but had always   
found him too wary4 ,he allowed ,locke  
time to come and  defend himself1 which 
he would not do1 and then expelled him  
from his  studentship4    ,on the       
accession of ,james ,,ii41 ,william     
,penn1 the quaker of ,pennsylvania1     
being in some favour with the ,king1    
would have procured a pardon for        
,locke1 but he refused the offer1       
through a friend1 as having been guilty 
of no crime4 ,in ,may1 #afhe1 the       
,english ambassador demanded him of the 
,states-,general1 of the pretext that he
 was concerned in the unsuccessful      
expedition of the ,duke of ,monmouth4   
,it is supposed that he owed this bad   
turn partly to the malice of the envoy  
himself1 as his name did not  appear in 
the list of those required which was    
sent from ,england4 ,he  neither liked  
the person nor the invasion of the duke1

 and was at  ,utrecht when the armament 
of that unfortunate nobleman sailed from
 the  ,texel4 ,locke was not given up1  
but was obliged to hide himself for     
about  a year in the house of his friend
 ,m4 ,veen1 at ,amsterdam1 receiving    
assurance from the local authorities    
that timely warning should be given  him
 of pressing danger4 ,he was obliged to 
conceal himself so closely as  only to  
take his exercise during the night4 ,it 
is probable that the real  cause of this
 persecution was his first letter on    
,toleration1 written in  ,latin about   
this time1 and addressed to his friend  
,limborch1 the  sentiments of which were
 peculiarly offensive to the ,english   
court4    ,locke had now time to attend 
to his own affairs1 being no longer     
taken  up with those of a patron4 ,he   
busied himself in the completion of his 
,essay concerning ,human ,understanding1
 which was not1 however1 printed  till  
#afhi4 ,the extracting of passages from 
various works for reviewal in  ,le      

,clerc's literary journal1 the          
,bibliothque ,universelle1 the formation
  and continuation of a small society   
for the weekly discussion of all        
subjects1 the members of which were his 
friends ,le ,clerc1 ,limborch1          
,guenelon1 and others1 and the          
abridgment of his ,essay1 served to fill
 up  his time during the remainder of   
his stay in ,holland4 ,in #afhi he      
published a second letter on            
,toleration1 and early in the same year 
returned to his native country in the   
fleet which conducted the ,princess  of 
,orange to the throne of ,england4 ,the 
,revolution had completely  changed the 
face of affairs in ,locke's favour2 he  
was considered a  martyr to its         
principles1 and was esteemed accordingly
 by its authors4  ,on his return he     
immediately petitioned ,william to cause
 him to be  reinstated in his           
studentship2 but the ,college refused to
 restore him1  offering at the same time
 to make him a supernumerary student4   

,this he  would not accept2 because he  
felt it not to be a full reparation of  
the  injustice he had suffered4 ,he     
allowed the matter to drop4    ,if      
,locke had been ambitious1 his path to  
political advancement was now  open4    
,william offered him the ambassadorship 
to the ,imperial ,court1 or  to that of 
,brandenburg4 ,he refused both these    
high appointments2 but  accepted a      
,commissionership of ,appeals from his  
friend ,lord ,mordaunt1  afterwards     
,earl of ,peterborough4 ,this office was
 worth only #bjj a year4  ,his friends  
,sir ,francis and ,lady ,masham 7a      
daughter of the celebrated  ,cudworth7  
prevailed on him to take apartments in  
their house at ,oates in  ,essex2       
between which place and his office in   
,london he spent the  remainder of his  
life4 ,in #afij ,locke published his    
,treatise on ,civil  ,government4 ,the  
folio edition of his ,essay1 and a      
,letter on ,education1  appeared in the 
latter part of the same year4 ,in #afib 

he produced a  third ,letter on         
,toleration4 ,the state of the coinage  
being a subject of  great importance at 
that time1 he took it into              
consideration1 and  published #8,certain
 ,thoughts on the ,state of ,english    
,silver ,money1 c41'  in a letter to a  
member of parliament4 ,this treatise was
 thought so  good1 that when the matter 
was inquired into by the government1    
,locke  was consulted1 and his advice   
taken with respect to the new coinage4  
,in  consequence of this important      
assistance1 he received from ,william   
,,iii4  a ,commissionership of ,foreign 
,trade and ,plantations1 the value of   
which  was #ajjj a year4 ,the ,king was 
exceedingly desirous of a comprehension 
with the dissenters1 and to forward his 
views ,locke wrote his                  
#8,reasonableness of ,christianity4'    
,this book involved him in a religious  
controversy with ,dr4 ,edwards1 who     
attacked its opinions in his #8,socinian
  ,unmasked1' to which ,locke replied by

 two vindications1 each of them  longer 
than the original work4 ,no sooner had  
he finished this labour  than he was    
called upon to encounter a fresh and    
more able antagonist4  ,toland and some 
other ,unitarians having turned to their
 own use some of  the arguments in      
,locke's ,essay1 ,dr4 ,stillingfleet1   
the learned ,bishop of  ,worcester1     
confounded ,locke with that party4 ,in  
his defence of the  doctrine of the     
,trinity the ,bishop severely censured  
various passages of  ,locke's great     
work1 as tending to subvert some of the 
fundamental  doctrines of ,christianity2
 ,locke replied1 and there was an       
alternation  of answers between them    
till the ,bishop's death4 ,that event   
took place  soon after ,locke's third   
answer1 which was the last thing he ever
  published4 ,these replies of ,locke   
are reputed to be most finished         
specimens of a grave and subtle irony1  
too refined perhaps to be  generally    
perceived by the uninitiated eye4    ,in

 #agjj ,locke's weak state of health    
induced him to retire from public  life4
 ,he resigned his situation in a        
personal interview with the ,king1      
giving no previous notice of his        
intention to the conductors of the      
government1 and refusing the pension    
which his master wished him to  accept4 
,he took up his residence at ,oates1    
where he passed the remainder  of his   
life in reading and contemplating the   
,scriptures4 ,he often  regretted that  
he had not more occupied himself in this
 study4 ,the piety  of his latter years 
was without formality or ostentation1   
not arising  from that sense of         
disappointment1 or irksomeness for want 
of  employment1 which often leads men to
 seek refuge in a late devotion4        
,neither ,locke's mental nor bodily     
senses failed him to his last moments1  
though the year before his death was    
passed in extreme weakness4 ,on  taking 
the sacrament he declared 8that he was  
in peace with all men1 and  in sincere  

union with the ,church of ,christ1 by   
whatever name  distinguished40 ,the     
affectionate attentions of ,lady ,masham
 softened the  pain of his last illness1
 and he died gently in his chair while  
she was  reading to him one of the      
,psalms of ,david1 ,october #bh1 #agjd1 
in his  seventy-third year4 ,he died1   
unmarried1 from the natural decay of an 
originally weak constitution4 ,he was   
buried in the churchyard at ,high       
,laver1 near ,oates1 under a decent     
monument4 ,his epitaph had been written 
some years before1 by himself1 in       
,latin#c4 ,he left behind him many      
unpublished works1 among which his      
#8,conduct of the ,understanding' stands
  highest4 #8,an ,examination of        
,malebranche's opinion of seeing all    
things  in ,god2 #8,a ,discourse of     
,miracles2' part of a fourth letter on  
the  subject of ,toleration2 some       
imperfect memorial sketches of the life 
of  the ,earl of ,shaftesbury2 a new    
method for a commonplace-book2 and      

paraphrases of several of the epistles  
of ,st4 ,paul1 make up the list of  his 
posthumous works1 almost all of which   
were translated into ,french by  ,le    
,clerc and others1 and appeared         
7together with those published by       
himself7 in three folio volumes1 not    
many years after his death4 ,a great    
many of his letters to his friends      
,molyneux and ,limborch are also        
published in this edition4 ,there remain
 many more which have been given  to the
 world by various hands1 addressed to   
the ,earl of ,peterborough1  ,dr4       
,mapletoft1 c41 and to ,newton4 ,in     
,lord ,king's life of ,locke his        
correspondence with the latter is given 
at full length1 and is very             
curious1--chiefly relating to subjects  
they were both engaged in1 the          
prophecies and miracles4    ,footnote   
#c3      8,siste1 viator2 juxta situs   
est ,j4 ,l4 ,si qualis fuerit rogas1    
mediocritate su contentum se vixisse    
respondet4 ,literis innutritus          

eousque tantum profecit ut veritati unic
 studeret4 ,hoc ex scriptis    illius   
disce2 qu1 quod de eo reliquum est1     
majori fide tibi    exhibebunt1 quam    
epitaphii suspecta elogia4 ,virtutis si 
quas habuit1    minores sane quam quas  
sibi laudi1 tibi in exemplum proponeret4
 ,vitia    una sepeliantur4 ,morum      
exemplum si quras1 in evangelio habes   
7vitiorum utinam nusquam71 mortalis cert
 quod prosit hic et ubique4    ,natum 4 
4 4 4 ,mortuum 4 4 4 4 ,memorat hac     
tabula brevi et ipsa    interitura40    
,that which has assured to ,locke       
imperishable fame is the #8,essay       
concerning ,human ,understanding4' ,this
 great work1 however1 met with          
considerable obloquy at first3 the heads
 of colleges at ,oxford even            
endeavoured to prevent its being read in
 their ,university4 ,the ,essay is  in  
the hands of all2 the writings of its   
opponents1 comparatively  speaking1 are 
forgotten4 ,it will be generally        
admitted1 that in it ,locke  laid the   

foundation of modern metaphysical       
philosophy4    ,two of ,locke's chief   
works1 the #8,treatise on ,civil        
,government1' and  #8,essay on          
,education1' are more capable of a short
 analysis4 ,the former  may be taken as 
an expression of his own opinions in    
defence of the  ,revolution4 ,it is     
divided into two parts4 ,the first      
contains an exposure  of the fallacies  
of ,sir ,robert ,filmer's               
#8,patriarcha1' arguing that ,adam  had 
not such natural or gifted right of     
dominion as ,filmer pretends2  that if  
he had1 his heirs had not2 that if they 
had1 yet there is no  general law1      
divine or human1 which determines the   
right of succession1  much less of      
bearing rule2 lastly1 that if such right
 had been  determined1 yet the eldest   
line from ,adam being unknown1 no man   
can  pretend more than another to that  
right of inheritance2 consequently1     
that some other source of political     
power must be found than 8,adam's       

private dominion and paternal           
jurisdiction40 ,locke proceeds in the   
second part to declare his opinion as to
 what this other source may be4  ,he    
argues1 that originally the executive   
power was in the hands of each          
individual2 but1 by mutual consent1 for 
mutual benefit1 as men grew into        
societies1 political power was created1 
and given to persons chosen from  the   
whole body by the major part of such    
societies4 ,he protests against         
absolute power1 as not expressing the   
will of the majority2 but defends       
prerogative1 as a discretionary power   
lodged in the hands of the  executive   
government4 ,he maintains that this     
compact must be held  sacred1 but       
reverts to the society if its duration  
was declared  temporary1 or upon the    
misconduct of rulers or delegates4 ,when
  forfeited1 the will of the society may
 create new forms of government2  or1   
under the old form1 continue it in other
 hands4    ,the ,essay on ,education is 

expressly for the use of gentlemen1     
since 8if  that class be properly tended
 the rest will follow of course40 ,the  
child1 he says1 should have much air and
 exercise1 should be accustomed  to     
little sleep and early habits4 ,that    
superstitious terrors1 and the  frequent
 use of the rod should be carefully     
avoided2 that the boy should  be used to
 suffer pain gradually1 to harden him1  
but not as a  punishment2 that the      
parents' authority should be perfect    
over the  child1 and be gradually taken 
off1 till the relation between them     
becomes a confiding friendship2 that    
particular attention be paid to his     
manners1 so that his courage1 learning1 
wit1 plainness1 and good-nature1  do not
 turn to brutality1 pedantry1           
buffoonery1 rusticity1 and fawning4  ,he
 says1 that the child's curiosity should
 be encouraged2 that he should  learn by
 games1 and his attainments never be    
forced2 that he should not  be left to  
flounder in difficulties1 but helped    

through them4 ,locke  prefers a careful 
tutor to a public school3 he says that a
 boy stands a  better chance of being   
both virtuous and well-bred under the   
care of the  former4 ,what he should    
know is ,latin1 ,greek1 a little        
mathematics1 how  to keep accounts2 the 
less of logic the better2 he should     
write a good  hand2 and a virtuous youth
 so bred1 8one may turn loose into the  
world  with great assurance that he will
 find employment and esteem             
everywhere40 ,he further recommends that
 the boy should travel between  the ages
 of eight and sixteen1 rather than      
between sixteen and twenty  one2 and    
that when he comes of age he had better 
not marry according to  the usual       
custom1 but wait some years1 that his   
children 8may not tread  too closely on 
his heels40    ,the habit of ,locke's   
mind was perhaps originally severe2 but 
from  constant social intercourse with  
men of all characters and opinions1 was 
rendered mild and equable4 ,nothing     

seems to have provoked him into a  loss 
of temper so much as being forced into  
argument with professed  logicians4 ,he 
calls the logical method taught at      
,oxford an ill1 if not  the worst way of
 acquiring knowledge and seeking truth4 
,he was fond of  the society of         
children1 and would enter into the      
enjoyments of riper  youth with         
facility4 ,he was entrusted by his      
patron with the education  and marriage 
of his son1 who was the father of the   
author of the  #8,characteristics4' ,the
 latter nobleman 7the third ,earl of    
,shaftesbury7  owed much to ,locke's    
care1 and was his eulogist4    ,locke   
was of a cautious if not timid          
disposition4 ,this appears from many  of
 his letters1 and may be inferred from  
the anonymous publication of  most of   
his writings4 ,his weak health1 the     
political persecution to  which he was  
exposed during great part of his life1  
and the discipline  to which he was     
subjected in childhood1 which was strict

 and severe1 in  some measure account   
for this failing4 ,his friendships were 
very steady2  witness his close         
adherence to his patron ,shaftesbury4   
,sydenham's  contemporary and friendly  
character of ,locke is remarkable3 he   
says1 in  a prefatory letter to one of  
his works1 that 8if we consider his     
genius1  his penetrating and exact      
judgment1 and the strictness of his     
morals1 he  has scarcely any superior1  
and few equals now living40             
,illustration3 ,reverse of a ,french    
,medal of ,locke4    ,illustration3     
,engraved by ,robt4 ,hart4              
,,selden4      ,from a ,picture         
attributed to ,sir ,peter ,lely in the  
,bodleian ,library1      ,oxford4       
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,selden4      ,john ,selden was born at
 ,salvington1 a hamlet of ,tarring1 near

 ,worthing1  in the county of ,sussex1  
,december #af1 #aehd 7,o4,s474 ,his     
father1 according  to ,wood1 8was a     
sufficient plebeian10 who1 through some 
skill in music1  obtained as his wife   
,margaret ,baker1 a daughter of a       
knightly family of  the county of ,kent4
 ,the baptism of his eminent son1 as    
well as his own  musical talents1 are   
noticed in an existing parish registry  
in these  words3 8#aehd4--;,johnne1     
sonne of ,john ,selden1 the minstrell1  
was baptised  the ,,xxxth day of        
,december40 ,the house in which the     
family lived was  called ,lacies1 and   
the estate of the father consisted1 in  
#afjf1 of  eighty-one acres1 of the     
annual value of about twenty-three      
pounds4 ,john  ,selden1 the son1        
received his early education at the     
,free ,grammar-,school  of ,chichester4 
,at the age of fourteen he entered at   
,hart ,hall1 ,oxford4  ,after residing  
four years at the ,university1 he was   
admitted1 in #afjb1 a  member of        

,clifford's ,inn1 one of the            
dependencies of the greater inns of     
court1 in which students of law were    
formerly accustomed to commence  their  
legal education4 ,he removed in ,may1   
#afjd1 to the ,inner ,temple4 ,his      
attention appears to have been early    
drawn to the study of civil and  legal  
history1 and antiquities2 he did not    
court the more active  business of his  
profession1 and his employment at the   
bar was limited4  ,in #afjg1 he prepared
 for the press his first work1 entitled 
#8,analectn  ,anglo-,britannicn1' being 
a collection of civil and ecclesiastical
  matters relating to ,britain1 of a    
date anterior to the ,norman conquest4  
,this was soon followed by three other  
works of a similar character1 and  in   
#afad he printed his #8,treatise upon   
,titles of ,honour4' ,the last of  these
 works has been considered in our courts
 of law to be of great  authority1 and  
has been usually spoken of with much    
commendation4  ,pursuing his legal      

inquiries1 he edited1 in #afaf1 two     
treatises1 one of  ,sir ,john           
,fortescue1 the other of ,sir ,ralph    
,hengham1 and in the same year  wrote a 
#8,discourse on the ,office of ,lord    
,chancellor4' ,in the next year  he     
printed a work1 #8,de ,diis ,syris1'    
which added to his celebrity1 but is    
not compiled with that attention to the 
value of the respective  authorities    
cited1 so essentially necessary to the  
accurate  consideration of historical   
questions4 ,his next work was a         
#8,history of  ,tithes1' printed in     
#afah1 which excited against him the    
bitter hostility  of the clergy4 ,the   
doctrine of divine right1 as the        
foundation of many  ecclesiastical      
claims1 was at this time jealously      
maintained1 and was  considered to be   
peculiarly connected with the right of  
the clergy to  tithes4 ,selden drew no  
direct conclusion against the divine    
nature of  the right to tithes1 but he  
had so arranged his authorities as to   

render  such a conclusion inevitable4   
,the nature only of the title was       
contested1 and so far from the clergy   
having had any reason to look upon      
,selden as an enemy1 he in fact         
strengthened their claim to tithes by   
placing it upon the same footing as any 
ordinary title to property4 ,as  soon as
 the #8,history' appeared it was        
attacked4 ,the ,high ,commission  ,court
 summoned ,selden before it1 and to this
 tribunal he was compelled  to          
apologise4 ,the terms of his submission 
very accurately state the  offence1 and 
are expressive of regret that 8he had   
offered any occasion  of argument       
against any right of maintenance jure   
divino of the  ministers of the gospel40
 ,the work received several answers1 but
 ,selden  was forbidden by ,james ,i41  
under a threat of imprisonment1 to      
notice  them4 8,all that will10 said he1
 8have liberty1 and some use it1 to     
write  and preach what they will against
 me1 to abuse my name1 my person1 my    

profession1 with as many falsehoods as  
they please1 and my hands are  tied3 ,i 
must not so much as answer their        
calumnies4 ,i am so far from  writing   
more1 that ,i have scarce ventured for  
my own safety so much as  to say they   
abuse me1 though ,i know it40    ,hardly
 had this storm passed1 when he became  
involved in the disputes  between the   
,crown and the ,house of ,commons4 ,one 
of the earliest steps of  that body1    
upon the convocation of ,parliament in  
#afba1 was to present a  remonstrance on
 the state of public affairs4 ,this was 
succeeded by the  memorable protestation
 of ,december #ah1 in which the liberty 
of the  subject was asserted1 and the   
right of the ,commons to offer advice to
  the ,crown was insisted on4 ,this     
protestation was erased from the        
journals of the ,house by the ,king's   
own hands1 and the parliament was       
dissolved4 ,selden1 whose advice1 though
 he was not then a member1 had  been    
requested by the ,house in this dispute1

 was in consequence  imprisoned1 and    
detained in confinement five weeks4 ,his
 release was  owing to the intercession 
of ,bishop ,williams1 who represented   
him to be  8a man who hath excellent    
parts1 which might be diverted from an  
affectation of pleasing idle people to  
do some good and useful service  to his 
,majesty40 ,on his release1 he dedicated
 to ,williams his edition of  ,eadmer's 
contemporary #8,history of ,england1    
from the ,norman ,conquest to  the death
 of ,henry ,i41' which he had prepared  
for the press during his  confinement4  
,when the next parliament assembled in  
#afbd1 ,selden sat in it as member  for 
the borough of ,lancaster4 ,though      
nominated upon several committees1  he  
took no active share in the general     
business of the ,house4 ,about this     
time also he was appointed one of the   
readers of the ,inner ,temple2 but  he  
refused the office1 and was in          
consequence for some time disabled to   
be advanced to the rank of a bencher of 

the inn4 ,upon the accession of         
,charles ,i4 a new parliament was       
called1 in which ,selden sat for the    
borough of ,great ,bedwin4 ,this        
parliament was almost immediately       
dissolved1 and another summoned1 to     
which ,selden was again returned for    
the same borough as before4 ,the        
,commons immediately entered upon a     
consideration of the conduct of the     
,duke of ,buckingham1 and his           
impeachment being resolved on1 ,selden  
was one of the members appointed  to    
prepare the articles1 and was named a   
manager for their prosecution4  ,these  
proceedings were stopped by another     
dissolution of parliament in  ,june1    
#afbf4 ,but the necessities of the      
,crown requiring those supplies  which  
parliament refused without a redress of 
grievances1 forced loans  were resorted 
to in the exercise of certain pretended 
owners of the  prerogative4 ,in several 
instances these loans were refused2     
among others  by ,sir ,edward ,hampden1 

who was imprisoned in consequence3 and  
the  illegality of his commitment was   
very ably argued by ,selden in the      
,king's ,bench4 ,in the third           
parliament1 called by ,charles ,i4 in   
#afbh1  ,selden sat for the borough of  
,ludgershall2 and in the debates which  
immediately took place upon illegal     
commitments1 the levy of tonnage and    
poundage1 and the preparation of the    
,petition of ,rights1 he took a very    
active share4 ,the attack upon the ,duke
 of ,buckingham was renewed1 and it  was
 proposed by ,selden1 that judgment     
should be demanded against him  upon the
 impeachment of the former parliament4  
,as affecting a great  constitutional   
question1 only finally determined in    
#agia1 of the  continuance of           
impeachments1 notwithstanding a         
dissolution of  parliament1 the         
suggestion was remarkable4 ,further     
proceedings were1  however1 stopped by  
the assassination of the ,duke4         
,during the prorogation of parliament1  

,selden again devoted himself to        
literary pursuits4 ,the ,earl of        
,arundel1 a great lover and promoter of 
the arts1 had received from the east    
many ancient marbles1 having on  them   
,greek inscriptions4 ,at the request of 
,sir ,robert ,cotton1 these             
inscriptions were transcribed under the 
superintendence of ,selden1 and  were   
published under the title of #8,marmora 
,arundeliana4' ,in ,january1  #afbi1    
parliament again assembled1 and the     
debates upon public grievances  were    
renewed4 ,the goods of several          
merchants1 in the interval of the       
meeting of parliament1 had been seized  
by the ,crown1 to satisfy a claim  to   
the duty of tonnage and poundage4 ,among
 the sufferers was ,rolls1 a  member of 
the ,house4 ,it was moved1 that the     
seizure of his goods was a  breach of   
privilege4 ,when the question was to be 
put1 the ,speaker said  8he durst not1  
for that the ,king had commanded to the 
contrary40 ,selden  immediately rose1   

and vehemently complained of this       
conduct3 8,dare you  not1 ,mr4 ,speaker1
 to put the question when we command    
you4 ,if you will  not put it1 we must  
sit still3 thus1 we shall never be able 
to do any  thing4 ,they that come after 
you may say1 that they have the ,king's 
commands not to do it4 ,we sit here by  
the command of the ,king under the      
great seal1 and you are1 by his         
,majesty1 sitting in his royal chair    
before both houses1 appointed for our   
,speaker1 and now refuse to do your     
office40 ,the ,house then adjourned in a
 state of great excitement4 ,when  it   
re-assembled1 the ,speaker was called   
upon to put the question1 and  again    
refused4 ,on this ,holles and ,valentine
 thrust the ,speaker into the  chair1   
and held him down1 while ,sir ,miles    
,hobart locked the door of the  house   
and took possession of the key4 ,a      
declaration was then produced by  ,sir  
,john ,elliot1 which ,colonel ,stroud   
moved should be read1 and himself  put  

the question4 ,the motion was declared  
to be carried2 and the  ,speaker1       
refusing to act upon it1 was charged by 
,sir ,p4 ,heyman with  cutting up the   
liberty of the subject by the roots4    
,selden moved that  the declaration     
should be read by the clerk1 which was  
agreed to4 ,the  ,house then adjourned  
to a day1 previous to which the ,king   
came to the  ,house of ,lords and       
dissolved the parliament1 on account of 
8the  undutiful and seditious carriage  
of the ,lower ,house10 without the      
attendance of the ,commons4 ,selden1 and
 the other members concerned in  the    
violence offered to the ,speaker1 were  
committed to prison4 ,this was  his last
 and most rigorous confinement4 ,for    
some time he was denied the  use of     
pens1 ink1 paper1 and books4 ,when1     
after many weeks had elapsed1  he was   
brought up with the other prisoners     
before the ,king's ,bench upon  a writ  
of habeas corpus1 their discharge was   
offered upon condition of  their finding

 bail for their good behaviour4 8,we    
demand10 said ,selden1  8to be bailed in
 point of right2 and if it be not       
grantable of right1 we  do not demand   
it4 ,but finding sureties for good      
behaviour is a point of  discretion     
merely1 and we cannot assent to it      
without great offence to  the parliament
 where these matters1 which are surmised
 by the return1  were acted40 ,they were
 remanded1 and remained for a long time 
in prison1  where ,elliot1 one of the   
ablest members of the popular party1    
fell a  victim to his confinement4 ,in  
#afcd1 ,selden was suffered to go at    
large  upon bail1 which was discontinued
 upon his petition to the ,crown4       
,during  his imprisonment he wrote a    
treatise1 #8,de ,successionibus in ,bona
  ,defuncti ad ,leges ,ebrorum1' and    
another1 #8,de ,successione in          
,pontificatum ,ebrorum4' ,both those    
works he dedicated to ,archbishop       
,laud2 probably upon account of his     
being indebted to the ,archbishop for   

the loan of books4 ,not long after the  
recovery of his liberty1 ,selden        
obtained the favour of ,charles ,i41 and
 dedicated to him his celebrated  essay 
on the #8,mare ,clausum1' an argument in
 favour of the dominion of  the ,english
 over the four seas1 copies of which    
were1 by order of the  ,privy ,council1 
directed to be placed in the council    
chest1 the ,court of  ,exchequer1 and   
the ,court of ,admiralty4    ,to the    
,long ,parliament1 which commenced its  
sittings in #afdj1 ,selden was          
unanimously returned by the ,university 
of ,oxford2 but neither this new        
connexion with the clergy1 nor the      
favour of ,charles1 appears to have     
affected his opinions4 ,upon the first  
day of the sitting of parliament  he was
 nominated a member of the committee to 
inquire into the abuses of  the ,earl   
,marshal's ,court1 and was appointed    
with others to draw up a  remonstrance  
upon the state of the nation4 ,he also  
sat upon the  committees which conducted

 the measures preparatory to the        
impeachment  of the ,earl of ,strafford1
 but he was not one of the managers     
before the  ,house of ,lords2 and his   
name was posted in ,old ,palace ,yard as
 one of  8the enemies of justice10 a    
title given to those who were regarded  
as  favourable to the ,earl4 ,it is not 
very clear what his opinions upon the   
impeachment were4 ,that he should have  
been satisfied with all the steps  taken
 by his party is not possible1 for his  
opinions were undoubtedly  moderate1 and
 his studious habits must have checked  
any disposition to  violence4 ,he was   
also nominated to frame the articles of 
impeachment  against ,laud1 and was a   
party to the resolutions against the    
legislative  powers of the bishops4 ,the
 court1 however1 appears to have        
considered  him favourable to its       
interests1 until he spoke against the   
commission  of array4 ,upon this        
question1 ,clarendon represents the     
influence of his  opinion upon the      

public to have been very prejudicial to 
,charles ,i4  ,about this time the great
 seal was offered to him4 ,he declined  
it1  according to ,clarendon1 on account
 of his love of ease1 and 8that he      
would not have made a journey to ,york  
or have been out of his own bed  for any
 preferment40 ,the reason which he      
himself assigned for refusing  it1 was  
the impossibility of his rendering any  
service to the ,crown4 ,he  sat as      
member of the ,assembly of ,divines at  
,westminster1 and took the  covenant2   
yet he was not well affected to the     
,puritans1 and declared  that 8he was   
neither mad enough nor fool enough to   
deserve the name of  ,puritan40 ,upon   
the death of ,dr4 ,eden1 ,master of     
,trinity ,hall1 ,cambridge1  in ,august1
 #afde1 ,selden was elected his         
successor1 but declined to  accept the  
office4 ,about this time he appears to  
have gradually  withdrawn from public   
business4 ,his fondness of ease and his 
increasing  age1 and the silence he     

preserved upon many important events1   
all  contribute to leave the inference  
of his approval or disapproval of much  
of the conduct of the parliamentary     
leaders open to adverse parties4 ,he    
certainly never openly abandoned the    
popular side1 nor does he appear to     
have forfeited its respect2 and yet at  
the same time he continued to be        
esteemed by many of the leading         
,royalists4    ,the studies of ,selden  
were continued to the latest period of  
his life1  and he was near the age of   
seventy when his last work was          
published4 ,the  influence he possessed 
with the parliamentary leaders was      
frequently  exerted in favour of        
letters4 ,when ,archbishop ,laud's      
endowment of the  professorship of      
,arabic in the ,university of ,oxford1  
was seized1 on the  attainder of that   
prelate1 he procured its restitution4   
,archbishop ,usher  having preached     
against the divines of ,westminster1 and
 excited their  anger1 was punished by  

the confiscation of his library4 ,selden
  interfered1 and saved it from sale and
 dispersion4 ,when prelacy was          
abolished1 the library attached to the  
see of ,canterbury was by his  efforts  
transferred to the ,university of       
,cambridge1 where it remained  until the
 ,restoration4 ,through his entreaties1 
,whitelocke was induced to  accept the  
charge of the medals and books at ,st4  
,james's1 and thus  secured their       
preservation4 ,the services which he    
rendered to the  ,university of ,oxford 
were no less valuable1 and were         
acknowledged in  grateful terms by that 
learned body2 and it was through his    
interference  that the papers and       
instruments of ,graves1 the ,professor  
of ,mathematics1  which had been seized 
by a party of soldiers1 were restored4  
,selden died ,november #cj1 #afed1 and  
was buried in the ,temple church4 ,he   
left behind him no immediate relations1 
and he bequeathed nearly the  whole of  
his fortune1 amounting to nearly        

#dj1jjjl41 to his four  executors1      
giving only one hundred pounds to each  
of the children of his  sister1 the wife
 of ,john ,barnard1 of ,goring4 ,his    
books and manuscripts  he had originally
 given by his will to the ,university of
 ,oxford2 but  that body having demanded
 of him a heavy bond for the restitution
 of a  book which he desired to borrow  
from the public library1 the bequest was
  struck out1 and they were directed to 
be placed 8in some convenient  public   
library or college in one of the        
universities40 ,sir ,m4 ,hale and  his  
other executors1 considering that they  
were the executors 8of his  will1 and   
not of his passion10 transferred them to
 the ,bodleian ,library  at ,oxford4    
,to learned men ,selden was liberal and 
generous2 and there is a letter  from   
,casaubon in ,parr's #8,life of         
,archbishop ,usher1' in which that      
distinguished scholar with great feeling
 says1 8,i was with ,mr4 ,selden  after 
,i had been with your ,grace1 whom1 upon

 some intimation of my  present         
condition and necessities1 ,i found so  
noble1 as that he did not  only         
presently furnish me with a very        
considerable sum of money1 but was  so  
free and forward in his expressions1 as 
that ,i could not find in my  heart to  
tell him much 7somewhat ,i did7 of my   
intention of selling1 lest  it should   
sound as a farther pressing upon him of 
whom ,i had received so  much40         
,milton terms ,selden 8the chief of     
learned men reputed in this land20 and  
,whitelocke states1 8that his mind was  
as great as his learning1 being  very   
generous and hospitable40 ,clarendon1   
who could not regard ,selden  with any  
political partiality1 though he had in  
early life been on terms  of intimacy   
with him1 describes him to have been 8a 
person whom no  character can flatter or
 transmit in any expressions equal to   
his merit  or virtue4 ,he was of so     
stupendous learning in all kinds and in 
all  languages 7as may appear in his    

excellent and transcendent writings71   
that a man would have thought he had    
been entirely conversant among  books1  
and had never spent an hour but in      
reading and writing2 yet his  humanity1 
courtesy1 and affability were such1 that
 he would have been  thought to have    
been bred in the best courts1 but that  
his good nature1  charity1 and delight  
in doing good1 and in communicating all 
he knew1  exceeded that breeding40      
,the motto adopted by ,selden was       
7above all  things1 liberty71 and it is 
to be found neatly written upon the     
first  page of many of his ,,mss4 ,its  
spirit he extended to religious         
questions2  and there are many bold and 
vigorous passages in his writings in    
which  the necessity of freedom of      
inquiry upon all subjects is strongly   
insisted on4 ,noticing upon one occasion
 a certain class of ancient             
philosophers1 he remarks1 8,he who takes
 to himself their liberty of  inquiry1  
is in the only way that1 in all kinds of

 studies1 leads and  lies open even to  
the sanctuary of truth2 while others1   
that are servile  to common opinion and 
vulgar suppositions1 can rarely hope to 
be  admitted nearer than into the       
base-court of her temple1 which too     
speciously often counterfeits her       
innermost sanctuary40 ,his religious    
opinions have1 with much impropriety1   
been the subject of dispute4 ,they  have
 been chiefly inferred from several     
passages of a work published  after his 
death1 entitled #8,selden's ,table      
,talk4' ,from the nature of his         
studies1 his writings are far from being
 popular1 and are1 in  consequence1 now 
but little read4 ,they obtained1        
however1 for their  author1 during an   
age abounding with illustrious and      
learned men1 an  honourable reputation1 
among the most distinguished literary   
men of  continental ,europe1 as well as 
among those of his own country4 ,his    
works  were edited by ,dr4 ,wilkins1 in 
#c vols4 folio1 in #agbf1 to which a    

,latin  #8,life of the ,author' is      
prefixed4    ,illustration3 ,gallery of 
the ,arundel ,marbles4    ,illustration3
      ,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4      ,a4  
,,par4      ,from the original ,picture1
 in 8,l'cole de ,mdecine10 at ,paris4   
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,par4      ,ambroise ,par1 the father  
of ,french surgery1 and one of the most 
useful  as well as the earliest of the  
innovators upon that art as practised by
  the ancients1 was born at ,laval1 in  
the district of ,maine1 in the year     
#aeji4 ,after going through the         
rudiments of education1 he was placed at
  an early age under the tuition of the 
chaplain ,orsoy1 in his native  town1 to
 be instructed in the classics2 but the 
means of his family  appear to have been
 very narrow1 or the economy with which 
they were  supplied must have been      

strict2 for we find that the worthy     
chaplain was  obliged to make use of the
 services of his pupil in grooming his  
mule  and other menial capacities1 in   
order to eke out the scanty remuneration
  he received for his instructions4 ,in 
truth1 these do not appear to have  been
 great2 for ,par never achieved a       
knowledge of ,greek1 and was but        
superficially acquainted with the ,latin
 language2 and it is probable  that even
 this small amount of classical         
acquirement was made at a late  period  
of his life1 when1 being an author1 he  
wished to quote4    ,on leaving his     
tutor1 he was placed with a             
barber-surgeon at ,laval1  named        
,vialot1 who is recorded to have taught 
him how to bleed4 ,not long  after this 
change in his pursuits1 the lithotomist1
 ,laurent ,colot1 came  to ,laval to    
undertake the treatment of one of the   
chaplain's  ecclesiastical brethren3 on 
this occasion1 ,par was present1 and    
zealously assisted at the operation4    

,this accidental circumstance  appears  
to have suggested to him the ambitious  
project of following the  higher        
departments of surgery2 and he contrived
 to leave the shop of his  master in    
phlebotomy1 and repaired to ,paris1     
where he availed himself  with so much  
diligence of the advantages afforded by 
that city1 as a  school of anatomy and  
medicine1 that he was soon entrusted    
with the  subordinate charge of the     
patients of ,goupil1 who then held the  
surgical  chair in the college of       
,france4 ,from this discerning tutor he 
learned  not only all the knowledge     
which could at that time be obtained    
from  secondary sources1 but the art of 
expressing himself well1 and  acquitting
 himself of his duties with neatness and
 grace4 ,the talents  thus acquired were
 of the greatest service to him in his  
after-life1  which was chiefly passed   
among the great2 and gave him that ease 
of  manner and power of gaining         
confidence1 which stood him so          

frequently in  stead as court-surgeon to
 four successive monarchs1 and1 aiding  
the  natural frankness of his character1
 carried him safely through many an     
intrigue and cabal1 dangerous not only  
to his reputation and fortunes1  but    
even to his life4 ,he was never a member
 of the community of  barber-surgeons1  
but derived his legal qualification to  
practise from a  degree in surgery taken
 at the college of ,st4 ,edme1 of which 
he was  afterwards ,provost4    ,having 
passed upwards of three years as a      
student1 residing actually  within the  
walls of the ,hotel ,dieu at ,paris1 he 
was appointed  ,staff-surgeon1 in #aecf1
 when twenty-seven years old1 to the    
,mareschal  ,ren de ,monte-jean1 who    
commanded the infantry under the        
,constable  ,montmorenci in the campaign
 of ,piedmont4 ,in this capacity1 ,par  
was  present at the siege and capture of
 ,turin4    ,from this time is to be    
dated the commencement of his           
acquaintance with  military surgery1 for

 which he afterwards did so much4 8,i   
was then10 he  says1 8very raw and      
inexperienced1 having never seen the    
treatment of  gunshot wounds4 ,it is    
true that ,i had read in the ,treatise  
of ,jean de  ,vigo on wounds in general1
 that those inflicted by fire-arms      
partake of  a poisonous nature on       
account of the powder1 and that they    
should be  treated with hot oil of elder
 mixed with a little theriacum4 ,seeing1
  therefore1 that such an application   
must needs put the patient to  extreme  
pain1 to assure myself before ,i should 
make use of this boiling  oil1 ,i       
desired to see how it was employed by   
the other surgeons4 ,i found  their     
method was to apply it1 at the first    
dressing1 as hot as possible1  within   
the wound with tents and setons3 and    
this ,i made bold to do  likewise4 ,at  
length my oil failed me1 and ,i was fain
 to substitute a  digestive1 made of the
 yolks of eggs1 rose-oil1 and           
turpentine4 ,at night  ,i could not rest

 in my bed in peace1 fearing that ,i    
should find the  wounded1 in whose cases
 ,i had been compelled to abstain from  
using this  cautery1 dead of poison3    
this apprehension made me rise very     
early in  the morning to visit them2 but
 beyond all my hopes1 ,i found those to 
whom ,i had applied the digestive       
suffering little pain1 and their wounds 
free from inflammation2 and they had    
been refreshed by sleep in the  night4  
,on the contrary1 ,i found those to whom
 the aforesaid oil had been  applied1   
feverish1 in great pain1 and with       
swelling and inflammation  round their  
wounds4 ,i resolved1 therefore1 that ,i 
would never burn  unfortunate sufferers 
from gunshot in that cruel manner       
again40    ,such was the casual origin  
of one of ,par's greatest improvements  
in  surgery1--the substitution of a mild
 treatment for the cautery in gunshot   
wounds2 a principle which he afterwards 
successfully extended to other  injuries
 at that time deemed poisonous4 ,the    

improvement seems as obvious  as it was 
important3 yet the adherents of the old 
practice gave him much  trouble1 and    
even made it necessary for him to defend
 his wholesome  innovation long         
afterwards before ,charles ,,ix4 in     
person4    ,yet with all his sound      
sense1 ,ambroise ,par was not by any    
means free  from the credulity of his   
age4 ,for instance1 he relates1 in his  
account  of this siege1 an amusing story
 of the court he paid to an ,italian    
quack  doctor1 who lived at ,turin1 to  
wheedle him out of the secret of a      
dressing for fresh gunshot wounds1 for  
which he had great fame4 ,this was      
found to consist of a mixture of bruised
 worms1 the grease of puppies  boiled   
down alive1 and other absurd            
ingredients1 constituting the           
celebrated oleum catellorum1 the only   
merit of which consists in its          
harmlessness4 ,he is erroneously praised
 by ,dr4 ,ballingall for having         
banished this unguent from practice1    

whereas1 on the contrary1 he  introduced
 it2 and he shows1 by his frequent      
reference to it in his  works1 that he  
had no small faith in its virtues1 and  
was exceedingly  proud of having been   
the means of its publication4    ,the   
death of his patron1 the ,mareschal1    
soon after the fall of ,turin1  induced 
him to return to ,paris1 though tempted 
by large offers to remain  in the camp4 
,in #aedc1 he accompanied the ,duc de   
,rohan into ,britanny1 where ,francis   
,i4  commanded in person against the    
,english2 and the next year he followed 
that monarch in his expedition to throw 
supplies into ,landrecy4 ,in #aede1  he 
was with the camp at ,boulogne1 where he
 cured the general of the  royal army1  
,francis ,duke of ,guise1 of a very     
dangerous wound1 which  gained him great
 reputation4    ,in #aeeb1 he attended  
the ,duc de ,rohan in his campaign in   
,germany4 ,during  this expedition      
occurred one of those instances of      
combined humanity and  skill1 which made

 ,par the favourite of the ,french army4
 ,he thus tells  the story3 8,a party   
had gone out to attack a church1 where  
the peasants  of the country had        
fortified themselves1 hoping to get some
 provisions1  but they came back very   
soundly beaten2 and one especially1 a   
captain-lieutenant of the company of the
 ,duke1 returned with seven  gashes in  
his head1 the least of which had        
penetrated to the inner table  of the   
skull1 besides four sabre wounds in the 
arm1 and one across the  shoulder1 which
 divided the shoulder-blade in half4    
,when he was brought  to quarters1 the  
,duke judged him to be so desperately   
wounded1 that he  absolutely proposed1  
as they were to march by daylight1 to   
dig a trench  for him1 and throw him    
into it1 saying1 that it was as well    
that the  peasants should finish him4   
,but being moved with pity1 ,i told him 
7says  ,par71 that the captain might yet
 be cured3 many gentlemen of the        
company joined with me in begging that  

he might be allowed to go with  the     
baggage1 since ,i was willing to dress  
and cure him4 ,this was  accordingly    
granted3 ,i dressed him1 and put him    
into a small  well-covered bed in a cart
 drawn by one horse4 ,i was at once     
physician1  surgeon1 apothecary1 and    
cook to him2 and1 thank ,god1 ,i did    
cure him in  the end1 to the admiration 
of all the troops3 and out of their     
first  booty1 the men-at-arms gave me a 
crown a-piece1 and the archers          
half-a-crown each40    ,his reputation  
was now so high1 that no expedition of  
importance1  especially if generalled by
 a prince of the blood1 or one of the   
higher  nobility1 was considered        
complete without his presence4 ,this was
  accordingly solicited by the old ,king
 of ,navarre1 more commonly called  the 
,duc de ,vendme1 on an occasion of that 
kind4 ,but being tired of a  military   
life1 and disgusted with its cruelties  
and horrors1 he  endeavoured to evade   
the proposal1 alleging the illness of   

his wife1 and  other excuses3 but the   
,duke would take no denial2 and at last 
he  consented to accompany him to the   
siege of ,chateau le ,comte4 ,there he  
acquitted himself so well1 that upon the
 warm encomiums of the ,duke he  was    
received into the service of ,henry the 
,second1 in #aeeb1 being then  but      
thirty-three years old4 ,from this time 
he lived at the court1 where1  with     
other advantages1 obtained not less by  
his behaviour and wit than  his skill1  
he enjoyed1 though a ,huguenot1 the     
especial favour of the  ,queen1         
,catherine de' ,medici1 who was fond of 
conversing with him in her  own         
language1 with which ,par had become    
well acquainted in his ,italian         
campaign4 ,she served him powerfully on 
several important occasions4    ,par1   
however1 still continued to frequent the
 camp1 when any emergency  seemed to    
demand his services4 ,such an occasion  
occurred at the renowned  siege of      
,metz1 in the winter of #aeeb1 conducted

 by ,charles ,v4 in person1  with the   
,duke of ,alva and #abj1jjj men1 against
 a garrison of #fjjj1 which  ended1     
after two months1 in the disastrous     
retreat of the besiegers4 ,the  defence 
was most gallantly carried on by the    
flower of the ,french army1  headed by  
many of the higher noblesse1 and several
 of the princes of the  blood1 under the
 ,duke of ,guise4 ,it has been already  
mentioned that  gunshot wounds were at  
that time thought to have something     
poisonous  about them2 and the severe   
cold1 and other circumstances of that   
siege1  being such as unusually to      
depress and harass the garrison1 their  
wounds  proved almost uniformly fatal2  
and the idea arose and gained ground1   
that ,charles had ordered his bullets to
 be actually poisoned4 ,par alone  was  
thought able to meet the necessity of   
the case in such an extremity2  and the 
demand for his assistance became so     
pressing in the dispirited  garrison1   
that at the instance of the ,duke of    

,guise the ,king was induced  to send   
him4 ,he was stealthily introduced by   
the treachery of one of  ,charles's     
captains1 for a bribe of #aejj crowns1  
and his appearance on  the ramparts was 
hailed by the troops with the most      
extravagant  expressions of joy4 8,now  
that ,par is with us10 they cried1 8we  
shall  not perish of our wounds40 ,their
 spirits revived1 and the successful    
issue of their arduous struggle is      
generally ascribed to the presence of   
,par4    ,upon the raising of the siege1
 of which1 as is usual in his writings1 
he  gives a most lively and humorous    
account1 ,par returned to court4 ,in    
#aeec he was sent on a like errand to   
the siege of ,hesdin1 which1 after a    
vigorous defence1 and against the faith 
of a capitulation1 was pillaged  by the 
troops of the ,duke of ,savoy4 ,par was 
himself one of the  prisoners1 but      
escaped in disguise after various       
adventures1 and  returned to ,paris2    
notwithstanding the tempting offers of  

the ,duke of  ,savoy1 who had witnessed 
his skill1 though kept in ignorance of  
his  name4    ,he was sent upon many    
other missions of the same kind2 as to  
the fields  of ,st4 ,quentin and        
,moncontour2 to ,rouen1 where he        
attended the ,duc de  ,vendme on        
occasion of the wound of which he died2 
and to ,st4 ,denys1  where he performed 
the same unwelcome duty for the         
,constable4 ,the long  intervals of     
these services he always passed at      
court1 in the enjoyment  of his         
well-earned reputation and favour4      
,on the death of ,henry ,,ii4 in #aeei1 
occasioned by an accident at a          
tournament1 ,francis ,,ii41 his eldest  
son by ,catherine de' ,medici1          
succeeded to the crown4 ,he immediately 
confirmed ,par in his situation  of     
surgeon in ordinary and counsellor4 ,it 
will not be supposed that he  could     
enjoy this constant favour and good     
fortune without the usual  drawback in  
the excited jealousy of his professional

 rivals4 ,their  rancour was at length  
carried to such a pitch1 that they      
gravely accused  him of causing the     
premature death of ,francis in #aefj1 by
 injecting  poison into his ear under   
the pretext of treating him for an      
inflammation seated there1 of which he  
died4 ,catherine1 however1  shielded him
 from this attack1 expressing her       
complete reliance on his  integrity as  
well as his skill1 in words which the   
historians of the  period have          
preserved4 ,a similar accusation was    
brought against him as  unsuccessfully  
in the case of ,henry ,,iii41 who was   
afflicted with the  same disorder3 on   
which occasion the ,queen-,mother again 
stood forward in  his behalf1 and his   
innocence was fully attested by the     
physicians whom  she had placed about   
her son1 and who had witnessed every    
application he  made4    ,on the death  
of ,francis ,,ii4 in #aefj1 ,par        
maintained his place in the  household  
of ,charles ,,ix41 to whom it was       

thought he had rendered  essential      
service after an injury inflicted on one
 of the nerves of the  arm by an unlucky
 phlebotomist4 ,this misfortune of his  
humbler brother  was of great use to    
,par1 who1 though a courtier during the 
predominance  of the ,guises1 openly    
professed the ,protestant faith2 for it 
was  probably the means of procuring him
 in ,charles the only protector         
powerful enough to save him from being  
included in the general massacre  of the
 ,huguenots on ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,day4
 ,brantme and ,sully each  connect his  
name with that event4 ,the words of the 
former are as  follows3 8,le ,roi quand 
il ft jour1 ayant mis la tte a la fentre
 de sa  chambre1 et qu'il voyait aucuns 
dans le fauxbourg ,st4 ,germain qui se  
remuoient1 et se sauvoient1 il prit une 
grande arquebuse de chasse qu'il  avoit1
 et en tira tout plein de coups  eux2   
mais en vain1 car  l'arquebuse ne tiroit
 si loin2 incessamment crioit1 #8,tuez1 
tuez1' en  n'en vouloit sauver aucun si 

non ,matre ,ambroise ,par1 son premier  
chirurgien1 et le premier de la         
,chrestient1 et l'envoya querir et venir
  le soir dans sa chambre et garde      
robbe1 commandant de n'en bouger2 et    
disoit qu'il n'etoit raisonnable qu'un  
qui pouvoit servir  tout un  petit      
monde1 fst ainsi massacr40    8,de tous 
ceux10 says ,sully1 8qui approchoient ce
 prince 7,charles ,,ix47 il  n'y avoit  
personne qui eut tant de part  sa       
confiance qu' ,ambroise  ,par4 ,cet     
homme qui n'etoit que son chirurgien1   
avoit pris avec lui une  si grande      
familiarit1 quoiqu'il ft ,huguenot1 que 
ce prince lui ayant  dit le jour du     
massacre que c'etoit  cette heure qu'il 
falloit que tout  le monde se ft        
catholique1 ,par lui rpondit sans       
s'tonner1 #8,par la  lumire de ,dieu1   
,sire1 je crois qu'il vous souvient     
m'avoir promis de ne  me commander      
jamais quatre choses2 savoir1 de rentre 
dans le ventre de  ma mre1 de me trouver
  un jour de bataille1 de quitter votre 

service1  et d'aller  la messe4'0       
,par still retained his situation after 
the accession of ,henry ,,iii4 in       
#aegd2 but he seems to have resigned the
 cares of active life about that  time1 
and we hear little more of him4 ,he died
 ,december #b1 #aeij1 in the            
eighty-first year of his life1 and was  
buried in the church of ,st4 ,andr  des 
,arcs in ,paris4    ,par appears to have
 been a man of quick and independent    
observation  rather than of reflection  
or genius4 ,his constitution was        
vigorous1 and  fitted no less for social
 enjoyments than active business3 his   
person  was manly and graceful1 his     
spirits buoyant1 and his disposition    
remarkably amiable and attractive2 hence
 he was a universal favourite1          
particularly in a despotic court1 of    
which the dullness was agreeably        
relieved by his frankness1 and his      
powers of humour and repartee4 ,the     
amusing and well-told anecdotes and     
lively descriptions that teem in all    

his writings1 which1 it may be observed1
 are equal in point of style to  any of 
the time1 sufficiently attest his       
possession of those qualities1  even if 
the stories and bon-mots that are       
related of him be questioned4  ,his     
#8,apology1' as he calls one of his     
later pieces1 containing an  account of 
his various campaigns and journeys1 is  
full of humour1 and  well worth the     
perusal of the general reader4 ,it was  
published by way of  answer to an attack
 upon his treatment of contused wounds  
and  hmorrhages1 made by an obscure     
,parisian lecturer1 whose name he does  
not mention2 and he diverts himself     
exceedingly at the expense of the       
critic1 for his presumption in          
pretending to teach a surgeon whose     
experience had been gathered from twenty
 sieges and fields of battle1  through  
an active professional life of forty    
years4 ,the raillery he  employs is     
often very keen and pointed1 but never  
ill-natured1 and  indicates the infinite

 superiority he felt1 and had a right to
 feel1  over his merely book-learned    
adversary4    ,his conduct throughout   
life appears to have been remarkably    
upright and  sincere1 though tinctured  
by the adulation which1 in that age of  
violence and despotism1 was always      
exacted by the great from those who     
were more humbly born4    ,he was a bold
 and good operator1 and his general     
skill and success in  the practice of   
his profession is unquestionable2 in    
that day it must  have been wonderful4  
,as a surgical writer1 his fame         
principally rests  upon his introduction
 of a soothing method of treating       
gunshot and other  contused wounds1 and 
his discovery or rather restoration of  
the method  of arresting hmorrhage1 by  
the ligature of the bleeding vessel1    
instead  of searing with hot iron1 and  
other insufficient and painful means4   
,but  he made many other novel and      
useful remarks which only do not deserve
  the name of discoveries1 because they 

relate to more trivial points1 and  do  
not involve important principles3 and1  
upon the whole1 much as  surgery has    
been improved since his time1 there have
 been few writers to  whom it has owed  
so much as to him1 especially in the    
military  department4 ,the whole body of
 his writings on that subject1 though   
diffuse1 merit the perusal of           
professional men4 ,the same praise      
cannot  be given without exception and  
reserve to those of his writings which  
were less the records of his personal   
experience1 than compilations from      
other sources4 ,his remarks upon the    
subjects of ,physiology1 ,medical       
,diseases1 the ,composition of          
,remedies1 ,natural ,history1 and       
,obstetrics1  are not free from error1  
credulity1 and even indelicacy4 ,the    
latter  charge was successfully urged   
against him by the contemporary         
,parisian  physicians1 who were jealous 
of his encroachments upon what they     
considered their own domain1 and he was 

obliged to alter the original  editions4
    ,he was too much occupied by his    
practice to engage deeply in the study  
of anatomy3 hence his knowledge of it   
was rather sufficient than  accurate2   
and though he wrote upon it at some     
length1 and even added new  facts to    
that science1 his success in advancing  
it can only be  considered as a proof of
 the imperfect information of the time4 
,he lived  before the discovery of the  
circulation of the blood4    ,his first 
publication1 on ,gunshot ,wounds1 in    
#aede1 was incorporated with  his other 
writings1 comprising altogether         
twenty-six treatises1 and  printed at   
,paris in one large folio volume in     
#aefa4 ,this1 with some  posthumous     
additions1 has been often reprinted1 and
 there are  translations of it in ,latin
 and other languages4 ,the first        
,english  edition was by ,thomas        
,johnson in #afcd4    ,illustration3    
,medal of ,par4    ,illustration3       
,engraved by ,j4 ,mollison4             

,,admiral ,,blake4      ,from the       
,picture in the ,hall of ,wadham        
,college1 ,oxford4      ,under the      
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,blake4      ,robert ,blake is believed
 to have been born at ,plansfield1 in   
the parish  of ,spaxton1 ,somersetshire1
 near ,bridgewater1 in which town his   
father  was a merchant2 but the place is
 not so well ascertained as the date of 
his birth1 which was ,august1 #aeih4 ,he
 was educated in the ,free ,school of   
,bridgewater1 whence in due time he     
removed to ,oxford1 and became          
successively a member of ,st4 ,alban's  
,hall and ,wadham ,college4 ,his        
character was studious1 yet he was fond 
of field-sports and other  violent      
exercises2 and we may infer that he had 
at least a decent share  of scholastic  
learning1 from his having been a        

candidate1 though  unsuccessfully1 for a
 studentship at ,christchurch1 and a    
fellowship at  ,merton ,college4 ,he    
returned to ,bridgewater when about     
twenty-five years  old1 and lived       
quietly on his paternal estate till     
#afdj1 with the  character of a blunt1  
bold man1 of ready humour and fearless  
expression  of his sentiments1 which1   
both in politics and religion1 were     
adverse to  the pretensions of the      
court4 ,these qualities gained for him  
the  confidence of the ,presbyterian    
party in ,bridgewater1 by whom he was   
returned to the parliament of ,april1   
#afdj4 ,the speedy dissolution of  that 
assembly gave him no opportunity of     
trying his powers as a debater2  and in 
the next parliament he was not          
re-elected4 ,but on the breaking  out of
 the civil war1 he displayed his        
principles by entering the              
,parliamentary army4    ,we have no     
certain information concerning the time 
or the capacity in  which he began to   

serve2 but in #afdc we find him         
intrusted with the  command of a fort at
 ,bristol1 when the city was besieged by
 the  ,royalists4 ,here his impetuous   
temper had nearly brought him to an     
untimely death2 for1 having maintained  
his fort and killed some of the  king's 
soldiers after the garrison had         
surrendered1 ,prince ,rupert was  with  
difficulty induced to spare his life1   
which was held to have been  forfeited  
by this violation of the laws of war4   
,blake served afterwards  in the west of
 ,england with good repute1 and in #afdd
 was appointed  ,governor of ,taunton1 a
 place of great consequence1 being the  
only  ,parliamentary fortress in that   
quarter4 ,in that capacity he           
distinguished himself by the skill1     
courage1 and constancy with which1      
during two successive sieges1 he        
maintained the town against the         
,royalists in #afde2 an important       
service1 for which the parliament voted 
#bjjj to the garrison1 and #ejj to the  

governor4 ,it is recorded that he       
disapproved of the extremity to which   
matters were pushed against  ,charles1  
and that he was frequently heard to say1
 that he would as  freely venture his   
life to save the ,king's1 as he had ever
 done it in  the service of the         
,parliament4    ,in ,february1 #afdi1   
,colonel ,blake1 in conjunction with two
 officers of  the same rank1 ,deane and 
,popham1 was appointed to command the   
fleet4 ,it  may be taken as a proof     
that1 notwithstanding the fame of our   
early  navigators1 the ,king's service  
at sea had never been treated with much 
attention1 that1 down to later times    
than those of which we now write1  the  
chief command of a fleet seems never to 
have been given to a man of  naval      
education and habits4 ,it is probable   
that the sea service then  held out no  
inducements strong enough to tempt men  
of high birth to  submit to its         
inconveniences1 and that the command of 
a fleet was  esteemed too great a post  

to be conferred on a man of humble      
origin4 ,for  this new employment ,blake
 soon showed signal capacity4 ,when the 
embers  of the war were stirred up after
 the ,king's death1 he was ordered to   
the  ,irish seas in pursuit of ,prince  
,rupert1 whom he blockaded in the       
harbour  of ,kinsale for several months4
 ,despair of relief induced the ,prince 
at  last to make a daring effort to     
break through the ,parliamentary        
squadron1 in which he succeeded2 but    
with the loss of three ships4 ,blake    
pursued him to the ,tagus1 where being  
denied liberty to attack his enemy  by  
the ,king of ,portugal1 in revenge he   
captured and sent home a number  of     
ships richly laden1 on their way from   
,brazil4 ,in ,january1 #afea1 he        
attacked and1 with the exception of two 
ships1 destroyed the ,royalist  fleet1  
in the neutral harbour of ,malaga2 a    
breach of national law1 which  can only 
be justified on the alleged ground that 
,rupert had destroyed  ,british ships in

 the same harbour4 ,these services were 
recompensed by  the ,parliament with the
 post of ,warden of the ,cinque ,ports2 
and in ,march  an act was passed        
constituting ,blake1 with his colleagues
 ,deane and  ,popham1 admirals and      
generals of the fleet for the year      
ensuing4 ,in that  capacity1 he took    
,jersey1 ,guernsey1 and the ,scilly     
,islands from the  ,royalists2 a        
service1 for which he was again thanked 
by ,parliament4 ,in  this year he was   
elected a member of the ,council of     
,state4    ,march #be1 #afeb1 ,blake was
 appointed sole admiral for nine months1
 in  expectation of a war with the      
,dutch4 ,the ,united ,states and        
,england were  at this time the two most
 powerful maritime countries in the     
world2 and  it is hard to find any      
better reason than national rivalry for 
the  bloody war which broke out between 
them in the spring of this year2 a  war 
which seems to have been begun on a     
point of etiquette1 at the  discretion  

of the admirals1 without orders for     
hostilities being known  to be given by 
the governments on either side4 ,on ,may
 #ah1 a fleet of  forty-two ,dutch      
ships1 commanded by the celebrated ,van 
,tromp1 appeared  off the ,goodwin      
,sands4 ,being challenged by ,major     
,bourne1 who commanded a  squadron in   
the ,downs1 they professed to have been 
driven from their  anchorage off        
,dunkirk by stress of weather2 but      
instead of drawing off  the coast as    
they were required to do1 they sailed to
 ,dover and cast  anchor1 in a manner   
which showed the deliberate design of   
insulting the  ,british flag4 ,blake lay
 some distance to the westward in ,rye  
,bay4  ,intelligence was immediately    
sent to him1 and on his approach the    
,dutch  weighed anchor1 and seemed about
 to retreat1 but1 changing their course1
  they sailed direct for the ,english   
fleet4 ,when within musket shot1 ,blake 
ordered a single gun to be fired at the 
,dutch admiral's flag1 which was  done  

thrice4 ,van ,tromp returned a          
broadside1 and a hot and  well-contested
 action ensued1 and was maintained till 
nightfall4 ,under  cover of the darkness
 the ,dutch retreated1 losing two ships 
7one sunk1  the other taken71 and       
leaving the possession of the field and 
the honour  of the victory in the hands 
of the ,english4 ,the ,states appear    
neither to  have authorised nor approved
 of the conduct of their admiral2 for   
they  left no means untried to satisfy  
the ,english government2 and when they  
found the demands of the latter so high 
as to preclude accommodation1  they     
dismissed ,van ,tromp1 and intrusted the
 command of their fleet to ,de  ,ruyter 
and ,de ,witt4 ,meanwhile1 ,blake's     
activity was unremitting4 ,he  gained a 
rich harvest of prizes among the ,dutch 
homeward-bound  merchantmen1 which were 
pursuing their way without suspicion of 
danger2  and when he had sent home forty
 good prizes and effectually cleared the
  ,channel1 he sailed to the northward1 

dispersed the fleet engaged in the      
herring fishery1 and captured a hundred 
of the vessels composing it1  together  
with a squadron of twelve ships of war  
sent out to protect  them4 ,the hostile 
fleets again came to an engagement1     
,september #bh1 in  which the advantage 
was decidedly in favour of the ,english1
 the  rear-admiral of the ,dutch being  
taken1 and three or four of their ships 
disabled4 ,night put an end to the      
action2 and1 though for two days the    
,english maintained the pursuit1 the    
lightness and uncertainty of the  wind  
prevented them from closing with the    
enemy1 who escaped into ,goree4  ,after 
this battle the drafting off of         
detachments on various services  reduced
 the ,english fleet to forty sail1 and  
those1 it is said1 in  consequence of   
the negligence or jealousy of the       
executive government1  were ill provided
 with men and ammunition1 and other     
requisite supplies4  ,thus weakly       
furnished1 ,blake lay in the ,downs1    

when ,van ,tromp again  stood over to   
the ,english coast with eighty          
men-of-war4 ,of that  undaunted spirit  
which usually prompts the ,british      
seaman to refuse no  odds ,blake had an 
ample share2 indeed1 he did much to     
infuse that spirit  into the service4   
,but there are odds for which no spirit 
can make up1  and as he had a brave and 
skilful enemy1 the result of his        
rashness was  that he was well beaten4  
,not more than half the ships on either 
side  were engaged2 but out of this     
small number of ,english vessels two    
were  taken1 and four destroyed2 the    
rest were so shattered that they were   
glad to run for shelter into the river  
,thames4 ,the ,dutch remained  masters  
of the narrow seas2 and ,van ,tromp1 in 
an idle bravado1 sailed  through the    
,channel with a broom at his mast-head1 
as if he had swept it  clear of ,english
 ships4 ,however1 neither the admiral   
nor the nation were  of a temper to     
submit to this indignity2 and great     

diligence having been  used in refitting
 and recruiting the fleet1 ,blake put to
 sea again in  ,february1 #afec1 with   
eighty ships4 ,on the #ahth he fell in  
with ,van  ,tromp1 with nearly equal    
force1 conducting a large convoy of     
merchantmen  up the ,channel4 ,a running
 battle ensued1 which was continued     
during  three consecutive days1 until1  
on the #bjth1 the ,dutch ships1 which1  
to  suit the nature of their coast1 were
 built with a smaller draught of  water 
than the ,english1 obtained shelter in  
the shallow waters of  ,calais4 ,in this
 long and obstinate fight1 the ,dutch   
lost only eleven  men-of-war and thirty 
merchant vessels2 but the number killed 
is said to  have amounted to #aejj on   
either side2 a loss of life of most     
unusual  amount in naval engagements4   
,another great battle took place on the 
#crd and #dth of ,june1 between ,van    
,tromp and ,generals ,deane and ,monk4  
,on the first day the ,dutch seem to    
have had somewhat the advantage3 on the 

second ,blake arrived with a            
reinforcement of eighteen sail1 which   
turned the scale in favour of the       
,english4 ,bad health obliged him then  
to quit the sea1 so that he was not     
present at the last great victory of    
,july #bi1 in which ,van ,tromp was     
killed4 ,but out of respect for his     
services the ,parliament presented him  
with a gold chain1 as well as the       
admirals who had actually commanded in  
the battle4 ,when ,cromwell dissolved   
the ,long ,parliament1 and assumed the  
office of ,protector1 ,blake1 though in 
his principles a republican1 did  not   
refuse to acknowledge the new           
administration4 ,in conjunction with    
,deane and ,monk he published a         
declaration of their resolution1        
8notwithstanding the late change1 to    
proceed in the performance of their     
duties1 and the trust reposed in them   
against the enemies of the              
,commonwealth40 ,he is reported to have 
said to his officers1 8,it is not  our  

business to mind state-affairs1 but to  
keep foreigners from fooling  us40 ,he  
sat in the two first ,parliaments       
summoned by the ,protector1 who  always 
treated him with great respect4 ,nor was
 ,cromwell's acknowledged  sagacity in  
the choice of men at fault1 when he     
chose ,blake to command a  strong fleet1
 sent into the ,mediterranean in        
,november1 #afed1 to uphold  the honour 
of the ,english flag1 and to demand     
reparation for the slights  and injuries
 done to the nation during that stormy  
period of civil war1  when our own      
discord had made others daring against  
us4 ,in better hands  such a mission    
could not have been placed4 ,dutch1     
,french1 and ,spaniards  alike concurred
 in rendering unusual honours to his    
flag4 ,the ,duke of  ,tuscany and the   
,order of ,malta made compensation for  
injuries done to  the ,english commerce4
 ,the piratical states of ,algiers and  
,tripoli were  terrified into           
submission1 and promised to abstain from

 further  violence4 ,the ,dey of ,tunis 
held out1 confident in the strength of  
his  fortifications4 8,here10 he said1  
8are our castles of ,goletta and ,porto 
,ferino3 do your worst2 do you think we 
fear your fleet80 ,blake took the  same 
course as1 in our own time1 ,lord       
,exmouth did against ,algiers3 he  bore 
right into the bay of ,porto ,ferino2   
engaged the fortress within  musket     
shot1 and in less than two hours        
silenced or dismounted its guns2  and   
sending a detachment of boats into the  
harbour1 burnt the shipping  which lay  
there4 ,after this example he found no  
more difficulty in  dealing with the    
,african states4    ,war having been    
declared between ,spain and ,england1 in
 #afef1 ,blake took  his station to     
blockade the bay of ,cadiz4 ,at this    
period his  constitution was much       
broken1 insomuch that1 in the           
expectation of a  speedy death1 he sent 
home a request that some person proper  
to be his  successor might be joined in 

commission with him4 ,general ,montague 
was  accordingly sent out with a strong 
squadron4 ,being obliged to quit the    
coast of ,spain in ,september to obtain 
water for his fleet1 ,blake left        
,captain ,stayner with seven ships to   
watch the enemy4 ,in this interval  the 
,spanish ,plate fleet appeared4 ,stayner
 captured four ships richly  laden with 
bullion2 the rest escaped4 ,montague    
conducted the prizes  home1 so that     
,blake was again left alone in the      
,mediterranean4 ,in the  ensuing spring1
 having learnt that another ,plate fleet
 had put into the  island of ,teneriffe1
 he sailed thither1 and arrived in the  
road of ,santa  ,cruz1 ,april #bj4 ,the 
bay was strongly fortified1 with a      
formidable castle  at the entrance1 and 
a connected chain of minor forts all    
round it4 ,the  naval force collected   
there was also considerable1 and        
strongly posted1  the smaller vessels   
being placed under the guns of the      
forts1 the  galleons strongly moored    

with their broadsides to the sea2       
insomuch that  the ,spanish ,governor1 a
 man of courage and ability1 felt       
perfectly at  ease as to the security of
 his charge4 ,the master of a ,dutch    
ship1 which  was lying in the harbour1  
was less satisfied1 and went to the     
,governor  to request leave to quit the 
harbour2 8,for ,i am sure10 he said1    
8that  ,blake will presently be among   
you40 ,the ,governor made a confident   
reply4  8,begone if you will1 and let   
,blake come if he dares40 ,daring was   
the  last thing wanting2 nor did the    
,admiral hesitate1 as a wise man might  
well have done1 about the real          
difficulties of the enterprise in which 
he was about to engage4 ,the wind       
blowing into the bay1 he sent in        
,captain ,stayner with a squadron to    
attack the shipping1 placed others in   
such a manner as to take off1 and1 as   
far as possible1 to silence the  fire of
 the castle and the forts1 and himself  
following1 assisted  ,stayner in        

capturing the galleons1 which1 though   
inferior in number1  were superior in   
size and force to the ,english ships4   
,this was completed  by two o'clock in  
the afternoon1 the engagement having    
commenced at  eight in the morning4     
,hopeless of being able to carry the    
prizes out of  the bay against an       
adverse wind1 and a still active enemy1 
,blake gave  orders to burn them3 and it
 is probable that he himself might have 
found  some difficulty in beating out of
 the bay under the fire of the castle1  
which was still lively1 when on a       
sudden1 the wind which had blown  strong
 into the bay1 suddenly veered round to 
the south-west1 and  favoured his       
retreat1 as it had favoured his daring  
approach4 ,of this1  the most           
remarkable1 as it was the last exploit  
of ,blake's life1  ,clarendon says1     
8,the whole action was so incredible1   
that all men who  knew the place        
wondered that any sober man1 with what  
courage soever  endowed1 would ever have

 undertaken it2 and they could hardly   
persuade  themselves to believe what    
they had done3 while the ,spaniards     
comforted  themselves with the belief1  
that they were devils and not men who   
had  destroyed them in such a manner4   
,so much a strong resolution of bold and
  courageous men can bring to pass1 that
 no resistance or advantage of  ground  
can disappoint them2 and it can hardly  
be imagined how small a  loss the       
,english sustained in this unparalleled 
action1 not one ship  being left behind1
 and the killed and wounded not         
exceeding two hundred  men2 when the    
slaughter on board the ,spanish ships   
and on shore was  incredible40    ,it   
will be recollected with interest that1 
on the same spot1 ,nelson lost  his arm1
 in an unsuccessful night-attempt to    
capture ,santa ,cruz with an  armed     
force in boats4    ,for this service the
 thanks of ,parliament were voted to the
 officers and  seamen engaged1 with a   
diamond ring to the ,admiral worth      

#ejjl4 ,blake  returned to his old      
station off ,cadiz2 but the increase of 
his  disorders1 which were dropsy and   
scurvy1 raised a desire in him to       
return to ,england1 which1 however1 he  
did not live to fulfil4 ,he died as  he 
was entering ,plymouth ,sound1 ,august  
#ag1 #afeg4 ,his body was  transported  
to ,london1 and buried with great pomp  
in ,westminster ,abbey1  at the public  
expense4 ,after the ,revolution it was  
thought unworthy to  remain in that     
treasure-house of ,england's departed   
greatness2 and with  the bones of others
 who had found a resting-place there    
during the short  period of the         
,commonwealth1 it was transferred to    
,st4 ,margaret's  churchyard4 ,it has   
been disputed whether this was done with
 more or less  of indecency2 but the    
matter is little worth inquiry4 ,the    
real indecency  and folly lay in        
thinking that any ground1 however       
sanctified by the  reverent associations
 of centuries1 could be polluted by the 

tomb of a  man whose leading passion was
 the glory of his country1 and who made 
the  name and flag of that country      
respected wheresoever he carried it3 a  
man  of whom not one mean or interested 
action is recorded1 and whose great     
qualities extorted praise even from the 
,royalists4 ,bate1 in his  #8,elenchus  
,motuum1' speaks of him as a man        
8blameable in this only1 that  he joined
 with the parricides20 and it may be    
remarked that ,dr4 ,bate's  horror of a 
parricide did not prevent his being     
physician to ,cromwell1  as well as to  
,charles ,i4 and ,,ii4    ,we conclude  
with ,clarendon's character of this     
great man4 8,he was of  private         
extraction1 yet had enough left him by  
his father to give him a  good          
education1 which his own inclination    
disposed him to receive in the          
,university of ,oxford1 where he took   
the degree of a ,master of ,arts1 and   
was enough versed in books for a man who
 intended not to be of any  profession1 

having sufficient of his own to maintain
 him in the plenty  he affected1 and    
having then no appearance of ambition to
 be a greater  man than he was4 ,he was 
of a melancholic and sullen nature1 and 
spent  his time most with good fellows1 
who liked his moroseness1 and a freedom 
he used in inveighing against the       
licence of the time and the power of    
the court4 ,they who knew him inwardly1 
discovered that he had an               
anti-monarchical spirit1 when few men   
thought the government in any  danger40 
,after a short sketch of ,blake's       
actions in the civil war1 the  noble    
author continues1 8,he then betook      
himself wholly to the sea1 and  quickly 
made himself signal there4 ,he was the  
first man that declined  the old track1 
and made it manifest that the science   
might be attained  in less time than was
 imagined1 and despised those rules     
which had long  been in practice1 to    
keep his ship and his men out of danger2
 which had  been held in former times a 

point of great ability and              
circumspection1  as if the principal art
 requisite in the captain of a ship had 
been to  be sure to come safe home      
again4 ,he was the first man who brought
 the  ships to contemn castles on shore1
 which had been thought ever very       
formidable1 and were discovered by him  
to make a noise only1 and to  fright    
those who could be rarely hurt by them4 
,he was the first who  infused that     
proportion of courage into the seamen1  
by making them see  by experience what  
mighty things they could do1 if they    
were resolved1  and taught them to fight
 in fire as well as upon water1 and     
though he  has been very well imitated  
and followed1 he was the first that gave
 the  example of that kind of naval     
courage1 and bold and resolute          
achievements40    ,the earliest life of 
,blake which we have seen is in the     
second volume of  a collection entitled 
#8,lives ,english and ,foreign1'        
published at the  beginning of the last 

century4 ,clarendon's ,history of the   
,rebellion1  ,heath's ,chronicle of the 
,civil ,wars1 the ,memoirs of ,ludlow1  
,whitelock1  and other contemporary     
authorities1 will furnish minute        
accounts of the  many battles of which  
we have here only made short mention4   
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,r4    
,woodman4      ,l',h,,pital4      ,from 
the original by ,janet1 in the ,muse    
,royal1 ,paris4      ,under the         
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,l',h,,pital4      ,michel de l',hpital 
was born at ,aigueperse in ,auvergne4   
,the date of his  birth he himself      
declares1 in his testament1 to be       
uncertain1 but at the  same time he     
refers it to the year #aeje4 ,his father
 was the domestic  physician1 the       
faithful friend1 and trusted counsellor 
of the ,constable  of ,bourbon1 and     

still followed his patron's fortunes1   
when that ill-used  and misguided prince
 took up arms against ,france in #aebc4 
,michel de  l',hpital1 then a student at
 the ,university of ,toulouse1 was      
arrested as  the son of one of          
,bourbon's partizans2 but after a short 
time he was set  at liberty by the      
express order of ,francis ,i41 and after
 the lapse of  two or three years was   
permitted to rejoin his father in       
,italy4 ,he  completed his education    
during a residence of six years at the  
celebrated ,university of ,padua4       
,quitting that ,university with high    
credit for his acquirements both in     
polite literature and legal  knowledge1 
he took up his abode at ,rome with his  
father1 and soon  obtained the          
favourable notice both of the ,emperor  
,charles ,v4 and the  ,french           
ambassador1 ,cardinal de ,grammont4 ,but
 preferring the hope of                 
re-establishment in his native country  
to the prospects of advancement  held   

out in a foreign land1 he returned to   
,france in the train of the  ,cardinal2 
was present at the espousal of          
,catherine de ,medici with the          
,dauphin1 afterwards ,henry ,,ii41 in   
#aehc2 and laid a stepping-stone        
towards his fortunes by attracting the  
notice of his future queen4 ,the  death 
of the ,cardinal however in the         
following year overclouded his          
prospects4 ,his father was unable to    
procure a reversal of the sentence  of  
exile and confiscation passed on him for
 his adherence to ,bourbon2  and ,michel
 de l',hpital1 without means or friends1
 betook himself to the  practice of the 
law in the courts of ,paris4            
,fortunately1 his merits  procured a    
discerning friend in ,jean ,morin1 a    
high legal functionary1  who gave him   
his daughter in marriage in #aecg1 with 
the judicial office  of ,conseiller for 
her dowry4    ,l',hpital filled this    
office during nine years4 ,it was one in
 which he  found no pleasure2 for though

 attached to the philosophical study of 
the  law 7and he mentions it as one of  
the evils of his situation that he had  
been obliged to abandon a project for   
collecting into one body the laws  of   
,france1 both written and resting on    
judicial decisions71 he found the  daily
 routine of trying causes extremely     
irksome4 ,his letters are full  of      
complaints of this drudgery1 as he      
esteemed it1 and express in lively      
terms the pleasure which he felt in     
escaping during the vacations into  the 
country1 and renewing his literary      
pursuits4 ,he numbered the most         
intellectual and learned men of ,france 
among his friends1 nor was he  backward 
in seeking to conciliate the great and  
powerful4 ,it is worth  noting1 as      
indicative of the manners of the age1   
that his favourite  method of addressing
 such persons was in ,latin hexameters4 
,accounts of  his way of life1          
statements of his wishes1 petitions1 c41
 are conveyed  in that form2 and he     

composed with fluency1 and with a       
competent share  of elegance1 without   
great attention to correctness4 ,one of 
his frequent  correspondents1 to whose  
favour he owed in great measure his     
future  rise1 was ,cardinal ,lorraine4  
,the ,chancellor ,olivier1 a man of no  
common  virtue1 was another of his best 
friends1 and to him ,l',hpital was      
indebted for being withdrawn from the   
hated bustle of the law1 by his         
appointment as envoy to the ,council of 
,bologna4 ,this proved a sinecure2  and 
he employed his time in wandering about 
the neighbourhood of that  city1 and    
writing letters to the ,chancellor1 full
 of poetical  descriptions1 and requests
 for a more permanent provision away    
from the  tumult of the law courts4     
,early in #aedi ,l',hpital was recalled1
 after remaining upwards of a year  in  
,italy4 ,he found the ,chancellor in    
disgrace2 but his acknowledged  merit   
obtained the notice of ,margaret of     
,valois1 daughter of ,francis ,i41  a   

steady patroness of learning1 herself   
devoted to literary as well as          
religious study4 ,being created ,duchess
 of ,berri1 she appointed him her       
,chancellor1 to manage the affairs of   
the province2 and one of his first      
steps in that capacity was the          
establishment of a new law-school at    
,bourges1 to which he endeavoured to    
attract the most eminent teachers4  ,her
 influence1 added to that of ,cardinal  
,lorraine1 procured for him the  high   
financial appointment of ,superintendent
 of the ,chamber of ,accounts1  in      
#aeed4 ,his conduct in that station was 
firm and honest4 ,he laboured to  put a 
stop to numberless abuses1 which had    
prevailed both in the  collection and   
disposition of the revenue2 and his zeal
 is testified by  the ill-will which it 
brought upon him1 and which twice       
endangered the  loss of his place4 ,his 
independence in this respect is ill     
contrasted by  his obsequiousness in    
supporting the edict known in ,french   

history by  the name of the ,semestre4  
,this requires a few words of           
explanation4 ,no  legislative body was  
recognised by the ,french constitution4 
,even the  ,states-,general could not   
enact3 the power of making laws resided 
solely  in the sovereign4 ,but by the   
practice of the land1 the edicts of the 
monarch required to be registered by the
 body of lawyers called the  ,parliament
 of ,paris1 before they could possess   
validity as law3 a  wholesome practice1 
which often served as a check upon the  
court4 ,it was  probably with the       
intention of rendering that body more   
subject to  control1 that ,henry ,,ii41 
or his ministers1 introduced the        
above-mentioned edict1 by which it was  
proposed to divide the ,parliament  into
 two bodies1 to relieve each other every
 six months4 ,under this  arrangement it
 would have been easy to collect the    
refractory spirits  into one body1 and  
then to bring measures forward for      
registration in  whichever half year    

might best suit the views of the crown4 
,l',hpital's  accession to this measure 
has been palliated by alleging1 that1 as
 the  price of it1 he stipulated for the
 abolition of a custom which  prevailed1
 for suitors to offer fees to the judges
 before whom their  causes were to be   
tried1 under the name of spices         
7pices71--a ready  means of corruption1 
for yielding to which1 or something not 
much worse1  ,bacon1 about half a       
century later1 was removed with disgrace
 from the  chancellorship of ,england4  
,the whole tenor of ,l',hpital's policy 
in  after times tended to depress the   
,parliament2 and this furnishes a       
presumption that his conduct in this    
particular instance was honest4 ,but  it
 is strange that he should not have     
perceived any inroad on the             
independence of the judicial body to be 
a still greater evil than even  that    
from which he endeavoured to free it4   
,after all1 the scheme failed1  and he  
was deeply mortified at the obloquy     

which his accession to it  incurred4    
,the accession of ,francis ,,ii41 by    
bringing the house of ,guise into power1
  proved the means of ,l',hpital's      
advancement4 ,one of the first acts of  
the new government was to restore to the
 office of chancellor ,olivier1 a  man  
of tried integrity1 and a friend to     
toleration4 ,but while the  princes of  
,guise availed themselves of his high   
character to court  popularity1 they had
 no thought of acting by his advice2 and
 ,olivier1  compelled to be the         
unwilling instrument of a policy which  
he detested1  and afraid or unable to   
resign1 was hastened by vexation to his 
grave4  ,l',hpital was selected to be   
his successor in ,june1 #aefj4 ,the     
,guises and  the ,queen ,mother are said
 to have been actuated by different     
views in  agreeing upon this            
appointment4 ,the former thought that   
from an old  adherent and petitioner of 
,cardinal ,lorraine they had no         
opposition to  fear3 the latter is said 

to have been influenced by the hope that
  ,l',hpital's patriotism would lead him
 to be a check on the over-powerful     
house of ,lorraine4    ,the             
circumstances under which he became     
,chancellor were such as might  fairly  
breed suspicion of his honesty4 ,none   
but a bold man could have  hoped to do  
good after the example of ,olivier2 none
 but a dexterous man  could have        
succeeded4 ,and such dexterity is seldom
 joined with that  sincerity and purity 
of purpose1 which is one of the most    
valuable  qualities of a statesman1 or  
any man4 ,there are sometimes seasons in
  which an honest man may take office1  
with the certainty not only that he     
will not be permitted to do much that he
 would wish1 but also that he  will be  
obliged to do a good deal that he       
disapproves4 ,but such  compromises are 
of bad example and evil influence1 and  
can only be  excused by the necessity of
 the times1 and by the good results     
which  ensue4 ,by this test1            

,l',hpital's conduct is vindicated4 ,he 
conferred a  signal benefit on ,france  
at his first entrance upon office1 by   
dexterously contriving to prevent the   
establishment of the ,inquisition1      
which had been resolved on4 ,he obtained
 the convocation of an ,assembly  of    
,notables at ,fontainebleau1 in which1  
through his influence1  conciliatory    
measures were adopted towards the       
,protestants1 and it was  resolved to   
summon a meeting of the                 
,states-,general4 ,but the ,guises1 by  
working on the young king's fears1      
turned that measure to their own        
advantage4 ,cond no sooner appeared than
 he was arrested1 tried1 and  condemned 
to death4 ,the ,king of ,navarre was    
threatened with a similar  fate2 and but
 for the opportune death of ,francis    
,,ii41 the kingdom  probably would have 
been plunged at once into the utmost    
fury of a  religious war4 ,but the      
succession of ,charles ,,ix41 a minor1  
in ,december  #aefj1 threw the regency  

into the hands of ,catherine2 and she1  
encouraged  by ,l',hpital1 asserted her 
independence of the ,guises1 and1 to    
conciliate the support of a powerful    
party1 released ,cond1 and allied       
herself with the ,king of ,navarre4     
,at first1 the ,chancellor's liberal    
measures seemed to prosper4 ,as if in   
compliance with the demands of the      
,states1 he published the celebrated    
,ordonnance of ,orleans1 which embodied 
most of his views for the  reformation  
of the state1 and introduced a variety  
of bold and important  changes into the 
church1 the courts of justice1 and the  
financial  system4 ,one portion of it is
 expressly directed against the         
oppressive  rights claimed and exercised
 by the nobility4 ,but the spirit of the
 age  was not ripe for such extensive   
reforms3 they were too far in advance to
  produce a lasting influence4 ,and in  
attempting to overcome an interested    
and prejudiced opposition1 the          
,chancellor was led to an act unworthy  

of  his real zeal for the welfare of his
 country4 ,his legal improvements had   
not conciliated the good will of the    
lawyers2 and1 foreseeing that the       
,parliament of ,paris might probably    
refuse to register his edicts1 he  took 
it on himself to dispatch them to the   
provinces1 without ever  having         
submitted them to that body4 ,to justify
 such a step1 it is not  enough to say  
that his views were enlarged and noble1 
theirs bigoted and  illiberal2 for it is
 seldom or never that any object can be 
of  importance enough to justify a      
constitutional statesman in breaking    
down  a constitutional security4 ,nor   
had he even the bad excuse of success4  
,the ,parliament were justly incensed1  
and probably became still more  hostile 
to the measures adopted in defiance of  
its authority2 and the  high ,catholic  
party prevailed in obtaining a new      
,assembly of ,notables1  at which all   
was undone which the ,chancellor had    
been labouring to do1  and the          

persecuting edicts against the          
,protestants were re-established  in    
full force4    ,this blow to his system 
of toleration the ,chancellor contrived 
to  obviate4 ,he had no assembly1 no    
body of recognised authority on which to
  lean for support4 ,the ,parliament of 
,paris was against him2 the ,assembly   
of ,notables1 composed of lawyers and   
nobility1 was against him2 the          
,states-,general were tedious to        
convoke1 and were paralysed by their    
division into three orders4 ,in this    
difficulty he bethought himself of      
calling an assembly of deputies from the
 provincial ,parliaments of the         
kingdom2 and fortified by their         
recommendation1 he promulgated and      
obtained registration of the celebrated 
edict of ,january1 #aefb1 which1  under 
certain restrictions1 permitted the open
 profession of the  ,protestant faith4  
,upon this the furious bigotry of the   
,duke of ,guise  broke into open        
violence1 and kindled the first of those

 religious wars  which long desolated   
,france4 ,strengthened by the adhesion  
of the  ,constable ,montmorenci1 and by 
possession of the persons of the ,king1 
and  ,queen ,regent1 the brothers of    
,lorraine usurped the conduct of        
affairs1  and excluded ,l',hpital from  
the council4 ,it is remarkable1         
considering  his resolute opposition to 
their policy1 that they did not deprive 
him  of his office2 and this may be     
taken as an evidence either of the      
consummate prudence with which1 without 
betraying his own principles1 he        
avoided giving personal offence to his  
opponents2 or that his character  stood 
so high as to render his opponents      
unwilling to incur the odium of         
displacing him4    ,the assassination of
 the ,duke of ,guise1 in ,february1     
#aefc1 restored to  ,catherine her own  
free-will1 and ,l',hpital to power2 and 
he immediately  availed himself of it to
 lay the basis of peace by fresh edicts 
in  favour of toleration1 which as usual

 were opposed by the ,parliament4 ,in   
the following year1 ,charles ,,ix4      
having reached the age of fourteen1 the 
,chancellor revived an old law which    
fixed the majority of ,kings of  ,france
 at that age1 and declared the ,king's  
majority before the  ,parliament of     
,rouen4 ,soon after1 he was engaged in a
 quarrel with his  old patron1 ,cardinal
 ,lorraine1 relative to the privileges  
of the  ,gallican ,church4 ,the question
 was1 whether or not the decrees of the 
,council of ,trent should be admitted as
 authority in ,france4 ,the  ,chancellor
 opposed this1 and he carried his point4
    ,to amuse ,charles1 and to avoid    
some of the evils which usually beset a 
court1 the ,chancellor conducted his    
young sovereign on a tour to the        
southern provinces of ,france4 ,this was
 attended with unforeseen and evil      
consequences4 ,at ,bayonne ,charles was 
met by his sister1 the ,queen of        
,spain1 attended by the ,duke of ,alva  
and other ,spanish noblemen4 ,alva      

acquired the confidence of ,catherine1  
whom he persuaded that in the  hands of 
,l',hpital she really had no more       
freedom of action than under  the       
control of the ,guises2 and as in her   
opposition to them she had been         
actuated by no love of toleration1 she  
had little to unlearn under the  tuition
 of that bigoted and able partizan of   
the papacy4 ,l',hpital soon  perceived  
that his power was shaken4 ,he laboured 
to make up for the lost  confidence of  
,catherine1 by attaching himself more   
and more to ,charles  ,,ix42 and for a  
time he succeeded in retaining influence
 over that  prince1 who1 during the     
years #aefe and #aeff1 was kept in a    
state of  vacillation between those who 
pleaded for peace and toleration1 and   
those who would have exterminated       
,protestantism at all hazards and by    
all means4 ,the religious war was       
renewed in #aefg4 ,peace was concluded  
in  #aefh2 but ,l',hpital was not       
employed to manage it4 ,his only hold   

upon  power was now in the reverence of 
the ,king2 and this was shaken by the   
artful representations of ,catherine4   
,it shows1 however1 in a strong  light1 
the ascendancy which ,l',hpital had     
acquired over ,charles's mind1  that the
 joint influence of ,catherine and the  
,house of ,guise could not  induce him  
absolutely to dismiss his faithful      
minister4 ,in #aefh he sent  to request 
the ,chancellor to give up the seals for
 a time1 with a  promise of returning   
them4 ,l',hpital says in his ,testament1
 that 8he  judged it better to yield to 
the necessity of the state1 and to its  
new  governors1 than to contend with    
them40 ,he retired to his estate at     
,vignay1 near ,etampes1 where he        
returned with avidity to his literary   
pursuits1 and to the amusements and     
occupations of the country1 to which    
his letters represent him as devotedly  
attached4    ,the ,chancellor had not   
amassed wealth in his various high      
employments2  but his pensions were     

continued by the ,king2 and ,catherine  
herself did  not forget his former      
services4 ,even in the dreadful massacre
 of ,st4  ,bartholomew's they interfered
 to protect him2 though his family were 
,protestants1 and he himself1 though a  
,catholic by profession and in          
observances1 was so suspected by the    
bigot party1 who did not understand  how
 sincerity and tolerance could go       
together1 that it passed into a  sort of
 proverb1 #8,lord deliver us from the   
,chancellor's mass4' ,a troop  of horse 
was sent from court to preserve his     
mansion from insult4 ,his  domestics    
were alarmed1 and proposed to shut the  
gates4 8,no10 said the  ,chancellor2    
8but if the small gate is not enough1   
open the great one40  ,his daughter1    
then in ,paris1 was in imminent danger1 
and escaped only  through the           
intervention of the ,duchess of ,guise4 
,the ,chancellor did not long survive   
this signal proof that his labours  had 
been in vain4 8,i have lived too long10 

he said1 8since ,i have seen  what has  
occurred in my last days1--a youth      
changed from a mild king into  a        
merciless tyrant40 ,he died1 ,march #ac1
 #aegc2 and was buried in his  parish   
church of ,champmoteux4 ,his monument is
 among those which have  been collected 
at ,paris1 in the ,muse des             
,petits-,augustins4    ,brantme has     
described the person of ,l',hpital4 ,he 
wore a long white  beard2 his face was  
pale1 his demeanor grave1 and he        
resembled the  pictures of ,st4 ,jerome1
 by which name he was known at court4   
,he and the  ,constable ,montmorenci    
were famous as rabroueurs1 or           
reprimanders1 and  were joint terrors to
 the idle courtiers2 and this harshness1
 if we may  trust his own               
representations1 was not natural1 but   
assumed as a  necessary qualification   
for his office4 ,his private habits were
 very  simple and frugal1 and he        
regarded the increase of luxury as the  
bane of  ,france4 ,brantme says that    

once1 when he paid the ,chancellor a    
visit  with ,marchal ,strozzi1 their    
host gave them for dinner a single dish 
of  bouillie1 and that his whole stock  
of plate consisted of one silver        
saltcellar4 ,he adds an amusing account 
of the way in which the  ,chancellor    
rated two newly appointed functionaries1
 who came to present  themselves1 and   
who could not pass satisfactorily       
through a legal  examination1 which he  
bestowed upon them4    ,the leading     
objects of ,l',hpital's political life  
were to obtain the  reformation of      
abuses1 to establish the independence of
 the ,gallican  church against the      
usurpations of ,rome1 and to procure    
toleration for  the ,protestants4 ,he   
is1 we believe1 the first minister who  
laid down the  principle of toleration1 
and proclaimed the impossibility and    
absurdity  of making force the rule of  
reason2 and he has thus gained an       
indefeasible title to the reverence1 not
 only of his countrymen1 but of         

mankind4 8,what laws10 he said1 in his  
inaugurative speech to the  ,parliament 
of ,paris1 8have not been promulgated on
 this point of  religion8 ,what         
judgments and punishments1 of which even
 the magistrates  of the ,parliament    
have been victims8 ,to what purpose have
 served such  continued armaments and   
combats in ,germany1 in ,england1 and in
 ,scotland8  ,the ancient religion has  
been shaken by these combats1 and the   
new  confirmed4 ,the mistake lies in    
treating the maladies of the mind as if 
they were those of the body4 ,experience
 teaches us that it is the force  of    
reason1 the gentle persuasion of words  
alone1 which can win hearts1  and cure  
diseased spirits40    ,this great man   
has another claim to notice1 as one of  
the most  distinguished jurists and     
reformers of ,france4 ,he has been      
classed with  ,charlemagne and ,st4     
,louis1 as one of the three principal   
legislators of  that country2 and his   
eminent successor ,d',aguesseau bore    

testimony to  the merits of his edicts1 
as the foundation of the most useful    
laws  which were afterwards enacted4    
,his constitutional views were directed 
towards raising the royal authority1 at 
the expense of the nobility and  the    
,parliament4 ,we have expressed our     
belief that in the latter instance  his 
conduct was wrong4 ,his views of reform 
are embodied in the  ,ordonnance of     
,orleans 7,january1 #aefa71 and that of 
,moulins 7,february1  #aeff71 which ,de 
,thou describes as being the complement 
of the former4 ,of  the contents of the 
,ordonnance of ,orleans we have already 
given such  notice as our space allows2 
that of ,moulins pertains rather to     
legal and  judicial reforms2 it limits  
and defines the powers of judicial      
officers1  and determines the law on    
various points1 relative to entails1    
arrests  for debt1 sales1 c4 ,in short1 
these two edicts provide for the removal
  of most of those evils which1         
unredressed1 produced the first         

,revolution4    ,it is much to be       
regretted that ,l',hpital's essay       
towards a work on  ,french law is lost4 
,there is a volume extant of his        
,poetical ,epistles1  of which the best 
edition is that of ,amsterdam1 #agcb4   
,to these1 and to  his ,testament1 which
 is printed in the ,bibliothque ,choisie
 of ,colomis1  and in ,brantme 7article 
of the ,constable ,montmorenci71 we may 
refer for  authentic details of his     
life2 of which numerous particulars will
 be  found in the history of ,de ,thou1 
the ,memoirs of ,brantme1 the ,letters  
of  ,pasquier1 the ,eloges of ,thevet1  
and other contemporary writers4 ,his    
speeches before the ,states of ,orleans 
have been published2 and a  ,collection 
of ,memoirs1 consisting of various      
,state ,papers1 printed at  ,cologne1   
#afgb1 has been ascribed to him4 ,the   
,eloge of ,l',hpital was  proposed as a 
prize by the ,french ,academy in #aggg4 
,slight accounts of  him will be found  
in the various biographical             

dictionaries2 but no  publication1 so   
far as we know1 has appeared either in  
,french or  ,english1 which can dispense
 with the necessity of consulting the   
original authorities1 on the part of    
those who wish to obtain more than  a   
superficial acquaintance with the       
history of this illustrious  statesman4 
,illustration3      ,the ,conciergerie  
at ,paris1 from whence the ,huguenot    
prisoners were      liberated by        
,l',hpital himself1--from a ,print in   
the ,british ,museum4                   
,illustration                           
,,mrs4 ,,siddons4      ,the light esteem
 in which the theatrical profession has 
commonly been  held renders it probable 
that the introduction of an actress     
among the  few female names included in 
our ,gallery may seem to some persons   
uncalled for and injudicious4 ,that     
there are few players entitled to  such 
admission we allow3 but for one who     
studied acting as a branch of  art1     
discarding every unworthy species of    

stage trickery2 and who1 by  profound   
study1 and a rare union of mental and   
bodily excellence1 has  inseparably     
connected her name and memory with the  
masterpieces of the  ,british drama1 we 
do claim a place 7to which her eminent  
brother is  almost equally entitled7    
among the master-minds of the fine arts4
    ,sarah ,kemble came of a theatrical 
stock4 ,her father was manager of a     
provincial company of actors2 her mother
 was the daughter of a  provincial      
manager4 ,both parents maintained a high
 character for moral  rectitude2 and the
 latter is said to have been            
distinguished by a  strength of mind1   
and stateliness of demeanour1 which may 
have had some  influence upon the       
character and manners of her celebrated 
children4  ,sarah1 their eldest         
daughter1 was born at ,brecon1 ,july #e1
 #agee4 ,from an  early period of       
childhood she was trained to the stage4 
,she was scarcely  more than seventeen  
when her affections were engaged by an  

actor of her  father's company1 named   
,siddons1 to whom1 after some opposition
 on the  part of her parents1 she was   
married1 ,november #bf1 #aggc4 ,her     
early  married life was beset with      
difficulties4 ,mr4 ,siddons possessed   
little  merit as an actor2 and during   
nine years1 which elapsed before ,mrs4  
,siddons established a metropolitan     
reputation1 she had to endure hard  work
 and low pay4 ,the first encouragement  
which she received in her  career was   
from the notice of the ,hon4 ,miss      
,boyle1 afterwards ,lady  ,o',neil1 a   
lady possessed of high mental qualities1
 as well as birth and  beauty1 who was  
so much struck    ,illustration3        
,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4      ,m,,rs4    
,,siddons4      ,after the ,picture by  
,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4      ,under the 
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4      by the young    
actress's performance of ,belvidera at  

,cheltenham in #aggd1  that she sought  
her out in her obscurity1 and there     
commenced a warm and  lasting           
friendship4 ,through this connection    
,mrs4 ,siddons seems to have  been      
introduced to ,garrick1 by whom she was 
engaged at ,drury ,lane  theatre4 ,her  
first appearance was in the character of
 ,portia1 ,december  #bi1 #agge4 ,she   
was received with indifference2 and     
during the remainder  of the season she 
did not establish herself in the favour 
of the ,london  audiences1 nor did she  
appear in any first-rate part4 ,garrick 
professed  high admiration for her1 and 
on quitting the stage1 which he did     
towards  the close of that season1      
promised to procure for her an          
advantageous  engagement with his       
successors in the management4 ,in this  
promise he  failed1 for during the      
summer of #aggf she received an abrupt  
dismissal  from ,drury ,lane4 ,her      
failure to produce a sensation in the   
first  instance does not seem to have   

weighed much on her mind4 ,she knew her 
powers1 but was conscious that they were
 immature2 and she was deeply  sensible 
through life how necessary1 even to the 
greatest powers1 are  cultivation and   
study4 ,but this dismissal affected her 
in a very  different manner4 ,in her own
 words1 quoted from the autograph       
#8,recollections' intrusted to her      
friend and biographer1 ,mr4 ,campbell1  
8it was a stunning and cruel blow1      
overwhelming all my ambitious hopes1    
and involving peril1 even to the very   
subsistence of my helpless babes40      
,her fears were soothed1 and her        
mortification relieved by her success at
  several of the provincial theatres4   
,she received her dismissal from  ,drury
 ,lane while at ,birmingham1 where she  
was engaged during the summer  to       
perform the highest characters2 and     
where she laid the foundation of  her   
fame1 by acquiring the good opinion of  
the actor ,henderson1 who  pronounced1  
within a year of her expulsion from     

,drury ,lane1 that she was  an actress  
who never had an equal1 nor would ever  
have a superior4  ,through his          
recommendation1 in the following year   
she obtained a  permanent engagement at 
,bath1 where she was received with      
distinguished  favour1 and where she    
remained until her increasing reputation
 procured  for her an invitation to     
return to ,drury ,lane4 ,she chose the  
part of  ,isabella1 in the #8,fatal     
,marriage1' for her debut1 ,october #aj1
 #aghb4 ,the  anxiety with which she    
approached this second trial is         
described in an  interesting manner in  
her own memoranda4 ,on this occasion her
 hopes were  fully gratified4 ,she      
played ,isabella eight times between    
,october #aj1 and  ,october #cj1 when   
she appeared in her second character1   
,euphrasia1 in the  #8,grecian          
,daughter4' ,her other parts1 during    
this first season1 were ,jane  ,shore1  
,calista1 ,belvidera1 and ,zara in the  
#8,mourning ,bride4'    ,we propose in  

this sketch of ,mrs4 ,siddons's         
theatrical life to notice  only the most
 remarkable of her characters1 reserving
 to the end a  complete list of them1   
together with a few remarks on her style
 of  acting4 ,in ,november1 #aghc1 she  
played ,isabella in #8,measure for      
,measure1'  with entire success2 and    
thus solved the real or pretended doubts
 of a  few persons1 who questioned her  
courage or capacity to represent the    
masterpieces of ,shakspeare to a ,london
 audience4 ,no one could do more        
justice to the pure1 uncompromising1    
clear-sighted virtue of ,isabella1  so  
consonant to her own honest and         
high-souled simplicity3 nor was she  at 
fault in attempting1 during the same    
season1 ,constance1 in #8,king  ,john1' 
a character of more varied emotion1 and 
far greater demand on the  resources of 
the player4 ,of this part she says1 in  
an elaborate  criticism1 worthy of being
 read with attention by all persons1 and
  especially by actors1 8,i cannot      

conceive in the whole range of dramatic 
character a greater difficulty than that
 of representing this grand  creature40 
,those who remember her performance of  
it in the meridian of  her powers1 bear 
testimony1 with ,mr4 ,campbell1 to the  
depth of her  maternal affection1 her   
queen-like majesty1 and her tremendous  
power of  invective and sarcasm3 when   
first revived for her the play seems to 
have  been coldly received4    ,the     
celebrated portrait of ,mrs4 ,siddons as
 the ,tragic ,muse was painted  by      
,reynolds in #aghc4 ,the character was  
suggested by the painter3 the  attitude 
is that in which the sitter first placed
 herself1 by which  ,reynolds was so    
struck that he at once adopted it4      
,an interesting anecdote relative to    
,mrs4 ,siddons's first country          
performance of ,lady ,macbeth1 is told  
in the ,memoranda from which we have    
already quoted4 8,it was my custom to   
study my characters at night1 when  the 
domestic cares and business of the day  

were over4 ,on the night  preceding that
 in which ,i was to appear for the first
 time1 ,i shut  myself up1 as usual1    
when all the family were retired1 and   
commenced my  study of ,lady ,macbeth4  
,as the character is very short1 ,i     
thought ,i  should soon accomplish it4  
,being then only twenty years of age1 ,i
  believed1 as many do believe1 that    
little more was necessary than to get   
the words into my head2 for the         
necessity of discrimination1 and the    
development of character1 at that time  
of my life1 had scarcely entered  into  
my imagination4 ,but1 to proceed1 ,i    
went on with tolerable composure  in the
 silence of the night1 7a night ,i can  
never forget17 till ,i came  to the     
assassination scene1 when the horrors of
 the scene rose to a  degree that made  
it impossible for me to get farther4 ,i 
snatched up my  candle1 and hurried out 
of the room1 in a paroxysm of terror4   
,my dress  was of silk1 and the rustling
 of it1 as ,i ascended the stairs to go 

to  bed1 seemed to my panic-struck fancy
 like the movement of a spectre         
pursuing me4 ,at last ,i reached my     
chamber1 where ,i found my husband fast 
asleep4 ,i clapt my candlestick down    
upon the table1 without the power of    
putting the candle out2 and ,i threw    
myself on my bed1 without daring to     
stay even to take off my clothes4 ,at   
peep of day ,i rose to resume my  task2 
but so little did ,i know of my part    
when ,i appeared in it at  night1 that  
my shame and confusion cured me of      
procrastinating my  business for the    
remainder of my life40    8,about six   
years afterwards ,i was called upon to  
act the same character  in ,london4 ,by 
this time ,i had perceived the          
difficulty of assuming a  personage with
 whom no one feeling of common general  
nature was  congenial or assistant4     
,one's own heart could prompt one to    
express with  some degree of truth the  
sentiments of a mother1 a daughter1 a   
wife1 a  lover1 a sister1 c42 but to    

adopt this character must be an effort  
of  the judgment alone40    ,in         
accordance with this1 ,mrs4 ,siddons has
 been known to say1 that ,lady  ,macbeth
 gave her more trouble than any other of
 her characters1 both in  settling her  
conception of the poet's meaning1 and   
determining the means  of giving effect 
to it4 ,her success however in the eyes 
of the public  was complete3 in ,mr4    
,campbell's words1 8the moment she      
seized the part  she identified her     
image with it in the minds of the living
 generation40  ,she appeared in it for  
the first time in ,london1 ,february #b1
 #aghe4 ,smith  played ,macbeth4 ,as in 
the case of ,constance1 ,mrs4 ,siddons  
has left1 in  an elaborate essay on the 
character of ,lady ,macbeth1 interesting
  evidence of the deep study which she  
bestowed on her profession2 a point  in 
which1 as well as in general mental     
cultivation1 the ,kemble family  have   
been advantageously distinguished from  
others even of our  first-rate actors4  

,it is scarcely possible to conceive    
#8,macbeth' so well  performed as when  
the principal characters were filled by 
,mrs4 ,siddons  and ,kemble3 the actors 
might have been thought born for the    
parts4 ,the  same may be said of        
#8,coriolanus1' in which they appeared  
together for  the first time in         
,february1 #aghi4 ,but the season of    
#aghe is also  memorable for ,mrs4      
,siddons's first appearance in          
,desdemona1 a character  as widely      
different from the ,scottish ,queen as  
can well be imagined4 ,yet  it is       
recorded to have been one of the        
actress's most exquisite  performances2 
and this is one of the strongest proofs 
of her  extraordinary talent4           
,unsuitable as her person1 voice1 and   
general  demeanour may seem to those who
 knew her only in her later days1 we    
have  the undeniable testimony of       
competent judges to the grace1          
loveliness1  and sweetness with which   
she personated the gentle ,venetian4    

,her very  stature1 ,mr4 ,boaden says1  
seemed to be lowered4 ,ophelia she      
performed  once1 and once only1 for her 
benefit1 ,may #ae1 #aghf1 to her        
brother's  ,hamlet2 and1 though a poor  
singer1 she rendered the part deeply    
affecting4 ,juliet she also performed1  
we believe once only1 for her  benefit  
in #aghi4 ,cordelia and ,imogen are to  
be added to the list of  characters of  
the gentler cast4 ,the former was not   
one of her most  popular1 probably not  
one of her most effective1 performances1
 for ,lear  is said to have been almost 
the only play in which1 when both were  
on  the stage1 the brother made a       
stronger impression than the sister4    
,the  pure1 gentle dignity of ,imogen   
must have found in her a most effective 
representative4    ,in the autumn of    
#aghc1 about a year before ,dr4         
,johnson's death1 ,mrs4  ,siddons1 at   
his own request1 paid him a visit1 which
 was several times  repeated4 ,he       
expressed a strong desire to see her in 

,queen ,katherine1  his favourite       
character among ,shakspeare's females4  
,he was not so  gratified2 for the play 
was not brought forward until ,november 
#bh1 #aghh1  after an absence from the  
stage of near half a century4 ,this1    
like ,lady  ,macbeth1 we must regard as 
one of ,mrs4 ,siddons's peculiar        
characters4  8,it was an era10 ,mr4     
,campbell says1 8not only in ,mrs4      
,siddons's history1  but in the fortune 
of the play as an acting piece2 for     
certainly1 in the  history of all female
 performance on the ,british stage1     
there is no  specific tradition of any  
excellence at all approaching to hers as
 ,queen  ,katherine40 ,the two principal
 scenes belonging to the part are       
strikingly contrasted4 ,the high mind   
and majestic deportment of the  actress1
 and the sarcasm which she pours out on 
the ,cardinal1 render the  ,trial ,scene
 one of the most effective on the stage2
 and it has  fortunately been preserved 
from oblivion by the pencil of ,harlowe4

 ,but  the last scene1 in the sick      
chamber1 was among the strongest proofs 
of  ,mrs4 ,siddons's close adherence to 
nature1 and one of her greatest         
triumphs over the difficulties of her   
art1 enhanced as they were by the       
extravagant dimensions of the modern    
theatres4 ,it may be mentioned to  show 
her confidence in her own judgment as to
 the truth of nature that1  though the  
audience in the gallery sometimes asked 
her to speak louder1  she never obeyed  
the call2 but left the architect        
responsible for any  failure of effect1 
rather than herself overstep the bounds 
of propriety  in the most solemn event  
of human life4    ,mrs4 ,siddons quitted
 ,drury ,lane for the season #aghi-ij1  
in consequence  of the difficulty of    
obtaining her salary while the treasury 
was in the  hands of ,sheridan4 ,she was
 induced by promises to return in the   
following season2 but a weak state of   
health prevented her playing more  than 
seven nights1 and she appeared in no new

 character2 nor1 during the  summer of  
#agia1 did she act on any provincial    
stage4 ,she returned to  ,drury ,lane in
 #agid1 after the rebuilding of the     
theatre1 and remained  there until      
#ahjb2 when the impossibility of        
rescuing the reward of her  labours from
 that 8drowning gulf10 as she justly    
calls ,sheridan in one  of her letters1 
drove her away finally4 ,the most       
remarkable of her new  characters1      
during this period of eight years1 were 
,millwood1 in #8,george  ,barnwell1' and
 ,agnes1 in #8,fatal ,curiosity1' both  
plays of ,lillo2 ,mrs4  ,haller2 ,elvira
 in #8,pizarro1' which1 in spite of the 
demerits of the  play1 she rendered one 
of her most popular characters2 and     
,hermione1 in  the #8,winter's ,tale1'  
her last new part1 which she acted for  
the first  time1 ,march #be1 #ahjb4 ,the
 statue scene was one of her most       
extraordinary  performances1 both for   
its illusion while she remained         
motionless1 and  for the effect produced

 by her descent from the pedestal1 and  
recognition of her daughter ,perdita4   
,in one of her early performances of    
this character she met with an  accident
 which might well have ended fatally4   
,the muslin draperies in  which she was 
enveloped caught fire from a lamp2      
fortunately1 one of the  scene-men saw  
and extinguished it before it spread4   
,her gratitude for  his interposition is
 eloquently expressed in her            
correspondence2 and her  warmth of      
feeling was subsequently evinced in the 
pains which she took  to procure for the
 man's son1 who had deserted from the   
army1 remission  from what she justly   
calls 8the horrid torture and disgrace  
of the  lash10 and in the lively        
pleasure which she expresses in the     
prospect of  succeeding4    ,upon her   
final departure from ,drury ,lane1 ,mrs4
 ,siddons formed an  engagement at      
,covent ,garden1 where she appeared for 
the first time1  ,september #bg1 #ahjc4 
,she continued there until ,june #bi1   

#ahab1 on which  day she bid farewell to
 the stage4 ,during this time she       
performed in no  new characters1 nor is 
any circumstance which requires notice  
recorded  of this part of her           
professional life4 ,in her last season  
we find that1  of her earlier           
characters1 she performed ,isabella1 in 
#8,the ,fatal  ,marriage1' twice2       
,isabella1 in #8,measure for ,measure1' 
seven times2  ,euphrasia1 twice2        
,belvidera1 six times2 and ,mrs4        
,beverley1 four times4  ,it may perhaps 
be taken as an indication of that by    
which she wished  chiefly to be         
remembered1 that she played ,lady       
,macbeth ten times1 and  chose it for   
her farewell4 ,queen ,katherine she     
played six times2  ,constance and       
,volumnia1 four times each2 ,elvira1    
five times2 ,mrs4  ,haller1 twice2      
,hermione1 four times4 ,on her last     
appearance the house  was crowded to    
excess1 and the excitement of the       
occasion was testified  by a general    

demand that the play should be stopped  
after ,lady ,macbeth's  appearance in   
the sleeping scene4 ,mrs4 ,siddons      
returned to the boards on  various      
occasions1 chiefly for her brother      
,charles's benefit3 her last            
performance was in the part of ,lady    
,randolph1 ,june #i1 #ahai4    ,in      
giving1 in addition to what we have     
already said1 a short general  notice of
 the professional merits of ,mrs4       
,siddons1 we shall confine our  remarks 
chiefly to those characters which better
 suited her maturer  years1 in which    
alone a large majority of our readers   
can have seen her4  ,she was throughout 
the tragic department the unrivalled    
actress of her  time2 though in such    
parts as ,belvidera1 ,desdemona1        
,cordelia1 c41 the  power of exciting   
the sympathy of an audience might have  
been shared  with her by ,mrs4 ,cibber  
and other of her predecessors1 or by her
  successors1 ,miss ,o',neil or ,miss   
,kemble4 ,but in one respect she stands 

alone in her profession3 she was the    
most intellectual of actresses4 ,she    
was a person of deep thought1 and an    
habitual student of nature with a  view 
to the perfection of her art2 and that  
as much1 or more1 in  advanced life1    
than when she had her reputation to make
 or to enjoy in  the first years of her 
celebrity4 ,mrs4 ,siddons sat day after 
day in her  study1 looking at           
,shakspeare and whatever bore upon him1 
not as if he  were the mere poet of the 
stage1 furnishing an outline to be      
filled up  by her peculiar powers1 but  
as if he were the high priest and       
expositor  of human nature1 whose       
lessons it was the serious business of  
her life  to learn1 and having learned1 
to teach4    ,we shall not add to what  
we have already said of her ,queen      
,katherine1 or  ,lady ,macbeth1 except  
one circumstance1 illustrative of the   
above  position4 ,mrs4 ,siddons1 who    
repeatedly read #8,macbeth' before the  
most  competent judges1 made a deeper   

and more lasting impression1 not only in
  her own part1 but in the other        
characters1 than did the representation 
on the stage by her brother and herself1
 with all the advantages of  dress and  
the illusion of scenery4 ,the audience1 
at her readings1  consisting of men and 
women of taste and literature1 professed
 never to  have understood ,shakspeare  
so thoroughly before4    ,her ,isabella1
 in #8,measure for ,measure1' claims a  
short notice4 ,this play  in ,garrick's 
reign was acted occasionally to empty   
benches in the dull  part of the season2
 but neither the manager himself1 nor   
his leading  performers1 condescended to
 appear in so grave and sermonizing a   
piece4  ,even when played by ,kemble and
 his sister1 it did not draw crowded    
houses2 but it ensured a critical and   
enlightened audience4 ,the theatre      
seldom contained so many men of the     
first reputation for taste and          
literature as when that play was        
performed4 ,john ,kemble's mind was     

framed in the same mould with his       
sister's2 he gave to a sententious and  
philosophic part dignity and interest1  
where an ordinary actor would  preach   
his audience to sleep4 ,the scene       
between the ,duke in the disguise  of a 
,confessor1 and ,isabella1 excited      
neither tears nor rapturous  applause1  
but intense interest1 and breathless    
attention4 ,the ,duke's  exposition of  
his project is long1 her intervening    
speeches short1 and  not emphatic2 so   
that such a scene bids fair to be called
 prosing4 ,but  the intense and         
intelligent expression in her eyes1 and 
more perhaps in  her mouth1 the great   
seat of expression1 filled up whatever  
was wanting3  the gradually increasing1 
but as yet far from complete            
comprehension of  the device1 and of its
 consistency with her own purity1 marked
 without  words what was passing in her 
mind3 but when she exclaims 8,the image 
of  it gives me content already1 and ,i 
trust it will grow to a most  prosperous

 perfection10 the burst of perfect      
understanding1 the lighting  up of every
 feature1 and the tones of sudden joy1  
produced a  corresponding effect in the 
spectators1 which scenes of intense     
pathos  could scarcely surpass in       
effect4 ,mrs4 ,siddons's power over the 
mind was  as great as over the passions4
    ,another extraordinary performance  
was her ,millwood1 in #8,george         
,barnwell4' ,she took that part1 which  
had never been played by a  first-rate  
actress1 in hopes that she might be of  
service to her brother  ,charles1 then a
 young actor1 who was to be brought     
forward as ,barnwell4  ,in the early    
scenes the severity of her blandishments
 bordered on the  ludicrous2 she was    
more like ,barnwell's mother than his   
mistress3 but in  her scene of          
dissimulation with ,thorowgood1 and in  
her subsequent arrest  and diabolically 
triumphant avowal of the motive of her  
conduct through  life1 the desire to    
revenge her wrongs on the opposite sex1 

she  pourtrayed wickedness with grand   
and appalling force4 ,her thundering    
exclamation1 8,i know you1 and ,i hate  
you all2 ,i expect no mercy1 and ,i  ask
 for none10 was made with a withering   
effect4 ,the scene in #8,fatal          
,curiosity1' in which ,agnes suggests to
 her husband the murder of their        
unknown son1 was another of her         
wonderful exhibitions3 in ,mr4          
,campbell's  words1 8it made the flesh  
of the spectator creep40    ,mrs4       
,siddons is said to have thought well of
 her own talents for comedy2  and her   
reading of ,shakspeare's characters of  
low humour was admirable4  ,she played  
at different times ,katherine1 in #8,the
 ,taming of the ,shrew1'  and ,rosalind2
 as well as ,mrs4 ,oakley1 and a few    
other characters of the  modern drama4  
,there seems to have been nothing       
against her success in  genteel comedy  
but a deficiency of animal spirits4 ,her
 delivery of the  level conversation in 
tragedy was easy1 graceful1 and refined4

 ,her  representation of the early      
scenes in #8,the ,gamester1' where she  
had  merely to personate an elegant and 
highbred woman1 bearing up against      
present anxiety and impending           
misfortune1 was as attractive and as    
finished as her deep tragedy in the     
sequel was pathetic and harrowing4  ,and
 in the first scenes of ,mrs4 ,haller1  
the charm of her manners and  delivery  
imparted interest even to the dull      
detail of a housekeeper's  weekly       
routine4    ,we subjoin a list of the   
parts which ,mrs4 ,siddons performed in 
,london4  ,the reader will be surprised 
to find how many of them are in plays   
all  but forgotten1 and utterly unworthy
 of her talents4 ,in those marked 7997  
she made her first appearance for her   
own benefit3 in those marked 771  for   
,john ,kemble's4                        
,characters4                            
,plays4                                 
#aghb-c4     ,isabella                  
,fatal ,marriage     ,euphrasia         

,grecian ,daughter     ,jane ,shore     
,jane ,shore     ,calista               
,fair ,penitent     99,belvidera        
,venice ,preserved     99,zara          
,mourning ,bride                        
#aghc-d4     ,isabella                  
,measure for ,measure     ,mrs4         
,beverley               ,gamester       
,constance                   ,king ,john
     99,lady ,randolph                  
,douglas     ,countess of ,salisbury    
,countess of ,salisbury      7,hartson47
     99,sigismunda                      
,tancred and ,sigismunda                
#aghd-e4     ,margaret of ,anjou        
,earl of ,warwick      7,franklin47     
,zara                        ,zara      
7from ,voltaire47     ,matilda          
,carmelite      7,cumberland47          
,camiola                     ,maid of   
,honour     99,lady ,macbeth            
,macbeth     ,desdemona                 
,othello     ,elfrida                   
,elfrida      7,mason47     ,rosalind   
,as you like it                         

#aghe-f4     ,the ,duchess              
,duke of ,braganza      7,jephson47     
,mrs4 ,lovemore               ,way to   
keep ,him     99,hermione               
,distressed ,mother     99,ophelia1 and 
the ,lady in     ,comus     ,malvina    
,the ,captives      7,delap47           
,elwina                      ,percy     
7,miss ,h4 ,more47                      
#aghf-g4     ,cleone                    
,cleone      7,dodsley47     ,imogen    
,cymbeline     ,hortensia               
,count of ,narbonne      7,jephson47    
,lady ,restless              ,all in the
 ,wrong     ,julia                      
,italian ,lovers      7,jephson47       
,alicia                      ,jane      
,shore                                  
#aghg-h4     ,cordelia                  
,lear     ,cleonice                     
,fall of ,sparta      7,mrs4 ,cowley47  
,katherine                  ,taming the 
,shrew     ,dionara                     
,regent      7,greatheed47              
99,cleopatra                  ,all for  

,love                                   
#aghh-i4     ,queen ,katherine          
,henry ,,viii4     ,volumnia            
,coriolanus     99,the ,princess and    
,mrs4 ,riot ,law of ,lombardy           
7,jephson47                             
,lethe      7,farce4 ,garrick47         
,mary                        ,mary      
,queen of ,scots       7,st4 ,john47    
99,juliet                     ,romeo and
 ,juliet                                
#agia-b4     ,queen ,elizabeth          
,richard ,,iii4     ,mrs4 ,oakley       
,jealous ,wife                          
#agib-c4     ,ariadne                   
,ariadne      7,murphy47                
#agic-d4     ,countess ,orsini          
,emilia ,galotti      7from ,lessing47  
#agid-e4     ,horatia                   
,roman ,father      7,whitehead47       
,elvira                      ,edwyn and 
,elgiva      7,miss ,burney47           
,palmira                     ,mahomet   
7from ,voltaire47     ,emmeline         
,edgar and ,emmeline      7,afterpiece47

                                        
#agie-f4     ,roxana                    
,alexander the ,great      7,lee47      
,almeyda                     ,queen of  
,granada      7,miss ,lee47     ,julia  
,such ,things were      7,prince        
,hoare47                                
#agif-g4     ,eleanora                  
,edwin and ,eleonora      7,thomson47   
,vitellia                    ,conspiracy
      7,jephson47     ,millwood         
,george ,barnwell     ,athenais         
,force of ,love      7,lee47            
,aspasia                     ,tamerlane 
7,rowe47     ,dido                      
,queen of ,carthage      7,reed47       
,agnes                       ,fatal     
,curiosity                              
#agig-h4     ,julia                     
,rivals     ,mrs4 ,haller               
,stranger                               
#agih-i4     ,miranda                   
,aurelio and ,miranda      7,boaden47   
,countess                    ,castle of 
,montval       7,dr4 ,whalley47         

,elvira                      ,pizarro   
#agii-ahjj4     ,adelaide               
,adelaide      7,pye47     ,lady ,jane  
,de ,montfort                           
#ahjj-a4     ,helena                    
,antonio      7,godwin47     ,agnes     
,julian and ,agnes      7,sotheby47     
#ahjb4     ,hermione                    
,winter's ,tale    ,of ,mrs4 ,siddons's 
private life it is not necessary for us 
to speak at  length4 ,she had a full    
share of domestic troubles2 and suffered
 the most  poignant sorrow which could  
have befallen her affectionate temper1  
in  the successive deaths of two lovely 
daughters in the prime of youth1 and  of
 her eldest son at a more advanced age4 
,nor was she exempted by her  brilliant 
success and large gains from great      
anxiety upon pecuniary  matters1 and    
from the necessity of diligent labour at
 times when rest  would have been most  
grateful to a distressed spirit1 and a  
body  weakened by frequent              
indisposition4 ,and she made it her     

boast that she  had never wilfully      
disappointed either a manager or the    
public2 and that  in point of           
punctuality1 she had always been an     
honest actress4 ,but  ,mr4 ,siddons lost
 money in some unfortunate speculations2
 and this1  combined with the extreme   
difficulty of extracting from ,sheridan 
her  salary1 or even the proceeds of her
 benefits1 kept ,mrs4 ,siddons poor for 
many years4 ,it is however gratifying to
 know that the evening of her  life was 
spent in affluence4    ,in social       
intercourse ,mrs4 ,siddons commanded the
 respect of all1 the  admiration and    
love of those who knew her intimately4  
,to a  constitutional want of animal    
spirits1 and to a fear of that          
presumptuous intrusion to which         
actresses are often exposed1 we may     
attribute a gravity1 not to say severity
 of manner1 from which distant          
observers sometimes inferred a          
corresponding severity of character4    
,that  this was not the case1 that she  

was benevolent1 cheerful1 and           
affectionately interested in the welfare
 of all who enjoyed her  friendship1 is 
shown by the testimony of many1 and by  
the evidence of  her own actions4    ,to
 be courted by the rich and noble is not
 the best proof or reward even  of      
professional merit2 and no one ever was 
less disposed than ,mrs4  ,siddons to   
act the part of what is called a lion4  
,but it should be  mentioned that her   
acquaintance was eagerly cultivated     
among the highest  of the land2 and that
 she was personally esteemed by ,george 
,,iii4 and his  queen1 and often        
summoned to attend on their private     
circle4 ,she  possessed a still higher  
honour1 and one which she is said to    
have  esteemed more highly1 in the      
admiration and friendship of ,johnson1  
,reynolds1 ,burke1 ,fox1 and other      
intellectual ornaments of the age4      
,after quitting the stage1 ,mrs4        
,siddons gave public readings of poetry 
at  the ,argyle ,rooms1 and also1 by    

special invitation from the             
,universities1  at ,cambridge and       
,oxford4 ,at home her readings of       
,shakspeare were the  delight of large  
and frequent parties1 till within a year
 or two of her  death4 ,the latter years
 of her life were spent1 the winter     
months at her  house in ,london1 the    
summer months at some watering-place1   
and in visits  to her numerous friends4 
,time laid his touch gently on her noble
 face  and person2 and to the end of    
life she looked some years younger than 
her age1 and preserved her mental powers
 unimpaired4 ,she died ,june #h1  #ahca1
 in her seventy-sixth year4    ,we need 
hardly refer to the ,lives of ,messrs4  
,boaden and ,campbell4 ,the  interest of
 the latter is much increased by the    
critical and other  writings of ,mrs4   
,siddons1 with which it is interspersed4
    ,illustration3 ,mrs4 ,siddons as the
 ,tragic ,muse1 from ,sir ,j4 ,reynolds4
    ,illustration3      ,engraved by ,e4
 ,scriven4      ,,sir ,w4 ,,herschell4  

,from a ,crayon ,picture by the late ,j4
 ,russell1 ,esqre4 ,r4,a4 in the        
possession of ,sir ,john ,herschell4    
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,herschel4      ,william ,herschel was 
born at ,hanover1 ,november #ae1 #agch4 
,his father was  a musician1 and brought
 up his four sons to his own art1 which 
in  ,germany gave him better means of   
educating his children1 than would have 
fallen to the lot of a person holding   
the same station in ,england4 ,the      
subject of our memoir is said to have   
had a master who instructed him in      
,french1 ethics1 and metaphysics3 but at
 the age of fourteen he was  placed in  
the band of the ,hanoverian regiment of 
guards1 and in #ageh or  #agei he       
accompanied a detachment of the regiment
 to ,england4 ,another  account states  
that he grew tired of his occupation1   

and came to ,england  alone4 ,here1     
after struggling with poverty for some  
time1 he was chosen  by ,lord           
,darlington to organize a band for the  
,durham militia2 after  which he passed 
several years in the ,west ,riding of   
,yorkshire1 employed  in teaching music 
and studying languages4 ,about #agfe he 
was elected  organist at ,halifax1 and  
employed himself in the study of harmony
 and  mathematics4 ,such at least is the
 statement of the #8,obituary2' but in  
that respectable work we find no        
references to the sources from which    
these minute particulars of ,herschel's 
early life are obtained4 ,about  this   
time he is said to have visited ,italy2 
and1 without professing to  give credit 
to it1 we may here insert a curious     
story which appears to  have been copied
 into ,english works from the           
#8,dictionnaire des ,auteurs  ,vivans1' 
c41 ,paris1 #ahaf4 ,being at ,genoa1 and
 not having wherewith to  pay his       
passage home to ,england1 he procured   

from a ,m4 ,l',angl the use  of some    
public rooms for a concert1 at which he 
played a quartett1  alone1 upon a harp1 
and two horns1 one fastened to each     
shoulder4 ,those  who are in the least  
acquainted with wind instruments will   
hardly  believe that a horn fastened to 
the shoulder would be of much more use  
than one growing out of the head1 as a  
musical instrument2 to say  nothing of  
the difficulty of blowing two horns at  
once1 or of playing a  quartett upon    
three instruments4 ,remarkable          
characters are generally  made the      
subject of wonderful stories1 of which  
each is fashioned in  accordance with   
the general habits of the inventor3 the 
groom's idea of  a wit was 8a gentleman 
who could ride three horses at once20   
surely two  horns and a harp are not too
 much to be played at once by a         
planetary  discoverer4    ,about #agff1 
he is said to have been one of the      
,pump-room band at ,bath1  and was      
shortly afterwards organist of the      

,octagon ,chapel there4 ,he  taught and 
read as before2 and here he turned his  
attention to  astronomy4 ,he borrowed a 
small reflecting telescope of a friend2 
and at  length1 finding that the        
purchase of such an instrument was      
78fortunately10 as it has been well     
expressed17 above his means1 he         
endeavoured to construct one for        
himself4 ,his first attempt was a       
five-feet ,newtonian reflector4 ,it was 
some time before he perfected  himself  
in the method of forming mirrors3 in one
 instance he is said to  have spoiled   
#bjj before he succeeded4    ,in #agha1 
he announced to the world the discovery 
of his new planet1 of  which we shall   
presently speak4 ,he was immediately    
appointed private  astronomer to the    
,king1 by ,george ,,iii41 a post which1 
we believe1 was  created for him1 and   
died with him1 with a salary of #djj1   
and removed1  first to ,datchet1        
afterwards to ,slough1 where he         
continued till his  death1 ,august #bc1 

#ahbb4 ,during this period he ran that  
career of patient  and sagacious        
investigation1 terminating in brilliant 
discovery1 which  has made his name so  
well known to the world4 ,little has    
been published  concerning his private  
life2 but the whole results of his mind 
are to be  found in the #8,philosophical
 ,transactions' between the years #aghb 
and  #ahah4    ,we have not been able to
 find the dates of his knighthood1 or of
 his  receiving the degree of ,doctor of
 ,civil ,law from the ,university of    
,oxford4 ,he married 7we cannot find the
 date7 ,mrs4 ,mary ,pitt1 a widow2  and 
his only son1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 has 
selected from the many tasks to  which  
he is competent1 that of developing and 
adding to his father's  discoveries4    
,in the space which we can devote to the
 astronomical and optical labours  of   
,herschel1 we cannot attempt to furnish 
even the smallest detail of  their end  
and objects1 since the catalogue of     
titles alone would occupy  more room    

than we have to give4 ,we can do no more
 than address ourselves  to the         
impression which generally exists upon  
the subject1 and which  supposes the    
inventor and the philosopher to be no   
more than an  industrious man with good 
eyes1 clever at grinding mirrors for    
reflecting telescopes1 and lucky enough 
to point one at a new planet4  ,such    
being the common notion1 it is not      
possible to make any mere  description  
of ,herschel's papers an index of his   
merits4 ,nor have we  here understated  
the scientific knowledge of the public  
in general4 ,when  ,sir ,john ,herschel 
lately set out for the ,cape of ,good   
,hope1 the  newspapers announced his    
approaching departure1 accompanied by   
the  information that 8six waggon loads 
of telescopes0 were on their way to  the
 ship1 which was all that was said1     
except in publications expressly        
scientific4 ,that one principal object  
of the son's voyage was to  complete a  
great branch of astronomy1 by doing in  

the southern  hemisphere what the father
 had done in the northern1 was not      
stated for  a very simple reason--that  
this portion of the father's labours is 
hardly  known by name to any but        
astronomers4 ,and it is to astronomers  
only that  ,herschel is truly known4    
,the notion entertained of him by others
 often  reminds us of the farmer1 who   
came to him to know the proper time to  
cut  his hay4 ,the philosopher replied  
by pointing to his own crop1 which      
happened to be rotting on the ground    
under a heavy rain4    ,the planet which
 ,herschel called after ,george ,,iii4  
7but which now goes  under the more     
appropriate name of ,uranus7 was        
discovered by him ,march  #ac1 #agha2   
not accidentally1 but as one of the     
fruits of a laborious  investigation1   
with a distinct and useful object4 ,he  
was examining every  star with one      
telescope1 that he might obtain a       
definite idea of  relative phenomena1   
which should enable him to distinguish  

changes  actually taking place1 from    
differences of appearance caused by the 
use  of different telescopes3 the whole 
being in furtherance of the design of   
8throwing some new light upon the       
organization of the celestial bodies40  
,the last words1 which are part of the  
title of one of his subsequent  papers1 
aptly express the line of astronomy to  
which ,herschel devoted  his life2 and  
the discovery of the planet ,uranus was 
not the chance work  of a moment1 but   
the consequence of sagacity strengthened
 by habit1 the  latter being formed with
 a perfect knowledge of what was wanted1
 as well  as of what would be useful in 
supplying it4 ,had he been merely       
registering the places of the stars1 he 
would probably 7as others did  before   
him7 have passed the planet1 perhaps    
with some remark upon its  apparent     
diskiness3 for though the stars have no 
well-defined discs1  yet some have so   
much more of the appearance of discs    
than others1 that  a faint planet1      

viewed with a low power1 might easily be
 taken for a  star4 ,but being engaged  
upon the stars1 expressly with a view to
 trying  how much of such a circumstance
 would be telescopic1 and how much real1
  he was thereby led to try higher      
powers1 and1 eventually1 other          
telescopes4 ,the existence of the planet
 was soon ascertained1 and  forms one of
 the two great features of ,herschel's  
reputation in the eyes  of the world at 
large4    ,the celebrated forty-foot    
telescope1 first described to the ,royal
  ,society by ,herschel1 ,june #b1      
#agie1 was the result of a long series  
of  experiments on the construction of  
mirrors1 begun at ,bath1 on telescopes  
from two to twenty feet in length4 ,and 
we may here remark1 that 8the  bulk of  
his fortune arose from the sale of      
telescopes of his own  construction1    
many of which were purchased for the    
chief observatories  of ,europe10 and   
not from the salary of #djj a year which
 he received as  private astronomer to  

,george ,,iii4 ,see #8,statement of     
,circumstances1' c41  a pamphlet printed
 on the occasion of the last election of
 a ,president  by the ,royal ,society4  
,in #aghe1 ,george ,,iii4 furnished     
,herschel with the  means of undertaking
 an instrument larger than any he had   
yet made4 ,the  greatest difficulty     
7independent of the stand7 was the      
obtaining a  mirror of sufficient size1 
which should not crack in cooling1 and  
should  be strong enough not to bend    
under its own weight4 ,this instrument  
has  been so frequently described that  
we shall say no more of it1 except  that
 ,herschel dates the completion of it   
from ,august #bh1 #aghi1 when he        
discovered the sixth satellite of       
,saturn1 and obtained his best view of  
the spots on that planet4 ,a month      
later1 the seventh satellite was        
discovered by ,herschel4 ,this telescope
 is now never used4 ,sir ,j4  ,herschel 
prefers a twenty-foot reflector for his 
own observations4    ,the first         

discovery of the satellites of ,uranus  
was also in a minor  degree the work of 
thought4 ,such bodies were repeatedly   
looked for by  ,herschel1 but none were 
seen4 ,a small change in the instrument1
 by which  the light was increased1     
suggested one more trial2 and the result
 was  the establishment of the existence
 of the two first satellites1 in        
,january1 #aghg4 ,two more were         
discovered by ,herschel1 in #agij1 and  
two  more in #agid4 ,these satellites   
cannot be seen but with an instrument of
  first-rate power1 and in a favourable 
position of the planet4 ,no one has     
observed the four last satellites except
 ,herschel himself1 or the two  first1  
except himself and ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1  
who has confirmed his  father's         
determination of their periods4 ,see    
,mem4 ,royal ,astron4 ,soc4  vol4 viii4 
,he found that their orbits were nearly 
perpendicular to the  plane of the      
ecliptic1 and ascertained their         
retrograde motion1 and some  remarkable 

relations between their mean distances4 
,it has a brilliant  sound1 but it is   
literally true as to the number of known
 bodies  composing the solar system1    
that ,herschel left it exactly half as  
large  again as he found it4 ,to the    
,sun1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth and  
,moon1  ,mars1 ,jupiter and four        
satellites1 ,saturn and five satellites1
 and  ,halley's ,comet1 eighteen in all1
 he added nine1 namely1 two satellites  
to ,saturn1 ,uranus and six satellites4 
,but not content with augmenting our    
own1 it is to ,herschel we owe the      
discovery of other systems4 ,that the   
fixed stars were each the centre of  a  
number of planets was suspected1 perhaps
 rather prematurely1 before  his        
observations were made known4 ,but the  
first positive addition to our          
knowledge of systems1 that is of bodies 
which move in any degree of  connexion  
with each other1 is to be found in his  
paper read to the ,royal  ,society1     
,june #i1 #ahjc1 announcing that        

,castor1  ,leonis1  ,bootis1            
,herculis1  ,serpentis1  ,virginis1 were
 most probably binary#d stars4  ,the    
existence of such systems has been      
confirmed by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel and     
,professor ,struve1 and the duration of 
the periods given by ,herschel has  been
 sufficiently confirmed to make the     
exactness of his observations           
remarkable4 ,but to new planets1 and new
 systems1 ,herschel added new           
universes2 or1 more properly speaking1  
showed that the universe  consisted of  
portions1 each conveying as large an    
idea of extent and  number1 as the whole
 of what was previously called the      
universe4 ,his  great telescope         
furnished sufficient facts1 and his mind
 was not slow to  draw a conjectural    
inference1 which must be classed among  
the happiest  efforts of reasoning      
speculation4 ,the resolution of the     
milky way into  stars proved that we are
 situated in a stratum of such bodies   
much  thicker in some directions than   

others3 this led to the inference that  
some or all of the nebul with which the 
sky is crowded might be similar         
enormous groups of stars2 and the       
resolution of some of the nebul into    
detached portions was a first step      
towards the demonstration of the        
conjecture4    ,footnote #d3            
,double stars1 those which are so near  
to each other as to appear one    to the
 naked eye3 binary systems1 double stars
 which revolve round    each other4     
,there is enough yet unmentioned1--in   
the discovery of the time of  rotation  
of ,saturn--that of ,jupiter's          
satellites--that of the  refrangibility 
of heat--the experiments on colours--the
 enormous  collection of nebul--the     
experimental determination of the       
magnitude of  stars--the researches and 
conjectures on the physical constitution
 of the  sun--those on the qualities of 
telescopes1 c4 c41--to form by itself no
  ordinary title to the recollection of 
posterity4 ,but we must refer to  ,sir  

,j4 ,herschel's ,astronomy1 in which    
will be found such an account of  them  
as the plan of the work permitted1 by   
one who has shown himself as  indisposed
 to exaggerate1 as interested to        
explain4    ,in the labours of his      
observatory ,herschel was assisted by   
his sister1  ,miss ,caroline ,herschel1 
with whose help he published1 in #agih1 
his  catalogue of ,flamsteed's stars4   
,this lady1 whose exertions1 both as an 
observer and calculator1 are well known 
to astronomers1 is still living1  at a  
very advanced age1 in ,hanover4    ,we  
do not know of any very trustworthy     
account of ,herschel4 #8,the  ,obituary 
for #ahbb1' the #8,gentleman's          
,magazine1' the #8,annual ,register1'   
c41 do not state their authorities4 ,we 
have followed the  first-mentioned work 
as to facts and dates in most of the    
particulars  here mentioned4            
,illustration3 ,view of the great       
telescope erected at ,slough4           
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,r4    

,woodman4      ,,sir ,s4 ,,romilly4     
,from an ,enamel after a ,picture by    
,sir ,thomas ,lawrence4      ,under the 
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,romilly4      ,the grandfather of ,sir
 ,samuel ,romilly1 as we learn from the 
following  passage of a speech which he 
made at ,bristol1 8was born the heir to 
a  considerable landed estate at        
,montpellier1 in the ,south of ,france4 
,his  ancestors had early imbibed and   
adopted the principles and doctrines of 
the ,reformed ,religion1 and he had been
 educated himself in that  religious    
faith4 ,he had the misfortune to live   
soon after the time when  the ,edict of 
,nantes1 the great ,toleration ,act of  
the ,protestants of  ,france1 was       
revoked by ,louis ,,xiv42 and he found  
himself exposed to all  the vexations   
and persecutions of a bigoted and       

tyrannical government  for worshipping  
,god in the manner in which he believed 
was most  acceptable to ,him4 ,he       
determined to free himself from this    
bondage2 he  abandoned his property1 he 
tore himself from his connexions1 and1  
quitting the country and its tyrant1    
sought an asylum in this land of        
liberty1 where he had to support himself
 only by his own exertions4 ,he  himself
 embarked in trade2 he educated his sons
 to useful trades2 and he  was          
contented1 at his death1 to leave them1 
instead of his original  patrimony1 no  
other inheritance than the habits of    
industry he had given  them--the example
 of his own virtuous life1 an hereditary
 detestation of  tyranny and injustice1 
and an ardent zeal in the cause of civil
 and  religious freedom40 ,one of these 
sons became eminent as a jeweller1 and  
married ,miss ,garnault1 by whom he had 
a numerous family4 ,of these three  only
 lived to maturity1 ,thomas1 ,catherine1
 and ,samuel4 ,samuel was the  youngest1

 and was born ,march #a1 #ageg4    ,his 
father was a man of extreme benevolence1
 and strict integrity2 warm  in his     
affections1 and cheerful in his         
disposition4 ,under the influence  of   
his precepts and example the moral      
character of ,samuel ,romilly was       
formed3 for his mother1 from an habitual
 state of bad health1 was  incapable of 
superintending the early education of   
her children1 which  was consequently   
much neglected4 ,samuel and his brother 
were sent to a  common day-school1 the  
master of which pretended to teach      
,latin1  although really ignorant of    
that language4 ,it was at one time      
contemplated to train him to commercial 
business in the house of the  ,fludyers1
 who were then considerable merchants in
 the city1 and near  relations of his   
family3 but the sudden death of both the
 partners of  that house put an end to  
these projects2 and in the absence of   
other  occupation1 his father employed  
him in keeping his accounts1 and        

sometimes receiving orders from         
customers4 ,he had thus leisure to      
cultivate tastes more congenial to his  
nature2 and at the age of  fourteen he  
commenced that self-education1 to which 
he owed all his  future success4 ,every 
volume of his father's little           
collection1 and of  the circulating     
libraries in the neighbourhood1 was     
anxiously and  attentively perused4     
,ancient and modern history1 treatises  
on science1  works of criticism1        
travels1 and ,english poetry1 were among
 his  favourite books4 ,but a passion   
for poetry soon predominated over other 
tastes2 and from admiring the poetry of 
others he aspired at becoming a  poet   
himself4 ,he wrote eclogues1 songs1 and 
satires1 translated passages  from      
,french poets1 and imitated ,english    
ones2 and resolving to devote  himself  
steadily to literature he hoped to      
acquire fame as an author4 ,he  now set 
about learning ,latin in earnest2 and   
was soon able1 by dint of  unremitting  

assiduity1 and with some assistance from
 a private tutor1 to  understand the    
easier ,latin authors4 ,in the course of
 about three years  he had read through 
,sallust1 ,livy1 and ,tacitus three     
times2 he had  studied almost the whole 
of ,cicero1 as well as the principal    
poets2 he  had gone through the ,latin  
translations of the ,greek historians1  
orators1 and philosophers2 and had made 
numerous translations from the  ,latin  
classics into ,english1 which he        
retranslated into ,latin4 ,this  double 
exercise he found to be eminently useful
 in rendering him1 what  he at length   
became1 a very excellent scholar4 ,in   
addition to these  studies1 he attended 
lectures on natural philosophy1         
painting1  architecture1 and anatomy4   
,in the meanwhile he felt his father's  
business become every day more  irksome2
 and it was definitively arranged that  
he should enter into some  branch of the
 law2 a plan which he was enabled to    
execute by the  accession to the family 

of a considerable legacy4 ,at the age of
 sixteen1  he was articled to ,mr4      
,lally for five years1 with a view of   
succeeding  to him as one of the six    
clerks in ,chancery4 ,the society1      
however1 of  ,mr4 ,lally and the pursuit
 of his literary tastes had greater     
attractions  for him than the regular   
occupation of the office2 and although  
he  scrupulously performed the duties   
required of him1 his favourite  classics
 engrossed a large portion of his time1 
and his mind was still  intent upon a   
life of peaceful retirement1 and the    
prospect of literary  fame4    ,at the  
expiration of the term of his           
apprenticeship1 however1 he  determined1
 much against the opinion of many of his
 friends1 to study at  one of the inns  
of court1 and to be called to the bar4  
,his real motive  in deciding against a 
clerkship in chancery1 which was then   
only to be  obtained by purchase1 was   
little suspected at the time2 it was1   
that he  might not be obliged to call   

for his share of the legacy just alluded
  to1 amounting to #bjjjl42 which he    
knew it would be very inconvenient  to  
his father to pay4 ,this trait of pious 
benevolence was1 by a just  retribution1
 the pivot upon which his future        
fortunes more immediately  turned4      
,it was not till he had attained his    
twenty-first year that he entered  upon 
these new studies2 and they were pursued
 with so much persevering  assiduity1   
that at length he became seriously      
indisposed1 and all  application was for
 months prohibited by his medical       
advisers4 ,so  serious an interruption  
to his pursuits was likely to be most   
injurious  to him in his profession2    
when1 fortunately1 an opportunity       
occurred of  making an excursion to the 
continent4 ,the ,rev4 ,john ,roget1 who 
had  recently married his sister1 had   
been attacked with a pulmonary          
complaint1 which obliged him to remove  
with her to a southern climate1  leaving
 behind them in ,england their first and

 then only child4 ,they  were no sooner 
settled at ,lausanne1 than they ardently
 desired to have  this child conveyed to
 them1 and ,mr4 ,romilly1 from a deep   
sense of the  obligations he already    
owed to his brother-in-law for assisting
 him in  his studies1 and supplying that
 judicious and well-timed encouragement1
  which1 on a susceptible and ardent    
mind1 ever acts as the most powerful    
incentive to exertion1 readily undertook
 the charge4 ,the change of air  and    
scene1 the lively interest he took in   
visiting new countries1 and  the        
consciousness of rendering no small     
service to relatives to whom he  was    
most affectionately attached1 produced a
 rapid and favourable change  upon his  
health4 ,still more important was the   
effect produced on the  tone of his mind
 by this renewed intercourse with a     
friend1 who had  early discerned his    
latent abilities and extraordinary      
capacity1 and  who1 on this occasion1   
placing before his view the wide field  

on which  those talents might be        
advantageously exercised1 and the       
important  services he might thus be    
capable of rendering to his             
fellow-creatures1  produced impressions 
which were indelible1 and which1 as he  
himself has  often said1 had a marked   
influence upon the subsequent events of 
his  life4    ,on his return to ,england
 he resumed his studies with renovated  
strength  and with redoubled ardour4 ,he
 was called to the bar in #aghc4 ,more  
than  ten years1 however1 elapsed before
 any real prospect of success opened  to
 him in his profession4 ,it is true that
 he was employed in drawing  pleadings  
in chancery1 and this business gradually
 increased2 but it  never required him  
to open his lips in court2 and although 
he regularly  attended the ,midland     
circuit1 he had no connexions on it1 and
 it was not  until he commenced an      
attendance on the sessions that the     
circuit at  length became a source of   
some profit to him4 ,in #agib he        

appeared for  the first time as a       
leader3 in a short time he was employed 
in almost  every case1 and not many     
years passed before he was at the head  
of his  circuit4    ,but we are         
anticipating a later period4 ,in #aghd  
,mr4 ,romilly became  acquainted with   
,mirabeau1 and through him with ,lord   
,lansdowne4 ,that  nobleman appreciated 
the knowledge and character of the      
rising lawyer1  and becoming intimate   
with him1 did all in his power to       
encourage and  bring forth his talents4 
,about the same time there was published
 a tract  by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,madan1     
entitled #8,thoughts on ,executive      
,justice4' ,it had  attracted some      
attention1 and was so much admired by   
,lord ,lansdowne1  that he suggested to 
his friend the task of writing a        
treatise in the  same spirit4 ,but ,mr4 
,romilly was so much shocked at the     
principle upon  which it proceeded1     
namely1 that of rigidly executing the   
criminal code  in all cases1 barbarous  

and sanguinary as it then was1 that1    
instead of  adopting its doctrines1 he  
sat down to refute them4 ,the triumphant
 reply  which he drew up and published  
anonymously did not meet with the       
success  it deserved4 ,nevertheless he  
had the satisfaction of hearing it      
praised  from the bench2 and ,lord      
,lansdowne himself had the singular     
candour to  acknowledge the merit of a  
production1 which1 although written at  
his  own suggestion1 was at variance    
with the opinions he had desired to see 
inculcated4    ,allusion has been made  
to ,mr4 ,romilly's acquaintance with    
,mirabeau4 ,he  was one of those of     
whose talents ,mirabeau had availed     
himself on more  than one occasion4 ,it 
is unnecessary1 however1 to mention more
 than the  following instance1 which is 
too characteristic to be omitted4       
,during  one of ,mr4 ,romilly's visits  
to ,paris1 in #aghh1 curiosity led him  
to see  the prison of the ,bictre1 and  
on meeting ,mirabeau the next day1 he   

described to him all the horror and     
disgust with which the place had        
inspired him4 ,mirabeau1 struck with the
 force of his description1 begged  him  
to express it in writing1 and to be     
allowed to use it4 ,mirabeau  translated
 and published this account in a        
pamphlet1 which1 in spite of  the title1
 #8,lettre d'un ,voyageur ,anglais sur  
la ,prison de ,bictre1' was  everywhere 
ascribed to him2 while the real author1 
on his return to  ,england1 printed his 
own ,,ms4 in the #8,repository1' as the 
translation1  although it was in fact   
the original4    ,it was not till the   
autumn of #agif1 when on a visit to     
,bowood1 the  country-seat of ,lord     
,lansdowne1 that ,mr4 ,romilly first met
 ,miss ,garbett1  to whom he was        
afterwards united1 and who formed the   
charm of the  remainder of his          
existence4 ,with such sacred inducements
 to renew his  efforts in his           
profession1 his advancement was         
proportionably rapid4 ,on  ,november #f1

 #ahjj1 he was appointed king's counsel2
 and it was soon clear  that he might   
aspire to the highest ranks of his      
profession4 ,in #ahjf he  was made      
,solicitor-general1 under the           
administration of ,mr4 ,fox and ,lord   
,grenville4 ,he was1 much against his   
will1 knighted on his appointment2  and 
was brought into ,parliament by the     
,government for ,queenborough4 ,soon    
after1 he was called upon to sum up the 
evidence on the trial of ,lord          
,melville2 a duty which he performed    
with consummate skill1 though with a    
feebleness of voice which deprived his  
most able speech of its just  effect in 
the vast hall where it was delivered4   
,during the first session of his        
parliamentary career1 ,sir ,samuel      
,romilly  confined himself principally  
to questions of law1 and seldom         
addressed  the ,house1 except in        
committee2 but in the beginning of #ahjg
 he took a  more prominent part1 and    
made his first great speech in favour of

 the  abolition of the ,slave-trade--a  
speech1 which at once placed him on a   
level with the most successful orators  
of the day4 ,in this subject he  had    
always felt deep interest4 ,from his    
earliest youth he had expressed  the    
warmest indignation against this        
infamous traffic2 he had  translated1   
with a view to publication1 ,condorcet's
 pamphlet against  ,west ,indian        
slavery1 and1 at the beginning of the   
,french ,revolution1 he  had written an 
eloquent paper against the ,slave-trade1
 and had  transmitted it to his friend  
,dumont1 from whom he trusted it would  
pass  to ,mirabeau1 and would remind him
 of the importance of the question1 at  
a time when a comparatively slight      
effort would have settled it in that    
country for ever4 ,these previous       
efforts had produced no effect2 but he  
had afterwards the satisfaction of      
belonging to the ministry to whom the   
honour was due of abolishing the        
slave-trade1 and of thus preparing the  

way for putting an end to slavery       
itself4 ,this ministry were soon after  
dismissed from their offices1 for not   
sacrificing their opinions in  favour of
 ,catholic emancipation to the          
lamentable and persevering  prejudices  
entertained by ,george ,,iii4 on that   
question1 prejudices  adopted by his son
 and successor1 to the infinite         
detriment of his  dominions4    ,on the 
dissolution of parliament which         
followed1 ,sir ,samuel ,romilly1  having
 procured for himself a seat for        
,wareham1 lost no time in               
re-introducing a measure1 which had been
 rejected in the former  parliament1 to 
enable a creditor to obtain the payment 
of his debts from  the landed property  
of persons dying indebted4 ,with a view 
to prevent  opposition1 he had confined 
the operation of his measure to freehold
  estates only4 ,the bill1 however1 even
 in this modified form1 met with  the   
greatest opposition4 ,its introduction  
by ,sir ,samuel was ascribed to  8his   

hereditary love of democracy20 it was   
denounced by ,canning1 8as the  first   
step of something that might end like   
the ,french ,revolution1 and  as a      
dangerous attack against the            
aristocracy1 which was thus to be       
sacrificed to the commercial interest20 
and it was finally rejected by a        
considerable majority4 ,rather than give
 up his object entirely1 he  determined 
to make another concession to the       
prejudices of his  opponents2 and a few 
days after the rejection of the measure1
 on  introducing a second bill on the   
same subject1 he limited its operation  
to the landed estates of traders4 ,this 
expedient succeeded2 the  aristocracy1  
caring little what became of traders'   
estates1 suffered the  bill to pass both
 houses without the slightest           
opposition1 and it  received the ,royal 
assent in ,august1 #ahjg4 ,after the    
lapse of seven  years1 he made fresh    
attempts in favour of his original bill1
 but in  vain4 ,it was indeed carried by

 the ,commons1 in #ahad1 by a majority  
of  nearly two to one2 and again in the 
same house1 in the two succeeding       
years1 without the slightest opposition2
 but on all these occasions it  was as  
regularly rejected by the ,house of     
,peers4 ,the original measure1          
including copyhold as well as freehold  
estates1 has recently become part  of   
the law of the land4    ,during the     
vacation of #ahjg ,sir ,samuel ,romilly 
prepared some of those  reforms in the  
criminal law1 by which he is most known 
to the public4  ,for many years he had  
been intent on this subject1 and had    
made it his  particular study4 ,during  
repeated visits to the continent1 he    
never  missed an opportunity of         
attending any important trial2 and for  
the  sixteen years during which he      
attended the circuit1 he had been in the
  habit of noting down whatever appeared
 to him worthy of observation in  the   
criminal courts4 ,shocked at instances  
of judicial injustice1 which  thus fell 

under his notice1 he had secretly       
resolved that1 if it should  ever be in 
his power1 he would endeavour to provide
 a remedy for such  gross abuses4 ,the  
principles of his intended reforms were 
contained in  his answer to ,dr4 ,madan4
 ,he held that the prevention of crime  
is more  effectually accomplished by    
certainty than by severity of           
punishment2  that to approximate to     
certainty of punishment1 it was         
necessary to  mitigate the severities of
 the penal code2 that1 unless this were 
done1  there would still be an          
indisposition on the part of the public 
to  prosecute1 of witnesses to give     
evidence1 of juries to convict1 and even
  of judges to put in execution the     
sentences they had themselves           
passed2--that all these were so many    
chances of escape offered to a  culprit1
 operating rather as encouragements than
 as checks to crime4  ,these doctrines1 
then so new1 although now received as   
axioms1 made but  few converts at first2

 and it was not till they were again    
brought  before the public in the ,house
 of ,commons1 in #ahjh1 that they       
attracted  some of that attention to    
which they were entitled4 ,one of his   
first  bills1 which repealed the        
punishment of death for stealing        
privately  from the person to the amount
 of five shillings1 passed both houses  
with  but little opposition2 but1 as the
 number of prosecutions increased in    
consequence1 it was alleged that the    
crime itself had increased1 and  that   
all similar reforms would be attended   
with similar mischief4  ,romilly urged  
in vain that1 when the measure was under
 consideration1 he  had foretold that it
 would produce an increase of           
prosecutions2 and that  this1 far from  
being an argument against the mitigation
 of punishment1  was the best proof of  
its efficacy4 ,in vain did he defend his
 principle1  with the varied stores of  
his knowledge1 with the most powerful   
arguments1 and with the eloquence of    

deep conviction4 ,the mature            
reflections of above thirty years' study
 and experience were treated as  the    
rash innovations of a wild theorist4    
,the effect of government  circulars was
 too seldom counteracted by the         
attendance of his own  political        
friends2 no party advantage could be    
gained from such  enlightened labours2  
there was no large and powerful body in 
the country  to second his efforts2 and 
when1 at length1 after unremitting      
perseverance1 he occasionally succeeded 
in carrying a bill through the          
,commons1 it was rarely permitted to    
pass through the ordeal of the ,upper   
,house4 ,but these efforts were not     
thrown away4 ,his views1 ably and       
diligently supported by ,sir ,james     
,mackintosh and others1 have since been 
confirmed and acted on even by his      
political opponents4 ,the credit which  
was due to him who had sown the seed has
 since been claimed by those who  reaped
 it2 but the harvest is not lost to the 

public4    ,but ,romilly did not shrink 
from taking an active part on questions 
more  generally interesting to the      
public1 even though the avowal of his   
opinions might endanger his advancement 
in life4 ,a remarkable instance  of this
 kind occurred in the beginning of      
#ahji1 when the conduct of the  ,duke of
 ,york was brought before the house by  
,colonel ,wardle4 ,he was  aware that to
 support this inquiry would not be less 
obnoxious to many  members of the former
 government than to those then in       
office4 ,it had  been significantly     
intimated to him that the ,prince of    
,wales would  consider any attack on the
 duke as an attack on himself2 and he   
felt  under some obligation to the      
,prince for having formerly offered him 
a  seat in parliament1 which1 however1  
he had declined4 ,such was his          
position2 entertaining1 however1 a      
strong opinion on the subject1 he       
resolved not to abandon his duty2 and he
 spoke and voted in favour of  the      

motion4 ,he concluded his speech in     
these words3 8,the venerable  judge#e   
who took an early part in the discussion
 of this question has  attested the     
sincerity of his vote by an affecting   
allusion to his age  and infirmities1 to
 the few inducements which the remainder
 of his life  presented to him4 ,i      
cannot say the same thing4 ,not         
labouring under the  same affliction1   
and not having arrived at the same      
period of life1 ,i  may reasonably be   
allowed for myself1 and for those who   
are most dear to  me1 to indulge hopes  
of prosperity yet to come4 ,reflecting  
on the  vicissitudes of human life1 ,i  
may entertain apprehensions of adversity
  and persecution which perhaps await   
me4 ,i have1 however1 the  satisfaction 
to reflect1 that it is not possible for 
me to hope to  derive1 in any way the   
most remote1 advantages from the vote   
which upon  this occasion ,i shall give1
 and from the part which ,i have thought
 it my  duty to act40    ,footnote #e3  

,mr4 ,barton1 a ,welsh judge1 who was   
then at the age of nearly seventy1      
and deprived of his sight4    ,these    
anticipations were afterwards           
corroborated by several persons1 who    
told him1 that after such a speech1 he  
must give up all thoughts of ever  being
 ,chancellor4 ,the public also felt that
 he had made a sacrifice in  their      
cause4 ,thanks were voted to him in     
conjunction with ,mr4 ,whitbread1  ,lord
 ,folkstone1 and some others1 from the  
,city of ,london1 ,liverpool1           
,carmarthen1 ,wiltshire1 ,bristol1      
,berwick1 c4 c42 and he was invited by  
the ,livery of ,london to a public      
dinner1 as a mark of approbation of his 
conduct4 ,he declined1 however1 to      
accept the intended honour1 and his     
answers to the addresses were drawn up  
with that unaffected modesty1 and  love 
of simple truth1 which were so          
peculiarly characteristic of his  mind4 
,instead of dwelling upon his own merit1
 he drew the picture of  what would have

 been thought of him had he pursued an  
opposite course4  8,seeing the case10 he
 said in his answer to the ,livery1 8in 
the light in  which ,i saw it1 to have  
acted otherwise than ,i did1 ,i must    
have been  base enough to have deserted 
my public duty upon a most important    
occasion1 from the mean apprehension    
that to discharge my duty might be      
attended with personal disadvantage to  
myself4 ,if there be much merit in  not 
having been actuated by such unworthy   
motives1 7which ,i cannot  think1 but if
 there be17 that merit ,i certainly may 
pretend to1 c40    ,the course which he 
took in the year following on the       
imprisonment of  ,gale ,jones1 and the  
alleged breach of privilege by ,sir     
,francis ,burdett1  was again at        
variance with that adopted by either of 
the two great  parties in the house4    
,the ,opposition as well as the         
,ministry1 and all  the lawyers who took
 any part in the debate1 concurred in   
thinking the  paper written by ,sir     

,francis ,burdett a breach of privilege1
 and  deserving of punishment of one    
kind or another2 while ,romilly         
maintained  that the house had no       
jurisdiction to take cognizance of the  
offence4 ,he  did not dispute the right 
to imprison for a breach of privilege   
which  obstructed their proceedings1 but
 he denied the right and the policy of  
doing so for the publication of         
animadversions on matters already       
concluded4 ,he urged that these latter  
questions 8ought not to be decided  on  
by the house1 which thus constituted    
itself prosecutor1 party1 and  judge1   
without affording to the accused the    
opportunity of even hearing  the charges
 preferred against him2 but they ought  
to be left to the  ordinary tribunals1  
the courts of law40 ,these arguments1   
disregarded at  the time1 were amply    
justified by the events which followed4 
,the folly  of the course adopted was   
proved by serious disturbances1 attended
 with  the loss of life2 petitions      

couched in the most disrespectful       
language  were sent up1 and inserted on 
the ,journals2 and the question of the  
privileges of the ,commons came1 in the 
first instance1 before the courts  of   
law1 and was finally decided by the     
,house of ,lords4 ,invitations to       
public dinners were again sent to him1  
which he again declined2 and  addresses 
of thanks were voted 8for the stand he  
had made in favour of  the dominion of  
the law1 against arbitrary discretion   
and undefined  privilege40    ,but it   
was not only in this way that the public
 showed how much they  appreciated his  
integrity and independence4 ,in #ahab he
 was pressed to  allow himself to be put
 in nomination for several large        
constituencies2  amongst others for     
,liverpool1 ,chester1 ,middlesex1 and   
,bristol4 ,at  ,bristol1 his past       
political conduct was considered a      
sufficient  guarantee for the future2 no
 pledge was required of him1 he was to  
be  put to no expense1 and it was agreed

 that he should be excused from         
personal canvas4 ,on terms so honourable
 he consented to be put in  nomination2 
and although a total stranger in the    
town1 his reception was  most           
encouraging1 and there seemed every     
prospect of success4  ,nevertheless the 
common but dishonest maxim1 of every    
thing being fair  at an election1 being 
acted upon by the opposite party1 it was
 soon  evident that he would not be     
returned2 and on the seventh day he     
resigned any further contest4           
,although his opinions were not as yet  
to receive the sanction of any  large   
and popular constituency1 he did not    
relax his efforts in favour  of the     
rights and interests of the people4 ,on 
being returned for  ,horsham1 during the
 six sessions which this parliament     
lasted1 we find  him the same strenuous 
advocate for civil liberty and religious
  toleration in the most extensive sense
 of the words1 at home and abroad2  the 
same determined enemy to peculation and 

corruption1 the same ardent  and        
judicious reformer of the laws2         
8incapable on every occasion of  being  
swerved from his duty by the threats of 
power1 the allurements of  the great1   
the temptations of private interest1 or 
even the seduction of  popular favour4  
,all the toil1 the pain1 and the fatigue
 of his duties  were his own2 all the   
advantage which resulted from his       
labours were for  the public40    ,he   
spoke and voted against military        
flogging1 the game laws1 the  punishment
 of the pillory1 the poor laws1 the law 
of libel1 and  lotteries2 against the   
suspension of the ,habeas ,corpus act1  
,lord  ,sidmouth's circular letter1 and 
the employment of spies and informers2  
and against the persecution of the      
,protestants in ,france1 and the ,alien 
bill at home2 in favour of ,catholic    
emancipation1 the education of the      
poor1 and the liberty of the press4 ,he 
was always a zealous advocate for       
peace2 against the system of the corn   

laws1 and all restrictions on  commerce1
 and he was in favour of an extensive   
change in the  representation of the    
people1 of shortening the duration of   
parliament1  and ensuring the free      
exercise of the elective franchise4 ,he 
was also in  favour of the promulgation 
of laws1 of allowing counsel to         
prisoners1 of  giving compensation to   
those who had been unjustly accused1 of 
greatly  extending the rules respecting 
the admission of evidence2 of           
introducing  secondary punishments1 and 
of instituting a public prosecutor2 and 
all  this not more for the sake of      
humanity towards the guilty1 than for   
the  great ends of justice1 the         
prevention of crime1 and the reform of  
criminals4    ,at the conclusion of this
 parliament in #ahah1 ,sir ,samuel      
,romilly1 after  having again been      
invited to stand for several large      
constituencies1 by  any of which he was 
assured he would be elected1 was at     
length put in  nomination for           

,westminster2 and although he was       
violently opposed by the  court on the  
one side1 and by the ultra popular party
 on the other2  although1 during the    
whole of the contest1 he was calmly     
pursuing his  professional duties in the
 ,court of ,chancery1 and never once    
appeared on  the hustings till the      
conclusion1 he was returned at the head 
of the  poll4 ,after his election1 he   
did all in his power to avoid the       
ceremony  of chairing2 but on his       
objections being over-ruled1 his        
greatest  pleasure was when1 after he   
had addressed the multitude from the    
windows  of ,burlington ,house1 he was  
able to escape by a back door and walk  
by  the less frequented streets to his  
home1 there to receive  congratulations 
no less hearty1 and more congenial to   
his temper and  taste4 ,but he did not  
live to take his seat4 ,a life of       
uninterrupted and  rarely equalled      
domestic happiness1 and of great success
 in his  professional and political     

career1 was suddenly embittered by the  
loss  of that being1 to whom he had been
 deeply and devotedly attached for      
above twenty years1 and with whom he had
 ever considered his happiness  and     
prosperity as being indissolubly        
connected4 ,he sank under this          
calamity1 and mankind was deprived of   
his services for ever#f4    ,footnote   
#f3      ,strong symptoms of an         
incipient brain fever showed themselves1
 and    these increased so rapidly as to
 produce1 before they could be          
checked1 a temporary delirium1 as most  
frequently happens in that    malady2   
and in this paroxysm he terminated his  
existence1 ,november #bb1    #ahah1     
three days after ,lady ,romilly's death4
    ,romilly was reserved and silent in 
general society1 but affectionate1      
entertaining1 and instructive with his  
friends2 and full of joyousness1        
humour1 and playfulness with his        
children1 and in the bosom of his       
family4 ,he was endowed with a lively   

imagination1 he was fond of  retirement1
 and was a passionate admirer of the    
beauties of nature4  ,indefatigable in  
his profession and in parliament1 he yet
 found time to  keep up with the        
literature of the day1 to write         
criticisms on the books  which he read1 
to keep a regular diary of his political
 career1 and to  compose essays on      
various branches of the criminal law4   
,his eloquence  was of that kind which  
never fails to make a lasting           
impression3 it was  full of earnest     
conviction and deep sensibility4 ,he was
 a great master  of sarcasm1 but he     
considered it an unfair weapon and      
rarely employed  it4 ,so jealous was he 
of his independence1 that when he was   
solicitor-general1 and one of his       
nephews was peculiarly anxious to be    
placed in the ,military ,academy at     
,woolwich1 he refused to lay himself    
under any obligation1 even for so slight
 a favour2 and the application  was     
never made4 ,few ever gained so large a 

portion of public favour1 and  yet so   
studiously avoided courting popularity2 
and no one ever rose  higher in the     
esteem of his political contemporaries4 
,unsullied in  character as a lawyer1 as
 a politician1 and as a man1 his life1  
which  was prolonged to the age of      
sixty-one1 was a life of happiness and  
of  honour4 ,no statues are erected to  
his memory2 no titles descend to his    
children2 but he has bequeathed a       
richer1 a prouder1 and a more lasting   
inheritance1 than any which the world   
can bestow3 the recollection of  his    
virtues is still fresh in the minds of  
his countrymen1 and the  sacrifices he  
made in the cause of humanity will not  
be forgotten by  mankind4               
,illustration                           
,,shakspeare4      ,the materials which 
we possess for the biography of         
,shakspeare are very  unsatisfactory4   
,the earliest life is that by the poet  
,rowe1 who1 as if  aware of its         
scantiness1 merely entitles it #8,some  

,account4' ,it contains  what little the
 author could collect1 when no sources  
of information  were left open but the  
floating traditions of the theatre after
 the  lapse of nearly a century4 ,mr4   
,malone prefixed a new life to his      
edition1 extending to above #ejj pages2 
but he only brings his author to        
,london1 and as to his professional     
progress1 adds nothing to ,rowe's       
meagre tale1 except some particles of   
information previously  communicated in 
notes by himself and ,steevens4         
,william ,shakspeare was born at        
,stratford-upon-,avon in ,warwickshire1 
,april #bc1 #aefd4 ,he was one of ten   
children4 ,his father was a dealer in   
wool1 as it is generally said1 but      
according to ,malone1 a glover1 and     
alderman in the corporation of          
,stratford4 ,our great poet received    
such  education as the lower forms of   
the ,grammar ,school at ,stratford could
  give him2 but he was removed from that
 establishment at an early age1 to      

serve as clerk in a country attorney's  
office4 ,this anecdote of his  boyhood  
receives confirmation from the frequent 
recurrence of technical  law-phrases in 
his plays2 and it has been remarked that
 he derives none  of his allusions from 
other learned professions4 ,before he   
was eighteen  years of age he contracted
 a marriage with ,anne ,hathaway1 a     
woman some  years older than himself1   
and the daughter of a substantial yeoman
 in  his own neighbourhood4 ,he went to 
,london about #aehf1 when he was but    
twenty-two years of age1 being obliged1 
as the common story goes1 to fly  the   
country1 in consequence of being        
detected in deer-stealing4 ,this  tale  
is thought to be confirmed by the       
ridicule cast on his supposed           
prosecutor1 ,sir ,thomas ,lucy1 in the  
character of ,justice ,shallow1  pointed
 as it is by the    ,illustration3      
,engraved by ,e4 ,scriven4              
,,shakspeare4      ,from the ,picture in
 the ,possession of ,his ,grace the     

,duke of      ,buckingham1 at ,stowe4   
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,june #a1 #ahce4      commendation of   
the 8dozen white luces as a good coat40 
,but as this is  the only lawless action
 which tradition has imputed to one of  
the most  amiable and inoffensive of    
men1 we may perhaps esteem the tale to  
be the  mere gossip of the tiring-room3 
indeed1 ,malone has adduced several     
arguments to prove that it cannot be    
correctly told4 ,it is not necessary  to
 suppose that ,shakspeare was compelled 
to fly his native town because  he came 
to the metropolis2 his emigration is    
sufficiently accounted for  by his      
father's falling into distressed        
circumstances1 and being obliged  in    
this very year1 #aehf1 to resign his    
alderman's gown on that account4        
,another traditional anecdote1 that     
,shakspeare's first employment was to   

wait at the play-house door1 and hold   
the horses of those who had no          
servants1 is discredited by ,mr4        
,steevens1 who says1 8,that it was once 
the general custom to ride on horseback 
to the play ,i am yet to learn4  ,the   
most popular of the theatres were on the
 ,bankside2 and we are told  by the     
satirical pamphleteers of that time that
 the usual mode of  conveyance to those 
places of amusement was by water2 but   
not a single  writer so much as hints at
 the custom of riding to them1 or at the
  practice of having horses held during 
the hours of exhibition4 ,let it be     
remembered too1 that we receive this    
tale on no higher authority than  that  
of ,cibber's #8,lives of the ,poets4'0  
,nothing is authentically proved with   
respect to ,shakspeare's  introduction  
to the stage4 ,his first play is dated  
by ,malone in #aehi1  three years after 
the time assigned for the author's      
arrival in ,london4  ,it appears from   
the dedication to #8,venus and ,adonis1'

 published in #aeic1  in which he calls 
that poem 8the first heir of his        
invention10 that his  earliest essays   
were not in dramatic composition4 ,the  
#8,lucrece1'  published in #aeid1 and   
the collection of sonnets1 entitled the 
#8,passionate ,pilgrim1' published in   
#aeii1 also belong to an early period   
of his poetical life4 ,the #8,lover's   
,complaint1' and a larger collection  of
 sonnets1 were printed in #afji4 ,it may
 be conjectured that he was led  to     
write for the stage in consequence of   
the advice and introduction of  ,thomas 
,green1 an eminent comedian of the day1 
who was his townsman1 if  not his       
relation4 ,shakspeare trod the boards   
himself1 but he never rose  to eminence 
as an actor3 it is recorded that the    
,ghost in #8,hamlet' was  his           
masterpiece4 ,but the instructions to   
the players in #8,hamlet' exhibit  a    
clear and delicate perception of what an
 actor ought to be1 however  incompetent
 the writer might be to furnish the     

example in his own  person4    ,the     
extent of ,shakspeare's learning has    
been much controverted4 ,dr4  ,johnson  
speaks of it thus3 8,it is most likely  
that he had learned ,latin  sufficiently
 to make him acquainted with            
construction1 but that he never         
advanced to an easy perusal of the      
,roman authors4 ,concerning his skill   
in modern languages1 ,i can find no     
sufficient ground of determination2  but
 as no imitations of ,french or ,italian
 authors have been discovered1  though  
the ,italian poetry was then high in    
esteem1 ,i am inclined to  believe that 
he read little more than ,english1 and  
chose for his fables  only such tales as
 he found translated40 ,other writers   
have contended  that he must have been  
acquainted with the ,greek and ,roman   
classics3 but  ,dr4 ,farmer1 in his     
#8,essay on the ,learning of            
,shakspeare1' has accounted  in a very  
satisfactory manner for the frequent    
allusions to the facts  and fables of   

antiquity to be met with in             
,shakspeare's writings1 without         
supposing that he read the classic      
authors in their original languages4    
,the supposition indeed is at variance  
with his whole history4 ,dr4 ,farmer    
has particularly specified the ,english 
translations of the classics then       
extant1 and concludes on the whole1 that
 the studies of ,shakspeare were        
confined to nature and his own language4
    ,the merit of ,shakspeare did not   
escape the notice of ,queen ,elizabeth4 
,he  evinced his gratitude for her      
patronage in that beautiful passage in  
the  #8,midsummer ,night's ,dream1'     
where he speaks of her as 8a fair       
vestal1  throned in the west40          
,sheffield1 ,duke of ,buckinghamshire1  
is the relater of an anecdote which     
shows the continuance of high favour to 
our author4 ,it is expressed in  these  
words3 that 8the most learned prince and
 great patron of learning1  ,king ,james
 ,i41 was pleased with his own hand to  

write an amicable letter  to ,mr4       
,shakspeare20 and ,dr4 ,farmer supposes1
 with apparent probability1  that this  
honour was conferred in return for the  
compliment paid to the  monarch in      
#8,macbeth4' ,shakspeare also possessed 
the esteem of1 and was  admitted to     
familiar intercourse with1 the          
accomplished ,earls of  ,southampton and
 ,essex2 and enjoyed the friendship of  
his great  contemporary ,ben ,jonson4   
,of the poet's career before the ,london
 public nothing authentic has come  down
 to us2 and perhaps if more were known1 
it might not be worth  recording4 ,but  
his retirement in #afaa or #afab1 about 
four years before  his death1 though it 
afford no story1 furnishes a pleasing   
reflection4  ,he had left his native    
place1 poor and almost unknown3 he      
returned to  it1 not rich1 but with a   
competence and an unblemished character4
 ,his  good-natured wit made him a      
welcome member of private society when  
he no  longer set the theatre in a roar2

 and he ended his days in habits of     
intimacy1 and in some cases in the bonds
 of friendship1 with the leading        
gentlemen of the neighbourhood4 ,he died
 on his birthday1 ,april #bc1 #afaf1    
when he had completed his fifty-second  
year4 ,if we look merely at the  state  
in which he left his productions1 we    
should be apt to conclude  that he was  
insensible of their value4 ,to quote the
 words of ,dr4  ,johnson1 8,it does not 
appear that ,shakspeare thought his     
works worthy of  posterity2 that he     
levied any ideal tribute upon future    
times1 or had  any further prospect than
 that of present popularity and present 
profit40 ,but the imperfect form in     
which they came before the public is    
not necessarily to be accounted for by  
this extravagance of humility4 ,it  is  
clear that any publication of his plays 
by himself would have  interfered at    
first with his own interest1 and        
afterwards with the  interest of those  
to whom he made over his share in them2 

besides which1  such was the revulsion  
of the public taste1 that the           
publication of his  works by ,hemings   
and ,condell was accounted a doubtful   
speculation4 ,for  several years after  
his death the plays of ,beaumont and    
,fletcher were  more frequently acted   
than those of ,shakspeare2 and the      
beautiful works  of the joint dramatists
 afterwards gave place to the rhyming   
rhapsodies  of ,dryden and the bombast  
of ,lee4 ,garrick brought back the      
public to  ,shakspeare and every-day    
nature2 ,kemble exhibited him in the    
more  refined dress of classical taste  
and philosophy4    ,mr4 ,malone has     
observed1 that our author's prose       
compositions1 should  they be           
discovered1 would exhibit the same      
perspicuity1 the same  cadence1 the same
 elegance and vigour1 which we find in  
his plays4 ,in  #agea1 an attempt was   
made to impose on the public by a book  
entitled #8,a  ,compendious or ,brief   
,examination of certayne ,ordinary      

,complaints of  divers of our           
,countrymen in these our ,days1 c41 by  
,william ,shakspeare1  ,gentleman2' the 
signature to which1 in the original     
edition of #aeha1 was  8,w4 ,s41        
,gent420 and ,dr4 ,farmer has clearly   
proved the initials to mean  8,william  
,stafford1 ,gent40 ,another and more    
impudent forgery was  attempted by      
,ireland1 who published in #agie a      
volume1 entitled  #8,shakspeare's       
,manuscripts4' ,the fraud met with      
partial success1 and the  tragedy of    
#8,vortigern' was performed as one of   
,shakspeare's1 to the  great disgust1 it
 is said1 of ,john ,kemble1 who had to  
act in it much  against his will4       
,malone exposed the imposition in #agif1
 and ,ireland  himself ultimately       
acknowledged it4 ,with respect to the   
probable  character of ,shakspeare's    
prose compositions1 it is needless to   
speculate on it1 as we have no reason to
 believe that he ever wrote any  prose1 
except for the stage4    ,some          

interesting criticisms of ,mrs4 ,siddons
 on the chief female  characters of     
,shakspeare will be found in the life of
 that eminent  actress in this volume4  
,we may here introduce another          
observation of  hers on ,constance in   
#8,king ,john4' ,she said that the      
intuition of  ,shakspeare in delineating
 that character struck her as all but   
supernatural3 she could scarcely        
conceive the possibility of any man     
possessing himself so thoroughly with   
the most intense and most inward        
feelings of the other sex3 had          
,shakspeare been a woman and a mother1  
he  must have felt neither less nor more
 than as he wrote4    ,the two first    
folio editions are in great request     
among book-collectors1  and1 owing to   
their scarcity1 fetch high prices at    
auctions4 ,they have  nothing to        
recommend them either as to accuracy or 
elegance of  typography1 but are really 
valuable for the various readings which 
they  contain4 ,the best modern editions

 are those of ,johnson and ,steevens1   
and  ,malone4 ,the last edition is the  
posthumous one of ,malone1 edited by    
,boswell1 and little room is left for   
any farther elucidation of our  great   
dramatist1 as far as verbal criticism is
 concerned4 ,but for the  higher        
branches of criticism1 the works of such
 a poet are as  inexhaustible as those  
of ,homer2 and if his fame be equally   
immortal1  its fate is more singular4   
,however ardent may be the admiration of
 ,homer  on the part of modern scholars1
 and however profound their             
investigation  of his merits1 far from  
pretending to discoveries unknown to the
 ,grecian  critics and philosophers1    
they support their own views by constant
  references to the ancients2 but       
,shakspeare has found his most          
elaborate1  and with certain drawbacks1 
his best critics1 among foreigners4 ,in 
,england ,shakspeare is the idol of     
those who read either for the  amusement
 of the imagination1 or as students not 

of poetical or  metaphysical1 but of    
every-day nature2 and his ,english      
editors have  rather criticised down to 
the level of such readers1 than aimed at
  ripening their taste1 or elevating    
their conceptions4 ,we find eminent  men
 among them1 such as ,pope1 ,warburton1 
and ,johnson1 yet none well  qualified  
to perform the highest functions of a   
commentator4 ,johnson's  ,preface is    
highly valued for the justness of his   
general criticism1 and  his vindication 
of the poet on the score of the unities 
is triumphantly  conclusive4 ,but his   
remarks at the end of each play are so  
jejune and  superficial1 that short as  
they are1 no reader perhaps ever wished 
them  longer4 ,one cannot help wondering
 that the acute1 and in many instances  
profound1 though sometimes partial1     
critic of ,cowley1 ,milton1 ,dryden1    
,pope and ,gray1 should have skimmed so 
lightly over the surface of             
,shakspeare4 ,not so his ,german        
translators and critics4 ,no sooner did 

the  ,germans take up the study of      
,english literature1 than they selected 
,shakspeare on whom to try their powers2
 and they are thought to have  dived    
deeper into his mind than have his own  
countrymen1 with their  apparently      
better opportunities4 ,nor is this      
wonderful3 for they have  regarded the  
poet not merely as the minister of      
amusement to an admiring  audience1 but 
as a metaphysical philosopher of        
nature's forming1  possessed of deepest 
insight into the complex motives which  
move the  hearts1 and stimulate the     
actions of mankind4 ,and seeking with a 
reverent attention to trace the workings
 of the maker's mind 7for in  this      
instance there is a peculiar propriety  
in translating the ,greek  word poet7   
they have succeeded in furnishing       
profound and satisfactory  explanations 
of much that less intellectual critics  
had treated as  instances of the        
author's irregular and capricious       
genius4 ,in this1 as  in other branches 

of ,german literature1 ,gothe stands    
pre-eminent3 and  the translation of his
 #8,wilhelm ,meister' has placed within 
the reach of  all readers a series of   
original and masterly criticisms1       
especially on  that stumbling-block of  
commentators1 the character of ,hamlet4 
,we may  quote as a specimen his        
exposition of the principle upon which  
the  anomalies of the ,prince of        
,denmark's conduct are to be solved4    
8,it is  clear to me that ,shakspeare's 
intention was to exhibit the effects of 
a  great action1 imposed as a duty upon 
a mind too feeble for its               
accomplishment4 ,in this case ,i find   
the character consistent throughout4    
,here is an oak tree planted in a china 
vase1 proper only to receive the  most  
delicate flowers4 ,the roots strike out 
and the vessel flies to  pieces4 ,a     
pure1 noble1 highly moral disposition1  
but without that energy  of soul which  
constitutes the hero1 sinks under a load
 which it can  neither support nor      

endure to abandon altogether4 ,all his  
obligations  are sacred to him2 but this
 alone is above his powers6 ,an         
impossibility  is required at his hands2
 not an impossibility in itself1 but    
that which  is so to him4 ,observe1 how 
he turns1 shifts1 hesitates1 advances1  
and  recedes2--how he is continually    
reminded and reminding himself of his   
real commission1 which he nevertheless  
in the end seems almost entirely  to    
lose sight of1 and this without ever    
recovering his former  tranquillity60   
,how different this from the praise of  
variety allowed  to this tragedy by     
,johnson1 to 8the pretended madness1    
causing mirth10  without any adequate   
cause for feigning it1 and the objection
 that  through the whole piece he is    
8rather an instrument than an agent60   
,malone's 8attempt to ascertain the     
order in which the plays of  ,shakspeare
 were written0 occupies #ahj pages4     
,where so many words are  necessary1 the
 arrangement to be justified may not be 

very certain2 but  that of ,malone is   
generally received4 ,it runs thus3 ,the 
,first ,part of  ,king ,henry ,,vi41    
#aehi4 ,second and ,third ,parts1 ,two  
,gentlemen of ,verona1  #aeia4 ,comedy  
of ,errors1 #aeib4 ,king ,richard ,,ii4 
and ,,iii41 #aeic4 ,love's  ,labour's   
,lost1 ,merchant of ,venice1 ,midsummer 
,night's ,dream1 #aeid4 ,taming  of the 
,shrew1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,king ,john1
 #aeif4 ,first ,part of ,king  ,henry   
,,iv41 #aeig4 ,second ,part1 ,all's well
 that ends well1 #aeih4 ,king  ,henry   
,v41 ,as ,you like it1 #aeii4 ,much ado 
about ,nothing1 ,hamlet1 #afjj4  ,merry 
,wives of ,windsor1 #afja4 ,troilus and 
,cressida1 #afjb4 ,measure for          
,measure1 ,king ,henry ,,viii41 #afjc4  
,othello1 #afjd4 ,king ,lear1 #afje4    
,macbeth1 #afjf4 ,twelfth ,night1       
,julius ,csar1 #afjg4 ,antony and       
,cleopatra1  #afjh4 ,cymbeline1 #afji4  
,coriolanus1 ,timon of ,athens1 #afaj4  
,winter's ,tale1  #afaa4 ,tempest1      
#afab4 ,except the placing of the       

historical plays in  separate           
succession1 the order of ,malone's      
edition follows the above  dates4       
,previous editions arranged the plays as
 comedies1 histories1 and  tragedies1   
beginning with the ,tempest1 the last   
written1 and ending with  ,othello4 ,we 
must add to the list of plays ascribed  
to ,shakspeare1 and  included in the    
editions of his works1 ,pericles and    
,titus ,andronicus1  which are now      
acknowledged not to be the composition  
of ,shakspeare1  though perhaps         
retouched by him4 ,the ,yorkshire       
,tragedy1 ,lord ,cromwell1  and others1 
have still less right to bear the honour
 of his name4    ,illustration3         
,shakspeare's ,monument at              
,stratford-upon-,avon4    ,illustration3
      ,engraved by ,b4 ,holl4           
,,euler4      ,from a ,picture by ,a4   
,lorgna in the ,collection of the       
,institute of      ,france4      ,under 
the ,superintendance of the ,society for
 the ,diffusion of ,useful              

,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,euler4      ,leonard ,euler#g was born
 at ,basle1 ,april #ae1 #agjg4 ,his     
father was the  clergyman of ,reichen1  
near ,basle1 and had himself been a     
pupil of ,james  ,bernouilli4 ,he       
intended his son for his own profession1
 and after having  been himself his     
first instructor in mathematics1 sent   
him to the  university of ,basle4 ,john 
,bernouilli was at this time ,professor1
 and his  sons1 ,nicolas and ,daniel1   
two more of the eight ,bernouillis known
 to  the history of science1 were under 
him4 ,with the sons ,euler contracted   
an intimate friendship2 and obtained    
such a degree of favour even with  their
 father1 that the latter gave him a     
private lesson weekly1 upon  points more
 advanced than those treated in the     
public course4 ,this was a  strong mark 
of favour from ,john ,bernouilli1 who   
was of an unamiable  disposition1       

jealous of his brother1 of his son1 and 
finally of almost  every one who        
displayed a superior talent for         
mathematics4 ,euler at  first turned his
 attention to theology1 in accordance   
with the wishes of  his father1 but this
 was not of long continuance4 ,at the   
age of  nineteen1 besides obtaining a   
degree from his ,university1 he had     
merited  the notice of the ,academy of  
,sciences for a memoir on some points of
  naval architecture4 ,in the same year1
 he was an unsuccessful candidate  for a
 ,professorship at ,basle1 an unlucky   
event1 ,m4 ,condorcet observes1  for his
 country1 inasmuch as a few days        
afterwards he left it for  ,russia1 and 
never returned4 ,his friends the        
,bernouillis 7,nicolas and  ,daniel7    
had1 two years before1 accepted         
invitations from the ,empress           
,catherine2 and he followed them in     
hopes of obtaining employment and       
subsistence at ,st4 ,petersburgh4 ,but  
by the time he arrived1 both ,nicolas   

,bernouilli and the ,empress were dead1 
the ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburgh was   
left without a patron1 and ,euler1 a    
nameless stranger1 could not for a  long
 time obtain any settled avocation4 ,how
 he maintained himself we are  not told2
 but he was upon the point of entering  
the ,russian service as a  sailor1 when 
his prospects brightened1 and he        
obtained the place of  ,professor of    
,natural ,philosophy4 ,in #agcc he      
succeeded ,daniel ,bernouilli1  who     
returned to his own country1 as         
,professor of ,mathematics4 ,in the     
same year he married a young lady named 
,gsell1 the daughter of an artist  of   
,basle1 who had emigrated to ,russia in 
the reign of ,peter the ,great4         
,footnote #g3      ,we have followed the
 loge of ,condorcet as to facts and     
dates4 ,we    should have preferred that
 of ,m4 ,fuss1 but have not had the     
opportunity of seeing it4 ,the mere     
biographical details of ,euler's    life
 are1 however1 of the simplest          

character4    ,the despotism of the     
,russian government could not please the
 republican  born2 but circumstances    
obliged him to endure it till #agda1    
when he  quitted ,petersburgh for       
,berlin on the invitation of ,frederic  
the ,great4  ,to the necessity for      
continual reserve and government of the 
tongue  which was necessary in the      
,russian capital has been attributed his
 love  of silence and study1 which      
exceeded all that is related of any of  
his  contemporaries4 ,the mother of     
,frederic1 who was as much attached to  
the  conversation of distinguished men  
as the ,king himself1 could never       
obtain more than a few syllables from   
,euler at any one time4 ,on her  asking 
the reason why he would not speak1 he is
 said to have replied1  8,madam1 ,i have
 lived in a country where men who speak 
are hanged40    ,euler remained at      
,berlin till #agff4 ,in #agfa he lost   
his mother1 who had  resided with him   
for eleven years4 ,during this time he  

was not  considered as having abandoned 
his ,russian engagements1 and a part of 
his salary was regularly paid4 ,when the
 ,russians invaded ,brandenburg in      
#agfj1 a farm belonging to him was      
destroyed1 but he was immediately more  
than reimbursed1 by the order of the    
,empress ,elizabeth4 ,on the  invitation
 of that princess he consented to return
 to ,petersburgh in  #agff4 ,he had for 
some years suffered from weakness in the
 eyes2 and not  long after his return to
 ,russia he became so nearly blind1 that
 he could  distinguish nothing except   
very large letters marked with chalk on 
a  slate4 ,in this state he continued   
for the remainder of his life2 and by   
constant exercise he acquired a power of
 recollection1 whether of  mathematical 
formul or figures1 which would be       
totally incredible1 if  it were not     
supported by strong evidence4 ,he formed
 in his head1 and  retained in his      
memory1 a table of the first six powers 
of all numbers  up to #ajj1 containing  

about #cjjj figures4 ,two of his pupils 
had summed  seventeen terms of a        
converging series1 and differed by a    
unit in the  fiftieth decimal of the    
result2 ,euler decided between them     
correctly by  a mental calculation#h4   
,his chief amusement during his         
deprivation was  the formation of       
artificial magnets1 and the instruction 
of one of his  grandchildren in         
mathematics4 ,his studies were in no    
degree relaxed by  it4 ,in #agga        
,euler's house was destroyed by fire1   
together with a  considerable part of   
the city4 ,he was himself saved by a    
fellow-countryman named ,grimm1 and his 
manuscripts were also rescued4 ,in      
#aggf he married the aunt of his first  
wife4 ,no other event worthy of  special
 notice occurred before his death1 which
 took place suddenly1  ,september #g1   
#aghc4 ,he had been employed in         
calculating the laws of the  ascent of  
balloons1 which were then newly         
introduced2 he afterwards  dined with   

his family and ,m4 ,lexell1 his pupil1  
conversed with them on  the             
newly-discovered planet of ,herschel1   
and was amusing himself with  one of his
 grandchildren2 suddenly the pipe which 
he held in his hand  dropped on the     
ground1 and it was found that#i 8life   
and calculation  were at an end40 ,he   
had thirteen children1 of whom only     
three survived  him2 one of them1 ,john 
,albert ,euler1 was known as a          
mathematician4    ,footnote #h3      ,we
 suspect some mistake in this account1  
which is constantly given4 ,a    very   
surprising story ought to be consistent3
 now it is difficult to    believe that 
any series which was actually employed  
in practice 7and    people do not sum   
series to fifty places for amusement7   
would converge    so quickly1 as to give
 fifty places in seventeen terms4 ,the  
well-known    series for the base of    
,napier's logarithms is called a rapidly
    converging series1 and gives about  
fifteen places in seventeen terms4      

,we cannot help thinking1 either that   
,euler settled one disputed term        
only1 or that there is some mistake     
about the number of figures4            
,footnote #i3      ,il cessa de calculer
 et de vivre4--,,condorcet4    ,of the  
scientific character of ,euler it is    
impossible to speak in  detail1 since   
even the resum of ,m4 ,condorcet1 which 
is much longer  than any account we can 
here insert1 is meagre in the extreme2  
and we  imagine that the reader would   
form no idea whatsoever of the man we   
are  describing1 from any brief         
enumeration of discoveries for which we 
should be able to allow room4 ,in more  
than fifty years of incessant  thought1 
,euler wrote thirty separate works and  
more than seven hundred  memoirs3 which 
could not altogether be contained in    
forty large quarto  volumes4 ,these     
writings embrace every existing branch  
of mathematics1  and almost every       
conceivable application of them1 to such
 an extent1  that there is no one among 

mathematicians1 past or present1 who can
 be  placed near to ,euler in the       
enormous variety of the subjects which  
he  treated4 ,and the contents of these 
volumes are without exception the       
original fruit of his own brain2 seeing 
that he left no subject as he  found it4
 ,he is not a diffuse writer1 except in 
giving a large number of  examples1 and 
this renders him in some respects the   
most instructive of  all writers4 ,his  
works are full of the most original     
thoughts developed  in the most original
 manner2 so that they have been a mine  
of  information for his successors1     
which is even now far from being        
exhausted4 ,let a student be employed   
upon any subject connected with         
mathematics1 however remotely1 and he   
has discovered but little if he  has not
 found out that ,euler was there before 
him4    ,of all mathematical writers1   
,euler is one of the most simple1 and   
this  in a manner which renders his     
writings not by any means a sound       

preparation for future investigations4  
,difficulties seem to have  disappeared 
in the progress1 or never to have been  
encountered2 and the  student is rather 
made to feel that ,euler could take him 
anywhere1 than  furnished with the means
 of providing for himself1 when his     
guide shall  have left him4 ,hence the  
writings of others1 in every way        
inferior to  ,euler in elegance and     
simplicity1 are to be preferred1 and    
have been  preferred1 for the formation 
of mathematical power4    ,euler is to  
be measured by the assistance which he  
gave to his immediate  successors1 and  
here it is well known that he paved the 
way for the  research of others in a    
more effectual manner than any of his   
contemporaries4 ,the incessant          
repetition of his name in later authors 
is  sufficient authority for this       
assertion4 ,his writings are the first  
in  which the modern analysis is        
uniformly the instrument of             
investigation4  ,his predecessors1      

,james and ,john ,bernouilli1 had       
perhaps the largest  share in bringing  
the infinitesimal analysis of ,newton   
and ,leibnitz to  the state of power    
required for extensive application4 ,to 
,euler 7besides  important extensions7  
belongs the distinct merit of showing   
how to apply  it to physical            
investigations1 in conjunction with     
,d',alembert1 who ran a  splendid and   
contemporary career of a similar        
character in this respect4  ,but though 
it would be perhaps admitted that there 
are individual  results of the latter   
which exceed anything done by the       
former1 in  generality of application1  
there is no comparison whatsoever       
between the  extent of the labours of   
the two4    ,euler was a man of a       
simple1 reserved1 and benevolent mind2  
with a  strong sense of devotion1 and a 
decided religious habit1 according to   
the ,calvinism of the ,established      
,church of his country4 ,at the court of
  ,frederic1 he himself conducted the   

devotions of his family every  evening2 
a practice which then and there implied 
much moral courage1 and  insensibility  
to ridicule4 ,but he possessed humour1  
for when he was  asked to calculate the 
horoscope of one of the ,russian        
princes1 he  quietly suggested that it  
was the official duty of the astronomer1
 and  imposed the duty upon a colleague1
 who doubtless did not feel very much   
flattered by the application4    ,there 
are few men whom the usual biographical 
formul as to moral  character and habits
 would better fit than ,euler1 according
 to every  account which has appeared of
 him4 ,but such praises are no          
distinction2  and it will be more to the
 purpose to state that the only occasion
 in  which he was betrayed into printing
 a word which his eulogists have        
regretted1 was in the dispute between   
,maupertuis and himself against  others 
on the principle known by the name of   
least action1 one of the  warmest and   
most angry discussions which ever took  

place4    ,perhaps it is to the quiet   
abstraction of his life that he owed the
  perpetuity of his tenure of           
investigation4 ,many eminent            
mathematical  discoverers have run the  
brilliant part of their career while    
comparatively young4 ,euler 8ceased to  
calculate and to live0 at once4  ,but it
 may be that this was a part of his     
natural constitution1 and a  distinct   
feature of his mind4 ,the nature of his 
writings rather confirms  the latter    
supposition4 ,there is the same         
difference between them and  those of   
others1 that there is between           
conversation and oratory4 ,he  seems to 
be moving in his natural element1 where 
others are swimming for  their lives4   
,the best works of ,euler for a young   
mathematician to read1 in order to  get 
an idea of his style and methods1 are   
the #8,analysis ,infinitorum1'  and the 
#8,treatise on the ,integral ,calculus4'
          ,illustration                 
,,sir ,w4 ,,jones4      ,william ,jones1

 the most accomplished ,oriental scholar
 of the last  century1 an upright       
magistrate1 and eminent benefactor of   
the native  subjects of our ,indian     
dominions1 was born in ,london on       
,michaelmas ,eve1  #agdf4 ,his father1 a
 man esteemed by his contemporaries1 a  
skilful  mathematician1 and the friend  
of ,newton1 died in ,july1 #agdi4 ,his  
mother  then devoted herself entirely to
 the education of this her only         
surviving son2 and to her careful and   
judicious culture of his infant  years1 
bestowed indeed upon a happy soil1 is to
 be ascribed the early  development of  
that thirst for learning and faculty of 
profitable  application1 which enabled  
,jones to accumulate in a short and busy
 life  a quantity and variety of        
abstruse knowledge1 such as the same age
 does  not often see equalled4 ,to the  
end of her life he acknowledged and     
repaid her care and affection by ardent 
love and unchanging filial  respect4    
,when only seven years old1 he was sent 

to ,harrow4 ,his progress1  slow at     
first1 afterwards became most rapid2 and
 the head master1 ,dr4  ,thackeray1 a   
man not given to praise1 spoke of him as
 8a boy of so  active a mind1 that if he
 were left naked and friendless on      
,salisbury  ,plain he would find the way
 to fame and riches40    ,at the time of
 his quitting school1 besides a much    
deeper acquaintance  with the classical 
languages than usually falls to the lot 
of a  schoolboy1 ,jones had acquired the
 ,french and ,italian languages1 had    
commenced the study of ,hebrew1 and 7a  
thing only worth mention as  indicative 
of his tastes7 had made himself         
acquainted with the ,arabic  letters4   
,botany1 the collection of fossils1 and 
composition in ,english  verse1 were his
 favourite amusements at this period4   
,march #af1 #agfd1 he  was entered as a 
student of ,university ,college1        
,oxford4 ,he was elected a  scholar on  
the ,bennett foundation1 ,october #cj1  
#agfd2 and fellow on the  same          

foundation1 ,august #g1 #agff1 before he
 was of standing to proceed to  the     
degree of ,b4,a41 which he took in      
#agfh4 ,at an early period of his       
residence he applied in earnest         
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,j4    
,posselwhite4      ,,sir ,,william      
,,jones4      ,from the ,picture in the 
,hall of ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 
,under the ,superintendence of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
to the study of ,arabic2 and his zeal   
was such1 that1 though habitually       
self-denying1 and anxious not to        
trespass on his mother's slender        
income1 he maintained at ,oxford1 at his
 own expense1 a ,syrian1 with whom  he  
had become acquainted in ,london1 for   
the benefit to be derived from  his     
instruction4 ,from the ,arabic he       
proceeded to learn the ,persian         
language4    ,his residence was varied1 
though his favourite studies do not     

appear to  have been interrupted1 by an 
invitation to undertake the care of the 
late ,lord ,spencer1 then a boy of seven
 years old4 ,this was in #agfe4 ,the    
next five years he spent with his pupil 
chiefly at ,harrow1 and  occasionally at
 ,althorp1 or in ,london1 or on the     
continent4 ,it appears  from the college
 books that he resided at ,oxford very  
little in the  years #agff1 #agfg1 and  
#agfh4 ,wherever he was1 his time was   
diligently  employed1 not only in his   
severer studies1 but in the pursuit of  
personal accomplishments and the        
cultivation of valuable acquaintances1  
especially with those who1 like himself1
 were attached to the  investigation of 
,eastern languages and science4 ,in     
#agfh he received a  high1 but an       
unprofitable compliment1 in being       
selected to render into  ,french a      
,persian ,life of ,nadir ,shah1         
transmitted to the ,english  government 
by the ,king of ,denmark for the purpose
 of translation4 ,to  this performance1 

which was printed in #aggj1 ,mr4 ,jones 
added a #8,treatise  on ,oriental       
,poetry1' in which several of the odes  
of ,hafiz are  translated into verse4   
,this also was written in ,french2 and  
it has  justly been observed by a       
,french writer in the #8,biographie     
,universelle1'  that the occurrence of  
some imperfections of style ought not to
  interfere with our forming a high     
estimate of the talents of a man who1   
at the age of twenty-two1 possessed the 
varied qualifications and  recondite    
acquirements displayed in this work4 ,by
 the end of the same  year1 #aggj1 the  
author finished his #8,commentaries on  
,asiatic ,poetry1' a  ,latin treatise1  
which for its style is commended by the 
competent  authority of ,dr4 ,parr2 and 
which has also obtained high praise for 
the  taste and judgment displayed in    
selecting and translating the passages  
by which the text is illustrated4 ,it   
was not printed till #aggd4    ,not the 
least striking part of ,mr4 ,jones's    

character was an ardent love  of        
liberty1 and a high and honourable      
feeling of independence in his own      
person4 ,the former was displayed in his
 open and fearless advocacy of  opinions
 calculated to close the road to        
preferment1 such as an entire           
disapprobation of the ,american war1 and
 a strong feeling of the  necessity of  
reform in ,parliament4 ,it should also  
be noticed that at an  early period he  
denounced in energetic language the     
abomination of the  ,slave ,trade4 ,his 
personal love of independence was at    
this time  manifested in his resolution 
to quit the certain road to ease and    
competence which his connexion with the 
noble family of ,spencer laid  before   
him1 to embark in the brilliant but     
uncertain course of legal  adventure4   
,ambition was a prominent feature in    
,jones's character2 and it  was his hope
 and his earnest wish to distinguish    
himself in the ,house of  ,commons as   
well as at the bar4 ,he was admitted of 

the ,middle ,temple  ,november #ai1     
#aggj2 and his ,oriental studies1 though
 not entirely  abandoned1 especially at 
first1 were thenceforth much curtailed  
until  the prospect of being appointed  
to a judicial office in ,india furnished
  an adequate reason for the resumption 
of them4 ,but he gave a proof that  his 
devotion to ,oriental had not destroyed 
his taste for ,grecian  learning1 by    
publishing in #aggh a translation of the
 #8,orations of  ,isus1' relative to the
 laws of succession to property in      
,athens4 ,the  subject appears to have  
interested him2 for in #aghb1 when his  
attention  was again directed to the    
,east1 he published translations of two 
,arabian  poems2 one on the ,mohammedan 
law of succession to the property of    
intestates1 the other on the ,mohammedan
 law of inheritance4 ,about the  same   
time he translated the seven ancient    
,arabian poems1 called  ,moallakat1 or  
#8,suspended1' because they had been    
hung up1 in honour of  their merit1 in  

the ,temple of ,mecca2 and to show1     
perhaps1 that his  attention had not    
been withdrawn from his immediate       
profession1 he wrote  an #8,essay on the
 ,law of ,bailments4'    ,mr4 ,jones was
 called to the bar in #aggd4 ,within two
 years' space he  obtained a            
commissionership of bankrupts2 by what  
influence does not  appear3 it could not
 be from any professional eminence4 ,a  
letter written  to ,lord ,althorp so    
early as ,october1 #aggh1 intimates a   
wish to obtain  some judicial           
appointment in ,india1 not only in      
consequence of the  interest which he   
had felt from an early age in every     
thing connected  with the ,east1 but    
from a motive which has sent other      
eminent men to the  same unhealthy      
climate2 a feeling that pecuniary       
independence was almost  essential to   
success in political life1 and the hope 
of returning in the  prime of manhood   
with an honourable competence4    ,in   
#aghj ,mr4 ,jones became a candidate to 

represent the ,university of  ,oxford4  
,his political opinions were not        
calculated to win the favour of  that   
learned body1 and though respectably    
supported1 he did not find              
encouragement to warrant him in coming  
to a poll4 ,from this time forward  ,mr4
 ,jones's mind was much occupied by the 
thought of going to ,india4 ,his        
letters contain frequent allusions to   
the subject1 and express doubt  whether1
 notwithstanding the personal friendship
 of ,lord ,north1 his own  known views  
of politics1 especially his often and   
strongly-declared  reprobation of the   
,american war1 would not interfere with 
his obtaining  the desired promotion4   
,the event proved him to be right1 for  
it was not  until after the formation of
 the ,shelburne ministry that he        
received  information of his appointment
 to a seat in the ,supreme ,court of    
,judicature at ,calcutta1 ,march #c1    
#aghc4 ,for this he was indebted to the 
friendship of ,lord ,ashburton 7,mr4    

,dunning74 ,the state of uncertainty in 
which he was so long retained interfered
 considerably with his attention  to his
 legal practice1 which was rapidly      
increasing4 ,he was the more  anxious on
 this subject1 because he had been long 
attached to ,miss  ,shipley1 daughter of
 the ,bishop of ,st4 ,asaph2 and his    
union with her was  only deferred until 
professional success should place him in
 a fit  station to support a family4    
,his marriage took place in ,april1 and 
in  the same month he embarked for      
,india4 ,it remains to be noticed1 that 
in  #aghb ,mr4 ,jones had written an    
essay1 entitled #8,the ,principles of   
,government1' in a dialogue between a   
farmer and country gentleman1  intended 
to express in a cheap and simple form   
his own views on  constitutional        
questions4 ,this was first printed by   
the ,society for  ,constitutional       
,information1 of which ,mr4 ,jones was a
 member3 it was  reprinted by his       
brother-in-law1 the ,dean of ,st4       

,asaph1 who was in  consequence indicted
 for libel4 ,in the prosecution which   
ensued1 ,mr4  ,erskine made one of his  
first and most remarkable appearances1  
and the  series of speeches which he    
delivered in this case prepared the way 
for  the ,libel ,bill of #agib4    ,sir 
,william ,jones arrived in ,calcutta in 
,september1 and entered on his  judicial
 functions in ,december1 #aghc4 ,one of 
his first employments was  the          
organization of a scientific            
association1 under the title of the     
,asiatic ,society4 ,the                 
,governor-general1 ,warren ,hastings1   
was requested to  become president2 and 
on his declining to accept1 as an       
honorary  distinction1 an office the    
real duties of which he was unable to   
fulfil1  ,sir ,william ,jones was fitly 
placed at the head of that institution1 
which1 but for him1 probably would not  
have existed4 ,the transactions of  that
 society1 under the name of #8,asiatic  
,researches1' were published  under his 

superintendence1 and owe a large portion
 of their interest to  the labours of   
his pen4 ,another work1 the #8,asiatic  
,miscellany1' was also  indebted to him 
for several valuable contributions4 ,but
 the perfect  acquisition of the        
,sanscrit language was the chief        
employment of that  time which could be 
spared from his judicial labours2 a task
 indeed  subsidiary to those labours1   
and performed with the benevolent design
 of  insuring to the ,indian subjects of
 ,britain a pure administration of      
justice1 by rendering the knowledge of  
their laws accessible to ,british       
magistrates4 ,bound to adjudicate       
between the natives according to their  
own native laws1 and ignorant for the   
most part of the very language in  which
 those laws were written1 the judges    
were obliged to have recourse  to native
 lawyers1 called ,pundits1 who were     
regularly attached to the  courts as a  
species of assessors4 ,of these men ,sir
 ,w4 ,jones1 no harsh or  hasty         

reprover1 says1 8,it would be unjust and
 absurd to pass  indiscriminate censure 
on so considerable a body of men2 but my
  experience justifies me in declaring  
that ,i could not1 with an easy         
conscience1 concur in a decision merely 
on the written opinion of native        
lawyers1 in a case in which they could  
have the remotest interest in           
misleading the court40 ,the obvious     
remedy was to obtain a trustworthy      
digest of the ,hindoo laws1 which should
 then be accurately translated  into    
,english4 ,the scheme indeed had been   
already undertaken in part at  the      
desire of ,mr4 ,hastings1 by ,mr4       
,halhed3 but as the code of ,hindoo     
law1 compiled by that gentleman1 was    
merely a translation from a  defective  
,persian version of the original        
,sanscrit1 it did not possess  the      
requisite correctness1 or authority4 ,it
 appears from ,sir ,w4 ,jones's         
correspondence1 that at an early period 
he had contemplated supplying  this     

great desideratum by his own labour and 
expense4 ,but prudence did  not warrant 
such an uncalled-for act of liberality2 
and he addressed a  letter to ,lord     
,cornwallis1 dated ,march #ai1 #aghh1 in
 which the necessity  for such a work1  
and the means by which it might be      
executed1 are fully  laid down4 ,it was 
to be compiled by the ,mohammedan or    
,hindoo lawyers1  working under the     
superintendence of a director and       
translator1 who  should be qualified to 
check and correct intentional or        
careless error3  and a chief difficulty1
 in ,sir ,w4 ,jones's own words1 was 8to
 find a  person who1 with a competent   
knowledge of the ,sanscrit and ,arabic1 
has a  general acquaintance with the    
principles of jurisprudence1 and a      
sufficient share even of legislative    
spirit1 to arrange the plan of a        
digest1 superintend the compilation of  
it1 and render the whole1 as it         
proceeds1 into perspicuous ,english4    
,now 7he continues71 though ,i am  truly

 conscious of possessing a very moderate
 portion of those talents  which ,i     
should require in the superintendent of 
such a work1 yet ,i may  without vanity 
profess myself equal to the labour of   
it2--and ,i cannot  but know that the   
qualifications required1 even in the low
 degree in  which ,i possess them1 are  
not often found united in the same      
person40  ,the proposal of course was   
eagerly accepted4 ,that he should have  
acquired the necessary acquaintance1    
first with the language1 then with  the 
law1 in the space of four years and a   
half1 is sufficiently  remarkable2 and  
the method in which he proposed to      
execute it will  startle those who know 
the enervating influence of a tropical  
climate4  8,i should be able10 he says1 
8if my health continued firm1 to        
translate  every morning1 before any    
other business is begun1 as much as the 
lawyers could compile1 and the writers  
copy1 in the preceding day40 ,the       
quantity of work which ,jones did in    

,india was indeed astonishing2 but he   
was a severe economist of time1 and even
 his hours of recreation were  rendered 
serviceable to the increase of          
knowledge4 ,botany especially was  a    
favourite pursuit of his more leisure   
hours2 and his correspondence  with     
,banks and others shows at once the zeal
 with which1 when duty would  permit1 he
 followed that fascinating science1 and 
the readiness with  which he            
communicated his own discoveries to his 
friends1 and laboured  to answer their  
inquiries4 ,nor did he neglect poetry4  
,several odes to  ,hindoo deities1      
originally published in the ,asiatic    
,miscellany1 will be  found in his      
works2 and these1 with an elegant and   
cultivated fancy1  display considerable 
power of composition4 ,he projected a   
more serious  undertaking1--an epic     
poem1 of which a ,phnician colonist of  
,britain was  to be the hero1 and the   
,hindoo mythology was to furnish the    
machinery3  the whole being an          

allegorical panegyric on the ,british   
constitution1  and furnishing the       
character of a perfect ,king of         
,england4 ,but the  extravagant fictions
 of the ,hindoo religion have never     
proved  permanently popular in an       
,english dress2 and there is no reason  
to  regret that this scheme never       
advanced beyond its first sketch4 ,the  
author made a more acceptable present to
 ,european literature in  translating   
#8,sacontala1 or the ,fatal ,ring1' a   
very ancient ,indian drama1  which      
contains a lively1 simple1 and pleasing 
picture of the manners of  ,hindustan at
 a remote age4 ,it is ascribed to the   
first century before  ,christ4    ,for a
 catalogue of ,sir ,w4 ,jones's works1  
we must refer to the edition  published 
by ,lady ,jones4 ,we have only noticed a
 few of the most  important3 to which   
are to be added1 the series of          
anniversary  discourses addressed to the
 ,asiatic ,society1 and the translation 
of the  #8,ordinances of ,menu4' ,the   

former1 eleven in number1 treat of the  
,history1 ,antiquities1 ,arts1 c4 of    
,asia1 and more especially of the       
origin and connection of the chief      
nations among whom that quarter of  the 
globe is divided4 ,his last work was the
 translation of the  #8,ordinances of   
,menu1' 8a system of duties0 7we quote  
from the  translator's preface7         
8religious and civil1 and of law in all 
its  branches1 which the ,hindoos firmly
 believe to have been promulged in the  
beginning of time by ,menu1 son or      
grandson of ,brahma1 or1 in plain       
language1 the first of created beings1  
and not the oldest only1 but the        
holiest of legislators3 a system so     
comprehensive1 and so minutely  exact1  
that it may be considered as the        
,institutes of ,hindoo law1  preparatory
 to the copious ,digest which has lately
 been compiled by  ,pundits of eminent  
learning40 ,this was his last work4 ,it 
was begun in  #aghf1 though not         
completed and published till #agid1 a   

short time before  the author's death4  
,the private history of ,sir ,william   
,jones1 during the period of his life   
which was spent in ,india1 affords very 
little scope for narration4  ,during his
 first summer he nearly fell a victim to
 the climate2 but an  absence of seven  
months spent in travelling recruited his
 strength1 and  after his return to     
,calcutta1 in ,february1 #aghe1 he      
seemed to be  acclimated1 and suffered  
little from serious illness till his    
last fatal  attack4 ,his domestic habits
 are thus described by his biographer1  
,lord  ,teignmouth4 8,the largest       
portion of each year was devoted to his 
professional duties and studies2 and all
 the time that could be saved  from     
these important avocations was dedicated
 to the cultivation of  science and     
literature4 ,while business required the
 daily attendance of  ,sir ,w4 ,jones in
 ,calcutta1 his usual residence was on  
the banks of the  ,ganges1 at the       
distance of five miles from the court2  

to this spot he  returned every evening 
after sunset1 and in the morning rose so
 early as  to reach his apartments in   
town by walking1 at the first appearance
 of  the dawn4 ,the intervening period  
of each morning1 until the opening of   
the court1 was regularly allotted and   
applied to distinct studies4 ,he  passed
 the months of vacation at his          
retirement at ,crishnagur 7a villa      
about fifty miles from ,calcutta7 in his
 usual pursuits40 ,those portions  of   
his correspondence which are preserved  
in ,lord ,teignmouth's life may  be read
 with pleasure2 and indeed constitute   
the chief interest of the  latter part  
of the work4 ,busy1 tranquil1 and       
cheerful1 his life afforded  little of  
material for the biographer3 and but for
 the impaired health  of his wife1 his  
residence in ,india would have been one 
of almost  unmixed happiness4 ,lady     
,jones was compelled to embark for      
,england in  ,december1 #agic4 ,the mere
 desire of increasing a fortune1 which  

he  professed to find already large     
enough for his moderate wishes1 would   
not have tempted ,sir ,william ,jones to
 remain alone in ,bengal3 but he  felt  
an earnest desire to complete the great 
work on ,hindoo ,law1 which  he had     
originated2 and no apprehension was felt
 on his account1 as his  constitution   
seemed to have become inured to the     
climate4 ,but in the  following spring  
he was attacked by inflammation of the  
liver1 which ran  its fatal course with 
unusual rapidity4 ,he died1 ,april #bg1 
#agid4 ,the  #8,digest1' to which he had
 thus sacrificed his life1 was completed
 by ,mr4  ,colebrooke1 and published in 
#ahjj4    ,blameless in his domestic    
relations1 consistent and enlightened in
 his  political views1 an honest and    
indefatigable magistrate1 few men have  
gone through life with more credit1 or  
as far as it is possible to form  an    
opinion1 with more happiness than ,sir  
,william ,jones4 ,as a scholar1  the    
circumstances of his life being         

considered1 his acquirements were       
extraordinary2 and in this light the    
most remarkable feature of his          
character was his singular facility in  
learning languages4 ,a list1  preserved 
in his own handwriting1 thus classes    
those with which he was  in any degree  
acquainted2 they are twenty-eight in    
number4 8,eight  languages studied      
critically--,english1 ,latin1 ,french1  
,italian1 ,greek1  ,arabic1 ,persian1   
,sanscrit4 ,eight studied less          
perfectly1 but all  intelligible with a 
dictionary--,spanish1 ,portuguese1      
,german1 ,runic1  ,hebrew1 ,bengali1    
,hindi1 ,turkish4 ,twelve studied less  
perfectly1 but all  attainable3         
,thibetian1 ,pli1 ,pahlair1 ,deri1      
,russian1 ,syriac1 ,ethiopic1  ,coptic1 
,welsh1 ,swedish1 ,dutch1 ,chinese40    
,besides law1 which as his  profession1 
was his chief business through life1 his
 writings embrace a  vast variety of    
subjects in the several classes of      
philology1 botany1  zoology1 poetry     

original and translated1 political      
discussion1  geography1 mythology1      
astronomy as applied to chronology1 and 
history1  especially that of the        
,asiatic nations4 ,and the praise of    
#8adorning  everything that he touched' 
is singularly due to him1 for the       
elegance  of his style1 and his power of
 throwing interest over the dry and     
uncertain inquiries in which he took    
such delight4 ,as far as ,england is    
concerned1 he was our great pioneer in  
,eastern learning2 and if later         
scholars1 profiting in part by his      
labours1 have found reason to dissent   
from his opinions1 it is to be          
recollected1 as far as our estimate of  
his powers is concerned1 that most men1 
who have obtained eminence in  this     
recondite department of literature1 have
 done so by the devotion of  their      
undivided powers3 what ,jones           
accomplished was performed1 on the      
contrary1 in the intervals of those     
official labours1 to which the best     

hours and energies of his life were1 as 
his first point of duty1  devoted4 ,what
 he had meditated1 if life and leisure  
had been granted1  may be inferred from 
the list of #8,desiderata1' which his   
biographer  7vol4 ii41 p4 #cja1 it is   
not said on what authority7 regards as  
exhibiting his own literary projects4   
,the following emphatic panegyric1      
conceived in the warm language which    
affection naturally indulges in on  such
 an occasion1 has been pronounced on him
 by his friend and  school-fellow1 ,dr4 
,bennet1 ,bishop of ,cloyne4 8,i knew   
him from the early  age of eight or     
nine1 and he was always an uncommon boy4
 ,great  abilities1 great particularity 
of thinking1 fondness for writing verses
  and plays of various kinds1 and a     
degree of integrity and manly courage1  
of which ,i remember many instances1    
distinguished him even at that  period4 
,i loved and revered him1 and though one
 or two years older than  he was1 was   
always instructed by him from my        

earliest age4 ,in a word1 ,i  can only  
say of this wonderful man1 that he had  
more virtues and less  faults than ,i   
ever yet saw in any human being2 and    
that the goodness of  his head1         
admirable as it was1 was exceeded by    
that of his heart4 ,i have  never ceased
 to admire him from the moment ,i first 
saw him1 and my  esteem for his great   
qualities and regret for his loss will  
only end  with my life40    ,due honours
 were paid after death to this great    
man4 ,the ,court of  ,directors placed a
 statue of him in ,st4 ,paul's          
cathedral2 and ,lady ,jones  erected a  
monument to him in the ante-chapel of   
,university ,college1  ,oxford4 ,in     
conformity with his own expressed       
opinion1 that 8the best  monument that  
can be erected to a man of literary     
talent1 is a good  edition of his       
works10 she caused them to be collected 
and printed in  #agii1 in six quarto    
volumes4 ,they have been reprinted in   
octavo4 ,a life  of ,sir ,william ,jones

 was afterwards written by ,lord        
,teignmouth1 his  intimate friend in    
,india1 at ,lady ,jones's request4      
,there is a memoir in  the ,annual      
,obituary for #ahag1 which is chiefly   
devoted to set forth the  political     
opinions of ,sir ,william ,jones1 in a  
stronger light than seemed  fitting to  
his noble biographer4    ,illustration3 
,statue of ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 by ,john    
,bacon1 ,r4,a41 in ,st4  ,paul's4       
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,robt4 
,hart4      ,,rousseau4      ,from an   
original ,picture by ,latour1 in the    
possession of ,m4 ,bordes1      at      
,paris4      ,under the ,superintendance
 of the ,society for the ,diffusion of  
,useful      ,knowledge4      ,london1  
,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate
 ,street4            ,illustration      
,,rousseau4      ,jean ,jacques         
,rousseau1 the son of a watch-maker at  
,geneva1 was born ,june  #bh1 #agab4    
,his mother dying while he was yet a    
child1 his father took a  second wife2  

and he himself was placed at school at  
the village of  ,bossey1 near ,geneva1  
where he learnt but little1 and was     
afterwards  apprenticed to an engraver1 
a coarse1 brutal man1 whose treatment of
 him  tended to sour a temper already   
wilful and morose4 ,he became addicted  
to  idleness1 pilfering1 and lying4 ,the
 fear of punishment for some act of     
especial misconduct induced him to run  
away from his master1 and he  wandered  
into ,savoy1 where finding himself      
totally destitute1 he applied  to the   
,bishop of ,annecy1 on the plea of      
wishing to be instructed in the         
,catholic religion4 ,the bishop         
recommended him to ,madame de ,warens1 a
  ,swiss lady1 herself a convert to     
,catholicism1 who lived at ,annecy4 ,she
  received the boy kindly1 relieved his 
present wants1 and afforded him  the    
means of proceeding to ,turin1 where he 
entered the ,college of  ,catechumens1  
and after going through a preparatory   
course of  instruction1 abjured the     

reformed religion1 and became a         
,catholic4 ,but  as he refused to enter 
into holy orders1 on leaving the college
 he was  again thrown upon his own      
resources4 ,he became a domestic        
servant2 but  his want of self-control  
and discretion rendered him very unfit  
for his  employment3 and in #agcj he    
returned to the house of ,madame de     
,warens1  who received him kindly1 and  
afforded him support and protection     
during  the next ten years4 ,of his     
foolish1 profligate1 and ungrateful     
course of  life during this period1 we  
have neither space nor wish to give an  
account3 after many absences1 and many  
returns1 ,rousseau quitted her  finally 
in #agdj1 receiving letters of          
introduction to some persons at  ,lyons4
 ,tutor1 musician1 and private secretary
 to the ,french ,ambassador1  his       
restless temper and versatile mind led  
him successively from ,lyons  to ,paris 
and ,venice4 ,from the last-named city  
he returned to ,paris in  #agde2 and    

alighting at an obscure inn1 met with a 
servant girl1 ,therese  ,levasseur1 with
 whom he formed a connexion which lasted
 all the rest of  his life4 ,he tried to
 compose music for the stage1 but did   
not succeed  in his attempts4 ,he was   
next employed as a clerk in the office  
of ,m4  ,dupin1 ,fermier-gnral1 but did 
not remain long in his new employment4  
,in #agdh he became acquainted with     
,madame d',epinay1 who proved afterwards
  one of his steadiest and kindest      
friends4 ,he frequented the society also
  of ,d',alembert1 ,diderot1 and        
,condillac1 and he was engaged to write 
the  articles on music for the          
,encyclopdie1 which he did very ill1 as 
he  himself acknowledges4 ,one day he   
saw by chance in an advertisement1 that 
a prize had been offered by the ,academy
 of ,dijon1 for the best essay on  the  
question1 ,whether the progress of      
sciences and of the arts has been       
favourable to the morals of mankind8 ,he
 at once resolved to write for  the     

prize1 and apparently without having    
ever before considered the  subject1    
made up his mind to take the negative   
side of the question4  ,diderot         
encouraged1 but did not1 as has been    
commonly said1 originate  this          
determination4 ,he supported his        
position1 that science1 literature1  and
 art1 have been fatal to the virtues and
 happiness of mankind1 with a  glowing  
eloquence2 and the ,academy awarded him 
the prize4 ,his success  confirmed him  
in a turn for paradox and exaggeration2 
and he seems to  have adopted1 as a     
general principle1 the doctrine that the
 extreme  opposite to wrong must        
necessarily be right4 ,at the same time 
his  reputation as an author became     
established1 and in a few years after   
his  first essay1 he was acknowledged to
 be one of the most1 or rather the      
most1 eloquent writer among his         
contemporaries4 ,meantime he persevered 
in his attempts at musical composition1 
and wrote #8,le ,devin du ,village1'  an

 opera which was played before the king 
at the ,court ,theatre of               
,fontainebleau1 and met with the royal  
approbation4 ,rousseau was in one  of   
the boxes with a gentleman belonging to 
the court4 ,the king having  expressed a
 desire to see the composer of the      
opera1 ,rousseau became  alarmed or     
ashamed at the slovenly condition of his
 dress1 and instead  of repairing to the
 royal presence1 he ran out of the house
 and hastened  back to ,paris4          
,naturally shy1 he possessed neither    
ease of manners nor  facility of        
address1 and he could never throughout  
life subdue his own  acute feeling of   
these deficiencies2 a feeling which of  
course tended to  perpetuate and        
increase his awkwardness4 ,this was the 
secret spring of  most of his           
eccentricities4 ,in order to hide his   
imperfections1 he  resorted to the plan 
of affecting to disregard manners       
altogether2 he  put on the appearance of
 a cynic1 of a misanthropist1 which he  

was not  in reality4    ,it was about   
the year #agej1 soon after writing his  
dissertation for the  ,dijon prize1 that
 he made a total change in his habits   
and mode of  living4 ,he gave up all    
refinement about his dress1 laid aside  
his sword1  bag1 and silk stockings1    
sold his watch1 but kept his linen      
apparel1  which1 however1 was stolen    
from him shortly after4 ,he spent one   
half of  the day in copying music as a  
means of subsistence1 and he found      
constant employment4 ,several persons   
who knew his circumstances offered  him 
three or four times the value of his    
labour1 but he would never  accept more 
than the usual remuneration4 ,in #agec  
he wrote his #8,lettre  sur la ,musique 
,franaise1' in which he asserted that   
the ,french had no  music deserving the 
name1 that they could not possibly have 
any1 and  then added1 that 8were they   
ever to have any it would be all the    
worse  for them20 a sentence            
unintelligible to his readers1 and      

probably to  himself also4 ,when years  
after this he heard ,gluck1 with whose  
music he  was delighted1 he observed to 
some one1 8this man is setting ,french  
words to very good music1 as if on      
purpose to contradict me20 and upon     
this reflection he broke off            
acquaintance with ,gluck4 ,however1 his 
letter on ,french music sorely wounded  
the national vanity1 and he was  exposed
 to a sort of petty persecution in      
consequence of it4 ,rousseau  wrote next
 his letter to ,d',alembert1 #8sur les  
,spectacles1' which led to  a           
controversy between them4 ,he wrote also
 the #8,discours sur l',origine de      
l',ingalit parmi les ,hommes1' for      
another prize of the ,academy of        
,dijon1 with a dedication to the        
magistrates of his native town ,geneva1 
which was much admired as a specimen of 
dignified eloquence4 ,the  discourse    
itself is composed in his accustomed    
paradoxical vein4 ,he  maintains that   
men are not intended to be sociable     

beings2 that they  have a natural bias  
for a solitary existence2 that the      
condition of the  savage1 untutored and 
free in his native wilds1 is the natural
 and  proper state of man2 and that     
every system of society is an infraction
  of man's rights1 and a subversion of  
the order of nature4 ,he assumes  that  
men are all born equal by nature1       
disregarding the daily evidence  of the 
contrary1 in respect both of their      
physical and moral powers4 ,his  idea of
 the equal rights of men1 which he      
afterwards developed in the  #8,contrat 
,social1' instead of being founded upon 
enlightened reason1  religion1 and      
morality1 rests upon the base of his    
favourite theory1 of  man's equality in 
a state of nature2 while we know from   
experience1 that  those savage tribes   
who approach nearest to this imaginary  
natural  state1 acknowledge no other    
right than that of the strongest4 ,most 
of  ,rousseau's paradoxes proceed from  
the false position assumed in his  first

 dissertation1 that a savage1 unsocial  
state1 is the very  perfection of man's 
existence4    ,after the publication of 
this discourse ,rousseau repaired to    
,geneva1  where he was well received by 
his countrymen4 ,he there abjured       
,catholicism and resumed the profession 
of the reformed religion4 ,but he  soon 
returned to ,paris2 and1 at the         
invitation of ,madame d',epinay1 in     
#agef1 took up his residence at the     
house called ,l',hermitage1 in the      
valley of ,montmorency1 near ,paris4 ,it
 was in this pleasant retirement  that  
he began his celebrated novel #8,julie1 
ou la ,nouvelle ,helose1'  which he     
finished in #agei4 ,as a work of        
imagination and invention it is  little 
worth2 but as a model of impassioned    
eloquence1 it will be  admired as long  
as the ,french language shall continue  
to be spoken or  read by men4 ,rousseau1
 while he wrote it1 was himself under   
the  influence of a passion which he had
 conceived for the beautiful ,madame    

d',houdetot1 ,madame d',epinay's        
sister-in-law1 a love totally hopeless  
and  ridiculous on his part1 but which  
no doubt inspired him while engaged in  
the composition of this work4 ,when it  
appeared1 many people1 especially       
women1 thought that ,julie was a real   
living object of his attachment1  and   
the supposition being favourable to the 
popularity of the book and  its author1 
,rousseau was not very anxious to       
undeceive them4 ,he esteemed  the fourth
 portion of the work the best4 8,the    
first two parts are but  the desultory  
verbiage of feverish excitement1 and yet
 ,i could never  alter them after ,i had
 once written them4 ,the fifth and the  
sixth are  comparatively weak1 but ,i   
let them remain out of consideration of 
their  moral utility4444 ,my imagination
 cannot embellish the objects ,i see2 it
  must create its own objects4 ,if ,i am
 to paint the spring1 ,i must do it  in 
winter2 if to describe a landscape1 ,i  
must be shut up within walls3  were ,i  

confined in the ,bastille1 ,i should    
then write best on the charms  of       
liberty4 ,i never could write as a      
matter of business1 ,i can only do  it  
through impulse or passion40            
7,rousseau's #8,notes to the ,nouvelle  
,helose1' in ,mercier and ,le           
,tourneur's edition47 ,he had great     
difficulty  in constructing his periods2
 he turned them and he altered them     
repeatedly in his head1 often while in  
bed1 before he attempted to put  them on
 paper4    ,la ,nouvelle ,helose has    
been censured for the dangerous example 
it  affords1 and for the interest it    
throws upon seduction and frailty4 ,the 
character of ,st4 ,preux is decidedly   
faulty1 and even base1 in spite of  all 
his sophistry1 which however has        
probably led other young men placed  in 
a similar situation to forget the       
relative duties of society1 and the     
obligations of hospitality4 ,here we    
perceive also the influence of          
,rousseau's favourite paradox2 for in a 

state of nature1 such as ,rousseau  has 
fancied it1 the intimacy of ,st4 ,preux 
and ,julie would have been              
unobjectionable4 ,but then the relative 
position of the teacher1 his  pupil1 and
 her parents1 would not have been the   
same as in the novel1  for they would   
have been all savages together4         
,rousseau has however  redeemed the     
character of ,julie after she becomes a 
wife1 and he has  thus paid a sincere   
homage to the sacredness of the marriage
 bond1 and  to the importance of        
conjugal duties1 the basis of all       
society4 ,rousseau  was not a contemner 
of virtue2 he felt its beauty1 though   
his practice  was by no means modelled  
on its dictates4 ,he tells us himself   
the  workings of his mind on this       
subject4 8,after much observation ,i    
thought  ,i perceived nothing but error 
and folly among philosophers1 oppression
  and misery in the social order4 ,in   
the delusion of my foolish pride ,i     
fancied myself born to dissipate all    

prejudices2 but then ,i thought  that1  
in order to have my advice listened to1 
my conduct ought to  correspond to my   
principles4 ,i had been till then       
good-hearted1 ,i now  became virtuous4  
,whoever has the courage of showing     
himself such as he  is1 must1 if he be  
not totally depraved1 become such as he 
ought to be40  ,it was probably in      
compliance with his growing sense of    
moral duty1 that  he married at last the
 woman he had so long been living with1 
when she  was forty-seven years of age1 
and1 as he himself acknowledges1 was not
  possessed of any attractions of either
 mind or person1 having nothing to      
recommend her except her attention to   
him1 especially in his frequent  fits of
 illness or despondency4 ,he seems also 
to have bitterly repented1  in the      
latter years of his life1 having in his 
youth sent his  illegitimate children to
 the foundling hospital4    ,rousseau's 
next work was the #8,emile1 ou de       
l',education1' which appeared  in #agfb4

 ,it contains many excellent precepts1  
especially in the first  part1 although1
 as a whole system1 it may be considered
 as  impracticable1 at least in any     
state of society which has yet been     
formed upon the earth4 ,it was remarked 
at the time1 that the author1  after    
having brought up his ,emile to manhood1
 ought to create a new  world for him to
 live in4 ,rousseau himself seems to    
have been of this  opinion1 for when a  
,mr4 ,angar introduced to him his son1  
whom he said he  had educated according 
to the principles of the ,emile1        
,rousseau quickly  replied1 8,so much   
the worse for you1 and for your son     
too40 ,the #8,emile1'  however1         
introduced some beneficial changes in   
the early treatment of  children4 ,it   
discredited the absurd practice of      
swaddling infants like  mummies1 to the 
manifest injury of their tender limbs2  
it induced  mothers of the higher ranks 
to suckle their children1 instead of    
committing them to the care of nurses2  

it corrected several wrong  principles  
of early education1 such as that of     
ruling children through  fear1 of       
considering them as slaves having no    
will of their own1 and of  terrifying   
them by absurd stories and fables2 it   
inculcated freedom of  body and mind1   
the necessity of amusement and          
relaxation1 of appealing  to the        
feelings of children1 of treating them  
like rational beings4  ,rousseau may be 
truly called the benefactor of children4
 ,as he  proceeded1 however1 in his plan
 for boys grown older1 ,rousseau became 
involved in some of his favourite       
speculations about religion and         
metaphysics1 which gave offence to both 
,catholics and ,protestants4 ,the       
,parliament of ,paris condemned the     
work4 ,the ,archbishop issued a         
mandement against it4 ,the              
,states-,general of ,holland likewise   
proscribed the book4 ,at ,geneva1 it was
 publicly burnt by the hand of the      
executioner4 ,the publication of the    

#8,contrat ,social1 ou ,principes du    
,droit ,politique1' which appeared soon 
after1 added to the storm against  the  
author4 ,it contains much speculative   
truth1 combined with much  ignorance of 
men's nature and passions4 ,the idea of 
a perfect and  universal model of       
government1 without regard to local     
circumstances1  seems chimerical4 ,it is
 a curious fact that ,rousseau1 after   
reading  ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre's   
political works1 observed that they     
contained  projects which were          
impracticable on account of a           
fundamental error1 out  of which the    
author was unable to extricate himself1 
namely1 8that of  supposing that men in 
general and in all cases will conduct   
themselves  according to the dictates of
 reason and virtue1 rather than         
according to  their passions40          
,rousseau1 in uttering these words1     
passed judgment on  his own #8,contrat  
,social1' which he afterwards also      
acknowledged having  written1 8not for  

men but for angels40 ,in fact1 he never 
meant it for  anything but a speculative
 treatise1 and in his #8,considrations  
sur le  ,gouvernement de la ,pologne1'  
published some years after1 having to   
write  for a practical purpose1 he      
considerably modified his former        
principles4    ,in consequence of the   
excitement produced by these works1     
,rousseau left  ,paris for ,switzerland 
in #agfb4 ,he went first to ,yverdun1   
but the ,senate  of ,berne enjoined him 
to leave its territory4 ,he then        
repaired to  ,neuchatel1 which was      
subject to the ,king of ,prussia1 and of
 which the  old ,marshal ,keith was     
,governor4 ,keith received him very     
kindly1 and  ,rousseau took up his      
residence at the village of ,motiers1 in
 the ,val de  ,travers4 ,there he wrote 
a ,reply to the ,archbishop of ,paris1  
and a ,letter  to the ,magistrates of   
,geneva1 in which he renounced his      
rights of  citizenship4 ,he next wrote  
the 8,lettres de la ,montagne10 which is

 a  series of severe strictures on the  
political government and church of      
,geneva4 ,it is curious as a sketch of  
the old institutions of that  republic1 
written by one of its own citizens4     
,this work increased the  existing      
irritation against its author1 a feeling
 which spread even to  the villagers of 
,motiers1 who are said to have annoyed  
their eccentric  visiter in various     
ways4 ,rousseau1 however1 is suspected  
of having  greatly magnified1 if not    
invented1 some of the acts of aggression
 of  which he complains4 ,he spoke of   
them as amounting to a regular          
conspiracy against his person1 and      
removed his abode to the little  island 
of ,st4 ,pierre1 on the lake of ,bienne4
 ,thence1 after a time1 as if  to court 
notice1 he wrote a letter to the ,senate
 of ,berne1 requesting  permission to   
remain on the island4 ,for answer he    
received an order to  quit the territory
 of the canton in twenty-four hours4 ,at
 the invitation  of his former friend   

,marshal ,keith1 he meditated a visit to
 ,berlin4 ,but  the advice of some      
friends in ,paris induced him to change 
his mind1 and  accept the friendly offer
 of our historian ,hume1 who was anxious
 to  procure for him a safe asylum in   
,england1 where he might quietly attend 
to his studies and live in peace4       
,rousseau arrived in ,london in         
,january1  #agff2 and in the following  
,march1 went to his intended home at    
,wootton  in ,derbyshire4 ,knowing the  
man he had to deal with1 ,hume1 with the
 real  kindness of character which he   
possessed1 had sought by every means to 
avoid shocking the irritable delicacy or
 vanity of his protg3 and the  residence
 which he procured for him in the house 
of a man of fortune1  ,mr4 ,davenport1  
is said to have been unexceptionable4   
,but before long he  quarrelled with    
both ,hume and ,davenport1 left ,wootton
 abruptly1 and  returned to ,france4    
,the ostensible cause of all this was   
the publication  of a letter in the     

newspapers1 bearing the ,king of        
,prussia's name1 and  reflecting        
severely upon ,rousseau's weaknesses and
 eccentricities4  ,rousseau accused     
,hume1 or some of his friends1 of having
 written it4  ,hume protested in vain   
that he knew nothing of the matter4 ,at 
last  ,horace ,walpole acknowledged     
himself to be the author4 ,rousseau1    
however1  would not be pacified1 and    
attributed to ,hume the blackest designs
  against him4 ,the correspondence that 
passed between the parties on the       
subject is curious1 and is given in the 
complete editions of our  author's      
works4 ,he afterwards seemed to say that
 during his residence in  ,england he   
had been subject to fits of insanity4   
,returning to ,france1 ,rousseau led an 
unsettled life1 with frequent  changes  
in his place of residence1 until ,june1 
#aggj4 ,he then returned to  ,paris1 and
 took lodgings in the ,rue ,pltrire1    
which has since been  called ,rue ,j4   
,j4 ,rousseau4 ,it is to be noticed that

 in the interim he  had published his   
#8,dictionnaire de ,musique1' a work    
which has the  reputation of being both 
imperfect and obscure4 ,indeed1         
notwithstanding  his passionate fondness
 for the art1 he never attained to a    
profound  acquaintance with it4 ,passing
 through ,lyons on his way to ,paris1 he
  subscribed his mite towards the       
erection of a statue to ,voltaire3 thus 
avenging himself for the coarse abuse   
which the latter had on many  occasions 
poured upon him1 and which ,rousseau    
never returned4 ,voltaire  is said to   
have been exceedingly annoyed at this4  
,after his return to  the capital1 he   
was overwhelmed with visits and         
invitations to dinner4  ,though there   
was a prosecution pending against him   
for his #8,emile1' he  was left         
undisturbed3 but at the same time he was
 cautioned not to  exhibit himself too  
conspicuously in public2 advice which he
 utterly  disregarded4 ,he soon relapsed
 into his former misanthropy1 and became

  subject to convulsive fits1 which     
fearfully disfigured his features1 and  
gave a haggard expression to his looks4 
,he fancied that every body was         
conspiring against him1 and he also     
complained of inward moral  sufferings  
which tortured his mind4    ,among other
 imaginary grievances he thought that   
the ,french ministers  had imposed      
restrictions upon him with respect to   
his writings4 ,one of  his friends      
applied to the ,duc de ,choiseuil to    
ascertain the fact4 ,the  ,duke's       
answer1 dated #aggb1 is as follows3 8,if
 ever ,i have engaged ,m4  ,rousseau not
 to publish anything without my previous
 knowledge1 of which  fact however ,i   
have no remembrance1 it could only have 
been in order to  save him from fresh   
squabbles and annoyance4 ,however1 now  
that ,i have no  longer the power of    
protecting him 7the ,duke had resigned  
his  premiership71 ,i fully acquit him  
of any engagement of the kind40    ,as  
,rousseau was walking one day in the    

street ,menil ,montant1 a large dog     
that was running before the carriage of 
the ,president ,saint ,fargeau  tripped 
his legs1 and he fell4 ,the ,president  
alighted1 expressed his  regret at the  
accident1 and begged the sufferer to    
accept of his  carriage to return home4 
,rousseau1 however1 refused4 ,the next  
day the  ,president sent to inquire     
after his health4 8,tell your master to 
chain  up his dog10 was the only reply4 
,being old and infirm1 the labour of    
copying music had become too irksome    
for him3 still he would accept of no    
assistance from his friends1 though  all
 his income consisted of an annuity of  
#adej livres4 ,his wife was also  in bad
 health1 and provisions were very dear  
at the time2 he therefore  began to look
 out for a country residence4 ,a friend 
mentioned this to  the ,marquis de      
,girardin1 who immediately offered      
,rousseau a permanent  habitation at his
 chteau of ,ermenonville1 near          
,chantilly4 ,rousseau  accepted the     

proposal1 and chose for his residence a 
detached cottage  near the family       
mansion4 ,he removed to it in ,may1     
#aggh1 and appeared  more calm and      
contented in his new abode4 ,he was fond
 of botany1 and  used to take long walks
 in quest of flowers with one of ,m4 de 
,girardin's  sons4 ,on ,july #ast he    
went out as usual1 but returned home    
fatigued and  ill3 he however slept     
quietly that night4 ,next morning he    
rose early  according to his custom1 and
 went out to see the sun rise2 he came  
back  to breakfast1 after which he went 
to his room to dress1 as he intended  to
 pay a visit to ,madame de ,girardin4   
,his wife happening to enter his  room  
shortly after1 found him sitting with   
his elbow leaning on a chest  of        
drawers4 ,he said he was very ill1 and  
complained of cold shivering  and of    
violent pain in his head4 ,madame de    
,girardin being informed of  this1 came 
at once to visit him2 but ,rousseau1    
thanking her for all her  kindness to   

him1 begged of her to return home and   
leave him alone for  the present4 ,he   
then having requested his wife to sit by
 him1 begged her  forgiveness for any   
pain or displeasure of which he might   
have been the  cause1 and said that his 
end was approaching1 that he died in    
peace1 as  he never had intended or     
wished evil to any human being1 and that
 he  hoped in the mercy of ,god4 ,he    
begged that ,m4 de ,girardin would allow
 him  to be buried in his park4 ,he gave
 directions to his wife about his       
papers1 and requested her particularly  
to have his body opened1 that the  cause
 of his death might be ascertained4 ,he 
then asked her to open the  window1     
8that he might once more behold the     
beautiful green of the  fields40 8,how  
pure and beautiful is the sky60 he then 
observed1 8there  is not a cloud4 ,i    
trust the ,almighty will receive me     
there above40 ,in so  saying1 he fell on
 his face to the floor1 and on raising  
him1 life was  found to be extinct4 ,on 

opening the body1 a considerable        
quantity of  serum was found between the
 brain and its integuments4 ,his sudden 
death  was attributed by many persons to
 suicide3 but there is no direct        
evidence of which we know to prove this4
 ,on the other side there is the        
positive assertion of the physician who 
examined the body1 that his  death was  
natural4 ,rousseau was buried in an     
island shaded by poplars1  on the little
 lake of the park of ,ermenonville4 ,a  
plain marble monument  was raised to his
 memory4    ,the first part of his      
#8,confessions1' which he had begun to  
write while  at ,wootton1 was published 
in #agha4 ,he had himself fixed the year
 #ahjj  for the publication of the      
second part1 judging that1 by that time1
 the  persons mentioned in the work     
would be dead2 but1 through an abuse of 
confidence on the part of the           
depositories of the ,,mss41 it was      
published  in #aghh4 ,his autobiography 
does not include the latter years of his

  life4    ,rousseau was temperate and  
frugal in his habits1 disinterested and 
warm-hearted1 and impressed with strong 
feelings against oppression and         
injustice4 ,he was not envious of the   
fame or success of his brother  authors4
 ,he never sneered at religion like     
,voltaire and others of his             
contemporaries1 although in his         
speculative works he expressed his      
doubts concerning revelation1 and       
brought forth the arguments that        
occurred to him on that side of the     
question3 but he had none of the        
fanaticism of incredulity against       
,christianity4 ,of the morality of the  
,gospel he was a sincere admirer1 and a 
most eloquent eulogist4 8,i             
acknowledge10 he says in his #8,emile1' 
8that the majesty of the  ,scriptures   
astonishes me1 that the holiness of the 
,gospel speaks to my  heart4 ,look at   
the books of the philosophers2 with all 
their pomp1 how  little they appear by  
the side of that one book6 ,can a book  

so sublime1  and yet so simple1 be the  
work of man8 ,how prejudiced1 how blind 
that  man must be1 who can compare the  
son of ,sophroniscus 7,socrates7 to the 
son of ,mary60 ,with such sentiments    
,rousseau could not long agree with     
,helvetius1 ,diderot1 ,d',holbach1 and  
their coterie4 ,they1 on their side1    
ridiculed and abused him1 because he was
 too sincere and independent for  them4 
8,i have spent my life10 says ,rousseau1
 8among infidels1 without  being seduced
 by them2 ,i loved and esteemed several 
of them1 and yet  their doctrine was to 
me insufferable4 ,i told them repeatedly
 that ,i  could not believe them4444 ,i 
leave to my friends the task of         
constructing the world by chance4 ,i    
find in the very architects of this     
new-fangled world1 and in spite of      
themselves and their arguments1 fresh   
proofs of the existence of a ,god1 a    
,creator of all40 ,a very good          
collection of the moral maxims scattered
 about ,rousseau's works was  published 

under the title of #8,esprit1 ,maximes  
et ,principes de ,j4 ,j4  ,rousseau1'   
#hvo41 ,neuchatel1 #aggd4    ,rousseau  
set to music about #ajj ,french         
romances1 which he called               
#8,consolations des ,misres de ma ,vie4'
 ,several editions of all his works     
have been made at different times3 that 
by ,mercier and ,le ,tourneur1 #ch      
vols4 #dto41 has been long considered as
 one of the best4 ,the edition of       
,lefevre1 #bb vols4 #hvo41 #ahai-bj1 and
 that of ,lequien1 #ba vols4 #hvo41     
#ahba-b1 are now preferred to all former
 ones4    ,illustration3      ,engraved 
by ,w4 ,holl4      ,,john ,,harrison4   
,from an ,engraving by ,tassaerts       
published in #agjh after a ,painting by 
,king4      ,under the ,superintendance 
of the ,society for the ,diffusion of   
,useful      ,knowledge4      ,london1  
,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate
 ,street4            ,illustration      
,,harrison4      ,john ,harrison was    
born in ,may1 #afic1 at ,foulby1 in     

,yorkshire4 ,his  father1 who was a     
joiner1 trained him from an early age to
 the same  business2 but he soon began  
to study machinery4 ,he turned his      
attention  to the mechanism of clocks2  
and1 to obviate the irregularities      
produced  in their rate of going by     
variations of temperature1 he invented  
the  method of compensation1 employed in
 what is now called the gridiron        
pendulum1 before the year #agbj4 ,this  
contrivance consisted in  constructing a
 pendulum with bars of different metals1
 having different  rates of expansion so
 as to correct each other3 it is        
described in all  popular treatises on  
physics4 ,by this means it is stated    
that he had1  before the year           
above-mentioned1 constructed two clocks 
which agreed  with each other within a  
second a month1 and one of which did not
 vary1  on the whole1 more than a minute
 in ten years4#aj    ,footnote #aj3     
,folke's ,address to the ,royal         
,society1 ,nov4 #cj1 #agdi4    ,this    

success induced him to turn his         
attention to watches1 or rather to      
time-keepers for naval purposes4 ,it    
would be impossible without the help  of
 plates to render intelligible the rise 
and progress of his methods1  for which 
we must refer the reader to treatises of
 ,horology4 ,his first  instrument was  
tried upon the ,humber1 in rough        
weather1 and succeeded so  well that he 
was recommended to carry it to ,london1 
for the inspection  of the              
,commissioners of ,longitude4    ,the   
question of the discovery of the        
longitude had been considered of        
national importance since the year      
#agad1 when an ,act was passed offering 
#aj1jjjl41 #ae1jjjl41 and #bj1jjjl4 for 
any method of discovering the  longitude
 within #fj1 #dj1 or #cj miles          
respectively4 ,in #agce ,harrison       
arrived in ,london with his time-piece1 
and showed it to several members  of the
 ,royal ,society4 ,he obtained a        
certificate of its goodness1 signed  by 

,halley1 ,smith1 ,bradley1 ,machin1 and 
,graham1 in consequence of which  he was
 allowed to proceed with it to ,lisbon1 
in a king's ship1 in #agcf4  ,the watch 
was found to correct the ship's         
reckoning a degree and a half2  and the 
commissioners thereupon gave ,harrison  
#ejjl41 to enable him to  proceed4 ,he  
finished a second time-piece in #agci1  
and a third in #ageh1  each nearer to   
perfection than the former1 and both    
abounding in  ingenious contrivances to 
overcome the effects of temperature1 and
 of  the motion of a vessel at sea4 ,in 
#agda he obtained another certificate1  
signed by almost every name of eminence 
in ,english science of the time4  ,in   
#agdi the gold medal of the ,royal      
,society was awarded to him4 ,in #agfa1 
having then a fourth time-piece in hand1
 but being convinced that the  third was
 sufficiently correct to come within the
 limits of the act of  parliament1 he   
applied to the ,commissioners for a     
trial of it4  ,accordingly1 in #agfa    

7,nov4 #ah71 his son1 ,william          
,harrison1 was sent in a  king's ship to
 ,jamaica with the watch1 and returned  
to ,portsmouth1 ,march  #bf1 #agfb4 ,on 
arrival at ,port ,royal1 ,jan4 #ai1     
#agfb1 the watch was found  wrong only  
#e seconds2 and at its return1 only #a  
minute #ed seconds4  ,this was          
sufficient to determine the longitude   
within #ah miles2 and  ,harrison        
accordingly claimed #bj1jjjl41 in a     
petition to the ,house of  ,commons1    
presented early in #agfc4 ,the          
,commissioners had awarded him          
#a1ejjl41 and promised #a1jjjl4 more    
after another voyage4 ,owing to  some   
doubt as to the method of equal         
altitudes employed in finding the  time 
at ,port ,royal1 they do not appear to  
have been of opinion that the  first    
voyage was conclusive4 ,in #agfc an act 
passed1 by which1 firstly1  no other    
person could become entitled to the     
reward until ,harrison's  claim was     
settled2 and1 secondly1 #e1jjjl4 was    

awarded to him on his  discovery of the 
structure of the instrument4 ,but the   
,commissioners not  agreeing about the  
payment1 another voyage was resolved on1
 and ,mr4  ,william ,harrison sailed    
again for ,barbadoes1 with ,dr4         
,maskelyne1  afterwards the ,astronomer 
,royal4 ,the result was yet more        
satisfactory  than before2 and in #agfe 
a new act was passed1 awarding to       
,harrison the  whole sum of #bj1jjjl43  
the first moiety upon the discovery of  
his  construction2 the second1 so soon  
as it should be found that others  could
 be made like it4 ,in this act it is    
stated that the watch did not  lose more
 than ten miles of the longitude4 ,but  
,harrison had by this time  been        
rendered unduly suspicious of the       
intentions of the ,commissioners4  ,he  
imagined that ,dr4 ,maskelyne had       
treated him unfairly1 and was  desirous 
of having no method of finding the      
longitude except that of  lunar         
observations4 ,an account of the        

subsequent proceedings1 of which  the   
following is an abstract1 was printed in
 self-defence by the  ,commissioners3-- 
,may #bh1 #agfe1 ,mr4 ,harrison's son   
informs the ,commissioners that he is   
ready to deliver the drawings and       
explanations1 and expects a  certificate
 that he is entitled to receive the     
first moiety of the  reward4 ,the       
,commissioners are unanimously of       
opinion that verbal  explanations and   
experiments1 in the presence of such    
persons as they  may appoint1 will be   
necessary4 ,may #cj1 ,mr4 ,harrison     
attends in person1  and consents to the 
additional explanation2 and certain men 
of science1  as well as watchmakers1 are
 instructed to receive them4 ,june #ac1 
,mr4  ,harrison1 being present1 is      
informed that the ,board is ready to fix
 a  time to proceed1 on which he denies 
ever having given his assent1 and       
refers to a letter which he had         
delivered at the last meeting4 ,the     
letter had not1 says the ,commissioners'

 ,minute1 been delivered1 but had  been 
left upon the table1 unnoticed by any   
one4 ,it was to the effect  that        
,harrison was willing to give further   
verbal explanation1 but  requires to    
know to whom it must be given2 8for10   
says he1 8,i will never  attempt to     
explain it to the satisfaction of the   
,commissioners1 and who  they may       
appoint2 nor will ,i ever come under the
 directions of men of  theory40 ,he     
further refuses to make any experimental
 exhibition1 and  ends by complaining of
 the usage he has received4 ,he was then
 told by  the ,board that he would only 
be asked for experiments in cases where 
there were operations which could not be
 fully explained by words1 such1  for   
instance1 as the tempering of the       
springs2 on which he left the  ,board   
abruptly1 declaring1 8that he never     
would consent to it1 as long  as he had 
a drop of ,english blood in his body40  
,the ,commissioners  thereupon declined 
further dealing with him4    ,the reason

 of the above absurd conduct we suspect 
to have been1 that  ,harrison desired1  
in addition to the large reward claimed 
by him1 to  have a monopoly of the      
manufacture of his watches1 such as     
would have  necessarily been created for
 his benefit1 had he been allowed to    
keep  his actual methods of working a   
secret4 ,for he offered1 upon receiving 
the reward1 8to employ a sufficient     
number of hands1 so as with all         
possible speed to furnish his ,majesty's
 navy1 c4 c41 not doubting but  the     
public will consider the charge of the  
outset of the undertaking40  ,we quote  
here from the ,biographia ,britannica1  
in the last volume of  which1 published 
in #agff1 is an account of him1 from    
materials avowedly  furnished by        
himself1 and plainly written by a       
partisan4 ,it is the only  instance we  
can find in which a memoir of a living  
person has been  inserted in that work4 
,the next circumstance we find1 7for    
there is no connected history of  this  

discussion1 which exists only in a      
number of detached pamphlets17  is the  
delivery of the watch to ,dr4           
,maskelyne1 at the ,royal ,observatory1 
in ,may1 #agff1 that its rate of going  
might there be tried4 ,the ,report of   
the ,astronomer ,royal states1 that it  
could not be depended upon within a     
degree of longitude in a voyage of six  
weeks2 and a very angry pamphlet1       
published by ,harrison in the following 
year1 accuses ,maskelyne of having      
treated the instrument unfairly4 ,many  
circumstances are stated which now      
appear ludicrous1 and some which1 if    
true1 would have reflected  discredit on
 the ,commissioners4 ,but nothing can be
 inferred1 after the  refusal of        
,harrison to accede to the very         
reasonable demand of the                
,commissioners1 except that he was most 
probably as wrong in his  suspicions as 
he had been foolish in his dealings4    
,the end of this  dispute was1 that in  
#agfg ,harrison complied with the       

conditions insisted  upon2 and1 it      
having been found that his improvements 
were such as  admitted of execution by  
another person1 he received the whole   
sum  awarded to him by the ,act of      
,parliament4    ,harrison was not a     
well-educated man1 and was deficient in 
the power of  expressing his meaning    
clearly4 ,it was easier for him1 no     
doubt1 to make  two watches than to     
explain one2 and hence1 perhaps1 his    
aversion to  8men of theory10 who       
troubled him for descriptions and       
explanations4    ,he died in #aggf1 at  
his house in ,red ,lion ,square1 having 
been engaged  during the latter years of
 his life in bringing his improvements  
still  nearer to perfection4 ,his last  
work1 which was tried in #aggb1 was     
found  to have erred only four seconds  
and a half in ten weeks4    ,in his     
younger days1 some church-bells1 which  
were out of tune1 set him  upon         
examining the musical scale1 with a view
 to correct them4 ,he  communicated his 

ideas on the subject to ,dr4 ,smith1 who
 confirmed and  extended them in his    
well-known work on ,harmonics4 ,in the  
,preface it is  stated that ,harrison   
made the interval of the major-third    
bear to that  of the octave the         
proportion of the diameter of a circle  
to its  circumference4 ,this1 he said1  
he did on the authority of a friend1 who
  assured him it would give the best    
scale4 ,harrison himself wrote a        
treatise on the scale1 but we do not    
know whether it was published4    ,he   
is1 on the whole1 a fine instance of the
 union of originality with              
perseverance4 ,the inventions1 of which 
it takes so short a space to tell  the  
history1 were the work of fifty years of
 labour1 and to them the art  of        
constructing chronometers1 and          
consequently the science of  navigation1
 is indebted for much of its present    
advanced state4    ,illustration3       
,engraved by ,c4 ,e4 ,wagstaff4         
,,montaigne4      ,from an original     

,picture at ,paris1 in the 8,dpot des   
,archives du      ,royaume40      ,under
 the ,superintendance of the ,society   
for the ,diffusion of ,useful           
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,montaigne4      ,michel1 ,seigneur1 or
 ,lord1 of ,,montaigne1 a feudal estate 
in the province  of ,perigord1 near the 
river ,dordogne1 was born ,february #bh1
 #aecc1 of a  family said to have been  
originally from ,england4 ,he was a     
younger son2  but1 by the death of his  
elder brother1 inherited the estate by  
the  title of which he is known4 ,his   
father1 a blunt feudal noble1 who had   
served in the wars of ,francis ,i41     
placed him out at nurse in a village  of
 his domain1 and directed that he should
 be treated in the same manner  as the  
children of the peasants4 ,as soon as he
 could speak1 he was  placed under the  
care of a ,german tutor1 selected for   
his ignorance of  the ,french1 and      

intimate acquaintance with the ,greek   
and ,latin  languages4 ,all ,montaigne's
 intercourse with his preceptor was     
carried on  in ,latin2 and even his     
parents made a rule never to address him
 except  in that language1 of which they
 picked up a sufficient number of words 
for common purposes4 ,the attendants    
were enjoined to follow the same        
practice4 8,they all became latinized10 
says ,montaigne himself1 8and even  the 
villagers around learnt words in that   
language1 some of which took  root in   
the country1 and became of common use   
among the people40 ,thus1  without any  
formal course of scholastic teaching1   
,montaigne spoke ,latin  long before he 
could speak ,french1 which he was       
afterwards obliged to  learn as if it   
had been a foreign language4 ,when1 at a
 mature age1 he  was writing his        
,essays1 he professed to be still       
ignorant of grammar1  having learnt     
various languages by practice1 and not  
knowing yet the  meaning of adjective1  

conjunctive1 or ablative1 7,essais1 b4  
i4 c4 #dh47  ,this last assertion       
probably is not to be taken strictly to 
the letter4  ,he studied ,greek also by 
way of pastime1 rather than as a task4  
,the  object of his father was to make  
him learn without constraint and from   
his own wish2 and1 as an instance of the
 old soldier's whimsical notions  on    
education1 he caused his son to be      
awakened in the morning to the  sound of
 music1 that his nervous system might   
not be injured by any  sudden shock4 ,at
 six years old ,montaigne was sent to   
the ,college of  ,guienne1 at ,bordeaux1
 an establishment which then enjoyed a  
very high  reputation4 ,he soon made his
 way to the higher classes2 and at      
thirteen  years of age had completed his
 college education4 ,having no taste for
  military life1 which was then the     
usual career of young noblemen1 he      
studied the law2 and in #aeed was made  
,councillor 7or ,judge7 in the          
,parliament of ,bordeaux1 in which      

capacity he acted for several years4 ,he
  went several times to ,court1 and     
enjoyed the favour of ,henry ,,ii41 by  
whom1 or as some say1 by ,charles ,,ix41
 he was made a ,gentleman of the        
,king's ,chamber1 and ,knight of the    
,order of ,st4 ,michel4 ,among his      
brother  councillors at ,bordeaux there 
was a young man of distinguished merit1 
called ,la ,botie1 for whom ,montaigne  
conceived a feeling of the most         
romantic friendship1 which soon became  
reciprocal4 ,the sentiments and         
opinions of the two seem to have        
sympathized in an extraordinary degree4 
,la ,botie died young1 but his friend's 
affection survived3 a chapter of  the   
,essays is devoted to his memory1 and in
 other parts of ,montaigne's  writings  
we find frequent recurrence to the same 
subject4    ,montaigne married ,franoise
 de la ,chassaigne when he was          
thirty-three  years of age2 and this he 
did1 as he says1 in consequence of      
external  persuasions1 and in order to  

please his friends rather than himself1 
for  he was not inclined to a married   
life2 8but once married1 although he    
had been till then considered a         
licentious man1 he observed the conjugal
  laws more strictly than he had himself
 expected40 ,on succeeding to the       
family estate1 on which he generally    
resided1 he took the management of  it  
into his own hands2 and although his    
father1 judging from his habits  of     
abstraction and seeming carelessness of 
worldly objects1 had foretold  that he  
would ruin his patrimony1 ,montaigne1 at
 his death1 left the  property if not   
much better1 certainly not worse than he
 found it4 ,he  was not rich1 for we are
 told1 by ,balzac1 that his income did  
not exceed  #fjjj livres1 which was no  
great revenue for a country gentleman   
even at  that time4 ,in #aefi he        
translated into ,french a ,latin work of
 ,sebonde or  ,sebon1 in defence of the 
mysteries and doctrines of the ,church  
of ,rome1  against ,luther and other    

,protestant writers4 ,france was at that
 time  desolated by civil and religious 
war4 ,montaigne1 although he evidently  
disapproved of the conduct of the ,court
 towards the ,protestants1 yet  remained
 loyal to the ,king4 ,he lived in       
retirement1 and took no part in  public 
affairs1 except by exhorting both       
parties to moderation and  mutual       
charity4 ,by this conduct he became1 as 
it generally happens1  obnoxious to both
 factions1 and he incurred some danger  
in consequence4  ,the massacre of ,st4  
,bartholomew plunged him into a deep    
melancholy4 ,he  detested cruelty and   
the shedding of blood1 and in several   
passages of  his ,essays has            
animadverted in strong terms upon the   
atrocities  committed against the       
,protestants4 ,it was about this dismal 
epoch of  #aegb1 when1 solitude and     
melancholy urging him to the task1 he   
began to  write that celebrated work1 of
 which we shall presently speak more at 
length4 ,it was first published in      

,march1 #aehj2 and had great success4   
,after some time1 ,montaigne printed a  
new edition of it1 with additions2  but 
without making any alterations in the   
part which had appeared  before4 ,the   
popularity of the book was such that in 
a few years there  was hardly a man of  
education in ,france who had not a copy 
of it4    ,soon after the first         
publication of his ,essays1 ,montaigne  
undertook a  journey for the sake of his
 health4 ,he went to ,germany1          
,switzerland1  and1 lastly1 to ,italy4  
,he visited several bathing-places1     
among others1  ,baden1 and the baths of 
,lucca in ,tuscany4 ,he proceeded to    
,rome1 where he  was well received by   
several ,cardinals and other persons of 
distinction1  and was introduced to     
,pope ,gregory ,,xiii4 ,montaigne was   
delighted with  ,rome2 he found himself 
at home among those localities and      
monuments  which were connected with his
 earliest studies1 and with the first   
impressions of his childhood4 ,his      

remarks on what he saw in the course  of
 his journey are those of a man of      
penetration1 sincere and plain  spoken1 
and written in his peculiar antique     
style4 ,his ,,ms4 journal1  after lying 
forgotten for nearly two centuries1 was 
discovered in an old  chest in the      
chteau of his family1 and published in  
#agge1 by ,m4 de  ,querlon1 under the   
following title1 #8,journal du ,voyage  
de ,michel de  ,montaigne en ,italie1   
par la ,suisse et l',allemagne1 en      
#aehj-a4' ,it is one  of the earliest   
descriptions of ,italy in a modern      
language4 ,in this  journey1 ,montaigne 
received the freedom of the city of     
,rome1 by a  special bull of the ,pope1 
which he valued as the proudest         
distinction of  his life4    ,while he  
was abroad1 he was elected mayor of     
,bordeaux by the votes of  the citizens2
 an honour which he would have declined1
 but that the king1  ,henry ,,iii41     
insisted on his accepting of it4 ,this  
was a mere honorary  office1 no         

emolument being attached to it4 ,the    
appointment was for two  years2 but     
,montaigne was re-elected at the        
expiration of that period1  which was a 
mark of public favour of rare           
occurrence4    ,on retiring from his    
office1 ,montaigne returned to his      
estate4 ,the  country was then ravaged  
by the war of the ,league4 ,he had great
  difficulty in saving his family and   
property in the midst of the  contending
 parties1 and once narrowly escaped     
assassination in his  chteau4 ,to add to
 the miseries of civil war1 the plague  
broke out in  his neighbourhood in      
#aehf2 and he then1 with his family1    
left his home  and became a wanderer1   
residing successively at several        
friends' houses  in other parts of the  
country4 ,he was at ,paris in #aehh1    
busy about a new  edition of his        
,essays4 ,it appears from ,de ,thou1    
that about this time he  was employed in
 negotiation with a view to mediate     
peace between ,henry  of ,navarre1      

afterwards ,henry ,,iv41 and the ,duke  
of ,guise4 ,at ,paris1 he  made the     
acquaintance of ,mademoiselle de        
,gournay1 a young lady1 who had         
conceived a kind of sentimental         
affection for him by reading his book4  
,in company with her mother1 she visited
 and introduced herself to him1  and    
from that time he called her his 8fille 
d'alliance10 or adopted  daughter1 a    
title which she retained for the rest of
 her life1 as she  never married4 ,this 
attachment1 which1 though warm and      
reciprocal1 has  every appearance of    
being of a purely platonic nature1 is   
one of the  remarkable circumstances of 
,montaigne's life4 ,at the time of his  
death1  ,mademoiselle de ,gournay and   
her mother crossed one-half of ,france1 
in  spite of the civil troubles and the 
insecurity of the roads1 to mix  their  
tears with those of his widow and       
daughter4    ,on his return from ,paris1
 in the latter part of #aehh1 ,montaigne
 stopped  at ,blois1 with ,de ,thou1    

,pasquier1 and other friends4 ,the      
famous  ,states-,general were then      
assembled in that city1 where the murder
 of the  ,duke of ,guise1 and of his    
brother1 the ,cardinal1 soon after took 
place  7#bc;d and #bdth ,december1      
#aehh74 ,montaigne had long foreseen    
that the  civil dissensions could only  
terminate with the death of one of the  
great party leaders2 and he also said to
 ,de ,thou that ,henry of ,navarre  was 
inclined to embrace the ,catholic faith1
 were he not afraid of being  forsaken  
by his party2 and that1 on the other    
side1 ,guise himself would  not have    
been averse from adopting the           
,protestant religion1 if he could       
thereby have promoted his ambitious     
views4 ,after these events1 ,montaigne  
returned to his chteau4 ,in the         
following year1 he became acquainted    
with ,pierre ,charron1 a theological    
writer of considerable reputation4 ,an  
intimate friendship ensued between the  
two authors2 and ,charron1 in his  book 

#8,de la ,sagesse1' borrowed many       
thoughts from the ,essays1 which he     
held in high estimation4 ,montaigne1 by 
his will1 empowered ,charron to  assume 
the coat of arms of his family1 as he   
himself had no male issue4              
,montaigne's health had been declining  
for some time2 he was afflicted  with   
gravel and cholic1 and he was           
obstinately resolved against  consulting
 physicians4 ,in ,september1 #aeib1 he  
fell ill of a malignant  quinsy1 which  
kept him speechless for three days1     
during which he had  recourse to his pen
 to signify to his wife his last        
intentions4 ,he  desired that several   
gentlemen of the neighbourhood should be
 requested  to come and take leave of   
him4 ,when they were assembled in his   
room1 a  priest said mass1 and at the   
elevation of the host1 ,montaigne half  
raised himself on his bed1 with his     
hands joined together1 and in that      
attitude expired1 ,september #ac1 #aeib1
 in the sixtieth year of his age4  ,his 

body was buried at ,bordeaux1 in the    
church of the ,feuillans1 where a       
monument was erected to him by his      
widow4 ,he left an only daughter1       
heiress of his property4    ,montaigne's
 ,essays have been the subject of much  
and very conflicting  criticism4 ,if we 
consider the age and the intellectual   
condition of the  country in which the  
author was born1 we must pronounce them 
a very  extraordinary work1 not so much 
on account of the learning contained in 
them1 as for the philosophical spirit   
and the frank1 independent1  liberal    
tone that pervades their pages4         
,civilization and literature were  then 
at a low ebb in ,france2 the language   
was hardly formed1 the country  was     
still torn by the rude turbulence1 and  
subject to the oppression1 of  feudal   
lords and feudal laws2 and was1         
moreover1 distracted by ignorant        
fanaticism1 by deadly intolerance1 and  
by civil factions1 rendered more  fierce
 by religious feuds4 ,it is very        

remarkable that1 in a remote  province  
of a country so situated1 a country     
gentleman1 himself  belonging to the    
feudal aristocracy1 should have composed
 a work full of  moral maxims and       
precepts1 conceived in the spirit of the
 philosophers  of ,greece and ,rome1 and
 founded1 not on the sanctions of       
revealed  religion1 but on a sort of    
natural system of ethics1 on the beauty 
of  virtue1 on the innate sense of      
justice1 on the lessons of history4 ,it 
is  almost more remarkable that such a  
book should have been read with  avidity
 amidst the turmoil of factions1 the din
 of civil war1 the knell  of persecution
 and massacre4    ,the morality of the  
,essays has been called1 and justly so1 
a pagan  morality3 it is not founded on 
the faith and the hopes of a ,christian2
  and its principles are in many        
respects widely different from those of 
the ,gospel4 ,scepticism was the bias of
 ,montaigne's mind2 his philosophy  is1 
in great measure1 that of ,seneca1 and  

other ancient writers1 whose  books were
 the first that were put into his hands 
when a child4  ,accordingly1 ,pascal1   
,nicole1 ,leclerc1 and other ,christian 
moralists1  while rendering full justice
 to ,montaigne's talents and the many   
good  sentiments scattered about the    
,essays1 are very severe upon his       
ethics1  taken as a system4 ,yet he was 
not a determined infidel1 for not only  
in  the ,essays1 but in the journal of  
his travels1 which was not intended  for
 publication1 he manifests ,christian   
sentiments2 and we have seen  that the  
mode of his death was that of a         
,christian4 ,in his chapter on  prayers1
 7,essais1 b4 i4 #ef17 he recommends the
 use of the ,lord's ,prayer  in terms   
evidently sincere2 and in a preceding   
chapter1 after speaking  of two sorts of
 ignorance1 the one1 that which precedes
 all instruction1  and the other1 that  
which follows partial instruction1 he   
says1 that  8men of simple minds1 devoid
 of curiosity and of learning1 are      

,christians through reverence and       
obedience2 that minds of middle growth  
and moderate capacities are the most    
prone to error and doubt2 but that      
higher intellects1 more clear-sighted   
and better grounded in science1  form a 
superior class of believers1 who1       
through long and religious              
investigations1 arrive at the fountain  
of light of the ,scriptures1 and  feel  
the mysterious and divine meaning of our
 ecclesiastical doctrines4  ,and we see 
some who reach this last stage1 through 
the second1 with  marvellous fruit and  
confirmation2 and who1 having attained  
the extreme  boundary of ,christian     
intelligence1 enjoy their success with  
modesty and  thanksgivings1 accompanied 
by a total reformation of their morals1 
unlike those men of another stamp1 who1 
in order to clear themselves of  the    
suspicion of their past errors1 become  
violent1 indiscreet1 unjust1  and throw 
discredit on the cause which they       
pretend to serve40 7,essais1  b4 i4 ch4 

#ed47 ,and a few lines after1 he        
modestly places himself in the  second  
rank1 of those who1 disdaining the first
 state of uninformed  simplicity1 have  
not yet attained the third and last     
exalted stage1 and  who1 he says1 are   
thereby rendered 8inept1 importunate1   
and troublesome  to society4 ,but ,i1   
for my part1 endeavour1 as much as ,i   
can1 to fall  back upon my first and    
natural condition1 from which ,i have   
idly  attempted to depart40 ,although we
 may not trust implicitly to the        
sincerity of this modest admission1 yet 
we clearly see from this and  other     
passages1 that ,montaigne's mind was    
anything but dogmatical1 and  that he   
felt the insecurity of his own          
philosophy1 which was made up of        
impulses and doubts1 rather than of     
argumentation and conviction4           
,montaigne has been also censured for   
several licentious and some cynical     
passages of his #8,essais4' ,this       
licentiousness1 however1 is rather in   

the  expressions than in the meaning of 
the author4 ,he spoke plainly of  things
 which are not alluded to in a more     
refined state of society1 but  he did so
 evidently without mischievous          
intentions1 and as a thing of  common   
occurrence in his days4 ,his early      
familiarity with the ,latin  classics   
probably contributed to this habit4     
,notwithstanding these faults1          
,montaigne's ,essays are justly admired 
for  the sound sense1 honesty1 and      
beauty which abound in them4 #8,the best
  parts of them 7says a ,french critic7 
are those in which he speaks of the     
passions and inclinations of men2 as for
 his learning1 it is vague1 not         
methodical1 and uncertain2 and his      
philosophical maxims are often          
dangerous4' 7,mlanges d',histoire et de 
,litterature1' ,rouen1 #afii1 tom4  i4  
p4 #acc47 ,montaigne combats most       
earnestly all the malignant feelings    
inherent in man1 inhumanity1 injustice1 
oppression1 uncharitableness2  cruelty  

he detests1 his whole nature was averse 
from it4 ,his chapters on  pedantry and 
on the education of children are        
remarkably good4 ,he  throws1 at times1 
considerable light on the state of      
society and manners  in ,france in his  
time1 which may be considered as the    
last period of  feudal power in that    
country4 ,in his chapter on the         
inequality among  men1 he speaks of the 
independence of the ,french nobility1   
especially in  the provinces remote from
 the ,court1 as ,britanny2 where the    
feudal lords  living on their estates1  
surrounded by their vassals1 their      
officers and  valets1 their household   
conducted with an almost royal          
ceremonial1 heard  of the king but once 
a-year as if he were some distant king  
or ,sultan of  ,persia1 and only        
remembered him on the score of some     
distant  relationship1 which they hold  
carefully registered among their        
ancestral  documents4    ,mademoiselle  
de ,gournay edited ,montaigne's         

#8,essais' in #afce1 and  dedicated the 
edition to the ,cardinal de ,richelieu4 
,she wrote a long  preface to it1 which 
is a zealous apology for ,montaigne and 
his works  against the charges of the   
earlier critics4 ,an edition of the     
#8,essais'  was published by ,pierre    
,coste1 #c vols4 #dto4 ,london1 #agbd1  
enriched with  valuable notes and       
several letters of ,montaigne at the end
 of the third  volume4 ,the edition of  
,paris1 #c vols4 #dto4 #agbe1 is1 in    
great measure1 a  reprint of that of    
,coste1 except that the publishers have 
added extracts  of the various judgments
 of the most distinguished critical     
writers  concerning the #8,essais1' and 
also two more letters of ,montaigne's at
 the  end4 ,these additions render this 
,paris edition the most complete4 ,the  
ex-senator ,vernier published in #ahaj1 
#8,notices et ,observations pour        
faciliter la ,lecture des ,essais de    
,montaigne1' ,paris1 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,it 
is  a useful commentary4                

,illustration                           
,,pope4      ,alexander ,pope was born  
in ,london1 ,june ,s1 #afhh4 ,his father
 was a  merchant1 of good family1       
attached to the ,roman ,catholic        
religion2 and  his own childish years   
were spent1 first under the tuition of a
 priest1  then at a ,roman ,catholic    
,seminary at ,twyford1 near ,winchester4
 ,he taught  himself to write by copying
 printed books1 in the execution of     
which he  attained great neatness and   
exactness4 ,when little more than eight 
years  old he accidentally met with     
,ogilby's ,translation of ,homer4 ,the  
versification is insipid and lifeless2  
but the stirring events and  captivating
 character of the story so possessed his
 mind1 that ,ogilby  became a favourite 
book4 ,when about ten years old he was  
removed from  ,twyford to a school at   
,hyde ,park ,corner4 ,he had there      
occasional  opportunities of frequenting
 the theatre2 which suggested to him the
  amusement of turning the chief events 

in ,homer into a kind of play1  composed
 of a succession of speeches from       
,ogilby1 strung together by  verses of  
his own4 ,in these two schools he seems1
 instead of advancing1  to have lost    
what he had gained under his first      
tutor4 ,when twelve years  old he went  
to live with his parents at ,binfield1  
in ,windsor ,forest4 ,he  there became  
acquainted with the writings of         
,spenser1 ,waller1 and  ,dryden4 ,for   
the latter he conceived the greatest    
admiration4 ,he saw him  once1 and      
commemorates the event in his           
correspondence1 under the words         
8,virgilium tantum vidi30 but he was too
 young to have made acquaintance  with  
that master of ,english verse1 who died 
in #agja4 ,he studied ,dryden's  works  
with equal attention and pleasure1      
adopted them as a model of  rhythm1 and 
copied the structure of that author's   
periods4 ,this was1  however1 so far    
from a grovelling imitation1 that it    
enabled him to  raise ,english rhyme to 

the most perfect melody of which it is  
capable4    ,illustration3              
,engraved by ,j4 ,posselwhite4          
,,pope4      ,from the ,picture by      
,hudson in the possession of ,his ,grace
 the ,duke of      ,buckingham4         
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,in the retirement of ,binfield1 ,pope  
laboured successfully to make amends    
for the loss of past time4 ,at fourteen 
years of age he had written with  some  
elegance1 and at fifteen had attained   
some knowledge of the ,greek  and ,latin
 languages1 to which he soon added      
,french and ,italian4 ,in #agjd  he     
began his pastorals1 published in #agji1
 which introduced him1 through          
,wycherley1 to the acquaintance of      
,walsh1 who proved a sincere friend to  
him4 ,that gentleman discovered at once 
that ,pope's talent lay less in         
striking out new thoughts of his own1   

than in easy versification1 and in      
improving what he borrowed from the     
ancients4 ,among other useful hints1  he
 pointed out that we had several great  
poets1 but that none of them  were      
correct2 he therefore admonished him to 
make that merit his own4  ,the advice   
was gratefully received2 and ,pope's    
correspondence shows that  it was       
carefully followed4 ,his melodious      
numbers1 so marked a feature of  his    
style1 were in a great measure the      
result of that suggestion4    ,in the   
same year1 #agjd1 he wrote the first    
part of his #8,windsor ,forest'3  the   
whole was not published till #agac4 ,the
 fault charged on this poem  is1 that   
few images are introduced which are not 
equally applicable to  any other sylvan 
scenery4 ,it was dedicated to ,lord     
,lansdowne1 whom he  mentions as one of 
his earliest acquaintance4 ,to those    
already named1  may be added            
,bolingbroke1 ,congreve1 ,garth1 ,swift1
 ,atterbury1 ,talbot1  ,somers1 and     

,sheffield1 whose friendship he had     
gained at sixteen or  seventeen years of
 age4 ,pope1 to his credit be it set    
down1 cultivated  friendships not only  
with the great1 but with his brethren   
among the  poets4 ,wycherley indeed was 
infected with the weakness of the       
archbishop  in #8,gil ,blas1' touching  
his own compositions1 and the young poet
 was  imprudently caustic in his        
criticism on the old one4 ,their        
correspondence was consequently dropped2
 and though renewed through the         
mediation of a common friend1 it was    
with no revival of cordiality4 ,but  in 
#agbh1 some time after ,wycherley's     
death1 his poems were republished2  and 
in the following year ,pope printed     
several letters which had passed        
between them1 in vindication of         
,wycherley's fame as a poet1 in answer  
to  certain misrepresentations prefixed 
to that edition4 ,this quarrel was a    
trying affair in the outset of ,pope's  
career1 and his conduct had been  above 

his years2 but young as he was1 his     
talents were now beginning to  ripen4   
,his example confirms the truth of ,lord
 ,bacon's remark1 that  personal        
deformity acts as a spur to that        
improvement of the mind1 which  is most 
likely to rescue him who is curtailed of
 his due proportion from  a sense of    
degradation4    ,to this early period of
 ,pope's life belong the #8,messiah1'   
the #8,ode for  ,st4 ,cecilia's ,day1'  
#8,verses to the ,memory of an          
,unfortunate ,lady1' and  other of      
,pope's minor pieces1 which were        
collected and published in a  small     
#hvo4 volume in #agbj4 ,it is stated in 
a note to ,dr4 ,johnson's ,life1  that  
,pope himself was the object of the     
passion commemorated in the             
last-mentioned poem4 ,the date of that  
most brilliant composition1  #8,eloisa  
to ,abelard1' is uncertain4 ,the        
#8,essay on ,criticism' was written  in 
#agji1 8,a work10 says ,johnson1 8which 
displays such extent of  comprehension1 

such nicety of distinction1 such        
acquaintance with  mankind1 and such    
knowledge both of ancient and modern    
learning1 as are  not often attained by 
the maturest age and longest            
experience40 ,pope's  fame was carried  
to its height by the #8,rape of the     
,lock4' ,that poem  originated in an    
impertinence offered by ,lord ,petre to 
,mrs4 ,arabella  ,fermor1 which led to a
 quarrel between their respective       
families4 ,both  parties were among     
,pope's acquaintance1 and this lively   
piece was  written to produce a         
reconciliation1 in which it succeeded4  
,the  universal applause given to the   
first sketch induced the author to      
enrich it with the machinery of the     
,sylphs4 ,in that new dress the two     
cantos1 extended to five1 came out in   
#agab1 accompanied by a letter to  ,mrs4
 ,arabella ,fermor1 to whom he          
afterwards addressed another after her  
marriage1 in the spruce and courtly     
style of ,voiture4 ,a sentence or two   

may be quoted as a sample of the poet's 
epistolary manner4 8,madam1 you  are    
sensible1 by this time1 how much the    
tenderness of one man of merit  is to be
 preferred to the addresses of a        
thousand2 and by this time1 the         
gentleman you have made choice of is    
sensible how great is the joy of  having
 all those charms and good qualities    
which have pleased so many1  now applied
 to please one only4444 ,it may be      
expected1 perhaps1 that one  who has the
 title of being a wit should say        
something more polite upon  this        
occasion2 but ,i am really more a       
well-wisher to your felicity1 than  a   
celebrator of your beauty4444 ,i hope   
you will think it but just that a  man1 
who will certainly be spoken of as your 
admirer after he is dead1  may have the 
happiness1 while he is living1 to be    
esteemed1 ,yours1 c40  ,this letter is  
sometimes annexed to the poem1 and not  
injudiciously1 as  it completes the     
winding-up in the happy marriage of the 

heroine4 ,in the  same year he published
 his #8,temple of ,fame1' which1        
according to his  habitual caution1 he  
had kept two years in his study4 ,it    
appears from  one of his letters1 that  
at that time he had made some progress  
in  translating the ,iliad3 in #agac1 he
 circulated proposals for publishing    
his translation by subscription4 ,he had
 been pressed to this undertaking  some 
time before by several of his friends1  
and was now encouraged in  the design by
 others4 ,the publication of the first  
four books1 in #agae1  gave general     
satisfaction2 and so materially improved
 the author's  finances1 that he        
resolved to come nearer to his friends  
in the capital4  ,with that view1 the   
small estate at ,binfield was sold1 and 
he purchased  a house at ,twickenham1   
whither he removed with his father and  
mother  before the end of the year      
#agae4 ,while employed in the decoration
 of his  seat1 he could not forbear     
doubling his pleasures by boasting of it

 in  his communications with his        
friends4 ,in a letter to ,mr4 ,blount he
 says1  in his customary tone of        
gallantry1 8,the young ladies may be    
assured  that ,i make nothing new in my 
gardens1 without wishing to see them    
print  their fairy steps in every corner
 of them4444 ,you'll think ,i have been 
very poetical in this description1 but  
it is pretty nearly the truth40  ,this  
letter was written in #agbe4 ,warburton 
tells us that the improvement  of his   
celebrated grotto was the favourite     
amusement of his declining  years3 not  
long before his death1 by enlarging and 
ornamenting it with  ores and minerals  
of the richest and rarest kind1 he had  
made it a most  elegant and romantic    
retirement4 ,but modern taste will      
scarcely confirm  the reverend editor's 
assertion1 that 8the beauty of his      
poetic genius1  in the disposition and  
ornaments of those romantic materials1  
appeared  to as much advantage as in any
 of his best-contrived poems40          

,pope's father survived his removal to  
,twickenham only two years4 ,the old    
gentleman had sometimes recommended to  
his son the study of medicine1 as  the  
best method of increasing his scanty    
patrimony4 ,neglect of pecuniary        
considerations was not among ,pope's    
weaknesses3 he did not indeed engage  in
 the medical profession2 but he took    
other opportunities of pushing  his     
fortune4 ,with this view1 he published  
an edition of his collected  poems in   
#agag2 a proceeding as much suggested by
 profit as by fame4 ,in  the like       
disposition1 he undertook a new edition 
of ,shakspeare1 which  was published in 
#agba4 ,the execution of it proved the  
editor's unfitness  for the task which  
he had undertaken4 ,immediately after   
the completion  of the ,iliad1 in #agbj1
 ,pope engaged1 for a considerable sum1 
to  undertake the ,odyssey4 ,only twelve
 books1 however1 of the translation     
proceeded from his own pen3 the rest    
were done by ,broome and ,fenton  under 

his direction4 ,the work was completed  
in #agbe4 ,the following year  was      
employed1 in concert with ,swift and    
,arbuthnot1 in the publication of       
miscellanies1 of which the most         
remarkable is the celebrated #8,history 
of  ,martinus ,scriblerus4' ,about this 
time1 as he was returning home one day  
in ,lord ,bolingbroke's chariot1 it was 
overturned on ,chase ,bridge1 near      
,twickenham1 and thrown with the horses 
into the river4 ,the glasses being  up1 
,pope was nearly drowned1 and was       
extricated with difficulty from his     
hazardous situation4 ,he lost the use of
 two fingers1 in consequence of a       
severe cut from the broken glass4       
,having secured an independent fortune1 
,pope endeavoured to protect his        
literary fame from all future attacks1  
by browbeating every one into  silence3 
this he hoped to accomplish by the poem 
of the #8,dunciad1' which  came out in  
#dto4 in the year #agbg4 ,he somewhere  
says1 that the life of  an author is a  

state of warfare3 he now showed himself 
a master in  literary tactics1 a great  
captain in offensive as well as         
defensive war4  ,the poem made its first
 appearance in ,ireland1 cautiously1 as 
a masked  battery2 nor was the triumph  
completed without the co-operation of an
  ,eugene with this satirical           
,marlborough in the person of ,swift1   
who  furnished some of the materials in 
his own masterly style of sarcasm4  ,the
 improved edition was printed in ,london
 in #agbh4 ,sir ,robert ,walpole        
presented it to the ,king and ,queen1   
and1 probably at the same time1  offered
 to procure the author a pension2 but   
,pope refused this1 as he  had before1  
in #agad1 rejected a similar proposal   
from ,lord ,halifax4 ,in a  letter to   
,swift1 written about this time1 he     
expresses his feelings  thus3 8,i was   
once before displeased at you for       
complaining to ,mr4 ---- of  my not     
having a pension2 ,i am so again at your
 naming it to a certain  lord40 ,in     

#agaj1 ,mr4 ,craggs had given him a     
subscription for one hundred  pounds in 
the ,south ,sea ,fund2 but he made no   
use of it4 ,these favours  must be      
understood to have been proffered for   
the purpose of estranging  him from his 
personal friends2 and this repeated     
rejection of them is an  honourable     
proof of steadiness to his attachments4 
,in #agbi1 the poet1 by ,lord           
,bolingbroke's advice1 turned his pen to
 moral  subjects2 and1 with the         
assistance of his friend1 set to work   
upon the  #8,essay on ,man4'            
,bolingbroke writes thus to ,swift3     
8,bid ,pope talk to you  of the work he 
is about1 ,i hope in good earnest2 it is
 a fine one1 and  will be1 in his hands1
 an original40 ,pope tells the dean1 in 
his next  letter1 what this work was4   
8,the work ,lord ,bolingbroke speaks of 
with  such abundant partiality1 is a    
system of ethics1 in the ,horatian way40
  ,in another letter1 written probably  
at the beginning of the following  year1

 we trace the general aim which he at   
all events wished the public  to        
attribute to this work4 8,i am just now 
writing1 or rather planning1 a  book to 
bring mankind to look upon this life    
with comfort and pleasure1  and put     
morality in good humour40 ,this subject 
was well suited to his  genius4 ,he     
found the performance more easy than he 
had expected1 and  employed his leisure 
by following up the design in his ,ethic
 ,epistles1  which came out separately  
in the course of the two following      
years4 ,the  fourth1 addressed to the   
,earl of ,burlington1 did no good to the
 author's  character1 in consequence of 
the violent attack supposed to be made  
on  the ,duke of ,chandos1 a beneficent 
and esteemed nobleman1 under the name   
of ,timon4 ,pope loudly asserted that in
 drawing ,timon's character he had  not 
the ,duke in view3 but his denials have 
not obtained credence2 and he  has thus 
incurred the charge of equivocation and 
falsehood1 without  exculpating himself 

from that of ingratitude and wanton     
insolence4 ,the  vexation caused by this
 business was somewhat softened by the  
rapid and  lucrative sale of the        
epistle1 which very soon went through   
the press a  third time4 ,in a letter to
 ,lord ,bolingbroke he says1 8,certainly
 the  writer deserved more candour1 even
 in those who knew him not1 than to     
promote a report1 which1 in regard to   
that noble person1 was  impertinent2 in 
regard to me1 villainous4 ,i have taken 
an opportunity of  the third edition1 to
 declare his belief not only of my      
innocence1 but  of their malignity2 of  
the former of which my heart is as      
conscious as ,i  fear some of theirs    
must be of the latter4 ,his humanity    
feels a concern  for the injury done to 
me1 while his greatness of mind can bear
 with  indifference the insult offered  
to himself40 ,he concludes with a threat
  of using real instead of fictitious   
names in his future works4 ,how far  he 
carried that menace into effect will    

presently be seen4 ,the  complaints made
 against the epistle in question by     
secret enemies  provoked him to write   
satire1 in which he ventured to attack  
the  characters of some persons in high 
life3 the affront was of course         
resented1 and he retaliated by renewing 
his invective against them1 both  in    
prose and verse4 ,in the imitation of   
the first satire of the second  book of 
,horace1 he had described ,lord ,hervey 
and ,lady ,mary ,wortley  ,montague so  
characteristically1 under the names of  
,lord ,fanny and  ,sappho1 that those   
noble personages1 besides fighting the  
aggressor with  his own weapons1 used   
their interests to his injury1 not only 
among the  nobility1 but with the ,king 
and ,queen4 ,pope remonstrated most     
strongly  against this last mode of     
revenge4 ,he continued writing satires  
till the  year #agci1 when he           
entertained some thoughts of undertaking
 an epic poem  on the pretended         
colonization of our island by the       

,trojan ,brute4 ,a  sketch of this      
project1 which he never carried into    
effect1 is given in  ,ruffhead's #8,life
 of ,pope1' p4 #daj4    ,pope was an    
elaborate letter-writer2 and many of his
 familiar epistles  found their way into
 the world without his privity4 ,under  
the plea of  self-defence he published a
 correct and genuine collection of them 
in  #agcg4 ,about this time the weak    
state of his health drew him frequently 
to ,bath4 ,mr4 ,allen1 a resident in the
 neighbourhood1 having been pleased     
with the letters1 took occasion to form 
an acquaintance with the author1  which 
soon ripened into friendship4 ,hence    
arose ,pope's intimacy with  ,warburton1
 who tells us that1 before they knew    
each other1 he had  written his         
#8,commentary on the ,art of ,criticism1
 and on the ,essay on  ,man4' ,one      
complaint against that essay had rested 
on its obscurity1 of  which the author  
had previously been warned by ,swift4   
,but this was  comparatively a slight   

objection3 the philosophic poet was     
charged with  having insidiously laid   
down a scheme of deism4 ,a ,french      
translation1 by  the ,abb ,resnil1      
appeared at ,paris in #agch1 on which a 
,german professor1  by name ,crousaz1   
animadverted1 as a system of ethics     
embodying the  doctrine of fatalism4    
,pope thus acknowledges his obligation  
to ,warburton  for his defence3 8,you   
have made my system as clear as ,i ought
 to have  done1 and could not2 you      
understand me as well as ,i do myself1  
but you  express me better than ,i      
express myself40 ,the #8,essay on ,man' 
was  republished with the ,commentary   
annexed in #agdj2 and at the instance of
  ,warburton1 a fourth book was added to
 the #8,dunciad1' and printed           
separately in #agdb4    ,in the course  
of the following year the whole poem of 
the #8,dunciad' was  published together1
 as a specimen of a more correct edition
 of ,pope's  works1 which the author had
 then resolved to give to the world2 but

 he  did not live to complete it4 ,he   
had through life been subject to an     
habitual headache inherited from his    
mother1 and this was now greatly        
increased1 with the addition of         
dropsical symptoms4 ,he died on the     
#cjth  of ,may1 #agdd1 in the           
fifty-sixth year of his age4 ,pursuant  
to his own  request1 his body was laid  
in the same vault with those of his     
parents1  to whose memory he had erected
 a monument1 with an inscription written
  by himself1 immediately on their      
respective deaths4 ,to this1 in         
conformity with his will1 the simple    
words1 8,et sibi10 with the date of  his
 death1 were added4 ,he bequeathed to   
,warburton the property of such  of his 
works already printed as he had written1
 or should write1  commentaries upon1   
provided they had not been otherwise    
disposed of or  alienated2 with this    
condition1 that they were to be         
published without  future alterations4  
,after he had made his will1 he wrote a 

letter to  this legatee1 announcing his 
legacy1 and saying1 8,i own the late    
encroachments upon my constitution make 
me willing to see the end of all        
further care about me1 or my works4 ,i  
would rest for the one in a full        
resignation of my being to be disposed  
of by the ,father of all mercy2  and for
 the other 7though indeed a trifle1 yet 
a trifle may be some  example71 ,i would
 commit them to the candour of a        
sensible and  reflecting judge1 rather  
than to the malice of every shortsighted
 and  malevolent critic1 or inadvertent 
and censorious reader4 ,and no hand can 
set them in so good a light1 or so well 
can turn their best side to the  day1 as
 your own40 ,in discharge of his trust1 
,warburton put forth a  complete edition
 of all ,pope's works in #agea2 and1    
according to his own  persuasion1       
executed it conformably to the presumed 
wishes of the  author4 ,in point of     
elegance1 allowing for the state of     
typography at  the time1 no objection   

could be made1 nor could the poet's     
orders have  been more faithfully       
obeyed1 in forming the various pieces   
into a  collection4 ,but some of        
,warburton's remarks are in a less      
friendly tone  than might have been     
expected2 and if not absolutely         
injurious to his  memory1 are such as   
leave ,pope's moral character in a      
measure open to  attack4 ,many          
circumstances are related in the large  
biographies of ,pope1  which our        
inclination would as little allow us as 
our limits to detail4  ,some of them    
would not compensate in desirable       
information for the  tediousness of the 
narrative3 others relate to defunct     
controversies4 ,to  the latter of these 
classes may be referred ,pope's quarrel 
with ,colley  ,cibber1 which loaded the 
press with vulgar indecency on both     
sides2  also1 ,bolingbroke's charge of  
treachery brought against ,pope in an   
advertisement prefixed to a tract       
published by his lordship in #agdi1     

five years after the accused could no   
longer answer his accuser4    ,we shall 
not devote any part of our confined     
space to an examination of  the faults  
and weaknesses of this eminent man3 they
 have been fully  dwelt on in works of  
easy access4 ,some apology for many of  
them may be  found in his bodily        
infirmities1 deformed frame1 and extreme
 debility of  constitution4 ,pope's     
person1 character1 and writings are     
treated of at  large by ,dr4 ,warton1 in
 his #8,essay4' ,ruffhead's #8,life of  
,pope' contains  much curious and       
entertaining matter4 ,dr4 ,johnson's    
examination of  ,pope's works is among  
the most elaborate and best pieces of   
criticism in  his #8,lives of the       
,poets4' ,we cannot better conclude than
 with his  description of ,pope's       
appearance1 and summing up of his       
poetical  character4 8,the person of    
,pope is well known not to have been    
formed by  the nicest model4 ,he has1 in
 his account of the #8,little ,club1'   

compared  himself to a spider1 and by   
another is described as protuberant     
before  and behind4 ,he is said to have 
been beautiful in his infancy3 but he   
was  of a constitution originally feeble
 and weak2 and1 as bodies of a tender   
frame are easily distorted1 his         
deformity was probably in part the      
effect of his application4 ,his stature 
was so low1 that1 to bring him to  a    
level with common tables1 it was        
necessary to raise his seat4 ,but his   
face was not displeasing1 and his eyes  
animated and vivid44440 8,it is  surely 
superfluous to answer the question that 
has once been asked1  whether ,pope was 
a poet1 otherwise than by asking1 in    
return1 if ,pope be  not a poet1 where  
is poetry to be found8 ,to circumscribe 
poetry by a  definition will only show  
the narrowness of the definer1 though a 
definition which shall exclude ,pope    
will not easily be made4 ,let us look   
round upon the present time1 and back   
upon the past2 let us inquire to  whom  

the voice of mankind has decreed the    
wreath of poetry2 let their  productions
 be examined1 and their claims stated1  
and the pretensions of  ,pope will be no
 more disputed4 ,had he given the world 
only his version1  the name of poet must
 have been allowed him3 if the writer of
 the ,iliad  were to class his          
successors1 he would assign a very high 
place to his  translator1 without       
requiring any other evidence of genius40
 ,with  respect to the translation of   
the ,iliad1 it is fair to give ,pope the
  benefit of ,dr4 ,johnson's praise4    
,but we are justified by the consentient
  voice of almost all scholars1 in      
condemning it as an unfaithful and      
meretricious version1 composed in a     
spirit totally different from that  of  
,homer1 and bearing no resemblance to   
his manner4    ,our engraving is from a 
copy of the original picture by ,hudson1
 made by  ,t4 ,uwins1 ,a4,r4,a4         
,illustration3 ,entrance to ,pope's     
,grotto4    ,illustration3              

,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4      ,,bolivar4 
,from an ,engraving by ,mr4 ,h4 ,ponte4 
,under the ,superintendance of the      
,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful  
,knowledge4      ,london1 ,published by 
,charles ,knight1 ,ludgate ,street4     
,illustration                           
,,bolivar4      ,the history of ,bolivar
 is that of the revolutions in ,columbia
 and ,peru4  ,nothing remarkable is     
related of his early life2 and with     
respect to his  personal merits as a    
soldier and statesman1 he has shared the
 common lot  of eminent men1 in being   
extravagantly praised and violently     
censured4  ,he has been compared to     
,csar and ,napoleon on the one hand2 and
 he has  been accused of frivolity1     
incompetency1 and even cowardice1 on the
  other4 ,the time for forming a        
dispassionate opinion of his character  
is  not yet arrived4 ,we shall1         
therefore1 confine ourselves to a short 
sketch of the establishment of          
independence on the ,spanish ,main1 so  

far  as ,bolivar was concerned in it2   
premising that we merely follow the     
course of history in giving him the     
credit of those measures which were     
carried into execution under his        
authority and ostensible guidance4      
,simon ,bolivar was born in the city of 
,caracas1 the capital of ,venezuela1  on
 the #bdth or #beth of ,july1 #aghc4 ,in
 early childhood he lost both his       
parents1 who were of noble family1 and  
possessed of large estates4 ,at  the age
 of fourteen or sixteen1 he was sent to 
,spain for education4 ,his  habits are  
said to have been dissipated2 but he    
paid some attention to  the study of    
jurisprudence4 ,after visiting ,italy   
and ,france1 he returned  to ,madrid1   
married1 and in #ahji returned to reside
 on his estates near  ,caracas4 ,it is  
positively asserted1 and as positively  
denied1 that  ,bolivar had an active    
share in the decisive movement at       
,caracas1 ,april  #ai1 #ahaj1 when the  
,spanish authorities were deposed4 ,a   

congress was  summoned1 which met ,march
 #b1 #ahaa4 ,bolivar received a         
colonel's  commission1 and was sent to  
claim the protection of ,great ,britain4
 ,the  date of his return to ,south     
,america we do not find3 but he is said 
to  have been concerned in the first    
military operations of the patriots2    
and in ,september1 #ahaa1 he was        
appointed governor of the strong        
sea-port  of ,puerto ,cabello4 ,in      
,march1 #ahab1 a violent earthquake took
 place4 ,the  clergy succeeded in       
producing a considerable reaction in    
favour of  royalist principles1 by      
representing this calamity to be a      
manifestation  of ,god's wrath against  
revolution4 ,monteverde1 the royal      
general1 then  advanced1 and met with   
rapid success4 ,the strong hold of      
,puerto ,cabello1  the chief dept of the
 patriots1 was wrested from ,bolivar by 
an  insurrection of the prisoners       
confined in it2 the patriot army became 
dispirited2 and ,general ,miranda1 under

 the sanction of congress1  concluded a 
treaty1 ,july #bf1 #ahab1 by which an   
amnesty was concluded1  and the province
 of ,venezuela returned under the       
dominion of ,spain4  ,miranda was       
subsequently arrested on a futile charge
 of treachery to the  patriot cause1 and
 delivered to the ,spaniards1 who kept  
him in prison to  the day of his death4 
,in this unjustifiable transaction1     
,bolivar had a  principal share4        
,bolivar retired for a short time to his
 estate2 but he soon became  uneasy at  
the frequency of arrests1 and obtained a
 passport to quit the  country4 ,he     
retired to ,curaoa4 ,in the following   
,september1 his active  temper led him  
to seek employment in the patriot army  
of ,new ,granada1  which had declared   
itself independent in #ahaa1 and still  
held out1 with  better fortune than     
,venezuela4 ,he obtained a trifling     
command1 not such  as to satisfy his    
ambition2 and on his own responsibility1
 he undertook  an expedition against the

 ,spaniards on the east bank of the     
river  ,magdalena1 in which he          
succeeded2 clearing the country of      
,spanish posts  from ,mompox1 on the    
above named river1 to the town of ,ocaa1
 on the  frontier of ,caracas4 ,this    
exploit attracted public notice4 ,he    
conceived  the bold plan of invading    
,venezuela with his small forces1 and   
the  congress of ,new ,granada consented
 to his making the attempt1 and raised  
him to the rank of brigadier4 ,he       
crossed the frontier with little more   
than #ejj men2 but the country rose in  
arms to second him2 and after  several  
engagements1 in which the patriots were 
successful1 he defeated  ,monteverde in 
person at the battle of ,lastoguanes1   
and1 finally1 entered  ,caracas1 the    
capital of ,venezuela1 in triumph1      
,august #d1 #ahac4    ,at this time no  
regular government could be said to     
exist2 but a  convention of the chief   
civil and military functionaries1 held  
at  ,caracas1 ,january #b1 #ahad1       

conferred on ,bolivar the title of      
,liberator of  ,venezuela1 and invested 
him with the office of ,dictator1 and   
the supreme  control over both branches 
of the executive4 ,but these successes  
were  followed by a rapid reverse2 and  
before the end of the year1 he was      
beaten out of ,venezuela1 and obliged to
 return to ,new ,granada4 ,that  country
 was harassed by the contests of        
numerous and discordant parties4        
,bolivar was received with respect by   
the congress2 and was entrusted  with   
the task of compelling the dissentient  
province of ,santa ,fe de  ,bogot1      
afterwards named ,cundinamarca1 to      
accede to the union of the  other       
provinces4 ,he marched against the city 
of ,bogot in ,december1 at  the head of 
#bjjj men4 ,it was not in a condition to
 resist1 and  capitulated1 after the    
suburbs had been taken by storm4 ,it    
will afford  an instance of the         
difficulty of getting at the real       
character of  ,bolivar1 to say1 that we 

find it stated in one account that his  
behaviour at ,bogot received not only   
the thanks of ,congress1 but the        
approbation of the citizens2 while      
another author asserts1 that            
notwithstanding the capitulation1 and in
 spite of the most urgent               
remonstrances1 he permitted the pillage 
of part of the city for the  space of   
forty-eight hours4 ,he was then         
appointed to act against the  strong    
town of ,santa ,martha1 which commands  
the mouth of the river  ,magdalena4     
,unfortunately1 private enmity between  
himself and ,castillo1  the governor of 
,carthagena1 led to dissensions which   
ended in the  investment of ,carthagena1
 instead of ,santa ,martha1 by ,bolivar4
 ,during  this civil strife1 which led  
to consequences most injurious to the   
patriot cause1 ,general ,morillo arrived
 from ,spain1 now enabled by the  peace 
of #ahad to act with more vigour against
 her revolted colonies2 and  ,bolivar   
gave up his command1 on the pretext that

 the harmony and  advantage of the army 
required it1 and embarked for ,jamaica1 
,may #aj1  #ahae4 ,during his abode at  
,kingston1 he narrowly escaped          
assassination at  the hands of a        
,spaniard1 who stabbed to the heart a   
person who chanced  to occupy the bed in
 which ,bolivar usually slept4 ,from    
,jamaica1 he went  to ,hayti1 where1    
with the help of the president ,petion1 
and in  conjunction with a ,french      
officer1 ,commodore ,brion1 he drew     
together a  force1 with which he again  
raised the standard of independence in  
the  province of ,cumana1 in ,may1      
#ahaf3 but he was soon driven out of the
  country1 and returned to ,hayti1      
whence1 in ,december1 he again sailed to
  the island of ,margarita1 and he      
issued a proclamation convoking a       
congress of the representatives of      
,venezuela4 ,he then repaired to        
,barcelona1 and organised a provisional 
government4 ,during the years #ahag  and
 #ahah1 the struggle was obstinate2 but 

the patriot cause on the whole  gained a
 decided advantage4 ,in ,february #ahai1
 ,bolivar summoned a  congress at       
,angostura1 on the river ,orinoco1 and  
resigned his authority  into its hands4 
,the assembly1 however1 continued to him
 the executive  power1 with the title of
 ,provisional ,president of ,venezuela1 
until the  expulsion of the enemy should
 afford a prospect of more settled      
times4    ,bolivar rejoined the army in 
,march1 and soon after conducted his    
forces  to join the patriots in ,new    
,granada4 ,two battles1 on the #ast and 
#bc;d of  ,july1 were fought to the     
advantage of the patriots1 whose cause  
obtained  a final triumph in the        
decisive victory won ,august #g1 at     
,bojaca4 ,bolivar  advanced at once to  
,bogot1 where he was enthusiastically   
welcomed2 and  within a short time1     
eleven provinces of ,new ,granada       
announced their  adhesion to the cause  
of independence4 ,he summoned a         
congress1 by which  he was appointed    

,president1 and ,captain-general of the 
,republic4  ,meanwhile a party1 jealous 
of his intentions1 had obtained the     
ascendancy in the ,venezuela ,congress  
held at ,angostura2 and ,bolivar1       
fearful of being supplanted1 quitted the
 scene of war with his best  troops and 
marched to ,angostura4 ,his presence1   
with such a force1 turned  the scale in 
favour of the party attached to his     
interest4 ,it was  determined to summon 
a general convention from the           
independent provinces  of ,venezuela and
 ,granada2 and ,december #ag1 #ahai1 the
 celebrated decree  was passed by which 
the two states were united1 and entitled
 the  ,republic of ,columbia4 ,bolivar  
was appointed ,president4               
,strengthened by union1 the patriots    
took the field in greater force than    
they had hitherto been able to raise4   
,the course of war during #ahbj was  on 
the whole favourable to them4 ,in       
,november1 an armistice for six  months 
was concluded4 ,soon after the renewal  

of hostilities1 an  important victory   
was gained by the ,columbian troops     
under ,bolivar1 at  ,carabobo1 not far  
from the city of ,valencia1 ,june #ba1  
#ahba1 which may be  regarded as having 
closed the war in ,venezuela4 ,before   
the end of the  year1 ,columbia was     
nearly cleared of ,spanish troops1 with 
the exception  of the province of       
,quito2 and time was found to attend to 
the  establishment of civil order4 ,the 
constitution of the short-lived         
,columbian ,republic was adopted1       
,august #bj1 #ahba1 and ,bolivar was    
appointed ,first ,constitutional        
,president4    ,the war was then        
directed against the ,spaniards in the  
south4 ,in  ,january1 #ahbb1 ,bolivar   
himself conducted operations in the     
province of  ,pasto1 lying to the north 
of ,quito1 while ,general ,sucre1 who   
had been  sent previously to assist the 
cause of independence in ,guayaquil1    
after  liberating the southern provinces
 of ,loxa and ,cuenca1 advanced         

northwards1 and secured independence to 
the province of ,quito by the  decisive 
victory of ,pichincha1 ,may #bd1 #ahbb4 
,but though this portion of  ,columbia  
was now cleared of enemies1 there could 
be no security to the  frontier         
provinces while the ,spaniards held     
,peru2 and it was therefore  determined 
to send assistance to the patriots in   
that country4 ,bolivar  landed at ,lima1
 ,september #a1 #ahbc1 and was invested 
with supreme power  as ,dictator of     
,peru4 ,it was not until the end of     
#ahbe1 however1 that the  war of        
independence was finished2 and the      
honour of this1 in a military  point of 
view1 belongs rather to ,sucre than to  
,bolivar4    ,on the establishment of a 
separate republic in #ahbe1 in the      
province  called by the ,spaniards      
,upper ,peru1 the new state paid a high 
compliment  to the ,liberator1 by       
assuming the name of ,bolivia1 and      
requesting him to  draw up a            
constitution for its adoption4 ,in      

compliance with the wish  thus          
expressed1 he presented to the          
constituent congress in ,may1 #ahbf1    
the celebrated ,bolivian ,code2 for an  
account of which we must refer to  the  
#8,encyclopdia ,americana1' or the      
appendix to the #8,memoirs of ,general  
,miller4' ,this forms a remarkable era  
in ,bolivar's life2 for1 out of the     
institutions of this code1 arose the    
first suspicions that the ,liberator    
was at heart indisposed to republican   
institutions4 ,it was however  adopted2 
and ,sucre was appointed ,president4    
,meanwhile1 though the  deliverance of  
,peru was completed1 ,bolivar showed no 
intention of  leading home the          
,columbian troops4 ,a congress summoned 
at ,lima1 in  ,february1 #ahbe1         
continued to him1 for another year1 the 
dictatorial  power which he had received
 on his first entrance into the country4
 ,a  second congress1 held in #ahbf1    
adopted the same course1 adding a       
recommendation that he should consult   

the provinces as to the form of         
government which it might be desirable  
to establish4 ,the result was1  that the
 ,bolivian ,code was declared to be     
adopted by ,peru1 and ,bolivar  himself 
was nominated ,president4    ,during the
 ,liberator's long absence in the south1
 the northern provinces  of ,columbia   
became involved in civil confusion4 ,the
 ,vice-president1  ,general ,santander1 
was a man of firmness and ability2 but  
the  newly-formed government wanted     
consistency1 and that habitual respect  
which is paid to long recognised        
authority4 ,in ,april1 #ahbf1 ,general  
,paez1 who commanded in ,venezuela1     
being summoned before the senate of     
,columbia to answer certain charges1    
refused obedience1 trusting to the      
devoted attachment of the troops under  
his command3 and to this private  act of
 rebellion1 something of a national     
character was given1 by the  accession  
of many in ,venezuela1 who disapproved  
of the union with ,new  ,granada1 or    

distrusted the intentions of those who  
held the reins of  power4 ,at the same  
time1 the southern departments1 which   
had formerly  composed the presidency of
 ,quito1 displayed a strong inclination 
to  adopt the ,bolivian ,code4 ,bolivar 
has not escaped the suspicion of having 
fomented these troubles1 with a view to 
convince all parties that  tranquillity 
could only be secured by strengthening  
the executive1 by  appointing him       
,dictator of the ,columbian ,republic4  
,being recalled for  the suppression of 
these disturbances1 he quitted ,lima in 
,september1  #ahbf1 and hastened to     
,caracas1 where1 instead of punishing1  
he met ,paez  upon friendly terms1      
confirmed him in the office which he    
held1 and  published a general amnesty  
on the submission of the insurgents4    
,the  term for which he was elected     
,president had now expired4 ,he had been
  re-elected1 and should have gone      
through the forms of taking office at   
the beginning of #ahbg2 but in          

,february1 he announced his intention to
  resign1 and retire to his estates1 in 
consequence of the imputations of       
ambition cast upon him4 ,the spring was 
spent by ,congress in discussing  this  
matter2 and at last1 ,june #f1 it was   
finally determined not to  accept his   
resignation1 and a general convention   
was summoned to meet at  ,ocaa1 ,march  
#b1 #ahbh1 to revise the constitution4  
,in ,september1 ,bolivar  again assumed 
the office of ,president4    ,meanwhile 
a speedy revolution had taken place in  
,peru4 ,it is no great  argument of     
,bolivar's purity of purpose1 that1 a   
year after the war was  finished1 the   
,columbian auxiliaries were still       
retained by him in  ,bolivia and ,peru1 
one division being quartered in the     
former country1  and two in the latter4 
,many of them were strongly attached to 
their  general1 and perhaps had no      
objection to becoming instruments of his
  ambition1 so far as ,peru was         
concerned4 ,but when he incurred the    

suspicion of meditating the overthrow of
 the ,columbian constitution1  they took
 fire4 ,the division quartered at ,lima 
matured a plan of revolt1  arrested     
their generals1 who were personally     
attached to ,bolivar1 and  announced to 
the authorities of ,lima their desire to
 relieve the  ,peruvians from a         
constitution which had been forced upon 
them1 and to  return home to defend     
their own country4 ,hereupon1 in        
concurrence with  the generally declared
 wish of the people throughout ,peru1   
the ,bolivian  ,code was thrown aside   
only a few weeks after it had been      
adopted2 and in  ,june1 #ahbg1 a new    
congress was summoned1 and a new        
,president and  ,vice-president of the  
republic were elected4 ,the troops      
embarked2 but on  their landing in      
,columbia1 part placed themselves under 
the orders of  officers sent to take the
 command of them1 and the rest were     
easily  reduced to obedience4    ,the   
convention met at the appointed time4   

,bolivar opened the proceedings  with an
 address1 in which he ascribed the      
internal troubles of ,columbia  to the  
want of sufficient power in the         
executive department1 and plainly       
intimated his opinion that the          
constitution had been founded on views  
too liberal to be adapted to the state  
of society existing in that  country4   
,his speech was very much in accordance 
with the views developed  in the        
,bolivian ,code1 and furnished good     
reason for believing that he  was no    
less willing to accept supreme power    
than his friends were  disposed to      
invest him with it1 as the only remedy  
for existing evils4  ,the majority of   
the convention1 however1 were suspicious
 of the  ,president's intentions4       
,finding themselves in a minority1 his  
friends  vacated their seats in the     
assembly1 which being thus reduced below
 the  number necessary to give validity 
to its proceedings1 became virtually    
extinct4    ,in this state of things1 a 

meeting was convened at ,bogot1 ,june   
#ac1 of  the principal civil and        
military residents1 at which resolutions
 were  passed investing ,bolivar with   
the most extensive powers as ,supreme   
,chief  of ,columbia4 ,he himself was   
not present1 but in the near            
neighbourhood2  and on receiving        
intimation of these resolutions1 he made
 a solemn entry  into ,bogot1 ,june #bj1
 and assumed the powers thus            
gratuitously bestowed  upon him1 not1 it
 is to be observed1 by the act of the   
convention1 or of  any body authorised  
to interfere in any way with the        
existing  constitution4 ,great          
dissatisfaction was felt by those who   
were not  attached to the party of      
,bolivar2 and in the following          
,september1 a  conspiracy was organised 
in the garrison of ,bogot1 to which the 
,president's life had nearly fallen a   
sacrifice4 ,it was quelled however4     
,general ,santander1 the                
,vice-president1 was accused of being   

concerned in  it1 and was banished from 
,columbia4 ,partial insurrections       
subsequently  broke out in various      
places4 ,towards the close of #ahbi1 the
 discontent  which had formerly appeared
 in ,venezuela1 manifested itself more  
decidedly4 ,paez put himself at the head
 of the dissatisfied party2 and  in a   
very short time1 the whole province     
raised the standard of  independence1   
and expressed its determination to be   
merged no longer in  the ,columbian     
,republic4 ,in the midst of these       
tumults1 ,bolivar resolved  at length to
 retire from the eminent station in     
which he had been the  cause of so much 
offence4 ,he had issued a proclamation1 
,december #bd1  #ahbh1 summoning a      
convention in ,january1 #ahcj1 to frame 
a new permanent  constitution for       
,columbia4 ,it met at the appointed     
time4 ,bolivar1 in  opening the         
deliberations1 expressed his            
determination not to accept  again the  
chief magistracy of the state2 but1 as  

he had said the same  thing in equally  
strong terms before1 nobody paid much   
attention to the  declaration4 ,this    
time1 however1 he adhered to it4        
,besides the labour of  making a new    
constitution1 the convention had to     
discuss the difficult  question of the  
secession of ,venezuela3 nor was this   
all1 for as that  district had separated
 itself from the ,columbian ,republic1  
in a great  degree ,owing to its        
distrust of ,bolivar1 so the southern   
provinces  refused to acknowledge the   
new constitution unless he were placed  
at its  head4 ,the convention wisely    
resolved1 with respect to ,venezuela1   
that  every peaceful method should be   
tried to prevent its secession1 but that
  it would not be expedient or proper to
 attempt to maintain the union by       
force4 ,to anticipate a little the order
 of time1 the ,venezuelans were         
resolved to have an independent         
government2 and finally1 in #ahcb1 the  
short-lived republic of ,columbia was   

divided into three1 bearing             
respectively the titles of ,venezuela1  
,new ,granada1 and the ,republic of  the
 ,equator1 which was formed out of the  
southern provinces of ,quito1           
,guayaquil1 and ,assuai4    ,after the  
adoption of the new constitution of     
#ahcj1 ,bolivar retired to  the province
 of ,carthagena1 exhausted both in body 
and mind4 ,he died at  ,santa ,martha1  
,december #ag1 #ahcj1 leaving a         
character on the merits of  which it is 
difficult to pronounce a decided        
opinion4 ,his name will not  soon be    
forgotten1 for it is indissolubly       
connected with the cause of             
independence in ,south ,america3 but1 in
 reviewing the progress and  prospects  
of ,north and ,south ,america1 it is    
impossible not to remark  ,bolivar's    
inferiority to ,washington1 both in     
talent and virtue1 and not  to reflect  
with regret how different1 in all       
probability1 the conduct  and the       
prosperity of the ,south ,american      

republics would have been if  they had  
possessed such a leader as the first    
,president of the ,united  ,states4     
,the chief books which have been        
consulted for this sketch have been the 
#8,annual ,register1' ,general          
,ducoudray ,holstein's #8,memoirs of    
,bolivar1' a  work evidently written    
under strong feelings of personal       
hostility1 the  article ,bolivar in the 
#8,encyclopdia ,americana1' and a short 
account of  the ,liberator in the       
#8,memoirs of ,general ,miller4' ,in    
these works there  is so much           
discrepancy1 not only of opinions1 but  
of facts and dates1  that we do not     
venture to hope that we have escaped    
errors4 ,a clear and  impartial history 
of the war of independence is still a   
desideratum4    ,illustration3          
,engraved by ,j4 ,posselwhite4          
,,arkwright4      ,from a ,picture by   
,wright of ,derby4      ,under the      
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 

,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,arkwright4      ,in the history of    
trade there is nothing so remarkable as 
the rapid and  immense increase of the  
,british cotton manufacture during the  
last  thirty years of the eighteenth    
century4 ,two nearly contemporaneous    
discoveries concurred to produce that   
increase3 the invention of  machinery   
for spinning2 and the improvement1 we   
might almost say  completion1 of the    
steam-engine by ,james ,watt4 ,to his   
eminent merits we  have borne our       
testimony in the first volume of this   
work2 and scarcely  less important1     
though less imposing1 have been the     
services of the  ingenious men who      
contrived to spin thread without the use
 of the human  hand4 ,we do not hesitate
 to take ,arkwright as the              
representative of  those who wrought    
this great revolution in our            
manufacturing system1 for  though recent

 evidence has refuted his claim to the  
invention1 properly  speaking1 of       
spinning by machinery1 he was the first 
person who rendered  that invention     
profitable4    ,by the year #agfj1 the  
manufacture of cotton goods1 which had  
been  increasing slowly from the        
beginning of the century1 had attained  
considerable importance4 ,in #agfd1 the 
declared value of ,british cotton  goods
 exported was upwards of #bjj1jjjl41    
having increased tenfold  within forty  
or fifty years4 ,at this period the     
demand for them exceeded  the supply1 in
 consequence of the difficulty of       
obtaining a sufficient  quantity of yarn
 for weaving4 ,the one-thread           
spinning-wheel1 now nearly  banished    
from our cottages1 was then the sole    
source from which  spun-yarn could be   
obtained2 and the trades of spinning and
 weaving were  commonly united in a     
humble manner--the man wove1 while his  
wife and  daughters spun4 ,if this      
domestic supply was insufficient1 the   

weaver had  often to waste time and     
labour in collecting materials for his  
daily  work4 ,mr4 ,guest states1 that   
8it was no uncommon thing for a weaver  
to  walk three or four miles in a       
morning1 and call on five or six        
spinners1  before he could collect weft 
to serve him for the remainder of the   
day2  and when he wished to weave a     
piece in a shorter time than usual1 a   
new  ribbon or a gown was necessary to  
quicken the exertions of the spinner40  
,this check existing on the industry of 
the weaver1 it is no wonder that        
mechanical ingenuity was tasked to      
invent a quicker way of spinning4 ,the  
principle of the first plan by which    
this was effected may be easily         
explained4 ,suppose a ribbon placed     
between two horizontal cylinders  which 
are in contact with each other2 if the  
cylinders are made to  revolve1 it is   
evident that they will draw the ribbon  
onwards in the  direction of their      
motion4 ,again1 if the foremost end of  

it be presented  to a second pair of    
similar revolving cylinders1 it will be 
drawn  through these also4 ,if both     
pairs revolve with exactly the same     
velocity1 it will pass through them     
unaltered2 but if the second pair       
revolve with greater velocity than the  
first1 there will be a certain  strain  
on the intermediate ribbon1 which1 if   
extensible1 will be  stretched in the   
same degree that the velocity of the    
second pair of  rollers exceeds that of 
the first4 ,now cotton1 after being     
cleaned and  carded1 comes from the card
 in fleecy rolls1 the fibres of which   
are  laid parallel1 and so made fit to  
spin4 ,to reduce these to thread or     
yarn takes more than one operation3 the 
first brings the cardings into  thick1  
loosely twisted threads1 called rovings2
 the subsequent ones  reduce the rovings
 into yarn fit for the loom4 ,it is     
evident that both  the cardings and     
rovings are fitted by their texture for 
the process of  extension by rollers    

described above2 and that they would be 
drawn out  twofold1 fourfold1 or in any 
greater or less degree1 proportionate to
  the difference of velocity between the
 first and second pair of rollers4      
,from the second pair the thread is     
delivered to a spindle1 which gives  the
 due degree of twist2 and it is finally 
wound on a bobbin3 the whole  being set 
in motion by the same mechanical power4 
,it is evident that  many spindles might
 be attached to1 and many threads spun  
by1 the same  combination of rollers4   
,arkwright claimed the merit of this    
invention4  ,it is proved1 however1 by  
the undeniable evidence of an existing  
patent1  printed by ,mr4 ,baines in his 
,history of the ,cotton ,manufacture1   
that  this principle of spinning by     
rollers was patented so early as the    
year  #agch1 by a foreigner named ,lewis
 ,paul2 the real inventor was ,john     
,wyatt1  of ,birmingham4 ,in their hands
 however1 though the invention did not  
absolutely fail1 it did not so succeed  

as to be brought into general  use1 or  
even to become profitable to the        
inventors4 ,simple and obvious  as the  
principle appears when once laid down1  
great difficulties were  to be overcome 
in forming this stretched cotton into a 
useful thread2 as  may be conceived from
 reflecting on the great rapidity with  
which1 to  make spinning profitable1    
parts of the machine must move1 the     
perfect  regularity of motion requisite1
 and the slightness of the strain which 
a  few untwisted filaments of cotton    
will bear4 ,for the apparently trivial  
object of producing a uniform line of   
fine yarn1 the utmost efforts of        
mechanical ingenuity have been called   
forth1 and some of the most  beautiful1 
delicate1 and powerful machinery in     
existence has been  constructed4 ,it was
 in overcoming these difficulties that  
the talent or  perseverance of ,paul and
 ,wyatt failed2 the merit of conquering 
them1 and  giving birth to a new system 
of manufacture1 belongs to ,arkwright4  

,we  quote the following notice of his  
early life from ,mr4 ,baines3--         
8,richard ,arkwright rose by the force  
of his natural talents from a very      
humble condition in society4 ,he was    
born at ,preston1 ,december #bc1 #agcb1 
of poor parents4 ,being the youngest of 
thirteen children1 his parents  could   
only afford to give him an education of 
the humblest kind1 and he  was scarcely 
able to write4 ,he was brought up to the
 trade of a barber1  at ,kirkham and    
,preston1 and established himself in    
that business at  ,bolton1 in #agfj4    
,having become possessed of a chemical  
process for  dyeing human hair1 which in
 that day1 when wigs were universal1 was
 of  considerable value1 he travelled   
about collecting hair1 and again        
disposing of it when dyed4 ,in #agfa1 he
 married a wife from ,leigh1 and  the   
connexions he thus formed in that town  
are supposed to have  afterwards brought
 him acquainted with ,highs's           
experiments in making  spinning         

machines4 ,he himself manifested a      
strong bent for experiments  in         
mechanics1 which he is stated to have   
followed with so much  devotedness as to
 have neglected his business and injured
 his  circumstances4 ,his natural       
disposition was ardent1 enterprising1   
and  stubbornly persevering2 his mind   
was as coarse as it was bold and        
active1 and his manners were rough and  
unpleasing40    ,in the course of his   
travels in #agfg1 he fell in with a     
clockmaker1  named ,kay1 at ,warrington1
 whom he employed as a workman in       
prosecuting  some of his mechanical     
experiments4 ,kay1 according to his own 
account1  gave ,arkwright some          
description of a machine contrived by   
one ,highs1 for  spinning by rollers4   
,it is certain that from thenceforward  
,arkwright  abandoned his former        
pursuits1 and applied himself1 in       
conjunction with  ,kay1 to the          
construction of a spinning machine4 ,one
 ,smalley1 a  liquor-merchant of        

,preston1 assisted him with money2 and  
the two1  fearing lest they might be    
endangered by a riotous spirit which had
 been  directed against machinery in    
,lancashire1 went to settle at          
,nottingham4  ,there ,arkwright obtained
 an introduction to ,messrs4 ,need and  
,strutt1 two  gentlemen largely engaged 
in the stocking manufactory1 who        
appreciated  his talents1 and entered   
into partnership with him4 ,what became 
of ,mr4  ,smalley we do not hear4       
,arkwright took out a patent for his    
invention1  which was enrolled1 ,july   
#ae1 #agfi4 ,the partners erected a mill
 near  ,nottingham1 which was turned by 
horse-power3 but this was soon          
superseded by a much larger             
establishment at ,cromford in           
,derbyshire1 on  the river ,derwent1 in 
which water-power was applied for the   
first time  to the purpose of spinning2 
and from that circumstance ,arkwright's 
machine was called the water-frame4     
,as the difficulty of meeting the       

weavers' demand for yarn had led to the 
invention of machines for spinning1 so  
the rapid manufacture of yarn  rendered 
it indispensable to facilitate the prior
 operations in  preparing the raw       
material4 ,men's minds had been turned  
to this object  for some time4 ,the     
operation of carding1 whether wool or   
cotton1 was at  first done with         
hand-cards of small size4 ,the first    
improvement was the  invention of       
stock-cards1 one of which was fixed1 and
 the other held in  the hand1 or        
afterwards suspended from above1 so that
 the workman could  manage a much larger
 card1 and prepare more cotton in a     
given time4 ,the  next and main         
improvement was placing cards lengthways
 upon a cylinder1  which worked within a
 concave half cylinder of the same      
diameter4 ,this  process was patented by
 ,paul in #agdh4 ,but he derived no     
profit from  this1 any more than from   
his former patent2 and it was not until 
after  the improvements in spinning that

 the method of carding by cylinders was 
brought into use4 ,arkwright was not the
 first to revive it1 but he had a  great
 share in perfecting the carding        
machinery when it had been  revived4    
,the raw cotton being carded1 an        
extension1 or rather a new  application1
 of the principle of spinning by rollers
 converted the  cardings into rovings1  
which again were made into yarn fit for 
the loom  by the water-frame1 or1 as it 
is now called in an improved form1 the  
throstle4 ,arkwright took out his second
 patent1 ,december #af1 #agge2  this    
included the carding machine1           
drawing-frame1 and roving-frame1 a      
series of engines by which the cotton1  
from its raw state1 was rendered  fit   
for the last process of spinning4 ,we   
shall not attempt to explain  the       
construction of these elaborate         
machines1 which can hardly be  rendered 
intelligible even by the help of        
numerous plates4    ,the process of     
turning cotton-wool into thread by      

machinery was thus  completed4 ,before  
we follow its effects upon ,arkwright's 
fortunes1 it is  proper to say a few    
words concerning other improvements4    
,about1 or  somewhat earlier than1 the  
time when ,arkwright's attention was    
first  turned to spinning1 a weaver     
named ,james ,hargreaves1 of ,stand     
,hill1 near  ,blackburn1 invented a     
machine by which1 according to the terms
 of the  patent1 sixteen or more threads
 might be spun by one person at the same
  time4 ,this is the machine so well    
known under the name of the             
spinning-jenny4 ,hargreaves' patent was 
invaded1 and invalidated on  technical  
grounds2 so that his machine came       
rapidly into general use1  and for      
spinning the weft was preferred to      
,arkwright's water-frame1  from which it
 was entirely different in principle4   
,samuel ,crompton1 an  ingenious weaver 
resident near ,bolton1 between the years
 #aggd and #aggi1  tried to unite the   
principles of both1 and produced a      

machine which1 on  that account1 he     
called a mule4 ,this1 under different   
improved forms1  is the machine now     
generally used in spinning2 but the     
water-frame1 or  throstle1 is still     
found to answer best for some kinds of  
work#aa4 ,but  to return to the fortunes
 of ,arkwright3 the series of machines  
which he  invented or improved gave an  
amazing impulse to the cotton trade4    
8,weavers could now obtain an unlimited 
quantity of yarn at a reasonable  price2
 manufacturers could use warps of       
cotton1 which were much cheaper  than   
the linen warps formerly used4 ,cotton  
fabrics could be sold lower  than had   
ever before been known4 ,the demand for 
them consequently  increased4 ,the      
shuttle flew with fresh energy1 and the 
weavers earned  immoderately high wages4
 ,spinning-mills were erected to supply 
the  requisite quantity of yarn4 ,the   
fame of ,arkwright resounded through the
  land1 and capitalists flocked to him  
to buy his patent machines1 or          

permission to use them40 99 99 99       
,footnote #aa3      ,a third person has 
been mentioned as the inventor both of  
the jenny    and of roller-spinning1    
,thomas ,highs1 of ,leigh1              
above-mentioned1 whose    claims seem   
entitled to more courteous notice than  
they have met with    in the ,edinburgh 
,review4 ,there is nothing unreasonable 
in supposing    that both ,highs and    
,arkwright may have heard of ,wyatt's   
method of    spinning by rollers1 which 
was practised in two factories1 one     
erected    at ,birmingham1 the other at 
,nottingham4    8,the factory system in 
,england takes its rise from this       
period4 ,hitherto  the cotton           
manufacture had been carried on almost  
entirely in the houses  of the workmen3 
the hand or stock-cards1 the            
spinning-wheel1 and the  loom1 required 
no larger apartment than that of a      
cottage4 ,a  spinning-jenny of small    
size might also be used in a cottage1   
and in  many instances was so used2 when

 the number of spindles was considerably
  increased1 adjacent workshops were    
used4 ,but the water-frame1 the         
carding-engine1 and the other machines  
which ,arkwright brought out in a       
finished state1 required both more space
 than could be found in a  cottage1 and 
more power than could be applied by the 
human arm4 ,their  weight also made it  
necessary to place them in              
strongly-built mills1 and  they could   
not be advantageously turned by any     
power then known but that  of water40   
8,the use of machinery was accompanied  
by a greater division of labour  than   
existed in the primitive state of the   
manufacture2 the material  went through 
many more processes1 and of course the  
loss of time and the  risk of waste     
would have been much increased1 if its  
removal from house  to house at every   
stage of the manufacture had been       
necessary4 ,it became  obvious that     
there were several important advantages 
in carrying on the  numerous operations 

of an extensive manufacture in the same 
building4  ,where water-power was       
required1 it was economy to build one   
mill1 and  put up one water-wheel1      
rather than several4 ,this arrangement  
also  enabled the master-spinner himself
 to superintend every stage of the      
manufacture2 it gave him a greater      
security against the wasteful or        
fraudulent consumption of the material2 
it saved time in the  transference of   
the work from hand to hand2 and it      
prevented the extreme  inconvenience    
which would have resulted from the      
failure of one class of  workmen to     
perform their part1 when several other  
classes of workmen  were dependent upon 
them4 ,another circumstance which made  
it  advantageous to have a large number 
of machines in one manufactory was1     
that mechanics must be employed on the  
spot to construct and repair the        
machinery1 and that their time could not
 be fully occupied with only a  few     
machines40    8,all these considerations

 drove the cotton-spinners to that      
important  change in the economy of     
,english manufactures1 the introduction 
of the  factory system2 and when that   
system had once been adopted1 such were 
its pecuniary advantages that mercantile
 competition would have rendered  it    
impossible1 even had it been desirable1 
to abandon it40 7,baines1  #8,history of
 ,cotton ,manufacture1' pages #ahc1     
#ahe47    ,it was not to be expected    
that ,arkwright would enjoy undisturbed 
so  valuable a monopoly as that which he
 had created1 and many persons          
infringed his patents1 in the belief    
that he was not the real owner of  the  
inventions which he claimed4 ,an attempt
 was made in #aggb to set  aside his    
first patent for the water-frame2 but   
this failed1 and he  retained the       
enjoyment of that patent unquestioned   
till the expiration  of the fourteen    
years4 ,to preserve his second patent1  
for the carding1  drawing1 and roving   
machines1 he brought several actions    

against  master-spinners1 one of which1 
against ,colonel ,mordaunt1 was tried in
  #agha1 and a verdict was obtained for 
the defendant1 setting aside the        
patent4 ,arkwright for some time did not
 contest this decision4 ,but in  #aghe1 
he made another attempt to establish his
 second patent before a  court of law2  
and in the first instance obtained a    
verdict in his own  favour1 but on the  
cause being reheard1 the patent was     
finally declared  invalid4              
,notwithstanding this defeat1 ,arkwright
 rapidly acquired a very large  fortune1
 through the magnitude of his concerns1 
and his industry1  penetration1 and     
skill in business4 ,on the dissolution  
of his  partnership with the ,messrs4   
,strutt about #aghc1 the extensive works
 at  ,cromford fell to his share4 ,in   
#aghf1 he was ,high ,sheriff of         
,derbyshire1  and was knighted1 on      
occasion of presenting an address to the
 ,king4 ,we  find no other record worth 
notice of the last years of his life4   

,he  died1 ,august #c1 #agib1 in his    
sixtieth year4    ,arkwright's          
originality and honesty as an inventor  
have been violently  impugned by ,mr4   
,guest1 in his ,history of the ,cotton  
,manufacture4 ,the  arguments on the    
other side may be seen in the ,edinburgh
 ,review1 ,no4 #ia1  to which ,guest    
published a reply4 ,mr4 ,baines's       
,history of the ,cotton  ,manufacture1  
which we have chiefly followed and      
largely quoted from in  this account1   
contains the latest and fullest account 
which we have seen  of ,arkwright's     
character and history4 ,there appears to
 have been some  alloy of selfishness   
and disingenuousness in his disposition1
 some  ground for the statement of      
counsel in the trial of #aghe3 8,it is a
  notorious story in the manufacturing  
counties2 all men that have seen  ,mr4  
,arkwright in a state of opulence have  
shaken their heads1 and  thought of     
these poor men1 ,highs and ,kay1 and    
have thought1 too1 that  they were      

entitled to some participation of the   
profits40 ,still it  becomes us to speak
 with gentleness of the faults of a     
person to whose  talents1 nationally    
speaking1 we owe so much3 and there is  
much to be  said in extenuation of them1
 in consideration of the lowness of his 
original calling1 of the                
self-complacency and sensitive jealousy 
common  to almost all schemers1 and the 
fascination of wealth when it flows     
largely and unexpectedly upon a man bred
 in extreme poverty4 ,as an  inventor   
,arkwright's merit is undeniable4 ,mr4  
,baines1 who seems to have  judged      
calmly and impartially1 assigns to him  
the high praise1 that 8in  improving and
 perfecting mechanical inventions1 in   
exactly adapting them  to the purposes  
for which they were intended1 in        
arranging a  comprehensive system of    
manufacturing1 and in conducting vast   
and  complicated concerns1 he displayed 
a bold and fertile mind1 and  consummate
 judgment1 which1 when his want of      

education1 and the  influence of an     
employment so extremely unfavourable to 
mental expansion  as that of his        
previous life1 are considered1 must have
 excited the  astonishment of mankind4  
,but the marvellous and #8unbounded     
invention1'  which he claimed for       
himself and which has been too readily  
accorded to  him--the creative faculty  
which devised all that admirable        
mechanism1  so entirely new in its      
principles1 and characteristic of the   
first order  of mechanical genius--which
 has given a new spring to the industry 
of the  world1 and within half a century
 has reared up the most extensive       
manufacture ever known--this did not    
belong to ,arkwright40 99 99 99 99 99 99
 99    8,the most marked traits in the  
character of ,arkwright were his        
wonderful  ardour1 energy1 and          
perseverance4 ,he commonly laboured in  
his  multifarious concerns from five    
o'clock in the morning till nine at     
night2 and when considerably more than  

fifty years of age1 feeling that  the   
defects of his education placed him     
under great difficulty and              
inconvenience in conducting his         
correspondence1 and in the general      
management of his business1 he          
encroached upon his sleep1 in order to  
gain an hour each day to learn ,english 
grammar1 and another hour to  improve   
his writing and orthography6 ,he was    
impatient of whatever  interfered with  
his favourite pursuits2 and the fact is 
too strikingly  characteristic not to be
 mentioned1 that he separated from his  
wife not  many years after his marriage1
 because she1 convinced that he would   
starve his family by scheming when he   
should have been shaving1 broke  some of
 his experimental models of machinery4  
,arkwright was a severe  economist of   
time2 and1 that he might not waste a    
moment1 he generally  travelled with    
four horses1 and at a very rapid speed4 
,his concerns in  ,derbyshire1          
,lancashire1 and ,scotland1 were so     

extensive and numerous as  to show at   
once his astonishing power of           
transacting business1 and his           
all-grasping spirit4 ,in many of these  
he had partners1 but he generally       
managed in such a way that1 whoever     
lost1 he himself was a gainer4 ,so      
unbounded was his confidence in the     
success of his machinery1 and in the    
national wealth to be produced by it1   
that he would make light of  discussions
 on taxation1 and say that he would pay 
the national debt6  ,his speculative    
schemes were vast and daring2 he        
contemplated entering  into the most    
extensive mercantile transactions1 and  
buying up all the  cotton in the world1 
in order to make an enormous profit by  
the  monopoly2 and from the extravagance
 of some of these designs1 his          
judicious friends were of opinion that1 
if he had tried to put them in          
practice1 he might have overset the     
whole fabric of his prosperity40        
,illustration3      ,engraved by ,w4    

,holl4      ,,cowper4      ,from a      
,picture in the ,possession of the      
,publisher4      ,under the             
,superintendance of the ,society for the
 ,diffusion of ,useful      ,knowledge4 
,london1 ,published by ,charles ,knight1
 ,ludgate ,street4                      
,illustration                           
,,cowper4      ,william ,cowper was born
 at the rectory of ,berkhampstead1 in   
,hertfordshire1 ,nov4 #bf1 #agca4 ,he   
was nearly related to the noble family  
of that name1 his great-uncle having    
been chancellor and first ,earl         
,cowper3 his grandfather1 the brother of
 the chancellor1 was a judge of  the    
common pleas4 ,cowper's mother died     
before he was six years old4 ,soon      
afterwards he was sent to a country     
school1 from which1 at the age of  nine1
 he was removed to ,westminster4 ,it is 
probable that one cause among  others of
 his future unhappiness was the early   
loss of that tender  parent1 whose      
8constant flow of love10 beautifully    

acknowledged in his  verses on receiving
 her picture1 and in many parts of his  
correspondence1 made a deep and lasting 
impression on his infant mind4  ,cowper 
was exactly the boy to require a        
mother's care4 ,his constitution  was   
delicate1 his mind sensitive and timid2 
and he discovered a tendency  to        
dejection1 which was aggravated by the  
tyranny then practised at our  public   
schools4 ,quitting ,westminster at      
eighteen1 with a good character  for    
talent and scholarship1 he went at once 
into an attorney's office2  where he    
spent three years1 according to his own 
account1 with very  little profit4 ,he  
then became a member of the ,inner      
,temple1 intending to  practise at the  
bar4 ,at this period of life he amused  
himself with  composition1 and showed a 
strong predilection for polite          
literature and  agreeable society2 but  
he had no taste for the law1 and took no
 pains to  qualify himself for his      
profession4 ,long afterwards he deeply  

lamented  the loss of time during his   
early manhood1 and earnestly warned his 
young friends against a similar error4  
,in #agfc ,cowper was appointed to the  
lucrative office of reading clerk1  and 
clerk of the private committees of the  
,house of ,lords4 ,the fairest  prospect
 of happiness now lay before him1 for   
his union with one of his  cousins1 it  
is said1 had only been deferred until he
 should obtain a  satisfactory          
establishment4 ,but the idea of reading 
in public was  intolerable to him2 and  
he gave up this office for the less     
valuable one  of clerk of the journals1 
in which it was hoped that his personal 
appearance before the ,house would not  
be required4 ,unfortunately it did      
prove necessary that he should appear at
 the bar to qualify himself for  the    
post4 8,they whose spirits are formed   
like mine10 he thus expressed  himself  
in after-life1 8to whom a public        
exhibition of themselves is  mortal     
poison1 may have some ideas of the      

horrors of my situation3  others can    
have none40 ,he fought hard against this
 morbid feeling2 but1  when the day     
arrived for entering upon his duties1   
such was his terror  and distress1 that 
even his friends acquiesced in his      
abandoning the  attempt4 ,but his mind  
had been disordered in the struggle1 and
 he  shortly sank into deep religious   
despondency2 so that it was found       
necessary1 in ,december1 #agfc1 to place
 him in a lunatic asylum at ,st4        
,albans1 under the care of ,dr4 ,cotton4
    ,cowper's insanity at this period1  
and the grievous dejection of the last  
twenty-seven years of his life1 have    
been imputed to the so-called           
gloominess of his religious tenets4     
,from that opinion we entirely  dissent4
 ,no sense of religious abasement can be
 conceived able to drive  a sane man to 
distraction at the thought of having to 
appear in a public  capacity before     
,parliament2 and ,cowper's struggles and
 mental distress  on that occasion were 

anterior to his receiving any serious   
impressions  of religion4 ,moreover1 it 
appears certain that his recovery was   
due to  more encouraging views of the   
doctrines of the ,gospel1 assisted by   
the  kind and judicious mental1 as well 
as bodily1 treatment of ,dr4 ,cotton4   
,for eight years his religion was the   
source of unfailing cheerfulness  and   
active benevolence2 and after he ceased 
to derive pleasure from it  in his own  
person1 he was still mild and charitable
 in his conduct  towards others1 and his
 opinions concerning them4 ,the extent  
of ,cowper's  mental wandering on       
subjects unconnected with his own       
spiritual state is  not perhaps         
generally known4 ,a remarkable instance 
of it occurs in a  letter to his        
esteemed friend1 ,mr4 ,newton1 dated    
,october #b1 #aghg1 from  which it      
appears that1 during thirteen years1    
,cowper had entertained  doubts of ,mr4 
,newton's personal identity4 ,at this   
latter period1  therefore1 there was    

hallucination of mind1 as well as       
religious gloom4  ,cowper's recovery    
from his first illness is dated in      
,july1 #agfd2 but he  remained with his 
friendly and beloved physician nearly a 
year more1  after which he took lodgings
 at ,huntingdon1 directed by the wish of
  being within easy reach of his        
brother1 who was a resident ,fellow of  
,benet ,college1 ,cambridge4    ,he soon
 became acquainted with a family1       
bearing the name of ,unwin1  consisting 
of a clergyman1 his wife and daughter1  
and one son1 an  undergraduate of       
,cambridge4 ,struck by ,cowper's        
appearance1 the latter  threw himself   
into the stranger's way2 and a feeling  
of mutual regard  and esteem led to     
,cowper's establishing himself as a     
permanent inmate in  ,mr4 ,unwin's      
family in ,november1 #agfe4 ,after the  
lapse of nearly two  years in tranquil  
happiness1 the sudden death of ,mr4     
,unwin led to the  family's departure   
from ,huntingdon to ,olney in           

,buckinghamshire1 in  ,october1 #agfg4  
,but the foundation had been laid of a  
friendship which no  misfortune or      
change of circumstance could destroy2   
and ,cowper and ,mrs4  ,unwin united    
their slender incomes1 and continued to 
dwell under the  same roof4 ,the first  
six years of their abode at ,olney were 
spent in  domestic quiet and retirement 
almost unbroken1 except by the society  
of  ,mr4 ,newton1 an eminent and        
exemplary divine1 who was then curate on
 the  living4 ,the well-known collection
 called the 8,olney ,hymns0 were        
composed  by ,cowper and ,newton1 for   
the most part1 during this period4 ,but 
in #aggc  ,cowper's mental disease      
returned in the dreadful shape of       
religious  despondency4 ,he conceived   
himself to be set apart for eternal     
misery3  yet amid the deep gloom        
produced by the loss of that spiritual  
happiness  which he had enjoyed since   
his recovery from his first illness1 he 
was  so entirely submissive that he was 

accustomed to say1 8,if holding up my   
finger would save me from endless       
torments1 ,i would not do it against    
the will of ,god20 and in accordance    
with the belief that his own fate  was  
sealed1 he ceased to pray1 and absented 
himself entirely from divine  worship4  
,the depth of his dejection was         
gradually cheered by the  affectionate1 
watchful1 and judicious care of his     
guardian friend1 ,mrs4  ,unwin4 ,one of 
the first signs of improvement was a    
desire to tame some  leverets4 ,he was  
soon supplied with three1 which have    
obtained celebrity  in prose and verse1 
such as no other hares have enjoyed     
before or since4  ,he tried at different
 times gardening1 drawing1 and a variety
 of  trifling manual occupations1 as    
methods of diverting his thoughts from  
his own miseries4 8,many arts ,i have   
exercised with this view10 he says  in a
 letter to ,mrs4 ,king1 8for which      
nature never designed me1 though  among 
them were some in which ,i arrived at   

considerable proficiency1 by  mere dint 
of the most heroic perseverance4 ,there 
is not a squire in all  this country who
 can boast of having made better        
squirrel houses1  hutches for rabbits1  
or bird-cages1 than myself2 and in the  
article of  cabbage-nets ,i had no      
superior4 ,but gardening was1 of all    
employments1  that in which ,i succeeded
 best1 though even in this ,i did not   
suddenly  attain perfection40 7,oct4    
#aa1 #aghh47 ,at last he devoted himself
 to  writing1 8a whim10 he says         
elsewhere1 8that has served me longest  
and  best1 and will probably be my      
latest40 ,his first volume of poems1    
containing 8,table ,talk10 c4 was       
published in the summer of #agha1 having
  been written chiefly in the preceding 
winter4 ,it was undertaken at the       
instance of ,mrs4 ,unwin1 who1 on his   
recovery from a long fit of unusual     
dejection1 urged him to devote his      
attention to a work of some extent1  and
 such as should require a considerable  

share of application and  attention4 ,at
 the same time she suggested as a       
subject the 8,progress of  ,error10     
which is the second piece in the volume4
 ,cowper had already  written many of   
his lighter pieces1 and that at the     
times when he was  labouring under the  
severest depression4 ,he accounts for   
this singular  phenomenon with his      
peculiar and playful humour4 8,the mind1
 long wearied  with the sameness of a   
dull1 dreary prospect1 will gladly fix  
its eyes  on anything that may make a   
little variety in its contemplations1   
though  it were but a kitten playing    
with its tail40    ,early in #aghj1     
,cowper lost a valued friend1 and almost
 his only  associate1 by the removal of 
,mr4 ,newton to ,london4 ,in the        
following year  he became acquainted    
with ,lady ,austen1 who1 for a short    
time1 fills a  prominent place in the   
poet's history4 ,we must refer to fuller
 memoirs  for the tale of her           
introduction1 and the gradual growth of 

that strict  intimacy which ensued      
between herself1 ,mrs4 ,unwin1 and      
,cowper4 ,for some  time the three      
friends spent a considerable portion of 
every day in each  other's society2 and 
,cowper was indebted to ,lady ,austen's 
liveliness in  conversation and varied  
accomplishments for a great alleviation 
of his  mental sufferings4 ,the famous  
history of ,john ,gilpin owes its birth 
to a  story told by her one evening1 to 
rouse the poet out of a fit of          
despondency2 and it engaged his fancy so
 strongly1 that in the course of  the   
night1 during which he was kept awake by
 fits of laughter1 he turned  it into   
verse4 ,the ballad soon got abroad1 and 
obtained unusual  popularity3 it was    
long before the author was known4 8,the 
,task0 was  composed at ,lady ,austen's 
request4 ,she saw the benefit which     
,cowper  derived from earnest literary  
employment1 and often urged him to try  
his  strength in blank verse4 ,after    
some pressing1 he promised to comply1 if

  she would furnish him with a subject4 
8,oh1 you can write on anything10  she  
said2 8write on this sofa40 ,the lively 
answer chimed in with his  peculiar     
humour1 and he adopted it literally3 his
 sofa forms the subject  of the poem2   
the first book of which is entitled     
8,the ,sofa10 and opens  with a history 
of the invention and merits of that     
piece of furniture1  which is           
unsurpassed in its peculiar vein of     
humour4 ,but the author soon  rises into
 a higher strain1 and in his discursive 
range paints the  beauty of the country 
with that fidelity and exquisite sense  
of natural  beauty which constitutes his
 chief poetic merit2 describes the      
peculiar  appearances and occupations of
 the winter season2 weighs the evils and
  advantages attendant on a high state  
of civilization2 exhibits1 in  reproving
 the faults of the age1 his power both  
in the lighter  skirmishing of satire1  
and in the stern outpouring of an honest
  indignation2 inculcates the doctrines 

of that religion of peace and love  from
 which it was his own singular and      
melancholy lot to derive no  peace2 and 
all with a beauty and facility of       
versification1 and power of             
illustration1 sufficient to attract many
 whom the grave nature of the  subjects 
to be discussed would rather deter4 ,the
 scope and conduct of  the work is well 
described in the following lines from   
the conclusion1  in which1 anticipating 
death1 he says--              ,it shall 
not grieve me then1 that once1 when     
call'd            ,to dress a sofa with 
the flowers of verse1            ,i     
played awhile1 obedient to the fair1    
,with that light task3 but soon1 to     
please her more1            ,whom       
flowers alone ,i knew would little      
please1            ,let fall the        
unfinish'd wreath1 and roved for fruit2 
,roved far and gather'd much3 some      
harsh1 'tis true1            ,pick'd    
from the thorns and briers of reproof1  
,but wholesome1 well digested1 grateful 

some            ,to palates that can    
taste immortal truth2                   
,insipid else1 and sure to be despised4 
8,the ,task0 was accompanied by a       
shorter poem1 entitled 8,tirocinium10   
written expressly in dispraise of the   
existing system of public schools  in   
,england2 and prompted by ,cowper's     
bitter recollection of his  sufferings  
at ,westminster4 ,the volume was        
published in #aghe4    ,as soon as this 
was completed1 ,cowper engaged in       
another more laborious  undertaking1 the
 translation of ,homer4 ,this also was  
suggested by ,lady  ,austen2 and it had 
a most beneficial effect in furnishing  
the poet with  constant employment from 
this time forward to the end of his     
life1 with  the exception of those      
periods in which the pressure of disease
 was too  severe to admit of any        
exertion4 ,he spared no pains in the    
execution of  this great work2 and after
 his version was made1 subjected it to a
 most  careful revision1 amounting      

nearly to a re-translation4 ,it was     
published  in #agia1 and was preceded by
 a list of subscribers1 whose number and
  individual eminence bear testimony to 
the high esteem in which ,cowper  was   
then held4 ,his translation1 however1   
has never been popular3 he has  avoided 
,pope's errors1 but he has failed in    
giving life and interest1  and in       
catching the vital spirit of his author4
    ,during the long period which the   
literary labours above-mentioned        
occupied1 ,cowper's domestic history is 
characterized by the same general       
depression and the same seclusion as we 
have above described4 ,in #aghd  his    
friendship with ,lady ,austen was       
interrupted by a disagreement  between  
her and ,mrs4 ,unwin1 who seems to have 
feared that the former  might obtain an 
influence over the poet paramount to her
 own2 and to  have been justly hurt at  
the prospect of becoming second in the  
affections of him1 to whom1 for so many 
years1 she had devoted herself  with a  

zeal which merited the utmost return4   
,cowper felt this1 and he  himself broke
 off his intercourse with ,lady ,austen1
 in a way which was  admitted by herself
 to do credit to his delicacy and       
judgment1 no less  than to his          
generosity4 ,in about a year after the  
termination of this  valuable           
friendship1 he received the best amends 
that could be made1 in  the renewal of  
intercourse1 after it had been          
interrupted for  twenty-three years1    
with his cousin ,lady ,hesketh1 to whom 
from childhood  he had been strongly    
attached4 ,she visited ,olney in ,june1 
#aghf2 and from  that time forwards her 
purse and her personal exertions were   
unsparingly  bestowed to promote the    
comfort of her beloved cousin4 ,at her  
instance  his confined and ruinous abode
 at ,olney was exchanged in ,november1  
#aghf1  for a commodious house in the   
pretty neighbouring village of ,weston1 
which was especially recommended to     
,cowper as being the residence of his   

esteemed friends ,mr4 and ,mrs4         
,throckmorton4 ,here ,lady ,hesketh     
commonly  spent part of the year4 ,the  
state of ,cowper's spirits during his   
residence at ,weston was variable2 but  
he made a few new acquaintance1  and    
among them his correspondent1 ,mr4      
,rose1 and his biographer1 ,mr4         
,hayley4 ,he also enjoyed a vivid       
pleasure in the renewal of intercourse  
with his maternal relations1 among whom 
his young cousin ,johnson1 who          
afterwards became his tender and devoted
 guardian1 obtained an especial  place  
in his affections4 ,still1 however1 his 
mental malady continued  unabated2 and a
 new cause of uneasiness beset him in   
the growing  infirmities of ,mrs4       
,unwin4 ,in ,march1 #agib1 the disease  
which had been  for some time sapping   
her strength1 manifested itself in a    
paralytic  attack1 from which she never 
entirely recovered4 ,from thenceforward 
,cowper's time and attention were       
devoted1 as his primary object1 to      

contributing to her comfort and         
amusement4 ,in her company he quitted   
his  home1 the first time for           
twenty-seven years1 to visit ,mr4       
,hayley's seat  at ,eartham1 in ,sussex4
 ,two important works had engaged his   
attention3  one a poem on the four ages 
of man's life1 the other an edition of  
,milton4 ,these1 however1 were          
successively laid aside2 and such time  
as  his weak spirits and melancholy     
occupation allowed him1 be employed in  
revising his ,homer for a second        
edition4 ,but ,mrs4 ,unwin became more  
and  more enfeebled in mind and body2   
and in the beginning of #agid ,cowper   
relapsed into a gloom as deep as that   
which he had endured at the             
commencement of his malady4 ,to watch   
over him in this melancholy ,lady       
,hesketh made ,weston her constant1     
instead of her occasional abode1 until  
the middle of the following year1 when  
her health gave way under the  constant 
pressure of anxiety4 ,mr4 ,johnson1 who 

had taken orders1 and  resided at ,east 
,dereham in ,norfolk1 then undertook the
 charge of his  unhappy relation2       
removed him and ,mrs4 ,unwin into his   
own neighbourhood1  and watched over    
their decline with the most unwearied   
and judicious  tenderness4 ,but little  
could now be done to give ,cowper       
pleasure4 ,the  pathetic poem1 8,to     
,mary10 is supposed by ,mr4 ,hayley to  
have been the  last thing written by him
 before quitting ,weston2 and the only  
original  verses which he composed      
afterwards were some ,latin lines1 which
 he  translated into ,english1 on the   
appearance of some ice islands in the   
,german ,sea1 and the touching poem     
called the 8,cast-away10 founded on the 
loss of a man overboard in ,anson's     
voyage1 and alluding in an affecting    
strain to his own unfortunate condition4
 ,after his departure from  ,weston1 he 
who had been so diligent a correspondent
 only wrote three or  four letters2 nor 
could he be excited to converse by the  

visits even of  his most intimate       
friends1 as ,mr4 ,rose and ,sir ,john   
,throckmorton4 ,in  ,january1 #ahjj1 his
 final illness1 which was dropsy1       
commenced4 ,he died  ,april #beth in the
 same year2 nor to the last did one     
gleam of hope break  through the        
darkness which had surrounded him for   
twenty-seven years4    ,it was ,cowper's
 especial merit as a poet to cultivate  
simplicity and  nature4 ,he set the     
example of throwing aside conventional  
affectations  and unmeaning pomp of     
diction1 and in consideration of this   
great  service may well be pardoned for 
occasionally incurring the opposite     
fault of being tame and prosaic4 ,his   
genius was truly original3 all his      
writings1 whether moral1 satirical1 or  
descriptive1 bear the legible  impress  
of his own peculiar constitution of mind
 and habits of thinking4  ,his minor and
 occasional poems are very happy1 for   
his imagination could  extract a deep   
and beautiful moral from slight         

occurrences1 which  commonly pass       
unnoticed in the bustle of life4 ,many  
of his letters are  published in        
,hayley's ,life of ,cowper2 and these   
are embodied with the  ,private         
,correspondence afterwards given to the 
world by ,mr4 ,johnson1 in  the edition 
of ,cowper's works by ,mr4 ,grimshawe   
now in the press4 ,as a  letter writer  
,cowper appears to us to be unequalled  
in the ,english  language4 ,his         
correspondence is the genuine           
intercourse of friend with  friend2 full
 of wit and humour1 but a humour that   
never vents itself in  the depreciation 
of others2 and abounding in passages of 
graver beauty1  expressed in the most   
easy1 yet elegant and correct language4 
,when once  a man knows that his letters
 are admired1 he is in great danger of  
writing for admiration4 ,cowper was     
aware of this1 and occasionally  alludes
 to the temptation in lively terms4 8,i 
love praise dearly1  especially from the
 judicious1 and those who have so much  

delicacy  themselves as not to offend   
mine in giving it4 ,but then ,i found   
this  consequence attending1 or likely  
to attend1 the eulogium you bestowed4   
,if my friend thought me witty before1  
he shall think me ten times more  witty 
hereafter2 where ,i joked once1 ,i will 
joke five times2 and for  every sensible
 remark1 ,i will send him a dozen4 ,now 
this foolish vanity  would have spoiled 
me quite1 and have made me as disgusting
 a letter  writer as ,pope1 who seems to
 have thought that unless a sentence was
  well turned1 and every sentence       
pointed with some conceit1 it was not   
worth the carriage4 ,i was willing      
therefore to wait until the impression  
that your commendation had made on the  
foolish part of me was worn off1  that  
,i might scribble away as usual1 and    
write my uppermost thoughts1  and those 
only40 7,june #h1 #aghj4 ,to the ,rev4  
,w4 ,unwin47 ,no one ever  avoided this 
danger better4 ,it is strange and       
wonderful that these  compositions1     

which bear the stamp of so much         
cheerfulness and  benevolence1 should   
have been written1 most of them1 in his 
deepest  gloom1 and avowedly for the    
purpose of withdrawing his thoughts from
 his  own misery4    ,illustration3     
,tomb of ,cowper1 in ,east ,dereham     
,church1 ,norfolk4                      
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,transcriber',s ,,notes       #a4      
,changed 8better0 to 8letter0 on p4 #bh4
   #b4 ,changed 8the placing the0 to    
8the placing of the0 on p4 #abh4   #c4  
,silently corrected typographical       
errors4   #d4 ,retained anachronistic   
and non-standard spellings as printed4  
#e4 ,enclosed italics font in           
underscores4   #f4 ,superscripts are    
denoted by a carat before a single      
superscript        character or a series
 of superscripted characters enclosed in
        curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or      
,mister4