,,extempore ,,speech ,,how ,,to ,,acquire ,,and ,,practice ,,it4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,,william ,,pittenger1 ,instructor in the ,national ,school of ,elocution and ,oratory4 ,,philadelphia3 ,,national ,,school ,,of ,,elocution ,,and ,,oratory1 #adaf and #adah ,chestnut ,street4 #ahhc4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahhc1 by the ,,national ,,school ,,of ,,elocution ,,and ,,oratory1 in the office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,,franklin ,,printing ,,house1 #cba ,chestnut ,street1 ,,phil',a4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface4 ,the following pages are the result of considerable observation and experience4 ,fifteen years ago the writer published a small volume entitled 8,oratory2 ,sacred and ,secular10 in which the same general views were set forth1 though more slightly and crudely expressed4 ,in this work the recognized defects of that earlier effort are supplied2 and it is believed that all persons who have natural adaptation to public speech will here find all necessary directions to guide them by the shortest and surest road to success4 ,it is not necessary or even expedient that a book which teaches the mode of eloquence should itself be eloquent4 ,we may watch1 admire1 and describe the flight of an eagle while standing on the firm ground quite as well as if flying in the air beside him4 ,no effort1 therefore1 has been made to imitate those grand bursts of feeling or lofty flights of imagination in which the popular orator may indulge2 but we have sought to give such directions about practical details as may be useful to the highest genius1 while the broad path toward that kind of excellence most in harmony with the speaker's own faculties is clearly marked out4 ,the writer is firmly convinced that more than nine-tenths of those who have any fair degree of ability to speak in public will succeed best in the mode laid down in the following pages2 that is1 by thorough preparation and arrangement of thought1 combined with spontaneous selection of words in the moment of discourse4 ,reasons will be given for considering this the most natural1 logical1 impassioned1 and effective mode of discourse2 indeed1 the superior excellence of extempore speech is now generally conceded and will require little argument2 but it is more important to encourage the beginner by showing him just how to acquire and practice fluent1 accurate1 and impressive off-hand speech in public1 with as little embarrassment or fear as if every word were written out and in plain sight4 ,this is the especial object of the following pages4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,considerations3 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,can ,eloquence be ,taught8 #i ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,four ,methods of ,public ,speech--,their ,advantages and ,disadvantages #ae ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,lessons from the ,experience of ,eminent ,orators #ca ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,an ,embryo ,speech1 with ,models of very ,simple ,plans #dd ,,chapter ,v4 ,initial ,fear1 and ,how to ,overcome it #fj ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,utility of ,debating ,societies #fe ,,part ,,ii4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,speaker3 ,,chapter ,i4 ,unfortunates who never can ,extemporize #gc ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,thought and ,emotion #hg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,language #aja ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,imagination #aji ,,chapter ,v4 ,voice and ,gesture #aad ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,confidence #abe ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,peculiarities belonging to the ,various ,fields of ,oratory #ace ,,part ,,iii4 ,,plan ,,and ,,delivery ,,of ,,the ,,speech3 ,,chapter ,i4 ,the ,pen and the ,tongue #ade ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,subject and ,object #adh ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,thought-gathering #aei ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,constructing a ,plan #aff ,,chapter ,v4 ,how ,shall the ,written ,plan be ,used8 #agg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,first ,moment of ,speech #ahg ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,introduction #aif ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,progress of the ,speech #bjg ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,three ,plans of ,great ,addresses #bag ,,chapter ,x4 ,illustrations1 ,pathos1 ,humor #bdc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,orator's ,logic #bdh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,after the ,speech #bfb ,,part ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,considerations4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,can ,,eloquence ,,be ,,taught8 ,there is a widespread opinion that all study of the mode of oratory is unmanly1 and leads to the substitution of artifice and adornment for simplicity and power4 8,let a man have something important to say10 it is argued1 8and he need not waste his time in trying to find how to say it40 ,so general is this sentiment1 that a ministerial acquaintance of the writer's was recently very careful to conceal from his congregation the fact that he was taking a series of lessons in elocution1 lest his influence should be diminished4 ,we may admit that the popular prejudice against the study of eloquence is not without a mixture of reason4 ,it is possible to foster a spurious kind of oratory1 which shall be far inferior to the rudest genuine speech4 ,but on the other hand1 it is safe to maintain that every rational power man possesses can be strengthened by judicious cultivation1 without in the least impairing its quality4 ,there is no trick in true oratory--no secret magic by which a weak-minded man can become the leader of others stronger and wiser than himself4 ,the great prizes of eloquence cannot be placed in the hands of the ignorant or slothful4 ,but so surely as a raw apprentice can be transformed into a skillful workman1 any person possessed of ordinary faculties1 who will pay the price in labor1 can be made master of the art of ready and forcible public utterance4 ,the methods of oratorical cultivation presented in this volume are not based upon mere theory4 ,they have been tested in hundreds of instances1 and their results are beyond question4 ,a carpenter will assert with perfect assurance1 8,i guarantee to take an ordinary young man1 who will place himself in my hands for a reasonable time1 and turn him out a thorough mechanic1 master of every part of his trade40 ,the effects of training are as marvelous and as certain in the fields of eloquence4 ,but this training must necessarily combine practice with theory4 ,to study about great orators and observe their works is not sufficient4 ,here again1 we may take a lesson from the mode in which an apprentice is trained4 ,the master architect does not take his young men to gaze upon finished buildings1 and expect them1 from mere admiration and architectural fervor1 to construct similar works4 ,he would soon find that not one in a hundred had the 8mechanical genius0 for such an easy triumph4 ,but he takes them into the shop1 where work is in progress1 places before them some simple task1 and from that leads them on1 step by step1 to more difficult achievements4 ,they learn how to make the separate parts of a house1 and afterward how to fit those parts into a complete work4 ,under this rational mode of instruction the great majority master the whole business placed before them1 and the failures are rare exceptions4 ,if similar success does not attend oratorical students1 the explanation must be sought1 not in the nature of oratory1 but in wrong methods of training4 ,merely reading ,cicero and ,demosthenes1 even in their original tongues1 declaiming choice selections1 or listening to great orators1 will not make any one eloquent1 unless indeed he possesses that rare natural genius which rises above all rules and sweeps away every obstacle4 ,but it must be remembered that there are many degrees of eloquence4 ,the popular conception is somewhat unjust in refusing recognition to those who possess this power in only a fair degree4 ,it is not possible by any mode of training to produce many orators of the very highest type4 ,such will ever be rare for the same reason that there are but few great poets1 generals1 or statesmen4 ,but proper education in the art of speech should enable a man to give full1 free1 and adequate expression to whatever thoughts and feelings he may possess4 ,it may go further1 and make him more fruitful in thought1 and more intense in feeling1 than he could have been in the absence of such education1 and he may thus become fairly entitled to the rewards of eloquence without1 however1 reaching the level of the few great world-orators4 ,the distinction between a good degree of practical1 working eloquence1 which may be successfully taught to the mass of students1 and the very highest development of the same faculty1 should always be kept in mind4 ,even the mightiest genius may be regulated1 strengthened1 and directed by culture2 while moderate talents may1 by similar culture1 reach a very serviceable degree of efficiency and power4 ,while these considerations appear almost self-evident1 they are not unnecessary4 ,on listening to a true orator--one who1 without hesitation1 pours forth a stream of well-chosen words1 and develops a difficult subject in a clear and masterly manner--we are apt to receive an impression like that made by the operation of a law of nature1 or an unerring animal instinct4 ,does the orator acquire eloquence as the bee learns to construct honey cells8 ,there is1 no doubt1 a foundation for eloquence in natural ability1 but the analogy is far more close with the human builder1 who sees mentally the image of the house he wishes to construct1 fits the various timbers and other materials into their places1 and works intelligently until his conception is realized4 ,to ,jack ,cade and his fellows the mysteries of reading and writing 8came by nature20 but experience has shown that this much of nature can be developed in the great majority of ,american children4 ,in the moderate and reasonable meaning of the term1 eloquence can be made almost as general as the elements of a common-school education4 ,the child that masters the art of reading1 really makes a greater conquest over difficulties1 than the average well-educated youth needs to add to the stores he already possesses1 in order to attain a good degree of oratorical power4 ,there are1 indeed1 a few indispensable requisites which will be enumerated in another chapter2 but the want of these debars a small minority only1 and their absence is easily recognized4 ,for all others the path of success lies open4 ,patient practice in the use of the pen as a servant but not as a master1 the study of good models1 and the laborious mastery in detail of the separate elements of oratory1 will not fail of abundant fruit4 ,there are two classes of works with which this treatise should not be confounded4 ,it aims to occupy an almost vacant place between manuals of elocution on the one hand1 and works of technical instruction in the various oratorical professions1 on the other4 ,both of these classes of books are very useful1 and teach indirectly many of the elements of true eloquence4 ,elocution deals with voice and gesture1 which are prime elements in oratory2 and although it is popularly supposed to be applicable only to reading and recitation1 it is equally serviceable in off-hand speech4 ,works of the second class give rules for preaching1 debating1 pleading at the bar1 teaching1 and all other professions which involve public speech4 ,they show how various kinds of discourses may be constructed1 but have few practical directions about the mode of delivery1 or that grand and noble work--the development of the oratorical power itself4 ,this book is written from the standpoint of the student who wishes to wield the golden sceptre of eloquence and is willing to put forth all reasonable efforts to that end4 ,it will aim to guide him into the right path2 show him what helps are available1 and what discipline is necessary2 encourage him in overcoming difficulties1 and stimulate him to seek the very highest excellence within the compass of his faculties4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,four ,,methods ,,of ,,public ,,speech--,,their ,,advantages ,,and ,,disadvantages4 8,what shall ,i do80 exclaims the young student who expects soon to face public audiences4 8,shall ,i write out what ,i have to say1 polish it as highly as possible1 and then utter this finished product8 ,or must ,i take the risk of being able to say nothing at all1 in hope of gaining the ease and naturalness of spontaneous speech80 ,it must be admitted that the first course indicated above has many advantages1 and seems in harmony with the marked tendency of civilization toward division of labor4 ,it is hard to perform several different operations at the same moment4 ,look how heavily the extempore speaker is burdened4 ,he must think of his subject2 arrange his ideas1 sentences1 and words2 remember quotations2 originate proper tones and gestures2 and keep his attention closely fixed upon his audience4 ,all this he must do with the utmost promptness and regularity1 or incur a fearful penalty--that of embarrassment and failure4 ,few men have the courage to stand long before an audience1 waiting for a missing word or idea4 ,to avoid this danger the mind of an extempore speaker must be accustomed to work with the rapidity and precision of a printing-press2 otherwise1 the appalling danger of failure and ridicule will constantly stare him in the face4 ,it is not wonderful that such perils have made many speakers perpetual slaves of the pen4 ,but it may be noted that the public reader has an equal number of things to do at the same moment4 ,he must look on the manuscript and recognize the words--a complicated process1 which practice has made easy1 but which does greatly distract attention4 ,the whole discourse must be brought into mind as really as if extemporized with the difference that now1 instead of arising from within1 it is brought back from without--a much more difficult achievement4 ,tones and gestures are also increasingly difficult4 ,the reader will usually wish to give some attention to the audience1 which1 with manuscript before him1 will be far from easy4 ,after he has done his best his hearers will think1 8,this man is reading1 not speaking--giving us what he thought yesterday or last week1 not what he is thinking now40 ,possibly this will not diminish their pleasure1 but the sentiment needs to be recognized4 ,the resource of memorizing the discourse after it has been prepared relieves the eye and lessens the physical distraction1 but it throws an additional and very heavy burden upon the mind1 and introduces new embarrassments peculiar to itself4 ,the advice enforced in these pages will be3 8,extemporize2 take the risk2 fail1 if necessary0 though precautions will be given making failure well nigh impossible2 8but in all cases when you speak to the people with the object of convincing or persuading1 let it be seen that you speak directly the thoughts and feelings of that very moment40 ,the two extremes of verbal communication between men are letters1 books1 or essays1 on the one side1 and desultory talk on the other4 ,in the one1 the pen is everything2 in the other1 it is not employed at all4 ,neither mode of address constitutes oratory1 but the whole field of this art lies between them4 ,there are four principal methods of discourse distinguished in reference to the mode of delivery1 which we may name as follows3 #a4 ,reading4 #b4 ,recitation4 #c4 ,extemporizing4 #d4 ,the composite method4 ,of these1 the first two have the great advantage of allowing the speaker as much time as may be necessary for the arrangement of the speech down to the minutest detail4 ,words may be selected with the nicest care1 and if the first effort is not satisfactory the speech may be written again and again1 until the writer's full power has been utilized4 ,after delivery1 the manuscript is at once available for publication or preservation4 ,the first method gives the orator something to lean upon4 ,should he become embarrassed1 he can fix his attention closely upon his writing until he recovers4 ,should his attention be distracted1 and the thread of discourse be broken1 it can be taken up again at any point4 ,in recitation more declamatory fervor is possible than in reading4 ,gesticulation is less restrained4 ,the speaker need not be confined within the narrow limits of a circle1 the centre of which is his manuscript1 and the radius the distance at which he can read it4 ,as an offset1 there is the effort1 in some cases very considerable1 of memorizing2 the variable power of memory in different states of health2 and the possibility of altogether forgetting the prepared words4 ,it must also be admitted that few men can declaim well4 ,some have mastered the difficult art1 and have won laurels in this way2 but their number1 especially in the modern world1 is comparatively small4 ,extemporizing does not exclude the most exhaustive study of a subject4 ,it is easier1 indeed1 to write upon a subject only partially understood1 than to address an audience directly upon the same topic4 ,neither does this method exclude the most careful pre-arrangement of the thoughts enunciated4 ,the trained speaker will find it comparatively easy to make a plan at a moment's notice which will serve as a basis for discourse2 but he will usually be provided with a plan long before he begins to speak4 ,he will aim to understand his subject1 make the best arrangement of it in his power1 select what is most fitting for his purpose1 and then1 face to face with his audience1 will give them1 in a manly way1 the outflowing of his mind and heart4 ,it is in this sense alone that the word 8extempore0 will be used in this volume4 ,we maintain that1 so far from being the refuge of ignorance and sloth1 extempore speech is often the vehicle of the widest culture and the most extensive knowledge4 ,the increased attention paid to extempore speech within a few years indicates a hopeful improvement of taste among professional men4 ,the majority of the people have always preferred it4 ,they do not greatly desire of pulpit1 platform1 or bar1 the verbal elaboration favored by written speech2 but fervent manner1 earnest conviction1 and directness are highly prized4 ,readers and reciters imitate1 as far as they can1 the manner of spontaneous speech4 ,it is well to remember that this tribute of imitation is never paid by the superior to the inferior4 ,one argument in favor of extempore delivery has never received due consideration3 it is far more healthful than other forms of address4 ,in the case of men who speak only at long intervals1 this consideration may not be weighty2 but to others1 it involves years of added usefulness1 or even life itself4 ,this superior healthfulness has often been observed1 but what is its source8 ,the answer will go far to show why true extempore speech is more persuasive and emotional than any other variety4 ,in chemistry1 a law of affinity has long been recognized1 according to which substances just set free from combination have greater energy1 and are more ready to form new combinations1 than ever afterward4 ,in the same way1 voice and gesture readily respond to nascent emotion2 that is1 to emotion aroused for the first time4 ,every speaker who utters the thought of the moment1 if not fettered by bad habits1 or paralyzed by fear1 will exhibit a perpetual change of position1 a variety of muscular movement1 and a play of expression which he can never afterward reproduce4 ,the pitch1 rate1 and force of the voice are controlled in the same effective and almost automatic manner4 ,an ordinary extemporizer1 when thoroughly aroused1 will employ as great a variety of tones and gestures as a highly trained elocutionist in his most elaborate recitations4 ,nothing is asserted as to the skill of the combinations1 the melody of the voice1 or the grace of the action2 though even in these the advantage is not always on the side of the elocutionist4 ,but in distributing the effort among all the organs1 and in giving that alternate rest and action upon which health and strength depend1 the elocutionist may strive in vain to equal the model set him by a good extempore speech4 ,in ,western and seaside camp-meetings1 speakers who have never spent an hour in vocal drill will often address thousands of people in the open air with an energy of voice and manner that would1 if employed over a manuscript by any other than the most accomplished elocutionist1 speedily bring all efforts and the speaker himself to an end4 ,but he easily endures the strain because there is that continual change which is the equivalent of rest4 ,notice some thoroughly excited speaker1 trained only in the school of experience--possibly a mere demagogue or popular agitator--at his work4 ,a word shot forth almost as piercing as a steam whistle is followed by a sentence far down the scale1 and when emotion demands the same high key again1 the organs in that position are fresh for a new ear-piercing effort4 ,there is equal variation in the rate of speech4 ,the whole body joins in the expression of emotion1 without the slightest conscious effort1 impelled only by the aroused nervous energy which seeks that mode of discharge4 ,when the effort ends1 the man is weary1 indeed2 but with a weariness distributed over the whole body1 and without a trace of that exhaustion of brain1 throat1 or the upper part of the lungs1 which has sent many manuscript speakers--clergymen1 especially--to untimely graves4 ,what a difference there is between the preacher who languidly reads his manuscript for twenty-five minutes to a hundred people1 and closes the mighty effort with aching head1 quivering nerves1 and exhausted throat1 and the typical camp-meeting orator6 ,the latter works hard1 addressing thousands of people for an hour and a half or two hours2 but as the stamping foot1 the tense arm1 the nodding head1 the fully expanded lungs1 and the swaying body have all taken part1 the blood and nervous energy have been sent in due proportion to every organ1 and there is no want of balance4 ,the man can repeat the same performances the next day1 and continue it1 as many itinerants have done1 for months together4 ,similar examples of endurance have often been given in heated political canvasses by orators of the very highest eminence1 as well as by others unknown to fame4 ,difference of cultivation or of earnestness will not suffice to explain the contrast between the two classes of speakers4 ,the chemical analogy is instructive1 and goes far to account for the observed differences4 ,when thought passes out of the mist and shadow of general conceptions into the definite form of words1 it has immeasurably greater power to arouse and agitate the mind in which this transformation is made1 than it can have when the same words are merely recalled in memory or read from a sheet of paper4 ,when the whole process of expression takes place at once3--the mental glance over the subject2 the coinage of thoughts into words and sentences2 the utterance of the words as they rise to the lips2 the selection of key1 inflection1 emphasis1 gesture3--the man must have a very cold nature1 or his theme be very dull1 if1 with a sympathizing audience before him1 the tides of emotion do not begin to swell4 ,but notice how other modes of delivery squander this wealth of emotion4 ,the writer carefully elaborates his language4 ,he is perfectly calm1 or if there is any excitement1 it is purely intellectual1 and the quickened flow of blood is directed only to the brain4 ,when the ardor of composition subsides1 and he reviews his pages1 the fire seems to have died out of them4 ,while memorizing1 or making himself familiar enough with what he has written to read it with effect1 he may recall some of the first ardor1 but only to have it again subside4 ,when at last he stands up to speak1 his production is a thrice-told tale4 ,in but few cases will he feel the full inspiration of his message4 ,if he recites1 the effort of memory distracts his attention1 and he is probably reading from a page of manuscript presented by his mental vision4 ,if he reads directly1 he must take a position to see his paper1 and at least part of the time keep his eye fixed upon it4 ,the address is felt to come1 notwithstanding all the artifice he can employ1 at least as much from the paper as from the man4 ,the most profound culture in reading and declamation only suffices to bring back part of the emotion with which the genuine extemporizer starts4 ,as bearing upon the subject of the healthfulness of extempore speech1 a reference to the writer's own experience may not be improper4 ,severe and exceptional hardship in the civil war led to a complete breakdown in health4 ,the hope of any kind of active work1 or even of many months of life1 seemed very slight4 ,the question was not so much how to speak best1 as how to speak at all4 ,fortunately1 a long series of daily lectures1 involving no great intellectual effort1 proved that mere talking was not necessarily hurtful4 ,some elocutionary hints at the right time were also of great value4 ,when the pulpit was entered1 greater difficulty arose4 ,a few trials of memorized preaching produced alarming nervous exhaustion4 ,reading was equally deleterious to throat and voice4 ,one path alone seemed open2 and entering upon that with confidence1 which eighteen years of experience has only deepened1 the writer found that extempore speech was1 for him1 probably the most healthful of all forms of exercise4 ,it is not likely that one-third of this term of work would have been secured by any other kind of address4 ,another important advantage is the saving of time afforded by this mode of speech4 ,the hours otherwise wasted in word-elaboration may be more usefully employed in general studies4 ,the field for an orator's improvement is boundless2 but if obliged to fully write a large number of discourses1 he must either work very rapidly or very perseveringly to enter far into that field4 ,but if less preparation is given to individual speeches1 more time will be available for the improvement of the speaker4 ,or if he uses the same length of preparation for each discourse in the extempore mode1 he can collect and classify a far greater amount of material1 and the mental element will thus gain far more than the merely verbal loses4 ,only the fourth or composite method of discourse remains for our consideration4 ,at first glance1 it seems to combine the advantages of all other methods1 and for many minds it possesses great attraction4 ,in it the less important parts of the speech are given off-hand1 while passages of especial brilliancy or power are written fully1 and either read or recited4 ,added variety may be given by reading some of these1 and declaiming others from memory4 ,a very brilliant and showy discourse may thus be constructed4 ,but the difficulties are also very great4 ,full success requires a rare combination of desirable qualities4 ,a good verbal memory1 the power of composing effective fragments1 and of declaiming or reading them well1 are not often joined to all the qualities that make a ready and impressive extemporizer4 ,for this reason it usually follows that in composite discourses one of the elements so greatly predominates as to dwarf the others4 ,a manuscript discourse in which an extempore remark or two is interpolated must be classed with written discourses4 ,neither does extemporizing lose its special character1 though some scattered quotations be read or repeated from memory4 ,to pick up a book1 in the midst of a speech1 and read a theme or argument1 or the statement of another's position1 does not make the discourse composite in character1 unless such reading be the principal part of it4 ,an eloquent speaker on one occasion occupied more than half his time1 and produced far more than half his effect1 by reciting poems of the author who was the nominal subject of his lecture4 ,the performance would have been more appropriately styled1 8,recitations from the poems of ----40 ,the few running comments introduced did not entitle it to be classed as an original production1 because they were obviously not its governing motive4 ,how shall the advantages of extemporizing be secured1 while avoiding its dangers8 ,no commendation can be given to those who simply talk to an audience1 giving forth only what may happen to be in mind at the moment of delivery4 ,the most pedantic writing and lifeless reading would1 as a habit1 be preferable to such recklessness4 ,unwritten speech does not preclude the fullest preparation4 ,the plans advocated in this volume will enable a speaker to gather materials as widely1 arrange them as systematically1 and hold them as firmly in hand1 as if every word was written2 while at the same time he may have all the freedom and play of thought1 the rush of passion1 and the energy of delivery that comes in the happiest moment of outgushing words4 ,but those who are unwilling to labor may as well lay down the book4 ,we do not profess to teach a process of labor-saving1 though much labor will be changed from mechanical to intellectual1 and after long experience the total saving may be great4 ,but in the first stages those who have been accustomed to write in full will find that the change involves an increase1 rather than a diminution1 of work4 ,on all ordinary occasions a good speech must result from a previous ingathering of materials--the formation of a mental treasury in connection with a special subject4 ,the speaker works for days or weeks in collecting from all sources and arranging in the happiest manner that which his hearers are to receive in an hour with no other labor than that of listening4 ,the great advantage of writing is supposed to lie in this preparation4 ,to-day an orator may write everything he knows about a subject2 to-morrow1 by means of reading1 conversation1 or further thought1 he may have more ideas to record2 and he may thus continue to widen and record his knowledge1 until his time1 or the subject itself1 is exhausted4 ,then he may revise1 select what is most appropriate1 refine and polish his language1 and finally come before an audience confident that he holds in his hand the very best that he can give them4 ,but1 alas6 it is an essay1 or treatise1 rather than a speech6 ,so far as his materials are suitable for a speech1 they can be gathered and used as readily in an extempore discourse4 ,the use of the pen as an instrument of accumulation and record is not to be despised4 ,but in its final form1 not a line of the most massive and complicated speech that the mind of man can produce need be written4 ,enriched by garnered thoughts--knowing where to begin and where to close--seeing a clear outline of the whole subject in mental vision--the trained speaker may possess every faculty1 and use every resource of speech1 in as serene confidence as if every word was fixed in memory or on manuscript4 ,those who have only one speech to deliver1 and that for show rather than service1 will hardly credit these assertions4 ,graduating orations will probably always be recited from memory4 ,in such cases the matter is of little value1 while the form is everything4 ,so well is this relation of fitness understood1 that in serious address it is a severe condemnation to say1 8,he declaims just like a school-boy10 or 8,that is sophomoric40 ,the line of appropriateness may be suggested as follows3 ,when the sole aim is to inform or please1 or when an address is submitted for criticism1 those who have the needed ability may very well read or recite4 ,but when conviction or persuasion is sought1 when public opinion or conduct is to be influenced1 the indescribable but most potent charm of sincere1 earnest1 spontaneous words will ever prove most effective4 ,no leader of a great1 popular movement ever trusted to manuscript appeals1 and but two or three of such leaders memorized their orations4 ,these methods may well be reserved for the oratory of ornament and show4 ,may a word of advice be hazarded to those who1 in spite of all these considerations1 prefer to rely upon manuscript or memory8 ,be honest about it6 ,those modes of delivery have advantages when their resources are fully mastered4 ,do not seek credit for what you do not possess1 but stand firmly on your own ground and make the most of it4 ,if you recite1 memorize perfectly and employ the most effective elocutionary devices4 ,do not hesitate to study the manner of good actors1 for your recitations and theirs must have much in common4 ,if you read1 put the paper1 not where it will be best hidden1 but where it will do you the most good1 and read as well as you can4 ,thoroughly good reading is far more interesting and attractive than reading which is a bad imitation--there are no good imitations--of spontaneous speech4 ,do not mark in your manuscript 8,here become pathetic20 or at another place1 8,here show surprise and indignation40 ,reading is essentially quiet in its character1 appealing to intellect and gentle feeling rather than stormy passion4 ,you will thus realize all the success that is possible for you in the method you have chosen1 and escape such well-grounded sarcasm as that of ,sydney ,smith1 who thus describes a style of preaching common in his day3 8,discourses have insensibly dwindled from speaking to reading1 a practice which is of itself sufficient to stifle every germ of eloquence4 ,it is only by the fresh feelings of the heart that mankind can be very powerfully affected4 ,what can be more ludicrous than an orator delivering stale indignation1 and fervor a week old2 turning over whole pages of violent passions1 written out in goodly text2 reading the tropes and apostrophes into which he is hurried by the ardor of his mind2 and so affected at a preconcerted line and page that he is unable to proceed any further80 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,lessons ,,from ,,the ,,experience ,,of ,,eminent ,,orators4 ,although unwritten speech is popular and has innumerable arguments in its favor1 many persons yet maintain that eloquence of the highest character cannot be reached without trusting to the memory and the pen4 ,in vain we urge that it is more natural to find words at the moment of utterance2 that a better framework may be constructed by confining preparation to it alone2 that the hearer and speaker may thus be brought into more perfect accord2 that this1 in short1 is the method of nature1 which permits the solid part of the tree to stand through many winters1 while its graceful robe of foliage is freshly bestowed every spring4 ,with the emphasis of an axiom1 opponents declare that the words of a great orator must be previously chosen1 fitted1 and polished4 ,a speech-writer is apt to have one argument drawn from his own experience which outweighs all argument4 ,his own most satisfactory efforts are those in which nothing is left to the chance of the moment4 ,but even experience sometimes misleads4 ,we may be bad judges of our own performances4 ,when extemporizing1 the best utterances are often immediately forgotten by the speaker1 whose mind is crowded with other 8thick-coming fancies40 ,but in writing we may linger lovingly over each sentence1 and return to enjoy it as often as we wish4 ,if anything is imperfect1 we can correct and improve down to the moment of speech4 ,and while in the act of reading or reciting we are in a much better position to admire our own work1 than when carried away by such an impassioned torrent as to scarcely know whether we have been using words at all4 ,if our auditors declare their preference for the latter1 we can find a ready explanation in their want of taste and culture4 ,it is not denied that great effects may be produced by memorized words4 ,the popularity of the stage is sufficient proof of their power4 ,actors often cause uncontrollable tears to flow4 ,if a man can write powerfully1 and then recite well1 he may greatly move an audience4 ,massillon1 ,bossuet1 and our own ,john ,b4 ,gough1 have each achieved great popular success in that manner4 ,but while such men will be listened to with eagerness and pleasure1 they will be regarded as great performers rather than as authorities and guides4 ,they have placed themselves on a level with those who deal in unreal things1 and must be contented to remain there4 ,doubtless1 it is more noble to speak in the words that were once appropriate to our feelings and sentiments1 than to deal only in the words of others2 but the resemblance between quoting our own previously prepared language and the language of other persons is felt more keenly by the people than the difference between the two processes4 ,but even in momentary effect1 declaimers of memorized words have been surpassed by extemporizers1 as numerous examples demonstrate2 while in power of thought and lasting influence the superiority of the latter is so great as to make comparison almost impossible4 ,the great examples of ,demosthenes and ,cicero are often quoted to prove that eloquence of the highest type must be written4 ,of these men it may be said that ,demosthenes had an assemblage of great qualities that1 backed by his tireless industry1 would have made any method the road to brilliant success4 ,but he did not always recite1 and he would not have dreamed of using manuscript4 ,cicero was at least as great in literature as in oratory1 and his speeches are now read as literary models4 ,some of them were never spoken at all4 ,it may be allowed that he ordinarily recited previous preparations1 but some of his most brilliant passages were purely extemporaneous4 ,the outburst that overwhelmed ,catiline upon the unexpected appearance of the latter in the ,roman ,senate was coined at white heat from the passion of the moment4 ,hortensius1 the great rival of ,cicero--perhaps his superior as an advocate--spoke in spontaneous words1 as did many of the most eminent of the ,roman orators1 whose fame now is less brilliant than ,cicero's1 mainly because no effective means then existed of preserving extempore speech4 ,as an offset to the example of ,demosthenes1 the great name of ,pericles may be fairly adduced4 ,he did not write his addresses1 and direct comparison is therefore impossible2 but his speech established a sway over the cultivated democracy of ,athens in the day of their highest glory more indisputable than ,demosthenes ever attained4 ,the case in regard to the ancient world may be thus summed up3 ,manuscript reading was not considered oratory at all2 all speeches were either recited or extemporized2 the latter have inevitably perished1 while some of the former have survived1 and1 becoming a part of school-book literature1 have conferred a disproportionate fame upon their authors4 ,an orator who was compelled to write his speech in order to preserve it had a much greater inducement to write than exists since the invention of shorthand reporting4 ,yet some speakers of the highest eminence did not adopt that mode1 and others did not confine themselves to it4 ,in the modern world the weight of example is decisively on the side of unwritten speech4 ,a few instances are all that our space will allow us to adduce4 ,augustine1 the great ,christian writer and preacher1 has not left us in ignorance as to which mode of address he preferred4 ,he enjoins the 8,christian ,teacher0 to make his hearers comprehend what he says--8to read in the eyes and countenances of his auditors whether they understand him or not1 and to repeat the same thing1 by giving it different terms1 until he perceives it is understood1 an advantage those cannot have who1 by a servile dependence upon their memories1 learn their sermons by heart and repeat them as so many lessons4 ,let not the preacher10 he continues1 8become the servant of words2 rather let words be servants to the preacher40 ,this advice will be equally applicable to others than preachers who may possess a serious purpose4 ,but the charity of ,augustine allows of reciting under certain circumstances4 ,he well says3 8,those who are destitute of invention1 but can speak well1 provided they select well-written discourses of another man1 and commit them to memory for the instruction of their hearers1 will not do badly if they take that course40 ,no doubt he intended that due credit should be given to the real author4 ,of ,luther it was said that 8his words were half battles40 ,no man ever wielded greater power over the hearts of the people4 ,he was an excellent writer1 and had great command of words4 ,but he was too terribly in earnest to write his discourses4 ,from a vast fullness of knowledge he spoke right out1 and evoked tears or smiles at pleasure4 ,his strong emotions and indomitable will1 being given full play1 bore down everything before him4 ,it may well be doubted whether the eloquence of ,lord ,chatham did not surpass1 in immediate effect1 anything recorded of ,demosthenes or ,cicero4 ,his example1 and that of his equally gifted son1 thoroughly refute those who deny that unwritten speech may convey impressions as strong as any ever made by man upon his fellows4 ,some of his grandest efforts were entirely impromptu1 achieving overwhelming success under circumstances which would have left the man of manuscript or of memory utterly helpless4 ,of ,william ,pitt1 the son of ,lord ,chatham1 who was likewise an extempore speaker in the best sense of the word1 ,macaulay says3 8,at his first appearance in ,parliament he showed himself superior to all his contemporaries in power of language4 ,he could pour out a long succession of rounded and stately periods without ever pausing for a word1 without ever repeating a word1 in a voice of silver clearness and with a pronunciation so articulate that not a letter was slurred over40 ,these two men were never excelled in debate4 ,they had that great advantage peculiar to good extempore speakers of being always ready4 ,every advantage offered was seized at the most favorable moment4 ,time wasted by others in writing and memorizing special orations they used in accumulating such stores of general knowledge and in such wide culture that they were always prepared4 ,they came to great intellectual contests with minds un-fagged by the labor of previous composition1 and their words were indescribably fresh and charming1 because born at the moment of utterance4 ,the traditions of the almost supernatural eloquence of ,patrick ,henry are dear to the heart of every ,american school-boy4 ,while few specimens of his eloquence survive1 it is sure that he exerted wonderful power in speech1 and that he contributed not a little to the establishment of the ,american ,republic4 ,he never wrote a word either before or after delivery1 and his mightiest efforts were made in situations where the use of the pen would have been impossible4 ,the ,virginia ,resolutions1 which mark a vital point in the history of the ,revolutionary struggle1 were written by him on the blank leaf of a law book while a discussion was in progress4 ,in the whole of the terrible debate which followed he was ever ready1 speaking repeatedly and mastering every opponent4 ,he was a great thinker1 but a meager writer4 ,history and human character were his favorite studies1 and these contributed to fit his wonderful natural genius for coming triumph4 ,among the great ,english preachers of the past century two were especially great as measured by the degree of popular influence they wielded4 ,we do not wish to convey ,wesley and ,whitefield in any other light than as effective orators4 ,they each did an amount of speaking that a manuscript reader would have found impossible1 even if the latter had been hindered by no other consideration4 ,at the beginning ,whitefield did memorize most of his sermons4 ,even afterward he treated the same subject so frequently when addressing different audiences that the words1 tones1 and gestures1 as well as the outline of thought1 became quite familiar4 ,yet his own testimony is decisive as to the fact that he was not a memoriter preacher in the narrow sense of the term4 ,he says that when he came to preach he had often1 in his own apprehension1 8not a word to say to ,god or man40 ,think of a person who has a fully memorized speech1 which he is conning over in his mind1 making such a declaration1 and afterward thanking ,god for having given him words and wisdom6 ,whitefield's published sermons show few traces of the pen1 but bear every mark of impassioned utterance4 ,he spoke every day1 until speaking became part of his very life4 ,think what a command of language1 and of all the resources of speech1 he must thus have acquired6 ,wesley wrote many sermons1 and on a very few occasions read them4 ,he used the pen almost as much as the voice1 but he wrote sermons1 books1 and letters for others to read1 not as material for his own public reading4 ,he was less impassioned and overwhelming than ,whitefield but his sermons were not less effective4 ,they were noted for the quality of exactness of statement4 ,in the most easy and fluent manner he said precisely what he wanted to say4 ,he was never compelled to retract an unguarded expression into which he had been hurried by the ardor of the moment4 ,yet his power over his hearers was not diminished by this carefulness4 ,scenes of physical excitement1 such as attended the preaching of ,whitefield1 were even more marked under his own calm words4 ,we will refer to another deceased preacher1 who presents the strange peculiarity of being an extempore speaker whose great fame has been acquired since his eloquent voice became silent in death1 and now rests upon his written sermons4 ,frederick ,w4 ,robertson labored in a comparatively narrow field and finished his career in youth1 but he was truly eloquent4 ,his example proves that extempore speech may be the vehicle of the most profound thought and be crowned with all the graces of style4 ,these qualities have given his sermons greater popularity in high scientific1 literary1 and philosophical circles1 than those of any preacher of the present day4 ,how could such extempore sermons be preserved8 ,a few were taken down by a short-hand reporter1 and although ,robertson refused to allow their publication in his lifetime1 thus leaving them without the benefit of his corrections1 they are almost faultless in form and expression4 ,others were written out by his own hand after delivery1 but these are more or less fragmentary4 ,had it been necessary for him to write and memorize each sermon1 he could never have pursued those thorough studies1 described in his letters1 from which he derived so much of his power4 ,the great trio of ,american political orators belonging to the generation which has just gone from the stage--,clay1 ,webster1 and ,calhoun--were extempore speakers2 ,clay and ,calhoun always1 and ,webster usually1 speaking in that manner4 ,the latter1 however1 was fond of elaborating some striking thought in his mind to the last degree of word-finish1 and then bringing it forth in the rush of spontaneous utterance4 ,this did not make his speech composite in the mode of delivery1 for these prepared gems were short fragments1 employed only for ornamental purposes4 ,competitors of these great men who were obliged to rely upon manuscript or memory stood no chance of success in the fiery debates through which they passed4 ,from hundreds of living extemporizers we will call attention to but three1 and these of the highest eminence4 ,they are all distinguished writers and do not rely on the extempore method of discourse because of inability to succeed in other methods4 ,these men are ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 ,charles ,h4 ,spurgeon1 and ,william ,e4 ,gladstone4 ,the amount and quality of work of all kinds they have accomplished would have been impossible for speech-readers or reciters4 ,beecher sometimes reads a sermon or a lecture1 but though he reads well1 the effect is small as compared with the fire and consummate eloquence of his extempore addresses4 ,spurgeon has drawn together and maintains probably the largest congregation that ever regularly attended the ministry of one man1 and he is purely extemporaneous4 ,both these men are subjected to the additional test of having their sermons written from their lips and widely published1 thus showing that their popularity has other elements besides the personal presence and magnetism of the speakers4 ,the wonderful power of ,gladstone has been displayed unceasingly for half a century4 ,while eager critics1 hostile as well as friendly1 in ,parliament or at the hustings1 are waiting to catch every word from his lips1 he does not find it necessary to control his utterances through the use of the pen4 ,day after day1 in the midst of heated canvasses1 he discusses a wide range of complicated questions1 and neither friend nor foe ever suggests that he could do better if his words were written out and memorized4 ,even in such addresses as include the details of finance and abound in statistics he uses but a few disconnected figures traced on a slip of paper4 ,some years ago1 when his modes of speech were less known than now1 the writer asked him to give a statement of his method of preparation1 and any advice he might feel disposed to convey to young students of oratory4 ,the following courteous and deeply interesting letter was received in reply1 and with its weighty words we may appropriately close this chapter3 ,,hawarden1 ,,north ,,wales1 ,october #abth1 #ahfg4 ,,sir3--,though ,i fear it is beyond my power to comply in any useful manner with your request1 ,i am unwilling to seem insensible to your wishes4 ,i venture to remark1 first1 that your countrymen1 so far as a very limited intercourse and experience can enable me to judge1 stand very little in need of instruction or advice as to public speaking from this side of the water4 ,and further1 again speaking of my own experience1 ,i think that the public men of ,england are beyond all others engrossed by the multitude of cares and subjects of thought belonging to the government of a highly diversified empire1 and therefore are probably less than others qualified either to impart to others the best methods of preparing public discourses or to consider and adopt them for themselves4 ,suppose1 however1 ,i was to make the attempt1 ,i should certainly found myself mainly on a double basis1 compounded as follows3 ,first1 of a wide and thorough general education1 which ,i think gives a suppleness and readiness as well as firmness of tissue to the mind not easily to be had without this form of discipline4 ,second1 of the habit of constant and searching reflection on the subject of any proposed discourse4 ,such reflection will naturally clothe itself in words1 and of the phrases it supplies many will spontaneously rise to the lips4 ,i will not say that no other forms of preparation can be useful1 but ,i know little of them1 and it is on those1 beyond all doubt1 that ,i should advise the young principally to rely4 ,i remain1 sir1 your most obedient servant1 ,w4 ,e4 ,,gladstone4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,an ,,embryo ,,speech1 ,,with ,,models ,,of ,,very ,,simple ,,plans4 ,the first extemporaneous speeches attempted should be of the simplest character4 ,too high an ideal formed at the outset may be very harmful by causing needless discouragement4 ,to speak freely in any manner1 however rude1 until confidence and the power of making every faculty available are acquired1 should be the first great object4 ,many persons are slaves of bad habits through life because they began wrong4 ,nothing harms an orator more than cultivating his critical taste far beyond his power of ready utterance4 ,there is no necessary relation between the development of the two things4 ,to become a fine word-critic and master of an excellent written style does not imply the power to strike off finely finished sentences at the speed of the tongue2 but it does tend to render the speaker dissatisfied with anything below the level of his written performances1 and thus checks his fluency4 ,to master the difficult art of written composition first1 and strive afterward to gain a similar proficiency in spoken words1 is a complete reversal of the natural method1 and in all but a few gifted minds puts a premium on failure4 ,an unlettered rustic may speak with perfect ease1 because he is not conscious of the numberless verbal blunders he falls into2 but if it were possible1 by some process of spiritual infusion1 to put him in possession of a fine1 critical taste1 he would be instantly smitten dumb4 ,the true method is to cultivate the faculty of extemporization side by side with critical judgment4 ,in case that is done1 ease and confidence will not be for a moment disturbed4 ,it thus appears that while an extempore speaker can never know too much1 it is quite possible for his knowledge and cultivation to advance in the wrong order4 ,the pen will be of perpetual use to the speaker2 but his command of it must not increase so rapidly in proportion as to make him ashamed of his tongue4 ,from this reasoning it follows that the best time to lay the foundation of excellence in speech is very early in life4 ,speeches made then are necessarily flimsy and rudimentary1 but they are not the less valuable on that account4 ,they are to be estimated not for their own worth1 but for their results upon the mind producing them4 ,the school-boy's first 8composition0 has always been a mark for cheap witticism2 but the boy himself regards it with justifiable pride1 as the first step in the noble work of putting thought on paper4 ,the same pains and patience applied to the art of public talking as to written composition will produce equal fruit4 ,a few directions intended to aid in overcoming some of the initial difficulties of speech1 which may serve as suggestions to teachers as well as helps to solitary students1 are here appended4 ,they are purposely made of almost ludicrous crudeness1 but will not1 it is trusted1 be less serviceable on that account2 for it is not so important to aid the mature speaker in giving the last fine strokes of genius to a masterly oration1 as it is to stimulate and guide beginners in their first stammering utterances4 ,the simplest oration or formal address that can be constructed has three distinct parts4 ,with these we will begin the great work of division and arrangement4 ,they may be named as follows3 #a4 ,,the ,,introduction4 #b4 ,,the ,,discussion4 #c4 ,,the ,,conclusion4 ,on this framework a speech-plan can be constructed simple enough for any child4 ,and it is at the same time true that even a child1 with such a plan1 might speak appropriately who would otherwise not be able to begin at all4 ,we will consider these three parts in their order4 ,the introduction is at once important and embarrassing4 ,first words are nearly always heard attentively1 and they do much to determine the degree of attention that will be bestowed on the remainder of the speech4 ,the young speaker should select something as an introduction upon which his mind can fasten1 instead of dwelling upon the frightful generality of the naked theme4 ,neither is it hard to construct a good introduction if a few plain directions are heeded1 which will be more fully given in a succeeding chapter4 ,all persons feel the need of some kind of a formal opening1 and therefore often begin with an apology--the very worst form of an introduction1 because it is not interesting in itself and does not lead up to the subject4 ,in rudimentary speech1 which we are now considering1 the introduction should be simple1 and1 above everything else1 easy for the speaker to comprehend and remember4 ,if there is anything in the whole world which he is sure he can talk about for a few moments1 and which can be made to have a moderate degree of connection with his subject1 let that be chosen for an opening4 ,if it is also vivid and striking in itself1 and familiar to the audience1 so much the better2 but this quality should not be insisted upon in these first attempts4 ,when the introductory topic is selected it should be turned over in the mind until the speaker knows just what he is going to say about it4 ,this process will have a wonderfully quieting effect upon his nerves4 ,he has fairly mastered something1 and knows that at all events he can begin his speech4 ,it is well to make a note of this introduction in a few simple words which will strongly fasten themselves in the memory4 ,no effort toward elaboration should be made1 for that would naturally lead to a memorized introduction1 and either require the whole speech to be written1 or produce a painful and difficult transition4 ,the discussion deals directly with the subject or central idea of the discourse4 ,here a clear statement of at least one thought which the speaker can fully grasp should be made4 ,the pen 7or pencil7 may be used in preparation without impropriety4 ,if but one idea is thought of1 let that be written in the fewest and strongest words at the student's command4 ,while doing this it is likely that another and related thought will spring into mind which can be treated in the same manner4 ,with diligent students there may even be a danger of getting down too many seed-thoughts4 ,but that contingency is provided for in the chapters on the fully developed plan1 and needs no further notice at this time4 ,when this central division is completely wrought out1 two other points claim attention4 ,how shall the transition be made from the introduction to the discussion8 ,a little reflection will show how to glide from one to the other1 and that process should be conned over1 without writing1 until it is well understood4 ,it is wonderful how many outlines of ideas the memory will retain without feeling burdened2 and this power of retention grows enormously through exercise4 ,after this1 the mode of gliding from the discussion to the conclusion may be treated in the same manner1 and with equal profit4 ,the conclusion itself is scarcely less material than the introduction2 but there is much less range of choice in the manner of closing than in that of beginning4 ,the subject is before the audience1 and any wide departure from it seems like the beginning of a new speech--something not usually well received4 ,there is this distinction between the relative value of introduction and conclusion3 a good introduction adds most to a speaker's ease1 confidence1 and power during the moment of speech2 but a good conclusion leaves the deepest permanent impression upon the audience4 ,it is usually remembered longer than any other part of the address4 ,when a discourse has been prepared in this simple manner it has virtually five parts--three written and two held in memory4 ,from such an outline it is far more easy to make an address than from the bare announcement of a theme4 ,it is true that all these parts may be formed and held in mind without ever making a pen-stroke4 ,a practiced orator will do this1 in a moment1 when unexpectedly called upon2 or he may only forecast the introduction and trust to finding the plan as fast as it is needed4 ,but in this he is no model for imitation by beginners4 ,even powerful orators sometimes spoil the whole effect of a good address by an unfortunate mode of closing4 ,they may forget to close in time--a grievous fault6--or may finish with some weak thought or extravagant proposition1 by which the whole speech is mainly judged and all its good points neutralized4 ,the construction of even as simple a plan as here indicated would have more than double the effect of many speeches made by great men4 ,a few simple and rude plans are annexed4 ,no merit is sought for in any one of them beyond making plain the method recommended4 ,,plans ,,of ,,speeches4 ,,example ,,first4 ,,subject4--,,chinese ,,emigration ,,to ,,america4 ,,introduction4--,the number of emigrants to our country and the nations they represent4 ,a totally different and more effective introduction might be the description of a group of ,chinese as seen by the speaker4 ,,discussion4--,the nature1 amount1 and present effect of ,chinese emigration4 ,it is possible for the speaker in his introduction to foreshadow the position he expects to maintain in his speech2 or he may make a colorless introduction and reserve his opinion for the discussion4 ,the material under this head is unlimited4 ,it is only necessary from the oratorical standpoint that the speaker should determine what course to take1 and then carefully think out in advance or read--for history and statistics cannot be improvised--all about that which he intends to use4 ,when he can tell it all over easily to himself he may reasonably feel assured of his ability to tell it to others4 ,the various arguments should be weighed and the best selected4 ,that which most naturally connects with the introduction should be firmly fixed in the mind as the first1 that it may form the bridge from the one part to the other4 ,,conclusion4--,results of policy advocated1 either predicted1 described1 or shown to be probable4 ,mode of remedying evils that might be apprehended from that policy4 ,in the conclusion the speaker may take upon himself the character of a prophet1 poet1 or logician4 ,he may predict results and let the statement make its own impression4 ,he may put all emphasis upon a vivid painting of the future colored by the views he advocates2 or he may sum up his reasons1 deduce consequences1 and weigh alternatives4 ,the choice between these different modes may be made instinctively1 or it may require considerable mental effort1 but when made1 the best mode of transition will be very easily found4 ,in all this process1 which in the case of undisciplined speakers may extend over many days of hard work1 the pen may be used freely1 making copious notes of facts and arguments4 ,after enough has been accumulated and put in such shape that the speaker can easily look over the entire field1 he is ready for another process--that of simplifying his plan4 ,rough and copious notes brought with him to the platform would only be a source of embarrassment4 ,but the germ of his ideas1 which are now familiar1 can be put into very small compass4 ,perhaps the following would recall everything in the preceding outline3 ,,the ,,chinese ,,question4 #a4 ,,experience4 #b4 ,,arguments4 #c4 ,,results4 ,but it is clear that a skeleton containing only three words need not be kept in view4 ,the whole outline of the speech will therefore be in the mind4 ,if numerous figures or citations from authorities are employed1 they may be classified and read from books or notes1 as needed4 ,such reading in no way detracts from the extemporaneous character of the address1 though if too numerous they tend to damp oratorical fire and break the unity of discourse4 ,one who has had no personal experience1 or who has not carefully observed the methods of other speakers1 can scarcely imagine how much a simple outline1 such as here suggested1 accomplishes in removing the confusion1 fear1 and hesitation which characterize beginners4 ,another specimen1 not of controversial character1 is subjoined4 ,,example ,,second4 ,,subject4--,,the ,,ocean4 ,,introduction4--,the vastness of the ocean4 ,no one person has seen more than a small part of it4 ,power evidenced by storm and shipwrecks4 ,,discussion4--,five great divisions of the ocean4 ,use in nature1 watering and tempering the land2 in commerce1 as a highway2 in history1 by dividing and uniting nations2 its mystery1 etc4 ,,conclusion4--,proof of the ,creator's power and wisdom found in the ocean4 ,the ,same ,plan ,condensed4 ,,subject4--,,the ,,ocean4 #a4 ,,vastness ,,and ,,power4 #b4 ,,parts1 ,,use1 ,,and ,,mystery4 #c4 ,,evidence4 ,,dean ,,swift',s ,,sermon4 ,this eccentric clergyman once preached a sermon shorter than its own text1 yet having all the three parts of which we have spoken4 ,the text was ,prov4 xix1 #bj3 8,he that pitieth the poor lendeth to the ,lord2 and that which he hath given will ,he pay him again40 ,the sermon was3 8,brethren1 you hear the condition2 if you like the security1 down with the dust40 ,the collection is said to have been munificent4 ,in this short sermon the text with the word 8,brethren0 constitutes the introduction2 the phrase1 8you hear the condition10 is a good transition to the discussion contained in the next member1 8if you like the security10 which assumes the truth of the text1 makes its general declarations present and personal1 and prepares the way for the forcible and practical1 if not very elegant1 conclusion1 8down with the dust40 ,among the many speeches found in ,shakespeare1 the existence of these three essential parts may easily be noted4 ,the funeral speeches over the dead body of ,julius ,csar afford an excellent example4 ,the merit of the orations of ,brutus and ,antony are very unequal1 but both are instructive4 ,we will analyze them in turn4 ,brutus speaks first4 ,he shows his want of appreciation of the true nature of persuasive eloquence by declaring that this will be an advantage4 ,his introduction is also too long and elaborate for the work he has in hand4 ,the central thought with which he opens is in substance1 8,i am worthy of your closest attention40 ,this cannot be considered a fortunate beginning1 and it would have been fatal for any one less highly esteemed by the people than 8the well-beloved ,brutus40 ,he says3 ,,brutus' ,,speech4 8,romans1 countrymen1 and lovers6 hear me for my cause1 and be silent that you may hear2 believe me for mine honor1 and have respect to mine honor that you may believe2 censure me in your wisdom and awake your senses that you may the better judge40 ,this introduction is a master-piece of ,shakespeare's art1 because it pictures so well the character of ,brutus in his dignity and blind self-confidence2 but for ,brutus it is unfortunate1 because it puts him on the defensive and makes the people his judges4 ,he must now plead well1 or they will condemn him4 ,in the discussion the thought simply is1 8,i was ,csar's friend1 and therefore you may well believe that ,i would not have killed him if he had not deserved death because of his ambition40 ,this is the whole argument1 and it is weak because it does not prove the ambition of ,csar1 or show that ambition on ,csar's part was a crime which ,brutus had a right to punish with death4 ,the antithetic sentences lack both logic and passion4 ,as they touch neither head nor heart1 they can have but slight and momentary effect4 ,notice the discussion as an example of fine words which do not serve their purpose4 8,if there be any in this assembly1 any dear friend of ,csar's1 to him ,i say that ,brutus' love to ,csar was no less than his4 ,if1 then1 that friend demand why ,brutus rose against ,csar1 this is my answer3 ,not that ,i loved ,csar less1 but that ,i loved ,rome more4 ,had you rather ,csar were living1 and die all slaves1 than that ,csar were dead1 to live all freemen8 ,as ,csar loved me1 ,i weep for him2 as he was fortunate1 ,i rejoice at it2 as he was valiant1 ,i honor him2 but as he was ambitious1 ,i slew him4 ,there are tears for his love1 joy for his fortune1 honor for his valor1 and death for his ambition4 ,who is here so base that would be a bondman8 ,if any1 speak2 for him have ,i offended4 ,who is here so rude1 that would not be a ,roman8 ,if any1 speak2 for him have ,i offended4 ,who is here so vile that will not love his country8 ,if any1 speak2 for him have ,i offended4 ,i pause for a reply40 ,as several citizens cry out1 8,none1 ,brutus1 none10 he passes to the conclusion1 which is as weak as the discussion4 8,then none have ,i offended4 ,i have done no more to ,csar1 than you shall do to ,brutus4 ,as ,i slew my best lover for the good of ,rome1 ,i have the same dagger for myself1 when it shall please my country to need my death40 ,he has gained nothing by the whole speech1 save the knowledge that none of the citizens present care at that time to impeach him for his crime2 but their minds were open to other influences4 ,shakespeare thus shows how an able man might use all his powers in the perfection of oratorical and rhetorical forms1 without producing a great or effective speech4 ,antony now comes forward4 ,behold the contrast6 ,,antony',s ,,speech4 ,the introduction is like and unlike that of ,brutus4 ,the same three titles are used2 the same call for attention4 ,but there is no repetition1 no egotism1 no elaboration4 ,the introduction is short1 calling attention to his ostensible purpose1 and prepares for a beautiful transition to the discussion4 ,,introduction4 8,friends1 ,romans1 countrymen1 lend me your ears4 ,i come to bury ,csar1 not to praise him40 ,there is not a superfluous word4 ,but how can ,antony glide into those praises of ,csar1 which he has disclaimed1 but which are necessary to his purpose8 ,the next sentence solves the question3 8,the evil that men do lives after them2 ,the good is oft interred with their bones2 ,so let it be with ,csar40 ,this leads most naturally to the thought of the discussion1 which is1 ,no event of ,csar's life shows guilty ambition2 but many do reveal love to the people and care for the general welfare4 ,he should1 therefore1 be mourned1 and--the next word is not supplied by the orator1 but forced from the hearts of the people--avenged6 ,we quote a few only of the well-known words3 ,,the ,,discussion4 8,the noble ,brutus ,hath told you ,csar was ambitious2 ,if it were so1 it were a grievous fault1 ,and grievously hath ,csar answered it4 ,here1 under leave of ,brutus and the rest1 7,for ,brutus is an honorable man1 ,so are they all1 all honorable men17 ,come ,i to speak in ,csar's funeral4 ,he was my friend1 faithful and just to me2 ,but ,brutus says he was ambitious1 ,and ,brutus is an honorable man4 ,he hath brought many captives home to ,rome1 ,whose ransom did the general coffers fill4 ,did this in ,csar seem ambitious8 ,when that the poor hath cried ,csar hath wept4 ,ambition should be made of sterner stuff4 ,yet ,brutus says he was ambitious1 ,and ,brutus is an honorable man4 ,you all did see1 that1 on the ,lupercal1 ,i thrice presented him a kingly crown1 ,which he did thrice refuse4 ,was this ambition80 ,the strongest argument against belief in guilty ambition on the part of ,csar and in favor of punishing his murderers is reserved by the subtle ,antony for the last1 and then he manages to have the people demand it of him4 ,he proceeds very naturally and effectively from the rent robe and the bleeding body to the will of ,csar4 ,this instrument gave the ,romans each a large donation in money1 and bestowed upon them collectively 8his walks1 his private arbors1 and new-planted orchards0 as a public park4 ,the argument was irresistible1 and needed no elaboration4 ,if his death was avenged as a murder1 the will would be valid2 otherwise1 it would be set aside1 and his estate confiscated by the conspirators4 ,the people1 thus fired by the strongest motives of gratitude and interest themselves supply the conclusion1 and ,brutus had to fly for his life4 ,the whole speech is worth study as an exhibition of almost perfect eloquence4 ,shakespeare meant to draw in ,brutus the picture of a scholar coming before the people with fine words1 and producing little more than a literary effect4 ,in ,antony he pictures the true orator in the plentitude of his power1 to whom words are but servants in accomplishing his purpose of persuading and inflaming the people4 ,the one speech reads as if it might have been written out in the closet and memorized2 the other gushes from the heart of the speaker as he watches the sea of upturned faces1 adapting his words with exquisite skill to suit and swell the passions written there4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,initial ,,fear ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,overcome ,,it4 ,however numerous and varied may be the classes of those who contemplate extempore speech1 they are all confronted by one common difficulty4 ,whether a boy makes his maiden effort1 or a man of wide thought and ripe culture attempts for the first time to dispense with the manuscript in which he has trusted through years of successful public speech1 the fear of failing looms up before each of them in a manner equally formidable4 ,the writer well remembers his first boyish venture into this arena of peril4 ,a debate in a village shoemaker's shop furnished the occasion4 ,two or three 8speakers0 were ranged on a side1 and the question was that time-honored controversy of country lyceums--the comparative magnitude of the wrongs suffered by the ,indians and the ,negroes at the hands of the ,american ,government4 ,which side the writer was on1 or what arguments were used1 has long since been forgotten1 but the palpitating heart1 the terrible suspense1 as one after another of the preceding speakers made his remarks and brought the terrible moment of facing the audience nearer1 can never cease to be remembered4 ,when at last called out by the voice of the presiding officer1 ,i found my way to the end of a rude bench or counter that ran partly across the room1 leaned upon it1 shut my eyes1 and began to talk4 ,how hoarse and hollow the sound that followed6 ,all that was uttered was instantly forgotten by the speaker1 for one terrible thought dominated every other--a speech was being made6 ,my head whirled1 every nerve tingled1 and a confused1 roaring sound filled my ears1 while ,i most heartily repented of allowing myself to be persuaded into such a frightful position4 ,a great dread stared at me from the end of each sentence--that of finding nothing more to say and being obliged to sit down amid the ridicule of neighbors and school-fellows4 ,when at length the agony was over1 and opening my eyes1 ,i dropped into a seat1 a striking revulsion of feeling occurred4 ,this rose to the height of joy and triumph when ,i learned that 8the speech0 had actually been ten minutes long4 ,it was a grand achievement6 ,in all sober earnest1 ,i estimate that this first effort was probably the most profitable of my life1 because it was a beginning in the right direction4 ,weeks of preparation preceded the momentous effort1 and in some kind of a way the result had been poured upon the audience4 ,from that time the writer was numbered among the village debaters and shared in the advantages of the village ,lyceum--a capital means of improvement4 ,had the first extemporaneous effort been made later in life1 the shrinking and terror would probably have been even greater4 ,while no way has been discovered of altogether preventing the initial fear that attends extemporaneous speech by the unpracticed orator1 yet it may be greatly lessened and more rapid and perfect control of it obtained by heeding a few simple suggestions4 ,some serviceable expedients have already been pointed out1 and will here only be referred to4 ,as simple a plan as that described in the last chapter1 with lengthened meditation on each part1 will give the mind of the speaker something to do aside from dwelling upon his own danger4 ,he should also prepare far more matter than can possibly be used--so much that in the simplest and baldest statement it will fill a respectable period of time4 ,he need not be careful as to how he speaks1 or in how many forms he repeats the same idea4 ,originality1 also1 may safely be neglected4 ,the object is not to talk especially well1 or to utter that which has never been uttered before1 but only to keep on talking until self-possession and the mastery of every faculty have been fully restored4 ,this preparation of great quantities of material with no care as to the graces of delivery may expose the speaker in time to another peril--that of being tedious and wearisome2 but this is not the source of the initial fear with which we are now dealing1 and when it becomes a real evil there are effectual means of guarding against it4 ,a further direction is that the mode of introduction be very firmly fixed in the mind4 ,this wonderfully calms the speaker4 ,he knows that he can begin even if he never gets any further2 and by the time the introduction is passed1 if the man possesses any natural aptitude for speech1 his mind will in all ordinary cases have recovered its equilibrium1 and be ready to devise and direct everything that follows4 ,the plan and the full notes which have been made should also be kept within easy reach1 or even in the hand--not with the intention of using them1 for that is the very thing to be avoided1 but that the speaker1 by knowing that they can be referred to in an emergency1 may be guarded against 8stage fright40 ,he may also exercise self-control by not looking at them unless absolutely driven to it4 ,the object of first efforts--even for the orator who is great in other modes of delivery--is not to make a great or admired speech1 but only to get through the ordeal without disgrace or failure4 ,quality must be sought later4 ,to get any reasonable quantity of speech at first1 to satisfy yourself that you can both think and talk when on your feet1 is achievement enough4 ,one caution may be offered to the man possessing a good written style which the boy will not need4 ,do not make your preparation so minutely or verbally that the very words linger in your memory4 ,if you do1 one of two things will probably happen3 either you will recite a memorized speech1 which1 however fine in itself1 will contribute nothing to the object of learning to speak extemporaneously1 or the fine fragments of remembered diction that flood in your mind will be so out of harmony with the words spontaneously evolved as to produce a continual series of jars and discords noticeable to every one1 and to none more painfully than to yourself4 ,the writer once listened to a speech of this mixed character1 in which the orator would soar for a time on the wings of most excellent words1 and then drop down to his ordinary and very meagre vocabulary4 ,so frequent and unexpected were these transitions that the orator's progress suggested nothing so much as traveling over one of those western corduroy roads1 where the wheels of the carriage first rise with a great effort on top of a log1 and then plunge into fathomless depths of mud6 ,rather than such jolting1 it is better that the experimental speeches should never rise above the level of mere talk1 and thus maintain a uniform progress4 ,in due time all qualified persons can lift their extemporaneous words as high as the utmost reach of the pen4 ,but first must be gained the power of standing unprotected by a paper wall1 face to face with an audience and employing every faculty as calmly and efficiently as in the study4 ,practice in talking to the people will make this possible and easy1 but nothing else will4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,utility ,,of ,,debating ,,societies4 ,comparatively little attention is paid to the direct cultivation of extemporaneous oratory in schools and colleges4 ,indirectly1 much help is given by teaching many things which go to furnish the orator with ideas and words1 but the combination of these into that noble effort of human genius--a speech--is left to individual research or to accident4 ,a few schools of oratory have been founded which give a large and probably disproportionate share of attention to elocution in the form of stage or dramatic reading2 but even the best of these are as yet but entering upon their real work of cultivating thoroughly the power of persuasive public speech4 ,when each college shall have a chair of extempore speech1 and each academy shall give as much attention to unpremeditated utterances in conversation and public address as is now bestowed upon ,greek or ,latin1 the oratory of pulpit1 bar1 platform1 and legislature will be of a vastly higher type4 ,some newspaper critics have deprecated teaching the art of speech on the ground that there is already too much public talking4 ,this view1 if seriously entertained1 is very narrow and misleading4 ,not more1 but better speech--an increase of quality1 rather than quantity--would result from cultivation1 and improved methods4 ,and it may also be argued that if a great part of the work of life is found in convincing1 instructing1 and persuading our fellows1 an abundance of speech is absolutely required4 ,as freedom and mental activity increase1 the only practicable modes of leading and governing men1 which rest upon persuasive speech1 will be more urgently demanded4 ,in a state where the will of one man is law1 political speech has little place2 and in a ,church where independent thought is heresy and the mass of the people accept unquestioningly the precise form of faith in which they were born1 preaching will have a very narrow field4 ,but in our own country it is our boast that we determine every subject by free discussion2 and it is clear that a man who can take no part in the oral battles that are continually waged about him is placed at a great disadvantage4 ,but the literary societies generally connected with schools do afford very valuable help in acquiring the art of oratory4 ,not only their formal exercises1 but their discussion of points of order and procedure1 and the management of the business and government of such societies1 call out talking talent4 ,debating societies or lyceums give the same kind of facilities to speakers outside of educational halls4 ,a spirited debate on some topic not above the comprehension of the debaters affords one of the best possible means of acquiring the prime faculties of assurance and fluency4 ,in such debates the question is chosen1 the sides assigned1 and ample time given for that kind of preparation which can only be effectually made in the general study of the subject4 ,there is no great temptation to write a speech for a coming debate1 as its formal sentences would fit poorly into the line of argument1 the course of which cannot be foreseen1 even if their substance should not be anticipated by a speaker on the same side4 ,but the more general knowledge of the subject in its entire range that can be acquired the better1 so long as it does not overwhelm the speaker4 ,the opening speech may indeed be planned in advance with some definiteness1 but all others will be colored and modified by the situation into which the debate has been drawn4 ,each participant is under a strong stimulus to do his best1 sure1 if successful1 of warm approval by his colleagues and sweet triumph over his opponents4 ,after the opening speech each contestant will have the time his predecessor is speaking for arranging arguments and preparing an answer4 ,the stimulus of contradiction rouses every faculty to the highest energy4 ,each argument is scrutinized for the purpose of discovering its weak point1 and nothing will pass on trust4 ,it may as well be acknowledged that the gladiatorial spirit1 though in a modified form1 is still rife in the civilized world4 ,the 8joy of conflict0 may be tasted as well in the sharp encounters of an earnest debate upon some topic of absorbing interest as on the battle-field4 ,a society which furnishes its members continual opportunity for speech1 under such conditions cannot fail to be a powerful educator in the direction of extemporaneous speech4 ,in such encounters1 the freedom that belongs to this kind of address is most highly appreciated1 and the mistaken considerations of dignity and propriety which so often take all life and heart from speech can have little weight4 ,debates have indeed been occasionally carried on by means of essays in place of speeches1 but such encounters have been tame and listless affairs1 and have soon given place to the real article4 ,among the ,american statesmen who have taken their first lessons in the art which paved their way to greatness in country debating societies may be reckoned ,henry ,clay1 ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,james ,a4 ,garfield1 and many others only less eminent4 ,enough inducements1 we trust1 have been set forth to lead every student of speech to find or make an opportunity for availing himself of this capital means of cultivation4 ,let him enter upon the work of debating1 earnestly resolving 7after the first few efforts7 to do the very best in his power4 ,let him arrange his material carefully1 select a striking mode of opening each address1 and strive to close in such a manner as to leave the best effect on the minds of his hearers4 ,as he debates for improvement rather than for immediate victory1 he will1 of course1 despise all tricks and seek to win fairly1 or--what is just as important a lesson--he will learn to accept defeat gracefully4 ,the skeletons of two speeches on opposite sides of the same question are here presented for the purpose of showing how a simple plan will hold to the proper place all the thoughts and arguments that may be accumulated4 ,the same form of outline is used as in the preceding chapter4 ,,question4 ,would the annexation of ,cuba to the ,united ,states be beneficial8 ,,affirmative ,,argument4 ,,introduction4--,how small and hemmed in by powerful countries the ,united ,states would have been if no annexations had ever been made4 ,to annex ,cuba would be no new policy4 ,,discussion4 ,argument ,first4--,favorable location of ,cuba and commercial value to the ,united ,states4 ,argument ,second4--,the great riches and beauty of the ,island1 which make it very desirable4 ,argument ,third4--,advantages to the people of ,cuba themselves1 in belonging to a great and free nation4 ,,conclusion4--,all previous annexations had to encounter strong opposition when first proposed1 but are now acknowledged to have been good policy4 ,so1 if ,cuba is brought under our flag1 opposition will die out and all parties be glad of the result4 ,,negative ,,argument4 ,,introduction4--,plausible but inconclusive nature of the argument advanced on the other side4 ,previous annexations may not have been good1 though opposition ceased when it could avail nothing4 ,even if all former annexations were beneficial this might not be1 as all attending circumstances are so widely different4 ,,discussion4 ,argument ,first4--,the nation has already as much territory as can be well governed4 ,an increase would lead to grave dangers4 ,argument ,second4--,the people of ,cuba are different in language1 race1 and religion from the majority of the people of the ,united ,states2 have different customs1 and are unacquainted with the working of our institutions4 ,they could not therefore be transformed easily into good citizens4 ,,conclusion4--,dreadful wars and calamities have arisen in all ages and all parts of the world from greediness in absorbing territory--8earth hunger10 as the ,germans call it4 ,to annex ,cuba would involve present and future danger4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,speaker4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,unfortunates ,,who ,,never ,,can ,,extemporize4 ,persons are met every day who declare their belief in extempore speech--for others--but who are fully persuaded that the possibility of ever becoming effective speakers has been placed by nature forever beyond their own reach4 ,in some cases this persuasion is well founded4 ,there are people who cannot by any possible effort learn to speak well without manuscript or memorized words4 ,but too much must not be made of this acknowledgment4 ,the number of these unfortunates is smaller than is usually believed4 ,it is also noticeable that persons of undoubted talent are often most ready to despair of their own future as speakers1 while others1 whose defects are patent to all their neighbors1 have no fears whatever4 ,the object of this chapter is to point out the character of the few insuperable disqualifications for extempore speech1 and supply rational tests by which their presence in any given case may be determined4 ,this is a task of no small difficulty and delicacy2 yet it is necessary4 ,to encourage any person to strive for that which is forever placed out of his reach is cruel--almost criminal4 ,it is equally wrong to discourage those who only need persevering effort in order to achieve full success4 ,with regard to the faculty of eloquence1 mankind may be divided into three classes4 ,persons in the first class have the oratorical temperament so fully developed that they will speak well and fully succeed in whatever mode they may adopt1 or1 indeed1 without consciously adopting any method at all4 ,they have such a union of the power of expression and of the impulse toward it1 that they speak as naturally and as surely as the nightingale sings4 ,the existence of extraordinary native genius must be acknowledged as a fact in every department of human effort4 ,but it by no means follows that these wonderfully gifted beings will rise to the highest eminence in their own spheres4 ,they certainly will not unless they add diligent effort and careful cultivation to their natural powers4 ,some of the greatest orators have not belonged to this class1 but to that next described4 ,they would never have been heard of--would probably never have addressed an audience at all--if they had not forced their way upward against adverse criticism1 and often against their own feeling and judgment1 impelled only by a sense of duty or by enthusiastic loyalty to some great cause4 ,the second class is far larger than either of the others4 ,the majority of people have not so great talents for speech as to drive them of necessity into the oratorical field4 ,neither are they absolutely incapable of true speech4 ,if they will labor for success in oratory1 as a photographer or a sculptor labors to master his art1 they will gain it2 otherwise1 they will always be slow and embarrassed in utterance and be glad to find refuge in manuscript or in complete silence4 ,it is often amusing to note a person of this class who has never learned how to be eloquent1 but who is full of ideas that seek expression1 using another person who is a mere talking machine as a mouthpiece6 ,there is nothing wrong in such a division of labor1 but the latter secures all the glory1 although he runs considerable risk1 as his stock of borrowed information cannot be replenished at will4 ,the writer knew two young men1 members of a certain literary society1 who sustained this relation to each other4 ,they usually sat together1 and while a debate was in progress the wiser of the two would whisper the other what line of argument to follow and what illustrations to employ1 and at the proper time the latter would spring to his feet with the utmost confidence1 and blaze forth in borrowed eloquence4 ,in time1 however1 the silent man tired of his part and took the pains to learn the art of speech for himself4 ,a great profusion of language is not the first need of an orator4 ,quite as often as otherwise it proves a hindrance and a snare4 ,the members of this large class have every encouragement to work diligently1 and are sure of ultimate reward4 ,but the remaining class can no more learn to speak well1 than a blind man can learn to paint1 or a dumb man to sing4 ,how shall such persons be made acquainted with their condition1 and thus save themselves years of painful and fruitless toil8 ,mathematical accuracy of determination is not practicable1 but any person of candor and ordinary judgment may apply a few simple tests which will not allow wide room for error4 ,a dumb man cannot be an orator4 ,the physical impediment is here absolute and recognized by all4 ,but mere slowness and defects of speech1 though hurtful1 are not necessarily fatal4 ,stammering may in almost every case be cured1 and many stammerers have made good speakers4 ,a weak voice is also a misfortune2 but it may be greatly strengthened1 and by cultivation and judicious husbanding become equal to every purpose4 ,a feeble voice will accomplish much more in extemporizing than in reading a manuscript4 ,some most eloquent men have reached their stations in spite of vocal defects4 ,john ,randolph1 ,robert ,hall1 and ,bishop ,simpson are cases in point4 ,after all the examples that have been afforded of the power of cultivating the voice1 supplemented by the effects of using it in a natural manner1 no man who can carry on an ordinary parlor conversation need say1 8,my voice is so weak that ,i can never be a public speaker40 ,he may require training in the ways pointed out hereafter2 but with proper effort he can reasonably expect a good degree of success4 ,the writer here speaks from experience4 ,his voice was so feeble that reading a single paragraph aloud at school was difficult2 and when afterward the study of law was contemplated1 many friends dissuaded on the ground that lack of voice forbade all hope of success at the bar4 ,but special drill and the healthful practice of extemporaneous speech have wrought such an improvement that now no great effort is required to make several thousand persons in the open air hear every word of a long address4 ,some persons are ready to assign their own timidity as an excuse for never attempting public speech4 ,in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred this is no real disqualification4 ,if the timidity1 indeed1 be so great that the person will not risk speech1 that decides the question against him1 but in such a case he should say1 8,i will not10 rather than 8,i cannot40 ,fear is more under the government of the will than we are apt to imagine4 ,even when excessive1 the right kind of drill will go far toward overcoming it4 ,great cowards often make good soldiers when so well disciplined that they know just what to do1 and from the force of habit cannot neglect it1 although their attention may be wholly absorbed in something else4 ,but it is idle to disguise that the extempore speaker will always run some risk of failure4 ,probably no great orator ever escaped a mortifying1 if not disastrous1 overthrow at some period of his career4 ,sheridan and ,lord ,beaconsfield each began their great achievements in the ,english ,house of ,commons by a complete breakdown4 ,but they also had the courage to try again and to keep trying until success came4 ,mere natural shrinking from such trials is no disqualification1 if when the mind is fully made up as to the best course there is sufficient courage and will-power to go forward4 ,indeed1 a certain degree of fear belongs to the oratorical temperament4 ,a man who can at the first trial calmly face an expectant audience1 probably lacks some of the sensitiveness which is one of the qualifications of the powerful and effective speaker4 ,the only real disqualification1 therefore1 in the direction of timidity1 is such a degree of fear as will make the speaker turn away from all the prizes of oratory1 unwilling to encounter the hardship and the struggle by which they may be won4 ,but is the position of the reader or declaimer better in this particular than that of the true speaker8 ,how difficult it is to read well before an audience6 ,even elocutionists who devote years of practice to a narrow range of selections find their efforts very unequal4 ,they can never be sure of reaching the full measure of former successes4 ,to read one's own composition1 and to feel responsible for the words and the matter1 as well as for the delivery1 greatly intensifies the fear of falling below reasonable expectations4 ,the writer has observed many manuscript readers1 and can testify that they are usually as much embarrassed when the hour of trial arrives as off-hand speakers4 ,in the latter mode of delivery the voice is so much more free and varied1 and the mind is apt to be removed so much more from self1 that the balance of advantages in the matter of embarrassment seems to be decidedly in favor of extemporizing4 ,the perils of the reciter are still more formidable4 ,the reader seldom grows so much embarrassed as to be unable to see the words before him4 ,if he loses his place he can begin somewhere else1 and stumble on in some kind of way4 ,but verbal memory1 when weighted with the burden of a whole discourse and clouded by embarrassment1 easily give way altogether4 ,a slight physical ailment may produce the same result4 ,when memory thus fails1 scarcely any escape is possible to one accustomed to depend upon it4 ,many speakers will recollect occasions on which they were unable to recall short memorized passages1 but could easily supply extemporized words and thus follow the line of discourse previously marked out without any mortifying confession of failure4 ,it will therefore be a gain to one who aspires to public speech of any kind to settle it finally that no other mode of utterance can diminish those risks which so terrify the extempore speaker4 ,a third disqualification is the want of ordinary mental power4 ,great mental endowments may not be necessary4 ,in the ordinary meaning of the word1 the orator need not be a genius4 ,his education may be very defective1 his range of information narrow1 and his general powers of mind not above the average4 ,but if he is to stand before his fellows as a guide and instructor--a position assumed to some degree by every speaker--he should not be inferior in a marked degree to his hearers1 at least in those things which relate to the subjects he discusses4 ,a mediocre man who has had special training in some one direction1 and adds native vigor of mind1 may be a very instructive and entertaining speaker in his own field4 ,but if through mental weakness he talks so foolishly on any topic that his want of wisdom is apparent to all his hearers1 he might better close his lips2 and if his mental faculties are so defective or badly balanced that he cannot master the ordinary subjects upon which he will be required to speak if he speaks at all1 he should abandon all thought of oratory4 ,this disqualification is the most difficult for a man to determine in himself4 ,a weak voice1 overmastering fear1 infirm health1 can all be recognized with an approach to certainty2 but who can be bold enough to settle the question whether his mind is sufficiently strong to profitably address his fellows8 ,a few general suggestions presented in the form of questions are all that will be useful in making this decision4 ,do you find it possible to study a subject until all sides of it are clearly visible in their mutual relations8 ,do the subjects with which you are most familiarly acquainted still seem shadowy and confused in your own mind8 ,when you try to tell a friend about any passing event1 do you use words so bunglingly as to give him no clear conception of the matter8 ,a speaker must be able to hold a subject firmly in his mind1 and to make such a presentation of it to others that they also may understand it4 ,yet in answering these questions let it be remembered that many persons1 exceedingly self-distrustful1 have put forth their efforts all the more diligently on that account1 and have thus achieved brilliant success4 ,the rule is a safe one1 that a man whose mind furnishes him with important ideas1 and with the desire to communicate them1 may speak successfully4 ,mental powers may be greatly improved and strengthened1 and no one who does not stand far down the scale in natural endowment1 or is willing to use the means at his disposal diligently1 need hesitate to make an attempt which can scarcely fail to be full of profit1 even when it does not command perfect success4 ,we will not now enter upon a consideration of the modes by which the general strength of the mind may be augmented and its stores increased1 for oratory busies itself with the method of communication rather than with the illimitable field of general cultivation4 ,any mortal disease1 or such physical infirmity as prevents the exercise of bodily and mental powers1 will be found to interfere as materially with oratory as with other forms of labor4 ,for a man who is far advanced in consumption to begin a course of preparatory training with a view to becoming an orator1 would be an evident waste of effort4 ,if he has anything to say which the world ought to know1 he should speak it out at once in the best form that his present ability allows1 or commit the task to others4 ,this seems so self-evident that it should be understood without statement2 but the opposite idea has attained some degree of currency4 ,it is sometimes said of an individual1 8,poor fellow1 his health is so broken that he can never make a living by any hard work2 it would be well for him to turn his attention to some easy profession1 where he would have nothing to do but speak40 ,there is one form of truth concealed in this hurtful error4 ,natural speech does furnish healthful exercise for the vocal organs1 which in their turn are closely connected with the most vital parts of the human body4 ,in some cases serious disease has been cured by the habit of public speech4 ,but these cases are exceptional1 and do not in the least invalidate the principle here laid down1 which is1 that disease1 so far as it enfeebles the body1 operates as a direct disqualification for effective speech2 and if the disease be severe and permanent the disqualification is total4 ,it must also be remembered that some forms of disease are rendered worse by the effort and excitement inseparable from public address4 ,physicians usually forbid the healthful exercise of surf-bathing to persons afflicted with heart disease4 ,but the intellectual waves of a heated discussion buffet no less fiercely than the ocean surf1 and to be met successfully requires a steady arm and a strong heart4 ,even in the calmest and most passionless discourse it is scarcely possible to avoid having the pulse quickened1 and all the elements of mental and physical endurance severely tested4 ,the star of a most eloquent man suddenly faded a few years ago while he was still in middle life1 because he became too feeble to put forth oratorical force4 ,he continued to speak for a few years1 but scores only listened to him where hundreds and thousands had hung spell-bound on his utterances before his physical strength declined4 ,but it is cheering to remember that especially in youth ill-health may often be entirely removed4 ,the great majority of young people need only the careful observance of healthy conditions in order to make their bodies efficient instruments for the expression of all the fires of eloquence that may be enkindled in their souls4 ,one of the principal marks by which man is distinguished from the lower animals is the invention and use of articulate language4 ,by it1 the dress for our ideas is formed1 and it is scarcely possible even to meditate without mentally using words4 ,during all our waking moments1 even the most idle1 a stream of language is running ceaselessly through our minds4 ,the more completely the form of language is spontaneously assumed by the thought-current1 the easier it becomes to open the lips and let it gush forth in words4 ,with most persons unspoken meditations are very fragmentary and obscure--mere snatches begun and broken off by passing impulses or impressions4 ,an extemporaneous speaker must be able to control his thoughts and hold them to a predetermined path2 and if he also accustoms himself to force them into a full dress of language1 the habit will greatly lessen conscious effort in the moment of speech4 ,but however this is1 the power of wielding the resources of his mother tongue is absolutely essential to the orator4 ,a great and incurable deficiency in this respect is fatal4 ,there are examples of almost wordless men1 who1 though suffering no deprivation of any of the physical organs of speech1 have yet been so deficient in language-power that they could not employ it as the medium of ordinary communication4 ,such a man--an ,illinois farmer--well known to the writer1 could not find words to make an ordinary statement without long and embarrassing pauses4 ,the names of his nearest neighbors were usually forgotten1 so that he required continual prompting in conversation4 ,he was not below the average of his neighbors either in education or intelligence1 but was simply almost without the faculty of language4 ,this deficiency in a less marked degree is not uncommon4 ,no amount of training would ever have converted this farmer into an orator4 ,had he attempted to discuss the most familiar topic his beggarly array of words would have been more forlorn than ,falstaff's recruits4 ,another example that may be cited was in one sense still more instructive--a preacher whose goodness was acknowledged by all who knew him1 a man of solid acquirements and of great diligence and energy4 ,but his long and embarrassed pauses1 together with his struggles to get words of some kind to express his meaning1 constituted a trial to his hearers so great that no congregation would long endure his ministry4 ,it is possible that such persons would gain some relief by writing and reading their discourses4 ,probably they could not memorize at all4 ,their reading1 however1 would most likely be marked by many of the same defects as their spoken utterances4 ,many of the persons who accuse themselves of a lack of words mistake the nature of their difficulty4 ,it is easy to bring the matter to a decisive test4 ,if you are really very deficient in the faculty of language1 you cannot tell an ordinary story1 with the details of which you are perfectly acquainted1 in a prompt and intelligent manner4 ,try the experiment4 ,read over two or three times a newspaper account of a wreck1 a murder1 or some other common occurrence2 then lay down the paper and in your own way tell your friend what has happened4 ,if you can do this easily1 you need never complain of the lack of words4 ,equal familiarity with any other subject will produce the same results4 ,neither the preacher nor the farmer referred to could have successfully passed this test4 ,the preacher would have told the story badly1 and in an incredibly long space of time2 the farmer would not have told it at all4 ,we have now considered the most serious disqualifications for the orator's vocation4 ,many things which are constantly assigned by candidates as the reasons for confining themselves to the use of manuscript in public address have not been included1 for most of these1 as will appear in a subsequent chapter1 are susceptible of easy remedy4 ,here we have only mentioned those which cannot be cured4 ,if a man concludes1 after due trial and consultation1 that these defects1 or any part of them1 prevail in his own case1 it will be prudent for him to select some other life-work to which he is better adapted than he can ever hope to be for public speaking4 ,we sum up the following disqualifications for oratory3 incurable defects of voice1 extreme timidity1 feebleness of mind1 certain forms of bodily disease1 and great deficiency in the faculty of language4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,thought ,,and ,,emotion4 ,two kinds of preparation contribute to the production of eloquence4 ,one is the preparation of the speaker1 the other of the speech4 ,the first is fully as important as the second4 ,in ordinary cases both are indispensable4 ,some 8born orators0 speak well without appearing to pay any attention to the improvement of their faculties4 ,others are occasionally eloquent on a topic without special preparation4 ,yet these cases when closely examined will be found apparent rather than real exceptions to the rule above stated4 ,the man who seems never to have cultivated the power of speech1 and is yet able to blaze into fervid eloquence at will1 has usually concealed his preparation or carried it on in such uncommon methods that they have not been recognized as preparations4 ,on the other hand1 a man who speaks well without a moment's warning can do so only when the subject is thoroughly familiar to him4 ,a ready and self-possessed speaker may grasp thoughts which have been long maturing in his mind1 and give them forth to an audience in obedience to an unexpected summons1 but if he is called upon when he knows nothing whatever of his subject1 failure is inevitable1 though he may possibly veil it more or less in a stream of platitudes4 ,ask a man at a moment's warning to give an astronomical lecture4 ,if he is perfectly familiar with the subject in general1 and is also a practical orator1 he may succeed well without preparing a special speech4 ,but if he is ignorant of ,astronomy1 what kind of an address can he make8 ,if he is the most eloquent man in the nation that faculty will avail him nothing1 for he cannot extemporize the names of the planets1 the laws which govern their motions1 or any of the facts out of which his lecture must be woven4 ,precisely the same necessity of adequate information exists in every other field of intelligence4 ,the ignorant man cannot possibly tell that which he does not know1 although he may make a great show of knowledge out of small material2 but even to do that with certainty requires careful premeditation and arrangement4 ,in this and following chapters we wish to treat of the kind of cultivation which makes a man ready to speak4 ,the field is here very wide and some general considerations must be introduced1 but we hope also to give valuable practical directions1 especially to those who are yet at the beginning of their career4 ,in considering man as a speaker1 we may classify his faculties into two broad divisions2 those which furnish the materials of communication with his fellows2 and those which furnish the means of such communication4 ,the first class gives rise to thoughts and emotions in man's own breast2 the second enables him to arouse similar thoughts and emotions in the breasts of others4 ,our course1 therefore1 will be to consider1 first1 thought and emotion1 and afterward those powers of body and mind by which we express1 that is1 press out from ourselves toward the receptive faculties of our fellow beings4 ,thought1 in the broad sense here given1 embraces the knowledge of all facts1 and all the reasoning that may be based upon those facts4 ,emotion is the mental feeling or response to knowledge1 and comprises love1 hate1 joy1 fear1 sorrow1 and hope4 ,these two elements are the broad basis of all eloquence4 ,keen1 profound1 far-reaching thought--in other words1 thought raised to its highest terms--and quick1 sensitive1 powerful emotion1 are necessary to the highest eloquence4 ,compared with them1 mere verbal fluency is less than dust in the balance4 ,but such a combination--the highest degree of both thought and emotion--is rare1 and many degrees less than the highest of either is available for genuine eloquence4 ,to increase either or both1 if it can be done without any corresponding sacrifice1 is to increase eloquence in precisely the same proportion4 ,education in the popular sense is the cultivation of thought with the added faculty of language4 ,but we prefer to consider the latter power separately as one among the means of communicating thought4 ,how1 then1 shall thought-power be increased8 ,there is no royal road4 ,every one of the faculties by which knowledge is accumulated and arranged or digested into new forms grows stronger by being employed upon its own appropriate objects4 ,exercise is then the means by which the material of knowledge is gathered1 and all faculties strengthened for future gathering4 ,each fact gained adds to the treasury of thought4 ,a broad and liberal education is of exceeding advantage4 ,this may or may not be of the schools4 ,indeed1 they too often substitute a knowledge of words for a knowledge of things4 ,that fault is very serious to the orator1 for the only way by which even language can be effectively taught1 is by giving terms to objects1 the nature of which has been previously learned4 ,but many persons need to speak who cannot obtain an education in the usual sense of the words--that is1 college or seminary training4 ,must they keep their lips forever closed on that account8 ,by no means4 ,a thousand examples1 some of them the most eminent speakers the world has produced1 encourage them to hope4 ,let such persons learn all they can4 ,wide1 well-selected1 and systematic reading will do wonders in supplying the necessary thought-material4 ,every book of history1 biography1 travels1 popular science1 which is carefully read1 and its contents fixed in the mind1 will be available for the purposes of oratory4 ,here a word of advice may be offered1 which1 if heeded1 will be worth many months of technical education at the best colleges in the land2 it is this3 have always at hand some work that in its own sphere possesses real and permanent merit1 and read it daily until completed4 ,if notes are made of its contents1 and the book itself kept on hand for reference1 so much the better4 ,if some friend can be found who will hear you relate in your own words what you have read1 this also will be of great value4 ,many persons1 especially in our own country1 spend time enough in reading the minute details of the daily papers to make them thoroughly acquainted in ten years with forty volumes of the most useful books in the world4 ,think of it6 ,this number may include nearly all the literary masterpieces4 ,which mode of spending the time will produce the best results8 ,one newspaper read daily would amount to more than three hundred in a year1 and allowing each paper to be equal to ten ordinary book pages1 the result would be three thousand pages annually1 or six volumes of five hundred pages each4 ,in ten years this would reach sixty volumes6 ,this number1 comprising the world's best books in history1 poetry1 science1 and general literature1 might be read slowly1 with meditation and diligent note-taking1 by the most busy man who was willing to employ his leisure in that way4 ,libraries and books are now brought within the reach of all1 and the mass of what man knows can be learned in outline by any student who thirsts for knowledge4 ,while thus engaged the student is on the direct road toward oratorical efficiency1 though such knowledge will not in itself constitute eloquence4 ,it is but one of its elements4 ,neither will the speaker have to wait until any definite quantity of reading has been accomplished before it becomes serviceable to him4 ,all that he learns will be immediately available1 and1 with proper effort1 the facility of speech and the material for speaking will keep pace with each other4 ,but personal observation of life and nature are just as necessary as reading4 ,the world of books is very extensive1 but it yields its treasures only to persons who bring to its study some independent knowledge of their own4 ,we cannot hope to add much to the world's stock of knowledge by what we see with our own eyes1 but what we do see and hear will interpret for us what we learn from the far wider world of books4 ,gibbon tells us that his militia service1 though of no great advantage in itself1 was afterward very useful to the historian of the ,roman ,empire4 ,what we behold of the landscape around us lays the foundation for understanding what poets and travelers tell us of other landscapes we may never see4 ,book knowledge wall become real and vivid just in proportion as it is brought into comparison with the observation of our own senses4 ,to the orator1 this is far more important than to the ordinary student1 for it adds greatly to the royal faculty of imagination4 ,a description from the lips of a speaker who beholds at the moment a mental picture1 accurate as a photograph1 and bright with color1 will be very different from another description built up only of words1 however well chosen and melodious the latter may be4 ,a little dabbling in natural science1 a few experiments tried1 an occasional peep through telescope or microscope at the worlds they open1 and all other means of bringing knowledge under the scrutiny of our own senses1 will greatly contribute to the power of the orator4 ,the reasoning faculties must also be trained by exercise upon their own objects4 ,the knowledge which has been gathered from personal observation or from the testimony of others in books will furnish material1 but will not enable us to reason4 ,logic and mathematics have considerable utility as guides1 but they cannot supply the want of continuous application of the processes of argument and deduction4 ,no man becomes a reasoner from merely learning the mode in which the reason operates4 ,of two persons1 one of whom understands every mood of the syllogism and the source of every fallacy1 while the other has no technical knowledge of logic1 but has been engaged in careful reasoning1 discussion1 and argument1 all his life1 it may easily happen that the latter will be the better reasoner of the two--just as a man might learn from the books all the rules of the game of croquet1 and yet be beaten by another who continually handled the mallet1 but had never read a single rule4 ,practice makes perfect4 ,essay writing1 constructing arguments1 tracing effects back to their causes1 making careful comparison of all things that can be compared1 in short1 bringing our judgment to bear upon all facts1 forming our own opinions of every event1 and being always ready to give a reason to those who ask1--these modes of exercise will make the faculty of reason grow continually stronger4 ,it is not pretended that these or any other modes of cultivation can make all minds equal1 but they will improve any one--the lowest as surely as the most active--though the interval after both have been thus exercised will remain as great as before4 ,extempore speech itself1 when practiced upon carefully arranged plans or models as recommended hereafter1 is one of the most powerful modes of cultivating the logical faculty4 ,to construct plans1 so that all thoughts accumulated upon a given subject may be unfolded in a natural and orderly manner1 cannot fail to exercise the reasoning faculties1 and impart corresponding strength to them4 ,but how shall emotion be cultivated8 ,the wisest speech1 if deep feeling neither throbs in the words nor is manifested in delivery1 cannot be eloquent4 ,the orator can only speak forth from an aroused and excited nature4 ,there is a kind of intellectual excitation kindled by the presentation of truth which is sufficiently effective when instruction is the only object4 ,but to persuade and move men--the usual aim of the orator--requires passion4 ,no pretense will avail the extempore speaker4 ,he will infallibly be detected if counterfeiting1 and to succeed in exhibiting feeling he must really feel4 ,there are but two things which can arouse feeling--care for a cause or for persons4 ,many a man is eloquent when 8riding his hobby10 though at no other time4 ,he has thought so much upon that special subject1 and has so thoroughly identified himself with it1 that everything relating to it becomes invested with personal interest4 ,any cause which can thus be made personal will be apt to arouse feeling4 ,it would be wise1 therefore1 for an orator to identify himself as closely as possible with all manner of good causes which come within his reach4 ,then such well-springs of emotion will gush out easily and frequently4 ,this mode of excitation is largely intellectual in its character4 ,the next to be described has more to do with the affections4 ,the clergyman wants to secure the welfare of his congregation1 and the better he is acquainted with them individually the stronger will be this wish4 ,the lawyer is but a poor attorney if he does not so identify himself with his client as to feel more than a professional interest in the latter's success4 ,the politician needs no exhortation to rouse his enthusiasm for his party and his chief4 ,all these are instances of that care for persons which adds so greatly to the powers of effective speech4 ,the plain inference1 therefore1 is that the speaker will gain largely by identifying himself as closely as possible with the interests of men1 and by cultivating love for them4 ,a cynical or indifferent spirit makes a fearful discount from the possibilities of eloquence4 ,only the greatest qualities in other directions can prevent it from proving fatal4 ,the power and sensitiveness of emotions founded upon intimate knowledge and partnership of interest go far to explain the wonderful eloquence of the old ,greeks4 ,their country was the native land of eloquence4 ,this arose not so much from the character of that gifted race as from the fact that each speaker personally knew his audience and had an intimate1 material interest in the affairs he discussed4 ,they regarded their opponents as terribly bad men4 ,their own lives and the lives of many of their friends were not unfrequently involved in the questions they discussed4 ,the ,states were so small1 and the personal element so important1 that strongly aroused feeling became inevitable4 ,the discussion of war or peace before an audience who knew that if they voted war their town might be besieged by the enemy within a fortnight1 was sure to be eagerly listened to4 ,no platitudes would be tolerated4 ,the orators spoke before their neighbors1 some of them friendly1 others bitter enemies who were seeking in each word they uttered an occasion for their ruin4 ,much of the wonderful power of ,demosthenes arose from the deep solicitude felt by himself and excited in his hearers as they watched the swiftly coming ruin of their common country4 ,it is also a law of human nature that we feel deeply for that which has cost us great labor4 ,the collector of old china or of entomological specimens learns to greatly value the ugly dishes and bugs he gathers1 though others may despise them4 ,the more of real work we do in the world1 the deeper the hold our hearts take upon it4 ,this is one of the secrets of the power of goodness as an element of oratory4 ,it was long ago declared that a good man1 other things being equal1 will be a better speaker than a bad man4 ,his affections are called forth by a greater variety of objects4 ,yet hate can make a man eloquent as well as love1 and some of the most eloquent orations ever uttered partook largely of this baleful inspiration4 ,but the occasions on which noble feelings may rise into eloquence are far more numerous and important4 ,why should not a man train himself to take a deep interest in all that is brought familiarly to his notice8 ,this wide range of sympathy is one of the marks which distinguishes a great from a small mind4 ,it has been said that 8lunar politics0 can have no possible interests for the inhabitants of this globe4 ,but who can be sure of this1 if there be such a thing as 8lunar politics08 ,the wider our knowledge the more we recognize the possibility of interests which we had not before dreamed of4 ,if there are inhabitants on the moon1 and if we have an immortal existence1 it is far from impossible that we might some time be brought into the closest connection with them4 ,no man can tell the bearing of a new fact upon human welfare1 more than he can write the history of a new-born babe4 ,at any rate1 every fact is a part of the great system of truth which lies all about us1 and which is adapted to the needs of our intellect4 ,let it also be remembered that all men are kindred1 and that we should make common cause with them4 ,when this comes to be the habitual attitude of the mind1 not as a mere sentiment1 but as a strong and steady impulse1 impassioned speech on any great theme affecting the interests of nations or individual men will be easy4 ,emotion cannot be feigned1 neither can it be directly roused by an effort of the will4 ,we cannot say1 8,now ,i will be in a furious passion10 or1 8,now ,i will be inflamed with wrath against this great wrong10 for the mere sake of speaking better upon the subject in hand4 ,but we can gaze upon a great wrong1 and meditate upon the evil it involves1 until the tides of indignant emotion arise in our breast4 ,many a well-prepared speech has failed of effect1 because the orator was so anxious about the form of his address and his own popularity as to lose interest in the subject itself4 ,sometimes speeches read or recited fail from an opposite cause4 ,the interest has once been aroused1 and having burned during the protracted period of composition1 it cools and cannot be recalled4 ,no energy1 declamation1 or elegance of diction can redeem this capital defect4 ,to tell a man in general terms how he may widen his sympathies and enter into the closest bonds with his fellows is difficult4 ,it is much easier to tell him what not to do4 ,the hermits of the desert took exactly the wrong course4 ,they lost the power of eloquence except upon some theme which could be wedded to their solitary musings4 ,peter the ,hermit was roused to fury by the tales of wrongs to pilgrims in the ,holy ,city--almost the only thing that could have made him eloquent4 ,but on that one topic he spoke like a man inspired and was able to call all ,europe to arms4 ,whatever separates from the common interests of humanity must diminish the power or at least the range of genuine emotion4 ,to know a great many men1 to understand their business affairs1 to enter into their joy and fear1 to watch the feelings that rise and fall in their hearts1 is sure to deepen our own feelings by unconscious imitation and sympathy4 ,each new friend is an added power of noblest emotion--a new point at which the world takes hold of our hearts4 ,how many persons are eloquent for a cause only6 ,on the other hand1 some men care nothing for general principles1 but will throw their whole soul into a conflict for friends4 ,that man is well furnished for eloquence who knows a great deal1 who can mentally combine1 arrange1 and reason correctly upon what he knows1 who feels a personal interest in every fact with which his memory is stored1 and every principle which can be deduced from those facts1 and who has so great an interest in his fellows that all deeds which affect them awaken the same response in his heart as if done to himself4 ,he will then possess all the necessary treasures of thought1 and will himself be warmed by the fires of emotion4 ,the only remaining problem will be to find the manner of communicating his thought and emotion in undiminished force to others through the medium of speech4 ,the mode of cultivating the powers necessary to this end will next engage our attention4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,language4 ,the preceding chapter dealt with those faculties which provide the materials of speech1 and in one sense was scarcely appropriate to a treatise designed to show the best modes of communicating knowledge4 ,yet it was difficult to approach the subject intelligibly in any other way4 ,so much has been said about the natural power of oratory that it was necessary to define its character and to show how it might be supplemented by cultivation4 ,but it is more directly our task to point out the mode of improving the communicative faculties4 ,first in importance among these stands language4 ,without its assistance thought could not be consecutively imparted4 ,some vague and intangible conceptions might arise within our own minds1 but even these could not be given to other minds without the medium of words4 ,the power of language is distinct from general intellectual ability4 ,it by no means follows that a man who possesses important thoughts and deep emotions will be able to communicate them well2 but a very moderate endowment of the word-faculty may be so cultivated as to fulfill every requirement4 ,diligent practice in the methods advised below will enable the great majority of men to express their thoughts with fullness and accuracy4 ,there are certain laws in every language made binding by custom1 which cannot be transgressed without exposing the offender to the severe penalty of ridicule and contempt4 ,these laws form the basis of grammar1 and must be thoroughly learned4 ,if a man has been under the influence of good models from childhood1 correctness will be a matter almost of instinct2 but the reverse of this is frequently the case4 ,even then there is but little difficulty experienced by any one who will take the necessary pains1 in learning to write in accordance with the rules of speech1 and when this power has been attained there is a standard formed by which to judge our spoken words4 ,but it is not enough for the extempore speaker to be able to reduce his sentences to correctness by recasting1 pruning1 or adding to them4 ,they should be required to present themselves at first in correct form and in rounded completeness4 ,he has no time to think of right or wrong constructions1 and the only safe way1 therefore1 is to make the right so habitual that the wrong will not once be thought of4 ,in other words1 we must not only be able to express ourselves correctly by tongue and pen1 but the very current of unspoken words that flows in our brains must be shaped in full conformity to the laws of language4 ,when we exercise the power of continuous grammatical thinking1 there will be no difficulty in avoiding the ridiculous blunders which are supposed to be inseparable from extempore speech4 ,correctness in pronunciation is also of importance4 ,usage has given each word its authorized sound1 which no person can frequently mistake without rendering himself liable to the easiest and most damaging of all criticisms4 ,bad pronunciation produces another and extremely hurtful effect upon extempore speech4 ,the mental effort necessary to discriminate between two modes of pronouncing a word1 neither of which is known to be right1 diverts the mind from the subject and produces embarrassment and hesitation4 ,accuracy in the use of words1 which is a charm in spoken no less than written language1 may also be impaired from the same cause2 for if two terms that may be used for the same idea are thought of1 only one of which can be pronounced with certainty1 that one will be preferred1 even if the other be the more suitable4 ,the extemporizer ought to be so familiar with the sound of all common words that none but the right pronunciation and accent will ever enter his mind4 ,fluency and accuracy in the use of words are two qualities that have often been confounded1 though perfectly distinct4 ,to the speaker they are of equal importance1 while the writer has far more need of the latter4 ,all words have their own peculiar shades of meaning4 ,they have been builded up into their present shape through long ages4 ,by strange turns and with many a curious history have they glided into the significations they now bear2 and each one is imbedded in the minds of the people as the representative of certain definite ideas4 ,words are delicate paints that1 to the untutored eye1 may seem of one color1 but each has its own place in the picture painted by the hand of genius1 and can be supplanted by no other4 ,many methods have been suggested for learning these fine shades of meaning4 ,the study of ,greek and ,latin has been urged as the best and almost the only way3 such study may be very useful for discipline1 and will give much elementary knowledge of the laws of language3 but the man who knows no other tongue than his own need not consider himself debarred from the very highest place as a master of words4 ,the careful study of a good etymological dictionary will1 in time1 give him about all the valuable information bearing upon this subject that he could obtain from the study of many languages4 ,in general reading1 let him mark every word he does not perfectly understand1 and from the dictionary find its origin1 the meaning of its roots1 and its varied significations at the present day4 ,this will make the word as familiar as an old acquaintance1 and when he meets it again he will notice if the author uses it correctly4 ,the student may not be able to examine every word in the language1 but by this mode he will be led to think of the meaning of each one he sees2 and from this silent practice he will learn the beauty and power of ,english as fully as if he sought it through the literatures of ,greece and ,rome4 ,if this habit is long continued it will cause words to be used correctly in thinking as well as in speaking4 ,to read a dictionary consecutively and carefully 7ignoring the old story about its frequent change of subject7 will also be found very profitable4 ,translating from any language1 ancient or modern1 will have just the same tendency to teach accurate expression as careful original composition4 ,in either case the improvement comes from the search for words that exactly convey certain ideas1 and it matters not what the source of the ideas may be4 ,the use of a good thesaurus1 or storehouse of words1 may also be serviceable by showing in one view all the words that relate to any subject4 ,but none of these methods will greatly increase fluency4 ,there is a practical difference between merely knowing a term and that easy use of it which only habit can give4 ,elihu ,burritt1 with his knowledge of fifty languages1 has often been surpassed in fluency1 force1 and variety of expression by an unlettered farmer1 because the few words the latter knew were always ready4 ,there is no way to increase this easy and fluent use of language without much practice in utterance4 ,where and how can such practice be obtained8 ,conversation affords an excellent means for this kind of improvement4 ,we do not mean the running fire of question and answer1 glancing so rapidly back and forth as to allow no time for premeditating or explaining anything1 but real and rational talk--an exchange of thoughts and ideas clearly and intelligibly expressed4 ,the man who engages much in this kind of conversation can scarcely fail to become an adept in the art of expressing his thoughts in appropriate language4 ,talk much2 express your ideas in the best manner possible2 if difficult at first1 persevere1 and it will become easier4 ,thus you will learn eloquence in the best and most pleasing school4 ,the common conversational style--that in which man deals directly with his fellow man--is the germ of true oratory4 ,it may be amplified and systematized2 but talking bears to eloquence the same relation that the soil does to the tree that springs out of its bosom4 ,but the best thoughts of men and the noblest expressions are seldom found floating on the sea of common talk4 ,to drink the deepest inspiration1 our minds must often come in loving communion with the wise and mighty of all ages4 ,in the masterpieces of literature we will find 8thought knit close to thought10 and1 what is still more to our present purpose1 words so applied as to breathe and live4 ,these passages should be read until their spirit sinks into our hearts and their melody rings like a blissful song in our ears4 ,to memorize many such passages will be a profitable employment4 ,the words of which such masterpieces are composed1 with the meanings they bear in their several places1 will thus be fixed in our minds ready to drop on our tongues when needed4 ,this conning of beautiful passages is not now recommended for the purpose of quotation1 although they may often be used in that manner to good advantage1 but simply to print the individual words with their signification more deeply in memory4 ,this may be effected1 also1 by memorizing selections from our own best writings4 ,what is thus used should be highly polished1 and yet preserve1 as far as possible1 the natural form of expression4 ,carried to a moderate extent1 this exercise tends to elevate the character of our extemporaneous efforts by erecting a standard that is our own1 and therefore suited to our tastes and capacities2 but if made habitual1 it will induce a reliance upon the memory rather than on the power of spontaneous production1 and thus destroy the faculty it was designed to cultivate4 ,but no means of cultivating fluency in language can rival extempore speech itself4 ,the only difficulty is to find a sufficient number of occasions to speak4 ,long intervals of preparation have great advantages as far as the gathering of material for discourse is concerned2 but they have disadvantages1 also1 which can only be overcome by more diligent effort in other directions4 ,clear and definite ideas greatly increase the power of language4 ,when a thought is fully understood it falls into words as naturally as a summer cloud1 riven by the lightning1 dissolves into rain4 ,so easy is it to express a series of ideas1 completely mastered1 that a successful speaker once said1 8,it is a man's own fault if he ever fails4 ,let him prepare as he ought1 and there is no danger40 ,the assertion was too strong1 for failure may come from other causes than a want of preparation4 ,yet the continuance of careful drill1 in connection with frequent speaking and close preparation1 will give very great ease and certainty of expression4 ,the 8blind but eloquent0 preacher1 ,milburn1 says that he gave four years of his life--the time spent as chaplain at ,washington--to acquire the power of speaking correctly and easily without the previous use of the pen1 and he declares that he considers the time well spent4 ,his style is diffuse1 sparkling1 rhetorical1 the most difficult to acquire1 though not by any means the most valuable4 ,an earnest1 nervous1 and yet elegant style may be formed by those who have the necessary qualifications in much shorter time4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,imagination4 ,nothing adds more to the brilliancy and effectiveness of oratory than the royal faculty of imagination4 ,this weird and glorious power deals with truth as well as fiction and gives to its fortunate possessor the creative1 life-breathing spirit of poetry4 ,listen to the description of natural scenery by a person of imagination1 and afterward by another destitute of that faculty6 ,each may be perfectly accurate and refer to the same objects1 even enumerating the same particulars in the same order2 but the one gives a catalogue1 the other a picture4 ,in relating a story or enforcing an argument1 the same difference in the vividness of impression is apparent4 ,it is said of ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 who possesses a strong imagination1 that the people would listen with delighted attention if he only described the mode in which a potato grew6 ,he would see a thousand beauties in its budding and blossoming1 and paint the picture so vividly as to command universal attention4 ,the ,bible1 which is the most popular of all books1 is pre-eminently a book of imagination4 ,nowhere is loftier or more beautiful imagery employed1 or wrought into more exquisite forms4 ,a few short and simple words paint pictures that the world looks upon with astonishment from age to age4 ,paradise ,lost1 the most sublime imaginative poem in the language of man1 drew much of its inspiration from a few passages in ,genesis4 ,job and ,isaiah are without rivals in the power of picturing by means of words1 sublime objects beyond the grasp of mortal vision4 ,while illustrations and comparisons flow principally from the reasoning faculties1 their beauty and sparkle come from imagination4 ,without its influence these may explain and simplify1 but they have no power to interest the hearer or elevate the tenor of discourse4 ,how may imagination be cultivated8 ,it is said that 8,poets are born1 not made10 but the foundation of every other faculty also is in nature1 while all are useless1 unless improved1 and applied4 ,imagination will increase in vigor and activity by proper use4 ,its function is to form complete mental images from the detached materials furnished by the senses4 ,it gathers from all sources and mixes and mingles until a picture is produced4 ,the proper way to cultivate it lies in forming abundance of just such pictures and in finishing them with all possible care4 ,let the orator1 on the canvas of the mind1 paint in full size and perfect coloring1 every part of his speech which relates to material or visible things4 ,illustrations also can usually be represented in picturesque form4 ,we do not now speak of outward representation1 but of viewing all objects in clear distinctness1 through the eye of the mind4 ,it is not enough for the speaker1 if he would reach the highest success1 to gather all the facts he wishes to use1 to arrange them in the best order1 or even to premeditate the very form of words4 ,instead of the latter process1 he may more profitably strive to embrace all that can be pictured in one mental view4 ,if he can summon before him in the moment of description the very scenes and events about which he is discoursing1 and behold them vividly as in a waking dream1 it is probable that his auditors will see them in the same manner4 ,a large part of all discourses may thus be made pictorial4 ,in ,ivanhoe1 one of the characters looks out through a castle window and describes to a wounded knight within the events of the assault which was being made upon the castle4 ,any person could describe the most stirring scene vividly and well in the moment of witnessing it4 ,a strong imagination enables a speaker or poet to see those things he speaks of almost as accurately and impressively as if passing before his bodily eyes1 and often with far more brightness of color4 ,to make the effort to see what we write or read will have a powerful effect in improving the imaginative faculty4 ,reading and carefully pondering the works of those who have imagination in high degree will also be helpful4 ,the time devoted to the enjoyment of great poems is not lost to the orator4 ,they give richness and tone to his mind1 introduce him into scenes of ideal beauty1 and furnish him with many a striking thought and glowing image4 ,most of the sciences give as full scope to imagination in its best workings as poetry itself4 ,astronomy and geology are pre-eminent in this particular4 ,everything about them is grand4 ,they deal with immense periods of time1 vast magnitudes1 and sublime histories4 ,each science requires the formation of mental images and thus gives the advantages we have already pointed out4 ,it is possible for a scientific man to deal exclusively with the shell rather than the substance of science1 with its technical names and definitions rather than its grand truths2 but in this case the fault is with himself rather than with his subject4 ,the dryness of scientific and even mathematical studies relates only to the preliminary departments4 ,a philosopher once said that success in science and in poetry depended upon the same faculties4 ,he was very nearly right4 ,the poet is a creator who forms new worlds of his own4 ,the greatest of their number thus describes the process by which imagination performs its magic4 8,the poet's eye1 in a fine frenzy rolling1 ,doth glance from heaven to earth1 from earth to heaven2 ,and1 as imagination bodies forth ,the forms of things unknown1 the poet's pen ,turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothing ,a local habitation and a name4 ,such tricks hath strong imagination40 ,almost the same result must be reached in many departments of science1 with the aid of only a few scattered facts for a basis4 ,the geologist has some broken bones1 withered leaves1 and fragments of rock1 from which to reconstruct the primitive world4 ,from the half-dozen facts observed through his telescope1 the astronomer pictures the physical condition of distant planets4 ,in every science the same need exists for imagination in its highest1 most truthful function1 and the same opportunity is1 therefore1 afforded for its cultivation4 ,an eminent elocutionist frequently urged his classes to employ all pauses in mentally picturing the idea contained in the coming sentence4 ,he declared that by this means the expression of the voice was rendered more rich and true4 ,in uttering our own words this process is at once more easy and more fruitful in varied advantages4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,voice ,,and ,,gesture4 ,voice and gesture form the immediate link between the speaker and his audience4 ,the value of good quality in both is sometimes over-estimated1 though it is always considerable4 ,a good voice1 well managed1 gives powerful and vivid expression to thought1 but cannot supply the absence of it4 ,neither is such a voice indispensable4 ,many instances of high success against vocal disadvantages might be mentioned2 but these only prove that other excellencies may atone for a single defect4 ,we can never be indifferent to the charms of a good voice1 that modulates with every emotion and responds to the finest shades of feeling4 ,it has much of the pleasing quality of music4 ,but this harmony cannot be evoked by merely mechanical training4 ,to teach the pupil just what note on the musical scale he must strike to express a particular emotion1 how much of an inflection must be used to express joy or sorrow1 and how many notes down the scale mark a complete suspension of sense1 is absurd3 speech can never be set to music4 ,but let it not be inferred from this that voice cultivation is useless4 ,the more perfect the instrument for the expression of thought can be made1 the better it will be fitted for its high office4 ,an orator may profitably spend a little time daily for years in training the voice1 for it is a faculty he must continually employ1 and none is more susceptible of improvement4 ,the passion evoked in animated speech will demand for its adequate expression almost every note and key within the compass of the voice2 and unless it has previously been trained into strength on each of these1 it will fail or grow weary4 ,the proper kind of preparation operates by exploring the range of the voice1 testing its capabilities1 and improving each tone4 ,this work is not imitative or slavish4 ,it is only like putting an instrument in tune before beginning a musical performance4 ,to give full elocutionary instruction here would be aside from our purpose2 but a few useful modes of practice may be pointed out4 ,good articulation is of prime importance4 ,nothing will contribute more to secure this valuable quality than the separation of words into their elements of sound and continued practice on each element as thus isolated4 ,phonetic shorthand affords a good means for making such analysis1 or the same purpose may be accomplished by means of the marks of pronunciation found in any dictionary4 ,as we practice these elements of sound we will discover the exact nature of any defect of articulation we may suffer from1 and can drill upon the sounds that are difficult until they become easy4 ,when we have thus learned to pronounce these few elements--not much above forty in number--and can follow them into all their combinations1 we have mastered the alphabet of utterance4 ,it will also contribute greatly to strengthen the voice and make it pliable1 if we continue the same practice on these elements at different degrees of elevation on the musical scale until we can utter each one in full1 round distinctness1 at any pitch from the deepest bass to the shrillest note ever used in speech4 ,this will bring all varieties of modulation within easy reach4 ,practice on these elements is also a very effective mode of strengthening weak voices4 ,by pronouncing them one by one1 with gradually increasing force1 the degree of loudness we can attain at any pitch1 will be greatly extended4 ,the amount of improvement that may be made would be incredible if it were not so often exemplified4 ,every teacher of elocution can testify of students1 the power of whose voices has thus been multiplied many fold2 and almost equal advantages may be reaped in persevering private practice4 ,following on the same line1 we may learn to enunciate the elements1 and especially the short vowels1 in a quick1 sharp tone1 more rapidly than the ticking of a watch1 and with the clearness of a bell4 ,this will enable the speaker to avoid drawling1 and be very fast when desirable1 without falling into indistinctness4 ,then1 by an opposite process1 other sounds1 especially the long vowels1 may be prolonged with every degree of force from the faintest to the fullest4 ,perseverance in these two exercises will so improve the voice that no hall will be too large for its compass4 ,the differing extension of sounds1 as well as their pitch and variations in force1 constitute the perspective of speech and give it an agreeable variety1 like the mingling of light and shade in a well-executed picture4 ,the opposite of this1 a dull1 dead uniformity1 with each word uttered in the same key1 with the same force1 and at the same degree of speed1 becomes well-nigh unbearable2 while perpetual modulation1 reflecting in each rise and fall1 each storm and calm of sound1 the living thought within1 is the perfection of nature1 which the best art can only copy4 ,all vocal exercises are of an essentially preparatory character4 ,in the moment of speech details may safely be left to the impulse of nature4 ,supply the capability by previous discipline1 and then allow passion to clothe itself in the most natural forms4 ,there is such a vital connection between emotion and the tones of voice1 that emphasis and inflection will be as spontaneous1 on the part of the disciplined speaker1 as breathing4 ,rules remembered in the act of speaking tend to destroy all life and freshness of utterance4 ,when bad habits have been corrected1 the voice made supple and strong1 confidence attained1 and deep feeling evoked in the speaker's breast1 there will be little need to care for the minuti of elocution4 ,the child that is burnt needs no instruction in the mode of crying out4 ,let nature have her way1 untrammeled by art1 and all feelings will dominate the voice and cause every hearer to recognize their nature and participate in them4 ,in this way we may not attain the brilliancy of theatric clap-trap1 but we will be able to give 8the touch of nature that makes the whole world kin40 ,if carefully guarded1 the faculty of imitation may be of great service in the management of the voice4 ,the sounds that express sympathy and passion are heard everywhere1 forming a medium of communication more subtle and widespread than any language of earth4 ,from the example of great orators we may learn what true excellence is1 and become able to reproduce some1 at least1 of their effects4 ,it would be hurtful to confine our attention too long to one model1 for true excellence is many-sided1 and if we continually view only one of its phases we are apt to fall into slavish imitation--one of the greatest of all vices4 ,by having many examples to look upon1 and using them only to elevate our own ideal1 we will escape this danger4 ,the models before us will urge us to greater exertions and the whole level of our attainments be raised4 ,there are abundant faults to mar the freedom and naturalness of delivery1 and the speaker who would be truly natural must watch diligently for them and exterminate them without mercy4 ,the sing-song tone1 the scream1 the lisp1 the guttural and tremulous tones1 the rhythmical emphasis which falls like a trip-hammer at measured intervals1 are specimens of common1 bad habits that should be weeded out as fast as they push through the soil2 and if the speaker's egotism is too great to see them1 or his taste not pure enough1 some friend should point them out4 ,even the advice of an enemy conveyed in the unpleasant form of sarcasm and ridicule may be profitably used for the purpose of reform and improvement4 ,should a conversational tone be employed in speaking8 ,this question has often been asked1 and much difference of opinion evoked1 but it may be satisfactorily answered4 ,the language of conversation is the language of nature in its most unfettered form1 and it should1 therefore1 be the basis of all speech4 ,the same variety and character of intonations used in it should be employed in every variety of oratory4 ,but conversation itself varies widely with varying circumstances4 ,the man talking with a friend across a river will speak less rapidly but more loudly than if he held that friend by the hand4 ,in speaking to a number at once1 the orator must1 in order to be heard1 speak more forcibly and distinctly than in addressing one only4 ,with this explanation1 it may be laid down as a safe rule that a speech should begin in a conversational manner4 ,but should it continue in the same way8 ,a deep1 full tone--the orotund of the elocutionist--will make a stronger impression than a shrill1 feeble utterance4 ,and as conversation becomes earnest even between two persons1 there is the tendency to stronger and more impressive tones4 ,this same tendency will be a sufficient guide in speech4 ,a trained man giving utterance to a well-prepared speech1 upon a theme which appeals to his own emotions1 will adopt those oratorical tones which form a proper medium for eloquence1 without a single thought given to that subject during the moment of delivery4 ,begin as a man who is talking to a number of his friends upon an interesting subject2 then1 as the interest deepens1 let go all restraint4 ,as passion rises like an inflowing tide1 the voice will be so fully possessed by it and so filled out and strengthened as to produce all the effect of which its compass is capable4 ,it will deepen into the thunder roll when that is needed1 and at the right time will grow soft and pathetic4 ,but above almost every other error that the speaker can commit1 beware of thinking that you must be loud in order to be impressive4 ,nothing is more disgusting than that interminable roar1 beginning with a shout1 and continuing to split the speaker's throat and the hearer's ears all through the discourse4 ,this fault is not uncommon in the pulpit1 especially among those who desire a reputation for extraordinary fervor and earnestness4 ,but it is the worst kind of monotony4 ,the loudness of tone1 that applied at the right place would be overpowering1 loses all power except to disgust and weary an audience4 ,it expresses no more thought or sentiment than the lashing of ocean waves conveys to the storm-tossed mariner4 ,have something to say2 keep the fires of passion burning in your own soul2 learn the real strength there is in the reserve of power2 and the cultivated voice will not fail in its only legitimate office--that of making the clear and adequate impression of your thoughts and emotions upon the souls of others4 ,elocutionary manuals properly devote much space to the consideration of gesture1 for the eye should be addressed and pleased as well as the ear4 ,but we doubt whether the marking out of special gestures to be imitated can do much good4 ,a few broad principles like those formulated by the celebrated ,french teacher1 ,delsarte1 may be profitably studied and made familiar by practice upon a few simple selections4 ,after that the principal use of training is to give confidence so that the speaker may be in the full possession and instinctive use of all his powers4 ,fear often freezes the speaker into ice-like rigidity2 and hearers are apt to feel the same deadly chill when listening to some one whose dominating sentiment is the fear that he may do something ridiculous1 or fail to win their favor4 ,the secondary use of training in gesture is to discard awkward and repulsive movements4 ,timidity and fear may be overcome by a firm resolution1 and the object is well worth the effort4 ,bad or ungraceful actions are far better in the case of a beginner than no action at all4 ,the saying of ,demosthenes1 that the first1 the second1 and the third need of an orator is 8,,action10 does not fully apply to the modern speaker4 ,he needs many things more urgently than action1 even when that word is taken in its widest sense4 ,but action is important1 and when graceful and expressive1 it does powerfully tend to arrest attention1 and even to help the processes of thought on the part of the speaker himself4 ,we have heard several eloquent men who scarcely moved during the delivery of an address1 but never without feeling that good gesticulation would have been a great addition to their power4 ,it is unnatural to speak for any considerable period of time without moving4 ,none but a lazy1 sick1 or bashful man will do it4 ,let the laziness be shaken off1 the sickness cured1 and the bashfulness reserved for a more fitting occasion6 ,a man who is too bashful and diffident to move hand1 head1 or foot in the presence of an audience should in consistency refuse to monopolize their time at all6 ,practice will usually overcome this fault4 ,when a man has stood a great many times before an audience without receiving any serious injury1 and has a good purpose in thus claiming their attention1 and something which he thinks they ought to hear1 he will forget his fears and allow his mind to be engrossed1 as that of a true speaker should be1 with the subject he has in hand4 ,then all his gestures will have at least the grace of unconscious and spontaneous origination4 ,but when fear has been overcome so that the speaker is not afraid to use his hands1 he needs to enter upon a determined and comprehensive campaign against bad habits4 ,if anything is truly natural--that is1 true to the higher or universal nature--it will be beautiful2 but early examples are so often wrong and corrupting that it is hard to say what nature is3 ,nature may be a bad nature--the reflection of all that is low and sordid as well as that which is high and ennobling4 ,that nature which is in harmony with the sum of all things1 which is the image of the ,creator's perfectness1 must be right and good2 but we must not too hastily conclude that any habits of our own have this high and unquestionable source4 ,hardly a speaker lives who does not at some time fall into unsightly or ridiculous habits4 ,the difference between men in this respect is that some steadily accumulate all the faults they ever have contracted1 until the result is most repulsive2 while others1 from the warnings of friends or their own observation1 discover their errors and cast them off4 ,a mode by which the solitary student may become acquainted with his faults1 and from which he should not be driven by foolish ridicule1 is by declaiming in as natural and forcible a manner as possible before a large mirror4 ,thus we may 8see ourselves as others see us40 ,repeated practice in this manner will enable you to keep the necessary watch upon your motions1 without so much distracting attention as to make the exercise before the glass no trustworthy specimen of ordinary habits4 ,in speaking1 you hear your own voice and thus become sensible of audible errors1 but the glass is required to show improper movements that may have been unconsciously contracted4 ,it is not advised that each speech1 before delivery1 should be practiced in front of the mirror4 ,it is doubtful if such practice would not cherish a self-consciousness worse than all the errors it corrected4 ,but the same objection would not apply to occasional declamations made for the very purpose of self-criticism4 ,by these two processes--pressing out into action as freely as possible under the impulse of deep feeling1 and by lopping off everything that is not graceful and effective--we may soon attain a good style of gesture4 ,when the habit of suiting the action to the word is once fully formed1 all anxiety on that subject may be dismissed4 ,the best gesticulation is entirely unconscious4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,confidence4 ,how may that boldness and confidence which is indispensable to an orator best be acquired8 ,on your success in this direction1 hinges all other kinds of improvement4 ,so long as a nervous dread hangs about you1 it will make the practice of extemporaneous speech painful and repulsive1 paralyzing all your faculties in the moment of utterance4 ,you must acquire confidence in your own powers and be willing to trust to their guidance4 ,but it is not necessary that you should exhibit or even feel this confidence at the beginning of a speech1 for it may then appear like boastfulness or egotism4 ,it is enough if you then have confidence in your subject1 and in the fullness of your preparation4 ,you may then without injury wish that some one1 that you imagine more worthy1 stood in your place4 ,but if this feeling continues all through the address1 failure is inevitable4 ,many a man begins while trembling in every limb1 especially if the occasion be of unusual character1 but soon becomes inspired with his theme and forgets all anxiety4 ,if your fear be greater and more persistent1 keeping you in perpetual terror1 it will destroy all liberty and eloquence4 ,when laboring under such an influence1 you lose self-possession1 become confused1 all interest evaporates from your most carefully prepared thoughts1 and you sit down at length1 convinced that you have failed4 ,it is but little consolation to believe that you had all the time in your brain the necessary power and material to achieve splendid success1 if you had but possessed the courage to use it aright4 ,there is no remedy for fear more effectual than to do all our work under the immediate inspiration of duty4 ,this feeling is not the privilege of the minister alone1 but of each one who is conscious that he occupies the place where he stands because it is his right to be there1 because he has some information to give1 some cause to advocate1 or some important task to do4 ,with such consciousness we can speak our best1 and finish with the satisfaction of having done our work as truly as if we had performed duty placed upon us in any other department of labor4 ,but if we aim simply at making an exhibition of self and of showing our own skill and eloquence1 then the smiles and frowns of the audience becomes a matter of overwhelming importance1 and if we fail we are deeply mortified and bewail our foolishness in exposing ourselves to such needless risk4 ,the lack of proper confidence is the great reason for using manuscript in the moment of speech4 ,the speaker makes one effort to extemporize and fails4 ,this is not wonderful1 for the path to success usually lies through failure from the time that we master the wonderful art of walking through many failures2 but instead of copying the school-boy motto1 8try1 try again10 and reaping wisdom and experience from past efforts1 he loses all hope--concludes that he is disqualified for that kind of work1 and thus sinks to mediocrity and tameness1 when he might have been brilliant in the fields of true oratory4 ,the exhibition of confidence and resolution by the speaker is a draft drawn on the respect of an audience which is nearly always honored1 while the opposite qualities hide the possession of real talent4 ,hearers readily pardon timidity at the beginning of an address1 for then attention is fixed upon the speaker himself1 and his shrinking seems a graceful exhibition of modesty4 ,but when he has fully placed his subject before them they associate him with it4 ,if he is dignified and assured1 they listen in pleased attention and acknowledge the weight of his words4 ,these qualities are very different from bluster and bravado1 which injure the cause advocated and excite disgust toward the speaker4 ,the first appears to arise from a sense of the dignity of the subject2 the second1 from an assumption of personal superiority--an opinion no speaker has a right to entertain1 for in the very act of addressing an audience he constitutes them his judges4 ,an orator needs confidence in his own powers in order to avail himself fully of the suggestions of the moment4 ,some of the best thoughts he will ever think flash upon him while speaking1 and are out of the line of his preparation4 ,there is no time to carefully weigh them4 ,he must reject them immediately or begin to follow1 not knowing whither they lead1 and this in audible words1 with the risk that he may be landed in some absurdity4 ,he cannot pause for a moment1 as the least hesitation breaks the spell he has woven around his hearers1 while if he rejects the offered idea he may lose a genuine inspiration4 ,one searching glance that will not allow time for his own feelings or those of his auditors to cool1 and then--decision to reject1 or to follow the new track with the same assurance as if the end were clearly in view--this is all that is possible4 ,it requires some boldness to pursue the latter course1 and yet every speaker knows that his highest efforts--efforts that have seemed beyond his normal power1 and which have done more in a minute to gain the object for which he spoke than all the remainder of the discourse--have been of this character4 ,it also requires a good degree of confidence to firmly begin a sentence1 even when the general idea is plain1 without knowing just how it will end4 ,this difficulty is experienced sometimes even by the most fluent4 ,a man may learn to cast sentences very rapidly1 but it will take a little time to pass them through his mind1 and when one is finished1 the next may not yet have fully condensed itself into words4 ,to begin to utter a partially constructed sentence1 uncertain how it will end1 and press on without letting the people see any hesitation1 demands no small confidence in one's power of commanding words and framing sentences4 ,yet a bold and confident speaker need feel no uneasiness4 ,he may prolong a pause while he is thinking of a needed word1 or throw in something extraneous to fill up the time till the right term and construction are found4 ,yet the perfect remedy for these dangers is to learn the difficult art of standing before an audience with nothing to say and making the pause as effective as any phase of speech4 ,this can be done1 dangerous as it seems4 ,it does require far more of courage to face an audience when the mouth is empty than when we are talking2 the mettle of troops is never so severely tried as when their cartridge-boxes are empty2 but all the resources of eloquence are not at command until this test can be calmly and successfully endured4 ,an eminent speaker once said to a friend after a very successful effort1 8,what part of the address you have been praising most impressed you80 8,it was not anything you said10 was the reply1 8but the thrilling pause you made of nearly half a minute after a bold assertion1 as if you were challenging any one to rise and deny what you had asserted40 8,oh6 ,i remember10 returned the other2 8,i could not get the next sentence fixed quite right1 and was fully determined not to say it at all unless it came into the proper shape40 ,this necessary confidence can be cultivated by striving to exercise it1 and by assuming its appearance where the reality is not4 ,the raw recruit is transformed into a veteran soldier by meeting and overcoming danger4 ,all the drill in the world will not supply the want of actual experience on the battle-field4 ,so the extempore speaker must make up his mind to accept all the risk1 and patiently endure all the failures and perils that result4 ,if he fully decides that the reward is worthy of the effort he will be greatly aided in the attempt1 as he will thus avoid the wavering and shrinking and questioning that would otherwise distress him and paralyze his powers4 ,a failure will but lead to stronger and more persistent effort1 made with added experience4 ,success will be an argument for future confidence1 and thus any result will forward him on his course4 ,in regard to the difficulty of framing sentences in the moment of utterance1 the experienced speaker will become so expert1 having found his way through so many difficulties of that kind1 that the greatest danger experienced will be that of carelessly allowing his words to flow on without unity or polish4 ,it does require a determined effort1 not merely to express meaning1 but to pack and compress the greatest possible amount into striking and crystalline words4 ,experience also gives him such a knowledge of the working of his own thoughts that he will be able to decide at the first suggestion what unbidden ideas should be accepted and what ones should be rejected4 ,if these new thoughts1 however far outside of his preparation1 seem worthy1 he will give them instant expression2 if not1 he will dismiss them and continue unchecked along his intended route4 ,it is hoped that the reading of this treatise will increase the confidence of extempore speakers in two ways2 first1 by producing in the mind of each one perfect conviction that for him the better way is to adopt unwritten speech without reserve2 and second1 by pointing out a mode of preparation which will give as good ground for confidence as a fully written manuscript could possibly supply4 ,to gain confidence which is not warranted by the event would only provoke a hurtful reaction2 but confidence which is justified by experience grows ever stronger4 ,we have thus glanced at a few of the qualities which need to be cultivated and strengthened for the purposes of public speech4 ,the survey does not cover the whole field of desirable qualities1 for this would be to give a treatise on general education4 ,perfect speech requires every faculty of the mind to be brought to the highest state of efficiency4 ,there is no mental power which will not contribute to success4 ,the whole limits of possible education are comprised in the two branches already mentioned as concerning the orator--those relating to the reception of knowledge and those to its communication4 ,the harmonious combination and perfect development of these two is the ideal of excellence--an ideal so high that it can only be approached4 ,all knowledge is of use to the orator4 ,he may not have occasion to employ it in a particular speech1 but it contributes to give certainty1 breadth1 and scope to his views1 and assures him that what he does put into his speeches is the best that can be selected4 ,if he is ignorant1 he is obliged to use for a discourse on any subject not that material which is the best in itself1 but simply the best that may happen to be known to him1 and he cannot be sure that something far more suitable is not overlooked4 ,the communicating faculties are1 if possible1 still more important4 ,a great part of the value even of a diamond depends upon its polish and setting1 and the richest and wisest thoughts fail to reach the heart or captivate the intellect unless they are cast into the proper form1 and given external beauty4 ,let the speaker1 then1 have no fear of knowing too much4 ,neither need he despair if he does not now know a great deal4 ,he cannot be perfect at once1 but must build for future years4 ,if he wishes a sudden and local celebrity that will never widen1 but will probably molder away even in his own lifetime1 he may possibly gain it in another way4 ,let him learn a few of the externals of elocution1 and then1 with great care1 or by the free use of the materials of others1 prepare a few finely worded discourses1 and recite or declaim them over and over again as often as he can find a new audience4 ,he may not gain as much applause as he desires by this method1 but it will be sufficiently evanescent4 ,he will not grow up to the measure of real greatness1 but become daily more dwarfed and stereotyped in intellect4 ,the following quotation contains a good example of the seductive but misleading methods sometimes held up before the young orator3 8,they talk10 said ,tom ,marshall to an intimate friend1 8of my astonishing bursts of eloquence1 and doubtless imagine it is my genius bubbling over4 ,it is nothing of the sort4 ,i'll tell you how ,i do it3 ,i select a subject and study it from the ground up4 ,when ,i have mastered it fully1 ,i write a speech on it4 ,then ,i take a walk and come back1 and revise and correct4 ,in a few days ,i subject it to another pruning1 and then recopy it4 ,next ,i add the finishing touches1 round it off with graceful periods1 and commit it to memory4 ,then ,i speak it in the fields1 in my father's lawn1 and before my mirror1 until gesture and delivery are perfect4 ,it sometimes takes me six weeks or two months to get up a speech4 ,when ,i am prepared ,i come to town4 ,i generally select a court day1 when there is sure to be a crowd4 ,i am called on for a speech1 and am permitted to select my own subject4 ,i speak my piece4 ,it astonishes the people1 as ,i intended it should1 and they go away marveling at my power of oratory4 ,they call it genius1 but it is the hardest kind of work40 ,no objection is made to the quantity of work thus described1 but might not the same amount be expended in more profitable directions8 ,a speech thus prepared was a mere trick intended to astonish the people4 ,sometimes the great ,daniel ,webster took equal pains in the verbal expression of some worthy thought1 which was afterward held in the grasp of a powerful memory until a fitting place was found for it in some masterly speech4 ,the difference between the two processes is greater than seems at first glance4 ,marshall's plan was like a beautiful garment thrown over a clothes dummy in a shop window2 ,webster's1 like the same garment1 worn for comfort and ornament by a living man4 ,it is better that the speaker should 8intermeddle with all knowledge10 and make the means of communicating his thoughts as perfect as possible4 ,then out of the fullness of his treasure1 let him talk to the people with an adequate purpose in view1 and if no sudden acclaim greets him1 he will be weighty and influential from the first1 and each passing year will add to his power4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,peculiarities ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,various ,,fields ,,of ,,oratory4 ,the laws which govern extemporaneous speech are so generally applicable to all forms of address that only a few things which are peculiar to each need be considered before pointing out the best modes of planning and delivering a speech4 ,probably a sermon differs from the common type of speech more than any other form of address4 ,some of the distinctions usually made are purely conventional1 and not a few are more honored in the breach than in the observance4 ,a certain slowness and stiffness of manner is supposed to characterize the pulpit1 and also the selection of grave and solemn tones4 ,all these1 so far as they tend to constitute ministers a class apart from other men1 with manners and modes of speech peculiar to themselves1 are a mere survival of ancient superstition4 ,the preacher's tone and address should be just such as any other competent speaker would employ in treating the same themes4 ,of course1 when the preacher makes a solemn appeal1 voice and action should all correspond in solemnity4 ,but when he denounces sin1 or holds vice up to ridicule1 there should be an equal correspondence4 ,in some denominations1 a peculiar dress is given to the preacher as the garb of his office2 and it may be that a peculiar manner will be grateful to those who love all things that have the flavor of antiquity4 ,but all such mannerisms belong to another realm than that of eloquence4 ,from the orator's standpoint they can only be condemned4 ,let the preacher speak and act like any other educated gentleman1 under like circumstances1 and his power over his audiences will be the greater4 ,but the sermon possesses some real distinctions of importance4 ,the custom of taking a text furnishes a point of departure to the preacher and greatly simplifies the work of introduction4 ,the opening services in the church--the prayers and the music--put his audience into a mood to receive his words4 ,they are calm and quiet when he begins to speak--indeed1 this may easily go too far4 ,another peculiarity is that he has the whole field to himself3 neither he nor his auditors expect a word or gesture of dissent from any position he may assume3 all the criticisms of his hearers will be mental1 or reserved to another occasion4 ,in this1 his position is diametrically opposed to that of the lawyer1 and the politician1 who expect all they say to be contradicted1 as a matter of course1 and are apt to acquire the fault of uttering self-evident truths in a combative manner1 as if they expected the other side to deny even that the whole is greater than any of its parts1 or that things each equal to another thing1 are equal to each other4 ,the preacher1 on the other hand1 is liable to utter propositions1 which to many of his hearers are very doubtful1 as if they were axioms4 ,the preacher should select a text which fairly covers the subject of his discourse or contributes to advance the object he has in view4 ,the text should always be employed in its true sense4 ,it partakes of the nature of a quotation by which the speaker fortifies his position1 and all quotations should bear the meaning intended by their authors1 as far as that meaning can be ascertained4 ,this is required by common fairness1 and the ,bible is surely entitled to fair treatment as much as any other book4 ,generally the text should be read and treated as a part of the introduction1 although some fine sermons have been constructed on the opposite principle of beginning far from the text and so leading up to it1 that its perfect illustration or application only appears in the conclusion4 ,no fault can be found with this method if conscientiously adopted and consistently carried out4 ,the great aim of preaching is persuasion1 and this must largely influence its whole character4 ,it is from this cause that emotion--ever the most valuable agent in persuasion--is so highly valued in the pulpit4 ,the hearers are to be persuaded1 first to embrace a religious life1 and then to cultivate all those virtues and avoid all those evils incident to such a life4 ,it may be proper to devote some time and attention to mere instruction1 but that instruction derives all its value from its bearing upon action3 it should be given as the means of rendering persuasion more effective4 ,warning1 reproof1 exhortation1 consolation1 promise--the whole field of motives and inducements--is very wide2 but the great object is to make men better1 and only incidentally to make them wiser or happier4 ,this peculiar character of preaching renders adherence to extemporaneous speech in the pulpit at once more important and more difficult than anywhere else4 ,the quiet of the church1 its solemnity1 the fact that the preacher must speak at a given time and has thus the opportunity to write1 and that a good sermon dealing with truths always applicable may1 when once written1 be read to many successive congregations1 even after an interval of years2--the fear of jarring upon the associations of the church with any rude sentence or unpolished paragraph thrown off in the hurry of speech3--all these considerations powerfully plead for the manuscript4 ,yet in hardly any other form of address is the manuscript so hurtful4 ,extemporaneous speech is pre-eminently the persuasive form of address1 and persuasion is the great object of the sermon4 ,if the preacher ceases to be persuasive he may as well cease to preach1 so far as the accomplishment of the true function of his office is concerned4 ,the mode pointed out in the following part of this work will1 it is believed1 enable the extemporaneous preacher to utilize all the persuasiveness that belongs to his character1 and at the same time escape all the dangers which have driven so many preachers to manuscript4 ,the conditions under which lawyers speak are very different4 ,they are tempted by the surroundings of the court-room to set too low a value upon the graces of oratory1 while the accomplishment of an immediate purpose engrosses their attention4 ,the judge and jury are before them--a client is to be made victorious1 or a criminal to be punished4 ,keen interest and emotion are supplied by the occasion itself4 ,the law must be explained1 the facts elicited and weighed1 and the jury persuaded4 ,there is also the great advantage of having the case decided at a definite time4 ,no disposition exists on the part of the jury to postponement4 ,if the lawyer once convinces them that law and evidence are on his side1 the verdict follows as a matter of course4 ,but when the preacher gets that far he has scarcely begun4 ,his hearers may admit the truth of every word he speaks and the goodness of the course he advises1 but they can comply with his advice at any time1 and in that feeling they may postpone their action for years1 if not permanently4 ,but the lawyer can press his case on to a decision1 which may be resisted for a time by one of the parties1 but not by the jury to whom he addresses his arguments1 and seldom by the judge4 ,lawyers have but little temptation to indulge in written speeches3 the exigencies of the trial make formal preparation of little service4 ,the great talent for a lawyer's purpose is that favored by extemporaneous speech--the power of a clear1 orderly statement of facts that are often exceedingly complex4 ,this generally proves more effective than any argument4 ,to grasp all the evidence that has been brought forward1 and1 putting it into the very simplest form it will bear1 to show on that statement to judge and jury that he is entitled to the verdict--this is the great art of the advocate4 ,but his statement must include or account for all the facts2 otherwise1 he lays himself open to an easy and damaging reply4 ,the method usually adopted is to make a note of each fact elicited1 each argument used by the opposite attorney1 and each salient point of the case4 ,then these are reduced to the simplest form1 an appropriate introduction sought1 and either a strong argument1 or an effective summing up1 reserved for the conclusion4 ,with this much of preparation the lawyer finds it easy to provide suitable words for the expression of the whole speech4 ,the speech of the judge in summing up or charging the jury differs only from that of the advocate in the greater impartiality by which it is marked4 ,the most fair-minded attorney will be biased1 more or less unconsciously1 by the greater care which he bestows upon his own side of the case4 ,anniversary1 platform1 and lyceum lectures have much in common4 ,entertainment being the prominent object in them all1 illustration and embellishment are greatly sought for4 ,humor is also in most cases highly enjoyed4 ,the same address may be repeated many times and comes to have the finish of a work of art4 ,the great camp-meeting sermons at seaside resorts1 at anniversaries1 and similar occasions1 properly belong to this class rather than to that of sermons4 ,this is the field in which memoriter addresses are usually supposed to be superior to all others4 ,it may be conceded that whenever form rises into more prominence than matter1 writing and memorizing will have increasing claims4 ,a speaker who wishes to repeat one speech without substantial variation to a hundred audiences will not find it a great task to write it in full and memorize it4 ,but if he is really a master in spontaneous utterance he need not depart from his usual course4 ,he can fully prepare his materials and then speak the words of the moment1 without the least fear of suffering in comparison with the reciter4 ,instructive addresses by teachers and professors are nearly always given extempore1 with the exception of those written lectures in the higher institutions which are supposed to sum up the results of knowledge in their respective departments4 ,even then the practice is not uniform1 as many professors prefer talking to their pupils rather than reading to them4 ,the practice of reading in such cases is really a survival from the days when books were scarce and high-priced1 and the student found it easier to write notes from the lips of some master than to purchase the volumes containing the same knowledge1 even when it had been published at all4 ,but the tendency now is to find the statement of the facts of science1 art1 and literature in books1 and depend upon the living teacher only to give vividness1 life1 and illustration to them4 ,all this can be best done by the extemporaneous method4 ,other modes of speech will naturally suggest themselves1 but they present nothing peculiar in form4 ,all that can be said about them may be compressed as profitably into the general topics of subject and object1 thought-gathering1 arrangement1 and use of the plan1 etc41 which occupy the following pages4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,plan ,,and ,,delivery ,,of ,,the ,,speech4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,pen ,,and ,,the ,,tongue4 ,it does not follow from anything we have said that the pen should be discarded by the extempore speaker4 ,because he is not obliged to write each word1 he should not feel excused from writing altogether4 ,few greater misfortunes could happen to a speaker than being deprived of the power of recording and preserving notes for the purposes of oratory4 ,the most tenacious memory is burdened by the weight of a large number of intended discourses1 especially if they are long and complex4 ,no person can feel sure that he will remember all parts of the speech he intended to utter even in outline1 unless it has been reduced to regular form so that one part will suggest another4 ,in going to a store to purchase a few articles the pen is very useful in making a memorandum2 if the errand boy neglects that precaution some of the most essential things may be forgotten4 ,among illiterate people a great many mnemonic signs have been employed1 such as associating things to be remembered with the fingers1 etc42 but among intelligent persons all of these have been superseded by the use of writing1 and it would be very absurd to advocate a return to the old modes on the plea that the memory might be so strengthened that all items could be safely remembered4 ,the reply would be ready3 8,yes1 it is possible2 but we have a far better and less burdensome way of accomplishing the same object and have no motive in returning to the more difficult mode40 ,thus while it may be possible to arrange in the mind all the outlines of a long discourse1 it is not easy to do it1 and there is no gain in the extra labor involved4 ,everything bearing upon a discourse may be written in brief outline1 and then a selection made of what is best1 throwing out all other portions4 ,the remainder can then be far better arranged when in such a position that the eye as well as the mind can glance at it4 ,the preparation for the intended speech thus assumes the shape of a miniature or outline1 and may be filled out at any point which needs strengthening4 ,but even if it were possible to construct the plan and speak well without any previous use of the pen1 this would1 in the majority of cases1 be insufficient4 ,the orator needs to preserve the materials1 if not the form of his oration1 either for use in future speeches or for comparison with later efforts4 ,it is very wasteful to throw away valuable material once accumulated1 and then search the same ground over again when required to treat the same topic4 ,this would be acting in the spirit of the savage who eats enough to satisfy his appetite and throws away all that remains1 as he feels no further need for it1 and only begins to gather again when hunger spurs him to exertion4 ,the pen is the instrument of accumulation and preservation1 and should be diligently employed4 ,no speaker can rise to permanent greatness without it4 ,the instances given to the contrary are mere delusions or evasions4 ,if the service of other pens can be employed1 as in the case of short-hand reporters and amanuenses1 this is but doing the same thing under another form4 ,the principal purpose of this third division of the work is to show how the pen may be used in such a manner as to preserve and arrange all the material we may gather1 elaborate1 or originate on any subject1 so as to bring to the moment of unfettered extempore speech all the certainty of result and accumulated power of which our faculties are capable4 ,bacon says3 8,reading makes a full man1 writing an exact man1 and conference a ready man40 ,all these means should be used and all these qualities attained by the eloquent speaker4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,subject ,,and ,,object4 ,we now enter upon the most practical part of our subject4 ,we have seen what natural qualities are indispensable1 and how these1 when possessed1 can be improved by training4 ,the importance of a wide scope of knowledge bearing upon oratory1 and of understanding and having some command of the powers of language has been pointed out4 ,when a man has all of these1 and is still a diligent student growing daily in knowledge1 he is ready to consider the methods by which all his gifts and acquirements may be concentrated upon a single speech4 ,some of the directions in this and the immediately succeeding chapters are of universal application1 while others are thrown out as mere suggestions to be modified and changed according to individual taste or particular circumstances4 ,a plan is necessary for every kind of speech4 ,a rude mass of brick1 lumber1 mortar1 and iron1 thrown together as the materials chance to be furnished1 does not constitute a house until each item is built into its own place according to some intelligent design4 ,a speech has the same need of organization4 ,a few minutes of desultory talk1 whether uttered in a low or high voice1 to one person or to many1 does not make a speech4 ,the talk may be good1 or useful1 or striking3 it may be replete with sparkling imagery1 and full of valuable ideas that command attention1 and yet be no real discourse4 ,the question1 8,what was all this about8 what end did the speaker have in view80 is a fatal condemnation4 ,the subject and object of every discourse should be perfectly obvious--if not at the opening1 surely at the close of the address4 ,the only safe method is to have a well-defined plan marked out from beginning to end1 and then to bring every part of the work into subordination to one leading idea4 ,the plan itself should be constructed with some clear object in view4 ,it is better that this construction of the plan should be completed before delivery begins4 ,if you are suddenly called to speak on some topic you have often thought over1 the whole outline of the address1 with a plan perfect in every part1 may flash upon you in a moment1 and you may speak as well as if you had been allowed months for preparation4 ,but such cases are rare exceptions4 ,the man who attempts1 on the spur of the moment1 to arrange his facts1 draw his inferences1 and enforce his opinions1 will usually find the task very difficult1 even if the topic is within his mental grasp1 and his memory promptly furnishes him with all necessary materials4 ,we will now consider the subject and object which every true discourse1 whatever its character1 must possess4 ,first1 as to the object3 why is it that at a particular time an audience assembles and sits in silence1 while one man standing up1 talks to them8 ,what is his motive in thus claiming their attention8 ,many of them may have come from mere impulse1 of which they could give no rational explanation1 but the speaker at least should have a definite purpose4 ,a clear aim tends powerfully to give unity and consistency to the whole discourse1 and to prevent him from wandering into endless digressions4 ,it binds all detached parts together and infuses a common life through his address4 ,such a ruling aim cannot be too definitely recognized and carefully kept in view1 for it is the foundation of the whole discourse4 ,this object should not be too general in character4 ,it is not enough that we wish to please or to do good3 it may be safely assumed that speakers generally wish to do both4 ,but how shall these ends be reached8 8,what special good do ,i hope to accomplish by this address80 ,when you have made the object definite1 you are better prepared to adapt all available means to its accomplishment4 ,it should also be stated that the more objects are subdivided the more precision will be augmented1 though there is a limit beyond which such division would be at the expense of other qualities4 ,your object will usually have reference to the opinion or the action of those addressed1 and the firmer your own conviction of the truth of that opinion1 or the desirableness of that action1 the greater1 other things being equal1 your persuasive power will be4 ,if you do not know exactly what you wish1 there is little probability that your audience will care to interpret your thought2 they will take it for granted that you really mean nothing1 and even if you do incidentally present some truth supported by good arguments1 they will consider it a matter not calling for any immediate consideration or definite decision on their part4 ,the speaker's objects are comparatively few and are often determined by his very position and employment4 ,if you are engaged in a political canvass you are seeking to confirm and retain the votes of your own party1 while persuading over to your side the opposition4 ,votes constitute the object you seek1 and to win them is your purpose4 ,but there are many ways by which that desirable end may be accomplished--some wise and noble1 others ignoble4 ,but a political orator will gain in power by keeping clearly in view his purpose and rejecting from his speeches all things that merely arouse and embitter opponents1 without1 at the same time1 contributing to strengthen the hold of the speaker's own party upon its members4 ,if you are a lawyer you wish to win your case4 ,the judge's charge1 the jury's verdict1 are your objective points1 and all mere display which does not contribute directly or indirectly to these ends is worse than wasted1 as it may even interfere with your real purpose4 ,much of your success will depend upon keeping the right object before you at the right time4 ,if you aim at that which is unattainable1 the effort is not only lost1 but the object which you could have reached may in the meantime have passed out of your reach4 ,everybody has heard ministers arguing against some forms of unbelief which their hearers know nothing about4 ,this is worse than useless2 it may suggest the very errors intended to be refuted2 and if this does not result1 to think that the refutation will be stored up until the time when the errors themselves may be encountered1 is to take a most flattering view of the length of time during which sermons as well as other discourses are remembered4 ,you may avoid these errors by selecting some object which is practicable at the moment of utterance3 the first right step makes all after success possible4 ,there is a difference between the object of a speech and its subject2 the former is the motive that impels us to speak1 while the latter is what we speak about4 ,it is not uncommon for talkers to have a subject without any definite object1 unless it be the very general one of complying with a form or fulfilling an engagement4 ,when the period for the talk comes--it would not be right to call it a speech--they take the easiest subject they can find1 express all the ideas they happen to have about it1 and leave the matter4 ,until such persons become in earnest1 and get a living object1 true eloquence is utterly impossible4 ,the object of a discourse is the soul1 while the subject is but the body2 or1 as we may say1 the one is the end1 while the other is the means by which it is accomplished4 ,after the object is clearly realized by the speaker1 he can choose the subject to much better advantage4 ,it may happen that one object is so much more important than all other practicable ones that it forces itself irresistibly on his attention and thus saves the labor of choice2 at other times he may have several different objects with no particular reason for preferring one of them in the order of time to another4 ,in this case if a subject fills his mind it will be well to discuss it with an aim toward the object which may be best enforced by its means4 ,after all1 it makes but little difference which of these two is chosen first4 ,it is enough that when you undertake to speak you have a subject you fully understand1 and an object that warms your heart and enlists all your powers4 ,you can then speak1 not as one who deals with abstractions1 but as having a living mission to perform4 ,it is important that each subject should be complete in itself1 and rounded off from everything else4 ,its boundaries should be run with such precision as to include all that belongs to it1 but nothing more4 ,it is a common but grievous fault to have the same cast of ideas flowing around every subject4 ,there are few things in the universe which have not some relation to everything else4 ,if we do not1 therefore1 very strictly bound our subject1 we will find ourselves bringing the same matter into each discourse and perpetually repeating our thoughts4 ,if ingenious in that matter1 we may find a good excuse for getting our favorite anecdotes and brilliant ideas into connection with the most opposite kinds of subjects4 ,an old minister once gave me an amusing account of the manner in which he made outlines of the sermons of a local celebrity4 ,the first one was a very able discourse1 with three principal divisions--man's fallen estate1 the glorious means provided for his recovery1 and the fearful consequences of neglecting those means4 ,liking the sermon very well1 my informant went to hear the same man again4 ,the text was new1 but the first proposition1 was man's fallen estate2 the second1 the glorious means provided for his recovery2 and the last1 the fearful consequences of neglecting those means4 ,thinking that the repetition was an accident1 another trial was made4 ,the text was at as great a remove as possible from the other two4 ,the first proposition was1 man's fallen estate2 and the others followed in due order4 ,this was an extreme instance of a common fault1 which is by no means confined to the ministry4 ,when an eloquent ,congressman was once delivering a great address1 a member on the opposite benches rubbed his hands in apparently ecstatic delight1 and remarked in a stage whisper1 8,oh6 how ,i have always loved to hear that speech60 ,in a book of widely circulated sermon sketches1 nearly every one begins by asserting that man has fallen and needs the helps or is liable to the evils mentioned afterward4 ,no doubt this primary statement is important1 but it might sometimes be taken for granted4 ,the fault which we have here pointed out is not uncommon in preaching4 ,occasionally ministers acquire such a stereotyped form of expression that what they say in one sermon is sure to recur1 perhaps in a modified form1 in all others4 ,this is intolerable4 ,there is an end to the patience of man4 ,he tires of the same old ideas1 and wishes1 when a new text is taken1 that it may bring with it some novelty in the sermon4 ,the remedy against the evil under consideration is found in the careful selection and definition of subjects4 ,give to each its own territory and guard rigidly against all trespassers4 ,a speaker should not only see that what he says has some kind of connection with the subject in hand1 but that it has a closer connection with that subject than any other he may be called upon to discuss at or near the same time4 ,a very great lecturer advertises a number of lectures upon topics that seem to be totally independent4 ,yet all the lectures are but one1 except a few paragraphs in the introduction of each4 ,this is really a less fault in the case of an itinerating lecturer than in most other fields of oratory1 as the same people hear the lecture but once4 ,yet even then the false assumption of intellectual riches implied in the numerous titles cannot be justified4 ,the subject should be so well defined that we always know just what we are speaking about4 ,it may be of a general nature1 but our knowledge of it should be clear and adequate4 ,this is more necessary in an extempore than in a written speech1 though the want of it will be severely felt in the latter also4 ,a strong1 vividly defined subject will give unity to the whole discourse1 and probably leave a permanent impression on the mind of the hearer4 ,to aid in securing this it will be well to reduce every subject to its simplest form1 and then1 by writing it as a compact phrase or sentence1 stamp it on the mind1 and let it ring in every utterance2 that is1 let each word aid in carrying out the central idea1 or in leading up to it4 ,those interminable discourses that begin anywhere and lead nowhere1 may be called speeches or sermons1 by courtesy1 but they are not such4 ,to always preserve this unity of theme and treatment is not easy1 and calls1 often1 for the exercise of heroic self-denial4 ,to see in the mind's eye what we know would please and delight listeners1 pander to their prejudices1 or gain uproarious applause1 and then turn away with the words unspoken1 merely because it is foreign to our subject--this is as sore a trial as for a miser on a sinking ship to abandon his gold4 ,but it is equally necessary1 if we would not fall into grave rhetorical errors4 ,any speech which is constructed on the plan of putting into it all the wise or witty or pleasing things the speaker can think of will be a mere mass of more or less foolish talk4 ,shakespeare is often reproached with having neglected the dramatic unities of place and time2 but he never overlooked the higher unities of subject and object4 ,these remarks do not imply that illustration should be discarded or even used sparingly4 ,the whole realm of nature may be ransacked for these gems1 and if they do illustrate1 they are often better than statement or argument4 ,if the thing to be illustrated belongs to the subject1 then every apt illustration of it also belongs there4 ,it is possible that men of genius may neglect the unity of subject and object1 and still succeed by sheer intellectual force1 as they might do under any other circumstances4 ,but ordinary men cannot with safety follow the example of ,sidney ,smith4 ,his hearers complained that he did not 8stick to his text10 and1 that he might reform the more easily1 they suggested that he should divide his sermons as other ministers did4 ,he promised to gratify them1 and the next ,sabbath1 after reading his text1 he began3 8,we will divide our discourse this morning into three parts3 in the first place1 we will go up to our text2 in the second place1 we will go through it2 and in the third place1 we will go from it40 ,there was general agreement that he succeeded best on the last head1 but preachers who are not confident of possessing his genius had better confine themselves to the former two4 ,a true discourse is the orderly development of some one thought or idea with so much clearness and power that it may ever after live as a point of light in the memory4 ,other ideas may cluster around the central one1 but it must reign supreme4 ,if the discourse fails in this particular nothing else can redeem it4 ,brilliancy of thought and illustration will be as completely wasted as a sculptor's art on a block of clay4 ,a man of profound genius once arose to preach before a great assemblage1 and every breath was hushed4 ,he spoke with power1 and many of his passages were of thrilling eloquence4 ,he poured forth beautiful images and solemn thoughts with the utmost profusion2 yet when at the end of an hour he took his seat1 the prevailing sentiment was one of disappointment4 ,the address was confused--utterly destitute of any point of union to which the memory could cling4 ,many of his statements were clear and impressive1 but he did not make evident what he was talking about4 ,it was an impressive warning against erecting a building before laying a foundation4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,thought-,,gathering4 ,after the subject upon which we are to speak has been determined the logical order of preparation is1 first1 gathering material2 second1 selecting what is most fitting and arranging the whole into perfect order2 third1 fixing this in the mind so that it may be available for the moment of use4 ,these processes are not always separated in practice1 but they may be best considered in the order indicated4 ,when a subject is chosen and the mind fastened upon it1 that subject becomes a center of attraction and naturally draws all kindred ideas toward it4 ,old memories that had become dim from the lapse of time are slowly hunted out and grouped around the parent thought4 ,each hour of contemplation that elapses1 even if there is not direct study1 adds to the richness and variety of our available mental stores4 ,the relations between different and widely separated truths become visible1 just as new stars are seen when we gaze intently toward the evening sky4 ,all that lies within our knowledge is subjected to a rigid scrutiny and all that appears to have any connection with the subject is brought into view4 ,usually a considerable period of time is needed for this process1 and the longer it is continued the better1 if interest in the subject is not suffered to decline in the meanwhile4 ,but it is somewhat difficult to continue at this work long enough without weariness4 ,the capacity for great and continuous reaches of thought constitutes a principal element in the superiority of one mind over another4 ,even the mightiest genius cannot1 at a single impulse1 exhaust the ocean of truth that opens around every object of man's contemplation4 ,it is only by viewing a subject in every aspect that superficial and one-sided impressions can be guarded against4 ,but the continuous exertion and toil this implies are nearly always distasteful1 and the majority of men can only accomplish it by a stern resolve4 ,whether acquired or natural1 the ability to completely 8think out0 a subject is of prime necessity2 the young student at the outset should learn to finish every investigation he begins and continue the habit during life4 ,doing this or not doing it will generally be decisive of his success or failure from an intellectual point of view4 ,thought is a mighty architect1 and if you keep him fully employed1 he will build up with slow and measured strokes a gorgeous edifice upon any territory at all within your mental range4 ,you may weary of his labor and think that the wall rises so slowly that it will never be completed2 but wait4 ,in due time1 if you are patient1 all will be finished and will then stand as no ephemeral structure1 to be swept away by the first storm that blows1 but will be established and unshaken on the basis of eternal truth4 ,m4 ,bautain compares the accumulation of thought around a subject upon which the mind thus dwells with the development of organic life by continuous growth from an almost imperceptible germ4 ,striking as is the analogy1 there is one point of marked dissimilarity4 ,this growth of thought is voluntary and may easily be arrested at any stage4 ,the introduction of a new subject or cessation of effort on the old is fatal4 ,to prevent this and keep the mind employed until its work is done requires with most persons a regular and formal system4 ,profound thinkers1 who take up a subject and cannot leave it until it is traced into all its intricate relations and comprehended in every part1 and who have at the same time the power of easily recalling long trains of thought that have once passed through their mind1 have less need of an artificial method4 ,but their case is not that of the majority of thinkers or speakers4 ,we will give a method found useful for securing abundant speech materials1 and allow others to adopt it as far as it may prove advantageous to them4 ,the things we actually know are not always kept equally in view4 ,sometimes we may see an idea with great clearness and after a time lose it again1 while another1 at first invisible1 comes into sight4 ,each idea should be secured when it occurs4 ,let each thought that arises on the subject you intend to discuss be noted4 ,a word or a brief sentence sufficient to recall the conception to your own mind will be enough1 and no labor need be expended on composition or expression4 ,after this first gathering1 let the paper be laid aside and the subject be recommitted to the mind for further reflection4 ,as other ideas arise let them be noted down in the same manner and the process be thus continued for days together4 ,sometimes new images and conceptions will continue to float into the mind for weeks4 ,most persons who have not tried this process of accumulation will be surprised to find how many thoughts they have on the simplest topic4 ,if some of this gathered matter remains vague and shadowy1 it will only be necessary to give it more time and more earnest thought and all obscurity will vanish4 ,at last there comes the consciousness that the mind's power on that particular theme is exhausted4 ,if we also feel that we have all the material needed1 one step further only remains in this part of the work2 the comparison of our treasures with what others have accomplished in the same field4 ,it may be that this comparison will show the worthlessness of much of our own material1 but it is better to submit to the humiliation involved and be sure that we have the best that can be furnished by other minds as well as our own4 ,if we prefer1 we may speak when we have gathered only the materials that are already within our own grasp and thus have a greater consciousness of originality1 but such consciousness is a delusion unless based upon exhaustive research4 ,nearly all that we thus gather will be the result of previous reading1 and almost the only thing in its favor over the fresh accumulations that we make by reading directly in the line of our subject1 is the probability that the former knowledge will be better digested4 ,but more frequently1 after the young orator has recollected and briefly noted all that bears upon his subject with which his own mind furnishes him1 there remains a sense of incompleteness1 and he is driven to seek a further supply4 ,he is now hungry for new information1 and on this state there is an intellectual blessing corresponding to the moral blessing pronounced upon those who hunger and thirst after righteousness4 ,he reads the works of those who have treated the same or related topics1 converses with well-informed persons1 observes the world closely1 still putting down every new idea that seems to bear upon his theme4 ,whenever an idea is found which supplies a felt want1 it is received with great joy4 ,it often happens that instead of finding the very thing sought for he strikes upon the first link of some chain of thoughts in his own mind that leads up to what he desires1 but has hitherto overlooked4 ,the new idea is only the more valued when it has thus been traced out4 ,now1 we have on paper1 and often after much toil1 a number of confused1 unarranged notes4 ,they are destitute of polish1 and no more constitute a speech than the piles of brick and lumber a builder accumulates constitute a house4 ,indeed1 this comparison is too favorable1 for the builder has carefully calculated just what he needs for his house1 and has ordered those very things4 ,but usually we have in our notes much that can be of no use1 and at whatever sacrifice of feeling it must be thrown out4 ,this is a matter of great importance4 ,it has been said that the principal difference between the conversation of a wise man and of a fool is that the one speaks all that is in his mind1 while the other gives utterance only to carefully selected thoughts4 ,nearly all men have at times ideas that would please and profit any audience2 and if these are carefully weeded out from the puerilities by which they may be surrounded1 the remainder will be far more valuable than the whole mass4 ,everything not in harmony with the controlling object or purpose must be thrown away at whatever sacrifice of feeling4 ,read carefully your scattered notes after the fervor of pursuit has subsided and erase every phrase that is unfitting4 ,if but little remains you can continue the search as at first1 and erase and search again1 until you have all that you need of matter truly relevant to the subject4 ,yet it is not well to be over-fastidious4 ,this would prevent speech altogether1 or make the work of preparation so slow and wearisome that when the hour of effort arrived1 all freshness and vigor would be gone4 ,a knight in ,spenser's 8,faery ,queen0 entered an enchanted castle and as he passed through eleven rooms in succession he saw written on the walls of each the words1 8,be bold20 but on the twelfth the inscription changed to the advice of equal wisdom1 8,be not too bold40 ,the same injunctions are appropriate to the orator4 ,he should be careful in the selection of his material1 but not too careful4 ,many things which a finical taste might reject are allowable and very effective4 ,no definite rule1 however1 can be given on the subject1 as it is a matter of taste rather than of calculation4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,constructing ,a ,,plan4 ,no part of the orator's work is more important than that of constructing a good plan4 ,if this is not well done the fullest success is impossible4 ,in speech all thoughts are expressed by the slow process of successive words4 ,if these are badly chosen and so arranged as to carry forward the current of thought in the wrong direction1 almost endless hindrance and distraction may follow4 ,and as these words1 in extempore speech1 are given forth on the spur of the moment1 it becomes necessary to make such an arrangement that the proper idea to be dissolved into words shall always be presented to the mind at the proper time4 ,in some cases this disposition of parts is very easy4 ,a course indicated by the very nature of the subject will sometimes spring into view and relieve us of all further embarrassment4 ,a lawyer may find the discussion of the testimony of each of several witnesses1 together with the formal opening and close1 to be all the plan that he needs4 ,but more frequently this portion of the orator's task will both require and repay severe thought4 ,many different kinds of plans have been pointed out by preceding writers1 but we will indicate those only which have considerable practical importance4 ,the first of these may be called the narrative method4 ,it is most frequently used when the recital of some history forms the principal part of the discourse4 ,certain leading events1 either grouped together according to their nature or following the order of time1 furnish the primary divisions4 ,this kind of a discourse follows the same laws1 in the arrangement of the different parts1 as histories1 romances1 and narrative poems4 ,the order of time is the most obvious method of constructing it1 but this order should not be adhered to when the story can be better and more dramatically told by varying from it4 ,both introduction and conclusion should be very carefully selected--the former to arouse attention and direct it in the right course2 the latter to leave the strongest impression and the one most in harmony with the object of the speaker4 ,the second method is the textual1 and is especially though not exclusively adapted to sermons4 ,in it a verse from the ,bible1 a motto1 a sentence used by an opponent1 or some definite form of very significant words1 affords a basis for each part of the discourse4 ,the order of the discourse may1 however1 be different from that of the words in the text1 any change being allowable which secures more of the advantages of the narrative or logical methods4 ,when the text is itself well known1 a plan based upon it has an obvious advantage in assisting the memory both of speaker and hearer1 by suggesting each part of the discourse at the proper time4 ,when any lecture or oration has a formal motto which sums up and fairly expresses the subject discussed1 the textual plan will be as well adapted to it as to a sermon4 ,the logical or mathematical method is the third and probably the most symmetrical form the plan may assume4 ,a topic is taken1 and after the introduction1 which may be the mere statement of the subject1 or of the relations of the speaker or of the audience to it1 that subject is unfolded with all the precision of a proposition in geometry4 ,each thought is preliminary to that which follows1 and the whole ends in the demonstration of some great truth and the deduction of its legitimate corollaries4 ,this method is the best possible in those cases adapted to it--particularly those in which some abstruse subject is to be unfolded and proved4 ,the last method we will describe proceeds by divisions and subdivisions4 ,it is the military method1 for in it the discourse is organized like an army1 into corps1 brigades1 and regiments2 or it is like a tree1 which divides into two or three principal branches1 and these again subdivide until the finest twigs are reached4 ,all the detached items that have been selected are brought into related groups1 each governed by a central thought1 and these again are held in strict subordination to the supreme idea4 ,a subject will many times arrange itself almost spontaneously into several different parts1 which thus form the proper divisions1 and these again may be easily analyzed into their proper subdivisions4 ,even when this is not the case1 we will see1 as we examine the jottings we have made while gathering our materials1 that a few of the ideas stand out in special prominence1 and with a little close study of relations and affinities all the others may be made to group themselves around these4 ,the individual ideas we put down on the first study of the subject usually form the subdivisions1 and some generalization of them the divisions4 ,it is not well to make the branches of a subject too numerous or they will introduce confusion and fail to be remembered4 ,from two to four divisions with two or three subdivisions under each1 are in a majority of cases better than a large number4 ,the tendency to multiply them to a great extent1 and then to name them in the moment of delivery1 in their order of firstly1 secondly1 etc41 is in a great measure responsible for the popular estimate of the dryness of sermons1 where this kind of plan prevails more than anywhere else4 ,examples of the different kinds of discourses here alluded to may be found in the ,new ,testament4 ,the sermon of ,paul on ,mars ,hill was logical in its development4 ,the introduction is an exquisite adaptation of his theme to the position of his hearers1 and from that point each thought is a development from the preceding thought1 until the whole weight of argument converges to the duty of repentance because of the coming of a day in which ,jesus ,christ will be ,judge4 ,but when ,paul told the story of his conversion before ,agrippa1 the narrative form1 with strict adherence to the order of time1 was naturally adopted4 ,no better example of the divisional form can be found than ,christ's ,sermon on the ,mount1 in which the three chapters about correspond with the general divisions1 and the paragraphs devoted to such topics as blessing1 prayer1 fasting1 and forgiveness1 with the subdivisions4 ,when we have accumulated our materials1 stricken out all that is unfitting or superfluous1 and determined the general character of our discourse1 the remainder of the work of finishing the plan must be left to individual taste and judgment4 ,no rules can be given that will meet every case4 ,we might direct to put first those statements or arguments which are most easily comprehended1 and those which are necessary for understanding other portions of the discourse1 and also whatever is least likely to be disputed4 ,something strong and impressive should be held well in reserve4 ,it will not be according to the principles of that highest art which is the best mirror of nature if we exhaust interest in the opening and then close tamely4 ,beyond these obvious considerations little help can be given to the orator in this part of his work4 ,he must form his own ideal and then work up to it4 ,we do not advise any one to borrow other men's outlines for the purpose of filling them up and then speaking from them as if the work was original4 ,this is a most profitless kind of plagiarism4 ,such sketches may be useful to the very young speaker1 merely as indications of the kind of excellence in plans or sketches at which he should aim4 ,and when he hears good discourses he may look beneath the burning words and criticise the merits of the framework upon which they rest4 ,this may render him less satisfied with his own plans1 but such dissatisfaction ever affords the best hope for future success4 ,the true mode of improving your plans is to bestow a great deal of time and thought upon them1 and to make no disposition of any part for which you cannot give a satisfactory reason4 ,this direction relates only to the beginner4 ,in time the formation of plans will become so natural that any variation from the most effective arrangement will be felt as keenly as a discord in music is felt by a master in that art4 ,from such carefully constructed plans1 firm1 coherent1 and logical discourses will result4 ,there are certain general characteristics that each plan should possess4 ,it must fully indicate the nature of the proposed discourse and mark out each of its successive steps with accuracy4 ,any want of definiteness in the outline is a fatal defect4 ,you must feel that you can rely absolutely on it for guidance to the end of your discourse or be always in danger of embarrassment and confusion4 ,each clause should express a distinct idea1 and but one4 ,this should be repeated in no other part of the discourse2 otherwise1 we fall into wearisome repetitions1 the great vice1 as it is often claimed1 of extempore speakers4 ,a brief plan is better1 other things being equal1 than a long one4 ,often a single word will recall an idea as perfectly as many sentences1 and it will burden the memory less4 ,we do not expect the draft of a house to equal the house in size1 but only to preserve a proportionate relation to it throughout4 ,the plan cannot supply the thought1 but1 indicating what is in the mind1 it shows how to bring it forth in regular succession4 ,it is a pathway leading to a definite end1 and1 like all pathways1 its crowning merits are directness and smoothness4 ,without these qualities it will perplex and hinder rather than aid4 ,each word in the plan should suggest an idea1 and be so firmly bound to that idea that the two cannot become separated in any exigency of speech4 ,you will find it sorely perplexing if1 in the heat of discourse1 some important note should lose the thought for which it previously stood and become an empty word4 ,but with clear conceptions condensed into fitting words this cannot easily happen4 ,a familiar idea can be expressed very briefly1 while a strange or new conception may require more expansion4 ,but all thoughts advanced by the speaker ought to be familiar to himself as the result of long meditation and thorough mastery1 no matter how strange or startling they are to his hearers4 ,most skeletons may be brought within the compass of a hundred words1 and every part be clearly indicated to the mind that conceived it1 though perhaps not to any other4 ,there may be occasions when a speaker is justified in announcing his divisions and subdivisions1 but such cases are exceptions4 ,hearers do not care how a discourse is constructed1 so it comes to them warm and pulsating with life4 ,to give the plan of a speech before the speech itself is contrary to the order of nature4 ,we are not required first to look upon a grisly skeleton before we can see a graceful1 living body4 ,there is a skeleton inside each body1 but during life it is well hidden1 and there is no reason that the speaker should anticipate the work of the tomb4 ,it is hardly less objectionable to name the parts of the discourse during the progress of the discussion1 for--continuing the former illustration--bones that project through the skin are very unlovely4 ,the only ease1 ,i presume to think1 where it is justifiable to name the parts of a discourse1 either before or during its delivery1 is where the separate parts have an importance of their own1 in addition to their office of contributing to the general object4 ,much of the proverbial 8dryness0 of sermons arises from the preacher telling what he is about to remark1 firstly1 before he actually makes the remark thus numbered4 ,whenever we hear a minister read his text1 announce his theme1 state the parts into which he means to divide it1 and then warn us that the first head will be subdivided into a certain number of parts1 each of which is also specified in advance1 we prepare our endurance for a severe test4 ,what great speeches require are deep1 strong appeals to the hearts of the people1 through which shines the radiance of great truths and the lightning of intense convictions4 ,these can all find their place in the most logically constructed address if the logic be not brought out and paraded in its offensive nakedness4 ,no matter if the orator's mode of work is less understood4 ,a tree is far more beautiful and impressive when covered with waving foliage1 even if some of the branches are hidden4 ,let the tide of eloquence flow on in an unbroken stream1 bearing with it all hearts1 but giving no indication of the manner in which it is guided2 or1 better still1 let it move with the impetus of the cannon-ball1 but without proclaiming in advance the mark toward which it is flying4 ,the plan should go just as far as the intended speech1 that we may know exactly where to stop4 ,then we can arise with confidence1 for we are sure that we have something to say2 we know what it is1 and1 most important of all1 we will know when it is finished4 ,most of the objections urged against extempore speaking apply only to speeches that have no governing plan4 ,but when a firm and clear plan is prearranged1 there is no more danger of saying what we do not intend1 or of running into endless digressions1 than if every word was written4 ,indeed1 there is no better way of guarding against undue discursiveness in a written speech than by arranging such a plan before beginning to write4 ,but it may be urged that this laborious preparation--this careful placing of every thought--will require as much time as to write in full4 ,it may at first4 ,the mind needs to be drilled into the work1 and it will be of great value even as a mental discipline4 ,no study of logic or of metaphysics will give such practical insight into the nature of the mind's workings as this pre-arrangement of thoughts and words to frame a speech4 ,but the work grows continually easier with practice1 until the mature speaker will save three-fourths--or even more than that proportion--of the time consumed by the speech-writer4 ,the speech is now clearly indicated4 ,a plan has been prepared that fixes each item in its proper place4 ,there is no further danger of the looseness and desultoriness with which extempore speech has been reproached4 ,yet there is abundant room for the inspiration of the moment4 ,it is possible1 in all the fire of utterance1 to leave the beaten track and give expression to any new ideas that may be called up by the ardor of speech4 ,but a sure foundation is laid--a course is marked out which has been deeply premeditated1 and which gives certainty to all we say4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,how ,,shall ,,the ,,written ,,plan ,,be ,,used8 ,now that the plan is completed and fully written out1 the next question arises as to what shall be done with it4 ,it may either be used or abused4 ,to read it to the audience or exhibit it to them would be an obvious abuse4 ,possibly if the speaker possessed a large blackboard1 the latter course might1 in special cases1 have some advantages4 ,but even then it is better that the students should1 in most instances1 exercise their own ingenuity in gathering out of the body of the speech the central thoughts which they wish to preserve in their notebooks1 than that the work should be done for them in advance by having the whole plan of the lecture placed in their sight4 ,the writer has experimented on this subject by repeating the same lecture to different classes with the outline in some cases exposed to view1 and in the others concealed3 the interest has always seemed to be greater1 and the understanding more complete in the latter case4 ,if this is true where instruction is the only aim1 it is still more necessary where persuasion is the object of the speaker4 ,the exposing in advance of the means by which he intends to work1 will put on their guard the very persons whose hearts he wishes to capture1 and thus lose him all that advantage of surprise which is often as momentous in oratorical as in military affairs4 ,there are two other ways of using the plan to be considered4 ,one is to keep it in the speaker's sight1 so that he may step along from one item to another1 thus keeping a foundation of written words in the midst of the uncertainty of his extemporaneous efforts1 like that afforded by stepping-stones to a man crossing a running stream4 ,there are some advantages in such use4 ,the speaker will feel freer in making those pauses which are sometimes necessary for the sake of emphasis4 ,he is better able to collect his scattered ideas in case any untoward circumstance should break the thread of his discourse4 ,if he is confused for a moment1 he may look down to his paper and recover himself1 while if thoughts and words flow easily he can ignore the plan which lies before him4 ,but all the reasons for thus using the plan are the most emphatic condemnation of the practice4 ,they are all make-shifts4 ,they are based upon the thought that the great object is to secure the speaker from danger and confusion2 in other words1 they put him on the defensive1 instead of the aggressive4 ,were the question to be stated1 8,how can a man best preserve the form of extemporaneous speech while shielding himself from the most dangerous incidents of that mode of address80 it might plausibly be replied1 8,by making a very full plan and concealing it at some point within the reach of his eyes1 and using it whenever that course becomes easiest40 ,but we have not sought to point out the mode of speech which will best protect the speaker from risks incident to his work4 ,for real effectiveness1 compromises are usually hurtful1 and this expedient forms no exception4 ,to have a plan in sight tends powerfully to break up the speech into fragments and destroy its unity4 ,a series of short addresses on related points1 affords no substitute for a concentrated discourse4 ,the speaker who publicly uses his sketch1 speaks on until he reaches a point at which he does not know what is to come next1 and on the brink of that gulf1 looks down at his notes1 and1 perhaps after a search1 finds what he wants4 ,had the thought existed in his mind1 it would have blended the close of the preceding sentences into harmony with it4 ,direct address to the people1 which they so much value in a speaker1 is interfered with in the same way1 for his eye must rest for a portion of the time upon his notes4 ,he will also be apt to mention the divisions of his speech as they occur1 because the eye is resting upon them at the same time the tongue is engaged1 and it is hard to keep the two members from working in harmony4 ,if notes must be used the same advice applies that we have already offered to those who read in full4 ,be honest about it2 do not try to hide the notes4 ,any attempt to prove to an audience that we are doing what we are not doing1 has in it an element of deception1 and is morally objectionable4 ,the use of notes is not wrong1 but to use them while pretending not to use them is wrong4 ,some speakers carry their notes in their pockets for the sake of being able to take them out in case they find their memory failing1 and thus they guard against the misfortune which once befell the eloquent ,abbe ,bautain1 who1 on ascending the pulpit to preach before the ,french ,king and ,court1 found that he had forgotten subject1 plan1 and text4 ,this method is honest and unobjectionable1 for the notes of the plan are either not used by the speaker at all1 or if he takes them from his pocket1 the people will understand the action4 ,the only remaining method1 and that which we would urge upon every extempore speaker1 is to commit the plan1 as sketched1 to memory4 ,it is put in the best possible shape for the expression of the subject by the labor which has been previously bestowed upon it1 and now such review as will give the mind a perfect recollection of the whole subject in its orderly unfolding is just what is needed for final mastery4 ,previously much of the work of preparation was given to detached fragments4 ,now the subject as a whole is spread out4 ,the time given to a thorough memorizing of the plan need not be great2 it will indeed be but small if the plan itself is so well arranged that every preceding part suggests what follows2 but it will be the most fruitful of all the time spent in preparation4 ,it puts you in the best condition for speaking4 ,the object is then fixed in the heart and will fire it to earnestness and zeal1 while the subject is spread1 like a map1 before the mental vision4 ,all the power you possess can then be brought to bear directly upon the people4 ,do not fear that in the hurry of discourse you will forget some part of what is clear when you begin4 ,if you are in good mental and physical condition1 the act of speech will be exhilarating and stimulating1 so that every fine line of preparation will come into clearness just at the right time1 and many a relation unperceived before1 many a forgotten fact1 will spring up in complete and vivid perception4 ,there is a wonderful luxury of feeling in such speech4 ,sailing with a swift wind1 riding a race-horse1 even the joy of victorious battle--indeed1 all enjoyments that arise from the highest powers called forth into successful exercise--are inferior to the thrill and intoxication of the highest form of successful extemporaneous speech4 ,to think of using notes then would seem like a contemptible impertinence6 ,imagine ,xavier or ,luther with their notes spread out before them1 looking up the different items from which to address the multitudes spell-bound before them6 ,the ,presbyterian ,deacon who once prayed in the presence of his note-using ,pastor1 8,o ,lord6 teach ,thy servants to speak from the heart to the heart1 and not from a little piece of paper1 as the manner of some is10 was not so very far wrong6 ,it is advisable to commit the plan to memory a considerable time before speaking4 ,it then takes more complete possession of the mind and there is less liability of forgetting some portion4 ,this is less important when the subject is perfectly familiar1 for then 8out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh10 but those subjects which have been recently studied for the first time are in a different position2 and some meditation upon that which has just been arranged in its best form will be very serviceable4 ,even if the salient points are firmly grasped1 some of the minor parts may require further close consideration4 ,no study is ever so profitable as that which is bestowed after the plan is complete1 for up to that time there is danger that some of the thoughts to which our attention is given may be ultimately rejected and others radically modified4 ,but when the plan is finished each idea has settled into its place4 ,if obscurity rests anywhere1 it may be detected at once1 and the strength of the mind be brought to bear for its banishment4 ,impressions derived from meditation are then easily retained until the hour of speech1 because associated with their proper place in the prepared outline4 ,such deep meditation on each division of the discourse can scarcely fail to make it original in the true sense of the term1 and weave all its parts together with strong and massive thoughts4 ,after the plan has been memorized we can meditate upon it not only at the desk1 but anywhere4 ,as we walk about or lie in bed1 or at any other time find our minds free from distractions1 we can ponder the ideas that cluster around our subject until they grow perfectly familiar4 ,even when we are reading or thinking on other topics1 brilliant thoughts will not unfrequently spring up1 or those we possessed before take stronger and more definite outlines4 ,all such gains can be held in memory without the use of the pen1 because the plan furnishes a suitable place for them4 ,the course here described we would urge strongly upon the consideration of the young speaker4 ,if carefully followed1 its results will be invaluable4 ,arrange the plan from which you are to speak as clearly as may be in the form of a brief sketch2 turn it over and over again2 ponder each idea and the manner of bringing it out2 study the connection between all the parts until the whole from beginning to end appears perfectly plain and simple4 ,so frequently has this mode of preparation been tested that its effectiveness is no longer a matter of experiment4 ,it is advantageous to grasp the whole subject1 as early as possible1 in a single idea--in the same manner in which the future tree is compressed within the germ from which it is to spring4 ,then this one thought will suggest the entire discourse to the speaker1 and at its conclusion will be left clear and positive in the hearer's mind4 ,for some acute auditors this may be less necessary4 ,they are able to outrun a loose speaker1 arrange his scattered fragments1 supply his omissions1 and arrive at the idea which has not yet formed itself clearly in his own mind4 ,such persons often honestly commend orators who are incomprehensible to the majority of their hearers4 ,but the opinions of such auditors are an unsafe guide1 for they form a very small minority of any assembly4 ,there is one further step which may sometimes precede the moment of speech with profit--the placing upon paper of a brief but connected sketch or statement of the whole discourse4 ,if this is made in the ordinary writing there is danger that its slowness will make it more of a word-study than what it is intended to be--a test of ideas4 ,a thorough mastery of shorthand1 or the service of some one who has such mastery1 will supply this defect4 ,if the plan is well arranged there will be no pause in the most rapid composition1 and if the whole discourse can at one effort be thrown into a dress of words there may be full assurance that the same thing can be accomplished still more easily and effectively when the additional stimulus of an audience is supplied4 ,there should be no attempt1 in the moment of speaking1 to recall the very words used in writing1 but the command of language will undoubtedly be greatly improved by having so recently used many of the terms that will be again required4 ,frequently there will be fine passages in the speech which you have thus struck off at white heat that you may be unwilling to forget1 but it is better to make no effort to remember them1 for you are almost sure to rise still higher in the moment of public delivery4 ,when this rapid writing is not available1 a partial substitute for it may be found in writing in the ordinary hand a brief sketch or compact model of the whole discourse4 ,you will be surprised to notice how short a compass will suffice for a discourse requiring an hour or more in delivery1 without the omission of a single material thought4 ,such a sketch differs from the plan in clearly expressing all the ideas that underlie the coming speech1 while the latter would be nearly unintelligible to any but its author4 ,the one is only a few marks thrown out in the field of thought by which an intended pathway is indicated2 the other is a very brief view of the thoughts themselves1 without adornment or verbiage4 ,some speakers who might feel insecure in trusting the notes and hints of the plan would feel perfectly safe in enlarging upon a statement of their thoughts so brief that the whole sketch of the speech would not require more than three or four minutes to read4 ,but this whole plan of writing1 either in full or in brief1 is only an expedient1 and need not be adopted by those who have full confidence in their trained and cultivated powers4 ,after you have prepared your plan it is well to preserve it for future use1 which may be done by copying it into a book kept for that purpose3 or1 what is more convenient in practice1 folding the slip of paper on which it is written into an envelope of suitable size with the subject written on the back4 ,these may be classified and preserved1 even in very large numbers1 so as to be easily consulted4 ,from time to time1 as your ability grows1 they may be improved upon so as to remain the complete expression of your ability on every theme treated4 ,on the back of the envelope may also be written references to any source of additional information on the same subject1 and printed or written scraps1 valuable as illustrations1 or for additional information1 may be slipped inside4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,first ,,moment ,,of ,,speech4 ,haying completed all your preparations1 you now anxiously await the commencement of the intellectual battle4 ,this period is often a severe trial4 ,men who are physically brave sometimes tremble in anticipation of speedily standing before an audience4 ,the shame of failure then may appear worse than death itself4 ,as the soldier feels more of cold and shrinking terror when listening for the peal of the first gun1 than afterward1 when the conflict deepens into blood around him1 so the speaker usually suffers more in this moment of expectancy than in any that follows4 ,you behold the danger in its full magnitude1 without the inspiration that attends it4 ,yet whatever effort it may cost1 you must remain calm and collected1 for if not master of yourself1 you cannot expect to rule others4 ,your material must be kept well in hand1 ready to be used at the proper time1 though it is not well to be continually conning over your preparation4 ,that would destroy the freshness of your matter and bring you to the decisive test weary and jaded4 ,you only need such an occasional glance as will assure you that all your material remains within reach4 ,it is seldom possible by any means to banish all fear1 and it is to the speaker's advantage that he cannot4 ,his timidity arises from several causes1 which differ widely in the effects they produce4 ,a conscious want of preparation1 especially when this arises from any neglect or indolence1 is one of the most distressing sources of fear4 ,a species of remorse then mingles with the embarrassment natural to the moment4 ,if the speaker has no other motive than to win reputation--to minister to his own vanity--he will feel terrified1 as he realizes that shame instead of honor may be the result of his rashness4 ,that man is fortunate who can say1 8,i only speak because ,i feel it to be duty which ,i dare not refuse--a work that ,i must perform whether well or ill40 ,the lawyer who must defend his client1 the minister who feels that the hour of service has arrived1 the teacher in the presence of his class1 are examples of those who speak under the same kind of compulsion that calls a field laborer out into the burning heat of a ,july noon whether he feels like it or not4 ,but if you are about to speak because you have intruded into the work that properly belongs to another1 you need to be very sure of your preparation1 for in case of failure you will not have even your own sympathy4 ,but the most formidable and common foe of the speaker's1 in these preliminary moments1 is a general dread that can neither be analyzed nor accounted for4 ,persons who have never felt its power sometimes make light of it1 but experience will change their views4 ,the soldier who has never witnessed a battle1 or felt the air throb with the explosion of cannon1 or heard the awful cries of the wounded1 is often a great braggart2 while 8the scarred veteran of a hundred fights0 never speaks of the carnival of blood without shuddering1 and would be the last1 but for the call of duty1 to brave the danger he knows so well4 ,there may be a few speakers who do not feel such fear1 but it is because they do not know what true speaking is4 ,they have never known the full tide of inspiration which sometimes lifts the orator far above his conceptions1 but which first struggles in his own bosom like the pent fires of a volcano4 ,they only come forward to relieve themselves of the interminable stream of twaddle that wells spontaneously to their lips1 and can well be spared the pangs preceding the birth of a powerful and living discourse4 ,this kind of fear belongs to every kind of oratory1 but is most intense on those great occasions1 in presence of large audiences1 when men's passions run high4 ,in mere instructive address1 where the ground has been repeatedly gone over and where the effort is mainly of an intellectual character1 it is less noticeable4 ,it resembles the awe felt on the eve of all great enterprises1 and when excessive1 as it is in some highly gifted minds1 it constitutes an absolute bar to public speech4 ,but in most cases it is a source of inspiration rather than of repression4 ,there is a strange sensation often experienced in the presence of an audience4 ,it may proceed from the gaze of the many eyes that turn upon the speaker1 especially if he permits himself to steadily return that gaze4 ,most speakers have been conscious of this in a nameless thrill1 a real something1 pervading the atmosphere1 tangible1 evanescent1 indescribable4 ,all writers have borne testimony to the power of a speaker's eye in impressing an audience4 ,this influence which we are now considering is the reverse of that picture--the power their eyes may exert upon him1 especially before he begins to speak3 after the inward fires of oratory are fanned into flame the eyes of the audience lose all terror4 ,by dwelling on the object for which we speak and endeavoring to realize its full importance1 we will in a measure lose sight of our personal danger1 and be more likely to maintain a calm and tranquil frame of mind4 ,no change should be made in the plan at the last moment1 as that is very liable to produce confusion4 ,this error is often committed4 ,the mind has a natural tendency to go repeatedly over the same ground1 revising and testing every point1 and it may make changes the consequences of which cannot be in a moment foreseen4 ,but the necessary preparation has been made and we should now await the result calmly and hopefully4 ,over-study is quite possible1 and when accompanied by great solicitude wearies our mind in advance and strips the subject of all freshness4 ,if the eye is fixed too long upon one object with a steadfast gaze1 it loses the power to see at all4 ,so the mind1 if exerted steadily upon a single topic for a long period1 fails in vigor and elasticity at the moment when those qualities are indispensable4 ,that profound thinker and preacher1 ,frederick ,w4 ,robertson1 experienced this difficulty and was accustomed to find relief by reading some inspiring paragraphs upon some totally different theme from that he intended to speak about4 ,the energy and enthusiasm of our minds in the moment of speech must be raised to the highest pitch2 the delivery of a living discourse is not the dry enumeration of a list of particulars2 but we must actually feel an immediate and burning interest in the topics with which we deal4 ,this cannot be counterfeited4 ,to clearly arrange all thoughts that belong to the subject1 lay them aside when the work is done until the moment of speech1 and then enter confidently upon them with only such a momentary glance as will assure us that all is right--this is the method to make our strength fully available4 ,this confidence while in waiting seems to the beginner very difficult1 but experience rapidly renders it easy4 ,m4 ,bautain declares that he has been repeatedly so confident in his preparation as to fall asleep while waiting to be summoned to the pulpit6 ,those who misimprove the last moments by too much thought and solicitude are not the only class of offenders4 ,some persons1 through mere indolence1 suffer the fine lines of preparation which have been traced with so much care to fade into dimness4 ,this error is not unfrequently committed by those who speak a second or third time on the same subject4 ,because they have once succeeded they imagine that the same success is always at command4 ,no mistake could be greater4 ,it is not enough to have speech-material in a position from which it can be collected by a conscious and prolonged effort1 but it must be in the foreground of the mind4 ,there is no time at the moment of delivery for reviving half obliterated lines of memory4 ,the writer once saw a notable case of failure from this cause4 ,a preacher on a great occasion was much engrossed with other important duties until the hour appointed for his sermon had arrived4 ,with perfect confidence he selected a sketch from which he had preached a short time before and with the general course of which he was no doubt familiar4 ,but when he endeavored to produce his thoughts they were not ready4 ,he became embarrassed1 talked at random for a short time1 and then had the candor to tell the audience that he could not finish1 and to take his seat4 ,probably half an hour given to reviewing his plan would have made all his previous preparation fresh again1 and have spared him the mortification of failure4 ,in this last interval it is also well to care for the strength and vigor of the body1 as its condition greatly influences all mental operations4 ,it is said that the pearl-diver1 before venturing into the depths of the sea1 always spends a few moments in deep breathing and other bodily preparations4 ,in the excitement of speech1 the whirl and hurricane of emotion1 it is advisable to be well prepared for the high tension of nerve that is implied4 ,mental excitement exhausts and wears down the body faster than bodily labor4 ,we must carefully husband our strength that we may be able to meet all demands upon it4 ,holyoake makes the following pertinent observation in reference to this point3 8,perhaps the lowest quality of the art of oratory1 but one on many occasions of the first importance1 is a certain robust and radiant physical health2 great volumes of animal heat4 ,in the cold thinness of a morning audience mere energy and mellowness is inestimable2 wisdom and learning would be harsh and unwelcome compared with a substantial man1 who is quite a housewarming40 ,fatiguing and excessive exercise should be very carefully avoided4 ,holyoake illustrates this from his own experience4 ,he says3 8,one ,saturday ,i walked from ,sheffield to ,huddersfield to deliver on ,sunday two anniversary lectures4 ,it was my first appearance there1 and ,i was ambitious to acquit myself well4 ,but in the morning ,i was utterly unable to do more than talk half inaudibly and quite incoherently4 ,in the evening ,i was tolerable1 but my voice was weak4 ,my annoyance was excessive4 ,i was a paradox to myself4 ,my power seemed to come and go by some eccentric law of its own4 ,i did not find out until years after that the utter exhaustion of my strength had exhausted the powers of speech and thought1 and that entire repose1 instead of entire fatigue1 should have been the preparation for public speaking40 ,the last statement is somewhat too strong1 for absolute rest is not generally advisable4 ,it would leave the speaker1 when he began to speak1 with languid mind and slowly beating pulse--a state which it would require some minutes for him to overcome4 ,a short1 but brisk walk1 when the health is good1 will invigorate and refresh all his faculties1 and often prevent a listless introduction by giving him the vigor to grasp the subject at once and launch right into the heart of it4 ,should any person doubt the power of exercise to produce this effect1 let him1 when perplexed with difficult questions in his study1 start out over fields and hills1 and review the matter in the open air4 ,it is a good thing to carry the breath of the fields into the opening of our addresses4 ,but when the speaker cannot take this form of exercise in the moments just preceding speech1 he may easily find a substitute for it4 ,if alone1 he can pace back and forth and swing his arms until the circulation becomes brisk and pours a stream of arterial blood to the brain4 ,another simple exercise can be practiced anywhere1 and will be of great benefit4 ,many persons injure themselves by speaking too much from the throat4 ,this is caused by improper1 short1 and shallow breathing4 ,to breathe properly is beneficial at any time1 and does much to prevent or remedy throat and lung disease4 ,but in the beginning of a speech it is doubly important3 when once under way1 there will be no time to think of either voice or breath3 the only safe plan1 then1 is to have the right mode made habitual and instinctive4 ,this will be greatly promoted if just before beginning we breathe deeply for a few minutes1 inflating the lungs to their extremities and sending the warm blood to the very tips of the fingers4 ,having now done all we can in advance1 nothing remains but to rise and speak4 ,preparation and precaution are passed4 ,actual work--the most joyous1 thrilling1 and spiritual of all human tasks--is now to be entered upon4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,introduction4 ,the time for the speech having arrived1 we will now consider its separate parts4 ,no division is better for our purpose than that employed in a previous part of this work--a three-fold division into introduction1 discussion1 and conclusion4 ,a good introduction is exceedingly valuable1 and is to be sought for with great solicitude1 if it does not spontaneously present itself4 ,some kind of an introduction is inevitable1 for there will always be a first moment when silence is broken1 and our thoughts introduced4 ,the subsiding murmur of the audience tells the speaker that the time of his trial has come4 ,if he is very sensitive1 or if he has seldom1 if ever1 spoken before1 his pulse beats fast1 his face flushes1 and an indescribable feeling of faintness and fear thrills every nerve4 ,he may wish himself anywhere else1 but there is now no help for him4 ,he must arise1 and for the time stand as the mark for all eyes and the subject of all thoughts4 ,there is a vast difference between reciting and extemporizing in these opening moments1 and the advantage seems to be altogether on the side of recitation4 ,every word is in its proper place and the speaker may be perfectly calm and self-collected4 ,he is sure that his memory will not fail him in the opening1 and encouraged by that assurance1 will usually throw his whole power into his first sentences1 causing his voice to ring clear and loud over the house4 ,the extemporizer is in a far more difficult position4 ,he is sure of nothing4 ,the weight of the whole speech rests heavily upon his mind4 ,he is glancing ahead1 striving to forecast the coming sentences1 as well as carrying forward those gliding over the tongue1 and1 distracted by this double labor1 his first expressions may be feeble and ungraceful4 ,yet this modesty and timidity is no real loss3 it goes far to conciliate an audience and secure their good-will4 ,we can scarcely fail to distinguish memorized from extemporized discourses by the introduction alone4 ,to avoid the pain and hesitancy of an unelaborated beginning1 some speakers write and memorize the opening passage4 ,this may accomplish the immediate object1 but it is apt to be at the expense of all the remainder of the discourse4 ,the mind cannot pass easily from reciting to spontaneous origination2 and the voice1 being too freely used at first1 loses its power4 ,the hearers1 having listened to highly polished language1 are less disposed to relish the plain words that follow1 and the whole speech1 which1 like the ,alpine condor1 may have pitched from the loftiest summits1 falls fast and far1 until the lowest level is reached4 ,a written introduction may be modest and unpretending1 but unless it very closely imitates unstudied speech1 painful contrasts and disappointments are inevitable4 ,one mode of avoiding these difficulties is to make no formal introduction1 but to plunge at once into the heart of the subject4 ,sometimes1 when the minds of speaker and hearer are already absorbed by the same general topic1 as in the midst of a heated political canvass1 this mode is very good4 ,under such circumstances1 an interest may soon be aroused which removes all embarrassment4 ,but usually the speaker's mind is full of a subject which is unfamiliar and indifferent to his hearers4 ,it then behooves him to find some mode of gaining their attention and sympathy before he takes the risk of arousing a prejudice against his subject which he might afterward strive in vain to overcome4 ,if something is found which can be made to bear some relation to his subject1 without too violent straining1 and which already excites interest in their minds1 it will be far better to begin with that1 and lead them to the proper theme when their attention has been thoroughly aroused4 ,the introduction should not be left to the chance of the moment4 ,it may often1 with great propriety1 be prepared after all other parts of the speech are planned4 ,but with even more care than is given to any other portion should the introduction be prearranged4 ,when once the wings of eloquence are fully spread we may soar above all obstructions2 but in starting it is well to be assured that the ground is clear about us4 ,it is only the substance and not the words of the introduction that should be prepared4 ,a single sentence may be mentally forecast1 but much beyond would be harmful2 and even this sentence should be simple and easily understood4 ,anything that needs explanation is very much out of place4 ,neither should the introduction be so striking as to be the part of the discourse longest remembered4 ,rather than permit the attention to be distracted in that manner1 it would be better to have no introduction4 ,a speaker gains much if he can at the outset arrest the attention and win the sympathy of his hearers and then carry these over to his proper subject4 ,but it may be assumed as certain1 that no kind of an apology will accomplish this object--unless1 indeed1 the speaker is such a favorite that everything in regard to his health or position is an object of deep solicitude to his audience4 ,a popular speaker who happens to be late and apologizes for it by explaining that he had just escaped from a terrible railroad accident would make a good introduction4 ,a loved pastor1 in his first sermon after serious illness1 might properly begin by talking of his amendment and his joy at addressing his flock again4 ,but these are rare exceptions4 ,the speaker about to make any kind of an apology or personal reference as an introduction1 may well heed ,punch's advice to persons about to be married3 8,don't40 ,in many instances it is not easy to get the mere attention of an audience4 ,they come together from many different employments with thoughts engaged upon various topics1 and it is difficult to remove distracting influences and fix all minds upon one subject4 ,sometimes a startling proposition1 in the nature of a challenge1 will secure the object4 ,earnestness in the speaker goes far toward it4 ,but above everything else1 sameness and monotony must be carefully avoided4 ,when the same audience is frequently addressed1 variety becomes essential4 ,the writer knew of a minister who made it a rule to consider the nature1 reason1 and manner of his subjects1 in answer to the supposed questions3 8,what is it8 ,why is it8 ,how is it80 ,the eloquence of ,paul could not often have redeemed the faults of such an arrangement4 ,some inattention may be expected and patiently borne with at first4 ,part of the opening words may be lost--an additional reason for not making them of capital importance to the address4 ,it is useless to try by loud tones and violent manner to dispel indifference4 ,if the speaker's words have real weight1 and if his manner indicates confidence1 one by one the audience will listen1 until that electric thrill of sympathy1 impossible to describe1 but which is as evident to the practiced orator as an accord in music1 tells him that every ear is open to his words1 and that his thoughts are occupying every mind4 ,then the orator's power is fully developed1 and if himself and his theme are equal to the occasion it is delightful to use that power4 ,this silent1 pulsating interest is more to be desired than vehement applause1 for it cannot be counterfeited1 and it indicates that the heart of the assembly has been reached and melted by the fire of eloquence1 and is now ready to be molded into any desired form4 ,there are two or three general subjects available for introduction which every speaker would do well to study carefully1 and which will do much to furnish him with the means of properly approaching his theme4 ,we will mention the most useful of these1 premising that no one mode should be depended upon to the exclusion of others4 ,a good mode of introduction consists in a compliment to an audience4 ,when a truthful and manly compliment can be given it is a most pleasant and agreeable step toward the good-will of those we address2 but if used on all occasions indiscriminately1 it is meaningless2 if transparently false1 it is repulsive and disgusting2 but when true1 there is no reason why it should not be employed4 ,there are several good introductions of the complimentary character in the #bdth and #bfth chapters of ,acts4 ,when the orator1 ,tertullus1 accused ,paul1 he began by skillful1 but1 from the standpoint of his clients1 very insincere flattery3 8,seeing that by thee we enjoy great quietness1 and that very worthy deeds are done unto this nation by thy providence1 we accept it always1 and in all places1 most noble ,felix1 with all thankfulness40 ,no fault can be found with the form of this introduction1 but it was untrue1 for the men in whose names it was made were the very reverse of thankful to the ,roman ,governor4 ,paul was far too skillful to lose the advantage of beginning his address with a compliment1 and too honest to give a false one4 ,there was one fact over which he could rejoice4 ,felix had been long enough in office to know the ways of his enemies2 so ,paul uses that as an effective and truthful compliment1 while professing his own confidence in his cause4 8,forasmuch as ,i know that thou hast been for many years a ,judge unto this nation1 ,i do the more cheerfully answer for myself1 because that thou mayest understand40 ,in the same exquisite combination of truthfulness and compliment to a bad man1 ,paul begins his address when before ,king ,agrippa3 8,i think myself happy1 ,king ,agrippa1 because ,i shall answer for myself this day before thee1 touching all the things whereof ,i am accused of the ,jews2 especially because ,i know thee to be expert in all customs and questions which are among the ,jews2 wherefore1 ,i beseech thee to hear me patiently40 ,it should always be remembered1 however1 that compliments1 even in the estimation of those complimented1 are only grateful in proportion to their judicious character4 ,their hollowness1 if insincere1 is easily detected and thoroughly despised4 ,effective introductions can also be constructed from those topics of the day which may be supposed to fill all minds4 ,a few words on such subjects1 falling in with the general current of thought1 may easily lead up to the orator's special topic4 ,the newspapers may thus furnish us1 especially while some striking event is yet recent1 with the means of arresting the attention of newspaper readers at our first words4 ,another good mode of introduction is that of locality4 ,the people of any town may be presumed familiar with the objects or events of interest for which their own place is celebrated4 ,a ludicrous instance of this is narrated of the eloquent ,daniel ,webster4 ,he had visited ,niagara ,falls and was to make an oration at ,buffalo the same day1 but1 unfortunately1 he sat too long over the wine after dinner4 ,when he arose to speak1 the oratorical instinct struggled with difficulties1 as he declared1 8,gentlemen1 ,i have been to look upon your mag--mag--magnificent cataract1 one hundred--and forty--seven--feet high6 ,gentlemen1 ,greece and ,rome in their palmiest days never had a cataract one hundred--and forty--seven--feet high60 ,another mode of introduction which may be very useful under proper restrictions is that of citing some relevant remark made by an author whose name carries great weight1 or so pointed in itself as to at once arrest attention4 ,a great picture1 some feature of a landscape1 a great historical event1 may be cited in the same way4 ,this method of citation is capable of very wide application4 ,if the sentiment or impression made by the citation is directly opposite to that which the speaker wishes to produce this will increase rather than diminish interest1 as the enjoyment of contrast and controversy is very keen2 but the speaker should feel confident of his ability to overcome the influence of the citation when thus hostile4 ,a favorite introduction to abolition lectures in a former generation was the quotation of some strong and shocking declaration of the rightfulness or beneficence of slavery4 ,the last mode of introduction we will notice is very similar in character and may be termed that of perception4 ,something has been seen1 heard1 or imagined by the speaker1 which1 because of its simple1 tangible character1 is easily grasped1 and yet leads by some subtle analogy to his topic4 ,he has seen a ragged1 desolate boy on the street2 he describes that poor fellow to his audience2 and then finds them far more ready to listen to a plea for orphan asylums1 for education1 for better city government1 for anything which can have any bearing upon the welfare of the boy4 ,here1 then1 are five principles upon which appropriate introductions may be constructed4 ,many others might be named1 but these cover a wide range and may be very useful4 ,they are3 #a4 ,compliments4 #b4 ,current ,events4 #c4 ,local ,allusion4 #d4 ,citations4 #e4 ,things seen1 heard1 or imagined4 ,a great calamity may come to a speaker from a bad introduction4 ,speakers who are great in everything else often fail at this point4 ,some make their introductions too complicated1 and thus defeat their own end1 as surely as the engineer who gives his railroad such steep grades that no train can pass over it4 ,others deliver a string of mere platitudes and weary their audience from the beginning4 ,when from these or other causes our address is mis-begun1 the consequences may be serious4 ,the thought settles upon the speaker with icy weight that he is failing4 ,this conviction paralyzes all his faculties4 ,he talks on1 but grows more and more embarrassed4 ,incoherent sentences are stammered out which require painful explanation to prevent them from degenerating into perfect nonsense4 ,the outline of his plan dissolves into mist4 ,the points he intended to make which seemed strong and important now look trivial4 ,with little hope ahead he blunders on4 ,the room grows dark before him1 and in the excess of his misery he longs for the time when he can close without absolute disgrace4 ,but alas6 the end seems far off1 and he searches in vain for some avenue of escape4 ,there is none4 ,his throat becomes dry and parched1 and command of voice is lost4 ,the audience grow restive1 for they are tortured as well as the speaker1 and if he were malicious and had time to think about it1 he might find some alleviation in that4 ,no one can help him4 ,at length1 in sheer desperation1 he does what he ought to have done long before--simply stops and sits down--perhaps hurling some swelling morsel of common-place1 as a parting volley1 at the audience--bathed in sweat1 and feeling that he is disgraced forever6 ,if he is very weak or foolish1 he resolves never to speak again without having every word written out before him2 if wiser1 he only resolves1 not only to understand his speech1 but how to begin it4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,speech4 ,the passage from the introduction to the discussion should be made smoothly and gradually4 ,to accomplish this1 and to strike the subject at just the right angle1 continuing all the interest previously excited1 is a most important achievement4 ,a definite object is a great assistance in this part of the work4 ,if the object is clearly in view1 we go right up to it with no wasted words1 and the people follow our guidance because they see that we are not proceeding at random4 ,but with no strong purpose we are apt to steer about our subject without ever being quite ready to enter upon it4 ,the more brilliant the introduction the more difficult this transition will be4 ,but all these difficulties may be overcome with the aid of a well-constructed plan1 and then all the triumphs of oratory are before us4 ,there is great pleasure in speaking well4 ,an assembly hanging on the words and thinking the thoughts of a single man1 gives to him the most subtle kind of flattery4 ,but he must not inhale its fragrance heedlessly1 or his fall will be speedy and disastrous4 ,the triumphs of oratory are very fascinating--the ability to sway our fellows at pleasure1 to bind them willing captives with the strong chain of our thought--produces a delirious and intoxicating sense of power4 ,but in the best of instances such achievements are very transient1 and unless taken advantage of at the moment to work our cherished purposes1 the opportunity is lost4 ,even during a single address it is hard to maintain the influence of a happy moment4 ,speakers sometimes utter a great and noble thought and the nameless thrill of eloquence is felt1 but some irrelevant phrase or common-place sentiment dissolves the charm4 ,to avoid this1 the whole discourse must be animated with some controlling purpose1 and in its general character1 tend upward1 until its close4 ,the law of climax ought to be carefully considered by the speaker4 ,there may be more than one culmination of interest in an address1 separated by an interval less absorbing and powerful1 but this decline should only be allowed in order to prepare a second or third climax grander than all before4 ,to violate this rule and have a speech 8flatten out0 toward its close1 is a fearful error4 ,better reduce the length of the whole by one-half or three-fourths1 and maintain interest and attention to the end4 ,a few miscellaneous considerations in regard to the style and manner of the speech may be inserted here as well as anywhere4 ,diffuseness is often supposed to be a necessary quality of extemporaneous speech4 ,many speakers do fall into it1 but they need not4 ,they are diffuse because they are unwilling or unable to say exactly what they mean1 but come near it1 and continue their efforts until they are satisfied4 ,they furnish no clear view of any idea1 but only a kind of twilight illumination4 ,this serious fault may be overcome in spontaneous speech as readily as in writing4 ,he who thinks clearly and forcibly will talk in the same manner4 ,exquisite finish and elaborate verbal arrangement are not to be looked for in off-hand speech1 but each idea may be expressed with great force1 vigor1 and accuracy of shading4 ,this ability to say precisely what we mean in few words1 and at the first effort1 constitutes one of the great beauties of a spoken style4 ,the hearer is filled with grateful surprise when some new and living idea is suddenly placed before him clothed in a single word or sentence4 ,a diffuse speaker gives so many premonitions of his thought that the audience have guessed it1 and may even come to believe that they have always known it1 before he has made his formal presentment4 ,of course1 they are wearied1 and never give him credit for an original conception4 ,if troubled with this fault1 frequently forecast what to say2 drive it into the smallest number of vivid1 expressive words2 then1 without memorizing the language1 reproduce the same thought briefly in the hurry of speech4 ,if not successful in making it as brief as before1 repeat the effort4 ,this exercise will1 in time1 give the ability to condense4 ,but to exercise it the temptation to fine language must be overcome4 ,no sentence should be introduced for mere glitter or sparkle3 a single unnecessary word may require others to justify or explain it1 and thus may ruin a whole discourse4 ,the danger of showy language in speech is far greater than in writing1 for if the writer be drawn too far away from his subject he can strike out the offending sentences and begin again1 while the speaker has but one trial4 ,if beauty lies in his way1 well2 but if not1 he should never abandon his course to seek it4 ,we have seen many directions for 8expanding thought10 and have heard young speakers admire the ease and grace of such expansion4 ,but thoughts are not like medicines which require dilution to be more palatable4 ,it is better to give the essence of an idea and go on to something else4 ,there should be clear and ample expression2 condensation carried to the point of obscurity would be a fault2 but nothing more than clearness is needed4 ,if thoughts are few it is better to delve for others rather than to attenuate and stretch what we have4 ,a popular error exists as to the kind of language best adapted to the purposes of oratory4 ,high-sounding epithets and ,latinized words are considered the fitting medium of speech4 ,these may overawe ignorant hearers1 but can never strike the chords of living sympathy which bind all hearts together4 ,if we use terms hard to be understood the effort put forth by hearers to master their meaning is just so much subtracted from the force of the address4 ,the homely ,saxon words that dwell on the lips of the people will unload their wealth of meaning in the heart as soon as the sound strikes the ear4 ,uncommon words build a barrier around thought2 familiar ones are like a railroad over which it glides swiftly to its destination4 ,all debased and slang words should be rejected1 unless the speech is to partake of the nature of burlesque3 we do not advocate 8the familiarity that breeds contempt30 this is also a hurtful extreme4 ,the two great requisites in the use of words are that they should exactly express our ideas1 and that they should be familiar3 the charms of melody and association are not to be despised1 but they are secondary4 ,every speech should have its strong points1 upon which especial reliance is placed4 ,a skillful general has his choice battalions reserved to pierce the enemy's line at the decisive moment1 and win the battle4 ,in both the physical and the mental contest1 it is important to place these reserves aright that all their weight may be felt4 ,a crisis occurs in nearly all living addresses--a moment in which a strong argument or a fervid appeal will accomplish our purpose--just as a vigorous charge1 or the arrival of reinforcements1 will turn the doubtful scale of battle4 ,the speaker1 from the opening of his speech1 should have his object clearly in view and drive steadily toward it1 and when within reach1 put forth his whole power in a mighty effort1 achieving the result for which the whole speech was devised4 ,if the right opportunity is neglected it seldom returns1 and an hour's talk may fail to accomplish as much as one good burning sentence thrown in at the right time4 ,much talk after the real purpose of an address is accomplished also is useless and even perilous4 ,it has all along been taken for granted that the speaker has something worthy to say4 ,without this a serious address deserves no success1 although under some circumstances nothing but sound to tickle the ears is desired4 ,such speeches are well enough in their way1 but they rank with the performances on the piano by which a young lady entertains her uncritical visitors4 ,they cannot be called speeches in any real sense4 ,the fact that a speaker has a solid and worthy foundation of knowledge and an adequate purpose gives him confidence4 ,he knows that if his words are not instinct with music1 and if the pictures of his fancy are not painted in the brightest colors1 he has yet a just claim upon the attention of his hearers4 ,it is not necessary that the orator's thoughts should be exceedingly profound2 the most vital truths lie near the surface1 within reach of all4 ,but most men do not dwell long enough upon one subject to master its obvious features1 and when some one does fully gather up and fairly present what belongs to a worthy theme it is like a new revelation4 ,a good illustration of this is found in the sublimity ,dean ,stanley imparts to the story of the ,exodus of ,israel4 ,few new facts are presented1 but these are so arranged and vivified by a thoughtful mind that the subject glows into new meaning4 ,the extemporaneous speaker may have abundant time for such study of every topic within his range of addresses1 and if he uses it aright1 he can soon wield a charm far beyond any jingling combination of words4 ,when an orator stands before an audience1 shall he expect to overwhelm them by his eloquence8 ,such a result is possible but not probable2 and it can never be safely calculated upon4 ,if persons attempt to be greatly eloquent on all occasions1 they are apt to end by becoming ridiculous4 ,good sense and solid usefulness are better objects of endeavor4 ,any man who studies a subject until he knows more about it than his neighbors can interest them in a fireside explanation1 if they care for the subject at all3 he tells his facts in a plain style and is understood4 ,many persons will listen delighted to a man's conversation until midnight1 but will fall asleep in ten minutes if he tries to make a speech to them4 ,in the first case he talks1 and is simple and unaffected2 in the other he speaks and feels that he must use a style stiffened up for the occasion4 ,when ,henry ,clay was asked how he became so eloquent1 he said that he could tell nothing about it2 all he knew was that when he commenced an address he had only the desire to speak what he had prepared 7not memorized71 and adhered to this line of preparation until he was enwrapped in the subject1 and carried away1 he knew not how4 ,this was a good course1 for if the extraordinary inspiration did not come1 a good and sensible speech was secured at any rate4 ,some of these considerations may be of service if weighed in advance1 but when the speaker once ascends the platform he must rely on his own tact for the management of all details4 ,closely observing the condition of the audience1 and taking advantage of every favoring element1 he moves steadily toward his object4 ,with an unobstructed road before him1 which he has traveled in thought until it is familiar1 he will advance with ease and certainty4 ,as he looks upon interested faces1 new ideas arise1 and if fitting1 are woven into harmony with previous preparations1 often with thrilling effect4 ,each emotion enkindled by sympathy embodies itself in words that move the heart as prepared language could not do1 and each moment his own conviction sinks deeper into the hearts of his hearers4 ,there are three principal ways of concluding a speech4 ,one of the most graceful is to condense a clear view of the whole argument and tendency of the address into a few words1 and leave the summing up thus made to produce its own effect4 ,discourses aiming principally to produce conviction may very well be concluded in this manner4 ,to throw the whole sweep of an argument1 every point of which has been previously elaborated1 into a few telling sentences will contribute powerfully to make the impression permanent4 ,another and very common mode is to close with an application or with practical remarks4 ,when the address is a sermon1 this form of closing is frequently termed an exhortation1 and the whole speech is made to bear upon the duty of the moment4 ,the conclusion should be closely connected with the remainder of the address3 if it be so general in character as to fit any speech it will be of little service to any4 ,a conclusion should always be short and contain no new matter4 ,few things are more disastrous than the practice of drawing toward an end and then launching out into a new discussion4 ,all good things that have been said1 all previous favorable impressions1 are obliterated by this capital fault4 ,we should be careful to finish the discussion of our theme before we indicate that the conclusion has been reached4 ,and if1 at the moment of finishing1 we happen to think of anything1 however vital1 which has been omitted1 it had better be left to another time and place altogether4 ,a third method of closing is to simply break off when the last item is finished4 ,the full development of the discourse is thus made its ending1 care being taken that the last item discussed shall be of weight and dignity4 ,this is by no means the easiest form of conclusion1 but rightly managed it is one of the most effective4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,three ,,plans ,,of ,,great ,,addresses4 ,for the purpose of showing how completely speech of all kinds may be embraced in a brief skeleton1 we place before the reader three addresses of the most varied characteristics1 yet each most admirable in its own department4 ,one of these is ,english in origin1 one ,greek1 and the last may well be styled universal1 comprising1 as it does1 every element of excellence4 ,at the end of the first year of the great war waged between ,sparta and ,athens1 ,pericles pronounced a funeral oration over the dead who had fallen in the ,athenian cause4 ,much of the language employed may1 perhaps1 be ascribed to the invention of the historian1 ,thucydides1 but the substance and many of the strong expressions probably fell from the lips of the great statesman and orator of ,athens4 ,the speech possesses the simplicity and classic grace for which ,grecian art has ever been celebrated4 ,the orator's ,,subject was furnished by the occasion--the worthiness of the sacrifice which the fallen heroes had made to the greatness and glory of their native land4 ,his ,,object was to encourage the living to continue the war with ardor and support its privations with fortitude4 ,there are no digressions1 no anecdotes1 and scarcely any illustrations4 ,the glory of ,athens and of her dead heroes is the one theme ever before him4 ,this severe simplicity is carried too far to be entirely pleasing to modern taste1 but the effect is certainly grand and sublime4 ,a few very strong sentences relieve the general tone of clear1 calm description4 ,the translation is that of ,professor ,jowett4 ,,outline ,,of ,,funeral ,,speech4 ,,occasion4--,the burial of those ,athenians who fell in the first year of the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,,subject4--,the glory of ,athens and of the heroes who died for her4 ,,object4--,to nourish patriotism and fan warlike enthusiasm4 ,,introduction4--,inadequacy of words to the praise of the brave4 ,i4 ,,the ,,source ,,of ,,athenian ,,greatness4 #a4 ,the praise of ancestors who procured freedom and empire for the city4 #b4 ,excellencies of the form of our ,government4 #c4 ,refinements of our life4 #d4 ,in war we are an over-match for all our enemies4 #e4 ,all our citizens are interested in public affairs1 which are freely discussed4 #f4 ,in short1 ,athens is the school of ,hellas4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,praise ,,of ,,the ,,fallen4 #a4 ,the above praise of the city is the praise of the dead1 for they made her great4 #b4 ,death is the final seal of their virtues and secures them from all change of fortune4 #c4 ,the whole earth is full of their glory1 and their example is precious to their country4 ,,iii4 ,,comfort ,,to ,,kindred4 #a4 ,to parents4 #b4 ,to sons1 brothers1 and widows4 ,,conclusion4--,athens crowns her heroes by these honors1 and by maintaining their children at public cost4 ,,funeral ,,speech4 8,most of those who have spoken here before me have commended the lawgiver who added this oration to our other funeral customs2 it seemed to them a worthy thing that such an honor should be given at their burial to the dead who have fallen on the field of battle4 ,but ,i should have preferred that1 when men's deeds have been brave1 they should be honored in deed only1 and with such an honor as this public funeral1 which you are now witnessing4 ,then the reputation of many would not have been imperiled on the eloquence or want of eloquence of one1 and their virtues believed or not as he spoke well or ill4 ,for it is difficult to say neither too little nor too much2 and even moderation is apt not to give the impression of truthfulness4 ,the friend of the dead who knows the facts is likely to think that the words of the speaker fall short of his knowledge and of his wishes2 another who is not so well informed1 when he hears of anything which surpasses his own powers1 will be envious and will suspect exaggeration4 ,mankind are tolerant of the praises of others so long as each hearer thinks that he can do as well or nearly as well himself1 but when the speaker rises above him jealousy is aroused and he begins to be incredulous4 ,however1 since our ancestors have set the seal of their approval upon the practice1 ,i must obey1 and to the utmost of my power shall endeavor to satisfy the wishes and beliefs of all who hear me4 8,i will speak first of our ancestors1 for it is right and becoming that now1 when we are lamenting the dead1 a tribute should be paid to their memory4 ,there has never been a time when they did not inhabit this land1 which by their valor they have handed down from generation to generation1 and we have received from them a free ,state4 ,but if they were worthy of praise1 still more were our fathers1 who added to their inheritance1 and after many a struggle transmitted to us1 their sons1 this great empire4 ,and we ourselves assembled here to-day1 who are still most of us in the vigor of life1 have chiefly done the work of improvement1 and have richly endowed our city with all things1 so that she is sufficient for herself both in peace and war4 ,of the military exploits by which our various possessions were acquired1 or of the energy with which we or our fathers drove back the tide of war1 ,hellenic or ,barbarian1 ,i will not speak2 for the tale would be long and is familiar to you4 ,but before ,i praise the dead1 ,i should like to point out by what principles of action we rose to power1 and under what institutions and through what manner of life our empire became great4 ,for ,i conceive that such thoughts are not unsuited to the occasion1 and that this numerous assembly of citizens and strangers may profitably listen to them4 8,our form of government does not enter into rivalry with the institutions of others4 ,we do not copy our neighbors1 but are an example to them4 ,it is true that we are called a democracy1 for the administration is in the hands of the many and not of the few4 ,but while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes1 the claim of excellence is also recognized2 and when a citizen is in any way distinguished1 he is preferred to the public service1 not as a matter of privilege1 but as the reward of merit4 ,neither is poverty a bar1 but a man may benefit his country whatever be the obscurity of his condition4 ,there is no exclusiveness in our public life1 and in our private intercourse we are not suspicious of one another1 nor angry with our neighbor if he does what he likes2 we do not put on our sour looks at him1 which1 though harmless1 are not pleasant4 ,while we are thus unconstrained in our private intercourse1 a spirit of reverence pervades our public acts2 we are prevented from doing wrong by respect for authority and for the laws1 having an especial regard to those which are ordained for the protection of the injured as well as to those unwritten laws which bring upon the transgressor of them the reprobation of the general sentiment4 8,and we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil2 we have regular games and sacrifices throughout the year2 at home the style of our life is refined2 and the delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish melancholy4 ,because of the greatness of our city the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon us2 so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as of our own4 8,then1 again1 our military training is in many respects superior to that of our adversaries4 ,our city is thrown open to the world1 and we never expel a foreigner or prevent him from seeing or learning anything of which the secret if revealed to an enemy might profit him4 ,we rely not upon management or trickery1 but upon our own hearts and hands4 ,and in the matter of education1 whereas they from early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which are to make them brave1 we live at ease1 and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they face4 ,and here is the proof4 ,the ,lacedmonians come into ,attica not by themselves1 but with their whole confederacy following2 we go alone into a neighbor's country2 and although our opponents are fighting for their homes and we on a foreign soil1 we have seldom any difficulty in overcoming them4 ,our enemies have never yet felt our united strength2 the care of a navy divides our attention1 and on land we are obliged to send our own citizens everywhere4 ,but they1 if they meet and defeat a part of our army1 are as proud as if they had routed us all1 and when defeated they pretend to have been vanquished by us all4 8,if1 then1 we prefer to meet danger with a light heart but without laborious training1 and with a courage which is gained by habit and not enforced by law1 are we not greatly the gainers8 ,since we do not anticipate the pain1 although1 when the hour comes1 we can be as brave as those who never allow themselves to rest2 and thus too our city is equally admirable in peace and in war4 ,for we are lovers of the beautiful1 yet simple in our tastes1 and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness4 ,wealth we employ1 not for talk and ostentation1 but when there is a real use for it4 ,to avow poverty with us is no disgrace2 the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it4 ,an ,athenian citizen does not neglect the ,state because he takes care of his own household2 and even those of us who are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics4 ,we alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs1 not as a harmless1 but as a useless character2 and if few of us are originators1 we are all sound judges of a policy4 ,the great impediment to action is1 in our opinion1 not discussion1 but the want of knowledge which is gained by discussion preparatory to action4 ,for we have a peculiar power of thinking before we act and of acting too1 whereas other men are courageous from ignorance but hesitate upon reflection4 ,and they are surely to be esteemed the bravest spirits who1 having the clearest sense both of the pains and pleasures of life1 do not on that account shrink from danger4 ,in doing good1 again1 we are unlike others2 we make our friends by conferring1 not by receiving favors4 ,now he who confers a favor is the firmer friend1 because he would fain by kindness keep alive the memory of an obligation2 but the recipient is colder in his feelings1 because he knows that in requiting another's generosity he will not be winning gratitude but only paying a debt4 ,we alone do good to our neighbors not upon a calculation of interest1 but in the confidence of freedom and in a frank and fearless spirit4 ,to sum up3 ,i say that ,athens is the school of ,hellas1 and that the individual ,athenian in his own person seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace4 ,this is no passing and idle word1 but truth and fact2 and the assertion is verified by the position to which these qualities have raised the ,state4 ,for in the hour of trial ,athens alone among her contemporaries is superior to the report of her4 ,no enemy who comes against her is indignant at the reverses which he sustains at the hands of such a city2 no subject complains that his masters are unworthy of him4 ,and we shall assuredly not be without witnesses2 there are mighty monuments of our power which will make us the wonder of this and of succeeding ages2 we shall not need the praises of ,homer or of any other panegyrist whose poetry may please for the moment1 although his representation of the facts will not bear the light of day4 ,for we have compelled every land and every sea to open a path for our valor1 and have everywhere planted eternal memorials of our friendship and of our enmity4 ,such is the city for whose sake these men nobly fought and died2 they could not bear the thought that she might be taken from them2 and every one of us who survive should gladly toil on her behalf4 8,i have dwelt upon the greatness of ,athens because ,i want to show you that we are contending for a higher prize than those who enjoy none of these privileges1 and to establish by manifest proof the merit of these men whom ,i am now commemorating4 ,their loftiest praise has been already spoken4 ,for in magnifying the city ,i have magnified them1 and men like them whose virtues made her glorious4 ,and of how few ,hellenes can it be said as of them1 that their deeds when weighed in the balance have been found equal to their fame6 ,methinks that a death such as theirs has been gives the true measure of a man's worth2 it may be the first revelation of his virtues1 but is at any rate their final seal4 ,for even those who come short in other ways may justly plead the valor with which they have fought for their country2 they have blotted out the evil with the good1 and have benefited the ,state more by their public services than they have injured her by their private actions4 ,none of these men were enervated by wealth or hesitated to resign the pleasures of life2 none of them put off the evil day in the hope1 natural to poverty1 that a man1 though poor1 may one day become rich4 ,but1 deeming that the punishment of their enemies was sweeter than any of these things1 and that they could fall in no nobler cause1 they determined at the hazard of their lives to be honorably avenged1 and to leave the rest4 ,they resigned to hope their unknown chance of happiness2 but in the face of death they resolved to rely upon themselves alone4 ,and when the moment came they were minded to resist and suffer1 rather than to fly and save their lives2 they ran away from the word of dishonor1 but on the battle-field their feet stood fast1 and in an instant1 at the height of their fortune1 they passed away from the scene1 not of their fear1 but of their glory4 8,such was the end of these men2 they were worthy of ,athens1 and the living need not desire to have a more heroic spirit1 although they may pray for a less fatal issue4 ,the value of such a spirit is not to be expressed in words4 ,any one can discourse to you forever about the advantages of a brave defense which you know already4 ,but instead of listening to him ,i would have you day by day fix your eyes upon the greatness of ,athens1 until you become filled with the love of her2 and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory1 reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who knew their duty and had the courage to do it1 who in the hour of conflict had the fear of dishonor always present to them1 and who1 if ever they failed in an enterprise1 would not allow their virtues to be lost to their country1 but freely gave their lives to her as the fairest offering which they could present at her feast4 ,the sacrifice which they collectively made was individually repaid to them2 for they received again each one for himself a praise which grows not old1 and the noblest of all sepulchres--,i speak not of that in which their remains are laid1 but of that in which their glory survives1 and is proclaimed always and on every fitting occasion both in word and deed4 ,for the whole earth is the sepulchre of famous men2 not only are they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country1 but in foreign lands there dwells also an unwritten memorial of them1 graven not on stone but in the hearts of men4 ,make them your examples1 and1 esteeming courage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness1 do not weigh too nicely the perils of war4 ,the unfortunate who has no hope of a change for the better has less reason to throw away his life than the prosperous1 who1 if he survive1 is always liable to a change for the worse1 and to whom any accidental fall makes the most serious difference4 ,to a man of spirit1 cowardice and disaster coming together are far more bitter than death1 striking him unperceived at a time when he is full of courage and animated by the general hope4 8,wherefore1 ,i do not now commiserate the parents of the dead who stand here2 ,i would rather comfort them4 ,you know that your life has been passed amid manifold vicissitudes1 and that they may be deemed fortunate who have gained most honor1 whether an honorable death like theirs1 or an honorable sorrow like yours1 and whose days have been so ordered that the term of their happiness is likewise the term of their life4 ,i know how hard it is to make you feel this1 when the good fortune of others will too often remind you of the gladness which once lightened your hearts4 ,and sorrow is felt at the want of those blessings1 not which a man never knew1 but which were a part of his life before they were taken from him4 ,some of you are of an age at which they may hope to have other children1 and they ought to bear their sorrow better2 not only will the children who may hereafter be born make them forget their own lost ones1 but the city will be doubly a gainer4 ,she will not be left desolate1 and she will be safer4 ,for a man's counsel cannot have equal weight or worth when he alone has no children to risk in the general danger4 ,to those of you who have passed their prime1 ,i say1 #8,congratulate yourselves that you have been happy during the greater part of your days2 remember that your life of sorrow will not last long1 and be comforted by the glory of those who are gone4 ,for the love of honor alone is ever young1 and not riches1 as some say1 but honor is the delight of men when they are old and useless4' 8,to you who are the sons and brothers of the departed1 ,i see that the struggle to emulate them will be an arduous one4 ,for all men praise the dead1 and however pre-eminent your virtue may be1 hardly will you be thought1 ,i do not say to equal1 but even to approach them4 ,the living have their rivals and detractors1 but when a man is out of the way1 the honor and good-will which he receives is unalloyed4 ,and1 if ,i am to speak of womanly virtues to those of you who will henceforth be widows1 let me sum them up in one short admonition3 ,to a woman not to show more weakness than is natural to her sex is a great glory1 and not to be talked about for good or for evil among men4 8,i have paid the required tribute1 in obedience to the law1 making use of such fitting words as ,i had4 ,the tribute of deeds has been paid in part2 for the dead have been honorably interred1 and it remains only that their children should be maintained at the public charge until they are grown up3 this is the solid prize with which1 as with a garland1 ,athens crowns her sons1 living and dead1 after a struggle like theirs4 ,for where the rewards of virtue are greatest1 there the noblest citizens are enlisted in the service of the ,state4 ,and now1 when you have duly lamented1 every one his own dead1 you may depart40 ,we next present the sketch of a sermon by ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,spurgeon1 and part of the sermon itself4 ,this is the more instructive1 as the plan was prepared substantially in the way we have advised1 and the sermon preached extemporaneously from it4 8,,love ,,and ,i0--,a ,,mystery4 ,a ,,sermon ,,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,spurgeon4 ,from ,homiletic ,monthly1 ,nov41 #ahhb4 ,,pulpit ,,notes ,,used ,,by ,,spurgeon4 ,john xvii1 #bf4 ,our ,lord praying with ,his disciples at the last4 ,this the climax of the prayer4 ,in the deep1 scratching the ground1 get a harvest4 ,here the final word is love and union with 8,i40 ,lord1 what a subject4 ,i4 ,,the ,,food ,,of ,,love4 #a4 ,knowledge4 #b4 ,knowledge given by ,christ4 #c4 ,knowledge gradually increasing4 #d4 ,knowledge distinguishing us from the world4 #e4 ,knowledge of the name4 ,righteous ,father4 ,holiness1 goodness1 mercy1 love4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,love ,,itself4 #a4 ,it is not love toward us but in us4 #b4 ,it is not love from the wells of the creature4 #c4 ,it is a recognition of ,father's love to the ,son4 ,it is a sense of the ,father's love to us4 ,it is a reflection upon ,jesus of the ,father's love4 ,it is a beaming forth of love all around4 #d4 ,it has the most blessed results4 ,expulsive1 repulsive1 impulsive4 ,renders supremely happy1 brave1 patient1 elevated4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,companion ,,of ,,love4 ,love and ,i4 ,jesus sure to be where there is love1 faith1 the ,spirit1 ,god4 ,christ ever near4 ,believer ever safe4 ,believer should render good entertainment4 ,it will be noticed that the preacher's subject is ,christ and love dwelling in the human heart2 the object is to induce those who have this love to appreciate it more highly1 and all others to seek it4 ,we give only the introduction and the third division 7which is also the conclusion71 together with a part of the first division1 as the whole discourse is too long to be quoted here4 ,it may be added that these notes and the development of these parts are fair specimens of the manner in which the great ,london preacher prepares and delivers his discourses4 ,text4--,i have declared unto them ,thy name1 and will declare it2 that the love wherewith ,thou has loved me may be in them1 and ,i in them4--,john xvii1 #bf4 8,for several ,sabbath mornings my mind has been directed into subjects which ,i might fitly call the deep things of ,god4 ,i think ,i have never felt my own incompetence more fully than in trying to handle such subjects4 ,it is a soil into which one may dig and dig as deep as ever you will1 and still never exhaust the golden nuggets which lie within it4 ,i am1 however1 comforted by this fact1 that these subjects are so fruitful that even we who can only scratch the surface of them shall yet get a harvest from them4 ,i read once of the plains of ,india that they were so fertile that you had only to tickle them with the hoe and they laughed with plenty2 and surely such a text as this may be described as equally fruitful1 even under our feeble husbandry4 ,pearls lie on the surface here as well as in the depth4 ,we have only to search its surface1 and stir the soil a little1 and we shall be astonished at the plentitude of spiritual wealth which lies before us4 ,oh6 that the ,spirit of ,god may help us to enjoy the blessed truths which are herein set forth6 ,here is the priceless treasure1 but it lies hid till ,he reveals it to us4 8,you see1 this text is taken out of our ,lord's last prayer with ,his disciples4 ,he did as good as say1 #8,i am about to leave you2 ,i am about to die for you2 and for a while you will not see me2 but now1 before we separate1 let us pray4' ,it is one of those impulses that you have felt yourselves4 ,when you have been about to part from those you love1 to leave them1 perhaps1 in danger and difficulty1 you have felt you could do no less than say1 #8,let us draw nigh unto ,god4' ,your heart found no way of expressing itself at all so fitting1 so congenial1 so satisfactory1 as to draw near unto the great ,father and spread the case before ,him4 ,now a prayer from such a one as ,jesus1 our ,lord and ,master--a prayer in such a company1 with the eleven whom ,he had chosen1 and who had consorted with ,him from the beginning1 a prayer under such circumstances1 when ,he was just on the brink of the brook of ,cedron1 and was about to cross that gloomy stream and go up to ,calvary1 and there lay down ,his life--such a prayer as this2 so living1 earnest1 loving1 and divine1 deserves the most studious meditations of all believers4 ,i invite you to bring hither your best thoughts and skill for the navigation of this sea4 ,it is not a creek or bay1 but the main ocean itself4 ,we cannot hope to fathom its depths4 ,this is true of any sentence of this matchless prayer1 but for me the work of exposition becomes unusually heavy1 because my text is the close and climax of this marvelous supplication1 it is the central mystery of all4 ,in the lowest depth there is still a lower deep1 and this verse is one of those deeps which still exceed the rest4 ,oh6 how much we want the ,spirit of ,god6 ,pray for ,his bedewing2 pray that ,his balmy influences may descend upon us richly now4 8,you will observe that the last word of our ,lord's prayer is concerning love4 ,this is the last petition which ,he offers1 #8,that the love wherewith ,thou hast loved me may be in them1 and ,i in them4' ,he reaches no greater height than this1 namely1 that ,his people be filled with the ,father's love4 ,how could ,he rise higher8 ,for this is to be filled with all the fullness of ,god1 since ,god is love1 and he that loveth dwelleth in ,god and ,god in him4 ,what importance ought you and ,i attach to the grace of love6 ,how highly we should esteem that which ,jesus makes the crown jewel of all4 ,if we have faith1 let us not be satisfied unless our faith worketh by love and purifieth the soul4 ,let us not be content1 indeed1 until the love of ,christ is shed abroad in our hearts by the ,holy ,ghost which is given unto us4 ,well did the poet say1 #8,only love to us be given2 ,lord1 we ask no other ,heaven2' for indeed there is no other ,heaven below1 and scarcely is there any other ,heaven above than to reach to the fullness of perfect love4 ,this is where the prayer of the ,son of ,david ends1 in praying #8that the love wherewith ,thou hast loved me may be in them4' ,what a subject6 ,the highest that even our ,lord ,jesus reached in ,his noblest prayer4 ,again with groanings my heart cries1 ,holy ,spirit1 help6 8,i4 ,first1 ,,the ,,food ,,of ,,love ,,to ,,god3 ,what is it8 ,it is knowledge4 #8,i have made known unto them ,thy name1 and will make it known4' ,we cannot love a ,god whom we do not know2 a measure of knowledge is needful to affection4 ,however lovely ,god may be1 a man blind of soul cannot perceive ,him1 and therefore is not touched by ,his loveliness4 ,only when the eyes are opened to behold the loveliness of ,god will the heart go out toward ,god1 who is so desirable an object for the affections4 ,brethren1 we must know in order to believe2 we must know in order to hope2 and we must especially know in order to love4 ,hence the great desirableness that you should know the ,lord and ,his great love which passeth knowledge4 ,you cannot reciprocate love which you have never known1 even as a man cannot derive strength from food which he has not eaten4 ,till first of all the love of ,god has come into your heart1 and you have been made a partaker of it1 you cannot rejoice in it or return it4 ,therefore our ,lord took care to feed ,his disciples' hearts upon the ,father's name4 ,he labored to make the ,father known to them4 ,this is one of ,his great efforts with them1 and ,he is grieved when ,he sees their ignorance and has to say to one of them1 #8,have ,i been so long time with you1 and yet hast thou not known me1 ,philip8 ,he that hath seen me hath seen the ,father2 and how sayest thou then1 ,show us the ,father8' ,study much1 then1 the word of ,god3 be diligent in turning the pages of ,scripture and in hearing ,god's true ministers1 that the flame of love within your hearts may be revived by the fuel of holy knowledge which you place upon it4 ,pile on the logs of sandal wood1 and let the perfumed fires burn before the ,lord4 ,heap on the handfuls of frankincense and sweet odors of sacred knowledge1 that on the altar of your heart there may always be burning the sacred flame of love to ,god in ,christ ,jesus4 8,the knowledge here spoken of is a knowledge which ,jesus gave them4 #8,i have known ,thee1 and these have known that ,thou hast sent me4 ,and ,i have declared unto them ,thy name1 and will declare it4' ,o beloved6 it is not knowledge that you and ,i pick up as a matter of book-learning that will ever bring out our love to the ,father3 it is knowledge given us by ,christ through ,his ,spirit4 ,it is not knowledge communicated by the preacher alone which will bless you2 for1 however much he may be taught of ,god himself1 he cannot preach to the heart unless the blessed ,spirit of ,god comes and takes of the things that are spoken1 and reveals them and makes them manifest to each individual heart1 so that in consequence it knows the ,lord4 ,jesus said1 #8,o righteous ,father6 the world hath not known ,thee6' and you and ,i would have been in the same condition1 strangers to ,god1 without ,god and without hope in the world1 if the ,spirit of ,god had not taken of divine things and applied them to our souls so that we are made to know them4 ,every living word of knowledge is the work of the living ,god4 ,if you only know what you have found out for yourself1 or picked up by your own industry apart from ,jesus1 you know nothing aright3 it must be by the direct and distinct teaching of ,god the ,holy ,ghost that you must learn to profit4 ,jesus ,christ alone can reveal the ,father4 ,he ,himself said3 #8,no man cometh unto the ,father but by me4' ,he that knows not ,christ knows not the ,father1 but when ,jesus ,christ reveals ,him1 ah6 then we do know ,him after a special1 personal1 peculiar1 inward knowledge4 ,this knowledge brings with it a life and a love with which the soul is not puffed up1 but built up4 ,by such knowledge we grow up into ,him in all things who is our head1 being taught of the ,son of ,god4 8,this knowledge1 dear friends1 comes to us gradually4 ,the text indicates this3 #8,i have declared unto them ,thy name1 and will declare it4' ,as if1 though they knew the ,father1 there was far more to know and the ,lord ,jesus was resolved to teach them more4 ,are you growing in knowledge1 my brothers and sisters8 ,my labor is lost if you are not growing in grace and in the knowledge of our ,lord and ,saviour ,jesus ,christ4 ,i hope you know much more of ,god than you did twenty years ago when first you came to ,him4 ,that little knowledge which you received by grace when you found #8life in a look at the ,crucified ,one' has saved you2 but in these after years you have added to your faith knowledge1 and to your knowledge experience2 you have gone on to know more deeply what you knew before1 and to know the details of what you seemed to know in the gross and the lump at first4 ,you have come to look into things as well as upon things--a look at ,christ saves1 but oh6 it is the look into ,christ that wins the heart's love and holds it last and binds us to ,him as with fetters of gold4 ,we ought every day to be adding something to this inestimably precious store1 that as we are known of ,god so we may know ,god1 and become thereby transformed from glory unto glory through ,his ,spirit4 8,are you not thankful for this blessed word of the ,lord ,jesus3 #8,i will declare it1' #8,i will make it known'8 ,he did do so at ,his resurrection1 when ,he taught ,his people things they knew not before2 but ,he did so much more after ,he had ascended up on high when the ,spirit of ,god was given4 #8,he shall teach you all things1 and bring all things to your remembrance1 whatsoever ,i have said unto you4' ,and now to-day in the hearts of ,his people ,he is daily teaching us something that we do not know4 ,all our experience tends that way4 ,when the ,spirit of ,god blesses an affliction to us1 it is one of the ,saviour's illuminated books out of which we learn something more of the ,father's name1 and consequently come to love ,him better3 for that is the thing ,christ aims at4 ,he would so make known the ,father1 that the love wherewith the ,father had loved ,him may be in us1 and that ,he ,himself may be in us4 8,this knowledge distinguishes us from the world4 ,it is the mark by which the elect are made manifest4 ,in the sixth verse of this chapter our ,lord says3 #8,i have manifested ,thy name unto the men which ,thou gavest me out of the world4 ,thine they were1 and ,thou gavest them me2 and they have kept ,thy word4' ,the world does not know the ,father1 and cannot know ,him1 for it abides in the darkness and death of sin4 ,judge yourselves1 therefore1 by this sure test1 and let the love which grows out of gracious knowledge be a token for good unto you4 99 99 99 99 99 8,,iii4 ,thirdly1 here is ,,the ,,companion ,,of ,,love4 #8,i in them4' ,look at the text a minute and just catch those two words4 ,here is #8love' and #8,i'--love and ,christ come together4 ,o blessed guests6 #8,love and ,i1' says ,christ2 as if ,he felt ,he never had a companion that suited ,him better4 #8,love' and #8,i3' ,jesus is ever at home where love is reigning4 ,when love lives in ,his people's hearts1 ,jesus lives there too4 ,does ,jesus1 then1 live in the hearts of ,his people8 ,yes1 wherever there is the love of the ,father shed abroad in them ,he must be there4 ,we have ,his own word for it1 and we are sure that ,jesus knows where ,he is4 8,we are sure that ,he is where love is2 for1 first1 where there is love there is life1 and where there is life there is ,christ1 for ,he ,himself says1 #8,i am the life4' ,there is no true life in the believer's soul that is divided from ,christ4 ,we are sure of that2 so that where there is love there is life1 and where there is life there is ,christ4 ,again1 where there is the love of ,god in the heart there is the ,holy ,spirit2 but wherever the ,holy ,spirit is1 there is ,christ1 for the ,holy ,spirit is ,christ's representative2 and it is in that sense that ,he tells us1 #8,lo1 ,i am with you alway1' namely1 because the ,spirit is come to be always with us4 ,so where there is love1 there is the ,spirit of ,god2 and where there is the ,spirit of ,god1 there is ,christ4 ,so it is always1 #8,love and ,i4' 8,furthermore1 where there is love there is faith1 for faith worketh by love1 and there never was true love to ,christ apart from faith2 but where there is faith there is always ,christ1 for if there is faith in ,him ,he has been received into the soul4 ,jesus is ever near to that faith which has ,himself for its foundation and resting place4 ,where there is love there is faith1 where there is faith there is ,christ1 and so it is #8,love and ,i4' 8,ay1 but where there is the ,father's love toward ,christ in the heart ,god ,himself is there4 ,i am sure of that1 for ,god is love4 ,so if there is love within us there must be ,god1 and where ,god is there ,christ is1 for ,he saith1 #8,i and my ,father are one4' ,so you see where there is love there must be ,jesus ,christ1 for these reasons and for many others besides4 8',i in them4' ,yes1 if ,i were commanded to preach for seven years from these three words only1 ,i should never exhaust the text1 ,i am quite certain4 ,i might exhaust you by my dullness1 and exhaust myself by labor to tell out the sacred secret1 but ,i should never exhaust the text4 #8,i in them4' ,it is the most blessed word ,i know of4 ,you1 beloved1 need not go abroad to find the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,where does ,he live8 ,he lives within you4 #8,i in them4' ,as soon as ever you pray you are sure ,he hears you1 because ,he is within you4 ,he is not knocking at your door2 ,he has entered into you1 and there ,he dwells1 and will go no more out forever4 8,what a blessed sense of power this gives to us4 #8,i in them4' ,then it is no more #8,i' in weakness1 but1 since ,jesus dwells in me1 #8,i can do all things through ,christ that strengthened me4' #8,i in them4' ,it is the glory of the believer that ,christ dwells in him4 #8,unto you that believe ,he is precious4' 8,hence we gather the security of the believer4 ,brother1 if ,christ be in me1 and ,i am overcome1 ,christ is conquered too1 for ,he is in me4 #8,i in them4' ,i cannot comprehend the doctrine of believers falling from grace4 ,if ,christ has once entered into them1 will ,he not abide with them8 ,paul saith1 #8,i am persuaded that neither death1 nor life1 nor angels1 nor principalities1 nor powers1 nor things present1 nor things to come1 nor height1 nor depth1 nor any other creature1 shall be able to separate us from the love of ,god which is in ,christ ,jesus our ,lord4' ,to that persuasion ,i set my hand and seal4 ,well1 then1 if ,christ is in us1 whatever happens to us will happen to ,him4 ,we shall be losers if we do not get to ,heaven2 but so will ,he be1 for ,he is in us1 and so is a partaker of our condition4 ,if it is an indissoluble union--and so ,he declares it is--#8,i in them1' then ,his destiny and ours are linked together2 and if ,he wins the victory we conquer in ,him3 ,if ,he sits at the right hand of ,god we shall sit at the right hand of ,god with ,him1 for ,he is in us4 8,i know not what more to say1 not because ,i have nothing more1 but because ,i do not know which to bring forward out of a thousand precious things2 but ,i leave the subject with you4 ,go home and live in the power of this blessed text4 ,go home and be as happy as you can be to live1 and if you get a little happier that will not hurt you1 for then you will be in ,heaven4 ,keep up unbroken joy in the ,lord4 ,it is not #8,i in them' for ,sundays1 and away on ,mondays2 #8,i in them' when they sit in the ,tabernacle1 and out of them when they reach home4 ,no1 #8,i in them' and that forever and forever4 ,go and rejoice4 ,show this blind world that you have a happiness which as much outshines theirs as the sun outshines the sparks which fly from the chimney and expire4 ,go forth with joy and be led forth with peace2 let the mountains and the hills break forth before you into singing3 #8,all that remains for me ,is but to love and sing1 ,and wait until the angels come1 ,to bear me to the ,king4' 8',oh6 but ,i have my troubles4' ,i know you have your troubles1 but they are not worthy to be compared with the glory that shall be revealed in you1 nor even with your present glory4 ,i feel as if ,i could not think about troubles1 nor sins1 nor anything else when ,i once behold the love of ,god to me4 ,when ,i feel my love to ,christ1 which is but ,god's love to ,christ1 burning within my soul1 then ,i glory in tribulation1 for the power of ,god shall be through these afflictions made manifest in me4 #8,i in them4' ,god bless you with the knowledge of this mystery1 for ,jesus' sake4 ,amen40 ,our third example is the outline of that grand inaugural discourse of the ,christian religion found in the #eth1 #fth1 and #gth chapters of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,the ,sermon on the ,mount is too familiar to need reproduction here1 but the outline will show how regular it is in structure1 and how closely it conforms to the laws which govern discourses4 ,the subject is the distinction between the ,spiritual ,kingdom ,christ then set up1 and the ,jewish ,state1 of which ,his hearers were still members4 ,the object is to induce ,his hearers to enter immediately into this new and better ,kingdom4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,sermon ,,on ,,the ,,mount4 ,,introduction4--#a4 ,who the blessed 7happy7 ones really are2 v1 #b-ab4 #b4 ,the position of the blessed2 v1 #ac-af4 #c4 ,the ,old ,kingdom not to be destroyed by the ,new2 v1 #ag-bj4 ,i4 ,,contrasts ,,between ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,kingdoms ,,concerning ,,things ,,forbidden4 #a4 ,the law against ,killing2 v1 #ba-bf4 #b4 ,the law against ,adultery2 v1 #bg-cb4 #c4 ,the law against ,profanity2 v1 #cc-cg4 #d4 ,the law against ,injuries2 v1 #ch-dh4 ,,ii4 ,,contrasts ,,concerning ,,practical ,,duties4 #a4 ,almsgiving2 vi1 #b-d4 #b4 ,prayer2 vi1 #e-ae4 ,example--the ,lord's ,prayer4 #c4 ,fasting2 vi1 #af-ah4 #d4 ,treasure-gathering2 vi1 #ai-cd4 ,,iii4 ,,how ,,subjects ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,kingdom ,,should ,,regard ,,other ,,persons4 #a4 ,with charity in word and action2 vii1 #a-ab4 #b4 ,but with caution2 influence of numbers and of false teachers deprecated2 vii1 #ac-bc4 ,,conclusion4--,the whole subject illustrated by the evil consequences of building a house upon a foundation of sand1 and the good consequences of building it upon a rock4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,illustrations1 ,,pathos1 ,,humor4 ,all popular and effective discourses must possess at least one of the above qualities4 ,in ordinary speeches they do not present themselves spontaneously1 but must be sought out with diligence and perseverance4 ,some speakers find it easy to sparkle with illustrations and to indulge in humor and pathos1 but others can only succeed in that direction with painful toil4 ,we wish now to consider a few of the methods by which they can be secured when they do not present themselves spontaneously4 ,the need of abundant illustrations has been felt in all kinds of address and many efforts have been made to supply them4 ,a number of books have been published in which illustrations have been gathered from a wide range of literature1 and catalogued for use4 ,the speaker may employ these cautiously with great profit2 and no longing for an originality1 which1 after all1 can never be absolute1 should deter him4 ,the labor of searching for one or two illustrations of an important thought may be greater than that devoted to the preparation of the whole speech1 but it is labor very profitably employed4 ,while thinking what any particular thing is like1 our conception of the thing itself and of all the ideas that cluster around it1 will become much more vivid4 ,even the illustrations we reject may have great value in sharpening our conceptions of the difference between the thing investigated and all other things of a similar character4 ,but it is not enough to search for similes and figures among ready-made selections4 ,all we know1 hear1 and read1 may be passed in mental review for the purpose of seeing what truth it will vividly set forth4 ,if we assume that our speeches must be illustrated1 and spend much time in seeking for good illustrations1 changing those we have used for better ones whenever possible1 we will come to 8think double10 that is1 to see the likeness that exist in all objects to something else4 ,the habit of doing this grows with practice4 ,if we pass our addresses in review asking ourselves1 8,what points did we fail to make strong and intelligible for want of good illustrations80 we will be able both to see our defects in this line and the means of remedying them4 ,there should be a very careful record of these treasures made1 for with the majority of speakers nothing else is so precious4 ,scraps from newspapers1 sentences copied into common-place books1 all kinds of memoranda which direct attention to a happy figure heard in conversation1 encountered in reading1 or thought of1 will be exceedingly valuable4 ,it is possible to have too many illustrations1 but for one speaker who labors under this disadvantage nine have not enough4 ,a bad illustration--one which is cloudy1 tame1 in bad taste1 or which does not illuminate or enforce some part of our subject--is worse than none at all4 ,it should be thrown out and its place supplied with something better4 ,the power to touch the heart1 and as an evidence of deep feeling to cause tears to flow1 is greatly sought by orators1 and1 strange as it may seem1 is highly enjoyed by audiences4 ,there is a luxury in aroused feeling1 and multitudes will throng to the church or hall where they are made to weep4 ,if the effort for such effects is carried too far1 it will become unmanly and maudlin2 but in proper bounds it is a genuine oratorical resource4 ,how shall a reasonable degree of pathos be brought into our discourses8 ,incidents which involve great or heroic suffering and self-sacrifices1 if well told1 with a direct bearing upon the general theme1 seldom fail to make a deep impression4 ,they are often invented by the speaker1 but while that device may not always be worthy of condemnation1 its expediency is questionable4 ,reality has far more power than fiction4 ,there is so much of suffering and sorrow in the world1 and so much of heroic struggle against it1 that if our addresses fairly reflect this 8world-tragedy0 the highest pathos will be realized4 ,keen1 quick observation and a really sympathetic nature on the part of the speaker will show him where to find the materials to move the hearts of his hearers4 ,but while using such materials he must retain command of his own feelings4 ,to be truly successful in the use of pathos he must give a reasonable foundation for the emotion he wishes to evoke1 and then be able to turn the aroused feeling into some channel which will justify the pain caused4 ,humor is intimately associated with pathos by the law of opposites4 ,one is almost the direct reaction from the other1 and after one has been evoked the other follows more easily than it would at another time4 ,the spirit of humor is valuable in all forms of address1 but in some--notably in the political arena and on the platform--it is invaluable4 ,its range is vast4 ,it may be so rude and uncouth as to lessen the dignity of discourse1 or it may be of the most refined character4 ,while it cannot be relied upon as an argument1 yet if a good argument is employed and then clenched by a humorous story or allusion of perfect appropriateness1 much is gained4 ,to make an audience laugh at the positions of an opponent1 at least prepares the way for refuting him4 ,this quality may be cultivated by seeking out and enjoying the humorous element which is found in everything4 ,we ought to be able to laugh at all that is ludicrous1 without in the least losing our respect and veneration for what is good4 ,everything coarse and evil should be rejected from our minds instantly1 however humorous2 but all the really funny things1 which can by any possibility be pressed into the service of speech1 should be carefully noted and remembered4 ,abraham ,lincoln owed no small part of his popular power to his marvelous fund of humorous illustrations4 ,more than one noted preacher has given a keener edge to truth by the same means4 ,extemporaneous speech furnishes much better opportunity than written for the acquirement of all these elements of power4 ,when a speech is once written it is finished4 ,but when merely planned and outlined1 all stories1 quotations1 incidents1 and happy turns of language discovered afterward1 may be noted on the written plan1 or slipped into an envelope with it1 and afterward used at any time without the labor necessary to adjust them to a manuscript discourse4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,orator',s ,,logic4 ,logic is either one of the most useful or one of the most useless acquisitions of the orator4 ,as taught in the middle ages1 with its barbarous jargon of symbols and terms1 it can add but little directly to the force or truth of any man's speech1 although even in that form it may1 like most other studies1 accomplish something in the way of sharpening the critical faculty and strengthening memory and attention4 ,its definitions1 also1 are not altogether valueless4 ,but not one student in a thousand will apply its cumbrous rules in shaping his own reasoning1 or in judging of the reasoning of others4 ,if the reader has studied logic his own experience may be confidently appealed to4 ,do you ever1 in reading an argument1 notice to which figure and mood of the syllogism it conforms8 ,if the argument seems false1 do you ever seek to find whether the fault is in negative promises1 want of distribution of the middle term1 or in the violation of any other technical rule of logic8 ,the mind has a much more direct and summary mode for disposing of unsatisfactory arguments4 ,but the principles of logic are few and simple1 and when divested of all technicality1 are of universal application4 ,we will venture to point out some that may be of especial service to the speaker3 #ast4 ,clear definition4 ,the speaker should know the meaning of his subject and of all the important terms used in connection with it4 ,this knowledge he should convey to his hearers in the most clear and striking manner that his own powers will permit4 ,to have an audience misunderstand the speaker so far that while he was talking of one thing they are understanding something totally different 7even if known by the same name7 would be a grave logical fault4 ,exact and comprehensive definition1 often enlivened and simplified by similes or anecdotes1 will prevent such danger4 #b;d4 ,exact and comprehensive division of a subject is scarcely less important than clear definition4 ,this is of equal value in studying a subject and in presenting it to an audience4 ,if we wished to speak or learn about the ocean1 one of the first facts to be dealt with would be its division into five parts--,atlantic1 ,pacific1 etc4 ,a good principle of division should always be selected and faithfully applied4 ,then as many subdivisions may be added as naturally follow from the application of another good principle of division4 ,thus1 astronomy may be first defined as 8the science of the stars40 ,then it can be divided into planetary and stellar astronomy4 ,the former may be subdivided into descriptions of the individual planets and other bodies in the solar system2 the latter into the classes of objects found among the fixed stars4 ,all of this is not a rhetorical or oratorical device1 but has its foundation in mental laws2 in other words1 it is logical4 #c;d4 ,classification lies at the foundation of many of the sciences1 and is a process of the highest importance in every domain of knowledge4 ,in no other manner can the vast multitude of facts discovered by millions of observing eyes be preserved and made useful4 ,the orator must also classify his general knowledge1 and that special part of it which he intends to use for a speech4 ,all his proofs1 appeals1 illustrative facts1 and even his digressions should be arranged according to those natural bonds of congruity which constitute the basis of all classification4 ,but in what way can the person who is ignorant of technical logic make a harmonious classification8 ,it will not add much to his ability to tell him that two processes--abstraction and generalization--are the basis of all true classification4 ,it is simpler and means the same to say that things should be classed together which agree in some permanent and fundamental quality4 ,thus a vast number of animals of the most varied sizes1 shapes1 and powers1 agree in having backbones and are therefore put into a class and called vertebrates4 ,the study of agreements and similarities in things the most diverse is exceedingly profitable to the orator in many different ways4 ,it affords inexhaustible material for illustrations--8those windows of speech40 ,the difference between the likeness upon which classification and illustrations are based is about as follows3 ,the similarities which give rise to scientific classes are very important and essential2 those from which illustrations spring may be slight and superficial4 ,these three processes are of more importance to the orator than any others embraced in logic4 ,there is nothing 8dry0 or 8repulsive0 about them--terms quite frequently applied to discourses which turn aside from their own direct purpose to display the mere machinery of reasoning4 ,by division a distinct impression is made of each part of a subject2 by definition all misunderstandings are cleared away and attention fixed upon the very points at issue2 by classification all thoughts find their proper places and are so gathered up into general ideas and joined with other familiar thoughts1 by way of illustration1 that they may easily be remembered and applied4 ,but how about the syllogism which logical treatises devote so much time to explaining8 ,its many varieties and endless transformations wrought out by acute minds from the time of ,aristotle to the present1 are curious and interesting1 but they are not specially available for a speaker4 ,yet1 since they rest upon a few easily understood principles1 we will refer to the most obvious4 ,if two things each resemble a third it is certain that they also resemble each other4 ,if one thing equals a second1 but does not equal a third1 then the second and third do not equal each other4 ,in the syllogism two comparisons are made and the resulting agreement or disagreement is expressed in the conclusion4 ,thus3 ,corrupt men are bad citizens4 ,men buying or selling votes are corrupt men4 ,therefore1 men buying or selling votes are bad citizens4 ,here the class of corrupt men agrees with the class of bad citizens2 it also agrees with the class who buy or sell votes2 now1 as it agrees with each of the two classes1 it is certain that those two classes also agree with each other4 ,this is the plain form of the syllogism4 ,the following is an instance of disagreement3 ,good citizens are patriotic men4 ,traitors are not patriotic4 ,therefore1 traitors are not good citizens4 ,when an agreement and disagreement are thus stated in the first and second lines1 the result stated in the third line must be a disagreement4 ,but if the first and second lines both state disagreements no result can be drawn1 for there is more than one mode of disagreement4 ,this may be illustrated by the case of two witnesses to the same circumstance4 ,if both tell the truth their stories will agree2 if one tells the truth and the other does not1 their stories disagree2 but if neither tells the truth1 their stories may or may not agree--that is1 they may tell the same falsehood or different kinds of falsehood4 ,in the syllogism it is necessary to see that the comparisons made are real and not fictitious4 ,false logic or fallacies arise where a comparison seems to be made which is not real4 ,part of one thing or class may be compared with the whole of another1 and then an agreement affirmed or denied for the whole of the two things or classes1 and this fatal fault in reasoning may be very carefully concealed4 ,it can usually be detected by turning around the sentence in which the defective comparison is made4 ,thus3 ,men are animals4 ,horses are animals4 ,therefore1 men are horses4 ,this seems to be a perfectly fair specimen of correct syllogisms4 ,but in the first line the class 8men0 is compared with only a part of the class 8animals10 and in the second line the whole of the class 8horses0 is compared with another part of the class 8animals10 and as the comparison is not restricted to the same objects no statement of agreement or disagreement can be made4 ,we detect the insufficiency of the comparison by saying1 it is true that all men are animals1 but not true that all animals are men4 ,another mode of making a seeming comparison without the reality is by using words in unlike senses4 ,thus3 ,all light bodies dispel darkness4 ,a bag of feathers is a light body4 ,therefore1 a bag of feathers will dispel darkness4 ,to guard against this and all similar fallacies it is only necessary to notice whether the comparison is fair and complete4 ,practice will give great expertness in doing this1 even when the comparison is implied rather than expressed4 ,indeed1 the greater part of reasoning lies outside the range of formal logic4 ,the orator who would reduce each argument to a syllogistic form would be considered a clown endeavoring to make sport of1 or for his audience4 ,a statement is often made which depends for its validity upon a comparison or even a series of comparisons either flashing through the mind at the moment1 or recalled as having previously been made4 ,to this there can be no objection1 provided such comparisons are obvious and indisputable4 ,if a chain of reasoning rests upon the understanding that all men desire to be happy1 it will be just as forcible as if that truism were stated or proved4 ,anything which an audience will accept without question is only weakened by the processes of proof4 ,something must be taken for granted in all kinds of argument1 and the wider the domain of such assumptions can be fairly made the better for the interest and effectiveness of the arguments which follow4 ,a syllogism in which one of the essential parts is left to be supplied in the mind is called an enthymeme1 and is the most common of all forms of reasoning4 ,whenever we state a fact1 and adduce a reason for that fact1 it takes this form4 ,as an instance1 we may give the beatitudes in the fifth chapter of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,in each we have a declaration made and a reason given for that declaration1 but that reason would have no necessary validity were it not for a well-understood principle1 upon which1 in each case1 it is founded4 ,when it is said1 8,blessed are the poor in spirit2 for theirs is the kingdom of heaven10 we mentally add1 or concede even without thinking it1 8whoever has the kingdom of heaven is blessed40 ,the same declaration may be put in logical form1 thus3 ,whoever possesses the kingdom of heaven is blessed4 ,the poor in spirit possess the kingdom of heaven4 ,therefore1 they are blessed4 ,it will be noticed that in all the beatitudes the syllogism is inverted1 the conclusion coming first 7which also is placed in an inverted form71 while the major premise is left to be mentally supplied4 ,another instance may be given of this most common of all the syllogistic forms--the only one of which the orator makes very frequent use4 ,it is stated1 8,blessed are the pure in heart2 for they shall see ,god20 the reader mentally supplies1 8and those who see ,god are blessed40 ,or in syllogistic form3 ,those who see ,god are blessed4 ,the pure in heart see ,god4 ,therefore1 the pure in heart are blessed4 ,the great frequency of the enthymeme is explained by the very nature of reasoning1 which--at least in the case of the true orator--ever proceeds from the known to the unknown4 ,one of our propositions should either be self-evident or tacitly conceded2 it need not therefore be expressed4 ,the other must be brought out fully and proved by appropriate evidence1 and from these two foundations we draw out the conclusion1 or1 what is only another way of accomplishing the same purpose1 we state the conclusion and then give a reason for it1 which itself rests upon another reason mentally supplied4 ,we may test the correctness of the process by inquiring if the unexpressed reason be of the nature of a necessary1 or at least of a generally received1 truth2 then1 if the expressed reason is supported by impregnable evidence 7which in the case of the beatitudes is the authority of ,teacher ,himself72 and finally1 if the conclusion inevitably results from the union of the two preceding parts4 ,much might be said of fallacies and their various forms1 but the student who has not time to pursue a full course of logic would find little profit in such a brief sketch as is here possible4 ,it will be enough to point out that all false reasoning involves a violation of some logical rules1 the simplest and most useful of which we have already pointed out4 ,the orator who carefully defines his terms1 who watches every comparison to see if it is real and not merely pretended1 who refuses to accept a plausible statement for a universal truth1 who notices what an argument takes for granted as carefully as what it states1 will not be likely to commit glaring errors himself1 or to be led into them by others4 ,in controversy a most important logical direction may be given4 ,strive to ascertain just the standpoint of the audience in regard to your subject4 ,every speaker has much in common with his hearers1 and if he would convince or persuade them he must start from that common position4 ,in doing this there is no compromise of principle4 ,it is simply leaving out of view points of difference until points of agreement are explored4 ,from these an argument1 as strong as logic can make it1 should lead to the conclusion either in thought or action to which you wish your audience conducted4 ,the eminent ,methodist missionary1 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,taylor1 in speaking to the heathen of ,africa1 used first to dwell upon those things in their belief which were common with his own1 giving them credit for trying to worship the true ,god as well as they could1 and then declaring that he came to them with a fuller revelation from the same source4 ,in this way he persuaded thousands to accept his guidance and believe the ,bible1 who would have been utterly repelled if he had first attacked their superstitions1 and tried to show that they were wrong in everything4 ,in the same manner every masterly persuader of men must proceed4 ,seeking out all that he regards as true in their opinions and beliefs1 he will waste no time in proving what they already believe1 or in persuading them to do what they are already engaged in1 but will show them other things which necessarily follow from what they already admit4 ,st4 ,paul1 on ,mars' ,hill1 got a great logical advantage by his reference to the ,unknown ,god1 and from this starting place he worked his way carefully to the new truth which he had to declare4 ,a political orator may simply abuse the opposite party2 but he makes no converts and wins no enduring laurels by that method4 ,if he will strive to understand the position of his opponents and then from the great principles regarding government1 which all parties hold in common1 proceed to show that the side he advocates carries out those principles to their legitimate result1 he may change votes1 and will be sought for where the empty declamation of one who pursues the opposite course would be felt as a hindrance rather than a help4 8,what do you do when you have no case at all80 said one lawyer to another4 8,oh60 was the reply1 8,i abuse the opposite counsel40 ,this was only a mode of covering a retreat1 and may have answered that purpose well enough after the battle had been lost2 but as long as there is any hope of convincing the judge or winning the jury1 such abuse is worse than useless4 ,the advocate should not1 however1 take his opponent's view of the subject at issue as the groundwork of his argument1 but that which he believes the jury to entertain4 ,success in this instance is not won by convincing an opponent1 but by bringing over to his views that body of men in the jury-box who are supposed to be impartial1 but who always have their mode of viewing any given subject--a mode which an ingenious and observant advocate will not be slow to discover4 ,there are three phases of any controverted question which the orator who will discuss it successfully needs to study4 ,he should know and estimate justly all that a determined opponent of his own view can advance4 ,nothing is gained by failing to appreciate the strength and plausibility of an adversary's position4 ,complete justice to an enemy is often the first step to complete victory over him4 ,then the position of that part of an audience--possibly few in numbers1 but from the logical standpoint exceedingly important--who are in suspense1 and as ready to fall to one side as the other1 ought to be fully weighed4 ,the more perfectly intellectual sympathy exists between them and the orator1 the more likely is he to bring them over to his own party4 ,and this is the great object to be aimed at4 ,pronounced opponents are not often converted4 8,a man convinced against his will is of the same opinion still40 ,the attention directed to them is really for the sake of the doubtful class who may1 unless resistance is offered1 be won over by their efforts4 ,some attention may also properly be given by the speaker to confirming his own party by showing them the solid grounds upon which their opinions rest4 ,but usually the same arguments which are likely to decide the wavering will best accomplish this purpose also4 ,beginning with a simple but clearly defined statement of those principles or facts upon which he intends to base his arguments1 and about which no difference of opinion is possible1 he shows clearly that the opinions he and his friends hold must follow from the grounds already conceded4 ,this should be set forth as the establishment of positive truth rather than as the refutation of any errors2 then1 when the waverers have been convinced and his own party strongly confirmed1 he may1 with advantage1 show the weakness and absurdity of the position of those who hold opposed views4 ,such a course pursued by an able reasoner who really has truth on his side1 which he thoroughly understands1 will seldom fail to win all whose minds are open to conviction4 ,it is to these broad principles and to the careful study of all aspects of the questions he has to treat1 rather than to the refinements of medival logic1 that we would direct the orator's attention4 ,whoever will follow the course prescribed in preceding chapters1 carefully arranging the outline of his address1 mastering all his material1 and speaking the language of his own convictions1 will be truly logical1 and such logic carried to the highest degree will take nothing from any other grace either of form or substance that belongs to oratory4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,after ,,the ,,speech4 ,when a fervent and successful discourse has been concluded there comes a feeling of inexpressible relief4 ,the burden of an important speech rests with accumulating force upon the mind from the time the subject is chosen until it becomes well-nigh intolerable4 ,when speech actually begins every power is called into play and exerted to its utmost capacity4 ,the excitement of the conflict hurries the speaker on1 and although he may not at the time realize the gigantic exertions put forth1 yet when he pauses at length1 perhaps exhausted1 but with the victory won1 the sense of rest1 relief1 and security1 is exceedingly delightful4 ,after such an effort both mind and body do need rest4 ,there are speakers who profess to feel no fatigue after an hour's labor1 but these are seldom in the front rank of orators4 ,if the soul has been aroused and all the man's faculties bent to the accomplishment of a great purpose1 relaxation is often followed by a sense of utter prostration4 ,nothing better for the moment can be advised than to abandon one's self to the luxury of utter repose4 ,social intercourse and all distractions should as far as possible be avoided4 ,if circumstances permit1 a short sleep1 if but for a few minutes1 will afford great relief2 and in most cases sleep will come if wisely courted4 ,after resting1 it is well to ponder closely the lessons derived from each new experience in speaking4 ,to indulge in exultation over success or to lament over failure is not profitable4 ,the speaker is not a perfect judge of either4 ,he has probably done the best he could at the time1 and there the case should rest1 except so far as he sees the need or the means of future improvement4 ,but judgment of success or failure cannot easily be avoided4 ,if the speaker's standard is low1 he may pass beyond it without accomplishing anything worthy of high praise3 or if he is despondent in nature he may have expected little and may now feel correspondingly elated because he has exceeded his very moderate expectations4 ,but it is a curious fact that speakers are often least pleased with their best speeches4 ,in the mightiest efforts of the mind the standard is placed very high--perhaps beyond the possibility of attainment--and the speaker works with his eyes fixed upon that summit1 and probably1 after all his exertions1 sees it shining still far above him4 ,his ideas are but half expressed2 he is mortified that there should be such a difference between conception and realization4 ,but his hearers have been led over untrodden fields of thought1 and knowing nothing of the grander heights still above the orator's head1 they are naturally filled with enthusiasm1 and cannot enter into the feelings of the speaker if he is foolish enough to tell them of his disappointment4 ,this is the reason that we are least able to judge of the success of speeches that have been long meditated and thoroughly prepared4 ,the subject expands as we study1 its outlines becoming grander and vaster until they pass beyond our power of adequate representation4 ,each separate thought in the whole discussion that is fully mastered becomes familiar1 and is not1 therefore1 valued at its true worth4 ,sometimes1 when we begin to speak with little thought1 intending to give only easy and common views of the subject1 everything appears fresh before us1 and if some striking ideas arise1 their novelty gives them three-fold value1 and we imagine that we have made a great speech4 ,all this constitutes no argument against diligent preparation1 but it should stimulate us to bring up our powers of expression more nearly to the level of our conceptions4 ,there should never be extreme discouragement over an apparent failure4 ,some good end may be reached even by a very poor speech4 ,one evening the writer preached when weary and almost unprepared4 ,from first to last the effort was painful1 and to prevent absolute failure the intended plan had to be abandoned1 and detached thoughts from any source thrown in4 ,yet that discourse1 which was scarcely worthy of the name1 elicited warmer approval and did more apparent good than any one preached for several previous months4 ,one or two fortunate illustrations redeemed every defect1 so far as the audience 7but not the speaker7 was concerned4 ,whatever judgment we may entertain of our own performances1 it is not usually wise to tell our hearers1 or to ask their opinions4 ,criticisms spontaneously offered need not be repulsed1 but all seeking for commendation is childish or disgusting4 ,it is sweet to hear our efforts praised1 and most of men can bear an amount of flattery addressed to themselves which would be insufferable if offered to others2 but this disposition1 if much indulged1 becomes ungovernable and exposes us to well-deserved ridicule4 ,it is pitiable to see a man who has been uttering wise and eloquent words afterward stooping to beg crusts of indiscriminating flattery from his hearers4 ,whenever there is a probability that any discourse will be repeated1 it is well to review it soon after delivery1 while its impression is still fresh upon the mind1 and if any defect appears1 amend it in the plan1 and add to the same plan all the valuable ideas that have been suggested during the speech or afterward4 ,in this manner we keep each discourse up to the high watermark of our ability4 ,some orators are accustomed to write their speeches out in full after delivery4 ,when the theme is important and time permits1 this is a good exercise1 but in many--perhaps the majority of cases--the labor would outweigh the profit4 ,no such objection applies to reviewing and correcting a verbatim report of our speeches4 ,to many speakers such a review of the exact words they have uttered would be a striking and not altogether pleasing revelation4 ,pet phrases1 which might otherwise be unnoticed for years2 faults of expression1 and especially the profuseness of words1 in which extemporaneous speakers are tempted to indulge2--would all be forced upon our notice4 ,we would be surprised to learn that we could often write the discourse in one-fourth the words employed in delivery4 ,to form the habit of thus condensing our speeches after delivery would have a powerful tendency toward compacting thought in speech itself4 ,the only hindrance in applying this capital means of improvement consists in the difficulty of obtaining such shorthand reports4 ,where this cannot be overcome a part of the advantage may be gained by taking the plan and from it writing out the same kind of a compact presentation of the thoughts as uttered4 ,this differs from writing in full by making no effort to record exact words or forms of expression1 but only to recall from memory and from the sketch the exact thoughts that were expressed in the language of the moment4 ,even if the same kind of brief sketch has been made previous to the act of speech1 this does not take the place of what we now recommend2 for the former outline may have been greatly modified by the experience of delivery4 ,in whatever form the best result of the discourse is recorded1 great care should be taken in its preservation4 ,the plan1 sketch1 or fully written discourse may be slipped into an envelope 7which may also contain all illustrative scraps1 notes1 or references to books that bear upon the discourse7 and on the back may be written the title1 time1 and character of delivery1 with any other facts of importance4 ,if the young speaker will faithfully follow up such a method of recording the results of his oratorical experience1 he will find it one of the best forms of discipline1 and the record itself--carefully indexed1 frequently reviewed1 and kept within reasonable bulk--will in time possess a value greater than gold4 ,,finis4 ,,alphabetical ,,index4 ,author's own experience1 #bc ,advice to readers of discourses1 #bi ,ancients and moderns1 #cd ,augustine1 #cd ,antony's speech analyzed1 #eg ,articulation1 #aaf ,action in gesture1 #abb ,architecture of continuous thought1 #afj ,arrangement of thought1 #afd ,burdens of the extempore speaker1 #ae ,beecher1 ,h4 ,w41 #dj ,brutus' speech analyzed1 #ed ,benevolent emotion1 #ig ,bautain's comparison1 #afa 8,be bold10 #afe ,bodily vigor1 #aic ,books of illustration1 #bdc ,beatitudes in syllogistic form1 #bee ,coldness of reading explained1 #bc ,composite discourse1 #be ,cicero1 #cc ,chatham1 ,lord1 #cf ,clay1 #dj ,calhoun1 #dj ,critical taste must not be too high1 #dd ,conclusion1 #di ,cultivating emotional power1 #ie ,conversation1 #aje ,correcting faults of voice1 #aai ,correcting faults of gesture1 #abb ,confidence acquired1 #abe ,confidence1 false and true1 #abg ,confidence1 power of1 #abh ,confidence while silent before an audience1 #abi ,changing plan at last moment1 #aij ,complimentary introductions1 #bja ,citations as introductions1 #bjd ,calamity from bad introductions1 #bje ,climax1 law of1 #bjh ,crisis of discourse1 #baa ,concluding1 three ways of1 #bae ,conclusion should have no new matter1 #bae ,classification1 #bej ,correcting shorthand reports1 #bff ,demosthenes1 #cc ,discussion1 #dh ,dean ,swift's sermon1 #ec ,discussion in a free state1 #ff ,disease as a hindrance1 #ha ,disqualifications summed up1 #hf ,drill on the elementary sounds1 #aaf ,duty as a remedy for fear1 #abf ,divisional or military plan1 #afh ,deep breathing1 #aie ,diffuseness remedied1 #bji ,definition in speech1 #bdi ,division in speech1 #bdi ,eloquence can be taught1 #i ,eloquence1 degrees of1 #aa ,essay or speech1 #bi ,extempore speech in schools1 #fe ,education in the popular sense1 #hi ,extempore speech cultivates reason1 #id ,emotion and the will1 #ih ,etymology1 use of1 #ajd ,empty speeches1 #bab ,enriching extempore speech1 #bdg ,first speech1 #df ,fear overcome1 #fc ,fluency and accuracy contrasted1 #ajc ,failure1 a preacher's1 #aeh ,five principles of introduction1 #bje ,funeral speech pronounced by ,pericles1 #bah ,fallacies in reasoning1 #bec ,gladstone1 ,w4 ,e41 #da ,gladstone1 letter from1 #db ,gibbon's militia service1 #ib ,gathering thought1 #aei ,grasping the subject in a single idea1 #ahc ,great addresses1 three plans of1 #bag ,good results from a poor speech1 #bfd ,healthfulness of extempore speech1 #ai ,hortensius1 #cc ,heroic self-denial in speech1 #aef ,holyoke's experience1 #aic ,henry ,clay's eloquence1 #bad ,humor and pathos1 #bdf ,humor cultivated1 #bdf ,introduction1 #df1 #aif ,impromptu speeches1 #di ,initial fear1 #fj ,increasing thought-power1 #ij ,intellectual emotion1 #ie ,imagination1 #aji ,imagination in the ,bible1 #aji ,instructive addresses1 #ada ,introduction memorized1 #aig ,introduction needed1 #aih ,introductions1 kinds of1 #aii ,keeping the speech fresh1 #aib ,luther1 #ce ,literary societies1 #fg ,language1 #aja ,laws in language1 #ajb ,loudness1 #aai ,lawyers1 #aci ,lawyers not writers of speeches1 #adj ,lectures1 platform1 anniversary1 and lyceum1 #ada ,lecture with varying titles1 #aee ,logical or mathematical plans1 #afh ,local allusions as introductions1 #bjc ,language adapted to oratory1 #baj ,luxury of tears1 #bde ,logic for the orator1 #bdh ,logic1 its narrowness1 #bdh ,lessons of speech1 #bfc ,mental weakness1 #gi ,memorizing original and selected gems1 #ajd ,mental picture painting1 #aaj ,method of gathering and retaining thought1 #afb ,military plans1 #afh ,marks of a good plan1 #aga ,nerves quieted1 #dg ,natural orators1 #gd ,nature in the voice1 #aah ,narrative plans1 #afg ,naming divisions in advance1 #agc ,need of illustrations1 #bdc ,oratory1 natural and acquired1 #ac ,oratory of ornament1 #bh ,object of speech1 #aej ,objection to using plan in public1 #agh ,opponent's position studied1 #beg ,prejudice1 grounds for1 #i ,popular desire for extempore speech1 #ai ,pericles1 #cd ,pericles1 funeral speech by #bah ,pitt1 ,william1 #cf ,patrick ,henry1 #cg ,plan of speech on ,chinese immigration1 #ej ,persons who cannot extemporize1 #ge ,pronunciation1 #ajc ,poetry of science1 #aab ,poetry described1 #aab ,persuasion in preaching1 #acg ,pen and tongue1 #ade ,power of memory1 #ade ,pen in gathering and arranging1 #adf ,pen in preserving speeches1 #adf ,plan in all discourses1 #adh ,plan1 importance of a good1 #aff ,plans1 varieties of1 #afg ,plan1 marks of a good1 #aga ,plan1 how to use1 #agg ,plan to be memorized1 #ahj ,preserving the plan after speaking1 #ahf ,passage from introduction to discussion1 #bjg ,pleasure of speaking well1 #bjg ,principles of logic1 #bdi ,readers deceive themselves1 #ca ,recitations emotional1 #cb ,robertson1 ,frederick ,w41 #cg ,rude speech plans1 #ej ,rousing energy at the last moment1 #aia ,recited and extemporized introductions1 #aif ,rest after speech1 #bfb ,repeating and amending speeches1 #bfe ,sydney ,smith's sermon1 #bi ,spurgeon1 #dj ,spurgeon1 sermon by1 #bcj ,simplest framework1 #df ,sketch containing three words1 #eb ,sketch memorized1 #eb ,sketch on the ocean1 #ec ,stimulus of controversy1 #fg ,sketches on the annexation of ,cuba1 #fi ,seeing with our own eyes1 #ib ,source of ,greek eloquence1 #if ,sentence-casting1 #aca ,seductive but misleading methods1 #acc ,sermons1 #acf ,sermon texts1 #acf ,subject and object compared1 #aeb ,subject definite1 #aec ,sydney ,smith 8sticking to his text10 #aeg ,sermon on ,mars' ,hill1 #afi ,sermon dryness1 #agd ,shorthand1 use of1 #ahd ,speech as a battle1 #ahg 8,stage fright10 #ahi ,sermon by ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,spurgeon1 #bcj ,sermon on the ,mount1 #bda ,sources of illustrations1 #bdd ,syllogisms1 #bea ,syllogisms abbreviated1 #bee ,seeking praise1 #bfe ,training1 effects of1 #aj ,time saving1 #bd1 #age ,transition1 #dh ,three classes of men in respect to eloquence1 #gd ,timidity may be overcome1 #gg ,thought and emotion1 #hg ,thought-gathering1 #aei ,textual plans1 #afg ,tertullus1 #bja ,topics of the day as introductions1 #bjc ,things seen1 heard1 or imagined as introductions1 #bje ,taylor1 the ,methodist missionary1 #beh ,unconscious gesticulation1 #abd ,use of other speakers' sketches1 #aga ,voice and gesture1 #aad ,various fields of oratory1 #ace ,why extempore speech is emotional1 #bb ,whitefield1 #ch ,wesley1 #ch ,webster1 #dj ,written composition a hindrance and a help1 #de ,writer's first speech1 #fa ,weak voices1 #gf ,wordless men1 #hc ,waiting for the moment of beginning1 #ahi ,webster1 anecdote of1 #bjc ,writing after delivery1 #bfe ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,national ,,school ,,of ,,elocution ,,and ,,oratory4 ,,publication ,,department4 ,,practical ,,elocution4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,shoemaker1 ,a4 ,m4 ,this work1 as its name imports1 is a condensed yet comprehensive treatment of the whole subject of elocution1 giving brief consideration to all the topics bearing upon natural expression1 with1 exercises illustrative of the several departments4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #bjj pages1 #a4be4 ,,elocutionist',s ,,annual4 #aa ,numbers now ready4 ,each number contains pieces suitable for the holidays1 school exhibitions1 lyceums and literary societies1 private readings1 anniversaries1 church and ,sunday-school gatherings1 educational1 temperance1 and political meetings1 and a large and varied list of selections for public and professional entertainments2 and1 as a supplementary reading-book1 is especially adapted to the wants of higher classes in schools4 #bjj pages4 ,paper binding1 #ce cents2 cloth binding1 #ge cents2 green and gold1 #a4jj4 ,,best ,,things ,,from ,,best ,,authors4 #c ,volumes4 ,each volume is composed of three numbers of ,the ,elocutionist's ,annual in the order of issue1 comprising the latest and best productions of the most popular ,english and ,american writers of to-day1 together with the choicest selections of standard literature adapted to reading in public and private4 #fjj pages4 ,cloth binding1 #a4ej2 green and gold1 #b4jj2 flexible morocco1 #b4ej4 ,,oratory4 ,an able and instructive discourse by ,rev4 ,henry ,ward ,beecher4 ,limp cloth1 #be cents4 ,,the ,,white ,,sunlight ,,of ,,potent ,,words4 ,a scholarly and eloquent oration on the characteristics of effective public delivery1 by ,dr4 ,john ,s4 ,mac,intosh4 ,limp cloth1 #be cents4 ,,elocutionary ,,charts3 ,table of ,vocal ,exercises4 ,a small wall chart1 #cbdd inches1 handsomely mounted4 ,this chart presents in outline the system of voice culture employed in this ,institution1 and will be found of very great practical value to teachers or students1 and to all interested in this important field of art4 ,price1 #b4jj4 ,outline of ,elocution and ,analysis of ,principles4 ,a large wall chart1 #fjgb inches1 handsomely mounted4 ,the arrangement of this chart is striking and suggestive1 and presents a clear and practical analysis of the whole subject4 ,price1 #e4jj4 ,the above publications for sale by all ,booksellers and ,newsdealers1 or will be sent1 post-paid1 upon receipt of price by the publishers4 ,liberal terms in quantity or for first supply to schools4 ,correspondence solicited4 ,address1 ,,john ,h4 ,,bechtel1 ,secretary1 #adaf and #adah ,,chestnut ,,street1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,national ,school of ,elocution and ,oratory1 7,j4 ,w4 ,,shoemaker1 ,a4 ,m41 ,,founder47 ,,department ,,of ,,instruction4 ,,board ,,of ,,directors3 ,,william ,s4 ,,schofield1 ,president4 ,bishop ,matthew ,simpson1 ,rev4 ,r4 ,d4 ,harper1 ,d4 ,d41 ,rev4 ,george ,k4 ,morris1 ,d4 ,d41 ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,danforth1 ,edward ,brooks1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,thomas ,marshall1 ,phineas ,garrett1 ,ex-,gov4 ,james ,pollock1 ,hon4 ,william ,a4 ,pile1 ,a4 ,g4 ,b4 ,hinkle1 ,m4 ,d41 ,rev4 ,e4 ,f4 ,torrance1 ,a4 ,m41 ,dr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,tompkins1 ,nelson ,f4 ,evans1 ,john ,douglas1 ,lucien ,b4 ,alexander1 ,hon4 ,j4 ,p4 ,wickersham1 ,a4 ,w4 ,miller1 ,m4 ,d41 ,ph4 ,d41 ,col4 ,j4 ,a4 ,price1 ,george ,eastburn1 ,a4 ,m41 ,edward ,l4 ,pearson1 ,crawford ,spear1 ,john ,w4 ,francis4 ,,courses ,,of ,,study4 ,,course ,,in ,,elocution4 ,this ,course has reference to the ,oral ,forms of ,expression1 and includes ,theory and ,practice in ,conversation1 ,voice1 ,action1 ,reading1 ,dramatic ,recitation1 ,oratory4 ,instruction is this ,course may be taken either in class or privately1 day or evening4 ,parliamentary ,practice will be afforded throughout this ,course and the ,course in ,oratory4 ,,course ,,in ,,oratory4 ,this ,course has reference to a thorough ,classical ,english ,education1 as well as to ,effective ,public ,delivery4 ,it includes prominently1 ,conversation1 ,english ,language1 ,history1 ,rhetoric1 ,literature1 ,composition1 ,criticism1 ,critical ,shakespeare1 ,logic1 ,mental ,science1 ,moral ,philosophy4 ,students not wishing to take the entire ,course in ,oratory may arrange to pursue ,special studies4 ,quarterly terms of nine weeks each begin in ,october1 ,december1 ,february1 and ,april4 ,a summer term of six weeks begins in ,july4 ,for further particulars send for full descriptive catalogue of sixty pages4 ,address1 ,,john ,h4 ,,bechtel1 ,,secretary1 #adaf and #adah ,chestnut ,street1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,changed 8throat and long disease0 to 8throat and lung disease0 on p4 #aie4 #b4 ,silently corrected typographical errors4 #c4 ,retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed4 #d4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #e4 ,enclosed bold font in equals4