,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,,monthly ,,magazine ,,devoted ,,to ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,true ,,culture4 ,,organ ,,of ,,the ,,chautauqua ,,literary ,,and ,,scientific ,,circle4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,march1 #ahhd4 ,no4 #f4 ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle4 ,president--,lewis ,miller1 ,akron1 ,ohio4 ,superintendent of ,instruction--,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,counselors--,rev4 ,lyman ,abbott1 ,d4,d42 ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d42 ,bishop ,h4 ,w4 ,warren1 ,d4,d42 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wilkinson1 ,d4,d4 ,office ,secretary--,miss ,kate ,f4 ,kimball1 ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j4 ,general ,secretary--,albert ,m4 ,martin1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,contents ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this table of contents of this periodical was created for the ,,html version to aid the reader4 ,,required ,,reading ,,for ,,march ,readings from ,french ,history ,i4--,an ,outline of ,french ,history #cae ,,ii4--,the ,french ,people #cag ,,iii4--,charlemagne #cag ,,iv4--,the ,battle of ,crcy and ,siege of ,calais #cah ,v4--,joan of ,arc #cai ,,vi4--,henry of ,navarre #cbj ,,vii4--,the ,court of ,louis ,,xiv #cbd ,,viii4--,french ,literature #cbf ,commercial ,law ,,ii4--,notes and ,bills #cbg ,sunday ,readings ,march #b #cbh ,march #i #cbi ,march #af #cbi ,march #bc #ccj ,march #cj #ccj ,readings in ,art #ccj ,selections from ,american ,literature ,john ,lothrop ,motley #ccc ,george ,bancroft #ccd ,william ,h4 ,prescott #cce ,united ,states ,history #ccf ,helen's ,tower #cch ,mendelssohn's ,grave and ,humboldt's ,home #cci ,flotsam6 7#adib47 #cda ,the ,sea as an ,aquarium #cda ,my ,years #cdc ,eight ,centuries with ,walter ,scott #cdc ,astronomy of the ,heavens for ,march #cdf ,the ,fir ,tree #cdg ,ardent ,spirits #cdg ,eccentric ,americans ,v4--,a ,methodist ,don ,quixote #cdh ,hyacinth ,bulbs #cea ,migrations on ,foot #cec ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,work #cee ,outline of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,readings #cee ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 '#hd #cee ,to the ,class of '#he #cef ,local ,circles #cef ,questions and ,answers #cfb ,chautauqua ,normal ,course #cfd ,editor's ,outlook #cfe ,editor's ,note-,book #cfh ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes on ,required ,readings for ,march #cgj ,notes on ,required ,readings in 8,the ,chautauquan0 #cgb ,chautauqua ,normal ,graduates #cgd ,errata and ,addenda #cge ,,required ,,reading ,,for ,,the ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle for #ahhc-d4 ,,march4 ,,readings ,,from ,,french ,,history4 ,by ,,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4,d4 ,i4--,,an ,,outline ,,of ,,french ,,history4 ,from 8,the ,people's ,commentary0--and paragraphed4 #a4 ,gallia was the name under which ,france was designated by the ,romans1 who knew little of the country till the time of ,csar1 when it was occupied by the ,aquitani1 ,celt1 and ,belg4 #b4 ,under ,augustus1 ,gaul was divided into four provinces1 which1 under subsequent emperors1 were dismembered1 and subdivided into seventeen4 #c4 ,in the fifth century it fell completely under the power of the ,visigoths1 ,burgundians1 and ,franks4 #d4 ,in #dhf ,a4 ,d41 ,clovis1 a chief of the ,salian ,franks1 raised himself to supreme power in the north4 ,his dynasty1 known as the ,merovingian1 ended in the person of ,childeric ,,iii41 who was deposed #geb ,a4 ,d4 #e4 ,the accession of ,pepin gave new vigor to the monarchy1 which1 under his son and successor1 ,charlemagne1,a crowned ,emperor in the west in #hjj 7#gfh-had71 rose to the rank of the most powerful empire of the west4 ,with him1 however1 this vast fabric of power crumbled to pieces1 and his weak descendants completed the ruin of the ,frankish ,empire by the dismemberment of its various parts among the younger branches of the ,carlovingian family4 #f4 ,on the death of ,louis ,v4 the ,carlovingian dynasty was replaced by that of ,hugues1 ,count of ,paris1 whose son1 ,hugues ,capet1 was elected king by the army1 and consecrated at ,rheims #ihg ,a4 ,d4 #g4 ,at this period the greater part of ,france was held by almost independent lords4 ,louis ,le ,gros 7#aajh-aacg7 was the first ruler who succeeded in combining the whole under his scepter4 ,he promoted the establishment of the feudal system1 abolished serfdom on his own estates1 secured corporate rights to the cities under his jurisdiction1 gave efficiency to the central authority of the ,crown1 carried on a war against ,henry ,i41 of ,england2 and when the latter allied himself with the ,emperor ,henry ,v41 of ,germany1 against ,france1 he brought into the field an army of #bjj1jjj men4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,france #h4 ,the ,oriflamme is said to have been borne aloft for the first time on this occasion as the national standard4 #i4 ,louis ,,vii4 7#aacg-'hj7 was almost incessantly engaged in war with ,henry ,,ii41 of ,england4 #aj4 ,his son and successor1 ,philippe ,auguste 7#aahj-abbc71 recovered ,normandy1 ,maine1 ,touraine1 and ,poitou from ,john of ,england4 ,he took an active personal share in the crusades4 ,philippe was the first to levy a tax for the maintenance of the standing army4 #aa4 ,many noble institutions date their origin from this reign1 as the ,university of ,paris1 the ,louvre1 etc4 #ab4 ,louis ,,ix4 effected many modifications in the fiscal department1 and1 before his departure for the crusades1 secured the rights of the ,gallican church by special statute1 in order to counteract the constantly increasing assumptions of the ,papal power4 #ac4 ,philippe ,,iv4 7#abhe-acad71 surnamed ,le ,bel1 acquired ,navarre1 ,champagne1 and ,brie by marriage4 #ad4 ,charles ,,iv4 7,le ,bel1 #acba-'bh7 was the last direct descendant of the ,capetian line4 #ae4 ,philippe ,,vi41 the first of the ,house of ,valois 7#acbh-'ej71 succeeded in right of the ,salic law4 ,his reign1 and those of his successors1 ,jean 7#acej-'fd7 and ,charles ,v4 7,le ,sage1 #acfd-'hj71 were disturbed by constant wars with ,edward ,,iii41 of ,england4 ,hostilities began in #acci2 in #acdf the ,battle of ,crcy was fought2 at the battle of ,poitiers 7#acef7 ,jean was made captive2 and before the final close1 after the death of ,edward 7#acgg71 the state was reduced to bankruptcy4 #af4 ,during the regency for the minor1 ,charles ,,vi4 7,le ,bien ,aime1 #achj-adbb71 the war was renewed with increased vigor on the part of the ,english nation4 #ag4 ,the signal victory won by the ,english at ,agincourt in #adae aided ,henry in his attempts upon the throne4 ,but the extraordinary influence exercised over her countrymen by ,joan of ,arc1 the ,maid of ,orleans1 aided in bringing about a thorough reaction1 and1 after a period of murder1 rapine and anarchy1 ,charles ,,vii4 7,le ,victorieux1 #adbb-'fa7 was crowned at ,rheims4 #ah4 ,his successor1 ,louis ,,xi4 7#adfa-'hc71 succeeded in recovering for the ,crown the territories of ,maine1 ,anjou and ,provence1 while he made himself master of some portions of the territories of ,charles the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy4 #ai4 ,charles ,,viii4 7#adhc-'ih71 by his marriage with ,anne of ,brittany1 secured that powerful state4 ,with him ended the direct male succession of the ,house of ,valois4 #bj4 ,louis ,,xii4 7#adih-aeae71 ,le ,pre ,du ,peuple1 was the only representative of the ,valois-,orleans family2 his successor1 ,francis ,i4 7#aedg71 was of the ,valois-,angoulme branch4 #ba4 ,the defeat of ,francis at the battle of ,pavia1 in #aebe1 and his subsequent imprisonment at ,madrid1 threw the affairs of the nation into the greatest disorder4 #bb4 ,in the reign of ,henri ,,ii4 began the persecutions of the ,protestants4 ,henri ,,iii4 7#aegd-'hi7 was the last of this branch of the ,valois4 ,the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew 7#aegb7 was perpetrated under the direction of the ,queen-mother1 ,catherine de' ,medici1 and the confederation of the league1 at the head of which were the ,guises4 ,the wars of the league1 which were carried by the latter against the ,bourbon branches of the princes of the blood-royal1 involved the whole nation in their vortex4 #bc4 ,the succession of ,henri ,,iv41 of ,navarre 7#aehi-afaj71 a ,bourbon prince1 descended from a younger son of ,st4 ,louis1 allayed the fury of these religious wars1 but his recantation of ,protestantism in favor of ,catholicism disappointed his own party4 #bd4 ,during the minority of his son1 ,louis ,,xiii4 7#afaj-'dc71 ,cardinal ,richelieu1 under the nominal regency of ,marie de' ,medici1 the ,queen-mother1 ruled with a firm hand4 ,cardinal ,mazarin1 under the regency of the ,queen-mother1 ,anne of ,austria1 exerted nearly equal power for some time during the minority of ,louis ,,xiv4 7#afdc-agae74 #be4 ,the wars of the ,fronde1 the misconduct of the ,parliament1 and the humbling of the nobility1 gave rise to another civil war1 but with the assumption of power by young ,louis a new era commenced1 and till near the close of his long reign the military successes of the ,french were most brilliant4 #bf4 ,louis ,,xv4 7#agae-'ge7 succeeded to a heritage whose glory was tarnished1 and whose stability was shaken to its very foundations during his reign4 #bg4 ,the peace of ,paris 7#agfc71 by which the greater portion of the colonial possessions of ,france were given up to ,england1 terminated an inglorious war1 in which the ,french had expended #acej millions of francs4 #bh4 ,in #aggd ,louis ,,xvi41 a well-meaning1 weak prince1 succeeded to the throne4 ,the ,american war of freedom had disseminated ,republican ideas among the lower orders1 while the ,assembly of the notables had discussed and made known to all classes the incapacity of the government and the wanton prodigality of the court4 ,the nobles and the tiers tat were alike clamorous for a meeting of the states2 the former wishing to impose new taxes on the nation1 and the latter determined to inaugurate a thorough and systematic reform4 #bi4 ,after much opposition on the part of the king and court1 the tats ,gnraux1 which had not met since #afad1 assembled at ,versailles on the #beth of ,may1 #aghi4 ,the resistance made by ,louis and his advisers to the reasonable demands of the deputies on the #agth of ,june1 #aghi1 led to the constitution of the ,national ,assembly4 ,the consequence was the outbreak of insurrectionary movements at ,paris1 where blood was shed on the #abth of ,july4 ,on the following day the ,national ,guard was convoked2 and on the fourteenth the people took possession of the ,bastille4 ,the royal princes and all the nobles who could escape1 sought safety in flight4 #cj4 ,the royal family1 having attempted in vain to follow their example1 tried to conciliate the people by the feigned assumption of ,republican sentiment2 but on the #eth of ,october the rabble1 followed by numbers of the ,national ,guard1 attacked ,versailles1 and compelled the king and his family to remove to ,paris1 whither the ,assembly also moved4 #ca4 ,a war with ,austria was begun in ,april1 #agib1 and the defeat of the ,french was visited on ,louis1 who was confined in ,august with his family in the temple4 ,in ,december the king was brought to trial4 ,on the #bjth of ,january1 #agic1 sentence of death was passed on him1 and on the following day he was beheaded4 #cb4 ,marie ,antoinette1 the widowed ,queen1 was guillotined2 the ,dauphin and his surviving relatives suffered every indignity that malignity could devise4 ,a reign of blood and terror succeeded4 #cc4 ,the brilliant exploits of the young general1 ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 in ,italy1 turned men's thoughts to other channels4 #cd4 ,in #agie a general amnesty was declared1 peace was concluded with ,prussia and ,spain1 and the war was carried on with double vigor against ,austria4 #ce4 ,the revolution had reached a turning point4 ,a ,directory was formed to administer the government1 which was now conducted in a spirit of order and conciliation4 #cf4 ,in #agig ,bonaparte and his brother-commanders were omnipotent in ,italy4 ,austria was compelled to give up ,belgium1 accede to peace on any terms1 and recognize the ,cis-,alpine republic4 #cg4 ,under the pretext of attacking ,england1 a fleet of #djj ships and an army of #cf1jjj picked men were equipped2 their destination proved1 however1 to be ,egypt1 whither the ,directory sent ,bonaparte2 but the young general resigned the command to ,kleber1 landed in ,france in #agii1 and at once succeeded in supplanting the ,directory1 and securing his own nomination as ,consul4 #ch4 ,in #ahjj a new constitution was promulgated1 which vested the sole executive power in ,bonaparte4 ,having resumed his military duties1 he marched an army over the ,alps1 attacked the ,austrians unawares1 and decided the fate of ,italy by his victory at ,marengo4 #ci4 ,in #ahjd1 on an appeal of universal suffrage to the nation1 ,bonaparte was proclaimed ,emperor4 ,by his marriage with the archduchess ,maria ,louisa1 daughter of the emperor of ,germany1 ,napoleon seemed to have given to his throne the prestige of birth1 which alone it had lacked4 ,the disastrous ,russian campaign1 in which his noble army was lost amid the rigors of a northern winter1 was soon followed by the falling away of his allies and feudatories4 #dj4 ,napoleon himself was still victorious wherever he appeared in person1 but his generals were beaten in numerous engagements2 and the great defeat of ,leipsic compelled the ,french to retreat beyond the ,rhine4 ,the ,swedes brought reinforcements to swell the ranks of his enemies on the east frontier1 while the ,english pressed on from the west2 ,paris1 in the absence of the emperor1 capitulated after a short resistance1 ,march #cj1 #ahad4 ,napoleon retired to the island of ,elba4 #da4 ,on the #b;d of ,may1 ,louis ,,xviii4 7the brother of ,louis ,,xvi47 made his entry into ,paris4 #db4 ,on the #ast of ,march1 #ahae1 ,napoleon left ,elba1 and landed in ,france4 ,crowds followed him2 the soldiers flocked around his standard2 the ,bourbons fled1 and he took possession of their lately deserted palaces4 ,the news of his landing spread terror through ,europe2 and on the #beth of ,march a treaty of alliance was signed at ,vienna between ,austria1 ,russia1 ,prussia and ,england1 and preparations at once made to put down the movement in his favor1 and restore the ,bourbon dynasty4 #dc4 ,at first1 the old prestige of success seemed to attend ,napoleon2 but on the #ahth of ,june he was thoroughly defeated at ,waterloo2 and1 having placed himself under the safeguard of the ,english1 he was sent to the island of ,st4 ,helena4 #dd4 ,in #ahba ,napoleon breathed his last at ,st4 ,helena2 and in #ahbd ,louis ,,xviii4 died without direct heirs1 and his brother1 the duc d',artois1 succeeded as ,charles ,x4 ,the same ministerial incapacity1 want of good faith1 general discontent1 and excessive priestly influence characterized his reign1 which was abruptly brought to a close by the revolution of #ahcj1 and the election to the throne of ,louis ,philippe1 duke of ,orleans1 as king1 by the will of the people4 #de4 ,louis ,philippe having abdicated 7,february #bd1 #ahdh71 a republic was proclaimed1 under a provisional government4 ,louis ,napoleon was elected president of the ,republic in ,december1 #ahdh1 but by the famous coup d'tat of ,december #b1 #ahea1 he violently set aside the ,constitution1 and assumed dictatorial powers2 and a year after was raised1 by the almost unanimous voice of the nation1 to the dignity of ,emperor1 as ,napoleon ,,iii4 #df4 ,the result of the appeal made to the nation in #ahgj1 on the plea of securing their sanction for his policy1 was not what he had anticipated4 ,the course of events in the short but terrible ,franco-,german war of #ahgj-'ga1 electrified ,europe by its unexpected character4 #dg4 ,on ,september #b1 #ahgj1 ,napoleon1 with his army of #ij1jjj men1 surrendered at ,sedan4 ,with the concurrence of ,prussia the ,french nation next proceeded1 by a general election of representatives1 to provide for the exigencies of the country4 #dh4 ,a republic was proclaimed1 and the first national assembly met at ,bordeaux in ,february1 #ahga4 ,after receiving from the provisional government of defense the resignation of the powers confided to them in ,september1 #ahgj1 the ,assembly undertook to organize the republican government1 and nominated ,m4 ,thiers chief of the executive power of the state1 with the title of ,president of the ,french ,republic1 but with the condition of responsibility to the ,national ,assembly4 #di4 ,the ex-,emperor ,napoleon died in #ahgb1 at ,chiselhurst1 ,england1 where he had resided with his family since his liberation in ,march1 #ahga4 #ej4 ,in #ahgc ,m4 ,thiers resigned the office of ,president of the ,french ,republic1 and was succeeded by ,marshal ,mac,mahon1 who resigned in #ahgi1 and was succeeded by ,m4 ,grvy4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,french ,,people4 ,from their ,celtic ancestry1 the ,gauls1 the ,french people inherited a certain heedlessness of character1 or want of foresight as to consequences4 ,the ,romans communicated to them their language2 the ,franks1 a teutonic people1 by whom they were captured in the fifth century1 gave them a national designation2 but to neither the ,romans nor ,franks were they materially indebted for those qualities which ordinarily stamp the national or individual character4 ,we have therefore to keep in mind that1 through all the vicissitudes of modern history1 the ,french people have remained essentially ,celtic4 ,with many good qualities--bold1 tasteful1 quick-witted1 ingenious--they have some less to be admired--impulsive1 restless1 vain1 bombastic1 fond of display1 and1 as ,csar described them1 8lovers of novelty40 ,they have ever boasted of being at the head of civilization2 but with all their acknowledged advancement in literature and science1 they have at every stage in their political career demonstrated a singular and absolutely pitiable want of common sense4--,chambers' ,miscellany4 ,,iii4--,,charlemagne4 ,from the accession1 in #gfh1 of ,charlemagne1 eldest son of ,pepin le ,bref may be dated the establishment of clerical power1 the rise of chivalry1 and the foundation of learning in the ,empire of ,france4 ,he was a man of extraordinary foresight and strength of character1 and possessed not only the valor of a hero and the skill of a general1 but the calm wisdom of a statesman1 and the qualities of a judicious sovereign4 ,ambitious of conquest as ,alexander or ,darius1 he nevertheless provided as conscientiously for the welfare of his subjects and the advancement of letters1 as did ,alfred the ,great of ,england about a century afterwards4 ,he founded schools and libraries--convoked national assemblies--revised laws--superintended the administration of justice--encouraged scientific men and professors of the fine arts--and1 during a reign of forty-six years1 extended his frontiers beyond the ,danube1 imposed tribute upon the barbarians of the ,vistula1 made his name a terror to the ,saracen tribes1 and added ,northern ,italy to the dependencies of ,france4 ,notwithstanding these successes1 it appears that the conquest and conversion of the ,saxons 7a nation of ,german idolaters1 whose territories bordered closely upon his chosen capital of ,aix-la-,chapelle7 formed the darling enterprise of this powerful monarch4 ,from #ggj to #hjd1 his arms were constantly directed against them2 and in ,wittikind1 their heroic leader1 he encountered a warrior as fearless1 if not as fortunate1 as himself4 ,the brave ,saxons were1 however1 no match for one whose triumphs procured him the splendid title of ,emperor of the ,west1 and who gathered his daring hosts from dominions which comprised the whole of ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,hungary1 ,bohemia1 ,poland1 and ,prussia1 and were only bounded on the east by the ,carpathian mountains1 and on the west by the ,ebro and the ocean4 ,year after year he wasted their country with fire and sword1 overthrew their idols1 leveled their temples to the ground1 erected fortresses amid the ruins of their villages1 and carried away vast numbers of captives to the interior of ,gaul4 ,to this forced emigration succeeded a conversion equally unwelcome4 ,thousands of reluctant ,saxons were compelled to subscribe to the ceremony of baptism2 their principalities were portioned off among abbots and bishops2 and ,wittikind did homage to ,charlemagne in the ,champs-de-,mars4 ,it was about this period that the ,danes and ,normans first began to harass the northern coasts of ,europe4 ,confident of their naval strength1 they attacked the possessions of ,charlemagne with as little hesitation as those of his less formidable neighbor1 ,egbert of ,wessex2 descended upon ,friesland as boldly as upon ,teignmouth or ,hengesdown2 and even ventured with their galleys into the port of a city of ,narbonnese ,gaul at a time when the emperor himself was sojourning within its walls4 ,springing up1 as they did1 toward the close of so prosperous a reign1 these new invaders proved more dangerous than ,charlemagne had anticipated4 ,he caused war barks to be stationed at the mouths of his great rivers1 and in #hjh marched an army to the defense of ,friesland4 ,on this occasion1 however1 he was glad to make terms of peace2 and it is said that the increasing power of the ,baltic tribes embittered his later days with presentiments of that decay which shortly afterward befell his gigantic empire4 ,from the conclusion of this peace to the date of his death in the year #had1 no event of historical importance occurred2 and the great emperor was buried at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 in that famous cathedral of which he was the founder4 ,the race of ,carlovingian kings took their name1 and only their name1 from this1 their magnificent ancestor4 ,weak of purpose as the descendants of ,clovis1 and endued1 perhaps1 with even a less share of animal courage1 they suffered their mighty inheritance to be wrested from them1 divided1 subdivided1 pillaged and impoverished4 ,no portion of ,french history is so disastrous1 so unsatisfactory1 and so obscure as that which relates to this epoch4 ,indeed1 toward the commencement of the tenth century1 an utter blank occurs1 and we are left for many years without any record whatever4--,a4 ,b4 ,e4 ,,iv4--,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,crecy ,,and ,,siege ,,of ,,calais4 ,although ,edward ,,iii41 by supporting with troops and officers1 and sometimes even in person1 the cause of the countess of ,montfort--and ,philip of ,valois1 by assisting in the same way ,charles of ,blois and ,joan of ,penthivre1 took a very active1 if indirect1 share in the war in ,brittany1 the two kings persisted in not calling themselves at war2 and when either of them proceeded to acts of unquestionable hostility1 they eluded the consequences of them by hastily concluding truces incessantly violated and as incessantly renewed4 ,they had made use of this expedient in #acdj2 and they had recourse to it again in #acdb1 #acdc1 and #acdd4 ,the last of these truces was to have lasted up to #acdf2 but in the spring of #acde1 ,edward resolved to put an end to this equivocal position1 and to openly recommence war4 ,he announced his intention to ,pope ,clement ,,iv41 to his own lieutenants in ,brittany1 and to all the cities and corporations of his kingdom4 ,the tragic death of ,van ,artevelde1 however 7#acde71 proved a great loss to the king of ,england4 ,he was so much affected by it that he required a whole year before he could resume with any confidence his projects of war2 and it was not until the #bnd of ,july1 #acdf1 that he embarked at ,southampton1 taking with him1 beside his son1 the prince of ,wales1 hardly sixteen years of age1 an army which comprised1 according to ,froissart1 seven earls1 more than thirty-five barons1 a great number of knights1 four thousand men-at-arms1 ten thousand ,english archers1 six thousand ,irish and twelve thousand ,welsh infantry1 in all something more than thirty-two thousand men4 ,by the advice of ,godfrey d',harcourt1 he marched his army over ,normandy2 he took and plundered on his way ,harfleur1 ,cherbourg1 ,valognes1 ,carentan1 ,st4 ,l1 and ,caen2 then1 continuing his march1 he occupied ,louviers1 ,vernon1 ,verneuil1 ,nantes1 ,meulan1 and ,poissy1 where he took up his quarters in the old residence of ,king ,robert2 and thence his troops advanced and spread themselves as far as ,ruel1 ,neuilly1 ,boulogne1 ,st4 ,cloud1 ,bourg-la-,reine and almost to the gates of ,paris1 whence could be seen 8the fire and smoke from burning villages40 ,philip recalled in all haste his troops from ,aquitaine1 commanded the burgher forces to assemble1 and gave them1 as he had given all his allies1 ,st4 ,denis for the rallying point4 ,at sight of so many great lords and all sorts of men of war flocking together from all points the ,parisians took fresh courage4 8,for many a long day there had not been at ,st4 ,denis a king of ,france in arms and fully prepared for battle40 ,edward began to be afraid of having pushed too far forward1 and of finding himself endangered in the heart of ,france1 confronted by an army which would soon be stronger than his own4 ,he1 accordingly1 marched northward1 where he flattered himself he would find partisans1 counting especially on the help of the ,flemings1 who1 in fulfillment of their promise1 had already advanced as far as ,bthune to support him4 ,philip moved with all his army into ,picardy in pursuit of the ,english army1 which was in a hurry to reach and cross the ,somme1 and so continue its march northward4 ,when ,edward1 after passing the ,somme1 had arrived near ,crcy1 five leagues from ,abbeville1 in the countship of ,ponthieu1 which had formed part of his mother ,isabel's dowry1 8,halt we here10 said he to his marshals2 8,i will go no farther till ,i have seen the enemy2 ,i am on my mother's rightful inheritance1 which was given her on her marriage2 ,i will defend it against mine adversary1 ,philip of ,valois20 and he rested in the open fields1 he and all his men1 and made his marshals mark well the ground where they would set their battle in array4 ,philip1 on his side1 had moved to ,abbeville1 where all his men came and joined him1 and whence he sent out scouts to learn the truth about the ,english4 ,when he knew that they were resting in the open fields near ,crcy and showed that they were awaiting their enemies1 the king of ,france was very joyful1 and said that1 please ,god1 they should fight him on the morrow the day after ,friday1 ,august #be1 #acdf4 ,on ,saturday1 the #bfth of ,august1 after having heard mass1 ,philip started from ,abbeville with all his barons4 ,the battle began with an attack by fifteen thousand ,genoese bowmen1 who marched forward1 and leaped thrice with a great cry2 their arrows did little execution1 as the strings of their bows had been relaxed by the damp2 the ,english archers now taking their bows from their cases1 poured forth a shower of arrows upon this multitude1 and soon threw them into confusion2 the ,genoese falling back upon the ,french cavalry1 were by them cut to pieces1 and being allowed no passage1 were thus prevented from again forming in the rear2 this absurd inhumanity lost the battle1 as the young ,prince of ,wales1 taking advantage of the irretrievable disorder1 led on his line at once to the charge4 8,no one can describe or imagine10 says ,froissart1 8the bad management and disorder of the ,french army1 though their troops were out of number40 ,philip was led from the field by ,john of ,hainault1 and he rode till he came to the walls of the castle of ,broye1 where he found the gates shut2 ordering the governor to be summoned1 when the latter inquired1 it being dark1 who it was that called at so late an hour1 he answered2 8,open1 open1 governor2 it is the fortune of ,france20 and accompanied by five barons only he entered the castle4 ,whilst ,philip1 with all speed1 was on the road back to ,paris with his army1 as disheartened as its king1 and more disorderly in retreat than it had been in battle1 ,edward was hastening1 with ardor and intelligence1 to reap the fruits of his victory4 ,in the difficult war of conquest he had undertaken1 what was clearly of most importance to him was to possess on the coast of ,france1 as near as possible to ,england1 a place which he might make1 in his operations by land and sea1 a point of arrival and departure1 of occupancy1 of provisioning1 and of secure refuge4 ,calais exactly fulfilled these conditions4 ,on arriving before the place1 ,september #crd1 #acdf1 ,edward 8immediately had built all round it10 says ,froissart1 8houses and dwelling places of solid carpentry1 and arranged in streets1 as if he were to remain there for ten or twelve years1 for his intention was not to leave it winter or summer1 whatever time and whatever trouble he must spend and take4 ,he called this new town ,villeneuve la ,hardie2 and he had therein all things necessary for an army1 and more too1 as a place appointed for the holding of a market on ,wednesday and ,saturday2 and therein were mercers' shops and butchers' shops1 and stores for the sale of cloth and bread and all other necessaries4 ,king ,edward did not have the city of ,calais assaulted by his men1 well knowing that he would lose his pains1 but said he would starve it out1 however long a time it might cost him1 if ,king ,philip of ,france did not come to fight him again1 and raise the siege40 ,calais had for its governor ,john de ,vienne1 a valiant and faithful ,burgundian knight1 8the which seeing10 says ,froissart1 8that the king of ,england was making every sacrifice to keep up the siege1 ordered that all sorts of small folk1 who had no provisions1 should quit the city without further notice40 ,the ,calaisians endured for eleven months all the sufferings arising from isolation and famine4 ,the ,king of ,france made two attempts to relieve them4 ,on the #bjth of ,may1 #acdg1 he assembled his troops at ,amiens2 but they were not ready to march till about the middle of ,july1 and as long before as the #bcrd of ,june1 a ,french fleet of ten galleys and thirty-five transports had been driven off by the ,english4 ,when the people of ,calais saw that all hope of a rescue had slipped from them1 they held a council1 resigned themselves to offer submission to the king of ,england1 rather than die of hunger1 and begged their governor1 ,john de ,vienne1 to enter into negotiations for that purpose with the besiegers4 ,walter de ,manny1 instructed by ,edward to reply to these overtures1 said to ,john de ,vienne1 8,the king's intent is that ye put yourselves at his free will to ransom or put to death1 such as it shall please him2 the people of ,calais have caused him so great displeasure1 cost him so much money and lost him so many men1 that it is not astonishing if that weighs heavily upon him40 ,in his final answer to the petition of the unfortunate inhabitants1 ,edward said3 8,go1 ,walter1 to them of ,calais1 and tell the governor that the greatest grace they can find in my sight is that six of the most notable burghers come forth from their town bareheaded1 barefooted1 with ropes round their necks and with the keys of the town and castle in their hands4 ,with them ,i will do according to my will and the rest ,i will receive to mercy40 ,it is well known how the king would have put to death ,eustace de ,st4 ,pierre and his companions1 and how their lives were spared at the intercession of ,queen ,philippa4 ,eustace1 more concerned for the interests of his own town than for those of ,france1 and being more of a ,calaisian burgher than a national patriot1 showed no hesitation1 for all that appears1 in serving1 as a subject of the king of ,england1 his native city1 for which he had shown himself so ready to die4 ,at his death1 which happened in #acea1 his heirs declared themselves faithful subjects of the king of ,france1 and ,edward confiscated away from them the possessions he had restored to their predecessor4 ,eustace de ,st4 ,pierre's cousin and comrade in devotion to their native town1 ,john d',aire1 would not enter ,calais again2 his property was confiscated1 and his house1 the finest1 it is said1 in the town1 was given by ,king ,edward to ,queen ,philippa1 who showed no more hesitation in accepting it than ,eustace in serving his new king4 ,long-lived delicacy of sentiment and conduct was rarer in those rough and rude times than heroic bursts of courage and devotion4 ,the battle of ,crcy and the loss of ,calais were reverses from which ,philip of ,valois never even made a serious attempt to recover2 he hastily concluded with ,edward a truce1 twice renewed1 which served only to consolidate the victor's successes4 ,v4--,,joan ,,of ,,arc4 ,on the #fth of ,january1 #adbh1 at ,domremy1 a little village in the valley of the ,meuse1 between ,neufchtel and ,vaucouleurs1 on the edge of the frontier from ,champagne to ,lorraine1 the young daughter of simple tillers-of-the-soil 8of good life and repute1 herself a good1 simple1 gentle girl1 no idler1 occupied hitherto in sewing or spinning with her mother or driving afield her parent's sheep and sometimes even1 when her father's turn came round1 keeping for him the whole flock of the commune10 was fulfilling her sixteenth year4 ,it was ,joan of ,arc1 whom all her neighbors called ,joannette4 ,her early childhood was passed amidst the pursuits characteristic of a country life2 her behavior was irreproachable1 and she was robust1 active1 and intrepid4 ,her imagination becoming inflamed by the distressed situation of ,france1 she dreamed that she had interviews with ,st4 ,margaret1 ,st4 ,catherine1 and ,st4 ,michael1 who commanded her1 in the name of ,god1 to go and raise the siege of ,orleans1 and conduct ,charles to be crowned at ,rheims4 ,accordingly she applied to ,robert de ,baudricourt1 captain of the neighboring town of ,vaucouleurs1 revealing to him her inspiration1 and conjuring him not to neglect the voice of ,god1 which spoke through her4 ,this officer for some time treated her with neglect2 but at length1 prevailed on by repeated importunities1 he sent her to the king at ,chinon1 to whom1 when introduced1 she said3 8,gentle ,dauphin1 my name is ,joan the ,maid1 the ,king of ,heaven hath sent me to your assistance2 if you please to give me troops1 by the grace of ,god and the force of arms1 ,i will raise the siege of ,orleans1 and conduct you to be crowned at ,rheims1 in spite of your enemies40 ,her requests were now granted2 she was armed cap-a-pie1 mounted on horseback1 and provided with a suitable retinue4 ,previous to her attempting any exploit1 she wrote a long letter to the young ,english monarch1 commanding him to withdraw his forces from ,france1 and threatening his destruction in case of refusal4 ,she concluded with 8hear this advice from ,god and la ,pucelle40 ,but1 side by side with these friends1 she had an adversary in the king's favorite1 ,george de la ,trmoille1 an ambitious courtier1 jealous of any one who seemed within the range of the king's good graces1 and opposed to a vigorous prosecution of the war1 since it hampered him in the policy he wished to keep up toward the duke of ,burgundy4 ,to the ill-will of ,la ,trmoille was added that of the majority of courtiers enlisted in the following of the powerful favorite1 and that of warriors irritated at the importance acquired at their expense by a rustic and fantastic little adventuress4 ,here was the source of the enmities and intrigues which stood in the way of all ,joan's demands1 rendered her successes more tardy1 difficult1 and incomplete1 and were one day to cost her more dearly still4 ,at the end of about five weeks the expedition was in readiness4 ,it was a heavy convoy of revictualment protected by a body of ten or twelve thousand men commanded by ,marshal de ,boussac1 and numbering amongst them ,xaintrailles and ,la ,hire4 ,the march began on the #bgth of ,april1 #adbi4 ,joan had caused the removal of all women of bad character1 and had recommended her comrades to confess4 ,she took the communion in the open air1 before their eyes2 and a company of priests1 headed by her chaplain1 ,pasquerel1 led the way whilst chanting sacred hymns4 ,great was the surprise amongst the men-at-arms4 ,many had words of mockery on their lips4 ,it was the time when ,la ,hire used to say1 8,if ,god were a soldier1 he would turn robber40 ,nevertheless1 respect got the better of habit2 the most honorable were really touched2 the coarsest considered themselves bound to show restraint4 ,on the #bith of ,april they arrived before ,orleans4 ,but1 in consequence of the road they had followed1 the ,loire was between the army and the town2 the expeditionary corps had to be split in two2 the troops were obliged to go and feel for the bridge of ,blois in order to cross the river2 and ,joan was vexed and surprised4 ,dunois1 arrived from ,orleans in a little boat1 urged her to enter the town that same evening4 8,are you the bastard of ,orleans80 asked she1 when he accosted her4 8,yes2 and ,i am rejoiced at your coming40 8,was it you who gave counsel for making me come hither by this side of the river and not the direct way1 over yonder where ,talbot and the ,english were80 8,yes2 such was the opinion of the wisest captains40 ,joan's first undertaking was against ,orleans1 which she entered without opposition on the #bith of ,april1 #adbi1 on horseback1 completely armed1 preceded by her own banner1 and having beside her ,dunois1 and behind her the captains of the garrison and several of the most distinguished burgesses of ,orleans1 who had gone out to meet her4 ,the population1 one and all1 rushed thronging round her1 carrying torches1 and greeting her arrival 8with joy as great as if they had seen ,god come down amongst them40 ,with admirable good sense1 discovering the superior merits of ,dunois1 the bastard of ,orleans1 a celebrated captain1 she wisely adhered to his instructions2 and by constantly harassing the ,english1 and beating up their intrenchments in various desperate attacks1 in all of which she displayed the most heroic courage1 ,joan in a few weeks compelled the earl of ,suffolk and his army to raise the siege1 having sustained the loss of six thousand men4 ,the proposal of crowning ,charles at ,rheims would formerly have appeared like madness1 but the ,maid of ,orleans now insisted on its fulfillment4 ,she accordingly recommenced the campaign on the #ajth of ,june2 to complete the deliverance of ,orleans an attack was begun upon the neighboring places1 ,jargeau1 ,meung1 and ,beaugency2 thousands of the late dispirited subjects of ,charles now flocked to his standard1 many towns immediately declared for him2 and the ,english1 who had suffered in various actions1 at that of ,jargeau1 when the earl of ,suffolk was taken prisoner1 and at that of ,patay1 when ,sir ,john ,fastolfe fled without striking a blow1 seemed now to be totally dispirited4 ,on the #afth of ,july ,king ,charles entered ,rheims1 and the ceremony of his coronation was fixed for the morrow4 ,it was solemn and emotional as are all old national traditions which recur after a forced suspension4 ,joan rode between ,dunois and the archbishop of ,rheims1 chancellor of ,france4 ,the air resounded with the ,te ,deum sung with all their hearts by clergy and crowd4 8,in ,god's name10 said ,joan to ,dunois1 8here is a good people and a devout2 when ,i die1 ,i should much like it to be in these parts40 8,joan10 inquired ,dunois1 8know you when you will die and in what place80 8,i know not10 said she1 8for ,i am at the will of ,god40 ,then she added1 8,i have accomplished that which my ,lord commanded me1 to raise the siege of ,orleans and have the gentle king crowned4 ,i would like it well if it should please ,him to send me back to my father and mother1 to keep their sheep and their cattle and do that which was my wont40 8,when the said lords10 says the chronicler1 an eye-witness1 8heard these words of ,joan1 who1 with eyes toward heaven1 gave thanks to ,god1 they the more believed that it was somewhat sent from ,god and not otherwise40 ,historians and even contemporaries have given much discussion to the question whether ,joan of ,arc1 according to her first ideas1 had really limited her design to the raising of the siege of ,orleans and the coronation of ,charles ,,vii4 at ,rheims4 ,however that may be1 when ,orleans was relieved and ,charles ,,vii4 crowned1 the situation1 posture1 and part of ,joan underwent a change4 ,she no longer manifested the same confidence in herself and her designs4 ,she no longer exercised over those in whose midst she lived the same authority4 ,she continued to carry on war1 but at hap-hazard1 sometimes with and sometimes without success1 just like ,la ,hire and ,dunois2 never discouraged1 never satisfied1 and never looking upon herself as triumphant4 ,after the coronation1 her advice was to march at once upon ,paris1 in order to take up a fixed position in it1 as being the political center of the realm of which ,rheims was the religious4 ,nothing of the sort was done4 ,she threw herself into ,compigne1 then besieged by the duke of ,burgundy4 ,the next day 7,may #be1 #adcj71 heading a sally upon the enemy1 she was repulsed and compelled to retreat after exerting the utmost valor2 when1 having nearly reached the gate of the town1 an ,english archer pursued her and pulled her from her horse4 ,the joy of the ,english at this capture was as great as if they had obtained a complete victory4 ,joan was committed to the care of ,john of ,luxembourg1 count of ,ligny1 from whom the duke of ,bedford purchased the captive for ten thousand pounds1 and a pension of three hundred pounds a year to the bastard of ,vendme1 to whom she surrendered4 ,joan was now conducted to ,rouen1 where1 loaded with irons1 she was thrown into a dungeon1 preparatory to appear before a court assembled to judge her4 ,the trial lasted from the #bast of ,february to the #cjth of ,may1 #adca4 ,the court held forty sittings1 mostly in the chapel of the castle1 some in ,joan's very prison4 ,on her arrival there1 she had been put in an iron cage2 afterward she was kept 8no longer in the cage1 but in a dark room in a tower of the castle1 wearing irons upon her feet1 fastened by a chain to a large piece of wood1 and guarded night and day by four or five soldiers of low grade40 ,she complained of being thus chained2 but the bishop told her that her former attempts at escape demanded this precaution4 8,it is true10 said ,joan1 as truthful as heroic1 8,i did wish and ,i still wish to escape from prison1 as is the right of every prisoner40 ,at her examination1 the bishop required her to take 8an oath to tell the truth about everything as to which she should be questioned40 8,i know not what you mean to question me about2 perchance you may ask me things ,i would not tell you2 touching my revelations1 for instance1 you might ask me to tell something ,i have sworn not to tell2 thus ,i should be perjured1 which you ought not to desire40 ,the bishop insisted upon an oath absolute and without condition4 8,you are too hard on me10 said ,joan2 8,i do not like to take an oath to tell the truth save as to matters which concern the faith40 ,the bishop called upon her to swear on pain of being held guilty of the things imputed to her4 8,go on to something else10 said she4 ,and this was the answer she made to all questions which seemed to her to be a violation of her right to be silent4 ,wearied and hurt at these imperious demands1 she one day said1 8,i come on ,god's business1 and ,i have naught to do here2 send me back to ,god from whom ,i come40 8,are you sure you are in ,god's grace80 asked the bishop4 8,if ,i be not10 answered ,joan1 8please ,god to bring me to it2 and if ,i be1 please ,god to keep me in it60 ,the bishop himself remained dumbfounded4 ,there is no object in following through all its sittings and all its twistings this odious and shameful trial1 in which the judges' prejudiced servility and scientific subtlety were employed for three months to wear out the courage or overreach the understanding of a young girl of nineteen1 who refused at one time to lie1 and at another to enter into discussion with them1 and made no defence beyond holding her tongue or appealing to ,god who had spoken to her and dictated to her that which she had done4 ,in the end she was condemned for all the crimes of which she had been accused1 aggravated by that of heresy1 and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment1 to be fed during life on bread and water4 ,the ,english were enraged that she was not condemned to death4 8,wait but a little10 said one of the judges1 8we shall soon find the means to ensnare her40 ,and this was effected by a grievous accusation1 which1 though somewhat countenanced by the ,levitical law1 has been seldom urged in modern times1 the wearing of man's attire4 ,joan had been charged with this offense1 but she promised not to repeat it4 ,a suit of man's apparel was designedly placed in her chamber1 and her own garments1 as some authors say1 being removed1 she clothed herself in the forbidden garb1 and her keepers surprising her in that dress1 she was adjudged to death as a relapsed heretic1 and was condemned to be burnt in the marketplace at ,rouen 7#adca74 ,,vi4--,,henry ,,of ,,navarre4 ,henry ,,iv4 perfectly understood and steadily took the measure of the situation in which he was placed4 ,he was in a great minority throughout the country as well as the army1 and he would have to deal with public passions1 worked by his foes for their own ends1 and with the personal pretensions of his partisans4 ,he made no mistake about these two facts1 and he allowed them great weight2 but he did not take for the ruling principle of his policy and for his first rule of conduct the plan of alternate concessions to the different parties and of continually humoring personal interests2 he set his thoughts higher1 upon the general and natural interests of ,france as he found her and saw her4 ,they resolved themselves1 in his eyes1 into the following great points3 ,maintenance of the hereditary rights of monarchy1 preponderance of ,catholics in the government1 peace between ,catholics and ,protestants1 and religious liberty for ,protestants4 ,with him these points became the law of his policy and his kingly duty as well as the nation's right4 ,he proclaimed them the first words that he addressed to the lords and principal personages of state assembled around him4 ,on the #dth of ,august1 #aehi1 in the camp at ,st4 ,cloud1 the majority of the princes1 dukes1 lords1 and gentlemen present in the camp expressed their full adhesion to the accession and the manifesto of the king1 promising him 8service and obedience against rebels and enemies who would usurp the kingdom40 ,two notable leaders1 the duke of pernon amongst the ,catholics and the duke of ,la ,trmoille amongst the ,protestants1 refused to join in this adhesion2 the former saying that his conscience would not permit him to serve a heretic king1 the latter alleging that his conscience forbade him to serve a prince who engaged to protect ,catholic idolatry4 ,they withdrew1 ,d'pernon into ,angoumois and ,saintonge1 taking with him six thousand foot and twelve thousand horse2 and ,la ,trmoille into ,poitou1 with nine battalions of reformers4 ,they had an idea of attempting1 both of them1 to set up for themselves independent principalities4 ,three contemporaries1 ,sully1 ,la ,force1 and the bastard of ,angoulme1 bear witness that ,henry ,,iv4 was deserted by as many ,huguenots as ,catholics4 ,the ,french royal army was reduced1 it is said1 to one half4 ,as a make-weight1 ,sancy prevailed upon the ,swiss1 to the number of twelve thousand1 and two thousand ,german auxiliaries1 not only to continue in the service of the new king but to wait six months for their pay1 as he was at the moment unable to pay them4 ,from the #adth to the #bjth of ,august1 in ,ile-de-,france1 in ,picardy1 in ,normandy1 in ,auvergne1 in ,champagne1 in ,burgundy1 in ,anjou1 in ,poitou1 in ,languedoc1 in ,orleanness1 and in ,touraine1 a great number of towns and districts joined in the determination of the royal army4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as the government of ,henry ,,iv4 went on growing in strength and extent1 the moderate ,catholics were beginning1 not as yet to make approaches toward him1 but to see a glimmering possibility of treating with him1 and obtaining from him such concessions as they considered necessary1 at the same time that they in their turn made to him such as he might consider sufficient for his party and himself4 ,unhappily1 the new pope1 ,gregory ,,xiv41 elected on the #eth of ,december1 #aeij1 was humbly devoted to the ,spanish policy1 meekly subservient to ,philip ,,ii42 that is1 to the cause of religious persecution and of absolute power1 without regard for anything else4 ,the relations of ,france with the ,holy ,see at once felt the effects of this2 ,cardinal ,gaetani received from ,rome all the instructions that the most ardent ,leaguers could desire2 and he gave his approval to a resolution of the ,sorbonne to the effect that ,henry de ,bourbon1 heretic and relapsed1 was forever excluded from the crown1 whether he became a ,catholic or not4 ,henry ,,iv4 had convoked the states-general at ,tours for the month of ,march1 and had summoned to that city the archbishops and bishops to form a national council1 and to deliberate as to the means of restoring the king to the bosom of the ,catholic ,church4 ,the legate prohibited this council1 declaring1 beforehand1 the excommunication and deposition of any bishops who should be present at it4 ,the ,leaguer parliament of ,paris forbade1 on pain of death and confiscation1 any connection1 any correspondence with ,henry de ,bourbon and his partisans4 ,a solemn procession of the ,league took place at ,paris on the #adth of ,march1 and1 a few days afterwards1 the union was sworn afresh by all the municipal chiefs of the population4 ,in view of such passionate hostility1 ,henry ,,iv41 a stranger to any sort of illusion1 at the same time that he was always full of hope1 saw that his successes at ,arques were insufficient for him1 and that1 if he were to occupy the throne in peace1 he must win more victories4 ,he recommenced the campaign by the siege of ,dreux1 one of the towns which it was most important for him to possess1 in order to put pressure on ,paris and cause her to feel1 even at a distance1 the perils and evils of war4 ,on ,wednesday1 the #adth of ,march1 #aeij1 the two armies met on the plains of ,ivry1 a village six leagues from ,evreux1 on the left bank of the ,eure4 ,a battle ensued in which1 although the resources of modern warfare were brought into operation1 the decisive force consisted1 as of old1 in the cavalry4 ,it appeared as if ,henry ,,iv4 must succumb to the superior force of the enemy2 further and further backward was his white banner seen to retire1 and the great mass appeared as if they designed to follow it4 ,at length ,henry cried out that those who did not wish to fight against the enemy might at least turn and see him die1 and immediately plunged into the thickest of the battle4 ,it appeared as if the royalist gentry had felt the old martial fire of their ancestry enkindled by these words1 and by the glance that accompanied them4 ,raising one mighty shout to ,god1 they threw themselves upon the enemy1 following their king1 whose plume was now their banner4 ,in this there might have been some dim principle of religious zeal1 but that devotion to personal authority1 which is so powerful an element in war and in policy1 was wanting4 ,the royalist and religious energy of ,henry's troops conquered the ,leaguers4 ,the cavalry was broken1 scattered1 and swept from the field1 and the confused manner of their retreat so puzzled the infantry that they were not able to maintain their ground2 the ,german and ,french were cut down2 the ,swiss surrendered4 ,it was a complete victory for ,henry ,,iv4 ,it was not only as able captain and valiant soldier that ,henry ,,iv4 distinguished himself at ,ivry2 there the man was conspicuous for the strength of his better feelings1 as generous and as affectionate as the king was far-sighted and bold4 ,when the word was given to march from ,dreux1 ,count ,schomberg1 colonel of the ,german auxiliaries called ,reiters1 had asked for the pay of his troops1 letting it be understood that they would not fight1 if their claims were not satisfied4 ,henry had replied harshly1 8,people don't ask for money on the eve of a battle40 ,at ,ivry1 just as the battle was on the point of beginning1 he went up to ,schomberg3 8,colonel10 said he1 8,i hurt your feelings4 ,this may be the last day of my life4 ,i can't bear to take away the honor of a brave and honest gentleman like you4 ,pray forgive me and embrace me40 8,sir10 answered ,schomberg1 8the other day your majesty wounded me1 to-day you kill me40 ,he gave up the command of the ,reiters in order to fight in the king's own squadron1 and was killed in action4 ,the victory of ,ivry had a great effect in ,france and in ,europe1 though not immediately1 and as regarded the campaign of #afij4 ,the victorious king moved on ,paris and made himself master of the little towns in the neighborhood with a view of besieging the capital4 ,the investment became more strict2 it was kept up for more than three months1 from the end of ,may to the beginning of ,september1 #aeij2 and the city was reduced to a severe state of famine1 which would have been still more severe if ,henry ,,iv4 had not several times over permitted the entry of some convoys of provisions and the exit of the old men1 the women1 the children1 in fact1 the poorest and weakest part of the population4 8,paris must not be a cemetery10 he said3 8,i do not wish to reign over the dead40 ,in the meantime1 ,duke ,alexander of ,parma1 in accordance with express orders from ,philip ,,ii41 went from the ,low ,countries1 with his army1 to join ,mayenne at ,meaux1 and threaten ,henry ,,iv4 with their united forces if he did not retire from the walls of the capital4 ,henry ,,iv4 offered the two dukes battle1 if they really wished to put a stop to the investment2 but 8,i am not come so far10 answered the duke of ,parma1 8to take counsel of my enemy2 if my manner of warfare does not please the king of ,navarre1 let him force me to change it instead of giving me advice that nobody asked him for40 ,henry in vain attempted to make the duke of ,parma accept battle4 ,the able ,italian established himself in a strongly entrenched camp1 surprised ,lagny and opened to ,paris the navigation of the ,marne1 by which provisions were speedily brought up4 ,henry decided upon retreating2 he dispersed the different divisions of his army into ,touraine1 ,normandy1 ,picardy1 ,champagne1 ,burgundy1 and himself took up his quarters at ,senlis1 at ,compigne1 in the towns on the banks of the ,oise4 ,the duke of ,mayenne arrived on the #ahth of ,september at ,paris2 the duke of ,parma entered it himself with a few officers and left it on the #acth of ,november1 with his army on his way back to the ,low ,countries1 being a little harassed in his retreat by the royal cavalry1 but easy1 for the moment1 as to the fate of ,paris and the issue of the war1 which continued during the first six months of the year #aeia1 but languidly and disconnectedly1 with successes and reverses see-sawing between the two parties and without any important results4 ,then began to appear the consequences of the victory of ,ivry and the progress made by ,henry ,,iv41 in spite of the check he received before ,paris and at some other points in the kingdom4 ,not only did many moderate ,catholics make advances to him1 struck with his sympathetic ability and his valor1 and hoping that he would end by becoming a ,catholic1 but patriotic wrath was kindling in ,france against ,philip ,,ii4 and the ,spaniards1 those fomenters of civil war in the mere interest of foreign ambition4 ,the ,league was split up into two parties1 the ,spanish ,league and the ,french ,league4 ,the committee of ,sixteen labored incessantly for the formation and triumph of the ,spanish ,league2 and its principal leaders wrote1 on the #bnd of ,september1 #aeia1 a letter to ,philip ,,ii41 offering him the crown of ,france and pledging their allegiance to him as his subjects3 8,we can positively assure your ,majesty10 they said1 8that the wishes of all ,catholics are to see your ,catholic ,majesty holding the scepter of this kingdom and reigning over us1 even as we do throw ourselves right willingly into your arms as in to those of our father1 or at any rate establishing one of your posterity upon the throne40 ,these ringleaders of the ,spanish ,league had for their army the blindly fanatical and demagogic populace of ,paris1 and were1 further1 supported by #d1jjj ,spanish troops whom ,philip ,,ii4 had succeeded in getting almost surreptitiously into ,paris4 ,they created a council of ten1 the sixteenth century's committee of public safety2 they proscribed the policists2 they1 on the #aeth of ,november1 had the president1 ,brisson1 and two councilors of the ,leaguer parliament arrested1 hanged them to a beam and dragged the corpses to the ,place de ,grve1 where they strung them up to a gibbet with inscriptions setting forth that they were heretics1 traitors to the city and enemies of the ,catholic princes4 ,whilst the ,spanish ,league was thus reigning at ,paris1 the duke of ,mayenne was at ,laon1 preparing to lead his army1 consisting partly of ,spaniards1 to the relief of ,rouen1 the siege of which ,henry ,,iv4 was commencing4 ,being summoned to ,paris by messengers who succeeded one another every hour1 he arrived there on the #bhth of ,november1 #aeia1 with #b1jjj ,french troops2 he armed the guard of burgesses1 seized and hanged1 in a ground-floor room of the ,louvre1 four of the chief leaders of the ,sixteen1 suppressed their committee1 restablished the parliament in full authority and1 finally1 restored the security and preponderance of the ,french ,league1 whilst taking the reins once more into his own hands4 ,whilst these two ,leagues1 the one ,spanish and the other ,french1 were conspiring thus persistently1 sometimes together and sometimes one against the other1 to promote personal ambition and interests1 at the same time national instinct1 respect for traditional rights1 weariness of civil war1 and the good sense which is born of long experience1 were bringing ,france more and more over to the cause and name of ,henry ,,iv4 ,in all the provinces1 throughout all ranks of society1 the population non-enrolled amongst the factions were turning their eyes toward him as the only means of putting an end to war at home and abroad1 the only pledge of national unity1 public prosperity1 and even freedom of trade1 a hazy idea as yet1 but even now prevalent in the great ports of ,france and in ,paris4 ,would ,henry turn ,catholic8 ,that was the question asked everywhere1 amongst ,protestants with anxiety1 but with keen desire and not without hope amongst the mass of the population4 ,the rumor ran that1 on this point1 negotiations were half opened even in the midst of the ,league itself1 even at the court of ,spain1 even at ,rome where ,pope ,clement ,,viii41 a more moderate man than his predecessor1 ,gregory ,,xiv41 8had no desire10 says ,sully1 8to foment the troubles of ,france1 and still less that the king of ,spain should possibly become its undisputed king1 rightly judging that this would be laying open to him the road to the monarchy of ,christendom1 and1 consequently1 reducing the ,roman pontiffs to the position1 if it were his good pleasure1 of his mere chaplains0 conomies royales1 t4 ii4 p4 #ajf4 ,such being the existing state of facts and minds1 it was impossible that ,henry ,,iv4 should not ask himself roundly the same question and feel that he had no time to lose in answering it4 ,in spite of the breadth and independence of his mind1 ,henry ,,iv4 was sincerely puzzled4 ,he was of those who1 far from clinging to a single fact and confining themselves to a single duty1 take account of the complication of the facts amidst which they live1 and of the variety of the duties which the general situation or their own imposes upon them4 ,born in the reformed faith1 and on the steps of the throne1 he was struggling to defend his political rights whilst keeping his religious creed2 but his religious creed was not the fruit of very mature or very deep conviction2 it was a question of first claims and of honor rather than a matter of conscience2 and1 on the other hand1 the peace of ,france1 her prosperity1 perhaps her territorial integrity1 were dependent upon the triumph of the political rights of the ,barnese4 ,even for his brethren in creed his triumph was a benefit secured1 for it was an end of persecution and a first step toward liberty4 ,there is no measuring accurately how far ambition1 personal interest1 a king's egotism had to do with ,henry ,,iv4's abjuration of his religion2 none would deny that those human infirmities were present2 but all this does not prevent the conviction that patriotism was uppermost in ,henry's soul1 and that the idea of his duty as king toward ,france1 a prey to all the evils of civil and foreign war1 was the determining motive of his resolution4 ,it cost him a great deal4 ,on the #bfth of ,april1 #aeic1 he wrote to the grand duke of ,tuscany1 ,ferdinand de ,medici1 that he had decided to turn ,catholic 8two months after that the duke of ,mayenne should have come to an agreement with him on just and suitable terms20 and1 foreseeing the expense that would be occasioned to him by 8this great change in his affairs10 he felicitated himself upon knowing that the grand duke was disposed to second his efforts toward a levy of #djjj ,swiss and advance a year's pay for them4 ,on the #bhth of ,april he begged the bishop of ,chartres1 ,nicholas de ,thou1 to be one of the ,catholic prelates whose instructions he would be happy to receive on the #aeth of ,july1 and he sent the same invitation to several other prelates4 ,on the #afth of ,may he declared to his council his resolve to become a convert4 ,this news1 everywhere spread abroad1 produced a lively burst of national and ,bourbonic feeling even where it was scarcely to be expected2 at the states-general of the ,league1 especially in the chamber of the noblesse1 many members protested 8that they would not treat with foreigners1 or promote the election of a woman1 or give their suffrages to any one unknown to them1 and at the choice of his ,catholic ,majesty of ,spain40 ,at ,paris1 a part of the clergy1 the incumbents of ,st4 ,eustache1 ,st4 ,merri1 and ,st4 ,sulpice1 and even some of the popular preachers1 violent ,leaguers but lately1 and notably ,guincestre1 boldly preached peace and submission to the king if he turned ,catholic4 ,the principal of the ,french ,league1 in matters of policy and negotiation1 and ,mayenne's adviser since #aehi1 ,villeroi1 declared 8that he would not bide in a place where the laws1 the honor of the nation and the independence of the kingdom were held so cheap20 and he left ,paris on the #bhth of ,june4 99 99 99 99 99 ,four months after the conclusion of the treaty of ,vervins1 on the #acth of ,september1 #aeih1 ,philip ,,ii4 died at the ,escurial1 and on the #crd of ,april1 #afjc1 a second great royal personage1 ,queen ,elizabeth1 disappeared from the scene4 ,she had been1 as regards the ,protestantism of ,europe1 what ,philip ,,ii4 had been1 as regards ,catholicism1 a powerful and able patron2 but what ,philip ,,ii4 did from fanatical conviction1 ,elizabeth did from patriotic feeling2 she had small faith in ,calvinistic doctrines and no liking for ,puritanic sects2 the ,catholic ,church1 the power of the pope excepted1 was more to her mind than the ,anglican ,church1 and her private preferences differed greatly from her public practices4 ,thus at the beginning of the seventeenth century ,henry ,,iv4 was the only one remaining of the three great sovereigns who1 during the sixteenth1 had disputed1 as regarded religion and politics1 the preponderance in ,europe4 ,he had succeeded in all his kingly enterprises2 he had become a ,catholic in ,france without ceasing to be the prop of the ,protestants in ,europe2 he had made peace with ,spain without embroiling himself with ,england1 ,holland and ,lutheran ,germany4 ,he had shot up1 as regarded ability and influence1 in the eyes of all ,europe4 ,it was just then that he gave the strongest proof of his great judgment and political sagacity2 he was not intoxicated with success2 he did not abuse his power2 he did not aspire to distant conquests or brilliant achievements2 he concerned himself chiefly with the establishment of public order in his kingdom and with his people's prosperity4 ,his well-known saying1 8,i want all my peasantry to have a fowl in the pot every ,sunday10 was a desire worthy of ,louis ,,xii4 ,henry ,,iv4 had a sympathetic nature2 his grandeur did not lead him to forget the nameless multitudes whose fate depended upon his government4 ,he had1 besides1 the rich1 productive1 varied1 inquiring mind of one who took an interest not only in the welfare of the ,french peasantry1 but in the progress of the whole ,french community1 progress agricultural1 industrial1 commercial1 scientific1 and literary4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the #fth of ,january1 #afjj1 ,henry ,,iv4 gave his ambassador1 ,brulart de ,sillery1 powers to conclude at ,florence his marriage with ,mary de' ,medici1 daughter of ,francis ,i4 de' ,medici1 grand duke of ,tuscany1 and ,joan1 archduchess of ,austria and niece of the grand duke ,ferdinand ,i4 de' ,medici1 who had often rendered ,henry ,,iv4 pecuniary services dearly paid for4 ,as early as the year #aeib there had been something said about this project of alliance2 it was resumed and carried out on the #eth of ,october1 #afjj1 at ,florence1 with lavish magnificence4 ,mary embarked at ,leghorn on the #agth1 with a fleet of seventeen galleys2 that of which she was aboard1 the ,general1 was all covered over with jewels1 inside and out2 she arrived at ,marseilles on the #c;d of ,november1 and at ,lyons on the #bnd of ,december1 where she waited till the #ith for the king1 who was detained by the war with ,savoy4 ,he entered her chamber in the middle of the night1 booted and armed1 and next day1 in the cathedral church of ,st4 ,john1 re-celebrated his marriage1 more rich in wealth than it was destined to be in happiness4 ,henry ,,iv4 seemed to have attained in his public and in his domestic life the pinnacle of earthly fortune and ambition4 ,he was1 at one and the same time1 ,catholic king and the head of the ,protestant polity in ,europe1 accepted by the ,catholics as the best1 the only possible1 king for them in ,france4 ,he was at peace with all ,europe1 except one petty prince1 the duke of ,savoy1 ,charles ,emmanuel ,i41 from whom he demanded back the ,marquisate of ,saluzzo or a territorial compensation in ,france itself on the ,french side of the ,alps4 ,after a short campaign1 and thanks to ,rosny's ordnance1 he obtained what he desired1 and by a treaty of ,january #ag1 #afja1 he added to ,french territory ,la ,bresse1 ,le ,bugey1 the district of ,gex and the citadel of ,bourg1 which still held out after the capture of the town4 ,he was more and more dear to ,france1 to which he had restored peace at home as well as abroad1 and industrial1 commercial1 financial1 monumental1 and scientific prosperity1 until lately unknown4 ,sully covered the country with roads1 bridges1 canals1 buildings and works of public utility4 ,the conspiracy of his old companion in arms1 ,gontaut de ,biron1 proved to him1 however1 that he was not at the end of his political dangers1 and the letters he caused to be issued 7,september1 #afjc7 for the return of the ,jesuits did not save him from the attacks of religious fanaticism4 ,the queen's coronation had been proclaimed on the #abth of ,may1 #afaj2 she was to be crowned next day1 the #acth1 at ,st4 ,denis1 and ,sunday the #afth had been appointed for her to make her entry into ,paris4 ,on ,friday1 the #adth1 the king had an idea of going to the ,arsenal to see ,sully1 who was ill2 we have the account of this visit and of the assassination given by ,malherbe1 at that time attached to the service of ,henry ,,iv41 in a letter written on the #aith of ,may1 from the reports of eye witnesses1 and it is here reproduced1 word for word3 8,the king set out soon after dinner to go to the ,arsenal4 ,he deliberated a long while whether he should go out1 and several times said to the queen1 #8,my dear1 shall ,i go or not8' ,he even went out two or three times and then all on a sudden returned1 and said to the queen1 #8,my dear1 shall ,i really go8' and again he had doubts about going or remaining4 ,at last he made up his mind to go1 and having kissed the queen several times1 bade her adieu4 ,amongst other things that were remarked he said to her1 #8,i shall only go there and back2 ,i shall be here again almost directly4' ,when he got to the bottom of the steps where his carriage was waiting for him1 ,m4 de ,praslin1 his captain of the guard1 would have attended him1 but he said to him1 #8,get you gone2 ,i want nobody2 go about your business4' 8,thus1 having about him only a few gentlemen and some footmen1 he got into his carriage1 took his place on the back seat1 at the left hand side1 and made ,m4 d'pernon sit at the right4 ,next to him1 by the door1 were ,m4 de ,montbazon and ,m4 de la ,force2 and by the door on ,m4 d'pernon's side were ,marshal de ,lavardin and ,m4 de ,crqui2 on the front seat the marquis of ,mirabeau and the first equerry4 ,when he came to the ,croix-du-,tiroir he was asked whither it was his pleasure to go2 he gave orders to go toward ,st4 ,innocent4 ,on arriving at ,rue de la ,ferronnerie1 which is at the end of that of ,st4 ,honor on the way to that of ,st4 ,denis1 opposite the ,salamandre he met a cart which obliged the king's carriage to go nearer to the ironmonger's shops1 which are on the ,st4 ,innocent side1 and even to proceed somewhat more slowly1 without stopping1 however1 though somebody1 who was in a hurry to get the gossip printed1 has written to that effect4 ,here it was that an abominable assassin1 who had posted himself against the nearest shop1 which is that with the ,cur couronn perc d'une flche1 darted upon the king and dealt him1 one after the other1 two blows with a knife in the left side1 one1 catching him between the arm-pit and the nipple1 went upward without doing more than graze2 the other catches him between the fifth and sixth ribs1 and1 taking a downward direction1 cuts a large artery of those called venous4 ,the king1 by mishap1 and as if to further tempt this monster1 had his left hand on the shoulder of ,m4 de ,montbazon1 and with the other was leaning on d'pernon1 to whom he was speaking4 ,he uttered a low cry and made a few movements4 ,m4 de ,montbazon having asked1 #8,what is the matter1 sir8' he answered1 #8,it is nothing1' twice2 but the second time so low that there was no making sure4 ,these are the only words he spoke after he was wounded4 8,in a moment the carriage turned toward the ,louvre4 ,when he was at the steps where he had got into the carriage1 which are those of the queen's rooms1 some wine was given him4 ,of course some one had already run forward to bear the news4 ,sieur de ,crisy1 lieutenant of ,m4 de ,praslin's company1 having raised his head1 he made a few movements with his eyes1 then closed them immediately1 without opening them again any more4 ,he was carried up stairs by ,m4 de ,montbazon and ,count de ,curzon en ,quercy and laid on the bed in his closet and at two o'clock carried to the bed in his chamber1 where he was all the next day and ,sunday4 ,somebody went and gave him holy water4 ,i tell you nothing about the queen's tears2 all that must be imagined4 ,as for the people of ,paris1 ,i think they never wept so much as on this occasion40 ,on the king's death--and at the imperious instance of the duke of pernon1 who at once introduced the queen1 and said in open session1 as he exhibited his sword1 8,it is as yet in the scabbard1 but it will have to leap therefrom unless this moment there be granted to the queen a title which is her due according to the order of nature and of justice0--the ,parliament forthwith declared ,mary regent of the kingdom4 ,thanks to ,sully's firm administration1 there were1 after the ordinary annual expenses were paid1 at that time in the vaults of the ,bastile1 or in securities easily realizable1 forty-one million three hundred and forty-five thousand livres1 and there was nothing to suggest that extraordinary and urgent expenses would come to curtail this substantial reserve4 ,the army was disbanded and reduced to from twelve to fifteen thousand men1 ,french or ,swiss4 ,for a long time past no power in ,france had1 at its accession1 possessed so much material strength and so much moral authority4--,guizot4 ,,vii4--,,the ,,court ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ruled everywhere1 over his people1 over his age1 often over ,europe2 but nowhere did he reign so completely as over his court4 ,never were the wishes1 the defects and the vices of a man so completely a law to other men as to the court of ,louis ,,xiv4 during the whole period of his long life4 ,when near to him1 in the palace of ,versailles1 men lived and hoped and trembled2 everywhere else in ,france1 even at ,paris1 men vegetated4 ,the existence of the great lords was concentrated in the court1 about the person of the king4 ,scarcely could the most important duties bring them to absent themselves for any time4 ,they returned quickly1 with alacrity1 with ardor2 only poverty or a certain rustic pride kept gentlemen in their provinces4 8,the court does not make one happy10 says ,la ,bruyre1 8it prevents one from being so anywhere else40 ,the principle of absolute power1 firmly fixed in the young king's mind1 began to pervade his court from the time that he disgraced ,fouquet and ceased to dissemble his affection for ,mdlle4 de ,la ,vallire4 ,she was young1 charming and modest4 ,of all the king's favorites she alone loved him sincerely4 8,what a pity he is a king60 she would say4 ,louis ,,xiv4 made her a duchess2 but all she cared about was to see him and please him4 ,when ,madame de ,montespan began to supplant her in the king's favor1 the grief of ,madame de ,la ,vallire was so great that she thought she should die of it4 ,then she turned to ,god1 in penitence and despair2 and1 later on1 it was at her side that ,madame de ,montespan1 in her turn forced to quit the court1 went to seek advice and pious consolation4 8,this soul will be a miracle of grace10 ,bossuet had said4 ,madame de ,montespan was haughty1 passionate1 8with hair dressed in a thousand ringlets1 a majestic beauty to show off to the ambassadors20 she openly paraded the favor she was in1 accepting and angling for the graces the king was pleased to do her and hers1 having the superintendence of the household of the queen1 whom she insulted without disguise1 to the extent of wounding the king himself3 8,pray consider that she is your mistress10 he said one day to his favorite4 ,the scandal was great2 ,bossuet attempted the task of stopping it4 ,it was the time of the ,jubilee2 neither the king nor ,madame de ,montespan had lost all religious feeling2 the wrath of ,god and the refusal of the sacraments had terrors for them still4 ,bossuet had acted in vain1 8like a pontiff of the earliest times1 with a freedom worthy of the earliest ages and the earliest bishops of the ,church10 says ,st4 ,simon4 ,he saw the inutility of his efforts2 henceforth prudence and courtly behavior put a seal upon his lips4 ,it was the time of the great king's omnipotence and highest splendor1 the time when nobody withstood his wishes4 ,the great ,mademoiselle had just attempted to show her independence2 tired of not being married1 she had made up her mind to a love-match2 she did not espouse ,lauzun just then1 the king broke off the marriage4 8,i will make you so great10 he said to ,lauzun1 8that you shall have no cause to regret what ,i am taking from you2 meanwhile1 ,i make you duke and peer and marshal of ,france40 8,sir10 broke in ,lauzun insolently1 8you have made so many dukes that it is no longer an honor to be one1 and1 as for the bton of marshal of ,france1 your ,majesty can give it me when ,i have earned it by my services40 ,he was before long sent to ,pignerol1 where he passed ten years4 ,there he met ,fouquet and that mysterious personage called the ,iron ,mask1 whose name has not yet been discovered to a certainty by means of all the most ingenious conjectures4 ,it was only by settling all her property on the duke of ,maine after herself that ,mademoiselle purchased ,lauzun's release4 ,the king had given his posts to the prince of ,marcillac1 son of ,la ,rochefoucauld4 ,louis ,,xiv4 entered benevolently into the affairs of a marshal of ,france2 he paid his debts1 and the marshal was his domestic2 all the court had come to that2 the duties which brought servants in proximity to the king's person were eagerly sought after by the greatest lords4 ,bontemps1 his chief valet1 and ,fagon1 his physician1 as well as his surgeon ,marchal1 very excellent men too1 were all-powerful amongst the courtiers4 ,louis ,,xiv4 possessed the art of making his slightest favors prized2 to hold the candlestick at bed-time 7au petit coucher71 to appear in the trips to ,marly1 to play in the king's own game1 such was the ambition of the most distinguished2 the possessors of grand historic castles1 of fine houses at ,paris1 crowded together in attics at ,versailles1 too happy to obtain a lodging in the palace4 ,the whole mind of the greatest personages1 his favorites at the head1 was set upon devising means of pleasing the king2 ,madame de ,montespan had pictures painted in miniature of all the towns he had taken in ,holland2 they were made into a book which was worth four thousand pistoles1 and of which ,racine and ,boileau wrote the text2 people of tact1 like ,m4 de ,langle1 paid court to the master through those whom he loved4 ,all the style of living at court was in accordance with the magnificence of the king and his courtiers2 ,colbert was beside himself at the sums the queen lavished on play4 ,madame de ,montespan lost and won back four millions in one night at bassette2 ,mdlle4 de ,fontanges gave away twenty thousand crowns' worth of ,new ,year's gifts4 ,a new power1 however1 was beginning to appear on the horizon1 with such modesty and backwardness that none could as yet discern it1 least of all could the king4 ,madame de ,montespan had looked out for some one to take care of and educate her children4 ,she had thought of ,madame ,scarron2 she considered her clever2 she was so herself1 8in that unique style which was peculiar to the ,mortemarts10 said the duke of ,st4 ,simon2 she was fond of conversation2 ,madame ,scarron had a reputation for being rather a blue-stocking2 this the king did not like2 ,madame de ,montespan had her way2 ,madame ,scarron took charge of the children secretly and in an isolated house4 ,she was attentive1 careful1 sensible4 ,the king was struck with her devotion to the children entrusted to her4 8,she can love10 he said2 8it would be a pleasure to be loved by her40 ,this expression plainly indicated what was to happen2 and ,madame de ,montespan saw herself supplanted by ,madame ,scarron4 ,the widow of the deformed poet had bought the estate of ,maintenon out of the king's bounty4 ,he made her take the title4 ,the recollection of ,scarron was displeasing to him4 ,the queen had died on the #cjth of ,july1 #afhc1 piously and gently as she had lived4 8,this is the first sorrow she ever caused me10 said the king1 thus rendering homage1 in his superb and unconscious egotism1 to the patient virtue of the wife he had put to such cruel trials4 ,madame de ,maintenon was agitated but resolute4 8,madame de ,montespan has plunged into the deepest devoutness10 she wrote1 two months after the queen's death3 8,it is quite time she edified us2 as for me1 ,i no longer think of retiring40 ,her strong common-sense and her far-sighted ambition1 far more than her virtue1 had secured her against rocks ahead2 henceforth she saw the goal1 she was close upon it1 she moved toward it with an even step4 ,the date has never been ascertained exactly of the king's private marriage with ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,it took place probably eighteen months or two years after the queen's death2 the king was forty-seven1 ,madame de ,maintenon fifty4 8,she had great remains of beauty1 bright and sprightly eyes1 an incomparable grace10 says ,st4 ,simon1 who detested her1 8an air of ease and yet of restraint and respect1 a great deal of cleverness with a speech that was sweet1 correct1 in good terms and naturally eloquent and brief40 ,madame de ,la ,vallire had held sway over the young and passionate heart of the prince1 ,madame de ,montespan over the court1 ,madame de ,maintenon alone established her empire over the man and the king4 ,alone she had any part in affairs1 a smaller part than has frequently been made out1 but important1 nevertheless1 and sometimes decisive4 ,ministers went occasionally to do their work in her presence with the king1 who would turn to her when the questions were embarrassing1 and ask1 8,what does your ,solidity think80 ,the opinions she gave were generally moderate and discreet4 ,whatever the apparent reserve and modesty with which it was cloaked1 the real power of ,madame de ,maintenon over the king's mind peeped out more and more into broad daylight4 ,she promoted it dexterously by her extreme anxiety to please him as well as by her natural and sincere attachment to the children whom she had brought up and who had a place near the heart of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the chief ornament of the ,court of ,versailles was the duchess of ,burgundy4 ,for the king and for ,madame de ,maintenon1 the great and inexhaustible attraction of this young lady was her gaiety and unconstrained ease1 tempered by the most delicate respect1 which1 on coming as quite a child to ,france from the court of ,savoy1 she had tact enough to introduce and always maintain amidst the most intimate familiarity4 8,in public1 demure1 respectful with the king1 and on terms of timid propriety with ,madame de ,maintenon1 whom she never called anything but aunt1 thus prettily blending rank and affection4 ,in private1 chattering1 frisking1 fluttering around them1 at one time perched on the arm of one or the other's chairs1 at another playfully sitting on their knee1 she would throw herself upon their necks1 embrace them1 kiss them1 fondle them1 pull them to pieces1 chuck them under the chin1 tease them1 rummage their tables1 their papers1 their letters1 reading them sometimes against their will1 according as she saw that they were in the humor to laugh at it1 and occasionally speaking thereon4 ,admitted to everything1 even at the reception of couriers bringing the most important news1 going in to the king at any hour1 even at the time the council was sitting1 useful and also fatal to ministers themselves1 but always inclined to help1 to excuse1 to benefit1 unless she were violently set against any body4 ,the king could not do without her2 when1 rarely1 she was absent from his supper in public1 it was plainly shown by a cloud of more than usual gravity and taciturnity over the king's whole person2 and so1 when it happened that some ball in winter or some party in summer made her break into the night1 she arranged matters so well that she was there to kiss the king the moment he was awake and to amuse him with an account of the affair0 ,mmoires de ,st4 ,simon4 ,the dauphiness had died in #afij2 the duchess of ,burgundy was1 therefore1 almost from childhood queen of the court1 and before long the idol of the courtiers2 it was around her that pleasure sprang up2 it was for her that the king gave the entertainments to which he had habituated ,versailles1 not that for her sake or to take care of her health he would ever consent to modify his habits or make the least change in his plans4 8,thank ,god1 it is over10 he exclaimed one day1 after an accident to the princess2 8,i shall no longer be thwarted in my trips1 and in all ,i desire to do1 by the representations of physicians4 ,i shall come and go as ,i fancy2 and ,i shall be left in peace40 ,even in his court and amongst his most devoted servants1 this monstrous egotism astounded and scandalized everybody4 ,flattery1 at ,versailles1 ran a risk of becoming hypocrisy4 ,on returning to a regular life1 the king was for imposing the same upon his whole court2 the instinct of order and regularity1 smothered for a while in the hey-day of passion1 had resumed all its sway over the naturally proper and steady mind of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,his dignity and his authority were equally involved in the cause of propriety and regularity at his court2 he imposed this yoke as well as all the others2 there appeared to be entire obedience2 only some princes or princesses escaped it sometimes1 getting about them a few free-thinkers or boon-companions2 good1 honest folks showed ingenuous joy2 the virtuous and far-sighted were secretly uneasy at the falsehood and deplored the pressure put on so many consciences and so many lives4 ,the king was sincere in his repentance for the past1 many persons in his court were as sincere as he2 others1 who were not1 affected1 in order to please him1 the externals of austerity2 absolute power oppressed all spirits1 extorting from them that hypocritical complaisance which it is liable to engender2 corruption was already brooding beneath appearances of piety2 the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 was to see its deplorable fruits displayed with a haste and a scandal which are to be explained only by the oppression exercised in the last years of ,king ,louis ,,xiv4 ,madame de ,maintenon was like the genius of this reaction toward regularity1 propriety1 order2 all the responsibility for it has been thrown upon her2 the good she did has disappeared beneath the evil she allowed or encouraged2 the regard lavished upon her by the king has caused illusions as to the discreet care she was continually taking to please him4 ,she was faithful to her friends1 so long as they were in favor with the king2 if they had the misfortune to displease him1 she1 at the very least1 gave up seeing them2 without courage or hardihood to withstand the caprices and wishes of ,louis ,,xiv41 she had gained and preserved her empire by dint of dexterity and far-sighted suppleness beneath the externals of dignity4 ,it was through ,madame de ,maintenon and her correspondence with the princess des ,ursins that the private business between the two courts of ,france and ,spain was often carried on4 ,at ,madrid far more than at ,versailles1 the influence of women was all powerful4 ,the queen ruled her husband1 who was honest and courageous1 but without wit or daring2 and the princess des ,ursins ruled the queen1 as intelligent and as amiable as her sister the duchess of ,burgundy1 but more ambitious and more haughty4 ,louis ,,xiv4 had several times conceived some misgiving of the camarera major's influence over his grandson2 she had been disgraced and then recalled2 she had finally established her sway by her fidelity1 ability1 dexterity1 and indomitable courage4 ,she served ,france habitually1 ,spain and her own influence in ,spain always2 she had been charming1 with an air of nobility1 grace1 elegance and majesty all together1 and accustomed to the highest society and the most delicate intrigues1 during her sojourn at ,rome and ,madrid2 she was full of foresight and calculation1 but impassioned1 ambitious1 implacable1 pushing to extremes her amity as well as her hatred1 faithful to her master and mistress in their most cruel trials1 and then hampering and retarding peace for the sake of securing for herself a principality in the ,low ,countries4 ,but the time came for ,madame des ,ursins to make definitive trial of fortune's inconstancy4 ,after having enjoyed unlimited power and influence1 with great difficulty she obtained an asylum at ,rome1 where she lived seven years longer1 preserving all her health1 strength1 mind and easy grace until she died1 in #agbb1 at more than eighty-four years of age1 in obscurity and sadness1 notwithstanding her opulence1 but avenged of her ,spanish foes1 ,cardinals della ,giudice and ,alberoni1 whom she met again at ,rome1 disgraced and fugitive like herself4 8,i do not know where ,i may die10 she wrote to ,madame de ,maintenon1 at that time in retirement at ,st4 ,cyr4 ,both had survived their power2 the princess des ,ursins had not long since wanted to secure for herself a dominion2 ,madame de ,maintenon1 more far-sighted and more modest1 had aspired to no more than repose in the convent which she had founded and endowed4 ,discreet in her retirement as well as in her life1 she had not left to chance the selection of a place where she might die4 8,one has no more luck at our age10 ,louis ,,xiv4 had said to his old friend1 ,marshal ,villars1 returning from his most disastrous campaign4 ,it was a bitter reflection upon himself which had put these words into the king's mouth4 ,after the most brilliant1 the most continually and invariably triumphant of reigns1 he began to see fortune slipping away from him and the grievous consequences of his errors successively overwhelming the state4 8,god is punishing me1 ,i have richly deserved it10 he said to ,marshal ,villars1 who was on the point of setting out for the battle of ,denain4 ,the aged king1 dispirited and beaten1 could not set down to men his misfortunes and reverses2 the hand of ,god himself was raised against his house2 death was knocking double knocks all round him4 ,the grand-dauphin had for some days past been ill of small-pox2 he died in ,april1 #agaa2 the duchess of ,burgundy was carried off by an attack of malignant fever in ,february1 #agab2 her husband followed her within a week1 and their eldest child1 the duke of ,brittany1 about a month afterward4 ,there was universal and sincere mourning in ,france and in ,europe4 ,the most sinister rumors circulated darkly2 a base intrigue caused the duke of ,orleans to be accused2 people called to mind his taste for chemistry and even magic1 his flagrant impiety1 his scandalous debauchery2 beside himself with grief and anger1 he demanded of the king to be sent to the ,bastile2 the king refused curtly1 coldly1 not unmoved in his secret heart by the perfidious insinuations which made their way even to him1 but too just and too sensible to entertain a hateful lie1 which1 nevertheless1 lay heavy on the duke of ,orleans to the end of his days4 ,darkly1 but to more effect1 the same rumors were renewed before long4 ,the duke of ,berry died at the age of twenty-seven1 on the #dth of ,may1 #agad1 of a disease which presented the same features as the scarlet fever 7rougeole pourprc71 to which his brother and sister-in-law had succumbed4 ,the king was old and sad2 the state of his kingdom preyed upon his mind2 he was surrounded by influences hostile to his nephew1 whom he himself called 8a vaunter of crimes40 ,a child who was not five years old remained sole heir to the throne4 ,madame de ,maintenon1 as sad as the king1 8naturally mistrustful1 addicted to jealousies1 susceptibilities1 suspicions1 aversions1 spites1 and woman's wiles0 ,lettres de ,fnelon au duc de ,chevreuse1 being1 moreover1 sincerely attached to the king's natural children1 was constantly active on their behalf4 ,on the #aith of ,july1 #agad1 the king announced to the premier president and the attorney-general of the parliament of ,paris that it was his pleasure to grant to the duke of ,maine and to the count of ,toulouse1 for themselves and their descendants1 the rank of princes of the blood1 in its full extent1 and that he desired that the deed should be enregistered in the parliament4 ,soon after1 still under the same influence1 he made a will which was kept a profound secret1 and which he sent to be deposited in the strong-room 7greffe7 of the parliament1 committing the guardianship of the future king to the duke of ,maine1 and placing him1 as well as his brother1 on the council of regency1 with close restrictions as to the duke of ,orleans1 who would be naturally called to the government of the kingdom during the minority4 ,the will was darkly talked about2 the effect of the elevation of bastards to the rank of princes of the blood had been terrible4 8,there was no longer any son of ,france2 the ,spanish branch had renounced2 the duke of ,orleans had been carefully placed in such a position as not to dare say a word or show the least dissatisfaction2 his only son was a child2 neither the duke 7of ,berry71 his brothers1 nor the prince of ,conti1 were of an age1 or of standing1 in the king's eyes1 to make the least trouble in the world about it4 ,the bombshell dropped all at once when nobody could have expected it1 and everybody fell on his stomach1 as is done when a shell drops2 everybody was gloomy and almost wild2 the king himself appeared as if exhausted by so great an effort of will and power40 ,he had only just signed his will1 when he met1 at ,madame de ,maintenon's1 the ex-queen of ,england4 8,i have made my will1 ,madame10 said he2 8,i have purchased repose2 ,i know the impotence and uselessness of it2 we can do all we please as long as we are here2 after we are gone1 we can do less than private persons2 we have only to look at what became of my father's1 and immediately after his death too1 and of those of so many other kings4 ,i am quite aware of that2 but1 in spite of all that it was desired2 and so1 ,madame1 you see it has been done2 come of it what may1 at any rate ,i shall not be worried about it any more40 ,it was the old man yielding to the entreaties and intrigues of the domestic circle2 the judgment of the king remained steady and true1 without illusions and without prejudices4 ,death was coming1 however1 after a reign which had been so long1 and had occupied so much room in the world1 that it caused mistakes as to the very age of the king4 ,he was seventy-seven1 he continued to work with his ministers2 the order so long and so firmly established was not disturbed by illness any more than it had been by the reverses and sorrows of late4 ,he said to ,madame de ,maintenon once1 8,what consoles me for leaving you1 is that it will not be long before we meet again40 ,she made no reply4 8,what will become of you80 he added3 8you have nothing40 8,do not think of me10 said she3 8,i am nobody2 think only of ,god40 ,he said farewell to her2 she still remained a little while in his room1 and went out when he was no longer conscious4 ,she had given away here and there the few movables that belonged to her1 and now took the road to ,st4 ,cyr4 ,on the steps she met ,marshal ,villeroy3 8,good bye1 marshal10 she said curtly and covered up her face in her coifs4 ,he it was who sent her news of the king to the last moment4 ,the duke of ,orleans1 on becoming regent1 went to see her and took her the patent 7brevet7 for a pension of sixty thousand livres1 8which her disinterestedness had made necessary for her10 said the preamble4 ,it was paid her up to the last day of her life4 ,history makes no further mention of her name2 she never left ,st4 ,cyr4 ,thither the czar ,peter the ,great1 when he visited ,paris and ,france1 went to see her2 she was confined to her bed2 he sat a little while beside her4 8,what is your malady80 he asked her through his interpreter4 8,a great age10 answered ,madame de ,maintenon1 smiling4 ,he looked at her a moment in silence2 then1 closing the curtains1 he went out abruptly4 ,the memory he would have called up had vanished4 ,the woman on whom the great king had1 for thirty years1 heaped confidence and affection was old1 forgotten1 dying2 she expired at ,st4 ,cyr on the #aeth of ,april1 #agai1 at the age of eighty-three4 ,she had left the king to die alone4 ,he was in the agonies2 the prayers in extremity were being repeated around him2 the ceremonial recalled him to consciousness4 ,he joined his voice with the voices of those present1 repeating the prayers with them4 ,already the court was hurrying to the duke of ,orleans2 some of the more confident had repaired to the duke of ,maine's2 the king's servants were left almost alone around his bed2 the tones of the dying man were distinctly heard above the great number of priests4 ,he several times repeated3 8,nunc et in hora mortis40 ,then he said quite loud3 8,o my ,god1 come thou to help me1 haste thee to succor me40 ,those were his last words4 ,he expired on ,sunday1 the #ast of ,september1 #agae1 at eight a4 m4 ,next day he would have been seventy-seven years of age1 and he had reigned seventy-two of them4 ,in spite of his faults and his numerous and culpable errors1 ,louis ,,xiv4 had lived and died like a king4 ,the slow and grievous agony of olden ,france was about to begin4 ,,viii4--,,french ,,literature4 ,for volume and merit taken together the product of these eight centuries of literature excels that of any ,european nation1 though for individual works of the supremest excellence1 they may perhaps be asked in vain4 ,no ,french writer is lifted by the suffrages of other nations--the only criterion when sufficient time has elapsed--to the level of ,homer1 of ,shakspere1 or of ,dante1 who reign alone4 ,of those of the authors of ,france who are indeed of the thirty1 but attain not to the first three1 ,rabelais and ,molire alone unite the general suffrage1 and this fact roughly but surely points to the real excellence of the literature which these men are chosen to represent4 ,it is great in all ways1 but it is greatest on the lighter side4 ,the house of mirth is more suited to it than the house of mourning4 ,to the latter1 indeed1 the language of the unknown marvel who told ,roland's death1 of him who gave utterance to ,camilla's wrath and despair1 and of the living poet who sings how the mountain wind makes mad the lover who can not forget1 has amply made good its title of entrance4 ,but for one ,frenchman who can write admirably in this strain1 there are a hundred who can tell the most admirable story1 formulate the most pregnant reflection1 point the acutest jest4 ,there is thus no really great epic in ,french1 few great tragedies1 and those imperfect and in a faulty kind1 little prose like ,milton's1 or like ,jeremy ,taylor's1 little verse 7though more than is generally thought7 like ,shelley's1 or like ,spenser's4 ,but there are the most delightful short tales1 both in prose and in verse1 that the world has ever seen1 the most polished jewelry of reflection that has ever been wrought1 songs of incomparable grace1 comedies that must make men laugh as long as they are laughing animals1 and above all1 such a body of narrative fiction1 old and new1 prose and verse1 as no other nation can show for art and for originality1 for grace of workmanship in him who fashions1 and for certainty of delight to him who reads4--,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,to be continued4 ,a ,the words in this type call attention to 8,readings0 to follow4 ,,commercial ,,law4 ,by ,,edward ,c4 ,,reynolds1 ,,esq4 ,,ii4--,,notes ,,and ,,bills4 ,although unpleasant papers to have outstanding with one's name attached to them1 at all events when that indicates1 by its position1 personal liability1 yet a knowledge of their leading characteristics is so convenient in a time of a necessity which forces us1 or some with whom we may have mercantile engagements1 to have recourse to them1 that we think best to insert proper forms here4 ,note4 #bjj4 ,,portland1 ,,me41 ,october #a1 #ahhc4 ,thirty days after date ,i promise to pay to ,john ,ray 78or order0 or 8or bearer07 two hundred dollars4 ,value received4 ,,john ,j4 ,,roe4 ,draft1 or ,bill of ,exchange4 #bjj4 ,,portland1 ,,me41 ,october #a1 #ahhc4 ,at thirty days' sight 7or thirty days after date71 pay to the order of ,john ,ray two hundred dollars--value received--and charge same to account of ,to ,,john ,,roe1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,richard ,,roe4 ,if ,john ,roe accepts of the conditions of the bill he will write his name across its face together with the date on which it is done1 prefixing same with the word 8accepted40 ,in the outline analysis given below our readers will readily discover all the essential elements of a contract1 which is of course the foundation principle of commercial paper4 ,,analysis4 ,,place--,portland1 ,maine4 ,,date--,october #a1 #ahhc4 ,,time--,thirty days4 ,,subject ,,matter3 ,note--,promise to pay1 #bjj4 ,bill--,order to pay1 ,,consideration--8,value received40 ,john ,roe1 maker4 ,,note4 ,john ,ray1 payee4 ,,parties3 ,drawer1 ,richard ,roe4 ,,bill4 ,drawee1 ,john ,roe4 ,payee1 ,john ,ray4 ,after acceptance of the bill by ,john ,roe1 the drawee1 he is placed in the same position1 as regards it1 that ,john ,j4 ,roe is in1 as regards the note1 that is1 each becomes primarily liable for its payment4 ,now1 in actual business1 notes and bills similar to those here given become important factors as a medium of exchange1 being recognized as such by virtue of their negotiability1 and proving acceptable as such when the parties thereto are of unquestioned financial ability4 ,what is the ear-mark of negotiability8 ,a note or bill payable to ,john ,ray1 8simply this and nothing more10 is not negotiable1 but payable to a certain person1 with no power to transfer the same1 at least not to make it negotiable4 ,to make it a negotiable instrument we should place after ,john ,ray's name the words 7as found included in parenthesis in forms given71 either 8or bearer0 or 8or order40 ,this done1 the note or bill would be of transferable quality1 or negotiable1 that is1 would be payable to ,john ,ray1 or to him who should by chance gain its possession1 if the words used be 8or bearer30 if 8or order0 then payable to ,john ,ray or to any holder1 providing ,john ,ray had so ordered it paid1 by indorsement4 ,thus it is clearly evident that these evidences of debt1 which is really the significance of commercial paper1 answer the requirements1 in a restricted sense1 of money1 and serve as the consideration for settlement in a great many of the transactions involving sale and exchange1 incident to business enterprises4 ,we must utter here a word of caution in regard to receiving negotiable paper2 which is1 not to accept of it after maturity1 since notes and bills are presumably paid at the time when they become due1 and one taking them after that time1 must remember he takes them subject to this possibility1 or possible existing equities between or among the original parties4 ,negotiability1 the outgrowth of indorsement1 makes it necessary to give some explanation regarding the character of an indorser1 or what his position and liabilities are4 ,an indorser is one who writes his name on the back of a note or bill1 either for the purpose of transfer1 or of assuming liability thereon1 and frequently for both4 ,we shall mention three kinds of indorsement4 ,special indorsement1 indorsement in blank1 and1 as applicable to both1 indorsement without assuming liability1 or without recourse4 ,and first1 if ,john ,ray1 payee named in bill or note1 delivers possession of the same to ,john ,smith1 at the same time writing on the back of it1 8,pay to ,john ,smith or order1 ,john ,ray10 he thereby transfers by special indorsement4 ,after transfer made in this manner1 ,john ,smith1 or any one to whom he may give the power by indorsement1 may collect of the original promisor1 i4 e41 the maker of note or acceptor of bill1 the amount due by clear evidence of the paper itself4 ,not only does this indorsement secure transfer of ownership1 but also creates liability1 for ,john ,ray by it1 without the addition of a restricting or denying clause 7which we shall refer to later71 agrees to personally attend to the payment1 if the parties primarily liable fail to do so4 ,again1 an indorsement in blank is the simple writing of the name1 in this instance1 ,john ,ray's1 by him of course1 on the back of the note or bill1 which1 there being deducible from such indorsement no special directions1 would make it payable to any one into whose possession it might come4 ,either of these indorsements accomplishes a transfer1 and at the same time attaches to ,john ,ray the liability of an indorser4 ,now1 if ,john ,ray sought to avoid such liability1 he would write over his signature1 8,without recourse to me40 ,this would secure transfer simply4 ,an indorsement made by one not mentioned in the note or bill would be for additional security of payee1 and would generally be in blank1 placing the indorser in same responsibilities as assumed by ,john ,ray in the two instances above mentioned and grouped4 ,so much for the parties1 which we now leave to consider briefly the time element1 which is the hope of the payee1 the specter1 ever the cause of unpleasant forebodings to the promisor4 ,in computing time it should be remembered that the words of the note or bill are to be strictly followed2 as1 when it reads a certain number of months1 then the time is to be computed in months2 for example1 omitting days of grace1 a note bearing date ,july #ast1 on two months' time1 will be due ,september #ast4 ,to say that two months are equivalent to sixty days1 and then add sixty days to ,july #ast1 we shall have our note due ,august #cjth1 which would be erroneous4 ,the same would be true of the reverse of the proposition stated2 that is1 if time be stated days1 it would as certainly lead to error1 to compute by months4 ,when does the time commence to run8 ,if a note1 from its date2 if a bill1 from its date1 if it read payable a certain length of time 8from date20 but if it reads1 as for instance1 8at thirty days' sight10 then it commences on the date of its acceptance by the drawee4 ,days of grace1 the use of which has sprung from custom into full fledged law in the course of time1 must not be forgotten4 ,notes and bills1 unless in the body thereof it is expressly stated to the contrary1 have1 added to the time for which they are written1 three days1 known as days of grace2 so that a note given for one month1 and dated ,july #ast1 would not fall due ,august #ast1 but ,august #dth4 ,originally these days were intended to inure to the benefit of the maker of the note1 but such is not the practice or law now2 and that period of three days constitutes a part of the time for which all interests and discounts are computed1 the same as the time expressly mentioned4 ,this is one of the characteristics of bills and notes1 which commercial students and business apprentices are more apt to carelessly forget than any other in the category4 ,we have thus far omitted mention of bank checks1 a very important business medium4 ,the element of time thrown aside1 and the most that we have said regarding notes and bills1 may be applied to checks1 which in reality are bills or drafts payable at sight without grace4 ,in case of non-acceptance of a bill when presented1 or non-payment of the same1 or of note1 when due1 that the drawer in the first instance and indorsers1 if any1 in the latter may be holden to its payment1 resort is ordinarily had to 8protest10 which signifies that acceptance or payment having been legally demanded of parties primarily liable1 and refused1 notice is given the other parties to the paper1 of such refusal1 by a notary public1 who attaches a certificate to the bill or note1 stating fact of such demand and refusal4 ,this may be avoided in the case of indorsers by their 8waiving demand and notice0 at the time of indorsement4 ,in writing commercial paper remember3 ,that the three days of grace allowed are not included in the time written2 ,that1 unless otherwise specified1 tender of payment must be made at payee's place of business2 ,that interest is not collectible1 unless specified1 until after maturity2 ,that the amount written and in figures should be the same2 ,that commercial paper without a date falls due never4 ,interest4 ,a common and very acceptable definition of interest is1 8a compensation paid for the use of money40 ,like other transactions this may be subject to contract agreement1 to an extent however1 varying in the different states4 ,in most of the states the ability of parties to contract in the matter of interest rates1 has been placed under some restraint2 that is1 most of the states have adopted a 8legal rate10 declaring thereby what amount of money shall be paid for the use of money4 ,the reason why the states have assumed to dictate to parties the conditions of their interest contracts is to relieve the borrowers of the hardship of excessive rates1 which1 sometimes by reason of pecuniary embarrassments they would be1 and are1 notwithstanding inhibitions on statute books1 forced to pay2 and further to have a recognized standard rate for contracts where there is no agreement1 which last is a very salutary provision4 ,upon what is interest payable8 ,it is payable on loans1 secured or unsecured1 as per individual contracts1 secured as loans on mortgage security2 unsecured1 represented partly by notes4 ,again1 running accounts between merchants are adjusted on the basis of an interest account1 he paying interest against whom the balance is found2 simple indebtedness1 past due1 creates a legitimate interest claim2 sales of merchandise1 from time of sale1 if no credits are given1 if there are credits then from time of their expiration2 also debts on which court judgment has been secured4 ,time notes1 as has been already observed1 do not begin to draw interest until maturity1 unless it be especially mentioned2 demand notes not until after demand4 ,interest when exacted in excess of legal rates becomes usury1 which1 as already hinted1 is1 in the states generally1 a statutory offence4 ,we indicate here some of the statute provisions in relation to this matter1 viz3 8,permissible by agreement subjects the lender to a penalty of from three to six times the amount of usury taken2 subject simply to have excess recovered2 to lose the whole interest2 an avoidance of whole contract2 forfeiture of the whole debt10 etc4 ,these provisions are of little avail really1 for they are continually in conflict with the law of supply and demand2 and the ingenuity of man settles this conflict in individual cases by cunningly conceived and evasive conditions4 ,where partial payments have been made1 interest may be computed in the following manner1 which has received the sanction of recognized authority3 8,compute interest due on principal sum to the time when a payment1 either alone or in conjunction with preceding payments1 with interest cast on them1 shall equal or exceed interest due on the principal4 ,deduct this sum1 and upon the balance cast interest as before1 until a payment or payments equal the interest due2 then deduct again1 and so on40 ,,sunday ,,readings4 ,,selected ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4,d4 ,,from ,,goulburn',s 8,,thoughts ,,on ,,personal ,,religion40 ,march #b4 ,there is no interruption in the world1 however futile and apparently perverse1 which we may not address ourselves to meet with a spirit of patience and condescension borrowed from our ,master2 and to have made a step in advance in conforming to the mind of ,christ will be quite as great a gain 7probably a far greater7 than if we had been engaged in our pursuit4 ,for1 after all1 we may be too intent upon our business1 or rather intent in a wrong way4 ,the radical fault of our nature1 be it remembered1 is self-will2 and we little suspect how largely self-will and self-pleasing may be at the bottom of plans and pursuits1 which still have ,god's glory and the furtherance of his service for their professed end4 ,reader1 the path which we have indicated is the path not of sanctity only1 but of peace also4 ,we shall never serve ,god with a quiet mind1 unless we more or less tread in this path4 ,it is a miserable thing to be the sport and prey of interruptions2 it wastes the energies of the human spirit1 and excites fretfulness1 and so leads us into temptation1 as it is written1 8,fret not thyself1 else thou shalt be moved to do evil40 ,but suppose the mind to be well grounded in the truth that ,god's foresight and fore-arrangement embrace all which seems to us an interruption--that in this interruption lies awaiting us a good work in which it is part of his eternal counsel that we should walk1 or a good frame of mind which he wishes us to cultivate2 then we are forearmed against surprises and contradictions2 we have formed an alchemy which converts each unforeseen and untoward occurrence into gold2 and the balm of peace distills upon our heart1 even though we be disappointed of the end which we had proposed to ourselves4 ,for which is better1 safer1 sweeter--to walk in the works which ,god hath before ordained1 or to walk in the way of our own hearts and in the sight of our eyes8 ,ah1 reader6 let us seek to grasp the true notion of ,providence1 for in it there is peace and deep repose of soul4 ,life has often been compared to a drama4 ,now1 in a good drama there is one plot1 variously evolved by incidents of different kinds1 which until the last act present entanglement and confusion4 ,vice has its temporary triumphs1 virtue its temporary depressions4 ,what of that8 ,you know it will come right in the end4 ,you know there is an organizing mind which unfolds the story1 and that the poet will certainly bring the whole to a climax by the ultimate indication of righteousness and the doing of poetical justice upon malefactors4 ,to this end every shifting of the scene1 every movement of the actors1 every by-plot and underplot is made to contribute4 ,wheel within wheel is working together toward this result4 ,well1 life is ,god's great drama4 ,it was thought out and composed in the ,eternal ,mind before the mountains were brought forth1 or even the earth and the world were made4 ,in time ,god made a theater for it1 called the earth2 and now the great drama is being acted thereon4 ,it is on a gigantic scale--this drama4 ,the scenes are shifting every hour4 ,one set of characters drops off the stage1 and new ones come on to play much the same part as the first1 only in new dresses4 ,there seem to be entanglements1 perplexities1 interruptions1 confusions1 contradictions without end2 but you may be sure there is one ruling thought1 one master design1 to which all these are subordinate4 ,every incident1 every character1 however apparently adverse1 contributes to work out that ruling thought4 ,think you that the ,divine ,dramatist will leave anything out of the scope of his plot8 ,nay1 the circumference of that plot embraces within its vast sweep every incident which time ever brought to birth4 ,thou knowest that the mind which organized this drama is ,wisdom4 ,thou knowest more2 thou knowest that it is ,love4 ,then of its ending grandly1 wisely1 nobly1 lovingly1 infinitely well for them who love ,god1 there can be no doubt4 ,but remember you are an actor in it2 not a puppet worked by wires1 but an actor4 ,it is yours to study the plot as it unfolds itself1 to throw yourself into it intelligently1 warmly1 zealously4 ,be sure to learn your part well1 and to recite it manfully4 ,be not clamorous for another or more dignified character than that which is allotted you--be it your sole aim to conspire with the ,author1 and to subserve his grand and wise conception4 ,thus shall you cease from your own wisdom4 ,thus shall you find peace in submitting yourself to the wisdom which is of ,god1 and thus1 finally1 shall he pronounce you a good and faithful servant1 and summon you to enter into the joy of your ,lord4 ,march #i4 ,now here comes out another point of holy policy in the combat with temptations4 ,it is wise1 especially when they are at their height1 never to look them full in the face4 ,to consider their suggestions1 to debate with them1 to fight it out with them inch by inch in a listed field1 is1 generally speaking1 a sure way to fail4 ,turn the mind to ,christ at the first assault1 and keep it fixed there with pertinacity1 until this tyranny be overpast4 ,consider him1 if thou wilt1 after the picture here presented to us4 ,think of him as one who walked amidst temptations without ever being submerged by them1 as of one who by his grace can enable his followers to do the same4 ,think of him as calm1 serene1 firm1 majestic1 amidst the most furious agitations and turbulences of nature1 and as one who can endue thy heart with a similar steadfastness4 ,think of him as interceding for his ,church on the ,mount of ,glory1 as watching them while they toil in rowing against the adverse influences which beset them round about upon the sea of life1 as descending on the wings of love to their relief4 ,think of him as standing close by thee in thy immediate neighborhood1 with a hand outstretched for thy support as soon as ever thou lookest toward him4 ,remember that it is not you who are to conquer1 but he who is to conquer in you2 and accordingly1 8even as the eyes of servants wait upon the hand of their masters1 and as the eyes of the maiden upon the hand of her mistress1 even so let your eyes wait upon him1 until he have mercy upon you40 ,no man ever fell in this attitude of expectant faith2 he falls because he allows himself to look at the temptation1 to be fascinated by its attractiveness1 or terrified by its strength4 ,one of the greatest sermons in our language is on the expulsive power of a new affection1 and the principle laid down in that sermon admits of application to the circumstances of which we are speaking4 ,there can be1 of course1 no temptation without a certain correspondence of the inner man with the immediate occasion of the trial4 ,now1 do you desire to weaken this correspondence1 to cut it off and make it cease8 ,fill the mind and heart with another affection1 and let it be the affection for ,christ crucified4 ,thus will the energies of the soul1 which will not suffice for two strong actions at the same time1 be drawn off into another quarter2 and beside1 the great enemy1 seeing that his assaults only provoke you to a continuous exercise of faith1 will soon lay down his arms1 and you shall know experimentally the truth of those words1 8,above all1 taking the shield of faith1 wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked one40 ,there can be no doubt that this counsel of looking only upon ,christ in the hour of temptation will be most needed 7if our conscience and mind be spared us to the end71 in the critical hour when flesh and heart are failing1 and when ,satan for the last time is permitted to assault our faith4 ,we can well imagine that in that hour doubts will be busily instilled of ,christ's love and power1 suggestions of our own unfaithfulness to him in times past and questions as to whether he will now receive us4 ,the soul will then possibly be scared by terrors1 as the disciples in the boat were scared with the thoughts of a phantom1 and will tremble in apprehension of being thrust out from the frail bark of the body into the darkness1 uncertainty1 insecurity of the new and untried element4 ,if such should be the experience of any one who reads these pages1 let him take with him this one counsel of safety1 to look only to ,christ1 and to perish1 if he perishes1 at his feet2 let us refuse to look in any other quarter1 let us steadily turn away our eyes from the doubts1 the painful recollection1 the alarming anticipations which the enemy is instilling4 ,we are not proposing to be saved on the ground of any righteousness in ourselves1 or in any other way than by free grace1 as undone sinners2 then let these words be the motto of the tempest-tossed soul3 8,my soul hangeth upon thee2 thy right hand hath upholden me20 ay1 and let it be the motto now1 in hours when lesser trials assault us4 ,let us make proof even now of the invincibility of the shield of faith1 that we may bring it forth in that hour with greater confidence in its power to shield us4 ,and the hand of an infinite love shall uphold us in the last1 as it has done in previous ordeals1 and the prayer shall be answered1 which we have offered so often over the grave of departed friends3 8,thou knowest1 ,lord1 the secrets of our hearts2 shut not thy merciful ears to our prayer2 but spare us1 ,lord most holy1 ,o ,god most mighty1 ,o holy and merciful ,savior1 thou most worthy ,judge eternal1 suffer us not1 at our last hour1 for any pains of death to fall from thee40 8,my flesh and my heart faileth2 but ,god is the strength of my heart and my portion forever40 8,o thou of little faith1 wherefore didst thou doubt80 ,march #af4 ,never lower your principles to the world's standard4 ,never let sin1 however popular it may be1 have any sanction or countenance from you1 even by a smile4 ,the manly confession of ,christ1 when his cause is unpopular1 is made by himself the condition of his confessing us before men4 ,if people find out that we are earnestly religious1 as they soon will1 if the light is shining1 let us make them heartily welcome to the intelligence1 and allow them to talk and criticise as much as they please4 ,and then1 again1 in order that the lights may shine without obstruction1 in order that it may easily transpire what we are1 we must be simple1 and study simplicity4 ,this is by no means so easy as it at first sight appears2 for in this highly artificial and pretentious age all society is overlaid with numerous affectations4 ,detest affectation1 as the contrary of truth1 and as hypocrisy on a small scale2 and allow yourself freely to be seen by those around you in your true colors4 ,there is an affectation of indifference to all things1 and of a lack of general sensibility1 which is becoming very prevalent in this age1 and which is the sworn foe to all simplicity of character4 ,the persons who labor under this moral disorder pretend to have lost their freshness of interest in every thing2 for them1 as they would have it believed1 there is no surprise and no enthusiasm4 ,without assuming that they are really the unimpressionable creatures which they would make themselves out to be1 we may warn them that the wilful dissembling of a generous emotion is the way to suppress it4 ,as ,christians1 we must eschew untruth in every form2 we must labor to seem just what we are1 neither better nor worse4 ,to be true to ,god and to the thought of his presence all day long1 and to let self occupy as little as possible of our thoughts2 to care much for his approval1 and comparatively little for the impression we are making on others2 to feed the inward light with oil1 and then freely to allow it to shine2 this is the great secret of edification4 ,may he indoctrinate us into it1 and dispose and enable us to illustrate it in our practice4 ,march #bc4 ,see now1 tempted soul1 whether this consideration1 applied to your own case1 may not somewhat lighten thy burden4 ,you are beset by distractions in prayer and meditation4 ,well1 distractions are no sin2 nay1 if struggled against patiently and cheerfully1 they shall be a jewel in thy crown4 ,did you go through with the religious exercise as well as you could1 not willingly harboring the distraction or consenting to it8 ,in this case the prayer was quite as acceptable as if it had been accompanied with those high-flown feelings of fervor and sensible delight which ,god sometimes gives and sometimes1 for our better discipline and humiliation1 withholds4 ,nay1 may we not say1 that it was much more acceptable8 ,do not the ,scriptures give us reason to think that prayer1 persevering amidst difficulties and humiliations1 prayer clinging close to ,christ1 despite his rebuffs1 is more acceptable than the prayer which has its way smooth before it1 and whose wings are filled by the favoring gale8 ,what else are we to learn from the acceptance of ,bartimus's petition1 who cried so much the more when the multitude rebuked him that he should hold his peace8 ,what else from the commendation and recompense of the ,syro-,phnician's faith8 ,wouldst thou know the avenue to the ,savior's heart1 when thou art driven from his footstool by manifold discouragements1 by deadness1 numbness1 insensibility--and he himself seems to cover himself with a cloud1 so that thy prayer may not pass through8 ,confess thyself a dog1 and plead for such crumbs as are the dog's allowed and recognized portion4 ,call to mind the many times when thou hast turned a deaf ear to ,christ's expostulations with thee through thy conscience4 ,reflect that thou hast deserved nothing but repulses1 and to have thy drafts upon him dishonored2 and yet cling to his sacred feet1 while thou sinkest low before him1 resolving not to let him go except he bless thee2 and this act of humility and perseverance shall make thy lame and halting prayer far more acceptable to the ,divine ,majesty than if it sailed to heaven with all the fluency of conscious inspiration1 like ,balaam's prophecy of old1 which was prefaced1 unhappy soul1 by the assertion of his gifts4 ,march #cj4 ,the remedy1 and under ,god's grace the only remedy1 whether in solitude or in company1 is to 8watch0--to 8guard10 as far as in us lies1 8the first springs of thought and will40 ,let us pray and strive for the habit of challenging our sentiments1 and making them give up their passport2 eyeing them wistfully when they apply for admittance1 and seeking to unmask those which have a questionable appearance4''' ,it will be found that all the more grievous falls of the tempted soul come from this--that the keeping of the heart has been neglected1 that the evil has not been nipped in the bud4 ,we have allowed matters to advance to a question of conduct--8shall ,i say this1 or not say it80 8,do this1 or not do it80 ,whereas the stand should be made higher up and the ground disputed in the inner man4 ,as if the mere restraint upon outward conduct1 without the homage of the heart to ,god's law1 could avail us aught1 or be anything else than an offensive hypocrisy in the eyes of the ,heart-searcher6 ,as if ,balaam's refraining from the malediction of the lips1 while his heart was going after his covetousness1 could be acceptable to the ,almighty6 ,balaam1 being an inspired and divinely-commissioned man1 dared not disobey2 for he knew too well what would be the result of such an abuse of his supernatural gifts4 ,but we1 if1 like ,balaam1 we have allowed to evil a free range over our hearts1 are sure to disobey when it comes to a question of conduct1 not being restrained by the fear of miraculous punishment1 which alone held him back4 ,there is therefore no safety for us except in taking our stand at the avenues of the will1 and rejecting at once every questionable impulse4 ,and this1 it is obvious1 can not be done without watchfulness and self-recollection--without a continual bearing in mind where1 and what we are1 and that we have a treasure in our keeping1 of which our foes seek to rob us4 ,endeavor to make your heart a little sanctuary1 in which you may continually realize the presence of ,god1 and from which unhallowed thoughts1 and even vain thoughts must carefully be excluded4 ,,readings ,,in ,,art4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4,b ,we do not know just when this term ,gothic was first applied to the kind of architecture it is used to designate4 ,it was probably intended to indicate something rude or barbaric in its features1 but not that the ,goths themselves invented or practiced it4 ,that uncultured1 warlike race knew little or nothing of architecture2 but when1 in the twelfth century1 there arose in the north countries of ,europe a new style of the art1 those in the east and south1 meaning to charge it with want of refinement1 called it ,gothic4 ,there is not now the slightest reproach in the term1 but rather the contrary4 ,it won high1 and for a time almost universal appreciation among all lovers of art4 ,if1 as compared with what went before1 it is in a sense rude and wild1 these very qualities command respect and admiration4 ,it became the favorite architecture of the fourteenth century1 reaching its highest state of development about the first of the fifteenth4 ,we can but imperfectly note the changes that took place in this style during its prevalence in ,england and other countries1 for it had nearly the same phases in many lands1 though not quite simultaneously4 ,changes were constantly made1 both in language and architecture1 that were not radical or destructive4 ,as the change from the rude ,anglo-,saxon forms of speech to the polished periods of ,addison did not destroy the language1 neither did the progress and improvement of this style of architecture change its identity4 ,its characteristic features were maintained throughout4 ,some or all of these1 8boldness1 naturalness1 grotesqueness and redundancy10 are evident in every stage1 quite enough to vindicate its claim to be ,gothic4 ,many years before the ,roman emperors had introduced into ,europe something like a universal architecture4 ,the buildings of every ,roman colony bore a strong resemblance to those of every other colony and of the metropolis4 ,they were1 in general1 heavy in appearance1 simple in structure1 and had all their arches semi-circular4 ,just what led to a change so marked and general it is perhaps impossible to tell4 ,it was an age of much religious zeal2 not always according to knowledge4 ,in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,lombardy1 and ,south ,italy many costly churches were demanded4 ,a keen rivalry existed among the builders of these churches2 each must be larger and finer than previous examples2 and the details grew more elaborate4 ,architects of ability applied themselves diligently4 ,difficulties of construction that had seemed insuperable were overcome4 ,the pointed arch was adopted1 not only as more beautiful1 but because it could be successfully used in important situations where the other was found impracticable4 ,whatever was lacking in religious society of the age1 grand and liberal ideas were entertained as to the size and cost of churches2 and architects had ample encouragement to do their best4 ,and they did1 both in designing new1 and remodeling old buildings4 ,mr4 ,smith says3 8,at the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities--some due to accident1 some to the quality of the building materials1 and some to other causes1 began to make their appearance in the buildings in various parts of ,europe2 and through the whole ,gothic period they were met with2 still the points of similarity were greater and more numerous than the differences4 ,so1 when we have gone through the course which the style ran in one country where it prevailed1 we have a general outline of the whole1 and may omit to speak particularly of them all without serious loss4 ,on some grounds ,france would be the most suitable to select for the purpose1 as the new order appeared earlier and had a more brilliant course in that country than in any other4 ,but the balance of advantage lies in selection of ,great ,britain4 ,the various phases the art has passed through in that country are well marked2 and even the ,american student1 who can not visit the country1 may acquire some helpful information through engravings and photographs1 that are happily quite common40 ,by far the most important specimens of ,gothic architecture are the cathedrals and large churches4 ,they are more complete as works of art than any other structures1 and in all respects fit examples of pointed architecture4 ,the ground plan of the ,peterborough ,cathedral is especially simple2 give a competent builder the order he is to follow1 and he will need no picture1 the plan tells him the whole4 ,cathedrals are all similarly located as to the points of compass1 and the principal entrance is in the west end4 ,the one mentioned is about five times as long as it is wide4 ,the wall is relieved by a large transept1 the east wall of which begins about one third the distance from the east end4 ,this gives the building the form of a cross4 ,the part from the west end to the crossing of the transept is called the nave4 ,the ends of the transept extend about one-third of the width of the building4 ,the nave is flanked by avenues on each side1 narrower and lower than itself1 called aisles4 ,they are separated from it by a row of columns or piers1 connected by arches4 ,thus the nave has an arcade on each side1 and each aisle has an arcade on one side1 and the outer wall pierced by windows on the other4 ,the strong arches of the arcade carry the walls that rise above the roofs of the aisles4 ,these walls are usually divided internally into two stories4 ,the lower story consists of a series of smaller arches1 forming a second arcade1 called the triforium1 that opens into the dark space above the ceiling of the aisles1 and is hence called the blind story4 ,the upper story has a range of windows1 giving light to the nave1 and is called the clere-story4 ,thus a spectator standing in the nave and looking toward either side1 will see before him the main arcade and side windows1 above the arcade the triforium1 and above this the clere-story1 beautifully illuminated and crowned with the nave1 vault or roof4 ,the great size and height give sublimity to the sight4 ,the east arm of a cathedral is that to which most importance is attached1 and has greater richness and more elaborate finish4 ,when the termination is semi-circular or polygonal it is called an apse or apsidal east end4 ,attached to some of the side walls it is usual to have a series of chapels1 partially shut off from the main building1 yet of easy access4 ,tombs and enclosures connected with them1 called chantry chapels1 are met in various positions1 especially in the eastern arm4 ,below the raised floor of the choir there is a subterranean vaulted structure called the crypt4 ,passing to the exterior1 the principal doorway is in the west front1 deeply recessed1 and elaborate in design4 ,there are also doors in both ends of the transept1 and one or more side entrances4 ,in a complete cathedral the grand architectural effect is principally due to the towers with which it is adorned1 the most massive standing at the crossing of the transept4 ,to cathedrals and abbey-churches a group of monastic buildings was attached2 sometimes very expensive and in the best style of the art4 ,the most important of these is the ,chapter ,house1 which is frequently lofty and highly ornamented4 ,the extent and arrangement of the monastic buildings adjoining the cloister vary with the needs of the different order of monks4 ,the monk's dormitory was on the east side of the great cloister1 the refectory and kitchen on the south1 and on the west the great cellar1 and a hospitum for the entertainment of guests4 ,the house for the abbot1 the infirmary1 the school building for novices1 with its chapel1 and more remotely the granaries1 mills1 bake-houses1 offices1 garden1 cemetery--taken all together1 a monastery shows an extensive group of buildings well arranged for the purposes intended4 ,some military and domestic buildings are also of great interest4 ,in those centuries dwellings of much consequence were all more or less fortified4 ,some were built with a lofty square tower1 called a 8keep10 and capable of standing an assault or a siege4 ,the number and character of the buildings in the enclosure around the keep of course depended on the ability of the proprietor4 ,the outer buildings of the ,tower of ,london1 though much modernized1 give a good idea of what a first-class castle grew1 by successive additions1 to be4 ,in those erected near the close of the thirteenth century1 the square tower was abandoned1 and better provision made for the comfort and convenience of the occupants4 ,warwick ,castle might be cited as a good example of an ,english castelated mansion1 of the time of ,richard ,,ii4 ,but still more interesting is ,haddon ,hall1 the residence of the ,duke of ,rutland1 in ,derbyshire4 ,it consists of two internal quadrangles separated by the great hall1 with its dais1 its minstrel's gallery1 its vast open fire-place1 and its traceried windows4 ,probably nowhere in ,england can the growth of domestic architecture be better studied1 whether we look to the alterations which took place in arrangement1 or to changes in the treatment of windows1 battlements1 doorways1 and other features1 than at ,haddon ,hall4 ,english ,gothic architecture has generally been divided into three periods3 ,the ,early1 the ,decorated1 and the ,perpendicular4 ,the following condensed list of the peculiarities of each period will be found useful for reference4 ,early ,english3 ,general proportions more slender1 and height of walls and columns greater2 arches pointed1 generally lancet1 often richly moulded2 triforium and arcades often with trifoiled heads4 ,piers were more slender1 composed of a central shaft surrounded by several smaller ones almost or quite detached2 capitals concave in outline1 moulded or carved with conventional foliage1 delicately executed4 ,the windows were at first long1 narrow1 and deeply splayed internally1 the glass being within a few inches of the outer face of the wall2 later in style more acute1 divided by mullions1 enriched with cuspated circles in the head1 and often with three or more lights--the center lights being the highest4 ,doorways were deeply recessed1 enriched with slender shafts and elaborate mouldings4 ,buttresses were about equal in projection to their width1 with but one set off1 or without any4 ,the mouldings were bold and deeply undercut4 ,in the ,decorative style the proportions were less lofty1 the arches mostly enclosing an equilateral triangle2 mouldings bold1 finely proportioned1 and often ornamented with ball1 flower1 foliage of ivy1 oak1 and vine leaves1 the execution being natural and beautiful4 ,the ,perpendicular or ,tudor style had walls profusely decorated with paintings1 parapets embattled1 and paneled2 open timber roofs of moderate pitch1 but of elaborate construction1 having hammer beams1 the moulded timbers often richly ornamented with pierced tracery1 and carved figures of angels4 ,ornamental materials of all kinds1 such as mosaic1 enamel1 metal-work1 and inlays were freely employed2 but the crowning invention of ,gothic artists1 which contributed largely to the architectural effect of their finest buildings1 was stained glass4 ,so much of the old glass has perished1 and so much of the new is not even passable1 that this praise may seem extravagant to those who have never seen any of the best specimens that still exist4 ,in the choir at ,canterbury there is a remnant of the best glass in ,england1 and some good fragments remain at ,westminster1 but to judge of glass at its best1 the student must visit ,la ,sainte ,chapelle1 of ,paris1 or the cathedrals at ,chartres1 ,bourges or ,rheims1 when effects in colors are gorgeous in their richness1 brilliancy and harmony4 ,fresco painting may claim a sort of brightness1 and mosaics1 when executed in polished materials1 have some brilliancy1 but in stained glass the light which comes streaming through the window itself gives evidence1 while the quality of the glass determines the colors1 and we thus obtain a glowing luster which can only be compared to the beauty of the richest gems4 ,color was freely introduced both by the employment of colored materials and by painting the interior with colored pigments4 ,painted decorations were constantly made use of with the happiest effect4 ,sculpture is the noblest ornament1 and the ,gothic architects1 of a later day1 seem to have been alive to its use1 as in all their best works statues abounded4 ,if sometimes uncouth1 they always contributed to the effect intended4 ,whether rising to grace and grandeur or sinking to grotesque ugliness1 they had a picturesque power1 and added life to the whole4 ,monsters gaped and grinned from waterspouts2 little figures of strange animals twisted in and out of the foliage at angles and corbels2 stately effigies occupied dignified niches1 and in the head of a doorway there was often carved a whole host of figures representing heaven1 earth1 and hell1 with a rude force and eloquence that1 to the present day1 has not lost its power4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture4 ,toward the close of the fifteenth century men's minds and tastes were ripening for a change4 ,the beautiful ,gothic1 in its most improved characteristics1 did not satisfy4 ,the change first took place in ,italy1 and was closely connected with the revival of letters4 ,there all the characteristics of the middle ages were rapidly thrown off4 ,the old ,roman blood in the ,italians asserted itself1 and almost at a bound literature and the arts put on the old forms they had displayed fifteen hundred years before4 ,in the schools there was a rage for classic ,greek and ,latin2 and among architects old ,roman or ,grco-,roman forms were applied to buildings with much freedom and spirit4 ,the revival of classic taste in art was appropriately called the ,renaissance4 ,in other countries the change came slowly1 and people were not prepared to welcome it unreservedly4 ,in ,france and ,england there was a transition period1 during which most buildings were designed in a mixed style4 ,this in ,england lasted almost through the century4 ,it was indeed a picturesque and telling style1 in its earlier stages called ,tudor1 and later ,elizabethan4 ,in its mixture of classic and ,gothic forms there are often incongruities1 and even monstrosities2 but it allowed unrestrained play for the fancy4 ,some of the best mansions of the time1 such as ,hatfield1 ,hardwick1 and ,audley ,end are unsurpassed in their pleasing picturesqueness4 ,the wide oak staircase1 with its carved balusters1 ornamented newel-post1 and heavy hand-rails1 the old wainscoted parlor1 with its magnificent chimney piece reaching to the ceiling1 are all essentially ,english features1 and full of vigor and life1 as the work of every transition period is likely to prove4 ,the period in ,france produced exquisite works1 more refined and elegantly treated than those in ,england1 but not so vigorous4 ,no modern buildings are so finely ornamented and yet not spoiled4 ,in ,italy ,renaissance churches1 magnificent secular buildings1 and palaces of wealthy families abound1 as in ,naples1 ,rome1 ,florence1 ,genoa1 ,venice1 and indeed in every great city4 ,the plan of ,renaissance buildings was uniform and symmetrical2 not widely different from those in ,italy before the revival of classic art2 but it will be remembered that they were by no means so picturesque or irregular1 at any time1 as were the plans of ,french and ,english churches4 ,the medival use of small materials for external walls1 involving many joints1 has disappeared1 and they are universally faced with stone or plaster1 and consequently smooth4 ,the principal feature to note is the great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry1 in which the joints of the stones are carefully channeled or otherwise marked1 and which is known by the singularly inappropriate name of rustic work4 ,the basements of most ,italian and ,french palaces are thus built1 and in many cases1 as the ,pitti ,palace1 ,florence1 the rustic work covers the whole faade4 ,towers are less frequently employed4 ,in churches they sometimes occur2 none more picturesque than those designed by ,sir ,christopher ,wren for many of his parish churches4 ,but in this style the dome takes the place of the tower1 both in churches and secular buildings4 ,the dome is the glory of ,renaissance architecture1 as it had been of the old ,roman4 ,it is the one feature by which ,renaissance architects had a clear and defined advantage over those of the preceding century1 who had1 strange to say1 almost abandoned the dome4 ,the mouldings and all other ornaments of this order are much the same as those of the ,roman4 ,the sculptures and mural decorations were all originally drawn from classic sources4 ,but these attained very great excellence--the decorative painting of ,raphael and his scholars at ,rome1 ,genoa1 and elsewhere1 probably far exceeding anything which the old ,roman decorative artists ever executed4 ,,rome4 ,in the capital of the country is ,st4 ,peter's1 the most magnificent building of fully developed ,renaissance4 ,beamanti1 a ,florentine1 was the architect1 to whom the task of designing a cathedral to surpass any thing existing in ,europe1 was committed by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 ,the project had been entertained1 and architects worked at it fifty years before2 but nothing satisfactory was done4 ,a new design was now made1 and the first stone laid by the pope in #aejf4 ,beamanti died in seven years1 and six architects1 in succession1 of whom ,raphael was one1 proceeded with the work1 without advancing it rapidly1 for nearly half a century1 during which the design was again and again modified4 ,in #afdf ,michael ,angelo was appointed architect1 and the last eighteen years of his life were spent in carrying on the great work4 ,he completed the magnificent dome in all its essential parts1 and left the church in plan a ,greek cross1 i4 e41 one in which all the four arms are equal1 and the dome at the crossing4 ,the boast is attributed to him that he would 8,take the dome of the ,pantheon and hang it in the air40 ,and this he virtually accomplished in the dome of ,st4 ,peter's2 a work of the greatest beauty of design and boldness of construction4 ,unfortunately for the symmetry of the structure1 the nave was subsequently lengthened1 the existing portico built1 and ,bernini added the vast fore-court1 lined by colonnades1 which now forms the approach1 and sadly obstructs the view4 ,the exterior1 seen from the front1 is disappointing4 ,the faade is so lofty1 and advances so far in front as to quite hide the lower part of the dome4 ,to have an idea of the building1 as ,michael ,angelo designed it1 it is necessary to go round to the back2 and there1 with the height and contour of the dome fully seen1 all its lines of living force carrying the eye with them up to the elegant stone lantern that crowns the summit1 some conception of the hugeness and symmetry of this mountain of art seems to dawn on the mind4 ,but1 from the best point of view1 it is with the utmost difficulty one can apply any scale of measurement to what1 by its vastness and perfection1 is bewildering4 ,the interior is most impressive4 ,the arrangements are simple4 ,passing the vast vestibule1 there is the nave of four bays1 with two side aisles1 and an immense central space1 over which hangs the great dome4 ,there are transepts and a choir1 each with one bay1 and an apse2 and there are two side chapels4 ,since this largest church in the world is divided into so few parts1 all of these must be of colossal dimensions4 ,the piers are wonderful masses of masonry1 while the spaces spanned by the lofty arches and vaults are prodigious4 ,there is no sense of mystery felt about the interior4 ,the eye at once grasps it as a whole1 but hours must be spent before an adequate idea of its gigantic size is at all possible4 ,the beauty of coloring adds wonderfully to the effect4 ,the interior of the dome especially1 and the drum on which it rests1 are decorated in color throughout1 in excellent taste4 ,the designs are simple1 the light to show them is ample2 and though so rich1 there is no impression of excessive decoration4 ,the connection between the dome and the rest of the building seems admirable2 and the spectator standing under its soaring vault has an impression of vastness made by no other work of art4 ,in ,england the new order was introduced with a longer transition period4 ,for a generation or more the style was mixed4 ,in many instances the main lines are ,gothic1 while the details are partly ,gothic and partly modified ,renaissance4 ,this is true of such buildings as ,knowle1 ,penshurst1 ,hardwick1 ,hatfield1 and many others4 ,england has churches that take rank among the best in ,europe1 especially ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london1 which has a world-wide celebrity as second only to ,st4 ,peter's4 ,it falls short of its great rival in size and internal effect2 being almost wholly devoid of the artistic decoration1 in which ,st4 ,peter's is so rich4 ,but the exterior is far finer1 and the building is consistent with itself throughout4 ,the plan of ,st4 ,paul's is a ,latin cross1 with well marked transepts1 a large portico1 and two towers at the west entrance4 ,an apse of small size forms the end of the eastern arm1 and of each of the transepts2 a great dome covers the crossing4 ,the cathedral has a crypt raising the main floor considerably1 and its side walls are carried high above the aisle roofs1 so as to hide the clere-story windows from sight4 ,a great dome1 planted on eight piers1 covers the crossing4 ,the skill with which the dome is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition1 whatever be the point of view2 the great beauty of the circular colonnade immediately below the dome2 the elegant outline of the western towers1 and the unusual but successful distribution of the great porticos1 are among the most noteworthy elements which give a charm to this very successful exterior4 ,but no verbal description can adequately present its excellence2 nor will the reader be fully satisfied with the meager account here given4 ,b ,in the present article on ,gothic architecture the outline of the excellent text-book by ,t4 ,roger ,smith has been followed1 but the extracts have been abridged to the utmost limit that is consistent with clearness in the presentation4 ,,selections ,,from ,,american ,,literature4 ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley4 8,enthusiastic devotion to liberty is one of the greatest charms of ,mr4 ,motley's writings40--,methodist ,quarterly ,review4 8,few writers possess a more picturesque and dramatic style1 or1 by combined freshness and brilliancy1 are more successful in sustaining the interest of the reader40--,h4 ,m4 ,baird1 ,ph4,d4 ,it is perhaps noteworthy that our four leading ,american historians--,bancroft1 ,hildreth1 ,motley and ,prescott--widely dissimilar in some of their characteristics1 were all born in ,massachusetts1 and graduated at ,harvard4 ,a writer can do his best on a theme suited to his taste and genius2 and ,motley wisely chose the ,netherlands as presenting the spectacle of a noble people engaged in a heroic work4 ,extract from 8,rise of the ,dutch ,republic40 ,after giving a vivid description of the three great rivers--the ,rhine1 the ,meuse1 and the ,scheld--which for ages had deposited their slime among the sand banks around their mouths1 the historian continues3 ,such were the rivers which1 with their numerous tributaries1 coursed through the spongy land4 ,their frequent overflow1 when forced back upon their currents by the stormy sea1 rendered the country almost uninhabitable4 ,here1 within a half-submerged territory1 a race of wretched ichthyophagi dwelt upon terpen1 or mounds1 which they had raised1 like beavers1 above the almost fluid soil4 ,here1 at a later day1 the same race chained the tyrant ,ocean and his mighty streams into subserviency1 forcing them to fertilize1 to render commodious1 to cover with a beneficent network of veins and arteries1 and to bind by watery highways with the furthest ends of the world1 a country disinherited by nature of its rights4 ,a region1 outcast of ocean and earth1 wrested at last from both domains their richest treasures4 ,a race1 engaged for generations in stubborn conflict with the angry elements1 was unconsciously educating itself for its great struggle with the still more savage despotism of man4 ,the whole territory of the ,netherlands was girt with forests4 ,an extensive belt of woodland skirted the sea-coast1 reaching beyond the mouths of the ,rhine4 ,along the outer edge of this barrier1 the dunes cast up by the sea were prevented by the close tangle of thickets from drifting further inward1 and thus formed a breastwork which time and art were to strengthen4 ,the groves of ,haarlem and the ,hague are relics of this ancient forest4 ,the ,badahuenna wood1 horrid with ,druidic sacrifices1 extended along the eastern line of the vanished lake of ,flevo4 ,the vast ,hercynian forest1 nine days' journey in breadth1 closed in the country on the ,german side1 stretching from the banks of the ,rhine to the remote regions of the ,dacians1 in such vague immensity 7says the conqueror of the whole country7 that no ,german1 after traveling sixty days1 had ever reached1 or even heard of1 its commencement4 ,on the south1 the famous groves of ,ardennes1 haunted by faun and satyr1 embowered the country1 and separated it from ,celtic ,gaul4 ,thus inundated by mighty rivers1 quaking beneath the level of the ocean1 belted about by hirsute forests1 this low land1 nether land1 hollow land1 or ,holland1 seemed hardly deserving the arms of the all-accomplished ,roman4 ,yet1 foreign tyranny1 from the earliest ages1 has coveted this meager territory as lustfully as it has sought to wrest from their native possessors those lands with the fatal gift of beauty for their dower2 while the genius of liberty has inspired as noble a resistance to oppression here as it ever aroused in ,grecian or ,italian breasts4 ,antwerp ,cathedral4 ,the ,church of ,our ,lady1 which ,philip had so recently converted into a cathedral1 dated from the year #aabd1 although it may be more fairly considered a work of the fourteenth century4 ,its college of canons had been founded in another locality by ,godfrey of ,bouillon4 ,the ,brabantine hero1 who so romantically incarnated the religious poetry of his age1 who first mounted the walls of redeemed ,jerusalem1 and was its first ,christian monarch1 but who refused to accept a golden diadem on the spot where the ,savior had been crowned with thorns2 the ,fleming who lived and was the epic which the great ,italian1 centuries afterward1 translated into immortal verse1 is thus fitly associated with the beautiful architectural poem which was to grace his ancestral realms4 ,the body of the church--the interior and graceful perspectives of which were not liable to the reproach brought against many ,netherland churches1 of assimilating themselves already to the municipal palaces which they were to suggest1 was completed in the fourteenth century4 ,the beautiful faade1 with its tower1 was not completed till the year #aeah4 ,the exquisite and daring spire1 the gigantic stem upon which the consummate flower of this architectural creation was to be at last unfolded1 was a plant of a whole century's growth4 ,rising to a height of nearly five hundred feet1 over a church of as many feet in length1 it worthily represented the upward tendency of ,gothic architecture4 ,externally and internally the cathedral was a true expression of the ,christian principle of devotion4 ,amid its vast accumulations of imagery1 its endless ornaments1 its multiplicity of episodes1 its infinite variety of details1 the central1 material principle was ever visible4 ,every thing pointed upward1 from the spire in the clouds to the arch which enshrined the smallest sculptured saint in the chapels below4 ,it was a sanctuary1 not like pagan temples1 to enclose a visible deity1 but an edifice where mortals might worship an unseen being in the realms above4 ,the church1 placed in the center of the city1 with the noisy streets of the busiest metropolis in ,europe eddying around its walls1 was a sacred island in the tumultuous main4 ,through the perpetual twilight1 tall columnar trunks in thick profusion grew from a floor chequered with prismatic lights and sepulchral shadows4 ,each shaft of the petrified forest rose to a preternatural height1 their many branches intermingling in the space above1 to form an impenetrable canopy4 ,foliage1 flowers and fruit of colossal luxuriance1 strange birds1 beasts1 griffins and chimeras in endless multitudes1 the rank vegetation and the fantastic zology of a fresher or fabulous world1 seemed to decorate and to animate the serried trunks and pendant branches1 while the shattering symphonies or dying murmurs of the organ suggested the rushing of the wind through the forest--now the full diapason of the storm1 and now the gentle cadence of the evening breeze4 ,,george ,,bancroft4 8,bancroft's writings are as well worthy of study1 both for form and substance1 as any that have been produced on ,american soil40--,john ,mc,clintock1 ,,ll4,d4 8,his every paragraph is animated with a philanthropic1 liberal and progressive spirit40--,d4 ,d4 ,whedon1 ,d4,d4 8,the work of ,mr4 ,bancroft may be considered as a copious philosophical treatise1 tracing the growth of the idea of liberty in a country designed by ,providence for its development4 ,it is written in a style marked by singular elaborateness1 compactness1 and scholarly grace1 and is esteemed one of the noblest monuments of ,american literature40--,american ,cyclopdia4 ,william ,penn4 ,penn1 despairing of relief in ,europe1 bent the whole energy of his mind to accomplish the establishment of a free government in the ,new ,world4 ,for that 8heavenly end0 he was prepared by the severe discipline of life1 and the love1 without dissimulation1 which formed the basis of his character4 ,the sentiment of cheerful humanity was irrepressibly strong in his bosom4 ,as with ,john ,eliot and ,roger ,williams1 benevolence gushed prodigally from his ever-flowing heart1 and when1 in his late old age1 his intellect was impaired1 and his reason prostrated by apoplexy1 his sweetness of disposition rose serenely over the clouds of disease4 ,possessing an extraordinary greatness of mind1 vast conceptions1 remarkable for their universality and precision1 and surpassing in speculative endowments1 conversant with men1 with books1 and governments1 with various languages1 and the forms of political combinations as they existed in ,england and ,france1 in ,holland1 and the principalities and free cities of ,germany1 he yet sought the source of wisdom in his own soul4 ,humane by nature and suffering1 familiar with the royal family1 intimate with ,sunderland and ,sydney1 acquainted with ,russel1 ,halifax1 ,shaftesbury and ,buckingham1 as a member of the ,royal ,society1 the peer of ,newton1 and the great scholars of his age--he valued the promptings of a free mind more than the awards of the learned1 and reverenced the simple minded sincerity of the ,nottingham shepherd more than the authority of colleges and the wisdom of philosophers4 ,and now1 being in the meridian of life1 but a year older than was ,locke1 when1 twelve years before1 he had framed a constitution for ,carolina1 the ,quaker legislator was come to the ,new ,world to lay the foundation of states4 ,would he imitate the vaunted system of the great philosopher8 ,locke1 like ,william ,penn1 was tolerant2 both loved freedom2 both cherished truth in sincerity4 ,but ,locke kindled the torch of liberty at the fires of tradition2 ,penn at the living light in the soul4 ,locke sought truth through the senses and the outward world2 ,penn looked inward to the divine revelations in every mind4 ,locke compared the soul to a sheet of white paper1 just as ,hobbs had compared it to a slate1 on which time and chance might scrawl their experience2 to ,penn the soul was an organ which of itself instinctively breathes divine harmonies1 like those musical instruments which are so curiously and perfectly framed1 that1 when once set in motion they of themselves give forth all the melodies designed by the artist who made them4 ,to ,locke1 8,conscience is nothing else than our own opinion of our own actions20 to ,penn it is the image of ,god1 and his oracle in the soul4 ,locke1 who was never a father1 esteemed 8the duty of parents to preserve their children to not be understood without reward and punishment20 ,penn loved his children1 with not a thought for the consequences4 ,locke1 who was never married1 declares marriage an affair of the senses2 ,penn reverenced woman as the object of fervent1 inward affection1 made1 not for lust1 but for love4 ,in studying the understanding ,locke begins with the sources of knowledge2 ,penn with an inventory of our intellectual treasures4 ,locke deduces government from ,noah and ,adam1 rests it upon contract1 and announces its end to be the security of property2 ,penn1 far from going back to ,adam1 or even to ,noah1 declares that there must be a people before a government1 and1 deducing the right to institute the government from man's moral nature1 seeks its fundamental rules in the immutable dictates of universal reason1 its end in freedom and happiness4 ,the system of ,locke lends itself to contending factions of the most opposite interests and purposes2 the doctrine of ,fox and ,penn being but the common creed of humanity1 forbids division1 and insures the highest moral unity4 ,to ,locke1 happiness is pleasure2 things are good and evil only in reference to pleasure and pain2 and to inquire after the highest good is as absurd as to dispute whether the best relish be in apples1 plums or nuts2 ,penn esteemed happiness to be in the subjection of the baser instincts to the instinct of ,deity in the breast1 good and evil to be eternally and always as unlike as truth and falsehood1 and the inquiry after the highest good to involve the purpose of existence4 ,locke says plainly that1 but for rewards and punishments beyond the grave it is certainly right to eat and drink1 and enjoy what we delight in2 ,penn1 like ,plato and ,fnelon1 maintained the doctrine so terrible to despots1 that ,god is to be loved for his own sake1 and virtue to be practiced for its intrinsic loveliness4 ,locke derives the idea of infinity from the senses1 describes it as purely negative1 and attributes it to nothing but space1 duration and number2 ,penn derived the idea from the soul1 and ascribed it to truth and virtue1 and to ,god4 ,locke declares immortality a matter with which reason has nothing to do1 and that revealed truth must be sustained by outward signs and visible acts of power2 ,penn saw truth by its own light1 and summoned the soul to bear witness to its own glory4 ,locke believed 8not so many men in wrong opinions as is commonly supposed1 because the greatest part have no opinions at all1 and do not know what they contend for20 ,penn likewise vindicated the many1 but it was because truth is the common inheritance of the race4 ,locke1 in his love of tolerance1 inveighed against the methods of persecution as 8,popish practices20 ,penn censured no sect1 but condemned bigotry of all sorts as inhuman4 ,locke1 as an ,american lawgiver dreaded a too numerous democracy2 ,penn believed that ,god is in every conscience1 his light in every soul2 and therefore1 stretching out his arms1 he built--such are his own words--8a free colony for all mankind40 ,this is the praise of ,william ,penn1 that1 in an age which had seen a popular revolution shipwreck popular liberty among selfish factions1 which had seen ,hugh ,peters and ,henry ,vane perish by the hangman's cord and the ax2 in an age when ,sydney nourished the pride of patriotism rather than the sentiment of philanthropy1 when ,russel stood for the liberties of his order1 and not for new enfranchisements1 when ,harrington and ,shaftesbury and ,locke thought government should rest on property--,penn did not despair of humanity1 and1 though all his history and experience denied the sovereignty of the people1 dared to cherish the noble idea of man's capacity for self-government4 ,conscious that there was no room for its exercise in ,england1 the pure enthusiast1 like ,calvin and ,descartes1 a voluntary exile1 was to come to the banks of the ,delaware to institute the 8,,holy ,,experiment40 ,,william ,h4 ,,prescott4 8,to ,prescott belongs the rare distinction of uniting solid merit with extensive popularity4 ,he has been exalted to the first class of historians1 both by the popular voice and the suffrages of the learned4 ,by avoiding all tricks of flippancy or profundity to court any class of readers1 he has pleased all40--,e4 ,p4 ,whipple4 8,mr4 ,prescott's leading excellence is that healthy objectiveness of mind which enables him to represent persons and events in their just relation4 ,the scenery1 characters and incidents with which his history deals1 are all conceived with singular intensity1 and appear on his page instinct with their peculiar life4 ,the mind of the author yields itself with a beautiful readiness to the inspiration of his subject1 and he leads the reader along with him through every scene of beauty and grandeur in which the stirring adventures he narrates are placed40--,review4 ,isabella of ,spain and ,elizabeth of ,england4 ,it is in the amiable qualities of her sex that ,isabella's superiority becomes most apparent over her illustrious namesake1 ,elizabeth of ,england1 whose history presents some features parallel to her own4 ,both were disciplined in early life by the teachings of that stern nurse of wisdom1 adversity4 ,both were made to experience the deepest humiliation at the hands of their nearest relative1 who should have cherished and protected them4 ,both succeeded in establishing themselves on the throne after the most precarious vicissitudes4 ,each conducted her kingdom through a long and triumphant reign1 to a height of glory which it had never before reached4 ,both lived to see the vanity of all earthly grandeur1 and to fall the victims of an inconsolable melancholy2 and both left behind an illustrious name1 unrivaled in the subsequent annals of the country4 ,but with these few circumstances of their history1 the resemblance ceases4 ,their characters afford scarcely a point of contact4 ,elizabeth1 inheriting a large share of the bold and bluff ,king ,harry's temperament1 was haughty1 arrogant1 coarse1 irascible2 while with these fiercer qualities she mingled deep dissimulation and strange irresolution4 ,isabella1 on the other hand1 tempered the dignity of royal station with the most bland and courteous manners4 ,once resolved1 she was constant in her purposes2 and her conduct in public and private life was characterized by candor and integrity4 ,both may be said to have shown that magnanimity which is implied by the accomplishment of great objects in the face of great obstacles4 ,but ,elizabeth was desperately selfish2 she was incapable of forgiving1 not merely a real injury1 but the slightest affront to her vanity2 and she was merciless in exacting retribution4 ,isabella1 on the other hand1 lived only for others--was ready at all times to sacrifice self to considerations of public duty2 and far from personal resentments1 showed the greatest condescension and kindness to those who had most sensibly injured her2 while her benevolent heart sought every means to mitigate the authorized severities of the law1 even toward the guilty4 ,both possessed rare fortitude4 ,isabella1 indeed1 was placed in situations which demanded more frequent and higher displays of it than her rival2 but no one will doubt a full measure of this quality in the daughter of ,henry the ,eighth4 ,elizabeth was better educated1 and every way more accomplished than ,isabella4 ,but the latter knew enough to maintain her station with dignity2 and she encouraged learning by a munificent patronage4 ,the masculine powers and passions of ,elizabeth seemed to divorce her in a great measure from the peculiar attributes of her sex2 at least from those which constitute its peculiar charm2 for she had abundance of its foibles--a coquetry and love of admiration which age could not chill2 a levity most careless1 if not criminal2 and a fondness for dress and tawdry magnificence of ornament which was ridiculous1 or disgusting1 according to the different periods of life in which it was indulged4 ,isabella1 on the other hand1 distinguished through life for decorum of manners and purity beyond the breath of calumny1 was content with the legitimate affection which she could inspire within the range of her domestic circle4 ,far from a frivolous affectation of ornament or dress1 she was most simple in her own attire1 and seemed to set no value on her jewels1 but as they could serve the necessities of the state2 when they could be no longer useful in this way1 she gave them away to her friends4 ,both were uncommonly sagacious in the selection of their ministers1 though ,elizabeth was drawn into some errors in this particular by her levity1 as was ,isabella by religious feeling4 ,it was this1 combined with her excessive humility1 which led to the only grave errors in the administration of the latter4 ,her rival fell into no such errors1 and she was a stranger to the amiable qualities which led to them4 ,the circumstances of their deaths1 which were somewhat similar1 displayed the great dissimilarity of their characters4 ,both pined amidst their royal state1 a prey to incurable despondency rather than any marked bodily distemper4 ,in ,elizabeth it sprung from wounded vanity1 a sullen conviction that she had outlived the admiration on which she had so long fed--and even the solace of friendship and the attachment of her subjects4 ,nor did she seek consolation1 where alone it was to be found in that sad hour4 ,isabella1 on the other hand1 sunk under a too acute sensibility to the sufferings of others4 ,but amidst the gloom which gathered around her1 she looked with the eye of faith to the brighter prospects which unfolded of the future2 and when she resigned her last breath1 it was amidst the tears and universal lamentations of her people4 ,the ,character of ,corts4 ,his character is marked with the most opposite traits1 embracing qualities apparently the most incompatible4 ,he was avaricious1 yet liberal2 bold to desperation1 yet cautious and calculating in his plans2 magnanimous1 yet very cunning2 courteous and affable in his deportment1 yet inexorably stern2 lax in his notions of morality1 yet 7not uncommon7 a sad bigot4 ,the great feature in his character was constancy of purpose2 a constancy not to be daunted by danger1 nor baffled by disappointment1 nor wearied out by impediments and delays4 ,he was a knight-errant1 in the literal sense of the word4 ,of all the band of adventurous cavaliers whom ,spain1 in the sixteenth century1 sent forth on the career of discovery and conquest1 there was none more deeply filled with the spirit of romantic enterprise than ,hernando ,corts4 ,dangers and difficulties1 instead of deterring1 seemed to have a charm in his eyes4 ,they were necessary to rouse him to a full consciousness of his powers4 ,he grappled with them at the outset1 and1 if ,i may so express myself1 seemed to prefer to take his enterprises by the most difficult side4 ,he conceived1 at the first moment of his landing in ,mexico1 the design of its conquest4 ,when he saw the strength of its civilization1 he was not turned from his purpose4 ,when he was assailed by the superior force of ,narvaez1 he still persisted in it2 and1 when he was driven in ruin from the capital1 he still cherished his original idea4 ,after the few years of repose which succeeded the conquest1 his adventurous spirit impelled him to that dreary march across the marshes of ,chiapa2 and1 after another interval1 to seek his fortunes on the stormy ,californian ,gulf4 ,when he found that no other continent remained for him to conquer1 he made serious proposals to the emperor to equip a fleet at his own expense1 with which he would sail to the ,moluccas1 and subdue the ,spice ,islands for the ,crown of ,castile6 ,this spirit of knight-errantry might lead us to undervalue his talents as a general1 and to regard him merely in the light of a lucky adventurer4 ,but this would be doing him injustice1 for ,corts was certainly a great general1 if that man be one1 who performs great achievements with the resources which his own genius has created4 ,there is probably no instance in history where so vast an enterprise has been achieved by means apparently so inadequate4 ,,united ,,states ,,history4 ,,english ,,discoveries ,,and ,,settlements4 ,in #adif ,john ,cabot1 a merchant of ,venice1 but of ,english birth1 under the patronage of ,henry ,,vii41 made a voyage of discovery1 accompanied by his son ,sebastian1 who became eminent as a bold1 skilful navigator4 ,they sailed into ,hudson's ,bay1 exploring the shore line for some hundreds of miles1 and returned4 ,this was really the first discovery of ,america1 and some months before ,columbus reached the main land4 ,no important results followed immediately4 ,two years later ,sebastian ,cabot sailed for the new continent in command of a squadron of well manned vessels4 ,the northwest passage to ,india was doubtless the objective point of the voyage2 but1 failing in that1 he gained much valuable knowledge of the country4 ,the whole coast of ,new ,england1 and of the ,middle ,states1 was now1 for the first time since the days of the ,erricksons1 traced by ,europeans4 ,in #adih a fruitless attempt was made to colonize the country he had discovered4 ,some three hundred men were left on the coast of ,labrador for this purpose1 many of whom perished1 and all who survived were a year after carried back to ,england4 ,for reasons that do not fully appear ,cabot was during most of his active life in the service of ,spain1 having been appointed chief pilot1 and honored beyond all others who then sailed the seas4 ,when seventy years old he again visited his native country2 was received with much favor1 and remained some years the active patron of ,english enterprise4 ,though for almost a century there was no actual possession of the lands thus made known1 ,cabot's work proved of inestimable importance to the ,british crown4 ,he traced the eastern coast of ,north ,america through more than twenty degrees of latitude1 and established the claim of ,england to the best portion of the ,new ,world4 ,others of like adventurous spirit followed in the work of discovery4 ,frobisher1 ,drake1 ,gilbert and ,grenville1 all men of influence1 successively came to ,america1 but failed to establish permanent settlements4 ,in a few months the colonists either returned in disappointment or perished4 ,the last voyage made by the ,english before their permanent occupancy of the country was in #afje4 ,george ,waymouth1 under the patronage of the ,earl of ,southampton1 came to anchor off the coast of ,maine4 ,he explored the harbor1 sailed some distance up the river1 and opened a profitable trade with the ,indians1 some of whom learned to speak ,english1 and accompanied ,waymouth on his homeward voyage4 ,efforts that continued at intervals through a century1 though for the most part barren of the immediate results that were sought1 were not altogether in vain1 and they served to keep secure the partial knowledge that had been gained1 and to sustain the hopes that were often dashed with disappointment4 ,in ,april1 #afjf1 ,king ,james ,i4 issued two patents1 one to an association of noble gentlemen and merchants1 called the 8,london ,company10 the other to an association organized in the southwest part of ,england1 called the 8,plymouth ,company40 ,the grants were alike liberal1 but only the ,london ,company succeeded under its charter1 in planting an ,american colony4 ,the other company lost their first ship that was sent out1 captured by a ,spanish man-of-war4 ,the year following they sent out a company of one hundred colonists1 and began a settlement on the ,kennebec river under what seemed favorable circumstances4 ,but the winter of #afjg-'h proved very severe4 ,some were starved1 some frozen1 their storehouse burned1 and when summer came the survivors1 as in other unfortunate attempts1 escaped to ,england4 ,the ,london ,company's fleet of three vessels1 under command of ,christopher ,newport1 carried one hundred and five colonists1 reached the ,american coast in ,april1 intending to land in the neighborhood of ,roanoke ,island1 but a storm carried them into the ,chesapeake4 ,coasting along the southern shore of the magnificent bay1 they entered the mouth of a broad1 beautiful river that they called ,james1 in honor of the ,king4 ,proceeding up the river about fifty miles they founded ,jamestown1 the first ,english settlement in ,america4 ,this was more than a hundred years after the discovery of the continent by ,cabot1 so long a time did it take for the ,english to get any permanent possession of the country discovered4 ,for all these long years they seemed to reap nothing but loss and misfortune from their enterprise4 ,not a single spot on the vast continent1 now mostly peopled by their children1 was as yet the settled habitation of an ,englishman2 while ,spain and ,france had wonderful successes in the first century of their career of conquest and colonization4 ,but their prosperity was not enduring4 ,the invaders who treated the native inhabitants with murderous cruelty1 were in turn oppressed by the home government1 and1 struggling for relief1 plunged into the most deplorable anarchy4 ,by injustice1 mismanagement and tyranny1 ,spain alienated her once numerous dependencies4 ,france too1 whose subjects planted many flourishing colonies1 lost them1 not because of her oppression1 but from want of ability to afford them sufficient protection4 ,england1 the last to commence settling the western hemisphere1 but finally bringing to the task a spirit of progress and strength unknown to her predecessors1 has founded an empire mightier and more enduring than any of its compeers2 now lost indeed to her private aggrandizement1 but not to the honor of her name1 or the best interest of mankind2 an empire already prosperous beyond all example in history1 and destined1 it is probable1 to yet unite under its genial protection every league of the vast continent1 stretching from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and from the tropical forests of ,darien to the eternal snows of the ,arctic circle4,c ,among the gentlemen in the colony on ,james river there were those of better culture and higher position1 but none equaled1 in intrepid courage1 force of character and practical wisdom1 ,captain ,john ,smith4 ,there were none who contributed so much to the success of the enterprise4 ,he had been1 from his early life1 an adventurer1 inured to hardships1 and fearless in danger4 ,he returned to ,england from the war with the ,turks1 in which he became distinguished for prowess and valor1 in time to join the colonists1 and was appointed by ,king ,james a member of the council4 ,as the appointments were1 very unwisely1 under seal1 and made known only after they reached their destination1 there was no legitimate authority during the voyage1 and a state of almost anarchy prevailed4 ,though no one of the number possessed a truer manhood1 ,smith was accused of plotting the massacre of the council1 and for a time deprived of his liberty1 but when tried1 fully acquitted4 ,many of the colonists being gentlemen unused to labor or hardships of any kind1 were sadly unfit for the difficult enterprise4 ,exposure and want brought on malignant diseases4 ,the fort1 built for defense1 was filled with the sick1 and in a few months half their number perished4 ,bad management and dishonesty added to the calamities that were suffered4 ,the first two ,governors were found guilty of embezzlement and of attempting to desert in the company's ship4 ,the third had neither talents nor courage1 and gave up the office1 for which he was incompetent4 ,in their distress ,smith was chosen ,governor1 and did much to avert the calamities which all1 at length1 saw impending4 ,unable1 at first1 to induce the colonists to labor1 or to seek the needed supplies by cultivating the soil1 he obtained corn and other provisions from the ,indians by trading1 making some quite extensive trips for the purpose1 and1 by his courage and address1 acquired great influence over the savages4 ,in one of his excursions up the ,chickahominy three of his company were killed1 and he1 after a terrible struggle1 taken captive1 and came near losing his life4 ,when condemned to die1 bound and placed in position to be slain by the war-club of a stalwart1 painted savage1 ready for the bloody tragedy1 the stern chief yielded to the entreaties of his favorite daughter1 ,pocahontas1 released his captive1 and made a covenant of peace with him4 ,this was not only a most touching event1 but of great historical importance4 ,the loss of their ,governor at that critical juncture would have taken away all hope of continuing the settlement at ,jamestown4 ,his influence with the colonists was great1 and greater with the natives of the country4 ,he seemed to them without fear1 while the natural dignity1 kindness and manliness of his bearing awed and conciliated the most hostile tribes4 ,soon after his departure from the colony a most trying crisis came1 and they were saved only by the timely arrival of men and supplies from the mother country4 ,other ,governors succeeded1 some of whom did wisely4 ,the lands first held in common were divided1 and the owners required to cultivate them4 ,in #afai a ,dutch trader brought some negroes from ,africa1 which were sold to the richer planters4 ,thus slavery began1 and its blighting influence was long felt both there and in the other colonies4 ,it was at first found profitable1 and the population increased so rapidly that in less than forty years from the date of the first charter the little band in ,virginia had grown to over twenty thousand4 ,in the meantime some settlements were made in ,carolina by ,virginians1 and also by ,puritans from ,new ,england1 without chartered rights1 and with alternations of success and disaster4 ,in #affc liberal grants were issued by ,charles ,,ii41 and colonization advanced more rapidly4 ,but the colonial government1 adopted not by the people but by the proprietors1 was a kind of landed aristocracy1 that was distasteful1 and the arrogant demands of the ruling class were met with rebellion4 ,an attempt was made at self-government1 which succeeded so far as to show that aristocratic institutions and customs were not suited to the wilderness2 and the famous constitution1 framed with much labor by ,lord ,shaftsbury and the justly celebrated ,dr4 ,locke1 was abandoned1 as its provisions were found oppressive and impracticable4 ,the ,indians1 once numerous in the ,carolinas1 for a time gave much trouble1 but through pestilence1 wars and drunkenness their power was broken1 and they rapidly faded away4 ,,settlement ,,of ,,new ,,england4 ,in #afjg the ,plymouth ,company made an unsuccessful attempt on the ,kennebec2 but1 though baffled and hindered1 the purpose of colonization was not abandoned4 ,in #afji ,captain ,smith1 injured by an accident1 and disheartened by the unhappy state of the colony at ,jamestown1 returned to ,london to interest others in the settlement of ,america4 ,time was needed to make the preparation2 and in #afad he came in command of two ships to the coast of lower ,maine1 explored the country1 and drew maps of the whole coast line from the ,penobscot to ,cape ,cod1 and called the region ,new ,england4 ,no colony was then planted4 ,months and years were consumed fruitlessly in making and unmaking plans that proved impracticable1 or at best failed in the execution2 till in #afag the ,plymouth ,company was superseded by the ,council of ,plymouth1 consisting of forty of the most wealthy and influential men of the kingdom4 ,they planned magnificently1 and made many fair promises2 but the spirit of the enterprise was intensely secular if not selfish1 and the hopes cherished were again disappointed4 ,the actual settlement of ,new ,england was begun by men of more earnest spirit and loftier aim1 to whom conscience and the love of liberty were a higher law4 ,the ,pilgrims1 a class of deeply conscientious non-conformists1 who1 because of the persecutions endured1 had in the land of their birth no certain abiding place1 and many of whom for ten years found an asylum in ,holland1 had now1 by some mysterious influence1 turned their thoughts and hopes to the ,new ,world4 ,they had known the bitterness of leaving home and country for conscience sake1 had in their voluntary exile cultivated habits of industry1 gained strength of character by the things they suffered1 and were now ready to encounter any difficulty to find a home1 though in the far-off ,american wilderness4 ,with no charter or grant of land from the king they could only obtain consent of the ,company to occupy some uninhabited part of that vast and rather indefinite tract then known as ,virginia1 and between #cd and #de north latitude4 ,after much difficulty they obtained two vessels1 the 8,speedwell0 and 8,may-,flower40 ,the former1 being found unseaworthy1 returned to ,plymouth1 and the 8,may-,flower0 proceeded with one hundred and one colonists4 ,encountering fierce storms it was a long1 perilous passage of sixty-three days2 and being compelled to land outside the limits of the ,virginia ,company's jurisdiction1 and so without any government1 they proceeded at once to form one4 ,all the men of the company1 forty-one in number1 signed the constitution before leaving the ship4 ,it was brief but comprehensive1 and1 with an honest avowal of allegiance to the crown1 democratic in the most explicit sense4 ,on ,monday1 the #aath of ,december1 #afbj1 the ,pilgrims landed on the ,rock of ,plymouth1 on the western shore of ,cape ,cod4 ,it was late in the season1 and though all possible efforts were made to provide themselves shelter1 and some means of defense in case of attack1 there was much sickness1 suffering and death during the winter4 ,an early spring brought relief to those who survived2 and1 from year to year1 their decimated ranks were recruited by new arrivals4 ,treaties of peace were made with the ,indians2 the fields and forests furnished food1 and in a short time the colony numbered thousands4 ,other settlements were made1 and in ten years spread over the country from ,cape ,ann to ,plymouth4 ,before the end of the next decade some fifty towns and villages dotted the country1 and the signs of thrift were most encouraging4 ,w4 ,stevens1 a ship builder1 had already launched an ,american vessel of four hundred tons burden2 and two hundred and ninety-three immigrant ships had anchored in ,massachusetts ,bay1 and more than #bj1jjj ,europeans had found homes as the outcome of the humble beginning at ,plymouth4 ,but the good men who had suffered much for conscience' sake1 and that they might enjoy liberty1 were not themselves free from the bigotry they spurned and became cruelly intolerant of those who dared differ from them4 ,but that narrowness was soon overcome1 and measures unworthy of them overruled for good4 ,the banishment of the eloquent ,roger ,williams and others who pleaded for complete religious toleration1 and declared that the consciences of men are in no way bound by the authority of the magistrate1 so far from quenching the spirit of freedom that burned in his manly words1 gave it wider scope and richer fruitage4 ,the exile1 finding favor with the ,indians1 whose rights he had so nobly defended1 soon became1 by purchase1 the owner of ,rhode ,island4 ,he founded the city of ,providence and established a little republic1 in whose constitution freedom of conscience was guaranteed1 and persecution for opinion's sake forbidden4 ,moreover1 his influence in ,massachusetts was scarcely less than it would have been had he remained4 ,the seed was sown1 and the fruit very soon appeared4 ,the aristocracy that was growing up in spite of all disclaimers was overthrown1 a representative government established1 and the good ,puritans1 without compromising their orthodoxy1 became more tolerant toward such as 8followed not with them40 ,the colonies of ,rhode ,island1 ,maryland and ,pennsylvania were the first civil communities in which free toleration in religion was granted1 but the leaven was working4 ,a nation was fast growing up in the wilderness1 whose resources were rapidly developing4 ,but the scattered communities were much exposed1 and1 for mutual defense1 the colonies of ,plymouth1 ,massachusetts ,bay1 ,connecticut and ,new ,haven united in #afdc1 forming the 8,united ,colonies of ,new ,england40 ,the union lasted forty years1 and foreshadowed the union of the ,united ,states4 ,in union they found strength1 and increased still more rapidly in all the resources of a prosperous community4 ,they had council chambers1 churches1 school houses1 and printing presses1 with probably as large a proportion of educated and highly cultured people as are found in any new settlement4 ,that many were strangely superstitious1 bigoted and intolerant2 that lives1 otherwise noble and praiseworthy1 were stained with acts of injustice and cruelty1 is confessed with sorrow2 but it only proves them men with the weaknesses and faults that belong to our common humanity4 ,their virtues alone are worthy of imitation4 ,while rapid progress was made in the east1 and popular government was becoming securely established1 the work of colonization was pushed vigorously in other sections1 and1 in less than fifty years1 there had been planted fifteen colonies1 most of which prospered greatly4 ,in #afcf ,providence united with ,rhode ,island1 in #afgg ,maine with ,massachusetts1 and in #afhb ,new ,haven with ,connecticut4 ,of those eventually forming the 8,empire0 and 8,keystone0 states mention will be made hereafter4 ,c ,abridged from 8,people's ,history40 ,end of ,required ,reading for ,march4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a correspondent asks3 8,what is the meaning of #8,creole8' ,to whom is it applied1 and why80 ,the word is ,french--the ,spanish being nearly the same4 ,it means primarily to create1 but also to nourish1 educate1 bring up4 ,it was first applied to children of ,french and ,spanish parentage born in the ,west ,indies or in ,louisiana1 because they were brought up in the country to which their parents came as colonists4 ,the name is honorable4 ,the influence of climate and other circumstances made these children of ,european parentage differ somewhat in appearance from their ancestors4 ,they were less hardy and robust1 but more beautiful4 ,the term 8,creoles0 is sometimes applied to all born in tropical climates1 as they have some common characteristics4 ,,helen',s ,,tower4 ,by ,,charles ,,blatherwick4 ,helen's tower1 here ,i stand1 ,dominant over sea and land4 ,son's love built me1 and ,i hold ,mother's love engraved in gold4 ,love is in and out of time1 ,i am mortal stone and lime4 ,would my granite girth were strong ,as either love1 to last as long1 ,i should wear my crown entire ,to and thro' the ,doomsday fire1 ,and be found of angel eyes ,in earth's recurring ,paradise4--,a4 ,tennyson4 ,halfway up ,belfast ,lough1 on the high ground to the left you may see a remarkable landmark4 ,this is ,helen's ,tower1 built by the present ,earl of ,dufferin as a tribute of filial affection to his mother1 the late ,countess of ,gifford1 and formally named after her on attaining his majority4 ,looking across from the grey old walls of ,carrickfergus1 it may be seen crowning the highest hill on the ,claudeboye estate4 ,clear cut against the sky1 there it stands1 lashed by the winds or touched by the sun1 ever firm and enduring--a fitting memorial of one of the best and noblest of women4 ,lady ,gifford was a ,sheridan1 one to whom wit and beauty came as natural gifts1 yet one who dipped deeply into the font of human knowledge1 and by pure sympathy with all that was good and beautiful in life1 exerted a lasting influence on all those whose privilege it was to know her4 ,a short drive from ,bangor1 or1 still better1 a pleasant two-mile stretch across the turf from ,claudeboye ,house1 will bring you to the foot of the hill4 ,here1 glimmering amid ferns1 sedges1 birches1 and firs1 very calm and peaceful on a golden autumn day1 with ,helen's ,tower reflected on its face1 is a quiet lake4 ,then a smart climb through a fir wood1 and the tower--a veritable ,scotch tower1 with 8corbie stairs0 and jutting turrets all complete--is before you4 ,at the basement lives the old keeper with his wife2 and here1 after inscribing your name in the visitors' book1 you follow him up the stone steps4 ,the sleeping chamber first4 ,a cosy little room1 remarkable for the fine specimen of ,french embroidery which decorates the bedstead1 with the quaint inscription on the tester-- 8,i 4 nightly 4 pitch 4 my 4 moving 4 tent ,a 4 day's 4 march 4 nearer 4 home40 ,from here you are taken to the top4 ,looking east on a clear day the view is superb4 ,from ,claudeboye woods and lakes1 ,belfast ,lough and the ,antrim hills on the left1 the eye sweeps round to ,cantire and the ,scotch coast1 till distance is lost in the dim range of ,cumberland hills4 ,descending again1 we enter the principal chamber--octagonal1 oak-paneled1 with groined pointed ceiling and stained-glass windows4 ,on these are numerous quaint designs1 intermixed with the signs of the zodiac1 showing the pursuits of mankind during the progress of the seasons--from the sturdy sower of spring to the shrivelled old man warming his toes by the winter fire4 ,over the fire-place is a niche for a silver lamp1 and flanking the west window are two poetical inscriptions--that on the left1 printed in gold and having reference to the lamp1 is by ,lord ,dufferin's mother2 and that on the right1 printed in bold black type1 is by the poet-laureate4 ,on reading ,lady ,gifford's graceful verses1 we are pathetically reminded that she was not spared to see her son's brilliant career4 ,i give them here1 and the laureate's sonorous lines stand at the head of this paper4 ,,to ,,my ,,dear ,,son ,,on ,,his ,,twenty-,,first ,,birthday4 ,with a ,silver ,lamp4--8,fiat ,lux40 ,how shall ,i bless thee8 ,human ,love ,is all too poor in passionate words6 ,the heart aches with a sense above ,all language that the lip affords6 ,therefore1 a symbol shall express ,my love2--a thing nor rare nor strange1 ,but yet--eternal--measureless-- ,knowing no shadow and no change6 ,light6 which of all the lovely shows ,to our poor world of shadows given1 ,the fervent ,prophet-voices chose ,alone--as attribute of ,heaven6 ,at a most solemn pause we stand6 ,from this day forth1 for evermore1 ,the weak1 but loving1 human hand ,must cease to guide thee as of yore6 ,then as through life thy footsteps stray ,and earthly beacons dimly shine1 8,let there be ,light0 upon thy way1 ,and holier guidance far than mine4 8,let there be ,light0 in thy clear soul1 ,when ,passion tempts1 or ,doubts assail1 ,when ,grief's dark tempests o'er thee roll 8,let there be ,light0 that shall not fail6 ,so--angel guarded--may'st thou tread ,the narrow path1 which few may find2 ,and at the end look back1 nor dread ,to count the vanished years behind6 ,and pray1 that she whose hand doth trace ,this heart-warm prayer1 when life is past1 ,may see and know thy blessed face ,in ,god's own glorious ,light at last6--,good ,words4 ,mr4 ,robert ,browning has also written lines upon this 8,tower10 and has consented to their publication in a late issue of the ,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,in an introduction to the poem1 the ,gazette remarks3 8,the difference in treatment of the same subject by the two poets will1 we are sure1 interest our readers4 ,mr4 ,browning's tribute to the love-inducing qualities of the late ,lady ,gifford was no mere compliment1 as all who knew her will bear witness40 8,,helen',s ,,tower40 ,who hears of ,helen's ,tower1 may dream1 perchance1 ,how the ,greek ,beauty from the ,scan ,gate ,gazed on old friends unanimous in hate1 ,death-doom'd because of her fair countenance4 ,hearts would leap otherwise at thy advance1 ,lady1 to whom this ,tower is consecrate6 ,like hers1 thy face once made all eyes elate1 ,yet1 unlike hers1 was blessed by every glance4 ,the ,tower of ,hate is outworn1 far and strange2 ,a transitory shame of long ago1 ,it dies into the sand from which it sprang2 ,but thine1 ,love's rock-built ,tower1 shall fear no change2 ,god's self laid stable earth's foundation so1 ,when all the morning stars together sang4 --,robert ,browning4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the traces of human deeds fade swiftly away from the sun-lighted earth1 as the transient shade of thought from the brow1 but nothing is lost and dissipated1 which the rolling hours1 replete with secrets1 have received into their dark creative bosom4 ,time is a blooming field2 nature is ever teeming with life1 and all is seed1 and all is fruit4--,schiller4 ,,mendelssohn',s ,,grave ,,and ,,humboldt',s ,,home4 ,by the ,author of 8,german-,american ,housekeeping10 etc4 ,i wish this article could be accompanied by a pen and ink sketch made on the spot of ,mendelssohn's grave and that of his sister ,fanny4 ,the simplicity of it would surprise you1 as it astonished me1 on one ,sunday afternoon when1 in company with a friend1 ,i wandered in search of the resting place of him whose songs need no words4 ,we had both imagined some lofty monument would mark the spot1 and that in order to find it1 it would only be necessary to inquire of some one in the vicinity4 ,pursuing this plan1 to our utter amazement we only received an ignorant stare from plebeian and patrician4 ,finally being told by an old gentleman1 8if we would go beyond the ,canal-strasse in the direction of the ,belle-alliance ,platz down the ,schneberger ,ufer through a narrow street10 we would come to a gate opening into a cemetery1 which we must pass through1 before reaching a smaller cemetery1 in which ,mendelssohn was buried4 ,after many efforts we roused the old porter who kept the key to the latter gate4 ,we walked rapidly in1 expecting to see something in monumental art worthy of the name1 but the artless old porter pointed to a grave in the corner and there1 overshadowed by some trees1 stood the plain slabs with the names of ,felix1 ,fanny and ,august ,mendelssohn4 ,a curious sense of the incongruous came over us while standing by the simple stones and recalling the solemn and appropriate demonstration at the time of ,felix ,mendelssohn's death1 made in every city and town where his genius had been known4 ,was it true that here in this small1 unknown grave-yard they had left him8 ,was it to yonder small gate the four horses in black accoutrements drew the carriage containing the coffin covered with palm-branches1 laurel-wreaths and flowers8 ,and did the great choirs and orchestras of the city pass through with the grand choral1 8,jesus my trust10 preceded by all ,germany's musicians1 the clergy1 civil officers1 professors1 officers of the army1 and the immense throng of admirers8 ,perplexed by such thought we followed the old porter1 who had started with a watering pot to the grave beyond1 and asked if a monument was to be erected to ,mendelssohn's memory4 8,ach1 nein1 er war einer ,jude1 und deshalb ist er vernachlssigt40 ,a ,jew1 therefore is his grave neglected4 ,when ,paul and ,barnabas turned to the ,gentiles it was because the ,jews 8had judged themselves unworthy of everlasting life40 ,but we are never told that a penitent ,jew was treated differently from any one else in the days of the ,apostles4 ,although a ,jew by birth1 ,felix ,mendelssohn's character wanted no principle of the genuine ,christian4 ,never was feeling more sacred and profound1 expressed in harmonious strain than he expressed in his great oratorio of 8,st4 ,paul0 and 8,elijah10 nor can the praise of ,god be more grandly heard on earth than in the double chorus of his ,,xlii4 ,psalm1 when well rendered1 or again1 when with his pious heart he wished to show the triumph at the creation of light over darkness1 which ends with a beautiful duet1 8,therefore ,i sing thy everlasting praise1 thou faithful ,god40 ,we are told that ,mendelssohn spent his last days laboring over a new oratorio--8,christ40 ,it was commenced during his stay in ,italy1 and while rambling among the mountains of ,switzerland he is said to have been inspired with the theme for his work1 which he hoped to make his best4 ,never was wealth used more wisely and religiously than his4 ,not only did he clothe the naked and feed the hungry1 but every one who came near him with aspirations for an ennobling life he advanced4 ,he undertook a tremendous amount of labor in giving concerts in ,leipzig1 the proceeds of which were devoted to the statue of ,bach4 ,at first he undertook to erect such a monument out of his own means1 saying 8that it was only right that ,john ,sebastian ,bach1 who had labored so usefully and with such distinguished honor as cantor at the ,thomas school at ,leipzig1 should have a monument in the streets of the city in which he had lived1 as an immortal spirit of harmony40 ,at these concerts he allowed only ,bach's music to be produced1 intending in this way1 he said1 to make the rising generations of musicians more familiar with the works of one to whom he felt under the greatest weight of obligation1 and whom he is said to have resembled in the severity of his studies as well as the loftiness of his aims4 ,but this is the expression of ,mendelssohn's best friends2 adverse criticism has much to say1 and while his motives were pure and his compositions genuine and vivacious1 yet in sublime combinations and serious themes ,bach and ,beethoven can alone be compared4 ,every winter in ,berlin the oratorios of 8,elijah0 and 8,st4 ,paul0 are given in the ,sing-,academy4 ,this old music hall is a place of memorial scenes1 the directorship of which ,mendelssohn once applied for1 at the earnest solicitation of his friends1 and was refused4 ,the enthusiastic audiences which now assemble there to hear his music seem to be as forgetful of this as they are ignorant of the little secluded grave-yard in the outskirts of the city where his immense throng of friends and admirers left him twenty years ago4 ,in beautiful imitation of his noble efforts for ,bach's monument could an appropriation of the money secured by the rendering of his great oratorio be made--an idea which occurs to the mind of strangers in ,berlin1 but unfortunately not to the citizens1 who are less disposed in this case than the ,greeks to honor their dead1 and who more readily ridicule in ,mendelssohn's death than praise such sentiment as the following3 8,by the sea's margin1 by the sea's strand1 ,thy monument1 ,themistocles shall stand2 ,by it directed to thy native shore1 ,the merchant shall convey his freighted store1 ,and when her fleets are summoned to the fight1 ,athens shall conquer with thy grave in sight40 ,it had never occurred to the ,berliners to raise a monument to ,goethe until two years ago1 and ,alexander and ,wilhelm von ,humboldt have just been recognized in this way4 8,tegel10 the grand old home of ,alexander1 is seldom seen by visitors1 that is to say1 it is not frequented by the traveler as ,potsdam and ,charlottenburg4 ,an interesting place1 and an interesting master it had1 8who had trod many lands1 known many deeds1 probed many hearts1 beginning with his own1 and was far in readiness for ,god40 ,his grave is just beyond the house1 at the end of an avenue4 ,his home has been inherited by a niece1 and is kept up in all the elegance of former years4 ,the grounds are very handsome1 so densely covered in places with magnificent old trees along avenues stretching beyond the house and grave4 ,these forest trees are very rare in this low sandy region4 ,after driving for miles through barren land with only occasional forests of stiff pines1 to come suddenly upon trees which somewhat resemble our ,american oak1 bestows a happy home-like feeling to the ,american who has wandered from her primeval forests4 ,the house at 8,tegel0 is built in the most rigid style1 relieved on the outside by niches filled with good pieces of statuary4 ,within every room is painfully neat--the formality with which the furniture is placed shows evidence that the owner had no wife and no children4 ,it is an attempt at an ,italian villa1 but seems too cold and formal for such a climate as ,berlin4 ,there is certainly taste displayed and cultivation evinced in the selection of many things4 ,the library is filled with books1 principally works of ,humboldt and ,voltaire4 ,on the tables are large portfolios containing maps and cartoons4 ,the desk with the pen and inkstand remain just as he left them4 ,indeed1 there is only a suggestion here and there1 that the niece is living and owning the place--it seems as if she were a ghost and her life a myth--so still and so orderly are the rooms1 and so undisturbed hang the red apples by the house4 ,indeed1 the house seems as silent as the stately avenue of oaks that leads to the grave4 ,humboldt left a handsome fortune to this niece1 for he lived and died a bachelor4 ,he owned many valuable pieces of statuary4 ,the original of ,thorwaldsen's ,venus was purchased by ,humboldt with much pride1 it is said1 and placed in his collection with other rare pieces found at various places in his travels4 ,among other curious possessions a mutilated old fountain from ,pompeii stands in the hall4 ,the floors are tiles1 as one generally finds in ,germany1 and the saloon which contains the finest statuary suggests ,goethe's lines in 8,mignon30 8,und ,marmor ,bilder stehen und sehen mich an40 ,what is there in the make up of literary men which prompts them almost invariably to isolate themselves in some far removed country place8 ,the explanation which is generally given by themselves is1 that their time being so precious they can not be interrupted2 their ideas will not grow and flourish in the midst of the talkative world4 ,emerson tells of the literary man who declared 8the solitary river was not solitary enough2 the sun and moon put him out4 ,when he bought a house the first thing he did was to plant trees4 ,he could not enough conceal himself40 ',tis worse1 and tragic ,emerson goes on to remark that no man is fit for society who has fine traits4 8,at a distance he is admired1 but bring him hand to hand1 he is a cripple40 ,he affects to be a good companion2 but is he entitled to marry8 ,but happily for our love of ,emerson1 in the same essay he observes1 8,a man must be clothed with society or we shall feel a certain bareness and poverty40 8,for behavior1 men learn it as they take diseases1 one of another40 8,but people are to be taken in small doses40 8,solitude is impracticable and society fatal40 ,whoever talked more to the point than this wise philosopher8 ,carlyle talked more wisely1 because his spiritual sky was less nebulous1 perhaps--but who shall judge of this8 ,all men who have written have subjected themselves to criticism1 and criticism is desirable1 provided it originates with good and honest intentions4 ,madame d',stal wanted to hear it1 not to read it6 and if more authors and literary people would live as ,goethe1 as ,macaulay1 as ,madame d',stal1 as the recent ,german novelist1 ,berthold ,auerbach1 in the midst of their friends or foes as they may chance to be1 hearing the arguments for and against them1 would they not have fewer words and paragraphs to regret at the end of their career8 ,goethe wanted to hear all that could be said of him1 that he might the more cleverly understand what he was1 what he was writing for1 and where his lessons were to be honored4 ,berthold ,auerbach was in hearty sympathy with all about him--always living in the heart of the city1 seeing his friends once a week through special invitation1 as well as whenever they called1 and observing his birthdays with a childish interest4 ,one day1 finding him sitting on a sofa1 back of a table covered with flowers and fruits and presents of various kinds1 we at once knew it was his birthday1 and expressed a regret that we had not come in with an offering4 8,oh1 that does not matter1 so you bring yourselves2 the presents are only from those who did not come2 they can not take the place of the absent ones1 but they signify love6 and love is what we live for60 ,how much more admirable than the rigid solitary scholar who sits far removed from the voice of the people6 ,franz ,liszt is another ,german who1 although so old1 and one would think so exhausted with the voice of praise and adoration from the world1 retains an intense longing for his friends and society1 and they for him4 ,when he reaches ,weimar in the summer1 after his winter in ,pesth1 every one knows or feels his presence4 ,the ,berliners even rejoice that he is the nearer to them4 ,we are glad that ,longfellow and ,buchanan ,read and ,healy1 and a host of ,americans have felt his magic friendship1 and watched his ,saturn fingers so full of knots4 ,his ,sixth ,rhapsodie1 8,les ,cloches de ,geneve0--8etdes d'excution transcendante0--tell how great is his heart1 and have most lasting influence upon the mind and feelings4 ,wagner1 ,liszt1 ,auerbach1 ,knaus and many other artists1 musicians and writers of ,germany1 show that it is possible to live for one's friends1 while living also for fame4 ,but1 alas6 in ,america reputation and success are coupled with such secluded habits and such insatiable work that the personal influence of our literary and scientific men can not be known or estimated4 ,either overwork or small means keeps most of them tied down to a most prosaic life4 ,the wife of one of our distinguished poets1 in speaking of the state of society in ,new ,york ,city1 said there had not been for years what one could call a literary coterie2 that ,bryant during his lifetime could have had such a salon1 but he was personally too cold and indifferent to devote his leisure hours to the light and easy-going talk of the salon2 but she went on to say that had one lamented one lived1 he with his warm and generous nature1 his wide and untiring interest in others1 could have been the center1 the heart and soul of such a circle4 ,alas6 in the last few years how are the great about us fallen--,longfellow1 ,emerson1 ,bayard1 ,taylor1 ,bryant1 ,ticknor1 ,motley4 ,bancroft1 who came in with the beginning of the century1 may be spared us until its end4 ,,flotsam6 7#adib47 ,by ,j4 ,,logie ,,robertson4 ,all the mill-horses of ,europe ,were plodding round and round1 ,all the mills were droning ,the same old sound4 ,the drivers were dozing1 the millers ,were deaf--as millers will be2 ,when--startling them all--without warning1 ,came a great shout from the sea6 ,it startled them all3 the horses1 ,lazily plodding round1 ,started and stopped2 and the mills dropped1 ,like a mantle1 their sound4 ,the millers looked over their shoulders1 ,the drivers opened their eyes2 ,a silence1 deeper than deafness1 ,had fallen out of the skies4 8,halloa1 there60--this time distinctly ,it rose from the barren sea2 ,and ,europe1 turning in wonder1 ,whispered 8,what can it be80 8,come down6 come down to the shore here60 ,and ,europe was soon on the sand2-- ,it was the great ,columbus ,dragging his prize to land6--,good ,words4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the periods of our lives which give us the most joy at the moment1 and which are most exquisite in memory1 are those when we have gone most wholly out of ourselves1 and lived for others4 ,she who seeks excellence and not reputation alone1 rises highest in her pursuits2 and she who foregoes her own pleasures--ignoring1 it may be1 her own rights--and forgets herself1 in her genuine interest for others1 attains to the surest and most satisfactory enjoyment4 ,the secret of many low and miserable lives is the complete absorption of the man and the woman in their own pleasures and wants1 cares1 character and prospect4--,mary ,a4 ,livermore1 in 8,what shall we do with our ,daughters80 ,,the ,,sea ,,as ,,an ,,aquarium4 ,a lecture delivered at the ,monterey ,assembly1 ,pacific ,grove ,retreat1 ,california1 #ahhc4 ,by ,c4 ,l4 ,,anderson1 ,m4,d4 ,concluded4 ,whilst these 8rivers in the ocean0 are flowing more or less rapidly toward the ,arctic regions1 there are undercurrents moving slowly but irresistibly toward the equator1 or at least in a direction to restore the equilibrium of waters4 ,that these undercurrents come from the poles is already demonstrated by the thermometer4 ,at certain depths under the equator the temperature is as low as #ce or #cf ,f4 ,this low temperature could not be maintained unless supplied from the ,polar regions4 ,fresh water freezes at #cb and salt water1 that is sea water1 at about #bg1 according to the density4 ,in many places north of ,england1 ,dr4 ,carpenter found the lower depths at a temperature of about #bi4 ,he speaks of an ocean river #b1jjj feet deep1 colder than the freezing point of fresh water4 ,why could not this low temperature be maintained without supposing a supply from the ,polar regions8 ,the temperature of the earth's crust twenty or thirty feet from the surface is quite uniform at #ej to #ee all over the temperate zones4 ,at that depth--say thirty feet--it is not deep enough to be influenced by 8the internal heat0 of the earth1 which we experience in going down into mines1 or which shows itself in the hot water from very deep springs1 and yet it is sufficiently covered so as not to be influenced by seasonable changes4 ,the water would naturally take the temperature of the earth's crust4 ,this has been proven in the case of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,this body of water is shut off from the general circulatory system by the ,strait of ,gibraltar1 which is so shallow at its outlet that no communication between the deep water of the ,mediterranean and the ,atlantic can possibly take place4 ,this great 8middle earth sea0 is at some places #aa1jjj to #ab1jjj feet deep4 ,and yet ,dr4 ,carpenter found the temperature in ,august and ,september #gh at the surface2 and by going down with the thermometer the heat gradually diminished1 until at the depth of #fjj feet the temperature was #ee4 ,from this point1 curious as it may appear1 there was no change in heat until the bottom was reached4 ,whatever was the temperature at #fjj feet it was the same all the way down4 ,he then ascertained that the temperature of the earth's crust in that region was #ed and #ee4 ,this shows pretty clearly that depth of water alone does not produce the coldness found in the seas having connection with the ,polar regions4 ,but there are other ways of demonstrating this lower cold current4 ,at a meeting of the ,geographical ,society ,dr4 ,carpenter exhibited in a simple and minute way these warm and cold currents4 ,he had a trough constructed with plate glass sides1 about six feet long1 a foot deep1 and the sides not more than one inch from each other4 ,at one end of this trough a piece of ice was wedged in between the two sides4 ,that represented the ,polar area4 ,at the other end heat was applied by a bar of metal laid on the upper surface of the water1 and the end carried over the trough and heated with a spirit lamp--to represent the equatorial area4 ,then some coloring matter was put in the water2 red at the warm end1 and blue at the cold end4 ,now what took place8 ,the water tinged with blue1 put in at the surface of the ,polar area1 being subject to a cold atmospheric temperature immediately fell to the bottom4 ,it then crept slowly along the bottom of the trough1 and at the warm end it gradually rose toward the surface1 and gradually returned along the surface to the point from which it started4 ,the red followed the same course as the blue1 but started from a different point4 ,it crept along the surface from the ,equatorial to the ,polar end1 and there fell to the bottom1 just as the blue had done1 and formed another stratum1 creeping along the bottom and coming again to the surface4 ,each color made a distinct circulation during the half hour that the experiment was under observation4 ,now this is an experiment that can be repeated in our parlors without going down to the ,equator or up to the ,north pole2 an additional proof that we often have the very thing at our doors that we travel thousands of miles to find4 ,until the last four or five years the opinion prevailed that the ocean was barren of life at great depths4 ,continued researches1 however1 find that many forms and great profusion of life exists at a depth of two and three miles4 ,this deep water life seems to be adapted to the low temperature near the freezing point of fresh water--and the forms are usually very small1 requiring thousands to weigh a grain4 ,there is an exuberance of that small animal known as globagerina--the little animal that secretes carbonate of lime for a covering1 and makes pretty much all our chalk beds4 ,the well known 8,white ,cliffs of ,england0 were made by this little animal1 and in the deeper portions of the ,atlantic it is still at work4 ,some day when the ocean's bed is raised a few thousand feet these beds of chalk will appear and be exactly like the chalk of the cretaceous period1 so much talked of and written about by geologists4 ,again1 there are other animals dredged lately in larger quantities at a great depth1 #c1jjj and #d1jjj feet1 belonging to the sponges4 ,these are busy in making flints--or such material as flints are composed of4 ,so we find in this large aquarium1 the great sea1 the same processes going on--the same material manufactured that took place in what is termed the older geological formation4 ,can we say that creation is complete8 ,that the earth is finished1 and1 like a ship we read about the other day1 to be disposed of for the old iron it contains8 ,not long since ,i visited a marble quarry1 from which very curious and beautiful marble1 resembling the onyx1 was being taken4 ,there were thick strata cropping out2 and the air1 and rain1 and frost had disintegrated the exposed parts1 so they looked as old as the earth4 ,but just beneath1 and in various places1 were little springs of warm water1 and as these bubbled out of the earth they deposited on cooling and exposure to the air1 the same kind of marble--and there ,i saw going on the process of marble making that had continued doubtless for thousands of years4 ,on the shores1 in the tide1 pools and lagoons of ,monterey bay we often gather little plants classed with the ,alg1 or sea-moss1 which we call diatoms4 ,they are exceedingly small--some of them--so that we have to magnify them with the microscope several hundred diameters1 in order to see how they are formed4 ,some kinds grow on the larger sea weeds1 some on the rocks1 and some appear to be free in the water1 coming ashore in large quantities with the foam of the surf1 and giving a greenish brown color to the sand of the shore4 ,these diatoms are composed mainly of silex--flint4 ,if we examine the rocks of our highest ridges and mountains and the cliffs of our shores in places1 with the microscope1 we shall find them largely composed of fragments of diatoms and spicul of sponges4 ,and these are chiefly of the same species that we find alive to-day4 ,thus while the 8chalk rocks0 on our shores1 the sand stones and harder rocks are melting away under the pounding waves of the sea1 and being carried to the lower bottoms1 fresh supplies of diatoms and sponges are mixed therewith1 and we have a continuation1 under our eyes1 of what was begun thousands of years ago4 ,let us for a moment consider this fluid we call water1 especially sea water4 ,chemically speaking1 pure water is one of the rarest things--that is1 water absolutely free from all foreign matter1 divested of everything save hydrogen and oxygen in the combining proportions1 by weight one part of hydrogen to eight of oxygen2 by volume1 two of hydrogen to one of oxygen1 we have pure water--an oxide of hydrogen4 ,but absolutely pure water must be prepared in a vacuum1 and it must never have contact with air of any kind4 ,pure water would be instantly fatal to any animal that had to breathe it with gills1 as a fish1 simply because it contains no oxygen in solution1 which the animal can use to oxydize the blood in the gills4 ,we in breathing air get oxygen by decomposing the air1 but animals that breathe in water do not decompose the water1 but take from it the free oxygen that is found mechanically mixed with the water4 ,pure water1 being the standard of measurement of liquors and solids1 is taken as one or one thousand4 ,sea water is #a1jbj1 or near1 whilst the water of the ,dead ,sea1 or of lakes and seas with no outlet go as high as #a1bbe1 or even to a point where they are saturated1 or can not dissolve any more4 ,such is the case with the ,great ,salt ,lake of ,utah1 and ,mono ,lake1 of ,california4 ,water of this kind is not usually inhabited by any kind of gill breathing animals4 ,how did the sea become salt8 ,by the washings out of the land1 and the disintegration of the rocks by the elements1 such as ice1 wind1 heat1 rain1 etc4 ,the sun causes evaporation2 so that the sea is being constantly lifted into the air and carried in the shape of clouds to the land1 where it is drawn down and flows again into the sea4 ,the solid matter carried down to the sea does not return4 ,it remains in solution1 or is deposited on the bottom4 ,the clouds contain almost pure water4 ,they distribute the visible ocean throughout the invisible air4 ,the rocks and the trees1 the animals and the air all receive their respective shares of water2 and in the course of time it is returned to the sea4 ,were evaporation to continue at the present rate1 it would require about #a1fjj years before the ocean beds would become dry land4 ,but in one way and another there is just as much water returned to the sea each year as is taken out4 ,not one drop is lost4 ,the seas may change their beds--they may flow where the forest now stands1 and their waters may cover our highest mountains1 and their bottoms may rise many hundred feet above their present level1 and still there will not be one drop more or less of the great body of water that now covers more than two-thirds of the earth's surface4 ,the sea will still claim its own4 ,the water that floats to-day in the clouds may to-morrow course through some giant tree of the forest1 or be taken up in forming a beautiful crystal1 or aid in the bloom and fragrance of a flower1 or be taken into the lungs of some animal and deprived of the oxygen that it holds in solution1 or it may be converted into steam and propel a ship or a railroad train1 or it may be buried under the earth in a bed of coal and only be set free some thousands of years hence4 ,but like a wayward child it will return again to its mother--the sea4 8,tho' the mills of ,god grind slowly1 ,yet they grind exceeding small2 ,tho' with patience ,he stands waiting1 ,with exactness grinds ,he all40 ,the deliberation1 the minuteness1 the exactness1 the patience and the waiting of the grinding sea1 and yet the magnificent1 sublime result1 are most beautifully exemplified to those who have 8entered into the springs of the sea10 or have 8walked in search of the depth40 ,the upper currents of the sea are comparatively shallow4 ,whilst the depth is often eight or nine miles1 these currents in the deepest places do not extend more than #b1jjj or #c1jjj feet1 and usually only a few fathoms4 ,they move1 however1 when deep1 with considerable velocity1 say at the rate of four miles an hour4 ,the great body of water lies below1 totally undisturbed by any atmospheric agencies1 yet moving slowly1 invisibly1 but sufficient to keep the equilibrium and level of the waters4 ,so quietly does this great mass of the ocean pass over the bottom surface1 that the smallest particle of microscopic matter that has fallen down1 is not disturbed1 and would remain there forever1 but for the giant tread of the earthquake1 or the volcanic explosion4 ,the dust ground and deposited by the 8mills of ,god10 makes the foundations of islands and continents4 ,although demonstrated that life organisms extend to the bottom at the deepest places1 yet in the rapidly flowing current the busy activities of life are to be seen4 ,there are plains and meadows1 forests and deserts1 hills1 mountains and plateaus1 in the sea4 ,at some places the bottom teems with life4 ,take1 for instance1 what are called the 8banks0--the fishing grounds of ,norway1 ,ireland1 ,newfoundland1 etc42 they are submarine plains unquestionably1 and must have a high degree of fertility in order to supply food for the billions of fish of a voracious kind--as codfish1 halibut1 etc4 ,these large fish feed on mollusca and crustacea1 and these feed on smaller animals--but principally on ,alg or sea-weed4 ,feeding on pastures of this kind we sometimes find the most enormous animals4 ,steller's sea-cow is an instance4 ,they are described as found by him in #agdb1 on ,behring's ,island1 covered with a hide resembling the bark of an old oak tree4 ,they grew to be thirty-five or forty feet long1 and to weigh #ej1jjj pounds4 ,they fed on the abundant ,alg along the coast4 ,they yielded milk in abundance1 which with their flesh were said by ,steller to be superior to those of the cow4 ,but if the sea map be considered as an aquarium1 7that is1 a body of water supporting animal and vegetable life71 better expressed by the term aquavivarium--so may it be considered a cemetery1 an aquamortuum4 ,the life1 so profuse1 that takes into itself bodies of endless forms and sizes1 finally yields them up to the sea1 and they are buried in the bottom4 ,there is no land where the sea has not been1 and where 8vestiges of creation0 may not be found4 ,if we ascend to the highest mountain1 or descend to the lowest valley1 behold there are diatoms1 shells of mollusks1 dbris of corals1 and bones of whales4 ,whence came they8 ,science can answer no better than ,scripture3 8,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fulness thereof2 the world and they that dwell therein4 ,for ,he hath founded it upon the seas and established it upon the floods40 ,beside the natural course of life and death1 there are various ways by which the inhabitants of the sea may be suddenly destroyed4 ,as1 for instance3 by the influx of fresh water2 by volcanic agency2 by earthquake waves2 by storms2 by suffocation when crowded into shoals1 weeds1 sand1 etc42 being driven ashore by fishes of prey2 too much or too little heat2 diseases and parasites2 poisons2 lightning2 and many other agencies4 ,although the sea is immense1 it has bounds and limits2 thus far and no farther1 is the command of ,him that made it4 ,i am overpowered with the immensity of the subject4 ,in trying to comprehend the whole it is impossible to see the minutia2 or to compass within our limits one fairly developed idea4 ,i think1 however1 we have arrived at a point of knowledge where we may answer an oft repeated question3 8,why the ,almighty has created so many insects1 covering the earth1 swarming in the air1 or teeming in the waters80 ,they doubtless have many purposes1 that in our dim knowledge we do not see1 but they serve at least one important end2 they are carbon makers1 and without carbon no plant can grow1 and without the plant what would become of the animal8 ,so1 to a certain extent our lives depend on the things which ofttimes only seem to annoy us4 ,we are so ground in the mills of ,god1 so built1 linked and woven1 so dependent and so cared for by the power that is in us1 that the microscope can see nothing too small1 that does not concern us in its use and sphere of action2 and the telescope can behold no world so grand but it1 too1 may be considered only an aggregated expression of what we find in the miniature object4 ,no organism that lives and dies in the sea is lost or wasted1 and like the drops of water that are scattered and spread abroad over the universe1 and are gathered again to the sea1 so do all these forms of life that inhabit the deep serve an important purpose while living1 and when the life has departed from their forms they leave their good works behind them in the shape of iron1 lime1 silica1 and carbon1 for the use and the convenience of other lives that succeed them4 ,,my ,,years4 ,by ,,ada ,,iddings ,,gale4 ,o happy years6 that pass and will not stay1 ,i con you o'er--as one might that doth clasp ,a string of limpid pearls in her fond grasp-- ,at loss to choose which gleams with purest ray4 ,or like a child within a garden fair1 ,that--passing swiftly on from flow'r to flow'r ,leaves each frail beauty in its wind swayed bow'r ,for fear she will not pluck the fairest there4 ,so 'tis with me1 in noting o'er my years-- ,i scarce can choose one out from all the rest1 ,and smiling say--this one was happiest4 ,so rich ,i've been in joy--so poor in tears4 ,oh6 may the sweetness of ,time measured1 be ,of ,time un-measured--a sweet prophecy4 ,,eight ,,centuries ,,with ,,walter ,,scott4 ,by ,,wallace ,,bruce4 8,the ,monastery10 8,the ,abbott10 and 8,kenilworth10 are related to the most interesting period of ,britain's history4 ,the characters of ,queen ,elizabeth and ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots1 stand out in bold relief4 ,representing1 as they do1 the ,protestant and ,catholic religions fiercely struggling for supremacy in ,britain1 it is not a matter of wonder or surprise that each has been painted1 at different times1 and by different historians1 as angel and as fiend4 ,after reading a score of histories and essays1 the general reader1 like the world at large1 is undecided1 unless he is fortunate1 or unfortunate enough to have prejudices4 ,according to one writer1 the policy of ,elizabeth1 alike toward foreign nations and toward her own subjects1 was one vast system of chicane and wrong2 her life one of mischief and misery2 her character below the standard of even the closing years of the sixteenth century4 ,on the other hand she is the incarnation of all that is noble and heroic2 she is hailed as the 8,gloriana0 of ,spenser1 and as 8,fair ,vestal throned in the ,west10 by ,shakspere4 ,in like manner ,mary1 her queenly cousin1 with a ,french education calculated to prejudice her in the minds of her countrymen1 appears in some histories as a second ,lady ,hamlet1 forgetful of her son1 with undue haste marrying the alleged murderer of her husband4 ,again1 she appears entirely ignorant of the conspiracy against her husband2 nay more1 actually compelled by the ,nobles of ,scotland to take the hand of ,bothwell2 while the religious feeling was so bitter that her opponents circulated falsehood and forgery in order to poison the minds of her subjects4 ,probably no character in history has been the theme of more controversy2 and while the ,english speaking world for the most part glories in the triumph of the ,reformation1 under the bold leadership of ,john ,knox1 in ,scotland1 and the resolute founders of the ,established ,church in ,england1 it still turns with sympathy and compassion to the fate of the unfortunate queen1 made interesting alike by her wit1 her beauty and the mystery which always overhung her history4 ,as ,scott says3 8,her face1 her form1 have been so deeply impressed upon the imagination1 that1 even at the distance of nearly three centuries1 it is unnecessary to remind the most ignorant and uninformed reader of the striking traits which characterize that remarkable countenance1 which seems at once to combine our ideas of the majestic1 the pleasing1 and the brilliant1 leaving us to doubt whether they express most happily the queen1 the beauty1 or the accomplished woman4 ,even those who feel themselves compelled to believe all1 or much1 of what her enemies laid to her charge1 can not think without a sigh1 upon a countenance expressive of anything rather than the foul crimes with which she was charged when living1 and which still continue to shade1 if not to blacken her memory4 ,that brow1 so truly open and regal--those eyebrows1 so regularly graceful1 which yet were saved from the charge of regular insipidity by the beautiful effect of the hazel eyes which they overarched1 and which seem to utter a thousand histories--the nose1 with all its ,grecian precision of outline--the mouth1 so well proportioned1 so sweetly formed1 as if designed to speak nothing but what was delightful to hear--the dimpled chin1 the stately swan-like neck form a countenance1 the like of which we know not to have existed in any other character moving in that class of life where the actresses as well as the actors command general and undivided attention2 and no small instance it is of the power of beauty1 that her charms should have remained the subject not merely of admiration1 but of warm and chivalrous interest1 after the lapse of such a length of time40 8,the ,monastery10 which comes first in historic order1 serves merely as a threshold to 8,the ,abbot40 ,the general plan of the story was to closely associate two characters in that contentious age holding different views of the ,reformation1 both sincere1 and both dedicated to the support of their own separate beliefs4 ,the scene is laid in the valley of the ,tweed1 in the neighborhood of ,melrose ,abbey1 which enjoyed for many years1 even in the midst of border and national warfare1 the immunities of peace4 ,in the portrait of ,julian ,avenal we recall the fierce ,laird of ,black ,ormiston1 the friend and confidant of ,bothwell1 and his associate in ,darnley's murder4 ,the ,white ,lady of ,avenal--a sort of astral spirit1 neither fairy nor ,brownie1 but made up of many elements more ,persian than ,gothic--can only be excused as part and parcel of the superstition of the times2 and the portrayal of ,sir ,percy ,shafton is in no way edifying1 save as a satire upon that dudish portion of humanity1 the excrescence of that school of ,euphuists which took its rise with ,sir ,john ,lilly in the age of ,elizabeth1 and blossomed out again but yesterday in the full blown sunflower of modern estheticism4 ,it is remarkable how history repeats itself1 not only in noble deeds and high daring1 but also in the social expression of dress and language4 ,in 8,the ,abbot0 we find the government of ,scotland almost entirely in the hands of the ,protestant party2 the queen a captive in ,lochleven ,castle2 the regent ,murray1 half brother of the queen1 at once governor and dictator4 ,the monasteries are demolished1 in some cases through religious zeal1 in other cases as an act of jealousy and policy2 the bold spirit of ,knox1 which dared to raise its voice in behalf of individual rights and conscience1 permeates ,scotland4 ,the pulpit becomes a powerful engine for affecting the masses4 ,the ,catholics look to ,france and to ,spain for help1 and the ,protestants to ,holland4 ,the prophecy is literally fulfilled3 8,nation divided against nation1 brother against brother20 the outgrowth of that uncompromising religion of ,right1 which came not to 8bring peace1 but a sword40 ,the first pages of 8,the ,abbott0 portray life in the feudal castle of ,julian ,avenal1 a retainer of the ,protestant regent4 ,in the strict character of ,minister ,warden we have a sketch of the preacher of the period1 thoroughly in earnest1 exceedingly austere1 who seldom jested1 believing that 8life was not lent to us to be expended in idle mirth1 which resembles the crackling of thorns under the pot40 ,we see the ruins of costly shrines and sainted springs1 and1 in the midst of desolation1 hear the eloquent lamentations of mourners pouring out their sorrow like the prophets and poets of old over their lost ,jerusalem4 ,we come upon a party of mummers1 headed by the 8,abbot of ,unreason10 desecrating the high altar of ,st4 ,mary1 turning the ritual of the church into ridicule1 emphasizing a custom which was not wholly discouraged at stated intervals by the clergy in their day of power2 a custom inherited perhaps from the ,roman carnival1 tolerated alike by the ,greek and ,romish churches4 ,we are conveyed to ,edinburgh1 then as now1 the most picturesque city of ,europe2 we see the intrigues of the court2 we witness a mele in the streets between the ,leslies and the ,seytons1 and it is not until we are half through the volume that we are introduced to ,queen ,mary1 the ,captive1 about whom the whole interest of the story gathers4 ,we see her in an island fortress of the ,douglas1 confronting with haughty eloquence the stern ,melville1 ,ruthven and ,lindsey1 sent by the regent to obtain her signature to renounce all right to the throne of ,scotland4 ,we hear the plea of both sides distinctly stated1 and transcribe a passage which throws light upon the question at issue3 8,madam10 said ,ruthven1 8,i will deal plainly with you4 ,your reign1 from the dismal field of ,pinkiecleuch1 when you were a babe in the cradle1 till now that you stand a grown dame before us1 hath been such a tragedy of losses1 disasters1 civil dissensions and foreign wars1 that the like is not to be found in our chronicles4 ,the ,french and ,english have1 with one consent1 made ,scotland the battle-field on which to fight out their own ancient quarrel4 ,for ourselves1 every man's hand hath been against his brother1 nor hath a year passed over without rebellion and slaughter1 exile of nobles1 and oppressing of the commons4 ,we may endure it no longer1 and1 therefore1 as a prince to whom ,god hath refused the gift of hearkening to wise counsel1 and on whose dealings and projects no blessing hath ever descended1 we pray you to give way to other rule and governance of the land1 that a remnant may yet be saved to this distracted realm40 8,my ,lord10 said ,mary1 8,it seems to me that you fling on my unhappy and devoted head those evils1 which1 with far more justice1 ,i may impute to your own turbulent1 wild1 and untamable dispositions--the frantic violence with which you1 the magnates of ,scotland1 enter into feuds against each other1 sticking at no cruelty to gratify your wrath1 taking deep revenge for the slightest offenses1 and setting at defiance those wise laws which your ancestors made for stanching of such cruelty1 rebelling against the lawful authority1 and bearing yourselves as if there were no king in the land2 or rather as if each were king in his own premises4 ,and now you throw the blame on me--on me1 whose life has been embittered--whose sleep has been broken--whose happiness has been wrecked by your dissensions4 ,have ,i not myself been obliged to traverse wilds and mountains1 at the head of a few faithful followers1 to maintain peace and to put down oppression8 ,have ,i not worn harness on my person1 and carried pistols in my saddle1 fain to lay aside the softness of a woman1 and the dignity of a queen1 that ,i might show an example to my followers80 ,we see the queen at last1 under compulsion1 and with hasty indifference1 subscribe the roll of parchment2 the boat containing the three envoys turns its bow toward ,edinburgh1 and the square tower of ,lochleven holds a desolate heart1 and a queen without a throne4 ,the winter months go by1 a long monotony1 now and then relieved by sharp encounters of wit and sarcasm between ,queen ,mary and her keeper1 the ,lady ,douglas1 proprietress of the castle4 ,we hear among her attendants whisperings of escape from the hated prison2 we see ,george ,douglas1 moved by her beauty and gracious art1 no longer her jailer1 but a friend aiding in the attempt2 we see in ,scott's graphic description the most minute and accurate account presented in any narrative or history1 of the successful adventure after the first failure4 ,we see her in that disastrous battle at ,langside1 where her followers were driven back by the regent's forces1 and hear the queen's sad words1 more sad because so literally true1 as she pronounced them over the dead body of the young ,douglas3 8,look--look at him well10 said the queen1 8thus has it been with all who loved ,mary ,stuart6--,the royalty of ,francis1 the wit of ,chastelar1 the power and gallantry of the gay ,gordon1 the melody of ,rizzio1 the portly form and youthful grace of ,darnley1 the bold address and courtly manners of ,bothwell--and now the deep-devoted passion of the noble ,douglas--naught could save them--they looked on the wretched ,mary1 and to have loved her was crime enough to deserve early death6 ,no sooner had the victims formed a kind thought of me1 than the poisoned cup1 the ax and block1 the dagger1 the mine1 were ready to punish them for casting away affection on such a wretch as ,i am60 ,defeated at every point the crownless queen turns for deliverance to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,in her great extremity it did not occur to her that she might risk her liberty and perhaps imperil her life by asking the hospitality of ,england4 ,ere she took the fatal step her friends and counselors kneeled at her feet and entreated her to go anywhere but there2 but their entreaties were in vain2 she crossed the ,solway1 gave herself up to the ,english deputy warden1 and was lodged for the time in ,carlisle ,castle4 ,elizabeth1 as ,scott says in his 8,tales of a ,grandfather10 had two courses in her power1 alike just and lawful2 to afford her the succor petitioned for1 or the liberty to depart from her dominions as she had entered them1 voluntarily4 ,but great as she was upon other occasions of her reign1 she acted on the present from mean and envious motives4 ,she saw in the fugitive a princess who possessed a right of succession to the crown of ,england4 ,she remembered that ,mary had been her rival in accomplishments2 and certainly she did not forget that she was her superior in youth and beauty4 ,elizabeth treated her not as a sister and friend in distress1 but as an enemy over whom circumstances had given her power4 ,she determined upon reducing her to the condition of a captive4 ,it is a question whether ,elizabeth had a right to take cognizance of the charges against ,mary4 ,as a matter of fact her guilt was not proven when she demanded her first trial1 and ,elizabeth so states it over her own signature2 but ,mary was transported from castle to castle until the ax and the block at ,fotheringay concluded the tragedy of her life4 ,as in 8,the ,abbot10 so in 8,kenilworth0 the principal personage of the story--,queen ,elizabeth--is not introduced until the story is well under way4 ,in fact1 we are introduced to the characters in the inverse ratio of their prominence4 ,the curtain rises on a swaggering soldier of fortune in a country inn--a fit accomplice and lackey of ,sir ,richard ,varney1 perhaps the most despised villain in the pages of fiction4 ,anthony ,foster comes next1 a snivelling hypocrite1 willing to coin soul and body for money4 ,the stately ,earl of ,leicester1 and his noble rival1 the ,earl of ,essex1 with gorgeous retinue pass along the stage before us2 and the palace doors open at last upon ,queen ,elizabeth and her court4 ,in the meantime we have caught glimpses1 through the prison doors1 of ,anthony ,foster's dilapidated mansion1 of the poor deluded ,amy ,robsart--the wedded but not acknowledged wife of the ,earl of ,leicester2 we note the grief and manhood of her former lover1 ,tressilian1 vainly entreating her to return to her home1 where her broken-hearted father sits by his lonely fireside1 too wretched and broken in spirit to find relief in tears4 ,the story of 8,amy ,robsart10 as here presented1 is almost literally true to fact1 although ,scott has introduced dramatic incidents not found in the history4 ,in the introduction ,scott quotes at length the foundation of the story1 as given in ,ashmole's 8,antiquities of ,berkshire30 8,robert ,dudley1 ,earl of ,leicester1 a very goodly personage1 and singularly well featured1 being a great favorite to ,queen ,elizabeth1 it was thought and commonly reported1 that had he been a bachelor or widower1 the queen would have made him her husband2 to this end to free himself of all obstacles1 he commands his wife to repose herself at ,anthony ,foster's house2 and also prescribed to ,sir ,richard ,varney1 that he should first attempt to poison her1 and if that did not take effect1 then by any other way whatsoever to despatch her4 ,the same accusation has been adopted and circulated by the author of ,leicester's ,commonwealth1 and alluded to in the ,yorkshire ,tragedy40 ,scott also quotes an old ballad1 written by ,mickle1 called 8,cumnor ,hall10 in which the fair ,amy bewails her fate3 ,the dew of summer night did fall2 ,the moon1 sweet regent of the sky1 ,silver'd the walls of ,cumnor ,hall1 ,and many an oak that grew thereby4 ,now naught was heard beneath the skies1 ,the sounds of busy life were still1 ,save an unhappy lady's sighs1 ,that issued from that lonely pile4 8,leicester10 she cried1 8is this thy love ,that thou so oft hast sworn to me1 ,to leave me in this lonely grove1 ,immured in shameful privity80 ,the village maidens of the plain ,salute me lowly as they go2 ,envious they mark my silken train1 ,nor think a ,countess can have woe4 ,the simple nymphs6 they little know ,how far more happy's their estate2 ,to smile for joy than sigh for woe-- ,to be content than to be great4 ,we are introduced to ,queen ,elizabeth at the palace gate as she takes her royal barge for a morning's trip upon the ,thames3 and it is here that ,scott introduces with grace the well-known incident of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh placing his mantle upon the ground before the queen to save ,her ,majesty's slippers4 ,we see her attempting to reconcile the difference between ,leicester and ,essex1 who bow for the time before her haughty will2 and we wonder that her proud spirit1 which brooked no opposition1 could stop in the midst of state affairs to receive as flattery an allusion to tresses of gold braided in a metaphor of sunbeams2 while ,leicester1 tottering upon the precipice of infamy1 by false eloquence brings a blush to her cheek1 and conjures her to strip him of all his power1 but to leave him the name of her servant4 8,take from the poor ,dudley10 he exclaimed1 8all that your bounty has made him1 and bid him be the poor gentleman he was when your grace first shone on him2 leave him no more than his cloak and his sword1 but led him still boast he has--what in word and deed he never forfeited--the regard of his adored ,queen and mistress60 ,but it is in the ,halls of ,kenilworth1 where we trace in ,scott's picture at once the greatness and weakness of the woman and the queen4 ,we are introduced to the stately castle which ,scott describes with the love of an antiquarian--a lordly structure composed of a huge pile of magnificent castellated buildings1 apparently of different ages1 revealing in its armorial bearings 8the emblems of mighty chiefs who had long passed away and1 whose history1 could ,ambition have lent ear to it1 might have read a lesson to the haughty favorite1 who had now acquired and was augmenting the fair domain40 ,amid these princely halls1 where the clocks for seven days point to the hour of noon as if to indicate one continual banquet1 we trace the misery of those who hang on princes' favors4 ,the picture is a revelation of the frailty of all human aspirations2 and we close the volume recalling the words of ,burns3 8,it's no1 in titles or in rank1 ,it's no1 in wealth like ,london bank ,to purchase peace or rest4 ,if happiness has not her seat ,and center in the breast1 ,we may be wise or rich or great1 ,but never can be blest40 99 99 99 99 99 ,is there not an evening to every day8 ,comes not the morning back again after the most terrific night8 ,sometimes ,i have thought--the sun can never rise again2 and yet it came back again with its early dawn4 ,the time passes cold and indifferent over us--it knows nothing of our sorrows--it knows nothing of our joys2 it leads us with ice-cold hand deeper and deeper into the labyrinth2 at last allows us to stand still--we look around and can not guess where we are4--,tieck4 ,,astronomy ,,of ,,the ,,heavens ,,for ,,march4 ,by ,,prof4 ,m4 ,b4 ,,goff4 ,,the ,,sun4 ,this month1 on the #ast1 we can obtain mean or clock time by making our clocks indicate #ab3ab p4 m4 when the sun crosses our meridian2 on the #aeth1 by making our time pieces #ab3ji p4 m42 and on the #cast1 by making them show #ab3jd p4 m4 ,on the #ast1 #aeth1 and #cast1 the sun rises at #f3cc1 #f3aa1 and #e3dd a4 m41 and sets at #e3eb1 #f3jg1 and #f3bd p4 m41 respectively4 ,and on the same dates1 daybreak occurs at #d3eh1 #d3ce1 and #d3jd a4 m41 and end of evening twilight at #g3bg1 #g3dc1 and #h3jc p4 m41 respectively4 ,on the #aith1 at #cf minutes after #aa3jj p4 m4 the sun 8crosses the line0 7that is1 on its journey northward1 crosses the equator71 and we are accustomed to say that it enters the sign ,aries1 and spring commences4 ,during this month we have also one of the five eclipses of this year4 ,this one occurs on the #bgth1 and on such a portion of the earth's surface as to render it invisible to most of our readers1 being confined to a region within #db of the ,north ,pole1 and embracing the ,north ,pole1 ,north ,sea1 ,baltic ,sea1 ,gulf of ,bothnia1 and the ,scandinavian ,peninsula4 ,in ,washington mean time1 it begins on the #bgth at #aj3bj4d a4 m41 in longitude #i #bh4b east1 latitude #ed #aa4e north2 greatest eclipse occurs at #aa3aj4e a4 m41 in longitude #g #ej4a west1 latitude #gb #e north2 and eclipse ends at six minutes after #ab3jj p4 m41 in longitude #ajc #ed4c west1 latitude #hg #ab4h north4 ,this eclipse will excite little or no interest among astronomers1 since the shadow cast by the moon hides only a small portion 7about 7 of the sun's disc1 and will not afford any opportunity for observing the sun's corona and the colored prominences 7seen till lately only in total eclipses7 which have been a source of so much interest and speculation to the scientific world4 ,it may1 indeed1 not be saying too much to assert that hereafter eclipses of the sun may be looked upon as something to exercise the mathematical ability of students1 and not as a means of obtaining a knowledge of the physical properties of that body4 ,for it has already been demonstrated that the colored prominences may be examined at any time when the sun can be seen2 and it is believed that ,mr4 ,huggins has accomplished the difficult feat of photographing the corona1 so that it too may be scrutinized at leisure4 ,the importance of this discovery can be approximately estimated when we remember that1 as ,mr4 ,proctor asserts1 8adding together all the minutes of total solar eclipse during an entire century1 we obtain a period of about eight days during which the corona can be observed40 ,,the ,,moon ,offers nothing special this month1 except as noted1 its interference with the sun's light4 ,her phases will occur in the following order3 #ast quarter1 on the #dth1 at #h3be a4 m42 full moon on #aath1 at #b3cb p4 m42 last quarter on #aith1 at #f3je p4 m41 and new moon on #bgth1 at #ab3ci p4 m4 ,in case we have failed to set our clock by the sun1 we may do so by the moon1 which will cross the meridian on the #ast1 at #c3cf p4 m42 on the #aeth1 at #b3cg a4 m41 and on the #cast1 at #d3bj p4 m4 ,on the #afth1 at #aa3ah p4 m41 she will be furthest from the earth2 on the #bhth1 at #h3ah p4 m41 nearest the earth2 and on the #dth1 farthest from the horizon2 that is in latitude #da #cj1 the elevation is #fg #ai4 ,inferior ,planets4 ,inferior planets are those whose orbits are inside that of the earth4 ,the first1 whose mean distance from the sun may be put down as thirty-five millions of miles1 is called ,,mercury4 ,it has one peculiarity2 it twinkles like a star4 ,in this respect it differs from all the other planets4 ,its nearness to the sun has led some astronomers to believe that the temperature is very uneven1 that 8every six weeks on an average there is a change of temperature nearly equal to the difference between frozen quicksilver and melted lead40 ,but later discoveries indicate that temperature dependent on the sun's rays is influenced much more by the media through which the rays pass1 or by which they are absorbed1 than the proximity of the sun2 and hence ,professor ,langley argues that ,mercury might be a globe on which people like ourselves could have the proper degree of heat to sustain life4 ,our calendar for ,mercury for this month is as follows3 ,on the #ast1 it rises at #e3ej a4 m42 on #aeth1 at #e3ed a4 m42 and on #cast1 at #e3eg a4 m4 ,on the same dates it sets as follows3 #c3eb1 #d3eb and #f3be p4 m4 ,on the #cjth it will be in superior conjunction with the sun1 that is1 in a line with the sun and earth1 but having the sun between it and the earth4 ,up to this last date it will be morning star2 after that1 evening star4 ,on the #bfth1 at #i3aa p4 m41 it will be #c #be south of the moon4 ,the only other inferior planet with which we are acquainted is called ,venus4 ,,venus ,will increase in brilliancy every day this month2 but will not shine its brightest till about the third of ,june4 ,its time for setting will be as follows3 ,on the #ast1 #h3eh p4 m42 on the #aeth1 at #i3bh p4 m42 and on the #cast1 at #aj3jc p4 m4 ,its motion will be direct1 and amount to #cd #cd #cg4ce4 ,its diameter will increase from #ad4f at the beginning of the month to #ag4h on the #cast4 ,on the #bgth1 at #i p4 m41 it will be in conjunction with and #c #cd north of ,neptune4 ,superior ,planets4 ,superior planets are those whose orbits are outside that of the earth1 and which are as a consequence1 farther from the sun than the earth is4 ,so far as we now know1 all the planets except ,mercury and ,venus1 are in the class 8superior40 ,the first of these going outwardly from the sun is called ,,mars1 ,whose bright ruddy face1 growing smaller every day1 as it gradually moves away from us and the sun1 is still distinctly visible1 being above the horizon from #b3ai p4 m41 on the #ast1 to #e3aa a4 m41 on the #bnd2 from #a3ba p4 m41 on the #aeth1 to #d3aa a4 m41 on the #afth2 and from #ab3cj p4 m4 on the #cast1 to #c3ab a4 m4 on ,april #ast4 ,during the month its diameter decreases from #ac4b to #aj4 ,up to the #abth1 its motion is retrograde #ef #cf4f4 ,from that date to the end of the month1 its motion is #a #ei #f4c direct4 ,on the #abth it is stationary2 or1 at least1 appears so4 ,on the #bbnd1 it reaches its farthest point from the sun4 ,it had often been surmised that ,mars had a satellite2 but it was not until after the #aath of ,august1 #ahgg1 that this supposition gave place to certainty4 ,on the night of the date mentioned1 ,professor ,asaph ,hall discovered1 a little east of the planet1 a small object1 which proved on further investigation to be a small body making a revolution in about twenty-nine hours1 or as afterward appeared1 in thirty hours eighteen minutes4 ,soon after was seen still closer to ,mars an object which proved to be another satellite making a revolution about its primary in seven hours and thirty-nine minutes4 ,these satellites not only make their revolutions in the shortest time1 but are the least known heavenly bodies2 the diameter of the outer one being estimated by ,professor ,newcomb at from five to twenty miles1 and that of the inner at from ten to forty miles1 the entire surface being little if any larger than the 8ranches0 of some of our western 8farmer10 or 8cattle kings40 ,between ,mars and ,jupiter1 there was in #ahja discovered a small planet to which was given the name ,ceres2 in #ahjb1 another named ,pallas2 in #ahjd another named ,juno1 and in #ahjg1 another named ,vesta4 ,from #ahjg to #ahde1 discovery in that region seemed to cease2 but since #ahde not less than two hundred and twenty of these bodies have been found and named1 and are now called by the general name ,,asteroids1 ,,or ,,planetoids4 ,of these none1 except perhaps occasionally ,ceres and ,vesta1 can be seen by the unaided eye4 ,this is on account of their small size1 their diameters ranging from fifty to two hundred and twenty-eight miles4 ,the theory respecting these bodies is that they are portions of a larger one that in some manner became disintegrated1 and each part obeying the laws of gravitation1 formed itself into a separate sphere4 ,,jupiter1 ,like ,mars1 this month will decrease somewhat in brilliancy1 his diameter diminishing in appearance from #da4f to #ch4 ,on the #bjth he will be stationary4 ,up to that date he will have a retrograde motion amounting to #cd #e4he2 and from the #bbnd to the end of the month a direct motion of #ac #cg4i4 ,on the #ast1 he rises at #a3dh in the afternoon2 sets next morning at #d3bf2 on the #aeth1 rises at #ab3ej p4 m41 setting next morning at #c3ej1 and on the #cast rises at #aa3dh a4 m41 setting at #b3eh a4 m41 ,april #ast4 ,on the #gth1 at #h3af p4 m41 is #e #ed north of the moon4 ,,saturn1 ,though still a prominent object in the evening in the west1 is fast approaching a time when its beauties will be rendered invisible by a greater luminary4 ,only temporarily1 however2 for next year it will emerge and shine with increased splendor4 ,for this month1 on the #bnd1 it sets at #ab3ch a4 m41 and on the #aeth1 at #aa3dg p4 m42 and on the #cast1 at #aj3ej p4 m4 ,its motion is direct1 and amounts to #b #af #eh4 ,diameter on #ast1 #ag4b2 on #cast1 #af4d4 ,on #crd1 at #b3jh p4 m41 it will be #a #db north of the moon2 and on the #cjth1 at #aa3eg p4 m41 #b #d north of the moon4 ,,uranus1 ,on the #afth1 places itself directly on the other side of the world from the sun2 in other words is in 8opposition0 to1 or #ahj from1 the sun4 ,its diameter remains constant during the month 7#c4h74 ,on the #ast1 #aeth1 and #cast1 it rises at #g3jj1 #f3jb1 and #e3ch p4 m41 respectively4 ,it sets on the #bnd1 #afth1 and ,april #ast1 at #g3ad1 #f3ah1 and #e3ad a4 m41 respectively4 ,,neptune ,will be evening star during the month1 setting at the following times3 ,on the #ast1 at #aa3bb p4 m42 on the #aeth1 at #aj3bi p4 m42 and on the #cast1 at #i3bh p4 m4 ,its motion is direct1 and about #de4 ,its diameter1 #b4f4 ,on the #bnd1 at #ab3cj p4 m41 #bg north of moon2 on the #bith1 at #i3jf p4 m41 #ch north of moon1 making1 as does also ,saturn1 two conjunctions with the moon in one month4 ,on the #bgth1 about #i p4 m41 it will be in conjunction with and #c #cd south of ,venus4 ,,the ,,fir ,,tree4 ,by ,,luella ,,clark4 ,hark1 hark6 ,what does the fir tree say8 ,standing still all night1 all day-- ,never a moan from over his way4 ,green through all the winter's gray-- ,what does the steadfast fir tree say8 ,creak1 creak6 ,listen6 8,be firm1 be true4 ,the winter's frost and the summer's dew ,are all in ,god's time1 and all for you4 ,only live your life1 and your duty do1 ,and be brave1 and strong1 and steadfast1 and true40 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is a pride which belongs to every rightly-constituted mind1 though it is scarcely to be called pride1 but rather a proper estimate of self4 ,it is1 properly speaking1 the elevation of mind which arises when we feel that we have mastered some noble idea and made it our own4 ,man is proud of the idea only so far as he feels that it has become part of himself4--,von ,humboldt4 ,,ardent ,,spirits4 ,by ,b4 ,w4 ,,richardson1 ,m4,d4 ,it is the business of science to take up the pint and a half of ardent spirit which1 split up through fifteen pints1 gives all the zest and consequence to the thirteen and a half pints of colored water4 ,taking this ardent spirit into one of her crucibles or laboratories1 ,science compares it with other products on the shelves there1 and soon she finds its niche in which it fits truly4 ,on the shelf where it fits she has ranged a number of other spirits4 ,there is chloroform1 ether1 sweet spirit of nitre1 and some other fluids1 very useful remedies in the hands of the physician4 ,these1 she sees1 are the children of the spirit1 are made1 in fact1 from it4 ,on the same shelf she has another set of spirits2 there is wood spirit1 there is potato spirit1 there is a substance which looks like spermaceti2 and these she sees are all members of the same family1 not children1 this time1 of the ardent spirit1 but brothers or sisters1 each one constructed from the same elements1 in the same relative proportions and on the same type4 ,passionless1 having no predilection for any one object in the universe except the truth1 she writes down the ardent spirit as having its proper place in a group of chemical substances which are distinctly apart from other substances she knows of1 on which men and animals live1 and which are called by the name of foods or sustainers of life4 ,she says all the members of the spirit family are1 unless judiciously and even skilfully used1 inimical to life4 ,they produce drowsiness1 sleep1 death4 ,in the hands of the skilful they may be safe as medicines2 in the hands of the unskilful they are unsafe1 they are poisons4 ,to this rule there is not one exception amongst them4 ,there can be no demur1 no doubt now on this particular point2 it may be a blow to poetry of passion2 it may make the ancient and modern bacchanalian look foolish to tell him that wine is a chemical substance mixed and diluted with water1 and that beer and spirits are all in the same category2 but such is the fact4 ,in computing the influence of wine1 men have no longer to discuss anything more than the influence of a definite chemical compound1 one of a family of chemical compounds called the alcohols--the second of a family group1 differing in origin from the first of the series1 which is got from wood1 in that it is got from grain1 and is called ethylic1 or common alcohol1 pure spirit of wine4 ,but now the world turns properly to ask another question4 ,admitted all that is said1 why1 after all1 should the practice of mankind in the use of this spirit be bad8 ,man is not guided solely by reason2 passion may lead him sometimes1 perchance1 in the true path4 ,tell us then1 ,o ,science6 why this ardent spirit may not still be drunken2 why may it not be a part of the life of man8 ,to this question the answer of ,science is straight and to the point4 ,in the universe of life1 she says1 man forms but a fractional part4 ,all the sea is full of life2 all the woods are full of life2 all the air is full of life2 on the surface of the earth man possesses1 as companions or as enemies1 herds and herds of living forms4 ,of that visible life he forms but a minute speck1 and beyond that visible life there is the world invisible to common view1 with its myriads of forms unseen1 which the most penetrating microscope has not reached4 ,again1 there are other forms of life2 plants innumerable1 from gigantic ,wellingtonias to lichens and mosses1 and beneath these myriads more so infinitely minute that the microscope fails to reach them4 ,this is all life1 life which goes through its set phases in due form2 grows in health and strength and beauty1 every part of it1 from highest to lowest living grade1 without a shade of the use of this strong spirit4 ,what evidence can be more conclusive that alcohol is not included in the scheme of life8 ,and yet1 if you want more evidence1 it is yours4 ,you try man by himself4 ,every child of woman born1 if he be not perverted1 lives without alcohol1 grows up without it2 spends--and this is a vital point--spends the very happiest part of its life without it2 gains its growing strength and vitality without it2 feels no want for it4 ,the course of its life is1 at the most1 on the average of the best lives1 sixty years1 of which the first fifteen1 in other words1 the first fourth1 are the most dangerous2 yet it goes through that fourth without the use of this agent4 ,but if in the four stages of life it can go through the first and most critical stage without alcohol1 why can not it traverse the remaining three8 ,is ,nature so unwise in her doings1 so capricious1 so uncertain1 that she withholds a giver of life from the helpless1 and supplies it only to the helpful8 ,some men1 forming whole nations1 have never heard of it2 some have heard of it and have abjured its use4 ,in ,england and ,america1 at this time1 there are probably near upon six millions of persons who have abjured this agent4 ,do they fall or fail in value of life from the abjuration8 ,the evidence1 as we shall distinctly see by and by1 is all the other way4 ,there are1 lastly1 some who are forced to live without the use of this agent4 ,do they fall or die in consequence8 ,there is not a single instance in illustration4 ,on all these points1 ,science1 when she is questioned earnestly1 and interpreted justly1 is decisive and firm1 and if you question her in yet another direction1 she is not less certain4 ,you ask her for a comparison of alcohol and of man1 in respect to the structure of both1 and her evidence is as the sun at noon in its clearness4 ,she has taken the body of man to pieces2 she has learned the composition of its every structure--skin1 muscle1 bone1 viscera1 brain1 nervous cord1 organs of sense6 ,she knows of what these parts are formed1 and she knows from whence the components came4 ,she finds in the muscles fibrine2 it came from the fibrine of flesh1 or from the gluten or albumen of the plants on which the man had fed4 ,she finds tendon and cartilage1 and earthy matter of the skeleton2 they were from the vegetable kingdom4 ,she finds water in the body in such abundance that it makes up seven parts out of eight of the whole1 and that she knows the source of readily enough4 ,she finds iron1 that she traces from the earth4 ,she finds fat1 and that she traces to sugar and starch4 ,in short1 she discovers1 in whatever structure she searches1 the origin of the structure4 ,but as a natural presence1 she finds no ardent spirit there in any part or fluid4 ,nothing made from spirit4 ,did she find either1 she would say the body is diseased1 and1 it may be1 was killed by that which is found4 ,sometimes1 in the bodies of men1 she discovers the evidences of some conditions that are not natural4 ,she compares these bodies with the bodies of other men1 or with the bodies of inferior animals1 as sheep and oxen1 and finds that the unnatural appearances are peculiar to persons who have taken alcohol1 and are indications of new structural changes which are not proper1 and which she calls disease4 ,thus1 by two tests1 ,science tries the comparison between alcohol and man4 ,she finds in the body no structure made from alcohol2 she finds in the healthy body no alcohol2 she finds in those who have taken alcohol changes of the structure1 and those are changes of disease4 ,by all these proofs she declares alcohol to be entirely alien to the structure of man4 ,it does not build up the body2 it undermines and destroys the building4 ,one step more4 ,if you question ,science on the comparison which exists between foods and alcohol1 she gives you facts on every hand4 ,she shows you a natural and all-sufficient and standard food--she calls it milk4 ,she takes it to pieces2 she says it is made up of caseine1 for the construction of muscular and other active tissues2 of sugar and fat1 for supplying fuel to the body for the animal warmth2 of salts for the earthy1 and of water for the liquid parts4 ,this is a perfect standard4 ,holds it any comparison with alcohol8 ,not a jot4 ,the comparison is the same with all other natural foods4 ,man1 going forth to find food for his wants1 discovers it in various substances1 but only naturally1 in precisely such substances1 and in the same proportions of such substances as exist in the standard food on which he first fed4 ,alcohol1 alien to the body of man1 is alike alien to the natural food of man4 ,some of you will perhaps ask3 ,is every use of food comprised in the building up of the body8 ,is not some food used as the fuel of the engine is used1 not to produce material1 but to generate heat and motion1 to burn and to be burned8 ,the answer is as your question suggests4 ,some food is burned in the body1 and by that means the animal fire--the calor vitalis1 or vital heat1 of the ancients--is kept alive4 ,then1 say you3 ,may not alcohol burn8 ,we take starch1 we take sugar into the body1 as foods1 but there are no structure of starch and sugar1 only some products derived from them which show that they have been burned4 ,may not alcohol in like manner be burned and carried away in new form of construction of matter8 ,what says ,science to this inquiry8 ,her answer is simple4 ,to burn and produce no heat is improbable1 if not impossible2 and if probable or even possible1 is unproductive of service for the purpose of sustaining the animal powers4 ,test1 then1 the animal body under the action of alcohol1 and see your findings4 ,your findings shall prove that1 under the most favorable conditions1 the mean effect of the alcohol will be to reduce the animal temperature through the mass of the body4 ,there will be a glow of warmth on the surface of the body4 ,truly6 but that is cooling of the body4 ,it is from an extra sheet of warm blood brought from the heart into weakened vessels of the surface1 to give up its heat and leave the whole body chilled1 with the products of combustion lessened1 the nervous tone lowered1 the muscular power reduced1 the quickened heart jaded1 the excited brain infirm1 and the mind depressed and enfeebled4 ,alcohol1 alien to the structure of man and to the food of man1 is alike alien to living strength of man1 and to the fires which maintain his life4 ,,eccentric ,,americans4 ,by ,,coleman ,e4 ,,bishop4 ,v4--,a ,,methodist ,,don ,,quixote4 ,the place of ,lorenzo ,dow in the ,american pulpit is peculiar4 ,he might be called 8,the ,great ,disowned40 ,he passed his life a wandering1 outcast preacher2 did a great work alone1 generally unacknowledged by any religious body2 opposed by the societies and maligned by many of the clergy1 whom he powerfully aided2 and in death his name and work would have sunk into undeserved oblivion1 but for his own writings in which1 with prophetic instinct1 he preserved the record of his own sacrifices and successes1 and the scant recognition accorded them4 ,he also recorded with impartial fidelity his own 8fantastic tricks0 and erratic independence1 which furnish the only excuse for the treatment he received4 ,he called himself a ,methodist1 and refused to work inside church lines4 ,a zealous1 even bigoted sectarian2 he preached in open defiance of all denominational polity4 ,he was a clerical bushwhacker4 ,the time in which ,dow flourished was a remarkable one politically1 commercially and religiously4 ,it was the formative age of the ,constitution and of the ,american ,republic4 ,it saw the creation of ,american commerce and the opening up of the continent to settlement4 ,and it has been well called 8the heroic age of ,american ,methodism40 ,as the sense of dependence on the mother country1 and of subjection to royal authority wore off1 the people began to grow rapidly in mental and moral stature4 ,the population which had timidly hugged the ,atlantic coast1 as if afraid to lose sight of the ,british navy1 now turned its eyes inland1 its thoughts over the whole world4 ,the pioneer spirit awoke4 ,the 8,northwest ,territory0 was organized for settlement2 ,louisiana and ,florida were purchased and the great ,mississippi basin was opened up4 ,indian nations were subdued and 8city lots were staked for sale above old ,indian graves40 ,a second war was fought with ,great ,britain1 to drive her from our path of advance on land or sea4 ,settlers in a thousand directions ramified the wilderness with the nerves and arteries of civilization4 ,the growth of men's ideas was to correspond with expansion of territory--for 8the spirit grows with its allotted spaces40 ,it became evident1 even in the first generation of the ,republic1 that a new people had been raised up--almost as ,roderick ,dhu's men sprang from the brake--to subjugate a continent and to create sovereign states out of the rudiments of empire which yet lay plastic and warm in the wilderness4 ,the spirit of unrest1 of adventure1 of expansion1 seized all classes and occupations2 and the pioneers of the ,cross pressed into the wilderness side by side with the bearers of the ax and rifle4 ,not the least remarkable feature of the evolution of this people was the deepening of the religious spirit4 ,wars1 indeed1 are generally followed by seasons of revival2 but now the sobered thoughts of the ,american people seemed to increase as they receded from the war period1 and realized the burdens of a new nationality1 of self-government1 and of continental subjugation which they had taken upon themselves4 ,they had not only cut loose from the mother country1 but had cut loose from all the ancient traditions of government and the experience of mankind4 ,responsibility brought seriousness2 daily perils inclined men's thoughts to hear whoever would discourse of eternal things4 ,thus the movement of the time at once prepared the way for the work of gospel spreading1 and raised up strong men to do it4 ,one of the young men who was 8set on fire of freedom0 to this work was ,lorenzo ,dow4 ,never was more unpromising candidate for the ministry4 ,he was eighteen years of age 7#agie71 thin1 angular1 ungainly1 eccentric in manner1 illiterate1 diffident1 and1 worst of all1 an invalid1 supposed to be a consumptive4 ,no wonder the proposition of this sick1 gawky boy to go upon circuit without any preparation met with opposition from his parents and brethren1 was discouraged by those who dared not contradict his solemn protestations of an irresistible call1 and was rejected by all the authorities of a church most liberal in its requirements of licentiates of any then extant4 8,i do not believe ,god has called you to preach10 bluntly declared the minister in charge after having ,dow try to preach1 and seeing him faint dead away in the pulpit4 8,why80 demanded the weeping candidate4 8,for five reasons4--7#a7 your health2 7#b7 your gifts2 7#c7 your grace2 7#d7 your learning2 7#e7 sobriety40 8,enough1 enough60 exclaimed the boy1 aghast4 8,lord1 what am ,i but a poor worm of the dust80 ,just the same1 all this did not change his determination one whit4 ,nay1 in a foot-note to this incident in his book he makes this finishing reference to his critic of this time with evident satisfaction3 8,he is since expelled the connection40 ,those who opposed him little knew of the reckless earnestness of his character--the trait which lay at the bottom of his whole remarkable career1 and brought him success in spite of all his disabilities and all the external chances against him4 ,he seemed to have accepted as his all-sufficient credentials the ,lord's charge to his disciples in the tenth chapter of ,matthew2 accepted it as literally and confidently as if it had been delivered specially to a sickly young convert in ,connecticut about the close of the eighteenth century1 instead of having been given to certain other illiterates in ,judea eighteen centuries before4 ,he always took the whole ,bible literally1 and acted and talked it in dead earnest4 ,so providing neither gold1 silver1 brass nor scrip in his purse1 nor two coats1 nor shoes1 nor staff for his journey1 he started to 8go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature40 ,he stood not on the order of his going1 but went at once4 ,if any would receive him1 well2 if not1 worse for them1 as saith ,matthew x3#ad4 ,he asked no gifts nor collections2 rejected most of that which was voluntarily offered--giving frequent offense thereby--taking only what would suffice for the day4 ,sleeping in woods and under fences was small privation to him1 for he never slept in beds1 any way2 the floor or a bench was his choice1 on account of the asthma1 he said4 ,he was used to long fasts1 and would travel fifty miles and preach half a dozen times without food4 ,indeed1 his defiance of all precautions against sickness1 and reversal of all physical conditions gave him rather a grewsome reputation with the simple folk among whom the invalid exploited1 and some were afraid to entertain him4 ,what a saint he would have made in those good old times when asceticism1 energy1 fanaticism1 piety and dirt were of the popular odor of sanctity6 ,a modern ,peter the ,hermit on a crusade6 ,to talk and to walk were his chief functions1 and he rarely intermitted either4 ,at that time the qualifications of a circuit preacher were said to be covered by these points3 8,is he converted2 is he qualified to preach2 has he a horse80 ,lorenzo had no need of the last of these qualifications4 ,he was the champion pedestrian of the day4 ,he could out-travel the public conveyances and tire out any horse over such roads4 ,he was known throughout the south as 8the walking minister40 ,but through ,new ,england1 ,new ,york and ,canada his quaint figure1 queer actions and rude and vehement exhortations soon got him the general sobriquet of 8,crazy ,dow40 ,we read in his journal3 8,as ,i entered the meeting house1 having an old borrowed great-coat on and two hats1 the people were alarmed4 ,some laughed1 some blushed1 and the attention of all was excited4 ,i spoke for two hours1 giving them the inside and outside of ,methodism4 ,i besought ,god in public that something awful might happen in the neighborhood if nothing else would do to alarm the people4 ,for this prayer many said ,i ought to be punished40 ,again3 8,here1 too1 it was soon reported ,i was crazy4 ,i replied1 people do not blame crazy ones for their behavior2 last night ,i preached from the word of ,god1 when ,i come again ,i will preach from the word of the devil4 ,this tried our weak brethren40 ,hardly to be wondered at1 one would say4 ,at one time he got an audience into a school house1 and planting his back against the door so they could not escape1 preached at them two hours1 hot and strong4 ,at another time he hired a woman for a dollar to give up one day to seeking her soul's salvation2 and again1 following a young woman on the road importuning her to seek ,god1 when she took refuge in a house2 he sat on the steps1 declaring he would not let her proceed till she had promised to pray4 ,his nervous impatience of rest often impelled him to steal from a hospitable house at dead of night1 and at daylight he would be found in another county drumming up a meeting4 ,these eccentricities1 perhaps1 brought him as much success as opposition2 but the chief source of his troubles came from his independence1 and even defiance of his own church4 ,his impatience of limitations1 regulations and authority of any kind caused an irrepressible conflict between him and the church from the beginning to the end of his labor4 ,four times the first year of his ministry did they try in vain to send him home4 ,though constantly1 and with many tears1 besieging conferences1 bishops and elders for license1 as soon as a circuit of appointments was given him1 he would fly the track and be found traveling on another minister's round1 as complacent as a hen setting on the wrong nest4 ,regularity was death to him4 ,once he had been persuaded to take a circuit1 and he says1 8,i had no sooner consented to try for a year1 the ,lord being my helper1 than an awful distress came over my mind40 ,he staid the year1 with an occasional escapade into other circuits1 but says of it3 8,scarce any blessing on my labors1 and my mind depressed from day to day40 ,yet he insisted1 to the day of his death1 that he was a ,methodist preacher1 and refused indignantly all propositions of his admirers and converts to organize a following of his own--8,dowites10 as they would call themselves1 8,split-off ,methodists10 as he dubbed all such schismatics4 ,when his presiding elder1 the renowned ,jesse ,lee1 sent him injunctions against irregular traveling1 under pain of expulsion1 he replied to the messenger3 8,it does not belong to ,jesse ,lee or any other man to say whether ,i shall preach or not1 for that is to be determined between ,god and my own soul4 ,it only belongs to the ,methodists to say whether ,i shall preach in their connection40 8,but10 said his monitor1 8,what will you call yourself8 ,the ,methodists will not own you1 and if you take that name you'll be advertised in the public papers as an impostor40 8,i shall call myself a friend to mankind10 said ,dow1 expansively4 8,oh10 exclaimed the advocate of regularity1 8for the ,lord's sake--don't6 ,you are not capable of that charge--who is60 ,one would think so1 for ,dow was at this time only eighteen years old1 and the callowest fledgeling in all green ,new ,england4 ,it was no use4 ,this young eccentric would not work to any line4 ,he obeyed only dreams1 impulses and 8impressions10 which he accepted as divine guidings4 ,at one time they thought they had laid out for him in ,canada a field sufficiently large1 wild1 unorganized and forbidding to give him 8ample scope and verge enough0 wherein to wander1 preach and organize churches4 ,it did seem that almost the whole boundless continent was his4 ,but a continent has limitations4 ,that thought tormented him4 ,he tramped till he got to the edge1 and then was seized with 8a call0 to carry the gospel into ,ireland6 and despite all remonstrance1 opposition and threats he sailed for ,ireland without a government passport1 without church credentials of any kind1 minus an overcoat and change of linen4 ,three dollars1 a bag of biscuits1 and unlimited confidence in his ability to 8get through some way10 constituted his missionary outfit4 ,his real reason for going1 however1 was the hope that a sea-voyage would improve his health1 as he admits in his 8,journal40 ,thereafter1 wherever ,dow pushed his peculiar mission he found the reputation of a schismatic and rebel against church authority had preceded him1 and turned the ,methodist clergy and laity against him1 and generally closed their homes and houses of worship to him4 ,this coldness1 and sometimes enmity1 he had to overcome before he could begin his work in any place4 ,nevertheless1 he prosecuted it vigorously for over forty years with few interruptions1 diverting all the converts of his ministry into the ,methodist church that he could1 and giving not only his services1 but much of the proceeds of the sale of his books to that body4 ,to the last he declared1 like ,wesley1 8my parish is the world60 and extended his circuits to all parts of the ,union1 to ,balize1 the ,west ,indies1 and the ,united ,kingdom4 ,he would lay out routes of three or four thousand miles1 covering appointments months or years ahead1 and he rarely failed to appear on time or to find an audience awaiting him4 8,the camp meeting era10 which began about the commencement of ,dow's ministry1 was his great opportunity4 ,these meetings were free1 catholic1 and welcomed all workers4 ,they were the legitimate outcome of the religious necessities of the time4 ,the land was ablaze from backwoods to sea-beech with that popular excitement which soon got the expressive name of 8,the ,wildfire40 ,a host of preachers--,methodists1 ,presbyterians1 ,baptists1 ,quakers--went from camp to camp preaching1 singing1 exhorting4 ,the meetings were going continuously4 ,the country seemed to give up all other pursuits for religion4 ,twenty thousand often assembled at one place1 coming hundreds of miles4 ,one ,granada1 8the western poet10 wrote many 8,pilgrim ,songs10 rude but spirited1 for camp meeting use1 and these traveled1 unprinted1 on the air4 ,that peculiar psychological phenomenon called 8,the ,jerks10 appeared and spread like an epidemic4 ,penitents in this death-like trance were laid in long ranks under the trees and the weird torchlights1 as if ready for interment4 ,three thousand fell in one night at ,caneridge1 ,kentucky4 ,it was common practice to prepare the camp meeting grounds by cutting all the saplings about six feet from the ground1 leaving the stumps for the infected ones to grasp1 to keep them from falling1 and ,dow records that the ground around them was torn up as if horses had been hitched there4 ,at times a sudden influence would come over the multitude1 which would strike preachers1 singers1 mourners and listeners speechless1 so that not a word could be spoken for a period--a hush more awful and inexplicable than the jerks or the shoutings4 ,into this work ,dow plunged with the abandon of a knight-errant1 and with wonderful success4 ,his thin1 skeleton frame1 pale1 sharp face1 luminously black eyes1 long hair1 curling to his waist1 sharp1 strident voice1 fierce1 jerky sentences1 qualified him to add intensity to the prevalent excitement4 ,and he was fond of appealing to the fears and superstitions of humanity4 ,he was full of dire predictions4 ,the world was in travail for the last day4 ,napoleon was wading knee-deep in the blood of ,europe4 ,the last vial of wrath seemed to have been poured out upon the earth4 ,the prophecies and the apocalypse were drawn on for texts1 which he used literally4 ,any local calamity--and a long list of sudden or accidental deaths within his ken--were worked upon the minds of his hearers1 as links in the chain of these awful portents4 ,if there was any 8scare0 in a man or woman or child1 he'd frighten them to their knees4 ,he used the argumentum ad hominem liberally1 and if there were a conspicuous atheist reprobate or ,calvinist in the audience--all of whom he classed together--the man was sure to be singled out for direct attack4 ,a favorite device was to ask the audience to grant him a favor1 and require all who were willing to do so to stand4 ,when up1 he would bind them to pray three times a day for a week for salvation1 and abjure them not to add the perjury of a broken promise to their many other sins4 ,this he exultantly calls 8catching 'em in a covenant10 he expecting to make converts of nine-tenths of those who kept the promise into which they had been thus trapped4 ,the quality which gave ,lorenzo ,dow his greatest power with the 8lower million0--to whom1 after all1 his mission went--was his courage4 ,he was as bold as a man seeking martyrdom4 ,his mien was defiant and his language brusque and aggressive4 ,he belonged to the church militant by one of those contrasts which make the tender-hearted and sensitive seem rough and pugnacious4 ,he fought against the wild beasts1 on two legs1 not at ,ephesus1 but from ,boston to ,balize4 ,rowdies dreaded his tongue more than any physical force1 to which he never resorted4 ,at ,new ,kent1 ,va41 a large billet of wood was hurled at him through a window4 ,he immediately leaped through the window and gave chase to the assassins1 yelling 8,run1 run1 the ,old ,sam is after you40 ,returning1 he took the billet1 cut the words 8,old ,sam0 in it1 and nailed it to a tree1 installing it as 8,old ,sam's monument40 ,he then proceeded logically to this demonstration3 8,you disturbers of the meeting1 your conduct is condemnable--which expression means damnable2 hence1 to make the best of you1 you are nothing but a pack of damned cowards1 for not one of you durst show his head40 8,old ,sam's monument0 stuck to the tree for years1 and ,dow records with great satisfaction that one of the ringleaders in this assault1 a few months later had his nose bit off in a fight1 and another was flung from a horse and had his neck broken--all of which he cited as redounding to the glory of ,god and the vindication of ,lorenzo ,dow4 ,on another occasion1 being apprised of the approach of a mob of several hundreds1 sworn to take his life1 he left the pulpit1 took his wife by the hand1 and marched out to meet the enemy4 ,when met1 he mounted a stump and poured out upon them a tirade of hot reviling1 the very boldness of which overawed them4 ,the result was that he led them back to camp1 and in a short time had the most of them on the anxious seat4 ,at times1 however1 his enemies and opponents were too much for him4 ,detraction and back-biting hurt him worst1 coldness cut him deeper than opposition4 ,at one time1 every man's hand was so against him that he cut his way into the depths of a ,mississippi cane swamp1 built a hut1 and there he and his wife lived recluse for months1 surrounded by wolves and snakes1 whose society he found less objectionable than that of the best friends he had in the country4 ,one of the chief causes of enmity was jealousy1 because he had made a little money by the sale of his writings4 ,i fancy1 too1 that the popular feeling was mingled with one of contempt for a circuit-rider1 who could be so easily beaten in a horse trade--a man who1 equipped with a gallant mount on ,monday morning1 would turn up before the week was gone on a sorry1 broken-down 8plug10 against which he had paid beside more 8boot0 than his own horse was worth--could not command the respect of such people as he labored among4 ,it is hard to realize that the man is an invalid1 working without fee or reward1 unrecognized1 and receiving more curses than coppers1 of whose exploits we read such passages as these3 8,august #bd4--;,after preaching at ,ebenezer1 ,pa41 ,i silently withdrew1 and taking my horse1 traveled all night until ten next morning1 when ,i spoke at ,bethel1 and then jumping out at a window from the pulpit1 rode seventeen miles to ,union2 thence to ,duck ,creek ,cross ,roads1 making near eighty miles travel and five meetings without sleep4 ,these few weeks past1 since the eruption was dried up and the asthma more powerful and frequent1 ,i feel myself much debilitated40 8,i returned to ,dublin1 having been gone sixty-seven days1 in which time ,i traveled about #agjj ,english miles and held about two hundred meetings40 8,to ,warrington1 having been about fifty-two hours1 held nine meetings and traveled about #ej miles40 8,sunday1 ,july #bj1 my labors were equal to seven sermons1 which gave me a fine sweat that was very refreshing1 and added to my health4 ,in speaking twice in the street ,i addressed five thousand40 8,in the space of twenty-two days ,i traveled #cej miles and preached seventy-six times1 beside visiting some from house to house and speaking to hundreds in class meetings40 8,october #bh1 #ahjc4--;,after an absence of about seven months1 ,i arrived back in ,georgia1 having traveled upward of four thousand miles 7through the ,mississippi ,territory and ,florida74 ,when ,i left this state ,i was handsomely equipped for traveling1 by some friends whom ,god had raised me up in need4 ,but now on my return ,i had not the same valuable horse1 my watch ,i had parted with to bear my expenses4 ,my pantaloons were worn out4 ,i had no stockings1 shoes1 nor moccasins for the last several hundred miles1 nor outer garment1 having sold my cloak in ,west ,florida4 ,my coat and vest were worn through to my shirt4 ,with decency1 ,i was scarcely able to get back to my friends40 ,but we can not forget ,peggy4 ,peggy was one of ,lorenzo's earliest converts1 and throughout the most of his crusades was his faithful companion1 through exposures and trials1 through evil report and good report4 ,she was the loveliest trait in his character4 ,the courtship was unique4 ,let him tell it3 8,dining at the house of her foster parents1 he learned that she had declared if she was ever married it should be to a traveling preacher40 ,he continues3 8,as she then stepped into the room1 caused me to ask her if it were so4 ,she answered in the affirmative2 on the back of which ,i replied3 #8,do you think you could accept of such an object as me8' ,she made no answer1 but retired from the room40 ,when about going away1 he remarked that he was going a circuit of a year and a half in the ,south4 8,if during that time10 he said to her1 8you live and remain single1 and find no one that you like better than you do me1 and would be willing to give me up twelve months out of thirteen1 or three years out of four1 to travel1 and that in foreign lands1 and never say1 #8,do not go to your appointment1'--for if you should stand in my way ,i should pray ,god to remove you1 which ,i believe he would answer1 and if ,i find no one that ,i like better than ,i do you--perhaps something farther may be said on the subject40 ,an ardent popping of the question1 surely6 ,but she waited1 and they were married1 and were happy4 ,he was a very devoted husband1 subsidiary to his appointments4 ,he was away preaching when both their children were born1 and on one occasion left his wife among strangers in ,england1 ill1 so that her death was hourly expected1 and their infant child also being ill and dying in another place1 for a chance to preach4 ,neither parent attended the child's funeral4 ,peggy never murmured4 ,she was as consecrated to his work as he--perhaps more unselfishly so4 ,minister's wives often are1 ,i have heard4 ,applying to ,lorenzo ,dow a purely intellectual analysis1 ,i should say he was a man born with a morbidly nervous temperament1 which only ceaseless activity could satisfy4 ,rest was physical and mental poison to him4 ,this helps explain his extraordinary energy4 ,egotism took the form of conceit for haranguing and influencing masses of people1 and of believing himself competent to fill a world-wide field4 ,consciousness of his own weakness and supersensitiveness led him to shrink from the restraint and criticisms and evade the duties of church affiliation4 ,he wanted the notoriety and gratification of ministerial life1 without its responsibilities2 he could not take the responsibility of becoming the founder of a sect4 ,in short1 as ,i read ,lorenzo ,dow1 he had a mania for haranguing people1 and he gratified it in the easiest and most popular way then open to an uncultured1 lawless1 irresponsible nature1 with strong natural tendencies toward religious exercises4 ,if ,dow had been born seventy-five years later1 he would have made a first-rate demagogue and communist1 but it is doubtful if he could have got any one to hear him preach in these days4 ,he served the time and purpose well1 and reached hundreds whom perhaps no one else could have influenced4 ,his eccentric behavior was due partly to lack of education and culture1 and partly to physical causes1 viz43 ,a morbid1 nervous organization1 which could only keep keyed up by excitement4 ,his seeming violence and extravagance were probably assumed at first to cover diffidence and sensitiveness1 and afterward became habits of pulpit address4 ,he was affectionate1 honest1 sincere and brave4 ,,hyacinth ,,bulbs4 ,by ,,grant ,,allen4 ,if we were not so familiar with the fact1 we would think there were few queerer things in nature than the mode of growth followed by this sprouting hyacinth bulb on my mantelpiece here4 ,it is simply stuck in a glass stand1 filled with water1 and there1 with little aid from light or sunshine1 it goes through its whole development1 like a piece of organic clock-work as it is1 running down slowly in its own appointed course4 ,for a bulb does not grow as an ordinary plant grows1 solely by means of carbon derived from the air under the influence of sunlight4 ,what we call its growth we ought rather to call its unfolding4 ,it contains within itself everything that is necessary for its own vital processes4 ,even if ,i were to cover it up entirely1 or put it in a warm1 dark room1 it would sprout and unfold itself in exactly the same way as it does here in the diffused light of my study4 ,the leaves1 it is true1 would be blanched and almost colorless1 but the flowers would be just as brilliantly blue as these which are now scenting the whole room with their delicious fragrance4 ,the question is1 then1 how can the hyacinth thus live and grow without the apparent aid of sunlight1 on which all vegetation is ultimately based8 ,of course1 an ordinary plant1 as everybody knows1 derives all its energy or motive-power from the sun4 ,the green leaf is the organ upon which the rays act4 ,in its cells the waves of light propagated from the sun fall upon the carbonic acid which the leaves drink in from the air1 and by their disintegrating power1 liberate the oxygen while setting free the carbon1 to form the fuel and food-stuff of the plant4 ,side by side with this operation the plant performs another1 by building up the carbon thus obtained into new combinations with the hydrogen obtained from its watery sap4 ,from these two elements the chief constituents of the vegetable tissues are made up4 ,now the fact that they have been freed from the oxygen with which they are generally combined gives them energy1 as the physicists call it1 and1 when they re-combine with oxygen1 this energy is again given out as heat1 or motion4 ,in burning a piece of wood or a lump of coal1 we are simply causing the oxygen to re-combine with these energetic vegetable substances1 and the result is that we get once more the carbonic acid and water with which we started4 ,but we all know that such burning yields not only heat1 but also visible motion4 ,this motion is clearly seen even in the draught of an ordinary chimney1 and may be much more distinctly recognized in such a machine as the steam-engine4 ,at first sight1 all this seems to have very little connection with hyacinth bulbs4 ,yet1 if we look a little deeper into the question1 we shall see that a bulb and an engine have really a great many points in common4 ,let us glance first at a somewhat simpler case1 that of a seed1 such as a pea or a grain of wheat4 ,here we have a little sack of starches and albumen laid up as nutriment for a sprouting plantlet4 ,these rich food-stuffs were elaborated in the leaves of the parent pea1 or in the tall haulms of the growing corn4 ,they were carried by the sap into the ripening fruit1 and there1 through one of those bits of vital mechanism which we do not yet completely understand1 they were selected and laid by in the young seed4 ,when the pea or the grain of wheat begins to germinate1 under the influence of warmth and moisture1 a very slow combustion really takes place4 ,oxygen from the air combines gradually with the food-stuffs or fuels--call them which you will--contained in the seed4 ,thus heat is evolved1 which in some cases can be easily measured with the thermometer1 and felt by the naked hand--as1 for example1 in the malting of barley4 ,at the same time motion is produced2 and this motion1 taking place in certain regular directions1 results in what we call the growth of a young plant4 ,in different seeds this growth takes different forms1 but in all alike the central mechanical principle is the same2 certain cells are raised visibly above the surface of the earth1 and the motive-power which so raised them is the energy set free by the combination of oxygen with their starches and albumens4 ,of course1 here1 too1 carbonic acid and water are the final products of the slow combustion4 ,the whole process is closely akin to the hatching of an egg into a living chicken4 ,but1 as soon as the young plant has used up all the material laid by for it by its mother1 it is compelled to feed itself just as much as the chicken when it emerges from the shell4 ,the plant does this by unfolding its leaves to the sunlight1 and so begins to assimilate fresh compounds of hydrogen and carbon on its own account4 ,now it makes a great deal of difference to a sprouting seed whether it is well or ill provided with such stored-up food-stuffs4 ,some very small seeds have hardly any provision to go on upon2 and the seedlings of these1 of course1 must wither up and die if they do not catch the sunlight as soon as they have first unfolded their tiny leaflets2 but other wiser plants have learnt by experience to lay by plenty of starches1 oils1 or other useful materials in their seeds2 and wherever such a tendency has once faintly appeared1 it has given such an advantage to the species where it occurred1 that it has been increased and developed from generation to generation through natural selections4 ,now what such plants do for their offspring1 the hyacinth1 and many others like it1 do for themselves4 ,the lily family1 at least in the temperate regions1 seldom grows into a tree-like form2 but many of them have acquired a habit which enables them to live on almost as well as trees from season to season1 though their leaves die down completely with each recurring winter4 ,if you cut open a hyacinth bulb1 or1 what is simpler to experiment upon1 an onion1 you will find that it consists of several short abortive leaves1 or thick1 fleshy scales4 ,in these subterranean leaves the plant stores up the food-stuffs elaborated by its green portions during the summer2 and there they lie the whole winter through1 ready to send up a flowering stem early in the succeeding spring4 ,the material in the old bulb is used up in thus producing leaves and blossoms at the beginning of the second or third season2 but fresh bulbs grow out anew from its side1 and in these the plant once more stores up fresh material for the succeeding year's growth4 ,the hyacinths which we keep in glasses on our mantelpieces represent such a reserve of three or four years' accumulation4 ,they have purposely been prevented from flowering1 in order to make them produce finer trusses of bloom when they are at length permitted to follow their own free will4 ,thus the bulb contains material enough to send up leaves and blossoms from its own resources2 and it will do so even if grown entirely in the dark4 ,in that case the leaves will be pale yellow or faintly greenish1 because the true green pigment1 which is the active agent of digestion1 can only be produced under the influence of light2 whereas the flowers will retain their proper color1 because their pigment is always due to oxidation alone1 and is but little dependent upon the rays of sunshine4 ,even if grown in an ordinary room1 away from the window1 the leaves seldom assume their proper deep tone of full green2 they are mainly dependent on the food-stuffs laid by in the bulb1 and do but little active work on their own account4 ,after the hyacinth has flowered1 the bulb is reduced to an empty and flaccid mass of watery brown scales4 ,among all the lily kind1 such devices for storing up useful material1 either in bulbs or in the very similar organs known as corms1 are extremely common4 ,as a consequence1 many of them produce unusually large and showy flowers4 ,among our lilies we can boast of such beautiful blossoms as the fritillary1 the wild hyacinth1 the meadow-saffron1 and the two pretty squills2 while in our gardens the tiger lilies1 tulips1 tuberoses1 and many others belong to the same handsome bulbous group4 ,closely allied families give us the bulb-bearing narcissus1 daffodil1 snowdrop1 amarylis1 and ,guernsey lily2 the crocus1 gladiolus1 iris1 and corn-flag2 while the neighboring tribe of orchids1 most of which have tubers1 probably produce more ornamental flowers than any other family of plants in the whole world4 ,among a widely different group we get other herbs which lay by rich stores of starch1 or similar nutritious substances1 in thickened underground branches1 known as tubers2 such1 for example1 are the potato and the ,jerusalem artichoke4 ,sometimes the root itself is the storehouse for the accumulated food-stuffs1 as in the dahlia1 the carrot1 the radish1 and the turnip4 ,in all these cases1 the plant obviously derives benefit from the habit which it has acquired of hiding away its reserve fund beneath the ground1 where it is much less likely to be discovered and eaten by its animal foes4--8,knowledge0 ,library4 99 99 99 99 99 ,history presents to us the life of nations1 and finds nothing to write about except wars and popular tumults3 the years of peace appear only as short pauses1 interludes1 a mark here and there4 ,and just so is the life of individuals a continued course of warfare1 not at all in a metaphorical way of speaking1 with want or ennui1 but in reality too with his fellow men4 ,he finds everywhere adversaries--lives in continual struggles--and dies at last with arms in his hands4 ,yet1 after all1 as our bodies must burst asunder if the weight of the atmosphere were to be withdrawn from it1 so1 too1 if the heavy burden of want1 misery1 calamities1 and the non-success of our exertions1 were taken away from the life of men1 their arrogance would swell out1 if not to the length of explosion1 at all events to the exhibition of the most unbridled folly--nay1 to madness4 ,so that every man at all times requires a certain quantum of cares and sorrow1 or necessities1 as a ship does ballast1 to enable him to go forward steadily and in a direct line4--,schopenhauer4 ,,migrations ,,on ,,foot4 ,by ,,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,we have to consider those creatures who are deprived of food by climate1 but who are able to pass to other places where food still exists4 ,travel for this purpose is called migration1 and it may be accomplished in two ways1 namely1 upon the earth by means of feet1 or over it by means of wings4 ,we will first take migration on foot4 ,again1 ,i put aside man1 because his migrations 7and we ,english are the most migratory race on the earth7 are the result of reason and not of instinct4 ,man migrates for a definite purpose4 ,he knows beforehand the object of his travel1 and if he should prefer staying in one country he can do so4 ,but these papers do not deal with human reason1 but with animal instinct1 which is1 in fact1 ,divine wisdom brought into visible action without the exercise of free will on the part of the agent4 ,in many cases migration has a strong influence on man4 ,to uncivilized man it is mostly an unmixed benefit1 as he lives upon the migrators4 ,but to civilized man it is almost invariably an unmixed evil1 as the migrators destroy the crops which he is cultivating1 in order to supply food for the coming year4 ,we shall see examples with both these influences4 ,as might naturally be expected1 food is more apt to fail toward the poles than in the temperate zones1 and so we find many examples of migration in northern ,europe4 ,one of them has the curious result that it involves the migration of man4 ,i allude to the annual migration of the vast herds of reindeer possessed by the ,lapps4 ,forced by instinct1 the reindeers are obliged to migrate in search of food1 and unless their owners wish to lose all their property1 they must needs accompany the deer4 ,now1 to the ,lapp the reindeer is what cows are to the ,kaffir1 or land and funded property to us4 ,a ,lapp of moderate wealth must possess at least a thousand reindeer4 ,half that number are required to make a man recognized as one of the well-to-do middle class1 while those who only have forty or fifty are nothing but servants1 who are forced to mingle their deer with those of their masters4 ,from these details the reader can form some idea of the vast herds of tame reindeer possessed by the ,lapps alone4 ,the annual incursion of these herds into more civilized countries can at the best be considered only a nuisance1 and as the herds increase in numbers year by year their migration becomes an intolerable pest4 ,for example1 the ,globe newspaper lately made the following remarks3 8,every year1 ,tromsoe is the meeting point of upward of a hundred thousand reindeer1 the property of the nomads1 who follow them from ,sweden4 ,the herd is rather #8nice' in the selection of pasturage1 and the absence of everything save a mere superficial control gives it the most complete freedom of choice4 8,wandering about at their own sweet will1 the reindeer do damage indiscriminately in meadow1 plowed land1 and forest4 ,the farmer may protest1 but he is powerless to prevent the destruction of his young wood or the trampling down of his crops4 8,if he appeals to the authorities he is baffled by the practical impossibility of fixing responsibility for damage upon the right owner4 ,only the ,lapps know the offender1 and a verdict with damages often enough serves no other purpose than that of bringing ,scandinavian justice into ridicule1 for1 before it can be carried into effect1 the defendant has gone on another of his annual migrations40 ,this pest has at last reached such dimensions that special laws were made about a year ago to meet it4 ,norway and ,sweden have therefore been divided into districts1 and if damage be done1 and the owners of the offending animals not be given up1 the entire district has to make good the damage1 each family having to pay in proportion to the number of reindeer which they own4 ,now we will take another example of migration from the same country4 ,as we have seen1 the migration of the reindeer occurs at regular intervals1 and can be provided against1 especially as it is possible to make the owners of the migrators responsible for the damage which they do4 ,but there is one animal of northern ,europe which has no special time for migration1 against whose approach it is impossible to provide1 whom it is almost equally impossible to resist when it is on the march1 and for whom no one can be responsible4 ,it is therefore far more baneful to civilized man4 ,this is the lemming1 a little1 short-tailed1 round-eared rodent1 somewhat resembling our common water-rat in shape and size4 ,in its ordinary life it is nothing more than a small1 rather voracious1 very prolific1 and unintellectual rodent4 ,it is too stupid to get out the way of anything1 and if met by a cart its only idea would be to bite the wheel4 ,mr4 ,metcalfe mentions that two or three lemmings might be indulging in their favorite habit of sitting on a stump4 ,if a traveler accompanied by dogs passed by them1 the dogs were sure to fly at the lemmings4 ,yet the stupid creatures would not think of escaping1 though there might be plenty of time to do so1 but would merely sit on the stumps and try to bite the dogs' noses4 ,this remarkable stupidity will account for the way in which the migration invariably ends4 ,owing to its fecundity1 conjoined with its voracity1 it sometimes fails to obtain food in its own district1 and migrates southward4 ,the strangest point about this migration is its exceeding uncertainty4 ,fortunately1 there is seldom an interval of less than seven years between the migrations1 and seventeen years have been known to pass before the coming of the lemming4 ,yet1 whatever the interval may be1 the whole of the lemmings of vast northern districts begin their march southward through ,norway and ,sweden in search of food4 ,they are divided into two vast armies1 which are kept apart by the ,kiolens range2 and it is very curious that they direct their course toward the southwest and southeast4 ,nothing seems to stop their progress4 ,they only have one idea1 namely1 to press onward4 ,if a wall or house be in their line of march they will try to climb it rather than go round it1 and if they come upon a stack of corn they will eat it and then go forward4 ,rivers1 and even lakes1 are swum by the lemmings1 thousands of which are eaten by the fishes4 ,they are admirable swimmers as long as the surface of the water is smooth1 but the least ripple is too much for them1 so that if the day be windy very few of those which enter the water are seen to leave it alive4 ,their ranks are perpetually thinned by birds and beasts of prey which accompany their columns4 ,these parasites are wolves1 foxes1 wild cats1 stoats and other weasels1 eagles1 hawks and owls4 ,it is said that even the reindeer feed upon them4 ,man eats them1 and so obtains some trifling compensation for the destruction of his crops4 ,but1 while its invasion lasts1 the lemming is nearly as destructive as the locust itself1 not leaving even a blade of grass behind it4 ,despairing of checking this terrible foe by ordinary means1 the people turned to religion1 and had a special service of exorcism prepared against the lemmings4 ,the end of the migration is as unaccountable as its beginning4 ,i have mentioned the instinct which forces the creature to proceed onward on the line which it has taken4 ,now1 ,norway and ,sweden form a peninsula1 toward the apex of which the course of the lemmings is directed4 ,it follows that sooner or later the animals must arrive at the coast4 ,and1 having reached the shore1 they still must needs go into the sea1 where the waves almost immediately drown them4 ,now we will turn from cold to heat1 and imagine ourselves in ,south ,africa4 ,from the migrants of that country we will take the springbok as our example4 ,many travelers in that country have mentioned the 8trek-bokken10 as the ,boers call these pilgrimages1 but none have painted them more vividly than the late ,captain ,gordon ,cumming1 whose description ,i have had the pleasure of hearing as well as seeing4 ,one morning1 as he had been lying awake in his wagon for some two hours before daybreak1 he had heard the continual grunting of male springboks1 but took no particular notice of the sound4 8,on my rising1 when it was clear1 and looking about me1 ,i beheld the ground to the northward of my camp actually covered with a dense living mass of springboks1 marching steadily and slowly along1 extending from an opening in a long range of hills on the west1 through which they continued pouring like the flood of some great river1 to a ridge about half a mile to the east1 over which they disappeared4 ,the breadth of the ground which they covered might have been somewhere about half a mile4 8,i stood upon the fore-chest of my wagon for nearly two hours1 lost in wonder at the novel and beautiful scene which was passing before me2 and had some difficulty in convincing myself that it was a reality which ,i beheld1 and not the wild and exaggerated picture of a hunter's dream4 ,during this time their vast legions continued streaming through the neck in the hills1 in one unbroken1 compact phalanx40 ,it has sometimes happened that a flock of sheep has strayed into the line of march4 ,in such cases the flock has been overlapped1 enveloped in the springbok army1 and forced to join in the march4 ,a most astonishing example of the united power of the springbok was witnessed by a well known hunter4 ,just as the lemming hosts are attended by the birds and beasts of prey of their own country1 so it is with the springbok4 ,these parasites do not attack the main body1 but watch for the stragglers and pounce upon them4 ,during the passage of one of these springbok armies a lion was seen in the midst of the antelopes1 forced to take unwilling part in the march4 ,he had evidently miscalculated his leap and sprung too far1 alighting upon the main body4 ,those upon whom he alighted must have recoiled sufficiently to allow him to reach the ground1 and then the pressure from both flanks and the rear prevented him from escaping from his strange captivity4 ,as only the front ranks of these armies can put their heads to the ground1 we very naturally wonder how those in the middle and rear can feed4 ,the mode which is adopted is equally simple and efficacious4 ,when the herd arrives at pasturage1 those animals which occupy the front feed greedily until they can eat no more4 ,then1 being ruminants1 they need rest in order to enable them to chew the cud4 ,so they fall out of the ranks and quietly chew the cud until the column has almost passed them1 when they fall in at the rear1 and gradually work their way to the front again4 ,as to water1 they do not require it1 many of these ,south ,african antelopes possessing the singular property of being able to exist for months together without drinking4 ,dr4 ,livingstone has offered a very remarkable theory on this subject1 but the limited space will not permit me to cite it4 ,let us again visit in imagination a different part of the world1 and suppose ourselves to be on the prairies of ,north ,america4 ,there we find another ruminant1 the bison1 wrongly called the buffalo4 ,this creature migrates with tolerable regularity1 and not many years ago1 when the red men possessed the vast expanses of ,north ,america1 the native tribes were dependent upon the bison for their very existence4 ,the bison was to the red ,indian what the seal tribe is to the ,esquimaux4 ,from the skins were made their tents or 8wigwams10 their warm clothing for winter1 and their shields2 while the bones afforded rude tools1 and handles for weapons1 the sinews gave strength and toughness to their wonderful little bows1 while there was scarcely a portion of the animal that was not put to some useful purpose4 ,the annual migrations brought the creatures within the reach of the various tribes1 who1 being in a state of perpetual warfare1 did not dare to venture out of their own district in search of the bison4 ,so utterly dependent1 indeed1 were they upon the migrations of the bison1 that if the coming of the animals was delayed a few weeks beyond the usual period1 death from hunger would be an almost certain result4 ,the reader may perhaps remember that several tribes of ,esquimaux were lately exterminated by a similar failure1 the walrus having deserted its usual haunts1 and gone off to some land whither they could not follow it4 ,in some respects the bison resembles the lemming1 being equally stupid1 and equally determined to press forward4 ,nothing will stop the bison herd when it is 8on the run40 ,the animals do not march slowly1 like the springbok1 but dash forward at full speed1 their heads down1 their long hair hanging over their eyes1 and each only intent on following those which are in front of it4 ,the hunters1 whether native or ,european1 take advantage of this peculiarity4 ,the country in which these creatures live is intersected here and there with ravines many hundreds of feet in depth1 having nearly perpendicular sides4 ,at a distance of a hundred yards these ravines are as invisible as the trenches of a modern fortress4 ,the hunters1 however1 know every inch of the country1 and when they learn that a bison herd is on the run they contrive to frighten the leaders1 who compose the front rank1 until they are taking a direct course for a ravine4 ,then1 nothing is needed but to let the bisons alone4 ,when they come within forty yards or so of the ravine1 the leaders see the danger1 and try to stop2 but the pressure from behind is so irresistible that they are forced onward1 and pushed over the edge of the precipice4 ,the rest of the herd follow them1 scarcely any of them even seeing the ravine until they are falling into it4 ,in this reckless way thousands of bisons are destroyed in less than an hour4 ,not one hundredth part of them can be used by the hunters1 the remainder being left to feed the vultures1 coyotes1 and other scavengers4 ,it is no wonder that the animal becomes gradually scarce1 and that the hunters are obliged year by year to go farther afield in search of it4--,london ,sunday ,magazine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,every man must patiently bide his time4 ,he must wait4 ,more particularly in lands like my native land1 where the pulse of life beats with such feverish and impatient throbs1 is the lesson needful4 ,our national character wants the dignity of repose4 ,we seem to live in the midst of a battle--there is such a din1 such a hurrying to and fro4 ,in the streets of a crowded city it is difficult to walk slowly4 ,you feel the rushing of the crowd1 and rush with it onward4 ,in the press of our life it is difficult to be calm4 ,in this stress of wind and tide1 all professions seem to drag their anchors1 and are swept out into the main4 ,the voices of the present say1 8,come60 ,but the voices of the past say1 8,wait60 ,with calm and solemn footsteps the rising tide bears against the rushing torrent up stream1 and pushes back the hurrying waters4 ,with no less calm and solemn footsteps1 nor less certainty1 does a great mind bear up against public opinion1 and push back its hurrying stream4 ,therefore should every man wait--should bide his time4--,longfellow's 8,hyperion40 99 99 99 99 99 ,he is not dead who departs this life with high fame2 dead is he1 though still living1 whose brow is branded with infamy4--,tieck4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,work4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,,superintendent ,,of ,,instruction4 ,readings for ,march3 8,preparatory ,latin ,course in ,english10 by ,dr4 ,william ,c4 ,wilkinson2 half of the book4 ,required ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is no ,memorial ,day in ,march4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are many persons1 members of local circles and individual readers1 who do not join the central office at ,plainfield4 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is what it is to-day because of the ,,plan by which it is conducted4 ,but for the central office at ,plainfield1 it would never have been4 ,but for the central office at ,plainfield1 it could not continue4 ,it seems but fair that the slight annual fee required of persons who enjoy the ,,plan should be paid to the central office4 ,,the ,,chautauquan1 the work of the 8,counselors10 the postage1 the correspondence and general supervision by the ,superintendent of ,instruction--all these involve expenses which can be met only by the fee appointed--a fee appointed not by the managers of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 but unanimously recommended by the members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 themselves in #ahgh1 when the ,circle was organized4 ,there are also many advantages which accrue from membership in the central circle2 valuable communications1 memoranda1 addresses1 cards of membership1 calendars1 maps1 outlines1 catechisms1 vesper-services1 ,chautauqua songs1 the memorial-day volume1 and sundry hints4 ,pleasant fellowships and alliances1 which constitute the charm of the college life as adopted by the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4--all spring from the relation to the central office4 ,the diploma and the seals to be added are enjoyed only by those who join the central circle4 ,hereafter there will be an official bulletin which will go out from the central office at least bi-monthly1 to be entitled 8,our ,alma ,mater10 which will in itself be worth the trifling annual sum of fifty cents4 ,i really think that it is slightly unjust for persons to avail themselves of the benefits of the ,,plan of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 and decline to help support the central office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,can there be any objection to the simple invocation of the divine blessing in opening a meeting of the local ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c48 ,long and elaborate devotional services may be considered out of place4 ,a simple invocation of the ,father1 whose word and works we study1 and the reading of a choice gem from the great book itself would require two or three minutes2 and unless strong opposition is expressed to it1 it seems to me well to commend with emphasis such provision in the program of the local circle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of these days when our ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 books are all published1 as we intend they shall be1 we shall be able to give greater unity to each year's course than is now possible4 ,one year's study1 for example1 will embrace a good ,roman ,history1 the ,preparatory ,latin and the ,college ,latin4 ,another year will study ,greek ,history1 ,old ,greek ,life1 ,preparatory ,greek and ,college ,greek4 ,another year will take up ,english and ,american ,history and ,literature1 and another ,general1 ,oriental and ,european ,history and ,literature4 ,among the four years will be distributed the readings in art1 science1 philosophy and mathematics1 so that the course will be less fragmentary than now4 ,stand by the ,circle in the formative years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the local circle is not necessary to the profitable and acceptable reading of the required books4 ,let this be well understood4 ,local circle work is exceedingly valuable--but not indispensable4 ,i say this over and over1 because ,i wish members who read alone to be encouraged to read on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,messrs4 ,d4 ,lothrop ,co4 announce that they have now ready an edition of 8,the ,hall in the ,grove10 by ,pansy1 in paper covers1 which will sell at #ge cents per copy to members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the class of #ahhg numbers over fourteen thousand4 ,is the class of #ahhf holding its own8 ,have you as a member of that class forwarded your fee for the current year to ,miss ,kimball8 ,and how about '#hd and '#he8 99 99 99 99 99 ,i notice in our little book on 8,good ,manners10 that putting the knife into the mouth is condemned by the regulations of so-called 8society40 ,a correspondent asks3 8,have ,i not a right to put my knife into my mouth at the table if ,i choose80 ,answer3 ,you have a perfect right to put your knife into your mouth1 to pick your teeth with your fork1 and to draw back from the table and tilt up your feet on the edge of the table4 ,there are many rights which1 as ,american citizens1 we may enjoy in this country4 ,but other people also have rights who are offended by such violations of propriety1 and who are tempted to think you a boor1 and1 although they may say nothing1 you lose by your vulgarity and wilfulness far more than you gain in any way by such exercise of what you call 8independence40 99 99 99 99 99 ,all local circles should report promptly to ,miss ,k4 ,f4 ,kimball1 ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j4 ,if there are but two members associated in study1 report as a local circle4 ,,outline ,,of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,readings4 ,,march1 #ahhd4 ,the ,required ,readings for ,march include half of ,prof4 ,wilkinson's ,preparatory ,latin ,course in ,english1 and the ,required ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,first ,week 7ending ,march #h74--a4 ,preparatory ,latin ,course from chapter i to chapter iii1 on page #de4 #b4 ,first half of ,french ,history in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings for ,march #b1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,second ,week 7ending ,march #ag74--a4 ,preparatory ,latin ,course from page #de to the middle of page #hd4 #b4 ,second half of ,french ,history4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings for ,march #i1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,third ,week 7ending ,march #bd74--a4 ,preparatory ,latin ,course from page #hd to page #abg4 #b4 ,readings in ,commercial ,law and in ,art in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings for ,march #af1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fourth ,week 7ending ,march #ca74--a4 ,preparatory ,latin ,course in ,english1 from page #abg to 8,fifth ,book10 page #afg4 #b4 ,readings in ,american ,literature and ,united ,states ,history in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings for ,march #bc1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #d4 ,sunday ,readings for ,march #cj1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 '#hd4 ,,new ,,england ,,auxiliary4 ,fellow ,students and ,classmates3 ,dr4 ,vincent tells us that 8more than one half of the members of '#hd reside in ,new ,england40 ,but a very small part of them can attend the graduating exercises at ,chautauqua1 therefore the management of the ,new ,england ,assembly are to set apart one afternoon of next summer's ,sessions for ,services of ,recognition of the ,n4 ,e4 members as graduates4 ,we shall then and there be enrolled as members of 8,the ,society of the ,hall in the ,grove40 ,the members who were present at ,framingham last year1 to the number of one hundred and fifty1 having great pride in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 and not a little ,class pride1 chose a committee to make arrangements suitable for so important and glorious an occasion4 ,the committee decided upon the three following items in the program3 #a4 ,an ,oration1 and a well known ,college ,president is to be invited to grace the occasion4 #b4 ,some prominent band or other musical organization to furnish music for the day4 #c4 ,decoration of the ,auditorium4 ,we therefore make two requests of the ,new ,england membership3 #a4 ,that as many as possible arrange to be present at the ,assembly1 which meets in ,july next year4 ,it will richly repay you to be present through the ten days2 but be sure to be present upon ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 day4 #b4 ,in accordance with the vote of the ,auxiliary1 as announced in 8,the ,outlook10 we ask each member1 whether to be present at ,framingham or not1 to send the ,secretary of the ,committee the sum of fifty cents1 with as much more as you choose to add4 ,if we carry out the program as arranged1 the expenses will be large4 ,in order to make definite our arrangements1 we should know as to the amount to be realized from your contributions by the first of ,february1 #ahhd4 ,we desire that you consider this a personal invitation1 and that you will forward your checks1 or postal orders1 or pledges1 as local circles or individuals1 on or before the above date4 ,we ask you to do so much for the good of the cause and the honor of the class4 ,we suggest to the ,n4 ,e4 members that they keep their reading well up1 as their memoranda must be in ,miss ,kimball's hands by the first of ,july1 that the diplomas may be awarded and forwarded to ,framingham4 ,yours in behalf of the ,committee1 ,,webster ,,woodbury4 ,committee of ,arrangements3 ,rev4 ,w4 ,n4 ,richardson1 ,east ,saugus1 ,mass42 ,d4 ,d4 ,peabody1 ,stoneham1 ,mass42 ,hon4 ,j4 ,g4 ,blaine1 ,manchester1 ,n4 ,h42 ,rev4 ,w4 ,woodbury1 ,foxboro1 ,mass42 ,j4 ,m4 ,nye1 ,crompton1 ,r4 ,i4 ,foxboro1 ,mass41 ,dec4 #cj1 #ahhc4 ,,to ,,the ,,class ,,of '#he4 ,at ,chautauqua1 during the last ,assembly1 a class organization was effected and badge adopted as our class colors1 after which the following officers were chosen3 ,j4 ,b4 ,underwood1 ,president1 ,meriden1 ,conn42 ,mrs4 ,philomena ,downs1 ,vice ,president1 ,burlington1 ,iowa2 ,miss ,carrie ,hart1 ,treasurer1 ,aurora1 ,indiana2 ,miss ,n4 ,m4 ,schenck1 ,secretary1 ,osage ,city1 ,kansas4 ,it is with regret that ,i am compelled to say the attendance of the class of '#he was so small it was deemed most expedient to leave the adoption of a class motto until our next annual gathering1 when it is earnestly desired that the then to be seniors will be largely represented4 ,one local member of the ,meriden local circle1 removing from the city to an adjacent township1 knowing from observation and experience the good that might be accomplished by the organization of a circle1 at once set about the task by becoming a regular ,chautauquan1 and soliciting others to join her1 and as a result of these efforts she rejoices over the establishment of an enthusiastic corps of students1 and has been honored by being made their president4 ,the same enthusiasm by each '#he member renders us as invincible as our immediate predecessors of '#hd are irrepressible4 ,let us one and all rally to the work and be prepared in the summer soon upon us to 8,gather a pilgrim band0 at our famous and much loved retreat1 8,the ,hall in the ,grove40 ,j4 ,b4 ,,underwood4 ,class stationery and badges may be had by addressing any of the officers of the class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for a certain equable and continuous mode of life1 we require only judgment1 and we think of nothing more1 so that we no longer discern what extraordinary things each unimportant day requires of us1 and if we do discern them1 we can find a thousand excuses for not doing them4 ,a man of understanding is of importance to his own interests1 but of little value for the general whole4--,goethe4 ,,local ,,circles4 ,in preparing copy for the local circle columns we would caution secretaries not to omit the name of state and town4 ,this has been done1 and several valuable reports are on our table1 stateless4 ,we can not use them1 and will be censured for not doing so4 ,please bear this in mind when you send your report4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the letter which we publish in the ,editor's ,outlook this month deserves careful attention4 ,it is valuable for new plans1 but more for the spirit of ingenuity and push which it suggests4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the number of new circles formed this year is astonishing4 ,the reports are all strong and enterprising4 ,from ,shelburn1 ,vermont1 the secretary writes3 8,about the first of ,november fourteen persons in this place formed themselves into a literary circle and adopted the ,chautauqua course of study4 ,our method in our circle is simple and effective4 ,we read selections from the week's work1 and then converse familiarly upon what we have read1 thus giving the entire circle the benefit of each member's information upon the subject under consideration4 ,by most of us the course was undertaken with hesitation1 for we feared that we should not be able to do the work marked out for us1 yet we have been encouraged at every step of our progress4 ,we have found the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 no hard task-master1 but a helpful friend40 99 99 99 99 99 ,massachusetts reports three new circles this month4 ,one was organized in ,braintree1 in ,october1 #ahhc1 consisting of eight regular members2 others attend1 and they hope to enroll a number as local members4 ,the circle meets once in three weeks4 ,the order of exercises varies1 two being appointed at each meeting to give the lesson and reading for the next meeting4 ,seven are members of the class of #ahhg1 one of class of #ahhd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a circle1 numbering twelve registered ,chautauquans1 and some twenty local members1 has been organised in the factory town of ,north ,brookfield1 ,mass4 ,the circle starts off with splendid prospects of success1 and the only fear is to find rooms to accommodate the meetings as they grow in size4 ,from ,westfield1 same state1 we learn that the number of the readers in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course has been increased each year at the return of members from the ,framingham ,assembly1 but that they have never had a local circle until last fall4 ,the first regular meeting was held ,september #ag1 #ahhc4 ,the circle numbers eighteen1 composed of members of three different classes2 the original five intend to graduate the coming summer4 ,there is a good regular attendance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at ,canaan1 ,connecticut1 a local circle was organized early in ,october last1 with a membership of fifteen1 which has since increased to about forty4 ,it is doing good work1 not only in promoting habits of thorough1 systematic reading1 but in cultivating a better social feeling4 ,an executive committee arranges a program for each meeting in advance1 assigning to certain members the most important topics found in the readings4 ,the question box adds much to the interest of the meetings4 ,connecticut also boasts another new circle1 at ,goshen1 of which a member writes3 8,a local circle was organized here the last week in ,september with a membership of sixteen4 ,we meet once a week at the houses of the members1 and have a large average attendance1 considering the situation of our hill town1 some of us living as much as four miles apart4 ,the program varies according to the taste and inclination of the presiding officer4 ,a favorite way seems to be to choose sides4 ,the leader of each side asking questions which are prepared beforehand for the opposite side to answer40 99 99 99 99 99 8,we have organized in our village 7,hannibal1 ,n4 ,y47 a local circle of the class of '#hg1 consisting of sixteen regular and ten local members4 ,we hold our meetings weekly1 and a lively interest is manifested by all4 ,on our roll we have two clergymen1 two teachers1 and some college and seminary graduates2 although we are as yet freshmen in the course1 we all expect to do good solid work and honestly earn our diplomas40 ,at ,orchard ,park1 ,n4 ,y41 there is another new circle4 ,the 8,iota ,class0 of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 organized last ,october4 8,we have twelve interested and enthusiastic members1 three having joined since our organization4 ,we meet once in two weeks1 at each meeting a committee being appointed to prepare the program of exercises for the second ensuing meeting4 ,by this arrangement our program can be announced two weeks ahead1 thus giving ample time for preparation4 ,by appointing a new committee each time we find that it varies our entertainment1 nearly every meeting introducing something new4 ,the following is the program for ,december #bi3 ,opening exercises1 responsive service2 song ,no4 #ab2 secretary's report2 paper1 ,american poets2 class drill on ,american ,literature2 brief oral account of ,america's greatest statesman2 song ,no4 #ac2 paper1 comparative lives of ,wolfe and ,montcalm2 selected questions to be answered by class2 selections from ,bret ,harte2 brief oral account of the present condition of ,greece2 question drawer2 report of orthoepist2 closing exercises40 99 99 99 99 99 ,a new circle organized at ,bethlehem1 ,pa41 numbers ten1 and reports enthusiastic meetings4 ,their plan of 8quizzes0 is especially good4 ,the secretary writes3 8,in our circle the first half hour is devoted to a quiz in history1 the president appointing a new conductor at each meeting4 ,the second half hour is spent in reading from ,american authors4 ,the president selects the pieces and appoints the readers4 ,we use the third half hour for a quiz in some branch connected with the course4 ,after this we spend the remainder of the evening in an informal way1 talking over our studies1 and examining pictures of celebrated statuary1 which the members bring from different sources4 ,we have been meeting every two weeks1 but all enjoy the meetings so much1 and find them such a help that we have decided to meet every week4 ,interest in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is spreading1 and ,i have no doubt that next year there will be several circles organized40 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,ohio three new societies send us greetings4 ,at ,painesville a circle was formed in ,november4 ,they write--8,we number only five1 but we are enthusiastic readers1 and have received much benefit from the work4 ,we all belong to the class of '#hg1 excepting one member1 who has read one year1 and with whom our circle originated40 ,at ,sabina1 a circle was organized on ,september #bh1 through the instrumentality of an energetic lady who had studied a year alone4 ,it consists of nine members1 six of whom are gentlemen1 and three ladies4 ,all are regular members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,much interest was manifested1 the books were ordered at once1 and the reading has progressed finely1 all being delighted with the plan4 ,the circle has since been christened 8,the ,philomathean ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c40 ,the query box is made use of1 and work assigned at each meeting1 and a general discussion opened on the readings of the previous interval4 ,they send best wishes to the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,from ,columbus the secretary writes3 8,we have a growing circle here under the distinctive name of the 8,central ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 of ,columbus40 ,we began in ,october with a membership of fourteen1 and now number twenty4 ,our meetings are rendered interesting and profitable by papers on the subjects of the month1 interspersed with discussions and music40 99 99 99 99 99 ,at ,ottawa1 ,illinois1 a local circle was organized in ,october last with seventeen members1 seven regular and ten local4 ,they follow the course of study laid out in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 and the reading for the week is discussed1 generally some one being appointed to question the class1 and occasionally an essay or address is read4 ,a great deal of interest is felt1 and all are working very enthusiastically4 ,from ,galena1 ,illinois1 the secretary sends an account of a new circle1 and gives some very interesting reminiscences3 8,we have been much interested in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 for some time1 and some of our members are quite advanced in the course2 but it was not until ,october1 #ahhc1 that we organized ourselves into a tributary circle4 ,our meetings are controlled and carried out according to a constitution ratified by the circle4 ,we endeavor to be as parliamentary as possible4 ,we ,galena people think that of all others we should be the truest and best ,chautauquans4 ,long years ago1 before some of us were old enough to remember1 ,dr4 ,vincent was pastor of the ,m4 ,e4 ,church of our city4 ,he organized and carried on while here what he called a #8,palestine ,class1' though there was no #8,palestine ,park' in connection with it4 ,at the end of this course each successful candidate was presented with a diploma and medal4 ,at present there are three of the original ,palestine members in our circle1 and if we enter their homes they are pleased to show us the familiar face of our #8,princely ,pericles' hanging in some safe nook4 ,so1 you see1 we feel as though we had a right to ,chautauqua and its benefits4 ,we number about twenty-two members1 and have also one member in ,st4 ,louis and one in ,england4 ,the circle has radiated so far at present1 who shall say where the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 contagion will end80 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,nashville1 ,tennessee1 the secretary of the 8,nashville ,local ,circle10 a new organization of about twenty members1 writes3 8,our members have taken a deep interest1 from the very beginning in the work1 and most of us are fully up with the required readings1 beside having read several books in connection with those required4 ,we hold our meetings every alternate ,monday night in the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 parlors4 ,our exercises are always entertaining and instructive1 consisting of songs1 essays1 lectures1 readings1 questions1 etc4 ,milton's memorial day was observed in a very appropriate manner4 ,the #8,east ,side ,circle' joined with us by invitation of ,prof4 ,hurst4 ,the exercises were opened with a ,chautauqua song and prayer4 ,a short but very interesting sketch of ,milton's life and character was read by ,mr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,wells1 and a fine selection from ,milton was read by ,miss ,e4 ,c4 ,whitehurst2 the exercises were concluded with the #8vesper service4' ,we have adopted the motto of the '#hg's--#8,neglect not the gift that is in thee4' ,nashville already has three circles1 and the grand #8,chautauqua ,idea' is fast spreading throughout the ,sunny ,south40 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa 7,lyons74--,we organized a circle last ,october of fifteen members4 ,of our number nine have become members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 and are reading the full course4 ,we have not an elaborate program1 but try to take up a few things as thoroughly as possible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa 7,marshalltown74--,our plan of organizing our circle1 was first a press notice1 then individual effort4 ,our first meeting found twelve persons anxious to commence the study4 ,the second meeting there were as many more joined our forces4 ,we have divided our circle1 one party meeting in the afternoon1 the other in the evening1 all under one leader4 ,it is probable that by the close of the year we shall have a very large and intelligent circle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa 7,shenandoah74--,our circle was organized in ,october1 #ahhc4 ,it is composed of busy people4 8,to business that we love1 we rise betime1 ,and go to it with delight40 ,all are very desirous of doing good work1 and are in real earnest as to the success of our circle4 ,all members are freshmen but one1 who is a sophomore4 ,all are bound for a battle of four years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the last of the new circles reported this month is from ,louisburg1 ,kansas4 ,they say3 8,we are a little band of ten readers4 ,we organized in ,october for the purpose of studying the required course of the class of '#hi4 ,we feel that the study is a great benefit to us1 and recommend it to all40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the circle at ,new ,gloucester1 ,maine1 has recently closed a lecture course which proved successful beyond expectation4 ,the circle has been flourishing in fine style this year1 and the meetings have been of a high literary order4 ,essays on various subjects have been willingly contributed1 while much entertainment and profit has been derived from passing round to the whole company written questions to be immediately answered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the circle organized at ,rockville1 ,massachusetts1 in #ahhb1 is still in fine condition4 ,they meet weekly1 and the program consists in answering the questions in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 abstracts from required reading1 readings and conversations4 ,in ,october the circle enjoyed a day at ,diamond ,hill1 ,r4 ,i41 gathering geological specimens4 ,the local paper of ,hudson1 ,massachusetts1 says3 ,our local circle is doing excellent work4 ,here is the program of next meeting3 #ast1 ,review of 8,ten ,reasons why we should know the great outlines of ,grecian ,history and ,literature40 #b;d1 ,crayon map of ,greece1 drawn and explained4 #c;d1 ,conversation on 8,the ,art of ,healing0 as known to the ,greeks4 #dth1 ,essay1 8,the ,age of ,pericles40 #eth1 ,conversation2 some 8,similitudes and ,contrasts0 in ,greek and ,american ,literature4 #fth1 ,one ,hundred ,questions on ,biology1 class4 ,this means quiet1 little by little1 but constant and steady work to extend the realm of personal knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the secretary of the ,centerville1 ,rhode ,island1 local circle gives the following account of how they made ,political ,economy interesting3 8,at the last meeting of the circle a member who formerly gave much time to the study of political science1 delivered an informal lecture1 in the conversational vein1 upon that subject1 using the blackboard freely and presenting a synopsis of the topics discussed in ,mr4 ,steele's articles4 ,the treatment of the subject differed considerably from that of ,mr4 ,steele4 ,this talk was followed by a general discussion1 participated in by most of the members1 during which questions suggested by the lecture were propounded1 answered by the member having the subject in charge1 and further discussed by the members4 ,by this means the subject of ,political ,economy1 usually considered so uninteresting1 was pronounced by all to be the most entertaining thus far considered40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we want to commend the following model program of exercises to the attention of all circles4 ,it comes from the splendid society at ,troy1 ,new ,york1 and was the program for ,january #c;d3 #a4 ,german ,history--,early ,data of ,german ,history2 ,who were the ,franks2 ,give an ,account of ,clovis2 ,the ,achievements of ,charlemagne2 ,character of ,charlemagne4 #b4 ,political ,economy--,uses of ,political ,economy2 ,define ,production2 ,define ,consumption2 ,exchange and its ,necessity2 ,banks2 ,protection and its ,arguments2 ,free ,trade--its ,arguments4 #c4 ,physical ,science--,air2 ,circulation of ,water on ,land2 ,rivers2 ,glaciers4 #d4 ,monthly ,events--,december4 #e4 ,round ,table4 #f4 ,conversazione--,william ,cullen ,bryant4 ,what testimony could be more inspiring than this from ,shushan1 ,n4 ,y43 8,most of our members are hardworking people1 with but little time for study1 but they all unite in saying that every meeting is better than the last40 ,new ,york ,state sends us so much and so good reports that we are embarrassed to find room for them all sometimes4 ,we have a trio of remarkably strong reports here which we give in full4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york 7,glen ,falls74--,we think we are now numerically strong enough and combine enough enthusiasm to deserve a good sized corner in an issue of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,our ,circle1 in which we all take pardonable pride1 is on a very solid footing1 and each succeeding meeting shows an improvement on the one before4 ,the pioneer member was ,mrs4 ,charlotte ,w4 ,craig1 to whose zeal in pursuing the readings single-handed among us can truthfully be attributed the successful start4 ,in #ahhj four ladies commenced the reading independently1 and things ran along in this lonesome manner until last year a circle of thirteen was formed1 with meetings every two weeks1 held in the afternoon4 ,this was a strong nucleus1 and ever and anon during the winter and spring of #ahhc their work was noticed in reports of their meetings and memorial days which appeared in the local newspapers4 ,at the commencement of the year1 #ahhc-hd1 in ,october last1 a large number were enrolled as new members4 ,our circle now is full half a hundred strong1 and the meetings which are held at private residences every alternate ,tuesday evening are truly enjoyable4 ,the mode of conducting them is very much like that of other circles1 and needs no detailed description4 ,beside the work laid out in ,,the ,,chautauquan a committee is appointed four weeks prior to each meeting to provide a program of exercises1 and as there is a good natured strife as to who shall excel in the attractiveness and excellence of the program furnished1 the meetings never lack interest4 ,a question box is quite well utilized1 and we also have an appointed critic4 ,we have no glee club as yet1 but a movement in that direction has been made4 ,the constraint which of course characterized the first meeting of the new circle is fast wearing away1 and each meeting is looked forward to by all with increasing interest4 ,our membership comprehends part of the best society of the village1 and is given a more solid aspect by a representation of one ,dartmouth and two ,wesleyan graduates1 who are very well pleased with their new connection4 ,from the start we have found the local newspaper a valuable and efficient help4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york 7,brooklyn74--,the 8,new ,york ,avenue ,circle0 holds its meetings in the ,chapel of the ,new ,york ,avenue ,m4 ,e4 ,church in ,brooklyn4 ,the circle is not connected with the church1 and owes its place of meeting to the courtesy of the trustees4 ,there are at present 7,december7 ninety-one members1 who come from all parts of the city--one member from ,new ,york4 ,they represent about fifteen different churches1 of the principal denominations4 ,the members are both old and young gentlemen and ladies2 parents and their grown sons and daughters1 business men1 mothers of young children1 and young people just from school4 ,beside the members there is a large transient attendance4 ,this is the second year in the history of the circle1 and has begun with increased interest4 ,many have expressed themselves as very grateful for the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 in the personal advantage it has been to them4 ,the meetings are fortnightly1 on ,thursday evenings4 ,there is an able committee of instruction who usually undertake the reviews4 ,others are sometimes called upon1 and frequently the leader assigns essays to selected members4 ,especially has this been the case with the review of ,american ,literature1 when the various authors were distributed through the class for three-minute essays4 ,the music committee provide solos or duets1 both vocal and instrumental4 ,the songs from the 8,chautauqua ,song ,book0 are used at the opening of the meetings4 ,occasional lectures have been given2 as for instance1 last year one on the spectroscope1 and two on astronomy4 ,one meeting was devoted to ,china1 when essays on the literature1 manners and customs1 ,confucianism1 and the missionary work were read4 ,another evening was devoted to ,scandinavia4 ,there were essays1 as on the ,chinese evening1 and songs1 all of which were of ,scandinavian composition1 one being sung in ,swedish4 ,extra social evenings have been found necessary1 in order that the members of so large a circle may become acquainted4 ,the interest continues1 and good work is done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york 7,cortland74--,we1 the ,alpha ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 of ,cortland1 ,n4 ,y41 feel ourselves honored in belonging to an organization that is doing such a noble work as is the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,we organized as a circle ,october1 #ahhb1 and have tried to accomplish faithfully the work in the course thus far4 ,we number about twenty members1 most of whom are housekeepers1 with a sprinkling of clerks1 bookkeepers and teachers4 ,we elect our officers twice a year1 and have in addition to a president1 vice president and secretary1 a committee on instruction appointed from month to month1 whose duty it is to lay out the work2 also a committee on pronunciation4 ,our circle meets weekly1 and in brief1 this is our usual program3 #a4 ,an hour spent reading aloud from one of the required books by alternate members4 #b4 ,questions from ,,the ,,chautauquan1 covering subject-matter read during the evening4 #c4 ,a short review in the form of five questions on each of four subjects passed over in our last year's work4 #d4 ,an oral examination on the ,required ,reading in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 alternating subjects from week to week4 #e4 ,a personation by some member giving first1 obscure data1 after which more prominent features concerning the life1 character and works of the character presented4 ,circle decide on character4 #f4 ,query box4 ,this is with us quite an important part of the program1 as topics are discussed of quite a practical nature1 as well as the topics of the day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pleasantville1 ,pennsylvania1 a beautiful little village of perhaps six hundred inhabitants1 writes us3 8,we have two circles2 one of the graduates1 and one composed of those who have not yet had the honor to finish the regular ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course4 ,the classes are composed entirely of ladies--some unusually bright ones and we generally get along very well40 99 99 99 99 99 ,pennsylvania 7,west ,philadelphia74--,we call ourselves the ,quaker ,city ,circle of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,we have nineteen members4 ,we select parts of the ,required ,readings each month1 and certain members 7usually three7 are appointed to ask questions1 or to write essays for the following meeting4 ,we have had a very enjoyable essay on 8,art10 with engravings of the notable works of ,grecian and ,roman ,art and ,ruins1 from one of our members--also two evenings with the microscope4 ,our greatest trouble is the evening is so short that we can not get all in4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the ,society ,notes of the ,evening ,star1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 we find the following3 8,the #8,chautauqua ,idea' seems to have taken a firm hold on ,washington1 and has evidently come to stay4 ,it affords pleasure and means of profit to hundreds who might but for its influence ever remain in want of literary or scientific culture4 ,of the many circles in the city none are more prosperous than ,union ,circle1 the pioneer organization of the kind in the ,district1 it being now in its third year4 ,its last weekly gathering1 ,thursday evening1 was one of unusual interest to the members1 who had arranged a surprise for their worthy president1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,wescott4 ,an elegant silver water pitcher1 appropriately inscribed1 had preceded the members to ,mr4 ,wescott's pleasant home1 where the meetings of the circle are held1 and while it was a surprise to the host and his estimable wife1 they nevertheless took care not to be outdone entirely4 ,when the members arrived1 instead of the usual ,chautauqua literary and scientific studies1 an entertainment of a different kind was substituted1 the program consisting of music and recitations1 and short speeches4 ,the program ended1 ,mrs4 ,wescott invited the circle to repair to the dining room1 where was spread a most inviting feast4 ,this time it was the members of the circle who experienced a surprise1 but they fell to with a will1 and satisfied the host that their lines had fallen in pleasant places4 ,each guest was presented with a souvenir of the event1 and went home feeling that the #8,chautauqua ,idea' is a good thing in more ways than one40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following list of officers in the circle at ,saybrook1 ,ohio1 strikes us as particularly good4 ,they are president1 vice president1 and secretary1 elected annually2 also a leader1 critic1 and question-answerer appointed each month1 and certainly the following device is both novel and good3 8,we pride ourselves on possessing something which is very unique as well as useful4 ,it is a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 lantern1 made of wood1 in the shape of a ,gothic roofed house4 ,it contains a lamp whose rays illuminate the letters ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 tastefully curved across the front4 ,we put it in a conspicuous place1 by the street door1 where it serves the double purpose of guiding our members to the right place1 and shows to passers-by that our little town has a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 which is alive1 and letting its light shine40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the year #ahhd-he has opened auspiciously for the ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 circles4 ,on ,november #d1 ,dr4 ,vincent was with them1 and held a vesper service at ,st4 ,paul ,m4 ,e4 ,church1 and there was used for the first time1 the new and beautifully arranged 8,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,vesper ,service40 ,on ,november #ae1 the circles held a ,fall reunion at the ,third ,presbyterian ,church1 at which they were favored with the presence of the general ,secretary of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,on ,december #bj1 a ,round-,table was held by the ,cincinnati circles at ,christie ,chapel1 ,col4 ,john ,a4 ,johnson1 president of ,christie ,circle presiding4 ,the following topics were discussed3 #a4 ,the advantage of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,course of ,reading4 #b4 ,the advantages of a local circle4 #c4 ,how to conduct a local circle4 #d4 ,how to advance the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 interests in ,cincinnati4 ,the greatest freedom of expression was desired in the discussion and each of the topics elicited numerous responses4 ,on the first ,sabbath of the ,new ,year 7,january #f7 the circles held a union vesper service at ,christie4 ,the service was conducted by ,rev4 ,a4 ,h4 ,gillett1 who gave many touching incidents of his own personal experience in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 work which had come to him in his varied travels from the lakes to the gulf4 ,his words of advice and encouragement will long be remembered4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,dimmick1 pastor of ,christie ,chapel1 gave an excellent address4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio 7,freedom74--,a local circle was organized here in ,september4 ,there are at present about twenty members1 of whom thirteen belong to the general ,circle4 ,we meet every two weeks at the houses of the members1 our meetings opening with a verse of song1 and prayer4 ,our president questions the members upon the lesson read during the two weeks1 and several persons have been assigned topics upon which to write essays4 ,we enjoy our meetings very much4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio 7,new ,london74--,the first year of a local organization of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 in our village ended in ,june4 ,our membership was about twenty-five4 ,our mode of conducting the meetings was1 no doubt1 similar to that of most other circles1 following the course laid down for each week in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 and having essays and informal talks upon subjects in connection with the ,required ,reading4 ,the order of exercises for each meeting was arranged by the committee of instruction at the previous meeting4 ,our circle gradually increased in numbers1 and from the increasing interest in the movement we confidently expect our numbers will be doubled this year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio 7,ravenna74--,the 8,royal0 ,circle of ,ravenna is one of four within the limits of our miniature city4 ,it is named in honor of its senior member1 ,colonel ,royal ,taylor1 who has passed his eighty-second milestone in the journey of life4 ,this circle was organized with but few members1 in #ahhj4 ,with the additions since made it now numbers twelve1 whose average ages are fifty-two years4 ,we meet every ,friday evening1 elect a chairman who serves two weeks1 each member in turn being eligible to the position4 ,both the ,text-,books and the questions in ,,the ,,chautauquan are memorized4 ,we have an occasional essay and such appropriate reading as is selected by a committee appointed for that purpose4 ,although many of our harmonious1 working little band are past the meridian of life1 they are punctual at the meetings1 diligent and thorough in their lessons1 enjoy the exercises1 and always have a grand good social time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio 7,berlin ,heights74--,the 8,philomathean0 ,circle has been organized and meets each ,tuesday evening4 ,we vary the method of conducting our meetings2 sometimes 7and we find it very interesting7 we have question slips1 place them in the center of the table1 each one draws a question1 and then answers it4 ,the greatest interest is manifested1 and although our number is small1 we expect quite an increase next year4 ,we expect to spend a part of each evening in preparing the work of the ,white ,seal ,course4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is the second year of the existence of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 in the ,wall ,street ,methodist ,episcopal ,church of ,jeffersonville1 ,indiana4 ,last year it had to contend with many obstacles1 which are now removed1 but ended the year with success4 ,two of its members graduated1 having read three years at ,indianapolis4 ,one of these graduates was ,mrs4 ,mary ,curtiss1 #gb years of age4 ,she is again enrolled as a candidate for ,white ,seal4 ,the circle this year consists of thirty-three active and forty-five local members4 ,some of the local members are reading all the books as fully as the active4 ,in the circle are four who have graduated in the ,chautauqua course4 ,having acquired a taste for reading1 they read on1 to gratify their own tastes1 and to encourage others to read4 ,the circle meets twice a month4 ,its meetings are publicly announced from the pulpit1 and everybody is invited to be present4 ,when assembled1 the subjects for reading the past two weeks are made the subject of review4 ,the leader1 the pastor of the church in this case1 commences questioning the circle1 who respond in concert or singly1 as they remember4 ,when other histories have been consulted new matter is presented by the leader or any other person4 ,the blackboard1 charts and maps are largely employed in illustrating and fixing the subject in the mind4 ,the members of the circle are urged to ask questions on the subjects of review1 and express their opinions4 ,short papers are also read by members of the circle on such parts of the reading as may be assigned them4 ,by these means every part of the readings are carefully reviewed4 ,some of those who commenced the course last year have dropped out this year2 a few from necessity1 others because they thought the work hard4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a member writing from ,logansport1 ,indiana1 says3 ,we have quite an interesting local circle organized here1 numbering about twenty-five active members1 and five who have already graduated but still continue active in the work1 which ,i take to be a true characteristic of a ,chautauquan4 ,our circle meets at private houses every two weeks4 ,the officers make out a program of work two weeks ahead1 which is to occupy the next meeting4 ,we have taken up the work as laid out in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 devoting half the evening to ,american ,literature1 and the other half to ,history of ,greece1 each member speaking either orally on the topic assigned1 or reading what they have written or been appointed to select and read from some of the leading authors that have been mentioned in our course of reading4 ,our program ,october #cj was as follows3 ,american ,literature--7#a7 8,what are its excellences and defects20 7#b7 8,growth since #ahji20 7#c7 8,the ,first ,book20 7#d7 8,irving's place in ,american ,literature20 7#e7 8,how ,novelists of our day differ from ,cooper20 7#f7 ,reading--,bryant's 8,ode to a ,water ,fowl40 ,greek ,history--7#a7 8,civil ,government--,greece20 7#b7 8,greek ,religions20 7#c7 8,greek ,battles in ,history20 7#d7 8,different ,athenians and ,spartans20 7#e7 8,greek ,gods20 7#f7 8,customs of the ,greeks40 99 99 99 99 99 ,indiana 7,fort ,wayne74--,the local circle of this city is of four years' growth4 ,we number this year about twenty-five members4 ,among these we have one graduate of '#hb1 and two 8irrepressibles0 of the glorious class of '#hd4 ,since our first organization we have tried numerous experiments2 circles of all sizes1 and all sorts of programs4 ,we had in our circle one year forty-five members4 ,this failed4 ,too many different elements4 ,the next year we divided into several small circles of about six or eight each4 ,these frequently met to celebrate a memorial day1 or listen to a lecture4 ,this year we have considered our circle a model organization1 and feel we are competent to judge1 after so varied an experience4 ,we have had no regular programs4 ,our leader questions us as he would a class1 allowing us to have our books1 from which to answer4 ,a few of us have always observed most faithfully the five o'clock hour ,sabbath afternoon4 ,this we find very helpful1 and would recommend it to others4 ,at our last local circle the subject was 8,vegetable ,biology40 ,the members were seated about a long table on which were three fine microscopes to illustrate the lesson4 ,questions and the freest conversation were allowed4 ,the most interesting object examined was that showing the movements of the bioplasm in the cells of a plant4 ,this was considered a rare sight1 as so few plants show these movements clearly4 ,our specimen was the common water weed1 ,anacharis4 ,it had been secured with great difficulty1 but was well worth all the effort expended4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illinois 7,charleston74--,on ,october #a1 #ahhb1 a class of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 was organized here1 consisting of nine members4 ,the lessons were gone over carefully and conscientiously1 and during vacation ,geology was reviewed with the aid of the charts4 ,so earnest was the first year's class in the work1 and so evangelizing was their spirit1 that the class of this1 the second year1 has forty-one members4 ,to accommodate the members1 the class was divided1 and part now meet in the afternoon1 and part in the evening4 ,each division has its own officers4 ,we call ourselves one class1 however1 and those who choose may attend both meetings4 ,the attendance is good1 and the interest great4 ,neither cold1 heat1 nor the 8raging elements0 affects our attendance1 nor abates our zeal4 ,some of the members meet informally and socially every week1 and the lessons are read over1 more careful attention being paid the pronunciation and meaning of words4 ,at each meeting we select some poet1 from whose writings a short quotation must be selected1 and recited by each member at the following meeting4 ,our question box is also a feature of great interest4 ,members all have the privilege of writing out a question on any subject pertaining to literature1 science or art1 and these questions are collected and read4 ,they are answered immediately if it can be done1 if not they are reserved for further investigation4 ,the influence exerted by the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is becoming visible outside of its regular members1 and we are sure that here1 as well as elsewhere1 wherever there is a class of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 more scientific1 historical1 and classical books will be bought this year than ever before4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,vincent ,local ,circle1 of ,lafayette1 ,indiana1 was organized in #ahha4 ,it numbers fifty-six members1 twenty-two of whom have undertaken the four years' course4 ,it is a live1 wide awake circle1 the most enthusiastic member being a lady seventy-five years of age1 who visited ,chautauqua last summer1 and by her descriptions of the work there1 has succeeded in enthusing all4 ,they have organized a lecture course consisting of lectures and musical entertainments4 ,the course was opened on ,december #e1 by an able lecture on 8,ultimate ,america10 by ,joseph ,cook4 99 99 99 99 99 ,michigan 7,albion74--,an event of unusual importance was the meeting of the ,alpha ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 of this city1 ,january #aa1 #ahhc1 it being a farewell to their beloved ex-president1 ,miss ,mary ,c4 ,robinson1 who has been recently elected by the ,northwestern ,branch of the ,w4 ,f4 ,m4 ,s4 of the ,m4 ,e4 ,church as missionary to ,china4 ,it was an occasion long to be remembered by those who were so fortunate as to be included in the list of invitations4 ,miss ,robinson held for a year the position as president of our circle1 and during that time won all hearts by the faithful and persistent effort in its behalf4 ,during the evening a most tempting collation was served1 after which an entertaining program was carried out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a friend writes from ,harlan1 ,iowa3 8,our circle is growing in interest1 and makes many of us feel that the good old college days have returned4 ,we have several ,a4 ,m4's in our circle1 and as the rust begins to rub off we begin to appreciate the magnitude of the blessing that this will be to the young who are deprived of college advantages40 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa 7,manchester74--,our circle was reorganized in ,september4 ,it numbers fifty1 beside a class of young people who take the history only4 ,we are divided into three classes4 ,we held our first memorial ,november #c1 ,bryant's day4 ,between eighty and ninety people were present at the exercises1 which consisted of an address on ,bryant and selections from his works1 interspersed with music4 ,the exercises were short1 followed by a social which all seemed to enjoy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the circle numbering twenty1 at ,independence1 ,iowa1 reports a very interesting time with ,german ,history and ,literature4 ,the secretary writes3 ,one evening was confined to the articles on 8,german ,history0 and 8,german ,literature0 in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,november4 ,the first thing on the program was quotations from some of the writers mentioned in the article on 8,german ,literature40 ,then followed written questions on the 8,german ,history10 and discussion4 ,then two essays were read1 one on 8,heinrich ,heine10 another on 8,goethe40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,s4 ,h4 ,g4 and the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 of ,osceola1 ,iowa1 united in celebrating ,milton's day1 on the eve of ,december #aj4 ,the first named society has ten members1 the latter twenty-one4 ,each member had the privilege of inviting three friends1 so that about one hundred and twenty in all assembled4 ,the president of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 presided1 and a fine program was rendered4 ,the guests were all in sympathy with the ,chautauqua movement4 ,some of the circle1 who are members of the ,s4 ,h4 ,g41 scarcely know how life would go without the inspiring influences of the ,circle4 ,they have no thought of giving it up either this year1 next year1 nor the one after that4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dakota 7,sioux ,falls74--,our circle at this place numbers but twelve4 ,we thought best to have a small number first year4 ,next year we shall make an effort to enlarge our number to fifty or seventy-five4 ,we doubt whether you have in the ,east a more enthusiastic circle4 ,we all enjoy the readings much1 and the best people in our city are becoming much interested in ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first local circle which we have known to 8ring out the old year1 ring in the new10 is that at ,omaha1 ,nebraska4 ,from the local paper we learn that the meeting was one of unusual importance4 ,special preparations were made1 as this was the closing meeting of the year1 and coming as it did on the last evening of the year4 ,the attendance was exceptionally large4 ,the literary exercises were of a very high order1 and were much appreciated by the large and fashionable audience assembled4 ,an elegant banquet was served after the exercises1 and speech making followed4 ,in response to the toast 8,the ,chautauqua ,club10 a gentleman said that a little while ago he1 himself1 did not know what ,chautauqua meant4 ,it was a dim1 indefinable something4 ,he had been told that the meaning of the word in the ,indian language is 8a foggy place10 and it was a dim1 distant1 foggy place away off1 but how real it came to him now6 ,it meant intellectual study1 literature1 science and art4 ,it had done more1 it had led him into a new life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a little over one year ago a young lady of ,ossawatomie1 ,kansas1 returned from a visit to ,new ,york1 brim full of enthusiasm for the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 having imbibed the 8,chautauqua ,idea0 at the summer ,assembly4 ,she at once went to work and in a short time a local circle of twelve members was organized4 ,about mid-winter the circle gave a supper to its friends--a very enjoyable affair4 ,again1 later in the season1 a literary entertainment1 given to procure funds with which to buy a telescope1 met with fair success4 ,this year all hands took hold of the work with renewed vigor1 and the old members were encouraged by an addition of seven new members to the circle4 ,the weekly meetings are conducted on the conversational plan1 with now and then a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 song4 ,they are1 withal1 a very enthusiastic body of ,chautauquans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,missouri 7,maryville74--,this is the third year of our local circle at ,maryville4 ,we have eight regular members enrolled4 ,others here are reading the course1 but do not meet with us for review4 ,we have varied the method of conducting our readings as often as practicable1 so as to make them interesting as well as instructive in character4 ,this has been done sometimes by adding questions to be answered1 writing short essays1 or biographical sketches1 and introducing the ,chautauqua games4 ,then again a change was made in the number of officers and teachers1 or manner of opening or closing the meetings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is a circle of over forty persons at ,butte ,city1 ,montana4 ,the secretary writes3 8,the interest is good1 in fact beyond our expectation4 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is the right organization for us western people who are all busy and can only take spare moments for study4 ,we have developed no new plan of instruction4 ,we meet every week4 ,an instructor in each important branch prepares at a week's notice a #8quiz1' which is given to the class for about one half hour4 ,essays are read upon the most important topics connected with the lessons4 ,readings from choice literature1 music1 etc41 embraces the remainder of our enjoyable evenings40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have received memorials of the death of two members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,one from ,brooklyn1 as a minute adopted at the local circle3 8,the ,new ,york ,arc ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 learn with sorrow of the death of one of its most esteemed members4 ,mrs4 ,anna ,c4 ,fredericks died on ,sunday1 ,december #cj1 #ahhc4 ,she was one of those who were enrolled as members of the circle at its organization1 for she was already a ,chautauquan student1 and had then so nearly completed the prescribed studies that she graduated last summer4 ,such was her enthusiastic love of our methods of study1 and attachment to this circle1 that the winning of her degree did not detach her from this association1 and she continued1 with apparently increased zeal1 to attend these meetings until prevented by her late short1 though fatal1 illness4 ,but this was only one manifestation of a life which was characterized with earnest religious devotion and a loving spirit which endeared her to all who were privileged to be near to her1 or in any way subject to her influence4 ,resolved1 ,that the secretary be requested to enter the foregoing minute in the records of the circle1 and to present copies to ,mr4 ,fredericks and to the secretary at ,plainfield40 ,another comes from ,felicity1 ,ohio3 8,our #8,pleiades' circle mourns the loss of ,miss ,flora ,carver1 of the class of #ahhd4 ,she was one of our enthusiastic members1 ever trying to keep the spirit of our mottoes4 ,when she became too weak to keep up the ,course of ,reading1 she still read ,,the ,,chautauquan1 and in ,july1 with kindling eye and glowing cheek she spoke of the comfort a perusal of ,dr4 ,townsend's lecture on the 8,employments of ,heaven0 had given her4 ,hers was a ,christian life1 and her last days were spent in patient endurance of severe suffering1 and joyful contemplation of a happy future40 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers4 ,,one ,,hundred ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,on ,,first ,,part ,,of ,,preparatory ,,latin ,,course ,,in ,,english--,,from ,,commencement ,,of ,,book ,,to ,,page #afg4 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,martin1 ,,general ,,secretary ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 #a4 ,q4 ,what is the general purpose of the series of four books1 of which the present is the second in order of preparation and publication8 ,a4 ,to conduct the readers by means of the ,english tongue alone1 through substantially the same course of discipline in ,greek and ,latin ,literature as is accomplished by students who are graduates from our ,american colleges4 #b4 ,q4 ,what does this second volume of the series seek to do8 ,a4 ,to go over the ground in ,latin literature usually traversed by the student in course of preparing himself to be a college matriculate4 #c4 ,q4 ,what three elements may be said to be in any body of literature8 ,a4 ,a substance1 a spirit1 and a form1 somewhat separate one from another4 #d4 ,q4 ,of these three elements1 what two is it the hope of the author to communicate to his readers8 ,a4 ,the spirit as well as the substance1 so far as they are separable one from another4 #e4 ,q4 ,by whom was the literature called ,latin produced8 ,a4 ,by a people called ,roman1 chiefly in a city called ,rome4 #f4 ,q4 ,over what does the name ,roman lord it exclusively8 ,a4 ,over everything pertaining to ,rome1 except her language and her literature4 #g4 ,q4 ,what may this circumstance be taken to indicate in reference to ,rome8 ,a4 ,what is indeed the fact1 that literature was for her a subordinate interest4 #h4 ,q4 ,when was the city of ,rome founded8 ,a4 ,an unreckoned time before the history of the city began4 #i4 ,q4 ,according to the fable followed by ,virgil1 by whom was ,rome founded8 ,a4 ,by neas1 escaping with a trusty few from the flames of ,troy4 #aj4 ,q4 ,according to a second legend1 lapping on and piecing out the first1 who was the founder of ,rome8 ,a4 ,romulus1 whose father was ,mars1 the ,roman god of war4 #aa4 ,q4 ,what legendary line of rulers succeeded ,romulus8 ,a4 ,a line of legendary kings1 followed by a ,republic4 #ab4 ,q4 ,what may be assumed as the starting-point of ,roman history1 worthy to be so called8 ,a4 ,the war with ,pyrrhus1 which broke out two hundred and eighty-one years before ,christ4 #ac4 ,q4 ,after ,rome had absorbed ,italy into her empire1 with what ,african city was a prolonged war waged8 ,a4 ,with ,carthage4 #ad4 ,q4 ,what three names were prominent on the ,carthaginian side during this war8 ,a4 ,hamilcar1 ,hasdrubal and ,hannibal4 #ae4 ,q4 ,give three prominent names on the ,roman side8 ,a4 ,regulus1 ,fabius and ,scipio4 #af4 ,q4 ,after the subjugation of ,carthage1 what is said of the dominions of ,rome8 ,a4 ,her dominions were rapidly extended in every direction until they embraced almost literally the whole of the then known world4 #ag4 ,q4 ,when was the ,augustan age of ,latin literature8 ,a4 ,during the reign of ,augustus ,csar4 #ah4 ,q4 ,what is said on the whole of the fame of ancient ,rome8 ,a4 ,it is the most famous city of the world4 #ai4 ,q4 ,what is stated in regard to the natural advantages of ,rome8 ,a4 ,its remove from the coast secured it1 in its feeble beginning1 against pirates1 while the navigable stream of the ,tiber made it virtually a seaboard town4 #bj4 ,q4 ,what was the height of the buildings that covered much of the extent of ground within the limits of the city of ancient ,rome8 ,a4 ,six and eight stories in height4 #ba4 ,q4 ,at what has the population of ,rome at its maximum been estimated8 ,a4 ,from two to six million souls4 #bb4 ,q4 ,for what was a large area reserved1 inclosed between the ,quirinal hill and the river8 ,a4 ,exclusively to public buildings1 and here there was an almost unparalleled accumulation of costly1 solid1 and magnificent architecture4 #bc4 ,q4 ,what is now one of the chief spectacles in modern ,rome to excite the wonder and awe of the tourist8 ,a4 ,the ,coliseum1 a roofless amphitheater for gladiatorial exhibitions1 built of stone1 and capable of seating more than eighty thousand spectators4 #bd4 ,q4 ,from what people were the ,greeks and ,romans descended8 ,a4 ,the ,aryan or ,indo-,european1 a people having its original home in ,central ,asia4 #be4 ,q4 ,how did the ,romans conquer and govern the world8 ,a4 ,by being conquerors and governors4 #bf4 ,q4 ,for what did the ,romans all live8 ,a4 ,for the state4 #bg4 ,q4 ,what was the one business of the state8 ,a4 ,conquest1 in a two-fold sense3 first1 subjugation by arms2 second1 consequent upon subjugation1 rule by law4 #bh4 ,q4 ,what is said of the cultivation of letters by ,rome8 ,a4 ,letters she almost wholly neglected until her conquest of the world was complete4 #bi4 ,q4 ,in what way did the ,romans make peace with other nations8 ,a4 ,they never made peace but as conquerors4 #cj4 ,q4 ,what course did the ,romans take in regard to whatever superior features they found in the military scheme of other nations8 ,a4 ,they did not hesitate to transfer and adopt it into their own4 #ca4 ,q4 ,what nations in turn enjoyed the honor of furnishing to the ,romans the model for their sword8 ,a4 ,the ,spaniards and the ,gauls4 #cb4 ,q4 ,from whom did ,rome learn how to order her encampment8 ,a4 ,from ,pyrrhus4 #cc4 ,q4 ,from what people did ,rome learn to build ships8 ,a4 ,from the ,carthaginians4 #cd4 ,q4 ,as soon as ,rome had conquered a people what did she make that people8 ,a4 ,her ally4 #ce4 ,q4 ,what phrase has ,rome made a proverb to all time of false dealing between nations8 ,a4 8,punic faith40 #cf4 ,q4 ,at whose expense did ,rome do her conquering and her governing8 ,a4 ,at the expense of the conquered and the governed4 #cg4 ,q4 ,what effect did war have upon the wealth of ,rome8 ,a4 ,she never herself became poorer1 but always richer1 by war4 #ch4 ,q4 ,what was all that enormous accumulation of public and private resources which made ,rome rich and great8 ,a4 ,it was pure plunder4 #ci4 ,q4 ,what is a momentous fact in regard to the population of the ,roman ,empire8 ,a4 ,that in the end over one-half the population were slaves4 #dj4 ,q4 ,notwithstanding the injustice of ,rome1 how did she govern as compared with other ancient nations8 ,a4 ,she governed more beneficently than any other ancient nation4 #da4 ,q4 ,what blessing did she extend to all the countries she conquered8 ,a4 ,the blessing of stable government1 of an administration of law at least comparatively just and wise4 #db4 ,q4 ,what effect did ,rome have upon the civilization of those she subjugated8 ,a4 ,after her fashion she civilized where she had subjugated4 #dc4 ,q4 ,what did ,rome do that is to be accounted an immeasurable blessing to mankind8 ,a4 ,she made the world politically one1 for the unhindered universal spread of ,christianity4 #dd4 ,q4 ,who are some of the historians mentioned as having written works on the history of ,rome1 that are commended to the reader8 ,a4 ,creighton1 ,leighton1 ,liddell1 ,mommsen1 ,merivale1 ,arnold and ,gibbon4 #de4 ,q4 ,what work on the literature of ,rome is spoken of as perhaps the best manual of ,latin letters8 ,a4 ,cruttwell's 8,history of ,roman ,literature40 #df4 ,q4 ,during what period was ,roman literature produced1 that is usually termed classic8 ,a4 ,from about #hj ,b4 ,c4 to ,a4 ,d4 #ajh1 covering a space of #ahh years4 #dg4 ,q4 ,what writer begins1 and what one ends this period8 ,a4 ,cicero begins and ,tacitus ends it4 #dh4 ,q4 ,who may be regarded as the beginner of ,latin literature8 ,a4 ,livius ,andronicus1 a writer of tragedy about twenty-four years before ,christ4 #di4 ,q4 ,who wrote a sort of epic on the first ,punic war1 esteemed by scholars one of the chief lost things in ,roman literature8 ,a4 ,nvius4 #ej4 ,q4 ,what is the next great name in ,latin literature1 and what is said of his influence and example8 ,a4 ,ennius1 and his influence and example decisively fixed the form of the ,latin poetry4 #ea4 ,q4 ,who were two great ,roman writers of comedy8 ,a4 ,plautus and ,terence4 #eb4 ,q4 ,what form of composition in verse may be said to be original with ,rome8 ,a4 ,the satire4 #ec4 ,q4 ,what seems to be a general fact in literary history1 in regard to the first development of a national literature8 ,a4 ,that verse precedes prose4 #ed4 ,q4 ,who was the creator of the classic ,roman satire8 ,a4 ,lucilius4 #ee4 ,q4 ,who were the great ,roman masters of satire8 ,a4 ,horace and ,juvenal4 #ef4 ,q4 ,what ,english writers have written brilliant imitative satires with the essential spirit of ,horace and ,juvenal8 ,a4 ,dryden1 ,pope and ,johnson4 #eg4 ,q4 ,to whom may be attributed the merit of being the founder or former of ,latin prose8 ,a4 ,cato1 the ,censor4 #eh4 ,q4 ,who among the ,romans1 with ,demosthenes among ,greeks1 reigns alone as one of the two undisputedly greatest masters of human speech that have ever appeared on the planet8 ,a4 ,cicero4 #ei4 ,q4 ,who among ,romans were eminent writers of history for ,rome8 ,a4 ,cato1 ,sallust1 ,livy and ,tacitus4 #fj4 ,q4 ,in what age1 and by whom1 was the great epic of ,rome produced8 ,a4 ,the neid1 in the age of ,augustus1 by ,virgil4 #fa4 ,q4 ,who by eminence was the ,roman poet of society and manners8 ,a4 ,horace4 #fb4 ,q4 ,what is any ,latin ,reader1 like any ,greek1 pretty sure to contain8 ,a4 ,its share of fables1 of anecdotes1 of historical fragments1 of mythology1 and of biography4 #fc4 ,q4 ,what revived plan of making up ,latin ,readers is among the late changes in fashion introduced by classical teachers8 ,a4 ,of making up ,latin ,readers that consist exclusively of selections credited to standard ,latin authors4 #fd4 ,q4 ,what two writers sometimes find a place in these ,latin ,readers1 that are sometimes wholly omitted in the course of ,latin literature accomplished by the college graduate8 ,a4 ,sallust and ,ovid4 #fe4 ,q4 ,what three historical works did ,sallust write8 ,a4 ,the 8,conspiracy of ,catiline10 the 8,jugurthine ,war10 and a 8,history of ,rome from the death of ,sulla to the ,mithridatic ,war40 #ff4 ,q4 ,in the midst of what was the residence ,sallust occupied in ,rome8 ,a4 ,in the midst of grounds laid out and beautified by him with the most lavish magnificence4 #fg4 ,q4 ,what did these grounds subsequently become1 and what name do they still bear8 ,a4 ,they subsequently became the chosen resort of the ,roman emperors1 and they still bear the name of the ,gardens of ,sallust4 #fh4 ,q4 ,with what is ,sallust's 8,jugurthine ,war0 commenced8 ,a4 ,with a sort of moral essay1 or homily1 not having the least particular relations to the subject about to be treated4 #fi4 ,q4 ,what is the subject of the 8,jugurthine ,war08 ,a4 ,the war which the ,roman people carried on with ,jugurtha1 king of the ,numidians4 #gj4 ,q4 ,what are the names of three ,romans who took prominent part in the ,jugurthine war8 ,a4 ,metellus1 ,marius and ,sulla4 #ga4 ,q4 ,with what did the war end8 ,a4 ,with the capture of ,jugurtha by the ,romans through the treachery of ,bocchus1 his father-in-law4 #gb4 ,q4 ,where and when was ,ovid born8 ,a4 ,in northern ,italy1 in #dc ,b4 ,c4 #gc4 ,q4 ,with what did the youth of ,ovid coincide8 ,a4 ,either with the full maturity1 or with the declining age1 of the great ,augustan writers1 ,virgil1 ,livy1 ,horace and ,sallust4 #gd4 ,q4 ,by whom was ,ovid banished from ,rome8 ,a4 ,by ,augustus4 #ge4 ,q4 ,what may be considered as the chief work of ,ovid8 ,a4 ,his 8,metamorphoses40 #gf4 ,q4 ,what does this title literally mean8 ,a4 ,changes of form4 #gg4 ,q4 ,what is ,ovid's idea in the poem8 ,a4 ,to tell in his own way such legends of the teeming ,greek mythology as deal with the transformations of men and women into animals1 plants1 or inanimate things4 #gh4 ,q4 ,what has this poem been to subsequent poets8 ,a4 ,a great treasury of material4 #gi4 ,q4 ,what episode1 taken from the second book of 8,metamorphoses10 is given by our author8 ,a4 ,phton driving the chariot of the sun4 #hj4 ,q4 ,in what is the legend of ,phton conceived by many to have had its origin8 ,a4 ,in some meteorological fact--an extraordinary solar heat perhaps1 producing drought and conflagration4 #ha4 ,q4 ,of what two other stories from the 8,metamorphoses0 does our author present a translation8 ,a4 ,the story of ,daphne's transformation into a laurel1 and the tragic story of ,niobe4 #hb4 ,q4 ,what ,american writer has quite extensively treated ,ovidian topics in a way that is at once instructive and delightful8 ,a4 ,hawthorne4 #hc4 ,q4 ,ovid's verse in the 8,metamorphoses0 is the same as what8 ,a4 ,as that of ,virgil and ,homer1 namely1 the dactylic hexameter4 #hd4 ,q4 ,what has the general agreement of thoughtful minds tended to affirm in regard to ,julius ,csar8 ,a4 ,the sentence of ,brutus1 as given by ,shakspere1 that he was 8the foremost man of all this world40 #he4 ,q4 ,what is the principal literary work of ,csar that remains to us8 ,a4 ,his 8,commentaries10 which is an account he wrote of his campaigns in ,gaul4 #hf4 ,q4 ,with the exception of a few instances1 in what person does ,csar write8 ,a4 ,in the third person4 #hg4 ,q4 ,from whom did the ancient patrician family of ,csar claim derivation8 ,a4 ,from ,iulus1 son of ,trojan neas4 #hh4 ,q4 ,the word ,csar was made by ,caius ,julius a name so illustrious that it came afterward to be adopted by whom8 ,a4 ,by his successors in power at ,rome1 and finally thence to be transferred to the emperors of ,germany1 and to the autocrats of ,russia1 called respectively ,kaiser and ,czar4 #hi4 ,q4 ,with whom was ,csar associated in the first triumvirate8 ,a4 ,pompey and ,crassus4 #ij4 ,q4 ,out of the eight books comprised in ,csar's 8,gallic ,commentaries10 how many is the preparatory student usually required to read8 ,a4 ,only four4 #ia4 ,q4 ,with what two series of military operations on ,csar's part does the first book principally occupy itself8 ,a4 ,one directed against the ,helvetians1 and one against a body of ,germans who had invaded ,gaul4 #ib4 ,q4 ,of what is ,csar's tenth legion1 that became famous in history1 still a proverb8 ,a4 ,for loyalty1 valor and effectiveness4 #ic4 ,q4 ,in the second book ,csar gives the history of his campaign against whom8 ,a4 ,the ,belgians1 made up of different tribes4 #id4 ,q4 ,who were esteemed the most fierce and warlike of all the ,belgian nations8 ,a4 ,the ,nervians4 #ie4 ,q4 ,after ,csar's successful campaign against the ,belgian tribes1 what was decreed for his victories8 ,a4 ,a thanksgiving of fifteen days1 an unprecedented honor4 #if4 ,q4 ,in the third book an account is given of a naval warfare against whom8 ,a4 ,the ,veneti4 #ig4 ,q4 ,what is the first thing of commanding interest in the fourth book of ,csar's 8,commentaries80 ,a4 ,the case of alleged perfidy1 with enormous undoubted cruelty1 practiced by ,csar against his ,german enemies4 #ih4 ,q4 ,what famous feat on the part of ,csar is narrated in the fourth book8 ,a4 ,that of throwing a bridge across the river ,rhine4 #ii4 ,q4 ,what were the dimensions of this bridge8 ,a4 ,it was fourteen hundred feet long1 furnishing a solid roadway thirty or forty feet wide4 #ajj4 ,q4 ,with the relation of what enterprise does the fourth book close8 ,a4 ,the invasion by ,csar of ,great ,britain4 ,,chautauqua ,,normal ,,course4 ,season of #ahhd4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,bible ,,section4 ,the ,land of ,the ,bible4 ,by ,,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,hurlbut1 ,d4,d41 ,,and ,r4 ,s4 ,,holmes1 ,a4,m4 #a4 ,it is an ancient land4--,before ,rome was cradled by ,tiber--before the storied strifes of the ,gods in ,hellas1 before ,troy and the great glory of the ,trojans were1 even before history was this wonderful land4 #b4 ,it is an historic land4--,much of the world's destiny has been decided in this little strip of coast and mountain land1 between the ,jordan and the sea4 ,here armies have camped and battles have been fought4 ,the restless feet of merchant traders have beaten its highways1 the white wings of merchant vessels have flitted to and from its ports with the wealth of the world4 #c4 ,it is a diminutive land4--,a little triangle bounded by the sea1 the ,jordan and her mountains1 and the desert1 it seems hardly large enough for all the mighty events that have occurred within it2 #ahj miles from farthest north to south1 and #ij miles for its greatest breadth from west to east1 measures the country in all its extent4 #d4 ,it is a storied land4--,where such a treasure house of tales as in that old ,bible8 ,the land and its book have figured in all the literatures of the ,occidental ages4 ,knights and paladins have trod its vales and mountains2 saint and crusader have watched at night beneath its stars4 #e4 ,it is a land of famous mountains4--,ebal and ,gerizim1 ,hor and ,nebo1 ,olivet and ,tabor1 ,gilboa and ,hermon4 ,what scenes rise to the mind as we name them6 ,carmel and ,quarantania2 struggle and victory2 ,elijah1 ,immanuel4 #f4 ,it is a land of remarkable waters4--,a single river--the ,jordan1 from north to south--rising in the extreme north from springs so hidden as to have long been unknown1 loses itself in that sea of desolation1 ,lake ,asphaltites1 the ,dead ,sea4 ,the mid-world sea1 the mother sea of great nations1 washes the western shores1 and ,galilee shines like a diadem in her mountain setting4 #g4 ,it is a land of many names4--,the land of ,canaan1 the land of the children of ,heth1 ,philistia1 ,palestine1 the ,promised ,land1 the ,holy ,land1 the land of ,judah1 ,immanuel's ,land4 #h4 ,it is an impregnable land4--,its hills1 rock-ribbed1 rise one upon another1 covering the whole face of the land1 and forcing all travel of army or caravan through the few passes in which the great northern plain terminates4 ,hence ,esdrelon became of necessity the country's battle ground4 ,a united people made the country a fear to its force4 #i4 ,it was a populous land4--,beyond belief almost are the records of the people who lived within these few square miles4 ,cities and villages laid so close to each other that their environs almost met4 ,the people thronged in them1 and in the well tilled country about them1 so that centuries of war1 foreign and civil1 and repeated depletions left them still in their decadence a troublesome foe to the veterans of ,rome4 #aj4 ,it was a productive land4--,shrubs and trees were in abundance4 ,pine1 oak1 elder1 dogwood1 walnut1 maple1 willow1 ash1 carob1 sycamore1 fig1 olive and palm4 ,fruits in great variety were ripened beneath its sun2 grapes1 apples1 pears1 apricots1 quinces1 plums1 mulberries1 dates1 pomegranates1 oranges1 limes1 bananas1 almonds1 and pistachios4 ,many kinds of grains were cultivated1 such as wheat1 barley1 rice1 sesamum1 millet and maize4 #aa4 ,it was a land of a remarkable climate4--,thirty degrees variation from mountain to plain was its daily range4 ,with the isothermal lines of our ,florida and ,california1 it yet had snow and ice as in our northern climates4 ,heavy rainfalls were characteristic2 so were long periods of drought4 ,heavy dews1 fierce siroccos1 cloudless skies1 oppressive heat1 steady sea breezes1 burning valleys1 cool mountain summits were all characteristics of this land of the ,bible4 ,under the headings now given let the student give3 #a4 ,ten dates which cover its history1 and mark its principal events4 #b4 ,give five events which have occurred in this land1 that have direct bearing in the world's history4 #c4 ,give its geographical dimensions and natural features which mark its boundaries4 #d4 ,give ten events in its history which have made it an enchanted land4 #e4 ,give the event which has made the mountains mentioned memorable4 #f4 ,give the event which makes each of the waters of the ,bible memorable2 ,galilee1 ,jordan1 ,kishon1 the ,salt ,sea4 #g4 ,give the origin of the names by which the land is known4 #h4 ,give the principal routes of travel through this land2 and name the defensible passes4 #i4 ,give its ten principal cities4 #aj4 ,give the ,bible references which mention any of the trees1 shrubs1 fruits or grains here specified4 #aa4 ,give reasons why the climate should be as described4 ,,sunday-,,school ,,section4 ,,lesson ,,vi4--,,the ,,teacher',s ,,mistakes4 ,that they are possible is assumed4 ,that they are probable is likewise assumed4 ,that they are real is a fact of personal experience4 ,mistakes anywhere are mischievous4 ,in ,sunday-school they are often ruinous4 ,let us classify them4 ,they are first1 mistakes of manner and method2 second1 mistakes of purpose and expectation2 third1 mistakes of thought and action4 ,let us examine our classification3 ,i4 ,manner and ,method4 ,it is a mistake 7a7 to recognize differences in social position or station between members of a class4 ,in the ,sunday-school all meet on a common level4 ,there is no rank in the ,christian kingdom4 ,all are peers of the realm1 and ,jesus ,christ is the only ,lord4 7b7 ,to be in any degree partial to any scholar4 ,all should be favorite scholars in this school4 7c7 ,to seem uninterested in anything pertaining to the general interest of the school4 ,if the teacher is devoid of interest the scholar will be4 7d7 ,to scold or threaten in the class1 even under provocations such as do occur in ,sunday-school4 ,scolding always exercises an ill effect1 and a threat is but a challenge4 7e7 ,to pretend to be wiser or better versed in ,bible lore than one really is4 ,in ,bible teaching1 real knowledge is real power--but a manner that assumes to know what it does not is only the lion's skin on the ass' head4 7f7 ,to neglect thorough study4 ,wherever there is good teaching there will be at least two students4 ,one will be the teacher4 ,witness ,dr4 ,arnold1 of ,rugby4 7g7 ,to neglect private prayer in the teacher's preparation4 ,said old ,martin ,luther1 8,bene arsse est bene studuisse40 7h7 ,to depend upon lesson-helps in the class4 ,crutches are not becoming to an able bodied man4 ,but some teachers bring out the lesson crutches on ,sunday morning and hobble through ,sunday-school on them4 7i7 ,to expect the superintendent to discipline each class4 ,he is no more responsible for class order than a commanding general for the order of a corporal's guard4 7j7 ,to use the lesson verse by verse1 ending each with the sopian interrogation1 8,hc fabula docet80 ,,ii4 ,purpose and ,expectation4 ,it is a mistake 7a7 to seek only for a scholar's conversion4 ,if growth does not follow birth1 death will4 ,upbuilding in ,christ is one great purpose of the school4 7b7 ,to seek only to create interest in the lesson4 ,there may be deep intellectual interest created1 and no spiritual interest4 7c7 ,to teach for the purpose of performing duty4 ,that robs the teacher of one chief essential to success--heartiness4 7d7 ,to teach for the purpose of inculcating one's own peculiar religious views4 ,paul's purpose was the right one--8to know nothing save ,christ and him crucified40 7e7 ,for the teacher to expect the pupil's interest in the ,gospel theme to equal his own4 ,it is contrary to sinful nature4 7f7 ,to expect home work by pupils1 unless it has been prepared for by patient effort4 7g7 ,to expect conversion as the immediate result of teaching1 and to grow discouraged and abandon the work because the expectation is not at once realized4 ,god's way and time are his own4 7h7 ,not to expect conversion as the ultimate result of teaching2 and hence to fail to direct every effort to that end4--8,in the morning sow thy seed10 etc4 ,,iii4 ,thought and ,action4 ,it is a mistake 7a7 to think teaching easy4 ,it has taxed the noblest powers of the noblest men4 7b7 ,to think it an insignificant or puerile employment4 ,the two greatest names of the ages1 heathen and ,christian1 were nothing if not teachers3 ,socrates--,immanuel4 7c7 ,to think the ,sunday-school a children's institution only4 ,the three great ,christian institutions are the home1 the church1 the ,sunday-school1 and the constituency of each is the same4 7d7 ,to be irregular in attendance at ,sunday-school4 7e7 ,to be unpunctual4 7f7 ,to be lax in discipline4 7g7 ,to fail in example1 whether in connection with school work or daily life4 ,,editor',s ,,outlook4 ,,ingenuity ,,in ,,local ,,circles4 ,the degree of interest in work depends largely upon the degree of its variety4 ,a class which nods over the same day-in-and-day-out routine of questions and answers1 wakes up1 smiles1 thinks and becomes animated when a new way of doing even familiar work is proposed4 ,local circle life and strength depends very largely upon wide-awake schemes and novel plans4 ,unless something fresh is continually arousing interest1 a circle will lose ground4 ,there are many workers who are continually developing new enterprises2 there are others who never have anything to report but the number of members1 the names of officers1 and the place and time of meeting4 ,such societies are dwarfed by their own lack of ingenuity4 ,the kind and variety of work which is to be done in all circles can not be better told than it is in an open letter before us from ,newton ,highlands1 ,massachusetts3 8,we are a mutual club4 ,our plan of work is very informal4 ,our officers have been only a president and secretary4 ,we meet every ,monday at the house of one of our number1 alternating as we please4 ,we commence precisely on time1 viz43 #b3cj o'clock p4 m41 and continue till #e3cj1 or later4 ,for the first two years our president was our leader4 ,since that time we have taken our turn in order1 as leaders1 and asked questions in order around the circle1 on the subject of the former week's work1 taking the lesson up by paragraphs1 faithfully examining each1 and often incidentally bringing in 7for drawing out of the members7 much information bearing upon the lesson4 ,often a subject was allotted to a member1 on which she thoroughly prepared herself and contributed the information at the next meeting1 either verbally or by reading a paper4 ,the memorial days were faithfully kept1 though not always on the identical day2 but we selected a day most convenient for the club during the month--for we are all housekeepers4 8,for these memorial days great preparation was made4 ,in the first place we all assembled two hours earlier than usual1 with the preparations for a banquet1 at the home of the lady who had invited us to dine with her4 8,each carried whatever she had previously pledged1 or what had been suggested to her2 and here the ladies had ample opportunity to exhibit their skill in the culinary line1 which they did not fail to improve2 so that one of the suggestions1 not yet acted upon1 was to publish a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,cook ,book4 8,we had our post-prandial exercises too1 though care was taken to send each member the toast to which she was to respond1 that she might not be taken unawares1 and having never had any training in that line we were allowed to read our responses1 if we chose4 ,then at the usual time we gathered for our work4 8,after having celebrated the birthday of each of those selected by ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 for two years1 we have since introduced other names to our list1 as ,walter ,scott1 ,george ,eliot4 8,once we had a ,roman day1 and one of our party wrote a description of our imagined entrance into ,rome1 and locating us at a hotel1 took us daily trips to different parts of the city2 each member describing one or more interesting objects to be found on the way4 ,a map of ,rome hung up before us1 so that the imaginary excursion could be easily traced4 ,the members brought in any engravings or illustrations1 medallions1 etc41 which were helpful1 and our neighbors who had traveled abroad were happy to aid us by loaning their precious mementoes4 ,our excursions1 too1 as a club1 have been very enjoyable and profitable4 8,while studying geology we made an excursion to ,harvard ,college and spent the day in looking over the buildings and listening to the curator1 who kindly explained the articles in the ,agassiz ,museum1 and then delivered a lecture to us on 8,ancient ,mounds10 etc4 8,after completing the ,history of ,art1 we made an excursion to the ,art ,museum in ,boston1 and examined everything in the rooms which had been referred to in the ,art ,book1 thus fixing the knowledge already acquired by seeing its representation4 ,we also1 through the kindness of friends1 had the privilege of visiting the ,state ,house1 and examining the original charters and ancient letters of ,washington1 ,arnold1 etc41 also the ,acts and ,resolves in the archives of the state4 8,on our return1 our president proposed to one of our members1 whose father had been in the legislature1 and was well acquainted with all the technical terms and methods in use there1 to write an article for the club1 introducing a bill into the legislature1 noting the steps necessary for its passage through both houses1 and tracing it even till it became a law4 8,this afforded us considerable amusement1 as the sister was progressive 787 and recognized in her look into futurity some of our club as members of the different houses6 and the bills were such as had an amusing local significance4 8,a trip to ,wellesley ,college also was made4 8,but time and your patience would fail me to tell of all our doings4 ,one thing more1 however1 ,i must not omit1 and that is that our club wrote a book4 ,we will not call it a ,romance1 though it was the #8,bridal ,trip' of a couple of young ,americans4 ,each chapter1 written by a different member1 constituted a part of the journey1 and included an account of the points of interest in or around some principal city4 ,the couple journeyed through ,scotland1 ,england1 ,france1 ,italy and ,germany4 8,of course it was necessary for a committee to act as editors1 and write these chapters so that it would read like a continuous story4 ,then one afternoon we met and had the whole read aloud by the editors4 8,we felt the attempt was an exceedingly great undertaking at first1 but as each one had a certain part allotted to her1 and was allowed to gather all the ideas she pleased from research1 and use them in her own way--fearing no accusation of plagiarism--we found it was not so difficult after all40 ,,is ,,crime ,,interesting8 ,the newspaper reader1 for one or another reason1 regards crime as important news because he is full of morbid curiosity regarding whatever is abnormal in human conduct4 ,a crime is something strange and fascinating because passions play through it1 and secret places in human life are uncovered by it4 ,it interests us because we are human1 with strange forces of evil coming up now and again into consciousness and suggesting our brotherhood to the thief and the murderer4 ,many a man reads in a story of defalcation1 things he has himself done without being found out4 ,many a woman reads in the story of a murder1 passages from her own life where she also might have taken the fatal step beyond the line of safety4 ,try as much as we may1 we cannot divest ourselves of the curiosity and the unconscious sympathy which make us look over the crime record with more interest than we give to any other part of a newspaper4 ,the newspapers are reproached for publishing all about crimes2 but the average reader1 perhaps we might say the best reader1 peruses even the details with absorbing interest4 ,he may be ashamed of himself for his curiosity1 but he has the curiosity4 ,the fact is not complimentary to us1 and we lash the press when we know we ought to lash ourselves4 ,for the reason just given1 the remedy for the daily feast of passion and blood is not an easy one to find4 ,a newspaper needs great merits to be able to omit the crime record2 and though it should be accepted without that record1 many a subscriber of it would look for the record elsewhere4 ,the remedy is difficult because the public has to cure itself--the newspaper can not cure it--of the desire to know 8the evil that is in the world through lust40 ,the world1 the flesh and the devil take up a commanding position in our anxieties1 solicitudes1 curiosities1 and sympathies4 ,we must be a great deal better as a people before we shall be content to live in ignorance of any badness which breaks through the calm surface of life and rises into a billow of crime4 ,it is true that the curiosity may be educated out of us--not entirely1 but in large degree--and yet it is also true that we do not display any serious desire to be so educated4 ,we want this kind of news4 ,we want to know at least the motives of the crimes1 how they were committed and whether they were punished or not4 ,the newspaper may give us these outline facts discreetly and briefly1 but the mass of us will secretly hunger for more4 ,the moral of the business may be left to the pulpit2 it is tolerably plain to the pews4 ,a ,,drawback ,,to ,,social ,,life4 ,to one examining the society notes of the various cities1 it is very evident that never before were we1 who are in society1 living so sumptuously as at present4 ,our dinners have become banquets1 our teas feasts4 ,the magnificence1 the notoriety1 the cost1 are astounding4 ,one involuntarily rubs his eyes and looks to see some gallant dissolving pearls for his liege lady4 ,this elaborate effort to feast one's guests is not only prevalent among the millionaires and epicureans of our cities1 it is a feature of entertaining which prevails even in small communities4 ,in a village of some six hundred people1 well known to us1 we have had the opportunity to study the effect of extravagant hospitality upon the society4 ,the people almost without exception are well-to-do1 well educated1 congenial1 a set in every way suited to form a pleasant society4 ,among them are a few wealthy families4 ,in such a town one would expect to find almost ideal social life--full of good will1 of pleasant thought1 new amusements1 not overcrowded1 thoroughly enjoyable2 but to our surprise we found very little4 ,a few evenings out1 a few questions1 and we understand the cause4 ,at a small party given by a leading lady1 we were astounded to be called out to a table loaded with every conceivable delicacy2 meats1 salads1 cakes1 creams1 fruits in every variety4 ,the supper was a work of art1 a mammoth undertaking1 and it had been prepared by the lady herself and her one servant1 with such assistance as is to be found in a small village1 off the railroad4 ,further experience taught us that when any one entertained friends there such refreshments were considered necessary4 ,the effects upon the social life of the town were disastrous4 ,where there was the possibility of most delightful companionships there was an absolute dearth of social gatherings4 ,a lady of culture remarked3 8,i can not entertain1 simply because ,i can not afford it4 ,if it were possible ,i should receive weekly1 but our customs demand such outlays for all social affairs that ,i am obliged to deny myself what otherwise would be a pleasure40 ,another1 a lady of wealth remarked3 8,i am handicapped in my social life by the extravagant habits of our people4 ,what ,i would be glad to do1 were ,i in a city where ,i could obtain efficient help1 it is impossible to do with our servants4 ,i can not prepare my own dinners1 and our town requires such extensive preparations for even a small company1 that ,i have ceased entertaining40 ,but even this feature is not the worst4 ,social life is virtually killed when the table becomes the feature of the evening1 when on the merits of pastry and salads depends the social status of the family4 ,the hostess comes to her guest's room1 worn with the care of the thousand details of a great dinner4 ,the possibility of friction or failure destroys the ease1 the mirth1 the abandon1 that makes her charm4 ,her spirit oftentimes is contagious1 and her guests1 too1 feel the responsibility which oppresses her4 ,it comes to be true that the most elaborate dinner-givers are the poorest entertainers1 that instead of new ideas1 pleasant memories and the ring of music1 all one carries away from the house where they have been feasted is indigestion and their menu card4 ,this extravagance is a feature of social life which sensible people can not afford to countenance4 ,there is too great danger that by it the truly desirable and helpful features will be injured2 that while epicureans will support the elegance1 people of simple habits will be driven in a measure from society2 that social life will be changed to feasting1 and conversation1 wit and music placed a step below eating and drinking4 ,,an ,,unjust ,,complaint4 ,it would be a strange thing if the public schools of the country gave entire satisfaction4 ,they are so numerous1 they cost so much1 such large hopes are built on them1 they so pervasively affect the most sensitive social regions--those of the family--that a very large amount of criticism1 a huge aggregate of discontent1 would be properly and naturally expected4 ,the wonder is that there is so little dissatisfaction4 ,perhaps the most sensitive spot just now is the pass examinations--or the system of regulating the rise of pupils from one department to another4 ,it is affirmed1 for example1 that in ,new ,york and other cities the teachers are constantly employed in coaching their pupils for examinations4 ,it is declared that there is very little of proper teaching1 that most of the work is simply cramming for the sake of passing1 and that the pupils really learn very little1 and are not in any proper sense being educated4 ,the whole mass of these children are being crowded up a stairway--and the getting up1 by whatever means1 into the higher grades is the sole object of teachers and pupils4 ,it is easy to see that there must be much use of the spirit of emulation1 and the pride of standing1 in teaching great masses of young people4 ,there are owlish philosophers who would have children and young people act from the motives that are supposed to regulate the lives of their grandfathers4 ,a public school boy or a college boy is often1 perhaps commonly1 spoken of as though he were a companion of ,socrates and ,george ,washington4 ,this kind of critic assumes that the lad knows all wisdom and only needs to select some bits of knowledge and chew them with the relish of a ,plato4 ,the critic can not put himself in the boy's place4 ,he can not realize that the boy does not know everything1 and does not much care to learn anything4 ,this critic has the practical teacher at a great advantage2 knowing boys and girls as saints and philosophers1 he can condemn the practical instructor who has never met any such boys and girls4 ,the teacher wants to get work out of his pupils2 and he goes about it practically1 and does get the work done4 ,at the end of his work1 the pupils are doubtless very unsatisfactory4 ,in fact1 we are all of us1 always more or less unsatisfactory4 ,in ,new ,york1 there is no doubt that the pass system has developed some bad features4 ,perhaps some trace of these features will be found everywhere in graded schools4 ,it would be difficult to secure ambitious and industrious pupils without running some risks4 ,you must awaken the desire to rise1 even though the desire to rise dishonestly may develop itself in some pupils4 ,the gravest charge against the schools is that they kill the pupils with hard work4 ,every city has its story of a pupil 7always a girl7 murdered by the severe tasks of the school4 ,the simple truth is that negligent mothers are more guilty than the schools4 ,it is a mother's business to know all about her children--to know when they are overworked--and it is also the mother's duty to put a stop to hurtful work4 ,we do not hire teachers to take the place of parents4 ,we could not afford to pay enough teachers for this service4 ,the public school system assumes that mothers attend to their duties1 and retain their authority4 ,if school work is hurtful to a young girl1 the mother has the right to remove the child from the school4 ,if she does not find out that the work is too hard1 how can she expect the teacher to discover it8 ,the general health of public school children proves that the system is not too severe2 but it will often happen that young girls are physically unfit for study4 ,it is the business of their mothers--not of their teachers--to know when such disabilities exist4 ,,letters ,,of ,,william ,,cullen ,,bryant4 ,we love to read the letters of great men1 who in letters1 art1 science1 statesmanship1 theology1 have held a front rank4 ,they discover their personality1 and bring us into acquaintance with the men themselves1 as nothing else does4 ,we say to the biographer3 8,let your subject1 as far as may be1 tell us of himself2 give us any fragments of autobiography or journals which may be in existence2 print copiously of his letters40 ,the wise writer of biography does so2 and the most valuable portions of the life of a man of note are those in which he speaks himself4 ,let ,michael ,angelo1 with candle stuck in his pasteboard cap1 teach those who undertake to show us a character in whom there is a public interest2 let them keep their own shadows off the canvas4 8,the ,life of ,frederick ,w4 ,robertson10 by ,stopford ,a4 ,brooke1 and the 8,life of ,dr4 ,arnold10 by ,dean ,stanley1 are models of biography4 ,the letters of ,robertson and of ,arnold are their most prominent feature1 and are a priceless treasure1 both because of the light they throw upon the personality of the men1 and the rich thought with which they sparkle4 ,mr4 ,parke ,godwin1 in his 8,life of ,bryant10 has done his work well4 ,to have omitted the scrap of autobiography which occupies the first thirty-eight pages of the work would have been a great blunder4 ,it is most charming4 ,and the letters of the great poet and editor are interspersed generously through the two volumes4 ,no one will say that they fill too large a space4 ,fame came to ,bryant early1 and he was permitted to live1 with his reputation continually widening1 and his honors augmenting1 until nearly four-score-and-four years had passed over his head2 and to die1 like ,moses1 with his eye undimmed and his natural force not abated4 ,it could not have been a difficult matter to secure letters of his in abundance for the purposes of biography2 and these the world wants4 ,we have them here in these volumes of ,mr4 ,godwin2 letters written in all periods of life2 letters to acquaintances1 friends and strangers2 letters upon literature1 politics1 and matters personal2 letters to persons well known in letters and public affairs2 letters written here and there at home1 and from various points in his frequent journeyings in other lands4 ,as might have been expected1 we find always1 as we read them1 the same clear and beautiful style4 ,bryant could not write1 even upon trivial matters1 without writing well4 ,it was said of him that 8he never said a foolish thing40 ,no foolish thing is found in these letters1 and whatever is said is said clearly and well4 ,the poet was not a humorist2 the editor was not4 ,and the element of humor1 wanting in his poems and editorials1 seldom appears in his letters4 ,they do not sparkle with drollery and wit like those of ,dickens4 ,sometimes1 in writing to his old pastor and warm friend1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,dewey1 he unbends and is somewhat playful and jocose2 and a letter written to his mother1 when a young man1 telling her of his marriage1 is1 for him1 rather funny2 but as a rule1 the letters are of a grave and serious tone4 ,bryant the litterateur and the politician1 appears in his correspondence more prominently than any other character4 ,his interest in politics from early life was evidently very great4 ,letters are given which he wrote upon state and national affairs1 when a boy1 to the congressman of the district at ,washington2 and letters full of wise reflections1 written by the mature and sagacious man to ,president ,lincoln and other eminent statesmen4 ,as a matter of course1 the man is far more modest1 is much less positive1 and knows far less than the boy6 ,and numerous and highly interesting are the letters to many associates of his in the field of letters4 ,richard ,h4 ,dana1 the senior1 gave him valuable aid at the beginning of his literary career1 and became his close1 life-long friend4 ,perhaps to him more of the letters of these volumes are addressed than to any other one person4 ,mr4 ,bryant's home-life was beautiful1 and his letters to members of his family discover the fact1 and his strongly affectionate nature4 ,the death of his wife1 for whose recovery to health the climate of different parts of ,europe was tried in vain1 was keenly felt1 and the shadow of the bereavement was upon him the balance of his years4 ,among the letters1 we find that written to ,dr4 ,vincent1 in his last years1 in which his interest in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 and its objects was so beautifully expressed1 and which has become familiar to all the members of the ,circle4 ,,editor',s ,,note-,,book4 ,all inquiries and correspondence relating to the business management of ,chautauqua should be addressed to ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,duncan1 ,secretary1 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,duncan makes his home in that city1 and is in easy communication with ,chautauqua4 ,he has entered upon the work of the secretaryship with his usual enterprise and zeal1 and the management of ,chautauqua is being greatly strengthened by his election4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is very little of an exciting character in the political world4 ,general ,w4 ,t4 ,sherman has been mentioned by his friends for the ,presidency1 but the newspapers and politicians seem to have dismissed his name from the list of probable candidates4 ,he is too much mixed up with the ,romish church in his family relations4 ,president ,arthur has made a fine impression by the prudence and statesmanlike bearing of his administration4 ,he has won a high rank as a man1 a politician1 and a patriot1 since he took the oath of office1 much higher than he held in the thought of the people before1 but he will fail of the nomination for the ,presidency4 ,ohio will not endorse him and his own state did not elect his ,secretary of the ,treasury governor1 and the logic is that ,new ,york would not endorse him4 ,all other candidates seem to have gone into private training for the open conflict4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the election of ,mr4 ,payne to the ,united ,states ,senate by the ,democrats of ,ohio1 does1 it is thought1 change the attitude of the ,democratic party on ,civil ,service ,reform4 ,senator ,pendleton1 who is a strong champion of this reform in his party1 and one of its earnest advocates in the ,senate1 was defeated by ,mr4 ,payne1 who is not regarded as an advocate of ,civil ,service4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ever since our government was founded1 there have been1 no doubt1 many persons who feared that there would eventually grow up a too close intimacy between the executive and legislative departments4 ,this fear has in part prevented the heads of departments from being members of the ,house of ,representatives4 ,and yet they wield a tremendous influence in shaping legislative action as it relates to their departments4 ,the secretaries are consulted by members on the floor of the ,house and the ,senate on all important matters in which they are interested4 ,why not give them the rights and privileges of membership1 that they may represent their departments in person8 ,it might be the means of throwing new light on many vexed questions in the administration of the government4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after sixteen years of neglect and broken treaty stipulations the ,congress of the ,united ,states is moving to provide ,alaska with a simple1 inexpensive government and school system4 ,strangely enough the portion of the bill pertaining to schools is the one that meets with the most opposition in ,congress4 ,that it shall not be defeated1 and the native population of ,alaska be deprived of educational advantages1 it is in order for the readers of ,,the ,,chautauquan to show their interest in education by petitioning ,congress to pass this bill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,every congressional season we have revived for public discussion in one form or another1 8,who is first lady at ,washington80 ,at the ,new ,year's reception1 ,mrs4 ,carlisle1 the speaker's wife1 stood next the ,president1 while it is maintained that the wife of the ,secretary of ,state should have occupied this position1 and that ,mrs4 ,carlisle should have stood 8below0 the ,cabinet4 ,the ,president settled the dispute by inviting ,mrs4 ,carlisle to stand by his side4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as knowledge increases1 the tests applied to men for service grow more severe4 ,the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company has been inquiring into the color blindness of their employes1 a very important matter1 when we think of the relations of signals as they are used on the road to the safety of human life1 as well as to the protection of the rolling stock of the company4 ,dr4 ,william ,thompson1 the ophthalmologist by whom the work was conducted1 discovered that one man in twenty-five is unfit for service where prompt recognition of color signals is required4 ,some who are color blind do indeed distinguish correctly between danger and safety flags1 but1 as ,dr4 ,thompson suggests1 they are guided by form1 not by color4 ,it might be some security1 therefore1 to make every danger signal peculiarly recognizable by both its form and color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,shall the government take charge of the telegraph service8 is a question that has not come up in any shape for discussion in ,congress1 and we doubt if it will receive much attention in either ,house or ,senate in the immediate future4 ,there is one objection to the government assuming control of this branch of public service1 viz43 ,as the leading daily newspapers of the country are now conducted1 they depend on the telegraph companies for facilities to transmit the ,associated ,press dispatches1 and since this is the only medium the people have for the quick transmission of news1 and it is feared that if the general government should get charge of the wires1 the administration1 if it were ,republican or ,democratic1 would have the power indirectly1 if not directly1 to shade the news1 and we would be in danger of losing what we now have--a free press4 ,while monopolies are to be dreaded1 still we believe that the present management of the telegraph system is preferable to anything we would be likely to get from the government2 a change would be hazardous4 8,better endure the ills we have than fly to those we know not of40 99 99 99 99 99 ,wendell ,phillips died of heart disease1 in ,boston1 ,february #eth4 ,few men become so generally known in a lifetime1 without the help of public offices1 as ,mr4 ,phillips4 ,he was an orator pure and simple1 and1 perhaps1 when in his prime1 the foremost of ,american orators4 ,he has written nothing that will mark the period of his life among men1 but he was a great battle-ax against slavery1 and on that issue he found an opportunity to use his powers of denunciation to their maximum4 ,as a lecturer he will be missed1 for since the war here he shone the most brilliantly4 ,dr4 ,vincent expected him at ,chautauqua the coming season to deliver his great lecture--8,the ,lost ,arts40 ,we shall have more to say concerning him in a future number4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a letter from the wife of a missionary in ,madagascar has been published in ,london4 ,it was written on ,september #bdth4 ,she says3 8,the mourning for the late queen is ended4 ,it only lasted about two months1 and was not of the severe kind of olden times2 this time the people were only forbidden to plait their hair1 wear hats1 carry an umbrella1 build much1 and to weave cloths1 while in former times the mourning lasted at least a year1 and everybody's hair was shaven close to the head1 women's and all2 they were not allowed to wear clothes at all1 just mats round their waist4 ,the new queen promises to be a worthy successor of her good mother4 ,her name is ,rayafindrahely1 but she comes to the throne under the title of ,ranavalona ,,iii4 ,the ,malagasy now publish a newspaper1 the ,gazety they call it1 once a fortnight2 it is the first specimen of ,malagasy attempt at printing and composing4 ,it is after the style of our own newspapers1 and gives the news of everything that happens in every part of the island1 and especially of every movement of the queen and prime minister40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the news from ,india that ,keshub ,chunder ,sen is dead will occasion profound sorrow4 ,he was in the midst of a great work1 and we hoped for much from him in connection with needed reforms in ,india1 to which his life was given4 ,through his open1 manly renunciation of the errors of ,brahmanism1 and earnest protests against caste1 child-marriages1 and other social evils of their system1 and more by his new theology1 ,mr4 ,sen was widely known4 ,in his own land he was reverenced as a religious teacher1 orator1 and reformer4 ,in this country and in ,england1 where those marvelous outbursts of devout feeling stirred the hearts of all who heard1 the chief interest centers in his theology4 ,he1 whose words so thrilled other ,christian hearts1 did not yet confess himself a ,christian4 ,he had renounced polytheism1 and all forms of idolatrous worship1 but attempted to show his countrymen1 from their own sacred books1 that primitive ,hindoos1 like himself1 were monotheistic4 ,the belief of the ,brahmo ,somaj1 or society of which he became a minister1 was a great advance from idolatrous ,hindooism1 and in most respects seemed like true ,christian faith4 ,his work as a reformer seemed full of promise4 ,who will be his successor to carry it forward1 does not yet appear4 ,his early death will be mourned as a great1 if not an irreparable1 loss4 ,the inchoate creed of the community1 so sadly bereaved1 is not complete or fixed1 and will1 we hope1 and perhaps now more rapidly1 crystallize about the wisest sayings of their great leader4 ,may a divine radiance from the cross of ,jesus brighten its every line4 99 99 99 99 99 ,poverty brings its temptations and makes its demands even on the priests of the church4 8,the other day a priest in ,kerry10 says the ,st4 ,james ,gazette1 8went to his ,bishop3 #8,i want you1' he said1 #8to give me a general dispensing power for cases of perjury4' #8,for perjury8' said his lordship4 #8,what do the people want with that8' #8,faith6' answered the good father1 #8they can't get on without it4 ,for1 first of all1 the ,moonlighters come to them and swear them that they must say that they didn't know who they were2 and then there's the ,arrears ,act1 and they have to take the oath they're not worth a farthing2 and you know in the ,land ,court they can't get a reduction till they say they can't pay their rent4 ,in fact1 my lord1 the poor people have to perjure themselves at every turn4'0 99 99 99 99 99 ,oscar ,wilde1 in a recent lecture in ,dublin1 made a remark which deserves more attention than anything which that gentleman has ever said in regard to ,american customs3 8,american children seem to be pale and precocious1 and that might be owing to the fact that the only national game of ,america is euchre1 which could hardly1 if industriously practiced1 tend to create and develop a fine or manly physique40 ,it is undoubtedly too broad a statement to call euchre our national game1 but it probably is more universally played than any other4 ,it puts us as a people in a weak light1 to say that our leisure is spent in a game that calls for little thought1 which gives us no outdoor exercise1 and which enervates rather than strengthens1 but it is the true light4 ,we are1 as a rule1 making of ourselves hot-house plants4 ,vigorous games are shunned2 weak ones are adopted4 ,the criticism is just1 and worth our attention4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following item sent us from ,new ,york is to the point3 8,kings ,county ,wheelmen's ,club1 which numbers fifty members1 gave its annual reception1 recently1 in ,knickerbocker ,hall1 ,clymer ,street1 ,brooklyn4 ,several clubs from ,new ,york and vicinity attended4 ,the wheelmen gave an exhibition of fancy riding1 and there was also a bicycle drill1 in which movements were made by single file1 and by twos1 fours1 and eights4 ,at one part of the drill two lines of bicyclers advanced in opposite directions1 met each other1 came to a standstill1 and saluted40 ,we feel like encouraging the use of the bicycle4 ,as a sport it is an improvement on any of the games on which we have had a craze in late years4 ,roller skating1 or standing to roll on spools1 is not the healthiest or best exercise2 perhaps it is the best substitute that can be invented for skating1 but it is a failure for this purpose4 ,the bicycle is useful and graceful1 when in motion1 and the wheelman gets genuine exercise out of turning the wheel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are many opinions advanced on the ,newton case4 ,rev4 ,heber ,newton1 of the ,episcopal ,church1 was silenced from delivering a course of lectures on the ,old ,testament1 in which he advanced some startling and new opinions4 ,as to their weight authorities differ4 ,one remarks that they were 8,the work of a shallow thinker1 with fragmentary knowledge1 intent on saying startling things40 ,others contend that he thought he could make the ,bible a more helpful book4 ,let him have charity2 he certainly acted the part of a moderate and wise man in obeying his bishop without making a hubbub4 ,his attempt is but that of hundreds of other men in orthodox churches who every winter introduce courses of lectures in which they instruct their flocks in speculative philosophy1 new theories and scientific teachings4 ,a friend recently remarked to the writer3 8,the first idea of doubt that ever entered my mind was on hearing one of a series of scientific lectures delivered from a ,christian pulpit4 ,pantheism was presented so invitingly that ,i went home a pantheist40 ,if minds are speculative they should enter another realm2 the practical truth of the gospel is the work of the pulpit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,decidedly the most sensible opinion on matters in ,sudan is that of 8,chinese0 ,gordon1 who says3 8,that the people were justified in rebelling1 nobody who knows the treatment to which they were subjected will attempt to deny4 ,their cries were absolutely unheeded at ,cairo4 ,in despair they had recourse to the only method by which they could make their wrongs known2 and1 on the same principle that ,absalom fired the corn of ,joab1 so they rallied round the ,mahdi1 who exhorted them to revolt against the ,turkish yoke4 ,i am convinced that it is an entire mistake to regard the ,mahdi as in any sense a religious leader2 he personifies popular discontent4 ,all the ,sudanese are potential ,mahdis1 just as all the ,egyptians are potential ,arabis4 ,the movement is not religious1 but an outbreak of despair4 ,three times over ,i warned the late ,khedive that it would be impossible to govern the ,sudan on the old system after my appointment to the governor-generalship40 99 99 99 99 99 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons have decided to begin a new issue of ,the ,book ,buyer4 ,it was discontinued in #ahgg1 but the demand for such a concise1 readable and reliable 8,summary of ,american and ,foreign ,literature0 has led to republication4 ,the ,book ,buyer is so cheap 7fifty cents per year7 that every one can have it2 it is so useful and authoritative that no book-lover can afford to be without it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,public opinion on the question of woman's rights has so shaped itself that we all feel inclined to smile at the speech of the ,solicitor of the ,treasury against issuing the license as master of a steamboat on the ,mississippi1 for which ,mrs4 ,mary ,a4 ,miller1 of ,louisiana1 applied4 ,had it been on the ground of inability to fill the position no one would have commented1 but on the ground of its 8shocking the sensibilities of humanity10 the world laughs4 ,the truth is1 no one is seriously shocked--except fossils4 ,whatever ideas1 pro or con1 the public may hold on woman's suffrage1 it does recognize the right of women to earn their living in any employment for which they are fitted4 ,the weight of public sentiment would say of ,mrs4 ,miller3 8,if she be competent to do the work1 let her do it40 99 99 99 99 99 ,henry ,hart1 the designer of the beautiful ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 pins advertised in this number of ,,the ,,chautauquan1 has gone to ,atlanta1 ,ga4 ,he reports a fine local circle in that city4 ,mr4 ,hart makes ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 a very generous offer in promising to devote one-tenth of the proceeds of the 8,people's ,college0 badge to the ,hall fund4 ,it is to be hoped that very many will take this opportunity of helping themselves and the ,hall4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,manhattan for ,february contains a finely illustrated article on 8,caricature10 by our friend ,prof4 ,frank ,beard4 ,we recommend it to our readers as a most entertaining paper4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,notes ,,on ,,required ,,readings ,,for ,,march4 ,,preparatory ,,latin ,,course ,,in ,,english4 ,p4 #aa4--8,matriculate40 ,the roll or register book in which the ,romans recorded names was called matricula1 from this we have the verb to matriculate1 to admit to a membership in an institution or society1 and the noun matriculate1 the one admitted4 ,p4 #ag4--8,latium10 lshe-m4 ,one of the principal divisions of ancient ,italy1 lying south of the ,tiber4 ,its boundaries varied at different periods4 ,p4 #ah4--,the ,greeks called themselves ,hellenes1 their language the ,hellenic4 8neas10 -nas4 ,see the neid of ,virgil1 page #bea of 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 8,mars40 ,for the story of ,mars and ,romulus1 see page #gc of 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 ,the date of the founding of the city is given as #gec ,b4 ,c41 and the line of legendary rulers numbered seven4 ,p4 #ai4--8,pyrrhus40 ,for his history see ,timayenis1 vol4 ii4 8,cineas10 cine-as4 ,the friend and prime minister of ,pyrrhus4 ,so eloquent was he that ,pyrrhus is said to have declared that 8the words of ,cineas had won him more cities than his own arms40 ,he went twice to ,rome on important embassies for the king1 and probably died in ,sicily while ,pyrrhus was there4 8,cavour10 kvoor4 7#ahaj-ahfa47 ,an ,italian statesman4 ,after a varied experience in war and politics1 ,cavour was called in #ahej to the cabinet of ,victor ,immanuel1 king of ,sardinia4 ,italy was then divided into several states1 some under ,austria1 others under papal rule4 ,cavour turned all his ability to defeating the ,austrian powers and breaking the pope's authority1 in order to unite ,italy4 ,in all the struggles he was one of the chief advisers4 ,in #ahfa the states were united4 ,it has been said of him1 8he was one of the most enlightened1 versatile and energetic statesmen of the age4''' ,it is now conceded on all hands that to him more than any other man is owing the achievement of the unity of ,italy40 8,victor ,immanuel40 7#ahbj-ahgh47 ,became king of ,sardinia in #ahdi by his father's abdication4 ,he took part in the ,crimean war with ,france and ,england1 and was joined by ,france in the war for ,italian independence4 ,in #ahfa he assumed the title of ,king of ,italy1 having united many of the northern provinces4 ,in #ahff he annexed ,venetia1 and in #ahgj the last of the papal states4 ,in #ahga he transferred his seat of power to ,rome4 8,carthage10 carthage4 ,the city was situated in the middle and northernmost part of the north coast of ,africa4 ,it was founded about one hundred years before ,rome1 and so rapidly its conquests and influence advanced that it soon became evident that the rulership of the western world lay between these two cities4 ,jealousy kept each on the alert1 and ,b4 ,c4 #bfd a dispute about matters in ,sicily brought about the first ,punic war1 which lasted until ,b4 ,c4 #bda4 ,the second ,punic war 7,b4 ,c4 #bah-bja7 resulted in a complete relinquishment of all power by ,carthage4 ,the third 7,b4 ,c4 #adi-adf7 was ended by the complete destruction of ,carthage4 ,p4 #bj4--8;,hamilcar40 ,a famous leader in the latter part of the first ,punic war2 the father-in-law of ,hasdrubal1 and father of ,hannibal4 ,after this war and a campaign in ,africa1 ,hamilcar undertook to establish an empire for ,carthage in ,spain4 ,after nine years he fell in battle there and was succeeded by ,hasdrubal1 who finished the work and formed a treaty with ,rome1 regulating the boundaries4 ,after ,hasdrubal's death ,hannibal took his place1 but breaking the treaty1 brought about the second ,punic war1 where he won several brilliant victories1 though finally defeated by ,scipio ,africanus4 8,regulus40 ,a ,roman leader captured by the ,carthaginians in the first ,punic war1 and held five years4 ,the ,carthaginians desiring peace sent him to ,rome with an embassy to help negotiate1 but he dissuaded his countrymen from accepting the terms4 ,before leaving ,carthage he had given his word to return if peace was not made1 and in spite of the protest of ,rome1 he kept the promise4 ,he is said to have been tortured to death on his return4 ,this story1 however1 is suspected to be an invention of the ,romans4 8,fabius40 ,was five times ,roman consul4 ,after the first victories of ,hannibal in the second ,punic war1 ,fabius was appointed dictator4 ,here he earned the title of 8,master of ,delay40 ,merivale says3 8,his tactics were to throw garrisons into the strong places1 to carry off the supplies of all the country around the enemy's camp1 wherever he should pitch it1 to harass him by constant movement1 but to refuse an engagement40 ,p4 #ba4--8;,gracchus40 ,the family name of two brothers1 ,tiberius and ,caius1 who soon after the destruction of ,carthage 7#adf7 tried to relieve the sufferings of the ,roman poor4 ,the former was made tribune in #acc1 and immediately tried to arrange for a fair division of public lands1 so that the poor citizens might each obtain a small farm4 ,the opposition was so great that in the attempt to relect ,tiberius a riot occurred and he was slain4 ,ten years afterward ,caius became tribune2 he succeeded in carrying several measures to better the condition of the poor1 but through the jealousy of the senate1 his power with the people was broken1 and finally during a disastrous fight between his party and his opponents he fled and caused a slave to kill him4 8,jugurtha40 ,see page #hb of 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 8,marius40 ,see page #hg of 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 ,p4 #bg4--8,king ,william40 ,see ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,february1 page #beb4 ,p4 #bh4--8,mommsen10 mmzen4 ,a ,german historian1 born in #ahag4 ,he has held professorships in jurisprudence or archology at various universities1 and has published several books4 ,his 8,history of ,rome0 is the most important4 ,it has run through five editions1 and been translated into ,french and ,english4 ,p4 #bi4--8;,curtius40 ,according to this legend the earth in the ,roman forum gave way ,b4 ,c4 #cfb4 ,the soothsayers declared that the chasm could only be filled by throwing into it ,rome's greatest treasure4 ,curtius1 a young nobleman1 declared that ,rome possessed no greater treasure than the citizen willing to die for her1 and mounting his steed leaped into the abyss1 which closed upon him4 ,p4 #ca4--8,medusa40 ,one of the ,gorgons1 frightful beings1 whose heads were covered with hissing serpents2 they had wings1 brazen claws and enormous teeth4 ,medusa was fabled to have been a beautiful maiden of whom ,athena was jealous1 and in consequence turned her into a gorgon4 ,her head was so fearful that every one who looked at it was changed into stone4 ,see illustration1 page #aae4 ,p4 #cc4--8,roman ,mile40 ,a thousand paces1 or #afjj yards4 ,p4 #cd4--8;,cretan40 ,from the island of ,crete1 one of the largest of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,it became a ,roman province ,b4 ,c4 #ff4 ,the people were celebrated as archers1 and were frequently employed as mercenaries by other nations4 8,balearic40 ,the ,balearic ,islands1 a group east of ,spain1 were known to both ,greeks and ,romans by this name1 derived from the ,greek verb to throw1 because of the skill of the inhabitants as slingers4 ,the ,romans subdued the islands #abc ,b4 ,c4 ,p4 #cg4--8,longwood40 ,the largest of the plains on the island of ,st4 ,helena4 ,p4 #ch4--8,trajectory40 ,the curve which a body describes4 8,cineas40 ,it is said that when ,cineas 7see note above7 returned from an embassy at ,rome1 he told the king that there was no people like that2 their city was a temple1 their senate an assembly of kings4 ,p4 #de4--8,montesquieu10 mn-ts-k4 ,french jurist and philosopher 7#afhi-agee74 ,p4 #df4--8,marcus ,aurelius40 ,roman ,emperor from #afa-ahj1 called 8,the ,philosopher40 ,smith says of him3 8,the leading feature in the character of ,aurelius was his devotion to literature4 ,we still possess a work by him written in the ,greek and entitled #8,meditations1' in twelve books4 ,no remains of antiquity present a nobler view of philosophical heathenism40 8,bthius40 ,a ,roman statesman and philosopher1 said to be 8the last ,roman of any note who understood the language and studied the literature of ,greece40 ,his most celebrated work was 8,on the ,consolation of ,philosophy40 ,p4 #dh4--8;,ennius40 7,b4 ,c4 #bci-afi47 ,called ,father ,ennius4 8,plautus40 7,b4 ,c4 #bed-ahd47 8,terence40 7,b4 ,c4 #aie-aei47 8,menander40 7,b4 ,c4 #cdb-bia47 ,a distinguished poet at ,athens1 in what was called the 8,new ,comedy40 ,p4 #ej4--8;,cato40 7,b4 ,c4 #bcd-adi47 ,cato was famous in military affairs in early life2 after that he entered on a civil career4 ,in #ahd he was elected to the censorship1 the great event of his life4 ,here he tried to turn public opinion against luxury and extravagance4 ,cato wrote several works2 only fragments of his greatest1 8,a ,history of ,rome10 have been saved4 ,p4 #ea4--8;,boileau10 bwl4 7#afcf-agaa47 ,a ,french poet and critic4 ,p4 #eb4--8schines40 ,see ,greek history4 8,hortensius10 hor-tensi-us4 7,b4 ,c4 #aad-ej47 ,hortensius was the chief orator of ,rome until the time of ,cicero1 by whom1 in the prosecution of ,verres1 he was completely defeated4 ,he held many civil offices1 but in old age retired from public life4 ,p4 #ec4--8,livy40 7,b4 ,c4 #ei-;,a4 ,d4 #ag47 ,livy spent the greater part of his life in ,rome1 where he was greatly honored by the emperors4 ,his reputation is said to have been very great in all countries4 ,his best known work was a history of ,rome1 in one hundred and forty-two books1 only thirty-five of which are in existence4 8,tacitus10 8,suetonius40 ,see page #fa of this volume of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 8,nepos40 ,a contemporary of ,cicero1 of whose life nothing is known4 ,the chief works of ,nepos were biographies1 of which we have only fragments4 8,georgics40 ,see page #bcf of 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 ,p4 #ed4--8;,horace40 7,b4 ,c4 #fe-h47 ,horace was the son of a freedman who attempted to educate his son1 sending him to ,rome and then to ,athens4 ,while in the latter place ,brutus came to ,athens1 and ,horace joined his army4 ,returning to ,rome he found his father's estate gone4 ,he lived in poverty until some of his poems were noticed by ,virgil4 ,mcenas became his patron1 and afterward ,augustus4 ,his works are ,the ,odes1 ,satires1 ,epistles1 and ,the ,art of ,poetry4 8,ovid40 ,see page #ajj of 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 ,p4 #fc4--8;,historia ,sacra40 ,sacred history4 ,p4 #fe4--8sop40 ,a writer of fables who lived about ,b4 ,c4 #egj4 ,he is said to have been born a slave1 but was freed4 ,he was thrown from a precipice by the ,delphians because of a refusal to pay them money which ,crsus had sent to them4 ,it is uncertain whether sop left any written fables1 but many bearing his name have been popular for ages4 8,putative10 pta-tive4 ,reputed2 supposed4 ,p4 #ff4--8,viri ,rom40 ,men of ,rome4 8,valerius40 ,a historian of the time of the ,emperor ,tiberius4 ,the circumstances of his life are unknown4 ,his work remaining to us is on miscellaneous subjects1 sacred rites1 civil institutions1 social virtues1 etc4 ,p4 #fi4--8;,fra ,angelico10 fr-n-gele-c4 ,at the age of twenty he entered a monastery1 where he spent the rest of his life4 ,his paintings of angels were so beautiful that he won the name of ,fra ,angelico--the ,brother ,angelic4 ,he was called to ,rome to decorate the papal chapel1 and offered the position of ,archbishop of ,florence1 but refused it4 ,he painted only sacred subjects1 and would never accept money for his pictures4 ,p4 #gj4--8,repertories10 rper-to-ries4 ,a book or index in which things are so arranged as to be easily found4 8,metellus ,pius40 ,a prominent ,roman of the first century ,b4 ,c4 ,he held various civil offices1 was a commander in the ,social war1 and carried on war against the ,samnites1 in #hg4 ,afterward he was in arms in ,africa1 and in #gi went as proconsul to ,spain4 ,he died about #fj ,b4 ,c4 ,p4 #ga4--8;,dolabella10 dl-a-blla4 ,p4 #gb4--8;,caninius10 ca-nni-s4 ,one of ,csar's legates in ,gaul and in the civil war4 8,drusus40 ,he won successes in the provinces after the death of ,augustus1 and was pointed out as the successor of ,tiberius4 ,sejanus1 the favorite of ,tiberius1 aspired to the empire4 ,he won the wife of ,drusus to his plans1 and persuaded her to administer a slow poison to her husband1 which finally caused his death4 ,p4 #ge4--8;,egeria40 ,she had been worshiped by the people of ,latium from the earliest times1 as a prophetic divinity4 ,numa consecrated to her a grove in the environs of the city1 where it is said that he used to meet her4 ,the grotto and fountain of ,egeria are still pointed out to travelers4 ,it is said that on the death of ,numa1 ,egeria was so inconsolable that she was changed into a fountain4 8,aurora40 ,in ,grecian mythology the goddess of the morning1 who sets out before the rising of the sun and heralds his coming4 8,nympholepsy10 nm-pho-lpsy4 ,the state of being caught by the nymphs2 ecstasy4 ,p4 #gg4--8,numidia10 nu-midi-a4 ,a country of ,northern ,africa1 now ,algiers4 ,p4 #gh4--8;,bohn40 ,an ,english publisher who has republished in the ,english language1 and in cheap form1 most of the rare standard works of the different literatures of ,europe4 ,his library now numbers between #fjj and #gjj volumes4 ,p4 #hj4--8,numantine40 ,this war was waged by the ,numantians1 a little people of ,spain1 not numbering more than #h1jjj fighting men1 against ,rome4 ,their city1 ,numantia1 was taken ,b4 ,c4 #acc1 after a long siege4 ,p4 #hb4--8;,cato40 7,b4 ,c4 #ie-df47 ,great-grandson of ,cato the ,censor4 ,his character was stern and stoical1 and in his public and military life he was famous for his rigid justice and sternness against abuses4 ,cato opposed ,csar throughout his life4 ,when ,csar entered ,africa he tried to persuade ,utica to stand a siege1 but failing1 committed suicide4 ,p4 #ajc4--8;,clymene10 clyme-n4 ,the mother of ,phton4 8,styx40 ,the chief river of the infernal world1 according to ,grecian mythology1 around which it flows seven times4 ,the name comes from the ,greek word to hate4 ,milton calls it 8,abhorred ,styx1 the flood of burning hate40 8,hours40 ,the ,hours were the goddesses who presided over the order of nature and over the seasons4 ,they gave fertility to the earth1 and furnished various kinds of weather4 ,the course of the season is described as the dance of the ,hours4 ,in art they are represented as beautiful maidens1 carrying fruits and flowers4 ,p4 #aid4--8,tethys10 tthys4 ,the goddess of the sea4 ,the wife of ,oceanus1 and mother of the river gods4 ,p4 #aje4--8,seven ,stars40 ,by these seven stars are meant the sun1 moon1 ,mars1 ,mercury1 ,saturn1 ,jupiter and ,venus4 8,serpent40 ,the constellation of ,draco1 which1 stretching between ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor1 nearly encircles the latter4 8,botes10 bo-otes4 ,the constellation commonly known as ,charles' ,wain1 or the ,wagoner4 ,botes is said to have been the inventor of the plow1 to which he yoked two oxen4 ,at his death he was taken to heaven and set among the stars4 8,libya40 ,a name for the continent of ,africa1 applied here to the ,sahara ,desert4 8,dirce40 ,it is fabled that a king of ,thebes drove away his wife into the mountains of ,botia1 where she died1 leaving two sons4 ,when the boys grew up they returned to ,thebes and killed both their father and his wife1 ,dirce1 who had been an assistant in his crime4 ,dirce was dragged to death by a bull1 and her body thrown into a well1 which was from that time called the 8,well of ,dirce40 ,the celebrated statue of the ,farnese bull represents the death of ,dirce4 8,pyrene10 pyre-ne4 8,amymone10 amy-mone4 ,the daughter of ,danaus1 who had fled with his family from ,egypt to ,argos4 ,the country was suffering from drought1 and he sent out ,amymone to bring water4 ,she was attacked by a ,satyr but rescued by ,neptune1 who bade her draw his trident from a rock4 ,thereupon a threefold spring gushed forth1 which was called the river and well of ,amymone4 8,tanais10 tana-is4 ,the river ,don4 8,caicus10 ca-cus4 ,a river of ,asia ,minor4 8,lycormas10 ly-cormas4 8,xanthus10 zanthus4 ,the chief river of ,lycia1 in ,asia ,minor4 8,mander10 m-ander4 ,a stream of ,asia ,minor4 ,the greater part of its course is through a wide plain1 where it flows in the numerous windings which have made of its name the verb to meander4 8,ismenos10 is-mnos4 ,a small river in ,botia4 8,phasis10 phsis4 ,a river flowing through ,colchis1 into the ,black ,sea4 8,tagus40 ,one of the chief rivers in ,spain4 ,p4 #ajf4--8;,cayster0 or 8,caystrus10 ca-yster4 ,a river of ,lydia and ,ionia1 in ,asia ,minor4 ,it is said that it still abounds in swans1 as it did in ,homer's time4 8,pluto40 ,the god of the infernal world4 8,cyclades10 cycl-des4 ,a group of islands in the gean ,sea1 so called because they lay in a circle around ,delos4 8,phoc10 phc4 ,sea calves1 or sea monsters of any description4 8,doris40 ,the daughter of ,oceanus1 and wife of her brother ,nereus2 sometimes her name is given to the sea itself4 ,p4 #ajg4--8,presto10 prst4 ,quickly2 at once4 ,p4 #ajh4 8,burke10 ,edmund4 7#agcj-agig47 ,an ,english statesman1 writer and orator4 8,lucian10 lci-an4 7,a4 ,d4 #abj-bjj47 ,a ,greek author4 8,molossian10 mo-lossian4 ,the ,molossi were a people in ,epirus1 inhabiting a country called ,molossis4 ,they were the most powerful tribe in ,epirus4 ,p4 #aji4--8;,daphne10 dphne4 ,p4 #aaj4--8,peneus10 pe-neus4 ,the name of the chief river of ,thessaly4 ,as a god ,peneus was the son of ,oceanus4 8,claros10 claros4 ,a small town on the ,ionian coast1 with a celebrated temple and oracle of ,apollo4 8,tenedos10 tne-ds4 ,a small island of the gean1 off the coast of ,troas1 also sacred to ,apollo4 8,patarian10 pa-tari-an4 ,from ,patara1 one of the chief cities of ,asia ,minor1 in ,lycia4 ,apollo had an oracle here1 and a celebrated temple4 ,p4 #aad4--8,narcissus40 ,a youth who was fabled to be so hard of heart that he never loved4 ,the nymph ,echo died of grief because of him4 ,nemesis caused him to fall in love with his own image as he saw it in a fountain1 and ,narcissus died because he could not approach the shadow4 ,his corpse was metamorphosed into the flower which has his name4 8,ddalus40 ,a character of ,grecian mythology1 fabled to be the inventor of many contrivances1 as well as a sculptor and architect4 ,having incurred the displeasure of the king of ,crete1 he was obliged to flee from the island4 ,accordingly he made wings for himself and his son ,icarus4 ,ddalus flew safely to shore1 but ,icarus went so near the sun that the wax by which his wings were fastened melted1 and he was drowned in that part of the gean called the ,icarian ,sea4 8,baucis40 ,baucis and ,philemon were an aged couple living in ,phrygia4 ,jupiter and ,mercury having occasion to visit this part of the world1 went in the disguise of flesh and blood4 ,nobody would receive them until ,baucis and ,philemon took them into their hut4 ,jupiter took the couple to a hill near by1 while he punished the inhospitable by an inundation2 he then rewarded them by making them guardians of his temple1 allowing them to die at the same moment1 and changing them into trees4 8,lycidas10 lsi-das4 ,a poetical name under which ,milton laments the death of his friend ,edward ,king1 who had been drowned4 8,comus40 ,in the later age of ,rome1 a god of festive joy and mirth4 ,in ,milton's poem entitled 8,comus1 a ,masque10 he is represented as a base enchanter who endeavors1 but in vain1 to beguile and entrap the innocent by means of his 8brewed enchantments40--,webster4 ,p4 #abc4--8,rhodes40 ,an island of the ,eastern gean4 ,it was long celebrated for its schools of ,greek art and oratory4 8,pontifex10 pont-fex4 ,a ,roman high priest1 a pontiff4 ,the pontifices constituted a college of priests1 superintended the public worship1 and gave information on sacred matters4 ,their leader was called pontifex maximus4 8,qustor40 ,the title of a class of ,roman officials1 some of whom had charge of the pecuniary affairs of the state1 while others superintended certain criminal trials4 8dile40 ,a magistrate of ,rome who superintended public buildings1 such as temples1 theaters1 baths1 aqueducts1 sewers1 etc41 as well as markets1 weights1 measures1 and the expenses of funerals4 ,p4 #abe4--8,proconsul40 ,the title given to those who1 after holding the office of consul1 were sent to some province as governor4 ,p4 #abf4--8;,ascham40 7#aeae-aefh47 ,the foremost scholar of his time1 celebrated for his superior knowledge of ,greek and ,latin4 ,p4 #abg4--8;duans10 du-ans4 ,their country lay between the ,loire and the ,saone4 ,p4 #abf4--8,lingones40 ,a people living to the east of the source of the ,mosa river4 7,see map47 ,p4 #acg4--8,sequani40 ,a tribe of ,gallia ,belgica 7see map71 taking their name from the river ,sequana1 near the source of which they lived4 ,p4 #aci4--8,soissons10 swsn1 almost swsn4 ,about fifty miles northeast of ,paris4 ,p4 #aab4--8;,bellovaci40 ,they dwelt in the north of ,gallia1 beyond the ,sequana river4 7,see map47 ,p4 #adc4--8;,ambian40 ,these people1 with the ,nervii and the ,aduatuci 7p4 #adg7 were all tribes of ,gallia ,belgica4 ,,notes ,,on ,,required ,,readings ,,in 8,,the ,,chautauquan40 ,,readings ,,from ,,french ,,history4 ,p4 #bae1 c4 #a4--8;,gallia40 ,for ,gallia and the tribes ,aquitani1 ,celt and ,belg1 see ,professor ,wilkinson on ,csar in 8,preparatory ,latin ,course40 8,burgundians40 ,a race of early ,germans who in #djg ,a4 ,d4 crossed the ,rhine and settled between the ,rhone and ,saone4 ,in #ecd ,burgundy was taken possession of by the ,franks4 8,franks40 ,see page #fc of the present volume of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 8,clovis40 ,see page #abi of the present volume of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 8,salian ,franks40 ,there were two tribes of the ,franks1 one called ,salian1 from the river ,sala or ,yssel1 upon which they dwelt1 the other ,ripuarian1 from the ,latin ripa1 bank1 the name showing their location on the banks of the ,rhine4 8,merovingians40 ,see notes1 page #ahe of present volume of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 8,childeric10 or ,hilderik4 ,the race had become so weak that the rulers have been well described as the 8shadow kings40 ,this last ruler of the ,merovingians was thrust into a convent1 where he soon died4 8,pepin10 ppin4 ,the son of ,charles ,martel4 ,see page #abi of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,his wars were successful4 ,the most interesting was against the ,lombards1 who were threatening ,rome4 ,he compelled them to give up to the ,church of ,rome a considerable territory which was1 says a writer1 8,the foundation of that temporal power of the papacy1 the end of which we have seen with our own eyes40 8,charlemagne10 sharle-mn4 ,see page #aca of fourth volume of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 8,hugues40 ,hugh1 in ,english2 8,capet10 cpet or cpet4 8,louis le ,gros40 ,louis the ,great4 8,feudal system40 ,that system where land is held of superiors1 on condition of military service4 ,p4 #bae1 c4 #b4--8,oriflamme40 ,from the ,latin auriflamma1 or flame of gold4 ,a flag or banner of red or flame colored cloth1 cut into long points at the end and mounted on a gilded lance4 ,it originated in a certain abbey of ,france1 where it was used in religious services4 8,touraine10 t-rn2 8,poitou10 pw-t4 ,these provinces had come to ,england on the accession of ,henry ,,ii4 7#aaed71 to whom they belonged4 8,gallican ,church40 ,the ,catholic ,church of ,france1 which holds certain doctrines differing from those of the church at large4 ,this church claims that the pope is limited as far as ,france is concerned1 by the decisions of the ,gallican ,church1 that kings and princes are not subject to him1 and that he is not infallible4 ,this pragmatic sanction of ,st4 ,louis in #abfi was the most important outbreak against ,rome that ever took place in the ,gallican ,church4 8,le ,bel40 ,the ,beautiful4 8,navarre10 n-var4 ,a province of ,france on the northern slope of the ,pyrenees4 8,champagne10 shnp4 ,see map4 8,brie10 bre4 ,a former province of ,france1 lying between the ,seine and the ,marne4 8,valois10 vl-w4 8,salic ,law40 ,according to this1 8no woman could succeed to ,salian soil40 ,the only descendant of ,charles ,,iv4 was his infant daughter1 and when the lords met to decide on the succession after his death1 they followed this law2 for as ,froissart says1 8,the twelve peers of ,france said and say that the crown of ,france is of such noble estate1 that by no succession can it come to a woman nor a woman's son40 ,p4 #baf1 c4 #a4--8,le ,sage10 the wise2 8,crcy10 krse2 8,poiters10 pw-terz2 8,le ,bien ,aime10 the ,beloved2 8,agincourt10 -zhan-koor2 8,le ,victorieux10 the ,victor2 8,le pre du peuple10 the father of his people4 8,valois-,orleans40 ,louis ,,xii4 was the representative of the line nearest to the ,valois family1 that is1 he was a son of the ,duke of ,orleans1 and a grandson of the younger brother of ,charles ,,vi41 thus representing both families4 8,valois ,angoulme10 ngoolme4 ,louis ,,xii4 dying without heirs1 the kingdom fell to the heirs of his uncle1 the ,count of ,angoulme4 ,francis became a competitor with ,charles ,i41 of ,spain1 for the throne of ,spain1 but the latter was successful4 ,this led to the war which was ended by ,francis being made a prisoner at ,pavia4 8,st4 ,bartholomew40 ,there had been a struggle for many years between the ,protestants and ,catholics1 which finally took the form of a conflict between the houses of ,guise and ,cond4 ,henry of ,navarre was the successor to the throne--a marriage was arranged between him and the sister of the king1 and ,august #ah1 #aegb1 was to be the wedding day4 ,many of the leading ,huguenots were in ,paris4 ,it has been said that this wedding was but a scheme to bring them together2 at any rate ,coligni1 a leading ,huguenot1 was fired upon by an assassin4 ,the ,huguenots became excited and threatened revenge4 ,catherine persuaded her son that they intended massacring the ,catholics1 and ,charles gave an order for a general slaughter of the ,protestants4 ,the order was executed in nearly every city and town of ,france1 and nearly #ajj1jjj persons were put to death4 8,confederation of the ,league40 ,this holy league1 or 8,catholic ,union10 as it was called1 was supported by the pope and ,philip ,,ii41 of ,spain4 ,its head was ,duke ,henry of ,guise1 who aimed at the ,french throne4 8,guise10 gheez4 8,bourbon10 boorbon4 ,a ,french ducal and royal family1 different branches of which have ruled ,spain1 ,france1 ,naples and ,parma4 ,the civil wars which were carried on between these houses were no less than eight in number4 8,richelieu10 resheh-loo4 8,mazarin10 mz-a-reen4 8,fronde40 ,a faction which opposed putting all the power of ,france into the hands of the government1 as ,richelieu and ,mazarin both attempted4 ,the name of frondeurs 7slingers7 was applied to them because in their sneering and flippant attacks upon ,mazarin they were said to resemble boys throwing stones from slings4 8,tiers tat40 ,third estate4 ,before the reign of ,philip the ,fair1 the people had had no voice in the government2 but in his struggle with the papacy1 as he desired to have the whole body of citizens on his side1 he convened an assembly of the middle class of citizens1 beside the clergy and nobility4 ,the third body was called the third estate4 ,p4 #baf1 c4 #b4--8tats ,gnraux10 ,states general4 ,an assembly of the nation1 which consisted of representatives of the clergy1 nobility1 and the third estate4 8,national ,assembly40 ,upon the meeting of the states general1 the nobles and the clergy insisted that the meetings of the body and its deliberations should be conducted according to class distinctions2 this met with the opposition of the third estate1 who finally declared themselves the only body having a right to act as the legislature of ,france1 and summoned the clergy and nobles to attend their deliberations4 ,they called themselves the ,national ,assembly4 8,bastille10 bas-teel4 ,the state prison and citadel of ,paris4 ,it was begun in #acff2 destroyed in #aghi4 8,marie ,antoinette10 mr ntwnt4 8,dauphin40 ,the title given to the eldest son of the king of ,france1 under the ,valois and ,bourbon lines4 ,it corresponds to 8,prince of ,wales0 in ,england4 ,it originally belonged to the counts of ,dauphiny4 8,cis-,alpine10 sis-alpin4 ,on this side of the ,alps1 that is1 on the south or ,roman side4 8,marengo10 ma-rng2 8,prestige10 prs-tij4 ,p4 #cag4--8;,d',artois10 dartw2 8,louis ,phillippe10 loo- fe-leep2 8,coup d'tat10 a stroke of policy in state affairs2 8,sedan10 se-dn1 a town of ,france1 #acj miles northeast of ,paris2 8,bordeaux10 bor-d2 8,thiers10 te-r2 8,grvy10 gr-v4 ,p4 #cag1 c4 #b4--8;,champs-de-,mars10 shn-duh-marce4 ,an extensive parade ground of ,paris1 on the left bank of the ,seine4 ,it has been the scene of many very remarkable historic events1 and is now used for great reviews1 etc4 ,the buildings of the exposition of #ahfg were erected upon it4 8,friesland10 freeceland4 ,a province of ,holland4 8,teignmouth10 tinmuth4 8,hengesdown10 henges-down4 8,narbonnese10 narbonnes4 ,one of the four provinces into which ,augustus divided ,gaul was named from ,narbonne1 a city near the ,mediterranean1 ,gallia ,narbonensis or ,narbonnese ,gaul4 ,p4 #cah1 c4 #a4--8,montfort40 ,the wife of the duke of ,brittany1 who had succeeded his brother1 ,jean ,,iii4 ,it seems that the latter had left the duchy to his nephew1 ,charles of ,blois1 but ,montfort took possession4 ,war was declared1 and the king of ,france aided ,blois1 the king of ,england1 ,montfort4 ,the latter was taken prisoner and his wife took the field4 8,blois10 blw2 8,penthivre10 pntvr4 8,van ,artevelde10 vn arta-velt4 ,a citizen and popular leader of ,ghent1 who for a long time was almost ruler of ,flanders4 ,in this war the people1 under ,artevelde1 supported the ,english1 while the nobility were in sympathy with the ,french4 8,froissart10 froisrt4 7#accg-adaj47 ,a ,french history writer4 8,d',harcourt10 drkrt4 8,harfleur10 har-flur2 8,cherbourg10 sherburg2 8,valognes10 vlo 7n like ni in minion74 8,carentan10 krntn2 8,caen10 kn2 8,louviers10 loove-2 8,vernon10 vrnn2 8,verneuil10 vrnuhl2 8,mantes10 mants2 8,meulan10 moi-ln2 8,poissy10 pw-s2 8,ruel10 roo-l2 8,neuilly10 nuhy2 8,boulogne10 bou-ln2 8,bourg-la-reine10 boor-la-rain4 8,bthune10 b-tn2 8,ponthieu10 pn-te-h4 ,p4 #cah1 c4 #b4--8;,hainault10 -nl2 8,de ,vienne10 deh ve-en2 8,de ,manny10 deh mnne4 ,p4 #cai1 c4 #a4--8;,eustace de ,st4 ,pierre10 estace deh snpe-r2 8,d',aire10 d'air2 8,domremy10 dn-rh-me2 8,neufchtel10 nushtel2 8,vancouleurs10 vnkooluhr2 8,baudricourt10 bdrkoor2 8,chinon10 she-nng4 8,cap-a-pie10 kpa-pee4 ,from head to foot4 ,p4 #cai1 c4 #b4--8,la pucelle10 the maid2 8,trmoille10 tr-mooy2 8,boussac10 boosk2 8,xaintrailles10 zantrlye2 8,la ,hire10 lr2 8,dunois10 dnw2 8,jargeau10 zhargh2 8,meung10 mng2 8,beaugency10 bgn-c2 8,patay10 pa-ty4 ,p4 #cbj1 c4 #a4--8;,compigne10 kmpe-n2 8,ligny10 l-ny2 8,vendme10 vndm4 ,p4 #cbj1 c4 #b4--8pernon10 prnn2 8,angoumois10 ngoomw2 8,saintonge10 sn-tnzh4 ,p4 #cba4--8,sancy10 sanc2 8,ile de ,france10 eel-deh-frnss2 8,picardy10 picar-dee2 8,auvergne10 -vrn2 8,gaetano10 g--tno1 usually written ,cajetan4 8,sorbonne10 sor-bn4 ,the principal school of theology in the ancient university of ,paris4 ,its influence was powerful in many of the civil and religious controversies of the country4 8,arques10 ark2 8,dreux10 druh2 8,evreux10 vruh2 8,ivry10 vr2 8,eure10 yoor4 ,p4 #cba1 c4 #b4--8,reiters10 rters2 8,mayenne10 myen2 8,meaux10 m2 8,senlis10 snls4 ,p4 #cbb1 c4 #a4--8;,brisson10 brsn2 8,grve10 grv4 8,sully40 ,a ,french statesman1 the chief adviser of ,henry ,,iv4 ,p4 #cbb1 c4 #b4--8;,barnese10 barnse4 ,barn1 a former southwest province of ,france1 belonged to the kings of ,navarre4 ,from this possession ,henry ,,iv4 received the title of the ,barnese4 8,eustache10 uhstsh2 8,merri10 m-r2 8,guincestre10 ghincestr2 8,villeroi10 vlrw2 8,vervins10 vr-vn4 8,escurial10 s-koo-re-l4 ,a palace and mausoleum of the kings of ,spain4 ,p4 #cbc1 c4 #a4--8,saluzzo10 s-lootso2 8,rosny10 ro-ne2 8,gontaut de ,biron10 gn-to deh be-rn2 8,malherbe10 mlrb4 ,p4 #cbc1 c4 #b4 8,praslin10 prln2 8,montbazon10 mnbzn2 8,crqui10 kr-ke2 8,mirabeau10 merb4 8,equerry10 e-qurry4 ,an officer of nobles1 charged with the care of their horses4 8,cur ,couronn10 etc4 ,the crowned heart pierced with an arrow4 8,curzon en ,quercy10 kr-sn ng kwerc4 ,p4 #cbd1 c4 #a4--8;,bruyre10 br-eyr4 7#afdf8-afif47 ,french author4 8,fouquet10 fook4 7#afae-afhj47 ,a ,french financier1 convicted of dishonesty and treason under ,louis ,,xiv4 8,de la ,vallire10 deh l vle-r2 8,montespan10 mntes-pn4 8,bossuet10 bos- 7almost bossw74 7#afbg-agjd47 ,french bishop and orator4 8,lauzun10 lzn4 7#afcc8-agbc47 ,a ,french adventurer4 8,pignerol10 p-nyh-rl4 ,a city of ,piedmont1 ,italy4 8,iron ,mask40 ,the man in the iron mask was a prisoner who died in the ,bastile in #agjc4 ,he was brought there in #afih1 from the state prison of ,marguerite1 by the governor who had been changed to the ,bastile4 ,his face was covered with a black velvet mask1 fastened with steel springs4 ,he was never allowed to remove this1 nor to speak to any one except his governor4 ,after his death everything he possessed was burned4 ,there have been many theories as to his identity1 but no one has been thoroughly proven4 ,p4 #cbd1 c4 #b4--8,marcillac10 mr-ceellak2 8,rochefoucauld10 rosh-fook2 8,marchal10 mrshal2 8,fontanges10 fntanzh4 8,scarron10 skrrn4 ,she had been the wife of ,paul ,scarron1 a ,french author1 who died in #affj4 8,maintenon10 mnthnn4 ,p4 #cbe1 c4 #b4--8;,della ,guidice10 dll gweede-c2 8,alberoni10 l-b-ronee4 ,p4 #cbf1 c4 #a4--8,lettres de ,fnelon10 etc4 ,letters of ,fnelon to the duke of ,chevreuse4 ,p4 #cbf1 c4 #b4--8,nunc et in10 etc4 ,now and in the hour of death4 ,,readings ,,in ,,art4 ,p4 #cca1 c4 #a4--8,transept40 ,any part of a church which projects at right angles with the body and is of equal or nearly equal height to this4 ,transepts are in pairs1 that is1 the projection southward is accompanied by a corresponding projection northward4 8,nave40 ,the central portion of a cathedral1 distinguished from the choir4 8,arcade40 ,ranges of arches supported on piers or columns4 8,triforium10 tri-fri-um4 ,p4 #cca1 c4 #b4--8;,apse10 pse2 8,apsidal10 psi-dal4 8,chapter-house40 ,the house where the chapter or assembly of the clergymen1 and their dean1 belonging to a cathedral1 meet4 8,hospitium10 hos-pshi-m4 8,castellated40 ,adorned with turrets and battlements1 like a castle4 8,dais10 dis4 ,a raised floor at the upper end of a dining hall4 8,lancet40 ,high1 narrow1 and sharp pointed4 8,piers40 ,a mass of stonework used in supporting an arch2 also the part of the wall of a house between the windows or doors4 ,p4 #ccb1 c4 #a4--8;,cuspated10 cuspt-ed4 ,ending in a cusp1 that is1 the projecting point thrown out from foliations in the heads of ,gothic windows4 8,la ,sainte ,chapelle40 ,the holy chapel4 8,chartres10 shartr2 8,bourges10 boorzh2 8,corbel10 a projecting stone or timber supporting1 or seeming to support1 some weight4 ,p4 #ccb1 c4 #b4--8,tudor10 tder4 ,so called from the house on the ,english throne at the time of the growth of the style4 8,elizabethan10 elza-bthan4 8,newel-post40 ,the stout post at the foot of the staircase1 on the top of which the rail rests4 8,wren40 7#afcb-agbc47 ,an ,english architect1 the designer of ,st4 ,paul's1 in ,london4 ,after the ,london fire of #afff1 he drew the plans for over fifty churches and many important public buildings of the city4 8,mural10 belonging to a wall4 8,beaumanti10 b--mnte4 ,,selections ,,from ,,american ,,literature4 ,p4 #ccc1 c4 #b4--8;,ichthyophagi10 chthy-pha-gi4 ,a compound word of ,greek origin1 meaning fish eaters4 8,dunes40 ,same as downs1 little sand hills piled up near the sea4 8,badahuenna10 bad-a-huenna4 8,hercynian10 her-cyni-an4 ,p4 #ccd1 c4 #a4--8;,bouillon10 booyn4 8,brabantine10 brabran-tne4 ,p4 #cce1 c4 #b4--8;,corts10 krtez4 ,p4 #ccf1 c4 #a4--8,narvaez10 nar-vth2 8,chiapa10 che-p4 ,,chautauqua ,,normal ,,graduates1 ,class of #ahhc4 ,john ,aiken1 ,washington1 ,pennsylvania4 ,mrs4 ,w4 ,c4 ,armor1 ,bradford1 ,pennsylvania4 ,addie ,m4 ,benedict1 ,jamestown1 ,new ,york4 ,vinola ,a4 ,brown1 ,morning ,sun1 ,ohio4 ,clara ,j4 ,brown1 ,morning ,sun1 ,ohio4 ,martha ,buck1 ,carbondale1 ,illinois4 ,anna ,c4 ,cobb1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,kittie ,e4 ,carter1 ,randolph1 ,new ,york4 ,mary ,e4 ,coles1 ,philadelphia1 ,pennsylvania4 ,mrs4 ,hattie ,e4 ,chambers1 ,bradford1 ,pennsylvania4 ,sarah ,i4 ,dale1 ,franklin1 ,pennsylvania4 ,miss ,h4 ,m4 ,dawson1 ,tidioute1 ,warren ,co41 ,pennsylvania4 ,harriet ,e4 ,elder1 ,south ,bend1 ,indiana4 ,will ,t4 ,edds1 ,gerry1 ,new ,york4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,groves1 ,fayetteville1 ,tennessee4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,m4 ,graham1 ,garrettsville1 ,portage ,co41 ,ohio4 ,ida ,e4 ,goodrich1 ,geneva1 ,ashtabula ,co41 ,ohio4 ,myrtie ,c4 ,hudson1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,michigan4 ,maria ,r4 ,jones1 ,meriden1 ,connecticut4 ,eleanor ,m4 ,matthews1 ,gerry1 ,new ,york4 ,sarah ,a4 ,mee1 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york4 ,mrs4 ,rosetta ,page1 ,frewsburgh1 ,new ,york4 ,mary ,j4 ,perrine1 ,rochester1 ,new ,york4 ,lucie ,a4 ,pooley1 ,bridgeville1 ,allegheny ,co41 ,pennsylvania4 ,mrs4 ,p4 ,p4 ,pinney1 ,clarion1 ,clarion ,co41 ,ohio4 ,nellie ,h4 ,skidmore1 ,fredonia1 ,new ,york4 ,rev4 ,orange ,h4 ,spoor1 ,charlotte1 ,eaton ,co41 ,michigan4 ,mary ,a4 ,sowers1 ,carbondale1 ,illinois4 ,mary ,stevenson1 ,leech's ,corners1 ,mercer ,co41 ,pennsylvania4 ,will ,b4 ,stevenson1 ,leech's ,corners1 ,mercer ,co41 ,pennsylvania4 ,kate ,m4 ,thorp1 ,napoli1 ,cattaraugus ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,mattie ,r4 ,weaver1 ,latrobe1 ,westmoreland ,co41 ,pennsylvania4 ,,ottawa ,,assembly4 ,mrs4 ,n4 ,s4 ,zartman1 ,kansas ,city1 ,missouri4 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,e4 ,wharton1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,mrs4 ,a4 ,c4 ,hodge1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,b4 ,f4 ,thayer1 ,wamego1 ,kansas4 ,n4 ,w4 ,beauchamp1 ,kansas1 ,illinois4 ,cornelia ,c4 ,adams1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,mrs4 ,d4 ,holaday1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,e4 ,m4 ,pattee1 ,williamsburg1 ,kansas4 ,robert ,bruce1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,l4 ,ettie ,lester1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,jennie ,gott1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,emma ,w4 ,parker1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,rev4 ,f4 ,l4 ,walker1 ,grenola1 ,kansas4 ,alberlina ,wickard1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,mrs4 ,j4 ,f4 ,drake1 ,emporia1 ,kansas4 ,miss ,emma ,j4 ,short1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,mrs4 ,j4 ,p4 ,stephenson1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,j4 ,k4 ,mitchell1 ,osborne1 ,kansas4 ,emma ,e4 ,page1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,rev4 ,c4 ,r4 ,pattee1 ,williamsburg1 ,kansas4 ,r4 ,henry ,stone1 ,kansas ,city1 ,missouri4 ,rev4 ,p4 ,p4 ,wesley1 ,great ,bend1 ,kansas4 ,mrs4 ,c4 ,w4 ,holmes1 ,ottawa1 ,kansas4 ,may ,l4 ,parker1 ,olathe1 ,kansas4 ,,sunday-,,school ,,parliament4 ,t4 ,harry ,farrell1 ,kingston1 ,ontario4 ,mrs4 ,sarah ,w4 ,hopkins1 ,madison1 ,new ,york4 ,nellie ,lavelle1 ,kingston1 ,ontario4 ,florence ,e4 ,kinney1 ,syracuse1 ,new ,york4 ,minnie ,lavelle1 ,kingston1 ,ontario4 ,mrs4 ,effie ,williams1 ,plainfield1 ,new ,jersey4 ,james ,farrell1 ,kingston1 ,ontario4 ,harry ,a4 ,lavelle1 ,kingston1 ,ontario4 ,mrs4 ,t4 ,w4 ,skinner1 ,mexico1 ,new ,york4 ,avery ,w4 ,skinner1 ,mexico1 ,new ,york4 ,fannie ,s4 ,jaques1 ,merrickville1 ,ontario4 ,,framingham ,,children',s ,,class4 ,bessie ,m4 ,adams1 ,northboro1 ,massachusetts4 ,james ,a4 ,babbitt1 ,swanton1 ,vermont4 ,winfield ,h4 ,babbitt1 ,swanton1 ,vermont4 ,harry ,r4 ,barber1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,laura ,m4 ,batchelder1 ,west ,medway1 ,massachusetts4 ,arthur ,t4 ,belknap1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,jesse ,h4 ,bourne1 ,foxboro1 ,massachusetts4 ,albert ,c4 ,comey1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,bernia ,comey1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,willie ,desmond1 ,west ,medway1 ,massachusetts4 ,bertha ,elliott1 ,revere1 ,massachusetts4 ,annie ,t4 ,francis1 ,fitchburg1 ,massachusetts4 ,m4 ,gracie ,full1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,maud ,grumelle ,no address4 ,george ,hancock1 ,milford1 ,massachusetts4 ,lewis ,k4 ,hanson1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,lillian ,r4 ,hemenway1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,bertha ,j4 ,hopkins1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,kate ,e4 ,lawrence1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,stella ,mann1 ,boston ,highlands1 ,massachusetts4 ,c4 ,l4 ,reynolds1 ,framingham ,center1 ,massachusetts4 ,florence ,m4 ,sears1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,cora ,e4 ,thayer1 ,allston1 ,massachusetts4 ,fred ,p4 ,wheeler1 ,allston1 ,massachusetts4 ,ellen ,m4 ,works1 ,southboro1 ,massachusetts4 ,frank ,s4 ,wright1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,,framingham ,,children',s ,,class--,,advanced ,,grade4 ,phillips ,p4 ,bourne1 ,foxboro1 ,massachusetts4 ,mattie ,p4 ,cushing1 ,hudson1 ,massachusetts4 ,william ,o4 ,cutler1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,joseph ,h4 ,hall1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,mary ,a4 ,harriman1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,lewis ,k4 ,hanson1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,howard ,mason1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,harry ,d4 ,neary1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,ida ,m4 ,neary1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,edward ,o4 ,parker1 ,east ,holliston1 ,massachusetts4 ,bertie ,m4 ,stetson1 ,holliston1 ,massachusetts4 ,g4 ,adelbert ,watkins1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,theodore ,s4 ,bacon1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,millie ,s4 ,bruce1 ,southville1 ,massachusetts4 ,harry ,r4 ,barber1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,geo4 ,f4 ,beard1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,albert ,comey1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,john ,connelly1 ,cochituate1 ,massachusetts4 ,bertha ,may ,cushing1 ,hudson1 ,massachusetts4 ,fred ,l4 ,francis1 ,fitchburg1 ,massachusetts4 ,emeline ,hancock1 ,milford1 ,massachusetts4 ,emma ,l4 ,huse1 ,somerville1 ,massachusetts4 ,stella ,mann1 ,boston ,highlands1 ,massachusetts4 ,florence ,b4 ,moultrop1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,ida ,m4 ,neary1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,emma ,j4 ,parker1 ,east ,somerville1 ,massachusetts4 ,charles ,h4 ,phipps1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,cora ,e4 ,thayer1 ,allston1 ,massachusetts4 ,hattie ,stratton1 ,south ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,fred ,r4 ,woodward1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,frank ,s4 ,wright1 ,natick1 ,massachusetts4 ,,framingham ,,primary ,,teacher',s ,,union4 ,mrs4 ,emma ,d4 ,daniels1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,minnie ,e4 ,gaskins1 ,mattapan1 ,massachusetts4 ,georgie ,a4 ,goodnow1 ,sudbury1 ,massachusetts4 ,jessie ,e4 ,guernsey1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,minnie ,l4 ,jackson1 ,south ,gardner1 ,massachusetts4 ,addie ,m4 ,knight1 ,magnolia1 ,massachusetts4 ,helen ,virginia ,ross1 ,charleston ,station1 ,massachusetts4 ,ellen ,letitia ,ruggles1 ,milton1 ,massachusetts4 ,josie ,bell ,stuart1 ,lowell1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,d4 ,thayer1 ,allston1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,s4 ,isabella ,valentine1 ,hopkinton1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,i4 ,g4 ,wheeler1 ,allston1 ,massachusetts4 ,,framingham ,,normal ,,union4 ,s4 ,addie ,alexander1 ,marlboro1 ,massachusetts4 ,willis ,n4 ,bailey1 ,buckingham1 ,connecticut4 ,elsie ,l4 ,ball1 ,milford1 ,massachusetts4 ,alice ,bertha ,besse1 ,lowell1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,harriet ,e4 ,bates1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,mary ,amittai ,bradford1 ,mystic ,bridge1 ,connecticut4 ,hannah ,k4 ,bradford1 ,mystic ,bridge1 ,connecticut4 ,mrs4 ,lizzie ,e4 ,bird1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,l4 ,s4 ,brooks1 ,fitchburg1 ,massachusetts4 ,nellie ,m4 ,brown1 ,lowell1 ,massachusetts4 ,nellie ,e4 ,canfield1 ,south ,britain1 ,connecticut4 ,hattie ,d4 ,fuller1 ,hudson1 ,massachusetts4 ,rev4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,buckingham1 ,connecticut4 ,miss ,m4 ,e4 ,harrington1 ,north ,amherst1 ,massachusetts4 ,f4 ,m4 ,harrington1 ,northboro1 ,massachusetts4 ,o4 ,a4 ,heminway1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,clara ,d4 ,jones1 ,north ,abington1 ,massachusetts4 ,miss ,ida ,a4 ,e4 ,kenney1 ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,addie ,m4 ,knight1 ,magnolia1 ,massachusetts4 ,caroline ,m4 ,lee1 ,wayland1 ,massachusetts4 ,j4 ,h4 ,o4 ,lovell1 ,oakham1 ,massachusetts4 ,helen ,m4 ,locke1 ,magnolia1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,s4 ,t4 ,mc,master1 ,watertown1 ,massachusetts4 ,sarah ,m4 ,potter1 ,providence1 ,rhode ,island4 ,delia ,pinney1 ,ludlow1 ,vermont4 ,margaret ,s4 ,rolfe1 ,newburyport1 ,massachusetts4 ,julia ,a4 ,robinson1 ,north ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts4 ,luella ,h4 ,simonds1 ,lowell1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,harriet ,b4 ,steele1 ,reading1 ,massachusetts4 ,rachel ,steere1 ,greenville1 ,rhode ,island4 ,clara ,e4 ,stevens1 ,newburyport1 ,massachusetts4 ,ellen ,k4 ,stone1 ,framingham1 ,massachusetts4 ,anna ,a4 ,ware1 ,west ,medway1 ,massachusetts4 ,mrs4 ,william ,l4 ,woodcock1 ,winchendon1 ,massachusetts4 ,l4 ,d4 ,younkin1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,,errata ,,and ,,addenda4 ,,list ,,of ,,graduates ,,of ,,class ,,of #ahhc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,state4 ,,error4 ,,correct4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,n4 ,y4 ,mary ,e4 ,gese ,mary ,e4 ,gere4 ,n4 ,y4 ,hannah ,gibson ,lestie ,hannah ,gibson ,leslie4 ,n4 ,y4 ,camelia ,m4 ,morgan ,cornelia ,m4 ,morrell4 ,n4 ,y4 ,mrs4 ,sarah ,petty ,redhouse ,mrs4 ,sarah ,p4 ,redhead4 ,n4 ,y4 ,joseph ,lucius ,seymons ,joseph ,lucius ,seymour4 ,n4 ,y4 ,zilpha ,villefen ,zilpha ,villefeu4 ,penn'a ,mrs4 ,fannie ,b4 ,annas ,mrs4 ,fannie ,b4 ,armor4 ,penn'a ,chas4 ,d4 ,fentemaker ,chas4 ,d4 ,fenstemaker4 ,penn'a ,hershey ,benjamin ,h4 ,hershey4 ,penn'a ,j4 ,h4 ,mushiltz ,j4 ,h4 ,mushlitz4 ,penn'a ,hallis ,wiley ,hallie ,wiley4 ,d4 ,c4 ,olippard ,b4 ,brown ,oliphant ,b4 ,brown4 ,d4 ,c4 ,huldap ,j4 ,wise ,huldah ,j4 ,wise4 ,w4 ,va4 ,emma ,b4 ,tavennes ,emma ,b4 ,tavenner4 ,ohio ,alice ,christianas ,alice ,christianar4 ,tenn4 ,lizzie ,a4 ,t4 ,shumand ,lizzie ,a4 ,f4 ,shumard4 ,miss4 ,mrs4 7,sillie7 ,john ,calhoon ,mrs4 ,john ,calhoun4 ,wis4 ,elizer ,adeline ,brown ,eliza ,adeline ,brown4 ,iowa ,hattie ,j4 ,hawkinson ,hattie ,j4 ,hankinson4 ,mo4 ,mamie ,langhoun ,mamie ,langhorn4 ,,addenda4 ,fenner1 ,harry ,benham1 ,n4 ,y4 ,forsyth1 ,john ,w41 ,va4 ,gifford1 ,martha ,j41 ,n4 ,y4 ,grinnell1 ,mrs4 ,j4 ,b41 ,iowa4 ,walker1 ,maria ,victoria1 ,pa4 ,youngs1 ,sidney ,m41 ,pa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,royal ,,baking ,,powder ,absolutely ,pure4 ,this powder never varies4 ,a marvel of purity1 strength and wholesomeness4 ,more economical than the ordinary kinds1 and can not be sold in competition with the multitude of low test1 short weight1 alum or phosphate powders4 ,sold only in cans4 ,,royal ,,baking ,,powder ,,co41 #ajf ,wall ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #ahhc-ahhd4 ,,the ,,fourth ,,volume ,,begins ,,with ,,october1 #ahhc4 ,a monthly magazine1 #gf pages1 ten numbers in the volume1 beginning with ,october and closing with ,july4 ,,the ,,chautauquan is the official organ of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 adopted by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,lewis ,miller1 ,esq41 ,lyman ,abbott1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop ,h4 ,w4 ,warren1 ,d4,d41 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wilkinson1 ,d4,d41 and ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d41 ,counselors of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,the ,,chautauquan1 one year1 #a4ej ,,club ,,rates ,,for ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,five subscriptions at one time1 each #a4ce ,or1 for the five #f4ge ,in clubs1 the ,magazine must go to one postoffice4 ,remittances should be made by postoffice money order on ,meadville1 or draft on ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia or ,pittsburgh1 to avoid loss4 ,address1 ,,dr4 ,,theodore ,l4 ,,flood1 ,editor and ,proprietor1 ,,meadville1 ,,penn',a4 ,complete sets of the ,chautauqua ,assembly ,herald for #ahhc furnished at #a4jj4 ,illustration3 ,,ladies' ,,badge ,,of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,solid ,gold1 #c4ej4 ,solid ,silver1 #b4be4 ,gentleman's ,badge1 without arrow1 #a less4 ,graduate 7for ,s4 ,h4 ,g47 pin1 ,solid ,gold1 #c4ej2 ,solid ,silver1 #b4be1 size and style as above2 for ladies1 without arrow1 #a less4 ,one-tenth given to ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,hall ,fund4 ,notify ,miss ,kimball by postal1 who will draw for one-tenth1 to assist ,hall ,fund4 ,watch ,charms or ,rings made either of these designs1 at prices from #c4jj to #e4jj4 ,,our ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,stationery and ,cards ,have the only ,,genuine ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,emblem1 surrounded by handsome designs4 ,we have square and oblong envelopes and cards1 as desired4 #dj cents a box for stationery2 cards #cj;c4 for #be1 with class date and name printed4 ,,something ,,new6 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,rubber ,,stamp1 ,with name1 address1 and ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 design1 complete with ink for stamping envelopes1 cards1 clothing1 etc42 price #a4be4 ,this is reduced rate to ,chautauquans4 ,,business ,,stamps ,,of ,,every ,,kind4 ,stamp ,catalogue1 #abh pages1 #ae cents4 ,postal notes and stamps taken4 ,address ,,henry ,,hart1 ,atlanta1 ,ga4 ,formerly ,brockport1 ,n4 ,y4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,s4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,badges4 ,,any ,,one ,,desiring ,,badges of the classes of '#hb or '#hc1 can obtain them by sending forty cents to ,mrs4 ,rosie ,m4 ,baketel1 ,methuen1 ,mass4 ,,gold ,,pins ,the monogram ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 or ,s4 ,h4 ,g41 the latter with or without the arrow1 can be obtained for #b4ej4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,headquarters4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,otis1 ,,publisher1 ,,bookseller ,,stationer1 #bhh ,main ,st41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,any book you see advertised in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 or any where else1 ,i will send you on receipt of price4 ,the fact that ,i have had second orders from almost every one who has ordered any of our #he;c poets1 induces me to repeat my advertisement4 ,i have all the following ,english ,poets in fine cloth bindings1 gilt edges1 price1 #a4be per volume1 which ,i will sell for #he cents per volume1 postage paid4 ,aurora ,leigh1 ,mrs4 ,browning1 ,robert ,browning1 ,burns1 ,byron1 ,campbell1 ,chaucer1 ,coleridge1 ,eliza ,cook1 ,cowper1 ,crabbe1 ,dante1 ,dryden1 ,george ,eliot1 ,favorite ,poems1 ,goethe's ,faust1 ,goethe's ,poems1 ,goldsmith1 ,hemans1 ,herbert1 ,hood1 ,iliad1 ,jean ,ingelow1 ,keats1 ,lady of the ,lake1 ,lucile1 ,macaulay1 ,owen ,meredith1 ,milton1 ,moore1 ,odyssey1 ,ossian1 ,pilgrim's ,progress1 ,poetry of ,flowers1 ,edgar ,a4 ,poe1 ,pope1 ,procter1 ,sacred ,poems1 ,schiller1 ,scott1 ,shakspere1 ,shelley1 ,spenser1 ,tennyson1 ,thompson1 ,tupper's ,philosophy1 ,virgil1 ,kirke ,white1 ,wordsworth4 ,,propositions ,,for ,,my ,,customers1 ,,and ,,all ,,members ,,of ,,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,prop4 #a4 ,for #c4ej4 ,i will sell ,macaulay's ,england1 #e vols41 and ,macaulay's ,essays1 #c vols4 ,prop4 #b4 ,for #f4 ,the above and ,gibbon's ,history of ,rome1 #e vols4 ,prop4 #c4 ,for #h4 ,all the above and ,smile's ,works1 #d vols4 7,character1 ,self-,help1 ,thrift1 and ,duty47 ,prop4 #d4 ,for #aj4 ,thackeray's ,works1 #aj vols41 ,macaulay's ,england1 #e vols41 and ,green's ,english ,people1 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,prop4 #e4 ,for #ae4 ,dickens's ,works1 #ae vols41 ,macaulay's ,england1 #e vols41 and ,gibbon's ,rome1 #e vols4 ,prop4 #f4 ,for #bj4 ,chambers's ,encyclopdia1 #aj large #hvo4 vols41 bound in leather1 and ,george ,eliot's ,works1 #g vols4 ,prop4 #g4 ,for #be4 ,chambers's ,encyclopdia 7#aj vols4 sheep71 ,webster's ,unabridged ,dictionary1 latest edition1 and ,macaulay's ,essays1 #c vols4 ,prop4 #h4 ,for #cj4 ,dickens's ,works1 #ae vols41 ,thackeray's ,works1 #aj vols41 ,scott's ,works1 #ab vols41 and ,macaulay's ,essays1 #c vols4 ,prop4 #i4 ,for #dj4 ,dickens's ,works1 ,thackeray's ,works1 ,chambers's ,encyclopdia1 and ,webster's ,dictionary1 ,unabridged4 ,prop4 #aj4 ,for #ej4 ,dickens's ,works1 ,thackeray's ,works1 ,chambers's ,encyclopdia1 ,webster's ,dictionary1 ,macaulay's ,essays and ,england1 and ,gibbons's ,rome4 ,all the above are good editions1 bound in cloth1 good paper and good type4 ,any of these sets will be sold separately at remarkably low prices4 ,i can not agree to furnish any at above prices after my present stock is exhausted4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,otis1 ,,buffalo1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,unmounted ,photographs ,of ,ancient and ,modern ,,works ,,of ,,art4 ,embracing reproductions of famous ,original ,paintings1 ,sculpture1 ,architecture1 etc4 --,,price3-- ,cabinet ,size1 #a4ej per ,dozen4 ,medium ,size1 #c4jj per ,dozen4 ,also ,mounted ,photographs of ,different ,sizes2 ,large ,photographs for ,framing4 ,,art ,,albums ,,in ,,all ,,sizes4 ,send six-cent stamp for new ,catalogue of over #e1jjj subjects4 ,,soule ,,photograph ,,company1 #cch ,washington ,st41 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 ,always mention ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,obvious punctuation errors repaired4 ,accents corrected and made consistent4 ,page #cae1 8as0 added 7known as the ,merovingian7 ,page #cbb1 8o0 changed to 8to0 7as in to those of our father7 ,page #cbg1 8,brittanica0 changed to 8,britannica0 7,encyclopdia ,britannica7 ,page #ccb1 8,geneva0 changed to 8,genoa0 7,naples1 ,rome1 ,florence1 ,genoa1 ,venice7 ,page #ccc1 8arangements0 changed to 8arrangements0 7,the arrangements are simple7 ,page #ccg1 8,unnable0 changed to 8,unable0 7,unable1 at first7 ,page #ccg1 8superceded0 changed to 8superseded0 7was superseded by the ,council of ,plymouth7 ,page #cdj1 8and0 changed to 8und0 7stehen und sehen7 ,page #cda1 8,gibralter0 changed to 8,gibraltar0 7the ,strait of ,gibraltar7 ,page #cdb1 repeated 8the0 removed 7we often have the very thing7 ,page #cdb1 8onr0 changed to 8our0 7all our chalk beds7 ,page #cdb1 8cretacious0 changed to 8cretaceous0 7cretaceous period7 ,page #cdb1 8chifly0 changed to 8chiefly0 7chiefly of the same species7 ,page #cdb1 8supples0 changed to 8supplies0 7fresh supplies of diatoms7 ,page #cdb1 8ot0 changed to 8of0 7by weight one part of hydrogen7 ,page #cdb1 8ths0 changed to 8the0 7,by the washings out7 ,page #cdb1 8,bnt0 changed to 8,but0 7,but like a wayward child7 ,page #cdd1 8iulfilled0 changed to 8fulfilled0 7,the prophecy is literally fulfilled7 ,page #cde1 8,fotherengay0 changed to 8,fotheringay0 7the block at ,fotheringay7 ,page #cdg1 repeated 8as0 removed 7they may be safe as medicines7 ,page #cea1 repeated 8up0 removed 7would turn up before7 ,page #cea1 8probbaly0 changed to 8probably0 7were probably assumed at first7 ,page #ceb1 8,schopenhaufer0 changed to 8,schopenhauer0 7--,schopenhauer47 ,page #ceh1 8lucture0 changed to 8lecture0 7questions suggested by the lecture7 ,page #ceh1 8wass0 changed to 8was0 7a circle of thirteen was formed7 ,page #cei1 8neverthless0 changed to 8nevertheless0 7they nevertheless took care7 ,page #cfj1 repeated 8of0 removed 7meeting of the ,alpha ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c47 ,page #cfa1 8smmer0 changed to 8summer0 7graduated last summer7 ,page #cfa1 8charterized0 changed to 8characterized0 7a life which was characterized with7 ,page #cfa1 8sufering0 changed to 8suffering0 7patient endurance of severe suffering7 ,page #cfb1 8gladitorial0 changed to 8gladiatorial0 7amphitheater for gladiatorial exhibitions7 ,page #cfb1 8,q40 added 7#bh4 ,q4 ,what is said of7 ,page #cfc1 8,jurguthine0 changed to 8,jugurthine0 7,what is the subject of the 8,jugurthine ,war087 ,page #cfd1 8isorthermal0 changed to 8isothermal0 7the isothermal lines of our ,florida7 ,page #cfd1 8characterestics0 changed to 8characteristics0 7were all characteristics of this land7 ,page #cfh1 8cancandidates0 changed to 8candidates0 7the list of probable candidates7 ,page #cfh1 8,serviee0 changed to 8,service0 7an advocate of ,civil ,service7 ,page #cfi1 8crystalize0 changed to 8crystallize0 7crystallize about the wisest sayings7 ,page #cgj1 8,hasdrudal's0 changed to 8,hasdrubal's0 7,after ,hasdrubal's death7 ,page #cga1 8ectasy0 changed to 8ecstasy0 7caught by the nymphs2 ecstasy7 ,page #cgb1 8worhip0 changed to 8worship0 7superintended the public worship7 ,page #cgc1 8,bastelle0 changed to 8,bastille0 78,bastille10 bas-teel71 although it's also spelt ,bastile elsewhere4 ,page #cgc1 8,artavelde0 changed to 8,artevelde0 7the people1 under ,artevelde1 supported the ,english7 ,page #cgf1 8,addreess0 changed to 8,address0 7,address ,,henry ,,hart1 ,atlanta1 ,ga47 ,page #cgf1 8,macauley's0 changed to 8,macaulay's0 7,macaulay's ,essays and ,england7