,illustration3 ,,orville ,,wright ,,in ,,the #hj-,,mile-,,an-,,hour 8,,baby ,,wright0 ,,racer4 ,how ,it ,flies or1 ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,air ,the ,story of ,man's ,endeavors to ,fly and of the ,inventions by which ,he ,has ,succeeded ,by ,,richard ,,ferris1 ,b4,s41 ,c4,e4 ,illustrated by ,over ,one ,hundred and ,fifty ,half-tones and ,line ,drawings1 ,showing the ,stages of ,development from the ,earliest ,balloon to the ,latest ,monoplane and ,biplane ,new ,york ,,thomas ,,nelson ,,and ,,sons #cha-che ,fourth ,avenue ,copyright1 #aiaj1 by ,,thomas ,,nelson ,,sons ,,the ,,trow ,,press1 ,,new ,,york ,,preface ,in these pages1 by means of simple language and suitable pictures1 the author has told the story of the ,ships of the ,air4 ,he has explained the laws of their flight2 sketched their development to the present day2 shown how to build the flying machine and the balloon1 and how to operate them2 recounted what man has done1 and what he hopes to do with their aid4 ,in a word1 all the essential facts that enter into the ,conquest of the ,air have been gathered into orderly form1 and are here presented to the public4 ,we who live to-day have witnessed man's great achievement2 we have seen his dream of ages come true4 ,man has learned to fly6 ,the air which surrounds us1 so intangible and so commonplace that it seldom arrests our attention1 is in reality a vast1 unexplored ocean1 fraught with future possibilities4 ,even now1 the pioneers of a countless fleet are hovering above us in the sky1 while steadily1 surely these wonderful possibilities are unfolded4 ,the ,publishers take pleasure in acknowledging their indebtedness to the ,scientific ,american for their courtesy in permitting the use of many of the illustrations appearing in this book4 ,,new ,,york1 ,october #bj1 #aiaj4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,preface #g ,i4 ,,introductory #aa ,,ii4 ,,the ,,air #bj ,,iii4 ,,laws ,,of ,,flight #cg ,,iv4 ,,flying ,,machines #ee ,v4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,the ,,biplane #gh ,,vi4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,the ,,monoplane #aab ,,vii4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,other ,,forms #ada ,,viii4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,how ,,to ,,operate #aea ,,ix4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,how ,,to ,,build #agd ,x4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,motors #aic ,,xi4 ,,model ,,flying ,,machines #bae ,,xii4 ,,the ,,glider #bda ,,xiii4 ,,balloons #beg ,,xiv4 ,,balloons3 ,,the ,,dirigible #bif ,,xv4 ,,balloons3 ,,how ,,to ,,operate #cdj ,,xvi4 ,,balloons3 ,,how ,,to ,,make #cea ,,xvii4 ,,military ,,aeronautics #cfc ,,xviii4 ,,biographies ,,of ,,prominent ,,aeronauts #cgi ,,xix4 ,,chronicle ,,of ,,aviation ,,achievements #djg ,,xx4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,aeronautical ,,terms #deb ,,how ,,it ,,flies ,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,the sudden awakening--,early successes--,influence of the gasoline engine on aeroplanes--,on dirigible balloons--,interested inquiry--,some general terms defined4 ,in the year #aijh the world awakened suddenly to the realization that at last the centuries of man's endeavor to fly mechanically had come to successful fruition4 ,there had been a little warning4 ,in the late autumn of #aijf1 ,santos-,dumont made a flight of #gbj feet in a power-driven machine4 ,there was an exclamation of wonder1 a burst of applause--then a relapse into unconcern4 ,in ,august1 #aijg1 ,louis ,bleriot sped free of the ground for #dgj feet2 and in ,november1 ,santos-,dumont made two flying leaps of barely #ejj feet4 ,that was the year's record1 and it excited little comment4 ,it is true that the ,wright brothers had been making long flights1 but they were in secret4 ,there was no public knowledge of them4 ,in #aijh came the revelation4 ,in ,march1 ,delagrange flew in a ,voisin biplane #dec feet1 carrying ,farman with him as a passenger4 ,two weeks later he flew alone nearly #b miles4 ,in ,may he flew nearly #h miles4 ,in ,june his best flight was #aj miles4 ,bleriot came on the scene again in ,july with a monoplane1 in which he flew #c miles4 ,in ,september1 ,delagrange flew #ae miles--in less than #cj minutes4 ,in the same month the ,wrights began their wonderful public flights4 ,wilbur1 in ,france1 made records of #da1 #df1 #fb1 and #gg miles1 while ,orville flew from #dj to #ej miles at ,fort ,myer1 ,va4 ,wilbur ,wright's longest flight kept him in the air #b hours and #bj minutes4 ,the goal had been reached--men had achieved the apparently impossible4 ,the whole world was roused to enthusiasm4 ,since then1 progress has been phenomenally rapid1 urged on by the striving of the inventors1 the competition of the aircraft builders1 and the contests for records among the pilots4 ,by far the largest factor in the triumph of the aeroplane is the improved gasoline engine1 designed originally for automobiles4 ,without this wonderful type of motor1 delivering a maximum of power with a minimum of weight1 from concentrated fuel1 the flying machine would still be resting on the earth4 ,illustration3 ,the ,renard and ,krebs airship ,la ,france1 at ,chalais-,meudon4 ,nor has the influence of the gasoline motor been much less upon that other great class of aircraft1 the dirigible balloon4 ,after #ahhe1 when ,renard and ,krebs' airship ,la ,france made its two historic voyages from ,chalais-,meudon to ,paris1 returning safely to its shed1 under the propulsion of an electric motor1 the problem of the great airship lay dormant1 waiting for the discovery of adequate motive power4 ,if the development of the dirigible balloon seems less spectacular than that of the aeroplane1 it is because the latter had to be created2 the dirigible1 already in existence1 had only to be revivified4 ,confronted with these new and strange shapes in the sky1 some making stately journeys of hundreds of miles1 others whirring hither and thither with the speed of the whirlwind1 wonder quickly gives way to the all-absorbing question3 ,how do they fly8 ,to answer fully and satisfactorily1 it seems wise1 for many readers1 to recall in the succeeding chapters some principles doubtless long since forgotten4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as with every great advance in civilization1 this expansion of the science of aeronautics has had its effect upon the language of the day4 ,terms formerly in use have become restricted in application1 and other terms have been coined to convey ideas so entirely new as to find no suitable word existent in our language4 ,it seems requisite1 therefore1 first to acquaint the reader with clear definitions of the more common terms that are used throughout this book4 ,aeronautics is the word employed to designate the entire subject of aerial navigation4 ,an aeronaut is a person who sails1 or commands1 any form of aircraft1 as distinguished from a passenger4 ,aviation is limited to the subject of flying by machines which are not floated in the air by gas4 ,an aviator is an operator of such machine4 ,illustration3 ,a free balloon1 with parachute4 ,both aviators and aeronauts are often called pilots4 ,a balloon is essentially an envelope or bag filled with some gaseous substance which is lighter1 bulk for bulk1 than the air at the surface of the earth1 and which serves to float the apparatus in the air4 ,in its usual form it is spherical1 with a car or basket suspended below it4 ,it is a captive balloon if it is attached to the ground by a cable1 so that it may not rise above a certain level1 nor float away in the wind4 ,it is a free balloon if not so attached or anchored1 but is allowed to drift where the wind may carry it1 rising and falling at the will of the pilot4 ,illustration3 ,a dirigible balloon4 ,a dirigible balloon1 sometimes termed simply a dirigible1 usually has its gas envelope elongated in form4 ,it is fitted with motive power to propel it1 and steering mechanism to guide it4 ,it is distinctively the airship4 ,aeroplanes are those forms of flying machines which depend for their support in the air upon the spread of surfaces which are variously called wings1 sails1 or planes4 ,they are commonly driven by propellers actuated by motors4 ,when not driven by power they are called gliders4 ,illustration3 ,a biplane glider4 ,aeroplanes exist in several types3 the monoplane1 with one spread of surface2 the biplane1 with two spreads1 one above the other2 the triplane1 with three spreads1 or decks2 the multiplane1 with more than three4 ,the tetrahedral plane is a structure of many small cells set one upon another4 ,ornithopter is the name given to a flying machine which is operated by flapping wings4 ,illustration3 ,a parachute descending4 ,helicopter is used to designate machines which are lifted vertically and sustained in the air by propellers revolving in a horizontal plane1 as distinguished from the propellers of the aeroplane1 which revolve in vertical planes4 ,a parachute is an umbrella-like contrivance by which an aeronaut may descend gently from a balloon in mid-air1 buoyed up by the compression of the air under the umbrella4 ,for the definition of other and more technical terms the reader is referred to the carefully prepared ,glossary toward the end of the book4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,air4 ,intangibility of air--,its substance--,weight--,extent--,density--, expansion by heat--,alcohol fire--,turbulence of the air--,inertia--,elasticity--,viscosity-- ,velocity of winds--,aircurrents--,cloud levels--,aerological stations--,high altitudes--,practical suggestions--,the ideal highway4 ,the air about us seems the nearest approach to nothingness that we know of4 ,a pail is commonly said to be empty--to have nothing in it--when it is filled only with air4 ,this is because our senses do not give us any information about air4 ,we cannot see it1 hear it1 touch it4 ,when air is in motion 7wind7 we hear the noises it makes as it passes among other objects more substantial2 and we feel it as it blows by us1 or when we move rapidly through it4 ,we get some idea that it exists as a substance when we see dead leaves caught up in it and whirled about2 and1 more impressively1 when in the violence of the hurricane it seizes upon a body of great size and weight1 like the roof of a house1 and whisks it away as though it were a feather1 at a speed exceeding that of the fastest railroad train4 ,in a milder form1 this invisible and intangible air does some of our work for us in at least two ways that are conspicuous3 it moves ships upon the ocean1 and it turns a multitude of windmills1 supplying the cheapest power known4 ,that this atmosphere is really a fluid ocean1 having a definite substance1 and in some respects resembling the liquid ocean upon which our ships sail1 and that we are only crawling around on the bottom of it1 as it were1 is a conception we do not readily grasp4 ,yet this conception must be the foundation of every effort to sail1 to fly1 in this aerial ocean1 if such efforts are to be crowned with success4 ,as a material substance the air has certain physical properties1 and it is the part of wisdom for the man who would fly to acquaint himself with these properties4 ,if they are helpful to his flight1 he wants to use them2 if they hinder1 he must contrive to overcome them4 ,in general1 it may be said that the air1 being in a gaseous form1 partakes of the properties of all gases--and these may be studied in any text-book on physics1 ,here we are concerned only with those qualities which affect conditions under which we strive to fly4 ,of first importance is the fact that air has weight4 ,that is1 in common with all other substances1 it is attracted by the mass of the earth exerted through the force we call gravity4 ,at the level of the sea1 this attraction causes the air to press upon the earth with a weight of nearly fifteen pounds 7accurately1 #ad4g lbs47 to the square inch1 when the temperature is at #cb ,f4 ,that pressure is the weight of a column of air one inch square at the base1 extending upward to the outer limit of the atmosphere--estimated to be about #ch miles 7some say #ajj miles7 above sea-level4 ,the practical fact is that normal human life cannot exist above the level of #ae1jjj feet1 or a little less than three miles2 and navigation of the air will doubtless be carried on at a much lower altitude1 for reasons which will appear as we continue4 ,the actual weight of a definite quantity of dry air--for instance1 a cubic foot--is found by weighing a vessel first when full of air1 and again after the air has been exhausted from it with an air-pump4 ,in this way it has been determined that a cubic foot of dry air1 at the level of the sea1 and at a temperature of #cb ,f41 weighs #efe grains--about #j4jhjg lb4 ,at a height above the level of the sea1 a cubic foot of air will weigh less than the figure quoted1 for its density decreases as we go upward1 the pressure being less owing to the diminished attraction of the earth at the greater distance4 ,for instance1 at the height of a mile above sea-level a cubic foot of air will weigh about #dcc grains1 or #j4jfai lb4 ,at the height of five miles it will weigh about #baf grains1 or #j4jcji lb4 ,at thirty-eight miles it will have no weight at all1 its density being so rare as just to balance the earth's attraction4 ,it has been calculated that the whole body of air above the earth1 if it were all of the uniform density of that at sea-level1 would extend only to the height of #bf1aff feet4 ,perhaps a clearer comprehension of the weight and pressure of the ocean of air upon the earth may be gained by recalling that the pressure of the #ch miles of atmosphere is just equal to balancing a column of water #cc feet high4 ,the pressure of the air1 therefore1 is equivalent to the pressure of a flood of water #cc feet deep4 ,illustration3 ,comparative ,elevations of ,earth and ,air4 ,but air is seldom dry4 ,it is almost always mingled with the vapor of water1 and this vapor weighs only #ceb grains per cubic foot at sea-level4 ,consequently the mixture--damp air--is lighter than dry air1 in proportion to the moisture it contains4 ,illustration3 ,apparatus to show effects of heat on air currents4 a1 alcohol lamp2 b1 ice4 ,the arrows show direction of currents4 ,another fact very important to the aeronaut is that the air is in constant motion4 ,owing to its ready expansion by heat1 a body of air occupying one cubic foot when at a temperature of #cb ,f4 will occupy more space at a higher temperature1 and less space at a lower temperature4 ,hence1 heated air will flow upward until it reaches a point where the natural density of the atmosphere is the same as its expanded density due to the heating4 ,here another complication comes into play1 for ascending air is cooled at the rate of one degree for every #ahc feet it rises2 and as it cools it grows denser1 and the speed of its ascension is thus gradually checked4 ,after passing an altitude of #a1jjj feet the decrease in temperature is one degree for each #cbj feet of ascent4 ,in general1 it may be stated that air is expanded one-tenth of its volume for each #ej ,f4 that its temperature is raised4 ,this highly unstable condition under ordinary changes of temperature causes continual movements in the air1 as different portions of it are constantly seeking that position in the atmosphere where their density at that moment balances the earth's attraction4 ,sir ,hiram ,maxim relates an incident which aptly illustrates the effect of change of temperature upon the air4 ,he says3 8,on one occasion1 many years ago1 ,i was present when a bonded warehouse in ,new ,york containing #aj1jjj barrels of alcohol was burned4444 ,i walked completely around the fire1 and found things just as ,i expected4 ,the wind was blowing a perfect hurricane through every street in the direction of the fire1 although it was a dead calm everywhere else2 the flames mounted straight in the air to an enormous height1 and took with them a large amount of burning wood4 ,when ,i was fully #ejj feet from the fire1 a piece of partly burned one-inch board1 about #h inches wide and #d feet long1 fell through the air and landed near me4 ,this board had evidently been taken up to a great height by the tremendous uprush of air caused by the burning alcohol40 ,that which happened on a small scale1 with a violent change of temperature1 in the case of the alcohol fire1 is taking place on a larger scale1 with milder changes in temperature1 all over the world4 ,the heating by the sun in one locality causes an expansion of air at that place1 and cooler1 denser air rushes in to fill the partial vacuum4 ,in this way winds are produced4 ,so the air in which we are to fly is in a state of constant motion1 which may be likened to the rush and swirl of water in the rapids of a mountain torrent4 ,the tremendous difference is that the perils of the water are in plain sight of the navigator1 and may be guarded against1 while those of the air are wholly invisible1 and must be met as they occur1 without a moment's warning4 ,illustration3 ,the solid arrows show the directions of a cyclonic wind on the earth's surface4 ,at the centre the currents go directly upward4 ,in the upper air above the cyclone the currents have the directions of the dotted arrows4 ,next in importance1 to the aerial navigator1 is the air's resistance4 ,this is due in part to its density at the elevation at which he is flying1 and in part to the direction and intensity of its motion1 or the wind4 ,while this resistance is far less than that of water to the passage of a ship1 it is of serious moment to the aeronaut1 who must force his fragile machine through it at great speed1 and be on the alert every instant to combat the possibility of a fall as he passes into a rarer and less buoyant stratum4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing disturbance of wind currents by inequalities of the ground1 and the smoother currents of the upper air4 ,note the increase of density at ,a and ,b1 caused by compression against the upper strata4 ,three properties of the air enter into the sum total of its resistance--inertia1 elasticity1 and viscosity4 ,inertia is its tendency to remain in the condition in which it may be3 at rest1 if it is still2 in motion1 if it is moving4 ,some force must be applied to disturb this inertia1 and in consequence when the inertia is overcome a certain amount of force is used up in the operation4 ,elasticity is that property by virtue of which air tends to reoccupy its normal amount of space after disturbance4 ,an illustration of this tendency is the springing back of the handle of a bicycle pump if the valve at the bottom is not open1 and the air in the pump is simply compressed1 not forced into the tire4 ,viscosity may be described as 8stickiness0--the tendency of the particles of air to cling together1 to resist separation4 ,to illustrate3 molasses1 particularly in cold weather1 has greater viscosity than water2 varnish has greater viscosity than turpentine4 ,air exhibits some viscosity1 though vastly less than that of cold molasses4 ,however1 though relatively slight1 this viscosity has a part in the resistance which opposes the rapid flight of the airship and aeroplane2 and the higher the speed1 the greater the retarding effect of viscosity4 ,the inertia of the air1 while in some degree it blocks the progress of his machine1 is a benefit to the aeronaut1 for it is inertia which gives the blades of his propeller 8hold0 upon the air4 ,the elasticity of the air1 compressed under the curved surfaces of the aeroplane1 is believed to be helpful in maintaining the lift4 ,the effect of viscosity may be greatly reduced by using surfaces finished with polished varnish--just as greasing a knife will permit it to be passed with less friction through thick molasses4 ,in the case of winds1 the inertia of the moving mass becomes what is commonly termed 8wind pressure0 against any object not moving with it at an equal speed4 ,the following table gives the measurements of wind pressure1 as recorded at the station on the ,eiffel ,tower1 for differing velocities of wind3 ------------------------------------- ,velocity ,velocity ,pressure in ,miles in ,feet in ,pounds on per ,hour per ,second a ,square ,foot ------------------------------------- #b #b4i #j4jab #d #e4i #j4jdh #f #h4h #j4ajh #h #aa4g #j4aib #aj #ad4g #j4cjj #ae #bb4j #j4fge #bj #bi4d #a4bjj #be #cf4g #a4hge #cj #dd4j #b4gjj #ce #ea4c #c4fge #dj #eh4g #d4hjj #de #ff4j #f4jge #ej #gc4d #g4ejj #fj #hh4j #aj4hjj #gj #ajb4g #ad4gjj #hj #aag4b #ai4bjj #ij #acb4j #bd4cjj #ajj #adf4g #cj4jjj ------------------------------------- ,in applying this table1 the velocity to be considered is the net velocity of the movements of the airship and of the wind4 ,if the ship is moving #bj miles an hour against a head wind blowing #bj miles an hour1 the net velocity of the wind will be #dj miles an hour1 and the pressure #d4h lbs4 a square foot of surface presented4 ,therefore the airship will be standing still1 so far as objects on the ground are concerned4 ,if the ship is sailing #bj miles an hour with the wind1 which is blowing #bj miles an hour1 the pressure per square foot will be only #a4b lbs42 while as regards objects on the ground1 the ship will be travelling #dj miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,apparatus for the study of the action of air in motion2 a blower at the farther end of the great tube sends a 8wind0 of any desired velocity through it4 ,planes and propellers of various forms are thus tested4 ,systematic study of the movements of the air currents has not been widespread1 and has not progressed much beyond the gathering of statistics which may serve as useful data in testing existing theories or formulating new ones4 ,it is already recognized that there are certain 8tides0 in the atmosphere1 recurring twice daily in six-hour periods1 as in the case of the ocean tides1 and perhaps from the same causes4 ,other currents are produced by the earth's rotation4 ,then there are the five-day oscillations noted by ,eliot in ,india1 and daily movements1 more or less regular1 due to the sun's heat by day and the lack of it by night4 ,the complexity of these motions makes scientific research extremely difficult4 ,something definite has been accomplished in the determination of wind velocities1 though this varies largely with the locality4 ,in the ,united ,states the average speed of the winds is #i miles per hour2 in ,europe1 #aj miles2 in ,southern ,asia1 #f miles2 in the ,west ,indies1 #f miles2 in ,england1 #ab miles2 over the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean1 #bi miles per hour4 ,each of these average velocities varies with the time of year and time of day1 and with the distance from the sea4 ,the wind moves faster over water and flat1 bare land than over hilly or forest-covered areas4 ,velocities increase as we go upward in the air1 being at #a1fjj feet twice what they are at #ajj feet4 ,observations of the movements of cloud forms at the ,blue ,hill ,observatory1 near ,boston1 give the following results3 --------------------------------------- ,cloud ,form ,height ,average ,speed in ,feet per ,hour --------------------------------------- ,stratus #a1fgf #ai miles4 ,cumulus #e1cbf #bd miles4 ,alto-cumulus #ab1gbd #cd miles4 ,cirro-cumulus #ba1hhh #ga miles4 ,cirrus #bi1cag #gh miles4 --------------------------------------- ,in winter the speed of cirrus clouds may reach #if miles per hour4 ,there are forty-nine stations scattered over ,germany where statistics concerning winds are gathered expressly for the use of aeronauts4 ,at many of these stations records have been kept for twenty years4 ,dr4 ,richard ,assman1 director of the aerological observatory at ,lindenburg1 has prepared a comprehensive treatise of the statistics in possession of these stations1 under the title of ,die ,winde in ,deutschland4 ,it shows for each station1 and for each season of the year1 how often the wind blows from each point of the compass2 the average frequency of the several degrees of wind2 when and where aerial voyages may safely be made2 the probable drift of dirigibles1 etc4 ,it is interesting to note that ,friedrichshafen1 where ,count ,zeppelin's great airship sheds are located1 is not a favorable place for such vessels1 having a yearly record of twenty-four stormy days1 as compared with but two stormy days at ,celle1 four at ,berlin1 four at ,cassel1 and low records at several other points4 ,in practical aviation1 a controlling factor is the density of the air4 ,we have seen that at an altitude of five miles the density is about three-eighths the density at sea-level4 ,this means that the supporting power of the air at a five-mile elevation is so small that the area of the planes must be increased to more than #b times the area suited to flying near the ground1 or that the speed must be largely increased4 ,therefore the adjustments necessary for rising at the lower level and journeying in the higher level are too large and complex to make flying at high altitudes practicable--leaving out of consideration the bitter cold of the upper regions4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,lawrence ,rotch1 director of the ,blue ,hill ,observatory1 in his valuable book1 ,the ,conquest of the ,air1 gives this practical summary of a long series of studious observations3 8,at night1 however1 because there are no ascending currents1 the wind is much steadier than in the daytime1 making night the most favorable time for aerial navigation of all kinds4444 ,a suitable height in the daytime1 unless a strong westerly wind is sought1 lies above the cumulus clouds1 at the height of about a mile2 but at night it is not necessary to rise so high2 and in summer a region of relatively little wind is found at a height of about three-fourths of a mile1 where it is also warmer and drier than in the daytime or at the ground40 ,notwithstanding all difficulties1 the fact remains that1 once they are overcome1 the air is the ideal highway for travel and transportation4 ,on the sea1 a ship may sail to right or left on one plane only4 ,in the air1 we may steer not only to right or left1 but above and below1 and obliquely in innumerable planes4 ,we shall not need to traverse long distances in a wrong direction to find a bridge by which we may cross a river1 nor zigzag for toilsome miles up the steep slopes of a mountain-side to the pass where we may cross the divide4 ,the course of the airship is the proverbial bee-line--the most economical in time as well as in distance4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,laws ,,of ,,flight4 ,the bird--,nature's models--,man's methods--,gravity--,the balloon--,the airship--,resistance of the air--,winds--,the kite--,laws of motion and force--,application to kite-flying--,aeroplanes4 ,if we were asked to explain the word 8flying0 to some foreigner who did not know what it meant1 we should probably give as an illustration the bird4 ,this would be because the bird is so closely associated in our thoughts with flying that we can hardly think of the one without the other4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that since men first had the desire to fly they should study the form and motions of the birds in the air1 and try to copy them4 ,our ancestors built immense flopping wings1 into the frames of which they fastened themselves1 and with great muscular exertion of arms and legs strove to attain the results that the bird gets by apparently similar motions4 ,however1 this mental coupling of the bird with the laws of flight has been unfortunate for the achievement of flight by man4 ,and this is true even to the present day1 with its hundreds of successful flying machines that are not in the least like a bird4 ,this wrongly coupled idea is so strong that scientific publications print pages of research by eminent contributors into the flight of birds1 with the attempt to deduce lessons therefrom for the instruction of the builders and navigators of flying machines4 ,these arguments are based on the belief that ,nature never makes a mistake2 that she made the bird to fly1 and therefore the bird must be the most perfect model for the successful flying machine4 ,but the truth is1 the bird was not made primarily to fly1 any more than man was made to walk4 ,flying is an incident in the life of a bird1 just as walking is an incident in the life of a man4 ,flying is simply a bird's way of getting about from place to place1 on business or on pleasure1 as the case may be4 ,santos-,dumont1 in his fascinating book1 ,my ,air-,ships1 points out the folly of blindly following ,nature by showing that logically such a procedure would compel us to build our locomotives on the plan of gigantic horses1 with huge iron legs which would go galloping about the country in a ridiculously terrible fashion2 and to construct our steamships on the plan of giant whales1 with monstrous flapping fins and wildly lashing tails4 ,sir ,hiram ,maxim says something akin to this in his work1 ,artificial and ,natural ,flight3 8,it appears to me that there is nothing in ,nature which is more efficient1 or gets a better grip on the water1 than a well-made screw propeller2 and no doubt there would have been fish with screw propellers1 providing ,dame ,nature could have made an animal in two pieces4 ,it is very evident that no living creature could be made in two pieces1 and two pieces are necessary if one part is stationary and the other revolves2 however1 the tails and fins very often approximate to the action of propeller blades2 they turn first to the right and then to the left1 producing a sculling effect which is practically the same4 ,this argument might also be used against locomotives4 ,in all ,nature we do not find an animal travelling on wheels1 but it is quite possible that a locomotive might be made that would walk on legs at the rate of two or three miles an hour4 ,but locomotives with wheels are able to travel at least three times as fast as the fleetest animal with legs1 and to continue doing so for many hours at a time1 even when attached to a very heavy load4 ,in order to build a flying machine with flapping wings1 to exactly imitate birds1 a very complicated system of levers1 cams1 cranks1 etc41 would have to be employed1 and these of themselves would weigh more than the wings would be able to lift40 ,as with the man-contrived locomotive1 so the perfected airship will be evolved from man's understanding of the obstacles to his navigation of the air1 and his overcoming of them by his inventive genius4 ,this will not be in ,nature's way1 but in man's own way1 and with cleverly designed machinery such as he has used to accomplish other seeming impossibilities4 ,with the clearing up of wrong conceptions1 the path will be open to more rapid and more enduring progress4 ,when we consider the problem of flying1 the first obstacle we encounter is the attraction which the earth has for us and for all other objects on its surface4 ,this we call weight1 and we are accustomed to measure it in pounds4 ,let us take1 for example1 a man whose body is attracted by the earth with a force1 or weight1 of #aej pounds4 ,to enable him to rise into the air1 means must be contrived not only to counteract his weight1 but to lift him--a force a little greater than #aej pounds must be exerted4 ,we may attach to him a bag filled with some gas 7as hydrogen7 for which the earth has less attraction than it has for air1 and which the air will push out of the way and upward until a place above the earth is reached where the attraction of air and gas is equal4 ,a bag of this gas large enough to be pushed upward with a force equal to the weight of the man1 plus the weight of the bag1 and a little more for lifting power1 will carry the man up4 ,this is the principle of the ordinary balloon4 ,rising in the air is not flying4 ,it is a necessary step1 but real flying is to travel from place to place through the air4 ,to accomplish this1 some mechanism1 or machinery1 is needed to propel the man after he has been lifted into the air4 ,such machinery will have weight1 and the bag of gas must be enlarged to counterbalance it4 ,when this is done1 the man and the bag of gas may move through the air1 and with suitable rudders he may direct his course4 ,this combination of the lifting bag of gas and the propelling machinery constitutes the dirigible balloon1 or airship4 ,illustration3 ,degen's apparatus to lift the man and his flying mechanism with the aid of a gas-balloon4 ,see ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the airship is affected equally with the balloon by prevailing winds4 ,a breeze blowing #aj miles an hour will carry a balloon at nearly that speed in the direction in which it is blowing4 ,suppose the aeronaut wishes to sail in the opposite direction8 ,if the machinery will propel his airship only #aj miles an hour in a calm1 it will virtually stand still in the #aj-mile breeze4 ,if the machinery will propel his airship #bj miles an hour in a calm1 the ship will travel #aj miles an hour--as related to places on the earth's surface--against the wind4 ,but so far as the air is concerned1 his speed through it is #bj miles an hour1 and each increase of speed meets increased resistance from the air1 and requires a greater expenditure of power to overcome4 ,to reduce this resistance to the least possible amount1 the globular form of the early balloon has been variously modified4 ,most modern airships have a 8cigar-shaped0 gas bag1 so called because the ends look like the tip of a cigar4 ,as far as is known1 this is the balloon that offers less resistance to the air than any other4 ,another mechanical means of getting up into the air was suggested by the flying of kites1 a pastime dating back at least #b1jjj years1 perhaps longer4 ,ordinarily1 a kite will not fly in a calm1 but with even a little breeze it will mount into the air by the upward thrust of the rushing breeze against its inclined surface1 being prevented from blowing away 7drifting7 by the pull of the kite-string4 ,the same effect will be produced in a dead calm if the operator1 holding the string1 runs at a speed equal to that of the breeze--with this important difference3 not only will the kite rise in the air1 but it will travel in the direction in which the operator is running1 a part of the energy of the runner's pull upon the string producing a forward motion1 provided he holds the string taut4 ,if we suppose the pull on the string to be replaced by an engine and revolving propeller in the kite1 exerting the same force1 we have exactly the principle of the aeroplane4 ,as it is of the greatest importance to possess a clear understanding of the natural processes we propose to use1 let us refer to any text-book on physics1 and review briefly some of the natural laws relating to motion and force which apply to the problem of flight3 7a7 ,force is that power which changes or tends to change the position of a body1 whether it is in motion or at rest4 7b7 ,a given force will produce the same effect1 whether the body on which it acts is acted upon by that force alone1 or by other forces at the same time4 7c7 ,a force may be represented graphically by a straight line--the point at which the force is applied being the beginning of the line2 the direction of the force being expressed by the direction of the line2 and the magnitude of the force being expressed by the length of the line4 7d7 ,two or more forces acting upon a body are called component forces1 and the single force which would produce the same effect is called the resultant4 7e7 ,when two component forces act in different directions the resultant may be found by applying the principle of the parallelogram of forces--the lines 7c7 representing the components being made adjacent sides of a parallelogram1 and the diagonal drawn from the included angle representing the resultant in direction and magnitude4 7f7 ,conversely1 a resultant motion may be resolved into its components by constructing a parallelogram upon it as the diagonal1 either one of the components being known4 ,illustration3 ,the ,deutsch de la ,muerthe dirigible balloon ,ville-de-,paris2 an example of the 8cigar-shaped0 gas envelope4 ,taking up again the illustration of the kite flying in a calm1 let us construct a few diagrams to show graphically the forces at work upon the kite4 ,let the heavy line ,,ab represent the centre line of the kite from top to bottom1 and ,c the point where the string is attached1 at which point we may suppose all the forces concentrate their action upon the plane of the kite4 ,obviously1 as the flyer of the kite is running in a horizontal direction1 the line indicating the pull of the string is to be drawn horizontal4 ,let it be expressed by ,,cd4 ,the action of the air pressure being at right angles to the plane of the kite1 we draw the line ,,ce representing that force4 ,but as this is a pressing force at the point ,c1 we may express it as a pulling force on the other side of the kite by the line ,,cf1 equal to ,,ce and in the opposite direction4 ,another force acting on the kite is its weight--the attraction of gravity acting directly downward1 shown by ,,cg4 ,we have given1 therefore1 the three forces1 ,,cd1 ,,cf1 and ,,cg4 ,we now wish to find the value of the pull on the kite-string1 ,,cd1 in two other forces1 one of which shall be a lifting force1 acting directly upward1 and the other a propelling force1 acting in the direction in which we desire the kite to travel--supposing it to represent an aeroplane for the moment4 ,we first construct a parallelogram on ,,cf and ,,cg1 and draw the diagonal ,,ch1 which represents the resultant of those two forces4 ,we have then the two forces ,,cd and ,,ch acting on the point ,c4 ,to avoid obscuring the diagram with too many lines1 we draw a second figure1 showing just these two forces acting on the point ,c4 ,upon these we construct a new parallelogram1 and draw the diagonal ,,ci1 expressing their resultant4 ,again drawing a new diagram1 showing this single force ,,ci acting upon the point ,c1 we resolve that force into two components--one1 ,,cj1 vertically upward1 representing the lift2 the other1 ,,ck1 horizontal1 representing the travelling power4 ,if the lines expressing these forces in the diagrams had been accurately drawn to scale1 the measurement of the two components last found would give definite results in pounds2 but the weight of a kite is too small to be thus diagrammed1 and only the principle was to be illustrated1 to be used later in the discussion of the aeroplane4 ,illustration ,nor is the problem as simple as the illustration of the kite suggests1 for the air is compressible1 and is moreover set in motion in the form of a current by a body passing through it at anything like the ordinary speed of an aeroplane4 ,this has caused the curving of the planes 7from front to rear7 of the flying machine1 in contrast with the flat plane of the kite4 ,the reasoning is along this line3 ,suppose the main plane of an aeroplane six feet in depth 7from front to rear7 to be passing rapidly through the air1 inclined upward at a slight angle4 ,by the time two feet of this depth has passed a certain point1 the air at that point will have received a downward impulse or compression which will tend to make it flow in the direction of the angle of the plane4 ,the second and third divisions in the depth1 each of two feet1 will therefore be moving with a partial vacuum beneath1 the air having been drawn away by the first segment4 ,at the same time1 the pressure of the air from above remains the same1 and the result is that only the front edge of the plane is supported1 while two-thirds of its depth is pushed down4 ,this condition not only reduces the supporting surface to that of a plane two feet in depth1 but1 what is much worse1 releases a tipping force which tends to throw the plane over backward4 ,in order that the second section of the plane may bear upon the air beneath it with a pressure equal to that of the first1 it must be inclined downward at double the angle 7with the horizon7 of the first section2 this will in turn give to the air beneath it a new direction4 ,the third section of the plane must then be set at a still deeper angle to give it support4 ,connecting these several directions with a smoothly flowing line without angles1 we get the curved line of section to which the main planes of aeroplanes are bent4 ,with these principles in mind1 it is in order to apply them to the understanding of how an aeroplane flies4 ,wilbur ,wright1 when asked what kept his machine up in the air--why it did not fall to the ground--replied3 8,it stays up because it doesn't have time to fall40 ,just what he meant by this may be illustrated by referring to the common sport of 8skipping stones0 upon the surface of still water4 ,a flat stone is selected1 and it is thrown at a high speed so that the flat surface touches the water4 ,it continues 8skipping10 again and again1 until its speed is so reduced that the water where it touches last has time to get out of the way1 and the weight of the stone carries it to the bottom4 ,on the same principle1 a person skating swiftly across very thin ice will pass safely over if he goes so fast that the ice hasn't time to break and give way beneath his weight4 ,this explains why an aeroplane must move swiftly to stay up in the air1 which has much less density than either water or ice4 ,the minimum speed at which an aeroplane can remain in the air depends largely upon its weight4 ,the heavier it is1 the faster it must go--just as a large man must move faster over thin ice than a small boy4 ,at some aviation contests1 prizes have been awarded for the slowest speed made by an aeroplane4 ,so far1 the slowest on record is that of #ba4bi miles an hour1 made by ,captain ,dickson at the ,lanark meet1 ,scotland1 in ,august1 #aiaj4 ,as the usual rate of speed is about #df miles an hour1 that is slow for an aeroplane2 and as ,dickson's machine is much heavier than some others--the ,curtiss machine1 for instance--it is remarkably slow for that type of aeroplane4 ,just what is to be gained by offering a prize for slowest speed is difficult to conjecture4 ,it is like offering a prize to a crowd of boys for the one who can skate slowest over thin ice4 ,the minimum speed is the most dangerous with the aeroplane as with the skater4 ,other things being equal1 the highest speed is the safest for an aeroplane4 ,even when his engine stops in mid-air1 the aviator is compelled to keep up speed sufficient to prevent a fall by gliding swiftly downward until the very moment of landing4 ,the air surface necessary to float a plane is spread out in one area in the monoplane1 and divided into two areas1 one above the other and #f to #i feet apart1 in the biplane2 if closer than this1 the disturbance of the air by the passage of one plane affects the supporting power of the other4 ,it has been suggested that better results in the line of carrying power would be secured by so placing the upper plane that its front edge is a little back of the rear edge of the lower plane1 in order that it may enter air that is wholly free from any currents produced by the rushing of the lower plane4 ,as yet1 there is a difference of opinion among the principal aeroplane builders as to where the propeller should be placed4 ,all of the monoplanes have it in front of the main plane4 ,most of the biplanes have it behind the main plane2 some have it between the two planes4 ,if it is in front1 it works in undisturbed air1 but throws its wake upon the plane4 ,if it is in the rear1 the air is full of currents caused by the passage of the planes1 but the planes have smooth air to glide into4 ,as both types of machine are eminently successful1 the question may not be so important as it seems to the disputants4 ,the exact form of curve for the planes has not been decided upon4 ,experience has proven that of two aeroplanes having the same surface and run at the same speed1 one may be able to lift twice as much as the other because of the better curvature of its planes4 ,the action of the air when surfaces are driven through it is not fully understood4 ,indeed1 the form of plane shown in the accompanying figure is called the aeroplane paradox4 ,if driven in either direction it leaves the air with a downward trend1 and therefore exerts a proportional lifting power4 ,if half of the plane is taken away1 the other half is pressed downward4 ,all of the lifting effect is in the curving of the top side4 ,it seems desirable1 therefore1 that such essential factors should be thoroughly worked out1 understood1 and applied4 ,illustration3 ,section of the 8paradox0 aeroplane4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,flying ,,machines4 ,mythological--,leonardo da ,vinci--,veranzio--,john ,wilkins--,besnier--,marquis de ,bacqueville--,paucton--,desforges--,mee rwein--,stentzel--,henson--,von ,drieberg--,wenham--,horatio ,phillips--,sir ,hiram ,maxim--,lilienthal--,langley--,ader--,p ilcher--,octave ,chanute--,herring--,hargrave--,the ,wright brothers--,archdeacon--,santos-,dumont-- ,voisin--,bleriot4 ,the term ,flying ,machines is applied to all forms of aircraft which are heavier than air1 and which lift and sustain themselves in the air by mechanical means4 ,in this respect they are distinguished from balloons1 which are lifted and sustained in the air by the lighter-than-air gas which they contain4 ,from the earliest times the desire to fly in the air has been one of the strong ambitions of the human race4 ,even the prehistoric mythology of the ancient ,greeks reflected the idea in the story of ,icarus1 who flew so near to the sun that the heat melted the wax which fastened his wings to his body1 and he fell into the sea4 ,perhaps the first historical record in the line of mechanical flight worthy of attention exists in the remarkable sketches and plans for a flying mechanism left by ,leonardo da ,vinci at his death in #aeai4 ,he had followed the model of the flying bird as closely as possible1 although when the wings were outspread they had an outline more like those of the bat4 ,while extremely ingenious in the arrangement of the levers1 the power necessary to move them fast enough to lift the weight of a man was far beyond the muscular strength of any human being4 ,it was a century later1 in #afag1 that ,veranzio1 a ,venetian1 proved his faith in his inventive ability by leaping from a tower in ,venice with a crude1 parachute-like contrivance4 ,he alighted without injury4 ,in #afhd1 an ,englishman1 ,john ,wilkins1 then bishop of ,chester1 built a machine for flying in which he installed a steam-engine4 ,no record exists of its performance4 ,in #afgh1 a ,french locksmith by the name of ,besnier devised what seems now a very crude apparatus for making descending flights1 or glides1 from elevated points4 ,it was1 however1 at that date considered important enough to be described in the ,journal of the ,savants4 ,it was a wholly unscientific combination of the 8dog-paddle0 motion in swimming1 with wing areas which collapsed on the upward motion and spread out on the downward thrust4 ,if it was ever put to a test it must have failed completely4 ,in #agdb1 the ,marquis de ,bacqueville constructed an apparatus which some consider to have been based on ,besnier's idea--which seems rather doubtful4 ,he fastened the surfaces of his aeroplane directly to his arms and legs1 and succeeded in making a long glide from the window of his mansion across the garden of the ,tuileries1 alighting upon a washerwoman's bench in the ,seine without injury4 ,paucton1 the mathematician1 is credited with the suggestion of a flying machine with two screw propellers1 which he called 8pterophores0--a horizontal one to raise the machine into the air1 and an upright one to propel it4 ,these were to be driven by hand4 ,with such hopelessly inadequate power it is not surprising that nothing came of it1 yet the plan was a foreshadowing of the machine which has in these days achieved success4 ,the ,abb ,desforges gained a place in the annals of aeronautics by inventing a flying machine of which only the name 8,orthoptere0 remains4 ,illustration3 ,meerwein's ,flying ,machine4 ,a1 shows the position of the man in the wings1 their comparative size1 and the operating levers2 ,b1 position when in flight4 ,about #aghj1 ,karl ,friedrich ,meerwein1 an architect1 and the ,inspector of ,public ,buildings for ,baden1 ,germany1 made many scientific calculations and experiments on the size of wing surface needed to support a man in the air4 ,he used the wild duck as a standard1 and figured that a surface of #abf square feet would sustain a man in the air4 ,this agrees with the later calculations of such experimenters as ,lilienthal and ,langley4 ,other of ,meerwein's conclusions are decidedly ludicrous4 ,he held that the build of a man favors a horizontal position in flying1 as his nostrils open in a direction which would be away from the wind1 and so respiration would not be interfered with6 ,some of his reasoning is unaccountably astray2 as1 for instance1 his argument that because the man hangs in the wings the weight of the latter need not be considered4 ,it is almost needless to say that his practical trials were a total failure4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,degen's apparatus4 ,the next prominent step forward toward mechanical flight was made by the ,australian watchmaker ,degen1 who balanced his wing surfaces with a small gas balloon4 ,his first efforts to fly not being successful1 he abandoned his invention and took to ballooning4 ,stentzel1 an engineer of ,hamburg1 came next with a machine in the form of a gigantic butterfly4 ,from tip to tip of its wings it measured #bj feet1 and their depth fore and aft was #e feet4 ,the ribs of the wings were of steel and the web of silk1 and they were slightly concave on the lower side4 ,the rudder-tail was of two intersecting planes1 one vertical and the other horizontal4 ,it was operated by a carbonic-acid motor1 and made #hd flaps of the wings per minute4 ,the rush of air it produced was so great that any one standing near it would be almost swept off his feet4 ,it did not reach a stage beyond the model1 for it was able to lift only #ge lbs4 ,illustration3 ,stentzel's machine4 ,in #ahdc1 the ,english inventor ,henson built what is admitted to be the first aeroplane driven by motive power4 ,it was #ajj feet in breadth 7spread7 and #cj feet long1 and covered with silk4 ,the front edge was turned slightly upward4 ,it had a rudder shaped like the tail of a bird4 ,it was driven by two propellers run by a #bj-;horse-power engine4 ,henson succeeded only in flying on a down grade1 doubtless because of the upward bend of the front of his plane4 ,later investigations have proven that the upper surface of the aeroplane must be convex to gain the lifting effect4 ,this is one of the paradoxes of flying planes which no one has been able to explain4 ,in #ahde1 ,von ,drieberg1 in ,germany1 revived the sixteenth-century ideas of flying1 with the quite original argument that since the legs of man were better developed muscularly than his arms1 flying should be done with the legs4 ,he built a machine on this plan1 but no successful flights are recorded4 ,in #ahfh1 an experimenter by the name of ,wenham added to the increasing sum of aeronautical knowledge by discovering that the lifting power of a large supporting surface may be as well secured by a number of small surfaces placed one above another4 ,following up these experiments1 he built a flying machine with a series of six supporting planes made of linen fabric4 ,as he depended upon muscular effort to work his propellers1 he did not succeed in flying1 but he gained information which has been valuable to later inventors4 ,illustration3 ,von ,drieberg's machine2 view from above4 ,illustration3 ,wenham's arrangement of many narrow surfaces in six tiers1 or decks4 a1 a1 rigid framework2 b1 b1 levers working flapping wings2 e1 e1 braces4 ,the operator is lying prone4 ,the history of flying machines cannot be written without deferential mention of ,horatio ,phillips of ,england4 ,the machine that he made in #ahfb resembled a large ,venetian blind1 #i feet high and over #ba feet long4 ,it was mounted on a carriage which travelled on a circular track #fjj feet long1 and it was driven by a small steam engine turning a propeller4 ,it lifted unusually heavy loads1 although not large enough to carry a man4 ,it seems to open the way for experiments with an entirely new arrangement of sustaining surfaces--one that has never since been investigated4 ,phillips's records cover a series of most valuable experiments4 ,perhaps his most important work was in the determination of the most advantageous form for the surfaces of aeroplanes1 and his researches into the correct proportion of motive power to the area of such surfaces4 ,much of his results have not yet been put to practical use by designers of flying machines4 ,illustration3 ,phillips's ,flying ,machine--built of narrow slats like a ,venetian blind4 ,the year #ahhh was marked by the construction by ,sir ,hiram ,maxim of his great aeroplane which weighed three and one-half tons1 and is said to have cost over #ajj1jjj4 ,the area of the planes was #c1hge square feet1 and it was propelled by a steam engine in which the fuel used was vaporized naphtha in a burner having #g1ejj jets1 under a boiler of small copper water tubes4 ,with a steam pressure of #cbj lbs4 per square inch1 the two compound engines each developed #ahj horse-power1 and each turned a two-bladed propeller #ag feet in diameter4 ,the machine was used only in making tests1 being prevented from rising in the air by a restraining track4 ,the thrust developed on trial was #b1afd lbs41 and the lifting power was shown to have been in excess of #aj1jjj lbs4 ,the restraining track was torn to pieces1 and the machine injured by the fragments4 ,the dynamometer record proved that a dead weight of #d tons1 in addition to the weight of the machine and the crew of #d men1 could have been lifted4 ,the stability1 speed1 and steering control were not tested4 ,sir ,hiram ,maxim made unnumbered experiments with models1 gaining information which has been invaluable in the development of the aeroplane4 ,illustration3 ,view of a part of ,maxim's aeroplane1 showing one of the immense propellers4 ,at the top is a part of the upper plane4 ,the experiments of ,otto ,lilienthal in gliding with a winged structure were being conducted at this period4 ,he held that success in flying must be founded upon proficiency in the art of balancing the apparatus in the air4 ,he made innumerable glides from heights which he continually increased until he was travelling distances of nearly one-fourth of a mile from an elevation of #ajj feet4 ,he had reached the point where he was ready to install motive power to drive his glider when he met with a fatal accident4 ,besides the inspiration of his daring personal experiments in the air1 he left a most valuable series of records and calculations1 which have been of the greatest aid to other inventors in the line of artificial flight4 ,illustration3 ,lilienthal in his biplane glider4 ,in #ahif1 ,professor ,langley1 director of the ,smithsonian ,institution at ,washington1 made a test of a model flying machine which was the result of years of experimenting4 ,it had a span of #ae feet1 and a length of #h feet without the extended rudder4 ,there were #d sails or planes1 #b on each side1 #cj inches in width 7fore-and-aft measurement74 ,two propellers revolving in opposite directions were driven by a steam engine4 ,the diameter of the propellers was #c feet1 and the steam pressure #aej lbs4 per square inch4 ,the weight of the machine was #bh lbs4 ,it is said to have made a distance of #a mile in #a minute #de seconds4 ,as ,professor ,langley's experiments were conducted in strict secrecy1 no authoritative figures are in existence4 ,later a larger machine was built1 which was intended to carry a man4 ,it had a spread of #df feet1 and was #ce feet in length4 ,it was four years in building1 and cost about #ej1jjj4 ,in the first attempt to launch it1 from the roof of a house-boat1 it plunged into the ,potomac ,river4 ,the explanation given was that the launching apparatus was defective4 ,this was remedied1 and a second trial made1 but the same result followed4 ,it was never tried again4 ,this machine was really a double1 or tandem1 monoplane4 ,the framework was built of steel tubing almost as thin as writing paper4 ,every rib and pulley was hollowed out to reduce the weight4 ,the total weight of the engine and machine was #hjj lbs41 and the supporting surface of the wings was #a1jdj square feet4 ,the aeroplanes now in use average from #b to #d lbs4 weight to the square foot of sustaining surface4 ,about the same time the ,french electrician ,ader1 after years of experimenting1 with the financial aid of the ,french ,government1 made some secret trials of his machine1 which had taken five years to build4 ,it had two bat-like wings spreading #ed feet1 and was propelled by two screws driven by a #d-;cylinder steam engine which has been described as a marvel of lightness4 ,the inventor claimed that he was able to rise to a height of #fj feet1 and that he made flights of several hundred yards4 ,the official tests1 however1 were unsatisfactory1 and nothing further was done by either the inventor or the government to continue the experiments4 ,the report was that in every trial the machines had been wrecked4 ,the experiments of ,lilienthal had excited an interest in his ideas which his untimely death did not abate4 ,among others1 a young ,english marine engineer1 ,percy ,s4 ,pilcher1 took up the problem of gliding flight1 and by the device of using the power exerted by running boys 7with a five-fold multiplying gear7 he secured speed enough to float his glider horizontally in the air for some distance4 ,he then built an engine which he purposed to install as motive power1 but before this was done he was killed by a fall from his machine while in the air4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,chanute's movable-wing glider4 ,before the death of ,lilienthal his efforts had attracted the attention of ,octave ,chanute1 a distinguished civil engineer of ,chicago1 who1 believing that the real problem of the glider was the maintenance of equilibrium in the air1 instituted a series of experiments along that line4 ,lilienthal had preserved his equilibrium by moving his body about as he hung suspended under the wings of his machine4 ,chanute proposed to accomplish the same end by moving the wings automatically4 ,his attempts were partially successful4 ,he constructed several types of gliders1 one of these with two decks exactly in the form of the present biplane4 ,others had three or more decks4 ,upward of seven hundred glides were made with ,chanute's machines by himself and assistants1 without a single accident4 ,it is of interest to note that a month before the fatal accident to ,lilienthal1 ,chanute had condemned that form of glider as unsafe4 ,illustration3 ,chanute's two-deck glider4 ,in #ahig1 ,a4 ,m4 ,herring1 who had been one of the foremost assistants of ,octave ,chanute1 built a double-deck 7biplane7 machine and equipped it with a gasoline motor between the planes4 ,the engine failed to produce sufficient power1 and an engine operated by compressed air was tried1 but without the desired success4 ,in #ahih1 ,lawrence ,hargrave of ,sydney1 ,new ,south ,wales1 came into prominence as the inventor of the cellular or box kite4 ,following the researches of ,chanute1 he made a series of experiments upon the path of air currents under variously curved surfaces1 and constructed some kites which1 under certain conditions1 would advance against a wind believed to be absolutely horizontal4 ,from these results ,hargrave was led to assert that 8soaring sails0 might be used to furnish propulsion1 not only for flying machines1 but also for ships on the ocean sailing against the wind4 ,the principles involved remain in obscurity4 ,during the years #aijj to #aijc1 the brothers ,wright1 of ,dayton1 ,ohio1 had been experimenting with gliders among the sand dunes of ,kitty ,hawk1 ,north ,carolina1 a small hamlet on the ,atlantic ,coast4 ,they had gone there because the ,government meteorological department had informed them that at ,kitty ,hawk the winds blew more steadily than at any other locality in the ,united ,states4 ,toward the end of the summer of #aijc1 they decided that the time was ripe for the installation of motive power1 and on ,december #ag1 #aijc1 they made their first four flights under power1 the longest being #hec feet in #ei seconds--against a wind blowing nearly #bj miles an hour1 and from a starting point on level ground4 ,illustration3 ,wilbur ,wright gliding at ,kitty ,hawk1 ,n4 ,c41 in #aijc4 ,during #aijd over one hundred flights were made1 and changes in construction necessary to sail in circles were devised4 ,in #aije1 the ,wrights kept on secretly with their practice and development of their machine1 first one and then the other making the flights until both were equally proficient4 ,in the latter part of ,september and early part of ,october1 #aije1 occurred a series of flights which the ,wrights allowed to become known to the public4 ,at a meeting of the ,aeronautical ,society of ,great ,britain1 held in ,london on ,december #ae1 #aije1 a letter from ,orville ,wright to one of the members was read4 ,it was dated ,november #ag1 #aije1 and an excerpt from it is as follows3 8,during the month of ,september we gradually improved in our practice1 and on the #bfth made a flight of a little over #aa miles4 ,on the #cjth we increased this to #abth miles2 on ,october #c1 to #ae miles2 on ,october #d1 to #bj miles1 and on ,october #e1 to #bd miles4 ,all these flights were made at about #ch miles an hour1 the flight of ,october #e occupying #cj minutes #c seconds4 ,landings were caused by the exhaustion of the supply of fuel in the flights of ,september #bf and #cj1 and ,october #h1 and in those of ,october #c and #d by the heating of the bearings in the transmission1 of which the oil cups had been omitted4 ,but before the flight on ,october #e1 oil cups had been fitted to all the bearings1 and the small gasoline can had been replaced with one that carried enough fuel for an hour's flight4 ,unfortunately1 we neglected to refill the reservoir just before starting1 and as a result the flight was limited to #ch minutes4444 ,illustration3 ,a ,wright machine in flight4 8,the machine passed through all of these flights without the slightest damage4 ,in each of these flights we returned frequently to the starting point1 passing high over the heads of the spectators40 ,these statements were received with incredulity in many parts of ,europe1 the more so as the ,wrights refused to permit an examination of their machine1 fearing that the details of construction might become known before their patents were secured4 ,illustration3 ,the ,archdeacon machine on the ,seine4 ,during the summer of #aije1 ,captain ,ferber and ,ernest ,archdeacon of ,paris had made experiments with gliders4 ,one of the ,archdeacon machines was towed by an automobile1 having a bag of sand to occupy the place of the pilot4 ,it rose satisfactorily in the air1 but the tail became disarranged1 and it fell and was damaged4 ,it was rebuilt and tried upon the waters of the ,seine1 being towed by a fast motor-boat at a speed of #be miles an hour4 ,the machine rose about #ej feet into the air and sailed for about #ejj feet4 ,archdeacon gathered a company of young men about him who speedily became imbued with his enthusiasm4 ,among them were ,gabriel ,voisin1 ,louis ,bleriot1 and ,leon ,delagrange4 ,the two former1 working together1 built and flew several gliders1 and when ,santos-,dumont made his historic flight of #gbj feet with his multiple-cell machine on ,november #ac1 #aijf 7the first flight made in ,europe71 they were spurred to new endeavors4 ,within a few months ,voisin had finished his first biplane1 and ,delagrange made his initial flight with it--a mere hop of #cj feet--on ,march #af1 #aijg4 ,bleriot1 however1 had his own ideas1 and on ,august #f1 #aijg1 he flew for #dgj feet in a monoplane machine of the tandem type4 ,he succeeded in steering his machine in a curved course1 a feat which had not previously been accomplished in ,europe4 ,in ,october of the same year1 ,henri ,farman1 then a well-known automobile driver1 flew the second ,voisin biplane in a half circle of #bec feet--a notable achievement at that date4 ,but ,santos-,dumont had been pushing forward several different types of machines1 and in ,november he flew first a biplane #ejj feet1 and a few days later a monoplane #djj feet4 ,at this point in our story the past seems to give place to the present4 ,the period of early development was over1 and the year #aijh saw the first of those remarkable exploits which are recorded in the chapter near the end of this work entitled1 8,chronicle of ,aviation ,achievements40 ,it is interesting to note that the machines then brought out are those of to-day4 ,practically1 it may be said that there has been no material change from the original types4 ,more powerful engines have been put in them1 and the frames strengthened in proportion1 but the ,voisin1 the ,bleriot1 and the ,wright types remain as they were at first4 ,other and later forms are largely modifications and combinations of their peculiar features4 ,chapter ,v4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,the ,,biplane4 ,successful types of aeroplanes--,distinguishing features--,the ,wright biplane--,construction--,new type--,five-passenger machine--,the ,voisin biplane--,new racing type--,the ,curtiss biplane--,the ,cody biplane--,the ,sommer biplane--,the ,baldwin biplane--,new stabilizing plane--,the ,baddeck ,no4 #b--,self-sustaining radiator--,the ,herring biplane--,stabilizing fins4 ,in the many contests for prizes and records1 two types of flying machines have won distinctive places for themselves--the biplane and the monoplane4 ,the appearance of other forms has been sporadic1 and they have speedily disappeared without accomplishing anything which had not been better done by the two classes named4 ,this fact1 however1 should not be construed as proving the futility of all other forms1 nor that the ideal flying machine must be of one of these two prominent types4 ,it is to be remembered that record-making and record-breaking is the most serious business in which any machines have so far been engaged2 and this1 surely1 is not the field of usefulness to humanity which the ships of the air may be expected ultimately to occupy4 ,it may yet be proved that1 successful as these machines have been in what they have attempted1 they are but transition forms leading up to the perfect airship of the future4 ,illustration3 ,the ,wright biplane in flight4 ,the distinguishing feature of the biplane is not alone that it has two main planes1 but that they are placed one above the other4 ,the double 7or tandem7 monoplane also has two main planes1 but they are on the same level1 one in the rear of the other4 ,a review of the notable biplanes of the day must begin with the ,wright machine1 which was not only the first with which flights were made1 but also the inspiration and perhaps the pattern of the whole succeeding fleet4 ,,the ,,wright ,,biplane4 ,the ,wright biplane is a structure composed of two main surfaces1 each #dj feet long and #f feet #f inches wide1 set one above the other1 parallel1 and #f feet apart4 ,the planes are held rigidly at this distance by struts of wood1 and the whole structure is trussed with diagonal wire ties4 ,it is claimed by the ,wrights that these dimensions have been proven by their experiments to give the maximum lift with the minimum weight4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing the construction of the ,wright biplane4 ,the lever ,r is connected by the bar ,a with the rudder gearing ,c1 and is pivoted at the bottom on a rolling shaft ,b1 through which the warping wires ,w#a1 ,w#b are operated4 ,the semicircular planes ,f aid in stabilizing the elevator system4 ,the combination of planes is mounted on two rigid skids1 or runners 7similar to the runners of a sleigh71 which are extended forward and upward to form a support for a pair of smaller planes in parallel1 used as the elevator 7for directing the course of the aeroplane upward or downward74 ,it has been claimed by the ,wrights that a rigid skid under-structure takes up the shock of landing1 and checks the momentum at that moment1 better than any other device4 ,but it necessitated a separate starting apparatus1 and while the starting impulse thus received enabled the ,wrights to use an engine of less power 7to keep the machine going when once started71 and therefore of less dead weight1 it proved a handicap to their machines in contests where they were met by competing machines which started directly with their own power4 ,a later model of the ,wright biplane is provided with a wheeled running gear1 and an engine of sufficient power to raise it in the air after a short run on the wheels4 ,two propellers are used1 run by one motor4 ,they are built of wood1 are of the two-bladed type1 and are of comparatively large diameter--#h feet4 ,they revolve in opposite directions at a speed of #dej revolutions per minute1 being geared down by chain drive from the engine speed of #a1ejj revolutions per minute4 ,the large elevator planes in front have been a distinctive feature of the ,wright machine4 ,they have a combined area of #hj square feet1 adding that much more lifting surface to the planes in ascending1 for then the under side of their surfaces is exposed to the wind4 ,if the same surfaces were in the rear of the main planes their top sides would have to be turned to the wind when ascending1 and a depressing instead of a lifting effect would result4 ,to the rear of the main planes is a rudder composed of two parallel vertical surfaces for steering to right or left4 ,the feature essential to the ,wright biplane1 upon which the letters patent were granted1 is the flexible construction of the tips of the main planes1 in virtue of which they may be warped up or down to restore disturbed equilibrium1 or when a turn is to be made4 ,this warping of the planes changes the angle of incidence for the part of the plane which is bent4 7,the angle of incidence is that which the plane makes with the line in which it is moving4 ,the bending downward of the rear edge would enlarge the angle of incidence1 in that way increasing the compression of the air beneath1 and lifting that end of the plane47 ,the wing-warping controls are actuated by the lever at the right hand of the pilot1 which also turns the rudder at the rear--that which steers the machine to right or to left4 ,the lever at the left hand of the pilot moves the elevating planes at the front of the machine4 ,illustration3 ,sketch showing relative positions of planes and of the operator in the ,wright machine3 ,a1 ,a1 the main planes2 ,b1 ,b1 the elevator planes4 ,the motor is placed beside the operator4 ,the motor has #d cylinders1 and develops #be to #cj horse-power1 giving the machine a speed of #ci miles per hour4 ,a newer model of the ,wright machine is built without the large elevating planes in front1 a single elevating plane being placed just back of the rear rudder4 ,this arrangement cuts out the former lifting effect described above1 and substitutes the depressing effect due to exposing the top of a surface to the wind4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,the new model ,wright biplane--without forward elevator4 ,the smallest of the ,wright machines1 popularly called the 8,baby ,wright10 is built upon this plan1 and has proven to be the fastest of all the ,wright series4 ,,the ,,voisin ,,biplane4 ,while the ,wrights were busily engaged in developing their biplane in ,america1 a group of enthusiasts in ,france were experimenting with gliders of various types1 towing them with high speed automobiles along the roads1 or with swift motor-boats upon the ,seine4 ,as an outcome of these experiments1 in which they bore an active part1 the ,voisin brothers began building the biplanes which have made them famous4 ,as compared with the ,wright machine1 the ,voisin aeroplane is of much heavier construction4 ,it weighs #a1ajj pounds4 ,the main planes have a lateral spread of #cg feet #i inches1 and a breadth of #g feet1 giving a combined area of #edj square feet1 the same as that of the ,wright machine4 ,the lower main plane is divided at the centre to allow the introduction of a trussed girder framework which carries the motor and propeller1 the pilot's seat1 the controlling mechanism1 and the running gear below2 and it is extended forward to support the elevator4 ,this is much lower than in the ,wright machine1 being nearly on the level of the lower plane4 ,it is a single surface1 divided at the centre1 half being placed on each side of the girder4 ,it has a combined area of #db square feet1 about half of that of the ,wright elevator1 and it is only #d feet from the front edge of the main planes1 instead of #aj feet as in the ,wright machine4 ,a framework nearly square in section1 and about #be feet long1 extends to the rear1 and supports a cellular1 or box-like1 tail1 which forms a case in which is the rudder surface for steering to right or to left4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing details of construction of the ,voisin biplane4 ,c1 ,c1 the curtains forming the stabilizing cells4 ,a distinctive feature of the ,voisin biplane is the use of four vertical planes1 or curtains1 between the two main planes1 forming two nearly square 8cells0 at the ends of the planes4 ,at the rear of the main planes1 in the centre1 is the single propeller4 ,it is made of steel1 two-bladed1 and is #h feet #f inches in diameter4 ,it is coupled directly to the shaft of the motor1 making with it #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,the motor is of the ,v type1 developing #ej horse-power1 and giving a speed of #cg miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing the simplicity of control of the ,voisin machine1 all operations being performed by the wheel and its sliding axis4 ,the controls are all actuated by a rod sliding back and forth horizontally in front of the pilot's seat1 having a wheel at the end4 ,the elevator is fastened to the rod by a crank lever1 and is tilted up or down as the rod is pushed forward or pulled back4 ,turning the wheel from side to side moves the rudder in the rear4 ,there are no devices for controlling the equilibrium4 ,this is supposed to be maintained automatically by the fixed vertical curtains4 ,illustration3 ,voisin biplanes at the starting line at ,rheims in ,august1 #aiji4 ,they were flown by ,louis ,paulhan1 who won third prize for distance1 and ,henri ,rougier1 who won fourth prize for altitude4 ,in the elimination races to determine the contestants for the ,bennett ,cup1 ,paulhan won second place with the ,voisin machine1 being defeated only by ,tissandier with a ,wright machine4 ,other noted aviators who fly the ,voisin machine are ,m4 ,bunau-,varilla and the ,baroness de la ,roche4 ,the machine is mounted on two wheels forward1 and two smaller wheels under the tail4 ,this description applies to the standard ,voisin biplane1 which has been in much favor with many of the best known aviators4 ,recently the ,voisins have brought out a new type in which the propeller has been placed in front of the planes1 exerting a pulling force upon the machine1 instead of pushing it as in the earlier type4 ,the elevating plane has been removed to the rear1 and combined with the rudder4 ,a racing type also has been produced1 in which the vertical curtains have been removed and a parallel pair of long1 narrow ailerons introduced between the main planes on both sides of the centre4 ,this machine1 it is claimed1 has made better than #fj miles per hour4 ,the first ,voisin biplane was built for ,delagrange1 and was flown by him with success4 ,,the ,,farman ,,biplane4 ,the second biplane built by the ,voisins went into the hands of ,henri ,farman1 who made many flights with it4 ,not being quite satisfied with the machine1 and having an inventive mind1 he was soon building a biplane after his own designs1 and the ,farman biplane is now one of the foremost in favor among both professional and amateur aviators4 ,it is decidedly smaller in area of surface than the ,wright and ,voisin machines1 having but #dcj square feet in the two supporting planes4 ,it has a spread of #cc feet1 and the planes are #g feet wide1 and set #f feet apart4 ,in the ,farman machine the vertical curtains of the ,voisin have been dispensed with4 ,the forward elevator is there1 but raised nearly to the level of the upper plane1 and placed #i feet from the front edge of the main planes4 ,to control the equilibrium1 the two back corners of each plane are cut and hinged so that they hang vertically when not in flight4 ,when in motion these flaps or ailerons stream out freely in the wind1 assuming such position as the speed of the passing air gives them4 ,they are pulled down by the pilot at one end or the other1 as may be necessary to restore equilibrium1 acting in very much the same manner as the warping tips of the ,wright machine4 ,a pair of tail planes are set in parallel on a framework about #bj feet in the rear of the main planes1 and a double rudder surface behind them4 ,another model has hinged ailerons on these tail planes1 and a single rudder surface set upright between them4 ,these tail ailerons are moved in conjunction with those of the main planes4 ,illustration3 ,the ,farman biplane1 showing the position of the hinged ailerons when at rest4 ,at full speed these surfaces stream out in the wind in line with the planes to which they are attached4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of the ,farman biplane4 ,a later type has the hinged ailerons also on the tail planes4 ,the motor has #d cylinders1 and turns a propeller made of wood1 #h feet #f inches in diameter1 at a speed of #a1cjj revolutions per minute--nearly three times as fast as the speed of the ,wright propellers1 which are about the same size4 ,the propeller is placed just under the rear edge of the upper main plane1 the lower one being cut away to make room for the revolving blades4 ,the motor develops #de to #ej horse-power1 and drives the machine at a speed of #da miles per hour4 ,the 8racing ,farman0 is slightly different1 having the hinged ailerons only on one of the main planes4 ,the reason for this is obvious4 ,every depression of the ailerons acts as a drag on the air flowing under the planes1 increasing the lift at the expense of the speed4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of ,farman machine1 showing position of operator4 ,a1 ,a1 main planes2 ,b1 elevator2 ,c1 motor2 ,p1 tail planes4 ,the whole structure is mounted upon skids with wheels attached by a flexible connection4 ,in case of a severe jar1 the wheels are pushed up against the springs until the skids come into play4 ,the elevator and the wing naps are controlled by a lever at the right hand of the pilot4 ,this lever moves on a universal joint1 the side-to-side movement working the flaps1 and the forward-and-back motion the elevator4 ,steering to right or left is done with a bar operated by the feet4 ,illustration3 ,henri ,farman carrying a passenger across country4 ,farman has himself made many records with his machine1 and so have others4 ,with a slightly larger and heavier machine than the one described1 ,farman carried two passengers a distance of #ce miles in one hour4 ,,the ,,curtiss ,,biplane4 ,this ,american rival of the ,wright biplane is the lightest machine of this type so far constructed4 ,the main planes are but #bi feet in spread1 and #d feet #f inches in width1 and are set not quite #e feet apart4 ,the combined area of the two planes is #bej square feet4 ,the main planes are placed midway of the length of the fore-and-aft structure1 which is nearly #cj feet4 ,at the forward end is placed the elevator1 and at the rear end is the tail--one small plane surface--and the vertical rudder surface in two parts1 one above and the other below the tail plane4 ,equilibrium is controlled by changing the slant of two small balancing planes which are placed midway between the main planes at the outer ends1 and in line with the front edges4 ,these balancing planes are moved by a lever standing upright behind the pilot1 having two arms at its upper end which turn forward so as to embrace his shoulders4 ,the lever is moved to right or to left by the swaying of the pilot's body4 ,illustration3 ,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss in his machine ready to start4 ,the fork of the balancing lever is plainly seen at his shoulders4 ,behind him is the radiator1 with the engine still further back4 ,the motor is raised to a position where the shaft of the propeller is midway between the levels of the main planes1 and within the line of the rear edges1 so that they have to be cut away to allow the passing of the blades4 ,the motor is of the ,v type1 with #h cylinders4 ,it is #cj horse-power and makes #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,the propeller is of steel1 two-bladed1 #f feet in diameter1 and revolves at the same speed as the shaft on which it is mounted4 ,the high position of the engine permits a low running gear4 ,there are two wheels under the rear edges of the main planes1 and another is placed half-way between the main planes and the forward rudder1 or elevator4 ,a brake1 operated by the pilot's foot1 acts upon this forward wheel to check the speed at the moment of landing4 ,another type of ,curtiss machine has the ailerons set in the rear of the main planes1 instead of between them4 ,the ,curtiss is the fastest of the biplanes1 being excelled in speed only by some of the monoplanes4 ,it has a record of #ea miles per hour4 ,,the ,,cody ,,biplane4 ,the ,cody biplane has the distinction of being the first successful ,british aeroplane4 ,it was designed and flown by ,captain ,s4 ,f4 ,cody1 at one time an ,american1 but for some years an officer in the ,british army4 ,it is the largest and heaviest of all the biplanes1 weighing about #a1hjj lbs41 more than three times the weight of the ,curtiss machine4 ,its main planes are #eb feet in lateral spread1 and #g feet #f inches in width1 and are set #i feet apart4 ,the combined area of these sustaining surfaces is #ggj square feet4 ,the upper plane is arched1 so that the ends of the main planes are slightly closer together than at the centre4 ,the elevator is in two parts placed end to end1 about #ab feet in front of the main planes4 ,they have a combined area of #aej square feet4 ,between them and above them is a small rudder for steering to right or left in conjunction with the large rudder at the rear of the machine4 ,the latter has an area of #dj square feet4 ,there are two small balancing planes1 set one at each end of the main planes1 their centres on the rear corner struts1 so that they project beyond the tips of the planes and behind their rear lines4 ,illustration3 ,the ,cody biplane in flight4 ,captain ,cody has both hands raised above his head1 showing the automatic stability of his machine4 ,the biplane is controlled by a lever rod having a wheel at the end4 ,turning the wheel moves the rudders2 pushing or pulling the wheel works the elevator2 moving the wheel from side to side moves the balancing planes4 ,there are two propellers1 set one on each side of the engine1 and well forward between the main planes4 ,they are of wood1 of the two-bladed type1 #g feet in diameter4 ,they are geared down to make #fjj revolutions per minute4 ,the motor has #h cylinders and develops #hj horse-power at #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,the machine is mounted on a wheeled running gear1 two wheels under the front edge of the main planes and one a short distance forward in the centre4 ,there is also a small wheel at each extreme end of the lower main plane4 ,the ,cody biplane has frequently carried a passenger1 besides the pilot1 and is credited with a speed of #ch miles per hour4 ,the first aeroplane flights ever made in ,england were by ,captain ,cody on this biplane1 ,january #b1 #aiji4 ,,the ,,sommer ,,biplane4 ,the ,sommer biplane is closely similar to the ,farman machine1 but has the hinged ailerons only on the upper plane4 ,another difference is that the tail has but one surface1 and the rudder is hung beneath it4 ,its dimensions are3--,spread of main planes1 #cd feet2 depth 7fore-and-aft71 #f feet #h inches2 they are set #f feet apart4 ,the area of the main planes is #def square feet2 area of tail1 #fg square feet2 area of rudder1 #i square feet4 ,it is driven by a #ej-;horsepower ,gnome motor1 turning an #h-;foot1 two-bladed propeller4 ,m4 ,sommer has flown with three passengers1 a total weight of #ecf lbs41 besides the weight of the machine4 ,,the ,,baldwin ,,biplane4 ,the ,baldwin biplane1 designed by ,captain ,thomas ,s4 ,baldwin1 the distinguished balloonist1 resembles the ,farman type in some features1 and the ,curtiss in others4 ,it has the ,curtiss type of ailerons1 set between the wings1 but extending beyond them laterally4 ,the elevator is a single surface placed in front of the machine1 and the tail is of the biplane type with the rudder between4 ,the spread of the main planes is #ca feet #c inches1 and their depth #d feet #f inches4 ,a balancing plane of #i square feet is set upright 7like a fin7 above the upper main plane1 on a swivel4 ,this is worked by a fork fitting on the shoulders of the pilot1 and is designed to restore equilibrium by its swinging into head-resistance on one side or the other as may be necessary4 ,illustration3 ,the ,baldwin biplane1 showing balancing plane above upper main plane4 ,the motive power is a #d-;cylinder ,curtiss motor1 which turns a propeller #g feet #f inches in diameter1 set just within the rear line of the main planes1 which are cut away to clear the propeller blades4 ,,the ,,baddeck ,,biplane4 ,the newest biplane of the ,aerial ,experiment ,association follows in general contour its successful precursor1 the 8,silver ,dart10 with which ,j4 ,a4 ,d4 ,mc,curdy made many records4 ,the 8,baddeck ,no4 #b0 is of the biplane type1 and both the planes are arched toward each other4 ,they have a spread of #dj feet1 and are #g feet in depth at the centre1 rounding to #e feet at the ends1 where the wing tips1 #e feet by #e feet1 are hinged4 ,the elevator is also of the biplane type1 two surfaces each #ab feet long and #bh inches wide1 set #cj inches apart4 ,this is mounted #ae feet in front of the main planes4 ,the tail is mounted #aa feet in the rear of the main planes1 and is the same size and of the same form as the elevator4 ,the controls are operated by the same devices as in the ,curtiss machine4 ,the propeller is #g feet #h inches in diameter1 and is turned by a six-cylinder automobile engine of #dj horse-power running at #a1djj revolutions per minute4 ,the propeller is geared down to run at #hej revolutions per minute4 ,the motor is placed low down on the lower plane1 but the propeller shaft is raised to a position as nearly as possible that of the centre of resistance of the machine4 ,the speed attained is #dj miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,the ,mc,curdy biplane1 8,baddeck ,no4 #b40 ,a unique feature of the mechanism is the radiator1 which is built of #cj flattened tubes #g feet #f inches long1 and #c inches wide1 and very thin4 ,they are curved from front to rear like the main planes1 and give sufficient lift to sustain their own weight and that of the water carried for cooling the cylinders4 ,the running gear is of three wheels placed as in the ,curtiss machine4 ,the 8,baddeck ,no4 #b0 has made many satisfactory flights with one passenger besides the pilot4 ,,the ,,herring ,,biplane4 ,at the ,boston ,aircraft ,exhibition in ,february1 #aiaj1 the ,herring biplane attracted much attention1 not only because of its superiority of mechanical finish1 but also on account of its six triangular stabilizing fins set upright on the upper plane4 ,subsequent trials proved that this machine was quite out of the ordinary in action4 ,it rose into the air after a run of but #he feet1 and at a speed of only #bb miles per hour1 and made a #dj-;degree turn at a tipping angle of #bj degrees4 ,as measured by the inventor1 the machine rose in the air with the pilot 7weighing #aij lbs471 with a thrust of #adj lbs41 and required only a thrust of from #hj to #he lbs4 to keep it flying4 ,the spread of the planes is #bh feet1 and they are #d feet in depth1 with a total supporting surface of #bbj feet4 ,a #be horse-power ,curtiss motor turns a #d-;bladed propeller of #f feet diameter and #e-;foot pitch 7designed by ,mr4 ,herring7 at the rate of #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,illustration3 ,the ,l4 ,a4 ,w4 7,league of ,american ,wheelmen7 biplane at the ,boston ,aircraft ,exhibition1 ,february1 #aiaj4 ,note the peculiar curve of the divided planes4 ,the motor is of the rotating type1 of #ej horse-power4 ,the elevator consists of a pair of parallel surfaces set upon hollow poles #ab feet in front of the main planes4 ,the tail is a single surface4 ,the stabilizing fins act in this manner3 when the machine tips to one side1 it has a tendency to slide down an incline of air toward the ground4 ,the fins offer resistance to this sliding1 retarding the upper plane1 while the lower plane slides on and swings as a pendulum into equilibrium again4 ,,the ,,breguet ,,biplane4 ,the ,breguet biplane is conspicuous in having a biplane tail of so large an area as to merit for the machine the title 8tandem biplane40 ,the main planes have a spread of #da feet #h inches1 and an area of #ejj square feet4 ,the tail spreads #bd feet1 and its area is about #bhj square feet4 ,the propeller is three-bladed1 #h feet in diameter1 and revolves at a speed of #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,it is placed in front of the main plane1 after the fashion of the monoplanes4 ,the motive power is an #h-;cylinder ,r-,e-,p engine1 developing #ee horse-power4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy of ,n4 ,y4 ,sun4 ,the ,seddon tandem biplane1 constructed by ,lieutenant ,seddon of the ,british ,navy4 ,the area of its planes is #b1jjj square feet4 ,compare its size with that of the monoplane in the background4 ,it is intended to carry ten persons4 ,illustration3 ,wright biplane4 ,curtiss biplane4 ,comparative build and area of prominent ,american biplanes4 ,illustration3 ,voisin biplane4 ,breguet biplane4 ,comparative build and area of prominent ,european biplanes4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,the ,,monoplane4 ,the common goal--,interchanging features--,the ,bleriot machine--,first independent flyer--,construction and controls--,the 8,antoinette0--,large area--,great stability--,santos-,dumont's monoplane--,diminutive size--,r-,e-,p monoplane--encased structure--,hanriot machine--,boat body--,sturdy build--,pfitzner machine--,lateral type--,thrusting propeller--,fairchild1 ,burlingame1 ,cromley1 ,chauviere1 ,vendome1 and ,moisant monoplanes4 ,in all the ardent striving of the aviators to beat each other's records1 a surprisingly small amount of personal rivalry has been developed4 ,doubtless this is partly because their efforts to perform definite feats have been absorbing2 but it must also be that these men1 who know that they face a possible fall in every flight they make1 realize that their competitors are as brave as themselves in the face of the same danger2 and that they are actually accomplishing marvellous wonders even if they do no more than just escape disastrous failure4 ,certain it is that each1 realizing the tremendous difficulties all must overcome1 respects the others' ability and attainments4 ,consequently we do not find among them two distinctly divergent schools of adherents1 one composed of the biplanists1 the other of the monoplanists4 ,nor are the two types of machines separated in this book for any other purpose than to secure a clearer understanding of what is being achieved by all types in the progress toward the one common goal--the flight of man4 ,the distinctive feature of the monoplane is that it has but one main plane1 or spread of surface1 as contrasted with the two planes1 one above the other1 of the biplane4 ,besides the main plane1 it has a secondary plane in the rear1 called the tail4 ,the office of this tail is primarily to secure longitudinal1 or fore-and-aft1 balance2 but the secondary plane has been so constructed that it is movable on a horizontal axis1 and is used to steer the machine upward or downward4 ,while most of the biplanes now have a horizontal tail-plane1 they were not at first so provided1 but carried the secondary plane 7or planes7 in front of the main planes4 ,even in the latest type brought out by the conservative ,wright brothers1 the former large-surfaced elevator in front has been removed1 and a much smaller tail-plane has been added in the rear1 performing the same function of steering the machine up or down1 but also providing the fore-and-aft stabilizing feature formerly peculiar to the monoplane4 ,another feature heretofore distinctively belonging to the monoplane has been adopted by some of the newer biplanes1 that of the traction propeller--pulling the machine behind it through the air1 instead of pushing it along by a thrusting propeller placed behind the main planes4 ,the continual multiplication of new forms of the monoplane makes it possible to notice only those which exhibit the wider differences4 ,,the ,,bleriot ,,monoplane4 ,the ,bleriot monoplane has the distinction of being the first wholly successful flying machine4 ,although the ,wright machine was making flights years before the ,bleriot had been built1 it was still dependent upon a starting device to enable it to leave the ground4 ,that is1 the ,wright machine was not complete in itself1 and was entirely helpless at even a short distance from its starting tower1 rail1 and car1 which it was unable to carry along4 ,because of its completeness1 ,m4 ,bleriot was able to drive his machine from ,toury to ,artenay1 ,france 7a distance of #h miles7 on ,october #ca1 #aijh1 make a landing1 start on the return trip1 make a second landing1 and again continue his journey back to ,toury1 all under his own unassisted power4 ,this feat was impossible to the ,wright machine as it was then constructed1 thus leaving the ,bleriot monoplane in undisputed pre-eminence in the history of aviation4 ,illustration3 ,a ,bleriot monoplane1 8,no4 ,,xi10 in flight4 ,at a little distance1 where the details of construction are not visible1 the ,bleriot machine has the appearance of a gigantic bird4 ,the sustaining surface1 consisting of a single plane1 is divided into two wings made of a stiff parchment-like material1 mounted one on each side of a framework of the body1 which is built of mahogany and whitewood trussed with diagonal ties of steel wire4 ,the main plane has a lateral spread of #bh feet and a depth of #f feet1 and is rounded at the ends4 ,it has an area of about #aej square feet1 and is slightly concave on the under side4 ,the tail-plane is #f feet long and #b feet #h inches in depth2 at its ends are the elevators1 consisting of pivoted wing tips each about #b feet #f inches square with rounded extremities4 ,the rudder for steering to left or right is mounted at the extreme rear end of the body1 and has an area of #i square feet4 ,illustration3 ,the ,bleriot 8,no4 ,,xii410 showing new form of tail1 and the complete encasing with fabric4 ,the body is framed nearly square in front and tapers to a wedge-like edge at the rear4 ,it extends far enough in front of the main plane to give room for the motor and propeller4 ,the seat for the pilot is on a line with the rear edge of the main plane1 and above it4 ,the forward part of the body is enclosed with fabric4 ,illustration3 ,forward chassis of ,bleriot monoplane1 showing caster mounting of wheels4 ,the framing of the body is shown by the dotted lines4 ,the machine is mounted on three wheels attached to the body3 two at the front1 with a powerful spring suspension and pivoted like a caster1 and the other rigidly at a point just forward of the rudders4 ,the lateral balance is restored by warping the tips of the main plane2 if necessary1 the elevator tips at the rear may be operated to assist in this4 ,all the controls are actuated by a single lever and a drum to which the several wires are attached4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of ,bleriot 8,no4 ,,xi410 from the rear4 ,a1 ,a1 main plane2 ,b1 tail2 ,c1 body2 ,d1 ,d1 wing tips of tail2 ,e1 rudder2 ,h1 propeller2 ,m1 motor2 ,o1 axis of wing tips2 ,r1 radiator2 a1 a1 b1 b1 spars of wings2 h1 h1 guy wires2 p1 k1 truss4 ,the motors used on the ,bleriot machines have varied in type and power4 ,in the 8,no4 ,,xi410 with which ,m4 ,bleriot crossed the ,english ,channel1 the motor was a #c-;cylinder ,anzani engine1 developing #bd horse-power at #a1bjj revolutions per minute4 ,the propeller was of wood1 #b-;bladed1 and #f feet #i inches in diameter4 ,it was mounted directly on the shaft1 and revolved at the same speed1 giving the machine a velocity of #cg miles per hour4 ,this model has also been fitted with a #cj horse-power ,r-,e-,p 7,r4 ,esnault-,pelterie7 motor1 having #g cylinders4 ,the heavier type 8,no4 ,,xii40 has been fitted with the #ej horse-power ,antoinette #h-;cylinder engine1 or the #g-;cylinder rotating ,gnome engine1 also of #ej horse-power4 ,illustration3 ,sketches showing relative size1 construction1 and position of pilot in the ,bleriot machines2 8,no4 ,,xi40 7the upper71 and 8,no4 ,,xii40 7the lower74 ,the total weight of the 8,no4 ,,xi40 monoplane is #dfb pounds1 without the pilot4 ,,the ,,antoinette ,,monoplane4 ,the ,antoinette is the largest and heaviest of the monoplanes4 ,it was designed by ,m4 ,levavasseur1 and has proved to be one of the most remarkable of the aeroplanes by its performances under adverse conditions2 notably1 the flight of ,hubert ,latham in a gale of #dj miles per hour at ,blackpool in ,october1 #aiji4 ,the ,antoinette has a spread of #df feet1 the surface being disposed in two wings set at a dihedral angle2 that is1 the outer ends of the wings incline upward from their level at the body1 so that at the front they present the appearance of a very wide open 8,v40 ,these wings are trapezoidal in form1 with the wider base attached to the body1 where they are #aj feet in depth 7fore and aft74 ,they are #g feet in depth at the tips1 and have a total combined area of #cgg square feet4 ,the great depth of the wings requires that they be made proportionally thick to be strong enough to hold their form4 ,two trussed spars are used in each wing1 with a short mast on each1 half-way to the tip1 reaching below the wing as well as above it4 ,to these are fastened guy wires1 making each wing an independent truss4 ,a mast on the body gives attachment for guys which bind the whole into a light and rigid construction4 ,the framework of the wings is covered on both sides with varnished fabric4 ,illustration3 ,the ,antoinette monoplane in flight4 ,the body is of triangular section4 ,it is a long girder2 at the front1 in the form of a pyramid1 expanding to a prism at the wings1 and tapering toward the tail4 ,it is completely covered with the fabric1 which is given several coats of varnish to secure the minimum of skin friction4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing construction of the ,antoinette monoplane4 ,the tail is #ac feet long and #i feet wide1 in the form of a diamond-shaped kite4 ,the rear part of it is hinged to be operated as the elevator4 ,there is a vertical stabilizing fin set at right angles to the rigid part of the tail4 ,the rudder for steering to right or left is in two triangular sections1 one above and the other below the tail-plane4 ,the entire length of the machine is #dj feet1 and its weight is #a1jde pounds4 ,it is fitted with a motor of the 8,v0 type1 having #h cylinders1 and turning a #b-;bladed steel propeller #a1ajj revolutions per minute1 developing from #ej to #ee horse-power4 ,the control of the lateral balance is by ailerons attached to the rear edges of the wings at their outer ends4 ,these are hinged1 and may be raised as well as lowered as occasion demands1 working in opposite directions1 and thus doubling the effect of similar ailerons on the ,farman machine1 which can only be pulled downward4 ,the machine is mounted on two wheels under the centre of the main plane1 with a flexible wood skid projecting forward4 ,another skid is set under the tail4 ,it is claimed for the ,antoinette machine that its inherent stability makes it one of the easiest of all for the beginner in aviation4 ,with as few as five lessons many pupils have become qualified pilots1 even winning prizes against competitors of much wider experience4 ,illustration3 ,diagrams showing comparative size and position of surfaces and structure of the ,bleriot 7left7 and ,antoinette 7right7 monoplanes4 ,,the ,,santos-,,dumont ,,monoplane4 ,this little machine may be called the 8runabout0 of the aeroplanes4 ,it has a spread of only #ah feet1 and is but #bj feet in total length4 ,its weight is about #bde pounds4 ,the main plane is divided into two wings1 which are set at the body at a dihedral angle1 but curve downward toward the tips1 forming an arch4 ,the depth of the wings at the tips is #f feet4 ,for a space on each side of the centre they are cut away to #e feet in depth1 to allow the propeller to be set within their forward edge4 ,the total area of the main plane is #aaj square feet4 ,the tail-plane is composed of a vertical surface and a horizontal surface intersecting4 ,it is arranged so that it may be tilted up or down to serve as an elevator1 or from side to side as a rudder4 ,its horizontal surface has an area of about #ab square feet4 ,the engine is placed above the main plane and the pilot's seat below it4 ,the body is triangular in section1 with the apex uppermost1 composed of three strong bamboo poles with cross-pieces held in place by aluminum sockets1 and cross braced with piano wire4 ,illustration3 ,santos-,dumont's ,la ,demoiselle in flight4 ,the motor is of the opposed type1 made by ,darracq1 weighing only #ff pounds1 and developing #cj horse-power at #a1ejj revolutions per minute4 ,the propeller is of wood1 #b-;bladed1 and being mounted directly on the shaft of the motor1 revolves at the same velocity4 ,the speed of the ,santos-,dumont machine is #cg miles per hour4 ,illustration3 ,the ,darracq motor and propeller of the ,santos-,dumont machine4 ,the conical tank in the rear of the pilot's seat holds the gasoline4 ,the lateral balance is preserved by a lever which extends upward and enters a long pocket sewed on the back of the pilot's coat4 ,his leaning from side to side warps the rear edges of the wings at their tips4 ,the elevator is moved by a lever1 and the rudder by turning a wheel4 ,while this machine has not made any extended flights1 ,santos-,dumont has travelled in the aggregate upward of #b1jjj miles in one or another of this type4 ,the plans1 with full permission to any one to build from them1 he gave to the public as his contribution to the advancement of aviation4 ,several manufacturers are supplying them at a cost much below that of an automobile4 ,illustration3 ,sketch showing position of pilot in ,santos-,dumont machine4 ,a1 main plane2 ,b1 tail plane2 ,c1 motor4 ,,the ,r-,e-,p ,,monoplane4 ,the ,robert ,esnault-,pelterie 7abbreviated by its inventor to ,r-,e-,p7 monoplane1 viewed from above1 bears a striking resemblance to a bird with a fan-shaped tail4 ,it is much shorter in proportion to its spread than any other monoplane1 and the body being entirely covered with fabric1 it has quite a distinct appearance4 ,the plane is divided into two wings1 in form very much like the wings of the ,antoinette machine4 ,their spread1 however1 is but #ce feet4 ,their depth at the body is #h feet #f inches1 and at the tips1 #e feet4 ,their total combined area is #bbf square feet4 ,the body of the ,r-,e-,p machine has much the appearance of a boat1 being wide at the top and coming to a sharp keel below4 ,the boat-like prow in front adds to this resemblance4 ,as the body is encased in fabric1 these surfaces aid in maintaining vertical stability4 ,a large stabilizing fin extends from the pilot's seat to the tail4 ,the tail is comparatively large1 having an area of #fd square feet4 ,its rear edge may be raised or lowered to serve as an elevator4 ,the rudder for steering to right or left is set below in the line of the body1 as in a boat4 ,it is peculiar in that it is of the 8compensated0 type2 that is1 pivoted near the middle of its length1 instead of at the forward end4 ,the control of the lateral balance is through warping the wings4 ,this is by means of a lever at the left hand of the pilot1 with a motion from side to side4 ,the same lever moved forward or backward controls the elevator4 ,the steering lever is in front of the pilot's seat1 and moves to right or to left4 ,illustration3 ,elevation1 showing large stabilizing fin2 boat-like body encased in fabric2 and compensated rudder1 pivoted at the rear end of the fin4 ,illustration3 ,plan1 showing comparative spread of surfaces1 and the attachment of wheels at the wing tips4 ,graphic sketch showing elevation and plan of the ,r-,e-,p monoplane4 ,the motor is an invention of ,m4 ,esnault-,pelterie1 and may be of #e1 #g1 or #aj cylinders1 according to the power desired4 ,the cylinders are arranged in two ranks1 one in the rear of the other1 radiating outward from the shaft like spokes in a wheel4 ,the propeller is of steel1 #d-;bladed1 and revolves at #a1djj revolutions per minute1 developing #ce horse-power1 and drawing the machine through the air at a speed of #dg miles per hour4 ,,the ,,hanriot ,,monoplane4 ,among the more familiar machines which have been contesting for records at the various ,european meets during the season of #aiaj1 the ,hanriot monoplane earned notice for itself and its two pilots1 one of them the fifteen-year-old son of the inventor4 ,at ,budapest the ,hanriot machine carried off the honors of the occasion with a total of #ajf points for 8best performances10 as against #hd points for the ,antoinette1 and #gg points for the ,farman biplane4 ,a description of its unusual features will be of interest by way of comparison4 ,in general appearance it is a cross between the ,bleriot and the ,antoinette1 the wings being shaped more like the latter1 but rounded at the rear of the tips like the ,bleriot4 ,its chief peculiarity is in the body of the machine1 which is in form very similar to a racing shell--of course with alterations to suit the requirements of the aeroplane4 ,its forward part is of thin mahogany1 fastened upon ash ribs1 with a steel plate covering the prow4 ,the rear part of the machine is covered simply with fabric4 ,the spread of the plane is #bd feet #g inches1 and it has an area of #agj square feet4 ,the length of the machine1 fore-and-aft1 is #bc feet4 ,its weight is #dfc pounds4 ,it is mounted on a chassis having both wheels and skids1 somewhat like that of the ,farman running gear1 but with two wheels instead of four4 ,the ,hanriot machine is sturdily built all the way through1 and has endured without damage some serious falls and collisions which would have wrecked another machine4 ,it is fitted either with a ,darracq or a ,clerget motor1 and speeds at about #dd miles per hour4 ,,the ,,pfitzner ,,monoplane4 ,the ,pfitzner monoplane has the distinction of being the first ,american machine of the single-plane type4 ,it was designed and flown by the late ,lieut4 ,a4 ,l4 ,pfitzner1 and1 though meeting with many mishaps1 has proved itself worthy of notice by its performances1 through making use of an entirely new device for lateral stability4 ,this is the sliding wing tip1 by which the wing that tends to fall from its proper level may be lengthened by #ae inches1 the other wing being shortened as much at the same time4 ,there is no longitudinal structure1 as in the other monoplanes1 the construction being transverse and built upon four masts set in the form of a square1 #f feet apart1 about the centre4 ,these are braced by diagonal struts1 and tied with wires on the edges of the squares4 ,they also support the guys reaching out to the tips of the wings4 ,illustration3 ,the ,pfitzner monoplane from the rear1 showing the sliding wing tips2 dihedral angle of the wings2 square body2 and transverse trussed construction4 ,the plane proper is #ca feet in spread1 to which the wing tips add #b feet1 and is #f feet deep1 giving a total area of #bjj square feet4 ,a light framework extending #aj feet in the rear carries a tail-plane #f feet in spread and #b feet in depth4 ,both the elevator and the rudder planes are carried on a similar framework1 #ad feet in front of the main plane4 ,illustration3 ,the ,pfitzner monoplane1 showing the structure of the body2 the two conical gasoline tanks above2 the propeller in the rear4 ,lieutenant ,pfitzner at the wheel4 ,the wings of the main plane incline upward from the centre toward the tips1 and are trussed by vertical struts and diagonal ties4 ,the motor is placed in the rear of the plane1 instead of in front1 as in all other monoplanes4 ,it is a #d-;cylinder ,curtiss motor1 turning a #f-;foot propeller at #a1bjj revolutions per minute1 and developing #be horse-power4 ,the ,pfitzner machine has proved very speedy1 and has made some remarkably sharp turns on an even keel4 ,,other ,,monoplanes4 ,several machines of the monoplane type have been produced1 having some feature distinct from existing forms4 ,while all of these have flown successfully1 few of them have made any effort to be classed among the contestants for honors at the various meets4 ,one of these1 the ,fairchild monoplane1 shows resemblances to the ,r-,e-,p1 the ,antoinette1 and the ,bleriot machines1 but differs from them all in having two propellers instead of one2 and these revolve in the same direction1 instead of in contrary directions1 as do those of all other aeroplanes so equipped4 ,the inventor claims that there is little perceptible gyroscopic effect with a single propeller1 and even less with two4 ,the propeller shafts are on the level of the plane1 but the motor is set about #e feet below1 connections being made by a chain drive4 ,illustration3 ,the ,beach type of the ,antoinette1 an ,american modification of the ,french machine1 at the ,boston ,exhibition1 #aiaj4 ,the ,burlingame monoplane has several peculiarities4 ,its main plane is divided into two wings1 each #aj feet in spread and #e feet in depth1 and set #ah inches apart at the body4 ,they are perfectly rigid4 ,the tail is in two sections1 each #d feet by #e feet1 and set with a gap of #f feet between the sections1 in which the rudder is placed4 ,thus the spread of the tail from tip to tip is #af feet1 as compared with the #ba foot spread of the main plane4 ,the sections of the tail are operated independently1 and are made to serve as ailerons to control the lateral balance1 and also as the elevator4 ,the ,cromley monoplane1 another ,american machine1 is modelled after the ,santos-,dumont ,demoiselle4 ,it has a main plane divided into two wings1 each #i feet by #f feet #f inches1 with a gap of #b feet between at the body2 the total area being #aag square feet4 ,at the rear of the outer ends are hinged ailerons1 like those of the ,farman biplane1 to control the lateral balance4 ,the tail is #ab feet in the rear1 and is of the 8box0 type1 with two horizontal surfaces and two vertical surfaces4 ,this is mounted with a universal joint1 so that it can be moved in any desired direction4 ,the complete structure1 without the motor1 weighs but #fj pounds4 ,the ,chauviere monoplane is distinct in having a rigid spar for the front of the plane1 but no ribs4 ,the surface is allowed to spread out as a sail and take form from the wind passing beneath4 ,the rear edges may be pulled down at will to control the lateral balance4 ,it is driven by twin screws set far back on the body1 nearly to the tail4 ,illustration3 ,the ,morok monoplane at the ,boston ,exhibition4 ,it has the body of the ,bleriot1 the wings of the ,santos-,dumont1 and the sliding wing tips of the ,pfitzner4 ,the smallest and lightest monoplane in practical use is that of ,m4 ,raoul ,vendome4 ,it is but #af feet in spread1 and is #af feet fore and aft4 ,it is equipped with a #ab horse-power motor1 and flies at a speed of nearly #fj miles per hour4 ,without the pilot1 its entire weight is but #ahj pounds4 ,the wings are pivoted so that their whole structure may be tilted to secure lateral balance4 ,the new ,moisant monoplane is built wholly of metal4 ,the structure throughout is of steel1 and the surfaces of sheet aluminum in a succession of small arches from the centre to the tips4 ,no authentic reports of its performances are available4 ,in the ,tatin monoplane1 also called the ,bayard-,clement1 the main plane is oval in outline1 and the tail a smaller oval4 ,the surfaces are curved upward toward the tips for nearly half their length in both the main plane and the tail4 ,the propeller is #h feet in diameter1 and is turned by a ,clerget motor1 which can be made to develop #fj horse-power for starting the machine into the air1 and then cut down to #cj horse-power to maintain the flight4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,other ,,forms4 ,the triplane--,the quadruplane--,the multiplane--,helicopters--,their principle--,obstacles to be overcome--,the ,cornu helicopter--,the ,leger helicopter--,the ,davidson gyropter--,the ,breguet gyroplane--,the de la ,hault ornithopter--,the ,bell tetrahedrons--,the ,russ flyer4 ,while the efforts of inventors have been principally along the lines of the successful monoplanes and biplanes1 genius and energy have also been active in other directions4 ,some of these other designs are not much more than variations from prevailing types1 however4 ,among these is the ,english ,roe triplane1 which is but a biplane with an extra plane added2 the depths of all being reduced to give approximately the same surface as the biplane of the same carrying power4 ,the tail is also of the triplane type1 and has a combined area of #afj square feet--just half that of the main planes4 ,the triplane type has long been familiar to ,americans in the three-decker glider used extensively by ,octave ,chanute in his long series of experiments at ,chicago4 ,illustration3 ,the ,roe triplane in flight4 ,the quadruplane of ,colonel ,baden-,powell1 also an ,english type1 is practically the biplane with unusually large forward and tail planes4 ,the multiplane of ,sir ,hiram ,maxim should also be remembered1 although he never permitted it to have free flight4 ,his new multiplane1 modelled after the former one1 but equipped with an improved gasoline motor instead of the heavy steam-engine of the first model1 will doubtless be put to a practical test when experiments with it are completed4 ,illustration3 ,sir ,hiram ,maxim standing beside his huge multiplane4 ,quite apart from these variants of the aeroplanes are the helicopters1 ornithopters1 gyropters1 gyroplanes1 and tetrahedral machines4 ,,helicopters4 ,the result aimed at in the helicopter is the ability to rise vertically from the starting point1 instead of first running along the ground for from #ajj to #cjj feet before sufficient speed to rise is attained1 as the aeroplanes do4 ,the device employed to accomplish this result is a propeller1 or propellers1 revolving horizontally above the machine4 ,after the desired altitude is gained it is proposed to travel in any direction by changing the plane in which the propellers revolve to one having a small angle with the horizon4 ,illustration3 ,the force necessary to keep the aeroplane moving in its horizontal path is the same as that required to move the automobile of equal weight up the same gradient--much less than its total weight4 ,the great difficulty encountered with this type of machine is that the propellers must lift the entire weight4 ,in the case of the aeroplane1 the power of the engine is used to slide the plane up an incline of air1 and for this much less power is required4 ,for instance1 the weight of a ,curtiss biplane with the pilot on board is about #gjj pounds1 and this weight is easily slid up an inclined plane of air with a propeller thrust of about #bdj pounds4 ,another difficulty is that the helicopter screws1 in running at the start before they can attain speed sufficient to lift their load1 have established downward currents of air with great velocity1 in which the screws must run with much less efficiency4 ,with the aeroplanes1 on the contrary1 their running gear enables them to run forward on the ground almost with the first revolution of the propeller1 and as they increase their speed the currents--technically called the 8slip0--become less and less as the engine speed increases4 ,in the ,cornu helicopter1 which perhaps has come nearer to successful flight than any other1 these downward currents are checked by interposing planes below1 set at an angle determined by the operator4 ,the glancing of the currents of air from the planes is expected to drive the helicopter horizontally through the air4 ,at the same time these planes offer a large degree of resistance1 and the engine power must be still further increased to overcome this1 while preserving the lift of the entire weight4 ,with an #h-;cylinder ,antoinette motor1 said to be but #bd horse-power1 turning two #bj-;foot propellers1 the machine is reported as lifting itself and two persons--a total weight of #gbc pounds--to a height of #e feet1 and sustaining itself for #a minute4 ,upon the interposing of the planes to produce the horizontal motion the machine came immediately to the ground4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing principle of the ,cornu helicopter4 ,p1 ,p1 propelling planes4 ,the arrow shows direction of travel with planes at angle shown4 ,this performance must necessarily be compared with that of the aeroplanes1 as1 for instance1 the ,wright machine1 which1 with a #be to #cj horse-power motor operating two #h-;foot propellers1 raises a weight of #a1jej pounds and propels it at a speed of #dj miles an hour for upward of #b hours4 ,another form of helicopter is the ,leger machine1 so named after its ,french inventor4 ,it has two propellers which revolve on the same vertical axis1 the shaft of one being tubular1 encasing that of the other4 ,by suitable gearing this vertical shaft may be inclined after the machine is in the air in the direction in which it is desired to travel4 ,illustration3 ,the ,vitton-,huber helicopter at the ,paris aeronautical salon in #aiji4 ,it has the double concentric axis of the ,leger helicopter and the propelling planes of the ,cornu machine4 ,the gyropter differs from the ,cornu type of helicopter in degree rather than in kind4 ,in the ,scotch machine1 known as the ,davidson gyropter1 the propellers have the form of immense umbrellas made up of curving slats4 ,the frame of the structure has the shape of a ,t1 one of the gyropters being attached to each of the arms of the ,t4 ,the axes upon which the gyropters revolve may be inclined so that their power may be exerted to draw the apparatus along in a horizontal direction after it has been raised to the desired altitude4 ,the gyropters of the ,davidson machine are #bh feet in diameter1 the entire structure being #fg feet long1 and weighing #c tons4 ,it has been calculated that with the proposed pair of #ej horse-power engines the gyropters will lift #e tons4 ,upon a trial with a #aj horse-power motor connected to one of the gyropters1 that end of the apparatus was lifted from the ground at #ee revolutions per minute--the boiler pressure being #hjj lbs4 to the square inch1 at which pressure it burst1 wrecking the machine4 ,an example of the gyroplane is the ,french ,breguet apparatus1 a blend of the aeroplane and the helicopter4 ,it combines the fixed wing-planes of the one with the revolving vanes of the other4 ,the revolving surfaces have an area of #hb square feet1 and the fixed surfaces #cgf square feet4 ,the total weight of machine and operator is about #a1cej lbs4 ,fitted with a #dj horse-power motor1 it rose freely into the air4 ,the ornithopter1 or flapping-wing type of flying machine1 though the object of experiment and research for years1 must still be regarded as unsuccessful4 ,the apparatus of ,m4 de la ,hault may be taken as typical of the best effort in that line1 and it is yet in the experimental stage4 ,the throbbing beat of the mechanism1 in imitation of the bird's wings1 has always proved disastrous to the structure before sufficient power was developed to lift the apparatus4 ,the most prominent exponent of the tetrahedral type--that made up of numbers of small cells set one upon another--is the ,cygnet of ,dr4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 which perhaps is more a kite than a true flying machine4 ,the first ,cygnet had #c1jjj cells1 and lifted its pilot to a height of #agf feet4 ,the ,cygnet ,,ii4 has #e1jjj tetrahedral cells1 and is propelled by a #ej horse-power motor4 ,it has yet to make its record4 ,one of the most recently devised machines is that known as the ,fritz ,russ flyer4 ,it has two wings1 each in the form of half a cylinder1 the convex curve upward4 ,it is driven by two immense helical screws1 or spirals1 set within the semi-cylinders4 ,no details of its performances are obtainable4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,how ,,to ,,operate4 ,instinctive balance--,when the motor skips--,progressive experience--,plum ,island ,school methods--,lilienthal's conclusions--,the ,curtiss mechanism and controls--,speed records--,cross-country flying--,landing--,essential qualifications--,ground practice--,future relief4 ,any one who has learned to ride a bicycle will recall the great difficulty at first experienced to preserve equilibrium4 ,but once the knack was gained1 how simple the matter seemed6 ,balancing became a second nature1 which came into play instinctively1 without conscious thought or effort4 ,on smooth roads it was not even necessary to grasp the handle-bars4 ,the swaying of the body was sufficient to guide the machine in the desired direction4 ,much of this experience is paralleled by that of the would-be aviator4 ,first1 he must acquire the art of balancing himself and his machine in the air without conscious effort4 ,unfortunately1 this is even harder than in the case of the bicycle4 ,the cases would be more nearly alike if the road beneath and ahead of the bicyclist were heaving and falling as in an earthquake1 with no light to guide him2 for the air currents on which the aviator must ride are in constant and irregular motion1 and are as wholly invisible to him as would be the road at night to the rider of the wheel4 ,and there are other things to distract the attention of the pilot of an aeroplane--notably the roar of the propeller1 and the rush of wind in his face1 comparable only to the ceaseless and breath-taking force of the hurricane4 ,the well-known aviator1 ,charles ,k4 ,hamilton1 says3--8,so far as the air currents are concerned1 ,i rely entirely on instinctive action2 but my ear is always on the alert4 ,the danger signal of the aviator is when he hears his motor miss an explosion4 ,then he knows that trouble is in store4 ,sometimes he can speed up his engine1 just as an automobile driver does1 and get it to renew its normal action4 ,but if he fails in this1 and the motor stops1 he must dip his deflecting planes1 and try to negotiate a landing in open country4 ,sometimes there is no preliminary warning from the motor that it is going to cease working4 ,that is the time when the aviator must be prepared to act quickly4 ,unless the deflecting planes are manipulated instantly1 aviator and aeroplane will rapidly land a tangled mass on the ground40 ,illustration3 ,result of a failure to deflect the planes quickly enough when the engine stopped4 ,the operator fortunately escaped with but a few bruises4 ,at the same time1 ,mr4 ,hamilton says3 8,driving an aeroplane at a speed of #abj miles an hour is not nearly so difficult a task as driving an automobile #fj miles an hour4 ,in running an automobile at high speed the driver must be on the job every second4 ,nothing but untiring vigilance can protect him from danger4 ,there are turns in the road1 bad stretches of pavement1 and other like difficulties1 and he can never tell at what moment he is to encounter some vehicle1 perhaps travelling in the opposite direction4 ,but with an aeroplane it is a different proposition4 ,once a man becomes accustomed to aeroplaning1 it is a matter of unconscious attention4444 ,he has no obstacles to encounter except cross-currents of air4 ,air and wind are much quicker than a man can think and put his thought into action4 ,unless experience has taught the aviator to maintain his equilibrium instinctively1 he is sure to come to grief40 ,the ,wright brothers spent years in learning the art of balancing in the air before they appeared in public as aviators4 ,and their method of teaching pupils is evidence that they believe the only road to successful aviation is through progressive experience1 leading up from the use of gliders for short flights to the actual machines with motors only after one has become an instinctive equilibrist4 ,at the ,plum ,island school of the ,herring-,burgess ,company the learner is compelled to begin at the beginning and work the thing out for himself4 ,he is placed in a glider which rests on the ground4 ,the glider is locked down by a catch which may be released by pulling a string4 ,to the front end of the glider is attached a long elastic which may be stretched more or less1 according to the pull desired4 ,the beginner starts with the elastic stretched but a little4 ,when all is ready he pulls the catch free1 and is thrown forward for a few feet4 ,as practice gains for him better control1 he makes a longer flight2 and when he can show a perfect mastery of his craft for a flight of #cjj feet1 and not till then1 he is permitted to begin practice with a motor-driven machine4 ,illustration3 ,a ,french apparatus for instructing pupils in aviation4 ,the lamented ,otto ,lilienthal1 whose experience in more than #b1jjj flights gives his instructions unquestionable weight1 urges that the 8gradual development of flight should begin with the simplest apparatus and movements1 and without the complication of dynamic means4 ,with simple wing surfaces 444 man can carry out limited flights 444 by gliding through the air from elevated points in paths more or less descending4 ,the peculiarities of wind effects can best be learned by such exercises4444 ,the maintenance of equilibrium in forward flight is a matter of practice1 and can be learned only by repeated personal experiment4444 ,actual practice in individual flight presents the best prospects for developing our capacity until it leads to perfected free flight40 ,the essential importance of thorough preparation in the school of experience could scarcely be made plainer or stronger4 ,if it seems that undue emphasis has been laid upon this point1 the explanation must be found in the deplorable death record among aviators from accidents in the air4 ,with few exceptions1 the cause of accident has been reported as1 8,the aviator seemed to lose control of his machine40 ,if this is the case with professional flyers1 the need for thorough preliminary training cannot be too strongly insisted upon4 ,having attained the art of balancing1 the aviator has to learn the mechanism by which he may control his machine4 ,while all of the principal machines are but different embodiments of the same principles1 there is a diversity of design in the arrangement of the means of control4 ,we shall describe that of the ,curtiss biplane1 as largely typical of them all4 ,in general1 the biplane consists of two large sustaining planes1 one above the other4 ,between the planes is the motor which operates a propeller located in the rear of the planes4 ,projecting behind the planes1 and held by a framework of bamboo rods1 is a small horizontal plane1 called the tail4 ,the rudder which guides the aeroplane to the right or the left is partially bisected by the tail4 ,this rudder is worked by wires which run to a steering wheel located in front of the pilot's seat4 ,this wheel is similar in size and appearance to the steering wheel of an automobile1 and is used in the same way for guiding the aeroplane to the right or left4 7,see illustration of the ,curtiss machine in ,chapter ,v47 ,in front of the planes1 supported on a shorter projecting framework1 is the altitude rudder1 a pair of planes hinged horizontally1 so that their front edges may tip up or down4 ,when they tilt up1 the air through which the machine is passing catches on the under sides and lifts them up1 thus elevating the front of the whole aeroplane and causing it to glide upward4 ,the opposite action takes place when these altitude planes are tilted downward4 ,this altitude rudder is controlled by a long rod which runs to the steering wheel4 ,by pushing on the wheel the rod is shoved forward and turns the altitude planes upward4 ,pulling the wheel turns the rudder planes downward4 ,this rod has a backward and forward thrust of over two feet1 but the usual movement in ordinary wind currents is rarely more than an inch4 ,in climbing to high levels or swooping down rapidly the extreme play of the rod is about four or five inches4 ,thus the steering wheel controls both the horizontal and vertical movements of the aeroplane4 ,more than this1 it is a feeler to the aviator1 warning him of the condition of the air currents1 and for this reason must not be grasped too firmly4 ,it is to be held steady1 yet loosely enough to transmit any wavering force in the air to the sensitive touch of the pilot1 enabling him instinctively to rise or dip as the current compels4 ,illustration3 ,courtesy ,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,view of the centre of the new ,wright machine1 showing method of operating4 ,archibald ,hoxsey in the pilot's seat4 ,in his right hand he holds a lever with two handles1 one operating the warping of the wing tips1 and the other the rudder4 ,both handles may be grasped at once1 operating both rudder and wing tips at the same moment4 ,in his left hand ,hoxsey grasps the lever operating the elevating plane--at the rear in this type4 ,the passenger's seat is shown at the pilot's right4 ,the preserving of an even keel is accomplished in the ,curtiss machine by small planes hinged between the main planes at the outer ends4 ,they serve to prevent the machine from tipping over sideways4 ,they are operated by arms1 projecting from the back of the aviator's seat1 which embrace his shoulders on each side1 and are moved by the swaying of his body4 ,in a measure1 they are automatic in action1 for when the aeroplane sags downward on one side1 the pilot naturally leans the other way to preserve his balance1 and that motion swings the ailerons 7as these small stabilizing planes are called7 in such a way that the pressure of the wind restores the aeroplane to an even keel4 ,the wires which connect them with the back of the seat are so arranged that when one aileron is being pulled down at its rear edge the rear of the other one is being raised1 thus doubling the effect4 ,as the machine is righted the aviator comes back to an upright position1 and the ailerons become level once more4 ,illustration3 ,starting a ,wright machine4 ,when the word is given both assistants pull vigorously downward on the propeller blades4 ,there are other controls which the pilot must operate consciously4 ,in the ,curtiss machine these are levers moved by the feet4 ,with a pressure of the right foot he short-circuits the magneto1 thus cutting off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping the motor4 ,this lever also puts a brake on the forward landing wheels1 and checks the speed of the machine as it touches the ground4 ,the right foot also controls the pump which forces the lubricating oil faster or slower to the points where it is needed4 ,the left foot operates the lever which controls the throttle by which the aviator can regulate the flow of gas to the engine cylinders4 ,the average speed of the #g-;foot propeller is #a1ajj revolutions per minute4 ,with the throttle it may be cut down to #ajj revolutions per minute1 which is not fast enough to keep afloat1 but will help along when gliding4 ,obviously1 travelling with the wind enables the aviator to make his best speed records1 for the speed of the wind is added to that of his machine through the air4 ,again1 since the wind is always slower near the ground1 the aviator making a speed record will climb up to a level where the surface currents no longer affect his machine4 ,but over hilly and wooded country the air is often flowing or rushing in conflicting channels1 and the aviator does not know what he may be called upon to face from one moment to the next4 ,if the aeroplane starts to drop1 it is only necessary to push the steering wheel forward a little--perhaps half an inch--to bring it up again4 ,usually1 the machine will drop on an even keel4 ,then1 in addition to the motion just described1 the aviator will lean toward the higher side1 thus moving the ailerons by the seat-back1 and at the same time he will turn the steering wheel toward the lower side4 ,this movement of the seat-back is rarely more than #b inches4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing action of wind on flight of aeroplane4 ,the force and direction of the wind being represented by the line ,a ,b1 and the propelling force and steered direction being ,a ,c1 the actual path travelled will be ,a ,d4 ,in flying across country a sharp lookout is kept on the land below4 ,if it be of a character unfit for landing1 as woods1 or thickly settled towns1 the aviator must keep high up in the air1 lest his engine stop and he be compelled to glide to the earth4 ,a machine will glide forward #c feet for each foot that it drops1 if skilfully handled4 ,if he is up #bjj feet1 he will have to find a landing ground within #fjj feet4 ,if he is up #ejj feet1 he may choose his alighting ground anywhere within #a1ejj feet4 ,over a city like ,new ,york1 a less altitude than #a1ejj feet would hardly be safe1 if a glide became necessary4 ,mr4 ,clifford ,b4 ,harmon1 who was an aeronaut of distinction before he became an aviator1 under the instruction of ,paulhan1 has this to say3 8,it is like riding a bicycle1 or running an automobile4 ,you have to try it alone to really learn how4 ,when one first handles a flying machine it is advisable to keep on the ground1 just rolling along4 ,this is a harder mental trial than you will imagine4 ,as soon as one is seated in a flying machine he wishes to fly4 ,it is almost impossible to submit to staying near the earth4 ,but until the manipulation of the levers and the steering gear has become second nature1 this must be done4 ,it is best to go very slow in the beginning4 ,skipping along the ground will teach a driver much4 ,when one first gets up in the air it is necessary to keep far from all obstacles1 like buildings1 trees1 or crowds4 ,there is the same tendency to run into them that an amateur bicycle rider has in regard to stones and ruts on the ground4 ,when he keeps his eye on them and tries with all his might to steer clear of them1 he runs right into them40 ,illustration3 ,practicing with a monoplane1 #bj feet above the ground4 ,when asked what he regarded the fundamental requirements in an aviator1 ,mr4 ,harmon said3 8,first1 he must be muscularly strong2 so that he will not tire4 ,second1 he should have a thorough understanding of the mechanism of the machine he drives4 ,third1 mental poise--the ability to think quick and to act instantly upon your thought4 ,fourth1 a feeling of confidence in the air1 so that he will not feel strange or out of place4 ,this familiarity with the air can be best obtained by first being a passenger in a balloon1 then by controlling one alone1 and lastly going up in a flying machine40 ,illustration3 ,grahame-,white on his ,bleriot ,no4 ,,xii4 ,the lever in front of him operates all the controls through the movement of the drum at its base4 ,mr4 ,claude ,grahame-,white1 the noted ,english aviator1 has this to say of his first experience with his big 8,no4 ,,xii40 ,bleriot monoplane--which differs in many important features from the 8,no4 ,,xi40 machine in which ,m4 ,bleriot crossed the ,english ,channel3 8,after several disappointments1 ,i eventually obtained the delivery of my machine in working order4444 ,as ,i had gathered a good deal of information from watching the antics and profiting by the errors made by other beginners on ,bleriot monoplanes1 ,i had a good idea of what not to do when the engine was started up and we were ready for our first trial4444 ,it was a cold morning1 but the engine started up at the first quarter turn4 ,after many warnings from ,m4 ,bleriot's foreman not on any account to accelerate my engine too much1 ,i mounted the machine along with my friend as passenger1 and immediately gave the word to let go1 and we were soon speeding along the ground at a good sixty kilometers 7about #cg miles7 per hour4444 ,being very anxious to see whether the machine would lift off the ground1 ,i gave a slight jerk to the elevating plane1 and soon felt the machine rise into the air2 but remembering the warnings of the foreman1 and being anxious not to risk breaking the machine1 ,i closed the throttle and contented myself with running around on the ground to familiarize myself with the handling of the machine4444 ,the next day we got down to ,issy about five o'clock in the morning1 some two hours before the ,bleriot mechanics turned up4 ,however1 we got the machine out1 and tied it to some railings1 and then ,i had my first experience of starting an engine1 which to a novice at first sight appears a most hazardous undertaking2 for unless the machine is either firmly held by several men1 or is strongly tied up1 it has a tendency to immediately leap forward4 ,we successfully started the engine1 and then rigged up a leash1 and when we had mounted the machine1 we let go2 and before eight o'clock we had accomplished several very successful flights1 both with and against the wind4 ,these experiences we continued throughout the day1 and by nightfall ,i felt quite capable of an extended flight1 if only the ground had been large enough4444 ,the following day ,m4 ,bleriot returned1 and he sent for me and strongly urged me not to use the aeroplane any more at ,issy1 as he said the ground was far too small for such a powerful machine40 ,illustration3 ,diagram of ,bleriot monoplane1 showing controlling lever ,l and bell-shaped drum ,c1 to which all controlling wires are attached4 ,when the bell is rocked back and forward the elevator tips on the rear plane are moved2 rocking from side to side moves the stabilizing tips of the main plane4 ,turning the bell around moves the rudder4 ,illustration3 ,the ,marmonier gyroscopic pendulum1 devised to secure automatic stability of aeroplanes4 ,the wheels are driven by the aeroplane motor at high speed4 ,the pendulum rod is extended upward above the axis and carries a vane which is engaged by any gust of wind from either side of the aeroplane1 tending to tilt the pendulum1 and bringing its gyroscopic resistance into play to warp the wings1 or operate ailerons4 ,the caution shown by these experienced aviators cannot be too closely followed by a novice4 ,these men do not say that their assiduous practice on the ground was the fruit of timidity4 ,on the contrary1 although they are long past the preliminary stages1 their advice to beginners is uniformly in the line of caution and thorough practice4 ,illustration3 ,when the aeroplane is steered to the left1 the pendulum swings to the right and depresses the right side of the plane1 as in 7c74 ,the reaction of the air raises the right side of the plane until both surfaces are perpendicular to the inclined pendulum1 as in 7d74 ,diagrams showing action of ,marmonier gyroscopic pendulum4 ,even after one has become an expert1 the battle is not won1 by any means4 ,while flying in calm weather is extremely pleasurable1 a protracted flight is very fatiguing2 and when it is necessary to wrestle with gusts of high wind and fickle air currents1 the strain upon the strongest nerve is a serious source of danger in that the aviator is liable to be suddenly overcome by weariness when he most needs to be on the alert4 ,illustration3 ,in that inclined position the aeroplane makes the turn1 and when the course again becomes straight1 both the gyroscopic and centrifugal forces cease1 and the pendulum under the influence of gravity becomes vertical4 ,in this position it is inclined to the left with respect to the planes1 on which its effect is to depress the left wing and so right the aeroplane1 as in 7e74 ,diagram showing action of ,marmonier gyroscopic pendulum4 ,engine troubles are much fewer than they used to be1 and a more dependable form of motor relieves the mind of the aviator from such mental disturbance4 ,some device in the line of a wind-shield would be a real boon1 for even in the best weather there is the ceaseless rush of air into one's face at #de to #ej miles an hour4 ,the endurance of this for hours is of itself a tax upon the most vigorous physique4 ,with the passing of the present spectacular stage of the art of flying there will doubtless come a more reliable form of machine1 with corresponding relief to the operator4 ,automatic mechanism will supplant the intense and continual mental attention now demanded2 and as this demand decreases1 the joys of flying will be considerably enhanced4 ,illustration3 ,if1 when pursuing a straight course1 the aeroplane is tilted by a sideways wind 7b71 the action of the pendulum as described above restores it to an even keel1 as in 7a74 ,diagrams showing action of ,marmonier gyroscopic pendulum4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,how ,,to ,,build4 ,santos-,dumont's gift--,la ,demoiselle--,mechanical skill required--,preparatory practice--,general dimensions--,the frame--,the motor--,the main planes--,the rudder-tail--,the propeller--,shaping the blades--,maxim's experience--,the running gear--,the controls--,scrupulous workmanship4 ,when ,santos-,dumont in #aiji gave to the world the unrestricted privilege of building monoplanes after the plans of his famous ,no4 #bj--;afterward named ,la ,demoiselle--he gave not only the best he knew1 but as much as any one knows about the building of flying machines4 ,santos-,dumont has chosen the monoplane for himself because his long experience commends it above others1 and ,la ,demoiselle was the crowning achievement of years spent in the construction and operation of airships of all types4 ,in view of ,santos-,dumont's notable successes in his chosen field of activity1 no one will go astray in following his advice4 ,of course1 the possession of plans and specifications for an aeroplane does not make any man a skilled mechanic4 ,it is well to understand at the start that a certain degree of mechanical ability is required in building a machine which will be entirely safe4 ,nor does the possession of a successful machine make one an aeronaut4 ,as in the case of bicycling1 there is no substitute for actual experience1 while in the airship the art of balancing is of even greater importance than on the bicycle4 ,the would-be aviator is therefore advised to put himself through a course of training of mind and body4 ,intelligent experimenting with some one of the models described in ,chapter ,,xi4 will teach much of the action of aeroplanes in calms and when winds are blowing2 and practice with an easily constructed glider 7see ,chapter ,,xii47 will give experience in balancing which will be of the greatest value when one launches into the air for the first time with a power-driven machine4 ,an expert acquaintance with gasoline motors and magnetos is a prime necessity4 ,in short1 every bit of information on the subject of flying machines and their operation cannot fail to be useful in some degree4 ,the dimensions of the various parts of the ,santos-,dumont monoplane are given on the original plans according to the metric system4 ,in reducing these to 8long measure0 inches1 all measurements have been given to the nearest eighth of an inch4 ,in general1 we may note some of the peculiarities of ,la ,demoiselle4 ,the spread of the plane is #ah feet from tip to tip1 and it is #bj feet over all from bow to stern4 ,in height1 it is about #d feet #b inches when the propeller blades are in a horizontal position4 ,the total weight of the machine is #bfe lbs41 of which the engine weighs about #ff lbs4 ,the area of the plane is #aae square feet1 so that the total weight supported by each square foot with ,santos-,dumont 7weighing #aaj lbs47 on board is a trifle over #c lbs4 ,the frame of the body of the monoplane is largely of bamboo1 the three main poles being #b inches in diameter at the front1 and tapering to about #a inch at the rear4 ,they are jointed with brass sockets just back of the plane1 for convenience of taking apart for transportation4 ,two of these poles extend from the axle of the wheels backward and slightly upward to the rudder-post4 ,the third extends from the middle of the plane between the wings1 backward and downward to the rudder-post4 ,in cross-section the three form a triangle with the apex at the top4 ,these bamboo poles are braced about every #b feet with struts of steel tubing of oval section1 and the panels so formed are tied by diagonals of piano wire fitted with turn-buckles to draw them taut4 ,illustration3 ,side view of the ,santos-,dumont monoplane4 ,,mp1 main plane with radiator1 ,r1 hung underneath2 ,,rp1 rudder plane worked by wires ,,hc1 attached to lever ,l2 ,,vc1 vertical control wires2 ,,wt1 tube through which run the warping wires worked by lever ,k1 in a pocket of the pilot's coat2 ,b1 ,b1 bamboo poles of frame2 ,s1 ,s1 brass1 or aluminum sockets2 ,d1 ,d1 struts of bicycle tubing2 ,g1 gasoline2 ,,rg1 reserve gasoline2 ,m1 motor2 ,p1 propeller2 ,q1 ,q1 outer rib of plane1 showing camber2 ,n1 skid4 ,in the ,santos-,dumont machine a #b-;cylinder1 opposed ,darracq motor of #cj horse-power was used4 ,it is of the water-cooled type1 the cooling radiator being a gridiron of very thin -inch copper tubing1 and hung up on the under side of the plane on either side of the engine4 ,the cylinders have a bore of about #d inches1 and a stroke of about #d inches4 ,the propeller is #b-;bladed1 #f feet across1 and is run at #a1djj revolutions per minute1 at which speed it exerts a pull of #bdb lbs4 ,each wing of the main plane is built upon #b transverse spars extending outward from the upper bamboo pole1 starting at a slight angle upward and bending downward nearly to the horizontal as they approach the outer extremities4 ,these spars are of ash1 #b inches wide1 and tapering in thickness from #a inches at the central bamboo to about inch at the tips of the wings4 ,they are bent into shape by immersion in hot water1 and straining them around blocks nailed to the floor of the workshop1 in the form shown at ,,qq1 p4 #agg4 ,illustration3 ,front view of the ,santos-,dumont monoplane1 showing position of tubular struts supporting the engine and the wings2 also the guys1 and warping wires entering the tubes inside the wheels4 ,,mp1 the main plane2 ,,tp1 tail plane in the rear2 ,r1 radiators2 ,m1 motor2 ,p1 propeller1 the arrow showing direction of revolution4 ,the front spar is set about #i inches back from the front edge of the plane1 and the rear one about #ab inches forward of the back edge of the plane4 ,across these spars1 and beneath them1 running fore and aft1 are bamboo rods about of an inch in diameter at the forward end1 and tapering toward the rear4 ,they are set #h inches apart 7centre to centre71 except at the tips of the wings4 ,the two outer panels are #aj inches from centre to centre of the rods1 to give greater elasticity in warping4 ,these fore-and-aft rods are #f feet #e inches long1 except directly back of the propeller1 where they are #e feet #h inches long2 they are bound to the spars with brass wire ,no4 #be1 at the intersections4 ,they also are bent to a curved form1 as shown in the plans1 by the aid of the hot-water bath4 ,diagonal guys of piano wire are used to truss the frame in two panels in each wing4 ,around the outer free ends of the rods runs a piano wire ,no4 #bj1 which is let into the tips of the rods in a slot inch deep4 ,to prevent the splitting of the bamboo1 a turn or two of the brass wire may be made around the rod just back of the slot2 but it is much better to provide thin brass caps for the ends of the rods1 and to cut the slots in the metal as well as in the rods4 ,instead of caps1 ferrules will do4 ,when the slots are cut1 let the tongue formed in the cutting be bent down across the bamboo to form the floor to the slot1 upon which the piano wire may rest4 ,the difference in weight and cost is very little1 and the damage that may result from a split rod may be serious4 ,illustration3 ,plan and details of construction of ,la ,demoiselle4 ,after the frame of the plane is completed it is to be covered with cloth on both sides1 so as entirely to enclose the frame1 except only the tips of the rods1 as shown in the plans4 ,in the ,santos-,dumont monoplane the cloth used is of closely woven silk1 but a strong1 unbleached muslin will do--the kind made especially for aeroplanes is best4 ,both upper and lower surfaces must be stretched taut1 the edges front and back being turned over the piano wire1 and the wire hemmed in4 ,the upper and lower surfaces are then sewed together--8through and through10 as a seamstress would say--along both sides of each rod1 so that the rods are practically in 8pockets40 ,nothing must be slighted1 if safety in flying is to be assured4 ,illustration3 ,sectional diagram of #b-;cylinder ,darracq opposed motor4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of #d-;cylinder ,darracq opposed motor4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of #c-;cylinder ,anzani motor4 ,motors suitable for ,la ,demoiselle monoplane4 ,the tail of the monoplane is a rigid combination of two planes intersecting each other at right angles along a central bamboo pole which extends back #c feet #e inches from the rudder-post1 to which it is attached by a double joint1 permitting it to move upon either the vertical or the horizontal axis4 ,although this tail1 or rudder1 may seem at first glance somewhat complicated in the plans1 it will not be found so if the frame of the upright or vertical plane be first constructed1 and that of the level or horizontal plane afterward built fast to it at right angles4 ,as with the main plane1 the tail is to be covered on both sides with cloth1 the vertical part first2 the horizontal halves on either side so covered that the cloth of the latter may be sewed above and below the central pole4 ,all of the ribs in the tail are to be stitched in with 8pockets10 as directed for the rods of the main plane4 ,the construction of the motor is possible to an expert machinist only1 and the aeroplane builder will save time and money by buying his engine from a reliable maker4 ,it is not necessary to send to ,france for a ,darracq motor4 ,any good gasoline engine of equal power1 and about the same weight1 will serve the purpose4 ,the making of the propeller is practicable for a careful workman4 ,the illustrations will give a better idea than words of how it should be done4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that the safety of the aviator depends as much upon the propeller as upon any other part of the machine4 ,the splitting of the blades when in motion has been the cause of serious accidents4 ,the utmost care1 therefore1 should be exercised in the selection of the wood1 and in the glueing of the several sections into one solid mass1 allowing the work to dry thoroughly under heavy pressure4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing how the layers of wood are placed for glueing3 ,a1 at the hub2 ,b1 half way to the tip of the blade2 ,c1 at the tip4 ,the dotted lines show the form of the blade at these points4 ,the forming of the blades requires a good deal of skill1 and some careful preliminary study4 ,it is apparent that the speed of a point at the tip of a revolving blade is much greater than that of a point near the hub1 for it traverses a larger circle in the same period of time4 ,but if the propeller is to do effective work without unequal strain1 the twist in the blade must be such that each point in the length of the blade is exerting an equal pull on the air4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that the slower-moving part of the blade1 near the hub1 or axis1 shall cut 8deeper0 into the air than the more swiftly moving tip of the blade4 ,consequently the blade becomes continually 8flatter0 7approaching the plane in which it revolves7 as we work from the hub outward toward the tip4 ,this 8flattening0 is well shown in the nearly finished blade clamped to the bench at the right of the illustration--which shows a four-bladed propeller1 instead of the two-bladed type needed for the monoplane4 ,the propeller used for propulsion in air differs from the propeller-wheel used for ships in water1 in that the blades are curved laterally2 the forward face of the blade being convex1 and the rearward face concave4 ,the object of this shaping is the same as for curving the surface of the plane--to secure smoother entry into the air forward1 and a compression in the rear which adds to the holding power on the substance of the air4 ,it is extremely difficult to describe this complex shape1 and the amateur builder of a propeller will do well to inspect one made by a professional1 or to buy it ready made with his engine4 ,illustration3 ,forming a #d-;blade propeller out of #h layers of wood glued firmly together4 ,the following quotation from ,sir ,hiram ,maxim's account of his most effective propeller may aid the ambitious aeroplane builder3 8,my large screws were made with a great degree of accuracy2 they were perfectly smooth and even on both sides1 the blades being thin and held in position by a strip of rigid wood on the back of the blade4444 ,like the small screws1 they were made of the very best kind of seasoned ,american white pine1 and when finished were varnished on both sides with hot glue4 ,when this was thoroughly dry1 they were sand-papered again1 and made perfectly smooth and even4 ,the blades were then covered with strong ,irish linen fabric of the smoothest and best make4 ,glue was used for attaching the fabric1 and when dry another coat of glue was applied1 the surface rubbed down again1 and then painted with zinc white in the ordinary way and varnished4 ,these screws worked exceedingly well40 ,the covering of the blades with linen glued fast commends itself to the careful workman as affording precaution against the splintering of the blades when in rapid motion4 ,some propellers have their wooden blades encased with thin sheet aluminum to accomplish the same purpose1 but for the amateur builder linen is far easier to apply4 ,illustration3 ,this method of mounting the wheels of the chassis has been found the most satisfactory4 ,the spring takes up the shock of a sudden landing and the pivot working in the hollow post allows the entire mounting to swing like a caster1 and adapt itself to any direction at which the machine may strike the ground4 ,the wheels are of the bicycle type1 with wire spokes1 but with hubs six inches long4 ,the axle is bent to incline upward at the ends1 so that the wheels incline outward at the ground1 the better to take the shock of a sideways thrust when landing4 ,the usual metal or wood rims may be used1 but special tires of exceptionally light construction1 made for aeroplanes1 should be purchased4 ,the controlling wires or cords for moving the rudder 7or tail7 and for warping the tips of the wings are of flexible wire cable1 such as is made for use as steering rope on small boats4 ,the cable controlling the horizontal plane of the rudder-tail is fastened to a lever at the right hand of the operator4 ,the cable governing the vertical plane of the rudder-tail is attached to a wheel at the left hand of the operator4 ,the cables which warp the tips of the wings are fastened to a lever which projects upward just back of the operator's seat1 and which is slipped into a long pocket sewed to the back of his coat1 so that the swaying of his body in response to the fling of the tipping machine tends to restore it to an even keel4 ,springs are attached to all of these controlling wires1 strong enough to bring them back to a normal position when the operator removes his hands from the steering apparatus4 ,the brass sockets used in connecting the tubular struts to the main bamboos and the rudder-post1 and in fastening the axle of the wheels to the lower bamboos and elsewhere1 should be thoroughly made and brazed by a good mechanic1 for no one should risk the chance of a faulty joint at a critical spot1 when an accident may mean the loss of life4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of ,bleriot monoplane showing sizes of parts1 in metres4 ,reduced to feet and inches these measurements are3 #j4fj metres #a ft4 #aa in4 #a4ej metres #d ft4 #aa in4 #b4aj metres #f ft4 #aj in4 #c4ej metres #aa ft4 #f in4 #h4jj metres #bf ft4 #c in4 #h4fj metres #bh ft4 #b in4 ,the diagram being drawn to scale other dimensions may be found4 ,in both the plan 7upper figure7 and elevation 7lower figure71 ,a1 ,a1 is the main plane2 ,b1 tail plane2 ,c1 body2 ,d1 elevator wing-tips2 ,e1 rudder2 a1 a1 rigid spar2 b1 b1 flexible spar2 r1 r1 points of attachment for warping-wires2 h1 h1 guys2 ,h1 propeller2 ,m1 motor2 ,r1 radiator2 ,s1 pilot's seat2 ,p1 chassis4 ,for the rest1 it has seemed better to put the details of construction on the plans themselves1 where they will be available to the aeroplane builder without the trouble of continually consulting the text4 ,some of the work on an aeroplane will be found simple and easy2 some of it1 difficult and requiring much patience2 and some impracticable to any one but a trained mechanic4 ,but in all of it1 the worker's motto should be1 8,fidelity in every detail40 ,chapter ,x4 ,,flying ,,machines3 ,,motors4 ,early use of steam--,reliability necessary--,the gasoline motor--,carburetion--,compression--,igni tion--,air-cooling--,water-cooling--,lub rication--,the magneto--,weight--,types of motors--,the propeller--,form1 size1 and pitch--,slip--,materials--,construction4 ,the possibility of the existence of the flying machine as we have it to-day has been ascribed to the invention of the gasoline motor4 ,while this is not to be denied1 it is also true that the gasoline motors designed and built for automobiles and motor-boats have had to be wellnigh revolutionized to make them suitable for use in the various forms of aircraft4 ,and it is to be remembered1 doubtless to their greater credit1 that ,henson1 ,hargrave1 ,langley1 and ,maxim had all succeeded in adapting steam to the problem of the flight of models1 the two latter using gasoline to produce the steam4 ,perhaps the one predominant qualification demanded of the aeroplane motor is reliability4 ,a motor-car or motor-boat can be stopped1 and engine troubles attended to with comparatively little inconvenience4 ,the aeroplane simply cannot stop without peril4 ,it is possible for a skilful pilot to reach the earth when his engine stops1 if he is fortunately high enough to have space for the downward glide which will gain for him the necessary headway for steering4 ,at a lesser height he is sure to crash to the earth4 ,an understanding of the principles on which the gasoline motor works is essential to a fair estimate of the comparative advantages of the different types used to propel aeroplanes4 ,in the first place1 the radical difference between the gasoline motor and other engines is the method of using the fuel4 ,it is not burned in ordinary fashion1 but the gasoline is first vaporized and mixed with a certain proportion of air1 in a contrivance called a carburetor4 ,this gaseous mixture is pumped into the cylinder of the motor by the action of the motor itself1 compressed into about one-tenth of its normal volume1 and then exploded by a strong electric spark at just the right moment to have its force act most advantageously to drive the machinery onward4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,fiat0 #h-;cylinder air-cooled motor1 of the 8,v0 type1 made in ,france4 ,it is apparent that there are several chances for failure in this series4 ,the carburetor may not do its part accurately4 ,the mixture of air and vapor may not be in such proportions that it will explode2 in that case1 the power from that stroke will be missing1 and the engine will falter and slow down4 ,or a leakage in the cylinder may prevent the proper compression of the mixture1 the force from the explosion will be greatly reduced1 with a corresponding loss of power and speed4 ,or the electric spark may not be 8fat0 enough--that is1 of sufficient volume and heat to fire the mixture2 or it may not 8spark0 at just the right moment2 if too soon1 it will exert its force against the onward motion3 if too late1 it will not deliver the full power of the explosion at the time when its force is most useful4 ,the necessity for absolute perfection in these operations is obvious4 ,illustration3 ,a near view of the ,holmes engine from the driving side4 ,illustration3 ,the ,holmes rotative engine1 #g-;cylinder #ce horse-power1 weighing #afj pounds4 ,an ,american engine built in ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,other peculiarities of the gasoline motor affect considerably its use for aeroplanes4 ,the continual and oft-repeated explosions of the gaseous mixture inside of the cylinder generate great heat1 and this not only interferes with its regularity of movement1 but within a very brief time checks it altogether4 ,to keep the cylinder cool enough to be serviceable1 two methods are in use3 the air-cooling system and the water-cooling system4 ,in the first1 flanges of very thin metal are cast on the outside of the cylinder wall4 ,these flanges take up the intense heat1 and being spread out over a large surface in this way1 the rushing of the air through them as the machine flies 7or sometimes blown through them with a rotary fan7 cools them to some degree4 ,with the water-cooling system1 the cylinder has an external jacket1 the space between being filled with water which is made to circulate constantly by a small pump4 ,in its course the water which has just taken up the heat from the cylinder travels through a radiator in which it is spread out very thin1 and this radiator is so placed in the machine that it receives the full draught from the air rushing through the machine as it flies4 ,the amount of water required for cooling a motor is about #a lbs4 per horse-power4 ,with an #h-;cylinder #ej horse-power motor1 this water would add the very considerable item of #fj lbs4 to the weight the machine has to carry4 ,as noted in a previous chapter1 the ,mc,curdy biplane has its radiator formed into a sustaining plane1 and supports its own weight when travelling in the air4 ,illustration3 ,the #ahj horse-power engine of ,sir ,hiram ,maxim2 of the 8opposed0 type1 compound1 and driven by steam4 ,illustration3 ,the ,anzani motor and propeller which carried ,m4 ,bleriot across the ,english ,channel4 ,the curved edge of the propeller blades is the entering edge1 the propeller turning from the right of the picture over to the left4 ,the ,anzani is of the 8radiant0 type and is of ,french build4 ,it is an unsettled point with manufacturers whether the greater efficiency 7generally acknowledged7 of the water-cooled engine more than compensates for the extra weight of the water4 ,another feature peculiar to the gasoline motor is the necessity for such continual oiling that it is styled 8lubrication10 and various devices have been invented to do the work automatically1 without attention from the pilot further than the watching of his oil-gauge to see that a full flow of oil is being pumped through the oiling system4 ,the electric current which produces the spark inside of the cylinder is supplied by a magneto1 a machine formed of permanent magnets of horseshoe form1 between the poles of which a magnetized armature is made to revolve rapidly by the machinery which turns the propeller4 ,this magneto is often connected with a small storage battery1 or accumulator1 which stores up a certain amount of current for use when starting1 or in case the magneto gives out4 ,illustration3 ,sectional drawings showing details of construction of the ,anzani motor4 ,the flanges of the air-cooling system are distinctly shown4 ,the section at the left is from the side2 that at the right1 from the front4 ,all measurements are in millimtres4 ,a millimtre is #j4jci inch4 ,the great rivalry of the builders of motors has been in cutting down the weight per horse-power to the lowest possible figure4 ,it goes without saying that useless weight is a disadvantage in an aeroplane1 but it has not been proven that the very lightest engines have made a better showing than those of sturdier build4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,gobron0 engine of the 8double opposed10 or cross-shaped type4 ,a water-cooled engine1 with #h cylinders4 ,one of the items in the weight of an engine has been the fly-wheel found necessary on all motors of #d cylinders or less to give steadiness to the running4 ,with a larger number of cylinders1 and a consequently larger number of impulses in the circuit of the propeller1 the vibration is so reduced that the fly-wheel has been dispensed with4 ,illustration3 ,the ,emerson #f-;cylinder aviation engine1 of the 8tandem0 type1 water-cooled2 #fj horse-power2 made at ,alexandria1 ,va4 ,there are several distinct types of aircraft engines1 based on the arrangement of the cylinders4 ,the 8tandem0 type has the cylinders standing upright in a row1 one behind another4 ,there may be as many as eight in a row4 ,the ,curtiss and ,wright engines are examples4 ,another type is the 8opposed0 arrangement1 the cylinders being placed in a horizontal position and in two sets1 one working opposite the other4 ,an example of this type is seen in the ,darracq motor used on the ,santos-,dumont monoplane4 ,another type is the 8,v0 arrangement1 the cylinders set alternately leaning to right and to left1 as seen in the 8,fiat0 engine4 ,still another type is the 8radiant10 in which the cylinders are all above the horizontal1 and disposed like rays from the rising sun4 ,the #c-;cylinder ,anzani engine and the #e- and #g-;cylinder ,r-,e-,p engines are examples4 ,the 8star0 type is exemplified in the #e and #g-;cylinder engines in which the cylinders radiate at equal angles all around the circle4 ,the 8double opposed0 or cross-shaped type is shown in the 8,gobron0 engine4 ,in all of these types the cylinders are stationary1 and turn the propeller shaft either by cranks or by gearing4 ,illustration3 ,the ,elbridge engine1 of the 8tandem0 type and water-cooled4 ,it is an ,american engine1 built at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,an entirely distinct type of engine1 and one which has been devised solely for the aeroplane1 is the rotative--often miscalled the rotary1 which is totally different4 ,the rotative type may be illustrated by the ,gnome motor4 ,in this engine the seven cylinders turn around the shaft1 which is stationary4 ,the propeller is fastened to the cylinders1 and revolves with them4 ,this ingenious effect is produced by an offset of the crank-shaft of half the stroke of the pistons1 whose rods are all connected with the crank-shaft4 ,the entire system revolves around the main shaft as a centre1 the crank-shaft being also stationary4 ,illustration3 ,the famous ,gnome motor2 #ej horse-power1 #g-;cylinder1 air-cooled2 of the rotative type2 made in ,france4 ,this illustration shows the ,gnome steel propeller4 ,illustration3 ,sectional diagram of the #e-;cylinder ,r-,e-,p motor2 of the 8radiant0 type4 ,illustration3 ,sectional diagram of the #e-;cylinder ,bayard-,clement motor2 of the 8star0 type4 ,strictly speaking1 the propeller is not a part of the motor of the flying machine1 but it is so intimately connected with it in the utilization of the power created by the motor1 that it will be treated of briefly in this chapter4 ,the form of the air-propeller has passed through a long and varied development1 starting with that of the marine propeller1 which was found to be very inefficient in so loose a medium as air4 ,on account of this lack of density in the air1 it was found necessary to act on large masses of it at practically the same time to gain the thrust needed to propel the aeroplane swiftly1 and this led to increasing the diameter of the propeller to secure action on a proportionally larger area of air4 ,the principle involved is simply the geometric rule that the areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their radii4 ,thus the surface of air acted on by two propellers1 one of #f feet diameter and the other of #h feet diameter1 would be in the proportion of #i to #af2 and as the central part of a propeller has practically no thrust effect1 the efficiency of the #h-;foot propeller is nearly twice that of the #f-;foot propeller--other factors being equal4 ,but these other factors may be made to vary widely4 ,for instance1 the number of revolutions may be increased for the smaller propeller1 thus engaging more air than the larger one at a lower speed2 and1 in practice1 it is possible to run a small propeller at a speed that would not be safe for a large one4 ,another factor is the pitch of the propeller1 which may be described as the distance the hub of the propeller would advance in one complete revolution if the blades moved in an unyielding medium1 as a section of the thread of an ordinary bolt moves in its nut4 ,in the yielding mass of the air the propeller advances only a part of its pitch1 in some cases not more than half4 ,the difference between the theoretical advance and the actual advance is called the 8slip40 ,illustration3 ,the ,call ,aviation ,engine1 of the opposed type2 water-cooled4 ,the cylinders are large and few in number4 ,the #ajj horse-power engine has but #d cylinders1 and weighs only #bej pounds4 7,the ,gnome #ajj horse-power engine has #ad cylinders47 ,this is an ,american engine1 built at ,girard1 ,kansas4 ,in practical work the number of blades which have been found to be most effective is two4 ,more blades than two seem to so disturb the air that there is no hold for the propeller4 ,in the case of slowly revolving propellers1 as in most airship mechanisms1 four-bladed propellers are used with good effect4 ,but where the diameter of the propeller is about #h feet1 and the number of revolutions about #a1bjj per minute1 the two-bladed type is used almost exclusively4 ,the many differing forms of the blades of the propeller is evidence that the manufacturers have not decided upon any definite shape as being the best4 ,some have straight edges nearly or quite parallel2 others have the entering edge straight and the rear edge curved2 in others the entering edge is curved1 and the rear edge straight2 or both edges may be curved4 ,the majority of the wooden propellers are of the third-mentioned type1 and the curve is fashioned so that at each section of its length the blade presents the same area of surface in the same time4 ,hence the outer tip1 travelling the fastest1 is narrower than the middle of the blade1 and it is also much thinner to lessen the centrifugal force acting upon it at great speeds4 ,near the hub1 however1 where the travel is slowest1 the constructional problem demands that the blade contract in width and be made stout4 ,in fact1 it becomes almost round in section4 ,many propellers are made of metal1 with tubular shanks and blades of sheet metal1 the latter either solid sheets or formed with a double surface and hollow inside4 ,still others have a frame of metal with blades of fabric put on loosely1 so that it may adapt itself to the pressure of the air in revolving4 ,that great strength is requisite becomes plain when it is considered that the speed of the tip of a propeller blade often reaches seven miles a minute6 ,and at this velocity the centrifugal force excited--tending to tear the blades to splinters--is prodigious4 ,just as the curved surface of the planes of an aeroplane is more effective than a flat surface in compressing the air beneath them1 and thus securing a firmer medium on which to glide1 so the propeller blades are curved laterally 7across their width7 to compress the air behind them and thus secure a better hold4 ,the advancing side of the blade is formed with a still greater curve1 to gain the advantage due to the unexplained lift of the paradox aeroplane4 ,where the propeller is built of wood it is made of several layers1 usually of different kinds of wood1 with the grain running in slightly different directions1 and all carefully glued together into a solid block4 ,ash1 spruce1 and mahogany1 in alternating layers1 are a favorite combination4 ,in some instances the wooden propeller is sheathed in sheet aluminum2 in others1 it is well coated with glue which is sandpapered down very smooth1 then varnished1 and then polished to the highest lustre--to reduce the effect of the viscosity of the air to the minimum4 ,illustration3 ,two propellers1 the one on the left of left-hand pitch2 the other of right-hand pitch4 ,both are thrusting propellers1 and are viewed from the rear4 ,these fine models are of the laminated type1 and are of ,american make2 the one to the left a ,paragon propeller made in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 the other a ,brauner propeller made in ,new ,york4 ,in order to get the best results1 the propeller and the motor must be suited to each other4 ,some motors which 8race0 with a propeller which is slightly too small1 work admirably with one a little heavier1 or with a longer diameter4 ,the question as to whether one propeller1 or two1 is the better practice1 has not been decided4 ,the majority of aeroplanes have but one4 ,the ,wright and the ,cody machines have two4 ,the certainty of serious consequences to a machine having two1 should one of them be disabled1 or even broken so as to reduce the area1 seems to favor the use of but one4 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,,model ,,flying ,,machines4 ,awakened popular interest--,the workshop's share--,needed devices--,super-sensitive inventions--,unsolved problems--,tools and materials--,a model biplane--,the propeller--,the body--,the steering plane--,the main planes--,assembling the parts--,the motive power--,flying the model--,a monoplane model--,carving a propeller--,many ideas illustrated--,clubs and competitions--,some remarkable records4 ,it is related of ,benjamin ,franklin that when he went out with his famous kite with the wire string1 trying to collect electricity from the thundercloud1 he took a boy along to forestall the ridicule that he knew would be meted out to him if he openly flew the kite himself4 ,other scientific experimenters1 notably those working upon the problem of human flight in our own time1 have encountered a similar condition of the public mind1 and have chosen to conduct their trials in secret rather than to contend with the derision1 criticism1 and loss of reputation which a sceptical world would have been quick to heap upon them4 ,but such a complete revolution of thought has been experienced in these latter days that groups of notable scientific men gravely flying kites1 or experimenting with carefully made models of flying machines1 arouse only the deepest interest1 and their smallest discoveries are eagerly seized upon by the daily press as news of the first importance4 ,so much remains to be learned in the field of aeronautics that no builder and flyer of the little model aeroplanes can fail to gain valuable information1 if that is his intention4 ,on the other hand1 if it be the sport of racing these model aeroplanes which appeals to him1 the instruction given in the pages following will be equally useful4 ,the earnest student of aviation is reminded that the progressive work in this new art of flying is not being done altogether1 nor even in large part1 by the daring operators who1 with superb courage1 are performing such remarkable feats with the flying machines of the present moment4 ,not one of them would claim that his machine is all that could be desired4 ,on the contrary1 these intrepid men more than any others are fully aware of the many and serious defects of the apparatus they use for lack of better4 ,the scientific student in his workshop1 patiently experimenting with his models1 and working to prove or disprove untested theories1 is doubtless doing an invaluable part in bringing about the sort of flying which will be more truly profitable to humanity in general1 though less spectacular4 ,illustration3 ,a model flying machine built and flown by ,louis ,paulhan1 the noted aviator1 at a prize contest for models in ,france4 ,the design is after ,langley's model1 with tandem monoplane surfaces placed at a dihedral angle4 ,one of the greatest needs of the present machines is an automatic balancer which shall supersede the concentrated attention which the operator is now compelled to exercise in order to keep his machine right side up4 ,the discovery of the principle upon which such a balancer must be built is undoubtedly within the reach of the builder and flyer of models4 ,it has been asserted by an eminent scientific experimenter in things aeronautic that 8we cannot hope to make a sensitive apparatus quick enough to take advantage of the rising currents of the air10 etc4 ,with due respect to the publicly expressed opinion of this investigator1 it is well to reassure ourselves against so pessimistic an outlook by remembering that the construction of just such supersensitive apparatus is a task to which man has frequently applied his intellectual powers with signal success4 ,witness the photomicroscope1 which records faithfully an enlarged view of objects too minute to be even visible to the human eye2 the aneroid barometer1 so sensitive that it will indicate the difference in level between the table and the floor2 the thermostat1 which regulates the temperature of the water flowing in the domestic heating system with a delicacy impossible to the most highly constituted human organism2 the seismograph1 detecting1 recording1 and almost locating earth tremors originating thousands of miles away2 the automatic fire sprinkler2 the safety-valve2 the recording thermometer and other meteorological instruments2 and last1 if not of least importance1 the common alarm-clock4 ,and these are but a few of the contrivances with which man does by blind mechanism that which is impossible to his sentient determination4 ,even if the nervous system could be schooled into endurance of the wear and tear of consciously balancing an aeroplane for many hours1 it is still imperative that the task be not left to the exertion of human wits1 but controlled by self-acting devices responding instantly to unforeseen conditions as they occur4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing turbulent air currents produced when a flat plane is forced through the air at a large angle of incidence in the direction ,a-,b4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing smoothly flowing air currents caused by correctly shaped plane at proper angle of incidence4 ,some of the problems of which the model-builder may find the solution are3 whether large screws revolving slowly1 or small screws revolving rapidly1 are the more effective2 how many blades a propeller should have1 and their most effective shape2 what is the 8perfect0 material for the planes 7,maxim found that with a smooth wooden plane he could lift #b times the weight that could be lifted with the best made fabric-covered plane72 whether the centre of gravity of the aeroplane should be above or below the centre of lift1 or should coincide with it2 new formulas for the correct expression of the lift in terms of the velocity1 and angle of inclination--the former formulas having been proved erroneous by actual experience2 how to take the best advantage of the 8tangential force0 announced by ,lilienthal1 and reasserted by ,hargrave2 and many others4 ,and there is always the 8paradox aeroplane0 to be explained--and when explained it will be no longer a paradox1 but will doubtless open the way to the most surprising advance in the art of flying4 ,it is not assumed that every reader of this chapter will become a studious experimenter1 but it is unquestionably true that every model-builder1 in his effort to produce winning machines1 will be more than likely to discover some fact of value in the progress making toward the ultimate establishment of the commercial navigation of the air4 ,the tools and materials requisite for the building of model aeroplanes are few and inexpensive4 ,for the tools--a small hammer2 a small iron 8block0 plane2 a fine-cut half-round file2 a pair of round-nose pliers2 three twist drills 7as used for drilling metals71 the largest #a_/af inch diameter1 and two smaller sizes1 with an adjustable brad-awl handle to hold them2 a sharp pocket knife2 and1 if practicable1 a small hand vise4 ,the vise may be dispensed with1 and common brad-awls may take the place of the drills1 if necessary4 ,for the first-described model--the simplest--the following materials are needed3 some thin whitewood1 #a_/af inch thick 7as prepared for fret-sawing72 some spruce sticks1 inch square 7sky-rocket sticks are good72 a sheet of heavy glazed paper2 a bottle of liquid glue2 some of the smallest 7in diameter7 brass screws1 to inch long2 some brass wire1 #a_/bj inch in diameter2 #ajj inches of square rubber 7elastic7 8cord10 such as is used on return-balls1 but #a_/af inch square2 and a few strips of draughtsman's tracing cloth4 ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b1 blank from which propeller is shaped2 ,p1 ,p1 pencil lines at centre of bend2 ,c1 ,d1 sections of blade at points opposite2 ,e1 ,g1 propeller after twisting2 ,h1 view of propeller endwise1 showing outward twist of tips2 also shaft4 ,as the propeller is the most difficult part to make1 it is best to begin with it4 ,the flat blank is cut out of the whitewood1 and subjected to the action of steam issuing from the spout of an actively boiling tea-kettle4 ,the steam must be hot2 mere vapor will not do the work4 ,when the strip has become pliable1 the shaping is done by slowly bending and twisting at the same time--perhaps 8coaxing0 would be the better word1 for it must be done gently and with patience--and the steam must be playing on the wood all the time1 first on one side of the strip1 then on the other1 at the point where the fibres are being bent4 ,the utmost care should be taken to have the two blades bent exactly alike--although1 of course1 with a contrary twist1 the one to the right and the other to the left1 on each side of the centre4 ,a lead-pencil line across each blade at exactly the same distance from the centre will serve to fix accurately the centre of the bend4 ,if two blocks are made with slots cut at the angle of #a inch rise to #b inches base1 and nailed to the top of the work bench just far enough apart to allow the tips of the screw to be slid into the slots1 the drying in perfect shape will be facilitated4 ,the centre may be held to a true upright by two other blocks1 one on each side of the centre4 ,some strips of whitewood may be so rigid that the steam will not make them sufficiently supple4 ,in this case it may be necessary to dip them bodily into the boiling water1 or even to leave them immersed for a few minutes2 afterward bending them in the hot steam4 ,but a wetted stick requires longer to dry and set in the screw shape4 ,when the propeller is thoroughly dry and set in proper form1 it should be worked into the finished shape with the half-round file1 according to the several sections shown beside the elevation for each part of the blade4 ,the two strengthening piece's are then to be glued on at the centre of the screw1 and when thoroughly dry1 worked down smoothly to shape4 ,when all is dry and hard it should be smoothed with the finest emery cloth and given a coat of shellac varnish1 which1 in turn1 may be rubbed to a polish with rotten stone and oil4 ,it may be remarked1 in passing1 that this is a crude method of making a propeller1 and the result cannot be very good4 ,it is given here because it is the easiest way1 and the propeller will work4 ,a much better way is described further on--and the better the propeller1 the better any model will fly4 ,but for a novice1 no time will be lost in making this one1 for the experience gained will enable the model-builder to do better work with the second one than he could do without it4 ,for the aeroplane body we get out a straight spar of spruce1 inch square and #ae inches long4 ,at the front end of this--on the upper side--is to be glued a small triangular piece of wood to serve as a support for the forward or steering plane1 tilting it up at the front edge at the angle represented by a rise of #a in #h4 ,this block should be shaped on its upper side to fit the curve of the under side of the steering-plane1 which will be screwed to it4 ,the steering-plane is cut according to plan1 out of #a_/af inch whitewood1 planed down gradually to be at the ends about half that thickness4 ,this plane is to be steamed and bent to a curve 7fore and aft7 as shown in the sectional view4 ,the steam should play on the convex side of the bend while it is being shaped4 ,to hold it in proper form until it is set1 blocks with curved slots may be used1 or it may be bound with thread to a moulding block of equal length formed to the proper curve4 ,when thoroughly dry it is to be smoothed with the emery cloth1 and a strip of tracing cloth--glossy face out--is to be glued across each end1 to prevent breaking in case of a fall4 ,it is then to be varnished with shellac1 and polished1 as directed for the propeller4 ,indeed1 it should be said once for all that every part of the model should be as glossy as it is possible to make it without adding to the weight1 and that all 8entering edges0 7those which push into and divide the air when in flight7 should be as sharp as is practicable with the material used4 ,the steering-plane is to be fastened in place by a single screw long enough to pierce the plane and the supporting block1 and enter the spar4 ,the hole for this screw 7as for all screws used7 should be drilled carefully1 to avoid the least splitting of the wood1 and just large enough to have the screw 8bite0 without forcing its way in4 ,this screw which holds the plane is to be screwed 8home0 but not too tight1 so that in case the flying model should strike upon it in falling1 the slender plane will swivel1 and not break4 ,it will be noticed that while this screw passes through the centre of the plane sideways1 it is nearer to the forward edge than to the rear edge4 ,if the work has been accurate1 the plane will balance if the spar is supported--upon the finger1 perhaps1 as that is sensitive to any tendency to tipping4 ,if either wing is too heavy1 restore the balance by filing a little from the tip of that wing4 ,the main planes are next to be made4 ,the lower deck of the biplane is of the #a_/af inch whitewood1 and the upper one is of the glazed paper upon a skeleton framework of wood4 ,the upright walls are of paper4 ,the wooden deck is to be bent into the proper curve with the aid of steam1 and when dry and set in form is to be finished and polished4 ,the frame for the upper deck is made of the thin whitewood1 and is held to its position by two diagonal struts of whitewood bent at the ends with steam1 and two straight upright struts or posts4 ,it is better to bend all cross-pieces into the curve of the plane with steam1 but they may be worked into the curve on the top side with plane and file1 and left flat on the lower side4 ,the drawings show full details of the construction1 drawn accurately to scale4 ,it is best to glue all joints1 and in addition to insert tiny screws1 where shown in the plans1 at the time of gluing4 ,when all the wooden parts are in place the entire outline of the upper plane and the upright walls is to be formed of silk thread carried from point to point1 and tied upon very small pins 7such as are used in rolls of ribbon at the stores7 inserted in the wood4 ,the glazed paper is put on double1 glossy side out4 ,cut the pieces twice as large 7and a trifle more7 than is needed1 and fold so that the smooth crease comes to the front and the cut edges come together at the rear4 ,the two inner walls should be put in place first1 so as to enclose the thread front and back1 and the post1 between the two leaves of the folded paper4 ,cutting the paper half an inch too long will give one fourth of an inch to turn flat top and bottom to fasten to the upper and lower decks respectively4 ,the two outer walls and the upper deck may be cut all in one piece1 the under leaf being slit to pass on either side of the inner walls4 ,a bit of glue here and there will steady the parts to their places4 ,the cut edges at the rear of the deck and walls should be caught together with a thin film of glue1 so as to enclose the rear threads4 ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b1 plan1 and ,c1 section1 of steering plane2 ,h1 section of lower main plane2 ,l1 wood skeleton of upper plane2 ,t1 ,t1 silk thread2 ,o1 ,o1 posts2 ,j1 ,j1 braces2 ,e1 rubber strands2 ,d1 forward hook2 ,g1 shaft2 ,f1 thrust-block2 ,k1 upper plane of paper2 ,m1 elevation of main planes1 from the rear4 ,when the biplane is completed it is to be fastened securely to the spar in such a position that it is accurately balanced--from side to side4 ,the spar may be laid on a table1 and the biplane placed across it in its approximate position4 ,then move the plane to one side until it tips down1 and mark the spot on the rear edge of the plane4 ,repeat this operation toward the other side1 and the centre between the two marks should be accurately fastened over the centre line of the spar4 ,even with the greatest care there may still be failure to balance exactly1 but a little work with a file on the heavy side1 or a bit of chewing gum stuck on the lighter side1 will remedy the matter4 ,the body of the aeroplane being now built1 it is in order to fit it with propelling mechanism4 ,the motive power to whirl the propeller we have already prepared is to be the torsion1 or twisting strain--in this case the force of untwisting--of india rubber4 ,when several strands of pure rubber cord are twisted up tight1 their elasticity tends to untwist them with considerable force4 ,the attachment for the rubber strands at the front end of the spar is a sort of bracket made of the brass wire4 ,the ends of the wire are turned up just a little1 and they are set into little holes in the under side of the spar4 ,where the wire turns downward to form the hook it is bound tightly to the spar with silk thread4 ,the hook-shaped tip is formed of the loop of the wire doubled upon itself4 ,the rear attachment of the rubber strands is a loop upon the propeller shaft itself4 ,as shown in the drawings1 this shaft is but a piece of the brass wire4 ,on one end 7the rear7 an open loop is formed1 and into this is slipped the centre of the propeller4 ,the short end of the loop is then twisted around the longer shank--very carefully1 lest the wire cut into and destroy the propeller4 ,two turns of the wire is enough1 and then the tip of the twisted end should be worked down flat with the file1 to serve as a bearing for the propeller against the thrust-block4 ,this latter is made of a piece of sheet brass 7a bit of printers' brass 8rule0 is just the thing7 about #a_/dj of an inch thick4 ,it should be of an inch wide except at the forward end1 where it is to be filed to a long point and bent up a trifle to enter the wood of the spar4 ,the rear end is bent down 7not too sharply1 lest it break7 to form the bearing for the propeller1 a hole being drilled through it for the propeller shaft1 just large enough for the shaft to turn freely in it4 ,another smaller hole is to be drilled for a little screw to enter the rear end of the spar4 ,next pass the straight end of the propeller shaft through the hole drilled for it1 and with the pliers form a round hook for the rear attachment of the rubber strands4 ,screw the brass bearing into place1 and for additional strength1 wind a binding of silk thread around it and the spar4 ,tie the ends of the rubber cord together1 divide it into ten even strands1 and pass the loops over the two hooks--and the machine is ready for flight4 ,to wind up the rubber it will be necessary to turn the propeller in the opposite direction to which it will move when the model is flying4 ,about #ajj turns will be required4 ,after it is wound1 hold the machine by the rear end of the spar1 letting the propeller press against the hand so it cannot unwind4 ,raise it slightly above the head1 holding the spar level1 or inclined upward a little 7as experience may dictate71 and launch the model by a gentle throw forward4 ,if the work has been well done it may fly from #aej to #bjj feet4 ,many experiments may be made with this machine4 ,if it flies too high1 weight the front end of the spar2 if too low1 gliding downward from the start1 weight the rear end4 ,a bit of chewing gum may be enough to cause it to ride level and make a longer and prettier flight4 ,a very graceful model is that of the monoplane type illustrated in the accompanying reproductions from photographs4 ,the front view shows the little machine just ready to take flight from a table4 ,the view from the rear is a snap-shot taken while it was actually flying4 ,this successful model was made by ,harold ,s4 ,lynn1 of ,stamford1 ,conn4 ,before discussing the details of construction1 let us notice some peculiar features shown by the photographs4 ,the forward plane is arched2 that is1 the tips of the plane bend slightly downward from the centre4 ,on the contrary1 the two wings of the rear plane bend slightly upward from the centre1 making a dihedral angle1 as it is called2 that is1 an angle between two surfaces1 as distinguished from an angle between two lines4 ,the toy wheels1 ,mr4 ,lynn says1 are put on principally for 8looks0 but they are also useful in permitting a start to be made from a table or even from the floor1 instead of the usual way of holding the model in the hands and giving it a slight throw to get it started4 ,however1 the wheels add to the weight1 and the model will not fly quite so far with them as without4 ,illustration3 ,front view of the ,lynn model of the monoplane type1 about to take flight4 ,the wood from which this model was made was taken from a bamboo fish-pole1 such as may be bought anywhere for a dime4 ,the pole was split up1 and the suitable pieces whittled and planed down to the proper sizes1 as given in the plans4 ,in putting the framework of the planes together1 it is well to notch very slightly each rib and spar where they cross4 ,touch the joint with a bit of liquid glue1 and wind quickly with a few turns of sewing silk and tie tightly4 ,this must be done with delicacy1 or the frames will be out of true4 ,if the work is done rapidly the glue will not set until all the ties on the plane are finished4 ,another way is to touch the joinings with a drop of glue1 place the ribs in position on the spars1 and lay a board carefully on the work1 leaving it there until all is dry1 when the tying can be done4 ,it either case the joinings should be touched again with the liquid glue and allowed to dry hard4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lynn model monoplane in flight1 from below and from the rear4 ,the best material for covering these frames is the thinnest of ,china silk4 ,if this is too expensive1 use the thinnest cambric4 ,but the model will not fly so far with the cambric covering4 ,the material is cut one-fourth of an inch too large on every side1 and folded over1 and the fold glued down4 ,care should be taken that the frame is square and true before the covering is glued on4 ,the motive power is produced by twisting up rubber tubing4 ,five and three-quarter feet of pure rubber tubing are required4 ,it is tied together with silk so as to form a continuous ring4 ,this is looped over two screw-hooks of brass1 one in the rear block and the other constituting the shaft4 ,this looped tubing is twisted by turning the propeller backward about two hundred turns4 ,as it untwists it turns the propeller1 which1 in this model1 is a 8traction0 screw1 and pulls the machine after it as it advances through the air4 ,illustration3 ,details and plans of the ,harold ,lynn model monoplane4 ,w1 tail block2 ,y1 thrust-block2 ,s1 mounting of propeller showing glass bead next the thrust-block1 and one leather washer outside the screw2 ,b1 glass bead2 ,c1 tin washer2 ,m1 ,m1 tin lugs holding axle of wheels4 ,the propeller in this instance is formed from a piece of very thin tin1 such as is used for the tops of cans containing condensed milk4 ,reference to the many illustrations throughout this book showing propellers of flying machines will give one a very good idea of the proper way to bend the blades4 ,the mounting with the glass bead and the two leather washers is shown in detail in the plans4 ,illustration3 ,method of forming propeller of the laminated1 or layer1 type4 ,the layers of wood are glued1in the position shown and the blades carved out according to the sections4 ,only one blade is shown from the axle to the tip4 ,this will make a right hand propeller4 ,the wheels are taken from a toy wagon1 and a pair of tin ears will serve as bearings for the axle4 ,the sport of flying model aeroplanes has led to the formation of many clubs in this country as well as in ,europe4 ,some of the mechanisms that have been devised1 and some of the contrivances to make the models fly better and further1 are illustrated in the drawings4 ,illustration3 ,at ,a is shown a method of mounting the propeller with a glass or china bead to reduce friction1 and a brass corner to aid in strengthening4 ,b shows a transmission of power by two spur wheels and chain4 ,c is a device for using two rubber twists acting on the two spur wheels ,s1 ,s1 which in turn are connected with the propeller with a chain drive4 ,d shows a launching apparatus for starting4 ,w1 the model2 ,v1 the carriage2 ,f1 the trigger guard2 ,t1 trigger2 ,e1 elastic cord for throwing the carriage forward to the stop ,k4 ,records have been made which seem marvellous when it is considered that #bjj feet is a very good flight for a model propelled by rubber4 ,for instance1 at the contest of the ,birmingham ,aero ,club 7,england7 in ,september1 one of the contestants won the prize with a flight of #ddg feet1 lasting #dh seconds4 ,the next best records for duration of flight were #ci seconds and #ch seconds4 ,a model aeroplane which is 8guaranteed to fly #a1jjj feet10 according to the advertisement in an ,english magazine1 is offered for sale at #ae4 ,the ,american record for length of flight is held by ,mr4 ,frank ,schober1 of ,new ,york1 with a distance of #bae feet #f inches4 ,his model was of the ,langley type of tandem monoplane1 and very highly finished4 ,the problem is largely one of adequate power without serious increase of weight4 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,glider4 ,aerial balancing--,practice necessary--,simplicity of the glider ,materials--,construction--,gliding--,fe ats with the ,montgomery glider--,noted experimenters--,glider clubs4 ,it is a matter of record that the ,wright brothers spent the better part of three years among the sand dunes of the ,north ,carolina sea-coast practising with gliders4 ,in this way they acquired that confidence while in the air which comes from intimate acquaintance with its peculiarities1 and which cannot be gained in any other way4 ,it is true that the ,wrights were then developing not only themselves1 but also their gliders2 but the latter work was done once for all4 ,to develop aviators1 however1 means the repeating of the same process for each individual--just as each for himself must be taught to read4 ,and the glider is the 8,first ,reader0 in aeronautics4 ,the long trail of wrecks of costly aeroplanes marking the progress in the art of flying marks also the lack of preparatory training1 which their owners either thought unnecessary1 or hoped to escape by some royal road less wearisome than persistent personal practice4 ,but they all paid dearly to discover that there is no royal road4 ,practice1 more practice1 and still more practice--that is the secret of successful aeroplane flight4 ,for this purpose the glider is much superior to the power-driven aeroplane4 ,there are no controls to learn1 no mechanism to manipulate4 ,one simply launches into the air1 and concentrates his efforts upon balancing himself and the apparatus2 not as two distinct bodies1 however1 but as a united whole4 ,when practice has made perfect the ability to balance the glider instinctively1 nine-tenths of the art of flying an aeroplane has been achieved4 ,not only this1 but a new sport has been laid under contribution2 one beside which coasting upon a snow-clad hillside is a crude form of enjoyment4 ,fortunately for the multitude1 a glider is easily made1 and its cost is even less than that of a bicycle4 ,a modest degree of skill with a few carpenter's tools1 and a little 8gumption0 about odd jobs in general1 is all that is required of the glider builder4 ,illustration3 ,a gliding slope with starting platform1 erected for club use4 ,the frame of the glider is of wood1 and spruce is recommended1 as it is stronger and tougher for its weight than other woods4 ,it should be of straight grain and free from knots2 and as there is considerable difference in the weight of spruce from different trees1 it is well to go over the pile in the lumber yard and pick out the lightest boards4 ,have them planed down smooth on both sides1 and to the required thickness1 at the mill--it will save much toilsome hand work4 ,the separate parts may also be sawed out at the mill1 if one desires to avoid this labor4 ,the lumber needed is as follows3 #d spars #bj ft4 long1 #a in4 wide1 in4 thick4 #ab struts #c ft4 long1 #a in4 wide1 in4 thick4 #b rudder bars #h ft4 long1 in4 wide1 in4 thick4 #ab posts #d ft4 long1 #a in4 wide1 in4 thick4 #da ribs #d ft4 long1 in4 wide1 in4 thick4 #b arm rests #d ft4 long1 #b in4 wide1 #a in4 thick4 ,for rudder frame4 #bd running ft41 #a in4 wide1 #a in4 thick4 ,if it be impossible to find clear spruce lumber #bj feet in length1 the spars may be built up by splicing two #aj-;foot sticks together4 ,for this purpose1 the splicing stick should be as heavy as the single spar--#a inches wide1 and inches thick--and at least #d feet long1 and be bolted fast to the spar with six inch round-head carriage bolts with washers of large bearing surface 7that is1 a small hole to fit the bolt1 and a large outer diameter7 at both ends of the bolt1 to prevent crushing the wood4 ,a layer of liquid glue brushed between will help to make the joint firmer4 ,illustration3 ,otto ,lilienthal in his single-plane glider4 ,the swinging forward of his feet tends to turn the glider toward the ground1 and increase its speed4 ,wherever a bolt is put in1 a hole should be bored for it with a bit of such size that the bolt will fit snug in the hole without straining the grain of the wood4 ,the corners of the finished spar are to be rounded off on a large curvature4 ,the ends of the struts are to be cut down on a slight slant of about #a_/af inch in the #a inches that it laps under the spar--with the idea of tipping the top of the spar forward so that the ribs will spring naturally from it into the proper curve4 ,the ribs should be bent by steaming1 and allowed to dry and set in a form1 or between blocks nailed upon the floor to the line of the correct curve4 ,they are then nailed to the frames1 the front end first3 #ba to the frame of the upper plane1 and #bj to that of the lower plane1 omitting one at the centre1 where the arm pieces will be placed4 ,some builders tack the ribs lightly into place with small brads1 and screw clamps formed from sheet brass or aluminum over them4 ,others use copper nails and clinch them over washers on the under side4 ,both methods are shown in the plans1 but the clamps are recommended as giving greater stiffness1 an essential feature4 ,at the front edge of the frames the ribs are fastened flush1 and being #d feet long and the frame but #c feet wide1 they project over the rear about #a foot4 ,the arm pieces are bolted to the spars of the lower frame #f inches on each side of the centre1 so as to allow a free space of #ac inches between them4 ,this opening may be made wider to accommodate a stouter person4 ,illustration3 ,plan and details of ,glider4 ,the upper plane has a rib at the centre instead of the two arm pieces4 ,the posts are then put into place and bolted to the struts and the spars1 as shown1 with inch bolts4 ,the entire structure is then to be braced diagonally with ,no4 #af piano wire4 ,the greatest care must be taken to have these diagonals pull just taut1 so that they shall not warp the lines of the frames out of true4 ,a crooked frame will not fly straight1 and is a source of danger when making a landing4 ,the frames are now to be covered4 ,there is a special balloon cloth made which is best for the purpose1 but if that cannot be procured1 strong cambric muslin will answer4 ,thirty yards of goods #a yard wide will be required for the planes and the rudder4 ,from the piece cut off #g lengths for each plane1 #d feet #f inches long4 ,these are to be sewed together1 selvage to selvage1 so as to make a sheet about #ai feet #f inches long and #d feet #f inches wide4 ,as this is to be tacked to the frame1 the edges must be double-hemmed to make them strong enough to resist tearing out at the tacks4 ,half an inch is first folded down all around2 the fold is then turned back on the goods #b inches and sewed4 ,this hem is then folded back #a inch upon itself1 and again stitched4 ,strips #c inches wide and a little over #d feet long are folded 8three-double0 into a width of #a inch1 and sewed along both edges to the large sheet exactly over where the ribs come4 ,these are to strengthen the fabric where the ribs press against it4 ,sixteen-ounce tacks are used1 being driven through a felt washer the size of a gun wad at intervals of four inches4 ,if felt is not readily obtainable1 common felt gun wads will do4 ,the tacking is best begun at the middle of the frame1 having folded the cloth there to get the centre4 ,then stretch smoothly out to the four corners and tack at each4 ,it may then be necessary to loosen the two centre tacks and place them over again1 to get rid of wrinkles4 ,the next tacks to drive are at the ends of the struts2 then half-way between2 and so on until all are in1 and the sheet is taut and smooth4 ,for a finer finish1 brass round-head upholsterer's nails may be used4 ,the rudder1 so-called1 is rather a tail1 for it is not movable and does not steer the glider4 ,it does steady the machine1 however1 and is very important in preserving the equilibrium when in flight4 ,it is formed of two small planes intersecting each other at right angles and covered on both sides with the cloth1 the sections covering the vertical part being cut along the centre and hemmed on to the upper and lower faces of the horizontal part4 ,the frame for the vertical part is fastened to the two rudder bars which stretch out toward the rear1 one from the upper plane1 and the other from the lower4 ,the whole construction is steadied by guys of the piano wire4 ,illustration3 ,lilienthal in his double-deck glider4 ,it proved unmanageable and fell1 causing his death4 ,the hill is an artificial one built for his own use in experimenting4 ,all wooden parts should be smoothed off with sandpaper1 and given a coat of shellac varnish4 ,to make a glide1 the machine is taken to an elevated point on a slope1 not far up to begin with4 ,lift the glider1 get in between the arm rests1 and raise the apparatus until the rests are snug under the arms4 ,run swiftly for a few yards and leap into the air1 holding the front of the planes slightly elevated4 ,if the weight of the body is in the right position1 and the speed sufficient1 the glider will take the air and sail with you down the slope4 ,it may be necessary at first to have the help of two assistants1 one at each end1 to run with the glider for a good start4 ,illustration3 ,diagram showing differing lines of flight as controlled by changing the position of the body4 ,the wind must be blowing against the direction of flight2 in the illustration this would be from left to right4 ,the position of the body on the arm rests can best be learned by a few experiments4 ,no two gliders are quite alike in this respect1 and no rule can be given4 ,as to the requisite speed1 it must be between #ae and #bj miles an hour2 and as this speed is impossible to a man running1 it is gained by gliding against the wind1 and thus adding the speed of the wind to the speed of the runner4 ,the ,wrights selected the sand dunes of the ,north ,carolina coast for their glider experiments because of the steady winds that blow in from the ocean1 across the land4 ,these winds gave them the necessary speed of air upon which to sail their gliders4 ,the first flights attempted should be short1 and as experience is gained longer ones may be essayed4 ,balancing the glider from side to side is accomplished by swaying the lower part of the body like a pendulum1 the weight to go toward the side which has risen4 ,swinging the body forward on the arm rests will cause the machine to dip the planes and glide more swiftly down the incline4 ,holding the weight of the body back in the arm rests will cause the machine to fly on a higher path and at a slower speed4 ,this is objectionable because the glider is more manageable at a higher speed1 and therefore safer4 ,the tendency at first is to place the weight too far back1 with a consequent loss of velocity1 and with that a proportionate loss of control4 ,the proper position of the body is slightly forward of the mechanical centre of the machine4 ,the landing is accomplished by shoving the body backward1 thus tilting up the front of the plane4 ,this checks the speed1 and when the feet touch the ground a little run1 while holding back1 will bring the glide to an end4 ,landing should be practised often with brief glides until skill is gained1 for it is the most difficult operation in gliding4 ,after one becomes expert1 longer flights may be secured by going to higher points for the start4 ,from an elevation of #cjj feet a glide of #a1bjj feet is possible4 ,illustration3 ,gliding with a ,chanute three-decker4 ,a start with two assistants4 ,while it is necessary to make glides against the wind1 it is not wise to attempt flights when the wind blows harder than #aj miles an hour4 ,while the flight may be successful1 the landing may be disastrous4 ,the accomplished glider operator is in line for the aeroplane1 and it is safe to say that he will not be long without one4 ,the skilful and practised operator of a glider makes the very best aeroplane pilot4 ,this chapter would not be complete without an adequate reference to the gliders devised by ,professor ,montgomery of ,santa ,clara1 ,california4 ,these machines were sent up with ordinary hot-air balloons to various heights1 reaching #d1jjj feet in some instances1 when they were cut loose and allowed to descend in a long glide1 guided by their pilots4 ,the time of the descent from the highest altitude was twenty minutes1 during which the glider travelled about eight miles4 ,the landing was made accurately upon a designated spot1 and so gently that there was no perceptible jar4 ,two of the pilots turned completely over sideways1 the machine righting itself after the somersault and continuing its regular course4 ,professor ,montgomery has made the assertion that he can fasten a bag of sand weighing #aej lbs4 in the driver's seat of his glider1 and send it up tied upside down under a balloon1 and that after being cut loose1 the machine will right itself and come safely to the ground without any steering4 ,lilienthal in ,germany1 ,pilcher in ,england1 and ,chanute in the ,united ,states are names eminent in connection with the experiments with gliders which have been productive of discoveries of the greatest importance to the progress of aviation4 ,the illustration of the ,chanute glider shows its peculiarities plainly enough to enable any one to comprehend them4 ,the establishment of glider clubs in several parts of the country has created a demand for ready-made machines1 so that an enthusiast who does not wish to build his own machine may purchase it ready made4 ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,balloons4 ,first air vehicle--,principle of ,archimedes--,why balloons rise--,inflating gases--,early history--,the ,montgolfiers--,the hot-air balloon--,charles's hydrogen balloon--,pilatre de ,rozier--,the first aeronaut--,the first balloon voyage--,blanchard and ,jeffries--,crossing the ,english ,channel--,first ,english ascensions--,notable voyages--,recent long-distance journeys and high ascensions--,prize balloon races--,a fascinating sport--,some impressions1 adventures1 and hardships--,accident record--,increasing interest in ballooning4 ,the balloon1 though the earliest and crudest means of getting up in the air1 has not become obsolete4 ,it has been in existence practically in its present general form for upwards of #ejj years4 ,appliances have been added from time to time1 but the big gas envelope enclosing a volume of some gas lighter than an equal volume of air1 and the basket1 or car1 suspended below it1 remain as the typical form of aerial vehicle which has not changed since it was first devised in times so remote as to lie outside the boundaries of recorded history4 ,the common shape of the gas bag of a balloon is that of the sphere1 or sometimes of an inverted pear4 ,it is allowed to rise and float away in the air as the prevailing wind may carry it4 ,attempts have been made to steer it in a desired direction1 but they did not accomplish much until the gas bag was made long horizontally1 in proportion to its height and width4 ,with a drag-rope trailing behind on the ground from the rear end of the gas bag1 and sails on the forward end1 it was possible to guide the elongated balloon to some extent in a determined direction4 ,in explaining why a balloon rises in the air1 it is customary to quote the 8principle of ,archimedes10 discovered and formulated by that famous philosopher centuries before the ,christian era4 ,briefly stated1 it is this3 ,every body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by a force pressing upward1 which is equal to the weight of the amount of the fluid displaced by the immersed body4 ,it remained for ,sir ,isaac ,newton to explain the principle of ,archimedes 7by the discovery of the law of gravitation71 and to show that the reason why the immersed body is apparently pushed upward1 is that the displaced fluid is attracted downward4 ,in the case of a submerged bag of a gas lighter than air1 the amount of force acting on the surrounding air is greater than that acting on the gas1 and the latter is simply crowded out of the way by the descending air1 and forced up to a higher level where its lighter bulk is balanced by the gravity acting upon it4 ,the fluid in which the balloon is immersed is the air4 ,the force with which the air crowds down around and under the balloon is its weight--weight being the measure of the attraction which gravity exerts upon any substance4 ,the weight of air at a temperature of #cb ,fahr41 at the normal barometer pressure at the sea-level 7#bi4ib inches of mercury71 is #j4jhjg lbs4 per cubic foot4 ,the gas used to fill a balloon must therefore weigh less than this1 bulk for bulk1 in order to be crowded upward by the heavier air--and thus exert its 8lifting power10 as it is commonly called4 ,in practice1 two gases have been used for inflating balloons--hydrogen1 and illuminating gas1 made ordinarily from coal1 and called 8coal gas40 ,hydrogen is the lightest substance known2 that is1 it is attracted less by gravity than any other known substance1 in proportion to its bulk4 ,illustration3 ,one of the earliest attempts to steer a spherical balloon by retarding its speed with the drag-rope1 and adjusting the sail to the passing wind4 ,a cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but #j4jjef lbs41 and it will therefore be pushed upward in air by the difference in weight1 or #j4jgea lbs4 per cubic foot4 ,a cubic foot of coal gas weighs about #j4jdjj lbs41 and is crowded upward in air with a force of #j4jdjg lbs4 ,illustration3 ,apparatus to illustrate the principle of ,archimedes4 ,at the left1 the small solid glass ball and large hollow glass sphere are balanced in the free air4 ,when the balance is moved under the bell-glass of the air pump 7at the right71 and the air exhausted1 the large sphere drops1 showing that its previous balance was due to the upward pressure of the air1 greater because of its larger bulk4 ,it is readily seen that a very large bulk of hydrogen must be used if any considerable weight is to be lifted4 ,for to the weight of the gas must be added the weight of the containing bag1 the car1 and the network supporting it1 the ballast1 instruments1 and passengers1 and there must still be enough more to afford elevating power sufficient to raise the entire load to the desired level4 ,let us assume that we have a balloon with a volume of #bj1jjj cubic feet1 which weighs with its appurtenances #ejj pounds4 ,the hydrogen it would contain would weigh about #aab pounds1 and the weight of the air it would displace would be about #a1fbj pounds4 ,the total available lifting power would be about #a1jjj pounds4 ,if a long-distance journey is to be undertaken at a comparatively low level1 this will be sufficient to carry the necessary ballast1 and a few passengers4 ,if1 however1 it is intended to rise to a great height1 the problem is different4 ,the weight of the air1 and consequently its lifting pressure1 decreases as we go upwards4 ,if the balloon has not been entirely filled1 the gas will expand as the pressure is reduced in the higher altitude4 ,this has the effect of carrying the balloon higher4 ,heating of the contained gas by the sun will also cause a rise4 ,on the other hand1 the diffusion of the gas through the envelope into the air1 and the penetration of air into the gas bag will produce a mixture heavier than hydrogen1 and will cause the balloon to descend4 ,the extreme cold of the upper air has the same effect1 as it tends to condense to a smaller bulk the gas in the balloon4 ,to check a descent the load carried by the gas must be lightened by throwing out some of the ballast1 which is carried simply for this purpose4 ,finally a level is reached where equilibrium is established1 and above which it is impossible to rise4 ,the earliest recorded ascent of a balloon is credited to the ,chinese1 on the occasion of the coronation of the ,emperor ,fo-,kien at ,pekin in the year #acjf4 ,if this may be called historical1 it gives evidence also that it speedily became a lost art4 ,the next really historic record belongs in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 when ,cyrano de ,bergerac attempted to fly with the aid of bags of air attached to his person1 expecting them to be so expanded by the heat of the sun as to rise with sufficient force to lift him4 ,he did not succeed1 but his idea is plainly the forerunner of the hot-air balloon4 ,in the same century ,francisco de ,lana1 who was clearly a man of much intelligence and keen reasoning ability1 having determined by experiment that the atmosphere had weight1 decided that he would be able to rise into the air in a ship lifted by four metal spheres #bj feet in diameter from which the air had been exhausted4 ,after several failures he abandoned his efforts upon the religious grounds that the ,almighty doubtless did not approve such an overturning in the affairs of mankind as would follow the attainment of the art of flying4 ,in #ageg1 ,galen1 a ,french monk1 published a book1 8,the ,art of ,navigating in the ,air10 in which he advocated filling the body of the airship with air secured at a great height above the sea-level1 where it was 8a thousand times lighter than water40 ,he showed by mathematical computations that the upward impulse of this air would be sufficient to lift a heavy load4 ,he planned in detail a great airship to carry #d1jjj1jjj persons and several million packages of goods4 ,though it may have accomplished nothing more1 this book is believed to have been the chief source of inspiration to the ,montgolfiers4 ,the discovery of hydrogen by ,cavendish in #aggf gave ,dr4 ,black the opportunity of suggesting that it be used to inflate a large bag and so lift a heavy load into the air4 ,although he made no attempt to construct such an apparatus1 he afterward claimed that through this suggestion he was entitled to be called the real inventor of the balloon4 ,this is the meagre historical record preceding the achievements of the brothers ,stephen and ,joseph ,montgolfier1 which marked distinctly the beginning of practical aeronautics4 ,both of these men were highly educated1 and they were experienced workers in their father's paper factory4 ,joseph had made some parachute drops from the roof of his house as early as #agga4 ,after many experiments with steam1 smoke1 and hydrogen gas1 with which they tried ineffectually to inflate large paper bags1 they finally succeeded with heated air1 and on ,june #e1 #aghc1 they sent up a great paper hot-air balloon1 #ce feet in diameter4 ,it rose to a height of #a1jjj feet1 but soon came to earth again upon cooling4 ,it appears that the ,montgolfiers were wholly ignorant of the fact that it was the rarefying of the air by heating that caused their balloon to rise1 and they made no attempt to keep it hot while the balloon was in the air4 ,illustration3 ,an early ,montgolfier balloon4 ,about the same time the ,french scientist1 ,m4 ,charles1 decided that hydrogen gas would be better than hot air to inflate balloons4 ,finding that this gas passed readily through paper1 he used silk coated with a varnish made by dissolving rubber4 ,his balloon was #ac feet in diameter1 and weighed about #bj pounds4 ,it was sent up from the ,champ de ,mars on ,august #bi1 #aghc1 amidst the booming of cannon1 in the presence of #cjj1jjj spectators who assembled despite a heavy rain4 ,it rose swiftly1 disappearing among the clouds1 and soon burst from the expansion of the gas in the higher and rarer atmosphere--no allowance having been made for this unforeseen result4 ,it fell in a rural region near ,paris1 where it was totally destroyed by the inhabitants1 who believed it to be some hideous form of the devil4 ,the ,montgolfiers had already come to ,paris1 and had constructed a balloon of linen and paper4 ,before they had opportunity of sending it up it was ruined by a rainstorm with a high wind4 ,they immediately built another of waterproof linen which made a successful ascension on ,september #ai1 #aghc1 taking as passengers a sheep1 a cock1 and a duck4 ,the balloon came safely to earth after being up eight minutes--falling in consequence of a leak in the air-bag near the top4 ,the passengers were examined with great interest4 ,the sheep and the duck seemed in the same excellent condition as when they went up1 but the cock was evidently ailing4 ,a consultation of scientists was held and it was the consensus of opinion that the fowl could not endure breathing the rarer air of the high altitude4 ,at this juncture some one discovered that the cock had been trodden upon by the sheep1 and the consultation closed abruptly4 ,the ,montgolfier brothers were loaded with honors1 ,stephen receiving the larger portion2 and the people of ,paris entered enthusiastically into the sport of making and flying small balloons of the ,montgolfier type4 ,stephen began work at once upon a larger balloon intended to carry human passengers4 ,it was fifty feet in diameter1 and #he feet high1 with a capacity of #ajj1jjj cubic feet4 ,the car for the passengers was swung below from cords in the fashion that has since become so familiar4 ,in the meantime ,pilatre de ,rozier had constructed a balloon on the hot-air principle1 but with an arrangement to keep the air heated by a continuous fire in a pan under the mouth of the balloon4 ,he made the first balloon ascent on record on ,october #ae1 #aghc1 rising to a height of eighty feet1 in the captive balloon4 ,on ,november #ba1 in the same year1 de ,rozier undertook an expedition in a free balloon with the ,marquis d',arlandes as a companion4 ,the experiment was to have been made with two condemned criminals1 but de ,rozier and d',arlandes succeeded in obtaining the ,king's permission to make the attempt1 and in consequence their names remain as those of the first aeronauts4 ,they came safely to the ground after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes4 ,after this1 ascensions speedily became a recognized sport1 even for ladies4 ,the greatest altitude reached by these hot-air balloons was about #i1jjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,pilatre de ,rozier's balloon4 ,the great danger from fire1 however1 led to the closer consideration of the hydrogen balloon of ,professor ,charles1 who was building one of #cj feet diameter for the study of atmospheric phenomena4 ,his mastery of the subject is shown by the fact that his balloon was equipped with almost every device afterward in use by the most experienced aeronauts4 ,he invented the valve at the top of the bag for allowing the escape of gas in landing1 the open neck to permit expansion1 the network of cords to support the car1 the grapnel for anchoring1 and the use of a small pilot balloon to test the air-currents before the ascension4 ,he also devised a barometer by which he was able to measure the altitude reached by the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,to provide the hydrogen gas required he used the chemical method of pouring dilute sulphuric acid on iron filings4 ,the process was so slow that it took continuous action for three days and three nights to secure the #ad1jjj cubic feet needed1 but his balloon was finally ready on ,december #a1 #aghc4 ,one of the brothers ,robert accompanied ,charles1 and they travelled about #dj miles in a little less than #d hours1 alighting at ,nesles4 ,here ,robert landed and ,charles continued the voyage alone4 ,neglecting to take on board ballast to replace the weight of ,m4 ,robert1 ,charles was carried to a great height1 and suffered severely from cold and the difficulty of breathing in the highly rarefied air4 ,he was obliged to open his gas valve and descend after half an hour's flight alone4 ,blanchard1 another ,french inventor1 about this time constructed a balloon with the intention of being the first to cross the ,english ,channel in the air4 ,he took his balloon to ,dover and with ,dr4 ,jeffries1 an ,american1 started on ,january #g1 #aghe4 ,his balloon was leaky and he had loaded it down with a lot of useless things in the way of oars1 provisions1 and other things4 ,all of this material and the ballast had to be thrown overboard at the outset1 and books and parts of the balloon followed4 ,even their clothing had to be thrown over to keep the balloon out of the sea1 and at last1 when ,dr4 ,jeffries had determined to jump out to enable his friend to reach the shore1 an upward current of wind caught them and with great difficulty they landed near ,calais4 ,the feat was highly lauded and a monument in marble was erected on the spot to perpetuate the record of the achievement4 ,de ,rozier lost his life soon after in the effort to duplicate this trip across the ,channel with his combination hydrogen and hot-air balloon4 ,his idea seems to have been that he could preserve the buoyancy of his double balloon by heating up the air balloon at intervals4 ,unfortunately1 the exuding of the hydrogen as the balloons rose formed an explosive mixture with the air he was rising through1 and it was drawn to his furnace1 and an explosion took place which blew the entire apparatus into fragments at an altitude of over #a1jjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,car and hoop of the ,blanchard balloon1 the first to cross the ,english ,channel4 ,count ,zambeccari1 an ,italian1 attempted to improve the de ,rozier method of firing a balloon by substituting a large alcohol lamp for the wood fire4 ,in the first two trial trips he fell into the sea1 but was rescued4 ,on the third trip his balloon was swept into a tree1 and the overturned lamp set it on fire4 ,to escape being burned1 he threw himself from the balloon and was killed by the fall4 ,the year before these feats on the ,continent two notable balloon ascensions had taken place in ,england4 ,on ,august #bg1 #aghd1 an aeronaut by the name of ,tytler made the first balloon voyage within the boundaries of ,great ,britain4 ,his balloon was of linen and varnished1 and the record of his ascension indicates that he used hydrogen gas to inflate it4 ,he soared to a great height1 and descended safely4 ,a few weeks later1 the ,italian aeronaut ,lunardi made his first ascent from ,london4 ,the spectacle drew the ,king and his councillors from their deliberations1 and the balloon was watched until it disappeared4 ,he landed in ,standon1 near ,ware1 where a stone was set to record the event4 ,on ,october #ab1 he made his famous voyage from ,edinburgh over the ,firth of ,forth to ,ceres2 a distance of #df miles in #ce minutes1 or at the rate of nearly #gi miles per hour2 a speed rarely equalled by the swiftest railroad trains4 ,from this time on balloons multiplied rapidly and the ascents were too numerous for recording in these pages4 ,the few which have been selected for mention are notable either for the great distances traversed1 or for the speed with which the journeys were made4 ,it should be borne in mind that the fastest method of land travel in the early part of the period covered was by stage coach2 and the sailing ship was the only means of crossing the water4 ,it is no wonder that often the people among whom the aeronauts landed on a balloon voyage refused to believe the statements made as to the distance they had come1 and the marvellously short time it had taken4 ,and even as compared with the most rapid transit of the present day1 the speeds attained in many cases have never been equalled4 ,a remarkable ,english voyage was made in ,june1 #ahjb1 by the ,french aeronaut ,garnerin and ,captain ,snowdon4 ,they ascended from ,chelsea ,gardens and landed in ,colchester1 #fj miles distant1 in #de minutes3 an average speed of #hj miles an hour4 ,on ,december #af1 #ahjd1 ,garnerin ascended from the square in front of ,notre ,dame1 ,paris2 passing over ,france and into ,italy1 sailing above ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and the ,vatican1 and descending into ,lake ,bracciano--a distance of #hjj miles in #bj hours4 ,this voyage was made as a part of the coronation ceremonies of ,napoleon ,i4 ,the balloon was afterwards hung up in a corridor of the ,vatican4 ,on ,october #g1 #ahaa1 ,sadler and ,burcham voyaged from ,birmingham to ,boston 7,england71 #aab miles in #a hour #dj minutes1 a speed of #fg miles per hour4 ,on ,november #ag1 #ahcf1 ,charles ,green and ,monck ,mason started on a voyage in the great balloon of the ,vauxhall ,gardens4 ,it was pear-shaped1 #fj feet high and #ej feet in diameter1 and held #he1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,it was cut loose at half-past one in the afternoon1 and in #c hours had reached the ,english ,channel1 and in #a hour more had crossed it1 and was nearly over ,calais4 ,during the night it floated on over ,france in pitchy darkness and such intense cold that the oil was frozen4 ,in the morning the aeronauts descended a few miles from ,weilburg1 in the ,duchy of ,nassau1 having travelled about #ejj miles in #ah hours4 ,at that date1 by the fastest coaches the trip would have consumed three days4 ,the balloon was rechristened 8,the ,great ,balloon of ,nassau0 by the enthusiastic citizens of ,weilburg4 ,illustration3 ,prof4 ,t4 ,s4 ,c4 ,lowe's mammoth balloon 8,city of ,new ,york10 a feature of the year #ahfj1 in which it made many short voyages in the vicinity of ,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,in #ahdi1 ,m4 ,arban crossed the ,alps in a balloon1 starting at ,marseilles and landing at ,turin--a distance of #djj miles in #h hours4 ,this remarkable record for so long a distance at a high speed has rarely been equalled4 ,it was exceeded as to distance at the same speed by the ,american aeronaut1 ,john ,wise1 in #ahei4 ,one of the most famous balloons of recent times was the 8,geant10 built by ,m4 ,nadar1 in ,paris1 in #ahec4 ,the immense gas-bag was made of silk of the finest quality costing at that time about #a4cj a yard1 and being made double1 it required #bb1jjj yards4 ,it had a capacity of #bae1jjj cubic feet of gas1 and lifted #d tons4 ,the car was #ac feet square1 and had an upper deck which was open4 ,on its first ascent it carried #ae passengers1 including ,m4 ,nadar as captain1 and the brothers ,godard as lieutenants4 ,a few weeks later this balloon was set free for a long-distance journey1 and #ag hours after it left ,paris it landed at ,nieuburg in ,hanover1 having traversed #gej miles1 a part of the time at the speed of fully #ij miles per hour4 ,in ,july1 #ahei1 ,john ,wise1 an ,american aeronaut1 journeyed from ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 to ,henderson1 ,n4 ,y41 a distance of #iej miles in #ai hours4 ,his average speed was #ej miles per hour4 ,this record for duration at so high a rate of speed has never been exceeded4 ,during the siege of ,paris in #ahgj1 seventy-three balloons were sent out from that city carrying mail and dispatches4 ,these were under ,government direction1 and receive notice in a subsequent chapter devoted to ,military ,aeronautics4 ,one of these balloons is entitled to mention among those famous for rapid journeys1 having travelled to the ,zuyder ,zee1 a distance of #bhe miles1 in #c hours--an average speed of #ie miles per hour4 ,another of these postal balloons belongs in the extreme long-distance class1 having come down in ,norway nearly #a1jjj miles from ,paris4 ,in ,july1 #ahig1 the ,arctic explorer ,andre started on his voyage to the ,pole4 ,as some of his instruments have been recently recovered from a wandering band of ,esquimaux1 it is believed that a record of his voyage may yet be secured4 ,in the same year a balloon under the command of ,godard ascended at ,leipsic1 and after a wandering journey in an irregular course1 descended at ,wilna4 ,the distance travelled was estimated at #a1jcb miles1 but as balloon records are always based on the airline distance between the places of ascent and descent1 this record has not been accepted as authoritative4 ,the time consumed was #bd hours4 ,in #ahii1 ,captain von ,sigsfield1 ,captain ,hildebrandt1 and a companion started from ,berlin in a wind so strong that it prevented the taking on of an adequate load of ballast4 ,they rose into a gale1 and in two hours were over ,breslau1 having made the distance at a speed of #ib miles per hour4 ,in the grasp of the storm they continued their swift journey1 landing finally high up in the snows of the ,carpathian ,alps in ,austria4 ,they were arrested by the local authorities as ,russian spies1 but succeeded in gaining their liberty by telegraphing to an official more closely in touch with the aeronautics of the day4 ,in #aijj there were several balloon voyages notable for their length4 ,jacques ,balsan travelled from ,vincennes to ,dantzig1 #geg miles2 ,count de la ,vaulx journeyed from ,vincennes to ,poland1 #gjf miles2 ,jacques ,faure from ,vincennes to ,mamlity1 #gec miles4 ,in a subsequent voyage ,jacques ,balsan travelled from ,vincennes to ,rodom1 in ,russia1 #hdc miles1 in #bg hours4 ,illustration3 ,the balloon in which ,coxwell and ,glaisher made their famous ascent of #bi1jjj feet4 ,one of the longest balloon voyages on record in point of time consumed is that of ,dr4 ,wegener of the ,observatory at ,lindenberg1 in #aije4 ,he remained in the air for #eb hours4 ,the longest voyage1 as to distance1 up to #aiaj1 was that of ,count de ,la ,vaulx and ,count ,castillon de ,saint ,victor in #aijf1 in the balloon 8,centaur40 ,this was a comparatively small balloon1 having a capacity of only #ee1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,the start was made from ,vincennes on ,october #ith1 and the landing at ,korostischeff1 in ,russia1 on ,october #aath4 ,the air-line distance travelled was #a1aic miles1 in #ce hours4 ,the balloon 8,centaur0 was afterward purchased by the ,aero ,club of ,america1 and has made many voyages in this country4 ,the ,federation ,aeronautique ,internationale1 an association of the aeronauts of all nations1 was founded in #aije4 ,one of its functions is an annual balloon race for the ,international ,challenge ,cup1 presented to the association by ,james ,gordon ,bennett1 to be an object for competition until won three times by some one competing national club4 ,the first contest took place in ,september1 #aijf1 and was won by the ,american competitor1 ,lieut4 ,frank ,p4 ,lahm1 with a voyage of #djb miles4 ,the second contest was from ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 in #aijg4 ,there were three ,german1 two ,french1 one ,english1 and three ,american competitors4 ,the race was won by ,oscar ,erbslh1 one of the ,german competitors1 with an air-line voyage of #hgb miles1 landing at ,bradley ,beach1 ,n4 ,j4 ,alfred ,leblanc1 now a prominent aviator1 was second with a voyage of #hfg miles1 made in #dd hours4 ,he also landed in ,new ,jersey4 ,the third race started at ,berlin in ,october1 #aijh1 and was won by the ,swiss balloon 8,helvetia10 piloted by ,colonel ,schaeck1 which landed in ,norway after having been #gd hours in the air1 and covering a journey of #gej miles4 ,this broke the previous duration record made by ,dr4 ,wegener in #aije4 ,the fourth contest began on ,october #c1 #aiji1 from ,zurich1 ,switzerland4 ,there were seventeen competing balloons1 and the race was won by ,e4 ,w4 ,mix1 representing the ,aero ,club of ,america1 with a voyage of #ehi miles4 ,the fifth contest began at ,st4 ,louis1 ,october #ag1 #aiaj4 ,it was won by ,alan ,p4 ,hawley and ,augustus ,post1 with the 8,america ,,ii40 ,they travelled #a1cee miles in #df hours1 making a new world's record for distance4 ,among other notable voyages may be mentioned that of the 8,fielding0 in a race on ,july #d1 #aijh1 from ,chicago4 ,the landing was made at ,west ,shefford1 ,quebec1 the distance travelled being #hie miles4 ,in ,november of the same year ,a4 ,e4 ,gaudron1 ,captain ,maitland1 and ,c4 ,c4 ,turner1 made the longest voyage on record from ,england4 ,they landed at ,mateki ,derevni1 in ,russia1 having travelled #a1aag miles in #ca hours4 ,they were driven down to the ground by a severe snowstorm4 ,on ,december #ca1 #aijh1 ,m4 ,usuelli1 in the balloon 8,ruwenzori0 left the ,italian lakes and passed over the ,alps at a height of #ad1gej feet1 landing in ,france4 ,this feat was followed a few weeks later--,february #i1 #aiji--;by ,oscar ,erbslh1 who left ,st4 ,moritz with three passengers1 crossing the ,alps at an altitude of #ai1jjj feet1 and landed at ,budapest after a voyage of #cc hours4 ,many voyages over and among the ,alps have been made by ,captain ,spelterini1 the ,swiss aeronaut1 and he has secured some of the most remarkable photographs of the mountain scenery in passing4 ,in these voyages at such great altitudes it is necessary to carry cylinders of oxygen to provide a suitable air mixture for breathing4 ,in one of his recent voyages ,captain ,spelterini had the good fortune to be carried almost over the summit of ,mont ,blanc4 ,he ascended with three passengers at ,chamounix1 and landed at ,lake ,maggiore seven hours later1 having reached the altitude of #ah1gjj feet1 and travelled #ic miles4 ,illustration3 ,photograph of the ,alps from a balloon by ,captain ,spelterini4 ,in the ,united ,states there were several balloon races during the year #aiji1 the most important being the ,st4 ,louis ,centennial race1 beginning on ,october #dth4 ,ten balloons started4 ,the race was won by ,s4 von ,phul1 who covered the distance of #eej miles in #dj hours #dj minutes4 ,clifford ,b4 ,harmon and ,augustus ,post in the balloon 8,new ,york0 made a new duration record for ,america of #dh hours #bf minutes4 ,they also reached the highest altitude attained by an ,american balloon--#bd1bjj feet4 ,on ,october #abth1 in a race for the ,lahm cup1 ,a4 ,holland ,forbes and ,col4 ,max ,fleischman won4 ,they left ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 and landed #ai hours and #ae minutes later at ,beach1 ,va41 near ,richmond1 having travelled #fig miles4 ,in #aiaj1 in the ,united ,states1 a remarkable race1 with thirteen competitors1 started at ,indianapolis4 ,this was the elimination race for the ,international race on ,october #agth4 ,it was won by ,alan ,p4 ,hawley and ,augustus ,post in the balloon 8,america ,,ii40 ,they crossed the ,alleghany ,mountains at an elevation of about #bj1jjj feet1 and landed at ,warrenton1 ,va41 after being #dd hours #cj minutes in the air2 and descended only to escape being carried out over ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,in recent years the greatest height reached by a balloon was attained by the ,italian aeronauts ,piacenza and ,mina in the 8,albatross10 on ,august #i1 #aiji4 ,they went up from ,turin to the altitude of #cj1cej feet4 ,the world's height record rests with ,professors ,berson and ,suring of ,berlin1 who on ,july #ca1 #aija1 reached #ce1ejj feet4 ,the record of #cg1jjj feet claimed by ,glaisher and ,coxwell in their ascension on ,september #e1 #ahfb1 has been rejected as not authentic for several discrepancies in their observations1 and on the ground that their instruments were not of the highest reliability4 ,as they carried no oxygen1 and reported that for a time they were both unconscious1 it is estimated that the highest point they could have reached under the conditions was less than #ca1jjj feet4 ,the greatest speed ever recorded for any balloon voyage was that of ,captain von ,sigsfield and ,dr4 ,linke in their fatal journey from ,berlin to ,antwerp1 during which the velocity of #abe miles per hour was recorded4 ,ballooning as a sport has a fascination all its own4 ,there is much of the spice of adventure in the fact that one's destiny is quite unknown4 ,floating with the wind1 there is no consciousness of motion4 ,though the wind may be travelling at great speed1 the balloon seems to be in a complete calm4 ,a lady passenger1 writing of a recent trip1 has thus described her experience3--8,the world continues slowly to unroll itself in ever-varying but ever-beautiful panorama--patchwork fields1 shimmering silver streaks1 toy box churches and houses1 and white roads like the joints of a jig-saw puzzle4 ,and presently cotton-wool billows come creeping up1 with purple shadows and fleecy outlines and prismatic rainbow effects4 ,sometimes they invade the car1 and shroud it for a while in clinging warm white wreaths1 and anon they fall below and shut out the world with a glorious curtain1 and we are all alone in perfect silence1 in perfect peace1 and in a realm made for us alone4 8,and so the happy1 restful hours go smoothly by1 until the earth has had enough of it1 and rising up more or less rapidly to invade our solitude1 hits the bottom of our basket1 and we step out1 or maybe roll out1 into every-day existence a hundred miles away40 ,the perfect smoothness of motion1 the absolute quiet1 and the absence of distracting apparatus combine to render balloon voyaging the most delightful mode of transit from place to place4 ,some of the most fascinating bits of descriptive writing are those of aeronauts4 ,the following quotation from the report of ,capt4 ,a4 ,hildebrandt1 of the balloon corps of the ,prussian army1 will show that although his expeditions were wholly scientific1 he was far from indifferent to the sublimer influences of nature by which he was often surrounded4 ,in his account of the journey from ,berlin to ,markaryd1 in ,sweden1 with ,professor ,berson as a companion aeronaut1 he says3 8,the view over ,rgen and the chalk cliffs of ,stubbenkammer and ,arkona was splendid3 the atmosphere was perfectly clear4 ,on the horizon we could see the coasts of ,sweden and ,denmark1 looking almost like a thin mist2 east and west there was nothing but the open sea4 8,about #c3ae the balloon was in the middle of the ,baltic2 right in the distance we could just see ,rgen and ,sweden4 ,the setting of the sun at #d ,p4,m4 was a truly magnificent spectacle4 ,at a height of #e1bej feet1 in a perfectly clear atmosphere1 the effect was superb4 ,the blaze of color was dimly reflected in the east by streaks of a bluish-green4 ,i have seen sunsets over ,france at heights of #aj1jjj feet1 with the ,alps1 the ,juras1 and the ,vosges ,mountains in the distance2 but this was quite as fine4 8,the sunsets seen by the mountaineer or the sailor are doubtless1 magnificent2 but ,i hardly think the spectacle can be finer than that spread out before the gaze of the balloonist4 ,the impression is increased by the absolute stillness which prevails2 no sound of any kind is heard4 ,illustration3 ,landscape as seen from a balloon at an altitude of #c1jjj feet4 8,as soon as the sun went down1 it was necessary to throw out some ballast1 owing to the decrease of temperature4444 ,we reached the ,swedish coast about #e o'clock1 and passed over ,trelleborg at a height of #b1jjj feet4 ,the question then arose whether to land1 or to continue through the night4 ,although it was well past sunset1 there was sufficient light in consequence of the snow to see our way to the ground1 and to land quite easily4444 ,however1 we wanted to do more meteorological work1 and it was thought that there was still sufficient ballast to take us up to a much greater height4 ,we therefore proposed to continue for another sixteen hours during the night1 in spite of the cold4444 ,malm was therefore passed on the left1 and the university town of ,lund on the right4 ,after this the map was of no further use1 as it was quite dark and we had no lamp4 ,the whole outlook was like a transformation scene4 ,floods of light rose up from ,trelleborg1 ,malm1 ,copenhagen1 ,landskrona1 ,lund1 ,elsinore1 and ,helsingborg1 while the little towns beneath our feet sparkled with many lights4 ,we were now at a height of more than #aj1jjj feet1 and consequently all these places were within sight4 ,the glistening effect of the snow was heightened by the blaze which poured from the lighthouses along the coasts of ,sweden and ,denmark4 ,the sight was as wonderful as that of the sunset1 though of a totally different nature40 ,captain ,hildebrandt's account of the end of this voyage illustrates the spice of adventure which is likely to be encountered when the balloon comes down in a strange country4 ,it has its hint also of the hardships for which the venturesome aeronaut has to be prepared4 ,he says3-- 8,sooner or later the balloon would have been at the mercy of the waves4 ,the valve was opened1 and the balloon descended through the thick clouds4 ,we could see nothing1 but the little jerks showed us that the guide-rope was touching the ground4 ,in a few seconds we saw the ground1 and learned that we were descending into a forest which enclosed a number of small lakes4 ,at once more ballast was thrown out1 and we skimmed along over the tops of the trees4 ,soon we crossed a big lake1 and saw a place that seemed suitable for a descent4 ,the valve was then opened1 both of us gave a tug at the ripping cord1 and after a few bumps we found ourselves on the ground4 ,we had come down in deep snow on the side of a wood1 about #ad miles from the railway station at ,markaryd4 ,illustration3 ,making a landing with the aid of bystanders to pull down upon the trail-rope and a holding rope4 8,we packed up our instruments1 and began to look out for a cottage2 but this is not always an easy task in the dead of night in a foreign country4 ,however1 in a quarter of an hour we found a farm1 and succeeded in rousing the inmates4 ,a much more difficult job was to influence them to open their front door to two men who talked some sort of double ,dutch1 and who suddenly appeared at a farmyard miles off the highway in the middle of the night and demanded admittance4 ,berson can talk in six languages1 but unfortunately ,swedish is not one of them4 ,he begged in the most humble way for shelter 444 and at the end of three-quarters of an hour the farmer opened the door4 ,we showed him some pictures of a balloon we had with us1 and then they began to understand the situation4 ,we were then received with truly ,swedish hospitality1 and provided with supper4 ,they even proposed to let us have their beds2 but this we naturally declined with many thanks4444 ,the yard contained hens1 pigs1 cows1 and sheep2 but an empty corner was found1 which was well packed with straw1 and served as a couch for our tired limbs4 ,we covered ourselves with our great-coats1 and tried to sleep4 ,but the temperature was #aj ,fahr41 and as the place was only an outhouse of boards roughly nailed together1 and the wind whistling through the cracks and crevices1 we were not sorry when the daylight came40 ,lest the possibility of accident to travellers by balloon be judged greater than it really is1 it may be well to state that records collected in ,germany in #aijf showed that in #b1jfa ascents in which #g1egj persons participated1 only #cf were injured--or but #a out of #baj4 ,since that time1 while the balloon itself has remained practically unchanged1 better knowledge of atmospheric conditions has aided in creating an even more favorable record for recent years4 ,that the day of ordinary ballooning has not been dimmed by the advent of the airship and the aeroplane is evidenced by the recently made estimate that not less than #hjj spherical balloons are in constant use almost daily in one part or another of ,christendom4 ,and it seems entirely reasonable to predict that with a better comprehension of the movements of air-currents--to which special knowledge the scientific world is now applying its investigations as never before--they will come a great increase of interest in simple ballooning as a recreation4 ,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,balloons3 ,,the ,,dirigible4 ,elongation of gas-bag--,brisson--,meusnier--,air-ballo nnets--,scott--,giffard--,haenlein--,tis sandier--,renard and ,krebs--,schwartz--,santos-,dumont--,von ,zeppelin--,roze--,severo--,bradsky-,leb oun--,the ,lebaudy dirigible--,zeppelin ,,ii--,parseval ,i--,unequal wind pressures--,zeppelin ,,iii--,nulli ,secundus--,la ,patrie--,ville-de-,paris--,zeppelin ,,iv--,gross ,i--,parseval ,,ii--,clement-,bayard ,i--,ricardoni's airship--,gross ,,ii--,the new ,zeppelin ,,ii--,la ,republique--,the ,german fleet of dirigibles--,parseval ,v--,the ,deutschland--,the ,erbslh--,gross ,,iii--,zeppelin ,,vi--,the ,america--,clement-,bayard ,,iii--,the ,capazza lenticular dirigible4 ,the dirigible balloon1 or airship1 is built on the same general principles as the ordinary balloon--that is1 with the envelope to contain the lifting gas1 the car to carry the load1 and the suspending cordage--but to this is added some form of propelling power to enable it to make headway against the wind1 and a rudder for steering it4 ,almost from the very beginning of ballooning1 some method of directing the balloon to a pre-determined goal had been sought by inventors4 ,drifting at the fickle pleasure of the prevailing wind did not accord with man's desire for authority and control4 ,the first step in this direction was the change from the spherical form of the gas-bag to an elongated shape1 the round form having an inclination to turn round and round in the air while floating1 and having no bow-and-stern structure upon which steering devices could operate4 ,the first known proposal in this direction was made by ,brisson1 a ,french scientist1 who suggested building the gas-bag in the shape of a horizontal cylinder with conical ends1 its length to be five or six times its diameter4 ,his idea for its propulsion was the employment of large-bladed oars1 but he rightly doubted whether human strength would prove sufficient to work these rapidly enough to give independent motion to the airship4 ,about the same time another ,french inventor had actually built a balloon with a gas-bag shaped like an egg and placed horizontally with the blunt end foremost4 ,the reduction in the resistance of the air to this form was so marked that the elongated gas-bag quickly displaced the former spherical shape4 ,this balloon was held back from travelling at the full speed of the wind by the clever device of a rope dragging on the ground2 and by a sail rigged so as to act on the wind which blew past the retarded balloon1 the navigator was able to steer it within certain limits4 ,it was the first dirigible balloon4 ,in the same year the brothers ,robert1 of ,paris1 built an airship for the ,duke of ,chartres1 under the direction of ,general ,meusnier1 a ,french officer of engineers4 ,it was cylindrical1 with hemispherical ends1 #eb feet long and #cb feet in diameter1 and contained #cj1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,the gas-bag was made double to prevent the escape of the hydrogen1 which had proved very troublesome in previous balloons1 and it was provided with a spherical air balloon inside of the gas-bag1 which device was expected to preserve the form of the balloon unchanged by expanding or contracting1 according to the rising or falling of the airship4 ,when the ascension was made on ,july #f1 #aghd1 the air-balloon stuck fast in the neck of the gas-bag1 and so prevented the escape of gas as the hydrogen expanded in the increasing altitude4 ,the gas-bag would have burst had not the ,duke drawn his sword and slashed a vent for the imprisoned gas4 ,the airship came safely to earth4 ,it was ,general ,meusnier who first suggested the interior ballonnet of air to preserve the tense outline of the form of the airship1 and the elliptical form for the gas-bag was another of his inventions4 ,in the building of the airship of the ,duke de ,chartres he made the further suggestion that the space between the two envelopes be filled with air1 and so connected with the air-pumps that it could be inflated or deflated at will4 ,for the motive power he designed three screw propellers of one blade each1 to be turned unceasingly by a crew of eighty men4 ,meusnier was killed in battle in #agic1 and aeronautics lost its most able developer at that era4 ,illustration3 ,the ,scott airship1 showing the forward 8pocket0 partially drawn in4 ,in #aghi1 ,baron ,scott1 an officer in the ,french army1 devised a fish-shaped airship with two outside balloon-shaped 8pockets0 which could be forcibly drawn into the body of the airship to increase its density1 and thus cause its descent4 ,it began to be realized that no adequate power existed by which balloons could be propelled against even light winds to such a degree that they were really controllable1 and balloon ascensions came to be merely an adjunct of the exhibit of the travelling showman4 ,for this reason the early part of the nineteenth century seems barren of aeronautical incident as compared with the latter part of the preceding century4 ,in #ahdh1 ,hugh ,bell1 an ,englishman1 built a cylindrical airship with convex pointed ends4 ,it was #ee feet long and #ba feet in diameter4 ,it had a keel-shaped framework of tubes to which the long narrow car was attached1 and there was a screw propeller on each side1 to be worked by hand1 and a rudder to steer with4 ,it failed to work4 ,in #aheb1 however1 a new era opened for the airship4 ,henry ,giffard1 of ,paris1 the inventor of the world-famed injector for steam boilers1 built an elliptical gas-bag with cigar-shaped ends1 #add feet long1 and #dj feet in diameter1 having a cubic content of #hh1jjj cubic feet4 ,the car was suspended from a rod #ff feet long which hung from the net covering the gas-bag4 ,it was equipped with a #c-;horse-power steam engine which turned a two-bladed screw propeller #aa feet in diameter1 at the rate of #aaj revolutions per minute4 ,coke was used for fuel4 ,the steering was done with a triangular rudder-sail4 ,upon trial on ,september #bd1 #aheb1 the airship proved a success1 travelling at the rate of nearly #f miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,the first ,giffard dirigible4 ,giffard built a second airship in #ahee1 of a much more elongated shape--#bce feet long and #cc feet in diameter4 ,he used the same engine which propelled his first ship4 ,after a successful trial trip1 when about to land1 the gas-bag unaccountably turned up on end1 allowing the net and car to slide off1 and1 rising slightly in the air1 burst4 ,giffard and his companion escaped unhurt4 ,giffard afterward built the large captive balloon for the ,london ,exhibition in #ahfh1 and the still larger one for the ,paris ,exposition in #ahgh4 ,he designed a large airship to be fitted with two boilers and a powerful steam-engine1 but became blind1 and died in #ahhb4 ,illustration3 ,the ,haenlein airship inflated with coal gas and driven by a gas-engine4 ,in #ahfe1 ,paul ,haenlein devised a cigar-shaped airship to be inflated with coal gas4 ,it was to be propelled by a screw at the front to be driven by a gas-engine drawing its fuel from the gas in the body of the ship4 ,an interior air-bag was to be expanded as the gas was consumed1 to keep the shape intact4 ,a second propeller revolving horizontally was intended to raise or lower the ship in the air4 ,it was not until #ahgb that he finally secured the building of an airship1 at ,vienna1 after his plans4 ,it was #afd feet long1 and #cj feet in diameter4 ,the form of the gas-bag was that described by the keel of a ship rotated around the centre line of its deck as an axis4 ,the engine was of the ,lenoir type1 with four horizontal cylinders1 developing about #f horse-power1 and turned a propeller about #ae feet in diameter at the rate of #dj revolutions per minute4 ,the low lifting power of the coal gas with which it was inflated caused it to float quite near the ground4 ,with a consumption of #bej cubic feet of gas per hour1 it travelled at a speed of ten miles an hour4 ,the lack of funds seems to have prevented further experiments with an invention which was at least very promising4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of the ,de ,lome airship4 ,in the same year a dirigible balloon built by ,dupuy de ,lome for use by the ,french ,government during the siege of ,paris1 was given a trial4 ,it was driven by a screw propeller turned by eight men1 and although it was #aah feet long1 and #di feet in diameter1 it made as good a speed record as ,giffard's steam-driven airship--six miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,car of the ,tissandier dirigible2 driven by electricity4 ,in #ahha1 the brothers ,albert and ,gaston ,tissandier exhibited at the ,electrical ,exhibition in ,paris a model of an electrically driven airship1 originally designed to establish communication with ,paris during the siege of the ,franco-,prussian ,war4 ,in #ahhc1 the airship built after this model was tried4 ,it was #ib feet long1 and #cj feet at its largest diameter4 ,the motive power was a ,siemens motor run by #bd bichromate cells of #ag lbs4 each4 ,at full speed the motor made #ahj revolutions per minute1 developing #a horse-power4 ,the pull was #bf lbs4 ,the propeller was #i feet in diameter1 and a speed of a little more than #f miles an hour was attained4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of the ,renard and ,krebs airship ,la ,france1 driven by a storage battery4 ,in #ahhd1 two ,french army engineers1 ,renard and ,krebs1 built an airship1 the now historic ,la ,france1 with the shape of a submarine torpedo4 ,it was #afe feet long and about #bg feet in diameter at the largest part4 ,it had a gas content of #ff1jjj cubic feet4 ,a #i horse-power ,gramme electric motor was installed1 driven by a storage battery4 ,this operated the screw propeller #bj feet in diameter1 which was placed at the forward end of the long car4 ,the trial was made on the #ith of ,august1 and was a complete success4 ,the ship was sailed with the wind for about #b miles1 and then turned about and made its way back against the wind till it stood directly over its starting point1 and was drawn down to the ground by its anchor ropes4 ,the trip of about #e miles was made in #bc minutes4 ,in seven voyages undertaken the airship was steered back safely to its starting point five times4 ,this first airship which really deserved the name marked an era in the development of this type of aircraft4 ,in view of its complete success it is astonishing that nothing further was done in this line in ,france for fifteen years1 when ,santos-,dumont began his series of record-making flights4 ,within this period1 however1 the gasoline motor had been adapted to the needs of the automobile1 and thus a new and light-weight engine1 suitable in every respect1 had been placed within the reach of aeronauts4 ,in the meantime1 a new idea had been brought to the stage of actual trial4 ,in #ahic1 in ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,david ,schwartz built a rigid airship1 the gas receptacle of which was sheet aluminum4 ,it was braced by aluminum tubes1 but while being inflated the interior work was so badly broken that it was abandoned4 ,schwartz made a second attempt in ,berlin in #ahig4 ,the airship was safely inflated1 and managed to hold its position against a wind blowing #ag miles an hour1 but could not make headway against it4 ,after the gas had been withdrawn1 and before it could be put under shelter1 a severe windstorm damaged it1 and the mob of spectators speedily demolished it in the craze for souvenirs of the occasion4 ,illustration3 ,wreck of the ,schwartz aluminum airship1 at ,berlin1 in #ahig4 ,illustration3 ,the type of the earlier ,santos-,dumont dirigibles4 ,this shape showed a tendency to 8buckle10 or double up in the middle like a jackknife4 ,to avoid this the later ,santos-,dumonts were of much larger proportional diameter amidships4 ,in #ahih1 the young ,brazilian1 ,santos-,dumont1 came to ,paris imbued with aeronautic zeal1 and determined to build a dirigible balloon that would surpass the former achievements of ,giffard and ,renard1 which he felt confident were but hints of what might be accomplished by that type of airship4 ,he began the construction of the series of dirigible balloons which eventually numbered #ab1 each successive one being an improvement on the preceding4 ,he made use of the air-bag suggested by ,meusnier for the balloon of the ,duke of ,chartres in #aghd1 although in an original way1 at first using a pneumatic pump to inflate it1 and later a rotatory fan4 ,neither prevented the gas-bag from 8buckling0 and coming down with consequences more or less serious to the airship--but ,santos-,dumont himself always escaped injury4 ,his own record of his voyages in his book1 ,my ,air-,ships1 gives a more detailed account of his contrivances and inventions than can be permitted here4 ,if ,santos-,dumont did not greatly surpass his predecessors1 he is at least to be credited with an enthusiasm which aroused the interest of the whole world in the problems of aeronautics2 and his later achievements in the building and flying of aeroplanes give him a unique place in the history of man's conquest of the air4 ,illustration3 ,type of the later ,santos-,dumont's dirigibles4 ,in #aijj1 ,count von ,zeppelin's great airship1 which had been building for nearly two years1 was ready for trial4 ,it had the form of a prism of #bd sides1 with the ends arching to a blunt point4 ,it was #dbj feet long1 and #ch feet in diameter4 ,the structure was rigid1 of aluminum lattice work1 divided into #ag compartments1 each of which had a separate gas-bag shaped to fit its compartment4 ,over all was an outer envelope of linen and silk treated with pegamoid4 ,a triangular keel of aluminum lattice strengthened the whole1 and there were two cars of aluminum attached to the keel4 ,each car held a #af horse-power ,daimler gasoline motor1 operating two four-bladed screw propellers which were rigidly connected with the frame of the ship a little below the level of its axis4 ,a sliding weight was run to either end of the keel as might be required to depress the head or tail1 in order to rise or fall in the air4 ,the cars were in the shape of boats1 and the ship was built in a floating shed on the ,lake of ,constance near ,friedrichshafen4 ,at the trial the airship was floated out on the lake1 the car-boats resting on the water4 ,several accidents happened1 so that though the ship got up into the air it could not be managed1 and was brought down to the water again without injury4 ,in a second attempt a speed of #bj miles an hour was attained4 ,the construction was found to be not strong enough for the great length of the body1 the envelope of the balloon was not sufficiently gas tight1 and the engines were not powerful enough4 ,but few trips were made in it1 and they were short4 ,the ,count set himself to work to raise money to build another ship1 which he did five years later4 ,illustration3 ,view of the ,zeppelin ,i1 with portion of the aluminum shell and external fabric removed to show the internal framing and separate balloons4 ,in the distance is shown the great balloon shed4 ,in #aija1 an inventor named ,roze built an airship in ,colombo1 having two gas envelopes with the engines and car placed between them4 ,he expected to do away with the rolling and pitching of single airships by the double form1 but the ship did not work satisfactorily1 ascending to barely #ej feet4 ,in #aijb1 ,augusto ,severo1 a ,brazilian1 arranged an airship with the propelling screws at the axis of the gas-bag1 one at each end of the ship4 ,instead of a rudder1 he provided two small propellers to work in a vertical plane and swing the ship sideways4 ,soon after ascending it was noticed that the propellers were not working properly1 and a few minutes later the car was seen to be in flames and the balloon exploded4 ,severo and his companion ,sache were killed1 falling #a1cjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,sketch of the ,severo airship1 showing arrangement of the driving propellers on the axis of the gas-bag1 and the steering propellers4 ,illustration3 ,end view of ,severo's airship1 showing the longitudinal division of the gas-bag to allow the driving shaft of the propellers to be placed at the axis of the balloon4 ,in the same year ,baron ,bradsky-,leboun built an airship with partitions in the gas-bag which was just large enough to counterbalance the weight of the ship and its operators4 ,it was lifted or lowered by a propeller working horizontally4 ,another propeller drove the ship forward4 ,through some lack of stability the car turned over1 throwing out the two aeronauts1 who fell #cjj feet and were instantly killed4 ,illustration3 ,the first ,lebaudy airship4 ,in #aijb1 a dirigible balloon was built for the brothers ,lebaudy by the engineer ,juillot and the aeronaut ,surcouf4 ,the gas envelope was made cigar-shaped and fastened rigidly to a rigid elliptical keel-shaped floor #gj feet long and #ai feet wide1 made of steel tubes--the object being to prevent rolling and pitching4 ,it was provided with both horizontal and vertical rudders4 ,a #ce horse-power ,daimler-,mercedes motor was used to turn two twin-bladed screws1 each of #i feet in diameter4 ,between the #beth of ,october1 #aijb1 and the #bast of ,november1 #aijc1 #cc experimental voyages were made1 the longest being #fa miles in #b hours and #df minutes2 #ch4g miles in #a hour and #da minutes2 #bc miles in #a hour and #cf minutes4 ,illustration3 ,framing of the floor and keel of the ,lebaudy airship4 ,in #aijd this ship was rebuilt4 ,it was lengthened to #aij feet and the rear end rounded off4 ,its capacity was increased to #id1jjj cubic feet1 and a new covering of the yellow calico which had worked so well on the first model was used on the new one4 ,it was coated with rubber both on the outside and inside4 ,the interior air-bag was increased in size to #ag1fej cubic feet1 and partitioned into three compartments4 ,during #aijd and #aije #cj voyages were made1 carrying in all #aie passengers4 ,illustration3 ,the car and propellers of the ,lebaudy airship4 ,the success of this airship led to a series of trials under the direction of the ,french army1 and in all of these trials it proved satisfactory4 ,after the #gfth successful voyage it was retired for the winter of #aije-f4 ,in ,november1 #aije1 the rebuilt ,zeppelin airship was put upon trial4 ,while superior to the first one1 it met with serious accident1 and was completely wrecked by a windstorm in ,january1 #aijf4 ,in ,may1 #aijf1 ,major von ,parseval's non-rigid airship passed through its first trials successfully4 ,this airship may be packed into small compass for transportation1 and is especially adapted for military use4 ,in plan it is slightly different from previous types1 having two air-bags1 one in each end of the envelope1 and the front end is hemispherical instead of pointed4 ,as the airship is designed to force its way through the air1 instead of floating placidly in it1 it is evident that it must have a certain tenseness of outline in order to retain its shape1 and resist being doubled up by the resistance it encounters4 ,it is estimated that the average velocity of the wind at the elevation at which the airship sails is #ah miles per hour4 ,if the speed of the ship is to be #bj miles per hour1 as related to stations on the ground1 and if it is obliged to sail against the wind1 it is plain that the wind pressure which it is compelled to meet is #ch miles per hour--a gale of no mean proportions4 ,when the large expanse of the great gas-bags is taken into consideration1 it is evident that ordinary balloon construction is not sufficient4 ,attempts have been made to meet the outside pressure from the wind and air-resistance by producing mechanically a counter-pressure from the inside4 ,air-bags are placed inside the cavity of the gas-bag1 usually one near each end of the airship1 and these are inflated by pumping air into them under pressure4 ,in this way an outward pressure of as much as #g lbs4 to the square foot may be produced1 equivalent to the resistance of air at a speed 7either of the wind1 or of the airship1 or of both combined7 of #dh miles per hour4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the pressure upon the front end of an airship making headway against a strong wind will be much greater than the pressure at the rear end1 or even than that amidships4 ,it was this uneven pressure upon the outside of the gas-bag that doubled up the first two airships of ,santos-,dumont1 and led him to increase the proportional girth at the amidship section in his later dirigibles4 ,the great difficulty of adjusting these varying pressures warrants the adherence of ,count von ,zeppelin to his design with the rigid structure and metallic sheathing4 ,the loss of the second ,zeppelin airship so discouraged its designer that he decided to withdraw from further aeronautical work4 ,but the ,german ,government prevailed on him to continue1 and by ,october1 #aijf1 he had the ,zeppelin ,,iii in the air4 ,this airship was larger than ,zeppelin ,,ii in both length and diameter1 and held #ace1jjj cubic feet more of gas4 ,the motive power was supplied by two gasoline motors1 each of #he horse-power4 ,the gas envelope had #af sides1 instead of #bd1 as in the earlier ship4 ,at its trial the ,zeppelin ,,iii proved highly successful4 ,it made a trip of #fi miles1 with #aa passengers1 in #b hours--a speed of about #cj miles an hour4 ,illustration3 ,the ,zeppelin ,,iii backing out of the floating shed at ,friedrichshafen4 ,the illustration shows the added fin at the top1 the rudders1 dipping planes1 and balancing planes4 ,the ,german ,government now made an offer of #ejj1jjj for an airship which would remain continuously in the air for #bd hours1 and be able to land safely4 ,count von ,zeppelin immediately began work upon his ,no4 ,,iv1 in the effort to meet these requirements1 in the meantime continuing trips with ,no4 ,,iii4 ,the most remarkable of these trips was made in ,september1 #aijg1 a journey of #baa miles in #h hours4 ,in ,october1 #aijg1 the ,english airship 8,nulli ,secundus0 was given its first trial4 ,the gas envelope had been made of goldbeater's skins1 which are considered impermeable to the contained gas1 but are very expensive4 ,this airship was of the non-rigid type4 ,it made the trip from ,aldershot to ,london1 a distance of #ej miles1 in #c hours--an apparent speed of #ad miles per hour1 lacking information as to the aid or hindrance of the prevailing wind4 ,several other trials were made1 but with small success4 ,the offer of the ,german ,government had stimulated other ,german builders besides ,count von ,zeppelin1 and on ,october #bh1 #aijg1 the ,parseval ,i1 which had been improved1 and the new ,gross dirigible1 competed for the government prize1 at ,berlin4 ,the ,parseval kept afloat for #f hours1 and the ,gross for #h hours4 ,meanwhile1 in ,france1 the ,lebaudys had been building a new airship which was named 8,la ,patrie40 ,it was #aig feet long and #cd feet in diameter4 ,in a trial for altitude it was driven to an elevation of #d1cjj feet4 ,on ,november #bc1 #aijg1 the 8,patrie0 set out from ,paris for ,verdun1 a distance of #adf miles4 ,the journey was made in #f hours1 at an average speed of #be miles per hour1 and the fuel carried was sufficient to have continued the journey #ej miles further4 ,soon after reaching ,verdun a severe gale tore the airship away from the regiment of soldiers detailed to assist the anchors in holding it down1 and it disappeared into the clouds4 ,it is known to have passed over ,england1 for parts of its machinery were picked up at several points1 and some days later the gas-bag was seen floating in the ,north ,sea4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,ville-de-,paris0 of ,m4 de la ,meurthe4 ,following close upon the ill-fated 8,patrie0 came the 8,ville-de-,paris10 a dirigible which had been built by ,surcouf for ,m4 ,henri ,deutsch de la ,meurthe1 an eminent patron of aeronautic experiments4 ,in size this airship was almost identical with the lost 8,patrie10 but it was quite different in appearance4 ,it did not have the flat framework at the bottom of the gas envelope1 but was entirely round in section1 and the long car was suspended below4 ,at the rear the gas-bag was contracted to a cylindrical form1 and four groups of two ballonnets each were attached to act as stabilizers4 ,it was offered by ,m4 de la ,meurthe to the ,french ,government to take the place of the 8,patrie0 in the army manuvres at ,verdun1 and on ,january #ae1 #aijh1 made the trip thither from ,paris in about #g hours4 ,it was found that the ballonnets exerted considerable drag upon the ship4 ,in ,june1 #aijh1 the great 8,zeppelin ,,iv0 was completed and given its preliminary trials1 and on ,july #a it started on its first long journey4 ,leaving ,friedrichshafen1 its route was along the northerly shore of ,lake ,constance nearly to ,schaffhausen1 then southward to and around ,lake ,lucerne1 thence northward to ,zurich1 thence eastward to ,lake ,constance1 and to its shed at ,friedrichshafen4 ,the distance traversed was #bcf miles1 and the time consumed #ab hours4 ,this voyage without a single mishap aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the ,german people4 ,after several short flights1 during which the ,king of ,wrttemberg1 the ,queen1 and some of the royal princes were passengers1 the ,zeppelin ,,iv set out on ,august #d to win the ,government reward by making the #bd-;hour flight4 ,sailing eastward from ,friedrichshafen it passed over ,basle1 then turning northward it followed the valley of the ,rhine1 passing over ,strasburg and ,mannheim1 and had nearly reached ,mayence when a slight accident necessitated a landing4 ,repairs were made1 and the journey resumed after nightfall4 ,mayence was reached at #aa ,p4 ,m41 and the return trip begun4 ,when passing over ,stuttgart1 at #f ,a4 ,m41 a leak was discovered1 and a landing was made at ,echterdingen1 a few miles farther on4 ,here1 while repairs were being made1 a squall struck the airship and bumped it heavily on the ground4 ,some gasoline was spilled1 in some unknown way1 which caught fire1 and in a few moments the great balloon was totally destroyed4 ,it had been in continuous flight #aa hours up to the time of the first landing1 and altogether #bj hours1 and had travelled #beh miles4 ,the ,german people immediately started a public subscription to provide ,count von ,zeppelin with the funds needed to build another airship1 and in a few days the sum of #a1ejj1jjj was raised and turned over to the unfortunate inventor4 ,the 8,zeppelin ,,iii0 was taken in hand1 and lengthened1 and more powerful engines installed4 ,the 8,gross ,,ii0 was ready to make its attempt for the ,government prize on ,september #aa1 #aijh4 ,it sailed from ,tegel to ,magdeburg and back to ,tegel1 a distance of #agf miles1 in #ac hours1 without landing4 ,illustration3 ,the ,clement-,bayard dirigible entering its shed4 ,four days later the 8,parseval ,,ii0 made a trip between the same points in #aa hours1 but cut the distance travelled down to #aeg miles4 ,in ,october1 the 8,parseval ,,ii0 was sent up for an altitude test1 and rose to a height of #e1jjj feet above ,tegel1 hovering over the city for upward of an hour4 ,during #aijh1 an airship designed by ,m4 ,clement1 the noted motor-car builder1 was being constructed in ,france4 ,it made its first voyage on ,october #bi1 carrying seven passengers from ,sartrouville to ,paris and back1 at a speed of from #be to #cj miles per hour4 ,the illustration gives a very good idea of the peculiar ballonnets attached to the rear end of the gas envelope4 ,these ballonnets open into the large gas-bag1 and are practically a part of it4 ,in ,italy a remarkable dirigible has been built by ,captain ,ricaldoni1 for military purposes4 ,it has the form of a fish1 blunt forward1 and tapering straight away to the rear4 ,it has a large finlike surface on the under side of the gas-bag toward the rear4 ,its performances show that its efficiency as compared with its motive power is larger than any other dirigible in commission4 ,illustration3 ,engine of the ,clement-,bayard dirigible2 #g-;cylinder2 #ee horse-power2 weighing only #aee pounds4 ,in ,may1 #aiji1 the rebuilt 8,zeppelin ,,iii10 now rechristened 8,zeppelin ,,ii10 after many successful short flights was prepared for the ,government trial4 ,on ,may #bi1 #aiji1 with a crew of six men1 ,count von ,zeppelin started from ,friedrichshafen for ,berlin1 #cfj miles away4 ,the great ship passed over ,ulm1 ,nuremburg1 ,bayreuth1 and ,leipzig2 and here it encountered so strong a head wind from the north1 that it was decided to turn about at ,bitterfeld and return to ,friedrichshafen4 ,the distance travelled had been nearly #cjj miles in #ba hours4 ,the course followed was quite irregular1 and took the ship over ,wurtzburg1 and by a wide detour to ,heilbron and ,stuttgart4 ,the supply of gasoline running low1 it was decided to land at ,goeppingen1 where more could be obtained4 ,it was raining heavily1 and through some mistake in steering1 or some sudden veering of the wind1 the prow of the great dirigible came into collision with a tree upon the hillside4 ,the envelope was badly torn1 and a part of the aluminum inner structure wrecked4 ,however1 the mechanics on board were able to make such repairs that the ship was able to resume the voyage the next day1 and made port without further mishap4 ,the vessel having been #ch hours in the air at the time of the accident1 so much of the ,government's stipulations had been complied with4 ,but it had not succeeded in landing safely4 ,nevertheless it was accepted by the ,government4 ,the entire journey has been variously estimated at from #fhj to #ijj miles1 either figure being a record for dirigibles4 ,illustration3 ,accident to the new 8,zeppelin ,,ii0 at ,goeppingen4 ,the damage was repaired and the airship continued its voyage the next day4 ,on ,august #d1 the dirigible 8,gross ,,ii0 made a voyage from ,berlin to ,apolda1 and returned2 a distance of #bij miles in #af hours4 ,this airship also was accepted by the ,german ,government and added to its fleet4 ,in ,august1 the ,zeppelin ,,ii was successfully sailed to ,berlin1 where ,count von ,zeppelin was welcomed by an immense and enthusiastic multitude of his countrymen1 including the ,emperor and the royal family4 ,on ,september #bf1 the new ,french dirigible1 8,la ,republique10 built on the model of the successful ,lebaudy airships1 met with an accident while in the air4 ,a blade of one of the propellers broke and slashed into the envelope4 ,the ship fell from a height of #f1jjj feet1 and its crew of four men lost their lives4 ,illustration3 ,view of the damaged ,zeppelin from the front1 showing the tree against which it collided4 ,on ,april #bb1 #aiaj1 a fleet of ,german dirigibles1 comprising the 8,zeppelin ,,ii10 the 8,gross ,,ii10 and the 8,parseval ,i10 sailed from ,cologne to ,hamburg1 where they were reviewed by ,emperor ,william4 ,a strong wind having arisen1 the 8,gross ,,ii10 which is of the semi-rigid type1 was deflated1 and shipped back to ,cologne by rail4 ,the non-rigid 8,parseval0 made the return flight in safety4 ,the rigid 8,zeppelin ,,ii0 started on the return voyage1 but was compelled to descend at ,limburg1 where it was moored4 ,the wind increasing1 it was forced away1 and finally was driven to the ground at ,weilburg and demolished4 ,in ,may1 #aiaj1 the 8,parseval ,v10 the smallest dirigible so far constructed1 being but #ij feet in length1 was put upon its trial trip4 ,it made a circular voyage of #hj miles in #d hours4 ,for several months a great ,zeppelin passenger dirigible had been building by a stock company financed by ,german capital1 under the direction of the dauntless ,count von ,zeppelin4 ,it was #dij feet long1 with a capacity of #fff1ijj cubic feet4 ,a passenger cabin was built with -inch mahogany veneer upon a framework of aluminum1 the inside being decorated with panels of rosewood inlaid with mother-of-pearl4 ,the seats were wicker chairs1 and the window openings had no glass4 ,it was christened the 8,deutschland40 ,after many days waiting for propitious weather the first 8air-liner0 set sail on ,june #bb1 #aiaj1 from ,friedrichshafen for ,dsseldorf1 carrying #bj passengers who had paid #ej each for their passage4 ,in addition there were #ac other persons on board4 ,the start was made at three o'clock in the morning1 and the course laid was up the valley of the ,rhine1 as far as ,cologne4 ,dsseldorf was reached at three o'clock in the afternoon1 the airline distance of #cjj miles having been covered in #i hours of actual sailing4 ,from ,mannheim to ,dsseldorf1 favored by the wind1 the great ship reached the speed of #ej miles per hour1 for this part of the trip1 outstripping the fastest express trains which consume #f hours in the winding track up the valley4 ,the next morning the 8,deutschland0 left ,dsseldorf on an excursion trip1 carrying several ladies among its passengers4 ,the voyage was in every way a great success1 and public enthusiasm was widespread4 ,on ,june #bi1 a test trip was decided upon4 ,no passengers were taken1 but #ai newspaper correspondents were invited guests4 ,the ,count had been warned of weather disturbances in the neighborhood1 but he either disregarded them or felt confidence in his craft4 ,it was intended that the voyage should last four hours1 but the airship soon encountered a storm1 and after #f hours of futile striving against it1 the fuel gave out4 ,caught in an upward draft1 the 8,deutschland0 rose to an altitude of over #e1jjj feet1 losing considerable gas1 and then1 entering a rainstorm1 was heavily laden with moisture4 ,suddenly1 without definite reason1 it began to fall vertically1 and in a few moments had crashed into the tops of the trees of the ,teutoberg forest4 ,no one on board received more than slight injury1 and all alighted safely by means of ladders4 ,the 8,deutschland0 was a wreck1 and was taken apart and shipped back to ,friedrichshafen4 ,on ,july #ac1 another giant passenger airship1 designed by ,oscar ,erbslh1 who won the international balloon race in #aijg by a voyage from ,st4 ,louis to ,asbury ,park1 met with fatal disaster4 ,it was sailing near ,cologne at an altitude of about #b1ejj feet when it burst1 and ,erbslh and his four companions were killed in the fall4 ,on ,july #bh1 the 8,gross ,,iii0 left ,berlin with the object of beating the long distance record for dirigibles4 ,soon after passing ,gotha the airship returned to that place1 and abandoned the attempt4 ,in #ac hours a distance of #bfj miles had been traversed4 ,undismayed by the catastrophes which had destroyed his airships almost as fast as he built them1 ,count von ,zeppelin had his number ,,vi ready to sail on ,september #c4 ,with a crew of seven and twelve passengers he sailed from ,baden to ,heidelberg--#ec miles in #fe minutes4 ,it was put into commission as an excursion craft1 and made several successful voyages4 ,on ,september #ad1 as it was being placed in its shed at the close of a journey1 it took fire unaccountably1 and was destroyed together with the shed1 a part of the framework only remaining4 ,on ,october #ae1 #aiaj1 the ,wellman dirigible 8,america0 which had been in preparation for many weeks1 left ,asbury ,park in an attempt to cross the ,atlantic4 ,its balloon was #bbh feet long1 with a diameter of #eb feet1 containing #cde1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,the car was #aef feet in length1 and was arranged as a tank in which #a1bej gallons of gasoline were carried4 ,a lifeboat was attached underneath the car4 ,there were two engines1 each of #hj horse-power1 and an auxiliary motor of #aj horse-power4 ,sleeping quarters were provided for the crew of six1 and the balloon was fitted with a wireless telegraph system4 ,all went well until off the island of ,nantucket1 where strong north winds were encountered1 and the dirigible was swept southward toward ,bermuda4 ,as an aid in keeping the airship at an elevation of about #bjj feet above the sea1 an enlarged trail-rope1 called the equilibrator1 had been constructed of cans which were filled with gasoline4 ,this appendage weighed #a tons1 and the lower part of it was expected to float upon the sea4 ,in practice it was found that the jarring of this equilibrator1 when the sea became rough1 disarranged the machinery1 so that the propellers would not work1 and the balloon was compelled to drift with the wind4 ,toward evening of the second day a ship was sighted1 and the ,america's crew were rescued4 ,the airship floated away in the gale1 and was soon out of sight4 ,on ,october #af1 a new ,clement-,bayard dirigible1 with seven men on board1 left ,paris at #g4ae o'clock in the morning1 and sailed for ,london4 ,at #a ,p4 ,m4 it circled ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 and landed at the hangar at ,wormwood ,scrubbs a half hour later4 ,the distance of #bei miles 7airline7 was traversed at the rate of #da miles per hour1 and the journey surpassed in speed any previous journey by any other form of conveyance4 ,illustration3 ,copyright by ,pictorial ,news ,company4 ,wellman dirigible 8,america0 starting for ,europe1 ,october #ae1 #aiaj4 ,on ,november #e1 #aiaj1 the young ,welsh aeronaut1 ,ernest ,t4 ,willows1 who sailed his small dirigible from ,cardiff to ,london in ,august1 made a trip from ,london across the ,english ,channel to ,douai1 ,france4 ,this is the third time within a month that the ,channel had been crossed by airships4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of the ,capazza dirigible from the side4 ,a ,a1 stabilizing fins2 ,b1 air-ballonnet2 ,r1 rudder2 ,m ,m1 motors2 ,,fs1 forward propeller2 ,,ss1 stern propeller4 ,toward the close of #aiaj1 #eb dirigibles were in commission or in process of construction4 ,in the ,united ,states there were #g2 in ,belgium1 #b2 in ,england1 #f2 in ,france1 #ab2 in ,germany1 #ad2 in ,italy1 #e2 in ,russia1 #a2 in ,spain1 #a4 ,the new ,capazza dirigible is a decided departure from all preceding constructions1 and may mark a new era in the navigation of the air4 ,its gas envelope is shaped like a lens1 or a lentil1 and is arranged to sail flatwise with the horizon1 thus partaking of the aeroplane as well as the balloon type4 ,no definite facts concerning its achievements have been published4 ,illustration3 ,capazza dirigible from the front4 ,from above it is an exact circle in outline4 ,chapter ,,xv4 ,,balloons3 ,,how ,,to ,,operate4 ,preliminary inspection--,instruments--,accessories-- ,ballast--,inflating--,attaching the car--,the ascension--,controls--,landing--,some things to be considered--,after landing--,precautions4 ,the actual operation of a balloon is always entrusted to an experienced pilot1 or 8captain0 as he is often called1 because he is in command1 and his authority must be recognized instantly whenever an order is given4 ,nevertheless1 it is often of great importance that every passenger shall understand the details of managing the balloon in case of need2 and a well-informed passenger is greatly to be preferred to an ignorant one4 ,it is ordinarily one of the duties of the captain to inspect the balloon thoroughly2 to see that there are no holes in the gas-bag1 that the valve is in perfect working order1 and particularly that the valve rope and the ripping cord are not tangled4 ,he should also gather the instruments and equipment to be carried4 ,the instruments are usually an aneroid barometer1 and perhaps a mercury barometer1 a barograph 7recording barometer71 a psychrometer 7recording thermometer71 a clock1 a compass1 and an outfit of maps of the country over which it is possible that the balloon may float4 ,telegraph blanks1 railroad time tables1 etc41 may be found of great service4 ,a camera with a supply of plates will be indispensable almost1 and the camera should be provided with a yellow screen for photographing clouds or distant objects4 ,the ballast should be inspected1 to be sure that it is of dry sand1 free from stones2 or if water is used for ballast1 it should have the proper admixture of glycerine to prevent freezing4 ,it is essential that the inflating be properly done1 and the captain should be competent to direct this process in detail1 if necessary4 ,what is called the 8circular method0 is the simplest1 and is entirely satisfactory unless the balloon is being filled with pure hydrogen for a very high ascent1 in which case it will doubtless be in the hands of experts4 ,when inflating with coal-gas1 the supply is usually taken from a large pipe adapted for the purpose4 ,at a convenient distance from the gas-main the ground is made smooth1 and the ground cloths are spread out and pegged down to keep them in place4 ,the folded balloon is laid out on the cloths with the neck opening toward the gas-pipe4 ,the balloon is then unfolded1 and so disposed that the valve will be uppermost1 and in the centre of a circle embracing the upper half of the sphere of the balloon1 the opening of the neck projecting a few inches beyond the rim of the circle4 ,the hose from the gas-main may then be connected with the socket in the neck4 ,illustration3 ,balloon laid out in the circular method1 ready for inflation4 ,the valve is seen at the centre4 ,the neck is at the right4 ,having made sure that the ripping cord and the valve rope are free from each other1 and properly connected with their active parts1 and that the valve is fastened in place1 the net is laid over the whole1 and spread out symmetrically4 ,a few bags of ballast are hooked into the net around the circumference of the balloon as it lies1 and the assistants distributed around it4 ,it should be the duty of one man to hold the neck of the balloon1 and not to leave it for any purpose whatever4 ,the gas may then be turned on1 and1 as the balloon fills1 more bags of ballast are hung symmetrically around the net2 and all are continually moved downward as the balloon rises4 ,constant watching is necessary during the inflation1 so that the material of the balloon opens fully without creases1 and the net preserves its correct position4 ,when the inflation is finished the hoop and car are to be hooked in place4 ,the car should be fitted up and hung with an abundance of ballast4 ,disconnect the gas hose and tie the neck of the balloon in such fashion that it may be opened with a pull of the cord when the ascent begins4 ,the ballast is then transferred to the hoop1 or ring1 and the balloon allowed to rise until this is clear of the ground4 ,the car is then moved underneath1 and the ballast moved down from the ring into it4 ,the trail-rope should be made fast to the car directly under the ripping panel1 the object being to retard that side of the balloon in landing1 so that the gas may escape freely when the panel is torn open1 and not underneath the balloon1 as would happen if the balloon came to earth with the ripping panel underneath4 ,the balloon is now ready to start1 and the captain and passengers take their places in the car4 ,the neck of the balloon is opened1 and a glance upward will determine if the valve rope hangs freely through it4 ,the lower end of this should be tied to one of the car ropes4 ,the cord to the ripping panel should be tied in a different place1 and in such fashion that no mistake can be made between them4 ,the assistants stand around the edge of the basket1 holding it so that it shall not rise until the word is given4 ,the captain then adjusts the load of ballast1 throwing off sufficient to allow the balloon to pull upward lightly against the men who are holding it4 ,a little more ballast is then thrown off1 and the word given to let go4 ,the trail-rope should be in charge of some one who will see that it lifts freely from the ground4 ,the balloon rises into the air to an altitude where a bulk of the higher and therefore lighter air equal to the bulk of the balloon has exactly the same weight4 ,this is ordinarily about #b1jjj feet4 ,if the sun should be shining the gas in the balloon will be expanded by the heat1 and some of it will be forced out through the neck4 ,this explains the importance of the open neck4 ,in some of the early ascensions no such provision for the expansion of the gas was made1 and the balloons burst with disastrous consequences4 ,illustration3 ,inflating a military balloon4 ,the net is being adjusted smoothly as the balloon rises4 ,the bags of ballast surround the balloon ready to be attached as soon as the buoyancy of the gas lifts it from the earth4 ,when some of the gas has been driven out by the heat1 there is less weight of gas in the balloon1 though it occupies the same space4 ,it therefore has a tendency to rise still higher4 ,on the other hand1 if it passes into a cloud1 or the sun is otherwise obscured1 the volume of the gas will contract2 it will become denser1 and the balloon will descend4 ,to check the descent the load carried by the balloon must be lightened1 and this is accomplished by throwing out some ballast2 generally1 a few handfuls is enough4 ,there is always more or less leakage of gas through the envelope as well as from the neck1 and this also lessens the lifting power4 ,to restore the balance1 more ballast must be thrown out1 and in this way an approximate level is kept during the journey4 ,when the ballast is nearly exhausted it will be necessary to come down1 for a comfortable landing cannot be made without the use of ballast4 ,a good landing place having been selected1 the valve is opened1 and the balloon brought down within a few yards of the ground4 ,the ripping cord is then pulled and ballast thrown out so that the basket will touch as lightly as possible4 ,some aeronauts use a small anchor or grapnel to assist in making a landing1 but on a windy day1 when the car is liable to do some bumping before coming to rest1 the grapnel often makes matters much worse for the passengers by a series of holdings and slippings1 and sometimes causes a destructive strain upon the balloon4 ,in making an ascent with a balloon full of gas there is certain to be a waste of gas as it expands4 ,this expansion is due not only to the heat of the sun1 but also to the lighter pressure of the air in the upper altitudes4 ,it is therefore the custom with some aeronauts to ascend with a partially filled balloon1 allowing the expansion to completely fill it4 ,this process is particularly advised if a very high altitude is sought4 ,when it is desired to make a long voyage it is wise to make the start at twilight1 and so avoid the heat of the sun4 ,the balloon will then float along on an almost unchanging level without expenditure of ballast4 ,rain and even the moisture from clouds will sometimes wet the balloon so that it will cause a much greater loss of ballast than would have been required to be thrown out to rise above the cloud or storm4 ,such details in the handling of a balloon during a voyage will demand the skilled judgment of the captain4 ,illustration3 ,a balloon ready for ascent4 ,notice that the neck is still tied4 ,the trail-rope is a valuable adjunct when the balloon is travelling near the ground4 ,the longer the part of the trail-rope that is dragging on the ground the less weight the balloon is carrying4 ,and at night1 when it is impossible to tell the direction in which one is travelling in any other way1 the line of the trailing rope will show the direction from which the wind is blowing1 and hence the drift of the balloon4 ,the care of the balloon and its instruments upon landing falls upon the captain1 for he is not likely to find assistants at hand competent to relieve him of any part of the necessary work4 ,the car and the ring are first detached4 ,the ropes are laid out free and clear1 and the valve is unscrewed and taken off4 ,the material of the balloon is folded smoothly1 gore by gore4 ,the ballast bags are emptied4 ,after all is bundled up it should be packed in the car1 the covering cloth bound on with ropes1 and definite instructions affixed for transportation to the starting-point4 ,it is apparent that the whole of the gas is lost at the end of the journey4 ,the cost of this is the largest expense of ballooning4 ,for a small balloon of about #ej1jjj cubic feet1 the coal-gas for inflating will cost about #ce to #dj4 ,if hydrogen is used1 it will cost probably ten times as much4 ,in important voyages it is customary to send up pilot balloons1 to discover the direction of the wind currents at the different levels1 so that the level which promises the best may be selected before the balloon leaves the ground4 ,a study of the weather conditions throughout the surrounding country is a wise precaution1 and no start should be made if a storm is imminent4 ,the extent of control possible in ballooning being so limited1 all risks should be scrupulously avoided1 both before and during the voyage1 and nothing left to haphazard4 ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,balloons3 ,,how ,,to ,,make4 ,the fabrics used--,preliminary varnishing--,varnishes--,rubberized fabrics--,pegamoid--,weight of varnish--,latitudes of the balloon--,calculating gores--,laying out patterns and cutting--,sewing--,varnishing--,drying-- ,oiling--,the neck--,the valve--,the net--,the basket4 ,the making of a balloon is almost always placed in the hands of a professional balloon-maker4 ,but as the use of balloons increases1 and their owners multiply1 it is becoming a matter of importance that the most improved methods of making them should be known to the intending purchaser1 as well as to the amateur who wishes to construct his own balloon4 ,the fabric of which the gas envelope is made may be either silk1 cotton 7percale71 or linen4 ,it should be of a tight1 diagonal weave1 of uniform and strong threads in both warp and woof1 unbleached1 and without dressing1 or finish4 ,if it is colored1 care should be exercised that the dye is one that will not affect injuriously the strength or texture of the fabric4 ,lightness in weight1 and great strength 7as tested by tearing71 are the essentials4 ,the finest ,german percale weighs about #b ounces per square yard2 ,russian percale1 #c ounces1 and ,french percale1 #counces1 per square yard4 ,the white silk used in ,russian military balloons weighs about the same as ,german percale1 but is very much stronger4 ,pongee silk is a trifle heavier4 ,the silk used for sounding balloons is much lighter1 weighing only a little over one ounce to the square yard4 ,goldbeater's skin and rubber have been used to some extent1 but the great cost of the former places it in reach only of governmental departments1 and the latter is of use only in small balloons for scientific work--up to about #age cubic feet capacity4 ,the fabric is first to be varnished1 to fill up the pores and render it gas-tight4 ,for this purpose a thin linseed-oil varnish has been commonly used4 ,to #ajj parts of pure linseed-oil are added #d parts of litharge and #a part of umber1 and the mixture is heated to about #cej ,fahr41 for six or seven hours1 and stirred constantly4 ,after standing a few days the clear part is drawn off for use4 ,for the thicker varnish used on later coats1 the heat should be raised to #dej and kept at about that temperature until it becomes thick4 ,this operation is attended with much danger of the oil taking fire1 and should be done only by an experienced varnish-maker4 ,the only advantages of the linseed-oil varnish are its ease of application1 and its cheapness4 ,its drawbacks are stickiness--requiring continual examination of the balloon envelope1 especially when the deflated bag is stored away--its liability to spontaneous combustion1 particularly when the varnish is new1 and its very slow drying qualities1 requiring a long wait between the coats4 ,another varnish made by dissolving rubber in benzine1 has been largely used4 ,it requires vulcanizing after application4 ,it is never sticky1 and is always soft and pliable4 ,however1 the rubber is liable to decomposition from the action of the violet ray of light1 and a balloon so varnished requires the protection of an outer yellow covering--either of paint1 or an additional yellow fabric4 ,unfortunately1 a single sheet of rubberized material is not gas-tight1 and it is necessary to make the envelope of two1 or even three1 layers of the fabric1 thus adding much to the weight4 ,the great gas-bags of the ,zeppelin airships are varnished with 8,pegamoid10 a patent preparation the constituents of which are not known4 ,its use by ,count ,zeppelin is the highest recommendation possible4 ,the weight of the varnish adds largely to the weight of the envelope4 ,french pongee silk after receiving its five coats of linseed-oil varnish1 weighs #h ounces per square yard4 ,a double bag of percale with a layer of vulcanized rubber between1 and a coating of rubber on the inside1 and painted yellow on the outside1 will weigh #aa ounces per square yard4 ,pegamoid material1 which comes ready prepared1 weighs but about #d ounces per square yard1 but is much more costly4 ,in cutting out the gores of the envelope it is possible to waste fully of the material unless the work is skilfully planned4 ,taking the width of the chosen material as a basis1 we must first deduct from of an inch to #a inches1 in proportion to the size of the proposed balloon1 for a broad seam and the overlapping necessary4 ,dividing the circumference at the largest diameter--the 8equator0 of the balloon--by the remaining width of the fabric gives the number of gores required4 ,to obtain the breadth of each gore at the different 8latitudes0 7supposing the globe of the balloon to be divided by parallels similar to those of the earth7 the following table is to be used2 #j representing the equator1 and #ij the apex of the balloon4 ,the breadth of the gore in inches at any latitude is the product of the decimal opposite that latitude in the table by the original width of the fabric in inches1 thus allowing for seams4 ,illustration3 ,finsterwalder's method of cutting material for a spherical balloon1 by which over one-fourth of the material1 usually wasted in the common method1 may be saved4 ,it has the further advantage of saving more than half of the usual sewing4 ,the balloon is considered as a spherical hexahedron 7a six-surfaced figure similar to a cube1 but with curved sides and edges74 ,the circumference of the sphere divided by the width of the material gives the unit of measurement4 ,the dimensions of the imagined hexahedron may then be determined from the calculated surface and the cutting proceed according to the illustration above1 which shows five breadths to each of the six curved sides4 ,the illustration shows the seams of the balloon made after the ,finsterwalder method1 when looking down upon it from above4 ,,table ,,for ,,calculating ,,shape ,,of ,,gores ,,for ,,spherical ,,balloons #j #a4jjj #c #j4iih #f #j4iid #i #j4ihh #ab #j4igh #ae #j4iff #ah #j4iea #ba #j4icd #bd #j4iac #bg #j4hia #cj #j4hff #cc #j4hci #cf #j4hji #ci #j4ggg #db #j4gdc #de #j4gjg #dh #j4ffi #ea #j4fbi #ed #j4ehh #eg #j4edd #fj #j4ejj #fc #j4ded #ff #j4djg #fi #j4ceh #gb #j4cji #ge #j4bei #gh #j4bjh #ha #j4aef #hd #j4ajd #hg #j4jeb ,in practice1 the shape of the gore is calculated by the above table1 and plotted out on a heavy pasteboard1 generally in two sections for convenience in handling4 ,the board is cut to the plotted shape and used as the pattern for every gore4 ,in large establishments all the gores are cut at once by a machine4 ,the raw edges are hemmed1 and folded into one another to give a flat seam1 and are then sewn together 8through and through10 in twos and threes3 afterward these sections are sewn together4 ,puckering must be scrupulously avoided4 ,in the case of rubberized material1 the thread holes should be smeared with rubber solution1 and narrow strips of the fabric cemented over the seams with the same substance4 ,varnishing is the next process1 the gores being treated in turn4 ,half of the envelope is varnished first1 and allowed to dry in a well-ventilated place out of reach of the sun's rays4 ,the other half is varnished when the first is dry4 ,a framework which holds half of the balloon in the shape of a bell is usually employed4 ,in case of haste1 the balloon may be blown up with air1 but this must be constantly renewed to be of any service4 ,the first step in varnishing is to get one side 7the outer1 or the inner7 coated with a varnish thin enough to penetrate the material3 then turn the envelope the other side out and give that a coat of the thin varnish4 ,next1 after all is thoroughly dry1 give the outer side a coat of thick varnish closing all pores4 ,when this is dry give the inner side a similar coat4 ,finally1 after drying thoroughly1 give both sides a coat of olive oil to prevent stickiness4 ,the amount of varnish required is1 for the first coat #a times the weight of the envelope1 and for the second coat the weight--of the thin varnish4 ,for the thick coat on the outer side of the weight of the envelope1 and on the inner side about half as much4 ,for the olive-oil coat1 about of the weight of the envelope will be needed4 ,these figures are approximate1 some material requiring more1 some less2 and a wasteful workman will cause a greater difference4 ,the neck of the balloon 7also called the tail7 is in form a cylindrical tube of the fabric1 sewn to an opening in the bottom of the balloon1 which has been strengthened by an extra ring of fabric to support it4 ,the lower end of the tube1 called the mouth1 is sewn to a wooden ring1 which stiffens it4 ,the size of the neck is dependent upon the size of the balloon4 ,its diameter is determined by finding the cube of one-half the diameter of the balloon1 and dividing it by #a1jjj4 ,in length1 the neck should be at least four times its diameter4 ,the apex of the balloon envelope is fitted with a large valve to permit the escape of gas when it is desired that the balloon shall descend4 ,the door of the valve is made to open inward into the envelope1 and is pulled open by the valve-cord which passes through the neck of the balloon into the basket1 or car4 ,this valve is called the manuvring valve1 and there are many different designs equally efficient4 ,as they may be had ready made1 it is best for the amateur1 unless he is a machinist1 to purchase one4 ,the main point to see to is that the seat of the valve is of soft pliable rubber1 and that the door of the valve presses a comparatively sharp edge of metal or wood so firmly upon the seat as to indent it2 and the springs of the valve should be strong enough to hold it evenly to its place4 ,the making of the net of the balloon is another part of the work which must be delegated to professionals4 ,the material point is that the net distributes the weight evenly over the surface of the upper hemisphere of the envelope4 ,the strength of the cordage is an item which must be carefully tested4 ,different samples of the same material show such wide variations in strength that nothing but an actual test will determine4 ,in general1 however1 it may be said that ,china-grass cordage is four times as strong as hemp cordage1 and silk cordage is ten times as strong as hemp--for the same size cords4 ,the meshes of the net should be small1 allowing the use of a small cord4 ,large cords mean large knots1 and these wear seriously upon the balloon envelope1 and are very likely to cause leaks4 ,in large meshes1 also1 the envelope puffs out between the cords and becomes somewhat stretched1 opening pores through which much gas is lost by diffusion4 ,the 8star10 or centre of the net at the apex of the balloon1 must be fastened immovably to the rim of the valve4 ,the suspension cords begin at from #cj to #de below the equator of the envelope1 and are looped through rings in what are called 8goose-necks40 ,these allow a measure of sliding motion to the cordage as the basket sways in the wind4 ,for protecting the net against rotting from frequent wetting1 it is recommended to saturate it thoroughly with a solution of acetate of soda1 drying immediately4 ,paraffin is sometimes used with more or less success1 but tarring should be avoided1 as it materially weakens the cordage4 ,oil or grease are even worse4 ,at the bottom of the net proper the few large cords into which the many small cords have been merged are attached to the ring of the balloon4 ,this is either of steel or of several layers of wood well bound together4 ,the ropes supporting the basket are also fastened to this ring1 and from it hang the trail-rope and the holding ropes4 ,illustration3 ,sketch showing the diamond mesh of balloon cordage and the method of distributing the rings for the goose-necks2 also the merging of netting cords into the suspension cords which support the car4 ,the principal knots used in tying balloon nets are shown on the right4 ,the basket is also to be made by a professional1 as upon its workmanship may depend the lives of its occupants1 though every other feature of the balloon be faultless4 ,it must be light1 and still very strong to carry its load and withstand severe bumping4 ,it should be from #c to #d feet deep1 with a floor space of #d feet by #e feet4 ,it is usually made of willow and rattan woven substantially together4 ,the ropes supporting the car are passed through the bottom and woven in with it4 ,buffers are woven on to the outside1 and the inside is padded4 ,the seats are small baskets in which is stored the equipment4 ,with the completion of these the balloon is ready for its furnishings and equipment1 which come under the direction of the pilot1 or captain1 as detailed in the preceding chapter4 ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,military ,,aeronautics4 ,the pioneer ,meusnier--,l',entreprenant--,first aerostiers--,first aerial warship--,bombardment by balloons--,free balloons in observations--,ordering artillery from balloon--,the postal balloons of ,paris--,compressed hydrogen--,national experiments--,bomb dropping--,falling explosives--,widespread activity in gathering fleets--,controversies--,range of vision--,reassuring outlook4 ,almost from the beginning of success in traversing the air the great possibilities of all forms of aircraft as aids in warfare have been recognized by military authorities1 and1 as has so often been the case with other inventions by non-military minds1 the practically unlimited funds at the disposal of national war departments have been available for the development of the balloon at first1 then the airship1 and now of the aeroplane4 ,the ,montgolfiers had scarcely proved the possibility of rising into the air1 in #aghc1 before ,general ,meusnier was busily engaged in inventing improvements in their balloon with the expressed purpose of making it of service to his army1 and before he was killed in battle he had secured the appointment of a commission to test the improved balloon as to its efficiency in war4 ,the report of the committee being favorable1 a balloon corps was formed in ,april1 #agid1 and the balloon ,l',entreprenant was used during the battle of ,fleurus1 on ,june #bfth1 by ,meusnier's successor1 ,general ,jourdan1 less than a year after ,meusnier's death4 ,in #agie this balloon was used in the battle of ,mayence4 ,in both instances it was employed for observation only4 ,but when the ,french entered ,moscow1 they found there1 and captured1 a balloon laden with #a1jjj pounds of gunpowder which was intended to have been used against them4 ,in #agif two other balloons were used by the ,french army then in front of ,andernach and ,ehrenbreitstein1 and in #agih the #ast ,company of ,aerostiers was sent to ,egypt1 and operated at the battle of the ,nile1 and later at ,cairo4 ,in the year following1 this balloon corps was disbanded4 ,in #ahab ,russia secured the services of a ,german balloon builder named ,leppich1 or ,leppig1 to build a war balloon4 ,it had the form of a fish1 and was so large that the inflation required five days1 but the construction of the framework was faulty1 and some important parts gave way during inflation1 and the airship never left the ground4 ,as it was intended that this balloon should be dirigible and supplied with explosives1 and take an active part in attacks on enemies1 it may be regarded as the first aerial warship4 ,illustration3 ,a military dirigible making a tour of observation4 ,in #ahdi1 however1 the first actual employment of the balloon in warfare took place4 ,austria was engaged in the bombardment of ,venice1 and the range of the besieging batteries was not great enough to permit shells to be dropped into the city4 ,the engineers formed a balloon detachment1 and made a number of ,montgolfiers out of paper4 ,these were of a size sufficient to carry bombs weighing #cj pounds for half an hour before coming down4 ,these war balloons were taken to the windward side of the city1 and after a pilot balloon had been floated over the point where the bombs were to fall1 and the time consumed in the flight ascertained1 the fuses of the bombs were set for the same time1 and the war balloons were released4 ,the actual damage done by the dropping of these bombs was not great1 but the moral effect upon the people of the city was enormous4 ,the balloon detachment changed its position as the wind changed1 and many shells were exploded in the heart of the city1 one of them in the market place4 ,but the destruction wrought was insignificant as compared with that usually resulting from cannonading4 ,as these little ,montgolfiers were sent up unmanned1 perhaps they are not strictly entitled to be dignified by the name of war balloon1 being only what in this day would be called aerial bombs4 ,the next use of the balloon in warfare was by ,napoleon ,,iii1 in #ahei4 ,he sent up ,lieutenant ,godard1 formerly a manufacturer of balloons1 and ,nadar1 the balloonist1 at ,castiglione4 ,it was a tour of observation only1 and ,godard made the important discovery that the inhabitants were gathering their flocks of domestic animals and choking the roads with them1 to oppose the advance of the ,french4 ,the first military use of balloons in the ,united ,states was at the time of the ,civil ,war4 ,within a month after the war broke out1 ,professor ,t4 ,s4 ,c4 ,lowe1 of ,washington1 put himself and his balloon at the command of ,president ,lincoln1 and on ,june #ah1 #ahfa1 he sent to the ,president a telegram from the balloon--the first record of the kind in history4 ,after the defeat at ,manassas1 on ,july #bd1 #ahfa1 ,professor ,lowe made a free ascent1 and discovered the true position of the ,confederates1 and proved the falsity of rumors of their advance4 ,the organization of a regular balloon corps followed1 and it was attached to ,mc,clellan's army1 and used in reconnoitering before ,yorktown4 ,the balloons were operated under heavy artillery fire1 but were not injured4 ,illustration3 ,a small captive military balloon fitted for observation4 ,a cylinder of compressed hydrogen to replace leakage is seen at ,f4 ,on ,may #bdth1 for the first time in history1 a general officer--in this case1 ,general ,stoneman--directed the fire of artillery at a hidden enemy from a balloon4 ,later in the month balloons were used at ,chickahominy1 and again at ,fair ,oaks and ,richmond1 being towed about by locomotives4 ,on the retreat from before ,richmond1 ,mc,clellan's balloons and gas generators were captured and destroyed4 ,in #ahfi1 during the siege of a fort at ,wakamatzu by the ,imperial ,japanese troops1 the besieged sent up a man-carrying kite4 ,after making observations1 the officer ascended again with explosives1 with which he attempted to disperse the besieging army1 but without success4 ,during the siege of ,paris1 in #ahgj1 there were several experienced balloonists shut up in the city1 and the six balloons at hand were quickly repaired and put to use by the army for carrying dispatches and mail beyond the besieging lines4 ,the first trips were made by the professional aeronauts1 but1 as they could not return1 there was soon a scarcity of pilots4 ,sailors1 and acrobats from the ,hippodrome1 were pressed into the service1 and before the siege was raised #fd of these postal balloons had been dispatched4 ,fifty-seven out of the #fd landed safely on ,french territory1 and fulfilled their mission2 #d were captured by the ,germans2 #a floated to ,norway2 #a was lost1 with its crew of two sailors1 who faithfully dropped their dispatches on the rocks near the ,lizard as they were swept out to sea2 and #a landed on the islet ,hoedic1 in the ,atlantic4 ,in all1 #afd persons left ,paris in these balloons1 always at night1 and there were carried a total of #i tons of dispatches and #c1jjj1jjj letters4 ,at first dogs were carried to bring back replies1 but none ever returned4 ,then carrier pigeons were used successfully4 ,replies were set in type and printed4 ,these printed sheets were reduced by photography so that #af folio pages of print1 containing #cb1jjj words1 were reduced to a space of #b inches by #a inches on the thinnest of gelatine film4 ,twenty of these films were packed in a quill1 and constituted the load for each pigeon4 ,when received in ,paris1 the films were enlarged by means of a magic lantern1 copied1 and delivered to the persons addressed4 ,illustration3 ,spherical canister of compressed hydrogen for use in inflating military balloons4 ,a large number of these canisters may be tapped at the same time and the inflation proceed rapidly2 a large balloon being filled in two hours4 ,in more recent times the ,french used balloons at ,tonkin1 in #ahhd2 the ,english1 in ,africa1 in #ahhe2 the ,italians1 in ,abyssinia1 in #ahhh2 and the ,united ,states1 at ,santiago1 in #ahih4 ,during the ,boer ,war1 in #aijj1 balloons were used by the ,british for directing artillery fire1 and one was shot to pieces by well-aimed ,boer cannon4 ,at ,port ,arthur1 both the ,japanese and the ,russians used balloons and man-carrying kites for observation4 ,the most recent use is that by ,spain1 in her campaign against the ,moors1 in #aiji4 ,the introduction of compressed hydrogen in compact cylinders1 which are easily transported1 has simplified the problem of inflating balloons in the field1 and of restoring gas lost by leakage4 ,the advent of the dirigible has engaged the active attention of the war departments of all the civilized nations1 and experiments are constantly progressing1 in many instances in secret4 ,it is a fact at once significant and interesting1 as marking the rapidity of the march of improvement1 that the ,german ,government has lately refused to buy the newest ,zeppelin dirigible1 on the ground that it is built of aluminum1 which is out of date since the discovery of its lighter alloys4 ,illustration3 ,the ,german military non-rigid dirigible ,parseval ,,ii4 ,it survived the storm which wrecked the ,zeppelin ,,ii in ,april1 #aiaj1 and reached its shed at ,cologne in safety4 ,practically all the armies are being provided with fleets of aeroplanes1 ostensibly for use in scouting4 ,but there have been many contests by aviators in 8bomb-dropping0 which have at least proved that it is possible to drop explosives from an aeroplane with a great degree of accuracy4 ,the favorite target in these contests has been the life-sized outline of a battleship4 ,illustration3 ,the ,german military ,zeppelin dirigible1 which took part in the manuvres at ,hamburg in ,april1 #aiaj1 and was wrecked by a high wind at ,weilburg on the return journey to ,cologne4 ,glenn ,curtiss1 after his trip down the ,hudson from ,albany1 declared that he could have dropped a large enough torpedo upon the ,poughkeepsie ,bridge to have wrecked it4 ,his subsequent feats in dropping 8bombs10 represented by oranges1 have given weight to his claims4 ,by some writers it is asserted that the successful navigation of the air will guarantee universal peace2 that war with aircraft will be so destructive that the whole world will rise against its horrors4 ,against a fleet of flying machines dropping explosives into the heart of great cities there can be no adequate defence4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,hudson ,maxim declares that the exploding of the limited quantities of dynamite that can be carried on the present types of aeroplanes1 on the decks of warships would not do any vital damage4 ,he also says that many tons of dynamite might be exploded in ,madison ,square1 ,new ,york ,city1 with no more serious results than the blowing out of the windows of the adjacent buildings as the air within rushed out to fill the void caused by the uprush of air heated by the explosion4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lebaudy airship 8,la ,patrie40 ,as compared with the first ,lebaudy1 it shows the rounded stern with stabilizing planes1 and the long fin beneath1 with rudder and dipping planes4 ,as yet1 the only experience that may be instanced is that of the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 where cast-iron shells1 weighing #ddh lbs41 containing #bh lbs4 of powder1 were fired from a high angle into ,port ,arthur1 and did but little damage4 ,in #ahii the ,hague ,conference passed a resolution prohibiting the use of aircraft to discharge projectiles or explosives1 and limited their use in war to observation4 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,italy withheld consent upon the proposition4 ,in general1 undefended places are regarded as exempt from attack by bombardment of any kind4 ,nevertheless1 there are straws which show how the wind is blowing4 ,german citizens and clubs which purchase a type of airship approved by the ,war ,office of the ,german ,empire are to receive a substantial subsidy1 with the understanding that in case of war the aircraft is to be at the disposal of the ,government4 ,under this plan it is expected that the ,german ,government will control a large fleet of ships of the air without being obliged to own them4 ,and1 in ,france1 funds were raised recently1 by popular subscription1 sufficient to provide the nation with a fleet of fourteen airships 7dirigibles7 and thirty aeroplanes4 ,these are already being built1 and it will not be long before ,france will have the largest air-fleet afloat4 ,the results of the ,german manuvres with a fleet of four dirigibles in a night attack upon strong fortresses have been kept a profound secret1 as if of great value to the ,war ,office4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,signal ,corps has been active in operating the ,baldwin dirigible and the ,wright aeroplanes owned by the ,government4 ,to the latter1 wireless telegraphic apparatus has been attached and is operated successfully when the machines are in flight4 ,in addition1 the ,united ,states ,aeronautical ,reserve has been formed1 with a large membership of prominent amateur and professional aviators4 ,some military experts1 however1 assert that the dirigible is hopelessly outclassed for warfare by the aeroplane1 which can operate in winds in which the dirigible dare not venture1 and can soar so high above any altitude that the dirigible can reach as to easily destroy it4 ,another argument used against the availability of the dirigible as a war-vessel is1 that if it were launched on a wind which carried it over the enemy's country1 it might not be able to return at sufficient speed to escape destruction by high-firing guns1 even if its limited fuel capacity did not force a landing4 ,even the observation value of the aircraft is in some dispute4 ,the following table is quoted as giving the ranges possible to an observer in the air3 ,altitude in feet4 ,distance of horizon4 #ejj #cj miles4 #a1jjj #db 8 #b1jjj #ei 8 #c1jjj #gb 8 #d1jjj #hd 8 #e1jjj #ic 8 ,as a matter of fact1 the moisture ordinarily in the air effectually limits the range of both natural vision and the use of the camera for photographing objects on the ground4 ,the usual limit of practical range of the best telescope is eight miles4 ,all things considered1 however1 it is to be expected that the experimenting by army and navy officers all over the world will lead to such improvement and invention in the art of navigating the air as will develop its benevolent1 rather than its malevolent1 possibilities--8a consummation devoutly to be wished40 ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,biographies ,,of ,,prominent ,,aeronauts4 ,the ,wright ,brothers--,santos-,dumont--,louis ,bleriot--,gabriel ,voisin--,leon ,delagrange--,henri ,farman--,robert ,esnault-,pelterie--,count von ,zeppelin--,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss--,charles ,k4 ,hamilton--,hubert ,latham--,alfred ,leblanc--,claude ,grahame-,white--,louis ,paulhan--,clifford ,b4 ,harmon--,walter ,brookins--,john ,b4 ,moisant--,j4 ,armstrong ,drexel--,ralph ,johnstone4 ,on ,january #a1 #aiji1 it would have been a brief task to write a few biographical notes about the 8prominent0 aviators4 ,at that date there were but five who had made flights exceeding ten minutes in duration--the ,wright brothers1 ,farman1 ,delagrange1 and ,bleriot4 ,at the close of #aiaj the roll of aviators who have distinguished themselves by winning prizes or breaking previous records has increased to more than #ajj1 and the number of qualified pilots of flying machines now numbers over #cjj4 ,the impossibility of giving even a mention of the notable airmen in this chapter is apparent1 and the few whose names have been selected are those who have more recently in our own country come into larger public notice1 and those of the pioneers whose names will never lose their first prominence4 ,,the ,,wright ,,brothers4 ,the ,wright ,brothers have so systematically linked their individual personalities in all their work1 in private no less than in public1 that the brief life story to be told here is but one for them both4 ,in fact1 until ,wilbur went to ,france in #aijh1 and ,orville to ,washington1 the nearest approach to a separation is illustrated by a historic remark of ,wilbur's to an acquaintance in ,dayton1 one afternoon3 8,orville flew #ba miles yesterday2 ,i am going to beat that to-day40 ,and he did--by #c miles4 ,their early life in their home town of ,dayton1 ,ohio1 was unmarked by significant incident4 ,they were interested in bicycles1 and at length went into the business of repairing and selling these machines4 ,their attention seems to have been strongly turned to the subject of human flight by the death of ,lilienthal in ,august1 #ahif1 at which time the press published some of the results of his experiments4 ,a magazine article by ,octave ,chanute1 himself an experimenter with gliders1 led to correspondence with him1 and the ,wrights began a series of similar investigations with models of their own building4 ,by #aijj they had succeeded in flying a large glider by running with a string1 as with a kite1 and in the following year they had made some flights on their gliders1 of which they had several of differing types4 ,for two years the ,wrights studied and tested and disproved nearly every formula laid down by scientific works for the relations of gravity to air1 and finally gave themselves up to discovering by actual trial what the true conditions were1 and to the improvement of their gliders accordingly4 ,meanwhile they continued their constant personal practice in the air4 ,the most of this experimental work was done at ,kitty ,hawk1 ,n4 ,c42 for the reason that there the winds blow more uniformly than at any other place in the ,united ,states1 and the great sand dunes there gave the ,wrights the needed elevation from which to leap into the wind with their gliders4 ,consequently1 when at last they were ready to try a machine driven by a motor1 it was at this secluded spot that the first flights ever made by man with a heavier-than-air machine took place4 ,on ,december #ag1 #aijc1 their first machine left the ground under its own power1 and remained in the air for twelve seconds4 ,from this time on progress was even slower than before1 on account of the complications added by the motive power2 but by the time another year had passed they were making flights which lasted five minutes1 and had their machine in such control that they could fly in a circle and make a safe landing within a few feet of the spot designated4 ,illustration3 ,turpin1 ,taylor1 ,orville ,wright1 ,wilbur ,wright1 ,brookins1 and ,johnstone discussing the merits of the ,wright machine4 ,on the #eth of ,october1 #aije1 ,wilbur ,wright made his historic flight of #bd miles at ,dayton1 ,ohio1 beating the record of ,orville1 made the day before1 of #ba miles4 ,the average speed of these flights was #ch miles an hour4 ,no contention as to the priority of the device known as wing-warping can ever set aside the fact that these long practical flights were made more than a year before any other man had flown #ejj feet1 or had remained in the air half a minute1 with a heavier-than-air machine driven by power4 ,the ,wrights are now at the head of one of the largest aeroplane manufactories in the world1 and devote the larger part of their time to research work in the line of the navigation of the air4 ,,alberto ,,santos-,,dumont4 ,,alberto ,,santos-,,dumont was born in ,brazil in #ahgg4 ,when but a lad he became intensely interested in aeronautics1 having been aroused by witnessing the ascension at a show of an ordinary hot-air balloon4 ,within the next few years he had made several trips to ,paris1 and in #ahig made his first ascent in a balloon with the balloon builder ,machuron1 the partner of the famous ,lachambre4 ,in #ahih he began the construction of his notable series of dirigibles1 which eventually reached twelve in number4 ,with his ,no4 #f he won the #bj1jjj prize offered by ,m4 ,deutsch 7de la ,meurthe7 for the first trip from the ,paris ,aero ,club's grounds to and around the ,eiffel ,tower in #cj minutes or less4 ,the distance was nearly #g miles4 ,it is characteristic of ,m4 ,santos-,dumont that he should give #ae1jjj of the prize to relieve distress among the poor of ,paris1 and the remainder to his mechanicians who had built the balloon4 ,his smallest dirigible was the ,no4 #i1 which held #g1ggj cubic feet of gas2 the largest was the ,no4 #aj1 which held #hj1jjj cubic feet4 ,in #aije1 when ,bleriot1 ,voisin1 and their comrades were striving to accomplish flight with machines heavier than air1 ,santos-,dumont turned his genius upon the same problem1 and on ,august #ad1 #aijf1 he made his first flight with a cellular biplane driven by a #bd horse-power motor4 ,on ,november #acth of the same year he flew #gbj feet with the same machine4 ,these were the first flights of heavier-than-air machines in ,europe1 and the first public flights anywhere4 ,later he turned to the monoplane type1 and with 8,la ,demoiselle0 added new laurels to those already won with his dirigibles4 ,,louis ,,bleriot4 ,,louis ,,bleriot1 designer and builder of the celebrated ,bleriot monoplanes1 and himself a pilot of the first rank1 was born in ,cambrai1 ,france1 in #ahgb4 ,he graduated from a noted technical school1 and soon attached himself to the group of young men--all under thirty years of age--who were experimenting with gliders in the effort to fly4 ,his attempts at first were with the flapping-wing contrivances1 but he soon gave these up as a failure1 and devoted his energy to the automobile industry2 and the excellent ,bleriot acetylene headlight testifies to his constructive ability in that field4 ,attracted by the experiments of ,m4 ,ernest ,archdeacon he joined his following1 and with ,gabriel ,voisin engaged in building gliders of the biplane type4 ,by #aijg he had turned wholly to the monoplane idea1 and in ,april of that year made his first leap into the air with a power-driven monoplane4 ,by ,september he had so improved his machine that he was able to fly #fjj feet1 and in ,june1 #aijh1 he broke the record for monoplanes by flying nearly a mile4 ,again and again he beat his own records1 and at length the whole civilized world was thrilled by his triumphant flight across the ,british ,channel on ,july #be1 #aiji4 ,the ,bleriot machines hold nearly all the speed records1 and many of those in other lines of achievement1 and ,m4 ,bleriot enjoys the double honor of being an eminently successful manufacturer as well as a dauntless aviator of heroic rank4 ,,gabriel ,,voisin4 ,,gabriel ,,voisin1 the elder of the two ,voisin brothers1 was born in #ahgi at ,belleville-sur-,saone1 near the city of ,lyons1 ,france4 ,he was educated as an architect1 but early became interested in aeronautics1 and engaged in gliding1 stimulated by the achievements of ,pilcher1 in ,england1 and ,captain ,ferber1 in his own country4 ,he assisted ,m4 ,archdeacon in his experiments on the ,seine1 often riding the gliders which were towed by the swift motor boats4 ,in #aijf he associated himself with his brother in the business of manufacturing biplane machines1 and in ,march1 #aijg1 he himself made the first long flight with a power-driven machine in ,europe4 ,this aeroplane was built for his friend ,delagrange1 and was one in which the latter was soon breaking records and winning prizes4 ,the second machine was for ,farman1 who made the ,voisin biplane famous by winning the ,deutsch-,archdeacon prize of #aj1jjj for making a flight of #a1jic yards in a circle4 ,the ,voisin biplane is distinctive in structure1 and is accounted one of the leading aeroplanes of the present day4 ,,leon ,,delagrange4 ,,leon ,,delagrange was born at ,orleans1 ,france1 in #ahgc4 ,he entered the ,school of ,arts as a student in sculpture1 about the same time that ,henri ,farman went there to study painting1 and ,gabriel ,voisin1 architecture4 ,he exhibited at the ,salon1 and won several medals4 ,in #aije1 he took up aeronautics1 assisted at the experiments of ,m4 ,archdeacon4 ,his first aeroplane was built by ,voisin1 and he made his first flight at ,issy1 ,march #ad1 #aijg4 ,less than a month later--on ,april #aa--;he made a new record for duration of flight1 remaining in the air for #i minutes and #ae seconds--twice as long as the previous record made by ,farman4 ,illustration3 ,leblanc1 ,bleriot1 and ,delagrange1 7from left to right7 in aviation dress1 standing in front of the ,bleriot machine which crossed the ,english ,channel4 ,at ,rheims1 in #aiji1 he appeared with a ,bleriot monoplane1 and continued to fly with that type of machine until his death4 ,at ,doncaster1 ,england1 he made the world record for speed up to that time1 travelling at the rate of #di4i miles per hour4 ,he was killed at ,bordeaux1 ,france1 in ,january1 #aiaj1 by the fall of his machine4 ,,henri ,,farman4 ,,henri ,,farman1 justly regarded as the most prominent figure in the aviation world today1 was born in ,france in #ahgc4 ,his father was an ,englishman4 ,while a mere boy he became locally famous as a bicycle racer1 and later achieved a wider fame as a fearless and skillful driver in automobile races4 ,in #aijb he won the ,paris-,vienna race4 ,in ,september1 #aijg1 he made his first attempt to fly1 using the second biplane built by his friend ,gabriel ,voisin1 and in the following year he won with it the ,deutsch-,archdeacon prize of #aj1jjj4 ,he then built a machine after his own ideas1 which more resembles the ,wright machine than the ,voisin1 and with it he has won many prizes1 and made many world records4 ,demands for machines1 and for teaching the art of handling them1 have poured in upon him1 necessitating a continual increase of manufacturing facilities until it may safely be said that he has the largest plant for building flying machines in the world1 turning out the largest number of machines1 and through his school for aviators is instructing a larger number of pupils annually than any other similar establishment4 ,,robert ,,esnault-,,pelterie4 ,,robert ,,esnault-,,pelterie was born in #ahhj1 and educated in the city of ,paris4 ,he early showed a mechanical turn of mind1 and was interested particularly in scientific studies4 ,he became an enthusiast in matters aeronautic1 and devoted himself to the construction of gasoline engines suitable for aviation purposes4 ,after satisfying his ideal in this direction with the now famous 8,r-,e-,p0 motor1 he designed a new type of flying machine which is known as the 8,r-,e-,p monoplane40 ,his first flights were made at ,buc in ,october1 #aijg1 and while they were short1 they proved the possibility of steering a flying machine so that it would describe a curved line--at that time a considerable achievement among ,european aviators4 ,in ,april1 #aijh1 he flew for of a mile1 and reached a height of #ajj feet4 ,this feat eclipsed all previous records for monoplanes4 ,his fame1 however1 rests upon his motors1 which are quite original in design and construction4 ,,count ,,ferdinand ,,von ,,zeppelin4 ,,count ,,ferdinand ,,von ,,zeppelin was born in #ahch1 on the shores of the ,lake ,constance1 where his great airships have had their initial trials4 ,it is an interesting fact that ,count von ,zeppelin made his first balloon ascension in a war-balloon attached to the army corps commanded by his friend1 ,carl ,schurz1 during the ,civil ,war4 ,it was only after years of absorbing study of all that human knowledge could contribute that ,count von ,zeppelin decided upon the type of dirigible which bears his name4 ,under the patronage of the ,king of ,wrtemberg he began his first airship1 having previously built an immense floating shed1 which1 swinging by a cable1 always had its doors facing away from the wind4 ,the successful flights of the series of magnificent ,zeppelin airships have been marvellous in an age crowded with wonders4 ,and the misfortune which has followed close upon their superb achievements with complete destruction would long ago have undone a man of less energy and courage than the dauntless ,count4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that of the hundreds of passengers carried in his ships of the air1 all have come to land safely--a record that it would be difficult to match with any other form of travel4 ,the accidents which have destroyed the ,zeppelins have never happened in the air1 excepting only the wrecking of the ,deutschland by a thunderstorm4 ,the indefatigable ,count is now constructing another airship with the new alloy1 electron1 instead of aluminum4 ,he estimates that #e1jjj pounds' weight can be saved in this way4 ,,captain ,,thomas ,s4 ,,baldwin4 ,,captain ,,thomas ,s4 ,,baldwin1 balloonist and aviator1 was born in ,mississippi in #ahee4 ,his first aeronautical experience was as a parachute rider from a balloon in the air4 ,he invented the parachute he used1 and received for it a gold medal from the ,balloon ,society of ,great ,britain4 ,exhibiting this parachute1 ,captain ,baldwin made an extensive tour of the civilized world4 ,in #ahib he built his first airship1 a combination of a balloon1 a screw propeller1 and a bicycle1 the last to furnish the motive power4 ,it was not until #aijb1 when be installed an automobile engine in his airship1 that he succeeded in making it sail4 ,it was not yet dirigible1 however2 but after two years of devising and experimenting1 he sailed away from ,oakland1 ,cal41 on ,august #b1 #aijd1 against the wind1 and after a short voyage1 turned and came back to his balloon-shed4 ,from this time on he made several successful dirigibles1 and in #aijh he met all the requirements of the ,united ,states ,government for a military dirigible1 and sold to it the only dirigible it possesses4 ,he became interested in the experiments of ,curtiss and ,mc,curdy at ,hammondsport1 in #aijh1 and aided in building the remarkable series of biplanes with which record flights were made4 ,the newer design1 known as the ,baldwin biplane1 is unique in the pivoted balancing plane set upright above the upper plane1 a device entirely distinct from the warping or other manipulation of horizontal surfaces for the purpose of restoring lateral balance4 ,,glenn ,,hammond ,,curtiss4 ,,glenn ,,hammond ,,curtiss was born at ,hammondsport1 ,n4 ,y41 on the shore of ,lake ,keuka1 in #ahgh4 ,from boyhood he was a competitor and winner in all sorts of races where speed was the supreme test4 ,by nature a mechanic1 he became noted for his ingenious contrivances in this line1 and built a series of extremely fast motor-cycles1 with one of which he made the record of one mile in #bf seconds1 which still stands as the fastest mile ever made by man with any form of mechanism4 ,through the purchasing of one of his light engines by ,captain ,baldwin for his dirigible1 ,curtiss became interested in aeronautical matters1 and soon built a glider with which he sailed down from the ,hammondsport hills4 ,the combination of his motor and the glider was the next step1 and on ,july #d1 #aijh1 he flew #a miles with the ,june ,bug1 winning the ,scientific ,american trophy4 ,learning that the ,united ,states was not to be represented at the ,rheims meet in ,august1 #aiji1 he hastily built a biplane and went there4 ,he won the first prize for the course of #cj kilometres 7#ah4f miles71 second prize for the course of #aj kilometres1 the ,james ,gordon ,bennett cup1 and the tenth prize in the contest for distance4 ,from ,rheims he went to ,brescia1 ,italy1 and there won the first prize for speed4 ,in all these contests he was matching his biplane against monoplanes which were acknowledged to be a faster type than the biplane4 ,on ,may #bi1 #aiaj1 ,mr4 ,curtiss made the first stated aeroplane tour to take place in this country1 travelling from ,albany to ,new ,york ,city1 #acg miles1 with but one stop for fuel4 ,with this flight he won a prize of #aj1jjj4 ,he has made many other notable flights and stands in the foremost rank of the active aviators4 ,at the same time he is busily engaged in the manufacture of the ,curtiss biplane and the ,curtiss engine1 both staple productions in their line4 ,,charles ,,keeney ,,hamilton4 ,,charles ,,keeney ,,hamilton is justly regarded as one of the most skilful of aviators4 ,he was born in ,connecticut in #ahha1 and showed his 8bent0 by making distressing1 and often disastrous1 leaps from high places with the family umbrella for a parachute4 ,in #aijd he worked with ,mr4 ,israel ,ludlow1 who at that time was experimenting with gliders of his own construction1 and when ,mr4 ,ludlow began towing them behind automobiles1 ,hamilton rode on the gliders and steered them4 ,later he became interested in ballooning1 and made a tour of ,japan with a small dirigible4 ,illustration3 ,hamilton and ,latham4 ,he early became famous in the aviation world by his spectacular glides from a great height4 ,he has said that the first of these was unintentional1 but his motor having stopped suddenly while he was high in the air1 he had only the other alternative of falling vertically4 ,the sensation of the swift gliding having pleased him1 he does it frequently 8for the fun of it40 ,these glides are made at so steep an angle that they have gained the distinctive name1 8,hamilton dives40 ,hamilton came most prominently before the public at large with his flight from ,governor's ,island to ,philadelphia and back1 on ,june #ac1 #aiaj4 ,following close upon ,curtiss's flight from ,albany to ,new ,york1 it was not only a record-breaking achievement1 but helped to establish in this country the value of the aeroplane as a vehicle for place-to-place journeyings4 ,,hubert ,,latham4 ,,hubert ,,latham1 the famous ,antoinette pilot1 is a graduate of ,oxford4 ,his father was a naturalized ,frenchman4 ,his first aeronautical experience was as companion to his cousin1 ,jacques ,faure1 the balloonist1 on his famous trip from ,london to ,paris in #f hours1 the fastest time ever made between the two places until the ,clement-,bayard dirigible surpassed it by a few minutes on ,october #af1 #aiaj4 ,the ,antoinette monoplane with which ,m4 ,latham has identified himself began with the ingenious engine of ,levavasseur1 which was speedily made use of for aeroplanes by ,santos-,dumont1 ,bleriot1 and ,farman4 ,levavasseur also had ideas about aeroplanes1 and persuaded some capitalists to back him in the enterprise4 ,when it was done1 no one could be found to fly it4 ,here ,m4 ,latham1 a lieutenant of miners and sappers in the ,french army1 stepped into the breach1 and has made a name for himself and for the ,antoinette machine in the forefront of the progress of aviation4 ,after winning several contests he set out1 on ,july #ai1 #aiji1 to cross the ,british ,channel4 ,after flying about half the distance he fell into the sea4 ,six days later ,bleriot made the crossing successfully1 and ,latham made a second attempt on ,july #bgth1 and this time got within a mile of the ,dover coast before he again came down in the water4 ,he has shown unsurpassed daring and skill in flying in gales blowing at #dj miles per hour1 a record which few other aviators have cared to rival4 ,,alfred ,,leblanc4 ,,alfred ,,leblanc1 the champion cross-country flier of the world1 was born in ,france in #ahgi4 ,by profession he is a metallurgist4 ,a friend of ,bleriot1 he became interested in monoplane flying1 the more readily because he was already a skilled balloonist4 ,at the time ,bleriot made his historic flight across the ,british ,channel1 ,leblanc preceded him1 and1 standing on the ,dover shore1 signalled ,bleriot where to strike the land4 ,he organized ,bleriot's school for aviators at ,pau1 and became its director4 ,its excellence is exhibited in the quality of its pupils2 among them ,chavez1 ,morane1 and ,aubrun4 ,the achievement through which ,leblanc is most widely known is his winning of the #dhi-mile race over the northern part of ,france in ,august1 #aiaj1 and with the victory the prize of #bj1jjj offered4 ,,claude ,,grahame-,,white4 ,,claude ,,grahame-,,white1 the most famous of ,british aviators1 learned to fly in ,france1 under the tutelage of ,m4 ,bleriot1 ,having accomplished so much1 he went to ,mourmelon1 the location of ,farman's establishment1 and made himself equally proficient on the ,farman biplane4 ,while in ,france he taught many pupils1 among them ,armstrong ,drexel4 ,returning to ,england1 he opened a school for ,english aviators4 ,he came into prominent public notice in his contest with ,paulhan in the race from ,london to ,manchester1 and although ,paulhan won the prize1 ,grahame-,white received a full share of glory for his plucky persistence against discouraging mishaps4 ,at the ,boston-,harvard meet1 in ,september1 #aiaj1 ,grahame-,white carried off nearly all the prizes1 and in addition won for himself a large measure of personal popularity4 ,on ,october #adth he flew from the ,benning ,race ,track #f miles away1 over the ,potomac ,river1 around the dome of the ,capitol1 the ,washington ,monument1 and over the course of ,pennsylvania ,avenue1 up to the ,state1 ,war1 and ,navy ,department building1 alighting accurately with his #dj-;foot biplane in the #fj-;foot street4 ,having ended his 8call10 he mounted his machine and rose skilfully into the air and returned to his starting point4 ,at the ,belmont ,park meet1 in ,october1 ,grahame-,white captured the international speed prize with his #ajj-;horse-power ,bleriot monoplane1 and finished second in the race around the ,statue of ,liberty1 being beaten by only #dc seconds4 ,,louis ,,paulhan4 ,,louis ,,paulhan was1 in ,january1 #aiji1 a mechanic in ,mourmelon1 ,france1 earning the good wages in that country of #ae per week4 ,he became an aviator1 making his first flight on ,july #aj1 #aiji1 of #a miles4 ,five days later he flew over #dj miles1 remaining in the air #a hour #ag minutes1 and rising to an altitude of #ceg feet1 then the world's record4 ,he flew constantly in public through the remainder of #aiji1 winning many prizes and breaking and making records4 ,in ,january1 #aiaj1 he was the most prominent aviator at the ,los ,angeles meet1 and there made a new world's record for altitude1 #d1aff feet4 ,within the #ac months and #c weeks 7up to ,october #a1 #aiaj7 that he has been flying1 he has won over #ajj1jjj in prizes1 besides receiving many handsome fees for other flights and for instruction to pupils4 ,,clifford ,b4 ,,harmon4 ,,clifford ,b4 ,,harmon has the double distinction of being not only the foremost amateur aviator of ,america1 but his feats have also at times excelled those of the professional airmen4 ,on ,july #b1 #aiaj1 ,mr4 ,harmon made a continuous flight of more than #b hours1 breaking all ,american records1 and this he held for several months4 ,mr4 ,harmon's first experience in the air was as a balloonist1 and in this capacity he held the duration record of #dh hours #bf minutes for a year4 ,on this same voyage1 at the ,st4 ,louis ,centennial1 he made a new record in ,america for altitude attained1 #bd1djj feet4 ,at the ,los ,angeles aviation meet1 in ,january1 #aiaj1 where he went with his balloon ,new ,york1 he met ,paulhan1 and became his pupil4 ,at that meet ,paulhan made a new world's record for altitude with a ,farman biplane1 and this machine ,mr4 ,harmon bought1 and brought to ,mineola1 ,l4 ,i41 where he practised assiduously1 crowning his minor achievements by flying from there across ,long ,island ,sound to ,greenwich1 ,conn4 ,at the ,boston-,harvard aviation meet1 in ,september1 #aiaj1 ,mr4 ,harmon won every prize offered to amateur contestants4 ,,walter ,,brookins4 ,,walter ,,brookins is one of the youngest of noted aviators4 ,he was born in ,dayton1 ,ohio1 in #ahij1 and went to school to ,miss ,katherine ,wright1 sister of the ,wright brothers4 ,young ,walter was greatly interested in the experiments made by the ,wrights1 and ,orville one day promised him that when he grew up they would build a flying machine for him4 ,brookins appeared at ,dayton in the early part of #aiaj1 after several years' absence1 during which he had grown up1 and demanded the promised flying machine4 ,the ,wrights met the demand1 and developed ,brookins into one of the most successful ,american aviators4 ,brookins's first leap into prominence was at the ,indianapolis meet1 in ,june1 #aiaj1 where he made a new world's record for altitude1 #d1hjc feet4 ,this being beaten soon after in ,europe1 by ,j4 ,armstrong ,drexel1 with #f1fjj feet1 ,brookins attempted1 at ,atlantic ,city1 in ,september1 to excel ,drexel's record1 and rose to a height of #f1age feet1 being forced to come down by the missing of his motor4 ,on ,september #bi1 #aiaj1 he left ,chicago for ,springfield1 ,ill4 ,he made two stops on the way for repairs and fuel1 and reached ,springfield in #g hours #i minutes elapsed time4 ,his actual time in the air was #e hours #dg minutes4 ,the air-line distance between the two cities is #ahg miles1 but as ,brookins flew in the face of a wind blowing #aj miles an hour1 he actually travelled #bej miles4 ,during the journey ,brookins made a new cross-country record for ,america in a continuous flight for #b hours #ch minutes4 ,,john ,b4 ,,moisant4 ,,john ,b4 ,,moisant is an architect of ,chicago1 born there of ,spanish parentage in #ahhc4 ,becoming interested in aviation1 he went to ,france in #aiji1 and began the construction of two aeroplanes1 one of them entirely of metal4 ,he started to learn to fly on a ,bleriot machine1 and one day took one of his mechanicians aboard and started for ,london4 ,the mechanician had never before been up in an aeroplane4 ,after battling with storms and repairing consequent accidents to his machine1 ,moisant landed his passenger in ,london three weeks after the start4 ,it was the first trip between the two cities for an aeroplane carrying a passenger1 and although ,moisant failed to win the prize which had been offered for such a feat1 he received a great ovation1 and a special medal was struck for him4 ,at the ,belmont ,park meet1 in ,october1 #aiaj1 ,moisant1 after wrecking his own machine in a gale1 climbed into ,leblanc's ,bleriot1 which had been secured for him but a few minutes before1 and made the trip around the ,statue of ,liberty in ,new ,york ,bay and returned to the ,park in #cd minutes #ch seconds4 ,as the distance is over #cd miles1 the speed was nearly a mile a minute4 ,this feat won for him1 and for ,america1 the grand prize of the meet--#aj1jjj4 ,j4 ,,armstrong ,,drexel4 ,j4 ,,armstrong ,,drexel is a native of ,philadelphia4 ,he was taught to fly a ,bleriot machine at ,pau by ,grahame-,white1 and he has frequently surpassed his instructor in contests where both took part4 ,at the ,english meets in #aiaj he won many of the prizes1 being excelled in this respect only by ,leon ,morane4 ,at ,lanark1 ,scotland1 he established a new world's record for altitude1 #f1fjj feet4 ,at the ,belmont ,park meet he passed his former record with an altitude of #g1ahe feet1 making this the ,american record1 though it had been excelled in ,europe4 ,at ,philadelphia1 ,november #bc1 #aiaj1 he reached an altitude of #i1igj feet1 according to the recording barometer he carried1 thus making a new world's record4 ,this record was disputed by the ,aero ,club1 and it may be reduced4 ,a millionaire1 he flies for sheer love of the sport4 ,,ralph ,,johnstone4 ,,ralph ,,johnstone was born in ,kansas ,city1 ,mo41 in #ahhj4 ,he became an expert bicycle rider1 and travelled extensively in many countries giving exhibitions of trick bicycle riding1 including the feat known as 8looping the loop40 ,he joined the staff of the ,wright ,brothers' aviators in ,april1 #aiaj1 and speedily became one of the most skilful aeroplane operators4 ,he made a specialty of altitude flying1 breaking his former records day after day1 and finally1 at the ,international ,aviation ,meet at ,belmont ,park1 ,l4 ,i41 in ,october1 #aiaj1 he made a new world's altitude record of #i1gad feet1 surpassing the previous record of #i1aba feet made by ,wynmalen at ,mourmelon1 on ,october #ast4 ,johnstone was instantly killed at ,denver1 ,col41 on ,november #ad1 #aiaj1 by a fall with his machine owing to the breaking of one of the wings at a height of #hjj feet4 ,chapter ,,xix4 ,,chronicle ,,of ,,aviation ,,achievements4 ,how feeble the start1 and how wondrously rapid the growth of the art of flying6 ,nothing can better convey a full idea of its beginnings and its progress than the recorded facts as given below4 ,and these facts show beyond dispute that the credit of laying the foundation for every accomplishment in the entire record must be largely due to the men whose names stand alone for years as the only aeroplanists in the world--the ,wright ,brothers4 ,after the first flight on ,december #ag1 #aijc1 the ,wrights worked steadily toward improving their machines1 and gaining a higher degree of the art of balancing1 without which even the most perfect machines would be useless4 ,most of their experimenting having been done in secret1 the open record of their results from time to time is very meagre4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that for nearly three years no one else made any records at all4 ,the next name to appear on the roll is that of ,santos-,dumont1 already famous for his remarkable achievements in building and navigating dirigible balloons1 or airships4 ,his first aeroplane flight was on ,august #bb1 #aijf1 and was but little more than rising clear of the ground4 ,it was nearly seven months later when ,delagrange added his name to the three then on the list of practical aviators4 ,in about five months ,bleriot joined them1 and in a few more weeks ,farman had placed his name on the roll4 ,it is interesting to compare the insignificant figures of the first flights of these men with their successive feats as they gain in experience4 ,up to ,october #ai1 #aijg1 the flights recorded had been made with machines of the biplane type1 but on that date1 ,r4 ,esnault-,pelterie made a few short flights with a monoplane4 ,a month later ,santos-,dumont had gone over to the monoplane type1 and the little group of seven had been divided into two classes--five biplanists and two monoplanists4 ,on ,march #bi1 #aijh1 ,delagrange started a new column in the record book by taking a passenger up with him1 in this case1 ,farman4 ,they flew only #dec feet1 but it was the beginning of passenger carrying4 ,during the first six months of #aijh only two more names were added to the roll--,baldwin and ,mc,curdy--both on the biplane side4 ,on ,july #d1 #aijh1 ,curtiss comes into the circle with his first recorded flight1 in which he used a biplane of his own construction4 ,the same day in ,france1 ,bleriot changed to the ranks of the monoplane men1 with a flight measured in miles1 instead of in feet4 ,two days later1 ,farman advanced his distance record from #a4bd miles to #ab4b miles1 and his speed record from about #ba miles an hour to nearly #ci miles an hour4 ,in two days more1 ,delagrange had taken up the first woman passenger ever carried on an aeroplane2 and a month later1 ,captain ,l4 ,f4 ,ferber had made his first flights in public1 and added his name to the growing legion of the biplanists4 ,in the latter part of #aijh1 the ,wrights seem to take possession of the record--,orville in ,america1 and ,wilbur in ,europe--surpassing their own previous feats as well as those of others4 ,bleriot and ,farman also steadily advance their performances to a more distinguished level4 ,the record for #aiji starts off with three new names--,moore-,brabazon1 and ,legagneux in ,france1 and ,cody in ,england4 ,richardson1 ,count de ,lambert1 ,calderara1 ,latham1 ,tissandier1 ,rougier1 join the ranks of the aviators before the year is half gone1 and a few days later ,sommer and ,paulhan add their names4 ,of these only ,latham flies the monoplane type of machine1 but at the ,rheims tournament ,delagrange appears as a monoplanist1 increasing the little group to four2 but1 with ,le ,blon added later1 they perform some of the most remarkable feats on record4 ,the contest at ,rheims in ,august is a succession of record-breaking and record-making achievements4 ,but it is at ,blackpool and ,doncaster that the most distinct progress of the year is marked1 by the daring flights of ,le ,blon and ,latham in fierce gales4 ,spectators openly charged these men with foolhardiness1 but it was of the first importance that it should be demonstrated that these delicately built machines can be handled safely in the most turbulent weather2 and the fact that it has been done successfully will inspire every other aviator with a greater degree of confidence in his ability to control his machine in whatever untoward circumstances he may be placed4 ,and such confidence is by far the largest element in safe and successful flying4 ,,notable ,,aviation ,,records ,,to ,,close ,,of #aiaj ,december #ag1 #aijc--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,kitty ,hawk1 ,n4 ,c41 makes the first successful flight by man with power-propelled machine1 a distance of #heb feet1 in #ei seconds4 ,november #i1 #aijd--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies #c miles in #d minutes and #cj seconds4 7,he and ,orville made upward of #ajj unrecorded flights in that year47 ,september #bf1 #aije--,wilbur ,wright with biplane 8,white ,flier10 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies #aa miles in #ah minutes and #i seconds4 ,september #bi1 #aije--,orville ,wright1 with 8,white ,flier10 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies #ab miles in #ai minutes and #ee seconds4 ,october #c1 #aije--,wilbur ,wright1 with 8,white ,flier0 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies #ae miles in #be minutes and #e seconds4 ,october #d1 #aije--,orville ,wright with biplane 8,white ,flier10 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies #ba miles in #cc minutes and #ag seconds4 ,october #e1 #aije--,wilbur ,wright with 8,white ,flier10 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies #bd miles in #ch minutes4 7,he made many unrecorded flights in that year47 ,august #bb1 #aijf--;,a4 ,santos-,dumont with biplane at ,bagatelle1 ,france1 made his first public flight with an aeroplane1 hardly more than rising clear of the ground4 ,september #ad1 #aijf--,santos-,dumont with biplane1 at ,bagatelle1 flies for #h seconds4 ,illustration3 ,santos-,dumont flying at ,bagatelle in his cellular biplane4 ,october #bd1 #aijf--,santos-,dumont with biplane1 at ,bagatelle1 flies #afj feet in #d seconds4 ,november #ac1 #aijf--,santos-,dumont with biplane1 at ,bagatelle1 flies #gbb feet in #ba seconds4 ,this feat is recorded as the first aeroplane flight made in ,europe4 ,march #af1 #aijg--,leon ,delagrange with first ,voisin biplane1 at ,bagatelle1 flies #cj feet4 ,august #f1 #aijg--,louis ,bleriot with a ,langley machine1 at ,issy1 ,france1 flies #dgj feet4 ,october #ae1 #aijg--;,henry ,farman with biplane1 at ,issy1 flies #icg feet in #ba seconds4 ,october #ai1 #aijg--,r4 ,esnault-,pelterie with monoplane1 at ,buc1 ,france1 makes short flights4 ,october #bf1 #aijg--;,farman with biplane1 at ,issy1 flies #b1ebi feet in a half circle1 in #eb seconds4 ,november #ag1 #aijg--,santos-,dumont with biplane1 at ,issy1 makes several short flights1 the longest being about #ejj feet4 ,november #ba1 #aijg--,santos-,dumont with monoplane at ,bagatelle1 makes several short flights1 the longest being about #djj feet4 ,january #ac1 #aijh--;,farman with biplane1 at ,issy1 makes the first flight in a circular course--#c1bgi feet in #a minute and #bh seconds4 ,march #ab1 #aijh--;,f4 ,w4 ,baldwin with biplane 8,red ,wing10 at ,hammondsport1 ,n4 ,y41 flies #cai feet4 ,march #ba1 #aijh--;,farman with biplane1 at ,issy1 flies #a4bd miles in #c minutes and #ca seconds4 ,march #bi1 #aijh--;,delagrange with biplane1 at ,ghent1 ,belgium1 makes first recorded flight with one passenger 7,farman71 #dec feet4 ,april #aa1 #aijh--;,delagrange with biplane at ,issy1 flies #b4dc miles in #f minutes and #cj seconds1 winning the ,archdeacon cup4 ,may #ah1 #aijh--;,j4 ,a4 ,d4 ,mc,curdy with biplane 8,white ,wing0 at ,hammondsport1 flies #fjj feet4 ,may #bg1 #aijh--;,delagrange with biplane1 at ,rome1 in the presence of the ,king of ,italy1 flies #g4i miles in #ae minutes and #be seconds4 ,illustration3 ,the early ,voisin biplane flown by ,farman at ,issy4 ,may #cj1 #aijh--;,farman with biplane1 at ,ghent1 flies #j4gg miles with one passenger 7,mr4 ,archdeacon74 ,june #h1 #aijh--;,esnault-,pelterie with monoplane1 at ,buc1 flies #j4ge miles1 reaching an altitude of #ajj feet4 ,june #bb1 #aijh--;,delagrange with biplane1 at ,milan1 ,italy1 flies #aj4e miles in #af minutes and #cj seconds4 ,july #d1 #aijh--;,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss with biplane1 at ,hammondsport1 flies #e1jij feet1 in #a minute and #db seconds1 winning ,scientific ,american cup4 ,illustration3 ,the 8,june ,bug0 flown by ,curtiss winning the ,scientific ,american cup1 ,july #d1 #aijh4 ,july #d1 #aijh--;,bleriot with monoplane1 at ,issy1 flies #c4g miles in #e minutes and #dg seconds1 making several circles4 ,july #f1 #aijh--;,farman in biplane1 at ,ghent1 flies #ab4b miles in #ai minutes and #c seconds1 winning the ,armengand prize4 ,july #h1 #aijh--;,delagrange with biplane1 at ,turin1 ,italy1 flies #ejj feet with the first woman passenger ever carried on an aeroplane--,mrs4 ,peltier4 ,august #i1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,le ,mans1 ,france1 makes several short flights to prove the ease of control of his machine4 ,august #h1 #aijh--,l4 ,f4 ,ferber with biplane1 at ,issy1 makes first trial flights4 ,september #f1 #aijh--;,delagrange with biplane1 at ,issy1 flies #ae4b miles in #bi minutes and #eb seconds1 beating existing ,french records4 ,september #h1 #aijh--,orville ,wright with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 ,va41 flies #dj miles in #a hour and #b minutes1 rising to #ajj feet4 ,september #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #aijh--,orville ,wright with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 makes several flights1 increasing in duration from #eg minutes to #a hour ten minutes and #bd seconds4 ,september #ab1 #aijh--,orville ,wright with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies #ej miles in #a hour1 #ad minutes and #bj seconds1 the longest flight on record4 ,september #ab1 #aijh--,orville ,wright with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies for #i minutes and #f seconds with one passenger 7,major ,squier71 making a new record4 ,september #ag1 #aijh--,orville ,wright with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies #c miles in #d minutes1 with ,lieutenant ,selfridge4 ,the machine fell3 ,selfridge was killed and ,wright severely injured4 ,september #ai1 #aijh--,l4 ,f4 ,ferber with biplane1 at ,issy1 flies #a1fdj feet4 ,september #ba1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,auvours1 flies #da miles in #a hour and #ca minutes4 ,september #be1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,le ,mans1 ,france1 flies #aa minutes and #ce seconds1 with one passenger1 making a new record4 ,october #c1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,le ,mans1 ,france1 flies #ee minutes and #cg seconds1 with one passenger1 making new record4 ,october #f1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,le ,mans1 flies #a hour #d minutes and #bf seconds1 with one passenger1 breaking all records4 ,october #aj1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,auvours1 flies #df miles in #a hour and #i minutes1 with one passenger 7,mr4 ,painleve74 ,also carried #ce others on different trips1 one at a time4 ,october #ba1 #aijh--;,bleriot with monoplane1 at ,toury1 ,france1 flies #d4be miles in #f minutes and #dj seconds4 ,october #cj1 #aijh--;,farman with biplane at ,chalons1 ,france1 makes a flight across country to ,rheims--#ag miles in #bj minutes4 ,october #ca1 #aijh--;,farman with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies #bc minutes1 reaching a height of #hb feet4 ,october #ca1 #aijh--;,bleriot with monoplane1 at ,toury1 flies #h4g miles to ,artenay1 in #aa minutes1 lands1 and returns to ,toury4 ,december #ah1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,auvours1 flies #fb miles in #a hour and #ed minutes1 rising to #cfj feet--making a world record4 ,december #ca1 #aijh--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,le ,mans1 flies #gf4e miles in #b hours #ah minutes and #ec seconds1 making a new world record1 and winning the ,michelin prize4 ,the distance traversed 7unofficial7 is claimed to have been actually over #ajj miles4 ,january #bh1 #aiji--,moore-,brabazon with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies #c4a miles1 in practice with a ,voison machine4 ,february #ad1 #aiji--,legagneux with biplane1 at ,mourmelon1 ,france1 flies #a4b miles1 and in a second flight of #f4b miles 7#aj kilometres71 traces two circles4 ,february #bb1 #aiji--,s4 ,f4 ,cody with biplane1 at ,aldershot1 ,england1 flies #a1bjj feet in a #ab-mile wind4 ,february #bc1 #aiji--;,j4 ,a4 ,d4 ,mc,curdy1 with the biplane 8,silver ,dart10 at ,baddeck1 ,cape ,breton1 flies #b1fdj feet4 ,february #bd1 #aiji--,mc,curdy1 with the biplane 8,silver ,dart10 at ,baddeck1 flies #d4e miles4 ,february #bd1 #aiji--,moore-,brabazon1 with biplane1 at ,issy1 flies #a4b miles1 tracing two circles4 ,february #bh1 #aiji--,moore-,brabazon made several flights at ,issy4 ,march #h1 #aiji--,mc,curdy1 with biplane 8,silver ,dart10 at ,baddeck1 made five flights1 the longest about #h miles in #aa minutes and #ae seconds4 ,march #aj1 #aiji--,santos-,dumont1 with monoplane 8,libellule10 at ,bagatelle1 flies #a1cjj feet4 ,march #aa1 #aiji--,w4 ,j4 ,richardson with a new form of aeroplane1 at ,dayton1 ,o41 flies for #ch minutes1 rising to a height of over #cjj feet4 ,march #aa1 #aiji--,mc,curdy with biplane 8,silver ,dart10 at ,baddeck1 flies #ai miles in #bb minutes4 ,march #ag1 #aiji--;,count de ,lambert 7pupil of ,wilbur ,wright7 made his first flight alone in biplane1 at ,pau1 ,france4 ,he remained in the air #c minutes4 ,march #ah1 #aiji--,mc,curdy1 with biplane 8,silver ,dart10 at ,baddeck1 flies #af miles1 completing a record of an even #a1jjj miles in the air within a period of #aj months4 ,march #ah1 #aiji--;,f4 ,w4 ,baldwin with biplane 8,silver ,dart10 at ,baddeck1 made a short flight4 ,march #bj1 #aiji--,wilbur ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,pau1 succeeds in rising from the ground without the starting device previously used4 ,he makes several flights4 ,march #bd1 #aiji--;,count de ,lambert with biplane1 at ,pau1 flies #ae4f miles in #bg minutes and #aa seconds4 ,april #aj1 #aiji--,santos-,dumont with monoplane 8,demoiselle10 at ,st4 ,cyr1 ,france1 flies #a4b miles4 ,april #ac1 #aiji--;,count de ,lambert with biplane1 at ,pau1 flies for #a minute and #cj seconds1 with one passenger 7,leon ,delagrange74 ,april #af1 #aiji--,wilbur ,wright with biplane1 at ,rome1 ,italy1 made many flights1 taking up many passengers1 one at a time4 ,april #bg1 #aiji--,legagneux with ,voisin biplane1 at ,vienna1 flies #b4e miles in #c minutes and #bf seconds4 ,april #bh1 #aiji--,lieutenant ,mario ,calderara 7pupil of ,wilbur ,wright7 with biplane1 at ,rome1 made his first public flight1 remaining in the air #aj minutes4 ,april #cj1 #aiji--,moore-,brabazon with biplane1 in ,england1 flies #d4e miles4 ,may #ad1 #aiji--,s4 ,f4 ,cody1 with the army biplane1 at ,aldershot1 flies #a mile4 ,may #ai1 #aiji--;,hubert ,latham1 with ,antoinette monoplane1 at ,chalons1 flies #a1fdj feet4 ,may #bj1 #aiji--,paul ,tissandier 7pupil of ,wilbur ,wright7 with biplane at ,pau1 flies #ce4g miles4 ,may #bc1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with biplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #c4f miles in #aj minutes and #ah seconds1 winning the ,lagatineri prize4 ,may #bc1 #aiji--;,henri ,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #ah4f miles 7#cj kilometres74 ,may #cj1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane at ,issy1 flies #h4g miles4 ,june #e1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,chalons1 flies for #a hour #g minutes and #cg seconds in wind and rain4 ,june #f1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #aj miles across country4 ,june #ab1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #cj miles in #ci minutes1 winning the ,goupy prize4 ,june #ab1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with biplane1 at ,juvissy1 makes cross country flight of #c4g miles4 ,june #ab1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #ihd feet1 with two passengers--,santos-,dumont and ,fournier4 ,june #ac #aiji--;,ferber1 with ,voisin biplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #c4a miles in #e minutes and #cj seconds4 ,june #ai1 #aiji--,santos-,dumont1 with monoplane1 at ,issy1 makes several flights4 ,july #d1 #aiji--,roger ,sommer with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies #c4ge miles on ,farman machine4 ,july #aj1 #aiji--,louis ,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,douai1 ,france1 makes his first flight--#a4be miles4 ,july #ac1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,mineola1 ,l4 ,i41 flies #a4e miles in #c minutes4 ,july #ac1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane1 at ,mondesir1 makes a flight of #bf miles across country in #dd minutes and #cj seconds4 ,july #ae1 #aiji--,paulhan with biplane1 at ,douai1 flies for #a minute and #ag seconds1 soaring to an altitude of #ceg feet4 ,july #ag1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies #af minutes and #dj seconds1 at a speed of #dj miles an hour4 ,july #ag1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,mineola1 makes #ae miles in #ba minutes1 describing circles in both directions1 as in the figure #h4 ,july #ah1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,hempstead ,plains1 ,l4 ,i41 flies #bi miles in #eb minutes and #cj seconds1 a flight exceeded only by the ,wrights1 in ,america1 and ,bleriot1 ,latham1 and ,paulhan1 in ,europe4 ,july #ah1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies for #a hour and #bc minutes1 making his first long flight4 ,july #ah1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 makes his longest flight--#a hour and #dj minutes4 ,july #ai1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,calais1 ,france1 makes his first attempt to cross the ,channel to ,dover4 ,he flies #aa miles1 and then his machine falls into the sea4 ,july #ai1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,douai1 makes a cross-country flight of #ab4a miles in #bb minutes and #ec seconds4 ,july #bj1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies #a hour and #bj minutes4 ,july #ba1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies #a hour and #bi minutes4 ,july #ba1 #aiji--;,e4 ,lefebvre1 with biplane1 at ,la ,haye1 ,france1 flies #b miles4 ,july #ba1 #aiji--,s4 ,f4 ,cody1 with biplane1 at ,aldershot1 flies #d miles4 ,july #bc1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 makes a cross-country flight to ,suippes--#dj miles in #a hour and five minutes4 ,july #bc1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,douai1 flies #dc4e miles in #a hour #ag minutes and #ai seconds4 ,july #bd1 #aiji--;,curtiss in biplane1 at ,hempstead ,plains1 flies #be miles in #eb minutes and #cj seconds1 winning the ,scientific ,american cup the second time4 ,july #be1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane1 at ,calais1 flies to ,dover1 ,england1 across the ,english ,channel--#cb miles in #cg minutes4 ,july #bg1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 flies #a hour and #ac minutes1 with one passenger1 securing acceptance of ,wright machine by ,u4 ,s4 ,government on the duration specifications4 ,july #bg1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,calais1 flies #bj miles in a second attempt to cross the ,english ,channel4 ,when near ,dover the machine fell4 ,july #bg1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies to ,vadenay and back--#be miles in #a hour #bc minutes and #cj seconds4 ,july #cj1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,fort ,myer1 established a world record with one passenger in a cross-country flight to ,shuter's ,hill and back--about #aj miles in #ad minutes and #dj seconds1 a speed of about #db miles an hour--winning a bonus of #be1jjj from the ,u4 ,s4 ,government4 ,august #a1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies #a hour #ej minutes and #cj seconds1 at an average height of #hj feet1 over a distance estimated at #gj miles1 surpassing all ,french records4 ,august #b1 #aiji--,mc,curdy1 with a new type of machine1 at ,petawawa1 makes several flights4 ,august #b1 #aiji--;,f4 ,w4 ,baldwin1 with biplane1 at ,petawawa1 makes several short flights4 ,august #b1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies to ,suippes--#i miles1 at the rate of #de miles an hour4 ,august #d1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,chalons1 in the effort to beat ,wilbur ,wright's record1 flies for #b hours #j minutes and #aj seconds 7,wright's record flight was #b hours #bj minutes and #bc seconds1 made on ,december #ca1 #aijh74 ,august #e1 #aiji--;,e4 ,bunau-,varilla1 with ,voisin biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies for #ae minutes4 ,august #f1 #aiji--,legagneux1 with biplane1 at ,stockholm1 flies with one passenger1 #c1bhj feet4 ,august #f1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,dunkerque1 ,france1 flies for #ah minutes and #bj seconds1 reaching an altitude of #bjj feet4 ,august #g1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with ,voisin biplane1 at ,dunkerque1 flies #bc miles in #cc minutes4 ,august #g1 #aiji--,sommer1 with ,voisin biplane1 at ,chalons1 flies for #b hours #bg minutes and #ae seconds1 making new world record for duration4 ,august #ac1 #aiji--;,charles ,f4 ,willard1 with biplane1 at ,hempstead ,plains1 made the longest cross-country flight on record for ,america--about #ab miles in #ai minutes and #cj seconds4 ,the breaking of his engine caused him to come down4 ,he landed without mishap4 ,august #bb1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 ,france1 flies #a hour #ai minutes and #cj seconds4 ,august #bb1 #aiji--,legagneux1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #i minutes and #ef seconds1 winning third prize for speed over course of #aj kilometres4 ,august #bb1 #aiji--,tissandier1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ah4f miles in #bi minutes4 7,he won with this record the third prize for speed over #cj kilometres47 ,august #bb1 #aiji--;,e4 ,bunau-,varilla1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #ac minutes and #cj seconds4 7,with this record he won the thirteenth prize for speed over course of #aj kilometres47 ,august #bc1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #aa minutes and #d seconds4 7,he won the tenth prize for speed over #aj kilometres47 ,august #bc1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #h minutes and #ce seconds--a speed of #db4c miles an hour--beating the record for speed over course of #aj kilometres4 ,august #bc1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ah4f miles in #ch minutes and #ab seconds1 reaching an altitude of #bie feet4 ,august #bc1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #cd4h miles in an endurance test4 ,august #be1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #hb miles in #b hours #dc minutes and #be seconds4 7,with this record he won the third prize for duration of flight47 ,august #be1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #h minutes and #dd seconds1 again reducing the time for #aj kilometres4 ,august #be1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #h minutes and #d seconds1 making a new record for speed over the course of #aj kilometres4 ,august #bf1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 in biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ai miles in #bi minutes4 7,with this record he won the tenth prize for duration of flight47 ,august #bf1 #aiji--;,count de ,lambert1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #gb miles in #a hour and #eb minutes4 7,with this record he won the fourth prize for duration of flight47 ,august #bf1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #if4e miles in #b hours #ag minutes and #ba seconds4 7,with this record he won the second prize for duration of flight47 ,august #bg1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #aab miles in #c hours #d minutes and #eg seconds4 7,this record won for him the first prize for duration of flight47 ,illustration3 ,latham flying in his ,antoinette at ,rheims4 ,to view this properly the picture should be held overhead4 ,august #bg1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies to an altitude of #ejh feet4 7,with this record he won first prize for altitude47 ,august #bg1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ca miles4 7,with this record he won the eighth prize for duration of flight47 ,august #bg1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #cg miles4 ,he won the seventh prize for distance4 ,august #bg1 #aiji--,tissandier1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #fi miles4 7,this record won for him the sixth prize for distance47 ,august #bg1 #aiji--,lefebvre1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ab4d miles in #bj minutes and #dg seconds1 exhibiting great daring and skill4 7,he was fined for 8recklessness407 ,august #bg1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #be miles in #da minutes4 7,this record won for him the ninth prize for distance flown47 ,august #bh1 #aiji--,lefebvre1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 makes a spectacular flight for #aa minutes with one passenger4 ,august #bh1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ab4d miles in #ae minutes and #ef seconds1 winning the ,gordon ,bennett cup4 ,august #bh1 #aiji--;,bleriot1 with monoplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #g minutes and #dh seconds4 7,with this record he won the first prize for speed over course of #aj kilometres47 ,august #bi1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles with two passengers1 in #aj minutes and #cj seconds1 winning a prize4 ,august #bi4 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ah4f miles in #bc minutes and #cj seconds4 7,with this record he won the first prize for speed over course of #cj kilometres47 ,august #bi1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #f4b miles in #g minutes and #ea seconds1 winning the second prize for speed over course of #aj kilometres4 ,august #bi1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 rises to a height of #ahj feet1 winning the fourth prize for altitude4 ,august #bi1 #aiji--;,e4 ,bunau-,varilla1 with biplane1 at ,rheims1 flies #ah4f miles in #ch minutes and #ca seconds4 7,with this record he won the eighth prize for speed over course of #cj kilometres47 ,august #bi1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 makes several short flights4 ,august #bi1 #aiji--,s4 ,f4 ,cody1 with biplane1 at ,aldershot1 flies #aj miles with one passenger4 ,september #d1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies for #ee minutes4 ,september #f1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,nancy1 ,france1 flies #be miles in #ce minutes4 ,he takes up a number of passengers2 one at a time4 ,september #g1 #aiji--,lefebvre1 with biplane1 at ,juvissy1 is killed by the breaking of his machine in the air after he had flown #a1hjj feet4 ,september #h1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #ag minutes with one passenger--,captain ,hildebrandt4 ,september #h1 #aiji--,s4 ,f4 ,cody1 with biplane1 at ,aldershot1 flies to ,farnborough and back--#df miles in #a hour and #c minutes4 ,this is the first recorded cross-country flight in ,england4 ,september #i1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies for #ae minutes with one passenger--,captain ,englehardt4 ,september #i1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,tournai1 ,belgium1 flies #ab4d miles in #ag minutes4 ,september #i1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 flies #ab minutes and #aj seconds1 soaring to a height of #cbh feet4 ,september #aj1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,nancy1 flies #ah miles1 accompanying troops on review4 ,september #aa1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,nancy1 flies to ,lenoncourt--#bd miles4 ,september #aa1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 flies #ca miles in #di minutes and #bd seconds1 winning the first prize for speed4 ,september #ab1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 flies #ca miles in #a hour #aj minutes and #ah seconds1 soaring to a height of #chj feet4 ,september #ab1 #aiji--;,calderara1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 flies #f4c miles with one passenger1 winning a prize4 ,september #ac1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,tournai1 flies to ,taintiguies and back in #a hour and #ce minutes4 ,september #ac1 #aiji--,santos-,dumont1 with monoplane1 at ,st4 ,cyr1 ,france1 flies #e miles in #ab minutes1 to ,buc1 to visit ,maurice ,guffroy1 on a bet of #bjj that each would be the first to visit the other4 ,september #ae1 #aiji--;,ferber1 with biplane1 at ,boulogne1 ,france1 flies to ,wimeroux--#f miles in #i minutes4 ,september #ae1 #aiji--;,calderara1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 flies #e4f miles with one passenger1 winning the ,oldofredi prize4 ,september #ag1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies for #ed minutes and #bf seconds1 rising to an altitude of #gfe feet 7estimated74 ,he afterward flew for #dg minutes and #e seconds with ,captain ,englehardt4 ,september #ag1 #aiji--,santos-,dumont1 with monoplane1 at ,st4 ,cyr1 flies #aj miles in #af minutes across country4 ,september #ag1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,ostend1 ,belgium1 flies #a4bd miles in #c minutes and #af seconds1 along the water front and out over the sea4 ,september #ah1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 establishes a world record by flying for #a hour #ce minutes and #dg seconds1 with one passenger--,captain ,englehardt4 ,september #ah1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,ostend1 flies for #a hour over sea front1 circling over the water2 winning a prize of #e1jjj4 ,september #bj1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 broke the record for high flying by reaching an altitude of #fde feet 7official measurement74 ,september #bj1 #aiji--;,calderara1 with biplane1 at ,brescia1 flies #ca miles in #ej minutes and #ea seconds1 winning the second prize for speed4 ,september #bb1 #aiji--;,captain ,ferber1 with a biplane1 at ,boulogne1 flies #a mile1 when1 his engine breaking in the air1 his machine falls and he is killed4 ,september #be1 #aiji--,wilbur ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,new ,york1 flies from ,governor's ,island around the ,statue of ,liberty4 ,september #bg1 #aiji--,latham1 in monoplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #f4e miles across country in #ac minutes4 ,september #bh1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #ca miles in #ed minutes1 soaring to an altitude of #eah feet4 ,september #bi1 #aiji--,latham in monoplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #db miles in #a hour and #aj minutes1 winning the second prize for distance4 ,september #bi1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #dh miles in #a hour and #ce minutes4 ,september #bi1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,new ,york1 makes flights about the harbor from ,governor's ,island4 ,september #cj1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 soars to a height of #ijb feet1 making a world record for altitude4 ,september #cj1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #ea miles in #a hour and #bc minutes4 ,october #a1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #hj miles in #b hours and #ch minutes1 winning the first prize for distance and speed4 ,october #b1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 makes a flight of #aj minutes' duration with the ,crown ,prince of ,germany4 ,october #c1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #fb miles in #a hour and #dj minutes1 winning the third prize for distance and speed4 ,october #d1 #aiji--,orville ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,berlin1 soared to an altitude of #a1fjj feet1 making a world record4 ,october #d1 #aiji--,wilbur ,wright1 with biplane1 at ,new ,york1 flies from ,governor's ,island to ,grant's ,tomb and back--#ba miles in #cc minutes and #cc seconds4 ,october #aj1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 makes several flights at the ,centennial celebration4 ,october #aj1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,pt4 ,aviation1 flies #ba4e miles in #ba minutes and #dh seconds4 ,october #ab1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,pt4 ,aviation1 flies #c4f miles in #f minutes and #aa seconds1 winning the prize for slowest flight4 ,october #af1 #aiji--;,curtiss1 with biplane1 at ,chicago1 makes exhibition flights at #de miles per hour4 ,october #af1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,doncaster1 ,england1 flies #i4g miles in #ba minutes and #de seconds1 making the record for ,great ,britain4 ,october #af1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with monoplane1 at ,doncaster1 flies #e4ge miles in #aa minutes and #be seconds4 ,october #af1 #aiji--;,cody1 with biplane1 at ,doncaster1 flies #c1jjj feet1 when his machine is wrecked1 and he is injured4 ,october #ah1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,blackpool1 ,england1 flies #ad miles in #be minutes and #ec seconds4 ,october #ah1 #aiji--,rougier1 with biplane1 at ,blackpool1 flies #ag4g miles in #bd minutes and #dc seconds1 winning the second prize4 ,october #ah1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,blackpool1 flies #ad miles in #bc minutes4 ,october #ah1 #aiji--,le ,blon1 with monoplane1 at ,doncaster1 flies #bb miles in #cj minutes1 in a rainstorm1 winning the ,bradford cup4 ,october #ah1 #aiji--;,count de ,lambert1 with biplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #ca miles to the ,eiffel ,tower in ,paris1 and back1 in #di minutes and #ci seconds4 ,october #ai1 #aiji--,le ,blon1 with monoplane1 at ,doncaster1 flies #ae miles in a gale4 ,october #ai1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,blackpool1 flies #ae4g miles in #cb minutes and #ah seconds1 winning the third prize4 ,october #bj1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,blackpool1 flies #dg miles in #a hour1 #cb minutes1 and #af seconds1 winning the first prize--#aj1jjj4 ,october #bj1 #aiji--,le ,blon1 with monoplane1 at ,doncaster1 makes a spectacular flight in a fierce gale4 ,october #ba1 #aiji--;,count de ,lambert1 with biplane1 at ,pt4 ,aviation1 flies #a4be miles in #a minute and #eg seconds1 winning prize of #c1jjj for speed4 ,october #bb1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,blackpool1 flies in a squally gale blowing from #cj to #ej miles an hour4 ,when headed into the wind the machine moved backward in relation to points on the ground4 ,going before the wind1 it passed points on the ground at a speed of nearly #ajj miles an hour4 ,this flight1 twice around the course1 is the most difficult feat accomplished by any aviator up to this date4 ,october #bf1 #aiji--,sommer1 with biplane1 at ,doncaster1 flies #bi4g miles in #dd minutes and #ec seconds1 winning the ,whitworth cup4 ,october #bf1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with monoplane1 at ,doncaster1 flies #f miles in #g minutes and #cf seconds--a speed of over #ej miles an hour4 ,october #cj1 #aiji--,moore-,brabazon1 with biplane1 at ,shell ,beach1 ,england1 wins a prize of #e1jjj for flight with a ,british machine4 ,november #c1 #aiji--;,farman1 with biplane1 at ,mourmelon1 ,france1 flies #add miles in #d hours #f minutes and #be seconds1 far surpassing his previous best record of #aab miles in #c hours #d minutes and #eg seconds1 made at ,rheims1 and winning the ,michelin cup for duration and distance4 ,november #ai1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,mourmelon1 broke the record for height by ascending to #a1agj feet1 in a wind blowing from #bj to #be miles an hour4 ,november #ai1 #aiji--,latham1 with ,antoinette monoplane1 surpassed ,paulhan's record by rising to an altitude of #a1ccc feet4 ,november #bj1 #aiji--,paulhan1 with biplane1 at ,mourmelon1 flies to ,chalons and back--#cg miles in #ee minutes4 ,december #a1 #aiji--,latham1 with monoplane1 at ,mourmelon1 soars to #a1ejj feet in a #dj-mile gale4 ,december #cj1 #aiji--;,delagrange1 with monoplane1 at ,juvissy1 flies #abd miles in #b hours and #cb minutes--an average speed of #dh4i miles per hour1 surpassing all previous records4 ,december #ca1 #aiji--;,farman at ,chartres1 ,france1 flies to ,orleans--#db miles in #ej minutes4 ,december #ca1 #aiji--,maurice ,farman1 at ,mourmelon1 defending his brother ,henry's record against competing aviators1 flies #ajj miles in #b hours and #de minutes1 without a fault4 ,the ,michelin cup remains in his brother's possession4 ,january #g1 #aiaj--,latham1 with ,antoinette monoplane1 at ,chalons1 rises to height of #c1bha feet 7world's record74 ,january #aj1 #aiaj--,opening of aviation meet at ,los ,angeles1 ,cal4 ,january #ab1 #aiaj--,paulhan1 ,farman biplane1 at ,los ,angeles1 rises to height of #d1adf feet4 7,world's record47 ,january #ag1 #aiaj--,paulhan1 ,farman biplane1 at ,los ,angeles1 flies #ge miles in #a hour #eh minutes and #bg seconds4 ,february #g1 #aiaj--;,first flight in ,south ,america4 ,bregi1 ,voisin biplane1 makes two flights near ,buenos ,aires4 ,february #g1 #aiaj--;,duray1 with ,farman biplane1 at ,heliopolis1 ,egypt1 flies #e kilometres in #d minutes and #ab seconds4 7,world's record47 ,april #h1 #aiaj--;,d4 ,kinet1 with ,farman biplane1 at ,mourmelon1 flies for #b hours #ai minutes and #d seconds with passenger1 covering #ajb miles4 7,world's record for passenger flight47 ,april #aa1 #aiaj--;,e4 ,jeannin1 with ,farman biplane1 flies #b hours #a minute and #ee seconds1 at ,johannisthal4 7,german record47 ,april #ae1 #aiaj--,opening of ,nice meeting4 ,april #ag1 #aiaj--,paulhan1 with ,farman biplane1 flies from ,chevilly to ,arcis-sur-,aube1 #aah miles4 7,record cross-country flight47 ,april #bc1 #aiaj--;,grahame-,white1 with ,farman biplane1 flies from ,park ,royal1 ,london1 to ,rugby 7#hc miles7 in #b hours and #a minute4 ,starting again in #ee minutes1 flies to ,whittington in #a hour and #e minutes4 ,april #bg1 #aiaj--,paulhan1 with ,farman biplane1 starts from ,hendon1 ,london1 at #e4ca ,p4 ,m41 flies within #e mile circle and continues to ,lichfield1 arriving #h4aj ,p4 ,m4 7#aag miles74 ,grahame-,white starts from ,wormwood ,scrubs1 ,london1 at #f4bi ,p4 ,m41 flies to ,roade1 arriving #g4ee ,p4 ,m4 7#fj miles74 ,april #bh1 #aiaj--,paulhan flies from ,lichfield to within #e miles of ,manchester1 winning the #aj1jjj ,daily ,mail prize4 ,april #cj1 #aiaj--,opening of meeting at ,tours1 ,france4 ,may #a1 #aiaj--,opening of flying-week at ,barcelona4 ,may #c1 #aiaj--,wiencziers1 with ,antoinette monoplane1 twice circles the ,strassburg cathedral4 ,may #f1 #aiaj--,olieslagers1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 makes flight of #ah minutes and #bj seconds above the sea at ,barcelona1 and over the fortress of ,monjuich4 ,may #ac1 #aiaj--;,engelhardt1 with ,wright biplane1 at ,berlin1 flies #b hours #ba minutes and #de seconds4 7,german record47 ,may #ae1 #aiaj--,kinet1 with ,farman biplane1 flies #b hours and #ea minutes with a passenger at ,mourmelon1 making the world's record for passenger flight4 ,may #ae1 #aiaj--,olieslagers1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 flies #ae miles over the sea at ,genoa4 ,may #ba1 #aiaj--,m4 de ,lesseps1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 flies from ,calais to ,dover in #cg minutes1 winning #ejj prize offered by ,m4 ,m4 ,ruinart4 ,may #bh1 #aiaj--;,g4 ,curtiss1 with ,curtiss biplane1 starts from ,albany at #g4jc ,a4 ,m41 flies to ,poughkeepsie in #a hour and #ba minutes 7#gj miles74 ,leaves ,poughkeepsie at #i4bd ,a4 ,m41 flies to ,spuyten ,duyvil in #a hour and #aa minutes 7#fg miles74 ,rises again at #aa4de1 flies over ,new ,york1 landing on ,governor's ,island at #ab4jc ,p4 ,m4 ,wins prize of #aj1jjj given by the ,new ,york ,world4 ,june #b1 #aiaj--,rolls1 with ,short-,wright biplane1 leaves ,dover at #f4cj ,p4 ,m41 crosses ,channel to ,french coast near ,calais 7#g4ae ,p4 ,m471 without landing re-crosses ,channel to ,dover1 flies over harbor1 circles ,dover ,castle1 and lands at #h4aj ,p4 ,m4 ,wins second ,ruinart prize of #hj4 ,june #ad1 #aiaj--;,brookins1 with ,wright biplane1 at ,indianapolis1 reaches height of #d1chj feet4 7,world's record47 ,june #be1 #aiaj--;,in ,italian ,parliament #be million lire 7about #e1jjj1jjj7 voted for aviation in the extraordinary estimates of the ,ministry of ,war4 ,june #bf1 #aiaj--;,dickson1 with ,farman biplane1 at ,rouen1 wins total distance prize of #b1jjj and the #djj for longest unbroken flight4 ,distance flown1 #dff miles4 ,june #bg1 #aiaj--,m4 de ,lesseps1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 flies over ,montreal for #di minutes1 covering about #cj miles at height generally of #b1jjj feet4 ,july #f1 #aiaj--;,first ,german military aeroplane makes maiden cross-country flight over ,doeberitz4 ,july #bf1 #aiaj--,m4 de ,lesseps1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 starting from ,ile de ,gros ,bois in the ,st4 ,lawrence1 makes trip of #dj miles in #cg minutes4 ,august #a1 #aiaj--;,henry ,farman takes up three passengers at ,mourmelon for #a hour and #d minutes4 ,august #e1 #aiaj--;,chavez1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 attains height of #e1gej feet4 ,world's record4 ,august #g1 #aiaj--,lieutenants ,cammerman and ,villerme fly together from ,mourmelon to ,nancy1 #abe miles in #b hours1 with a ,farman biplane4 ,august #aa1 #aiaj--;,drexel1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 at ,lanark1 beats the world's record for height1 rising #f1fjj feet4 ,august #bg1 #aiaj--;,first wireless telegram from a flying aeroplane1 sent by ,mc,curdy from a ,curtiss machine in the air1 at ,atlantic ,city1 ,n4 ,j4 ,the sending key was attached to the steering wheel4 ,august #bh1 #aiaj--;,dufaux1 with biplane constructed by himself1 flies over ,lake ,geneva1 wins prize of #bjj offered by ,swiss ,aero ,club4 ,august #bi1 #aiaj--;,breguet1 with ,breguet monoplane1 makes a flight at ,lille1 ,france1 carrying five passengers1 establishing world's record for passenger flight4 ,august #bi1 #aiaj--,morane1 with ,bleriot monoplane1 at ,havre1 beats world's altitude record1 reaches height of #g1aff feet4 ,september #b1 #aiaj--,mlle4 ,hlne ,dutrieux flies with a passenger from ,ostend to ,bruges1 ,belgium1 and back to ,ostend4 ,at ,bruges she circled around the famous belfry at a height of #a1cjj feet1 the chimes pealing in honor of the feat--the most wonderful flight so far accomplished by a woman4 ,september #c1 #aiaj--,m4 ,bielovucci lands at ,bordeaux1 ,france1 having made the trip from ,paris1 #cff miles1 inside of #dh hours4 ,the actual time in the air was #g hours #f minutes4 ,strong head winds blew him backward1 forcing a landing three times on the way4 ,this is the fourth longest cross-country flight on record1 and makes the world's record for sustained speed over a long distance4 ,illustration3 ,mlle4 ,hlne ,dutrieux4 ,september #d1 #aiaj--,morane1 at ,havre1 rises to height of #h1dfi feet4 ,september #g1 #aiaj--,weyman1 with ,farman biplane1 flies from ,buc in attempt to reach the top of the ,puy-de-,dme1 lands at ,volvic1 #e miles from his destination4 ,establishes world's record for flight with passenger1 having covered #aci miles without landing4 ,september #bh1 #aiaj--;,chavez crosses the ,alps on a ,bleriot monoplane from ,brigue1 in ,switzerland1 to ,domodossola1 in ,italy1 flying over the ,simplon ,pass4 ,october #a1 #aiaj--;,henri ,wynmalen1 of ,holland1 with a biplane at ,mourmelon1 ,france1 rises to a height of #i1aba feet1 making a new world's record for altitude4 ,october #d1 #aiaj--,maurice ,tabuteau recrossed the ,pyrenees1 in his return trip from ,san ,sebastian to ,biarritz1 without accident or marked incident4 ,october #e1 #aiaj--,leon ,morane1 the winner of nearly all the contests in the ,english meets for #aiaj1 fell with his monoplane at ,boissy ,st4 ,leger1 during a contest for the ,michelin cup1 and was seriously injured4 ,october #h1 #aiaj--;,archibald ,hoxsey1 with a biplane1 makes the longest continuous aeroplane flight recorded in ,america1 between ,springfield1 ,ill41 and ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4--#ajd miles4 ,october #ab1 #aiaj--;,alfred ,leblanc1 with monoplane1 at ,st4 ,louis1 flies #ac miles in #aj minutes1 a speed of #gh miles per hour4 ,it was not officially recorded1 as a part of the distance was outside of the prescribed course4 ,october #ad1 #aiaj--;,grahame-,white flies from the ,bennings ,race ,track #f miles across the ,potomac ,river to the ,capitol at ,washington1 circles the dome1 and then circles the ,washington ,monument1 and finally alights with precision in ,executive ,street1 between the ,executive ,offices and the building of the ,state1 ,army1 and ,navy ,departments4 ,after a brief call1 he rose from the narrow street--but #bj feet wider than his biplane--and returned to the race track without untoward incident4 ,october #af1 #aiaj--,wynmalen flies from ,paris to ,brussels1 and returns1 with one passenger1 within the elapsed time of #bg hours #ej minutes1 winning two prizes amounting to #ce1jjj4 ,the distance is #cej miles1 and the actual time in the air was #ae hours #ch minutes4 ,october #be1 #aiaj--;,j4 ,armstrong ,drexel1 with monoplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 ,l4 ,i41 rises to height of #g1aje feet1 breaking previous records1 and surpassing his own record of #f1fjj feet1 made at ,lanark1 ,scotland4 ,october #bf1 #aiaj--,ralph ,johnstone1 in biplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 rises to the height of #g1cac feet1 through sleet and snow1 breaking the new ,american record made by ,drexel the day before4 ,october #bg1 #aiaj--;,johnstone1 with biplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 rises to height of #h1dga feet1 surpassing his own record of the day before and establishing a new ,american record4 ,the feat was performed in a gale blowing nearly #fj miles per hour1 and the aviator was carried #ee miles away from his starting point before he landed4 ,october #bh1 #aiaj--,tabuteau1 with biplane1 at ,etampes1 ,france1 makes a new world's endurance record of #f hours' continuous flight1 covering a distance of #bhi miles4 ,october #bi1 #aiaj--;,grahame-,white1 with monoplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 wins the ,international speed race over the distance of #fb4a miles1 in #a hour #a minute #d seconds4 ,october #bi1 #aiaj--,leblanc1 with monoplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 makes a new world's record for speed1 reaching #gj miles per hour during the ,international speed race4 ,through a lack of fuel he lost the race to ,grahame-,white1 after covering #ei miles in #eb minutes4 ,october #cj1 #aiaj--;,john ,b4 ,moisant1 with monoplane1 wins the race from ,belmont ,park around the ,statue of ,liberty in ,new ,york harbor1 and the prize of #aj1jjj4 ,the distance is about #cd miles1 and ,moisant covered it in #cd minutes #ci seconds4 ,october #cj1 #aiaj--;,james ,radley1 with monoplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 wins the cross-country flight of #bj miles in #bj minutes #e seconds4 ,october #ca1 #aiaj--;,johnstone1 with biplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 rises to a height of #i1gad feet1 breaking the previous world's record1 made by ,wynmalen on ,october #a4 ,october #ca1 #aiaj--;,drexel1 with monoplane1 racing for altitude with ,johnstone1 reaches a height of #h1cgj feet4 ,october #ca1 #aiaj--,moisant1 with monoplane1 at ,belmont ,park1 wins the two-hour distance race with a record of #hd miles4 ,his next nearest competitor covered but #eg miles4 ,november #ad1 #aiaj--;,eugene ,ely1 with biplane1 flew from a staging on the deck of the ,u4 ,s4 ,cruiser ,birmingham #h miles to the shore near the mouth of ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,the flight was intended to end at the ,norfolk ,navy ,yard1 but an accident to the propeller at starting forced ,ely to make directly for the shore4 ,november #ag1 #aiaj--,ralph ,johnstone1 holder of the world's altitude record of #i1gad feet1 was killed at ,denver1 ,col41 by a fall with his biplane4 ,november #bc1 #aiaj--;,drexel1 at ,philadelphia1 reaches an altitude of #i1igj feet1 passing all other altitude records4 ,coming down he made a straight glide of seven miles4 ,december #b1 #aiaj--;,charles ,k4 ,hamilton1 at ,memphis1 ,tenn41 flies #d miles in #c minutes #a second1 a speed of #gi4b miles per hour4 ,this is a new world's record4 ,chapter ,,xx4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,aeronautical ,,terms4 ,every development in human progress is marked by a concurrent development in language4 ,to express the new ideas1 new words appear1 or new meanings are given to words already in use4 ,as yet1 the vocabulary of aeronautics is in the same constructive and incomplete state as is the science to which it attempts to give voice1 and the utmost that can be done at this time is to record such words and special meanings as are in use in the immediate present4 ,a ,adjusting ,plane--,a small plane1 or surface1 at the outer end of a wing1 by which the lateral 7from side to side7 balance of an aeroplane is adjusted4 ,it is not connected with the controlling mechanism1 as are the ailerons--nor with any automatic device4 ,aerodrome--,a term used by ,professor ,langley as a better name for the aeroplane2 but latterly it has been applied to the buildings in which airships are housed1 and also in a few instances1 as a name for the course laid out for aeronautical contests4 ,aerofoil--,another name for the aeroplane1 suggested as more accurate1 considering that the surfaces are not true planes4 ,aeronef--,another name for an aeroplane4 ,aeroplane--,the type of flying machine which is supported in the air by a spread of surfaces or planes1 formerly flat1 and therefore truly 8plane10 but of late more or less curved4 ,even though not absolutely accurate1 this term has resisted displacement by any other4 ,aerostat--,a free balloon afloat in the air4 ,aeronate--,a captive balloon4 ,aileron--,a small movable plane at the wing-tips1 or hinged between the main planes1 usually at their outer ends1 operated by the aviator to restore the lateral balance of the machine when disturbed4 ,air-speed--,the speed of aircraft as related to the air in which they are moving2 as distinguished from land-speed 7which see74 ,alighting ,gear--,devices on the under side of the aeroplane to take up the jar of landing after flight1 and at the same time to check the forward motion at that moment4 ,angle of ,entry--,the angle made by the tangent to the curve of the aeroplane surface at its forward edge1 with the direction1 or line1 of travel4 ,angle of ,incidence--,the angle made by the chord of the arc of a curved 8plane10 or by the line of a flat plane1 with the line of travel4 ,illustration ,angle of ,trail--,the angle made by the tangent to the rear edge of a curved plane with the line of travel4 ,apteroid--,a form resembling the 8short and broad0 type of the wings of certain birds--as distinguished from the pterygoid 7which see74 ,arc--,any part of a circle1 or other curved line4 ,arch--,the curve formed by bending the wings downward at the tips1 leaving them higher at the centre of the machine4 ,aspect--,the view of the top of an aeroplane as it appears when looked down upon from above4 ,aspiration--,the 7hitherto7 unexplained tendency of a curved surface--convex side upward--to rise and advance when a stream of air blows against its forward edge and across the top4 ,attitude--,the position of a plane as related to the line of its travel2 usually expressed by the angle of incidence4 ,automatic ,stability--,that stability which is preserved by self-acting1 or self-adjusting1 devices which are not under the control of the operator1 nor a fixed part of the machine1 as are the adjusting planes4 ,aviation--,flying by means of power-propelled machines which are not buoyed up in the air1 as with gas bags4 ,aviator--,the operator1 driver1 or pilot of an aeroplane4 ,b ,balance--,equilibrium maintained by the controlling mechanism1 or by the automatic action of balancing-surfaces--as distinguished from the equilibrium preserved by stabilizing surfaces4 ,balancing ,plane--,the surface which is employed either intentionally1 or automatically1 to restore a disturbed balance4 ,biplane--,the type of aeroplane which has two main supporting surfaces or planes1 placed one above the other4 ,body--,the central structure of an aeroplane1 containing the machinery and the passenger space--as distinguished from the wings1 or planes1 and the tail4 ,brace--,a construction member of the framing of aircraft which resists a compression strain in a diagonal direction--as distinguished from a 8stay10 or 8diagonal10 which supports a pulling strain2 also from a strut which supports a compression strain in a vertical direction4 ,c ,camber--,the distance from the chord of the curve of a surface to the highest point of that curve1 measured at right angles to the chord4 ,caster1 or ,castor1 ,wheel--,a wheel mounted on an upright pivoted shaft placed forward of its axle1 so that it swivels automatically to assume the line of travel of an aeroplane when landing3 used in the alighting gear4 ,to be distinguished from a fixed wheel1 which does not swivel4 ,cell--,a structure with enclosing sides--similar to a box without top or bottom stood upon one side4 ,the vertical walls of the cell give lateral stability1 and its horizontal walls fore-and-aft stability4 ,illustration3 ,the first ,santos-,dumont biplane1 constructed of cells4 ,centre of ,gravity--,that point of a body where its weight centres4 ,if this point is supported1 the body rests in exact balance4 ,centre of ,lift--,the one point at which the lifting forces of the flying planes might be concentrated1 and produce the same effect4 ,centre of ,resistance--,the one point at which the forces opposing the flight of an air-craft might be concentrated1 and produce the same result4 ,centre of ,thrust--,the one point at which the forces generated by the revolving propellers might be concentrated1 and produce the same effect4 ,chassis--,the under-structure or 8running-gear0 of an aeroplane4 ,chord--,the straight line between the two ends of an arc of a circle or other curved line4 ,compound ,control--,a mechanical system by which several distinct controls are operated through different manipulations of the same lever or steering-wheel4 ,compression ,side--,that side of a plane or propeller blade against which the air is compressed--the under surface of a flying plane1 and the rear surface of a revolving propeller4 ,curtain--,the vertical surface of a cell--the wall which stands upright4 ,d ,deck--,a main aeroplane surface4 ,the term is used generally in describing biplanes2 as the upper deck1 and the lower deck2 or with aeroplanes of many decks4 ,demountable--,a type of construction which permits a machine to be easily taken apart for transportation4 ,derrick--,a tower-shaped structure in which a weight is raised and allowed to fall to give starting impetus to an aeroplane4 ,dihedral--,that form of construction in which the wings of an aeroplane start with an upward incline at their junction with the body of the machine1 instead of stretching out on a level4 ,dirigible--,the condition of being directable1 or steerable3 applied generally to the balloons fitted with propelling power1 or airships4 ,double ,rudder--,a rudder composed of two intersecting planes1 one vertical and the other horizontal1 thus enabling the operator to steer in any direction with the one rudder4 ,illustration ,double-,surfaced--,planes which are covered with fabric on both their upper and lower surfaces1 thus completely inclosing their frames4 ,down-,wind--,along with the wind2 in the direction in which the wind is blowing4 ,drift--,the recoil of an aeroplane surface forced through the air3 also the tendency to float in the same direction as the wind4 ,e ,elevator--,a shorter name for the elevating planes or elevating rudder1 used for directing the aeroplane upward or downward4 ,ellipse--,an oval figure outlined by cutting a cone through from side to side on a plane not parallel to its base4 ,some inventors use the curves of the ellipse in forming the wings of aeroplanes4 ,see ,hyperbola and ,parabola4 ,entry--,the penetration of the air by the forward edge of aircraft surfaces4 ,see ,angle of ,entry4 ,equivalent ,head ,area--,such an area of flat surface as will encounter head resistance equal to the total of that of the construction members of the framework--struts1 braces1 spars1 diagonals1 etc41 of the aerial craft4 ,f ,feathering--,a form of construction in which mounting on hinges1 or pivots1 permits the surfaces to engage the air flatwise in one direction and to pass edgewise through it in other directions4 ,fin--,a fixed vertical stabilizing surface1 similar in form to the fin on the back of a fish4 ,fish ,section--,a term applied to the lengthwise section of an aircraft when the outline resembles the general shape of a fish--blunted in front and tapering toward the rear4 ,this form is believed to encounter less resistance than any other1 in passing through the air4 ,fixed ,wheel--,a wheel in a fixed mounting1 so that it does not swivel as does a caster wheel4 ,flapping ,flight--,flight by the up-and-down beating of wings1 similar to the common flight of pigeons4 ,flexible ,propeller--,a propeller in which the blades are frames covered more or less loosely with a fabric which is in a measure free to adjust its form to the compression of the air behind it as it revolves4 ,flying ,angle--,the angle of incidence of the main surface of an aeroplane when in flight4 ,see ,ground ,angle4 ,footpound--,the amount of force required to raise one pound to a height of one foot4 ,fore-and-aft--,from front to rear3 lengthwise3 longitudinal4 ,fuselage--,the framework of the body of an aeroplane4 ,g ,glider--,a structure similar to an aeroplane1 but without motive power4 ,gliding--,flying down a slope of air with a glider1 or with an aeroplane in which the propelling power is cut off4 ,gliding ,angle--,the flattest angle at which a given machine will make a perfect glide4 ,this angle differs with different machines4 ,the flatter the gliding angle the safer the machine4 ,ground ,angle--,the angle of incidence of an aeroplane surface when the machine is standing on the ground4 ,guy--,a wire attached to a more or less distant part of the structure of any aircraft to prevent spreading4 ,also used to denote controlling wires which transmit the movements of the levers4 ,gyroscopic ,action--,the resistance which a rotating wheel1 or wheel-like construction1 exhibits when a disturbing force tends to change its plane of rotation4 ,h ,hangar--,a structure for the housing of aeroplanes4 ,head ,resistance--,the resistance encountered by a surface moving through the air4 ,heavier-than-air--,a term applied to flying machines whose weight is not counterbalanced or buoyed up by the lifting power of some gas lighter than air2 and which weigh more than the volume of air displaced4 ,helicopater--,a type of flying machine in which propellers revolving horizontally lift and sustain its weight in the air4 ,horizontal ,rudder--,the rudder surface which is used to steer an aircraft upward or downward3 so-called because it lies normally in a position parallel to the horizon2 that is1 level4 ,horse-power--,an amount of work equivalent to the lifting of #cc1jjj footpounds in one minute4 ,see ,footpound4 ,hyperbola--,the outline formed by the cutting of a cone by a plane passing one side of its axis at such an angle that it would also intersect another cone placed apex to apex on the same axis4 ,k ,keel--,a framework extending lengthwise under an aircraft to stiffen the construction3 usually employed on airships with elongated gas-bags4 ,l ,lateral--,from side to side2 that is1 crossing the length fore-and-aft1 and generally at right angles to it4 ,land-speed--,the speed of aircraft as related to objects on the ground4 ,see ,air-speed4 ,landing ,area--,a piece of land specially prepared for the alighting of aeroplanes without risk of injury4 ,leeway--,movement of a machine aside from the intended course1 due to the lateral drift of the whole body of air2 measured usually at right angles to the course4 ,lift--,the raising1 or sustaining effect of an aeroplane surface4 ,it is expressed in the weight thus overcome4 ,lighter-than-air--,a term used to designate aircraft which1 owing to the buoyancy of the gas attached1 weigh less than the volume of air which they displace4 ,longitudinal--,in a lengthwise1 or fore-and-aft direction4 ,m ,main ,plane--,the principal supporting surface of an aeroplane4 ,in the biplane1 or the multiplane type1 it denotes the lowest surface1 unless some other is decidedly larger4 ,main ,landing ,wheels--,those wheels on the alighting gear which take the shock in landing4 ,mast--,a vertical post or strut giving angular altitude to guys or long stays4 ,also used 7erroneously7 to designate a spar reaching out laterally or longitudinally in a horizontal position4 ,monoplane--,an aeroplane with one main supporting surface4 ,a ,double ,monoplane has two of such surfaces set one behind the other 7tandem7 but on the same level4 ,multiplane--,an aeroplane having several main planes1 at least more than three 7for which there is the special name of triplane74 ,n ,nacelle--,the framework1 or body1 of a dirigible balloon or airship4 ,negative ,angle of ,incidence--,an angle of incidence below the line of travel1 and therefore expressed with a minus sign4 ,surfaces bent to certain curves fly successfully at negative angles of incidence1 and exhibit a comparatively large lift4 ,o ,ornithopter--,a type of flying machine with wing surfaces which are designed to raise and sustain the machine in the air by flapping4 ,p ,panel--,another name for ,curtain--which see4 ,parabola--,the form outlined when a cone is cut by a plane parallel to a line drawn on its surface from its apex to its base4 ,declared to be the correct scientific curve for aeroplane surfaces1 but not so proven1 as yet4 ,pilot--,a term widely used for an operator1 or driver1 of any form of aircraft4 ,pitch--,the distance which a propeller would progress during one revolution1 if free to move in a medium which permitted no slip 7which see72 just as the thread of a bolt travels in the groove of its nut4 ,plane--,speaking with exactness1 a flat spread of surface2 but in aeronautics it includes also the curved sustaining surfaces of aeroplanes4 ,polyplane--,another term for ,multiplane4 ,port--,the left-hand side of an aircraft1 as one faces forward4 ,see ,starboard4 ,projected ,area--,the total area of an irregular structure as projected upon a flat surface2 like the total area of the shadow of an object cast by the sun upon a plane fixed at right angles to its rays4 ,propeller ,reaction--,a force produced by a single revolving propeller1 which tends to revolve the machine which it is driving1 in the contrary direction4 ,this is neutralized in various ways in the machines driven by single propellers4 ,where two propellers are used it is escaped by arranging them to move in opposite directions4 ,illustration3 ,a pterygoid plane4 ,pterygoid--,that type of the wings of birds which is long and narrow--as distinguished from the apteroid type4 ,pylon--,a tower-shaped structure used as a derrick 7which see72 also for displaying signals to aeronauts4 ,r ,radial ,spoke--,a wire spoke extending from the hub of an alighting wheel straight outward from the centre to the rim of the wheel4 ,see ,tangent ,spoke4 ,rarefaction ,side--,a correct term for the incorrect 8vacuum side10 so-called4 ,the side opposite the compression side3 the forward side of a revolving propeller blade1 or the upper side of a flying surface1 or the side of a rudder-surface turned away from the wind4 ,reactive ,stratum--,the layer of compressed air beneath a moving aeroplane surface1 or behind a moving propeller blade4 ,rib--,the smaller construction members used in building up surfaces4 ,generally they run fore-and-aft1 crossing the spars or wing-bars at right angles1 and they are bent to form the curve of the wings or planes4 ,rising ,angle--,technically1 the steepest angle at which any given aeroplane will rise into the air4 ,rudder--,a movable surface by which the aeronaut is enabled to steer his craft in a desired direction4 ,see ,horizontal ,rudder and ,vertical ,rudder4 ,runner--,a construction similar to the runners of a sleigh1 used for alighting on some machines1 instead of the wheel alighting gear2 a skid4 ,s ,screw--,another term for propeller2 properly1 screw-propeller4 ,single-surfaced--,a term used to designate wings or planes whose frames are covered with fabric only on the upper side4 ,see ,double-surfaced4 ,skid--,another name for runner4 ,skin ,friction--,the retarding effect of the adherence of the air to surfaces moving rapidly through it4 ,it is very slight with polished surfaces1 and in case of slow speeds is entirely negligible4 ,slip--,the difference between the actual progress of a moving propeller1 and the theoretical progress expressed by its pitch4 ,it is much greater in some propellers than in others1 due to the 8churning0 of the air by blades of faulty design and construction4 ,soaring ,flight--,the sailing motion in the air achieved by some of the larger birds without the flapping of their wings4 ,it is to be distinguished from gliding in that it is in an upward direction4 ,soaring has never been satisfactorily explained1 and is considered to be the secret whose discovery will bring about the largest advance in the navigation of the air4 ,spar--,a stick of considerable length used in the framing of the body of aeroplanes1 or as the long members in wing structures4 ,stabilize--,to maintain balance by the automatic action of adjunct surfaces1 as distinguished from the intentional manipulation of controlling devices4 ,stabilizer--,any surface whose automatic action tends to the maintaining of balance in the air4 ,stable ,equilibrium--,that equilibrium which is inherent in the construction of the machine1 and does not depend upon automatic or controlling balancing devices4 ,starboard--,the right-hand side of an aircraft as one faces forward4 ,see ,port4 ,starting ,area--,an area of ground specially prepared to facilitate the starting of aeroplanes into flight4 ,starting ,device--,any contrivance for giving an aeroplane a powerful impulse or thrust into the air4 ,see ,derrick4 ,starting ,impulse--,the thrust with which an aeroplane is started into the air for a flight4 ,most machines depend upon the thrust of their own propellers1 the machine being held back by force until the engines have worked up to flying speed1 when it is suddenly released4 ,starting ,rail--,the rail upon which the starting truck runs before the aeroplane rises into the air4 ,starting ,truck--,a small vehicle upon which the aeroplane rests while it is gaining sufficient impulse to take flight4 ,stay--,a construction member of an aeroplane sustaining a pulling strain4 ,it is usually of wire4 ,straight ,pitch--,that type of pitch 7which see7 in a propeller blade in which every cross-section of the blade makes the same angle with its axis of revolution4 ,strainer--,another term for ,turnbuckle--which see4 ,strut--,an upright1 or vertical1 construction member of an aeroplane sustaining a compression strain2 as distinguished from a brace which sustains a diagonal compression strain4 ,supplementary ,surface--,a comparatively small surface used as an adjunct to the large surfaces for some special purpose2 as1 for instance1 the preserving of balance1 or for steering4 ,sustaining ,surface--,the large surfaces of the aeroplane whose rapid movement through the air at a slight angle to the horizontal sustains the weight of the machine4 ,t ,tail--,a rear surface on an aeroplane designed to assist in maintaining longitudinal stability4 ,it is in use principally on monoplanes1 and is often so arranged as to serve as a rudder4 ,tail ,wheel--,a wheel mounted under the rear end of an aeroplane as a part of the alighting gear4 ,tangent--,a straight line passing the convex side of a curved line1 and touching it at one point only4 ,the straight line is said to be tangent to the curve at the point of contact4 ,tangential--,in the position or direction of a tangent4 ,tangent ,spoke--,a wire spoke extending from the outer edge of the hub of a wheel along the line of a tangent until it touches the rim4 ,its position is at right angles to the course of a radial spoke 7which see7 from the same point on the hub4 ,tie--,a construction member connecting two points with a pulling strain4 ,tightener--,a device for taking up the slack of a stay1 or tie2 as the turnbuckle4 ,tractor ,propeller--,a propeller placed in front1 so that it pulls the machine through the air1 instead of pushing1 or thrusting1 it from behind4 ,triplane--,an aeroplane with three main surfaces1 or decks1 placed in a tier1 one above another4 ,turnbuckle--,a device with a nut at each end1 of contrary pitch1 so as to take a right-hand screw at one end1 and a left-hand screw at the other2 used for drawing together1 or toward each other the open ends of a stay1 or tie4 ,u ,uniform ,pitch--,that varying pitch in a propeller blade which causes each point in the blade to move forward in its own circle the same distance in one revolution4 ,up-wind--,in a direction opposite to the current of the wind2 against the wind2 in the teeth of the wind4 ,v ,vertical ,rudder--,a rudder for steering toward right or left2 so called because its surface occupies normally a vertical position4 ,w ,wake--,the stream of disturbed air left in the rear of a moving aircraft1 due mainly to the slip of the propeller4 ,wash--,the air-currents flowing out diagonally from the sides of a moving aeroplane4 ,wing ,bar--,the larger construction members of a wing1 running from the body outward to the tips4 ,the ribs are attached to the wing bars1 usually at right angles4 ,wing ,plan--,the outline of the wing or main plane surface as viewed from above4 ,wing ,section--,the outline of the wing structure of an aeroplane as it would appear if cut by a plane passing through it parallel to the longitudinal centre of the machine4 ,wing ,skid--,a small skid1 or runner1 placed under the tip of the wings of an aeroplane1 to prevent damage in case of violent contact with the ground4 ,wing ,tip--,the extreme outer end of a wing or main plane4 ,wing ,warping--,a controlling device for restoring disturbed lateral balance by the forcible pulling down or pulling up of the tips of the wings1 or of the outer ends of the main surface of the aeroplane4 ,wing ,wheel--,a small wheel placed under the outer end of a wing or main plane to prevent contact with the ground4 ,an improvement on the wing skid4 ,,the ,,end ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original4