,,porcelain ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,japanese ,,imari ,,ware ,,porcelain ,,by ,,edward ,,dillon1 ,m4,a4 ,illustration3 ,the ,connoisseur's ,library ,,methuen ,,and ,,co4 #cf ,,essex ,,street ,,london ,first published in #aijd4 ,,preface ,how extensive is the literature that has grown up of late years round the subject of porcelain may be judged from the length of our #8selected' list of books dealing with this material4 ,apart from the not inconsiderable number of general works on the potter's art in ,french1 ,german1 and ,english1 there is scarcely to be found a kiln where pottery of one kind or another has been manufactured which has not been made the subject of a separate study4 ,and yet1 as far as ,i know1 the very definite subdivision of ceramics1 which includes the porcelain of the ,far ,east and of ,europe1 has never been made the basis of an independent work in ,england4 ,it has been the aim of the writer to dwell more especially on the nature of the paste1 on the glaze1 and on the decoration of the various wares1 and above all to accentuate any points that throw light upon the relations with one another--especially the historical relations--of the different centres where porcelain has been made4 ,less attention has been given to the question of marks4 ,in the author's opinion1 the exaggerated importance that has been given to these marks1 both by collectors and by the writers that have catered to them1 has more than anything else tended to degrade the study of the subject1 and to turn off the attention from more essential points4 ,this has been above all the case in ,england1 where the technical side has been strangely neglected4 ,in fact1 we must turn to ,french works for any thorough information on this head4 ,in the bibliographical list it has been impossible to distinguish the relative value of the books included4 ,i think that something of value may be found in nearly every one of these works1 but in many1 whatever there is of original information might be summed up in a few pages4 ,in fact1 the books really essential to the student are few in number4 ,for ,oriental china we have the ,franks catalogue1 ,m4 ,vogt's little book1 ,la ,porcelaine1 and above all the great work of ,dr4 ,bushell1 which is unfortunately not very accessible4 ,for ,continental porcelain there is no #8up-to-date' work in ,english1 but the brief notes in the catalogue prepared shortly before his death by ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks have the advantage of being absolutely trustworthy4 ,the best account of ,german porcelain is perhaps to be found in ,dr4 ,brinckmann's bulky description of the ,hamburg ,museum1 which deals1 however1 with many subjects besides porcelain1 while for ,svres we have the works of ,garnier and ,vogt4 ,for ,english porcelain the literature is enormous1 but there is little of importance that will not be found in ,professor ,church's little handbook1 or in the lately published works of ,mr4 ,burton and ,mr4 ,solon4 ,the last edition of the guide to the collection lately at ,jermyn ,street has been well edited by ,mr4 ,rudler1 and contains much information on the technical side of the subject4 ,on many historical points the notes in the last edition of ,marryat are still invaluable3 the quotations1 however1 require checking1 and the original passages are often very difficult to unearth4 ,in the course of this book ,i have touched upon several interesting problems which it would be impossible to thoroughly discuss in a general work of this kind4 ,i take1 however1 the occasion of bringing one or two of these points to the notice of future investigators4 ,much light remains to be thrown upon the relations of the ,chinese with the people of ,western ,asia during the ,middle ,ages4 ,we want to know at what time and under what influences the ,chinese began to decorate their porcelain1 first with blue under the glaze1 and afterwards by means of glazes of three or more colours1 painted on the biscuit4 ,the relation of this latter method of decoration to the true enamel-painting which succeeded it is still obscure4 ,so again1 to come to a later time1 there is much difference of opinion as to the date of the first introduction of the rouge d'or1 a very important point in the history and classification of ,chinese porcelain4 ,we are much in the dark as to the source of the porcelain exported both from ,china and ,japan in the seventeenth century1 especially of the roughly painted #8blue and white1' of which such vast quantities went to ,india and ,persia4 ,so of the ,japanese #8,kakiyemon1' which had so much influence on our ,european wares1 what was the origin of the curious design1 and what was the relation of this ware to the now better known #8,old ,japan'8 ,when we come nearer home1 to the ,european porcelain of the eighteenth century1 many obscure points still remain to be cleared up4 ,the currently accepted accounts of ,bttger's great discovery present many difficulties4 ,at ,svres1 why was the use of the newly discovered rose ,pompadour so soon abandoned8 ,and finally1 in ,england1 what were we doing during the long years between the time of the early experiments of ,dr4 ,dwight and the great outburst of energy in the middle of the eighteenth century8 ,the illustrations have been chosen for the most part from specimens in our national collections4 ,i take this opportunity of thanking the officials in charge of these collections for the facilities they have given to me in the selection of the examples1 and to the photographer in the reproduction of the pieces selected4 ,to ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read of the ,british ,museum1 and to ,mr4 ,skinner of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 my thanks are above all due4 ,to the latter gentleman ,i am much indebted for the trouble he has taken1 amid arduous official duties1 in making arrangements for photographing not only examples belonging to the ,museum1 scattered as these are through various wide-lying departments1 but also several other pieces of porcelain at present deposited there by private collectors4 ,to these gentlemen1 finally1 my thanks are due for permission to reproduce examples of their porcelain--to ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 to ,mr4 ,fitzhenry1 to ,mr4 ,david ,currie1 and above all to my friend ,mr4 ,george ,salting1 who has interested himself in the selection of the objects from his unrivalled collection4 ,the small collection of marks at the end of the book has no claim to originality4 ,the examples have been selected from the catalogues of the ,schreiber collection at ,south ,kensington1 and from those of the ,franks collections of ,oriental and ,continental china4 ,for permission to use the blocks my thanks are due1 as far as the first two books are concerned1 to ,h4 ,m4's ,stationery ,office and to the ,education ,department2 in the case of the last work1 to ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 who1 ,i understand1 himself drew the original marks for ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks's catalogue4 ,in a general work of this kind much important matter has had to be omitted4 ,that is inevitable4 ,i only hope that specialists in certain definite parts of the wide field covered will not find that ,i have committed myself to rash or ungrounded generalisations4 ,let them remember that the carefully guarded statements and the reservations suitable to a scientific paper would be out of place in a work intended in the main for the general public4 ,e4 ,d4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface1 v ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations1 xii ,,selected ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,on ,,porcelain1 xxvi ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,bibliographical ,,list1 xxxiii ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,on ,,other ,,subjects ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,text1 xxxv ,,chapter ,i4 ,introductory and ,scientific1 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,materials3 ,mixing1 ,fashioning1 and ,firing1 #ad ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,glazes1 #cj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,decoration by means of ,colour1 #ch ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,porcelain of ,china4 ,introductory--,classification--,the ,sung ,dynasty--,the ,mongol or ,yuan ,dynasty1 #di ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,porcelain of ,china 7continued74 ,the ,ming ,dynasty1 #gh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,porcelain of ,china 7continued74 ,the ,manchu or ,tsing ,dynasty1 #if ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,porcelain of ,china 7continued74 ,marks1 #aag ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,porcelain of ,china 7continued74 ,king-te-chen and the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 #abc ,,chapter ,x4 ,the ,porcelain of ,china 7continued74 ,forms and uses--,descriptions of the various ,wares1 #acg ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the ,porcelain of ,korea and of the ,indo-,chinese ,peninsula1 #afh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,porcelain of ,japan1 #agg ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,from ,east to ,west1 #bjh ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the ,first ,attempts at ,imitation in ,europe1 #bcc ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,the ,hard-,paste ,porcelain of ,germany4 ,bttger and the ,porcelain of ,meissen1 #bdd ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,hard-,paste ,porcelain of ,germany 7continued74 ,vienna--,berlin--,hchst--,frstenberg--, ludwigsburg--,nymphenburg --,frankenthal--,fulda--,strassburg4 ,the ,hard and ,soft ,pastes of ,switzerland1 ,hungary1 ,holland1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 and ,russia1 #bei ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,the ,soft-,paste ,porcelain of ,france4 ,saint-,cloud--,lille--,chantilly-- ,mennecy--,paris--,vincennes--,svres1 #bgg ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the ,hard-,paste ,porcelain of ,svres and ,paris1 #cje ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,the ,soft and ,hybrid ,porcelains of ,italy and ,spain1 #caf ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,english ,porcelain4 ,introduction4 ,the ,soft-,paste ,porcelain of ,chelsea and ,bow1 #cbf ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,english ,porcelain 7continued74 ,the ,soft ,paste of ,derby1 ,worcester1 ,caughley1 ,coalport1 ,swansea1 ,nantgarw1 ,lowestoft1 ,liverpool1 ,pinxton1 ,rockingham1 ,church ,gresley1 ,spode1 and ,belleek1 #cej ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,english ,porcelain 7continued74 ,the ,hard ,paste of ,plymouth and ,bristol1 #cge ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,contemporary ,european ,porcelain1 #chg ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,marks ,,on ,,the ,,plates1 #cie ,,marks ,,on ,,porcelain1 #djj ,,index1 #dje ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,i4 ,,japanese1 ,imari porcelain 7#8,old ,japan'74 7,h4 c4 #ai in47 ,vase1 slaty-blue under glaze1 iron-red of various shades and gold over glaze4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,salting collection4444447,frontispiece47 ,,ii4 ,,chinese1 ,ming porcelain4 7,h4 c4 #ae in47 ,jar with blue-black ground and thin1 skin-like glaze4 ,decoration in relief slightly counter-sunk1 pale yellow and greenish to turquoise blue4 ,probably fifteenth century4 ,salting collection4444447,to face p4 #dd47 ,,iii4 7#a7 ,,chinese4 7,h4 c4 #i in47 ,figure of the ,teaching ,buddha4 ,celadon glaze1 the hair black4 ,uncertain date4 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,,chinese1 probably ,ming dynasty4 7,h4 #aa in47 ,vase with open-work body1 enclosing plain inner vessel4 ,thick celadon glaze4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4444447,to face p4 #fd47 ,,iv4 ,,chinese1 ,sung porcelain4 7,h4 c4 #ab in47 ,small jar with thick pale-blue glaze1 and some patches of copper-red2 faintly crackled4 ,circa #abjj4 ,british ,museum4444447,to face p4 #ga47 ,v4 ,,chinese1 ,ming porcelain4 ,three small bowls with apple-green glaze4 ,fifteenth or sixteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,floral design in gold on green ground4 7,diam4 #d in47 ,on base a coin-like mark1 inscribed ,chang ming fu kwei--#8long life1 riches1 and honour4' 7#b7 ,similar decoration and identical inscription to above 7diam4 #d in471 set in a ,german silver-gilt mounting of sixteenth century4 7#c7 ,shallow bowl 7diam4 #e in474 ,inside1 apple-green band with gold pattern similar to above2 in centre1 cranes among clouds--blue under glaze4 444447,to face p4 #ha47 ,,vi4 ,,chinese4 ,ming porcelain4 7,h4 #g ins47 ,spherical vase1 floral decoration of ,persian type in blue under glaze2 the neck has probably been removed for conversion into base of hookah4 ,probably sixteenth century4 ,bought in ,persia4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4444447,to face p4 #hd47 ,,vii4 7#a7 ,,chinese4 ,ming porcelain4 7,h4 c4 #ah in47 ,baluster-shaped vase2 greyish crackle ground1 painted over the glaze with turquoise blue flowers 7with touches of cobalt71 green leaves and manganese purple scrolls2 a little yellow in places1 and around neck cobalt blue band under glaze4 ,on base1 mark of ,cheng-hua1 possibly of as early a date 7#adfd-hg74 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,,chinese4 ,ming porcelain4 7,h4 c4 #ai in47 ,vase of square section with four mask handles1 imitating old bronze form4 ,enamelled with dragons and phnixes2 copper-green and iron-red over glaze with a few touches of yellow1 combined with cobalt blue under glaze4 ,inscription1 under upper edge1 #8,dai ,ming ,wan-li nien shi4' ,circa #afjj4 ,british ,museum4444447,to face p4 #ij47 ,,viii4 ,,chinese4 ,ming porcelain4 ,covered inkslab 7,l4 #i in471 pen-rest 7,l4 #i in471 and spherical vessel 7,h4 #h in474 ,decorated with scroll-work in cobalt blue under the glaze4 ,persian inscriptions in cartels1 relating to literary pursuits4 ,mark of ,cheng-te 7#aeje-ba74 ,obtained in ,pekin4 ,british ,museum4444447,to face p4 #id47 ,,ix4 ,,chinese1 turquoise ware4 ,probably early eighteenth century4 ,salting collection4 7#a7 ,pear-shaped vase 7,h4 #h in471 decorated with phnix in low relief4 ,six-letter mark of ,cheng-hua4 7#b7 ,plate with pierced margin 7diam4 #aa in474 ,filfot in centre encircled by cloud pattern1 in low relief4 7#c7 ,small spherical incense-burner 7,h4 #e in474 ,floral design in low relief4444447,to face p4 #ih47 ,x4 ,,chinese1 famille verte4 7,h4 #ah in47 ,vase of square section1 decorated with flowers of the four seasons4 ,green1 purple1 and yellow enamels and white1 as reserve1 on a black ground4 ,mark of ,cheng-hua4 ,circa #agjj4 ,salting collection4 444447,to face p4 #ajj47 ,,xi4 ,,chinese1 famille verte4 7,h4 #bf in47 ,baluster-shaped vase1 decorated with dragons with four claws and snake-like bodies amid clouds4 ,poor yellow1 passing into white1 green of two shades1 and manganese purple upon a black ground4 ,a very thin skin of glaze1 with dullish surface4 ,probably before #agjj4 ,salting collection4 7,to face p4 #ajb47 ,,xii4 ,chinese1 egg-shell porcelain4 ,famille rose4 7#a7 ,plate 7diam4 #h in474 ,on border1 vine with grapes1 in gold4 ,in centre1 lady on horseback1 accompanied by old man and boy carrying scrolls4 #agcj-ej4 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,plate 7diam4 #h in47 ,in centre the arms of the ,okeover family with elaborate mantling4 ,initials of ,luke ,okeover and his wife on margin4 ,early famille rose1 the rouge d'or only sparingly applied4 ,circa #agbe4 ,british ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #ajh47 ,,xiii4 7#a7 ,,chinese1 famille verte4 ,long-necked1 globular vase 7,h4 #ag in471 enamelled with figures of ,taoist sages1 etc43 green1 iron-red1 yellow1 purple1 and opaque blue1 all over the glaze4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,salting collection4 7#b7 ,,chinese4 ,tall cylindrical vase 7,h4 #ah in474 ,red fish among eddies of gold on blue ground4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,salting collection4 7#c7 ,,chinese4 ,spindle-shaped vase 7,h4 #ah in474 ,pure white1 chalky ground2 three fabulous animals seated4 #agbj-dj4 ,salting collection4 444447,to face p4 #aaj47 ,,xiv4 ,,japanese4 ,imari porcelain4 ,large dish 7diam4 #bj in474 ,painted under the glaze with cobalt blue in various shades1 relieved with gold4 ,in centre1 landscape with ,baptism of ,christ4 ,below1 in panel on margin--,mat4 #c #af4 ,seventeenth century4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #acc47 ,,xv4 7#a7 ,,chinese4 ,open-work cylinder 7,h4 #e in47 formed of nine interlacing dragons2 the top pierced with nine holes4 ,plain white ware1 with greyish white glaze4 ,probably ,ting ware of ,ming period4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#b7 ,,chinese4 ,ming porcelain4 ,water-vessel for base of hookah 7,h4 #d in474 ,cobalt blue under glaze4 ,chinese sixteenth century2 made for the ,persian market4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #adb47 ,,xvi4 ,,chinese4 ,two vases for flowers 7,h4 #aa and #aj in474 ,floral design in white slip upon a fond laque or #8dead leaf' ground4 ,seventeenth century4 ,bought in ,persia4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4444447,to face p4 #adf47 ,,xvii4 ,,chinese4 ,three vases1 examples of flamb or #8transmutation' glazes4 ,first half eighteenth century4 ,salting collection4 7#a7 ,vase with monster handles 7,h4 #i in472 glaze irregularly crackled4 7#b7 ,cylindrical vase1 made in a mould 7,h4 #aj in474 7#c7 ,small pear-shaped vase 7,h4 #g in471 mottled red and blue4444447,to face p4 #aej47 ,,xviii4 7#a7 ,,chinese #8blue and white4' ,small vase 7,h4 #g in474 ,the paste pierced before glazing to form an open-work pattern filled up by glaze4 ,eighteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,,chinese #8blue and white4' ,mortar-shaped vase 7,h4 #aj in474 ,scattered figures of ,taoist sages in pale blue4 ,chinese1 probably sixteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #aed47 ,,xix4 ,,chinese1 ,ming porcelain4 ,vase 7,h4 #i in471 shaped into vertical1 convex panels4 ,the top has been ground down4 ,very thick paste1 showing marks of juncture of moulds4 ,decoration of kilins and pine-trees in exceptionally brilliant cobalt blue under glaze4 ,probably fifteenth century4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #aeg47 ,,xx4 ,,chinese4 ,globular vase with long neck 7,h4 #ag in474 ,design built up of lines of iron-red and gold4 ,circa #agbj4 ,bought in ,persia4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4444447,to face p4 #afb47 ,,xxi4 ,,chinese armorial porcelain4 ,octagonal plate 7diam4 #af in474 ,talbot arms in centre surrounded by design of books1 scrolls1 etc4--all in blue under glaze4 ,early eighteenth century4 ,british ,museum4444447,to face p4 #afd47 ,,xxii4 ,,chinese porcelain from ,siam4 ,three covered bowls1 probably enamelled in ,canton for the ,siamese market4 ,early nineteenth century4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#a7 ,floral design in iron-red1 green and yellow over glaze4 7,h4 #f in47 7#b7 ,buddhist divinities in panels amid flame-like ground4 ,opaque enamels--iron-red1 pink1 yellow and black4 7,h4 #i in47 7#c7 ,floral design in cobalt blue under glaze4 7,h4 #f in47 ,brass rim and foot4 ,said to be a cinerary urn4 7,tho-kht47444447,to face p4 #agd47 ,,xxiii4 ,,japanese1 ,kakiyemon ware4 ,circa #afej4 ,british ,museum4 7#a7 ,saucer or plate with scalloped edge 7diam4 #i in474 ,prunus springing from straw hedge1 ,chinese boy and tigers4 ,enamels--green1 yellow1 iron-red and blue1 all over glaze4 7#b7 ,four-sided bottle 7,h4 #h in474 ,formally treated flowers in iron-red1 green and blue1 all over glaze4 7#c7 ,octagonal saucer 7diam4 #e in474 ,decoration of quails and flowers in iron-red1 green and gold over glaze1 with cobalt blue under glaze4 444447,to face p4 #ahd47 ,,xxiv4 7#a7 ,,chinese4 ,covered bowl 7,h4 #h in474 ,floral rosette with fourteen lobes in imitation of the ,japanese kiku-mon4 ,iron-red1 green and gold over glaze with deep cobalt blue under glaze4 ,early eighteenth century2 made at ,king-te-chen in imitation of the contemporary ,imari ware4 ,salting collection4 7#b7 ,,japanese1 ,imari ware4 ,bowl with scalloped edge 7diam4 #i in474 ,chrysanthemum flowers in low relief2 iron-red1 green and gold over glaze and cobalt blue under glaze4 ,circa #agjj4 ,salting collection4 444447,to face p4 #ahf47 ,,xxv4 ,,japanese1 ,imari ware4 ,large plate 7diam4 #bb in474 ,on margin1 mandarin ducks1 cranes and doves in panels amid flowers2 in centre1 two eagles4 ,iron-red of various shades1 gold and a few touches of green over glaze with deep cobalt blue under glaze4 ,late seventeenth century4 ,salting collection4444447,to face p4 #ahh47 ,,xxvi4 ,,japanese1 ,kutani ware4 ,jar 7,h4 #ac in472 on a greyish white1 somewhat crackled ground1 grotesque dancing figures2 iron-red1 manganese purple1 yellow1 green1 and blue1 all over glaze4 ,seventeenth century4 ,british ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #bjd47 ,,xxvii4 ,,japanese4 ,kutani1 kaolinic stoneware4 ,octagonal bottle1 in shape of double gourd 7,h4 #ab in474 ,thick enamels--green 7predominant71 iron-red1 purple and blue1 all over glaze4 ,circa #agjj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #bjf47 ,,xxviii4 ,,chinese #8blue and white4' ,two bowls1 set in copper-gilt mounts of ,english make1 circa #afjj-afbj4 ,from a set of five pieces long preserved at ,burleigh ,house4 ,pierpont ,morgan collection4 7#a7 ,shallow bowl 7diam4 #i in471 in centre medallion with phnix4 ,mark of ,wan-li 7#aegb-afai74 7#b7 ,bowl1 with deer in panels 7diam4 #aj in474 ,circa #afjj4444447,to face p4 #bbb47 ,,xxix4 ,,medici porcelain4 ,late sixteenth century4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#a7 ,pear-shaped vase 7,h4 #f in474 ,floral design in cobalt blue1 outlined with manganese black1 both under glaze4 7#b7 ,double-necked cruet 7,h4 #f in474 ,design in pale blue under glaze4 ,on the neck1 ,a and ,o1 for aceto and oglio4444447,to face p4 #bcf47 ,,xxx4 ,,medici porcelain4 ,plate or shallow bowl 7diam4 #g in474 ,floral design in somewhat ,persian style1 in cobalt blue under glaze4 ,on back1 the dome of ,sta4 ,maria del fiore and the letter ,f4 ,late sixteenth century4 ,fitzhenry collection4444447,to face p4 #bch47 ,,xxxi4 ,,meissen porcelain4 ,hexagonal vase with cover 7,h4 #ab in474 ,floral design in coloured enamels of the ,kakiyemon style4 ,mark1 the crossed swords in blue4 #agcj-ej4 ,franks collection 7,bethnal ,green74444447,to face p4 #bec47 ,,xxxii4 7#a7 ,,meissen porcelain4 ,plate with wavy edge 7diam4 #i in474 ,claret border with gold sprigs4 ,humming-bird in centre4 ,mark1 the crossed swords with dot in blue4 #agfc-gd1 in imitation of ,chelsea ware4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ex ,bernal collection4 7#b7 ,,ludwigsburg porcelain4 ,plate 7diam4 #i in474 ,scrolls in low relief in white round margin2 scattered flowers in lilac camaeu4 ,mark1 double ,c under crown1 for ,carl1 ,duke of ,wrtemberg4 #agfj-gj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4444447,to face p4 #bff47 ,,xxxiii4 7#a7 ,,rouen porcelain4 ,cup 7,h4 #c in474 ,conventional design1 in dark blue under glaze1 in style of seventeenth century4 ,thin and very translucent body4 ,probably before #agjj4 ,fitzhenry collection4 7#b7 ,,saint-,,cloud porcelain4 ,ewer with cover 7,h4 #g in474 ,scale pattern in relief4 ,celadon glaze of sagy-green tint4 ,mounted with thumb-piece and rim of engraved silver4 ,circa #agjj4 ,fitzhenry collection4 7#c7 ,,saint-,,cloud porcelain4 ,ewer with cover 7,h4 #e in474 ,conventional design1 in blue under glaze1 in style of seventeenth century4 ,circa #agjj4 ,fitzhenry collection4 444447,to face p4 #bhb47 ,,xxxiv4 ,,chantilly porcelain4 ,two cylindrical vases with covers 7,h4 #g in474 ,rims mounted in silver 7one gilt74 ,enamelled over the glaze in the ,kakiyemon style-,chinese landscape and boys playing4 ,mark1 hunting-horn in red4 ,circa #agcj-dj4 ,fitzhenry collection4 444447,to face p4 #bhf47 ,,xxxv4 7#a7 ,s,,vres1 white biscuit-ware 7,h4 #f in474 ,young girl seated with a sabot in her lap1 a child crouching beside her4 ,mark1 ,f incised 7perhaps for ,falconet or for the year #ageh74 ,franks collection 7,bethnal ,green74 7#b7 ,,mennecy1 white glazed ware4 ,figure of bagpiper 7,h4 #i in474 ,circa #agej4 7,from an engraving by ,j4 ,dumont le ,rom1 #agci47 ,franks collection 7,bethnal ,green74 444447,to face p4 #bhh47 ,,xxxvi4 7#a7 ,,vincennes or ,,early ,s,,vres porcelain4 ,ewer with cover 7,h4 #d in474 ,gros bleu ground with birds and flowers in white reserves4 ,mark1 double ,l with three dots1 in blue under glaze4 ,circa #agej4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,jones collection4 7#b7 and 7#c7 ,s,,vres porcelain4 ,two small sucriers 7,h4 #c in474 ,gros bleu and green ground1 with birds on branches painted in white reserves4 ,no mark1 but early4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,jones collection4 444447,to face p4 #bid47 ,,xxxvii4 ,s,,vres porcelain4 ,vase 7,h4 #aj in471 one of a pair1 decorated with wreaths of flowers on a white ground4 ,mark1 the letter ,i1 for #agfa4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,jones collection4 444447,to face p4 #bif47 ,,xxxviii4 ,s,,vres porcelain4 cuelle and saucer 7diam4 #e in4 and #g in474 ,turquoise ground2 panels with pastoral scenes4 ,mark1 the letter ,q for #agfh1 and ch4 for the painter ,chabry4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,jones collection4 444447,to face p4 #bih47 ,,xxxix4 ,s,,vres porcelain4 ,sucrier1 saucer and caddy from ,cabaret 7,h4 #d in41 #d in41 and #c in474 ,rose carn ground2 flowers1 etc41 painted on white reserves4 ,mark1 the letter ,h for #agfj1 and an anchor for the painter ,buteux pre4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,jones collection4 444447,to face p4 #cjj47 ,,xl4 ,s,,vres porcelain4 ,covered cup 7,h4 #c in47 and saucer 7diam4 #e in474 ,jewelled decoration on white ground4 ,studs of opaque white and turquoise and transparent ruby1 connected by foliage of transparent green lined by gold4 #aghj-hf4 ,no mark4 ,currie collection4 444447,to face p4 #cjb47 ,,xli4 7#a7 and 7#b7 ,,venetian porcelain4 ,tall cup 7,h4 #d in47 and saucer 7diam4 #e in474 ,birds and vines in blue under glaze with slight gilding4 ,mark1 ,vena on cup1 the same in script on saucer4 ,probably the work of the ,vezzi family 7#agai-dj74 ,franks collection 7,bethnal ,green74 7#c7 ,,meissen porcelain4 ,pot-pourri with cover 7,h4 #e in474 ,fluted sides1 flowers in high relief enamelled in colours4 ,mark1 crossed swords in blue4 ,circa #agej4 ,from the ,strawberry ,hill collection4 ,franks collection 7,bethnal ,green74 7#d7 ,,frankenthal porcelain4 ,ewer and cover 7,h4 #f in474 ,painted in lilac camaeu with landscape 7signed--,magnus pi47 ,gilt borders4 #agfa-gh4 ,mark1 ,c4 ,t4 under crown in blue4 ,franks collection 7,bethnal ,green74 444447,to face p4 #caf47 ,,xlii4 7#a7 ,,capo ,,di ,,monte porcelain4 ,scent bottle 7,h4 #c in474 ,child in swaddling-clothes of blue and lilac4 ,circa #agej4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#b7 ,,capo ,,di ,,monte porcelain4 ,siren 7,h4 #b in471 plain white1 made for stand of vessel4 ,circa #agej4 ,from the ,bandinel collection4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#c7 ,,capo ,,di ,,monte porcelain4 ,triton 7,h4 #b in474 ,plaque in low relief1 made for application4 ,circa #agej4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#d7 ,,doccia porcelain4 ,cup with cover 7,h4 #d in474 ,plain white1 vine branches in relief4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #cbj47 ,,xliii4 ,,chelsea porcelain4 ,saucer 7diam4 #d in471 sugar-basin 7,h4 #d in471 and cream-jug 7,h4 #b in471 forming part of an extensive tea equipage4 ,claret ground with rich gilding2 pastoral figures in reserve panels4 ,circa #agfj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,thomson bequest4 444447,to face p4 #cdj47 ,,xliv4 ,,chelsea porcelain4 ,two figures of minuet dancers 7,h4 #aa in4 and #aj in474 ,enamelled with winy-red1 pale opaque turquoise1 and a little green and iron-red--the lady's stays lavender4 ,these figures seem to have been suggested by the principal dancers in ,watteau's ,fte ,champtre now at ,edinburgh 7engraved by ,laurent ,carrs1 #agcd1 as ,ftes ,venitiennes74 ,circa #agfj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,schreiber collection4444447,to face p4 #cdb47 ,,xlv4 7#a7 ,,chelsea porcelain4 ,plate 7diam4 #h in47 with wavy edge4 ,enamelled with shades of iron-red and green1 with blue under glaze and gilding1 in imitation of brocaded ,imari ware4 #agej-fj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 7#b7 ,,bow porcelain4 ,octagonal plate 7diam4 #i in474 ,in centre1 two fighting cocks1 in the ,kakiyemon style2 the wreaths of flowers suggested rather by ,dresden4 ,iron-red1 claret1 and an opaque1 poor blue enamel1 laid on thickly1 with gilding4 ,circa #agfj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4444447,to face p4 #cdf47 ,,xlvi4 ,,worcester porcelain4 ,tea-poy 7,h4 #f in471 sugar-basin 7,h4 #d in471 and milk-jug 7,h4 #e in47 from a tea equipage4 ,trellis design4 ,circa #aghj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #cfb47 ,,xlvii4 ,,water-,,colour ,,drawing 7#ag in4 by #ah in471 by ,thomas ,baxter1 junior2 signed and dated #ahaj4 ,the studio of ,thomas ,baxter1 senior1 #a ,gough ,square4 ,porcelain painters at work4 ,a price-list of ,coalport white china is seen on the wall4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #cff47 ,,xlviii4 7#a7 ,,plymouth porcelain4 ,market-woman with flower-basket 7,h4 #aj in474 ,plain white1 with lines of dirty brown in folds of drapery and stand4 ,circa #aggj4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,schreiber collection4 7#b7 ,,bristol porcelain4 ,female figure1 #8,autumn' 7,h4 #aj in474 ,belt with signs of zodiac4 ,enamels--green1 lilac1 iron-red1 and yellowish-green1 with gilding4 ,circa #agge4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum2 ,schreiber collection4 444447,to face p4 #chj47 ,,xlix4 7#a7 ,,bristol biscuit-ware4 ,medallion 7max4 diam4 of plaque1 #f in47 with head of ,washington in centre1 from a contemporary medal 7#8,general of the ,continental ,armies'74 ,circa #aggh4 ,british ,museum4 7#b7 ,,bristol porcelain4 ,ink-stand 7,h4 #g in471 in plain white ware1 supported by three griffins4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 444447,to face p4 #chb47 ,,selected ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,on ,,porcelain ,,alphabetical ,,list ,,of ,,authors ,,alexandra ,,palace3 ,catalogue of ,collection of ,english ,porcelain and ,pottery on ,loan in #ahgc4 ,,bachelier ,,et ,,gouellain3 ,mmoire ,historique sur la ,porcelaine de la ,france1 r-dit avec prface1 par ,g4 ,g4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,,barber 7,e4 ,a473 ,pottery and ,porcelain in the ,united ,states4 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,,bemrose 7,w473 ,bow1 ,chelsea1 and ,derby ,porcelain4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,,bertin 7,,henri73 ,catalogue and ,notice of #8,cabinet ,chinois4' ,paris1 #ahae4 ,,bing 7,m4 ,s473 ,la ,cramique ,japonaise 7in ,gonze's ,art ,japonais74 ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,,binns 7,r4 ,w473-- ,a ,century of ,potting in the ,city of ,worcester4 ,worcester1 #ahhc4 ,catalogue of ,collection of ,porcelain at ,royal ,porcelain ,works4 ,worcester1 #ahhb4 ,,brinckmann 7,j473 ,hamburgisches ,museum fr ,kunst und ,gewerbe4 ,beschreibung des ,europischen ,porzellans4 ,hamburg1 #ahid4 ,,brinkley 7,f473 ,history of ,japanese ,ceramics 7,chrysanthemum1 iii41 #ahhc74 ,yokohama4 ,,brongniart 7,,alexandre73 ,trait des ,arts ,cramiques4 #b vols4 and ,atlas4 ,paris1 #ahdd1 #ahed1 and #aheg 7with additions by ,a4 ,salvtat74 ,,brongniart ,,et ,,riocreux3 ,svres1 ,muse ,cramique4 ,paris1 #ahde4 ,,burton 7,w473-- ,history of ,english ,ceramics4 #aijb4 ,the ,influence of ,material on ,design of ,pottery4 ,cantor ,lectures1 #ahig4 ,,burlington ,,fine ,,arts ,,club3-- ,english and ,continental ,porcelain4 #ahgc4 ,blue and ,white ,oriental ,china4 #ahie4 ,coloured ,chinese ,porcelain4 #ahif4 ,,bushell 7,s4 ,w473-- ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 illustrated by selections from the ,collection of ,w4 ,t4 ,walters4 ,folio4 ,new ,york1 #ahig2 ,text ,edition1 #hvo41 #ahii4 ,chinese ,porcelain before the present ,dynasty4 ,pekin1 #ahhf4 ,,chaffers 7,w473-- ,the ,ceramic ,gallery1 with #ejj ,illustrations4 #ahgb4 ,marks and ,monograms on ,pottery and ,porcelain4 #ith edition4 #aijj4 ,,champfleury3 ,bibliographie ,cramique4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,,chantilly3 ,la ,manufacture de ,porcelaine de ,c4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,,church 7,a4 ,h473-- ,english ,earthenware 7,south ,kensington ,art ,handbook74 #ahhd4 ,english ,porcelain 7,south ,kensington ,art ,handbook74 #ahhe and #ahih4 ,scientific and ,artistic ,aspects of ,pottery4 ,cantor ,lectures1 #ahha4 ,d',,entrecolles 7,p,,re73 ,lettres difiantes et ,curieuses4 ,,davillier 7,j4 ,c473-- ,les ,origines de la ,porcelaine en ,europe4 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,les ,porcelaines de ,svres et ,mme4 du ,barry4 ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,,drake 7,,sir ,w473 ,notes on ,venetian ,ceramics4 ,privately printed1 #ahfh4 ,,dubreuil3 ,la ,porcelaine4 ,part #db of ,fremy's ,encyclopdie ,chimique4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,,engelhardt 7,c4 ,a473 ,j4 ,f4 ,bttger1 ,erfinder des ,schsischen ,porzellans4 ,leipsic1 #ahcg4 ,,falke 7,jacob von73 ,die ,k4,k4 ,wiener ,porzellan ,fabrik4 ,vienna1 #ahhg4 ,,franks 7,,sir ,a4 ,w473-- ,catalogue of ,oriental ,pottery and ,porcelain4 #ahgh4 ,catalogue of ,continental ,porcelain4 #ahif4 ,japanese ,pottery 7,south ,kensington ,handbook74 #ahhj4 ,the ,manufacture of ,porcelain at ,chelsea4 ,archological ,journal4 #ahfb4 ,,garnier 7,,douard73-- ,histoire de la ,cramique4 ,tours1 #ahhb4 ,the ,soft-,paste ,porcelain of ,svres4 #ej ,plates4 #ahib4 ,copenhagen1 ,manufacture ,royale de ,porcelaine 7,bulletin de l',art et de l',industrie74 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,garnier ,,et ,,gasnault3 ,muse ,national1 ,limoges1 ,catalogue4 #ahha4 ,,gasnault ,,et ,,garnier3 ,french ,pottery 7,south ,kensington ,handbook74 #ahhd4 ,,geological ,,museum3 ,see ,,reeks1 ,t4 ,,gersaint3 ,catalogue of the ,fonspertuis ,collection4 ,paris1 #agdg4 ,,ginori 7,,marchese ,,carlo73 ,la ,manifattura ,ginori a ,doccia4 ,florence1 #ahfg4 ,,gonze 7,,louis73 ,l',art ,japonais4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,,gouellain3 see ,,bachelier4 ,,graesse 7,j4 ,g4 ,t473 ,guide de l'amateur de ,porcelaine et de ,potterie4 ,dresden1 #dth edition1 #ahgc4 ,,grandidier 7,e473 ,la ,cramique ,chinoise4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,griggs 7,w473 ,examples of ,armorial ,china4 ,folio4 #ahhg4 ,,gulland 7,w4 ,g473 ,chinese ,porcelain 7notes by ,t4 ,j4 ,larkin74 #ahih and #aijc4 ,,haslem 7,,john73 ,the ,old ,derby ,china ,factory4 #ahgf4 ,,hippisley 7,,alfred73 ,ceramic ,art in ,china 7,smithsonian ,institute74 ,washington1 #ahij4 ,,hirth 7,f473 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain4 ,leipsic1 #ahhh4 ,,hoffmann3 ,mmoire sur la ,cramique du ,japon 7,appendix to ,juliens work74 ,,houdoy 7,,jules73 ,histoire de la ,cramique ,lilloise4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,,jacquemart 7,a47 ,,et ,,le ,,blanc 7,e473 ,histoire de la ,porcelaine4 ,folio2 etchings by ,jules ,jacquemart4 ,paris1 #ahfb4 ,,jacquemart 7,a473-- ,histoire de la ,cramique4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,english translation by ,mrs4 ,palliser4 #ahgc4 ,les ,merveilles de la ,cramique4 ,paris1 #ahff-fi4 ,,jaennicke 7,,friedrich73-- ,grundriss der ,keramik4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgh-gi4 ,die ,gesammte ,keramische ,litteratur4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhb4 ,,jewitt 7,,ll473-- ,the ,ceramic ,art of ,great ,britain4 #ahhc4 ,a ,history of the ,coalport ,porcelain ,works4 #ahfb4 ,,julien 7,,stanislas73 ,histoire et ,fabrication de la ,porcelaine ,chinoise4 ,translated from the ,chinese4 ,notes by ,salvtat2 and memoir on ,japanese ,porcelain by ,hoffmann4 ,paris1 #ahef4 ,,kolbe 7,g473 ,geschichte der ,k4 ,porzellan ,manufactur zu ,berlin4 ,berlin1 #ahfc4 ,,litchfield 7,,fred473 ,pottery and ,porcelain4 #aijj4 ,,macon 7,g473 ,les ,arts dans la ,maison de ,cond4 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,,marryat 7,,joseph73 ,history of ,pottery and ,porcelain4 #crd edition1 #ahfh4 ,,meteyard 7,,eliza73 ,life of ,josiah ,wedgwood4 #ahfe4 ,,meyer 7,a4 ,b473 ,lung-chan yao1 oder alter ,seladon ,porzellan4 ,berlin1 #ahhi4 ,,milly 7,,comte ,,de73 ,l',art de la ,porcelaine4 ,paris1 #agga4 ,,monkhouse 7,,cosmo73 ,history and ,description of ,chinese ,porcelain4 7,notes by ,s4 ,w4 ,bushell47 #aija4 ,,nightingale 7,j4 ,e473 ,contributions towards the ,history of ,english ,porcelain1 from contemporary sources4 ,salisbury1 #ahha4 ,,owen 7,,hugh73 ,two ,centuries of ,ceramic ,art at ,bristol4 #ahgc4 ,,paris 7,exposition ,universelle1 #aijj73 ,histoire de l'art de ,japon4 ,,patent ,,office3 ,patents relating to ,pottery and ,porcelain4 #ahfc4 ,,piot 7,,eug,,ne73 ,histoire de la ,porcelaine 7,cabinet de l',amateur74 ,paris1 #ahfc4 ,,randall 7,,john73 ,a ,history of ,madeley1 including ,coalport1 etc4 ,madeley1 #ahhj4 ,,reeks 7,t471 and ,,rudler 7,f4 ,w473 ,catalogue of ,english ,pottery in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology4 #ahic4 ,,ria,o 7,,don ,,juan73 ,handbook of ,spanish ,arts 7,south ,kensington74 #ahgi4 ,,riccio3 ,la ,fabbrica della ,porcellana in ,napoli4 ,naples1 #ahgh4 ,,ris-,,paquot 7,o4 ,e473 ,dictionnaire des ,marques et ,monogrammes de ,porcelaines4 ,paris1 #ahhj and #ahic4 ,,salv,,tat 7,a473 ,leons de ,cramique4 ,paris1 #aheg4 ,,sartel 7,o4 ,,du73 ,la ,porcelaine de ,chine4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,,schreiber ,,collection1 ,catalogue of4 #ahhe4 ,,seidlitz 7,w4 ,,von73 ,die ,meissner ,porzellan ,manufactur unter ,bttger 7,society of ,saxon ,history1 vol4 ix47 ,,soil1 ,,eug,,ne3 ,recherches sur les ,anciennes ,porcelaines de ,tournay4 ,paris1 #ahhc4 ,,solon 7,m4 ,l473 ,history of ,old ,english ,porcelain4 #aijc4 ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum3-- ,list of ,books on ,pottery and ,porcelain in the ,national ,library4 #bnd edition1 #ahhe4 ,classified ,catalogue of ,printed ,books1 ,ceramics4 #ahie4 ,,stegmann 7,h473 ,die ,frstliche ,braunschweigische ,porzellan ,manufactur zu ,frstenberg4 ,brunswick1 #ahic4 ,,str,,le 7,g4 ,h473 ,rrstrand et ,marieberg4 ,cramiques ,sudoises du dix-huitime ,sicle4 ,stockholm1 #ahgb4 ,,thiancourt et ,,davillier3 ,l',art de ,restaurer les ,porcelaines4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,,tiffen 7,w4 ,f473 ,a ,chronograph of the ,bow1 ,chelsea1 and ,derby ,china ,manufactories4 ,salisbury1 #ahge4 ,,turner 7,w473 ,the ,ceramics of ,swansea and ,nantgarw4 #ahig4 ,,uyeda1 ,,tokunosuke4 ,la ,cramique ,japonaise4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,,vernadsky4 ,molecular ,composition of ,porcelain4 #8,comptes ,rendus1' #ahij1 p4 #acgg4 ,,vogt 7,,georges73 ,la ,porcelaine4 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,,wallace ,,collection 7,hertford ,house73 ,catalogue of ,porcelain1 etc4 #aijb4 ,,walpole 7,,horace73 des ,strawberrian3 ,catalogue of the ,strawberry ,hill ,collection4 ,privately printed1 #aghd4 ,,wurtz 7,,henry73 ,chemistry and ,composition of ,porcelain and ,porcelain ,rocks in ,japan4 ,philadelphia ,exhibition ,reports1 #ahgg4 ,,zais 7,e473 ,die ,kurmainzische ,porzellan-,manufactur zu ,hchst4 ,mainz1 #ahhg4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,bibliographical ,,list ,,alphabetical ,,list ,,of ,,topography ,,and ,,subject ,america4 ,barber4 ,berlin4 ,kolbe4 ,bibliography4 ,champfleury1 ,jaennicke1 ,south ,kensington4 ,bow4 ,bemrose1 ,tiffen4 ,bristol4 ,owen4 ,buen ,retiro4 ,riao4 ,capo di ,monte4 ,riccio4 ,catalogues4 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club1 ,bertin1 ,binns1 ,franks1 ,garnier1 ,schreiber1 ,walpole1 ,wallace4 ,chantilly4 ,chantilly1 ,gasnault1 ,macon4 ,chelsea4 ,bemrose1 ,franks1 ,tiffen4 ,china4 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club1 ,bushell1 ,d',entrecolles1 ,franks1 ,griggs1 ,gulland1 ,grandidier1 ,hirth1 ,hippisley1 ,julien1 ,meyer1 ,monkhouse1 ,du ,sartel4 ,coalport4 ,randall4 ,composition and ,chemistry4 ,brongniart1 ,church1 ,reeks1 ,vernadsky4 ,continental ,porcelain4 ,brinckmann1 ,franks1 ,garnier4 ,derby4 ,bemrose1 ,haslem1 ,tiffen4 ,doccia4 ,ginori4 ,dresden4 ,see ,meissen4 ,english ,porcelain4 ,alexandra ,palace1 ,burton1 ,church1 ,jewitt1 ,nightingale1 ,reeks1 ,solon4 ,frstenberg4 ,stegmann4 ,general4 ,chaffers1 ,garnier1 ,jacquemart1 ,jaennicke1 ,litchfield1 ,marryat1 ,piot1 ,vogt4 ,hchst4 ,zais4 ,japan4 ,brinkley1 ,bushell1 ,bing1 ,franks1 ,gonze1 ,hoffmann1 ,paris ,exhibition1 ,uyeda1 ,wurtz4 ,korea4 ,bushell4 ,lille4 ,houdoy4 ,manufacture4 ,see ,technology4 ,marks4 ,chaffers1 ,franks1 ,jaennicke1 ,ris-,paquot4 ,medici4 ,davillier4 ,meissen4 ,brinckmann1 ,engelhardt1 ,grsse1 ,seidlitz4 ,nantgarw4 ,turner4 ,plymouth4 ,owen4 ,repairing4 ,thiancourt4 ,saint-,cloud4 ,lister1 ,gasnault4 ,saxony4 ,see ,meissen4 ,svres4 ,bachelier1 ,davillier1 ,garnier1 ,gasnault1 ,vogt4 ,swansea4 ,turner4 ,sweden4 ,strle4 ,technology4 ,brongniart1 ,burton1 ,bushell1 ,d',entrecolles1 ,dubreuil1 ,julien1 ,reeks1 ,salvtat1 ,vogt1 ,wurtz4 ,tournay4 ,soil4 ,venice4 ,davillier1 ,drake4 ,vienna4 ,falke4 ,wedgwood4 ,meteyard4 ,worcester4 ,binns4 ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,on ,,other ,,subjects ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,borlase4 ,natural ,history of ,cornwall4 ,oxford1 #ageh4 ,,chardin4 ,voyages en ,perse4 ,amsterdam1 #afhf4 ,,davis 7,,sir ,,john73 ,the ,chinese4 #aheg4 ,,gertz4 ,les ,produits de la ,nature ,chinoise et ,japonaise4 ,yokohama4 ,,hirth 7,f473-- ,china and the ,roman ,orient4 #ahee4 ,fremde ,einflsse in der ,chinesischen ,kunst4 ,leipsic1 #ahif4 ,chinesische ,studien4 ,munich1 #ahij4 ,,lister 7,,dr4 ,,martin73 ,journey to ,paris4 ,london1 #afii4 ,,polo 7,,marco73-- ,le ,livre de ,m4 ,p4 ,edited by ,m4 ,g4 ,pauthier4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,the ,book of ,ser ,m4 ,p4 ,edited by ,h4 ,yule1 #ahga4 ,,pal,,ologue3 ,l',art ,chinois4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,,plot 7,,dr473 ,natural ,history of ,oxfordshire4 ,oxford1 #afgg4 ,,rein 7,j4 ,j473 ,industries of ,japan4 #ahhi4 ,,richthofen 7,,ferdinand ,v473 ,china4 ,berlin1 #ahgg4 ,,yule 7,h473 ,cathay and the ,way ,thither4 #ahff4 ,,porcelain ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,and ,,scientific ,it is with a comparatively small branch of the art of the potter that we are concerned in this book4 ,porcelain or china1 in all countries except the one where it was slowly brought to perfection1 has always remained something of an exotic1 and even in ,china we shall see that it was the immediate ,imperial patronage and the constant demand for the court at ,pekin that brought about the great development of the art under the present dynasty4 ,in ,japan1 the first independent country to which the new art spread1 it was under the eye of the greater and smaller feudal lords1 often in the very garden of their palaces1 that the kilns were erected1 while the ware produced was reserved for the use of the prince and his household4 ,both in ,china and ,japan we shall find the decline of the art to go hand in hand with the advance of the demand for the ,western market1 so that by the beginning of the nineteenth century we lose all interest in the manufacture4 ,this dependence upon royal or princely support is equally prominent in the history of the shortlived porcelain factories of ,europe4 ,their success or failure has generally followed closely upon the greater or less interest taken in them by the reigning prince1 and few of these kilns survived the political changes of the end of the eighteenth century4 ,no doubt1 within the last twenty years or so a certain revival has come about both in the ,far ,east and in certain ,european countries1 and that under totally different conditions from those which prevailed in the eighteenth century4 ,here and there1 at least1 the manufacture of porcelain has come within the sphere of the new impulses that have brought about such changes in the #8,arts and ,crafts' at the end of the nineteenth century4 ,in its main lines1 the history of porcelain is a very simple one4 ,slowly developed during the ,middle ,ages in ,china1 the manufacture became concentrated at one spot1 at ,king-te-chen1 and there reached its highest development early in the eighteenth century4 ,in ,europe1 the repeated attempts to produce a similar ware had about the same time been crowned with complete success in ,saxony2 while in ,england and in ,france a ware closely resembling in aspect the ,chinese1 but softer and more fusible1 had been accepted as an equivalent4 ,speaking generally1 then1 we can make these three statements with regard to the history of porcelain3-- #a4 ,that the art had its origin and complete development in ,china4 #b4 ,that it has seldom flourished except under royal or princely patronage4 #c4 ,that porcelain1 from the artistic point of view1 is essentially a product of the eighteenth century1 and that this statement is true in the main as regards the country of its origin1 though in this latter case we must make a certain reserve in favour of the earlier wares4 ,our subject may seem a simple one compared with some kindred branches of the industrial arts1 such1 for example1 as the history of glass-making1 or that of cloisonn and other enamels4 ,we come indeed at more than one time into contact with both these arts1 and it is just at these points that some of our chief difficulties arise4 ,it is in view of such questions as these1 and indeed of many others equally important in the history of porcelain1 that the necessity of a thorough understanding of the technical and even chemical side of our subject becomes evident4 ,of course1 if in discussing the different kinds of porcelain we are concerned only with their merits or demerits as artistic products1 we can put aside these practical questions as #8beneath the dignity of our argument4' ,but such a treatment of the subject would land us only too surely in vague generalities and in an arrangement based upon personal caprice4 ,we require1 above all at the start1 a firm basis1 and this can only be found in a thorough comprehension not only of the technical processes that are involved in the manufacture of porcelain1 but of the physical and chemical nature of the substance itself4 ,but first we need some kind of preliminary definition of what is meant by the word4 ,porcelain1 then1 is distinguished from other fictile wares by possessing in a pre-eminent degree the following qualities3 hardness1 difficult fusibility1 translucency1 and whiteness of body or paste4 ,any specimen of ceramic ware that possesses all these qualities may be classed as porcelain1 and from a practical point of view1 the more it excels under these heads1 the better specimen of porcelain it is4 ,these were the qualities by which the porcelain brought from the ,east in the seventeenth century was distinguished from any ware made at that time in ,europe4 ,our ancestors dwelt especially on the practical advantages of the hard glaze and the elastic compact paste of the new ware1 which compared favourably with the easily scratched surface and the crumbly body of the earthenware then in general use4 ,the greater infusibility that accompanies this hardness was not a point of much importance to them1 but they marvelled at the translucency of the edges1 as of some natural stone1 and we find absurdly exaggerated accounts of the transparency both of the original ware and of the imitation that they claimed to have made4 ,finally1 they noticed that the whiteness of the surface was not given by an artificial layer more or less closely adhering to an earthy base1 but was the natural colour of the paste to which the thin layer of transparent glaze merely gave the effect of the polish on ivory or on marble4 ,what then was this hard1 white1 translucent substance8 ,what wonder if from one end of ,europe to the other1 scheming minds--chemists1 alchemists1 physicians1 potters1 and charlatans--were at work trying to make something that should resemble it8 ,the history of this long search is a very interesting one1 but it would be impossible to explain its failures1 its partial failures 7these last resulting in a compromise--soft-paste porcelain71 and the final success of ,bttger1 without1 as it were1 going behind the scenes1 and giving some account of porcelain from a modern1 scientific point of view4 ,and first let us say that1 although when treating of porcelain from the historical and especially from the sthetic standpoint 7and this after all is our principal business in this book71 it is well to take a wide grasp and include a whole class of china--,i mean the soft-paste ware--which does not come up to our standard of hardness and infusibility1 this is not the case when we are considering the physical1 and especially the chemical1 nature of porcelain4 ,by confining ourselves1 for the present1 to true hard porcelain1 we have the advantage of dealing with a substance which chemically and physically may be compared to a definite mineral species4 ,nay more1 we propose here to confine ourselves to the consideration of the hard pastes used at the present day in the wares of ,france and ,germany1 neglecting for the present the softer and more irregular porcelain of the ,chinese4 ,first as regards hardness1 the surface of the paste of a true porcelain1 when free from glaze1 can be scratched by a crystal of quartz1 but it is untouched by the hardest steel4 ,that is to say1 it would be classed by the mineralogist with felspar1 and given a hardness of #f to #fe on his scale4#a ,the freshly broken edge shows a white1 perfectly uniform substance1 a glassy or vitreous lustre1 a finely granular texture1 and a fracture conchoidal to splintery4 ,when struck1 a vessel of porcelain gives a clear1 bell-like note1 and in this differs from other kinds of pottery4 ,when held against the light it allows1 where the piece is sufficiently thin1 a certain amount to pass through1 but even in the thinnest splinters porcelain is never transparent4 ,if a thin section be made of a piece of porcelain1 and this be examined under the microscope by transmitted light1 we see1 scattered in a clear1 or nearly clear1 paste1 a vast number of minute1 slender rods1 and between them many minute granules 7,church's ,english ,porcelain1 p4 #f74 ,these belonites and spherulites1 as they have been called1 doubtless reflect the light which would otherwise pass through the glassy base in which they float1 and the partial reflection and partial transmission of the light may not be unconnected with the lustrous fracture so characteristic of porcelain4 ,their presence points to the fact that we are dealing with a more or less definite substance1 one which may be compared to a natural mineral species1 and not merely with a semi-fused clay1 something between stoneware and glass4 ,now when we come to treat of the chemical constitution of porcelain1 we shall find that this view is confirmed4 ,this structure is developed in the paste by the exposure1 for a considerable period of time1 to a temperature of from #acjj to #aejj centigrade1 a temperature which is sufficient to reduce all other kinds of pottery1 with the exception of some kinds of stoneware1 to a glassy mass4 ,in the case of porcelain1 this great and prolonged heat allows of a complete rearrangement of the molecules in the softened mass4 ,the process may be compared to that by which certain minerals and rocks are formed in the depths of the earth4 ,we see1 then1 that not only from the standpoint of history1 but on the basis of the physical properties and intimate constitution of the material1 we are able to draw a sharp line between porcelain and other fictile wares4 ,this distinction is even more definitely shown by a chemical analysis4#b ,we are dealing1 as in the case of so large a part of the rocks and minerals of the earth's surface1 with certain silicates of the alkalis and alkaline earths1 with silicates of alumina above all4 ,all natural clays used for fictile purposes consist essentially of silicates of various bases1 such as alumina1 lime1 iron1 potash1 and soda1 more or less intimately combined with water1 and with the addition1 generally1 of some free silica4 ,if the clay be good in working quality and colour1 the next point the potter has to look to is the question of its fusibility4 ,it may be said generally that the simpler the constitution of a silicate1 that is the smaller the number of bases that it contains1 the greater will be its resistance to fire4 ,silicate of alumina is unaltered at #aejj ,c41 a temperature which may be taken as the maximum at the command of the potter4 ,the fusing-point is reduced by the addition of silica1 especially if some other bases such as oxide of iron or lime1 or again an alkali1 are present even in small quantity4 ,but beyond a certain point the addition of silica raises the fusing-point1 and it is important to note that it is this excess of silica that renders certain stonewares and fire-clays so infusible4 ,in the case of porcelain1 on the other hand1 the resistance to high temperatures depends more upon the percentage of alumina present1 and the absence or small amount of other bases4 ,thus in comparing the composition of different porcelains1 we find that it is those that contain the most silica that are the most fusible1 or rather1 to speak more accurately1 that become #8porcelainised' at a lower temperature4#c ,the relation of porcelain to stoneware on the one hand1 and to ordinary pottery on the other1 will be made clear by the following figures1 which give the composition of stoneware1 ,meissen porcelain1 and of a red ,samian ware3-- ,stoneware4 ,meissen ,porcelain4 ,samian ,ware4 ,silica1 #hj per cent4 #eh per cent4 #fa per cent4 ,alumina1 #ab 0 #cf 0 #ba 0 ,potash and ,soda1 #e 0 #e 0 #e 0 ,lime and ,iron1 #c 0 #a 0 #ac 0 ,the refractory stoneware contains a large excess of silica over the amount required to combine with the alumina and the #8other bases4' ,in the easily fusible ,roman pottery1 the #8other bases' nearly equal in amount the alumina1 while the ,meissen porcelain not only contains less silica than the pottery1 but the #8other bases' only amount to a sixth part of the alumina present4 ,but it is not enough for the manufacturer to discover a clay of which the chemical composition corresponds to that of the type of porcelain which he proposes to make4 ,the question1 as an experiment of ,brongniart long ago proved1 is more complicated4 ,brongniart weighed out the separate constituents for his porcelain--the silica1 the alumina1 and the alkalis--and from them he formed his paste4 ,he found1 however1 that the paste readily melted at the heat of the porcelain furnace4 ,the analysis then of any ceramic product can give us but an imperfect clue to the nature and properties of the ware4 ,we want to know how the elements are arranged1 and this can only be inferred from a knowledge of the materials employed in the manufacture4 ,i will illustrate this point by comparing the composition of ,meissen porcelain with that of our ,dorsetshire pipe-clay1 the most famous of our ,english clays1 but a material not sufficiently refractory for use in the manufacture of porcelain4 ,both substances contain the same amount of alumina--#cf per cent42 in the ,poole clay 7after removing the water7 there is #ee per cent4 of silica and #i per cent4 of #8other bases1' against #eh per cent4 and #f per cent4 respectively in the porcelain4 ,the composition1 therefore1 of the two bodies is nearly the same3 the clay1 while it contains more iron-oxide and lime than the porcelain1 is poorer in silica4 ,true porcelain has indeed never been made from any other materials than those so long employed by the ,chinese and first described by the missionary1 ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 nearly two hundred years ago4 ,the two essential elements in the composition of porcelain are--7a7 ,the hydrated silicate of alumina1 which is provided by the white earthy clay known as kaolin or china-clay1 a substance infusible at the highest temperature attainable by our furnaces 7about #aejj ,c472 7b7 ,the silicate of alumina and potash 7or more rarely soda71 that is to say felspar4 ,but the felspar is generally associated with some amount of both quartz and mica1 and is itself in a more or less disintegrated condition4 ,this is the substance known as petuntse or china-stone4 ,it is fusible at the higher temperatures of the porcelain kiln4 ,of those substances the first is an immediate product of the weathering of the felspar contained in granitic rocks2 while the second1 the petuntse1 is nothing else than the granite 7or allied rock7 itself in a more or less weathered condition4 ,we see1 then1 that speaking generally1 granite is the source of both the materials whose intimate mixture in the state of the finest comminution constitutes the paste of porcelain4 ,it thus happens that it is only in regions of primitive rocks1 far away as a rule from centres of industry and indeed from the usual sources of the clay used for fictile ware1 that the materials essential for making porcelain are found4 ,by the term granite we mean here a crystalline rock consisting of felspar1 quartz1 and mica1 and we include in the term gneiss1 which differs only in the arrangement of its constituents4 ,the many varieties of rock that are named as sources of kaolin and petuntse1 such as pegmatite1 graphic granite1 or growan-stone1 are as a rule varieties of granite#d distinguished by containing little or no mica1 and above all by the absence of iron in appreciable quantity4 ,as felspar is also the sole or at least the principal element in the glaze with which porcelain is covered1 it will be seen that it is the mineral with which we are above all concerned4 ,now1 of the three minerals that enter into the constitution of these granitic rocks 7the others are quartz and mica71 felspar is the one most easily acted on by air and water4 ,the carbonic acid which is always present in the surface-water gradually removes the alkaline constituents in the form of soluble carbonates1 the silicate of alumina which remains takes up and combines with a certain quantity of water1 and in this form it is washed down into hollows to form the beds of white crumbly clay known as kaolin4 ,this is1 of course1 a somewhat general and theoretical statement of what happens4 ,if we were to examine the actual position and geological relation to the surrounding rocks of the beds of kaolin in ,cornwall and in the south-west of ,france1 there might be some exceptions to be made and difficulties to explain4 ,where1 indeed1 as in many places in ,cornwall1 the kaolinisation has extended to great depth1 the decomposition may have been caused by deep-seated agencies2 in such cases the kaolin is often associated with minerals containing fluorine and boron4#e ,as for the other constituent of porcelain1 the petuntse or china-stone1 we have called it a disintegrated granite1 and this is the condition in which it is usually excavated4 ,it corresponds to the ,french cailloux1 the stony or gravelly material as opposed to the clay4 ,in ,french works it is not generally distinguished from felspar1 and indeed some varieties of petuntse may contain little else4 ,however1 if pure felspar is used1 the second constituent in granite or in petuntse1 ,i mean quartz1 will have to be added to our porcelain paste in the form of sand or powdered flint4 ,the third constituent of the china-stone1 the mica1 is usually neglected3 in many cases the mother rock contains but little1 and what there is is eliminated in the washing4 ,mica is more fusible than felspar2 the white variety1 muscovite1 is practically free from iron1 and only from granite rocks containing this variety can petuntse suitable for the manufacture of porcelain be obtained4 ,the importance of mica as an element of the ,chinese petuntse has only recently been recognised 7,vogt1 ,comptes ,rendus1 #ahij1 p4 #dc74 ,as much as #dj per cent4 of muscovite has been found in samples brought from ,china4 ,the pegmatite of the ,limoges district1 on the other hand1 contains only #cj per cent4 of this white mica1 and of this only a small portion passes into the paste4 ,we have here1 perhaps1 the principal cause of the greater hardness and the higher softening-point of ,european compared with ,oriental porcelain4 ,we shall see later on that this softer ,chinese paste has many advantages1 especially in its relation to the glaze and the enamels1 but for the present we will continue to take the more #8severe' ,european porcelain as our type4 ,let us consider what takes place during the firing of a paste of this latter description4 ,after all the water1 including that in combination in the kaolin1 has been driven off1 we have1 as the temperature rises1 an intimate mixture of two silicates1 one of which1 if heated alone1 would be unaltered by any temperature at our command--this is the silicate of alumina derived from the kaolin2 while the other is a fusible silicate of alumina and potash4 ,there is also present a certain amount of free silica4 ,there is reason to believe that at a certain point a chemical reaction takes place between these constituents1 accompanied by a local rapid rise of temperature in the materials1 the rise being due to this reaction4 ,as a result there is a rearrangement of the molecules of the mass1 although no complete fusion takes place4 ,it is now1 says ,m4 ,vernadsky 7,comptes ,rendus1 #ahij1 p4 #acgg7--we are now following the account of his experiments--that the sub-crystalline rods--the baculites of which we have already spoken--are formed4 ,m4 ,vernadsky claims to have separated these rods from the glassy base by means of hydrofluoric acid1 in which the former were insoluble4 ,he found them to consist of a very basic silicate of alumina1 containing as much as #gj per cent4 of that earth1 while the glassy base was chiefly composed of silica in combination with the potash and with a small quantity of alumina4 ,in their optical properties the crystals or baculites resemble the mineral known as sillimanite1 a natural silicate of alumina4 ,this is all that scientific research has so far been able to tell us of the intimate constitution of porcelain2 but as far as it goes1 it is evidence in favour of our claim that we are dealing with a definite substance1 sui generis1 and not merely with a casual mixture of certain superior kinds of clay1 something1 as we have said1 between glass and stoneware4 ,there are certain other elements that enter at times into the composition of porcelain--magnesia1 which may have been added to the paste in the form either of steatite or magnesite2 and lime1 derived either from gypsum or chalk4 ,these additions generally tend to increase the fusibility of the paste1 especially when accompanied by an additional dose of silica2 but as their presence is not essential we are not concerned with these substances here4 ,the glazes used for porcelain are as a rule distinguished by their comparative infusibility and by their containing no lead4 ,the composition of these glazes follows more or less that of the paste that they cover1 with such modifications1 however1 as to allow of a somewhat lower fusing-point3 as in the case of the paste1 there is a harder and more refractory1 and a softer and more fusible1 type4 ,the harder glazes are composed essentially of felspar1 with the addition in most cases of silica1 kaolin1 and powdered fragments of porcelain4 ,at ,svres1 a natural rock1 pegmatite1 consisting chiefly of felspar1 has been melted to form a glaze without further addition4 ,of late years1 however1 the introduction of a milder type of porcelain has necessitated the use of a more fusible glaze1 containing a considerable quantity of lime1 and it is a glaze of this latter type that has with few exceptions found favour in other districts where porcelain is made4 ,we have attempted in this chapter to give some idea of the nature of porcelain from a physical and chemical point of view1 and in doing so have taken as our type the hard1 refractory paste of ,europe4 ,when we come to describe the porcelain of the ,chinese1 we shall notice some important divergences from this type4 ,we say nothing here of the soft-paste porcelains1 seeing that so long as we confine ourselves to the question of chemical composition and physical properties1 they lie entirely outside our definitions4 ,it is only from the point of view of its history and of its artistic qualities that this group has any claim to the name of porcelain4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,materials3 ,,mixing1 ,,fashioning1 ,,and ,,firing ,it would be quite foreign to the scope and object of this book to attempt to describe in any detail the different processes that come into play in the manufacture of a piece of porcelain4 ,there is the less cause for any such detailed treatment1 inasmuch as the operations involved in the preparation of the paste and in the subsequent potting and firing do not essentially differ in the case of porcelain from those employed in the manufacture of other classes of pottery4 ,the differences are rather those of degree--greater care is necessary in the selection of the materials1 and these materials must be more finely ground and more intimately mixed4 ,again1 the great heat required in the kilns necessitates1 in the firing of porcelain1 many precautions that are not called for in the case of earthenware or fayence4 ,without1 however1 some slight acquaintance with the processes of the manufacture1 it would be impossible to avoid an amateurish and somewhat #8anecdotal' treatment of our subject4 ,there are1 indeed1 many intimate features1 many delicate shades of difference that distinguish the wares of various times and places1 both in ,europe and in the ,east1 which can only be rationally explained by reference to the details of the manufacture4 ,at the present day there is only one district in ,europe where true porcelain is manufactured on a large scale4 ,this district lies on the western and south-western border of the central granitic plateau of ,france1 especially in the ,limousin and in ,berry4 ,again at ,svres1 for the last hundred years and more1 a succession of able chemists has carried on a series of experiments on the composition and preparation of porcelain4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 if we find that the literature concerned with these practical departments is almost entirely ,french4 ,one result of this is a greater richness in technical terms than with us4 ,we find in ,france names for the various implements and processes of the potter's art1 that are something better than the workshop terms of the local potter4 ,again1 the little that has been written in ,england upon the technology of pottery has been concerned chiefly with earthenware of ,staffordshire4#f ,as for the ,english soft-paste porcelain of the eighteenth century1 there is a remarkable dearth of information both as to its composition and as to its manufacture4 ,we know in fact in much greater detail how the great potteries at ,king-te-chen were carried on at the same period1 thanks to the letters of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 and to the information collected in ,dr4 ,bushell's great work1 ,oriental ,ceramic ,art 7,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,i shall always quote from the text edition74 ,the following technical notes are based chiefly on the processes in use either at ,svres or in the great factories of the ,limoges district4#g ,to begin with the ,kaolin1 the #8premier' element in the composition of porcelain4 ,the greatest care is taken to procure a pure white clay which should approach as near as possible to the more or less theoretical mineral kaolinite1 i4e4 to a hydrous silicate of alumina4 ,with this object the rough china-clay brought from the pit is thrown into a large tank of water and broken up with wooden spades2 the milky liquid is now decanted into a second tank1 leaving behind most of the quartz and the other stony particles4 ,on its way the soup-like liquid passes through the meshes of a sieve--these may be formed either of brass wire or sometimes of finely woven silk4 ,on this sieve all but the finest particles are retained4 ,the greater part of the kaolin is deposited in this second tank1 but a certain portion still remains suspended in the liquid1 which is again decanted2 the remaining kaolin then settles down in the third tank1 yielding the finest clay4 ,to dry this slimy mass1 it is first forced by hydraulic pumps into canvas bags1 and these bags are then pressed between fluted wooden trays1 strongly clamped together4 ,we have now got a white chalky mass which may contain as much as #ih per cent4 of the hydrated silicate of alumina4 ,the other materials1 the china-stone#h and the quartz1 have first to be reduced to the finest powder4 ,to effect this they may1 to begin with1 be roasted to effect disintegration1 then crushed in a stone-breaking machine1 and finally passed through the grinding-pan in which they are ground fine between large blocks of chert which rotate upon a pavement of the same stone4 ,the finely ground materials have now to be mixed in suitable proportions either by the old process of #8slop-blending1' where the different #8slops1' each of known specific gravity1 are run in due proportion into the big #8blending ark1' or1 as is now usual in the case of fine wares1 by weighing out the materials in a dry state4 ,on the relative amounts of the three elements1 the china-clay1 the china-stone1 and the quartz1 the nature of the porcelain after firing will depend4 ,m4 ,vogt 7,la ,porcelaine1 ,paris1 #ahic7 gives a useful table showing the limits within which the materials may be varied4 ,we may note that in the case of a normal china-stone or petuntse being used instead of felspar1 very little additional quartz is required4 ,these limits are3 kaolin1 #ce to #fe per cent42 felspar1 #bj to #dj per cent42 and quartz1 #ae to #be per cent4 ,the larger the percentage of the first material1 the harder and more refractory will be the resultant porcelain4 ,this question of the composition of the paste has been the subject of many experiments lately at ,svres4 ,a somewhat animated discussion has raged around it4 ,m4 ,vogt1 who is the director of the technical department in the ,national ,porcelain ,works1 is well qualified to speak on the subject4 ,we shall not hesitate then to avail ourselves of the conclusions which he arrives at1 the more so as they put tersely some important points of which we shall see the importance later on4 ,i refer especially to the relations of the glazes and the coloured decorations to the subjacent paste4 ,these are1 then1 the results that ,m4 ,vogt arrives at3-- ,the two extreme types of porcelain1 one with #fe per cent4 of kaolin and the other with only #ce per cent41 when taken from the kiln do not differ in appearance1 though one has been subject to a temperature of #aejj ,c4 to ensure vitrification and the other to only #acej ,c4 ,their physical properties1 however1 are very different4 ,the first1 rich in alumina derived from the excess of kaolin1 stands without injury variations of temperature1 it suits well with a glaze made from felspar1 a glaze hard enough to resist the point of a knife4 ,these are excellent qualities for domestic use1 but such porcelain does not lend itself well to artistic decoration4 ,at the high temperature required in this case in the firing1 the colours of the paste and of the glazes assume dull and tame hues1 so as to offer little resource to the artist4 ,in a word1 in that part of the decoration that has to be subjected to the full heat of the kiln1 the artist has command only of a restricted and relatively dull palette4 ,again1 in the decoration of the muffle-stove the vitrifiable enamels do not become incorporated with the glaze on which they rest4 ,if a decoration in opaque or translucent enamels is attempted1 these enamels are apt to split off1 carrying with them a part of the glaze4 ,to sum up3 the porcelain of which the hard paste of ,svres1 introduced by ,brogniart1 may be regarded as a type1 though excellent for domestic use1 is incapable of receiving a brilliant decoration4 ,porcelain of the second type1 more silicious and less aluminous1 is fired at a lower temperature4 ,in order to get a glaze sufficiently fusible to melt at such a temperature to a fine uniform surface1 it is necessary to introduce a certain amount of lime into its composition2 by this the glaze is rendered at the same time a little softer4 ,but now the lower temperature of the fire will allow of a greater variety and greater brilliancy in the colours either combined with or used under the glaze4 ,when we come to the muffle-fire we can employ enamels of the widest range of colour1 yielding a brilliant decoration4 ,on the other hand1 this type of porcelain offers less resistance than the other to the action of hard bodies and to rapid changes of temperature--enough resistance1 however1 so ,m4 ,vogt thinks1 for all ordinary usages4 ,it is to this type that the porcelain of ,china1 and ,japan1 as well as the #8new porcelain' of ,svres belongs4 ,the latter comes nearer to the porcelain of the ,east than any other ,european ware4 ,finally1 ,m4 ,vogt points out that most of the other ,european porcelains1 those made in the ,limoges district1 in ,germany and in ,denmark1 are of an intermediate type1 and that they allow the use of either a felspathic or of a calcareous glaze 7,vogt1 ,la ,porcelaine1 pp4 #add seq474#i ,to return to our raw materials1 which we may now suppose to be weighed out in a dry state in the required proportions4 ,these are once more thoroughly mixed with water to form the slip or barbotine1 which is again passed through a fine sieve4 ,to remove any particles of iron which may have come from the machinery or elsewhere1 and which if allowed to remain would form unsightly stains on the finished ware1 it is usual to pass the slip at this stage through a vessel in which a number of horse-shoe magnets are suspended4 ,in some of the large ,french factories a more complicated machine is used for this purpose4 ,the superfluous water has now to be removed either by evaporation or by pressure between canvas bags in the manner described above4 ,the paste may then be passed through a pug-mill to render it uniform in consistency4 ,a curious question arises with regard to the prepared clay4 ,there was formerly a widespread idea1 which may contain an element of truth1 that instead of handing the clay at once to the potter1 it should be kept1 under certain conditions1 for a long space of time that it may undergo a process of #8aging' and fermentation4 ,by the #8aging1' the working qualities1 especially of a #8short' or non-plastic paste 7such as that in use at ,svres in the eighteenth century1 in making the pte tendre71 were doubtless increased1 the more so when the clay was at intervals subjected to fresh kneading and watering4 ,with regard to the long periods for which the clay was kept by the ,chinese1 the most exaggerated statements were formerly made4 ,mr4 ,william ,burton is of opinion that there may be in some cases an evolution of carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen when natural plastic clays are used1 for these may contain both vegetable remains and small quantities of iron pyrites4 ,but the change1 he thinks1 is chiefly a physical one1 due to the settling down of the mass4 ,might there not also1 ,i would suggest1 be a change of a more intimate nature1 due to the formation of gelatinous silica and perhaps also of fresh alkaline or other silicates1 among these minutely comminuted particles of various materials now freshly brought together8 ,we know very little of the conditions that give to natural clays their peculiar unctuous quality and their plasticity4 ,we come now to what has been called the #8shaping' of the clay1 using that word as an equivalent to the ,french faonnage to include all the processes1 throwing on the wheel1 turning of the lathe1 #8pressing' and #8casting1' by which the desired form is given to the vessel4 ,the ,,potter',s ,,wheel1 perhaps the most ancient of all mechanical contrivances1 is still largely used in the shaping of porcelain1 and that1 too1 in a simple form which differs little from that employed three or four thousand years ago in ,egypt1#aj and perhaps for nearly as long a period in ,china4 ,from an sthetic standpoint1 the wheel holds the same relation to the art of the potter as the brush does to that of the painter4 ,it is perhaps a just cause of reproach against that branch of the ceramic art with which we are now concerned1 that so comparatively little use is made of the potter's wheel4 ,not only in ,europe1 but for long ages in ,china also1 the use of the wheel1 for many classes of vessels1 has been replaced by various processes of moulding4 ,with us1 but not in the ,east1 a third process1 that of #8casting' with liquid slip1 is largely used4 ,but when made either by casting or moulding1 the hand of the potter is not seen in the shape of the finished vessel4 ,by means of the wheel alone do we get the full expression of the peculiar qualities of a plastic material4 ,this was recognised by the ,greeks1 when the potter who made the vase signed his name by the side of the painter who decorated it4 ,this it is that gives a certain charm to the roughest earthenware which we may look for in vain in the most elaborately decorated specimen of either ,chinese or ,european porcelain4 ,the clay as it comes from the filter-presses or from the drying-beds is subjected to a series of kneading processes to ensure uniformity of texture4 ,the last of these is the #8slapping1' when the clay is made up into hollow balls1 and thrown vigorously on to a board until all bubbles and irregularities of texture are removed4 ,the thrower's wheel is essentially a revolving vertical spindle1 with a small round table at the top1 beside which the thrower sits4 ,the clay is handed to him in balls1 and he throws it upon the whirling table between his knees4 ,the table is put into motion either directly by the pressure of the workman's foot on a lower table1 or by some arrangement of straps and pedals4 ,if the movement is given by the potter himself1 as is still the case at ,svres1 and to some extent in ,china1 there is the advantage that a more delicate and intimate control of the speed is possible4 ,the movement of the clay under the potter's hand is instinctively regulated by him4 ,every one has seen and marvelled at the wonderful process4 ,the clay is first drawn up into a pillar1 and then depressed into a flat cake1 so that the circular arrangement of the particles may spread through the whole mass4 ,the thrower then opens the hollow of the vessel with his thumbs1 and proceeds to give it the desired shape1 moistening his hands at intervals by dipping them into the slip4 ,small pieces are shaped between the thumb and first finger1 either of one or of both hands4 ,for larger pieces the whole hand and wrist is called into play1 with the assistance1 it may be1 of a sponge4 ,still larger vessels are built up by piling on to the circular edge as it revolves strips of the clay4 ,delicacy of hand is of the greatest importance--the pressure applied and the movements of the fingers must be regulated by the nature of the clay1 and especially by its greater or lesser plasticity4 ,it is essential that the workman should not only press evenly and steadily on the clay as it rises1 but that the speed of the rotation should have a definite relation to the rate at which he raises his hands4 ,with a #8fat' or unctuous clay especially any irregularity of pressure will betray itself1 and the marks will be more prominent after firing4 ,this is the origin of the spiral ridges that we often see on the surface not only of common earthenware1 but sometimes of high-class porcelain4 ,to this cause are due the rings so characteristic of ,plymouth porcelain2 this #8wreathing' or #8vissage' is sometimes seen on ,chinese porcelain also4 ,when the thrower has finished his vessel1 it is cut off from the table by a piece of thread or by a brass wire1 and taken to the stoveroom to dry and harden4 ,when sufficiently dry the vessel is placed on a lathe1 and the turner shaves off all superfluous clay4 ,the finer mouldings 7using the word here in its architectural sense7 may also be given at this stage1 and sometimes the surface is shaped by a #8profile' of steel 7it may be a piece from the blade of an old saw71 which cuts the surface down to the desired shape4 ,the shavings are carefully preserved and returned to the slip-house1 to be blended with the new clay1 the working qualities of which are thereby improved4 ,there are certain parts1 especially handles1 spouts1 and projecting ornaments1 which must in all cases be separately moulded4 ,the foot also1 in the case of large vases1 is separately prepared and subsequently attached4 ,these parts are made in plaster moulds by the #8handler1' whose duty it now is to fix them to the vase4 ,carefully marking the exact place1 he spreads on it a thin layer of slip with a spatula1 and then presses home the handle or other appendage4 ,should1 however1 the two surfaces be dry and absorbent1 it may be necessary to add some gum to the slip thus employed4 ,a similar process1 but one requiring greater care and skill1 is that of fixing together the separate pieces of large vases and figures4 ,this is done in the way we have already described in the case of the handles and spouts--that is by applying a coating of slip to the parts to be joined4 ,it is at this stage that any decorations in relief that may be required are applied to the surface4 ,these are often made in flat moulds1 and to fix them it is enough to run a little water from a camel's hair pencil behind the ornament after adjusting it to its proper place4 ,these processes of fitting on of appendages and ornaments are included by the ,french under the term garniture4 ,,moulding ,,and ,,pressing4--,it is evident that only vessels of a cylindrical or conical form1 or1 more exactly1 such as have a circular section when divided horizontally1 can be formed on the wheel4 ,to produce any other form1 the vessel must be either shaped directly by the hand or made in some kind of mould4 ,the use of moulds for pottery is as old1 if not older than that of the wheel4 ,it was in this way that the ,ushabti figures of the old ,egyptians were made1 and many of these date back to the ,early ,empire4 ,so in ,china1 the further back we go1 the more the use of moulds seems to have prevailed4 ,i take from the excellent article on the manufacture of pottery in the ,penny ,cyclopdia the following account of the process in use in ,england at the beginning of the last century3-- #8,the mould is made in two parts1 and each is separately filled by laying in a cake of clay which has been beaten out to the proper thickness on a wet plaster-block2 it is pressed into the mould by repeated blows from a ball of wet sponge1 then squeezed into all the angular parts and smoothed with sponge1 wet leather1 and horn4 ,when both sides of the moulds are thus lined with clay1 they are joined together1 and the man lays a roll of clay along the inside of the joining1 which he works down until the whole is smooth and solid4' ,the mould is then carried into a stoveroom1 and the plaster here absorbs the moisture so as to release the clay4 ,the contents are carefully taken out1 and the empty mould returned to the stove previous to being filled again4 ,the seam that remains on the outside of vessels after fitting the two parts together#aa is removed by scraping and burnishing with wet horn2 the handles and other appendages are then attached4 ,this is the process that is called #8hollow-ware pressing' or #8squeezing4' ,in #8flat-ware pressing' the mould is used to give the shape to the inside of the vessel only4 ,the mould is placed on the extremity of the #8whirler1' a vertical revolving spindle provided with a circular table1 similar to that of the thrower's wheel4 ,the plate-maker takes a cake of clay1 which he has previously flattened out with his #8batter1' places it on the mould1 and presses down with his hand4 ,the upper surface of the cake of clay 7what will ultimately be the bottom of the plate7 is now shaped by an earthenware #8profile4' ,the mould is now taken off the whirler and at once replaced by another4 ,flat-ware1 especially when greater finish is required1 is also made in a double mould1 and the clay may then be first thrown on the wheel so as to approximate to the shape required before being placed in the mould4 ,processes very similar to the hollow and flat-ware pressing are largely used by the ,chinese4 ,dr4 ,bushell has unearthed a passage from a technical work1 written in the time of the ,chou dynasty1 more than two thousand years ago1 in which a distinction is made between the ordinary potters who worked with the wheel1 and the moulders who made oblong bowls and sacrificial dishes4 ,in a somewhat later work 7#ai-ij ,a4,d47 the writer notes both the advantage resulting from regularity of size1 and the obstacles arising from the shrinkage of the parts in firing1 when vessels are made in moulds4#ab ,,casting4--,there is yet another process which is largely resorted to in ,european works1 but which appears to be unknown to the ,chinese4 ,it depends upon the rapidity with which dry plaster of ,paris will absorb the water from a slip of creamy consistency1 without allowing any of the solid particles to pass along with the water absorbed4 ,the slip-mixture is poured into the plaster mould1 which at once absorbs the water1 leaving a uniform deposit upon the surface of the mould4 ,after pouring or otherwise drawing off the water1 a second and thicker slip may be added so as to form a second layer4 ,the paste of the porcelain so prepared is likely to be of a lighter and more porous consistency than when made by throwing or pressing4 ,this process was used in the eighteenth century at ,derby1 and doubtless elsewhere1 and it was preferred to moulding for making statuettes4 ,some account of it is given by ,haslem1 a good practical authority1 in his ,old ,derby ,china4 ,for small objects1 #8casting' has long been employed in ,france1 and more lately ,ebelmen and ,regnault have so improved the process1 that vessels of all shapes and dimensions are made by it4 ,this has been rendered possible by the introduction of compressed air into the interior of the vessel1 by which means the paste is kept in position until it is sufficiently dry to support itself4 ,a still better way of doing this is to exhaust the air on the outside1 by placing the mould in an air-pump2 the upper part can then be left open1 and the whole operation is under the eye of the workman4 ,m4 ,vogt 7,la ,porcelaine1 pp4 #aeg seq47 laments that in ,france the increased use of these mechanical processes had so reduced the demand for skilful potters1 that the race is nearly extinct4 ,,firing ,,and ,,furnaces4--,so far in our treatment of the operations involved in the manufacture of porcelain1 the same general description has been applicable1 with trifling exceptions1 to the processes in use both in ,europe and in the far ,east1 and to soft as well as to hard paste4 ,but now that we have to describe the firing of the ware1 a division into three classes is necessary3-- #ast4 ,the ,chinese system4 ,this is the simplest plan4 ,the glaze is applied at once to the air-dried ware1 which is then subjected to but one firing--that of the #8grand feu4' #bnd4 ,the ,french system for hard paste4 ,the unglazed vessel is exposed to a heat varying from dull to full red1 generally in the dome over the main body of the furnace4 ,it is then glazed1 and again fired to the full point required by the paste4 ,this is essentially a ,french process1 and the preliminary fire is known as the feu dgourdi4 #crd4 ,the ,english system used for bone pastes4 ,in this case it is the first firing that is the most severe4 ,the #8biscuit oven1' therefore1 in which this is effected1 must not be confused with the feu dgourdi just mentioned4 ,after dipping1 the ware is heated again in the #8glozing' or glazing oven1 but only to a temperature sufficient to melt the glaze4 ,in the case of ware decorated with enamel colours over the glaze1 there will be required in all these cases one or more additional firings at comparatively low temperatures in the muffle-stove4 ,the furnaces1 ovens1 or kilns in which porcelain is fired are always of the reverberatory type2 that is to say1 the fuel is burned in a separate chamber or fireplace1 and the products of combustion pass over or among the ware that is being fired4 ,such furnaces differ on the one hand from the arrangement in a blast furnace1 or that often used in the burning of bricks1 where the fuel is mixed with the material to be heated1 and on the other hand from the muffle-stove1 where the object exposed to the heat is protected from the direct flame by the box of fireclay or iron in which it is placed4 ,kilns of many shapes and sizes have been used for firing porcelain1 but they may most of them be included in one or the other of the following broad classes4 #ast4 ,the old bee-hive ovens of ,china1 the use of which appears to have been abandoned in that country by the end of the seventeenth century4 ,these ovens were generally small1 in some cases only holding one vase4 ,a row of them may be heated from one fireplace1 and they are then built on a rising slope4 ,this type has survived to the present day in ,japan4 #bnd4 ,the oblong horizontal furnaces1 often of considerable dimensions1 used during the present dynasty in ,china4 ,they resemble in section the ordinary type of reverberatory furnace found in metallurgical works4 ,a very similar form was long employed at ,meissen4 #crd4 ,the large conical furnaces1 now in general use in the porcelain factories of ,europe4 ,they may be heated by either direct or by reversed flame4#ac ,in ,china the fuel is generally pinewood1 in billets of uniform size4 ,in many ,european kilns wood is still used3 birchwood1 cut in lengths of fifteen to twenty inches1 is the only fuel used at the present day at ,svres4 ,in ,england1 however1 the difficulties attendant on the use of coal appear to have been overcome4 ,the reader will find in the third volume of ,brongniart's great work 7,trait des ,arts ,cramiques1 ,paris1 #ahgg7 several plates giving plans and sections of all these types of furnaces4 ,from a careful examination of these engravings more is to be learned than from any amount of verbal description4 ,a thorough grasp of the process of firing is of the greatest assistance in understanding the problems and difficulties that arise in the manufacture of porcelain1 and we shall have to return to the subject when we come to treat of the several wares4 ,whatever differences there may be in the shape of the furnaces1 when it comes to filling the interior with the ware to be baked1 there is one precaution which has been adopted in nearly every country4#ad ,the ware must be protected from the direct heat of the flame by means of a case of fireclay in which it is placed4 ,these are the seggars 7,french cassettes2 the process of filling and arranging them is called encastage71 to the preparation of which so important a department has to be set apart in all porcelain works1 and whose manufacture adds so much to the working expenses4 ,the seggar proper is a cylindrical pan of fireclay1 in shape and size like a hatbox4 ,they are piled1 in the furnace1 one over the other1 and these piles or #8bungs' are arranged in the furnace so as to allow a free circulation of the hot gases between them1 but otherwise they are packed as closely together as possible4 ,these seggars may be used several times over4 ,when broken1 the fragments are ground up and mixed with fresh fireclay or argile-plastique to form new cases--without this addition the clay would be too plastic or #8fat' for the purpose4 ,the greatest precautions are taken in the packing of the seggars in the furnace4 ,the giving way of one pile from any inaccuracy in the arrangement may destroy the contents of the whole oven4 ,so again infinite care must be taken in the arrangement and support of the objects in each seggar4 ,the bottom is covered with ground flint or other infusible material1 and the vessel is supported1 when necessary1 by various forms of struts1 props1 or crow-claws1 which sometimes leave their mark on the base or side of the finished object4 ,in spite of these precautions1 a large quantity of defective pieces or #8wasters' are produced in all works1 and these are usually cast aside4 ,the finding of such fragments in after days is sometimes the only proof we have that porcelain or pottery has formerly been made at the spot4 ,but the proof is final1 for defective pieces and #8crow-claws' are not objects likely to have been imported from a distance4 ,again1 the indelible marks left on the porcelain1 either on the edge which rested directly on the seggar or at the points where the object was supported by the crow-claws1 often give valuable hints as to the provenance of the piece in question4#ae ,in the case of valuable wares these rough edges and marks are removed as far as possible by grinding on a small wheel1 and then polishing the surface with pumice or with putty4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,glazes ,before attacking the somewhat complicated subject of the nature and composition of glazes1 it will be well to take up again the thread of the mechanical processes that are involved in the making of a piece of porcelain4 ,the materials that enter into the glaze are reduced to the finest powder in mills similar to those in which the china-stone and flint are ground for the preparation of the paste4 ,if any substance soluble in water1 such as borax or salts of the alkalis1 enter into the composition of the glaze1 these must be first partially fused in combination with the other materials to form a frit1 a kind of imperfect glass4 ,these frits1 which enter so largely into the composition of soft-paste porcelain1 are formed with the object of bringing the soluble constituents into an insoluble form before mixing with water to form the slip4 ,there are indeed other practical reasons that render a preliminary partial fusion desirable4 ,the finely ground elements of the glaze1 mixed in due proportion1 are worked up with water to form a creamlike slip into which the vessel to be glazed is now dipped4 ,in ,china1 in many cases1 the glaze-slip is blown upon the surface in the form of a spray4 ,this is done by means of a bamboo tube1 covered at one end by a piece of silk gauze1 through which the liquid is projected by the breath of the operator 7,french1 insufflation72 in other cases the glaze may be painted on with a brush4 ,in ,china1 as we have mentioned1 the glaze-slip is generally applied to the raw surface of the thoroughly dried but unbaked ware1 but in other countries there is1 almost without exception1 a preliminary firing of greater or less degree to produce a biscuit4 ,we shall restrict the use of the word glaze to the vitreous coating applied directly to the surface of the raw paste or of the biscuit to enhance the decorative effect of the ware1 and with the more prosaic object of allowing the surface to be easily kept clean4 ,in the case of porcelain this coating is always more or less transparent4#af ,there is here no necessity for concealing the natural white colour of the paste4 ,in the case of many kinds of pottery1 however1 as in the #8enamelled fayence' of ,delft and ,italy1 the glaze is rendered opaque by the addition of oxide of tin1 so that the ill-favoured ground is concealed by a white shiny surface which may be made to resemble closely the natural surface of porcelain4 ,a glaze of this kind is often called an enamel1 but as we are not concerned with such an expedient we shall confine the use of that word to the various forms in which a vitreous decoration1 whether translucent or opaque1 is superimposed upon the glaze and fused into it1 more or less thoroughly1 by a subsequent firing in a muffle furnace4 ,the ,english word #8glaze' is only another form of the word #8glass1' and we may say at once that1 in composition at least1 there is often little difference between the two substances4 ,the ,french word for #8glaze' is couverte or vernis2 the last term applies well to the thin skin of glaze found on ,greek pottery4 ,the ,chinese have several expressions1 but it is a curious fact that the characters with which most of these terms are written contain the radical for #8oil1' and indeed the word #8oil' itself is often used in the sense of #8glaze4' ,mr4 ,rix puts it well when he says that the glaze is to the enameller of porcelain what his canvas is to the painter2 while in the case of a decoration #8sous couverte1' the glaze corresponds to the varnish which1 while protecting his work1 gives brilliancy to the colouring 7,journal of ,society of ,arts1 vol4 xli474 ,it is1 moreover1 the vehicle by which the design is harmonised and rendered mellow4 ,the effect is produced at once and endures practically for all time4 ,the hardness and fusibility of glazes differ widely1 and they are conditioned by the nature of the wares that they cover4 ,it is evident that there must be a close relation between the fusing-points of paste and glaze1 and that the latter should be the more fusible of the two4 ,the difference of melting-point should1 however1 not be too great4 ,the melted glaze should rather1 by penetrating into the already softened paste or by a chemical action upon its surface1 form a more or less uniform mass with it4 ,in cooling1 the contraction of the glaze should follow that of the subjacent paste4 ,this is a most important point2 any discordance may lead to splitting1 cracking1 and #8crazing4' ,the beauty of the surface of porcelain depends on the fact that the glaze has become intimately united with the paste during the long exposure of both to a high temperature4 ,we should not be conscious1 in regarding a fine specimen of porcelain1 of a greater or less thickness of glass covering an opaque substance2 we should rather see in it the polished surface of ivory or of some precious marble4 ,it would seem that it was the beauty of the glassy surface1 enhancing the brilliancy of the colouring1 rather than any practical advantage connected with its use1 that first led to the application of glaze to pottery4 ,the turquoise and green glazes of the ,egyptians 7the colour is derived from a silicate of copper along with soda and sometimes lime7 were known to the men of the ,early ,empire4 ,they were applied to a fritlike mass of sand held together by silicate of soda1 to which the name of porcelain has sometimes been very wrongly given4 ,objects of steatite1 of slate1 and even of rock crystal were sometimes covered with a coloured glaze of this kind1 but it was never applied to the clay vessels in daily use4 ,these were made1 then as now1 from the unctuous clay of the ,nile bank4 ,for this restriction there was a very good reason1 namely that a glaze of this nature1 composed chiefly of alkaline silicates1 will not adhere to a base of ordinary clay4 ,it was not until ,ptolemaic and ,roman times that1 by the discovery or adoption of a glaze containing lead1 the ancients were enabled to glaze their pottery4 ,so in ,assyria1 the employment of glazes was almost confined to the decoration of the surface of brickwork1 the bricks being of a loose and somewhat sandy texture4#ag ,in these glazes1 and indeed in much earlier examples from ,babylonia1 both tin and lead have been found4 ,the respective virtues of the silicates of these metals were doubtless appreciated1 that of tin to form a white opaque enamel hiding the material below1 and that of lead to enable the glaze into which it enters to adhere to a paste formed of a plastic clay4 ,with the ,chinese the aim was rather sthetic than practical4 ,they sought by means of the marvellous glazes that cover their ancient porcelain to imitate the surface of natural stones2 their early celadons were in a measure intended to take the place of the precious green jade1 so highly esteemed by them4 ,at the time when the manufacture of porcelain was first introduced from ,china there were 7apart from the salt-glazed stoneware1 which lies quite outside our inquiry7 three classes of glaze in general use either in ,europe or in the nearer ,east3-- #a4 ,glazes consisting essentially of alkaline silicates without either lead or tin4 ,such glazes could only be applied to a fritty silicious base1 and in ,india and ,persia their employment seems to have been a survival from ,egyptian and ,assyrian times4#ah #b4 ,opaque enamel glazes1 the opacity being due to the presence of tin2 a considerable amount of lead also is generally found in these glazes4 ,we are not concerned here with the obscure origin of this group1 but in the sixteenth century this enamelled fayence was in general use for the better class of table-ware4 ,it includes the ,italian majolica1 the ,french fayence of ,nevers and ,rouen1 and above all the earthenware of ,delft4 #c4 ,the oily-looking lead glazes with which the common earthenwares were covered4 ,these were essentially the glazes of the ,middle ,ages in ,europe1 and their employment could probably be traced back to the lead-glazed ware sparingly used by the ,romans4 ,we have already noticed the use of a similar glaze in ,egypt as far back probably as ,ptolemaic times4 ,there were practical objections to all these glazes4 ,it is true that at ,delft1 by the use of the tin enamel1 a ware could be turned out closely resembling1 in external aspect1 the blue and white porcelain of ,china1 but the enamel was soft and would in time chip off at the edges1 showing the dark earthy clay beneath4 ,on the other hand1 the alkaline glazes of the ,east were not much known in ,europe2 they can only be used upon a very tender and treacherous base4 ,in ,india and ,persia1 however1 a ware thus glazed still competes with the hard porcelain of the ,far ,east4 ,in spite of the great objections to the glazes of our third class1 those containing lead--objections arising from their softness and from the danger of poisoning to those employed in their manufacture--their use has tended rather to increase4 ,not only is lead the principal constituent of the glazes still universally used for common pottery1 but it forms an important element in the glaze of our finer earthenwares as well as in that of those bone pastes which rank with us as porcelain4 ,the glaze which had been brought to perfection by the ,chinese at an early period differs from all those yet mentioned by its hardness1 its high fusing-point1 and in its chemical composition4 ,speaking generally1 the glaze of porcelain differs in composition from the paste which it covers only sufficiently to allow of its becoming completely liquid at the extreme heat of the furnace2 and just as the paste of ,chinese porcelain has a wider limit of variability than that made in ,europe1 but is on the whole of a #8milder' type than the latter1 so we find that while the glazes of the ,chinese are as a whole less refractory and not quite so hard1 there is still a wide range of variation in these qualities4 ,if1 then1 we theoretically regard porcelain as a compound of a silicate of alumina with an alkaline silicate of the same base1 we may say that the glaze of porcelain is formed by the latter body alone1 that it is1 in fact1 merely a fused felspar4 ,but as in the case of the paste1 so in the glaze there is generally present an excess of silica1 derived from the quartz contained in the petuntse or pegmatite1 and this silica enters into combination with some other bases which are present in the constituents of the glaze1 thereby increasing its fusibility and modifying the contraction in cooling4 ,the most important of these additional bases is lime1 so that the more fusible type may be called a calcareous1 as opposed to a more refractory or purely felspathic glaze4 ,as much as #ba per cent4 of lime has been found in some ,chinese glazes1 the amount of alumina being proportionately reduced4 ,there is more or less lime in the glaze of most kinds of ,european hard porcelain1 but the exceptionally hard and refractory paste made at ,svres since the time of ,brongniart is covered by a glaze of corresponding hardness from which that earth is absent4 ,this hard paste has1 however1 of late been replaced in part by one of a milder type1 and with this latter a calcareous glaze has been adopted even at ,svres1 the object of the change being1 as we have said1 to allow of a more brilliant decoration4 ,there is a perceptible difference in the aspect of these two types of glazes after firing4 ,the hard1 non-calcareous glaze has a slightly milky look4 ,the softer calcareous type is more brilliant1 and approaches in transparence and limpidity to the lead glazes of soft porcelain4 ,a glaze of this last kind was used at ,svres for a few years after the first introduction of the hard paste1 and perhaps also at ,dresden in quite early days4 ,the principal objection to a hard refractory glaze1 such as that so long in use at ,svres1 arises from the difficulty of properly incorporating the enamel colours with its body4 ,the restriction of the number of pigments that can be employed1 both under and on the surface of the glaze1 in consequence of the high temperature at which the latter melts1 is another drawback4 ,the dulness1 the #8painted on' look of so much of the decoration on ,european hard paste porcelain1 is in great measure a consequence of the employment of a glaze that is only softened at a high temperature4 ,as an example of a medium type of glaze we give the composition of that used at ,berlin in #ahcf4 ,this consisted of kaolin1 #ca per cent42 quartz1 #dc per cent42 gypsum1 #ad per cent42 and ground porcelain1 #ab per cent4 ,a glaze long in use at ,dresden is of a very similar character4 ,felspar1 it will be seen1 does not enter into its composition1 and such a glaze can contain but little potash or soda4 ,with this we may contrast the hard glaze of ,svres1 composed simply of ground pegmatite1 a rock consisting mainly of felspar4 ,this glaze yields on analysis #gd per cent4 of silica1 #ag per cent4 of alumina1 and as much as #h per cent4 of potash4 ,the glaze on ,chinese porcelain is prepared by mixing certain special varieties of petuntse with an impure lime1 prepared by burning limestone with dry fern as fuel4 ,it contains1 as we have seen1 from #ae to #ba per cent4 of lime1 #e to #f per cent4 of alkalis1 #aa per cent4 of alumina1 and #ff per cent4 of silica4 ,we give these examples to illustrate the principal types of glazes used for hard paste porcelain4 ,it will be noticed that the constituents are drawn from widely different sources4 ,the glazes of soft paste porcelain always contain a large amount both of lead and of potash or soda1 so that they approximate in composition to a flint glass4 ,the alkalis1 generally introduced as carbonates1 necessitate a previous fritting of part at least of the materials4 ,boracic acid plays an important part in the glaze of most modern ,english wares3 it is generally introduced in the form of borate of soda or borax4 ,this acid replaces in part the silica1 just as in the paste the glassy materials are replaced by bone-earth4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,decoration ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,colour ,if we were treating the subject purely from a practical point of view1 with the glazing and firing of a piece of porcelain the manufacture might be held to be terminated4 ,this would be strictly true1 for instance1 of the white porcelain of ,berlin1 so largely used in the chemical laboratory2 a great deal1 too1 of the china in domestic use receives no decoration of any kind4 ,but for us there remains still to examine the element of colour and the way in which it is applied to the decoration of porcelain4 ,this is effected in three different ways3 by the employment of coloured glazes2 by painting on the surface of the paste before the glaze is applied 7this is the decoration sous couverte72 and finally by coloured enamels applied to the surface of the glaze4 ,these methods may be combined1 but as this is rarely the case1 such a division forms the basis of a convenient classification1 more especially for the wares of ,china and ,japan4 ,in the case of both the paste and of the glaze1 we have been dealing with a restricted group of elements1 with alumina1 lime1 potash and soda2 and apart from impurities unintentionally introduced1 all the combinations of these bodies are colourless4 ,we have now to consider the effect of introducing certain of the heavy metallic bases which combine with the excess of silica to form coloured silicates4 ,the metals that give to ,oriental porcelain its brilliant hues are few in number4 ,indeed1 in all lands and at all times1 iron1 copper1 cobalt1 and manganese have been the principal sources of colour in the decoration not only of porcelain1 but of most other kinds of pottery4 ,as equal to these four metals in importance1 but not strictly to be classed as colouring materials1 we may place tin1 the source of most opaque whites1 and lead1 which is the main fluxing element for our enamels4 ,next in importance to these metals come antimony1 long known to the ,chinese as a source of yellow1 and finally1 but this last only since the beginning of the eighteenth century1 gold1 as the source of a red pigment4#ai ,this exhausts the list1 not only for the ,far ,east1 but for all the pottery of ,europe up to the end of the eighteenth century4 ,it was in a period of artistic decline that the advance of chemical knowledge led to the introduction of other colours1 derived both from new metallic bases and from fresh combinations of those already known4 ,by far the most important of these new colours are those derived from the salts of chromium1 but uranium and other rare metals have also been called into use4 ,as with the sister art of painting1 the beauty and harmony of the effects produced have not kept pace with the enlargement of the palette--the result was rather to accentuate the decline that had already set in from other causes4 ,there are two metals1 iron and copper1 that have always been of pre-eminent importance as sources of colour4 ,each of them forms two series of combinations differing entirely in hue1 so that were we confined to the use of these two metals1 our palette would still be a fairly complete one4 ,the protoxide of copper1 especially when a certain amount of lime and of soda is present1 forms a series of beautiful blue and green silicates4 ,when the proportion of oxygen is decreased1 as happens when the surface of the ware is exposed in the kiln to a reducing flame1 a suboxide of copper is formed1 which gives a deep and more or less opaque red hue to the glaze4 ,so in the case of iron1 the so-called sesqui-oxide is perhaps the most abundant source of colouring matter in the mineral kingdom3 the colours produced by it range from pale yellow to orange1 brown1 and full red4 ,when1 however1 the iron is present as a protoxide1 the colour given to the glaze is entirely altered2 it ranges from a pale sea-green to a deep olive4 ,the remaining two elements that have long played an important part in the decoration of pottery are cobalt and manganese4 ,these metals1 in the form of silicates1 yield the well-known series of blues and purples4 ,one important source of the famous underglaze blue of ,china and ,japan is a black mineral known to us as wad1 which occurs in earthy to stony concretions4 ,this wad contains oxides of both cobalt and manganese1 and the quality of the blue obtained from it depends in great measure upon the proportion in which the two metals occur4 ,the employment of antimony is comparatively rare1 but1 generally in combination with iron1 it is an important source of yellow4 ,in spite of the volatile nature of most of its salts1 in the presence of silica this metal is able to withstand a high temperature4 ,but before considering the application of colour to the glaze1 we must mention briefly a method of decoration which was in great favour at ,svres some years ago--,i mean the application of colour to the paste itself4 ,this was done long ago by ,wedgwood1 sometimes to the whole mass of the paste1 as was the case with his jasper ware1 which some authorities class as a true porcelain4 ,at ,svres these coloured pastes have been generally applied to the surface only1 in thin layers1 or even as mere coats of paint4 ,when laid on in successive coats1 as in the so-called pte-sur-pte1 the amount of colouring matter need not be large1 from #b to #e per cent4 ,when larger proportions of coloured oxides are mixed with the pte1 and this is painted on with a brush1 the process differs little from the ordinary decoration under the glaze1 into which it indeed may be said to pass4 ,coloured pastes of this description have never been employed by the ,chinese1 and it is not possible to obtain much brilliancy or decorative effect by their use4 ,they are1 indeed1 foreign to the nature of porcelain1 sacrificing the brilliant white ground which should be the basis of all decorative schemes4 ,when the colouring matter is subjacent to the glaze it must be of a nature to withstand the full heat of the subsequent firing2 we are restricted therefore to colours #8 grand feu4' ,this practically confines us to cobalt and to certain combinations of iron and copper1 as far as the #8old palette' is concerned4 ,at ,svres and elsewhere other metals have been made use of whose silicates withstand the extreme temperature of the kiln4 ,by the use of chromium we have command of many shades of green4 ,if to an oxide of tin we add a minute quantity of the sesqui-oxide of chromium1 we can obtain1 in the presence of lime1 many shades from rose to purple2 and a mixture of cobalt and chromium produces a fine black4 ,there is1 however1 as yet no satisfactory yellow pigment known that will withstand the grand feu4 ,at the best we can get a straw colour from certain ores of tungsten and titanium1 and from uranium a yellow deeper in tint but uncertain in application4 ,the majority of the colours we have mentioned require a more or less oxidising flame for their full development4 ,there are1 however1 two most important groups of coloured glazes1 long the monopoly of the ,chinese1 but now successfully imitated in ,france and elsewhere1 which require1 for a term at least1 to be subjected to a reducing flame4 ,the first of these glazes is the well-known ,,celadon1 using that term in its proper and restricted sense1 for certain shades of greyish green4 ,the celadon of the ,chinese is produced by the presence of a small quantity1 about two per cent41 of protoxide of iron in the glaze4 ,an oxidising flame would change this protoxide to the yellow sesqui-oxide4 ,we may note that a celadon of good tint can only be produced when a considerable quantity of lime is present in the glaze4 ,the other group1 depending also upon a reducing flame1 is constituted by the famous ,,sang ,,de ,b,,uf and ,,flamb glazes4 ,the colour of the first is given by the red sub-oxide of copper1 chiefly suspended in the glaze4 ,in the case of the flamb or #8transmutation' glazes1 the strange caprices of colour have their origin1 in part at least1 in the contrast of the red sub-oxide and the green silicate of copper4 ,in the case of both these glazes everything depends on the regulation of the draught of the furnace in which they are fired4 ,the ,french have lately been at great pains to master the difficulties attendant upon the development of the effects sought after1 and some success has been attained not only on a porcelain ground as at ,svres1 but these glazes have also been applied to fayence at the ,golfe ,st4 ,juan and elsewhere4 ,it has been proved by some experiments made at ,svres1 that in the firing1 the critical period1 during which so much depends upon the regulation of the draught1 is just before the melting of the glaze4 ,once melted the glaze not only forms an impervious cover which prevents the smoky flame from discolouring the paste below1 but the glaze itself is no longer sensitive to the action of the gases which surround it4 ,it is therefore only during a short period preceding the moment when the glaze begins to melt1 that it is necessary to promote a smoky and reducing flame4 ,this is a point of considerable practical importance4#bj ,the application of the ,,decoration ,,under ,,the ,,glaze is essentially a ,chinese method4 ,to it we owe the important family of #8blue and white' ware4 ,the superiority of the ,chinese in the management of the blue colour has been attributed to various causes4 ,the result is no doubt influenced not only by the constitution of both paste and glaze1 but also by the fact that the colour is painted upon the raw paste4 ,an important factor also is the care exercised by the ,chinese in the selection and preparation of the blue pigment1 by which not only the desired intensity but the richness of hue is secured4 ,the quality of the blue depends in great measure upon the presence of a small quantity of manganese in the cobalt ore employed4 ,the only other colour that the ,chinese have succeeded in using under the glaze is the red derived from the sub-oxide of copper4 ,the full development of this colour has for long been a lost art1 but a less brilliant red from this source1 often little better than a buff colour1 is sometimes found in later examples combined with the blue4 ,in the application of colours under the glaze there is one difficulty that the ,chinese have surmounted even in their commonest ware1 and this is the tendency of the cobalt blue to dissolve and #8run' in the glaze1 giving to the design a blurred and indistinct appearance4 ,it would seem that the sharpness of outline depends upon the consistency of the glaze at the moment when it first melts4 ,at that point the glaze should be viscous and not inclined to flow1 and this is what occurs in the case of the highly calcareous glazes of the ,chinese4 ,before passing to the enamel colours1 we must say something of a class of glazes which may be looked upon as to some extent of an intermediate character4 ,these are the glazes associated with the #8,san tsai1' the #8three colours' first used in combination by the ,chinese4 ,these coloured glazes were applied1 not1 as is usually the case in ,china1 to the raw paste1 but they were1 it would seem1 painted on the surface after a preliminary firing4 ,being applied with a brush1 the whole surface of the biscuit was not necessarily covered1 and glazes of all these colours could be used upon the same piece of porcelain4 ,glazes of this class were rendered more fusible by the addition of a certain quantity of lead1 and on this ground1 and still more in their historical relation1 as we shall see later on1 these #8painted glazes' may be considered as a link connecting the old refractory glazes of the monochrome and #8blue and white' wares on the one hand1 with the fusible enamels which were at a later time superimposed upon the glaze on the other4 ,the three colours which are applied in this way by the ,chinese are3 7#a7 ,a turquoise blue derived from copper with the addition of some soda or potash4 7#b7 ,the manganese purple1 often described as aubergine4 7#c7 ,a yellow prepared from an iron ore containing some amount of antimony4 ,none of these colours would stand the full heat of the furnace1 and for a reason which will be explained further on1 they are known as the colours of the demi grand feu4#ba ,,coloured ,,enamels4 ,we have now to describe ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,chinese ,,ming ,,porcelain1 ,,black ,,ground the decoration that is applied to the surface of the glaze4 ,in these coloured enamels the colouring matter is dissolved in a flux which contains a large quantity of lead4 ,the comparatively gentle heat at which such enamels fuse allows of the use of a much larger palette than is available for the decoration under the glaze4 ,it is well to point out at the outset the marked distinction in composition and in appearance between the brilliant enamels of the ,chinese and the dull tints of the #8porcelain colours' found in the hard pastes of ,meissen and ,svres4 ,to make clear the cause of this difference it will be necessary to enter into some little detail4 ,the colouring matter in the ,european enamels may amount to as much as a third part of the total amount of the flux with which they are incorporated4 ,as there is not enough of this flux to dissolve the whole of the oxides1 the enamel remains dull and opaque after firing4 ,the flux1 in fact1 is only used as a vehicle to attach the colour to the surface of the porcelain4 ,the effect in consequence is inferior in brilliancy to that obtained by the ,chinese with their transparent enamels in which the metallic oxides1 present in much smaller quantity1 are thoroughly dissolved to form a glass4 ,there is1 unfortunately1 a practical obstacle to the application of these glassy enamels to the hard pastes and glazes of ,europe4 ,it is impossible to ensure their firm adhesion to the subjacent glaze4 ,the ,chinese1 however1 do not appear to find any difficulty in effecting this4 ,the following explanation has been given to account for the difference of behaviour3--the tendency of the enamel to split off in cooling1 as has been proved by experiment1 arises from the small amount of contraction at that time of the highly kaolinic paste1 compared with that of the superimposed glassy enamel4 ,the more silicious paste used by the ,chinese contracts1 on the contrary1 at the same rate approximately as the enamels that it carries1 and these enamels may therefore be laid on in sufficient thickness without any risk of their subsequently splitting off4#bb ,to appreciate the difference in the decorative value of these two classes of enamels it is only necessary to compare the brilliant effect1 say1 of a piece of ,chinese egg-shell of the time of ,kien-lung with the tame surface of a contemporary ,meissen plate1 elaborately painted with landscapes or flowers4 ,the glassy enamels used by the ,chinese resemble the pastes used for artificial jewellery4 ,they are essentially silicates of lead and an alkali4 ,the composition of the flux has to be modified to ensure the full development of the colour of the different metallic oxides which are either made up with it or added subsequently4 ,but in a general way we may say that the colourless fluxes which form the basis of the coloured enamels are prepared by melting in a crucible a mixture of pure quartz sand and red lead1 and adding more or less alkali4 ,in certain cases the lead predominates1 as when it is proposed to make an emerald green enamel by means of copper1 or when the flux is to serve as a basis for the ruby colour given by a minute quantity of gold4 ,on the other hand1 if copper be added to a flux containing an excess of either soda or potash1 we obtain a turquoise blue4 ,a fine purple1 again1 can only be obtained from manganese with an alkaline flux2 if too much lead is present only a brown tint is obtainable4 ,to melt these enamels and to ensure their adherence to the subjacent glaze another firing at a gentler temperature is necessary2 indeed in many cases more than one such firing has to be resorted to4 ,the comparatively high temperature required to develop the colour of one enamel may be sufficient to decompose or otherwise damage another part of the decoration4 ,the lowest temperature of all is that of the muffle-fire in which the gilding is fixed4 ,this is therefore the last decoration to be added4 ,the oven in which these enamels are melted on to the surface of the already glazed porcelain is called a muffle4 ,the ware in this case is protected from the direct action of the flame by the closed rectangular box of fireclay in which it is placed1 like bread in a baker's oven4 ,the muffle is placed over the fireplace of a rectangular furnace1 and the flame plays round the sides in such a way as to ensure the uniform distribution of the heat4 ,for the sake of greater cleanliness and the avoidance of dust1 the pieces to be fired are placed upon tiles of porcelain rather than upon biscuit or fireclay supports4 ,the temperature may vary from a dull to a full red heat 7#fjj to #ajjj;,c471 and the firing lasts from four to twelve hours4 ,we have already mentioned incidentally many of the so-called #8muffle-colours' or enamels4 ,those used in ,china were carefully studied some years ago by ,ebelmen and ,salvtat at ,svres4 ,it would appear that the opaque white of the ,chinese is obtained from arsenic--the merits of the use of tin for this purpose appear to be unknown to them4 ,the blacks are made from the already mentioned cobalt-manganese ore 7wad71 mixed with white lead--when oxide of copper is added a more lustrous black is obtained4#bc ,for the blue enamel1 a very small quantity of cobalt suffices to give a brilliant colour4 ,the various tints of the greens and blues derived from copper depend on the nature of the flux2 of this we have already given an instance4 ,antimony in combination with lead gives a bright yellow1 which tends to orange when a little iron is present2 by the addition of more iron the colour of old bronze is imitated4 ,iron in the state of the sesqui-oxide is the source of many shades of red1 but as this iron oxide will not readily combine with silica to form a transparent glass1 it has to be applied as a more or less opaque paint1 and thus differs from the other colours in being in perceptible relief4 ,hence the importance of the ruby red derived from gold1 which was first introduced into ,china in the early part of the eighteenth century1 and soon became the predominating colour in the decoration of the time 7the famille rose74 ,the palette of the ,european enameller is a more extensive one1 and each large porcelain manufactory has its book of recipes4 ,the composition of the enamels and the relation of the metallic oxides to the fluxes employed have been systematically studied in more than one laboratory4 ,it is only at ,svres1 however1 that the results obtained have been made public4 ,it has been the pride of successive generations of chemists--of ,brongniart1 of ,salvtat1 of ,ebelmen1 not to mention living men--to devise fresh sources of colour for the decoration of porcelain4 ,first chromium1 then nickel1 cadmium1 uranium1 iridium1 and platinum have been added to the list of metals from which enamel pigments have been derived4 ,among the colours of the muffle-stove the chief gain has perhaps been the discovery of the quality possessed by the oxide of zinc of altering the tints of other metallic oxides with which it is mixed4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,china ,introductory--,classification--,the ,sung ,dynasty 7#ifj-abgi7--,the ,mongol or ,yuan ,dynasty 7#abhj-acfh74 #8,la porcelaine de la ,chine6 ,cette porcelaine suprieure toutes les porcelaines de la terre6 ,cette porcelaine qui a fait depuis des sicles1 et sur tout le globe1 des passionns plus fous que dans toutes les autres branches de la curiosit4444 ,enfin cette matire terreuse faonne dans les mains d'hommes en un objet de lumire1 de doux coloris dans un luisant de pierre prcieuse4'--,,edmond ,,de ,,goncourt1 #8,la ,maison d'un artiste4' ,in any work on porcelain it is something more than the premier place that must be given to the ware of ,china4 ,we are dealing with an art ,chinese in origin1 and during a succession of many centuries ,chinese in its development4 ,it was only at a comparatively late time that the knowledge of this art spread over the whole civilised world4 ,we in ,england have1 as it were1 acknowledged the pre-eminence of that country by adopting the word #8china' as an equivalent1 more or less1 to porcelain4#bd ,it was under ,imperial patronage that the art was developed in ,china1 and the excellence of the porcelain of that country has in a measure varied with the taste and intelligence with which that patronage was exercised in different reigns4 ,the native scholar and connoisseur has for ages been a collector of choice pieces1 and his influence has always been exercised in a conservative direction4 ,there is1 indeed1 in the whole world no such consistent laudator temporis acti1 and it is this conservative spirit1 resulting in a constant #8returning upon oneself1' that it is essential to bear in mind if we are to understand the involved relation of the old and the new in the history of the arts of ,china4 ,but the ,chinese potter was not working only for the court or for the learned connoisseur1 or again for the supply of the towns and villages4 ,from the earliest times1 or at least for the last thousand years1 there has been a demand for his ware1 small at first but slowly spreading1 from the outer barbarian4 ,porcelain1 or something akin to it1 has been exported from ,china1 by one path or another1 from the time of the first ,arab settlements at ,canton and ,kinsay in the eighth or ninth century2 and thus a countervailing influence1 acting in the direction of variety and change1 at least as far as the decoration of the ware is concerned1 has always been present4 ,to give but two instances of this influence--we shall return to the subject later on3 in the intimate connection of the ,chinese court with ,western ,asia1 and especially with ,persia1 in the thirteenth century1 we may probably find the occasion of the first introduction into ,china of the blue decoration under the glaze2 and with more certainty--the fact is indeed acknowledged by the ,chinese--we may attribute the second great revolution in the decoration of porcelain1 the use of enamel colours over the glaze1 to ,european or ,arab influence4 ,on the other hand1 the decline that set in at the end of the eighteenth century was not a little hastened by the increased demand for ware decorated to suit the depraved taste of the #8,western barbarian4' ,for in spite of his rigidity and his conservative spirit1 the ,chinese potter has always understood how to adapt his wares to the changing taste of his customers4 ,indeed the variation in the decoration1 the subtle nuances in colour and design1 that enable us to distinguish between the ,chinese porcelain exported to ,india1 to ,persia1 and to the nations of the ,christian west1 might be made the basis of a most interesting study4 ,when we come to consider the various factories of porcelain that sprang up in ,europe in the course of the eighteenth century1 we shall find that what strikes the inquirer above all 7in comparison with the kindred arts of the time7 is the little we can observe in the way of development either in the technique or decoration of the wares4 ,the art springs up full-blown2 what history there is is concerned rather with an artistic decline4 ,it is only in ,china that we can hope to trace the steps by which this special branch of the potter's art attained to the perfection that we find in the products of the eighteenth century1 and this alone is a reason for dwelling1 even in a treatment of the subject so general and brief as this must needs be1 on what may seem to some mere antiquarian detail4 ,but there is another and perhaps even a more important reason for our trying to form some idea of what the earliest wares of the ,chinese were like3 unless we make some such endeavour we shall find it impossible to understand the later history of porcelain in that country4 ,one point must be specially borne in mind when we are attempting to follow the order in which fresh styles and designs were introduced in ,china4 ,when a new method of decoration had been adopted and had come into general use--the introduction of underglaze blue in early ,ming times1 and that of coloured enamels at a later period1 are cases in point--this did not involve the abandonment of the older styles4 ,there was a constant effort to maintain the old methods1 and in the most flourishing times of the emperors ,kang-he and ,kien-lung1 the series of great men who had charge of the imperial works at ,king-te-chen1 some of them practical potters themselves1 were constantly occupied with the problems of reproducing the glazes1 if not the pastes1 of the earliest wares4 ,during the reign of ,yung-chng 7#agbc-agce71 perhaps the culminating period in the history of ,chinese porcelain1 when ,nien ,hsi-yao was superintendent1 a list was drawn up of fifty-seven varieties of porcelain made at ,king-te-chen4 ,in this list the titles of all the old wares of the ,sung dynasty are to be found1 and to them the place of honour is evidently awarded 7,bushell1 chap4 xii474 ,the names of some of these old wares1 the ,ko yao and the ,kuan yao1 for instance1 are applied to porcelain in common use at the present day1 an attribution based on the greater or less resemblance of this modern ware to the ,sung porcelain1 at least in the matter of the glazes4 ,it is only quite of late years that we in ,europe have been able to make any clear distinction1 not only between the different classes of ,chinese porcelain1 but between what is ,chinese and what is not4 ,a few years ago the most characteristic porcelain of ,japan was classed as ,chinese1 while on the other hand ,corea and even local ,english factories were credited with porcelain made and decorated in one or other of the former countries4 ,it is nearly two hundred years since the famous letters of the ,jesuit missionary1 the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 were written1 and these letters still remain our best source of information for the processes of manufacture at ,king-te-chen4 ,there was little further information on the subject from the ,chinese side#be until1 in #ahef1 ,stanislas ,julien translated part of a ,chinese work treating chiefly of the same porcelain factory--this is the ,king-te-chen ,tao ,lu1 a book which contains in addition some information about the history of the different wares4 ,this translation was for many years the only native source of information available to students of ,chinese porcelain1 and many were the misconceptions and blunders in which these students were landed4 ,the book was indeed accompanied by a preface and valuable notes by ,m4 ,salvtat1 the porcelain expert of ,svres1 but ,julien himself1 though an eminent ,chinese scholar1 had no practical acquaintance either with the matter in hand or indeed with the country generally4 ,the beginning of a sounder knowledge of the subject was made when that collector of genius1 the late ,sir ,a4 ,wollaston ,franks1 published a catalogue of the private collection of ,japanese and ,chinese porcelain which he afterwards presented to the nation4 ,his marvellous intuition and his vast experience enabled him to seize upon points of resemblance and difference which threw light upon the origin of the various wares1 and to expose at the same time the inconsistencies of the arrangements then in vogue4 ,he it was who first pointed out the general worthlessness1 as a guide to the date or even the country of any piece of porcelain1 of the name of dynasty and emperor which it might bear4 ,his successor1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 has well carried on the tradition4 ,at the present moment the ,british ,museum is one of the few places where an attempt has been made at a systematic arrangement of a representative collection of ,chinese and ,japanese porcelain4#bf ,in the meantime in ,china itself1 both in connection with the embassies at ,pekin and among some of the merchants at ,shanghai and other treaty ports1 much information was being collected1 and it was above all the merit of ,franks to keep himself in communication with and to encourage all such research4 ,dr4 ,hirth1 long in the service of the ,chinese at ,shanghai and elsewhere1 has published a series of learned studies treating of the relation of the ,chinese to the ,roman empire1 of the ,arab traders during the ,middle ,ages1 and of the early history of ,chinese porcelain generally4 ,but it is to a former member of our embassy at ,pekin1 to ,dr4 ,bushell1 that we are above all indebted for the throwing open of ,chinese sources of information upon the history of porcelain4 ,a worthy successor of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles in his intimate acquaintance with the country and its language1 ,dr4 ,bushell is well abreast of the chemical and technical knowledge of the day1 and his position as physician to our embassy at ,pekin has given him access to information from the best ,chinese sources1 as well as to the treasures of many of the native collections of the capital4 ,dr4 ,bushell has written the text to a sumptuously illustrated work1 nominally a catalogue of the collection of porcelain formed by the late ,mr4 ,walters of ,philadelphia1 and into this text he has woven all the vast wealth of material that he had accumulated during many years of study both at ,pekin and in ,europe4 ,this work has thus superseded all other sources of information on the history and manufacture of ,chinese porcelain4 ,he has1 in fact1 ransacked all that has been written in ,china on these subjects1 and his translations have this advantage over the works of ,julien1 that they are made by one who knows thoroughly the subject that the ,chinese author is dealing with4 ,we must not forget the researches on the chemical and technical side of the subject by what we may call the school of ,svres4 ,to these workers we have made frequent reference in previous chapters4 ,it is to the experiments and analyses of men such as ,brongniart1 ,salvtat1 ,ebelmen1 and ,vogt1 that we are indebted for our knowledge of the chemical constitution of the paste1 the glaze1 and the enamels of ,chinese porcelain1 as well as for a rational exposition of the methods of its manufacture4 ,to sum up1 our sources of information of late years are1 in the main1 ,english1 as far as the history and what ,i may call the sinology of our subject are concerned2 but for the chemistry and technology we must turn to ,french works4 ,as far as ,i know1 little of value has been published in ,germany on the subject of ,oriental porcelain4 ,the discussion between ,karabacek1 ,meyer1 and ,hirth 7whose later papers have been published in ,german7 on the early history of celadon and on the ,arab traders of the ,middle ,ages1 is perhaps the most notable exception4 ,we are in the dark even now as to the date and place of origin of more than one class of ,oriental porcelain4 ,on the question of the relation of the ceramic wares of ,china to the contemporary sister arts1 there are many points to be cleared up1--,i mean especially the question how far the early wares were influenced by the art of the bronze-caster and the carver of jade1 and again to what extent the decoration of porcelain in later times was dependent upon the example of the contemporary schools of painting4 ,when we know about the pictorial art of the ,chinese even the little that we do already of that of their ,japanese neighbours1 we shall1 to give but one instance1 be able to trace the source of the beautiful landscapes and flower designs that we find on the vases and plates of the famille verte and famille rose4 ,there is one source of information which remains as yet almost completely untapped4 ,the ,japanese have been for many centuries keen collectors of ,chinese porcelain1 as of other ,chinese objects of art4 ,they have their own views on its history1 and some of the finest specimens of the older wares remain still in ,japan1 in spite of the many pieces that have of late years been carried away to ,europe and ,america4 ,as we shall see1 they have in their own pottery and porcelain handed on to quite recent days many traditions of ,ming and earlier times that have been lost in ,china4 ,if some ,japanese connoisseur or antiquary1 strong in ,chinese lore1 could give us a history of porcelain from his own point of view1 ,i think that ,european investigators would have cause to be grateful4 ,much could be gleaned1 as ,i have already said1 by studying the relation of the potters art to that of the jade-carver and the caster of bronze1 and this brings us to an important point that perhaps has not been fully appreciated by us in the ,west4 ,i refer to the comparatively late date of the beginning of porcelain in ,china compared1 for example1 to the arts just mentioned4 ,we can hardly carry back the history of true porcelain beyond the great ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijg ,a4,d471 and even in ,china there is no existing specimen that can safely be attributed to so early a date4 ,but this same ,tang dynasty was the very heyday in that country1 not only of military power but also of artistic culture4 ,it would be impossible to enter into this important subject here2 it is one that has been strangely ignored by us in ,europe4 ,suffice to say that the great figure-painters of this period were looked back to with veneration in later times1 both in ,china and in ,japan1 and that the two schools of landscape1 the colour school of the ,north and the black and white #8literary' school of the ,south--schools whose traditions have survived to the present day--were both founded by ,tang artists4 ,at that time art critics were known 7and even honoured72 they already wrote books on the early history of painting1 and they have left us descriptions of famous collections4 ,we may expect1 then1 to find the influence of these more precocious arts on the early fictile ware of ,china1 and indeed we see the quaint decoration and the not too beautiful outlines of the early hieratic bronzes repeated on the rare specimens that survive from the dynasty that after a period of unrest followed that of ,tang4 ,this was the ,sung dynasty1 which lasted till the time of the ,mongol invasion in the thirteenth century4#bg ,it is difficult for a ,european to appreciate the charm1 or rather superlative excellence1 that is found by a ,chinaman in a fine specimen of jade4 ,it is1 however1 a substance that is closely linked with his philosophy1 his religion1 and above all with his all-important ceremonial4 ,no wonder1 then1 if from an early time he strove1 with the pastes and glazes at his command1 to imitate such a material4 ,and numberless references in contemporary writers1 as well as the evidence of many of the oldest pieces of porcelain surviving1 show that this was the case4 ,we may safely say that in these early specimens the thick glaze1 of tints varying from a true celadon to a more pronounced blue or green1 was admired in proportion to its resemblance to jade4 ,as for the porcelain itself1 all that was looked for in the paste was that it should be hard1 and that the vessel when struck should give out a bell-like sound--#8a plaintive note like a cup of jade1' as one early ,chinese writer says of a porcelain cup in his collection4 ,the ,chinese in these times possessed also elaborately carved vessels of rock crystal and of various kinds of chalcedony1 and these also it was attempted to imitate with the early glazes4 ,glass1 too1 as a material for small objects1 was probably known2 it seems1 however1 to have been somewhat of a rarity4 ,it is mentioned by writers of the ,tang period in connection with these early wares1 and indeed it is possible that there may be some confusion in the literature of the time 7or rather perhaps in our interpretation of the language used7 between the two materials--the thickly glazed porcelain and the more or less opaque glass4 ,after these preliminary remarks we shall be in a better position to interpret the somewhat involved and contradictory allusions to our subject found in ,chinese books4 ,we now come to the important question of the classification of ,chinese porcelain4 ,a difficulty here arises from the rival claims of two systems4 ,the older and perhaps safer division depends solely on the nature of the ware1 its colour1 decoration1 etc42 but in opposition to this the claim of the more logical1 historical classification has1 with our increasing knowledge1 become of late years more pressing4 ,the result has been an attempt to combine the two systems4 ,such an attempt must necessarily lead to many compromises1 and yet something of the sort is perhaps the only available plan4 ,we may compare the development of the ceramic art in ,china to what has taken place in the evolution of the animal kingdom3 while new and more elaborated forms are evolved1 the older ones1 or many of them1 survive in but slightly modified forms4 ,if this tendency be borne well in mind there will be less danger of confusion between the really old types and the modern representations or even copies which are called1 in ,china1 by the same names4 ,the three classes into which ,chinese porcelain is divided--and there is a general agreement among collectors on this head--rest on such an attempt to combine a historical with a technical classification3-- #a4 ,porcelain with single-coloured glazes1 including plain white ware4 ,the colour of the glaze is derived from two metals only1 iron and copper4 ,any further decoration depends upon the moulding of the surface or upon patterns incised in the paste4 ,all the wares made up to the end of the ,sung period 7#abgi ,a4,d47 may probably be included in this class4 #b4 ,porcelain decorated with colour under the glaze4 ,this division is nearly equivalent to our #8blue and white' ware1 but in addition to cobalt1 copper is at times introduced to give a red colour4 ,this system of decoration was probably introduced during the course of the fourteenth century1 and it is associated with the ,ming dynasty4 #c4 ,porcelain decorated with enamels over the glaze1 necessitating a second firing in a muffle-stove4 ,the use of these fusible enamel colours came in probably during the sixteenth century1 but the art was not fully developed till much later4 ,the glazes of the first and second classes as a rule contained no lead1 and to melt them the full heat of the oven1 the grand feu1 was required4 ,there is1 however1 a class of porcelain which does not fall well into any of the above divisions1 but which is historically of great importance4 ,the blue1 purple1 and yellow glazes of this ware were painted on the biscuit after a preliminary baking of the paste1 and then fired1 not in the hottest part of the furnace1 but in what we may call the demi grand feu4 ,the glaze of this ware contains lead1 and this fact and the method of the decoration may be held to give it a position bridging over the interval between our first two classes and the third--that of enamelled porcelain4 ,this ware1 painted on the biscuit1 dates1 however1 from an earlier time than the latter class1 and must not be confused with it4 ,as ,i have pointed out1 these types did not entirely replace one another1 for the earlier forms continued to be made by the side of the later4 ,one of our principal difficulties in discussing the early wares of ,china is to reconcile and co-ordinate the various types described in old ,chinese books with the few specimens surviving at the present day4 ,of these scanty examples we can point to scarcely any in public collections2 the rare pieces that have been brought from ,china are in the hands of private collectors in ,england1 ,france1 and ,america4 ,in the ,chinese authorities we find as early as the tenth century references to porcelain which was #8blue as the sky1 brilliant as a mirror1 thin as paper1 and as sonorous as a piece of jade'2 an emperor who reigned just before the accession of the ,sung dynasty 7#ifj ,a4,d47 demanded that the porcelain made for him should be #8of the azure tint of the sky after rain1 as it appears in the interval between the clouds4' ,compare with these descriptions the thick paste1 barely translucent1 the heavy irregular glaze1 greyish white to celadon or pale blue1 of the few specimens of undoubted antiquity that have survived to our day4 ,how can we reconcile the tradition with the material evidence8 ,two explanations have been given of the discrepancy4 ,according to one theory1 all the more delicate and fragile pieces have disappeared #8under the hands of time' 7or shall we say more definitely under those of endless generations of housemaids871 only the heavy1 solid specimens surviving4 ,the other theory is simpler3 it is that the writers of the books are apt to fall into exaggeration when speaking of any matter that has the sanction of age--that1 not to mince matters1 they are as a class great liars2 and this is a point of view that commends itself to those who have any acquaintance with ,chinese literature4#bh ,we have now1 however1 one source of information for these early wares upon which1 although it is in a measure a literary source1 we can place greater reliance4 ,this is nothing less than an illustrated list1 a catalogue raisonn1 of famous specimens of porcelain1 drawn up by a distinguished ,chinese art connoisseur and collector as long ago as the end of the sixteenth century4 ,in this manuscript there were more than eighty coloured reproductions of pieces1 both from the author's own collection and from those of his friends4 ,the work came from the library of a ,chinese prince of high rank1 and it was purchased in ,pekin by ,dr4 ,bushell some twenty years ago4 ,since then this valuable document has perished in a fire at a ,london warehouse1 where it had been deposited1 but not before the illustrations had been copied by a ,chinese artist and its owner had made a careful translation and analysis of its contents4#bi ,the writer1 ,hsiang-yuan-pien1 better known as ,tzu-ching1 after giving a brief sketch of the early history of ceramics in his country1 exclaims apologetically3 #8,i have acquired a morbid taste for pot-sherds4 ,i delight in buying choice specimens of ,sung1 ,yuan1 and ,ming ware1 and exhibiting them in equal rank with the bells1 urns1 and sacrificial wine-vessels of bronze dating from the three ancient dynasties1 from the ,chin and the ,han' 7#bbej ,b4,c4 to #bbj ,a4,d47--that is to say1 in placing them in the same rank as antiquities that are acknowledged to be worthy of the attention of the scholar4 ,porcelain at that time1 we see1 had hardly established its claim to so dignified a position2 hence the apologetic tone4 ,after telling us how with the advice of a few intimate friends he had selected choice specimens1 which he then copied in colour and carefully described1 ,tzu-ching concludes with these words3 #8,say not that my hair is scant and sparse1 and yet ,i make what is only fit for a child's toy4' ,this appeal is evidently addressed to the ,lord ,macaulays of his day4#cj ,the first point to notice in this catalogue is that more than half of the objects described are attributed to the ,sung period 7#ifj-abgi ,a4,d471 that is to say1 they were at least three hundred years old at the time when ,tzu-ching wrote4 ,the ,sung dynasty1 we must bear in mind1 was above all remembered as a period of great wealth and material prosperity4 ,less warlike than the ,tang which preceded it1 the arts were cultivated at the court of the pleasure-loving emperors who had their capital during the earlier time at ,kai-feng ,fu 7in the north of ,honan1 near to the great bend of the ,hoang-ho74 ,when driven south by the advance of the more warlike ,mongols they retired to ,hangchow1 the ,kinsay of which ,marco ,polo has such wonderful tales to relate4 ,in these early days there was no great centre for the manufacture of porcelain2 it was made in many widely separated districts1 so that the classification of these early wares is1 in a measure1 a geographical one4 ,at ,king-te-chen1 at least in the later ,sung period1 they were already making porcelain1 but for court use only1 it would appear1 for at that time the factory was a strict imperial preserve1 and its wares did not come into the market4 ,as to the still older wares1 those of ,ch'ai and of ,ju1 which generally hold the place of honour in ,chinese lists1 it was of the first that the emperor spoke when he commanded that pieces intended for his own use should be clear as the sky after rain2 but no specimen of this porcelain was extant even in ,ming times4 ,its place1 it would seem1 was taken by the ,,ju ,,yao 7the word yao is about equivalent to our term #8ware'71 which1 like the ,ch'ai1 came from the province of ,honan4 ,this ware also is now practically extinct2 ,tzu-ching1 however1 claims to have possessed some specimens1 and of these he gives more than one illustration4 ,the glaze was thick and like melted lard 7a comparison often made by the ,chinese71 and varied in colour from a clair-de-lune to a brighter tint of blue4 ,the name ,ju1 we may add1 is often applied to more modern glazes which resemble the old ones in colour and thickness4 ,the name ,,kuan ,,yao1 which means #8official' or #8imperial' porcelain1 has been the cause of much confusion2 the term has been applied to any ware made for imperial use4 ,that of the ,sung dynasty was made in the immediate neighbourhood of the imperial court1 first at ,kai-feng ,fu and later at ,hangchow4 ,in its more strict use the term ,kuan yao is applied to pieces generally of archaic form1 to censers ornamented with grotesque heads of monstrous animals1 and to wares of other shapes copied from old ritual bronzes4 ,the glaze varies in colour from emerald green to greyish green and clair-de-lune1 it is generally crackled1 the cracks forming large #8crab-claw' divisions4 ,other kinds are described as white and very thin1 but of these1 perhaps for one of the reasons given above1 no examples have survived to our day4 ,,lung-,,chuan ,,yao and ,,ko ,,yao4 ,it will be convenient to class together these two most important types of ,chinese porcelain4 ,at the present day these names are applied in ,china to some comparatively common varieties of porcelain1 not necessarily of any great age4 ,but more strictly ,lung-chuan yao is the term used by the ,chinese for the heavy celadon pieces1 whether dating from ,sung or from ,ming times1 which were the first kinds of porcelain to become a regular article of export2 while the word ,ko yao is used as a general name for many kinds of crackle ware1 which may vary in colour from white to a full celadon4 ,in a more restricted sense it includes only the early pieces with a greyish white glaze and well-marked crackles4 ,,lung-,,chuan ,,ware was made during ,sung times at a town of that name in the province of ,chekiang1 situated about halfway between the ,poyang lake and the coast4 ,in ,ming times the kilns were removed to the adjacent provincial capital1 ,chu-chou ,fu1 nearer to the coast4 ,this was probably the ware that ,marco ,polo saw when passing through the town of ,tingui4 ,it was largely exported from the ports of ,zaitun and ,kinsay4 ,it will1 however1 be better to defer the discussion of this thorny question to a later chapter1 when we shall have something to say about the way in which the knowledge of ,chinese porcelain was spread through the ,mohammedan and ,christian west4 ,it will be enough for the present to mention that the ,lung-chuan ware was the original type and always remained one of the principal sources of the ,martabani celadon so prized in early ,saracen times4 ,as this is the first time that we come across celadon ware1#ca we may mention that we use the term in the older and narrower sense for a greyish sea-green colour tending at times to blue4 ,the name is1 however1 sometimes made to cover nearly the whole range of monochrome glazes4 ,it is the ,ching-tsu#cb of the ,chinese and the ,sei-ji of the ,japanese4 ,the true ,lung-chuan celadon of ,sung times was1 however1 of a more pronounced grass-green colour4 ,but we are concerned rather with the later celadon made at ,chu-chou ,fu during the ,ming period4 ,for it is to this time that we must refer most of the heavy dishes and bowls1 often fluted or moulded in low relief with a floral design of peony or lotus flowers1 or again with plaited patterns surrounding a fish or dragon ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 #a--;,,chinese1 ,,celadon ,,ware #b--;,,chinese1 ,,celadon ,,ware which occupies the centre2 in other examples the decoration is engraved in the paste4 ,in either case1 whether moulded or engraved1 the glaze accumulating in the hollows helps to accentuate the pattern4 ,the paste as seen through the glaze where the latter is thin appears white1 but where the glaze is absent1 as on the foot1 or where it is exposed by bubbles or other irregularities1 the ground is seen to be of a peculiar reddish tint4 ,by this test the ,chinese claim to distinguish the older celadon1 the true martabani1 from the later imitations made at ,king-te-chen4 ,the paste of these later copies is often artificially coloured on the exposed surface so that they may resemble the old ware 7,hirth1 ,ancient ,porcelain1 pp4 #ba seq474 ,as for the ,,ko ,,yao1 the old ware of ,sung times is said to have been first made in the twelfth century4 ,the ,chinese character with which #8,ko' is written means #8elder brother4' ,according to the books there were at this time at ,lung-chuan two brother potters named ,chang4 ,the elder brother leaving the younger ,chang to continue in the old ways1 started to make a new ware distinguished by the crackle of its glaze4 ,this was originally a thick1 heavy ware1 with the iron-red foot and white paste already noticed1 but1 as we have said1 the name is now used for a large class of crackle ware with a glaze of celadon1 of greyish white and especially of a yellowish stone colour4 ,this porcelain with grey and yellowish crackle does not seem to have been so largely exported as the uncrackled celadon2 bowls and jars of a similar ware have1 however1 been found in ,borneo and in the adjacent islands4 ,,ch,n ,,yao4--,it is to this ware that we may trace back the now famous family of flamb porcelain4 ,chn yao was already made in early ,sung times1 i4e4 before the ,mongol conquests of the twelfth century1 in ,honan1 not far from the old capital of ,kai-feng ,fu4 ,a description in a work of the seventeenth century leaves no doubt as to its identification4 #8,as to this ,chn yao1' the writer says1 #8a fine specimen should be red as cinnabar1 green as onion-leaves or the plumage of the kingfisher1 and purple1 brown1 and black like the skin of the egg-plant4' ,we have here the description of that #8transmutation' or flamb ware of which such magnificent examples were made at ,king-te-chen in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 and which has lately been successfully imitated in ,france4 ,the play of flashing colour in the glaze was said to have been originally the result of accident1 but we must not attach much importance to statements of this kind4 ,in the old ,sung pieces the clay is less white and fine than in the highly finished examples made at ,king-te-chen during the reigns of ,kang-he and ,yung-cheng4 ,on the ,sung ware we may frequently find a number 7from one to nine7 engraved1 sometimes more than once1 in the paste1 and these characters are carefully copied in the later reproductions4 ,we have here perhaps the earliest instance of the employment of a mark on porcelain4 ,the old writers tell us apologetically of the vulgar names given1 by way of joke1 it would seem1 to these glazes1 such as mule's lungs or pig's liver--no inapt comparisons1 however1 for some of the effects seen in these old wares4 ,these varied hues were of course obtained from copper in the first place1 though the presence of iron1 in both stages of oxidation1 may sometimes add to the variety of the tints4 ,,kien ,,yao4--,this was a dark-coloured ware made at ,kien-chou1 north-west of the port of ,fuchou4 ,it must not be confused with the well-known creamy-white ware of ,fukien1 exported in later days from the same port4 ,certain shallow conical cups of this ware1 with a vitreous glaze1 almost black1 but relieved around the margin with small streaks and spots of a lighter colour1 were especially valued from very early times for the preparation of powdered tea--nowhere more than in ,japan1 where an undoubted specimen of this ,kien ware is treasured as a priceless heirloom4 ,there is an excellent specimen in the ,british ,museum3 a careful examination of this little bowl will give no little aid in understanding what are some of the qualities that are looked for in ,china and ,japan in these old glazes4 ,there is a quiet charm in the glassy surface1 and an air as of some quaint natural stone carefully carved and polished rather than of a product of the potter's wheel4 ,,ting ,,yao4--,in the ,ting yao of the ,sung dynasty1 as in the case of the contemporaneous celadon and crackle wares1 we have the oldest type of an important class of porcelain4 ,the earlier specimens have served more than once as models for famous potters of ,ming and later times4 ,it was probably at ,ting-chou1 a town in the province of ,chihli1 to the south-west of ,pekin1 that a brilliant white porcelain was first successfully made by the ,chinese1 possibly as early as the time of the ,tang dynasty2 and the name of ,ting yao has remained associated with all pure white wares of a certain quality1 even though made at other places4 ,as in the case of the celadon porcelain1 the decoration1 if any1 was either in low relief or incised in the paste2 but in opposition to many of the other wares we have mentioned1 the ,ting porcelain seems from the first to have been made from a paste of great fineness1 its translucency was at times considerable1 and the patterns were engraved or moulded with much delicacy4 ,the design when engraved is scarcely visible unless the vessel is held up to the light4 ,the specimens of ,ting ware that survive date probably from ,mongol or from ,ming times4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a remarkable collection of these ,ting bowls and plates4 ,a pair of very thin pure white shallow bowls are noticeable as having in the centre an inscription finely engraved in minute characters under the glaze4 ,it is the nien-hao or year-mark of the ,emperor ,yung-lo 7#adjb-adbd71 the first great name among the emperors of the ,ming dynasty4 ,this is perhaps the earliest date-mark with any pretentions to genuineness that has been found on the ,chinese porcelain in our collections4 ,the decoration1 in this case1 is formed by a five-clawed dragon faintly engraved in the paste4 ,these bowls are specimens of the feng or #8flour' ,ting ware 7also known as ,pai or #8white' ,ting71 but most of the ,ting plates in the same collection are of quite another kind of ware1 which has a surface like that of a ,european soft-paste porcelain--this the ,chinese know as the ,tu-,ting or earthy ,ting4 ,this latter ware has in fact a soft lead glaze covering a hard body1 and must therefore have required two firings1 the first to thoroughly bake the paste1 and a second at a lower temperature to melt the glaze on to it4 ,some of the specimens of this ,tu-,ting in the ,british ,museum are said to date from ,sung times4 ,i do not know what is the authority for the use of a lead glaze in ,china at so early a date4 ,many of these plates have certainly a great appearance of age1 but this antique look is due in some measure to the #8weathering' of the soft glazes on the exposed surfaces4 ,this weathering has brought into prominence the very graceful decoration of lotus-flowers1 but the surface is often discoloured by stains as of some oily matter which has apparently found its way under the glaze4 ,the copper bands with which the edges of many of these plates are bound are mentioned in the old accounts2 those in use in the palace1 it is said1 were fitted thus with collars to preserve the tender material4 ,we must postpone the account of the rival white ware1 the creamy porcelain of ,fukien1 or later ,kien yao1 as none of it was made as early as the time of the ,sung dynasty4 ,the ,kien yao of that time1 as we have seen1 was quite another ware4 ,we have now mentioned the most important of the classes of ,chinese porcelain that date from early times4 ,we have confined our brief notice to the varieties of which specimens have survived1 laying special stress upon those kinds which have1 as it were1 founded a family1 and which we can therefore study in specimens from later ages4 ,the names of many other wares of both the ,sung and ,tang periods may be found in ,chinese books1 but of these we do not propose to say a word4 ,the paste of these early wares is rarely of a pure white1 and their translucency is generally very slight1 but they are not for that reason to be classed as stonewares4 ,the materials were probably in all cases derived from granitic rocks1 that is to say1 from a more or less decomposed granite 7containing mica and often a certain amount of iron7 mixed with some kind of impure kaolin4 ,professor ,church1 in his ,cantor ,lectures1 gives us two analyses of #8old ,chinese ware1' which confirm this view4 ,one specimen1 with a white body1 was found to contain #ge per cent4 of silica1 about #ah per cent4 of alumina1 and about #ee per cent4 of alkalis 7chiefly potash74 ,the other1 of brownish coloured paste1 contained a little less silica1 but as much as #be per cent4 of iron4 ,for the roughly prepared material of these old wares we would prefer the name of proto-porcelain or kaolinic stoneware1 so that there may be no confusion with the true stoneware of ,europe1 a quite different material4#cc ,in the absence of more ordinary clays in the central and northern parts of ,china1 some such kaolinic pottery may have been made by the ,chinese from very early times4 ,when in ,tang or in earlier days it occurred to them to attempt to imitate jade or other natural stones1 they had the good fortune to be already using materials that allowed of these experiments being after a time crowned with success4 ,the important point that still remains unsettled is at what date they first succeeded in covering a ware of this class with a vitreous coating4 ,for the date of the first use of glaze in ,china we can at present only give a very wide limit1 let us say some time between the first and the fifth century of our era4 ,very probably it was their acquaintance with the nature of glass that put them on the right track4 ,this material1 it is said1 they first knew of from their intercourse with the later ,roman empire4 ,there is some reason to believe that they acquired at the same time the secret of its manufacture1 though1 according to the ,chinese1 the art was lost at a later time4#cd ,we can now form some idea of how far the art of making porcelain had advanced at the time when the tide of the ,mongol invasion swept over the country4 ,our knowledge of the wares made at this time must be derived chiefly from the imitations of the older porcelain made at a later period1 but in such a conservative country as ,china this reservation is of no great importance4 ,we must remember that in all these wares there was no other decoration than that given by the glaze as applied to the variously moulded or incised surface of the paste4 ,the nature of the glaze was therefore of pre-eminent importance4 ,the range of colour1 except in the rare flamb vases1 was in the main confined to shades of blue and green1 and even of these colours pronounced tints are rare4 ,all the colours at the command of the potters of these days were derived from the oxides of iron and copper4 ,and yet with such simple elements1 what an infinite variety6 ,it has been truly said by a ,french writer that the beauty of the glaze is the qualit matresse de la cramique1 and it is partly a recognition of this claim that has led so many ,french and ,american collectors1 of late1 to follow the example of the ,chinese and ,japanese connoisseurs1 and to give so marked a preference to monochrome porcelains1 which owe their charm to the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,chinese merits of the glaze alone4 ,but the specimens we find in these collections are with but few exceptions of much later date4 ,the price that a fine piece of ,sung ware1 above all if it has a good pedigree and comes from a known collection1 has always commanded in ,china has sufficed1 at least until quite lately1 to keep such specimens in their native country4 ,as we have said1 there are very few examples in our public collections that can with any assurance be attributed to ,sung times4 ,in the ,british ,museum1 in the same case with the ,kien yao tea-bowl already mentioned1 is a jar some twelve inches in height1 with two small handles on the shoulder4 ,it is of irregular shape and covered with a thick glaze of a pale turquoise blue1 faintly crackled4 ,close to the mouth is a bright red mark1 like a piece of sealing-wax1 due probably to the local partial reduction of the copper4 ,this beautiful but very archaic-looking jar 7,,pl4 ,,iv47 is attributed to no earlier date than the later or southern ,sung dynasty 7#aabg-abgi74 ,among the large number of crackle monochrome pieces in the same collection there are many specimens which a ,chinese connoisseur would classify as ,ko yao1 and similarly some of the old flamb pieces might be termed ,chn yao1 without definitely assigning them to ,sung times4 ,the ,lung-,chuan celadons are represented by some early pieces1 more than one distinguished by the red foot4 ,there are some fine plates of old heavy celadon at ,south ,kensington1 not a few purchased in ,persia4 ,here may also be found a celadon jar cut down at the neck2 and the #8mouth' thus artificially formed has been carefully stained of a red colour to imitate the old ware4 ,the ,french museums are particularly rich in specimens of old martabani celadon--,i would point especially to several large dishes both at ,svres and in the ,muse ,guimet4 ,but what is perhaps the finest collection in ,europe of celadon and other old wares is now to be seen in the museum at ,gotha4 ,it was brought together by the late ,duke of ,edinburgh1 who added to previous acquisitions the collection formed in ,china by ,dr4 ,hirth4 ,,yuan ,,dynasty 7#abhj-acfh74 ,probably at no period during its long history has the ,chinese empire been subjected to such a thorough shaking up1 to such a complete upsetting and reversal of its ancient ways1 as during the advance of the ,mongols from the north to the south during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,when they had at length subdued the whole land1 there was a moment during the rule of the liberal-minded ,kublai ,khan when the old barriers and prejudices seemed to have been broken down1 and when the ,middle ,kingdom appeared to be about to enter the general comity of nations4 ,this is what gives to ,marco ,polo's account of the country1 which he visited at the time1 so very #8un-,chinese' an air4 ,we hear of ,italian friars and ,french goldsmiths at the court1 and of projected embassies from the ,pope4 ,still closer were the relations with the ,mohammedan people of ,western ,asia1 then ruled by members of ,kublai's family4 ,marco ,polo1 we know1 formed part of the escort of ,kublai's sister1 when she travelled by sea to ,persia to become the bride of the ,mongol khan of that country2 and a predecessor of this latter ruler1 ,hulugu1 as early as the middle of the thirteenth century1 brought over1 it is said1 as many as a thousand ,chinese artificers and settled them in ,persia4 ,and yet when scarcely two generations later the degenerate descendants of ,kublai were driven from the imperial throne and replaced by a native dynasty1 what slight permanent trace do we see of all these changes reflected in the arts of the ,middle ,kingdom6 ,no doubt1 on looking closely1 we should find that a change had taken place during these years3 new materials had been brought in1 new forms and new decorations applied to the metal ware and the pottery of the ,chinese4 ,it is in connection with these two arts especially 7and we may add to them the designs on textile fabrics7 that we find so many points of interest in the mutual influence of the civilisations of ,china and ,persia at this time4 ,we must remember that in the thirteenth century the craftsman of ,persia1 as the inheritor of both ,saracenic and older traditions1 was in many respects ahead of his rival artist in ,china4 ,as far as the potter's art was concerned this was the first meeting of two contrasted schools1 which between them cover pretty well the whole field of ceramics--of that part at least of the field in which the glaze is the principal element in the decoration4#ce ,the ,persian ware of this time was the culminating example of an art that had been handed down from the ,egyptians and the ,assyrians4 ,as a rule1 among these races1 the baser nature of the paste had been concealed by a more or less opaque coating either of a fine clay or #8slip1' or of a glaze rendered non-transparent by the addition of tin2 it is on this coating that the decoration is painted1 to be covered subsequently 7in the first case at least1 that of the slip ware7 by a coating of glaze4 ,it is to this large class1 for the most part to the latter or stanniferous division1 that nearly all the famous wares of the ,european renaissance belong1 not only the ,spanish and ,italian majolica but the enamelled fayence of ,france and ,holland as well4 ,it was with the latter two wares that at a later date the porcelain of ,china was destined to come into competition4 ,each of these ceramic schools1 the ,eastern porcelain and the ,western fayence1 might in certain points claim advantages over the other1 advantages both of a practical and of an sthetic nature4 ,for example1 the glory of the ,persian fayence of that day lay in its application to architecture1 in the brilliant coating of tiles that covered the walls and the domes of the mosques and dwellings both inside and out4 ,the ,chinese have never succeeded in making tiles of any size with their porcelain4 ,when used for the decoration of buildings the porcelain1 or rather the earthenware1 is always in the form of solid1 moulded bricks4 ,but there is another matter with which the ,chinese who visited ,western ,asia at that time cannot fail to have been struck--with the materials1 ,i mean1 at the command of the ,persians1 for the application of colour both under and over the glaze4 ,of the decorations over the glaze the most important were those given by their famous metallic lustres4 ,this lustre1 we now know1 was the result of an ingenious process by which a film of copper1 or sometimes of silver1 was developed on the surface of the glaze4 ,the ,chinese have never attempted anything of the kind1 in part because such a method of adornment was foreign to their notions of what was fitting4 ,for we must bear in mind that the influence of the literary tradition in ,china has always tended towards simplicity of means in their decorative arts1 and has been opposed to anything like an ostentatious display of expensive materials4 ,any marked infringement of this sentiment1 even on the part of an emperor1 has always called forth a protest from the censors4 ,another cause which hindered the adoption of the lustre decoration by the ,chinese may be found1 no doubt1 in the difficulties of its practical application4 ,at that time the processes of the muffle-stove for decoration over the glaze were quite unknown to them4#cf ,but the ,saracens1 in ,western ,asia1 were already in possession of another means of decorating their ware4 ,this they found in the use of cobalt1 especially as a material for painting a design on the paste before the application of the glaze4 ,we find this colour at times on the tiles that lined their prayer-niches2 these indeed date from a somewhat later time4 ,but there is another variety of ,saracenic ware of which a few specimens have survived4 ,i refer to the vases and bowls covered with a thick alkaline glaze1 and decorated1 in part at least1 under the glaze with a design of black lines and some rude patches of blue4 ,these rare vases were formerly classed as ,siculo-,moorish1 but later research has proved most of them to be of ,persian or perhaps rather of ,syrian or ,mesopotamian origin4 ,they appear to be the work of thirteenth century potters1 and some of them may be of even earlier date4#cg ,when we consider that there is no evidence of the use of cobalt by the ,chinese for the decoration of their porcelain during ,sung times1 that indeed the use of colour apart from that of the glaze as a means of decoration appears to have been then unknown2 but that1 on the other hand1 not long after the turmoil of the ,mongol invasion and domination--a period during which the two countries1 ,china and ,persia1 were so closely connected--we find the use of cobalt as a decoration sous couverte firmly established1 we may1 ,i think1 regard it as not improbable that it was from the ,persians that the ,chinese learned the new method of decoration4#ch ,the influence of the ,saracenic art of ,western ,asia is indeed now for the first time to be seen in other directions1 and we shall find it cropping up here and there during the whole of the following ,ming period4 ,it was the source of many new forms which we see now for the first time in ,china3 the graceful water-vessels1 for instance1 with long necks and curved spouts1 copied from the ,arab ,ibraik4 ,again1 we find this influence at times in the motifs of the conventional floral patterns found on ,ming porcelain1 though these patterns1 indeed1 are always mere counterchanges1 as it were1 upon a field of an unmistakable ,chinese stamp 7,,pl4 ,,vi474 ,all these changes were doubtless regarded as anathema by the ,chinese censors1 who reminded the rash innovators that the great men of old were content with simple materials and forms1 and that they in their wisdom rejected all such meretricious ornament4 ,for it was seriously maintained that had they thought it desirable1 these old sages could have commanded all the resources of the later potter1 not only the larger field he could draw from for his designs and colours1 but the improved paste of his porcelain as well4 ,on the other hand1 the ,chinese influence at this time on ,persian art was small4 ,by a careful search we may find at times a dragon or a phnix amid unmistakable ,chinese clouds on the spandrel above the arch of a ,persian prayer-niche of the fourteenth century1 or forming the centre of a star-shaped tile4 ,but the great invasion of ,chinese wares and ,chinese schemes of decoration belongs1 as far as the fictile art of the country is concerned1 to a later period1 that of ,shah ,abbas in the early years of the seventeenth century4 ,it is not unlikely that in ,china the ,western influence did not make much way until the time of the early ,ming emperors1 and that it was due more immediately to the growing commercial intercourse with the ,persian ,gulf1 but this intercourse was itself fostered by the events of the ,mongol invasion4 ,there is very little to be said of the porcelain made during the time of the ,,mongol or ,,yuan dynasty1 and we have few specimens that can be definitely assigned to that period4 ,the name is still given in ,pekin to a rude1 somewhat heavy ware1 with a thick glaze of mingled tints1 among which a shade of lavender with speckles of red predominates4 ,this is but a modification of the ,chn yao of ,sung times1 and belongs in a general way to the class of #8transmutation' wares--those in which the colours depend on the partial reduction of the oxides of iron and copper in the glaze4 ,specimens of this ware that claim to be of ,chinese origin are often found in ,japan1 where they are much in favour for use as flower vases1 but neither in that country nor in ,china have the pieces we meet with much claim to any great antiquity4 ,there is only one specimen in the ,bushell manuscript that is attributed by ,tzu-ching to the ,yuan period--this is a little vase of white ware decorated with dragons faintly engraved in the paste under the glaze4 ,this white ware1 generally classed as ,ting1 is indeed in many of our books on porcelain considered to be especially characteristic of the ,mongol dynasty1 but ,i cannot find any definite confirmation of this4 ,the finer pieces of plain white seem to be generally attributed by the ,chinese rather to the beginning of the next dynasty4 ,the little white plate in the ,dresden ,museum1 said to have been #8brought back from the ,east by a crusader1' has no claim to such an early date4#ci ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,china--7continued74 ,,the ,,ming ,,dynasty 7#acfh-afdc74 ,it was in the course of the three centuries during which the ,ming dynasty ruled in ,china that the greatest advance was made in the manufacture of porcelain4 ,when1 however1 we come to look a little more closely1 we find that this long period may be shortened by nearly a hundred years4 ,before the accession of ,yung-lo 7#adjb71 and after the death of ,wanli 7#afai71 the times were little favourable to the arts of peace1 and even in this shorter period of two centuries there were intervals1 indeed whole reigns1 of which there is little to report4 ,the points of chief importance to remember in connection with this dynasty are--#a4 ,that not later than the beginning of the fifteenth century the employment of the oxides of copper and cobalt for decoration under the glaze was coming into general use4 ,to this1 or perhaps to an earlier date1 we must assign the beginnings of the ware that we in ,england are wont to consider the most important of all1 the great family of #8blue and white' porcelain4 #b4 ,that probably about the same time1 or soon after1 the #8painted glazes1' as we have called them1 were introduced4 ,in this ware the colours required for the decoration--the palette was a very restricted one--were painted directly on the biscuit1 the piece having been previously fired2 it was then re-fired at a moderate heat4 #c4 ,that at a later period1 probably about the middle of the sixteenth century1 the employment of enamel colours above the glaze was introduced1 probably under ,european influence4 ,it is the blue and white that we are above all accustomed to associate with the ,ming period4 ,but this is not the ,chinese point of view4 ,if we consult the ,bushell manuscript 7see chap4 v47 we find that ,tzu-ching1 towards the end of the sixteenth century1 had in his collection thirty-nine pieces which he attributed to the reigning dynasty1 but of these only five or six would be classed by us as #8blue and white'2 at least equal importance was given to those decorated with copper-red under the glaze1 and even more specimens belong to the class of painted glazes4 ,these latter are chiefly little objects--pen-rests1 rouge-pots1 and small wine-jars moulded to represent plant and animal forms1 the gourd or again the persimmon being great favourites4 ,we must not confuse these early specimens1 dating mostly from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 with the somewhat similar objects so much sought after by the ,french collectors in the eighteenth century1 which belong for the most part to the contemporary famille verte2 on these the decoration is given for the most part by enamels painted over the glaze4 ,still it is from some of these little magots that we can perhaps form the best idea of the coloured porcelain so prized by ,tzu-ching1 but of which we are unable to point to any specimens in our collections4 ,in connection with these painted glazes--for it undoubtedly belongs to this class--it may be well to say something of a very decorative ware of which the origin is probably to be placed in early ,ming times4 ,the colours are distinctly those of the demi grand feu1 and in this ware we have the earliest instance of the use of these colours4 ,this porcelain occurs most frequently in the shape of vases of baluster outline with contracted necks and small mouths1 or sometimes of the more ordinary oil-jar shape1 with wide mouths4 ,we may distinguish two types of this ware4 ,in the first the decoration is given by means of a low relief of beads and of ribs surrounding countersunk cloisons4 ,the field between these cloisons is of a deep blue passing into a blue-black1 and the cloisons themselves are filled with a wash of turquoise or straw-yellow4 ,chains of pearls in festoon surround the neck1 and from these hang pendeloques of various ,buddhist emblems4 ,on the body of these vases the decoration often consists of lotus-plants arising from conventional waves4#dj ,in the second type the turquoise blue predominates1 an impure pale manganese is added1 and the jars are often built up of an open-work trellis of bars4 ,both the turquoise and aubergine purple porcelain of the ,kang-he period1 as well as the ,japanese ,kishiu ware1 may possibly be traced back to a ,ming porcelain of this class4 ,there are specimens of all these wares in the ,british ,museum and at ,south ,kensington4 ,in the ,salting collection is a jar of the cloisonn type1 the blue-black ground covered with a skin of thin glaze of a dull surface4 ,this jar was formerly the property of a ,japanese collector 7,,pl4 ,,ii474#da ,the colours applied under the glaze are confined to cobalt blue and copper red4 ,the latter when fine in tint was greatly prized by the ,chinese1 and we are informed that in the most brilliant specimens the colour was given by #8powdered rubies from the ,west4' ,it was1 however1 a treacherous colour to use1 and after the period of ,hsuan-te 7#adbe-adce71 which was famous for its ruby-red1 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,chinese it fell into comparative disuse and was displaced in a measure at a later date by a more manageable iron red4 ,the use of the copper sub-oxide to obtain a red1 sous couverte1 was1 however1 revived in the time of ,kang-he4 ,on examples in ,european collections this red1 when used alone or in connection with blue1 is generally of a rather poor maroon colour1 and it has not found much favour with us4 ,the colour was often thus applied to the painting of fish1 floating1 it may be1 among blue water-weeds4 ,we see it at its best as a monochrome on some little bowls1 enlivened with a floral design in gold1 in the ,british ,museum4 ,these cups and some similar ones at ,dresden undoubtedly date from ,ming times2 the ruby tint seen through a brilliant glaze has never been equalled in later days4 ,with these we may compare certain little apple-green bowls similarly decorated with gold4 ,one of these in a silver-gilt mounting of the early sixteenth century is in the ,gold ,room at the ,british ,museum 7,,pl4 ,v474 #8,,blue ,,and ,,white' ,,porcelain4 ,what we somewhat vaguely call #8blue and white1' that is porcelain decorated under the glaze with designs painted with cobalt blue1 has always formed the most important class in the eyes of ,european collectors1 at least of those of ,england and ,holland4 ,this preference has been even more marked with the people of ,india and ,persia1 and no wonder1 for no combination of colour more suggestive of coolness could be imagined4 ,it has thus come about that this class of ware1 more than any other1 has been made with the direct object of exportation4 ,this blue and white porcelain of ,china and ,japan1 which has found its way into so many lands both of ,europe and ,asia1 has for centuries had the profoundest influence upon the native wares of these countries1 whether of porcelain or of fayence4 ,in ,china1 by the introduction of this process of freely painting with a brush upon the surface of the paste1 the potters art was for the first time brought into contact with that of the painter1 and thus fell under new influences4 ,the artists of ,china at that time were divided into many schools1 but what we may call the literary or dilettante influence was predominant1 and this influence is reflected in the subjects treated on ,ming porcelain--subjects which1 as usual in ,china1 were handed on to the ceramic artists of the next dynasty4 ,the earliest decoration in blue and white in no way followed1 as far as we know1 the hierated types of the old bronze ware4 ,such motifs we do indeed sometimes see repeated on porcelain1 but only on pieces that may safely be attributed to a much later date1 especially to the pseudo-archaic revival of ,yung-cheng's time 7#agbb-ce74 ,there is no class of ,chinese porcelain to which it is more difficult to assign even an approximate date than to this blue and white ware4 ,we may say at once that the nien-hao1 or the characters giving the name of the dynasty and the emperor1 so often found inscribed on the base1 are in the vast majority of cases of no value for fixing the date1 and this is especially true when the name of a ,ming emperor is thus found4 ,what is more1 these marks1 as far as we can judge 7from the knowledge we now possess derived from other sources71 do not1 as we might have expected1 even help us in giving hints of the style prevailing at the period indicated by the date4 ,to take but one example1 the reign-mark of ,cheng-hua 7#adfd-hg7 is the one most frequently found on the finest pieces of blue and white 7in the ,salting collection1 for instance71 but by far the greater number of the pieces so marked undoubtedly date from the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,on the other hand1 the ,chinese books all agree in telling us that this ,cheng-hua period was noted for a decline in the excellence of the blue1 but on the other hand was pre-eminent for its coloured decoration4 ,it was rather the earlier ,hsuan-te period 7#adbe-ce7 that was renowned for the brilliancy of its blue4 ,these statements of the ,chinese authorities are confirmed by an analysis of the ,ming specimens illustrated in the ,bushell manuscript4 ,the ,japanese1 perhaps a little more rationally1 give the preference to the reigns of ,hsuan-te and ,yung-lo 7#adjb-bd71 for the date-marks of these emperors 7#8,sentoku' and #8,yeiraku' in the ,japanese reading7 are to be read on the commonest modern blue and white in domestic use in that country4 ,this is a point that cannot be too strongly dwelt upon4 ,perhaps if a little more of the care and research that have been devoted to the reading of these nien-hao and other inscriptions on ,chinese porcelain had been earlier directed to a careful examination of the glazes and enamels1 and to questions of technique generally1 the misconceptions that so long prevailed as to the dating and classification of ,oriental porcelain would have been sooner dispelled4 ,but what means have we then for settling the date of a piece of ,chinese blue and white ware8 ,what criterion is there for distinguishing between specimens of early ,ming1 late ,ming1 or ,manchu times8--or indeed between those of ,chinese and ,japanese origin8 ,that we even now possess no very exact criterion is shown by the wide difference of opinion so often found in individual cases4 ,if we are to form our judgment from the rare extant pieces of blue and white known to have been imported into ,europe in the sixteenth century1 we must regard the ,ming ware as distinguished by a certain irregularity of surface1 seen best by side-reflected lights2 the pieces are generally moulded1 and the marks of the lines of junction of the moulds are often to be traced on the surface2 the paste1 too1 is generally very thick1 and sometimes shows gaping fissures at the margin4 ,the drawing of the design is somewhat hasty and summary1 although at times distinguished by a freshness of handling and by a certain caligraphic freedom4 ,but we must not draw too hasty an inference from the few specimens in our ,european collections1 many of which must have been made1 as we shall see later on1 at a period of temporary decline2 nor are we justified in regarding mere articles of commerce1 as most of these specimens undoubtedly were1 as representative of the higher artistic products of the time4 ,the blue in these early pieces is generally of a full tint but not of any remarkable quality4 ,there are1 however1 to be found a few specimens1 heavily moulded indeed and of irregular contour1 decorated with cobalt blue of a full sapphire tint4 ,of this class there are one or two brilliant specimens both in the ,british ,museum and at ,south ,kensington4 ,in these and in other ,ming wares the surface of the glaze is often dulled1 and this is not always the result of minute scratches1 for sometimes a process of devitrification appears to have set in4#db ,another class of ,ming ware is distinguished by a decoration delicately painted in a pale blue tint1 and it was this style that was copied by the ,japanese in their ,mikawaji ware of the seventeenth century4 ,it is to later ,ming times that we must attribute the bulk of the rough heavy ware of which so much is found in ,india4#dc ,these are generally large plates and bowls1 often discoloured from having been used for cooking purposes4 ,the decoration is hastily executed ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,chinese1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware in a dull indigo blue 7derived of course from cobalt1 as in other cases71 and the outlines are often accentuated by black lines4 ,many fine specimens of this picturesque ware1 from the collection of ,mrs4 ,halsey1 were shown in the exhibition of blue and white ware at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #ahie4 ,it was claimed for one large vase that it came from the palace of the ,moguls at ,agra1 and that it had been presented to ,jehangir by the ,chinese emperor ,wan-li 7#aegb-afai74 ,it is often stated that this class of ware was made at some factory in the south of ,china1 probably in the neighbourhood of ,canton1 the port from which doubtless most of it was exported4 ,as yet1 however1 no evidence1 as far as ,i am aware1 for such a factory has been brought forward1 and no definite locality indicated4 ,the statement made by the ,abb ,raynal1 about a factory at ,shao-king ,fu1 rests probably upon a misconception4 ,there are several specimens of blue and white in ,england1 the metal mountings of which date from the early seventeenth or even from the sixteenth century4 ,of these the most famous are the four pieces from ,burleigh ,house 7now belonging to ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan71 which are believed to have been in the possession of the ,cecil family from the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,one of these bears the date-mark of ,wan-li1 the contemporary of that queen4 ,this ware is not particularly fine1 the surfaces are irregular1 and all the pieces are apparently moulded 7,,pl4 ,,xxviii474 ,this subject1 however1 of the early presence of ,chinese porcelain in other lands we shall return to in a later chapter4 ,so far1 then1 with such imperfect lights as are at our command1 we have attempted to follow up the history of porcelain1 and so far1 say up to the middle of the sixteenth century1 ,china is practically the only country with which we are concerned4 ,some fair imitations of celadon1 the martabani of ,oriental commerce1 had probably by this time been made in ,siam and perhaps elsewhere1 and the ,japanese were already in a sporadic way experimenting with imported and native clays4 ,but up to the sixteenth century the ,chinese had practically the monopoly of the art1 and as we have seen they had at that time the command of three processes of decoration--that is by monochrome glazes1 by painting with glazes of a few simple colours on the biscuit1 and finally by means of cobalt blues and copper reds painted on the surface of the raw paste4 ,not but that some attempts may have already been made to apply coloured decoration over the glaze--the next and final step in the history of porcelain4 ,there are some passages in contemporary ,chinese books1 giving descriptions of elaborate subjects painted in many colours on porcelain of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 which it would be difficult to apply to our class of painted glazes4 ,thus--to take a pronounced instance from an unexceptionable source--the miniature wine-cups1 ,no4 #ei of the ,bushell manuscript1 are attributed by ,tzu-ching to the reign of ,cheng-hua 7#adfd-hg71 and he describes them thus--#8,they are painted in enamel colours' 7so ,dr4 ,bushell translates the original7 #8with flowers and insects2 444 the cockscomb1 the narcissus and other flowers1 the flying dragon-fly and crawling mantis are minutely painted after life in green1 yellow1 and crimson enamel4' 7,this1 by the way1 is a combination of colours which it must have been difficult to apply at one firing with the pigments known at that time47 ,and yet in the absence of any specimen of enamelled ware 7using the word enamel in its restricted sense for a decoration applied over the glaze7 that can with certainty be attributed to so early a period1 it will be safer to postpone the date of the introduction of this decoration1 sur couverte1 for another hundred years4 ,it will be remembered that the distinctive feature of this decoration with enamels is the use of an easily fusible silicate1 containing much lead--in fact a kind of flint glass4 ,a glass of this description is capable of being stained by the addition of small quantities of certain metallic oxides1 some of which would not stand the heat requisite for the firing of the porcelain4 ,this1 in fact1 is the application to porcelain of the arts of the glass-stainer and of the enameller1 arts already at this time fully developed in the ,west4 ,for once the ,chinese authorities all agree in finding in an exotic and indeed ,western art the origin of their enamelled porcelain4 ,when1 however1 we attempt to interpret their statements we are landed in an even more than customary chaos--so many are the different readings for the names of foreign countries and for technical processes4 ,let us then consider for a moment what the materials were that the ,chinese had to draw from--whether from ,arab or other sources4 ,putting aside the application of stained glass to windows1 for specimens of this art are not easily exported1 these may be summed up as1 first1 the enamelled glass of the ,saracens1 and secondly1 the cloisonns and champlevs enamels of the ,byzantines and other ,western nations4 ,as to the first--the application of coloured and easily fusible enamels to the surface of glass1 which was then exposed to a second firing--this process had been used by the ,arabs for the decoration of their mosque lamps and other vessels probably as early as the twelfth century1 and this was an art identical in its system with the application of the same colours to the surface of porcelain4 ,the beauty of the effect cannot have failed to have struck the ,chinese if they had had any opportunity of seeing the finer specimens4 ,but the material was fragile1 and apart from a statement by ,m4 ,scherer that glass was exported from ,aleppo to ,china1#dd ,i cannot find in the accounts of the ,arab trade of the time any record of such ware being imported into ,china4 ,on the other hand1 we know that enamels on metal are first mentioned in the ,ming annals about the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,they take their name of ,cheng-tai enamels from the emperor who reigned at that period2 but the proper ,chinese term for such enamels is ,folang chien yao--#8the inlaid ware of ,folang4' ,julien interpreted these words #8,porcelaines incrustations 7ornes d'maux7 de ,france1' and ,dr4 ,hirth carries us to ,bethlehem6 ,but the word ,folang is probably the same as the term ,folin or ,fulen1 used as early as the sixth century for the ,roman empire of the ,east1 and it may possibly be connected with the ,greek 7cf4 ,stamboul 74#de ,it is definitely stated by a later ,chinese writer that the same colours are employed by both the enameller on metal and the decorator of porcelain4 ,if we examine the colours found on both the wares to which we have tentatively traced back the enamelled porcelain of the ,chinese--the enamels on glass on the one hand1 and those on metal on the other--taking in each case the earlier specimens as examples1 we find on the mosque lamps from ,cairo little except a deep blue generally used as a ground for a design which is outlined in an opaque iron red4 ,on the famous flask from ,wrzburg1 now in the ,british ,museum1 for which a #8,mesopotamian' origin of the thirteenth century is claimed1 a turquoise blue relieved by gilding is the predominant note2 there is also a sparing use of yellow1 of an opaque white1 and1 what is especially interesting1 of a fine pinkish red1 which is possibly obtained from gold4 7,the way in which this colour is shaded into the opaque white reminds us of the similar use of the rouge d'or in later times in ,china47 ,if1 on the other hand1 we turn to the earlier ,chinese enamels on metal1 the so-called ,ching-tai vases1 attributed to the fifteenth century1 we find among the colours used an opaque iron red1 a yellow1 an opaque white1 and finally two kinds of blue1 a turquoise and a full deep blue that looks like a cobalt colour4#df ,some time1 then1 during the sixteenth century1 whether before or after the accession of ,wan-li 7#aegb71 the ,chinese began to decorate the surface of their porcelain with jewel-like enamels appliqus to the glaze4 ,at first1 apparently1 these colours were confined to three3 a copper green1 a yellow generally of a buff tint1 probably containing antimony as well as iron1 and a purple derived from manganese4 ,these are the ,san-tsai or three colours of the ,chinese writers1 and it will be seen that they differ from the colour triad of our #8painted glazes' 7painted1 that is1 on biscuit and reheated in the demi grand feu7 in that the copper silicate is of a turquoise blue in the latter1 and in the former of a full leafy green4 ,the ,chinese authorities further tell us that a second scheme of decoration was given by the ,wu-tsai or the five colours which were made up by the three already mentioned1 with the addition of an opaque red derived from the sesqui-oxide of iron 7otherwise known as hmatite1 bole or red ochre71#dg and finally of a cobalt blue1 sous couverte1 surviving as it were from the earlier blue and white ware1 for1 as we have mentioned1 the use of the blue as an enamel over the glaze belongs to a later period4 ,so much for the teaching of the ,chinese books2 but when1 attacking the subject from the other side1 we examine the specimens of enamelled ware which for one reason or another--the coarseness and thickness of the paste1 the moulded form1 and the irregular surface--we should be inclined to attribute to the ,ming dynasty1 we are led to classify these earlier examples somewhat as follows3-- #a4 ,on a white ground a design1 often1 it would seem1 of textile origin1 roughly painted in an opaque red 7like sealing-wax71 with the addition of a leafy green and very rarely of a little yellow4 ,this is a class of decoration much imitated in ,japan at a later date1 especially by the artist potters of ,kioto and at ,inuyama4 #b4 ,the same colours with the addition of blue1 sous couverte4 ,the design often takes the form of figures in a landscape1 the whole broadly treated4 ,the earliest type of the ,imari ware 7apart from the ,kakiyemon7 seems to be based on this scheme of decoration4 ,both these classes are distinguished by the white ground1 the sparing use of yellow1 and the almost complete absence of manganese purple and turquoise blue4 #c4 ,a transparent enamel of leafy green1 yellow and manganese purple painted on in washes so as to cover the whole ground4 ,when with these colours we find the outline drawn in black1 we have the basis of a large part of the famille verte4 ,on the other hand1 it is this class of decoration which probably carries on the tradition of the early ,ming ware1 sometimes described as #8enamelled1' but more probably all of it painted on the biscuit and fired in the demi grand feu4 ,in ,china it would seem that these enamelled wares ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,chinese were at first treated with a certain disfavour1 if not with contempt1 at least by the more cultivated classes4 ,during ,ming times1 though porcelain thus decorated was doubtless made at ,king-te-chen1 it was1 at least up to the latter part of the reign of ,wan-li1 chiefly made in private factories4 ,in fact we find a censor1 in the reign of that emperor1 protesting against the use of enamel colours 7the wu-tsai7 in the porcelain supplied to the palace 7,bushell1 p4 #bda74 ,we have now sketched out a description of the various kinds of porcelain made during the course of the ,ming dynasty1 and before going on at once to an account of the period associated with ,king-te-chen and the great rulers of the ,manchu dynasty1 it will be well to extract a few notes on points that may interest us from the somewhat voluminous records and descriptions of the porcelain of ,ming times found in the books of the ,chinese authorities4#dh ,,yung-,,lo 7#adjb-bd74di--,this great emperor1 who sent out ships for conquest and for commerce as far as ,ceylon1 is for us especially associated with a white eggshell porcelain of which there are two remarkable specimens in the ,british ,museum 7see above1 p4 #fg74 ,bowls of this thinness must have been pared down on the lathe1 after throwing on the wheel1 in the manner described on p4 #bb1 until a mere translucent ghost of the original body was left1 so that the name to-t'ai or #8bodiless1' by which this ware is known to the ,chinese1 is not inappropriate4 ,the earliest blue and white porcelain of which there is any definite record was made in this reign1 but the evidence for this is1 of course1 purely #8documentary4' ,the quality of the blue is said to have been surpassed only by that of the ,hsuan-te and ,cheng-hua periods4 ,,hsuan-,,te 7#adbe-ce74--,the short reign of this emperor is connected in the mind of the ,chinese with the finest works both of the metal worker and the potter4 ,this period gave its name to the famous pale bronze so admired in later days by the ,japanese4#ej ,the blue of the ,hsuan-te period1 unsurpassed in later times1 we are told1 was derived from ,arab sources1 for the famous ,su-ni-po and ,su-ma-li blues are first mentioned at this time4 ,the word ,su-ma-li has been compared with the low ,latin ,smaltum1 the prepared silicate of cobalt used by the medival glass-stainers1 but from the description of this substance in the ,chinese books1 it would seem rather to have been of the nature of a native ore4 ,when1 however1 we read in the same books of the origin of the brilliant red for which this reign was equally famous1 how it was prepared from #8powdered rubies of the ,west1' we see how little reliance we can place in their accounts4 ,this red1 derived of course from the sub-oxide of copper1 was applied either to cover the whole surface1 as in the little bowls mentioned on p4 #ha 7#8painted on the biscuit1' says ,dr4 ,bushell1 but is this necessarily so871 or for the painting of a design in this case both alone and in combination with blue4 ,we hear also of large jars and garden seats of a coarse porcelain1 with dark blue and turquoise ground and decoration of ribbed cloisons1 which were first made in this reign4 ,of this class we have spoken at length when treating of the #8painted glazes4#8#ea ,of what nature the decoration in five colours1 which is also referred to this reign1 may have been1 it is difficult to say--we have no specimen so painted that we can assign to so old a period1 but in this connection we certainly must not think of enamels painted over the glaze4 ,,cheng-,,tung reigned from #adce to #addi2 he was then captured by the ,mongols1 and during the five years of his imprisonment his brother ,cheng-tai reigned in his stead4 ,when ,cheng-tung returned from his captivity he adopted a fresh name4#eb ,this is the only instance of a double nien-hao in later ,chinese history4 ,we hear of ,cheng-tai in connection with the introduction of enamels on metal1 but for the history of porcelain both reigns are a blank4 ,,cheng-,,hua 7#adfd-hg74--,this is a name familiar to collectors4 ,it is found more frequently than any other on highly finished vases dating really from the eighteenth century4 ,strangely enough1 this is the favourite mark on the finest blue and white of this later time1 although1 as we have already pointed out1 the ,chinese books tell us that1 the sources of the foreign cobalt blue being in ,cheng-hua's time exhausted1 more attention was given to coloured decoration4 ,this was the time of the famous #8chicken-cups1' for which such fabulous sums were given4 ,these cups are described as decorated with the wu-tsai or five colours2 and the subject painted on them1 a hen and chickens by the side of a flowering peony-bush1 reminds one of the enamelled egg-shell cups of ,kien-lung 7#agce-ie74 ,the ,ming cups were copied1 we are told1 at that time2 but it is difficult to connect this early ware1 of which unfortunately we possess no specimen1 with the delicate enamel decoration of the famille rose4#ec ,,hung-,,chi 7#adhg-aeje74--,this name appears especially on the back of bowls in association with a yellow glaze of various shades1 and1 in agreement this time with the material evidence1 the ,chinese books mention this yellow as a speciality of the reign4 ,not that we can regard all yellow ware with this mark as even of this dynasty2 like other ,ming ware it was imitated in the eighteenth century4 ,the yellow varies from the pale brown of the raw chestnut to a full gamboge tint4 ,there is at ,south ,kensington a dish or shallow bowl with a full yellow glaze2 on the back beside the nien-hao of ,hung-chi1 a ,persian inscription and a date corresponding to the sixteenth century has been cut in the paste4 ,,cheng-,,te 7#aeje-ba74--,the decoration of blue on a white ground is said to have been revived in this reign4 ,a new material1 the hui-ching#ed or ,mohammedan blue1 was obtained from ,yun-nan4 ,in connection with this1 we can point to a curious collection of bronze and porcelain1 with both ,arabic and ,chinese inscriptions1 made probably for ,mohammedan ,chinese4 ,these objects were obtained by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks from ,pekin1 and are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,among them there are several pieces of blue and white with the ,cheng-te year-mark4#ee ,on one of these pieces the ,persian word for #8writing-case' forms part of the decoration 7,,pl4 ,,viii474 ,it is in this reign that we hear for the first time of the oppression exercised by the court officials upon the potters of ,king-te-chen1 and now also we find the court eunuchs in the highest positions1--the great days of the ,ming dynasty are already passed4 ,,kia-,,tsing 7#aeba-ff74--,the name of this emperor is often found on blue and white porcelain1 and it is a favourite one with the ,japanese imitators4 ,some ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,chinese1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware specimens in our collections1 of a fine sapphire blue 7the colour is indeed often inclined to run71 may perhaps be referred to this reign4 ,the demands for the court were very extensive1 and if we are to trust the list of articles quoted by ,dr4 ,bushell from the ,fou-liang annals1 the porcelain made for the palace during this period was1 with the exception of a little of that with a brown ground1 confined to blue and white ware4 ,,lung-,,king 7#aeff-gb74--,the bad reputation of this emperor is reflected in the porcelain of the time--indeed the erotic character of the decoration is the one point noted in the annals4 ,the mark of this reign is rarely found4 ,there is1 however1 in the ,british ,museum a large square support or plinth1 decorated with a blue of magnificent sapphire hue1 which bears the ,lung-king nien-hao4 ,,wan-,,li 7#aegb-afai74--,of the porcelain surviving from ,ming times1 a very large proportion probably belongs to this reign4 ,it was now that the ,european trade was beginning to reach large proportions1 and the exportation both to ,india and ,persia was greater than ever4 ,it was a time above all for the manufacture of large pieces1 but we must not look any longer for the refinement and scholarly traditions of earlier ,ming periods4 ,dr4 ,bushell tells us that large bowls of the ,wan-li ware are still in use in the shops and stalls of ,pekin4 ,for us the difficulty is to distinguish the blue and white ware of this reign from that made for exportation during the next half century1 a period during which the annals of the ,chinese authorities are a blank4 ,the reign of ,wan-li is above all the period during which the use of enamel colours became prevalent1 and now1 for the first time1 some of the ware made for the palace was1 in spite of the protests of the censor1 so decorated4 ,but we will reserve what we have to say on the origin of ,chinese enamelled ware until we come to treat of the progress made in the reign of ,kang-he4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,china--7continued74 ,,the ,,manchu ,,or ,,tsing ,,dynasty 7#afdc--74 ,,kang-,,he4--,after the death of ,wan-li1 in #afai1 there is a long gap in the history of ,chinese porcelain4 ,some twenty years later1 the last emperor of the native dynasty was driven out by the ,manchu ,tatars1 and the dynasty which still reigns in the country was founded4 ,but neither during the reign of the first emperor of the new ,tsing or #8,pure' dynasty1 nor indeed during the first part of the long reign of his great successor ,kang-he 7#affa-agbb71 was much attention given to the imperial factory at ,king-te-chen4 ,the early years of ,kang-he's reign were occupied with quelling the last efforts of the native ,chinese party4 ,we may date the revival of active work from the appointment of ,tsang ,ying-hsuan1#ef in the year #afhc1 to the post of superintendent at the porcelain works4 ,it was then1 after an interval of more than sixty years--almost a blank in the history of ,chinese porcelain--that the great renaissance set in1 and we may date from that time the beginning of the last great stage in that history--a stage which was to last for another hundred years4 ,during that period a succession of able and enthusiastic men were in charge of the imperial works4 ,with the support of the great emperors who ruled in ,china for three long generations1 they were able to bring the manufacture of porcelain to a point of perfection reached neither before nor since1 and to produce that wonderful series of vases1 bowls1 and plates that now fill the museums and private collections of ,europe and ,america4 ,it will perhaps be better to carry on our hasty historical sketch down to the period of decline at the end of the eighteenth century1 before turning to the letters of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles and his account of the great city of the potter--,king-te-chen4 ,we shall then be in a better position to understand the almost endless series of different wares that were turned out from the kilns of that town in the eighteenth century4 ,we can finally make a rapid survey of the porcelain of ,china1 picking up many threads that have been dropped in the course of our historical review4 ,we have seen that the ,chinese authorities when describing the coloured ware of the ,ming period speak of two #8triads' of colours4 ,one1 the turquoise1 purple and yellow group1 we have identified with the ware painted on the biscuit and reheated in the demi grand feu2 while the other1 the green1 purple and yellow class may be regarded as one of the earliest forms of true enamel or muffle decoration4 ,these two classes were now in the earlier days of ,kang-he brought to greater perfection1 and as by this time we have come to a period when the finer wares began to be largely exported direct to ,europe1 we meet with many specimens of these wares in our collections4 ,in the first of these groups the ,turquoise is the predominant colour--indeed it is often found alone 7,,pl4 ,,ix474 ,as a monochrome ware it is distinguished by a fine crackle1 which is always present but is often only to be seen by a close examination4 ,how much it is sought after by collectors is shown by the fact mentioned by ,dr4 ,bushell1 that in the ,walters collection there are more than a hundred specimens of this monochrome blue1 and of these the majority probably date from the reign of ,kang-he4 ,a combination of this turquoise with aubergine purple derived from manganese was in favour at this time not only for the little magots and for small vases1 but also for larger decorative pieces as well as for tables and stands for other objects4 ,it was above all this combination that was copied by ,zengoro and others for the #8,oniwa' ware of the ,princes of ,kishiu1 and some of this ,japanese porcelain is very difficult to distinguish from the ,chinese original4 ,the aubergine purple1 like the turquoise1 always finely crackled1 is seldom found alone in ,chinese examples1 but this is often the case on the ,kishiu ware4 ,the third colour of the triad1 the yellow1 is quite subordinate2 there were evidently great difficulties in producing a fine tint under the conditions of the demi grand feu4 ,in like manner in the early ,ming ware1 that with the ribbed cloisons1 the yellow was only used sparingly for the petals of a flower or for a chain of pearls4 ,it should be noted that this ware of ,kang-he differs from its ,ming predecessor in the absence of the dark blue glaze4 ,,famille ,,verte4--,in the first triad1 that of the demi grand feu1 the turquoise blue1 as we have seen1 is the predominant colour4 ,its place is taken in the triad of the muffle-stove by the green1 which in many shades of intensity1 but with a prevailing leafy hue1 has come to be especially associated with the enamelled wares of this reign4#eg ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,chinese ,it would be possible to make many subdivisions of this class--the well-known famille verte4 ,in the majority of cases the ground is covered by a wash of one of the colours1 so as to resemble a painted glaze4 ,it will1 however1 always be found on close examination that the wash is superimposed on the true colourless glaze1 which may generally be seen at the mouth and foot4 ,a green of greater or lesser strength1 sometimes quite a thin wash1 is the commonest colour for this ground2 at other times it is of a pale straw colour1 or1 more rarely1 a purple of a poor uncertain hue4#eh ,it will be observed that in the muffle-stove the fine aubergine purple that we noted in the class last described is rarely to be obtained from manganese4 ,in all cases the white ground is only left sparingly as a reserve for the petals of flowers and for the faces4 ,in addition to these colours--the green1 the yellow1 and the purple--which are for the most part used as washes1 a dark brown or black is largely employed for outlining the details of the decoration1 as well as for tempering the colour of the background by covering it with scrolls and spirals4 ,when this decoration is applied to the small moulded pieces--the magots1 for instance1 so admired by the ,french collectors of the eighteenth century--we have a class of objects to which the descriptions 7in the ,bushell manuscript and elsewhere7 of the decorated ware of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries would seem to apply4 ,as we have seen1 it is at the least very doubtful whether these early pieces were decorated over the glaze1 but in a general view it cannot fail to strike one that the ,kang-he decoration1 in which washes of colour#ei play so important a part1 belongs to an earlier school than that of the ,wan-li porcelain1 with its designs and medallions scattered over a white ground4 ,these last patterns are1 it would seem1 derived from textile fabrics1 from the rich brocades of the time1 both ,chinese and1 possibly1 foreign4 ,in the famille verte of ,kang-he's time1 on the other hand1 we may perhaps see a return1 in general effect at least1 to the san-tsai and wu-tsai painted glazes of earlier ,ming time4 ,when in place of the wash of green 7or may be of yellow7 the background is formed by a black enamel1 we still feel the prevailing influence of the green in the decoration1 so that these black-ground vases are rightly included in the famille verte4 ,the black background itself is often of a greenish quality1 and in the designs the camellia-leaf green is predominant2 yellow and purple are but sparingly introduced1 but the effect is heightened by the white reserves 7,,pl4 ,x474 ,in many cases a wash of green appears to have been carried over the black ground4 ,this green enamel may be often seen overlapping1 as it were1 on the foot of a vase4 ,it would be difficult to find in the whole range of ,chinese porcelain anything more superbly decorative ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x ,,chinese than some of these large black-grounded vases in the ,salting collection4 ,we would call attention to one example on which the thin skin-like glaze of the dull ground and the somewhat archaic drawing of the great dragon that curls round the side suggest a date earlier than that of its companions 7,,pl4 ,,xi474 ,and yet these fine vases are wanting in two elements which we are accustomed to regard as essential to the best porcelain3 they neither display to any extent the natural white colour of the paste1#fj nor is the outline dependent on the motion of the clay under the potter's hand4 ,nearly all these vases1 as indeed most of the large vessels of this time1 are built up from segments made in moulds4 ,what rich effects of colour are here obtained with a palette so restricted6 ,perhaps not a little of the beauty of this decoration is due to this very restriction4 ,it will be noticed that we have in the more characteristic examples a total absence of all shades both of red and of blue4 ,in the other not less important division of the enamel decoration of this time these last two colours are added1 and we come again to a pentad of colours--not1 however1 quite the same as the wu-tsai of ,wan-li times4 ,we are still under the influence of the famille verte3 the leafy green in two or more shades remains the predominant colour1 the opaque red is used more sparingly than in the later ,ming enamelled ware1 and above all the cobalt blue is now used as an enamel colour over the glaze4 ,this latter use points to an important advance in technique1 and it affords an easy means of distinguishing the wares of the two periods4 ,the new method of employing the blue is1 however1 often only to be recognised by close examination in a favourable light4 ,what at once distinguishes the newer ware is rather the displacement of the opaque red of the ,ming porcelain by the characteristic green of the ,kang-he time as the dominant colour4 ,when this full complement of five colours is used1 the general scheme of the design1 however1 follows more on the lines of the ,wan-li ware2 we find sprays of flowers or figure subjects relieved upon the white ground4 ,but the drawing of the newer ware is somewhat more realistic1 and there is generally a greater finish4 ,in rare cases the five colours are combined with the black ground1 as may be seen on two large vases in the ,british ,museum1 but the effect is not so happy as that obtained with a simpler range of colours4 ,there is another position in which these five enamel colours may be found together--in the decoration of the white reserves left between grounds of bleu poudr and fond laque4 ,this was a form of decoration much admired in ,europe1 and one of the earliest imitated4 ,this fond laque ware of various shades1 with reserved panels decorated with flowers or figures1 has retained among dealers the designation of ,batavian porcelain1 a name which1 like our old terms ,gombroon and ,east ,indian1 throws light on the route by which it reached ,europe4 ,the deep blue vases covered with elaborate designs in gold were also exported before the end of the seventeenth century2 of these large specimens have been sometimes found in ,india4 ,there is a tall vase of this ware in the ,indian ,museum at ,south ,kensington--the gilding1 as is often the case1 has almost entirely disappeared4 ,in the historical development of our subject1 which we are now following with greater or less strictness1 we are only concerned with important developments and fresh types as they from time to time arise4 ,we have therefore little to say for the present of the blue and white and of the wares with monochrome glazes of which we ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4 ,chinese4 ,black ground4 have so many superb specimens dating from the reign of ,kang-he4 ,we must1 however1 mention in passing the brilliant sang de buf vases especially associated with the early years of this emperor4 ,as in the case of the #8transmutation' or flamb glazes1 the deep red colour of this ware is produced by the action of a reducing flame upon a silicate of copper4 ,it is known in ,china as ,lang yao1 and there has been some misconception as to the origin of the term4 ,if1 as the best authorities tell us1 we are to derive the name from ,lang ,ting-tso1 the famous viceroy of the ,two ,kiangs 7the provinces of ,kiangsi and ,kiangnan7 at the time of the accession of ,kang-he1 the earliest form of this ,lang yao must be associated with a period 7say about the years #afed-affh7 which is otherwise quite sterile in the annals of ,chinese porcelain4 ,,yung-,,cheng 7#agbb-agce74--,when in #agbb1 after a reign of more than sixty years1 ,kang-he1#fa perhaps the greatest of all the emperors of ,china1 died1 we find a note of alarm sounded by the ,jesuit fathers4 ,unlike his father1 ,yung-cheng the new emperor was regarded as a supporter of the most conservative traditions1 and no friend of the ,christian missionaries4 ,what1 however1 is important to us is the fact that as crown-prince he was known not only as a patron of the works at ,king-te-chen1 but as himself an amateur potter of distinction4 ,the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 writing before ,yung-cheng's accession to the throne1 tells us that it was his habit to send down from ,pekin examples of ancient wares to be copied at the imperial factory4 ,this influence1 exercised in a conservative direction1 is reflected in the porcelain produced during his reign4 ,this is indeed a critical point in the history of ,chinese porcelain4 ,we are reminded of some similar periods in the development of our ,western arts1 when it begins to become evident that a command of material and a technical finish have been attained at the expense of all spontaneity and freshness of expression4 ,some such tendency was accompanied at this time in ,china by a careful and deliberate imitation of ancient forms and glazes4 ,under ,nien ,hsi-yao1 the new superintendent at ,king-te-chen1 some advance was certainly made--we shall speak of the ,nien yao and the new colours that distinguished it directly4 ,we must not overlook1 however1 the influence of the foreign demand which more and more made itself felt1 an influence opposed to the conservative and classical tastes of the emperor4 ,but when we run through the long list1 under fifty-seven headings1 of the various wares copied at ,king-te-chen at this time1#fb we see how strong this classical influence was4 ,in fact1 this catalogue is one of our best sources of information for the ancient1 and especially for the ,sung1 wares4 ,the chief concern of the compiler was with the glazes1 for no attempt seems to have been made to copy the thick and rough pastes of the early days4#fc ,we can infer from some of the heads of the list that most of the highly perfected glazes of the day1 ranging through every shade of colour1 were considered to be but modifications of the old simple glazes of ,sung times4 ,this was an essentially ,chinese way of looking at the matter1 and by this indirect path it was possible to reach the most novel effects4 ,among the later headings of ,nien's list 7it was to some extent chronologically arranged7 we find mention of copies of ,japanese wares1 and frequent reference is made to colours and decorations of ,european origin4 ,we shall have to make more than one reference to this important catalogue in a later chapter4 ,it was under the rgime of ,nien ,hsi-yao that this list was drawn up4 ,he was the second of the great viceroys whose names are associated with the emperors ,kang-he1 ,yung-cheng1 and ,kien-lung respectively4 ,he succeeded to ,tsang ,ying-hsuan1 and was followed in the next reign by ,tang-ying4 ,the wares made during the administration of these superintendents are known in chronological order as ,tsang yao1 ,nien yao1 and ,tang yao4 ,this ,nien did not regard his post by any means as a sinecure4 ,he frequently visited the works1 and required samples of the imperial ware to be sent every two months to his official residence for inspection 7,bushell1 p4 #cfa74 ,the ,nien yao1 to the ,chinese collector1 is especially associated with certain monochrome glazes--above all with the clair de lune--the yueh pai or #8moon-white1' and with a brilliant red glaze with stippled surface1 a near cousin to the sang de buf and flamb classes4 ,there is another #8self-glaze' ware which dates from this time1 of which the mingled tints depend1 as in the case of the flamb1 upon the varying degrees of oxidation of the copper in the glaze4 ,this is the #8peach-bloom1' the #8apple red and green' of the ,chinese4 ,the charm of this delicate ware is of another kind to that to be found in the vigorous flashes of colour of the transmutation glazes4 ,we can trace at this time the gradual introduction of two new colours that give so special a character to the wares of the next reign4 ,i mean the pink derived from gold and the lemon-yellow4 ,these colours were used sparingly and with great delicacy at first1 but we come to associate them at a later time with a period of decline and of bad taste4 ,,kien-,,lung 7#agce-agie74--;,it was during the long reign of this emperor1 poet and patron of all the arts1 that the new direction which we find given to the porcelain made in the reign of his father1 ,yung-cheng1 became even more accentuated--on the one hand1 the copying of old glazes and the employment of archaic hieratic patterns for decoration1 on the other1 the more and more frequent use of new colours and new designs of non-,chinese origin4 ,this latter tendency was fostered both by the eclectic tastes of ,kien-lung himself and also by the increasing importance of the demand for foreign countries4 ,great care was given to the paste--it was required to be of a snowy 7or rather sometimes chalky7 whiteness1 tending neither towards yellow nor towards blue1 and so carefully finished on the lathe that on the uniform glassy surface of the finer specimens no signs were left of the movement of the potter's wheel2#fd for compared with the ware produced in ,ming times1 and even during the reign of ,kang-he1 we now note the greater proportion of pieces thrown on the wheel4 ,at no time has the skill of the potter who threw the clay1 and of the workman who then pared and smoothed the surface on the lathe1 been brought to a greater perfection1 and this applies not only to the eggshell china1 but to the large vases and beakers1 so perfect in their outline4 ,the same perfection of technique is found in the decoration1 so that a blue and white vase of this period can at once be recognised in spite of the pseudo-archaic decoration and the ,ming nien hao inscribed on the base4 ,when the new colours are introduced the date is1 of course1 approximately fixed1 and we may probably associate with the beginning of this reign 7or perhaps a little earlier2 see note on p4 #aaj7 the first use of the rouge d'or which has given its name to a well-known class of porcelain--the famille rose4 ,a manageable red had long been a desideratum4 ,there was no more treacherous material than the basic copper oxide1 whether painted under or mixed with the glaze4 ,as an over-glaze source of red this pigment was of course unavailable1 while the opaque brick-like tints obtained from iron1 though in keeping with the rougher1 picturesque decoration of early times1 did not harmonise well with the delicate style of painting now in fashion1#fe so that it is not surprising that the beautiful pink tint obtained from gold carried all before it4 ,the gold was probably incorporated with the enamel flux in the form of purple of ,cassius1 which is readily prepared by dissolving gold in a mixture of nitric acid and sal-ammoniac and adding some fragments of tin4 ,the colour had been known for some time in ,europe--we can perhaps even trace this pink tint on enamelled ,arab glass of the fourteenth century 7see p4 #hi74ff ,a very small quantity of this material goes a long way1 especially when used to give a gradated tint to a white opaque enamel1 as on the petal of a flower4 ,as a colour it is singularly harmonious1 and in a period of decline helped to #8keep together' the motley array of enamels used along with it4 ,there is nothing more popular in the work of this time than the little egg-shell plates1 decorated with flowers and birds1 for which such high prices are given by collectors4 ,the original type1 for both ware and decoration1 is probably in this case to be found in the #8chicken-cups' of ,cheng-hua's reign4 ,on the plates of this ware the borders are filled with elaborate and minutely finished diapers and scrolls1 evidently taken from silk brocades2 indeed1 the gold threads of the woof are sometimes directly imitated2 the centre is occupied by a picture1 either a flower piece or a genre figure scene 7,,pl4 ,,xii474 ,we may connect these designs with the works of the naturalistic colour school of the time1 many of the finest of which have been preserved by ,japanese collectors4 ,a very frequent subject is a rocky bank from which grow peonies1 narcissi1 or other flowers1 and under which two or more chickens or sometimes quails are grouped4 ,the petals of the flowers are rendered by a white opaque enamel in high relief1 often with a flush of pink1 imitating the tour de force by which the painters of the time1 by a single stroke of the brush1 produced a full gradation of colour4 ,indeed1 the same artists doubtless painted both on silk1 on paper1 and on porcelain4 ,we may compare their work to that of the fan-painters and miniaturists who were employed to decorate the panels of ,svres porcelain1 at this very time1 with pastoral scenes and flower pieces4 ,the ,chinese enamellers rarely signed their work2 but there is a plate in the ,british ,museum with the name of a ,canton artist4 ,this gives a hint as to where most of the work was done4 ,but the most remarkable instance of signed work of this period is found on a series of large plates in the ,dresden ,museum4 ,on these a ,chinese artist1 some time before the middle of the eighteenth century1 has painted a series of designs of birds and flowers1 and in one instance at least a graceful female figure4 ,on the field1 in each case1 we find a seal character 7accompanied either by a smaller mark contained in a circle1 or by an artemisia leaf7 which indicates the painter's name4 ,with true artistic feeling he has succeeded in filling the surface of the plate with a graceful decoration1 and at the same time he gives us a series of delightful pictures1 employing the full range of the enamel colours at his command4 ,and in thus combining a decorative design with an accurate ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii ,,chinese rendering of natural objects1 the ,chinese artist has succeeded in doing what has never been accomplished by any ,european painter on porcelain4 ,in decoration of this kind1 however1 only the very best work pleases2 in anything below this we get at once to what is vulgar and trite2 and the larger palette now at the painter's command only makes it easier for him to produce the unpleasant combinations of colours so frequent in the wares exported from ,china after the end of the eighteenth century4 ,on the other hand1 the older painters1 confined to their three or at most five colours1 seldom fail to produce an agreeable effect1 however roughly their colours are daubed on4 ,in the genre scenes1 as in the case of the flower pieces1 a realistic tendency is prominent4 ,we have no longer the ,taoist saints or the hunting and battle pieces of earlier times1 but delicately executed interiors with graceful figures of girls arranging flowers or painting fans1 or again1 landscapes with men travelling by road or by river4 ,there is a refinement of colour and a charm of drawing and composition in the better specimens of this somewhat effeminate school that appeals to every one4 ,it is difficult for us to find any marked ,european influence in the designs of this time1 and yet these pictures are classed by the ,chinese as ,european in style2 and it is not quite clear whether this refers only to the enamel colours employed or to the manner of drawing as well4 ,most of the work of this kind was doubtless made for the ,european market and painted at ,canton4 ,but is this the case with the finest examples8 ,kien-lung himself was1 it would seem1 no despiser of this carefully decorated ware4 ,a poem of his composition1 signed with the vermilion seal1 is often found on this egg-shell porcelain4 ,on some of the most highly finished of the little cups and plates we find an elaborate scroll decoration in gold and sometimes in silver2 and in these designs we may perhaps trace the influence of the baroque style in vogue at this time in ,europe4 ,nien resigned his post when his master in the year #agce had #8flown up to heaven like a dragon1' and the new emperor1 ,kien-lung1 appointed in his place ,tang-ying1 who had long served under him4 ,the new director was no less an enthusiast than his predecessor4 ,he tells us in his memoirs--for he was a man of literary taste like his master1 ,kien-lung--that he served his apprenticeship with the workmen1 sharing his meals and his sleeping-room with them1 following in this the proverb which says #8the farmer may learn something from his bondman1 and the weaver from the handmaid who holds the thread for her mistress4' ,we hear that new tints of turquoise 7fei-tsui7 and of rose-red 7mei-kwei7 were introduced by him1 and we may perhaps identify these colours with certain shades of pink and turquoise blue that became prevalent about this time4 ,in both these cases the pigment is mixed with some amount of arsenic or tin so that the enamel is nearly opaque1 and this enamel is now spread over the ground1 taking the place of the glaze which lies beneath4 ,the effect1 though apparently admired by some collectors1 is heavy and unpleasant4 ,the pink1 which we may consider as a ,chinese equivalent of the rose ,pompadour 7it is uncertain whether the ,french or the ,chinese were the first to use the rouge d'or colours71 is generally more or less opaque1 with a granular surface2 it is often found covering a paste inscribed with fine scrolls4#fg ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,,chinese ,in the case of the pale opaque blue 7to which the name of turquoise may be applied more aptly than to the sky-coloured transparent blues of the demi grand feu71 the surface of the enamel is sometimes painted with an irregular net-work of black lines1 as if in imitation of some kind of marble4 ,this turquoise enamel towards the end of ,kien-lung's reign was often applied to the surface of large vases1 and when in combination with a lemon-yellow decoration the effect is even more unpleasant than when used alone4 ,we have mentioned1 when speaking of ,yung-cheng's reign1 a valuable list of the various kinds of porcelain made at that time at ,king-te-chen4 ,we must now refer to another document1 quoted1 like the list of ,nien's time1 in all the ,chinese books dealing with the history of the imperial porcelain works4 ,the emperor ,kien-lung1 it would appear1 when overhauling certain manuscripts preserved in the palace1 came upon a series of twenty water-colour drawings illustrating the manufacture of porcelain4 ,he at once summoned ,tang-ying1 the famous superintendent at ,king-te-chen1 to ,pekin1 and1 handing over the drawings1 commanded him to prepare a full description of all the processes illustrated in these pictures4 ,this was in #agdc1 shortly before ,tang's retirement4 ,the drawings themselves have never been made public2 but we have in ,tang's report what is1 after the letters of the ,jesuit father1 our most important source for the technical details of the manufacture of porcelain in ,china4 ,with these details we are not concerned just now1 but we will quote from ,dr4 ,bushell's translation a disquisition on certain principles that should govern the forms and decoration of porcelain4 ,this is a kind of obiter dictum of ,tang-ying1 propos of the fashioning and painting of vases4 ,in his flowery style he tells us 7,i abbreviate in a few places73 #8,in the decoration of porcelain correct canons of art should be followed4 ,the designs should be taken from the patterns of old brocades and embroidery2 the colours from a garden as seen in spring-time from a pavilion4 ,there is an abundance of specimens of ware of the ,sung dynasty at hand to be copied2 the elements of nature supply an inexhaustible fund of materials for new combinations of supernatural beauty4 ,natural objects are modelled to be fashioned in moulds and painted in appropriate colours4 ,the materials of the potter's art are derived from forests and streams1 and ornamental themes are supplied by the same natural sources4#8#fh ,it is a strange fancy which connects the decoration of a vase with the source of the materials with which it is made4 ,elsewhere1 speaking of the painting of the blue and white ware1 ,tang-ying says3 #8,for painting of flowers and of birds1 fishes and water-plants1 and living objects generally1 the study of nature is the first requisite4 ,in the imitation of ,ming porcelain and of ancient pieces1 the sight of many specimens brings skill4' ,we see in this a kind of hesitation1 a balancing between two influences--the naturalistic and the traditional--which is characteristic of the period4 ,we may call attention1 by the way1 to the important place that is given in this report to the process of moulding in the fashioning of a vase1 especially as supplementary to the throwing on the wheel1 and above all1 to the care required in the turning and polishing on the jigger or lathe to ensure accuracy of outline in the finished piece4 ,the last picture described by ,tang-ying illustrates the worshipping of the local god and the offering of sacrifice4 ,and we are told the story of how1 when the great dragon-bowls failed time after time1 and when1 in consequence1 the workmen were harassed by the eunuchs sent down by the ,ming emperor1 ,tung the potter leaped into the furnace2 and how1 after this sacrifice1 when the kilns were opened1 the bowls were at last found perfect in shape and brilliant in colour4 ,so ,tung was worshipped as the potter's god2 and1 indeed1 ,tang-ying tells us1 as a voucher for the truth of his story1 that in his time one of these very dragon fish-bowls1 #8compounded of the blood and bones of the deity1' still stood in the courtyard of the temple1 a witness to the sacrifice 7,bushell1 chapter xv74 ,tang-ying resigned his post in #agdf2 his influence was therefore only felt during the first years of ,kien-lung's long reign4 ,his is the last name that can be personally connected with any ,chinese ware1 unless it be that of the emperor his master4 ,kien-lung was a poet1 and a very productive one--his complete works were published in an edition of #cfj volumes1 containing nearly #cd1jjj separate compositions4 ,these are generally occasional pieces suggested by the aspects of nature4 ,such verses are not unfrequently found on the egg-shell porcelain of his time1 signed1 too1 with the vermilion pencil4 ,there is quite a long poem of his on a dish of thin ware now in the ,muse ,guimet in ,paris4 ,the emperor interested himself in a new kind of opaque glass made in ,pekin by a skilful artist1 one ,hu1 and he sent specimens of this ware to ,king-te-chen to be imitated in the nobler material1 as he deemed it4 ,this was effected by means of a very vitreous paste1 and the little snuff-bottles moulded in high relief in this material are much prized both by ,chinese and ,american collectors4 ,there was1 indeed1 at this time a rage for imitating other substances in porcelain1 which was doubtless fostered by the increased command of technical processes and of new colours4 ,a good deal of the porcelain covered with black or sometimes brown lacquer1#fi inlaid with mother-of-pearl1 the laque burgaut of the ,french1 dates perhaps from an earlier period4 ,but the little snuff-bottles1 imitating jade1 pudding-stone1 agate1 turquoise1 as well as silver1 gold1 and bronze of varied patinas1 or again the rusted surface of iron--to say nothing of wood1 bamboo1 and mother-of-pearl--may1 with few exceptions1 be attributed to this time4 ,we may compare such work to the contemporary triumphs of the ,japanese in lacquer4#gj ,but by the middle of the century it is no longer the demand of the court that gives the general tone to the productions of ,king-te-chen4 ,the taste for ,oriental wares had spread among the middle classes in ,europe4 ,the ,english were taking the place of the ,dutch as the principal exporters1 and this change was reflected in a demand for a gaudy ware crowded with a motley array of figures1 the #8mandarin china' properly so called4 ,as to the extensive class of porcelain painted with coats-of-arms and other ,european designs1 a class well represented in the ,british ,museum1 we will only mention that the greater part was decorated at this time by a special school of artists at ,canton1 though some pieces date from a somewhat earlier period4 ,,kia-,,king 7#agie-ahbj71 the son and successor of ,kien-lung1 was like his father a poet1 but a man of weak and dissolute character4 ,the high finish of the previous reign was1 however1 maintained1 and the pieces marked with this emperor's name are sought after by ,chinese collectors4 ,,tao-,,kwang 7#ahbj-ahej74--;,it is surprising that so much really good porcelain was made at a time so troubled by foreign wars and internal rebellion4 ,in some of the blue and white ware of this and even the next reign1 we may sometimes see a return to the breadth and boldness of treatment characteristic of earlier days4 ,in the coral-red grounds of this time1 the intractable iron oxide appears to have been more thoroughly incorporated with the glaze than at any previous period4 ,it is to this reign that we may assign the #8,pekin' or #8,graviata' bowls1 with reserved panels on the outside filled with flowers1 landscapes1 etc41 in many coloured enamels4 ,the ground is often of a pinkish rouge d'or1 or in other instances of lemon yellow1 blue or pale lavender4 ,the inside of the bowl has a decoration of blue and white4 ,,hsien-,,feng 7#ahej-fa74--;,as at the beginning of this emperors reign the ,taiping rebels broke into ,kiang-si and burned down the town of ,king-te-chen1 this period is of necessity a blank in the history of porcelain4 ,,tung-,,chi 7#ahfa-ahgd74--;,in the third year of this reign the rebels were driven out from ,king-te-chen and the imperial works rebuilt4 ,a large order was at once sent from ,pekin for porcelain of every description4 ,the details of this order1 the latest of the lists of this kind to be found in the ,annals of ,kiang-si1 are only given in the edition of that work published since the date of ,julien's translation4 ,this list is translated by ,dr4 ,bushell1 fifty-five headings in all1 and we find in it a curious instance of the survival of the old traditions4 ,all the wares mentioned in the older lists are now again requisitioned for the use of the court4 ,the ,empress-,dowager1 who has held the reins during the minority both of ,tung-chi and of his successor1 the present emperor1 is reputed to be something of a connoisseur1#ga and to take an interest in the imperial manufactory4 ,some of the better class wares from the palace and from the temples at ,pekin have quite lately found their way to ,england1 and specimens may be seen on loan at ,south ,kensington4 ,i notice especially a set of five vessels in deep blue from the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,the execution appears to be careful1 but the forms are ugly and the blue of an unpleasant tint4 ,in vessels of this kind1 however1 both shape and colour may be governed by tradition4 ,mr4 ,hippisley1 who has lived long in ,china1 says that for some years past the famille verte wares of ,kang-he's time1 especially the vases with black ground and prunus flowers1 have been fairly well reproduced at ,king-te-chen1 as have1 later still1 the so-called #8hawthorn ginger-jars4' ,but in ,china1 as in ,france1 it is with the difficulties of the copper glazes1 the flamb and the sang de buf1 that the majority of our contemporary ceramic artists are striving4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,china--7continued74 ,,marks ,we may here conveniently say something of the marks found on ,chinese porcelain4 ,we do not propose to give any systematic account of these marks--this is a subject indeed to which a disproportionate amount of space has perhaps been devoted in some works on porcelain--but rather to collect a few notes on points of interest4 ,tang-ying in his report to the emperor on the manufacture of porcelain1 from which we have lately quoted1 tells us that during all the processes of turning on the lathe1 painting and glazing1 a solid bar is left at the base of the vase by which it is conveniently handled4 ,this bar or handle is at length cut off short1 and the base of the stump is scooped out to form the foot of the future vessel4 ,it is at this stage that the inscription is written by a special artist on the centre of the base1 and then brushed over with a coat of the glaze1 which does not extend over the rim to join the rest of the glazed surface4 ,thus we see that the writing of the inscription and the glazing of the base are subsequent to and independent of the decoration of the rest of the vase4 ,in whatever style this decoration may be1 the inscription is generally written in cobalt blue under the glaze4 ,there are many varieties of ,chinese writing4 ,we pass from the oldest #8tadpole' forms1 by way of the chuan or seal character1 to the kai-sh1 which takes the place roughly of our ordinary printed letters4 ,of this last1 the square detached strokes pass when written with a brush into the more flowing #8grass' character4 ,the kai-sh style is the one most frequently found on porcelain1 or at least a form something between it and the grass hand4 ,the seal character1 however1 was much favoured by the ,manchu emperors1 and since the time of ,kang-he has been practically the only one used for the imperial nien-hao 7,,pl4 ,a4 #aj-ab74gb ,the ,chinese have two methods of indicating a date3 first1 by a cycle of sixty years2 second1 by the name given to the whole or part of the reign of an emperor4 ,with the first we are not concerned1 it is found so rarely on porcelain4#gc ,the other1 the imperial date or nien-hao1 has been in use ever since the time of the ,han dynasty 7say roughly from the beginning of our era74 ,very early dates of this kind are often found on bronzes1 where1 however1 they are no more to be relied on than in the case of porcelain4 ,the inscription occurs in two forms3--first1 the six word form where the emperor's name is preceded by that of the dynasty1 thus3 ,ta ,tsing ,kang-he nien chi1--#8,made in the reign of the ,emperor ,kang-he of the great ,tsing or ,manchu dynasty' 7,,pl4 ,a4 #h72 or second1 the first line with the name of the dynasty may be omitted1 leaving only the emperor's name and the words nien chi1 #8year made1#8--for example1 ,cheng-hua nien chi 7,,pl4 ,a4 #c74 ,the name by which we know the emperor of ,china was not his personal or family name1 but was assumed on ascending the throne1 and in old times was frequently changed4 ,but from the time of the ,sung dynasty such a change has only once occurred4 ,this was in the case of the unfortunate ,ming emperor ,cheng-tung1 to whom we referred on p4 #ic4 ,we rarely find the name of any emperor of an earlier time than the ,ming dynasty on porcelain1 and the few instances that do occur are obvious forgeries4 ,perhaps the earliest date on ,chinese porcelain with any claim to authority is the nien-hao of ,yung-lo 7#adjb-be71 in quaint #8tadpole' characters engraved in the paste beneath the glaze4 ,this inscription occurs on the thin bowl of ,ting ware in the ,british ,museum1 described on page #fg 7,,pl4 ,a4 #a74 ,we have said before1 and we cannot too strongly impress this fact upon the reader1 that the vast majority of the ,ming marks so frequently found on ,chinese porcelain are of no value4 ,they teach us nothing themselves1 and when we can accept them it is on evidence derived from other sources4 ,as ,franks observed many years ago1 all we can say is that a piece of porcelain is not older than the date which it bears4 ,when we find the date inscribed in a horizontal line round the neck of a vase1 as is not infrequent in later ,ming times1 especially in the reign of ,wan-li#gd 7#aegb-afai71 more reliance may perhaps be put on it1 as regards ware of ,chinese origin at least1 for the ,japanese were very fond of decorating their blue and white ware with ,ming inscriptions placed in this position4 ,we have innumerable vases in our collections undoubtedly made in the reign of the great ,kang-he 7#affa-agbb71ge but his reign-mark is comparatively rarely found4 ,the absence of this nien-hao is usually explained by a proclamation1 issued in #afgg1 which has been preserved in the ,chinese books1 forbidding the inscription of the imperial name on porcelain4 ,with this proclamation the empty double ring of blue often found on the base of vases of this time may perhaps be connected4 ,many of the finest pieces1 however1 bear no mark of any kind4 ,in place of these date-marks we may often find an inscription stating that the piece was made at a certain ,tang--for example1 ,shun ti tang chi--literally #8,cultivation virtue hall made' 7,,pl4 ,b4 #ag74 ,we have here translated the character tang by the somewhat vague word #8hall1' but it is doubtful whether the inscription should be rendered #8made for the ,shun-ti pavilion1' i4e4 for the imperial palace1 or rather1 #8made at the ,shun-ti hall1#8--that is to say1 at the studio or factory of that name1 presumably at ,king-te-chen4 ,the best authorities1 however1 are in favour of the latter rendering 7,bushell1 p4 #gh seq41 and the ,franks ,catalogue1 p4 #bac71 and they regard these so-called hall-marks as more or less equivalent to the signature of the manufacturer4 ,the character tang is sometimes replaced by other words1 as tsuan1 a balcony2 ting1 a summer-house2 or chai1 a studio4 ,this last word is the ,japanese sai1 which so often forms a part of the adopted names of ,japanese artists1 as for example ,hoku-sai1 which means the #8northern studio4' ,the ,japanese potter often signs his work1 and even in ,china we find in a few cases a name1 that of the painter1 inscribed in the field of the decoration1--we have already mentioned some instances of signatures found in this position 7p4 #ajh74 ,of another kind is the inscription found on certain egg-shell cups of the time of ,wan-li 7#aegb-afai74 ,these cups1 of which we have no specimens unfortunately in our collections1 were made by a famous poet-potter who signs himself ,hu yin tao jen1 or #8the ,taoist hidden in a pot4' ,the reference is to a ,taoist recluse 7what the ,japanese know as a ,sennin7 who when disinclined for society was in the habit of retiring into his gourd-bottle4 ,at the same time1 as ,dr4 ,hirth has pointed out1 the words form an excellent motto for an artist--the true expression of whose genius we seek in his works4 ,there is a third class of marks which celebrate the beauty of the vessel on which they are inscribed or1 more rarely1 refer to the subject of the decoration4 ,a large number of these are illustrated in ,franks's ,catalogue of ,oriental ,porcelain4 ,we will merely quote as examples #8,a gem among precious jewels of rare jade' 7,,pl4 ,b4 #af71 and1 with reference to the decoration1 which in this case includes some red fishes1 #8,enjoying themselves in the waters' 7,,pl4 ,b4 #dd74 ,such rather tame sentences do not teach us much4 ,more suggestive is the inscription we find on a cylindrical vase for holding writing materials3 #8,scholarship lofty as the hills and the ,great ,bear' 7,,pl4 ,b4 #ae7--;a fit motto for the desk of the student4 ,the ,emblems or ,devices that so frequently occur in lieu of inscriptions on ,chinese porcelain are well illustrated in the ,british ,museum catalogue4 ,they are1 however1 of little or no value in classifying or dating the pieces on which they are found--they can seldom be connected with any known manufacturer or artist4 ,such devices are generally symbolic1 above all of long life1 riches1 and honours1 the three things desired by a ,chinaman1 and ,i suppose that they are more or less vaguely expected to bring to the owner the good luck that they suggest4 ,some of these devices remind us of the #8canting' charges and badges of our heraldry4 ,thus a bat 7,,pl4 ,b4 #ai ,a47 is in ,chinese called fu1 but the same word also means happiness2 so again a peach is shu1 but shu means also long life4 ,the characters for happiness 7,,pl4 ,b4 #bc7 and long life 7,,pl4 ,b4 #ai71 we may mention1 are of constant appearance1 the first usually as a mark on the base1 the second as an integral part of the decoration1 on both ,chinese and ,japanese porcelain4 ,such interest1 then1 as can be found in these marks is derived rather from the light they throw upon the working of the ,chinese mind than from any information they give us about the porcelain on which they are inscribed4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,china--7continued74 ,,king-,,te-,,chen ,,and ,,the ,p,,re ,d',,entrecolles ,there is nothing more remarkable in the history of the porcelain of ,china1 than the fact of the concentration in one spot1 for so many centuries1 of an industry for the supply of almost the entire population4 ,so that as regards porcelain1 as ,china stands to the rest of the world1 so the town of ,king-te-chen stands to the rest of ,china4 ,in fact1 to parody a ,french saying1--#8,qui dit porcelaine dit la ,chine1 qui dit la ,chine dit ,king-te-chen4' ,let us then consider the position of this town1 above all in relation to the three principal outlets of its trade--,i mean the supply of the court at ,pekin1 the export at ,canton1 and the general demand of the country4 ,if the reader will consult a good map of ,china1 one that shows the rivers1 for these are the real trunk-lines of the commerce of the country1 he will soon understand in what a commanding position ,king-te-chen is placed4 ,it is true that the distance from ,pekin is not far short of a thousand miles1 following the winding course of the ,grand ,canal1 the ,yang-tse river1 and the waters of the ,po-yang lake2 but by this route there is water communication without a break for the whole way4#gf ,so again the whole journey to ,canton may be made by boat1 with the exception of a short portage over the watershed on the borders of the provinces of ,kiang-si and ,kuang-tung4 ,this was the route taken by ,lord ,amherst in #ahaf-ag1 when returning overland from ,pekin to ,canton4 ,the journey is well described by ,sir ,john ,davis in his ,sketches of ,china4 ,as they approached the ,po-yang lake1 the porcelain shops and depts in the towns became more and more prominent4 ,these were supplied from the emporium at ,jao-chau ,fu1 the great city near the spot where the river descending from ,king-te-chen falls into the ,po-yang lake4 ,davis describes the beautiful scenery and the classical associations of the mountainous country surrounding the lake4 ,proceeding southward they ascended the ,kia-kiang river1 passing by ,nan-chang ,fu1 a great centre for the commerce of southern ,china4 ,the river is very shallow in its upper course1 but along it passes a constant stream of traffic1 by means of a narrow passage scooped out in the shingly bed4 ,the ,meiling ,pass is crossed by a paved road1 partly excavated in the rock and in places cut into steps--a road made some twelve centuries ago by an emperor of the ,tang dynasty4 ,after a journey of some thirty miles on horseback another stream was reached1 down which they floated to the great ,western ,river and the waters of ,canton4 ,it is by this route that nine-tenths of the ,chinese porcelain that has reached ,europe must have passed4 ,how this porcelain is packed at ,king-te-chen and forwarded to ,canton and to other parts of ,china is well shown in a series of native drawings exhibited by the side of the cases containing the porcelain in the ,british ,museum4 ,king-te-chen stands on a small river that flows south-west to fall into the ,po-yang lake4 ,at this point1 close by the lake1 lies1 as already mentioned1 the city of ,jao-chau1 the capital of the whole district and the residence of the prefect4 ,king-te-chen1 however1 the town of the potter1 is not directly subordinate to ,jao-chau2 to the official mind it is a mere dependency of the sub-prefecture of ,fouliang1 a small walled town or hsien in the immediate neighbourhood4 ,it is in the annals of this hsien that the early history of ,king-te-chen is to be found4 ,we may compare the relative positions of these three ,chinese towns with those existing in the eighteenth century between the long straggling villages of ,burslem or ,stoke and the adjacent town of ,newcastle in the first place1 and then between the latter and the county town of ,stafford4 ,the importance of ,king-te-chen may1 however1 be inferred from the fact that the superintendent of the imperial potteries was often at the same time controller of the local customs and viceroy of the surrounding provinces4 ,king-te-chen1 then1 was built where the little river flowed out from the barren mountain tract to the east--a region made still more barren by the cutting down of all the wood to provide fuel for the kilns1 and whose inhabitants were reputed to be as rude and rugged as their surroundings4 ,it is from the gorges of this rough hilly country that the precious kaolin and petuntse are excavated4 ,these substances are formed locally by the decomposition of the rock of which the hills are composed1 a variety of graphic granite with much soda-holding felspar4 ,in a narrow space1 crowded for more than four miles along the river bank between shops1 temples1 and guardhouses1 were built the kilns and the workshops4 ,towards the south rises a small hill where the tiled roofs of the temples and pavilions are seen half hidden among the trees4 ,this is the ,jewel or ,guardian ,hill which commands the adjacent imperial manufactory4 ,this factory was first established here in the fourteenth century1 but since then it has been more than once burned to the ground in times of riot and rebellion4 ,the works were last rebuilt in #ahff4 ,dr4 ,bushell has translated an official description of the series of workshops1 from the mixing-house to the muffle-furnaces of the enamellers1 the whole enclosed by a wall about a mile in circuit4 ,the kilns are no longer within the enclosure as they were in ,ming times4 ,the imperial porcelain is now fired in private furnaces scattered through the town4 ,the ,french ,jesuit missionary to whom1 above any one else1 is due the credit of first describing to the people of the ,west the nature of porcelain and how it was made1 was living1 at the time when the earliest of his famous letters was written 7in #agab71 at ,jao-chau1 the capital of the district4 ,the letter is addressed to the procureur of the order in ,paris1 and it would seem that it was before long made public4#gg ,it was followed in #agbb by a second supplementary letter1 dated this time from ,king-te-chen itself4 ,the ,pre ,d',entrecolles had already been many years in ,china1 and had before this sent home important letters on other branches of ,chinese industry4 ,the first letter on porcelain gives proof of long acquaintance with the subject1 and it is not impossible that he may already have corresponded with some one in ,europe on the same subject4 ,i make this suggestion in connection with the curious coincidence of date between the residence of ,d',entrecolles in this district and the first manufacture of porcelain in ,saxony4 ,these letters were naturally read with avidity at this time in ,paris and elsewhere4 ,the seed fell on fertile ground1 and but one thing was wanting1 and that was--some actual specimens of the materials described by the ,jesuit father4 ,the indications on this head1 given in the letters1 were indeed quite insufficient1 and would rather tend to put inquirers on a false scent4 ,the writer1 for example1 had no notion of the real nature of kaolin1 a substance which in one place he compares to chalk4 ,on the other hand1 the technical details so fully given were at that time new4 ,since then this information has filtered down through many books1 so that much of it now appears quite trite4 ,i will confine myself to a few extracts bearing on points of interest that ,i may have overlooked elsewhere4 ,these letters are written in the clear1 flowing language of the time1 and they are delightful reading4 ,after giving some account from the ,annals of ,fouliang of the early history of porcelain1 and describing how the industry was gradually concentrated at ,king-te-chen1 the ,pre ,d',entrecolles goes on to say3 #8,apart from the pottery that is made all over ,china1 there are a few other provinces1 as those of ,fukien and ,canton1 where porcelain is made4' ,by ,canton1 in this case1 we must understand1 ,i suppose1 the province of ,kuang-tung1 and this is a piece of information of some interest4 ,the attempts made to establish workmen from ,king-te-chen at ,pekin1 and again in the neighbourhood of ,amoy1 from which port so large a commerce was already carried on with ,europe1 had1 he says1 wholly failed4 ,there then follows a description of ,king-te-chen1 with its long streets and its population of more than a million1 #8as is commonly reported4' ,he tells us of a rich ,chinese merchant who1 after making his fortune in the ,indies1 had built a magnificent temple to the ,queen of ,heaven 7,kwan-yin1 probably74 ,the ,european piastres he had brought back were well known in the district1 although this was not the case in other parts of ,china4 ,we have a picture of the busy quay and of the three ranges of junks closely packed along the side1 and for a background the whirlwinds of flame rising from the three thousand kilns of the city4#gh ,after praising the admirable police arrangements1 he comes to his main subject1 the manufacture of porcelain4 ,the small vessels that bring down the kaolin and the petuntse 7in the latter he notes the scattered shiny particles--the mica7 from a distance of twenty or thirty leagues are even more numerous than the big junks that take the finished ware down to ,jao-chau4 ,the details of manufacture that follow--and to quote them would be only to go once more over the ground covered in a previous chapter--were learned by the ,pre ,d',entrecolles not only from the ,christian workmen1 but by frequent visits to the works themselves4 #8,these great laboratories1' he tells us1 #8have been for me a kind of ,areopagus where ,i have preached' 7,i quote the rest in ,french7 #8celui qui a form le premier homme de limon et des mains duquel nous sortons pour devenir des vases de gloire ou d'ignominie4' ,in describing the preparation of the paste much stress is laid upon the care taken to exclude all extraneous matter1 especially that which may have been introduced into the kaolin or petuntse by way of adulteration4 ,the slip for the glaze--for the latter the ,chinese term #8oil' is retained--is said to be brought down from the mountains1 where it is prepared1 in a liquid form4 ,the division of labour in the manufacture is carried so far that a piece of porcelain before completion may pass through the hands of as many as seventy workmen1 to each of whom a separate task is assigned4 ,the important part played by moulding1 both as a direct process and subsidiary to throwing on the wheel1 is well brought out in this description4 ,i will give a rendering of the passage in which the process of moulding is described1 as in an ,english translation in a recent work there is some apparent confusion4 #8,when the piece to be copied is of such a nature that it cannot be imitated with the potter's hands on the wheel1 a special kind of clay used only for moulds is impressed upon it i4e4 upon the model4 ,in this way a mould is made of several pieces1 each of a considerable size4 ,these pieces are now dried1 and when they are required for use they are held near the fire for some time1 after which they are filled with the paste to the thickness desirable in the porcelain4 ,the paste is pressed in with the hands and the mould is again placed near the fire4 ,the impressed figure becomes at once detached from the mould by the heat that consumes the moisture that has made it adhere4 ,the different parts of a piece separately moulded are now joined together with a somewhat liquid slip1 made of the same material as the porcelain4' ,great numbers of these moulds are kept in stock1 so that an order from ,europe can be quickly executed4 ,the porcelain painters1 he tells us1 are just as #8poor beggars' 7gueux7 as the other workmen2 and he has evidently a very mean opinion of the art of painting as practised at that time in ,china3 #8,ils ignorent les belles rgles de cet ,art4' ,but such an estimate of ,oriental art was universal at that time1 when everything was measured from the standpoint of ,versailles and the roi soleil4 #8,the work of the painter is divided in the same laboratory among a great number of workmen4 ,it is the sole business of one to trace the coloured circle that we see near the edge of the vessel2 another draws the outline of the flowers1 which a third fills in4 ,one painter does the mountains and the water1 another the birds and the animals4 ,it is the human figure that is the most badly handled4444 ,as for the colours on the porcelain1 we find all sorts4 ,little is seen in ,europe except that with bright blue on a white ground4 ,i think1 however1 that our merchants have brought over other kinds4' 7,the implication is1 no doubt1 #8since ,i have left ,france4' ,this helps us to fix the date of the introduction of coloured porcelain into ,europe47 #8,some we find with a ground like that of our burning mirrors4' 7,this is doubtless the ,wu-chin1 or metallic black of the ,chinese4 ,this #8mirror-black' is compared to a concave glass blackened behind47 #8,other kinds are wholly red1 and among them some are d'un rouge l'huile 7yu-li-hung71 and some of a rouge souffl 7chui-hung71 and covered with little points almost like a miniature4 ,when these two varieties are executed with perfect success--and to do this is difficult enough--they are highly esteemed and are very dear4' ,the yu-li-hung1 literally #8red inside the glaze1' may be taken to include the various shades of red derived from copper1 of the grand feu4 ,the rouge souffl is explained below4 ,the word #8miniature' is used1 ,i think1 in the old sense of an illuminated manuscript4 #8,finally there are kinds of porcelain with the landscapes on them painted with a mixture of nearly every colour1 heightened by a brilliant gilding4 ,these are very beautiful1 if no expense is spared4 ,otherwise the ordinary porcelain of this kind is not to be compared with that which is painted with azure alone4 ,the ,annals of ,king-te-chen say that formerly the people used nothing but a white ware4' ,the source of the cobalt blue is now discussed and its mode of preparation4 ,the raw material is thrown into the bed of the furnace and there roasted for twenty-four hours4 ,it is then reduced to an impalpable powder in a mortar of biscuit porcelain4 ,the red is made by roasting copperas to a high temperature in a crucible4 ,the white that is used as an enamel in decorating porcelain is prepared from #8un caillou transparent1' which is also roasted on the floor of the furnace4#gi ,this caillou is mixed with two parts of white lead1 and this mixture forms a flux--the basis for the colours4 ,there then follows some account of the other colours used1 but here it is difficult to follow the good father4 ,he makes some strange statements1 which are not all of them cleared up in his supplementary letter of #agbb4 ,there are indeed so many amplifications and corrections in the latter that it will be well to combine in our summary the gleanings from the two sources4 ,this second letter is dated from ,king-te-chen after an interval of ten years1 and shows a greater acquaintance with practical details4 ,passing over the account of the flamb and of some other glazes--to avoid repetition we will defer our remarks till we come to speak of these wares in the next chapter--we hear in the second letter of a valuable material lately discovered which may take the place of kaolin in the composition of the paste4 ,this is described as a chalky-looking body which is largely used by ,chinese doctors as a medicine and is called ,hua-shi4 ,we will here interrupt the ,pre ,d',entrecolles's account to mention that the hua-shi is strictly speaking soapstone or steatite1 a silicate of magnesia4 ,but whether magnesia ever enters into the paste or glaze of ,chinese porcelain is as yet a disputed question4#hj ,as far as ,i know1 it has never been found by analysis4 ,the ,chinese nomenclature of rocks is necessarily based on their physical aspect alone4 ,some specimens sent from ,king-te-chen1 which were described on the labels as hua-shi1 were found at ,svres to consist of an impure kaolin containing a large quantity of mica4 ,to return to the father's letters3--,in ,china this hua-shi is five times as dear as kaolin4 ,four parts of it are mixed with one part of petuntse to make the paste4 ,the porcelain made with this material is rare1 and much more expensive than any other4 ,compared to ordinary porcelain1 it is as vellum compared with paper2 it is1 besides1 of a lightness that is quite surprising4 ,it is1 however1 very fragile1 and there are great difficulties connected with the firing4 ,for this reason it is sometimes only applied as a coating to the surface of ordinary paste4 ,the hua-shi is also used to form an ivory-white slip1 with which designs are delicately painted on the surface of the vessel4 7,we may probably identify this hua-shi ware with the sha t'ai or #8soft paste1' so called1 of ,western collectors47 ,what we are told by the ,jesuit father about the revival of the manufacture of celadon is of great interest4 #8,i was shown this year1' he says1 #8for the first time1 a new kind of porcelain which is now in fashion4 ,it is of a colour approaching olive1 and is called ,lung-chuan4' ,the colour of the glaze is given by the same yellow earth that is used for the or bruni glaze1 and it is often highly crackled4 ,with this statement we may compare the account which he gives in another part of his second letter of the revival of the manufacture of archaic wares4 #8,the ,mandarin of ,king-te-chen1 who honoured me with his friendship1 made presents to his protectors at the court of pieces of old porcelain sic which he has the talent to make himself4 ,i mean that he has found the art of imitating the ancient ware1 or at least that of a considerable age1 and he employs a number of workmen with this object4 ,the material of these false antiques 7,chinese ,ku-tung7 is a yellowish earth brought from the ,ma-an mountains4 ,they are very thick--a plate which the ,mandarin gave me was ten times the usual weight4 ,the peculiarity of this ware is the glaze made from a yellowish rock1 which becomes sea-green on firing4' ,this change of colour1 of course1 was the result of a reducing flame1 but note the keen observation of the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,japanese1 ,,imari ,,ware1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,with ,,gold narrator4 #8,when completed the pieces are boiled in a very greasy soup1 and then left for a month or more in the most foul drain that can be found4 ,after this process they may claim to be three or four hundred years old1 and to date from the dynasty preceding the ,ming4 ,they resemble the real antiques in not giving a ringing note when struck4444 ,they have brought me from the dbris of a large shop a little plate which ,i value more than the finest porcelain made a thousand years ago4 ,on it is painted a crucifix between the ,holy ,virgin and ,st4 ,john4 ,such pieces were made formerly for ,japan1 but they have not been in demand for the last sixteen or seventeen years4' ,these plates1 he thinks1 were smuggled into that country mixed with other goods1 for the use of the native ,christians4 7,cf4 the ,japanese dish1 ,,pl4 ,,xiv47 ,the account given by the ,pre ,d',entrecolles of the firing of porcelain is so detailed and accurate that it forms an interesting commentary on what we have said in a former chapter on this subject4#ha ,we have first a description of the man who carries the unbaked ware to the furnace1 ranged on two long narrow planks4 ,balancing these on his shoulders1 he threads his way through the narrow streets1 for the furnaces1 as we have seen1 may often be a long way from the factory4 ,he goes on to say1 #8the place where the furnaces are presents another scene4 ,in a kind of vestibule in front of the kilns are seen heaps of clay boxes destined to contain the porcelain4' ,these1 of course1 are the #8seggars' already described4 ,each piece of porcelain of any size has its own case4 ,the smaller pieces are packed many together in one seggar4 ,on the bottom of each of these cases is a layer of sand covered with a little powdered kaolin4 ,each seggar forms the cover to the one below it1 and so the whole furnace is filled with these great piles of cases each packed with porcelain4 #8,by favour of this thick veil the beauty1 and if ,i may so express myself1 the complexion of the porcelain is not tanned by the ardour of the fire4' ,the workman1 without touching the fragile raw pieces1 rapidly transfers them to the furnace by means of a flexible wooden fork4 ,there are six inches of coarse gravel in the bottom of the furnace1 and on this rest the piles of seggars4 ,the middle range is at least seven feet high1 the two lowest seggars in each pile being left empty1 as is also the one on the top4 ,the middle of the furnace is reserved for the finest porcelain1 while near the front are the pieces made with a more fusible paste4 ,the piles of seggars are strengthened by being battened together with clay1 but it is the first duty of the fireman to see that there is a free passage of air4 ,the seggars are made in a large village a league from ,king-te-chen1 with a mixture of three kinds of clay4 ,the furnaces1 he tells us1 which are now of larger dimensions than formerly1 are built over a capacious arched vault1 and the hearth or fireplace extends across the whole width of the front of the furnace4 ,it would seem that the process of firing is carried on more rapidly than in former days1 and to economise fuel and time the smaller pieces at any rate are taken out a few hours after the extinction of the fire4 ,sometimes on opening the furnace the whole contents1 both seggars and porcelain1 are found to be reduced to a half-melted mass as hard as a rock4 ,a change in the weather may alter in a moment the action of the fire1 so that a hundred workmen are ruined to one who succeeds and is able to set up a crockery shop4 ,the ware made in ,european style finds no favour with the ,chinese1 and if not accepted by the export merchants remains on the maker's hands4 ,we are told of the marvellous tours de force executed in porcelain1 some years ago1 for the heir-apparent1 especially of certain open-work lanterns#hb and strange musical instruments4 ,we see from this at how early a date the future emperor 7,yung-cheng7 showed an interest in porcelain4 ,the ,chinese1 it is said1 succeed above all in grotesques and in figures of animals2 the workmen make ducks and tortoises that float on the water4 ,they make1 too1 many statues of ,kwan-yin1--she is represented holding a child in her arms1 and in this form is invoked by sterile women who wish for children4 ,the mandarins1 he continues1 who appreciate the talents of ,europeans for ingenious novelties1 have sometimes asked me to procure for them from ,europe new and curious designs1 so that they may have something singular to present to the emperor4#hc ,on the other hand1 the ,christian workmen strongly urged me to do no such thing4 ,for the mandarins do not yield so easily as our merchants when told that a proposed work is impracticable4 ,many are the bastinados given to the men before the official will abandon the design from which he hoped so much profit4 #8,what becomes of the vast accumulation of potsherds1 both from the seggars and from the firings8' the writer finally asks4 ,mixed with lime1 they are largely used to form a cement with which the walls of gardens and roads are constructed4 ,they also help to build up the new ground which is reclaimed from the banks of the river4 ,carried down thence by the floods1 they form a glittering pavement for many miles below the town4 ,in the detailed account of ,king-te-chen given by the ,jesuit father1 we find no mention of the imperial manufactory4 ,are we to understand that he found no admittance to these workshops8 ,his acquaintance with the higher mandarins makes this unlikely4 ,nor can we think that these works were closed during the long period of his stay in this district4 ,another omission that has been pointed out is1 ,i think1 more easy of explanation4 ,the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 while giving in great detail the method of preparation of the various colours used in the enamels and glazes1 does not say a word about the famous crimson derived from gold1 so largely used in the famille rose decoration4 ,i cannot but think that this omission is an almost conclusive proof that the rouge d'or was not known at that time4#hd ,the ignorance of the ,chinese of chemical processes is dwelt upon1 and it is especially mentioned that they are acquainted with neither aqua fortis nor aqua regia4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,china--7continued74 ,forms and ,uses--,description of the various ,wares4 ,we have now given a summary sketch of the history and development of the porcelain of ,china1 and have seen something of the processes of manufacture and decoration4 ,incidentally some account has been given of the principal wares4 ,we now propose to take up the subject from the side of the paste1 the glaze1 and the decoration1 putting aside the question of age and of historical sequence1 and to run through the various classes into which we can divide our material under these heads4 ,we shall follow as far as possible the arrangement adopted in the ,british ,museum1 passing from the simpler forms of decoration to the more complex4 ,first1 however1 let us say a few words on the forms given to porcelain by the ,chinese1 and the uses these objects are put to in the country of their origin4#he ,in a first glance at any large collection of ,chinese porcelain the bulk of the objects shown appear to fall into four classes3 plates and dishes1 bowls1 vases for flowers1 and covered jars4#hf ,but a closer examination discloses an endless variety of other uses to which porcelain has been applied by the ,chinese4 ,the figures of the gods and the vessels associated with their worship found in the temples and household shrines form by themselves a large division4 ,here the use of porcelain has from a very early period been encouraged at the expense of bronze and other metals4 ,the ritual vessels used in the imperial worship at ,pekin have for ages been made of porcelain4 ,many of them1 as the jars for sacrificial wine1 in the form of elephants and rhinoceroses1 are copied from the most archaic bronze types2 of the same origin is the small libation cup of peculiar shape sometimes seen in our collections4 ,the ,wu-kung1 or five vessels that stand in front of a ,buddhist shrine1 the incense-burner in the centre1 with a candlestick and a vase on either side1 are often in ,china made of porcelain4 ,in ,japan these objects are always of metal4 ,a similar set is found in the ,taoist temples4 ,the colour of the vessels in ritual use at ,pekin varies with the temple in which they are found4 ,those of the ancestral temple of the emperors are of imperial yellow2 those of the altar of heaven of a deep blue 7a set of five of this colour1 recently brought from ,pekin1 may be seen at ,south ,kensington74 ,a red glazed ware is connected with the altar of the sun1 and white with that of the planet ,jupiter4 ,the objects used in the burning of perfume1 the basis doubtless of the highly elaborated apparatus of the ,japanese1 are usually made of porcelain3 these are the incense-burner1 the boxes for the perfumes1 and the little vase to hold the fire-sticks and the tongs4 ,from these we may pass to the various objects found on the table of the cultured classes1 most of them connected with literary pursuits4 ,this is an important division in ,chinese collections1 as we may judge from the often-quoted manuscript catalogue of ,dr4 ,bushell4 ,the slabs1 the water-drippers1 and a dozen other small objects are modelled in a variety of forms4 ,the pen-rest is generally in the shape of a small range of mountains1 the highest in the centre 7this1 by the way1 is the ancient form of the ,chinese character for #8mountain1' cf4 ,,pl4 ,,viii474 ,one of the strangest uses to which porcelain is put by the ,chinese is the hat-stand in the form of a hollow sphere supported on a tall1 tubular column--the sphere may be filled with either fine charcoal embers or with ice1 according to the season4 ,pillows1 too1 are made of porcelain--there is one of the famille verte in the ,salting collection--but the native collector is warned against those of a certain size and shape1 as they may have been stolen from tombs4 ,tall vases to contain arrows1 either cylindrical or square in section1 are especially connected with the ,manchus4 ,these large vessels may generally be known by their porcelain stands often surrounded by railings4 ,the vases and bowls are of all sizes and shapes4 ,the biggest ovoid vases with dome-shaped covers may stand in the hall on carved stands2 indeed1 they are found in similar positions in many of the palaces of ,india1 ,persia1 and ,europe4 ,the flower vases form an important group1 and as in ,japan1 there is quite a library of illustrated work devoted to them4 ,both the shape and the decoration of the vase are dependent upon the flowers it is destined to hold1 and the arrangement and combination of these flowers is regulated by rival schools of specialists4 ,the combination of five pieces to form a garniture de chemine is not altogether a ,european idea4 ,the ,chinese have a similar combination--the ,wu-sh1 or set of five2 but with them an uncovered vase is preferred for the central piece4 ,for the service of the dinner-table there are many forms3 among the cups1 plates1 and dishes of all shapes and sizes we may select for mention the dishes with covers indicating by their shapes the contents--fish1 birds1 or fruit4 ,with these we may compare the similar forms made at one time at ,chelsea and elsewhere4 ,there are1 again1 the compound dishes in the form of flowers1 each petal forming a compartment4 ,finally1 we must not forget the tall1 cylindrical mugs with crown-like tops1 used for cooling drinks in summer1 or among the ,mongols for their koumis4 ,there are also certain forms made chiefly1 but not exclusively1 for the ,mohammedan west4 ,of these1 we may mention the bases for the hookah1 recognisable by the small1 straight spouts at the side to which the flexible smoking-tube is attached2 the scent-sprinklers with tall1 narrow necks2 and the hand-spittoons with globular body and wide-spreading orifice1--these last1 by the way1 are used in ,china also4 ,it is not known to what date we can refer the oldest of the little medicine-flasks 7,chinese yao-ping7 which have in later times been used as snuff-bottles4 ,they seem to have been carried westward in large numbers by the ,arab traders1 and that from an early date4 ,in shape and size they have varied little4#hg ,those found so abundantly in ,egypt are generally very small1 and are often shaped in imitation of a flattened vase with a square foot3 some of them are of a rough-looking celadon1 others are covered with a green enamel with white reserves4 ,these are the little bottles that found themselves suddenly so famous towards the beginning of the last century1 when they were extracted by the ,arabs from ,egyptian tombs of early dynasties4 ,somewhat later they encountered some rivals in the small seals of white ,chinese porcelain which were discovered in the ,irish bogs6 ,we can only mention in passing a few of the innumerable subsidiary uses which porcelain is made to serve in ,china1 taking the place of so many other materials1 above all of metal3--fittings for furniture1 especially for the bedstead1 frames for the abacus1 or calculating-table1 knobs for walking-sticks and hanging scrolls1 boxes of various shapes and sizes for cosmetics1 buttons1 bracelets1 and hair-ornaments4 ,finally1 the very fragments1 what we should call pot-sherds1 of the oldest wares1 especially when fine in colour1 may be found mounted in gold or silver and worn as personal ornaments4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we started our sketch of ,chinese porcelain with a rough historical division into three classes4 ,we are now concerned only with questions of glazes and decoration1 and we shall find that the apparently innumerable varieties of ,chinese porcelain fall1 with few exceptions1 under one or other of the following heads3-- #a4 ,white1 or nearly white1 ware1 which may be glazed or unglazed4 #b4 ,single-glaze wares1 either true monochromes or1 if of more than one colour1 the variety of colour arising from changes brought about in the single glaze during the firing4 #c4 ,porcelain decorated under the glaze4 ,chiefly blue1 less often blue combined with red1 or red alone4 #d4 ,the decoration given by painting with glazes of more than one colour1 probably always on the biscuit4 ,we may call this the class of polychrome glazes4 #e4 ,the decoration painted over the glaze with enamels more fusible than the glaze on which they rest4 ,,plain ,,white ,,ware4--,the white ware made at ,ting-chou1 a town in the province of ,chihli1 to the south-west of ,pekin1 as early as ,sung times1 served as a type for all the many kinds of similar ware made in later days at ,king-te-chen4 ,we have seen 7p4 #fh7 that there was a variety1 of the earlier ware1 of creamy tint covered with a soft glaze containing lead2 this is the ,tu-ting1 of which there are several specimens in the ,british ,museum4 ,it was1 however1 the pure white variety1 the ,feng-ting1 that was afterwards copied4 ,the colour of this ware1 when not a pure white1 tends to blue and greenish tints1 and it is often finely crackled4 ,this ware1 especially the thin1 translucent1 egg-shell variety of the time of ,yung-lo 7#adjb-be71 is much sought after by ,chinese collectors4 ,but the greater part of the plain white ,chinese porcelain in ,european collections was not made either at ,ting-chou or at ,king-te-chen4 ,it is rather to be traced to the only other important centre for the manufacture of porcelain that survives in ,china4 ,this is the district of ,te-hua 7,tek-kwa in the local dialect71 in the province of ,fukien4 ,this province had been famed in ,sung times for its tea-bowls covered with a dark glaze1 and we must remember that somewhere along its rocky1 indented coast was situated the port of ,zaitun1 so famous in early days for its ,arab trade4 ,in later times the roadstead of ,amoy came to rival ,canton as a port of call for our ships2 it is mentioned in this connection by the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 and from it most of the blanc de ,chine which at that time reached ,europe was probably exported4 ,for it was this ,fukien ware rather than the white ,ting porcelain that was imported into ,europe from the latter half of the seventeenth century1 to be copied in the earlier days of ,saint-,cloud and ,bow4 ,in ,spain it was a great favourite from perhaps an earlier date1 and when the ,buen ,retiro works were started this ware was taken as a model4 ,this white ware does not seem to have been made at ,te-hua before the ,ming period1 but it soon established itself as the pai-tsu--the white ware par excellence of ,china4 ,it is distinguished by the creamy white of its paste and glaze--that is to say1 the colour tends ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 #a--;,,chinese1 ,,plain ,,white ,,ware #b--;,,chinese1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware towards a warm1 yellowish tint rather than towards the cold1 pure white or bluish tone of most of the ,king-te-chen and still more of the ,japanese wares4 ,the satiny glaze appears to melt into the subjacent ground in a way that reminds us of some of the ,european soft paste porcelains4 ,it is the moulded ware that is most characteristic of the #8,kien yao#8--vases with dragons in full relief creeping round the neck1 incense-burners in many complicated forms1 figures of ,kwan-yin 7whom we should not call the #8,goddess of ,mercy#87 in many incarnations2 or again1 ,ta-mo 7so well known in ,japan as ,daruma71 the ,bodhi-dharma who brought the faith to ,china1 with overhanging brows and abstracted1 solemn gaze4 ,among animals1 the favourite is the lion1 the so-called #8dog of ,fo1' sporting with an open-work ball4 ,many of these figures are very ably executed2 they stand firm and erect2 and the draperies1 though here the mannerisms of the #8calligraphic' school of painting may be recognised1 fall in simple folds from the shoulders4 ,the prevalence of ,buddhist types 7for the ,taoist divinities are here less frequently represented7 may be connected with the exceptional predominance of that religion in ,fukien1 a province somewhat remote from the rest of ,china1 whose inhabitants speak a dialect very different from the standard ,chinese4 ,some very creditable work seems to be still turned out from the ,te-kua district1 to judge by the ware that finds its way to the shops of ,fuchow4 ,some enamelled ware appears to have been at one time made in this district4 ,in the ,british ,museum are some small pieces decorated with five colours 7among them a blue enamel over the glaze71 which on the ground of the nature of the glaze and the paste have been classed as ,fukien ware2 while from the style of the decoration they would appear to date from the early eighteenth century4 ,much white porcelain1 both the ,feng-ting and the ,fukien1 was imported into ,europe from the end of the seventeenth century1 and it forms an important element in old collections4 ,some of this white ware1 at a later time1 was decorated with colours in ,england and elsewhere1 giving rise to a class of porcelain that has caused some confusion to collectors4 ,in ,china1 white porcelain is used in time of mourning1 at least that is the case with that supplied to the imperial court4 ,unglazed porcelain is comparatively rare in ,china1 but figures of gods or of animals are sometimes found in biscuit1 and the little boxes in which crickets are kept for fighting are generally of unglazed ware4 ,again1 where1 as in the class of polychrome glazes1 the glaze is applied with a brush1 some part may be left unglazed2 and this practice has survived in the case of the lions and kilins of the famille verte1 where we often find the biscuit exposed in parts of the face4 ,,celadon ,,ware4--,as the white ware of ,king-te-chen--the ,ting--has got its name from the town of ,ting-chou where it was first made1 so the many varieties of celadon#hh porcelain are connected in the ,chinese mind with the town of ,lung-chuan1 near the southern boundary of the province of ,chekiang4 ,we have already given some space to this ware1 so important from the cultur-historisch point of view1 and we shall have to return to it again when we come to investigate the routes by which the porcelain of ,china passed in the ,middle ,ages to other countries4 ,here we will merely call attention to the later revival of the celadon glazes mentioned in a passage we have quoted from the letters of the ,jesuit father4 ,but the highly finished porcelain1 with a fine white paste covered with a pale greyish-green glaze of uniform thickness and shade1 differs much from the old vases with #8red mouth and foot4' ,there is a remarkably fine specimen in the ,wallace collection at ,hertford ,house with chased metal mountings of the time of ,louis ,,xv41 and other pieces similarly mounted in the ,jones collection4 ,,crackle ,,ware4--,it would only create confusion to make a special class for the many kinds of ware covered with a crackled glaze4 ,it will be remembered that we first came across glazes of this kind when describing the ,ko yao1 the #8ware of the ,elder ,brother1' and a large class of porcelain with white to yellowish grey glaze1 always more or less crackled1 is still commonly known as ,ko yao in ,china1 so that #8,crackle ware' and #8,ko yao' are in a measure equivalent terms4 ,such crackling may vary from a division of the surface into large fissures several inches in length1 to the finest reticulation of minute lines hardly visible without a glass4 ,the first the ,chinese compare to the cracks of ice1 and ,i think that it is to a variety of crackle with long spindle-shaped divisions that they give the name of #8crabs claw4' ,the finer crackle they know as #8fish-roe#8--this is the truit of the ,french4 ,certain glazes1 as the turquoise and the purple of the demi grand feu1 are always finely crackled4 ,in other cases the crackling1 which is caused1 as we have already said 7p4 #cb71 by the glaze after solidification contracting more than the subjacent paste1 may be produced or modified at the will of the potter by adding various substances to the glaze4 ,a rock that has been identified with steatite has been often mentioned in this connection1 and the increase in the shrinkage of the glaze attributed to the magnesia contained in it4 ,probably1 however1 a change in the proportion of the silica to the alumina may be enough to bring about a crackled glaze4 ,the following extract from the letters of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles throws some light on this point4 ,he tells us that when the glaze is made of cailloux blancs 7probably little else than felspar71 without other mixture1 we obtain the porcelain called ,sui-ki1 or #8shattered ware' 7this is the general ,chinese term for crackle71 #8marbled all over with an infinity of veins so as to look like a piece of broken porcelain with the pieces remaining in their places4' ,the glaze1 we are told1 is of a cindery white4 ,we have here a description of the ,ko yao1 which1 however1 seems to have been little known in ,europe at that time4 ,to this class belong the vases with yellowish grey ground and crackles of medium size4 ,they are often provided with mask handles and detached rings4 ,these handles and rings1 as well as some broad bands round the neck1 are covered1 in imitation of bronze1 with a dark1 roughened glaze4 ,another variety of this ,ko yao is decorated with scattered patches of white slip1 laid on apparently over the crackled glazed surface4 ,on this slip is painted the design in cobalt blue under what is apparently a second glaze4 ,a frequent motif on this ware is found in a series of horses in the strangest of positions4 ,these probably represent the eight famous steeds of the old emperor ,mu-wang4 ,both these classes of ,ko yao are in great favour in ,china and ,japan as flower vases4 ,the shapes and decorations are more or less reminiscent of the old bronzes4 ,it would seem that ware of this kind is still manufactured at ,king-te-chen and perhaps somewhere in the north of ,china also4 ,the brown glazes form a very distinct class4 ,the well-known colour has many names3 in ,french fond laque2 in ,chinese tzu-kin1 or #8burnished gold4' ,it is also known as #8dead leaf1' but the average tint is perhaps best described as caf au lait4 ,the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 in mentioning the tzu-kin1 the colour of which he says is given by a #8common yellow earth1' states that it was a recent invention in his time4 ,he is perhaps referring to some special tint1 for the colour was well known in ,ming days4 ,we have already spoken of the possible relation of this colour to the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,chinese1 ,,white ,,slip ,,on ,,brown ,,ground copper lustre of the fourteenth century ,persian fayence4 ,at a later time in the seventeenth century it was a favourite colour with the ,persians1 especially when decorated with delicate designs of flowers and ferns in a thin white slip 7,,pl4 ,,xvi474 ,it was largely exported at that time from ,china and cleverly imitated in the fayence and frit-pastes of ,persia4 ,both the original ,chinese ware and the ,persian imitation are well represented at ,south ,kensington by specimens brought from the latter country4 ,this brown glaze is seldom found alone4 ,it is a colour that stands well the full heat of the furnace1 and it may be combined with a blue and white decoration or with bands of celadon4 ,it forms the ground-colour of the so-called ,batavian ware1 and at one time a brown ring was by our ancestors held to be essential on the rim of a fine plate or bowl of blue and white porcelain4 ,,turquoise ,,and ,,purple ,,glazes4--,as for the twin colours of the demi grand feu 7the yellow in this group is quite subordinate71 the so-called turquoise 7including the peacock green and kingfisher blue of the ,chinese7 and the aubergine purple1 the latter is seldom found alone4 ,both colours are distinguished by a very fine-grained crackle4 ,of the blue1 when used as a single-glaze colour1 we have spoken when describing the glazes of the demi grand feu4 ,,yellow ,,monochrome ,,glazes4--,there are many shades of yellow found on ,chinese porcelain3 the imperial yellow of full yolk-of-egg tint1 the lemon yellow1 the greenish #8eel-skin1' and the #8boiled chestnut4' ,only the first1 the imperial yellow1 is of importance as a monochrome glaze4 ,this is the colour first used in the time of the ,ming emperor ,hung-chi 7#adhg-aeje71 and his name is sometimes found on bowls and plates ranging in colour from a bright mustard to a boiled chestnut tint4 ,there are some good specimens in the ,british ,museum1 and a curious piece1 with a ,persian inscription1 at ,south ,kensington1 has already been mentioned when speaking of the reign of ,hung-chi4 ,,cobalt ,,blue ,,monochrome ,,glazes4--,we may distinguish three varieties of blue derived from cobalt1 but the full sapphire of the blue and white ware is not found as a monochrome glaze3-- #a4 ,the ,clair de lune4 ,the term yueh-pai1 or moon-white1 was applied to more than one class of ,sung porcelain1 but above all to the ,ju yao4 ,in later times1 when these primitive wares were copied1 the colour was given by a minute quantity of cobalt1 but it is very doubtful whether that pigment was known in early ,sung days4 ,the clair de lune glazes of ,nien were considered second in merit only to the copper reds of that great viceroy4 ,the uncrackled glazes of this class are often classed as celadon4 #b4 ,the ,mazarin blue1 known also as bleu fouett or powder-blue4#hi ,this glaze is blown on to the surface of the raw paste1 in the manner described on page #cj4 ,it sometimes covers the whole surface1 and is then generally decorated with floral designs in gold1 but more often it forms the ground for vases and plates with large white reserves on which designs in enamel colours are painted4 #c4 ,the ,gros ,bleu1 in the form of large plates and vases1 was a great favourite with the ,arabs and other ,mohammedan races4 ,this ware1 too1 was often covered with a decoration of gold4 ,there is a magnificent plate of this class in the ,british ,museum1 and at ,south ,kensington1 in the ,india ,museum1 a tall1 dark-blue vase which we have already mentioned4 ,from ,persia come many specimens of this deep blue ware1 of a greyish or even slaty tint1 decorated1 like the fond laque1 with flowers in a white slip4 ,,black ,,glazes4--,very near to this last class of blue glazes we may place the #8metallic black1' the wu-chin of the ,chinese4 ,according to the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 this mirror-black is prepared by mixing with a glaze containing much lime and some of the same ochry earth that gives the colour to the brown glazes1 a sufficient quantity of cobalt of poor quality4 ,in this case no second glaze is required1 and the vessel is fired in the demi grand feu1 i4e4 in the front of the furnace4 ,other blacks are painted on and covered with a second glaze4 ,the large spherical vases with tall tubular necks show little trace generally of the gold with which the black glaze was originally decorated4 ,,green ,,glazes4--,the peculiar tint of green1 in varied intensity1 that distinguishes the famille verte is seldom found as a single glaze2 and of the green ,lang yao1 made by ,lang ,ting-tso in the early part of the reign of ,kang-he1 it is doubtful whether we have any representatives in our ,european collections4 ,this glaze is said to be somewhat in the style of his more famous sang de buf4 ,the brilliant cucumber or apple-green of ,ming times is shown in a pair of exquisite little bowls in the ,british ,museum4 ,over the green glaze there is a scroll pattern of gold1 and on the inside a blue decoration under the glaze4 ,almost identical with these is the bowl set in a silver-gilt mounting of ,english make dating from about the year #aedj1 now preserved in the ,gold ,room 7,,pl4 ,v474 ,of a similar but somewhat deeper tint of green are the rare crackle vases1 generally of small size1 of which there are specimens in the ,british ,museum and in the ,salting collection4#ij ,,olive ,,and ,,bronze ,,glazes4--,the monochrome glazes of various shades of olive and bronze are for the most part produced by a souffl process1 in which on a base of one colour a second colour is sprinkled4 ,thus to form the #8tea-dust' a green glaze is blown over a reddish ground derived from iron4 ,the wonderful bronze glazes1 of which there are good specimens in the ,british ,museum and in the ,salting collection1 are produced in a similar way4 ,but some of these 7and the same may be said of the #8iron rusts#87 partake rather of the nature of the more elaborated glazes of the flamb class4 ,,red ,,and ,,flamb ,,glazes 7,,pl4 ,,xvii474--,we have left the red glazes to the last1 both from the complicated nature of the class and because one variety1 the sang de buf1 forms a transition to the #8splashed' or flamb division4 ,a red glaze or enamel1 we have seen1 can be produced from three metals1--from gold1 from copper1 and from iron4 ,with the ,rose d'or1 which may be classed as a monochrome enamel1 when used to cover the backs of plates and bowls1 we are not concerned here--it is not properly a glaze in our sense of the word4 ,the red derived from the sesqui-oxide of iron was only successfully applied as a monochrome when1 at a late period1 the difficulties attending its use were overcome by combining the pigment with an alkaline flux4 ,this is the ,mo-hung or #8painted red' of the muffle-stove1 which was painted over the already glazed ware1 and therefore not properly itself a glaze4 ,in fine specimens it approaches to a vermilion colour2 it is the jujube red of the ,chinese4 ,it is with this colour1 laid upon the elaborately modelled paste1 that the carved cinnabar lacquer is so wonderfully imitated4#ia ,but it is the red derived from copper that presents the most points of interest4 ,indeed we now enter upon a series of glazes1 beginning with the pure deep red of ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,,chinese the sang de buf1 and then passing over the line to the long series of variegated or #8transmutation#8#ib glazes that have more than any others fascinated the modern amateurs of ceramic problems4 ,we have already seen how these magic effects are produced by carefully modulating the passage of the oxidising currents through an otherwise smoky and reducing atmosphere in the furnace 7p4 #db74 ,the typical sang de buf1 or the #8red of the sacrifice1' as the ,chinese call it1 was that made under the rgime of ,lang ,ting-tso a forerunner of the three great directors of the imperial manufactory at ,king-te-chen1 and in later times it was always the aim of the potter to imitate his work--the ,lang yao--even in trifling details4 ,according to the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 to obtain this red the ,chinese made use of a finely granulated copper which they obtained from the silver refiners1 and which therefore probably contained silver4 ,some other very remarkable substances1 he tells us1 entered into the composition1 but of these it is the less necessary to speak1 as he confesses that great secrecy was maintained on the subject4 ,in looking carefully into a glaze of this kind1 the deep colouring-matter is seen suspended in a more or less greenish or yellowish transparent matrix1 in the form of streaks and clots of a nearly opaque material4#ic ,the hue1 in general effect1 varies from a deep blood-red to various shades of orange and brown1 but intimately mixed with the red1 certain bluish streaks are sometimes to be seen in one part or another of the surface4 ,the colours should stop evenly at the rim and at the base1 which parts1 if this is achieved1 are covered with a transparent glaze of pale greenish or yellowish tint4 ,we have already seen that much depends upon the period of the firing at which the glaze becomes liquid or soft1 and upon the exact degree of fluidity attained by it4 ,should the oxidising currents be allowed further play at the critical period of the firing1 the blue and greenish stains and splashes will become more predominant1 and we may either pass over to the flamb or #8transmutation' glazes1 or finally the glaze may become almost white and transparent4 ,but we must hark back to the wares of the ,sung period1 to the ,chn yao1 to find the origin of these variegated glazes4 ,these early ,sung glazes were copied in the time of ,yung-cheng1 and if we are to believe the contemporary list1 already quoted1 of the objects copied1 they were of a very complicated nature4 ,in this class of flamb ware we must include also a large part of the so-called ,yuan tsu 7see p4 #gg71 a heavy kaolinic stoneware1 certainly not all dating from the ,yuan or ,mongol period--a ware1 indeed1 still common in the north of ,china4 ,this ware is roughly covered with a glaze of predominant lavender tint1 speckled with red1 and thus approaches to the #8robin's egg' glaze of the ,american collector1 though this latter is found on a finer porcelain of later times4 ,another name which has been used to include many of these variegated glazes is ,yao-pien or #8furnace-transmutation4' ,this last word very well expresses the process by which the colour is developed1 but it must be remembered that this is not exactly the meaning that the word yao-pien conveys to the ,chinese mind4#id ,with this term the happy accidents of the furnace were linked by the ,pre ,d',entrecolles3 he tells us that it was proposed to make a sacrificial red1 but that the vase came from the furnace like a kind of agate4 ,dr4 ,bushell thinks that most of the fine pieces of this ware date from the time of ,yung-cheng and ,kien-lung 7#agbb-agie71 and he is of opinion that they were prepared by a souffl process rather than by any #8academic transformation' of a copper-red glaze4 #8,the piece1' he says1 #8coated with a greyish crackle glaze or with a ferruginous enamel of yellowish-brown tone1 has the transmutation glaze applied at the same time as a kind of overcoat4 ,it is put on with the brush in various ways1 in thick dashes not completely covering the surface of the piece1 or flecked as with the point of the brush in a rain of drops4 ,the piece is finally fired in a reducing atmosphere1 and the air1 let in at the critical moment when the materials are fully fused1 imparts atoms of oxygen to the copper and speckles the red base with points of green and turquoise blue' 7,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 pp4 #eaf-ag74 ,some practical experiments lately made in ,france would tend to show that the critical moment should be placed a little earlier1 before the glaze is completely fused1 for after that point is reached the surrounding atmosphere has little influence upon the metallic oxides in the glaze4 ,it is to this capricious action of the furnace gases that are due those wonderful effects that may be observed in looking into these glazes1 curdled masses of strange shapes and varying colour suspended in a more or less transparent medium1 and assuming at times those textures resembling animal tissues which are graphically described by the ,chinese as pig's liver or mule's lungs4 ,it must be understood that into many of the more modern and apprts specimens of flamb ware the sources of the violent contrasts of colour are found not only in the oxides of copper and iron1 but in those of cobalt and manganese also4 ,but in contrast to #8the stern delights' of these flamboyant wares there is another kind of glaze1 chemically closely allied1 for it is also of transmutation copper origin1 of which the associations are of another kind4 ,this is the peach-bloom1 the #8apple-red and green1' or again the #8kidney-bean' glaze of the ,chinese4 ,although claiming an origin from ,ming times1 this glaze is always associated with the great viceroy ,tsang ,ying-hsuan4 ,the little vases and water-vessels of a pale pinkish red1 more or less mottled and varying in intensity1 are highly prized by ,chinese collectors4 ,,decoration ,,with ,,slip4--,there is a class of ware which might perhaps claim a separate division for itself--,i mean that decorated with an engobe or slip4 ,we have already mentioned the most important cases where this engobe is applied to the surface of single-glazed wares3 these are1 in the first place1 the fond laque 7,,pl4 ,,xvi471 and in a less degree certain blue and even white wares4 ,the slip1 of a cream-like consistency1 is as a rule painted on with a brush over the glaze1 generally1 ,i think1 after a preliminary firing4#ie ,this engobe may then itself be decorated with colours1 as we have seen in the case of the ,ko yao1 and the whole surface probably then covered with a second glaze4#if ,sometimes when the ground itself is nearly white we get an effect like the bianco sopra bianco of ,italian majolica4 ,this carefully prepared and finely ground engobe contains1 in some cases at least1 the same materials as those employed in the preparation of the ,sha-tai or #8sand-bodied' porcelain4 ,,pierced ,,or ,,open-,,work ,,decoration 7,,pl4 ,,xviii4 #a74--,we may here find place for another kind of decoration1 one much admired in ,europe in the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 #a--;,,chinese1 ,,pierced ,,ware1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white #b--;,,chinese1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware ,this is obtained by piercing the paste so as to form an open-work design1 generally some simple diapered or key pattern1 but sometimes flowers or figures of cranes4 ,the little apertures or windows thus formed may be filled in by the glaze 7if this is sufficiently viscous to stretch across them7 in the simple process of dipping4 ,in this case the glaze takes in part the place of the paste1 and indeed in the closely allied #8,gombroon' ware of ,persia it is the thick1 viscous glaze rather than the friable sandy paste that holds the vessel together4 ,it is the plain white ware to which this decoration is generally applied in ,china4 ,there is one class where this pierced work is associated with groups of little figures1 in biscuit1 in high or full relief--as is well illustrated by a series of small cups in the ,salting collection1 some of which bear traces of gilding and colours4 ,the term #8rice-grain' was originally applied to the open-work diapers filled in with glaze4 ,as a whole this kind of work may be referred to the later part of the reign of ,kien-lung1 and especially to that of his successor1 ,kia-king 7#agie-ahbj71 so that it is not unlikely that the ,persian frit-ware1 some of which is of earlier date1 may have served as a model4 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware4--,this is1 on the whole1 the most important as well as the best defined class of ,chinese porcelain4 ,the ,chinese name1 ,ching hua pai ti 7literally #8blue flowers white ground#871 defines its nature well enough4 ,we have no information as to the origin and development of blue and white porcelain in ,china1 nor indeed do ,i know of any collection where an attempt has been made to classify the vast material4 ,we must here content ourselves with a few notes which at best may indicate the ground on which such a classification should be made4 ,we have seen 7p4 #ge7 that there is at least some presumptive evidence that the ,chinese may have derived their knowledge of the use of cobalt 7as a material to decorate the ground of their porcelain7 from ,western ,asia1 at a time when both ,china and ,persia were governed by one family of ,mongol khans4 ,for we know now that in ,syria or in ,persia1 in the twelfth or early in the thirteenth century1 a rough but artistic ware was painted with a hasty decoration of cobalt blue and covered with a thick alkaline glaze2 while in ,china1 at that time1 we have no evidence for the existence of any porcelain other than monochrome4 ,it is possible that the earliest ,chinese type of the under-glaze blue may be found in certain thick brownish crackle ware1 decorated under the glaze1 in blue1 with a few strokes of the brush4 ,plates and dishes of this kind have been found in ,borneo1 associated with early types of celadon4#ig ,a similar ware1 not necessarily of great antiquity1 is often found in common use in the north of ,china and1 ,i think1 in ,korea1 and with it we may perhaps associate the greyish-yellow ,ko yao decorated with patches of blue and white slip4 ,it is very likely that there would be a strong opposition on the part of the ,chinese literati to such a novel and exotic mode of decoration1 but that such opposition would be less felt in the case of ware made for exportation1 or it may be for use among the less conservative ,mongols4 ,we have an instance of a similar feeling in the protest that we know was made some two or three hundred years later against the application of coloured enamels to the surface of porcelain4 ,of the thousands of specimens of blue and white porcelain in our collections there is probably no single piece for which we can claim a date earlier than the fifteenth century4 ,we can1 however1 distinguish two ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,,chinese ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware types among the examples1 which for the reasons given on page #hc we may safely assign to the ,ming period4 ,the first is distinguished by a pure but pale blue1 and the design 7generally somewhat sparingly applied7 is carefully drawn with a fine brush4 ,this1 it would seem1 was the ware imitated by the ,japanese at the princely kilns of ,mikawaji4 ,the other type is distinguished by the depth and brilliancy of its colour1 the true sapphire tint1 differing from the later blue of the eighteenth century1 in which there is always a purplish tendency4 ,there are some good specimens of this type in the ,british ,museum1 but we will take as our standard a jar at ,south ,kensington about twelve inches in height 7,,pl4 ,,xix474 ,the remarkable thickness of the paste in this vase shown in the neck1 which has at some time been cut down1 the marks of the junction of the moulded pieces of which it was built up1 the slight patina developed in the surface of the glaze1 are all signs that point to an early origin4 ,but what is above all noticeable is the jewel-like brilliancy of the blue pigment with which the decoration--a design of kilin sporting under pine-trees--is painted4 ,when we come to the reign of ,wan-li 7#aegb-afai71 to which time we may assign the beginning of the direct exportation to ,europe of ,chinese porcelain1 a period of decline has already set in4 ,the rare pieces of blue and white so prized in ,elizabethan and early ,stuart days are in no way remarkable either in their execution or in their decoration4 ,we come now to an important class of blue and white ware which looms out large in many collections4 ,i mean the big plates and jars with roughly executed designs often showing a ,persian influence4 ,the blue is never pure--indeed it is often little better than a slaty grey1 and sometimes almost black4 ,most of what the dealers now know as #8,ming porcelain' may be included in this class4 ,to understand the source of this porcelain we must refer the reader to what we shall have to say in ,chapter ,,xiii4 about the trade of ,china with ,persia in the time of ,shah ,abbas and with the north of ,india1 during the reigns of the great ,mogul rulers of the seventeenth century4 ,the increasing demand from these countries coincided with a period of decline in ,china1 for the period between the death of ,wan-li in #afbj and the revival of the manufacture at ,king-te-chen towards the end of that century1 is almost a blank in the history of ,chinese porcelain4 ,but the export trade that had sprung up at the end of the sixteenth century was actively carried on in spite of the political troubles1 and at no other time was the nature of the ware produced so largely influenced by the foreign demand4 ,but this demand was at first chiefly for the ,mohammedan ,east1 and what reached ,europe was mostly the result of re-exportation from ,india and from the ,persian ,gulf4#ih ,this picturesque and decorative ware is well represented at ,south ,kensington by specimens obtained in ,persia1 and many fine pieces have lately been brought from ,india4 ,of this class of blue and white ware we have already spoken in a former chapter 7see p4 #hd74 ,in ,egypt1 again1 blue and white porcelain was greatly appreciated both for decorative purposes and for common use4 ,large plates and dishes painted with a scale-like pattern1 formed of petals of flowers1 are still to be found in the old ,arab houses of ,cairo4 ,already by the beginning of the seventeenth century plates and bowls of the ,sinico-,persian type must have reached ,holland in large quantities1 and we find them frequently introduced into their pictures by the still-life painters of the time4 ,i will only give two examples3 7#a7 ,a large still-life at ,dresden by ,frans ,snyders 7#aegi-afeg71 where as many as eight plates and bowls1 mostly roughly decorated with a greyish cobalt sous couverte1 are introduced2 7#b7 a small picture in the ,louvre by ,william ,kalff 7#afba-afic74 ,here we see a large #8ginger-jar' with deep blue ground and white reserves4 ,the porcelain introduced by the ,dutch painters is without exception of the blue and white class1 and in the earlier works the slaty blue tints are the most common4 ,but ,european influence must now and then have made itself felt in ,china before this time1 to judge by some large jars at ,dresden decorated with arabesques of unmistakable renaissance type4 ,one of these has been fitted with a lid of ,delft ware1 made to match the other covers of ,chinese origin1 and this ,dutch-made lid cannot be dated later than the first half of the seventeenth century4#ii ,but it is to the next age that the bulk of the vast collection of blue and white brought together at ,dresden by ,augustus the ,strong belongs4 ,the lange ,lijzen1 the famous dragon-vases1 the large fish-bowls1 and the endless series of smaller objects collected by his agents from every side1 have made this royal collection a place of pilgrimage for all china maniacs since his day4 ,not that the general average of the blue and white ware is very high4 ,we find here for the first time specimens of the famous #8hawthorn ginger-jars' so dear to later collectors of #8,nankin china4' ,of course this porcelain did not come from ,nankin1 the jars were never used for ginger1 and the decoration was not derived from the hawthorn--a flower unknown in ,chinese art4 ,but it is in these jars that the modern connoisseur1 both in ,england and ,america1 has found the completest expression and highest triumph of the art of the ,far ,east4 ,no words are too strong to express his enthusiasm4 ,we are especially told to look for a certain #8palpitating quality' in the blue ground4 ,we hear from ,dr4 ,bushell that these #8hawthorn jars' are in ,china especially associated with the ,new ,year2 filled with various objects they are then given as presents4 ,the decoration of prunus flowers 7a species allied to our blackthorn7 is relieved against a background of ice1 and it is the rendering of this crackled ice in varying shades of blue that gives the special cachet to the ware4#ajj ,there is a curious variety of blue and white in which the outline of the design is filled up by a hatching of cross-lines as in an engraving4 ,the prototype of this kind of decoration probably dates from ,ming times1 and it may possibly be derived from some kind of textile4 ,,enamel ,,colours ,,over ,,the ,,glaze4--,we have already attempted to follow the stages by which the application of enamel colours over the glaze found its way into general use4 ,we saw that before the introduction of fusible enamels melting at the gentle heat of the muffle-stove1 somewhat similar effects were obtained by painting with certain colours upon the already fired body or paste--on a biscuit ground1 in fact4 ,the coloured slip used in this way1 differing in no respect from a true glaze1 was then subjected to a fire of medium intensity1 that is to say1 it was exposed to the demi grand feu of the kiln4 ,i think that the obscure problem of the nature of the coloured ware so minutely described by ,chinese writers and ascribed by them to early ,ming times1 and the relation of this ware to the first forms of the famille verte can only find its solution by allowing a wider play to the use of painting on biscuit and subsequent refiring1 and that there may probably have existed intermediate stages between the demi grand feu and the fully developed muffle-stove4 ,it is indeed possible that the same pieces may have successively been exposed to both these fires4#aja ,the curious bowl1 of very archaic aspect1 lately added to the ,salting collection 7see note1 p4 #hi71 illustrates well the difficulties in accepting as final a decision as to date based upon the nature of the enamel4 ,this bowl bears the nien-hao of ,ching-te 7#aeje-ba71 and may well date from that time1 but among the enamel colours over the glaze we find a cobalt blue 7of a poor lavender tint indeed72 we are told1 however1 that the use of cobalt as an enamel colour was unknown before the time of ,kang-he4#ajb ,of the many schemes and varieties of decoration that crop up in the course of the eighteenth century as a consequence of the increased palette at the command of the enameller and of the miscellaneous demand for foreign countries1 we have already said something4 ,many important types must remain unmentioned1 and some are indeed scarcely represented in our home collections4 ,of this ,i will give1 in conclusion1 a striking instance4 ,in the whole of the great collection at ,dresden1 now so admirably arranged by ,dr4 ,zimmermann1 there is perhaps nothing more striking than the circular stand covered with a trophy of large vases1 the decoration of which1 though bold in general effect1 is entirely built up by fine lines of iron-red helped out by a little gold4 ,these vases1 from their fine technique1 ,i should assign to the end of the reign of ,kang-he1 or possibly to that of ,yung-cheng 7#agbb-ce74 ,it is a curious fact that by these parallel lines of iron-red an effect is produced at a distance very similar to that obtained by a wash of the rouge d'or4 ,possibly the aim was to imitate that colour4 ,i have seen a similar effect produced by red hatching on some ,english ware of the eighteenth century4 ,i do not think that this porcelain was made for the ,persian market1 as has been asserted1 for in that case we should find specimens of it in the ,south ,kensington collection4#ajc ,there is1 ,i think1 only one example of this ware in the ,british ,museum1 and in the ,salting collection only a pair of insignificant cups and saucers4 ,on the other hand1 in the ,dresden collection1 whole classes even of eighteenth century wares are unrepresented4 ,i mention these facts to accentuate the vast field covered by ,chinese porcelain4 ,it must be borne in mind that the ,chinese manufactured for the whole civilised world1 and that the taste and fashion in each country influenced1 though often very indirectly1 and in a way not always to be recognised at first sight1 the forms and the decoration of the objects exported to it4 ,this influence1 making for variety and change1 has been in constant conflict with1 and has counteracted1 the native conservative habit4 ,it is an influence that has probably made itself felt from very early days1 but it culminated in the eighteenth century4 ,indeed the rapid decline of ,chinese porcelain that set in before the end of that century was in no small degree promoted by the unintelligent demand from ,western countries at that time4 ,we shall later on have to look upon this question ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4 ,chinese ,design in red and gold4 from a reversed point of view1 and we shall have to notice how the fictile wares of other countries were influenced1 and finally in part replaced by the products of the kilns of ,king-te-chen4 ,for in any general history of porcelain this influence of the ,east upon the ,west1 together with the return current from ,west to ,east1 is the central question4 ,by bearing in mind these mutual influences a simplicity and unity are given to this history which we might look for in vain in that of any other art of equal importance4 ,how the porcelain of ,king-te-chen found its way at first to the surrounding minor states--to ,korea1 to ,indo-,china1 and to ,japan--and was more or less successfully copied in these countries2 how1 on the other hand1 in ,india and in ,persia the foreign ware1 though long in general use1 was never imitated2#ajd and how1 finally1 after reaching the ,christian ,west this porcelain influenced and in part replaced the homemade fayence1 even before the secret of its composition was discovered--these1 ,i think1 are the prime factors in the history of porcelain4 ,it will1 however1 be convenient to say something of the porcelain made in the surrounding countries1 especially in ,japan1 before taking up the subject of the ,chinese commerce with ,europe1 for this reason among others3 the products of the ,japanese kilns became so inextricably mixed up with those of ,king-te-chen in the course of their journey to the ,west1 that it would be impossible to treat of the one class apart from the other4 ,but before ending with the porcelain of ,china we must take a rapid glance at a large and complicated group--that decorated wholly or in part in ,european style4 ,quite early in the century1 perhaps before #agjj1 figures and groups in plain white ware1 for the most part attired in the ,european costume of the day1 were exported from ,china4 ,many of these grotesque figures may be seen in the great ,dresden collection1 and a few in the ,british ,museum4 ,later on it became the fashion for the ,european merchants at ,canton to supply the native enamellers of that city with engravings1 to be copied by them in colours on the white ware sent down from ,king-te-chen4 ,in other cases the captain of a ,dutch or ,english vessel lying in the ,canton roads would employ a native artist to decorate a plate or dish with a picture of his good ship4 ,but the most frequent task given to these ,canton enamellers was the reproduction of elaborate coats of arms upon the centre of a plate or dish1 or sometimes upon a whole dinner-service4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a remarkable collection of this armorial china1 brought together for the most part by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4#aje ,orders came not from ,england alone1 but from ,holland1 ,sweden1 ,germany1 and even ,russia4 ,services were thus decorated for ,frederick the ,great and other royal heads4 ,the practice seems to have been kept up during the whole of the eighteenth century1 but we do not know the precise date at which it was introduced4 ,in a few cases--the large ,talbot plate in the ,british ,museum is an instance 7,,pl4 ,,xxi47--the arms were painted in blue under the glaze1 and such decoration was probably executed at ,king-te-chen4 ,the small plate with the ,okeover arms in the same collection was1 according to the family tradition1 ordered as early as the year #agjj1 but the decoration in my opinion would undoubtedly point to a later date#ajf 7,,pl4 ,,xii4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,,chinese1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,,ware ,it is hardly necessary at the present day to mention that this armorial china has nothing to do with ,lowestoft4 ,a fictitious interest was1 however1 long given to this ware by its strange attribution to that town4 ,much ,chinese porcelain1 either plain white or sparely decorated under the glaze with blue1 was imported during the eighteenth century1 to be daubed over1 often in the worst taste1 with a profusion of gaudy colours1 in ,holland1 in ,germany1 and in ,england4 ,at ,venice1 too1 the plain ,oriental ware was at one time elaborately painted with a black enamel4 ,more interest attaches to the porcelain enamelled at ,canton for the ,indian market4 ,the ,chinese seem in some way to have associated the yang-tsai or #8foreign colours' with the enamels made in the south of ,india1 especially at ,calicut1 and it is possible that ,indian patterns and schemes of colour may have influenced some of the developments of the famille rose4 ,the ,canton enamellers must at the same time have been working on the richly decorated ware for the ,siamese market1 but it is on their enamel paintings on copper that the ,indo-,siamese influence is chiefly seen 7see next chapter74 ,nor were these exotic schemes of decoration confined to the ,canton enamellers4 ,at more than one time there was something like a rage for copying foreign designs--,japanese1 among others--at ,king-te-chen1 and that not for trade purposes alone1 for as we have mentioned already1 both ,kang-he and ,kien-lung seem to have taken a passing interest in the strange productions of the outer barbarian4 ,of the many kinds of ceramic wares made in different parts of ,china which from the opacity of the paste we cannot class as porcelain1 we can only mention two1 both of which would probably come under the head of our kaolinic stoneware3--#a4 ,the ,,yi-,,hsing ,,yao1 made at a place of that name not far from ,shanghai1 which includes the red unglazed ware1 esteemed by the ,chinese for the brewing of tea4 ,this is the so-called ,boccaro successfully copied by ,bttger4 ,sometimes we find this stoneware painted with enamel colours thickly laid on1 and the design is often accentuated by ridges or cloisons4 #b4 ,the ,,kuang ,,yao1 of which there are two classes4 ,the ware made near ,amoy is a yellowish to brownish stoneware1 thickly glazed and rudely decorated4 ,this coarse pottery is much in favour with the ,chinese colonists in ,america and elsewhere4 ,again in the south of the province of ,kuang-tung1 at ,yang-chiang-hsien1 a reddish stoneware has long been made4 ,it is covered with a thick glaze1 often mottled1 more or less blue1 and sometimes resembling the flamb glazes of ,king-te-chen4 ,indeed this ,kuang yao at one time was copied at the latter place4#ajg ,it is often stated that true porcelain was made in ,kuang-tung1 but the evidence on the whole is against this4 ,we will quote1 however1 what the ,abb ,raynal says 7,histoire du ,commerce des ,europens dans les ,deux ,indes1 #aggj74 ,he states that competition with ,king-te-chen had been abandoned #8except au voisinage de ,canton1 o on fabrique la porcelaine connue sous le nom de porcelaine des ,indes4 ,la pte en est longue et facile2 mais en gnral les couleurs sont trs infrieures4 ,toutes les couleurs1 except le bleu1 y relvent en bosse et sont communment mal appliques4 ,la plupart des tasses1 des assiettes et des autres vases que portent nos ngocians1 sortent de cette manufacture1 moins estime la ,chine que ne le sont dans nos contres celles de fayence4#8#ajh ,compare with this what we have said about the rough porcelain exported to ,india in the seventeenth century 7p4 #he74 ,since the extinction of the ,ting kilns an opaque white stoneware has been largely manufactured in the north1 and near ,pekin a commoner earthenware is largely made 7,bushell1 pp4 #fca-fch74 ,the bricks with which the ,porcelain ,tower of ,nankin was constructed were for the most part composed of a kaolinic stoneware4 ,finally1 we should point out that nearly all these various kinds of stoneware are represented in the ,british ,museum collection4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,korea ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,indo-,,chinese ,,peninsula ,,korea ,the self-contained culture of the ,middle ,kingdom spread at an early time to the less advanced and more or less tributary countries that surrounded it3 on the south to the confused complex of states that are conveniently grouped together as ,indo-,china2 on the north to ,korea2 and on the east1 or more accurately on the north-east1 to ,japan4 ,to these islands1 however1 the ,chinese civilisation for the most part spread by way of ,korea1 and as this was in a measure the route taken in the case of the potter's art1 it may be well to deal first with the great northern peninsula4 ,the ,chinese claim to have conquered and even incorporated ,korea as long ago as the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijg ,a4,d471 and even before that time the country had been overrun by the ,japanese4 ,the latter people have at all times presented themselves to the ,koreans as ruthless conquerors and pirates1 and indeed they succeeded during their last great expedition at the end of the sixteenth century in sweeping the country so bare that to this day its poverty and the low state of its artistic culture is generally attributed to this gigantic razzia from which the country never recovered4 ,and yet ,korea has always taken a place in ,japanese estimation second only to ,china as a source of their artistic and practical knowledge1 if not of their literature and philosophy2 and this is especially the case with regard to the potter's craft--the technical part of it above all4 ,time and again do we hear of famous ,korean potters1 or even of whole families and tribes1 being brought over and set to work by the local ,japanese ruler either with the materials they brought with them1 or with the clays and glazes that their experience enabled them to discover in their new homes4 ,we need not1 therefore1 be surprised to find that after the wonders of ,japan had been laid open to the admiration of the ,west1 the greatest hopes were entertained of finding artistic treasures at least as valuable in the great peninsula to the west which still remained a forbidden land4 ,failing direct evidence of this wealth1 it became the habit to attribute to ,korea any ,oriental ware1 old or new1 of which the origin was unknown4 ,this tendency was taken advantage of by more than one enterprising dealer1 and when at a later time the country was in a measure thrown open1 cases of gorgeously decorated ,japanese ware1 brand-new from ,yokohama or ,nagasaki1 were sent round by way of ,chemulpo1 the port of the ,korean capital1 so that their ,korean origin could be guaranteed4 ,long before this1 the home of an important group of ,japanese porcelain1 that now generally known as #8,kakiyemon1' had been found by ,jacquemart in ,korea4 ,now that of late years these various fallacies and supercheries have been exposed1 and that the extreme poverty of the land in artistic work of any kind has been demonstrated1 we may perhaps see a tendency to an undue depreciation of the artistic capabilities of the country in former days4 ,we must at any rate remember that the ,japanese experts1 who are in the best position to know1 have always maintained that the ,koreans in the sixteenth century were possessed of the secret of enamelling in colour upon porcelain1 or1 at all events1 that they were acquainted with the coloured glazes of the demi grand feu1 and that so good an authority as ,captain ,brinkley has accepted1 as of ,korean origin1 specimens of enamelled ware still existing in ,japanese collections4 ,meantime we must be contented with the scanty examples of pottery1 stoneware1 and porcelain that have been actually brought home from ,korea1 and among these pieces we must discriminate between the wares of native manufacture and the porcelain that had been imported from ,china1 either overland by way of ,niu-chuang or across the ,gulf of ,petchili from the ports of ,shantung4 ,of late years many specimens have been collected1 chiefly at ,seoul1 the capital1 especially by members of the various foreign legations1 and some of these have found their way into ,european museums4#aji ,apart from some small pieces of modern blue and white and enamelled wares1 undoubtedly of true porcelain1 but very rough in execution and poor in colour1 which are said to be of local manufacture1 we find3-- #a4 ,a plain white ware often showing signs of age1 but apparently in no way differing from the ivory-white ware of ,fukien4 ,japanese experts1 however1 claim to distinguish pieces of ,korean origin4 ,such specimens are much valued in ,japan1 and some are said to have been brought back after the great expedition at the end of the sixteenth century4 ,we find also specimens of a heavy white ware1 with decoration in a high relief1 which is undoubtedly of native origin4 ,at ,svres is a large white vase1 with dragons in relief1 brought from ,seoul4 #b4 ,celadon porcelain1 of many types4 ,of this ware there are many specimens in our museums4 ,at ,svres we find two bowls of a fine rich tint of olive green1 presented by the ,king of ,korea to the late ,president ,carnot #8as the most valuable of the ancient productions of his poor country4' ,in the same collection may be seen a case full of important specimens brought back in #ahic by ,m4 de ,plancy1 the ,french diplomatic agent at ,seoul4 ,among them are some large rude celadon vases1 one with some attempts at blue decoration under the glaze4 ,in the ,british ,museum are several celadon bowls1 some with moulded floral patterns in relief4 ,among some bowls of a greyish celadon from ,korea1 in the ,ethnographical ,museum at ,dresden1 ,i noticed some with an unglazed ring on the upper surface1 pointing to a primitive method of support in the furnace1 perhaps similar to that formerly employed in ,siam4 ,dr4 ,bushell quotes from a ,chinese work on ,korea1 written in the first half of the twelfth century1 an account of the elaborately moulded wine-cups and vessels of all kinds made in that country4 ,this ware is described as of a kingfisher green1 but it may probably be regarded as a full-coloured variety of celadon4 ,this interpretation is confirmed by a later ,chinese work 7published #achg71 which distinctly says--,i quote from ,dr4 ,bushell's translation--#8,the ceramic objects produced in the ancient ,korean kilns were of a greyish green colour resembling the celadon ware of ,lung-chuan4 ,there was one kind overlaid with white sprays of flowers1 but this was not valued so very highly' 7,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 p4 #fha74 #c4 ,an important class of ,korean ware is formed by the coarsely crackled pieces of brownish or yellow colour1 which in ,china would probably be classed as ,ko yao4 ,these are often roughly decorated with daubs of blue under the glaze1 resembling in this some of the older pieces brought from ,borneo4 #d4 ,a greyish ware1 inlaid with designs of white slip1 on the principle of our #8encaustic tiles' of the ,middle ,ages4 ,this is perhaps the only original type that we can connect with ,korea1 and it would seem that this is the ware alluded to at the end of the quotation we have just given from an old ,chinese book4 ,this inlaid ware appears to have been greatly admired by the ,japanese1 for it was closely imitated in more than one district4 ,the well-known ,yatsushiro pottery1 first made in the province of ,higo in the seventeenth century1 is distinctly a copy of this ,korean model4 ,among the specimens at ,svres brought home by ,m4 de ,plancy1 there is a tall vase of this type cut down in the neck decorated with flying cranes in white slip4 ,this ware1 however1 is not a true porcelain2 at the best it is a kind of kaolinic stoneware1 and the same may be said of most of the old heavy pieces brought back from ,korea4 ,there is not much in the way of decorative design to be found on any of the varieties of ,korean porcelain or stoneware that we have now described1 and we may look in vain among the few ornamental motifs to be found on these wares for any marked divergency from ,chinese types4 ,,siam ,,and ,,the ,,indo-,,chinese ,,peninsula4 ,under the somewhat vague heading of ,indo-,china we will collect a few notes upon the specimens of porcelain that have been found in the various states into which the great peninsula that stretches south between the ,china ,sea and the ,bay of ,bengal is divided4 ,in looking through the artistic productions of all these countries1 we find one marked characteristic2 and that is the way in which ,chinese forms and ,chinese decorative motifs have pushed their way in and in part replaced the old ,buddhist and ,brahmanistic styles4 ,as matters now stand1 the most important for us of these states is ,siam1 for here we are at once brought face to face with one of the places of manufacture of the famous heavy celadon ware which in the ,middle ,ages was carried by ,arab and ,chinese traders over all the seas of the then known world4 ,we shall have in a later chapter to come back to the question of this trade1 and then we shall be able to show that the discussion as to the origin of this martabani ware has been the means1 as is indeed often the case in such disputes1 of throwing much light on the early history of ,chinese porcelain4 ,for the present we are only concerned with an important discovery quite recently made not far from the frontier of ,siam and ,pegu4 ,many specimens of celadon1 some of the older type1 have come in recent years from various parts of ,indo-,china4 ,in the museum at ,svres are some pieces of rough greyish ware1 with a thick1 irregularly crackled glaze1 brought back in #ahic by the ,mission ,fournereux from ,siam and ,cambodia2 among these fragments of old celadon we find a pair of contorted bowls1 fused together in the kiln1 in fact undoubted #8wasters1' such as could only be found in the neighbourhood of the furnaces where they were fired4 ,at the instigation of ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read of the ,british ,museum1 ,mr4 ,lyle has lately explored the remains of old potteries now hidden in deep jungle1 at a place called ,sawankalok1 not far from the western frontier of ,siam4 ,these old kilns are situated some two hundred miles to the north of ,bangkok1 and about the same distance from the port of ,molmein 7,malmen74 ,to show the importance of this discovery1 we need only point out that near to the latter town lies the old port of ,martaban1 which played so important a part in the medival trade of the ,arabs1 and from which1 doubtless1 the name of ,martabani1 by which celadon ware has always been known in the ,mohammedan ,east1 is derived4 ,among the many fragments brought back by ,mr4 ,lyle are some which from their distinct translucency1 and from the whiteness and the conchoidal fracture of the paste1 may be unhesitatingly classed as true porcelain4 ,the colour of the glaze varies from a prevailing greyish green to a fine turquoise tint in a few specimens4 ,that the ware was made on the spot is proved by the presence of many defective pieces--#8wasters' that had been thrown away--as well as by the numerous conical props 7for the support of the ware in the kiln7 found mixed with the fragments4 ,on these tall1 nozzle-shaped props the plates and bowls were supported in an inverted position4 ,it is by this unusual method of support that we may account for the fact that the glaze covers the whole of the lower surface--so exceptional an occurrence in the case of porcelain--and at the same time for the absence of the glaze from a ring-like portion of the upper surface4 ,we may note that a similar distribution of the glaze is found occasionally on large plates of the old heavy ware brought from other countries2 of this there are notable examples in the museum at ,gotha 7see p4 #gb74 ,the ground in these ,siamese specimens has assumed where exposed1 but there only1 the deep red so admired by the ,chinese in the old ,lung-chuan ware4 ,the paste1 in many of the examples1 has been moulded in low relief in the characteristic lotus-leaf pattern1 while on a few pieces there is a rough decoration in greenish black under the glaze4 ,all remembrance of these old kilns has completely passed away1 and at the present day the local market is supplied with a rough stoneware brought overland from ,yunnan4#aaj ,the porcelain now found in ,siam1 of which many specimens have been lately brought to ,europe1 is of a very different character4 ,this is the highly decorated enamelled ware which may be classed with the famille rose from the prevalence of the rouge d'or among the enamels4 ,this ware1 none of which can be earlier than the middle of the eighteenth century1 is certainly made in ,china1 but the presence in the decoration of ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,,chinese certain peculiar ,buddhist types makes it rather difficult to believe that the enamelling was in all cases executed in ,canton4 ,it is true that in the colours1 and in the general style of the decoration1 we are often reminded of the well-known ,cantonese enamels on copper4 ,the white surface of the ground is1 for the most part1 entirely hidden by a floral decoration2 but amid this1 on medallions surrounded by tongues of flame1 we find centaur-like monsters with human heads1 above which rise almond-shaped nimbi4 ,from the top of the cover of the hemispherical bowls--the commonest form--rises a knob in the shape of the ,buddhist jewel4 ,the enamel of this ware appears to scale off readily1 as if from imperfect firing4 ,the prevailing colours are a deep red for the ground1 and a bright green relieved with white and yellow for the design 7,,pl4 ,,xxii474 ,while the finer specimens1 as we have already said1 remind us of the ,canton enamels1 others suggest rather1 in the scheme of colour and decoration1 the painted and lacquered bowls of ,india and ,ceylon4 ,in the ,indian ,museum at ,south ,kensington may be seen an exceptionally fine collection of this ,sinico-,siamese porcelain1 lent by ,signor ,cardu1 and a good opportunity is here provided for comparing its decoration with that on the rough earthenware from ,ceylon and various parts of ,india which is exhibited in adjacent cases4 ,a coarse kind of porcelain is made in ,annam4 ,at ,svres are some cups presented by the envoy from that kingdom4 ,the rude pattern of bamboos painted in blue1 sous couverte1 on a greyish paste1 does not give an exalted idea of ,annamese civilisation4 ,in ,japan we sometimes find specimens of a somewhat rough but picturesquely decorated ware1 hardly a true porcelain1 ,i think1 which from the country of its origin is known as ,kochi4 ,from the nature and colour of its glaze it may be compared to some of the old ,chinese wares of the demi grand feu1 and again1 in certain points1 to the earlier types of the ,japanese porcelain of ,kaga and ,imari4 ,kochi has been identified with ,cochin-,china1 but as the geographical ideas of the ,japanese as to foreign states were not very definite--derived as they were from the ,chinese geographers of the ,ming period--we may perhaps be justified in looking further north for the source of this ware1 either in ,tonquin or in some part of ,kuang-tung1 the southernmost province of ,china4#aaa ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,japan ,in any assemblage of the ceramic products of ,japan1 more especially in one of native origin1 it will be seen that porcelain no longer1 as in ,china1 holds the place of honour4 ,this place would be taken1 in such a collection1 by a series of small bowls and jars mostly of a dark-coloured earthenware1 which offer little to attract a ,european eye4 ,on the other hand1 a ,western collector of ,japanese ceramics would be likely to find more to interest him in the decorated fayence of which the kilns of ,kioto and ,satsuma have furnished the most exquisite examples4 ,and yet1 perhaps1 in no country1 not even in ,china1 do we find porcelain1 and that of a high technical quality1 so largely employed for domestic use4 ,the commonest coolie eats his rice or drinks his tea or sak from a bowl or cup of porcelain1 while to find specimens of the old rough stoneware or earthenware we must explore the ,kura--the fireproof storehouses of the rich noble or merchant--where1 wrapped in cases of old brocade1 these little objects are carefully preserved and classified4 ,it would be out of place here to enter into the causes1 political1 social1 and1 we may add1 also psychological1 that have influenced the ,japanese mind in thus associating all that is refined and intellectual with a class of pottery in which1 to say the least1 the artistic possibilities are confined within very narrow limits4 ,but1 as is now well known1 this tendency has been fostered by the ceremonies connected with the social gatherings known as the ,cha-no-yu 7literally #8hot water for tea#871 when the powdered tea is prepared in and drunk from examples of these primitive wares4 ,on such occasions the criticism and measured praise of the utensils employed forms an important--indeed an almost obligatory--part of the conversation among the guests4 ,the merits of ,chinese porcelain1 however1 have long been acknowledged by the ,japanese4 ,possibly as early as the ninth century specimens of celadon were imported4 ,direct communication with ,china has indeed since that time been subject to many interruptions1 and it has at all times been carried on subject to galling restrictions and heavy duties levied by the governments of both countries4 ,the ,japanese have at many times made piratical descents upon the coast of ,china1 and among the loot thus obtained many fine pieces of ,chinese porcelain may have found their way to ,japan4 ,there was1 however1 a period in the fifteenth century during which a pretty steady trade was kept up1 under the patronage of the pleasure-loving ,ashikaga ,shoguns1 and many specimens of the earlier ,ming porcelain must have reached ,japan at that time4 ,it has always been the celadon ware that has found most favour with the ,japanese1 and fabulous prices were1 and indeed still are1 given for fine pieces4 ,we may note that such specimens are as a rule associated in the ,japanese mind with the ,yuan or ,mongol dynasty4 ,speaking generally1 however1 it was not to this direct intercourse with ,china that the ,japanese attribute their knowledge of ceramic processes4 ,from an early date nearly all that they knew of the continental lands of ,asia seems to have reached them from ,korea1 a country where they played alternately the part of ruthless invaders and devastators1 and of eager and submissive students4 ,let us then rapidly glance over the records preserved by the ,japanese of their early lessons in the potter's art1 that we may better understand the conditions under which the manufacture of porcelain was at length established in the country at the end of the sixteenth century4 ,of the early pottery of ,japan--rude figures1 coffins1 and strange-shaped vases of coarse earthenware dating from the early centuries of our era--we know1 thanks to the researches of ,mr4 ,gowland1 much more than we do of the products of a similar stage of culture in ,china4 ,in the ,british ,museum we may see a collection1 unique of its kind in ,europe1 of prehistoric objects1 found most of them in or around the dolmen tombs of the early emperors1 and brought together in ,japan by that energetic explorer4 ,as1 according to ,japanese tradition1 ,korean potters were in those early days already settled in ,japan1 we need not be surprised to find that vessels of very similar shape1 but of a rather better ware1 have also been found in ,korean tombs4 ,the earliest ware whose origin we can trace to a definite spot1 is that formerly made at ,karatsu1 in ,hizen1 near to the great porcelain district of later days4 ,korean potters are traditionally reported to have been established here as far back as the early part of the seventh century4 ,of this primitive ware we will only note that the pieces were placed in the kiln in an inverted position1 either without supports 7the ,kuchi-nashi-de1 or #8unglazed orifice ware#871 or supported by two props of rectangular section 7the ,geta okoshi1 or #8clog supports#874 ,this is a point of interest in connection with the similar devices used in firing some of the early celadon4 ,but1 as ,captain ,brinkley points out 7,the ,chrysanthemum1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ah71 it was the introduction of tea from ,china#aab early in the thirteenth century that gave rise1 for the first time1 to a demand for a better kind of pottery4 ,kato ,shirozayemon1 a native of ,owari1 made1 we are told1 a five years' visit to ,china about this time 7he returned to his native village of ,seto in #abbc7 in order to study the potter's craft4 ,the ware that he succeeded in making on his return to ,japan has a reddish brown paste covered with a dark glaze1 streaked and patched with lighter tints4 ,this was probably more or less an imitation of the ,kien yao1 the #8hare-fur' cups made in the province of ,fukien in late ,sung times4#aac ,these cups1 so prized by the ,japanese1 are of interest to us1 as they may1 in some degree1 be regarded as the ancestral type from which the long series of ,japanese tea-bowls is derived4 ,but neither the ware of ,toshiro 7he is generally known by this shortened form of his name71 nor that of his followers1 has any claim to be classed as porcelain4 ,it is1 however1 from ,seto1 the native village of ,toshiro1 where he set up his kilns on his return from ,china1 that the commonest ,japanese name for all kinds of ceramic ware1 but more especially for porcelain1 is derived1 and the district is now a great centre for the production of blue and white porcelain4 ,apart from this dark ware and from the heavy celadon1 it would seem that at this time1 and even later1 the only true porcelain known to the ,japanese was the white translucent ware of ,korea1 itself probably an offshoot of some early form of ,ting ware4 ,that ,toshiro1 who must have travelled in ,fukien barely two generations earlier than ,marco ,polo1 should only have learned to make this one kind of dark ware1 shows how locally circumscribed was the knowledge and use in ,china1 in ,sung times1 of different kinds of porcelain4 ,we have to wait nearly three hundred years for the first attempts at the manufacture of porcelain in ,japan4 ,gorodayu ,shonsui1 the second great name in the history of ,japanese ceramics1 made his way to ,fuchow early in the sixteenth century4 ,he probably visited ,king-te-chen1 and returned to ,japan in the year #aeac1 bringing with him specimens of the materials used by the ,chinese1 both for the paste and for the glaze of their porcelain4 ,but although ,shonsui on his return settled at ,arita1 in the centre of what was at a later time the principal porcelain district of ,japan1 he appears never to have discovered the precious deposits of kaolin in the neighbouring hills2 for when the supplies brought from ,china came to an end1 he and his successors had to fall back upon the manufacture of fayence4 ,a few specimens of the ware he made have been preserved in ,japan1 and it has often been copied since ,shonsui's time--even in ,china1 it is said4 ,it is a fair imitation of the ,ming blue and white1 and we may note that the plum-blossom often occurs in the decoration4 ,we are told that the secret of the process of enamel painting was rigorously kept from ,shonsui4 ,we have seen that it is at least doubtful whether this process was known to the ,chinese at that time1 but the reference may be to the ware covered with polychrome painted glazes4 ,there are two pieces attributed to ,shonsui1 on native evidence1 in the historical collection of ,japanese pottery at ,south ,kensington1 but it is very doubtful whether these very ordinary pieces of blue and white are even as old as the later date 7#aehj-ij7 somewhat strangely attributed to them on the same authority4 ,and now the ,korean potter is found again on the scene4 ,it was reserved for ,risampei1 a native of that country1 to recognise for the first time--in #aeii1 it is said--the value of the white crumbling rocks out-cropping on the hills that rise at the back of ,arita4 ,here he built his kilns and succeeded in making a fairly good imitation of the ,chinese blue and white which was now becoming more and more in request as an article of commerce4 ,at this stage we are brought into contact not only with the local history and the politics of the day1 but with the great questions of world traffic that were being fought out at the time4 ,the rich western island of ,kiushiu had long been the principal seat of the efforts of the ,portuguese and ,spanish missionaries4 ,they had nowhere more converts than on the coasts of ,hizen and on the adjacent islands4 ,so that to one or more of these early kilns established near ,arita we may reasonably assign some at least of those strange plates1 painted with ,biblical subjects1 that have excited so much curiosity4 ,i will only point to the large dish with an elaborate picture of the ,baptism of ,christ in the centre1 now at ,south ,kensington 7,,pl4 ,,xiv474 ,the subject is painted in blue under the glaze and heightened by gilding4 ,around the edge we find a design of little naked boys--amorini1 in fact--playing among flowers4#aad ,we can find nothing in the ,japanese records to throw light on the porcelain made in ,hizen during the first half of the seventeenth century1 but much of the somewhat roughly decorated blue and white ware 7the larger dishes especially1 made for ,india and ,persia7 has been classed1 on the ground of the occurrence of spur-marks1 and of the nature of the paste and decoration1 as ,japanese4#aae ,some of this ware may be as old as this time1 when 7,i mean shortly before the middle of the seventeenth century7 the demand from the ,west was ever increasing1 and the ,chinese supply was so uncertain and so inferior in quality4 ,meantime the ,dutch and ,english factories on the island of ,hirado1 opposite to the pottery district of ,imari1 were finally closed 7#afda71 and all communication with the outside world prohibited4 ,the only exception made was in favour of the strictly limited commerce carried on through the ,dutch and ,chinese merchants1 who were confined in their prison-like factories at ,nagasaki4#aaf ,now it is a remarkable fact that our first definite information concerning the introduction of ,japanese porcelain into ,europe dates from this very period1 and it is to approximately the same date that the ,japanese ascribe the introduction of coloured enamels among the ,hizen potters4 ,one ,higashidori ,tokuzayemon1 a potter of ,imari1 is said to have derived some knowledge of the precious secret from the captain of a ,chinese junk trading at ,nagasaki in #afdh4 ,with the assistance of ,kakiyemon1 a skilled potter of the same district1 he succeeded in imitating the five-coloured enamelled wares of the ,wan-li period4 ,another ,japanese authority#aag gives the name of his assistant as ,gosu ,gombei1 and states that by #afde1 after many fruitless experiments1 they were able to produce a ware decorated with coloured enamels and with gold and silver1 which was exported at first through the medium of a ,chinese merchant1 and shortly after sold to the ,dutch4 ,so far from ,japanese sources4 ,on the other hand1 we hear of an early ,dutch ambassador sent from ,batavia--#8,le ,sieur ,wagenaar1 grand connoisseur et fort habile dans ces sortes d#8uvres#8--in fact himself a designer of patterns1 one of which1 it is said--white flowers on a blue ground--found great favour at this time4 ,in the same work#aah we are told that this gentleman1 who combined the most delicate diplomatic negotiations with practical commercial undertakings1 took back with him to ,batavia more than twenty thousand pieces of plain white ware 7#afcd-ce74 ,it is1 however1 very probable that the ,dutch may have had a great deal to do with the introduction of coloured enamels into ,japan4 ,we must remember that during this time 7say between #afcj and #afej7 two important series of events were coming to pass which revolutionised the ,eastern trade4 ,these were1 first1 in ,china the troubles attending the expulsion of the ,ming dynasty1 including the burning of ,king-te-chen and the stoppage of the supply of porcelain for shipping at ,canton2 and secondly1 the final triumph of the anti-,christian party in ,japan1 and the closing of the country to foreigners4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 if the ,dutch ambassador was empowered to offer almost any terms to the ,japanese1 provided that the latter would only make an exception in favour of the merchants of his country4 ,turning now from the records of the ,japanese and of the ,dutch merchants1 let us examine the specimens of ,japanese porcelain that we find in our oldest ,european collections1 and which we may reasonably assign to the seventeenth century4 ,apart from the blue and white1 we find here two classes of enamelled ware which we now know to be of ,japanese origin4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,japanese1 ,,kakiyemon ,,enamelled ,,ware ,it may indeed be said that it was in the separation1 and in the definite attribution to ,japan1 of these two groups1 that the first step was made towards a scientific classification of ,oriental porcelain1 and for this work we are chiefly indebted to the labours of the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4 ,we will first deal with what may on the whole be regarded as the oldest group4 ,,kakiyemon ,,ware4--,under this name it will be convenient to describe the compact group of decorated porcelain that we find taking so prominent a place in our old collections4 ,of this ware there is a most representative series of specimens in the ,british ,museum4 ,there are also many interesting pieces scattered through the rooms of ,hampton ,court4 ,the chief characteristics of this ,kakiyemon ware are the creamy-white paste1 without the bluish tinge so common in other ,japanese porcelain1 the moulded forms 7in the case of the small vases and of the dishes with scalloped edges71 and above all the peculiar nature of the decoration that is somewhat sparely scattered over the ground4 ,here we find the well-known combination of the pine1 the bamboo1 and the plum 7,japanese ,sho-chiku-bai7 associated with quaintly executed figures in old ,chinese costume4 ,in the foreground is often found a curious hedge or trellis-fence of straw or rushes1 and at times1 at the side1 a grotesque tiger is seen disporting in strange attitudes 7,,pl4 ,,xxiii474 ,exotic birds1 singularly ill-drawn1 are sometimes seen1 but individual flowers are introduced with great decorative feeling--witness the sprig of poppy1 a rare flower in ,japanese art1 on a plate in the ,british ,museum4 ,there is a non-,japanese element in the design which seems to hamper the native artist1 but whether this element is to be sought in ,holland or in ,korea--or perhaps in a degree in both--is quite uncertain4#aai ,as for the enamel colours employed1 the most important point is the use of a blue enamel over the glaze4 ,this colour is freely employed in combination with the usual opaque red4 ,the other colours1 more sparingly used1 are a green of emerald tint1 a pale yellow1 and a poorish purple4 ,the full command of a fine-coloured blue enamel at so early a date is interesting4 ,in the earlier ,chinese examples this colour is poor1 and the enamel is apt to chip off4 ,on a few rare pieces of this ,kakiyemon porcelain we see the blue applied under the glaze1 and there is one specimen in the ,british ,museum on which the two methods are combined4 ,we rarely come upon specimens of this ware in ,japan4 ,in ,china1 at one time1 it was copied for exportation1 and ,dr4 ,bushell thinks that the porcelain classed as ,tung-yang-tsai or #8,japanese colours1' in the time of ,kang-he1 is of this class4 ,a large octagonal jar at ,south ,kensington1 somewhat crudely decorated in the ,kakiyemon style1 which came from ,persia1 may possibly be of ,chinese origin4 ,there is1 at any rate1 no doubt that this is the ware known1 perhaps two hundred years ago1 in ,france as the premire qualit colore1 and in ,england and ,germany as #8old ,east ,indian1' ,it was reserved for ,jacquemart to class it as ,korean4 ,it is1 however1 remarkable that in neither the ,japanese nor the ,dutch records of the time do we find any notice of a decoration at all resembling that found on this ware4 ,any hint that is given from these sources would apply much better to the class of porcelain that we have next to describe4 ,in later chapters we shall see that the important position given to this ,kakiyemon porcelain by our ancestors is reflected in the decoration applied to more than one of the early wares of ,europe4 ,,imari ,,or ,,old ,,japan4--,the many kilns that sprung up in the province of ,hizen during the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv4 #a4 ,,chinese4 #b4 ,,japanese4 course of the seventeenth century1 along the slope of the hills that produced both the china-stone and the china-clay1 were chiefly occupied in making blue and white porcelain1 the sometsuke or #8dyed' ware of the ,japanese1 and this1 we may add1 is still the case4 ,the underglaze blue indeed has always remained the dominant element in the ,imari porcelain1 and to judge by the older pieces the employment of other colours crept in gradually4 ,this blue is generally of a peculiar dark lavender or slaty tint1 and with the addition to it of a little gilding we obtain already the general effect of the #8old ,japan' decoration4 ,when to the blue and gold was added an opaque iron-red 7from this pigment the ,japanese succeeded in obtaining a great variety of fine tints71 we attain to a scheme of decoration which1 at first sight1 gives the impression of being built up with a full palette of colours2 this is the typical nishiki-de or #8brocaded' ware of the ,japanese 7,,pl4 ,i474 ,indeed in many of the finest specimens we find nothing beyond these three colours--blue1 red1 and gold4 ,but the blue1 derived from the native ore1 the concretionary #8wad1' containing generally more manganese than cobalt1 is often wholly or in part replaced as the dominant colour by a glossy black painted over the glaze1 and this1 too1 in specimens with some claims to antiquity4 ,the other colours of the ,chinese #8pentad1' the green1 the yellow1 and the purple1 generally occupy quite subordinate positions4 ,it is to be noted that in this ware we never find the blue applied as an enamel over the glaze4 ,it would be a mistake to regard the whole series of ,imari enamelled porcelain as made only for exportation4 ,it is true that the large vases and plates with the well-known effective but somewhat overloaded decoration are not found in ,japan1 although such pieces have been made at ,arita for the last two hundred years for exportation from ,nagasaki2 but the more quietly decorated ware of ,imari1 in endless forms and with decoration of the most varied kind1 has long been in general domestic use1 and many smaller pieces of great artistic beauty have been lately obtained from ,japanese collections4#abj ,in fact1 the early enamelled wares of ,imari are recognised by the ,japanese as the fons et origo of most of the decorated porcelain1 to say nothing of the later pottery1 of their country4 ,we have seen how our #8old ,japan' group started from a slight modification of the blue and white1 but we must find place also for an early ware decorated in five colours1 somewhat in the ,wan-li style4 ,of this ware but few pieces survive4 ,the tradition1 however1 was carried on at ,kutani and at many of the ,kioto kilns in the eighteenth century4 ,late in the seventeenth century the ,kizayemon family obtained the privilege of supplying the porcelain1 decorated with cranes and chrysanthemums1 for the personal use of the ,mikado1 and at the present day a member of this family is said to still claim the right of purveying to the imperial court4 ,it is to one of these ,kizayemons1 but not until the year #aggj1 that the merit of the invention of seggars for holding the porcelain in the kiln is given by the ,japanese4 ,it would seem that before that date no such protection was given4 ,that such a claim should be made shows how completely ,japan at this time was shut out from the rest of the world4 ,and here we may point out how self-contained was the development of ,japanese porcelain during the palmy days of the ,tokugawa rgime 7say from #afej to #ahej74 ,as in the case of the kindred arts of metalware and lacquer1 any ,european influence was quite of a casual and what we may call fanciful nature2 while the new methods of decoration that came into use in ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,japanese4 ,imari ware4 ,china in the eighteenth century were never recognised or copied1 even if they were known4 ,what imitation there was of ,china was confined to the copying of ,ming types2 the ,manchus1 in fact1 were never acknowledged by the ,japanese1 and their arts were under a taboo almost as strict as that applied to the civilisation of the ,west4 ,no better instance of this conservatism could be given than the fact that the use of gold as a source of a red pigment1 the basis of the famille rose in ,china1 appears to have been unknown until the beginning of the nineteenth century1 and even then the rouge-d'or was but sparingly applied4 ,on the other hand1 the ,chinese were always eager1 in the interest of trade1 to copy the wares exported from ,nagasaki1 and we shall see later on what an influence the various products of the ,hizen kilns had upon the porcelain of ,europe4 ,these1 then1 were practically the only kinds of ,japanese ceramic ware known in ,europe until the opening of the country in our days--the blue and white or sometsuke1 the #8old ,japan' or nishiki-de1 and the peculiar type which we have classed as ,kakiyemon4 ,to this list we should perhaps add the plain white ware1 much of which was subsequently decorated in ,europe4 ,these wares were all of them made in the kilns near ,arita1 nor do they exhaust the products of even that district4 ,but during the eighteenth century the manufacture of porcelain spread to other parts of ,japan where porcelain was made exclusively for home consumption4 ,many of these kilns were established under princely patronage1 some in the very gardens of the feudal lord1 while a special interest is given to others by their association with certain skilled potters and their descendants1 whose names1 in opposition to what we found was the practice in ,china1 we can thus connect with the wares4 ,but we will first say something about the composition and the processes of manufacture of the porcelain of ,japan1 dwelling1 however1 only on those few points where we find divergences from the practices obtaining in ,china4 ,in the first place1 then1 as to the composition of the paste4 ,to judge from the few trustworthy analyses of ,imari ware that have been made1 the paste would seem to be of a very abnormal type2 the amount of silica--#gj to #gd per cent4--is quite unusual2 there is an almost total absence of lime1 so important a constituent of ,chinese porcelain2 while we find from #d to #e per cent4 of the alkalis4 ,but1 in place of the potash found in the wares of ,china1 in the ,japanese paste the prevailing alkali is invariably soda4 ,the materials of the porcelain made in ,hizen were obtained originally from the famous #8,hill of ,springs#8--,idzumi ,yama--which rises behind the town of ,arita4 ,of late years1 however1 large quantities of clay and stone have been brought from the island of ,amakusa1 which lies to the south4 ,it is from the products of decomposition of a volcanic rock1 a kind of quartz-trachyte1 that these materials are obtained1 not from a true granitic rock as in ,owari#aba and in most other seats of porcelain manufacture all over the world4#abb ,in the neighbourhood of ,arita the raw materials lie conveniently at hand2 and in the ,japanese accounts there is no definite reference to two distinct elements in the constitution of the paste4 ,however1 that something corresponding to our china-stone is made use of1 is shown by the importance attached to the methods by which the stone is reduced to powder4 ,the primitive stamping-mill1 worked by a long lever of wood1 moved either by the foot of a coolie or by a simple hydraulic arrangement1 has long been employed for pounding the stone1 and the hills around ,arita re-echo with the thuds of these mills4 ,the potter's wheel plays here a larger part than in ,china1 and the ,japanese are exceptionally skilful throwers4 ,still1 notwithstanding some native statements to the contrary1 the use of moulds either of wood or of terra-cotta has long been known--witness the old ,kakiyemon porcelain4 ,we now come to the most important departure from the ,chinese procedure4 ,in ,japan1 the ware 7as is1 indeed1 universally the case in ,europe7 receives a preliminary baking in a specially constructed biscuit kiln before the application of the glaze4 ,the adoption of this practice would seem to point to a greater tenderness in the raw clay4 ,the glaze 7,japanese kusuri--#8medicine#87 is prepared by mixing the finely powdered china-stone with the ashes of certain kinds of wood4 ,the ashes from the bark of the usu-tree 7,distylium racemosum7 are especially in request for this purpose1 and it is certainly remarkable that these ashes contain nearly #dj per cent4 of lime1 the element that is conspicuous by its absence from the paste4 ,the furnaces in which the principal firing takes place are of a bee-hive shape3 they are arranged in rows of from five to ten hearths placed by preference on the slope of a hill1 so that each succeeding hearth rises two or three feet above its neighbour4 ,this plan is probably a modification of the old ,ming type of furnace1 and the system1 it is said1 was introduced from ,korea4 ,the use of seggars appears never to have become general1 and this is probably the reason why the marks of #8crow's-feet' and other kinds of struts1 used to support the vessel in the kiln1 are often conspicuous on the base of the larger pieces4 ,neither in their glazes nor for their enamels have the ,japanese ever made use of any colours unknown to the ,chinese1 nor until quite recent times have they paid much attention to single glazes4 ,there is1 however1 one important exception to this last statement1 in the ,sei-ji or celadon ware1 which with them has always been the ideal of classical perfection1 and which they have imitated with varied success4 ,for their reds they have always been confined to pigments derived from iron1 but with these opaque intractable materials they have obtained a great variety of effects1 especially by means of delicate gradations of strength4 ,in the case of the blue under the glaze1 the ,japanese have never attained to the mastery of their teachers3 there is very commonly a tendency of the colour to run1 and a bluish tint is thereby given to the white ground2 the blue1 moreover1 on the older specimens1 is generally dull1 and in modern times often crude and unpleasant4 ,the shapes and uses of ,japanese porcelain start1 for the most part1 from ,chinese models of ,ming times1 but there are a few forms that are not found in ,china4 ,the hi-bachi or fire-bowl1 though more commonly of bronze1 we sometimes find made of celadon or of blue and white porcelain2 the kr or incense-burner1 with a cover of pierced metal1 is a form characteristic of ,japan2 and the more elaborate choshi-buro or #8clove-bath' is1 ,i think1 peculiar to the country2 so1 too1 are both the sak-bottle of cylindrical or square section1 with a curved lip for pouring1 and the little cups1 in sets of three1 often of egg-shell ware1 from which the sak is drunk4 ,the use of the miniature teapot1 in which the better sort of tea is infused1 is again confined to ,japan2 but these little kibisho1 unlike the vessels for powdered tea used in the ,cha-no-yu1 have not1 ,i think1 been long in fashion4 ,we have described the three kinds of porcelain made in ,hizen for exportation to ,europe1 and we have seen that by the middle of the seventeenth century this commerce1 in the hands of the ,dutch1 and to some extent of the ,chinese1 had already attained large proportions4 ,before turning to the kilns that sprung up in other parts of ,japan during the eighteenth century--of these the origin in every case can be traced back directly or indirectly to the early ,hizen factories--we must say a word about some other varieties of porcelain made in the same neighbourhood1 but not destined for foreign use4 ,the village or town of ,arita1 of which the better-known ,imari is the port1 lies about fifty miles to the north-east of ,nagasaki1 and it may almost be regarded as the ,king-te-chen of ,japan4 ,the clay and china-stone used there is now brought1 for the most part1 from the adjacent islands1 from ,hirado1 from ,amakusa1 and even from the more remote ,goto islands4 ,by a combination of some of the most important potters of the district1 and with the assistance of some wealthy merchants1 a company1 the ,koransha1 was formed some twenty-five years ago1#abc and an attempt was made to keep up the quality of the porcelain produced1 at least from a technical point of view4 ,it was certainly time for some such effort to be made1 for about that period1 just after the ,philadelphia ,exhibition1 the arts of ,japan reached perhaps their nadir4 ,,mik,,chi ,,or ,,hirado ,,ware4--,it was with a somewhat similar object that1 long before this--about the middle of the eighteenth century--the feudal lord of ,hirado had taken some of the kilns near ,arita under his patronage1 and had also attempted to regulate the wasteful and careless way in which the materials were quarried on the slopes of ,idzumi ,yama4 ,this was the origin of the beautiful ,mikchi 7,mi-ka-uchi7 ware1 which was at first produced only for the use of the prince and of his friends1 or for presentation to the ,shogun4 ,to understand the important influence of this aristocratic patronage upon the scattered kilns of ,japan 7only a few of these1 indeed1 produced porcelain71 ,i cannot do better than quote the words of ,captain ,brinkley1 perhaps our first authority on ,japanese ceramics3 #8,during the two centuries that represent the golden age of ,japanese ceramic art1 that is to say1 from #afde to #ahde1 every factory of any importance was under the direct patronage either of the nobleman in whose fief it lay1 or of some wealthy amateur whose whole business in life was comprised in the cultivation of the ,cha-no-yu4 ,the wares produced1 if they did not represent the independent efforts of artists seeking to achieve or maintain celebrity1 were undertaken in compliance with the orders of the workman's liege lord1 or of some other exalted personage4 ,considerations of cost were entirely set aside1 no expenditure of time and toil were deemed excessive1 and the slightest blemish sufficed to secure the condemnation of the piece4' ,all these conditions were swept away by the revolution of #ahfh and by the opening of the country to foreigners4 #8,codes of subtle sthetics and criticisms of exacting amateurs had no longer to be considered1 but in their stead the artist found himself confronted by the ,western market with all its elements of sordid haste and superficial judgment4' ,to return to the ,mikchi porcelain1 this ,hirado ware1 for it was known also by that name1 produced at the prince's kilns1 six miles to the south of ,arita1 was for more than a hundred years regarded as the ne plus ultra among ,japanese porcelain1 and its value was enhanced by the fact that the ware never found its way into commerce4 ,in the sous couverte blue it was sought to imitate the paler type of the old ,ming ware4 ,the best-known examples of this blue decoration are seen on the little cups delicately painted with ,chinese boys at play under pine-trees--the more the boys the better the ware1 it is said4 ,careful manipulation of the clay and finish of surface has never been carried to a higher point than in the varieties of this porcelain worked with pierced patterns and ornaments in relief1 so prized by ,japanese collectors4 ,on these we find1 in addition to the blue1 a peculiar tint of pale brown4 ,of this coloured ware there are some good specimens at ,south ,kensington4 ,k,,chi ,,or ,,nabeshima ,,ware4--,the same high technical finish has been attained in the kchi porcelain made at the village of that name 7-kawa-uchi7 three miles to the north of ,arita4 ,the kilns here were patronised by the ,nabeshima princes1 who belonged to one of the greatest feudal families of old ,japan4 ,in this case also1 the small highly finished pieces were destined for presents only and were never sold4 ,this ware is generally to be identified by the comb-like pattern 7,japanese ,kushi-ki71 painted in blue round the base of the cups and bowls4#abd ,like the little ,chinese boys of the ,mikchi ware1 this pattern is often seen on very inferior ware of quite modern manufacture4 ,a peculiar kind of finely crackled celadon was also made at kchi4 ,in the ,arita district are many other factories1 some of which1 as those at ,matsugawa1 have at times produced excellent ware4 ,of most of these private kilns1 however1 the chief outturn has always been confined to the blue and white sometsuke for domestic use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have now to follow the steps by which the knowledge of porcelain was carried from the western island to other parts of ,japan4 ,we had better pass at once to the ,kioto kilns1 for although the manufacture of porcelain was not introduced at the old capital so early as at some other places in the main island1 yet the skill of its artist potters and their connection with the imperial court led1 in the course of the eighteenth century1 to the spread of their influence in every direction4 ,kioto was already in the sixteenth century the seat of more than one ceramic industry1 but it was not so much the problem of the materials for a true porcelain1 as the questions connected with the coloured enamels lately brought over from the ,west1 that excited the curiosity of the ,kioto potter at this time4 ,the story goes that one ,aoyama ,koyemon 7,i quote again from ,the ,chrysanthemum1 ,april #ahhc71 who came to ,kioto from the porcelain district of ,hizen1 to obtain orders for the new enamelled ware1 allowed the secret of its manufacture to be wormed out of him by a crafty ,kioto dealer1 and that for this breach of trust the wretched #8traveller' was crucified by his liege lord on his return to ,arita4 ,this occurred just before the death of the great ceramic artist ,ninsei 7about #affj71 and the old potter at once obtained the knowledge of the new enamelling process from the above-mentioned crockery merchant4 ,this man1 we should add--the dealer--is said to have gone mad when he heard the dreadful fate of his friend ,koyemon--a fate for which he was in so large a measure responsible4 ,such stories as this1 and there are other similar ones in the annals of ,japanese ceramics1 call to mind the adventures of the experts of the eighteenth century1 who trafficked with the ,german princes in the arcana of the newly introduced porcelain1 but for these ,german experts the penalties for breach of confidence were not of so severe a nature4 ,nomomura ,ninsei is generally held to be the greatest ceramic artist that ,japan has produced4 ,the decorated stoneware and pottery that he turned out late in life may be regarded as the common source from which the wares produced in the two main groups of kilns in the neighbourhood of ,kioto took their origin4 ,with one of these groups1 with the wares produced in the factories around ,awata1 we are not concerned here1 for no porcelain was ever produced in that suburb of ,kioto4 ,but to the other group of kilns1 called after the beautiful temple of ,kiyomidzu1 to the north of ,kioto1 belong some of the most artistic specimens of porcelain in our collections4 ,it was here that this somewhat uncongenial material was forced for the first time to adapt itself to the fanciful genius of the people4 ,it was to this district that the great original artist ,kenzan1 the brother of the still more famous ,ogata ,korin1 came towards the end of the seventeenth century4 ,it is true that little of this artist's work is executed in a true porcelain1 but his picturesque signature1 scrawled in black1 is sometimes found on the so-called more noble ware 7,,pl4 ,b4 #ba74 ,like his brother ,korin1 ,kenzan obtained his effects by the simplest means1 sometimes by mere patches of colour cunningly distributed over the surface4 ,the work of both these men has of late found many admirers and imitators in ,france4 ,it was not till the beginning of the eighteenth century that we have any definite record of the manufacture of porcelain in ,kioto4 ,about that time ,yeisen devoted himself to the imitation of ,chinese celadon4 ,if we are to find any common note in the wares produced in the various ,kioto potteries1 it would be in a certain studied rudeness both in shape and decoration1 the very opposite of the delicately finished products of the ,hizen kilns4 ,the rare pieces of ,ming porcelain with coloured decoration were eagerly sought for and copied1 not in a slavish way1 but rather so as to catch the spirit of their design4 ,in fact these ,japanese copies might be made to throw some light on that rather obscure subject1 the origin of enamel decoration in ,china in the days of the later ,ming emperors4 ,an apparently early class of ,chinese enamelled ware1 somewhat rudely painted with a predominant iron red combined with a subordinate green1 was a great favourite with the ,kioto potters1 but we find also copies of the ,wan-li #8pentad1' the designs in this case sparely scattered over the ground1 generally in formal patterns of a textile type4 ,the blue and purple ware with ribbed cloisons which the ,japanese associate with their mysterious land of ,kochi was also in favour1 but at ,kioto1 ,i think1 this ware was not copied in porcelain4 ,so of the blue and white made at this time at ,kiyomidzu1 it is distinguished from both the ,hizen and the ,seto wares by a certain rudeness in the shape and decoration1 a character preserved by a great deal of the sometsuke still made in this district4 ,quite a different spirit was1 however1 brought in by ,zengoro ,riyozen1 the tenth descendant of a famous family of potters4 ,this ,zengoro was a potter of universal genius1 the foremost ceramic artist indeed of the peaceful and luxurious period at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 when the ,tokugawa ,shogun at ,tokiyo set an example of an extravagant expenditure and brilliant display which was only too readily followed at the courts of the great feudal nobles4 ,in the art work of that time1 in spite of the unsurpassed perfection of execution and love of gorgeous decoration1 we can already trace the signs of a coming decay4 ,zengoro1 besides reviving with some success the deep sapphire blue1 sous couverte1 of ,ming times1 succeeded in producing from an iron-oxide a red ground which vied with the famous coral reds of the previous century in ,china4 ,but it was rather the ,ming red1 sous couverte1 that made from #8powdered rubies of the ,west1' that he professed to copy4 ,over the red ground of his plates and little bowls he painted his design in gold of the finest quality1 and on the white ground of the inside placed a scant decoration of his under-glaze sapphire blue4 ,some of these dainty little cups are shown in a table-case in the ,british ,museum1 but if we compare them with the exquisite ,ming bowls of a deep red derived from copper in the same collection1 the difference of the quality of the two tints is at once apparent4 ,as1 however1 it was a matter of convenance to go back to a ,ming model1 it was with the latter ware that ,zengoro's work was compared4 ,it was for his success in this kind of decoration 7produced about the years #ahjf-ahag7 that the great ,kioto potter received from his patron1 the prince of ,kishiu1 a seal with the character yeiraku1 or reading in modern ,chinese ,yung-lo1 the name of the ,ming emperor 7#adjb-bd7 with whom the red copper glaze is traditionally associated 7,,pl4 ,b4 #bb74abe ,this1 then1 is the origin of the name ,yeiraku kinrande for the #8gold brocade' ware of ,zengoro4 ,at a later time this form of decoration was carried by ,zengoro's son to ,kaga1 where in a debased form it became characteristic of a ware with which our markets were at one time flooded4 ,,kishiu ,,ware4--,this kinrande1 however1 is not the only kind of porcelain with which the name of this protean artist is associated4 ,although the name ,yeiraku given him by the ,prince ,nariyuki is generally connected with his brilliant red and gold ware1 it was a porcelain of quite another kind that our ,zengoro the tenth1 or perhaps his son ,hozen1 the eleventh of the family1 turned out from the kilns that had been erected by that prince in the garden 7the -niwa7 of his palace near ,wakayama4 ,the ,japanese tell us that this well-known -niwa or ,kishiu ware was made in imitation of a kind of porcelain or fayence brought long ago from ,kochi1 a name generally rendered as ,cochin-,china1 in any case a country to the south of ,china4 ,we have seen grounds for associating this -niwa yaki rather with an early type of ,chinese polychrome ware1 painted on the biscuit with glazes of three or perhaps four colours4 ,in any case1 in the ,japanese ware the turquoise1 the purple1 and the straw-coloured yellow 7this last quite subordinate7 are applied in a similar fashion1 and this is indeed practically the only ,japanese ware on which we find the turquoise colour that has played so important a part in other countries4 ,it is here the most important colour of the triad1 but occasionally we find it replaced by a deep1 rich green4 ,on this ,kishiu or -niwa ware1 known also to the ,japanese as ,kairaku from another seal used by ,zengoro 7,,pl4 ,b4 #bj71 the decoration is formed by ribs or lines which separate the surface into shallow cloisons4 ,in other cases the turquoise or the aubergine purple is found alone as a monochrome glaze4 ,very few1 however1 of the large vases of this ware that have been exported of late years to ,europe1 and especially to ,america 7where the turquoise blue has always been a favourite1 as in the case of ,chinese porcelain71 can have come from the kilns in the #8prince's garden4' ,this ware has1 indeed1 for some time since1 been imitated at many other places--at ,tokiyo1 and since #ahgj especially at ,kobe1 where vast quantities have been manufactured for exportation4 ,these copies have gone through the stages of degradation in design and colour that usually accompany a large commercial production4 ,another famous potter1 ,mokubei1 who worked at ,kioto about the same time1 is said to have made great improvements in the moulds employed by him1 especially in those used for copying old ,chinese pieces4 ,but we certainly cannot accept the statement that he was the first potter in ,japan to use moulds4 ,this same ,mokubei is said to have copied the richly glazed stoneware of ,kochi1 a ware that had long been prized by the ,japanese1 and to which1 or rather to the kindred porcelain1 we have already referred4 ,it is described as a hard pottery1 with archaic moulded decorations1 coated with lustrous glazes of green1 purple1 yellow1 and golden-bronze4 ,mokubei also worked for the prince of ,kishiu1 and it would be interesting to know what relation1 if any1 he had with ,zengoro and his -niwa yaki4#abf ,,sanda ,,celadon4--,the kilns set up at ,sanda1 a small town to the north-west of ,osaka1 by the feudal lord of the district1 have acquired in ,japan a great name on account of the celadon ware there made4 ,this ,sanda-seiji was first produced at the end of the seventeenth century1 and followed more closely the famous old heavy wares of ,lung-chuan than did the more delicately finished celadon porcelain made about the same time at kchi in ,hizen4 ,in addition to these wares1 the ,japanese lay claim to an ancient celadon of native manufacture1 and much ink has been spilt in ,japan upon the question of the origin of certain archaic pieces preserved in temples and private collections4 ,the bulk of the ,sanda celadon1 we should say1 is a solid useful ware with small artistic pretensions4 ,,the ,,wares ,,of ,,owari ,,and ,,mino4--,if1 leaving ,kioto1 we take the old high-road to ,yedo--the ,tokaido--we pass through a succession of villages where the local wares are displayed in the stalls lining the route4 ,some of this pottery is not without merit1 and historical associations give interest to more than one variety4 ,but it is not till we have passed ,nagoya1 a large industrial town at the head of the ,gulf of ,owari1 that we enter a true porcelain district--the only district in ,japan that has vied with ,hizen in the production of porcelain for domestic use and for exportation4 ,not far off is the village of ,seto1 the home of ,toshiro2 it was here that on his return from ,china1 early in the thirteenth century1 he set up the first kiln that produced in ,japan a ware with any claims to artistic merit4 ,but1 as we have said at the beginning of this chapter1 the ware made by ,toshiro was no true porcelain1 although the expression ,seto-mono1 derived from his native village1 is used rather for porcelain than for other kinds of pottery4 ,the term is1 in fact1 about equivalent to our word #8china4' ,it was not till nearly six hundred years after ,toshiro's day that the village of ,seto again became prominent1 when in the year #ahjg the art of making porcelain was1 after many difficulties1 successfully introduced from ,hizen4 ,this was thanks to the energy of the potter ,tamakichi1 who ventured a journey to ,hizen to find out the secrets of the manufacture4 ,as a reward for his services the privilege of wearing two swords and the rights of a samurai were granted to ,tamakichi by the lord of ,owari4 ,here again we find the new industry established under the fostering care of the local prince4 ,over a wide district1 more especially to the east on the borders of the province of ,mikawa1 the decomposing granite furnishes an excellent raw material1 and centres for the manufacture of porcelain have sprung up sporadically over a tract stretching away to the north1 as far as the province of ,mino4 ,but most of these kilns have never produced anything better than a common blue and white ware4 ,in composition the paste of the ,owari porcelain is much closer to the normal type than that of the ,hizen wares 7see note1 p4 #aij74 ,of late years the ,owari potters have succeeded in turning out pieces of unprecedented size1 in the shape especially of dishes and of slabs for the tops of tables4 ,from the artistic side1 however1 little can be said in favour of this ware3 the blue is generally crude in quality1 often resembling that found on the commoner ,european porcelain of later days4 ,another art was revived some years ago in the neighbourhood of ,nagoya1 the chief town of this district--,i mean that of enamelling in metallic cloisons 7the ,ship1 or #8seven treasures' of the ,japanese71 and of late years the two industries have been combined by applying the metallic cloisons and the enamel to the surface of porcelain4 ,a similar ware has also been made at ,kioto1 but in this case the soft fayence of ,awata has been used as a base4 ,enormous quantities of both these varieties of cloisonn have been brought to ,europe1 and when we consider the amount of skilled labour required in the manufacture1 we can only marvel at the prices for which this ware is retailed in ,london4 ,much of the cheap ,japanese blue and white sold in ,europe comes from this ,owari district1 but of late years more ambitious things have been attempted there--monochrome glazes of the grand feu1 including a curious variety of flamb ware with a chocolate-coloured ground4 ,,kutani ,,ware4--,there only remains one important centre of porcelain manufacture for us to describe4 ,this lies far away among the mountains that skirt the western coast of ,japan4 ,the feudal lords of that country1 however1 the princes of ,kaga1 were reputed to be the most wealthy of all the daimios of ,japan4 ,a junior branch of this family1 the lords of ,daichoji1 as early as the first half of the seventeenth century established a kiln at the mountain village of ,kutani4 ,in the year #affj an emissary was despatched to ,hizen to spy out the land and learn what he could of the new processes lately introduced there4 ,the story of his difficulties is only another version of that told of ,tamakichi1 the ,seto potter4 ,after many adventures1 abandoning the wife that he had been forced to marry at ,arita and the child he had had by her1 he returned to ,kaga1 equipped with the desired information and experience4 ,he succeeded in making a true porcelain with a white ground1 decorated in a style founded1 it is said1 both on the contemporary ,hizen ware and on the enamelled stoneware of ,kochi4 ,morikaga1 a famous artist of ,kioto1 was retained to furnish designs for the decoration4 ,we have in the ,british ,museum a spherical vase1 painted in the five colours with a series of spirited figures1 which may well date from that time 7,,pl4 ,,xxvi474 ,examples of this period are rare1 but some of the old drug-pots1 jealously guarded by their owners1 that were still1 a few years ago1 to be seen in the druggists' and herbalists' shops of ,osaka and ,sakai1 may perhaps be traced back to the potters of the seventeenth century1 either those of ,kaga or those of ,hizen4 ,at this time1 in fact1 the ,kaga ware had hardly differentiated itself from that of the parent province4 ,it was not till the beginning of the eighteenth century that the typical ,kutani ware1 one of the most original and decorative ever turned out from ,japanese kilns1 was produced4 ,on a greyish paste1 hardly to be reckoned as porcelain1 the lustrous1 full-bodied enamels1 almost unctuous in quality1 are laid with a full brush4 ,the whole surface is generally covered1 and a dark1 juicy green is the prevailing colour1 over which a design of black lines is drawn4 ,next in importance among the enamels there comes first purple1 then a heavy blue enamel which somewhat clashes with the other colours1 and finally a full-toned yellow4 ,it would seem from ,japanese accounts that this kind of ware was not made after #agcj1 when there ensued a period of decay1 but it is difficult to believe the statement that the manufacture was not revived till #ahaj4 ,the picturesquely decorated bowls ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi4 ,,japanese1 ,,kaga ,,ware and plates showing the greyish ground are probably later than those wholly covered with the green enamel1 and it might be possible to trace the date of introduction of fresh means of decoration--gilding skilfully and boldly applied or the use of white enamel in relief1 especially for the petals of flowers4 ,later1 but still on ware of fine decorative effect1 we find these white petals tinged with pink1 and this apparently is the earliest appearance of the rouge d'or among ,japanese enamels4 ,when did this new colour come in1 and from what source8 ,we may perhaps associate its first use with the wonderful period1 early in the nineteenth century1 of which we have already spoken1 when all the restraints to which the ,japanese artist had been so long subjected were removed1 the crabbed critic with his tradition of ,ming times was silenced1 and a free rein at length given to native exuberance in the use of gay colours and naturalistic designs4 ,but this was the end2 as in the other arts1 a period of decline set in before the middle of the century1 a decline that was accelerated1 but not first originated1 by the throwing open of the country to ,european influences a few years later4 ,with the ,kutani potter1 the beginning of the end seems to have coincided with the introduction of the iron-red and gold decoration4 ,this was brought about when the assistance of one of the ,zengoro family1 ,zengoro the eleventh or ,hozen1 probably1 was obtained from ,kioto4 ,at the same time the brilliant decoration in enamel colours was still carried on1 often enough with happy effect1 and this was kept up to quite a late period4 ,in these latter days the use of a true white porcelain again became prevalent--indeed the materials are at the present day brought from ,amakusa and other islands off the coast of ,hizen4 ,there are two marks that have always been associated with the ,kaga ware--first1 the character for ,kutani1 the #8,nine ,valleys1' the name of the little mountain village where the ware was first made2 second1 the ,chinese word ,fu 7,japanese ,fuku71 meaning #8prosperity' or #8wealth1' written in the seal character4 ,we find this last mark painted in black on the back of the old pieces covered with a green glaze 7,,pl4 ,b4 #bc74 99 99 99 99 99 ,in our account of ,japanese porcelain we have been hampered by the restrictions imposed by our subject4 ,among ,japanese ceramic products there is a big middle class1 what we have called kaolinic stoneware4 ,wares of this kind1 when made in neighbouring kilns and differing in their decoration in no way from what may be classed as true porcelain--and this is the case in the pottery districts of ,kaga and around ,kioto--have naturally found their way within our limits4 ,other kinds quite as near to true porcelain1 such as the picturesque fayence of ,inuyama or many of the old ,raku wares1 have remained unmentioned4 ,the temptation to overstep the line has been great1 inasmuch as so many of the wares showing originality and real artistic merit lie distinctly on the further side4 ,we may say finally that a closer acquaintance with ,japanese ceramics will confirm what may be observed in the case of other branches of ,japanese art--in their painting1 for example1 and in their lacquer-ware4 ,i mean the important part played by the critic1 using that term in a wide sense1 in restraining the native exuberance of the artist4 ,the first tendency of the ,european connoisseur is to regret the hampering influence of ,chinese tradition and the restrictions imposed upon all new developments4 ,but when these influences have for a time been removed1 the facile productiveness of the ,japanese artist has always tended to land him in that pretty and over-decorated style that has found its way into middle-class drawing-rooms at home4 ,we find a tendency to this unrestrained decoration and reckless association of colours creeping into favour long ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii4 ,,japanese1 ,,kaga ,,ware before the opening of the country4 ,indeed1 centuries ago at ,kioto1 and even perhaps in the old ,nara days1 a somewhat similar love of the trifling and effeminate may be recognised now and again4 ,the services rendered by the severe traditions of the old ,chinese schools of the ,tang and ,sung dynasties1 and by the ascetic spirit of the ,cha-no-yu in keeping within bounds the native tendency to luxuriant overgrowth1 must not be overlooked4 ,when these influences were removed1 the arts soon ran to seed4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,from ,,east ,,to ,,west ,we have now followed the steps by which the dependants and the neighbours of the #8,middle ,kingdom' to the ,north1 the ,east and the ,south1 acquired the essentially ,chinese art of the manufacture of porcelain4 ,the next stage in our history brings us at one step to ,europe4 ,before making this stride of more than a thousand leagues from ,japan to ,central ,germany1 it will be convenient to bring together some of the scattered references to the porcelain of ,china that have been laboriously disinterred from the works of the ,arab and ,christian writers of the ,middle ,ages1 and to compare these statements with the scant account of the trade with ,western lands to be found in the ,chinese books of that time4 ,we shall then trace rapidly the history of the stages by which the ,european nations became better acquainted with the porcelain of the ,far ,east so as finally to master the secret of the manufacture4 ,for the earlier period we are dependent almost entirely upon ,arab and ,chinese sources4 ,the love of the marvellous1 the spirit of ,sindbad the ,sailor1 has to be discounted in the first1 and we have seen what reservations we have to make in accepting the statements of the latter4 ,there is no doubt that it is in the extraordinary development of trade that followed the wave of ,arab conquest in the seventh century that we must find the first possibilities of direct communication with the ,far ,east4 ,the great advance made by ,china in the early and palmy days of the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijg7 no doubt opened the way for this intercourse4 ,at that time ,china was in possession of a civilisation in many respects as advanced as that to be found either at ,constantinople or at ,bagdad4 ,as early as the year #gjj of our era we find mention of a foreign settlement at ,canton1 so that that town can claim a longer record than any other ,chinese port4 ,but it was rather at ,khanfu1 as the ,arabs called ,hangchow 7or rather its port71 the ,kinsai of ,marco ,polo1 that1 in the time of the next dynasty1 the ,sung 7#ifj-abgi71 the chief trade was carried on4 ,thus we find that ,edrisi1 who wrote a work on geography 7c4 #aaec7 for ,roger1 the ,norman king of ,sicily1 is eloquent upon the riches of this port of ,khanfu and the neighbouring town ,susak 7perhaps ,suchow71 #8where they make an unequalled kind of porcelain called ghazar by the ,chinese4' ,at this time1 though many ,arab merchants were settled at the ports of ,canton1 ,zaitun1 and ,kinsai1 the bulk of the commerce1 it would seem1 was carried on in the larger and stronger junks of the ,chinese1 and the best account that we have of the intercourse of ,china with foreign countries is to be found in the report on external trade1 written by ,chao ,ju-kua1 early in the thirteenth century4#abg ,this ,chao was #8inspector of foreign shipping' at ,chan-chou ,fu1 a town on the coast of ,fukien1 which may perhaps be identified with the ,zaitun of ,marco ,polo4 ,in any case it was1 at that time1 the principal starting-point for foreign commerce4 ,we have in his report a curious account of the trade with ,bruni1 on the north-west coast of ,borneo1 an island with which the ,chinese had already had some intercourse for several centuries1 and #8green porcelain' is mentioned by him in the list of the merchandise there imported4 ,we need not dwell here on the well-known passion of the ,dyaks of ,borneo for celadon porcelain1 and the big prices that they are prepared to give for fine old pieces 7,cf4 ,bock1 ,the ,head ,hunters of ,borneo1 p4 #aig seq474 ,of the specimens of celadon and other wares brought from this island we shall speak shortly4 ,modern travellers tell us that the larger jars1 #8decorated with lizards and serpents' 7probably the early smooth-skinned dragon of the ,chinese71 are preserved as heirlooms4 ,besides their medicinal value they are a complete protection from evil spirits for the house in which they are stored4 ,from later ,chinese writers 7of the sixteenth century7 we learn that these large jars were used in ,borneo in place of coffins1 and it is a significant fact that a similar mode of burial is still in use in ,fukien1 the district from which these vessels were exported1 but not elsewhere in ,china4 ,to return to our ,sung inspector of trade1 as quoted by ,dr4 ,hirth1 ,chao tells us that at the ports of ,cambodja1 of ,annam1 and of ,java1 the ,chinese bartered both green and white porcelain against pepper and other local products4 ,but at that time the great emporium for the ,western trade was the port known to the ,arabs as ,sarbaya1 the modern ,palembang in the island of ,sumatra4 ,here1 or at ,lambri1 in the same island1 the junks laid up for the winter1 and in the spring the ,chinese goods were carried further west to ,quilon1 on the ,malabar coast of the ,deccan1 this time probably in ,arab bottoms4 ,the porcelain and the other ,chinese exports were now distributed to the various lands with which the ,arabs traded at that time4 ,chao ,ju-kua1 in this connection1 mentions ,guzerate1 and an island that most probably can be identified with ,zanzibar4 ,at any rate1 at this last spot fragments of celadon porcelain have been discovered in recent days in association with ,chinese #8cash' of the tenth and eleventh centuries4 ,there are scattered notices of this ,sinico-,arab trade in the works of ,arab geographers and travellers1 from ,edrisi to ,ibn ,batuta4 ,the last writer1 indeed1 states that ,chinese porcelain has found its way as far west as ,morocco4 ,it was a happy idea of the ,director of the ,ethnographical ,museum1 in the ,zwinger at ,dresden1 to collect from every available quarter specimens of ,chinese porcelain with the object of illustrating the wide distribution of the ware in early days1 apart from and mostly previous to that brought about by ,european agencies4 ,in this collection the heavy celadon or #8martabani' occupies1 as we might expect1 a prominent place1 but the later enamelled wares1 including even some special types that may be included under the famille rose of the eighteenth century1 have been found both in ,cairo and in ,siam4 ,here we see large1 heavy celadon plates1 with thick glaze of pea-soup colour1 from the ,celebes1 from ,mindanoa and ,luzon in the ,philippine group1 from ,ceram and from other islands of the further ,indies4 ,on some of these plates the glaze covers the whole foot1 and the unglazed ring1 of deep red colour1 on the upper surface1 points to a primitive method of support in the kiln similar to that formerly in use in ,siam4 ,other celadon plates 7there are some huge ones1 nearly a yard in diameter1 in the collection71 differing little from those found in these southern islands1 came on the one hand from ,cairo1 and on the other from ,korea and from ,japan4 ,from ,korea there are also specimens of a curious crackle-ware with brownish glaze and a rough decoration in blue1 and from ,java a figure of ,kwan-yin of a native type1 covered with a pale1 almost white1 celadon glaze4 ,in the same collection we find plates roughly decorated with red and green enamels1 a style of decoration which may perhaps be traced back to the earlier enamels of ,ming times4 ,examples of this type of ware--some at least appear to be of porcelain--have been found both in the ,philippines and in ,ceylon4 ,to come down to more recent times1 pieces decorated with large peony-flowers1 enamelled with an opaque white tinted by the rouge d'or1 on a bright green ground of leaves1 come from the ,celebes1 from ,siam1 and especially from ,cairo4#abh ,at ,gotha1 in the public museum1 is a collection of ,chinese porcelain brought together by the late ,duke of ,edinburgh4 ,it is remarkable for the number of fine pieces of early celadon that it contains4 ,as the unique collection of ,lung-chuan1 of ,ko yao and of other ,sung wares formed by ,dr4 ,hirth1 is now comprised in it1 this is probably the most important assemblage of early ,chinese porcelain in ,europe4 ,these two ,german collections1 in the ,zwinger at ,dresden and at ,gotha1 complement and illustrate each other4 ,but we have in ,england1 scattered through our different museums and private collections1 the materials for a series of at least equal interest--,i mean as a commentary on the history of the spread of ,chinese porcelain over the world1 a subject to which we must now return4 ,in the early days of the ,ming dynasty the commercial expeditions of the ,chinese took on a more aggressive character4 ,in the time of ,yung-lo 7#adjb-be7 the eunuch ,chng-ho sailed with a fleet as far as ,ceylon1 and exacted homage1 so the ,chinese records say1 from the king of that island4 ,in the next reign1 that of ,hsuan-te 7#adbe-ce71 the same admiral conducted a more peaceful expedition to ,hormus1 at the entrance of the ,persian ,gulf1 and in company with merchantmen from ,india1 traded with the ports of the ,red ,sea1 from ,aden as far up as ,jeddah4 ,both in ,ceylon and at ,jeddah 7,tien-fong is perhaps rather ,mecca itself7 we find mention of green porcelain among the goods imported1 and at this last port the ,indian and ,chinese merchants established their factories at the very centre of the ,mohammedan world4 7,i follow the extracts from the ,ming ,annals given by ,dr4 ,hirth47 ,still more important was the trade with ,hormus and other ports of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,we hear incidentally1 at a later time1 of a large fleet of ,chinese junks at anchor in these waters4 ,to us the ,chinese trade with ,persia is of special interest1 for when1 after a brief interval of ,portuguese rule1 ,hormus fell into our hands1 it was in a measure through the medium of the ,persian ports1 and of similar depts and factories on the ,indian coast 7as1 for instance1 ,surat7 that we in ,england obtained our earliest specimens of ,chinese porcelain4 ,and now we must take up another thread of our inquiry and return to the ,china of the thirteenth century1 the ,china of ,kublai ,khan1 the greatest of the ,mongol rulers1 as described in the book of the ,venetian traveller ,marco ,polo4 ,here1 in what is for us a classical passage1 we find the first known instance of the use of the word porcelain4 ,marco ,polo has been describing the wonders and riches of ,zaitun1 and he proceeds in his inconsequent way--we will quote first from the old ,french text1 probably the earliest--#8,et sachiez que pres de ceste cit de ayton a une autre cit qui a nom ,tiunguy1 l o l'en fait moult d'escuelles et de pourcelainnes qui sont moult belles4 ,et en nul autre port on n'en fait1 fors que en cestuy2 et en y a l'en moult bon marchie' 7,pauthier1 ,marco ,polo1 chapter clvi474 ,translating from the later and more expanded ,italian text1 ,colonel ,yule renders the corresponding passage as follows3 #8,let me tell you that there is in this province a town called ,tyunju1 where they make vessels of porcelain of all sizes1 the finest that can be imagined4 ,they make it nowhere but in this city1 and thence it is exported all over the world4 ,here it is abundant and very cheap1 insomuch that for a ,venice groat you can buy three dishes so fine that you could not imagine better4' ,in the still later version of ,ramusio1 printed at ,venice in #aegi1 we find one of the first mentions of the old fable that the porcelain earth was allowed to weather for two generations before being used4 7,see ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 vol4 i4 p4 cxxii4 and vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahf and #aij47 ,confining ourselves to the old ,french version1 the point to bear in mind is the use of the word #8pourcelainnes' in this sense as one familiar to the reader and requiring no explanation4 ,and yet in the two other passages of ,marco ,polo's book1 where the word is found1 it is used1 and here too without further explanation1 for the ,cowry shells 7,cypra7 that then1 as now1 took the place of money in certain markets of the ,east4 ,there can be little doubt that the ware of which ,marco ,polo spoke was some kind of celadon1 and ,dr4 ,hirth's identification of ,tingui with ,lung-chuan is perhaps more plausible than the rival claims of ,tekkwa and ,king-te-chen4 ,ibn ,batuta1 the ,arab traveller1 who wrote nearly fifty years later1 says #8porcelain is made nowhere in ,china except in the cities of ,zaitun and ,sinkalon 7,canton74' ,in this statement he is of course quite wide of the mark4 ,like ,marco ,polo1 however1 he was struck by the cheapness of the ware1 and he mentions that it was exported as far as ,maghreb 7,morocco74 ,these #8moult belles pourcelainnes1' ,marco ,polo tells us1 were to be found all over the world4 ,he was probably speaking1 as we have said1 of a celadon ware1 though it is possible that he may have seen the pure white translucent porcelain of ,tingchou4 ,our first distinct notice of porcelain out of ,china is indeed of earlier date4 ,in an ,arab manuscript in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 treating of the life and exploits of ,saladin1 we are told that in the year #aaga that great ,emir forwarded from ,cairo to his feudal lord ,nureddin1 ,sultan of ,damascus1 a present of forty pieces of ,chinese porcelain1 doubtless found among the treasures of the recently conquered ,fatimite caliphs of ,egypt4#abi ,we have every reason to believe that this store of porcelain1 found in the palace of the heretic caliphs of #8,babylon1' can have consisted of nothing else but the much prized #8martabani1' of which such wonderful stories are told by the ,arab and ,persian writers4 ,the high estimation in which this ware was held in ,persia at a later date is well brought out in the following quotation from ,chardin1 who was in ,persia in #afgb3 #8,everything in the king's palace is of massive gold or porcelain4 ,there is a kind of green porcelain so precious that one dish alone is worth #ejj crowns4 ,they say that this porcelain detects poison by changing colour1 but that is a fable4#acj ,its price arises from its beauty and the delicacy of its materials1 which render it transparent1 though above two crowns in thickness4' ,again1 in one of the tales of the ,arabian ,nights1 we hear of six old slaves who bring in a salad in a huge basin of #8martabani' ware4 ,fragments of porcelain1 the fine white paste covered with a greyish green glaze1 have been found in the rubbish-heaps both of ,fostt or ,old ,cairo and of ,rha 7the ,rhages of the book of ,tobit71 near ,teheran1 and as both these towns were abandoned at least as early as the thirteenth century1 a corresponding age has been claimed for the pot-sherds found among the ruins4#aca ,we now know that a true celadon porcelain was made in ,siam1 and this ware1 there is little doubt1 was shipped from the port of ,martabani4#acb ,but in spite of this fact1 and of the evidence of the name by which the ware was known1 by far the larger part of the porcelain used by the ,arabs was probably a true ,lung-chuan ware exported from the ports of the ,chinese coast1 ,kinsai1 ,zaitun1 and ,canton4 ,the ,memlook ,sultans of ,egypt encouraged commerce with the ,east4 ,makrisi tells us that ,kelaun received an embassy from ,ceylon4 ,during the fourteenth century and later1 the goods transhipped at ,aden were carried to the ports on the west coast of the ,red ,sea and then brought overland to ,assuan or to ,koos1 a town lower down the ,nile1 near to ,koptos4 ,many of the large dishes now to be seen in the museums of ,france and ,germany may have reached the ,west by this route1 for among the presents that the #8,soldan' of ,egypt sent to ,lorenzo de' ,medici in #adhg1 on the occasion of an embassy 7in addition to some sheep with long ears and tails as big as their bodies71 we find mention of #8vasi grandi porcellana mai pi veduti simili ne meglio lavorati' 7,marryat1 p4 #bdj1 quoting a letter from ,bibbiena to ,clarice de' ,medici74 ,before this1 in #addg1 ,charles ,,vii4 of ,france is said to have received from the same source #8trois escuelles de pourcelaine de ,sinant1' besides #8platz1 tongues verdes' 7whatever they may be71 and other vessels of the same material4 ,again1 in #adhg porcelain is mentioned in the maritime laws of ,barcelona among the exports from ,egypt4 ,in only one of these notices1 however1 is the ,chinese origin of the porcelain expressly stated1 so that in the other cases there remains a shadow of a doubt as to what kind of ware is in question4 ,for we must remember that the word porcelain was at that time sometimes applied to ,saracenic fayence4 ,indeed in the old ,french inventories quoted by the ,marquis de ,laborde1 various kinds of shell-ware1 such as frames inlaid with mother-of-pearl1 are referred to as porcelain4 ,it is doubtful whether we can point to a single specimen of porcelain in our ,european collections whose history can be traced back as far as the year #aejj1 nor can any exception be made to this statement in favour of anything to be found in the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice4 ,with the exception of one small doubtful piece1 ,i have been unable to discover any specimen of porcelain in that collection4 ,as for the tradition concerning the little plate at ,dresden inlaid with garnets cut into facettes--that it was brought back from the ,east by a crusader--,i am afraid that this must go the way of so many similar stories4 ,i have had an opportunity of examining this often-quoted example of early ,chinese porcelain1 as well as a cup similarly inlaid in the same collection1 and ,i quite agree with ,dr4 ,zimmermann1 the ,curator of the ,museum1 that the setting can hardly be earlier than the sixteenth century1 and that there is nothing in the ware itself1 a plain white ,ting porcelain1 to point to a great age4 ,there remains1 then1 the bowl of pale sea-green celadon1 mounted in silver gilt1 preserved at ,new ,college1 ,oxford4 ,this is known as the cup of ,archbishop ,warham 7#aejd-cb73 it is said to have been presented to the college by that prelate1 and the early date is confirmed by the style of the mounting4 ,it is at least a curious coincidence that this celadon cup1 the doyen1 it would seem1 of all the ,chinese porcelain in ,europe1 should prove to be a specimen of the ware first exported from ,china4#acc ,m4 de ,laborde1 in his glossary1 quotes from the inventory of the goods of ,margaret of ,austria1 the ,regent of the ,low ,countries during the minority of her nephew1 the future ,emperor ,charles ,v41 the following items among others3 ,un beau grand pot de pourcelaine bleue deux agneaux d'argent4 ,deux autres esguires d'une sorte de porcelayne bleue4 ,ung beau gobelet de porcelayne blanche1 couvercle1 painct l'entour de personnaiges d'hommes et femmes4' ,an additional interest is given to this inventory of the possessions of the ,regent ,margaret when we remember that it was of her brother that the following story is told3--,in the spring of #aejf ,philip started from the ,netherlands for ,spain1 along with his wife ,joanna1 to claim for the latter the crown of ,castile1 vacant by the death of the great ,queen ,isabella4 ,driven by a storm into ,weymouth ,harbour1 the pair were entertained by ,sir ,thomas ,trenchard1 the ,high ,sheriff of the county1 at his house not far from ,dorchester4 ,on leaving1 ,philip gave to his host some bowls of ,oriental porcelain4 ,two of these bowls of blue and white ware remain in the possession of the representatives of the ,trenchard family4 ,one of them is set in a silver gilt mounting of about #aeej1 with a ,london hall-mark on the inside4 ,on the outside of the bowl is a bold floral decoration1 and inside some quaint archaic fish1 similar to those on the ,cheng-te bowl in the ,salting collection4 ,they have been lately described by ,mr4 ,winthrop in ,gulland's ,oriental ,china1 vol4 ii4 ,we have now come to a time when a new channel was opened by which the porcelain and other produce of the ,far ,east could reach ,europe4 ,in the year #aeag ,fernando ,perez ,d',andrada sailed from ,malacca to the roads of ,canton1 and the ,portuguese not long after established some kind of understanding with the ,chinese1 which permitted them to trade at that port and at ,ningpo4 ,this arrangement1 however1 lasted but for a short time4 ,some aggressive proceedings on the part of a new admiral sent out from ,portugal aroused the latent hostility of the ,ming ,government1 and the newcomers were before long confined to that ambiguous position at ,macao that they occupy to the present day4 ,there does not seem to be any direct evidence that porcelain formed part of the merchandise that they at that time--,i mean during the sixteenth century--sent back to ,europe2 but after the end of the century1 when ,portugal and her colonies were for a time absorbed in the vast empire ruled by ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 a considerable amount of the ,oriental ware reached the ,peninsula by way of #8the ,indies4' ,specimens of this old porcelain1 chiefly of the plain white that the ,spanish have always preferred1 may still be found1 it is said1 in some of the royal palaces4 ,the ,portuguese in some measure took the place of the ,arabs1 whose shipping they had driven out from the ,indian seas1 and it was now in their ships that the ,chinese porcelain was carried to the markets of ,india and ,persia4 ,but by the end of the sixteenth century the ,portuguese1 now sailing under the ,spanish flag1 began to feel the rivalry of a new power that was destined before long to monopolise nearly the whole trade of the ,far ,east4 ,in #afjd1 three ships bearing an ambassador and his suite arrived at ,canton4 ,the ,chinese were alarmed at the singular aspect of these new people1 #8with blue eyes1 red hair1 and feet one cubit and two-tenths long4' ,the ,dutch1 however--for such these newcomers were--effected little by this embassy1 and it is indeed difficult to understand1 when we read of the troubled relations of foreign nations with the fast sinking ,ming rulers in those stormy days1 in what manner and by what route the porcelain that was now reaching the markets of ,india1 ,persia1 and somewhat later1 of ,europe1 in such large quantities1 found its way out from ,china4 ,after the establishment of the new ,manchu dynasty in #afdd1 the three southern provinces1 including the ports of the ,canton river and of the ,fukien coast1 long remained in the hands of the native ,chinese admiral or pirate1 so well known to ,europeans as ,coxinga1 and it was not till some years after the accession of ,kang-he that the imperial authority was established in these parts1 and the trade road re-opened with the newly rebuilt kilns of ,king-te-chen4#acd ,the ,english at that time had not much direct intercourse with ,china4 ,what little reached us from that country seems to have been obtained rather by piracy than by trade4 ,in the days of ,elizabeth1 when a ,spanish merchantman or carrack was captured1 next to the bullion there was nothing that was more eagerly sought for than porcelain1 both that which might form part of the cargo and any pieces in use at the officers' table4 ,as late as the year #afcg1 it was through the medium of the ,portuguese that the bulk of the ,english trade with ,china was carried on4 ,meantime1 however1 we had established ourselves in the ,persian ,gulf1 and in the year #afbc we assisted ,shah ,abbas in driving the ,portuguese out of ,hormus4 ,we had at that time comparatively close relations with ,persia1 and there was more than one ,english adventurer in the service of the great ,shah4 ,there is some reason to believe that it was by way of our factories or depts on the ,persian ,gulf 7especially the new establishment at ,gombroon1#ace on the mainland1 opposite the island of ,hormus or ,ormuz71 as well as by those on the coast of ,india1 that the porcelain of ,china and ,japan first reached ,england in any quantity4 ,in these commercial relations we may no doubt find one of the causes of the confusion that so long existed with us between the wares of ,persia1 ,india1 and ,china4 ,but ,chinese porcelain1 as well as ,persian fayence1 must have reached ,england by another route--by way of ,venice--and this at a somewhat earlier date4 ,to this connection of #8china-ware' with ,venice there is frequent reference in our ,elizabethan literature4 ,florio in his ,italian ,dictionary 7#aeih7 interprets the word #8china' as #8a ,venus basin1' and #8china metal' is explained by ,minsheu in his ,spanish ,dialogues 7#aeii7 as #8the fine dishes of earth painted such as are brought from ,venice4' ,here the reference probably is to ,italian or ,persian fayence--in fact the tendency seems rather to have been to use the word #8china' for these latter wares and to reserve the term #8purslane' or #8porcelaine' for the true porcelain of the ,far ,east4 ,indeed there is every likelihood that we may find the origin of our term #8china1' used vaguely for the better kinds of glazed ceramic wares1#acf in the ,persian word chini1 which has long been employed for ,chinese porcelain and for the finer kinds of fayence1 both in ,persia and in ,india4 ,the point to bear in mind is that with our ancestors this word had no direct connection with the ,chinese empire1 but rather with ,venice and with ,persia4 ,on the other hand1 the special ware known as #8purslane1' as we have said1 was by them connected especially with that vague country known as #8the ,east ,indies4' ,at the ,new ,year1 #aehg-hh1 ,elizabeth received from ,burleigh a porringer #8of white porselyn' garnished with gold1 and from ,mr4 ,robert ,cecil #8a cup of grene pursselyne4' ,it was not until the beginning of the next century1 apparently1 that porcelain1 decorated with blue under the glaze1 was imported in any quantity4 ,to this time we must assign the four pieces of this #8blue and white' ware 7one bearing the mark of ,wan-li7 7,,pl4 ,,xxviii47 long preserved at ,burleigh ,house1 the old home of the senior branch of the ,cecil family 7see p4 #he74 ,by the middle of the seventeenth century ,oriental porcelain had already become an important article of commerce4 ,at that time by far the larger quantity was imported by the ,dutch1 and was distributed by them over ,france and ,germany4 ,there is1 however1 some reason to believe that the ,portuguese continued to import certain classes of ware1 but it is difficult to ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii4 ,,chinese find any direct evidence of this commerce4#acg ,as for the ,english trade1 porcelain is mentioned among the goods imported by the ,east ,india ,company as early as #afca4 ,for the most part this porcelain exported from ,canton or from ,nagasaki was not carried directly to ,europe1 but found its way first to various intermediate entrepts of trade3 in the case of the ,dutch1 to ,batavia2 with us1 to certain ,indian ports1 or perhaps to ,gombroon4 ,this was one cause of the strange names by which the products of ,china and ,japan were known1 and of the confusion between the wares of the two countries1 which has only been cleared up of late years4 ,we hear of ,batavian porcelain1 and of ,east ,indian or porcelaine des ,indes4#ach ,no doubt this ambiguity of origin was encouraged by the rival traders1 who were not eager to make too public the source of their goods4 ,as to the composition of the #8purslayne' brought from the ,indies1 the wildest stories were current4 ,whether it was even of the same nature as other kinds of pottery was disputed4 ,even so well-informed a man as ,sir ,thomas ,browne had his doubts4 #8,we are not thoroughly resolved1' he says1 #8concerning porcellane or china dishes1 that according to common belief they are made of earth4' ,the quaint story of the clay being preserved for long ages before it was fit for use1 we find for the first time apparently in some of the late versions of ,marco ,polo's travels4 ,from ,marryat1 who collected a wealth of quotations#aci referring to porcelain from writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 we take as an example the following 7it is from a book written by ,guido ,pancirolli1 a learned jurisconsult and antiquary of ,padua1 who died in #aeii73--#8;,in former ages1 porcelains were never seen4 ,now they are a certain mass composed of gypsum1 bruised eggs1 the shell of the marine locust perhaps the ,langusta or ,mediterranean lobster1 and other substances2 and this1 being well tempered and thickened1 is hidden underground in a secret place1 which the father points out to his children1 etc4' ,he then goes on to speak of the transparency of this ware1 and of its property of breaking when any poisonous substance was placed in it4 ,we must remember that by this time attempts had already been made in ,italy1 both in ,tuscany and probably still earlier in ,venice1 to imitate the porcelain of ,china4 ,these experiments were soon abandoned1 but the more practical ,dutch1 not long after this time1 succeeded in making with their enamelled earthenware an imitation of the finer ,chinese blue and white1 closer to the original1 as far as external aspect is concerned1 than anything that has been produced in ,europe since that time in ware of any description4 ,the name of ,albregt de ,keizer 7circa #affa7 it would seem is to be associated with these excellent copies4 ,there are some brilliant specimens of this seventeenth century delft at ,south ,kensington1 both in the ,keramic ,gallery and in the ,salting collection4 ,early in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 the fashion of drinking tea and chocolate became fashionable1 if not general1 in ,england4 ,coffee had been introduced somewhat earlier--it came from ,turkey by way of ,venice4 ,along with these new infusions came the demand for the little cups from which they were to be drunk1 and for the pots in which to brew them4 ,the form and fashion of these came to us not from ,china but from ,venice1 from ,constantinople1 and perhaps ultimately from ,persia4 ,one consequence of this was that the confusion between the wares of the ,east and of the ,far ,east became for the time even greater4 ,in the drinking-song quoted on page #bdc1 we find #8tea-cups and coffee' associated with #8the ,turk and the ,sophi1' while not a word is said of ,china4 ,at the same time larger pieces1 garnitures de chemine1 pots pourris1 and fish-bowls began to find a place in the decoration of a nobleman's house4 ,before the end of the century there came in a rage for quaint monsters and figures of ,chinese gods1 at first chiefly in white porcelain4 ,many such pieces may still be found on the mantels and in the china-closets of our country houses1 but unfortunately we have in few cases any record of the date of acquisition or of the provenance of ware of this kind4 ,at ,hampton ,court there is a quantity of old china now well displayed in the rooms shown to the public4 ,this is a collection that well repays a close examination4 ,let us see first what it does not contain4 ,the famille rose is unrepresented4 ,i do not think that the rouge d'or enamel is to be found on a single specimen4 ,the #8,old ,japan' or ,imari is not found1 at least not in characteristic specimens4 ,on the other hand there are many interesting examples of ,chinese enamelled ware which we may class with the five-colour group 7the blue of course under the glaze74 ,they are roughly painted with figures in ,ming costume1 but in these pieces the green is scarcely prominent enough to allow of our placing them among the famille verte4 ,they belong rather to that class of late ,wan-li or early ,kang-he enamels which formed the starting-point of the earliest enamelled wares of ,imari and ,kutani4 ,of the three-colour glazes of the demi grand feu1 ,i would point to two interesting vases1 about twelve inches in height1 with a mottled decoration of green and dark purple1 and with yellow handles4 ,there are quite a number of large fish-bowls of blue and white1 but these pieces are not remarkable either for colour or design4 ,of more interest are two cylindrical vases decorated1 sous couverte1 with blue and pale copper red1 and a curious vase of ,persian shape covered with flowers in white slip over a caf au lait ground4 ,again1 the plain white figures of ,quanyin1 with the #8,maintenon' coif1 and in some cases with the boy patron of learning at the side1 are here as abundant relatively as at ,dresden1 and there is finally a well-executed figure of a ,buddhist ascetic in white biscuit4 ,unless it be by the blue and white1 ,japan is represented solely by the #8,kakiyemon' enamelled ware1 with the blue over the glaze4 ,but we must not pass over the little glazed cabinet filled with quaint pieces of ,chinese porcelain4 ,the contents of this cabinet have1 it is said1 remained untouched since the day1 more than two hundred years ago1 when they were arranged by ,queen ,mary4 ,among many curious pieces on its shelves may be seen two buffaloes of a pale celadon ware1 four vases of #8hookah-base' form1 with strange-shaped spouts1 and some censers in the form of kilins4 ,the general impression1 we may finally say1 given by a somewhat close inspection of the porcelain at ,hampton ,court1 confirms the little we know of the date of its origin4 ,it represents a period anterior to the great renaissance at ,king-te-chen at the end of the seventeenth century1 but only just anterior to that time1 and it is the absence of the finer and more brilliant wares made subsequently to this renaissance1 examples of which we are accustomed to see in our modern collections1 that gives a certain air of poverty to this porcelain collected by our ancestors4 ,in some of the palaces and castles of ,germany may still be seen collections of china made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 crowded together in the porcelain cabinet4 ,of these the best known1 perhaps1 is that at the #8,favorite1' near ,baden1 but there are others in the castle of the ,waldstein family at ,dux in ,bohemia1 and in ,hungary in the castle of ,prince ,esterhazy4 ,many of these collections have remained unaltered since the time when they were first brought together1 and it is in this fact that their principal interest lies4 ,these china-cabinets are1 of course1 all eclipsed by the vast collection brought together1 at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 by ,augustus the ,strong1 ,elector of ,saxony and 7at intervals7 ,king of ,poland4 ,but this collection has undergone many vicissitudes since the time when it was first established in the handsome palace in the ,neustadt at ,dresden4 ,it escaped1 indeed1 with little damage from the ,prussian cannons during the ,seven ,years' ,war2 at the end of the century1 however1 it was removed to a gloomy basement1 but so carelessly was this done that we hear of whole chests packed with broken fragments4 ,in this ill-arranged and dark room the collection remained for nearly a century1 until at last it has found a home in the well-lit galleries of the ,johanneum4 ,here it is now seen to full advantage1 thanks to an arrangement which combines historical sequence with a regard to general effect4 ,augustus the ,strong died in #agcc1 and it is doubtful whether his successor1 ,august ,,ii4 7,august ,,iii4 of ,poland71 who was above all a collector of pictures1 added to the collection4#adj ,there were1 it would seem1 some examples of porcelain in the electoral collection at a much earlier date4#ada ,in an inventory of #afdj several pieces of porcelain are mentioned1 and these are said to have been presented by the ,herzog von ,florentz in the year #aeij4 ,among them 7they cannot now be identified7 we find a vase of porcelain 7ein ,pokal von ,porcellana71 blue and red with gilding1 in the form of a crab2 another in the form of a dragon1 coloured green and blue2 a lantern of porcelain1 green and gold1 adorned at the top with a standing figure2 a small #8pokal1' gilt and painted with all kinds of colours2 and finally some large eight-sided dishes decorated with blue4 ,we should have expected to find some examples of the new ,medici porcelain along with these1 but in the inventory in question there is no mention of anything of the kind4 ,augustus the ,strong obtained most of his porcelain from ,dutch dealers--a certain ,le ,roy at ,amsterdam is specially mentioned4 ,already in #agji we find him lending eight statuettes of white ,chinese ware to ,bttger1 then engaged with his experiments on the ,knigstein4 ,in the year #agag he received from the ,king of ,prussia nearly a hundred important vases and dishes4 ,in return for these1 it is said1 the king obtained a regiment 7or company7 of tall dragoons1 but this part of the bargain is not mentioned in the official receipt for the porcelain1 which has been preserved4 ,i have more than once referred to individual specimens in this famous collection1 and ,i shall not attempt to describe it now4 ,suffice to say that the general impression given is that it is of a somewhat later date than that at ,hampton ,court4 ,apart from a few early pieces which have been already mentioned1 and from some specimens of the famille rose 7and on these the new rouge d'or is for the most part sparingly and1 as it were1 tentatively applied71 the coloured enamel ware in the ,dresden collection belongs in the bulk to the famille verte1 and upon intrinsic evidence might be attributed to the later years of ,kang-he and to the reign of his successor ,yung-ching1 say from #afij to #agcj4 ,on the ,japanese side1 we notice a number of dishes and vases in blue and white1 rather in the style of the later ,ming ware exported to ,india and ,persia1 a few choice specimens of the enamelled #8,kakiyemon1' and then the vast series of #8,old ,japan' or ,imari porcelain--plates1 vases1 and bowls1 many of large size4 ,much of this last class was made to order1 and this part reflects the bad taste of the day4 ,we find tall vases #8adorned' with figures and flowers modelled in full relief in a kind of stucco and gaudily painted with some oil medium or varnish4 ,some are converted into cages for birds or squirrels by an external railing of brass rods4 ,with the exception of a few fine garnitures in blue and white in #8't ,huis ten ,bosch' at the ,hague1 there appear to be no public collections in ,holland dating from the eighteenth century4 ,but in spite of the repeated razzias of dealers1 both native and foreign1 many old families still retain collections of ,chinese porcelain 7of blue and white especially71 some of which may date from the latter part of the seventeenth century1 and many a rough-looking farmer1 in country districts1 prides himself on the china-cabinet that he has inherited from his ancestors4 ,francis ,i4 of ,france and his son ,henri ,,ii4 were1 as is well known1 great collectors of works of art1 and their collections at ,fontainebleau may be regarded as the foundation of the national museums of ,france4 ,the ,rev4 ,pre ,dan1 who described these collections at a later date1 in his ,trsors des ,merveilles de ,fontainebleau 7#afdj7 says--#8,la toient aussi des vases et vaisselles en porcelaines de la ,chine1' and in an eighteenth century notice we hear of a #8vase de porcelaine de premire qualit ancienne de la ,chine1' which is said to have come from the collection of ,sully1 the minister of ,henri ,,iv4 ,in the second half of the seventeenth century1 at the great yearly fairs held in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 ,portuguese travelling merchants set up their stalls for the sale of les besognes de ,chine4#adb ,in #afgh the ,duchess of ,cleveland's porcelain was sold at the fair of ,st4 ,laurent4 ,the ,mercure of the day gives a list of the figures and mounted pieces4 ,louis ,,xiv41 we are told1 was surprised at the knowledge of ,oriental porcelain shown by ,james ,,ii4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century it became the fashion among the grands ,seigneurs of the court of ,louis ,,xiv4 to collect the porcelaine des ,indes1 the ,dauphin and the ,duke of ,orleans leading the way1 and through the agency of the short-lived ,compagnie de la ,chine#adc 7#afhe-agai7 the latter prince was able to obtain from the ,east vases decorated with his arms1#add while of the ,dauphin we hear that he arranged his collection of blue and white in cabinets constructed by the famous ebonist ,boule4 ,unfortunately the gallery at ,versailles where they were placed was burned down soon afterwards 7,du ,sartel1 ,la ,porcelaine de la ,chine1 p4 #aba74 ,the porcelain of these princely collectors was sold at a later time1 and most of it passed into the hands of the ,vicomte de ,fonspertuis2 it was again dispersed when the works of art in that famous collection were sold by auction in #agdg4 ,the catalogue on this occasion was prepared by ,gersaint1#ade the great dealer of the day1 for whose shop on the ,pont ,notre-,dame ,watteau painted his famous ,enseigne4 ,the notes in this catalogue are of some interest1 in that they are1 perhaps1 the earliest attempt1 at least from a ,western point of view1 at a critical description of ,oriental porcelain4 ,we can only call attention to the remarks of ,gersaint on the new enamel colours1 which in opposition to the blue and white #8on voit seulement depuis quelques annes'2 on the white ware with its #8ton velout1 doux et mat1' which he tells us ,spanish collectors prefer to all others1 and on the figures1 animals1 and ornaments which the ,dutch #8souvent mal propos' painted over the beautiful white ware of ,china4 ,gersaint ridicules also the fashion that will have nothing to say to any piece without the brown line upon the lip or edge1 so characteristic of the porcelain imported about this time1 and finally he calls attention to the excellent imitation of the #8,ancien ,japon1' made some time since at ,dresden4 ,a few specimens of this ,saxon ware are the only examples of ,european pottery in this extensive and varied collection4 ,some twenty years later the collections of another friend and patron of ,watteau1 ,m4 de ,jullienne1 were sold by auction in the ,salon ,carr of the ,louvre1 and a detailed catalogue of the ,oriental ware was drawn up by the dealer ,julliot4 ,but for a more detailed account of the ,french collections and collectors of the eighteenth century1 we must refer the reader to the chapter on this subject in ,m4 ,du ,sartel's already quoted work4 ,in the lengthy treatise of the ,abb ,raynal on the history of the ,commerce des ,europens dans les ,deux ,indes1 there is an interesting section treating of the porcelain of ,china and ,japan1 and of the relation of these ,oriental wares to the porcelain of ,saxony and ,france4 ,the work was first published in #aggj1 but the remarks on porcelain were probably written several years earlier4 ,we have already noticed the six classes into which he divides the wares imported from the ,east4 ,we can only note here that ,raynal distinguishes the two classes of porcelaine blanche--one of creamy tint1 and the other cold and bluish4 ,this ware1 he says1 was imitated at ,saint-,cloud1 but with #8frit' and lead glaze4 ,his sympathies are all for the true porcelain of ,dresden1 and for the ware lately made in ,france by the ,count ,lauraguais4 ,we have attempted in this chapter1 perhaps at too great a length for a work of this kind1 to follow the steps by which the knowledge and appreciation of ,oriental porcelain spread gradually through the ,west4 ,it will be our next task to show1 as briefly as possible1 how on the ground thus prepared there arose on all sides a desire to imitate this beautiful ware4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,first ,,attempts ,,at ,,imitation ,,in ,,europe ,what1 then1 were the wares with which the porcelain of the ,far ,east came into competition1 when during the course of the seventeenth century it reached ,europe in ever increasing quantity8 ,it was not the ordinary lead-glazed pottery1 or the salt-glazed stoneware in common use1 that felt this competition4 ,crockery of this sort would always be protected by its cheapness4 ,the rivalry was rather with the more artistic ware found on the tables of the richer sort of people1 much of it made for ornament only4 ,now at this time1 ware of this latter kind all came under the class of enamelled fayence--earthenware1 that is1 whose dull surface was rendered bright and shining by a coating of stanniferous enamel2 on this artificial surface the decoration1 often pre-eminent in artistic merit1 was painted4 ,it is not our business here to show how this great ceramic family of stanniferous enamelled ware1 which had now spread over ,europe1 had its origin in the nearer or ,saracenic ,east1 just as the porcelain1 which in a measure was destined to replace it1 can all be traced back to a ,chinese source4 ,suffice to say that1 starting from the ,moorish potteries of ,spain1 this enamelled fayence gradually replaced the old lead-glazed slip ware of the ,italian quattrocento1 and in the sixteenth century was carried by ,italian workmen to ,france1 where important centres of manufacture were established at ,rouen and at ,nevers4 ,but it was rather the fayence of ,delft1 a ware of essentially the same class as the last1 and one which1 during the seventeenth century1 was pushing its way into the markets of ,france and of ,england1 that first felt the competition of the porcelain now imported from the ,far ,east4 ,the fact is that all these enamelled wares suffered from one great defect4 ,it was not so much their lack of translucency or the softness of their paste that was at fault1 but rather the fact that they made pretence to be something better than they really were #8at heart4' ,compared to porcelain1 they are as plated ware to real silver1 and time and wear are apt only too soon to reveal the base nature of their body4 ,wherever the enamel is chipped off1 the dirt lodges1 and greasy matter finds its way into the porous paste1 causing a wide spreading stain4 ,this is a practical1 and1 we may also add1 a hygienic defect1 that is now sometimes forgotten1 the more so as nowadays our common table ware is free from this fault1 and resembles fine porcelain in so far that the white1 compact body is covered by nothing but the transparent glaze4 ,in fact1 as far as ,european experience is concerned1 we may say1 broadly1 that the merits of porcelain compared with those of fayence are rather of a practical than of an artistic nature4#adf ,it will be convenient to divide the history of ,european porcelain into two periods4 ,the first1 with which we are alone concerned in this chapter1 deals with a time of isolated and tentative experiments4 ,we are concerned in ,italy with the experiments of the ,venetian alchemists which form an introduction to the porcelain made by the ,tuscan ,grand-,duke2 in ,england with the early researches of ,dr4 ,dwight and others2 and finally1 in ,france with the more successful efforts of the potters of ,rouen and ,saint-,cloud4 ,the second period opens with the great discovery of ,bttger at the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,the porcelain made subsequent to this may be divided conveniently into three groups3 7#a7 the true porcelain of ,germany2 7#b7 the artificial soft paste of ,france2 and 7#c7 the so-called natural soft paste of ,england4 ,these are the most important types2 and other wares such as the #8mixed or hybrid pastes' of ,italy and ,spain1 and the hard1 true porcelains of ,england and ,france1 can be most conveniently treated in connection with the second and third divisions4 ,,early ,,venetian ,,porcelain4--,of all the cities of ,europe we might1 on theoretical grounds1 expect to find in ,venice the place above all others where the question of the composition of porcelain would at an early date attract attention1 and indeed1 the evidence brought to light by the ,baron ,davillier 7,les ,origines de la ,porcelaine en ,europe1 #ahhb7 and by the late ,sir ,william ,drake 7,notes on ,venetian ,ceramics1 ,london1 #ahfh1 privately printed7 fully proves that more than one alchemist or #8arcanist' of that city1 in one case as early as the fifteenth century1 produced specimens worthy to be called #8porcellane transparente e vaghissime1' and this by contemporaries who had some opportunity of seeing the real porcelain of ,china4#adg ,this #8transparent and beautiful porcelain' was made in #adgj by ,master ,antonio1 the alchemist1 at his kiln by ,san ,simeon1 and the writer of a notice that has been preserved sends two specimens of this ware to his friend in ,padua4 ,again1 in #aeah we hear of #8a new artifice not known before in this illustrious city1 to make all kinds of porcelain like to the transparent wares of the ,levant'2 and a year later the ambassador of the ,duke ,alfonso writes to his master at ,ferrara1 sending him specimens of the porcellana ficta made by a certain ,caterino ,zen1 whom he has persuaded to emigrate to the latter city4 ,there cannot be the slightest doubt that in all these instances the writers are referring to attempts at the manufacture of something resembling1 in its transparency at least1 the porcelain of ,china4 ,there is no question of any confusion with the majolica of the day1 with whose properties these men were well acquainted1 and we may therefore reasonably regard the ,venetian #8archimisti' as the first in ,europe to make a soft-paste porcelain4 ,as in the case of later experimenters1 translucency1 rather than hardness or refractory qualities1 was the point aimed at2 and from the few hints we get as to the substances employed1 we may infer that these old #8archimisti' started with the idea of combining the properties of glass and of fayence by mixing a #8frit1' or glassy element1 with various kinds of pure white clay4 ,it is unfortunately true that we can point to no single existing specimen of ,italian porcelain that can safely be referred to so early a date2 but it must at the same time be remembered that it was only in the year #aheg that the first piece of ,medici porcelain was identified by ,signor ,foresi1 and that as late as #ahei a flask-shaped vase of this ware was sold at the ,htel ,drouot as a specimen of ,japanese porcelain6 ,,medici ,,porcelain4--,the first mention of this now well-known ware is probably to be found in ,vasari's ,lives of the ,painters4 ,it is in his account of ,bernardo ,buontalenti1 painter1 sculptor1 architect1 and mechanical genius1 who1 in all these capacities1 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix4 ,,medici1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white was in great favour with ,cosmo1 the first ,grand-,duke of ,tuscany1 and still more with his son ,francesco4 #8,bernardo1' says ,vasari1 who was a contemporary1 #8applies himself to everything1 as may be seen by the vases of porcelain which he has made in so short a time--vases which have all the perfection of the most ancient and the most perfect4' ,he could make objects of all kinds in porcelain4 #8,of all these things our prince ,francesco the ,grand-,duke possesses the methods of manufacture4' ,francesco ,maria1 the second ,grand-,duke of ,tuscany1 was neither a good prince nor a faithful husband4 ,he was1 however1 by nature an enthusiastic and patient experimenter1 and a chemist after the manner of the day4 ,soon after his accession1 in #aegf1 the ,venetian envoy writes of him--,i abbreviate here and there3 #8,he has found the way to make the porcelain of ,india2 he has equalled them in transparence1 in lightness1 and in delicacy4 ,with the help of a ,levantine he worked for more than ten years1 spoiling thousands of pieces1 before producing perfect work4 ,he passes his whole day in his casino in the ,boboli ,gardens surrounded by alembics and filters1 making1 among other things1 false jewels1 and fireworks4' ,we learn also1 from a contemporary manuscript1 that the paste of this porcelain was formed by mixing certain white earths from ,siena and from ,vicenza with a frit1 itself made from pounded rock crystal fused with soda and glassmakers' sand4 ,the ,vicenza clay1 at all events1 was probably of a kaolinic nature4 ,after shaping on the wheel and drying1 the decoration was painted on the raw paste1 and the vessel subjected to a preliminary firing2 the plumbiferous glaze was then applied to the biscuit4 ,this ,medici ware is decorated for the most part with cobalt blue alone1 but occasionally a little purple1 and still more rarely other colours are added4 ,the design is made up of sprigs of conventionalised flowers and leaves connected by fine stalks1 suggesting1 on the whole1 a ,persian rather than a ,chinese influence4 ,in a few cases we find the renaissance arabesques 7or1 more properly1 grotesques7 of the time combined with masks in relief4 ,the usual mark is a hasty outline of the dome of the ,cathedral of ,florence1 and below it the letter ,f2 on a few pieces1 those especially which are decorated with the grotesques1 we find the six roundels1 or #8palle1' of the ,medici1 surmounted by the ducal coronet4 ,a few pieces are dated4 ,the earliest date that has been discovered--#aeha--;is on a bottle of square section1 rudely painted1 under a crackle glaze1 with the arms of ,spain4 ,as might be expected in the case of an experimental ware of amateurish origin1 the extant pieces differ much in technical merit4 ,some are heavily moulded1 with a rough decoration of dark blue 7,i refer to some pieces now in the ,louvre72 while on others1 as on the fine but damaged bowl at ,south ,kensington1 a delicate design is carefully painted 7,,pl4 ,,xxx474 ,the ground1 however1 of this ,medici porcelain is seldom of a pure white1 and the colours have a tendency to run4 ,now that the specimens from the ,davillier and ,rothschild collections have found their way into the ,louvre1 this ware is best represented in that gallery4 ,there are1 however1 several pieces at ,svres1 and some good examples at ,south ,kensington4 ,the later history of this ware is obscure4 ,the kilns appear to have been removed to ,pisa1 and their existence cannot be traced later than #afbj4 ,,rouen ,,porcelain4--,for a period of two generations and more after this date it would seem that little was attempted4 ,the vague assertions found in patents taken out during this time in ,england and in ,france are of slight value for us1 for the claim is only made to an imitation of the ,eastern ware1 and such an expression might apply to many kinds of enamelled fayence4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx4 ,,medici1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,in ,france1#adh ,claude ,reverend1 in #affd1 is authorised to #8contrefaire la porcelaine la faon des ,indes4' ,a more serious interest attaches to the letters-patent granted in #afgc to ,louis ,poterat of ,rouen4 ,this ,poterat was a man of some position2 he belonged to a family that had long been connected with the manufacture of enamelled fayence at ,st4 ,sever1 near ,rouen4 ,in the diploma of #afgc facilities are granted him by the king for making vessels of porcelain similar to those of ,china by means of the secret process that he had discovered for manufacturing #8la vritable porcelaine de la ,chine4' ,there exist certain little pieces of soft-paste porcelain1 sparely decorated with arabesques and lambrequins in blue sous couverte1 in the style of ,louis ,,xiv41 and marked with the letters ,a4,p4 surmounted by a small star4#adi ,these are now generally classed as ,rouen ware of the time of ,poterat2 in that case1 we must see in them the earliest specimens of the ,french family of porcelaines tendres4 ,we have seen specimens at ,svres and at ,dresden1 in both cases little cylindrical boxes divided into compartments4 ,a similarly decorated cup1 of very translucent ware1 in the ,fitzhenry collection1 is also attributed to ,rouen4 ,there were probably at this time and later many others1 arcanistes or practical potters1 working at the problem in ,france4 ,m4 ,vogt quotes1 from the ,comptes des ,btiments du ,roi for #afhb1 two singular payments for the transport of #8terre de porcelaine' from ,le ,havre to ,rouen and thence to ,paris4 ,this porcelain earth had1 it is stated1 been previously shipped to ,civita ,vecchia4 ,it has been suggested that this might refer to a cargo of kaolin sent from the ,east 7,la ,porcelaine1 p4 #cd74 ,in #afie the king granted to the ,chicoineau family the privilege of making porcelain1 by means of a secret process1 reserving only the right previously granted to ,poterat of ,rouen4 ,with the establishment1 however1 of the ,saint-,cloud kilns we pass out of the stage of tentative experiment1 and the porcelain of ,saint-,cloud forms the proper introduction to the soft-paste wares of ,france4 ,,early ,,experiments ,,in ,,england4--,the potters art was at a very low ebb in ,england in the seventeenth century4 ,the ,dutch with their ,delft ware had taken up a position comparable to that held by our ,staffordshire potters a century and a half later4 ,they supplied us for many years with the ordinary crockery in use among the middle classes 7indeed1 in parts of ,ireland such ware is still known as #8delf'74 ,from the scattered local potteries were produced only the roughest kinds of earthenware4 ,but in this rude ware we see at times a certain barbaric1 almost ,oriental feeling for colour and decoration1 giving more promise of artistic possibilities than we can find in the tame imitative work of the eighteenth century porcelain maker4 ,quite early in the seventeenth century1 however1 certainly by the time of ,charles ,i41 pottery works were established by the banks of the ,thames at ,lambeth and elsewhere1 where successful imitations of ,delft were made1 probably with the assistance of ,dutch workmen4 ,not far off1 at ,fulham1 ,dr4 ,john ,dwight experimented upon various clays and glazes1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,his is the earliest name that occurs in the history of ,english ceramics4 ,in the letters-patent granted to him in #afga1 he claims that #8at his own proper costs and charges he hath invented and set up at ,fulham 444 several new manufactories4' ,not only was he prepared to deal with #8the misterie of the stoneware vulgarly called ,cologne ware1' but he also lays claim to #8the mysterie of transparent earthenware1 commonly knowne by the name of porcelaine or china1 and ,persian ware4' ,this claim is made even more definitely by his friend ,dr4 ,plot1 in the ,history of ,oxfordshire1 which he published in #afgg4 ,dr4 ,dwight1 he tells us1 #8hath found ways to make an earth white and transparent as porcelane1 and not distinguishable from it by the eye or by experiments which have been purposely made to try wherein they disagree4' ,we may compare this claim with the similar statements made about the same time in the petitions of ,poterat and others4 ,in neither case is there any sign of an acquaintance with the ,chinese materials4 ,in ,france the aim was to make something that should combine the properties of earthenware and glass2 while in the case of ,dr4 ,dwight's ware1 hardness and infusibility were the points sought for4 ,the portrait busts and statuettes in the ,british ,museum1 and a famous piece at ,south ,kensington1 are all that remain of ,dr4 ,dwight's wares4 ,these were until lately in the hands of his descendants1 and are1 therefore1 thoroughly authenticated4#aej ,in the former collection are two figures1 a sportsman and a girl with two lambs1 which in spirit and sharpness of execution compare favourably with our later imitations of ,meissen porcelain in soft paste4 ,a thin1 apparently non-plumbiferous glaze covers a white body1 which is undoubtedly of great hardness and possibly just translucent 7#8approaching in some cases to translucency1' says the writer of the #8,jermyn ,street' ,catalogue74 ,unfortunately there has survived nothing to illustrate his imitations of ,chinese and ,persian ware4 ,dr4 ,dwight was a man of some social position1 and a ,master of ,arts of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,the very considerable merit of his stoneware figures 7and we may add1 the pathetic interest attaching to the little figure of a dead child1 at ,south ,kensington1 inscribed #8,lydia ,dwight1 dyed ,march #crd1 #afgc'7 have established his position as the father of ,english ceramics1 and on this ground he has found a place along with ,duesbury and ,wedgwood in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography4 ,for us his stoneware has a special interest4 ,it is perhaps the only ceramic ware in existence that has so many of the characteristics of true porcelain--its hardness1 its resistance to high temperatures1 and to some extent also its translucency and whiteness of paste--but which in origin and chemical composition differs so entirely from the normal type4 ,dr4 ,place of ,york was a contemporary of ,dwight2 he devoted much time to experiments on various kinds of clay4 ,although he has some claim to rank as an artistic potter1 ,i do not think that there is any proof that he ever made porcelain of either hard or soft paste4 ,it is certainly remarkable that during the following fifty years and more we hear nothing in ,england of any attempt to manufacture porcelain1 nor is there any patent or contemporary notice bearing on the subject during the interval between ,dr4 ,dwight's specification of #afhd and the date of ,frye's first patent4 ,a claim to make porcelain by working up the ground fragments of ,oriental ware with some gummy materials is perhaps the only exception4 ,but in ,england1 as elsewhere1 the #8ware of the ,indies' was coming more and more into favour1 and its partial victory over foreign and native stoneware and pottery is1 as we said above1 closely connected with the increasing popularity of tea and coffee4 ,sack and claret were still served in bottles of ,delft ware1 and beer in stoneware jugs and tankards4 ,a certain suspicion of effeminacy and degeneracy came to be associated both with tea and coffee1 and with the ware in which they were served4#aea ,even now1 any ridicule to which the china-collector is exposed is generally associated with a teapot4 ,we have in this chapter traced the early attempts made in ,italy1 as well as those in ,france and ,england1 to imitate the porcelain of the ,far ,east4 ,we must now turn aside to ,saxony1 where1 at the dawn of the eighteenth century1 the problem was solved by the genius of a poor chemist's assistant4 ,we will then run rapidly through the many centres where hard-paste porcelain was made in ,germany1 before returning to the soft-paste wares of ,england and ,france4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,hard-,,paste ,,porcelain ,,of ,,germany ,b,,ttger ,,and ,,the ,,porcelain ,,of ,,meissen ,we have already more than once come across the famous ,elector of ,saxony1 who found time1 between his ,polish wars and his innumerable amours1 to bring together the nucleus1 at least1 of more than one of the great collections that have since his time attracted visitors to ,dresden4 ,in the historical collections of the ,johanneum and in the ,grne ,gewlbe1 we find his name associated with many things of great beauty--arms and armour1 silver plate and jewellery2 but still1 even after making every allowance for the strange taste of the time1 the general impression of the man which we get from the objects brought together by him is not exactly that of a refined amateur4 ,in fact1 the ,german phase of the school that had its origin in the ,rome of ,bernini and in the ,versailles of ,louis ,,xiv4 found in the court of ,augustus the ,strong its true home4 ,nowhere else can we find more characteristic examples of that mixture of pomposity and childishness1 that absence of all feeling for purity of line1 which distinguishes the ,german #8rococo1' than in these collections and in the buildings that hold them4 ,now1 it was under the direct patronage of this prince that the manufacture of porcelain was first established in ,europe1 and what we may call the taint of its original home has hung about the ware ever since4 ,of the porcelain of ,europe as a whole--and this is especially true of the earlier and more interesting period--we may say that it belongs to the rococo school1 tempered now and again by a more or less ill-understood imitation of ,chinese and ,japanese shapes and designs4 ,augustus collected works of art of nearly every kind1 with the important exception1 indeed1 of pictures and sculpture--these branches were at this time comparatively neglected4 ,but his heart was set1 above all1 upon gathering to his new palace in the ,neustadt1 every fine specimen of the ,oriental porcelain that reached ,europe4 ,what more natural than that he should be seized with the ambition of himself producing in his own capital something that would rival the wares of ,china and ,japan8 ,no one had better opportunities--if not himself in direct communication with the ,east1 his agents were in a position to glean and to bring to him whatever meagre information about the manufacture of porcelain might reach ,europe4 ,his court was a ,catholic centre1 and he must have taken interest in the accounts of the industries of ,china sent home by the ,jesuit missionaries4 ,the first of the famous letters of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles on the porcelain of ,king-te-chen is indeed of just too late a date for us to think of it in this connection4 ,by that time 7#agab7 ,bttger was already making true porcelain4 ,but what would seem more probable than that other private letters1 with valuable information about the manufacture in which the ,elector took so great an interest1 may have reached him a few years earlier8 ,the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 we know1 had already for several years previous to #agji 7the approximate date of ,bttger's discovery7 been living at ,juchou1 in the neighbourhood of ,king-te-chen4 ,when we consider the rapidity with which ,bttger's experiments were brought to a successful issue1 and compare this with the long and fruitless research in other countries1 it is impossible to resist a suspicion of some such infiltration from ,chinese sources1 and this suspicion is enhanced by the somewhat suspicious story of ,bttger's career4 ,but1 on the other hand1 no confirmation has1 so far1 been found for any such theory4 ,on the contrary1 ,i understand that researches made of late in the ,state archives of ,saxony have rather tended to show that some injustice has been done to ,bttger in the common tradition2 that we must look upon him as a man of considerable scientific attainments for his age and as a born experimenter1 and it must also be remembered that at that time no great distinction was made between the chemist and the alchemist4 ,johann ,friedrich ,bttger was born in the year #afhe at ,schleiz1 in the ,voigtland1 where his father had a charge connected with a local mint4 ,he was early apprenticed to an apothecary at ,berlin1 and here he was initiated into the secrets of alchemy by no less a master--so at least the story goes--than the ,greek monk ,lascaris1 a man who is mentioned with admiration by ,leibnitz1 and who is claimed as one of the #8five adepts4' ,in #agja ,bttger fled from ,berlin--it is not quite clear for what reason--and placed himself under the protection of the ,elector of ,saxony4 ,at ,dresden and1 later on1 the rock fortress of the ,knigstein1 he continued his search for the philosopher's stone1 and about this time1 probably in conjunction with the mathematician and physicist ,walther von ,tschirnhaus1 began making experiments upon clay--in search1 at first at least1 of a refractory material for his crucibles4 ,tschirnhaus had already been occupied with improvements in the manufacture of glass in ,saxony1 and as early as the year #afii had made attempts to imitate ,chinese porcelain4#aeb ,in spite of an unsuccessful attempt at flight we find ,bttger1 in the years #agje to #agjg1 established in a laboratory in the old castle of ,meissen4 ,here1 after another effort to escape1 for which he narrowly missed being hanged--at any rate so we are told--,bttger1 when experimenting on some red fireclay from the neighbourhood of ,okrilla1 fell upon the famous red ware that resembles so closely the ,chinese #8boccaro4' ,this was in #agjg4 ,the next year ,tschirnhaus died1 and by #agji1 if we are to trust the statement of ,steinbrck1 the brother-in-law of ,bttger and his immediate successor1 the latter had succeeded in making a true white porcelain4 ,shortly before this time he had been working1 in company with ,tschirnhaus1 in a laboratory constructed for them on the ,jungfern-,bastei at ,dresden1 and it must have been about the time of the death of the latter that the critical experiments were made that led to the production of a white translucent paste4 ,if this be so1 it would seem that it was1 after all1 at ,dresden1 and not at ,meissen1 that the first true porcelain was made4 ,it was not till the year #agaj that ,bttger was again removed to the old castle of ,meissen1 where the requisite secrecy could be more effectually preserved4 ,in any case1 in the year #agji ,bttger was able to show some specimens of a true porcelain--somewhat yellowish in tint1 indeed--to the royal commissioner1 and at the ,leipsic ,fair in #agaj not only was the red ware offered for sale for the first time1 but a few specimens of the white porcelain were on view4 ,soon after this we find ,bttger established in the ,albrechtsburg at ,meissen as administrator of the newly established porcelain works4 ,even now he was little better than a prisoner1 and in #agab he requested the elector-king to allow him to resign4 ,he was consoled1 however1 by a substantial present1 and1 so says one account1 he was at the same time ennobled--at any rate he was offered the title of ,bergrath4 ,but ,bttger's extravagant way of life led to his being constantly in need of money1 and in the year #agaf he entertained proposals to sell his great secret to a syndicate of ,berlin merchants4 ,in #agai1 on the discovery of this treachery1 he was again imprisoned4 ,in the same year ,bttger died at the age of thirty-four4 ,to the end1 it would appear1 he held out hopes to his master that he was on the way to success in his gold-making experiments1 and his brother-in-law1 in a solemn memorial1 asserted that he was actually in the possession of the lapis philosophorum4 ,how far ,bttger1 in making these claims1 was playing a double game in order to obtain money from ,augustus1 it is impossible to say1 but we must remember that at the same time ,tschirnhaus1 a man of culture and high intellectual attainments1 was engaged in a search for the #8universal medicine4' ,the red stoneware which was turned out already in #agjh--;it is now generally known as ,bttger ware--resembles closely the boccaro imported at that time from ,china4 ,besides the red varieties1 of two shades1 there is a third kind1 in which the surface1 as it comes from the kiln1 has been left untouched1 and such pieces the ,germans know as ,eisen-porzellan4 ,it is wonderful what a number of forms and applications ,bttger was able to give to this stoneware during the short period during which it was produced4 ,of the red ware some of the carefully modelled pieces were polished on the lapidary's wheel4 ,a child's head at ,south ,kensington is a good specimen of this polished stoneware4 ,in the ,franks collection1 now at ,bethnal ,green1 is a remarkable series of the different varieties of ,bttger ware4 ,a tankard of polished marbled paste is marked with the year #agbj1 showing that the stoneware continued to be manufactured for some time alongside of the true white porcelain4 propos of a beautiful little head of ,apollo1 we are reminded in the catalogue that in #agaa there were sixty of these ,apollo-kpfe in stock4 ,they were priced1 unpolished1 at nine groschen1 or polished at sixteen4 ,the difference1 seven groschen1 does not seem a high charge for the labour and skill involved in this polishing4 ,in other cases the body is covered with a dark brown glaze1 in which a design is traced in incised lines1 brought out by gold4 ,this glazed stoneware was afterwards imitated at ,berlin and elsewhere in ,germany4 ,there are some curious pieces at ,dresden1 which show that ,bttger also attempted1 not very successfully1 to apply enamelled colours over his dark glazes4 ,not till the ,easter ,fair of #agac was the white porcelain offered for sale at ,leipsic1 and even then the specimens on sale were far from faultless4 ,only in the year #agaf--;in the interval a new description of white paste had been discovered--was the ware exhibited technically perfect4 ,thus in the space of some eight years1 ,bttger had not only succeeded in making an excellent imitation of the ,chinese boccaro ware1 of which the special merit was to withstand rapid changes of temperature1 but he had once for all solved the great problem3 he had produced a hard white porcelain1 which has remained since that day the type for the whole of ,europe4#aec ,where1 we may ask1 did ,bttger acquire the technical knowledge and the practical experience1 so essential in work of this kind8 ,all the other men who have made a name for themselves as breakers of new ground in the art of the potter--,palissy1 ,poterat1 ,wedgwood1 and to these we may add the great ,chinese superintendents at ,king-te-chen and the ,japanese artists ,ninsei and ,zengoro--were either working potters themselves or directors of large factories4 ,what opportunities had this youth--he was only sixteen when he came to ,dresden1 and already1 it would seem1 #8well known to the police'--of acquiring the practical details of the kilns1 the mixing vats1 and the wheel8#aed ,so again with regard to the materials he employed4 ,not much light has so far been thrown on this point4 ,we have a somewhat childish story about a certain hair-powder--the ,schnorrische ,erde--which turned up at the psychological moment and solved the question once for all4 ,but porcelain is not to be made from kaolin alone4 ,that is only the skeleton1 as the ,chinese say4 ,we must find also the right kind of flesh to make the bones hang together4 ,no mention1 however1 is made in the current narrative of any experiments on felspathic rocks4 ,we know at least that this famous #8hair-powder' was a very pure white kaolin1 found at ,aue1 near ,schneeberg1 in the ,erzgebirge1 and that china-clay from this source was the principal ingredient in the earliest porcelain produced4 ,so in later accounts we find mention merely of different qualities of kaolin from ,aue1 from ,seilitz1 and other sources4#aee ,a few years ago the ,meissen paste1 it is stated1 was composed of kaolin from three different sources #gb per cent41 of #8felspar' #bf per cent41 and of old clay worked up again #b per cent4 ,in this and in most other cases where felspar is mentioned as a constituent of a porcelain paste1 we must probably understand some kind of petuntse or china-stone containing quartz and perhaps other minerals in addition to the felspar4 ,the following figures show the composition of the paste at the beginning of the last century3 silica #ei per cent41 alumina #cf per cent41 and potash #c per cent4 ,the glaze was at that time composed of calcined quartz #cg per cent41 ,seilitz kaolin #cg per cent41 limestone #age per cent41 and porcelain pot-sherds #he per cent4 ,from this it will be seen that the ,meissen porcelain is of a somewhat #8severe' type4 ,to judge from its composition it must require a high temperature in firing2 on the other hand1 the paste should possess considerable plastic qualities4 ,the absence of lime from the paste and its presence in considerable quantity in the glaze is a point of interest4 ,in this1 the ,saxon ware resembles the porcelain that is made in the ,owari district of ,japan4 ,at ,svres1 on the other hand1 we shall see that the glaze of the hard porcelain contains no lime1 while that substance is an essential constituent in the paste4 ,the ,meissen porcelain1 and indeed the ,german porcelains generally1 form a typically hard and refractory group4 ,but they have in a full measure les dfauts de leurs qualits4 ,among them we may look in vain for that blending of the glaze and body that gives to the best ,chinese porcelain a surface like that of polished marble2 still less do we find in the enamel decoration the brilliancy and transparence of ,oriental wares4 ,in place of this we see a chalky surface of a cold1 neutral tone1 over which is painted1 in dull opaque tints1 elaborately executed pictures that look often as if they had been stuck on as an afterthought4 ,apart from the influence of the taste of the time1 and the general absence of the colour sense among the ,german race1 this dulness and opacity is the result of the high temperature required in the muffle-stove to enable the coloured enamels to adhere to the refractory glaze beneath them4 ,as a consequence of this the choice of colours is limited1 and even the enamels that are available never become thoroughly incorporated with the glaze4 ,to return to the porcelain made by ,bttger in the few remaining years of his life1 it is surprising in what a number of directions we find him making experiments2 for indeed all the many varieties of porcelain made during his lifetime may be classed together as experimental4 ,it is only in the museum at ,dresden that we can study this interesting period4 ,the moulds that had been used for the red stoneware served at first for the new porcelain4 ,the ornaments in relief were modelled by hand and laid on the surface4 ,bttger attempted at one time to replace the enamel colours1 so difficult to use with effect1 by employing a kind of lacquer or mastic as a vehicle4 ,his greatest triumph in this department was the so-called mother-of-pearl glaze1 a thin wash of rosy purple with a slight lustre1#aef and this he combined with a free use of metallic gold and silver4 ,the plain white of the ,chinese was copied closely1 but the early attempts at the decoration with blue sous couverte were strikingly unsuccessful4 ,the larger pieces made at this1 and even later times1 have generally suffered from overfiring or from imperfect support in the kiln1 and would now be regarded as #8wasters4' ,after the death of ,bttger in #agai there follows an intermediate period1 still in a measure experimental1 during which the factory was under the charge of four ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi4 ,,meissen1 ,,coloured ,,enamels commissioners4 ,the blue and white of the ,chinese was imitated1 but not very skilfully4 ,they were more successful with the caf au lait glaze1 which at that time was in great favour4 ,it is to the ,viennese painter1 ,johann ,gregorius ,herold1 or ,hroldt 7b4 #afif2 #agbj-fe at ,meissen71 that the credit must be given of establishing a definite school of decoration4 ,he began1 however1 with the imitation of ,oriental designs4 ,at this time the ,japanese ,kakiyemon ware 7both the paste and the pattern7 was closely copied4 ,the blue and white with ,chinese designs was at length more successful1 and now the poudr blue and other monochrome grounds of the ,chinese were also imitated4 ,on the other hand1 to this time 7#agcj-dj7 also belong the earliest armorial dinner-services--those with the arms of ,saxony and ,poland for the electoral court1 and more than one set with the arms of the ,count ,brhl for that pomp-loving nobleman4#aeg ,a new direction was given to the manufacture soon after the appointment 7in #agca7 of ,johann ,joachim ,kndler 7#agjf-agge7 to the place of chief modeller4 ,he it was that1 abandoning the clumsy imitations of ,chinese gods and monsters1 first recognised the capabilities of porcelain as a material for those little statuettes and groups of figures that we have since that time come to associate above all else with the ,european porcelain of the eighteenth century1 and especially with that of ,germany4 ,the subjects were taken partly from the social life of the day4 ,in part also they carried on the tradition of the #8,italian comedy' and of the conventional pastoral life that we find in the ,french art of a somewhat earlier date4 ,the pictures of ,watteau and ,lancret were much sought after at that time by the princely collectors in ,germany1 and a few choice works of these artists1 as well as many somewhat muddy copies and imitations of native origin1 may be seen in the gallery at ,dresden4 ,the plastic qualities and the infusibility of the paste1 together with the thinness of the coat of glaze1 enabled the artist to obtain a clearer and sharper reproduction of his model than was ever possible with the soft pastes and the thick lead glazes of the ,english imitations4#aeh ,the best of these little figures1 however1 belong to rather later times1 for during the last years of ,augustus the ,strong 7he died in #agcc7 ,kndler was occupied with more ambitious commissions--life-sized figures of the twelve apostles1 an equestrian statue of the king1 and figures of animals1 to decorate the new rooms of the ,japanese palace4 ,but these attempts to employ porcelain as a material for monumental sculpture 7in the style of ,bernini7 ended in failure4 ,there is at ,south ,kensington a series of figures in plain white1 dating from this period1 apparently destined to form part of a small fountain1 and from these a very good idea of this application of the ware can be formed4 ,it was about this time1 or a little earlier1 that the passion for porcelain flowers1 generally in plain white ware1 spread through ,europe4 ,these or similar ornaments were even fastened to ladies' dresses1--witness the gros papillons en porcelaine de ,saxe1 which we hear of as sewed on to the state-dress of a ,french marquise4 ,this was the ware that it paid best to manufacture1 both here and at ,saint-,cloud and ,vincennes4 ,porcelain flowers were applied at a later time to the whole surface of a vase4 ,these #8,schneeballen vasen1' as they are called in ,germany1 were even reproduced at ,king-te-chen for exportation to ,europe4#aei ,with the employment of professional artists--flower-painters1 landscape-painters1 and painters of genre scenes--to adorn the surface of the already glazed ware with miniature pictures1 a style of decoration came in1 if decoration it can be called1 which became more and more the dominant note of ,european porcelain during the next hundred years4 ,the flower-painter came first with realistic1 well-shaded little nosegays1 in the style of the ,dutch painters of the day2 then landscapes1 views of real towns1 sometimes in a purple-red monochrome1 and surrounded by a gold rococo frame to imitate that of an oil picture4 ,the free use of gold1 however1 in the ,european porcelain of this time1 was to some extent a saving point4 ,it helped1 as gold always does1 to pull together the decoration4 ,on the earlier ,meissen ware the gold is most solidly applied and has worn well4 ,the palmy days of the ,meissen factory1 when seven hundred workmen were employed and large profits made1 came to an end with the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,frederick1 in #agei and again in #agfa1 looted the ,albrechtsburg and carried away to ,berlin the models and moulds as well as many choice pieces of porcelain4 ,the rest of the stock was sold by auction1 and the archives of the works were at the same time destroyed4 ,it was about this time that the most violent of the several porcelain fevers that distinguished the eighteenth century was raging1 and the period of the ,seven ,years' ,war may be regarded as the culminating epoch in the history of ,european porcelain4 ,both at ,svres1 and with us in ,england1 this is certainly the case4 ,but at ,meissen the best had already been produced2 the vieille saxe of our ancestors is a product of an earlier period--the thirties1 the forties1 and the early fifties4 ,during the decade succeeding the close of the war there was little falling off in ,france and ,england4 ,at ,meissen1 however1 there now followed a period of decline both artistic and financial4 ,we find a #8professor of painting1' one ,dietrich1 at the head of a #8school of design1' and he seems to have been the most prominent man associated with the works at the time4 ,such an association is a sure sign of the wrong direction now being given to the manufacture4 ,there was some fitful revival later in the century1 after the appointment of ,count ,marcolini to the direction4 ,he was an active minister of the last elector and first king of ,saxony--,frederick ,augustus the ,just--and he held the post of director at ,meissen for more than forty years 7#aggd-ahae74 ,marcolini's name is associated with certain changes of style which in the main reflected the various phases of a taste1 or rather fashion1 which took its watchword from ,paris4 ,there are indeed two main divisions of this later period3 during the first1 sentimental motifs and an affectation of domestic simplicity prevailed2 the second period was more especially the time when classical models were followed1 and it culminated in the ,empire style4 ,the first phase is represented in ,saxony by the works of the ,french sculptor ,acier2 in the later classical time the fashion came in of copying antique sculpture in white biscuit4 ,the ,marcolini period is the last that has any interest for us4 ,it was commercially at least a time of decline4 ,it is said that ,josiah ,wedgwood1 when he visited the factory at ,meissen in the year #agij1 offered to run it as a speculation of his own1 paying a rental of #cjjj to the king4 ,the marvel is that the manufacture survived the troubles of the ,napoleonic wars when ,saxony suffered so much4 ,during the nineteenth century ,meissen has followed more or less in the wake of ,svres4 ,huge pieces were produced for presentation1 heavily painted with copies of famous pictures in the ,dresden ,gallery1 or adorned with frieze-like bands in monochrome1 in imitation of ancient sculpture4 ,during the same time1 imitations of the vieille saxe1 the marks included1 were made with some success1 and much cheap ware has been manufactured for the market1 so that commercially the ,meissen works have for some time had a flourishing career4 ,the change that has come over ,svres of late1 the search after new methods1 both in the composition of the paste and in the decoration1 has not1 ,i think1 been reflected to any extent at ,meissen1 nor has the scientific side of the potter's art been illustrated by any works such as those of ,brongniart and ,salvtat4 ,indeed the old traditions of secrecy have been maintained in a measure up to the present day4 ,it was only in #ahfc that the porcelain factory was removed from the castle rock at ,meissen1 where it had been carried on for a century and a half1 to a more roomy and convenient position in the neighbourhood4 ,the well-known mark of the two swords 7,,pl4 ,c4 #bg7 cannot be traced by means of dated specimens further back than the year #agbf4 ,this mark had its origin in the privilege claimed by the ,saxon electors of carrying the two imperial swords before the ,emperor at his coronation4 ,on the earliest pieces we find either the letters ,a4 ,r4 in blue 7,,pl4 ,c4 #bf71 or else a roughly painted caduceus1 or rather rod of sculapius 7,,pl4 ,c4 #be71 the first on ware for court use1 the second on that made for the market4 ,an incised mark cut with the wheel across the two swords is said to indicate the ware that was sold undecorated1 generally pieces with some slight defect4 ,we may note that a similar practice was at one time in use at ,svres4 ,the addition of a star to the swords indicates the ,marcolini period4 ,these eighteenth century marks1 however1 were copied not only in ,england and by private firms in ,germany1 but also on the imitation of the vieille saxe made in the last century at the royal works at ,meissen1 so that their presence on a piece of china is of little value in identifying the date or place of origin4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,hard-,,paste ,,porcelain ,,of ,,germany--7continued74 ,,vienna--,,berlin--,h,,chst--,f,,rstenb erg--,,ludwigsburg-- ,,nymphenburg--,,frankenthal--,,fulda--, ,strassburg4 ,,the ,,hard ,,and ,,soft ,,pastes ,,of ,,switzerland1 ,,hungary1 ,,holland1 ,,sweden1 ,,denmark1 ,,and ,,russia4 ,in spite of the elaborate precautions that were taken--the oaths of secrecy1 the military guards that accompanied the relays of china-clay to the fortress at ,meissen in which the works were established--by the middle of the eighteenth century1 at nearly all the courts of ,germany1 imperial1 royal1 or serene1 we find a porcelain manufactory already in full work4 ,it was the fashion of the day1 and took its place1 like the opera company or the stud1 in the equipment of an up-to-date ,residenz-,stadt4 ,only one or two of these princely factories survived the time of turmoil at the end of the century and the ,napoleonic invasions4 ,in no single one of the works can we find that any fresh line was struck out or any important improvement made either in technique or in design4 ,the products of these different factories are often to be distinguished only by the marks they bear1 and these marks are as often as not forgeries4 ,we shall therefore confine ourselves to a somewhat summary description1 pointing out especially the relations of the different centres to one another4 ,the starting of a new manufactory generally depended upon the successful bribing of some official or foreman of works3 at the beginning such aid was sought from ,meissen1 but later on the assistance came from ,vienna or from ,hchst1 so that on this ground the relation of the works to one another might be represented by a rough kind of genealogical tree4 ,,vienna4--,the beginnings of the factory at ,vienna were humble4 ,claude du ,paquier1 a ,dutch adventurer1 took out a patent for making porcelain in #agah1 and with the aid of an enameller and gilder from ,meissen1 one ,hunger1 a man with some knowledge of chemistry1 carried on the work on a modest scale1 until in #agdd his factory and his secrets were bought by ,maria ,theresa for #de1jjj gulden4 ,the ,viennese porcelain was henceforth1 until the extinction of the industry in #ahfd1 marked with the ,hapsburg shield1 generally in blue1 under the glaze 7,,pl4 ,c4 #bh71 with the addition1 after #aghd1 of a contracted year-mark4 ,so long as the kaolin from ,passau was employed the paste was inferior to that of ,meissen and ,berlin1 but in later days a better material was obtained from ,bohemia4 ,the most flourishing period was from #aggj to #agij1 and in #aghj1 we are told1 there were three hundred and twenty men employed4 ,in early years the porcelain did not differ much from that of ,dresden1 but in #aghd1 when ,conrad von ,sorgenthal became director1 a new style was introduced which has made the ,viennese in some respects the typical ware of a bad period4 ,much attention was paid to the gilding and to the pigments employed1 and the surface of the porcelain was covered by an elaborate and often gaudy decoration4 ,we are1 however1 informed by an eminent ,german authority that #8from #aghe to #ahae the ,viennese porcelain among all the manufactures of the time took1 from an artistic point of view1 the highest rank' 7,jaennicke1 ,keramic1 ,stuttgart1 #ahgi74 ,it is in any case remarkable that1 during a period of disastrous war and foreign occupation1 so much bad porcelain and good music should have been produced at ,vienna4 ,it was at this time that the chemist ,leithner obtained1 for the first time1 an intense black from uranium and perfected the process by which platinum is applied in low relief4 ,to the same chemist we must also attribute another speciality of the ,viennese porcelain of this time1--the decoration with designs in polished gold upon a dead ground of the same metal4 ,there are some elaborately decorated plates at ,south ,kensington which well illustrate the merits or demerits of this ware4 ,in spite of the early foundation of the factory1 the ,viennese porcelain1 as a whole1 falls into the later #8sentimental to classical' period1 that contemporary with ,marcolini at ,meissen and with the earlier hard paste of ,svres4 ,the historical development of the ware is well illustrated in the ,industrial ,museum at ,vienna1 and it may be acknowledged that some success was obtained with small figures and even life-sized busts4 ,a good deal of cheap and meretricious stuff made in the numerous private kilns in and around ,vienna in the latter half of the nineteenth century has lately found its way into the ,english market4 ,,berlin4--,the porcelain of ,berlin is of some interest to us for two reasons1 one historical and the other of a technical nature4 ,on the one hand it was thanks to the fostering care of the great ,frederick that the factory first assumed any importance1 and on the other it was the great attention given in later days to choice of materials 7together with the refractory nature of the paste7 that led to this pure white ware being employed above all others in the laboratory of the chemist4 ,as at ,vienna1 the origin of the works was humble1 and in this case one perhaps might even say #8shady1' if we are to believe the story that it was the workmen who had stolen from the pocket of ,ringler1 the arcanist of ,hchst1 the papers containing his recipes and private notes1 who were engaged in #agej by the merchant ,wegeli1 the first to set up a kiln for porcelain at ,berlin4#afj ,the ware that ,wegeli made is not important4 ,we find little figures and groups in imitation of ,kndler as well as cups and teapots decorated in blue1 sous couverte1 with little sprigs2 his mark1 a ,w41 has unfortunately been used at other factories4 ,it was indeed rather the banker ,gotzkowski who was the practical founder of the ,berlin works1 for ,wegeli had abandoned his enterprise at the commencement of the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,german writers are not agreed as to what share should be given to the king in the removal of the staff and workmen of the ,meissen works to ,berlin in #agfa4 ,frederick at that time was hard pressed by his enemies and in great want of money2 in the letter1 quoted below1 he writes that he has nothing left but his honour1 his coat1 his sword1 and his porcelain4 ,he has been accused of forcibly removing to ,berlin1 not only the workmen1 but the artists also and other members of the staff at ,meissen4 ,on the other hand1 it is claimed that the removal was voluntary1 and brought about by the offers of good pay made by ,gotzkowski4 ,frederick at that time had other things to do1#afa and it was not till the close of the war in #agfc that he purchased ,gotzkowski's new works for a large sum4 ,he now had leisure to take a personal interest in the manufacture4 ,about this time the kaolin which had been previously brought from ,passau1 in ,bavaria1 was obtained1 of better quality1 from the quarries near ,halle which still supply the ,berlin works4 ,the sale of the porcelain was forced with true ,prussian energy3 its purchase was obligatory for lottery prizes1 to the amount of #aj1jjj thalers every year1 and no ,jew could obtain a marriage certificate except on the production of the receipt for the purchase of a service of porcelain4 ,it is for this reason that the ,berlin ware is in ,germany sometimes known as ,juden porcellan4 ,grieninger1 a ,saxon1 was the practical manager of the works from the time of their foundation by ,gotzkowski to the end of the century4 ,during this period the porcelain produced differed little from that previously made at ,meissen4 ,a shade of pink1 derived from the purple of ,cassius1 was much admired by ,frederick1 and forms the pendant to the famous rose-colour of his bitter enemy1 ,madame de ,pompadour4 ,the changes made after this time were chiefly of a practical nature4 ,the horizontal furnaces were early replaced by the cylindrical type now generally in use in ,europe1 and as long ago as #agii steam power was employed in the preparation of the materials4 ,the chemist1 above all1 has at all times played an important part at ,berlin4 ,many strange applications of porcelain1 some more curious than really beautiful1 were introduced about the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,a close imitation of lace and tulle1 made by dipping into a specially prepared slip a real tissue which was afterwards burned away1 was a nine days' wonder when first introduced4 7,a veiled bust in white biscuit of ,queen ,louise of ,prussia1 now at ,dresden1 is perhaps the most famous example of this ware47 ,another application of porcelain was to the #8transparencies' or lithophanie1 in which the design1 as seen by transmitted light1 was given by variations in the thickness of the paste4 ,the only mark of interest on the porcelain of ,berlin is the sceptre 7,,pl4 ,c4 #ca71 the prized ensign that the electors of ,brandenburg bore on their shield as an emblem of their position as ,arch-,chamberlains of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4#afb ,it was this sceptre 7very slightly indicated on the earlier examples1 and resembling1 perhaps intentionally1 the ,saxon mark7 that the ,prince de ,ligne observing on his plate1 when dining with the king1 affected to take for a sword1 and made the occasion of a #8two-edged' compliment4 ,h,,chst4--,the fayence of ,hchst1 a town lying between ,frankfort and ,mainz1 had acquired some reputation early in the eighteenth century1 and already1 by the year #agbj1 one of the manufacturers1 ,gltz1 had attempted to make porcelain4 ,but not until he had obtained the assistance of a runaway workman or #8arcanist' from ,vienna1 one ,ringler 7a name which occurs over and over again in similar connections--see note1 p4 #bfb71 was anything of importance accomplished4#afc ,the kilns were now rebuilt on the ,viennese model1 and by the year #agdf porcelain of good quality was produced4 ,the works had already received many privileges from the local prince1 in this case the archbishop-elector of ,mainz1 and about #aggh 7or perhaps earlier7 the whole establishment was purchased by him4 ,this prince was a patron of art and fond of display1 so that during his day the manufacture was conducted on a non-commercial basis4 ,the chief claim to attention of the ware made at ,hchst depends upon the little lifelike figures that were modelled by a clever sculptor who worked there from #agfh or #aggj to #aghj4 ,the work of this ,johann ,peter ,melchior1 who survived till #ahbe1 is preferred by some collectors to anything made at ,meissen4 ,he migrated late in life first to ,frankenthal1 and then to ,nymphenburg4 ,the wooden models from which he worked are now much sought after in ,germany4 ,it is stated that the kaolin used at ,hchst was obtained from ,limoges1 but this can only apply to a comparatively late period4 ,the works came to an end with the invasion of the ,french in #agid4 ,the mark1 a six-spoked wheel1 sometimes surmounted by a crown 7,pl4 c4 #bi71 is derived from the arms of the arch-episcopal see of ,mainz1--indeed the ,hchst ware is sometimes known as porcelaine de ,mayence4 ,f,,rstenberg4--,the ,duke ,karl of ,brunswick was one of the earliest ,german princes to establish a porcelain factory2 this was at the castle of ,frstenberg1 on the ,weser4 ,the works were organised about #agdf by the ,baron von ,langen1 who was something of an arcanist2 and from ,hchst1 in #agej1 the assistance of an experienced potter1 one ,bengraf1 was obtained4 ,bengraf had to escape by stealth from ,hchst1 where he had been in the employ of ,gltz1 and reached ,frstenberg after many sufferings and privations4 ,a point of interest in connection with the porcelain made at a later time at this factory is that flour-spar 7fluoride of calcium7 has formed an important element in the composition of the glaze4 ,in the ,museum at ,brunswick may be seen more than eight hundred specimens of this porcelain1 and any want of originality is made up for by the extraordinary variety and number of the different wares that have been copied4 ,it is not perhaps surprising1 in view of the close family ties existing between the dukes and our second and third ,georges1 to find copies of our ,english soft pastes1 especially of ,chelsea4 ,the clarets and maroons of this latter ware were imitated with some success4 ,a landscape-painter of some local fame1 whose works may be seen in the gallery at ,brunswick1 one ,pascha ,weitsch1 was employed to paint views on this porcelain1 and good portrait-busts--of ,lavater and of ,raphael ,mengs1 among others--may be found in the adjacent museum4 ,the factory has continued in operation up to quite recent times4 ,the ,frstenberg mark1 a large ,f in a flowing hand 7,,pl4 ,c4 #cj71 may be observed not unfrequently on china in old collections in ,england4 ,there was more than one specimen at ,strawberry ,hill4 ,,ludwigsburg4--,we now come again upon the arcanist ,ringler4 ,in #ageh he was tempted away from ,hchst by the ,duke ,karl ,eugen of ,wrtemberg1 and placed at the head of a manufactory of porcelain which had lately been established at ,ludwigsburg1 the ,versailles or ,potsdam of the dukes1 situated some nine miles to the north of ,stuttgart4 ,the paste of this ware is not remarkable for purity of tint1 and ,i do not know whether we are to believe the statement that the materials came in part from ,france4 ,the enamel painting is distinguished by its high finish2 on the gala services made for the court1 among wreaths of flowers in low relief we find carefully painted beetles and butterflies4 ,the little1 highly finished statuettes and groups are of some merit4 ,in the ,museum of ,national ,antiquities at ,stuttgart is now to be seen an extensive collection of porcelain1 purchased in #ahge from ,herr ,murschel1 and here the ,ludwigsburg ware can be well studied4 ,the shield of ,wrtemberg1 with ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 #a4 ,,meissen4 #b4 ,,ludwigsburg4 its three pairs of antlers1 is sometimes found on this ware 7,,pl4 ,c4 #ce71 but more often the initials of the reigning duke--or 7after #ahjf7 king--with or without a crown 7,,pl4 ,c4 #cf74 ,it is this last mark that has probably given rise to the absurd name of ,kronenburg by which this ware is sometimes known among dealers4 ,soon after #agge1 when the dukes abandoned ,ludwigsburg as a place of residence1 the factory declined in importance1 but the manufacture lingered on till the year #ahbd4 ,,nymphenburg4--,about the middle of the eighteenth century the electoral prince1 ,max ,joseph1 established some works at ,neudeck1 on the ,au1 in ducal ,bavaria1 and this factory1 it is said1 was visited and reorganised by the ubiquitous ,ringler in #agef4 ,in #ageh1 however1 the manufactory was removed to the summer residence of ,nymphenburg1 near ,munich4 ,heintzmann painted landscapes1 and other artists copied famous pictures from the ,munich ,gallery1 on the fine white ground of this porcelain4 ,the elector-palatine inherited the ducal territory in #aggh1 and hither1 in #agii1 came many workmen from ,frankenthal when the palatinate was invaded by the ,french4 ,this ware is best represented in the ,national ,museum at ,munich4 ,the works are still carried on1 but they are now in private hands4 ,the ,nymphenburg porcelain may generally be recognised by the shield of ,bavaria1 #8fusilly' 7,,pl4 ,c4 #ce71 but this shield takes various forms and the mark is often very small4 ,,frankenthal4--,somewhat more interest attaches to the porcelain made at ,frankenthal1 a town of the palatinate1 not far from ,mannheim1 if only because at its foundation we are brought into connection not only with the earlier ,german works1 but at the same time1 indirectly1 it is true1 with ,svres4 ,here1 according to one account1 came ,ringler1 in #agea1 leaving ,hchst in disgust1 after he had been robbed of his papers and of his secrets4 ,at any rate1 a few years later1 in #agee1 ,paul ,antoine ,hannong1 a member of a famous family of potters at ,strassburg1 was granted a privilege to found here a factory of porcelain4 ,hannong had graduated as a porcelain arcanist1 and had already fruitlessly endeavoured to sell his secrets to the authorities at ,vincennes4 ,as the royal porcelain works1 on their removal to ,svres1 now began to claim the monopoly for the whole of ,france1 ,hannong was not allowed to set up his kilns at ,strassburg4 ,the electoral prince ,karl ,theodor bought the works at ,frankenthal in #agfa1 and devoted himself to obtaining the best artists 7,melchior1 among others1 was brought from ,hchst7 and most skilful potters1 so that for a few years the porcelain here produced was in its way as good as any made in ,germany--indeed it was attempted to rival the contemporary work of ,svres in the delicacy of the painting and the brilliancy of the gilding4 ,this ware is always to be associated with the ,elector ,karl ,theodor1 and its glory came to an end when1 in #aggh1 he abandoned the palatinate on becoming elector of ducal ,bavaria4 ,the factory1 however1 was not finally closed till about #ahjj4 ,the most usual mark is the lion-rampant crowned1 from the arms of the palatinate 7,,pl4 ,c4 #cb72 the initials of ,karl ,theodor are also found surmounted by a crown 7,,pl4 ,c4 #cc74 ,there is a curious plate of this ware in the ,franks collection2 it bears a ,latin inscription 7containing a chronogram for #agge7 which states that all the various colours and gilding used at the works are made use of in the decoration4 ,,fulda4--,porcelain was probably made at ,fulda as early as the year #agda1 but it was only in #agfc1 or perhaps even later1 that the prince-bishop set up the #8,frstliche ,fuldaische feine ,porzellan-,fabrik' close by his palace4 ,the daintily modelled and carefully finished ware here made1 marked with a double ,f or by a cross 7,,pl4 ,c4 #cg and #ch71 is seen occasionally in ,english collections4 ,the fireclay as well as the beechwood for his kilns was obtained from the adjacent volcanic hills of the ,hohe ,rhn4 ,as not only the bishop himself but the canons of the church also availed themselves somewhat freely of their privilege of appropriating whatever pleased them1 as presents to their friends1 a heavy loss was incurred1 and the works were closed soon after the death of the founder4 ,porcelain was also made during the latter half of the eighteenth century at ,gotha and several other places in the neighbourhood of the ,thringer ,wald4 ,there are specimens of the ware made at many of these kilns--at ,kloster ,veilsdorf1 at ,wallendorf1 at ,gross ,breitenbach1 ,limbach1 ,gera1 and especially at ,gotha--in the ,franks collection of continental porcelain4 ,a good deal of common porcelain for table use is still made at scattered factories in this district4 ,,strassburg4--,without committing oneself to any political parti-pris1 we may conveniently say a word of the ceramic history of ,strassburg at this point1 although in the eighteenth century the town already belonged to ,france4#afd ,the ,hannong family had here from the beginning of the eighteenth century been making fayence1 and this family is of interest to us as forming a link between the porcelain of ,germany and that of ,france4 ,charles ,franois ,hannong1 probably with the assistance of a ,german arcanist1 attempted the manufacture of hard porcelain as early as #agba4 ,it was his son ,paul ,antoine who first entered into negotiations with the ,french for the sale of the secret of making hard porcelain4 ,this was in #agec4 ,not only did these negotiations come to nothing1 but1 as we have already mentioned1 ,hannong was hampered in his attempts to establish a porcelain factory in his native town4 ,in #agee we find him with the elector-palatine at ,frankenthal4 ,after his death in #agfj1 the factory at ,strassburg was carried on for a time by his son1 ,pierre ,antoine1 but in #agff the latter went to ,france and started a factory first at ,vincennes1 and later in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,lazare1 under the patronage of the ,comte d',artois4 ,later still we find him employed at the ,vinovo works in ,piedmont4 ,his eldest son1 ,joseph ,adam ,hannong1 struggled on for some time at ,strassburg under the protection of the local magnate1 the ,cardinal de ,rohan4 ,thus for more than sixty years four generations of this family played a prominent part in the dissemination of the knowledge of hard porcelain in ,europe1 although the actual wares made by them are of little importance4#afe ,the factory at the adjacent town of ,niderwiller appears to have derived its inspiration directly from ,meissen4 ,porcelain was here made from ,german clay as early as the sixties4 ,at a later time the works belonged to the ,comte de ,custine1 and some well modelled biscuit figures1 the clay for which was obtained from ,limoges1 were then turned out4 ,,switzerland4--,a good deal of porcelain was made in the eighteenth century both at ,zurich and at ,nyon1 on the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,the various wares are well represented in several of the local ,swiss museums4 ,the porcelain of ,,zurich belongs essentially to the ,saxon group4 ,the hard1 greyish or dead-white paste1 and the flowers or landscapes carefully painted in opaque colours1 point at once to the origin of the ware4 ,the factory was established as early as #agfc1 with the assistance of an arcanist1 one ,spengler1 from ,hchst4 ,the ,swiss poet1 ,solomon ,gessner1 took a great interest in the works1 himself painting landscapes on several pieces4 ,from ,ludwigsburg also came ,sonnenschein1 to model some clever and lifelike figures4 ,a coral-coloured ware made at this time was much admired4 ,the ,zurich factory did not long survive the ,french invasion3 it was closed in #ahjc4 ,this porcelain is marked in blue under the glaze with a capital ,z of ,german form 7,,pl4 ,d4 #di74 ,at ,,nyon1 on the other hand1 the influence came from ,svres1 in later times at least1 for on the earlier specimens the tulips1 birds1 and landscapes are of a ,saxon type4 ,the white ware1 sem de fleurettes--blue violets and roses--is perhaps the most characteristic4 ,there were probably two factories here at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,of these the better known one was established by ,maubre1 a flower painter from ,svres1 to whom is attributed the porcelain marked with a hastily sketched fish in blue 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ej74 ,some of the ,nyon porcelain was decorated at ,geneva1 and at a later date we find more than one artist of the latter town holding an important position at ,svres2 indeed under ,charles ,x41 a ,genevese1 ,abraham ,constantin1 who copied the pictures of ,raphael on porcelain1 was director of the art school attached to the royal factory4 ,,hungary4--,a factory was established by ,moritz ,fischer at ,herend1 in ,hungary1 early in the nineteenth century4 ,the porcelain of ,herend is of especial interest to us1 for ,fischer appears to have mastered the problem of producing the brilliant and jewel-like enamels of the ,chinese4 ,some of his imitations of the famille rose are excellent4 ,he appears to have devoted himself to making coffee-cups and other small objects for the ,turkish market4 ,there is an interesting collection of his ware at ,south ,kensington4 ,the rouge d'or1 the green and even the black grounds of the ,chinese are well imitated1 but the blue1 sous couverte1 and the iron red are not so successful4 ,he also imitated the porcelain of ,svres and ,capo di ,monte4 ,fischer stamped his ware with the word ,herend in very small characters1 and the ,hungarian coat of arms is sometimes added over the glaze 7,,pl4 ,c4 #ci74 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the time of the great porcelain fever of the eighteenth century1 of which the culminating period may be held to be coincident with the ,seven ,years' ,war 7#agef-fc71 the ,north of ,europe--,holland1 ,denmark1 and ,russia--formed part of the great province that had its metropolis at ,meissen1 while the southern countries--,spain and ,italy 7in part7--may be said to have looked to ,svres for their inspiration4 ,as for ,england1 its allegiance was divided1 but at the beginning1 and certainly during the best period1 the ,french influence was predominant2 and later on1 as regards the materials at least1 we struck out a line of our own4 ,,holland4--,there is little of novelty or originality to be found in the hard-paste porcelain made at this time in the ,north of ,europe4 ,the great days of ,dutch art were over long before the introduction of porcelain into ,holland1 and the little that was then made fell readily into the ,saxon school of decoration4 ,somewhere about #agfj the ,count of ,gronsfeld ,diepenbroik established some of the ,meissen workmen at ,weesp4 ,the mark on this early ware is doubtless derived from the ,saxon swords 7,,pl4 ,c4 #dj74 ,later1 when removed to ,,oude ,,loosdrecht1 the works were under the superintendence of a ,calvinist pastor--his name is given as ,moll4 ,the mark on his porcelain1 however1 ,m4 ,o4 ,l41 certainly referred in the first place to the place of manufacture 7,,pl4 ,c4 #da74 ,on the death of the reverend director in #aghb the factory was removed to ,amsterdam1 where the porcelain known generally as ,,oude ,,amstel--a name that is often made to include the other ,dutch porcelain of the time--was manufactured4 ,at ,,the ,,hague1 in #aggh1 a company was formed to make porcelain4 ,this was under the patronage of the local magnates4 ,they obtained the assistance of ,german workmen1 and took the well-known badge of their town--a stork holding a fish in its mouth--as a mark 7,,pl4 ,c4 #db74 ,this was painted in blue under the glaze--for the native porcelain at least4 ,in the case of the foreign white ware1 much of which was decorated here--the soft paste of ,tournai especially--the mark was painted over the glaze4 ,the somewhat heavily decorated porcelain of the ,hague1 painted with landscapes1 sea-pieces1 and flowers1 is now much sought after by the ,dutch4 ,at the time1 however1 the competition of both ,oriental and ,german porcelain1 of the enamelled fayence of ,delft and later of the ,english wares1 left little place in ,holland for a native porcelain4 ,,sweden4--,the fayence and soft-paste porcelain made at ,marieberg and at ,rrstrand--both places in the neighbourhood of ,stockholm--received their inspiration from ,delft and ,svres 7or rather perhaps from ,mennecy7 respectively4 ,some hard paste was also made at ,marieberg about #aghj4 ,the rare specimens of this ware are of considerable artistic merit4 ,of the soft-paste ,swedish porcelain there are some custard-cups1 closely imitating the ,mennecy ware1 both at ,south ,kensington and in the ,franks collection4 ,the hard porcelain 7and also1 it is said1 a ware that appears to be of a hybrid paste7 bears as a mark the three crowns of the house of ,vasa 7,,pl4 ,c4 #dd74 ,,denmark4--,at ,copenhagen there were some early attempts at a soft paste made by a ,frenchman named ,fournier about #agfj4aff ,the mark--,f4 #e4--on this ware refers to ,frederick ,v41 the reigning king4 ,but the famous factory of hard-paste porcelain1 that has of late years shown so much enterprise and originality1#afg was founded in #aggb by ,f4 ,h4 ,mller1 a chemist and ,government official1 the materials being obtained from the island of ,bornholm4 ,in this case the ,german influence came from ,meissen1 and also1 it would seem1 by way of ,frstenberg1 for we hear of a certain ,von ,lang from that town 7probably the ,von ,langen mentioned above71 baron and arcanist1 who helped in the founding of the works4 ,the factory was taken over by the ,government in #aggi1 and it was long worked at a loss4 ,the mark of three wavy lines in blue on this ware stands for the ,sound1 the ,great and the ,little ,belt 7,,pl4 ,c4 #dc74 ,the curved mouldings1 radiating in sets of three from a central medallion1 sometimes found on bowls and plates1 may also have a similar reference4 ,this latter decoration is shown well on a bowl at ,south ,kensington1 painted with birds and flowers in gold frames4 ,the handsome cabarets and dinner-services produced in the eighteenth century belong to the ,german school of the time1 and have little relation to the more recent developments about which we shall have a word to say in chapter xxiii4 ,,russia4--,peter the ,great1 at the instigation of his friend and ally1 ,augustus of ,saxony1 is said to have projected a manufactory of porcelain at ,st4 ,petersburg1 but the scheme was not carried out till the time of the ,empress ,elizabeth4 ,this was probably about #agef1 or perhaps earlier1 and she doubtless1 a few years later1 welcomed the ,meissen potters driven out by her mortal enemy1 ,frederick4#afh ,under ,catherine ,,ii4 these works rose to some importance1 and among the many artists and sculptors attracted to her court1 not a few--,falconet1 among others--were employed as modellers or painters on porcelain4 ,but on the whole the ,russian porcelain was influenced more by ,saxon models1 and we hear that the gaps in the court services of ,meissen ware were so well replaced by native pieces that the new dishes and plates were not to be distinguished from the old4 ,the kaolin and the china-stone were derived from native sources4 ,after the ,napoleonic war the manufacture of gigantic vases1 in the style of those made at ,svres under ,brongniart's rgime1 was attempted1 and several skilful artists migrated from ,france4 ,technically the porcelain was not inferior to the hard paste of the latter country4 ,the only mark is the initial of the reigning ,emperor or ,empress in ,russian characters 7,,pl4 ,c4 #df71 surmounted sometimes by a crown1 but beyond these letters there is nothing ,russian about the ware4 ,the factory1 which is still carried on1 has always been an appanage of the court1 and its chief produce has consisted in gala pieces for imperial presents4 ,not much seems to be known about a certain ,gardner1 an ,englishman1 who in #aghg organised a porcelain factory at ,tver1 near ,moscow4 ,some statuettes with his initials1 written in ,russian1 have been attributed to him4 ,his name occurs in full1 again in ,russian letters1 on some small pieces of ribbed porcelain1 decorated with green and gold4 ,the factory seems to have long preserved his name1 for on a statuette of a ,russian peasant1 in the ,franks collection1 the words ,fabrika ,gardnery are accompanied by the initials of ,alexander ,,ii4 7,,pl4 ,c4 #de74 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,soft-,,paste ,,porcelain ,,of ,,france ,,saint-,,cloud--,,lille--,,chantilly--, ,mennecy--,,paris--,,vincennes--,s,,vres 4 ,we have now to take up the history of the soft-paste porcelain of ,france1 and in the first place to follow the stages that intervene between the early tentative ware made by ,poterat at ,rouen 7see p4 #bci7 and the fully developed #8artificial' porcelain of ,svres4 ,we have1 then1 to deal first with the wares of ,saint-,cloud and ,chantilly1 and in part with those of ,lille and ,mennecy-,villeroy4 ,but before saying anything of the different wares we had better go back to the technical side of our subject1 and give some explanation of the term soft paste1#afi artificial paste1 or frit paste4 ,we have come across something of this sort before in the case of the ,medici ware4 ,this was essentially the combination of a glass with a fine white clay4 ,when we come to the ,french soft paste we find the kaolinic element replaced by something between a calcareous clay and an impure limestone1 the marne of the ,french1 which may be rendered by our somewhat vague expression1 marl4 ,m4 ,vogt 7,la ,porcelaine1 ,paris1 #ahic7 quotes from a memoir drawn up in #agec by ,hellot1 a prominent member of the ,academy of ,science1 which well illustrates the point of view of the time4 ,hellot knew all about kaolin and petuntse1 as described by the ,jesuit missionaries1 but he despaired of finding the materials in ,france4 ,m4 de ,raumur1 he tells us1 made1 it is true1 a greyish refractory ware from what he 7,raumur7 claimed to be the ,french equivalent of these materials1 but the #8firm1 compact1 snow-like porcelain of ,china1 what we commonly know as ,ancien ,japon 7sic7 has yet to be imitated4' ,after giving an outline of the history of ,french soft paste up to this time 7to this important contemporary evidence we shall return shortly71 ,hellot claims that this soft paste is equal to the real #8,japan1' except that the grain is less fine1 while as for #8the ,saxon ware1 it is no porcelain at all except on the exterior4 ,when broken it is easy to see that it is merely a white enamel1 only harder than the ordinary enamel of painters4' ,this1 be it noted1 is written forty years after ,bttger's great discovery4 ,we see by it how well the secret was kept4#agj ,there is no question1 therefore1 but of soft-paste porcelain4 ,it is thus that ,hellot sums up his report1 written at the critical period when it was proposed to remove the ,vincennes works to ,svres1 and place them under more immediate royal protection1 and for this verdict we have every reason to be thankful4 ,it is from this same memoir1 ,recueil de tous les procds de la ,porcelaine de la ,manufacture ,royale de ,vincennes1 that we obtain the most accurate details of the composition of the soft paste made at this time4 ,it was a strictly private document1 written expressly for the king by ,hellot1 who had recently been appointed to the direction of the ,vincennes factory4 ,this report was unearthed some time ago from among the archives at ,svres4 ,according to ,hellot1 writing in #agec1 just as the ,chinese combine the more fusible petuntse with the kaolin--#8a kind of talc which neither calcines nor vitrifies'--so with our frit1 an artificial petuntse1 we must mix1 not an unctuous fusible clay1 but some fine white infusible substance4 ,such a material is found in certain marnes obtained from the gypsum quarries near ,paris4 ,the frit employed at ,vincennes at this time--and the composition seems to have varied little up to the last days of soft paste in ,france--was essentially an alkaline silicate1 containing also some lime and alumina1 as will be seen from the following recipe3-- ,fused nitre1 #bb per cent4 ,sea salt1 #g 0 ,alicante soda1 #cg 0 ,rock alum1 #cg 0 ,montmartre gypsum1 #cg 0 ,fontainebleau sand1 #fj 0 ,these ingredients1 some of which are soluble in water1 are fritted together--that is to say1 imperfectly fused--in a part of the kiln specially reserved for them1 great precautions being taken to regulate the heat4 ,after reducing the frit to powder1 the superfluous salts had to be thoroughly washed out by means of boiling water1 before the substance was fit for mixing with the #8body' constituent of the paste4 ,this body is prepared from the grosse marne found at ,argenteuil1 by careful sifting and decantation4 ,six parts of the prepared frit are mixed with one part of the washed marl and with one part of a kind of chalk called blanc d',espagne 7this last substance was afterwards dispensed with71 and the whole thoroughly united by a grinding process which lasted for nine days4 ,the resulting paste was made up into balls and allowed to #8ferment' for seven or eight months4 ,now1 if we glance over the various materials that have entered into the composition of this very #8artificial' paste1 we see that alumina1 the substance which1 together with silica1 we regard as the essential element in all fictile materials1 is present in very small quantities2 what there is of it can only be derived from the marl and from the alum in the frit2 and this inference is confirmed by an analysis made by ,salvtat--he found1 indeed1 only #bbc per cent4 of this earth in a fragment of old ,svres4 ,it may safely be said that in no other fictile ware is so small a quantity of alumina present4 ,with this poverty of alumina we may associate the want of plasticity--the extreme #8shortness' which distinguishes this clay1 if clay it can be called4 ,in order to throw it on the wheel it had to be worked up with a certain quantity of chimie1 a mixture of black soap and fine glue2 at a later time gum tragacanth was used4 ,most of the soft paste1 indeed1 was made in moulds1 but even in this case the pte chimise had to be employed4 ,it was not till a later time that these difficulties were in part overcome by the introduction of the ,english process of #8casting4' ,the kilns at this time were small1 with only one hearth1 in which poplar wood was burned1 but the firing was sometimes continued for more than a hundred hours4 ,hellot tells us that after the first firing more than two-thirds of the charge had generally to be rejected4 ,the remainder--the successful biscuitware--was now polished with grit-stone1 before being dipped into the soup-like glaze slip3 in the case of vessels of complicated outline1 the glaze was painted on with a brush4 ,this #8enamel1' as the ,french sometimes call it--the term must not be confused with our use of that word--was essentially a silicate of lead1 soda1 and potash--a flint or crystal glass1 in fact1 containing nearly #dj per cent4 of litharge4 ,hellot describes its preparation as follows3 the constituents of the glaze1 thoroughly mingled together1 were melted to a glass1 which had then to be reduced to a fine powder1 and mixed with water and vinegar to form the slip4 ,the presence of vinegar hindered the deposition of the solid particles in the soup-like liquid1 and at the same time promoted the adhesion of the slip to the surface of the biscuit4 ,this biscuit1 with its thick coating of glaze1 was now again fired1 this time at a more gentle temperature4 ,the plain white ware was now handed over to the painters and gilders1 and it is at this stage that the advantage resulting from this thick coating of an easily fusible1 lustrous glaze asserts itself4 ,the pigments themselves1 suspended in a flux of similar constitution1 are at the temperature of the muffle-stove completely incorporated with the subjacent glaze1 and do not1 as in the case of the ,german and still more of the later ,svres hard paste1 lie as a dead coating on the surface4 ,hellot gives in his report numerous recipes for these enamel colours--there are as many as twenty-five for the blacks alone--but from these empirical data little is to be learned4 ,it would seem1 however1 that the #8enamels of ,venice1' prepared doubtless by the ,murano glassblowers1 were imported for this purpose4 ,the muffle-firing was a long and complicated process--the preliminary heating in the case of large pieces occupied twenty-five hours4 ,the superintendence of the firing of each batch was delegated to one of the painters--a most arduous and responsible task which often occupied as much as fifteen days1 for each piece had to pass to a fresh position when a requisite degree of heat had been obtained4 ,the above summary will give some approximate idea of the complicated and delicate processes involved in the fabrication of the porcelaine de ,france at the time when the ware that is now most prized by collectors was being produced at the works4 ,we must now give some account of the forerunners--the soft-paste porcelains made at ,saint-,cloud and at ,chantilly in the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,,saint-,,cloud4--,in #afie the widow and children of ,pierre ,chicoineau 7or ,chicanaux7 petitioned the king for the sole privilege of making the #8vritable porcelaine de la mme qualit1 plus belle et aussi parfaite et propice aux mmes usages que la porcelaine des ,indes et de la ,chine4' ,in granting the petition1 the rights of the ,poterat family of ,rouen are reserved2 but it is stated that no porcelain had been made at ,rouen for several years4 ,the earliest description1 curiously enough1 of the manufacture of porcelain in ,france1 is to be found in ,an ,account of a ,journey to ,paris in the year #afih1 by ,dr4 ,martin ,lister4 ,in speaking of what he saw at the #8potterie of ,saint-,clou1' ,lister declares that the painting of the ware surpassed that of the ,chinese1 nor was the glaze inferior in whiteness and #8smoothness of running without bubbles4444 ,again1 the inward ,substance and the ,matter of the ,pots was to me the very same1 firm and hard as ,marble1 and the self-same grain1 on this side vitrification4 ,further1 the transparency of the ,pots the very same4' ,after more than twenty-five years of experiment it was only1 says ,dr4 ,lister1 within the last three that the process had been brought to perfection4 ,we may therefore place the beginning of the porcelain of ,saint-,cloud about the year #afie4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4 #a--,,rouen1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white #b--,,saint-,,cloud1 ,,celadon #c--,,saint-,,cloud1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white ,in the ,mercure ,galant of ,october #agjj we hear of frequent visits of princes1 lords1 and ambassadors to the works of #8,m4 ,chicanaux1' above all of the young ,duchesse de ,bourgogne1 who #8stopped her carriage at the gate to see the manufacture of fine porcelain which has not its like in all ,europe4' ,this reads very like a modern rclame1 but it is important as showing the interest already taken by great people in the new ware4 ,at a later time the ,saint-,cloud works came more directly under the patronage of the ,dukes of ,orleans1 both the regent and his son #8,louis le ,dvot4' ,it was then in the hands of ,henri ,trou1 who had married ,chicoineau's widow4 ,earlier ,chicoineau pieces 7#agjb-agab7 bear as a mark the sun of ,louis ,,xiv4 roughly traced in blue 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ea74 ,at a later time1 under the ,trou rgime1 we find a roughly drawn ,t surmounted by the letters ,s4-,c4 7,,pl4 ,d4 #eb74 ,the specimens of this ware--there are plenty of them in the ,french museums and several at ,south ,kensington--are seldom of any size1 and the decoration is generally sparingly applied to the milk-white ground4 ,in the earlier pieces the lambrequins borders in under-glaze blue carry on the tradition of the seventeenth century renaissance style in use at ,rouen1 and we find similar patterns moulded in low relief4#aga ,the moulded surface is often covered with a scale-like pattern 7,,pl4 ,,xxxiii473 with this we may probably identify #8the quilted china of ,saint-,cloud1' of which there was a tea-service at ,strawberry ,hill4 ,but it is rather the ,oriental influence that is generally predominant2 and the white ware of ,fukien1 decorated with sprigs of prunus blossom1 is closely copied4 ,of special interest are some very successful imitations of the famille rose4 ,on a trembleuse saucer at ,south ,kensington#agb the rouge d'or is used with great effect2 the way in which the pink is gradated with the white enamel shows full command of the materials4 ,this saucer bears the ,t of the ,trou family as a mark1 but we unfortunately do not know the exact date when this mark was first introduced1 and still less for how long it was employed4#agc ,,lille4--,a manufactory of porcelain was founded at ,lille as early as the year #agaa4 ,the founders1 in their petition to the mayor and council of the town1 acknowledge that their aim was to follow in the wake of the ,chicoineau family of ,saint-,cloud1 the only place in ,europe1 they say1 where porcelain was made4 ,at the same time they seize the occasion to attack the head of the ,rouen works1 who1 they affirm1 has attempted to palm off his inferior wares at ,paris1 to the prejudice of the real ,saint-,cloud porcelain4 ,some side-light is thus thrown on the rivalry of the ,poterat and ,chicoineau families4 ,in fact1 the porcelain made at ,lille closely resembles the ,saint-,cloud ware4 ,we find this especially in the pieces with a white ground sparely decorated with lambrequins of blue4 ,it was1 however1 evidently made with less care1 and we do not find the milky paste which is so great a charm in the ,saint-,cloud porcelain4 ,the mark1 the letter ,l1 stands for the town of ,lille4 ,this factory of soft paste does not seem to have lasted more than twenty years4 ,late in the century hard porcelain was made for a short time in this town1 and it is claimed that it was at ,lille that coal was first used for the firing of porcelain4 ,there is a plate in the ,svres ,museum inscribed #8,faite ,lille en ,flandre1 cuite au charbon de terre4' ,the manager1 ,leperre ,durot1 was unsuccessful1 however1 in an attempt to introduce his new fuel at ,paris4 ,in #aghf the ,dauphin 7he was only five years old at the time7 became patron of the factory at ,lille1 and the mark for the few remaining years of its existence was a dolphin crowned4 ,,chantilly4--,we have seen how close to nearly every ,residenz-,stadt in ,germany there sprang up a porcelain manufactory under the patronage of the prince4 ,in somewhat similar way the fashion spread in ,france4 ,here the head of each branch of the royal house either took some already established factory under his protection1 or promoted the setting up of new works4 ,at this time1 ,i mean at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 it was the mark of a loyal subject and good citizen to send the family plate to the melting-pot and to forward the resulting bullion to the mint to be coined into money1 in this following the example of the king4 ,this was the case above all in #agji1 when ,louis was in great want of money4 ,we are told that the ,duc ,d',antin1 #8the perfect courtier1' after a sacrifice of this kind1 #8courut ,paris choisir force porcelaine admirable qu'il eut grand march4' ,so that1 in the words of ,saint-,simon1 the goldsmiths were being ruined1 and the makers of fayence and porcelain enriched4 ,this fashion gave1 of course1 a great stimulus to the establishment of new factories4 ,thus the head of the great house of ,cond became the patron of the works established in #agbe by ,ciquaire ,ciron at ,chantilly4 ,in the letters patent granted in #agce we are told #8,notre bien aim ,ciquaire ,ciron nous a fait reprsenter que depuis plus de dix ans il s'est appliqu la fabrique de la porcelaine pareille celle qui se faisait anciennement au ,japon4' ,the prince1 ,louis ,henri1#agd already possessed a remarkable collection of this ,oriental porcelain1 and some sixty examples of this ware made anciennement au ,japon1 what we now know as ,kakiyemon1 are still to be seen in the ,chteau of ,chantilly4 ,the earlier porcelain of ,chantilly is remarkable in this1 that following the example of the enamelled fayence of the day1 it is coated with an opaque stanniferous glaze4 ,on this ground1 which resembles closely that of the earliest ,japanese ware1 the peculiar decoration of the ,kakiyemon porcelain is closely copied4#age ,indeed1 the delicate yet spirited handling of this decoration--,i would point especially to two cylindrical vases mounted in silver in the ,fitzhenry collection 7,,pl4 ,,xxxiv47--is something that we are quite unaccustomed to in ,european porcelain4 ,it will be noticed1 however1 that the over-glaze blue enamel is somewhat heavy in tone1 and has evidently given trouble to the decorator4 ,at a later time the tin enamel gave place to a vitreous glaze similar to that used at ,mennecy1 and the decoration most in favour was a somewhat poor underglaze blue4 ,on such ware1 especially on plates1 we find the well-known #8,chantilly sprig1' so often imitated on ,english porcelain4 ,this pattern is distinguished by a leaf1 or rather bract1 of peculiar shape at the branching of the twigs1 and the design would seem to be of ,persian origin4 ,it is interesting to compare it with the very similar sprigs often seen in the decoration ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv4 ,,chantilly of the ,medici porcelain4 ,the shield of the ,cond family is sometimes found on plates of this ware1 the #8baton of cadency' between the lilies so reduced in size as to look like an accidental spot4 ,the mark1 a hunting-horn1 is carefully painted in red on the older pieces2 later on1 it is found rapidly sketched in blue under the glaze#agf 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ec74 ,,mennecy-,,villeroy4--,this time it is not a prince of the blood1 but a trs grand seigneur1 whose name we find associated with a group of ,french porcelain4 ,it was on the estate of the ,duc de ,villeroy1 the son of ,louis ,,xiv4's notorious marshal1 at ,les ,petites ,maisons1 near ,mennecy1#agg that ,barbin began to make porcelain in the year #agce4 ,the ware he turned out is remarkable for a translucent body covered by a brilliant and uniform glaze4 ,many kinds of decoration were tried by ,barbin and his successors during the forty years of the existence of these works4 ,this period of time well covers the culminating period of soft-paste porcelain in ,france1 and the ,mennecy ware fairly represents the school as a whole in its more modest efforts4 ,the decoration with scattered flowers 7bouquets de style franais7 is perhaps the most characteristic design on this ware1 but more ambitious work in imitation of ,svres was attempted later4 ,as at ,saint-,cloud and at ,chantilly1 much attention was given to the little daintily painted #8toys'--patch-boxes1 cane-heads1 and knife-handles--many of which were copied a little later at ,chelsea4 ,but the reputation of ,mennecy rests above all upon its figurines--little statuettes1 generally brilliantly painted1 though some are covered with the plain white glaze only 7,,pl4 ,,xxxv474 ,others1 again1 are in a biscuit of peculiar quality1 and these last are at times remarkably well modelled4 ,the mark ,d4 ,v4 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ed71 doubtless referring to the patron1 was maintained up to the time of the removal of the works to ,bourg-la-,reine1 near ,sceaux1 in #aggc4 ,we have taken up the porcelain of ,mennecy at this point1 as the date of its foundation is earlier than that of ,vincennes4 ,from its general character1 however1 we might rather class it as a #8younger sister' of ,svres1 while the other wares we have described1 ,saint-,cloud1 ,chantilly1 and ,lille1 form a distinct and earlier group by themselves4 ,these latter are distinguished from the later soft pastes of ,france1 on the one hand1 by the predominance of designs either of ,oriental origin or derived from the ,french enamelled fayence of the seventeenth century2 on the other1 by the restrained way in which the coloured decoration is applied1 or even by the total absence of colour1 so that1 as a whole1 these wares form an essentially white group of porcelain4 ,,smaller ,,factories ,,of ,,soft ,,paste4--,there were already1 in ,paris1 during the early or ,saint-,cloud period1 some small private works where soft-paste porcelain was made4 ,we hear of one in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,honor as early as #agbb1 belonging to the ,veuve ,chicoineau4 ,de ,raumur1 in #agci1 mentions a factory in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,antoine4 ,some other porcelain works under the patronage of princes of the blood were erected at a later date4 ,the ,duc de ,penthivre took a keen interest in the porcelain made near to his chteau at ,sceaux1 and this ware1 first made in #agea1 is distinguished by its high finish and careful decoration4 ,so much cannot be said of the produce of the ducal kilns at ,orleans1 where both fayence and soft-paste porcelain were made about the middle of the century4 ,not long after1 hard-paste porcelain was made at ,orleans by ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv4 #a--,s,,vres1 ,,white ,,biscuit #b--,,mennecy1 ,,glazed ,,white ,,porcelain ,grault1 but it is doubtful whether all the pieces marked with the ,orleans label 7of three points7 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fj7 can be attributed to these works rather than to the factory at ,clignancourt4 ,the works at ,arras1 probably the last started with the object of making a soft-paste ware1 cannot be traced further back than #agga4 ,here the ,demoiselles ,delesseux1 with the support of ,m4 de ,calonne1 manufactured blue and white ware in competition with the neighbouring factory at ,tournai4 ,,tournai4--,soft-paste porcelain was first made at ,tournai in #agej1 and although the town is now in ,belgium1 the ware there manufactured in the last century forms1 with that made at ,lille and ,arras1 a distinct group4 ,the mark of two swords in saltire and four small crosses 7,,pl4 ,d4 #dh7 is derived from the arms of ,peterinck of ,lille1 the founder of the works4 ,at first a tower 7,,pl4 ,d4 #dg71 from the town arms1 was also used4 ,many varieties of decoration were employed here both for blue and white and enamelled ware4 ,but before long the commercial spirit prevailed1 and a common ware was turned out in large quantities4 ,,vincennes ,,and ,s,,vres4--#8,la porcelaine de ,svres est sans contredit la plus belle qui existe4' ,this is the dictum of no less an authority than the late ,baron ,davillier1 and we may doubtless accept it if we limit ourselves to the porcelain of ,europe4 ,there can be no doubt but that the work turned out by the royal porcelain works during the first fifteen or twenty years of their existence takes an important1 if not an essential1 place in the decorative art of the eighteenth century1 and that1 too1 at the best period of that art4 ,as to the intrinsic artistic merit1 if such a thing exists1 or even to the general decorative value of this ware1 compared1 for instance1 with the fayence of the ,saracenic ,east or with the porcelain of ,china and ,japan1 these are questions which we are fortunately not called upon to answer here4 ,the ,porcelaines de ,france1 for that is the name given in the eighteenth century to the ware produced under royal patronage1 were first made in the factory established in the riding-school at ,vincennes1 and at the present day the works are within the confines of the park of ,saint-,cloud4 ,it will1 however1 be convenient to include the whole series under the name of ,svres4#agh ,our knowledge of the technical side of the subject is derived1 as we have seen1 from the report that ,hellot presented to the king in #agec4 ,for the history of the foundation of the works and the selection of the artists1 we are chiefly dependent upon a memoir1 written in #agha for the information of the ,government1 by ,bachelier1 an artist who had been attached to the works as painter on porcelain since the year #agdh4agi ,in this memoir we can trace the troubled history of the years of ill-success and financial difficulties that preceded the final establishment of the royal works at ,svres--,tant molis erat6 444 ,there were two names that we must always associate with this long struggle3 during the earlier period1 at ,vincennes1 ,orry de ,fulvi1 the brother of the contrleur gnral de finance2 and after his death1 ,madame de ,pompadour4 ,it is rather a shady story upon the whole1 and at the opening we are reminded of the adventures of the arcanist ,ringler at the various ,german courts4 ,m4 de ,fulvi1 who had long been interested in experiments on the manufacture of porcelain1 started at ,vincennes with the assistance of two worthless and drunken #8experts' 7the equivalent of the ,german #8arcanists'7 who had been tempted away from ,chantilly4#ahj ,after repeated failures and much loss of money1 the recipes were stolen from one of those men by an astute and sober assistant1 one ,gravant1 to whom the whole charge of the mixing of the materials was now confided4#aha ,other workmen1 and further secrets relating to the preparation of the enamels were obtained from ,chantilly by means of a free expenditure of money1 and a certain success was the result4 ,but meantime the funds of ,m4 de ,fulvi are exhausted1 and resort must be had to his brother1 ,philibert ,orry1 the finance minister4 ,this was in #agde1 and we see in this step the first definite intervention of the ,government4 ,a company was now formed1 with important privileges for thirty years1 and by the influence of the minister1 ,hellot1 from whose report we have already quoted1 was appointed chemical adviser1 ,duplessis1 the kings goldsmith 7or rather silversmith--argentier7 was placed at the head of the mechanical department1 and a few years later1 in #agdh1 ,bachelier1 to whom we are chiefly indebted for the history of the works1 became inspector of painting and gilding4 ,bachelier was not of much note as an artist4#ahb ,it was to his organising power and energy1 however1 that the group of artists and sculptors who have given such fame to the porcelain of ,svres was first brought together4 ,on his appointment1 says ,bachelier1 his first care was to abandon #8la grossire imitation du ,japon'1 and to furnish the ateliers with pictures1 models1 and prints1 #8dans tous les genres1 pour remplacer les productions chinoises qu'on y copiait encore4'#ahc ,both ,m4 de ,fulvi and his brother died in #agea1 the company was broken up1 and but for the energy and influence of a certain ,m4 ,hultz1 of whom nothing further is known1 the manufacture would have come to an end4 ,we must remember that on the death of the finance minister1 his former enemy1 ,madame de ,pompadour1 practically took his place4 ,her power was at that time at its height 7she #8reigned' from #agde to her death in #agfd71 so that we may perhaps regard the ,m4 ,hultz of ,bacheliers memoir as one of the favourite's #8ghosts4' ,it was certainly the influence of the ,marquise de ,pompadour that induced ,louis ,,xv41 in #agec1 to sign the arrt by which the title of ,manufacture ,royale de ,porcelaine was conferred on the establishment4 ,at the same time many important privileges were granted4 ,the establishment was now removed to ,svres1 where a plot of ground containing some glass-works1 the property of the favourite1 was bought for #ff1jjj livres1 and the new factory set up in an adjacent domain that had formerly belonged to the musician ,lully4 ,the king subscribed for a quarter of the new capital4 ,the troubles1 however1 were not yet ended3 the workshops were badly built and badly arranged4 ,finally1 in #agei1 ,louis took over all the shares of the company1 which was at that time in liquidation4 ,a yearly grant of #if1jjj livres secured the financial position4 ,in all these arrangements we see the hand of the ,pompadour1 and still more in the keen way in which the business side of the establishment was pushed4 ,at the ,new ,year a sale took place at ,versailles1 in the palace4 ,the king presided1 and fixed the prices of the porcelain4 ,a large purchase of china on these occasions was a sure way to royal favour and promotion4#ahd ,a good deal of uncertainty hangs over the nature of the early work produced at ,vincennes1 and no definite mark has been assigned to the factory1 before the time when the permission to use the double ,l was granted1 in #agea or #agec4 ,when1 however1 the royal cipher occurs without a year letter1 there is some presumption in favour of a date previous to the latter year 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ee74 ,we should infer from what ,bachelier tells us that up to #agdh the designs were chiefly derived from ,oriental china4 ,but in addition the following forms and styles were in use in the pre-royal period at ,vincennes3-- #a4 ,a rage for the production of artificial flowers1 especially in plain white ware1 existed at one time1 and when the ,vincennes artists were able to rival the ,dresden flowers that had previously been imported1 from this department alone was a steady source of income obtained4 ,the flowers first produced were confined merely to small detached blossoms1 but in #agdh ,m4 de ,fulvi presented to the queen a trophy of white porcelain which surpassed anything yet manufactured4 ,on a base or pedestal of white ware1 mounted in gilt bronze1 rises a small tree completely covered with blossom of white porcelain1 under which stand three female figures of the same material4 ,the whole trophy is about three feet in height4#ahe ,so again in #agej we hear that the king had ordered similar bouquets of flowers1 #8peintes au naturel1' which were to cost #hjj1jjj livres6 ,this for the famous ,chteau de ,bellevue1 and for ,madame de ,pompadour4#ahf #b4 ,much of the porcelain made at ,vincennes at this time 7#agdj-ej7 was decorated with scattered groups of flowers on a white ground1 a style then known as fleurs de ,saxe4 ,these flowers were often in high relief1 and in this case they formed a passage to the first group4 #c4 ,there exist certain small pieces1 chiefly cups and saucers 7of the trembleuse type1 as usual at this time71 with a ground of a deep blue4 ,a great vigour and depth is given to the colour 7known later as bleu du roi7 by its somewhat irregular or mottled texture1 a result1 it is said1 of the manner in which it was painted on to the biscuit 7it is an underglaze colour7 with a brush4 ,we may note that the use of a dark ground for porcelain was exceptional at this time in ,france4 ,this bleu de ,vincennes was imitated with some success by ,sprimont at ,chelsea4 ,gravant 7he who had the secret of the paste7 had before #agec1 so ,hellot tells us in his report1 succeeded in making a paste much whiter than that of ,chantilly1 so as to allow of a #8couverte crystalline et parfaitement diaphane' in place of the opaque #8vernix de ,fayance' 7sic7 used by ,ciron at that factory4 ,it is indeed important to remember that before the works were removed from ,vincennes1 the soft paste that we know as ,svres had already reached its highest development both as regards the materials and the decoration4 ,the most ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi4 ,s,,vres beautiful and characteristic colours were already used with complete mastery1 and 7certainly by the year #agec7 the paintings of the cartels had attained a delicacy and finish never surpassed in later times1--this is at least true of certain classes of subjects1 the amorini and wreaths of flowers1 for instance4 ,in proof of this ,i need only point to certain pieces of turquoise in the ,wallace collection 7,gallery ,,xv41 ,case ,a471 above all to the soupire 7,no4 #g71 modelled1 no doubt1 after a silversmith's design4 ,if we compare such pieces to the porcelain of ,saint-,cloud and ,chantilly1 or to the somewhat tentative work turned out at ,vincennes itself but a few years earlier1 it is difficult to account for this rapid advance1 especially at a time of change and financial difficulties4 ,this is certainly the most interesting period--7,i mean the years just at the middle of the century7--in the whole history of ,french porcelain1 and we must remember that the change came about precisely at the time 7#agea7 when ,madame de ,pompadour's influence became predominant4 ,the free access to the royal factory--the workshops seem to have been regarded at one time as a fashionable lounge--made the preservation of any secret processes very difficult4 ,bachelier says that #8on vient s'y promener comme dans les maisons royales1' and he complains bitterly of the loss of time1 the dirt1 and the accidents caused by the throng of people4 ,a succession of edicts1 one as early as the year #agdg1 was issued1 restricting the access of visitors4 ,when the difficulties connected with the paste and the decoration had been surmounted1 a demand arose for protection against the competition of outside works4 ,with this object a whole series of edicts1 many of them of a contradictory nature1 was issued between the years #agej and #aghj4 ,of these the special aim was to prevent or hamper the production of porcelain in other works1 above all in those within a certain radius of ,paris1 or failing that1 at least to restrict the use of colour1 and especially of gilding1 by such works as had to be tolerated4 ,at the time of the removal to ,svres the staff consisted of more than a hundred workmen4 ,duplessis1 the silversmith of the king1 was intrusted with the modelling and with the general artistic direction1 and ,hellot1 as we have seen1 was what we should now call #8scientific adviser4'#ahg ,bachelier complains that the nature of the paste and glaze was unfavourable to the production of small figures1 #8luisantes et colores1' like those of ,saxony4 ,he claims to have been the first--this was as early as #agdh--to recommend the use of white biscuit to reproduce in porcelain1 among other things1 #8some of the pastoral ideas of ,m4 ,boucher1' and this style1 he tells us1 #8had a great success up to the time when ,m4 ,falconet1 to whom the department was intrusted in #ageg1 introduced a more noble style1 one more generalised and less subject to the evolution of fashion4' ,falconet was carried off to ,russia in #agff1 to execute for ,catherine ,,ii4 the great statue of ,peter the ,great1 and ,bachelier then took his place4 ,it was under ,falconet that the best work was produced in this department1 although at a later date such well-known names as ,robert le ,lorrain1 ,pajou1 ,clodion1 ,pigalle1 and ,houdon are found upon the books of the ,svres works4 ,no biscuit statuettes of pte tendre were made after the year #aggg4 ,the models after which the vases and other objects were designed--and each year some fresh form was introduced--are still preserved at ,svres4 ,we can trace in them1 as in the mountings of the contemporary ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,s,,vres ,,porcelain furniture1 the passage from the haute rocaille of the fifties to the simpler forms in favour at the beginning of the reign of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the fashion of encasing the porcelain of ,china in metal mounts--for this the large monochrome pieces were preferred--had come in at an earlier period4 ,the contorted forms of the gilt metal undoubtedly bring out by contrast the simple outlines and smooth surfaces of the crackle and celadon vases4 ,in the ,jones collection at ,south ,kensington there are some superbly fine examples of this collocation of ,french and ,chinese work4 ,during the sixties and later it became the fashion to combine the ormolu and other kinds of metal-work with the ,svres porcelain in many new ways1 and the pendules of the time show ingenious combinations of the two materials in endless variety4 ,it must be borne in mind that the simpler forms that we associate with the reign of ,louis ,,xvi4 were already asserting themselves several years before the death of his predecessor4 ,if we examine the choicer pieces in any collection of ,svres china1 we find that the date-marks range within a very small interval of time--a few years on either side of #agfj4 ,this narrow limit for the best work is well exemplified both in the ,jones collection and at ,hertford ,house4 ,we shall return to this point when describing the turquoise and rose grounds of this time4 ,once established at ,svres under direct royal patronage1 the principal efforts of the staff were directed to the designing and the execution of elaborate dinner-services1 destined to be presented in turn to the various crowned heads of ,europe4 ,as early as #aged a service was made for ,maria ,theresa1 la ,reine-,impratrice4 ,in #ageh a service with a green ground and figures1 flowers1 and birds in cartels was commanded by ,louis ,,xv4 for presentation to the ,king of ,denmark2 in #agfj a service de table of two hundred and eighty-one pieces is presented to the ,elector-,palatine ,karl ,theodor1 the porcelain enthusiast of ,frankenthal4 ,in #agfd1 and again in #aggb and #aggi1 the ,ministre d'tat ,bertin forwarded to the ,chinese ,emperor ,kien-lung1 through the medium of the ,jesuit missionaries1 presents of ,svres porcelain4#ahh ,in #agfh and #agfi a further grand service de table1 fond lapis caillout#ahi is presented to the ,danish king2 in #agge it is the turn of a ,spanish princess1 and in #aggg of the emperor4 ,in #aggh the king sends to the ,sultan of ,morocco a tea-service1 and at the same time presents other pieces of china to the ,moorish ambassador4 ,in the same year the ,empress ,catherine ordered at ,svres the famous service of seven hundred and forty-four pieces1 bleu cleste 7i4e4 turquoise7 ground1 decorated with cames incrusts4 ,the flowers in this set were painted by ,taillandier1 and the gilding executed by ,vincent and ,le ,guay4 ,there is a plate from this service at ,south ,kensington3 on the centre the letter ,e1 formed of minute flowers1 and the ,roman numeral ,,ii1 stand for ,ekaterina the ,second4 ,to this set belong also the three large brle-parfums vases at ,hertford ,house1 and there are other pieces in private hands4#aij ,the empress disputed the price 7#cbh1ahh livres7 demanded for the service1 and a long diplomatic correspondence on the point has been preserved4 ,m4 ,davillier gives some details of eight other royal services made between this time and the end of the century1 among them one with green ground1 for ,prince ,henry of ,prussia 7#aghd71 of which ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxviii4 ,s,,vres several of the pieces were jewelled 7ornes d'maux71 and in #aghh a grand service de table with vases1 cups1 pictures1 and busts sent to ,tippoo ,saib1 ,sultan of ,mysore4 ,it is usual to distinguish the different services1 cabarets or garnitures1 by the colour of the ground which is maintained throughout the set4 ,thus we find the fond lapis mentioned above and the fond vert1 a peculiar shade of green very much admired at the time and often repeated in the lacquered furniture and even in the panels of a whole apartment4 ,we have already spoken of the ,,turquoise ,,blue1 but the colour is so important that we will quote more fully the somewhat enigmatical account of it given by ,hellot4 #8,the bleu du roi ground1 called before the ,christmas ftes of #agec bleu ancien 7,oriental turquoise by daylight1 emerald or malachite by artificial light71 with which his majesty has been so satisfied1 is composed as follows4444' ,we are then told that we should purchase at the ,sieur ,moniac1 in the ,rue ,quincampoise1 opposite to1 etc42--but it is needless to follow these details--in fact ,i only quote a few words as a sample of ,hellot's innumerable recipes for colours4 ,this blue enamel1 for it is an enamel1 and not painted sous couverte like the old ,vincennes blue1 is composed of #8aigue-marine' 7some preparation of copper7 three parts1 ,gravant's glaze one part1 and of minium one and a third parts4 ,the ingredients are melted together1 trs grand feu1 and the resultant glass finely powdered4 #8,this powder is dusted through a silk sieve1 upon the mordant that has been applied to the surface of the already glazed porcelain4 ,the piece is then heated in the 8painter's stove0 7the muffle74 ,the first layer of colour comes out sometimes crackled1 and always irregular 7mal unie74 ,to make the enamel uniform1 the piece is again coated and again passed through the painter's stove4' ,not only the strength and quality of the enamel1 but its tint also1 vary much1 even in pieces dating from the best period2 some examples tend more to green than others4 ,in the more brilliant and intense examples of the bleu cleste1 to give the colour its old or one of its old names1 the ground on close examination appears to be more or less mottled1 darker clots1 as it were1 floating about in a lighter medium4 ,indeed some such #8texture' seems to be necessary to bring out the full effect and brilliancy in the case of other glazes and transparent enamels on porcelain1 and to its absence the dull and #8uninteresting' aspect of much of our modern porcelain may be attributed4 ,,rose ,,pompadour4--,we have seen that the various shades of pink derived from gold 7see the note on p4 #bhd7 had for some time been used in the decoration of porcelain1 but that the recipes for them were regarded as precious trade secrets4 ,the rose carne1 or ,pompadour#aia 7often wrongly called rose du ,barry71 belongs to this class4 ,the credit of its first successful employment as a uniform ground-colour is probably due to the chemist ,hellot4#aib ,this colour was in use at ,svres for only a short period of years1 say between #agec and #agfc4 ,the dated specimens in the ,wallace collection range between #aged and #agei4 ,one is almost tempted to associate its sudden disappearance with some whim of ,madame de ,pompadour2 perhaps having in her possession nearly all that had been made1 she wished to #8corner the market4' ,the manufacture seems to have ceased before her death 7#agfd71 and afterwards the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxix4 ,s,,vres secret was lost4 ,the rose carne ground is often associated with one of apple-green1 but the combination is not a very pleasing one4 ,great attention has always been paid to the ,,gilding at ,svres4 ,when applied heavily to the handles and feet of vases1 it replaces1 in some measure1 the ormolu mounts4 ,so1 when surrounding the little pictures painted on the cartels of vases and bowls1 or on the centre of plates1 this gilding represents in position and design the gold frame of the period4 ,at the time of the reorganisation of the works in #agec we find1 along with ,bachelier and ,duplessis1 a certain ,frre ,hippolyte1 a ,benedictine monk1 mentioned as the possessor of secret processes of gilding1 and he was well paid for his periodical visits to the works4 ,bachelier1 writing in #agha1 has a note protesting against the excessive employment of gold4 ,the prohibition of its use at other porcelain factories at this time was based1 he says1 on #8economic grounds1' that the metal might not be lost for commerce4 #8,this enormous expenditure of gold1' he protests1 #8is the more revolting1 inasmuch as it is in bad taste4' ,bachelier distinguishes the #8or bruni en effet' from the #8or bruni en totalit4' ,by the use of the first1 in opposition both to the unburnished and to the plain polished gold1 it was intended to imitate chiselled metal 7the ormolu mounts71 and this method of burnishing1 we are told1 should be confined to large vases which are not subjected to any wear and tear by cleaning or otherwise4 ,the gold1 in all cases1 was simply sprinkled on without the admixture of any flux1 and the burnishing was carried out chiefly by women in a special department of the works4 ,this burnishing was effected au clou1 that is1 by means of a stump of iron inserted at the end of a stick4 ,agate burnishers were not introduced till a later period4 ,great pressure was required in the earlier method1 resulting in deeply incised lines1 and there is less uniformity of surface than where the agate is used4 ,the ,,jewelled ,s,,vres has never found much favour in ,france1 and the only name the ,french have for this decoration--porcelaine orne d'maux--is not very distinctive4 ,a transparent1 glassy1 or sometimes an opaque enamel of very brilliant tint is applied in the form of little beads standing out in relief and set in gold mountings4 ,this application of #8appliqus gems in chased gold setting1' unless used with great delicacy and moderation1 produces a tawdry and overloaded effect1 above all when applied upon coloured grounds4 ,but when these little #8paste-jewels' are set upon the soft white of the ,svres pte tendre the result is sometimes very pleasing4 ,on a cup and saucer belonging to ,mr4 ,currie1 now at ,south ,kensington1 the ruby and turquoise jewels are connected by branches of gold overlaid with a transparent green enamel 7,,pl4 ,,xl474 ,on the other hand1 on a large ewer and basin of turquoise1 with a decoration of gold1 in the #8,londonderry ,cabinet' at ,hertford ,house1 which has the date-letter for #agfh1 the original design is capriciously overlaid by a series of jewelled chains which 7if we are to trust the date-mark on the ewer7 must certainly have been added at a later time4 ,indeed the manufacture of this jewelled ware seems to have been confined to the years #aghj-hf4 ,when a school of painting was first established at ,svres1 it was to the fan-painters and to the miniature-painters in enamel that ,bachelier turned for assistance1 and we can detect the mannerisms peculiar to these two schools in the decoration of some of the earlier pieces made at ,svres4 ,,marks4--,by the royal decree of #agec1 from which ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xl4 ,,jewelled ,s,,vres we have already quoted1 it was ordered that all pieces should be marked with the well-known royal cipher1 the double ,l1 and that a letter-mark indicating the year should be added 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ef74 ,the single letters of the alphabet carry us from #agec to #aggf2 after that double letters were used till #agic1 when the king's initial was replaced by the letters ,r4 ,f41 with the addition of the word ,svres4 ,a mark of this latter kind was in use till the end of the century1 after which time no more soft paste was made4 ,each artist marked his work with a monogram or a private sign1 often suggested by a play upon the syllables of his name1 as in the case of the canting arms of heraldry4 ,for example1 #8#bjjj' 7vingtcents7 was adopted by ,vincent1 the famous gilder2 a branch of a tree by ,dubois2 and1 more strangely still1 a triangle1 the sign of the ,trinity1 by an artist named ,dieu4 ,these marks were placed underneath1 or by the side of1 the royal cipher4 ,the marks of more than a hundred artists have been identified from the records kept at ,svres--painters of flowers1 garlands1 landscapes1 marines1 genre-subjects1 and finally gilders4 ,a complete list of these men1 with their marks1 may be found in ,garnier1 ,chaffers1 and other writers on the subject4 ,the manufacture of true kaolinic porcelain was begun in #agfi1 but the soft paste continued to be made for another thirty years1 side by side with the new ware4 ,it was not till the year #ahjd that it was finally abandoned by ,brongniart1 the new director4 ,he found the soft-paste ware unsuitable for the big pieces now ordered by the ,imperial ,government4 ,the paste was difficult to work1 the preparation was expensive1 and the dust formed both from the paste and from the lead glaze was injurious to the health of the workmen4 ,one or two attempts have since been made at ,svres to revive the old ware1 but they have fallen through in every case4 ,brongniart1 in #ahjd1 to provide funds for the impoverished works and to pay the arrears of wages to the workmen1 threw on the market the large stock of plain white soft paste that had accumulated in the magazine4 ,now at that time there were in ,paris many skilled porcelain painters1 some of them ex-employs at ,svres1 and others1 men who made a living by painting on the plain ware sent from ,limoges and other factories4 ,these #8chambrelans' 7they painted at home1 en chambre1 and corresponded to our ,english #8chamberers'7 were now employed by the dealers who had eagerly bought up the ware that ,brongniart had parted with4#aic ,they painted and gilt this white ware in imitation of the ,svres porcelain of the best period so successfully that the services they turned out have found their way into royal collections4 ,this ware1 in fact1 forms a group by itself1 quite apart from the later imitations of the pte tendre1 which1 in every degree of merit and demerit1 are now found in the china-shops of ,europe and ,america4 ,m4 ,garnier points out three signs by which this pseudo-,svres may be recognised3 #a4 ,the green prepared from the newly introduced chromium is of a warm yellowish tint1 and displays none of the submetallic tints so often to be seen in enamels coloured by copper1 as in the famille verte of ,china4 #b4 ,the gold on this bastard ware1 burnished with an agate polisher1 differs in quality of surface from the old gilding worked au clou4 #c4 ,the date-marks and painters' monograms were copied at hazard from the old pieces--at that time no list of these marks had been made public--so that1 for example1 the monogram of a gilder may be found on a piece decorated in colours only4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,hard-,,paste ,,porcelain ,,of ,s,,vres ,,and ,,paris ,the soft paste of ,svres1 even during the period of the fifties and sixties1 when the most exquisite ware was being made1 seems always to have been regarded somewhat as a make-shift1 to be employed until the materials for making a true porcelain should be discovered in ,france4 ,for it was the ignorance of the true nature of kaolin1 and where to look for it1 that so fortunately delayed its introduction at ,svres4 ,as early as the ,vincennes days1 one of the ,hannongs of ,strassburg had offered to sell his secret1 and this offer was repeated at a later time by himself and by his son4 ,at ,svres1 before #agfj1 two ,german workmen were retained to teach the ,saxon process1 but the materials had still to be obtained from ,germany4 ,meantime ,macquer1 who had succeeded to the post of scientific adviser on the death of ,hellot1 had been experimenting on his own account1 and above all encouraging others to search for the precious white earth within ,french territory4 ,at length1 in #agfj1 some samples were sent from ,alenon1 from which a true porcelain was made1 but of poor quality and of a grey colour4 ,outside the ,svres works the younger ,hannong had set up a factory at ,vincennes1 and the ,comte de ,brancas ,lauraguais1 whom we shall meet with again in ,england1 had by #agfd begun his experiments and his search after deposits of kaolin4 ,there still exist a few portrait-medallions moulded in hard porcelain1 which1 on the ground of the letters ,b4 ,l4 engraved on the back1 have been attributed to that energetic nobleman4 ,the introduction1 however1 of the hard-paste porcelain at ,svres dates from the discovery1 in #agfh1 at ,saint-,yrieix1 near ,limoges1 of those famous deposits of kaolin which have ever since that time been the main resource of the ,french porcelain industry4#aid ,before the end of the year #agfi ,macquer was able to show to the king the first samples of this new ware4 ,the hard paste made for some years after this date was not of the #8severe' type adopted later on4 ,not only did it contain as much as #i per cent4 of lime1 but1 the kaolin employed being less pure1 contained probably a good deal of mica--in fact1 this first type of ,french hard paste approached in composition that of the ,chinese4 ,it is even more important to note that the glaze used at the same time was of an entirely different nature from the pure felspathic covering afterwards adopted4 ,it was composed of ,fontainebleau sand #dj per cent41 potsherds of hard porcelain #dh per cent41 and chalk #ab per cent4 ,as a result1 it was possible to decorate the surface with brilliant translucent enamels of some thickness4 ,it was the introduction of the felspathic glaze in #aghj that gave the final blow to the effective decoration of ,svres porcelain4 ,this glaze is made by simply fusing a natural rock 7pegmatite7 consisting of a mixture of potash felspar with a small quantity of quartz4 ,the ease with which this glaze can be prepared1 its hardness and uniformity of surface1 led to its universal adoption not only at ,svres but in the porcelain works of the ,limoges district that have for the last hundred years supplied ,france with ordinary domestic wares--for such use its hardness renders it eminently suitable4 ,but1 as we have said1 this combination of refractory paste and hard glaze is incompatible with any brilliancy of decorative effect1 the enamel colours are quite unable to incorporate themselves with subjacent glaze1 they lie dull and dead on the surface1 and the faults of the ,german porcelain are exaggerated4 ,so with the paste1 a much harder and more refractory type was introduced at the beginning of the next century1 and 7apart from the recent partial introduction of a milder type for special purposes7 this type has remained in use to the present day4 ,the lime in ,brongniart's new paste was reduced to #e per cent41 while the amount of kaolin 7#fe per cent47 is probably greater than in any other porcelain4 ,there has been a reaction lately at ,svres against this refractory ware1 but the old formulas are still employed for the porcelain made for practical domestic use4 ,when1 however1 brilliancy of effect and artistic decoration are aimed at1 a completely new type both of paste and glaze has been in use since the year #ahhj1 and concomitantly with the imitation of the ,chinese monochrome wares1 an attempt has been made to follow as closely as possible the pastes and glazes of the ,chinese4 ,m4 ,vogt1 the present technical director at ,svres1 who has had so much to do with these changes1 gives the following formula for the composition of the new porcelain3 kaolin #ch per cent41 felspar #ch per cent41 quartz #bd per cent4 ,the lime1 it will be seen1 has been completely eliminated from the paste2 on the other hand1 the glaze contains as much as #cc per cent4 of the ,craie de ,bougival4 ,it would be a dreary task to enter with any detail into the history of the ,svres works during the hundred years following the first introduction of the hard paste4 ,this period is associated in most minds with the colossal vases that are to be found in so many of the palaces and museums of ,europe4 ,to judge from these examples1 it would seem that the chief object both of the design and the decoration was to conceal as far as possible the nature of the material used in their composition4 ,you have first to persuade yourself that you are looking at something made of porcelain3 once convinced of this1 you marvel at the technical difficulties that have been overcome in its manufacture1 but what it never even occurs to one to look for in these monstrous vases1 is any trace of that beauty of surface and brilliancy of decoration that we are accustomed to associate with the substance of which they are composed4 ,the #8,medici ,vase' now in the ,louvre is probably the earliest of this long series4 ,this vase dates from the year #aghc1 and it is nearly seven feet in height4 ,but it was in the pseudo-classical style of the empire1 when encouraged by ,napoleon's love of the gigantic1 and by his desire #8 faire parler la porcelaine1'#aie that this new application of porcelain found its full expression4 ,it is then that we find vases1 candelabra1 surtouts de table and clocks1 in styles distinguished as ,egyptian1 ,etruscan1 ,imperial1 and ,olympian4 ,after this we can follow the decline of taste in the succeeding rgimes till1 with the total extinction of all feeling for harmony of colour and unity of composition1 we are landed--in the reign of the #8bourgeois king'--in the style or absence of style which is the ,french equivalent of our #8,early ,victorian4' ,there is one name above all others that is associated1 at ,svres1 with this long period1 that of ,alexandre ,brongniart1 who was director of the works from the year #ahjd until his death in #ahdg4 ,the son of a well-known architect1 and himself a fellow-worker with ,cuvier1 he attained some distinction both as a geologist and as a chemist4 ,it was indeed from the point of view of a man of science that he approached the subject of ceramics1--as a geologist to examine the position and stratigraphical relation of any material suitable for fictile purposes1 as a chemist to analyse these materials and to discover fresh metallic combinations suitable for glazes and enamels4 ,it was at this time1 and chiefly under the influence of ,brongniart1#aif that the palette of the enameller was enlarged by the introduction of so many new colours1 the employment of which gives a new cachet to the decoration of the nineteenth century4 ,perhaps the most important advance was in the employment of oxide of zinc in the flux1 by means of which the colours of many metallic oxides are developed and sometimes altered4 ,the green derived from chromium is essentially a nineteenth century colour1 and as it resists the highest temperature this green can be used1 like the cobalt blue1 as an under-glaze colour4 ,from the chromate of lead an orange-red is obtained--the rouge cornalia1 a crude and dangerous colour1 and one that does not withstand high temperatures4 ,an orange-yellow from uranium1 and a deep and uniform black from iridium1 were also introduced at this time or not long afterwards4 ,the #8,english pink1' the lilac tint so extensively used in the transfer-printing of earthenware1 was successfully imitated by adding a small quantity of oxide of chromium to a flux containing oxides of tin1 lime1 and alumina4 ,the celadon green of ,svres is derived1 not from the protoxide of iron1 but from the sesqui-oxide of chromium1 with the addition of a minute quantity of copper4 ,brongniart's great work1 the ,trait des ,arts ,cramiques1 still remains our main authority on the technical and scientific side of the art of the potter1 and it was he who1 by establishing the museum and organising the laboratories at ,svres1 made that town a centre for all who are interested not only in the special branch of porcelain1 but in the whole field of ceramic art4 ,the position established by him has been well maintained by his successors1 by ,salvtat1 by ,ebelmen1 by ,deck1 and at the present time by ,,mm4 ,lauth and ,vogt on the technical side--above all by douard ,garnier1 the present director of the ,svres ,museum4#aig ,these men have succeeded1 in spite of much opposition1 in again bringing the national manufactory of porcelain at least on to a level with the artistic movement of the day4 ,in tracing the history of the ,svres porcelain during the last hundred years and more we can find at least one interesting aspect--we can follow the steps by which the ware has responded to the social and political changes that have followed one another in ,france during that time4 ,the affectation of simple and homely tastes1 and the sentimental tone fashionable in society during the years preceding the ,revolution1 are reflected in both the forms and the painting of the ware then made4 ,the classical spirit that already in the time of ,louis ,,xvi4 had found a place alongside of these idyllic aspirations somewhat later1 under the lead of ,david1 ruled every form of art4 ,the various phases of the ,revolution are reflected in the decoration of the porcelain1 which even became a means of political propaganda4 ,at the ,htel ,carnavalet1 the museum at ,paris consecrated to the history of the city1 the political changes of this period may be traced in a series of plates and cups1 some of them of ,svres porcelain1 decorated with emblems and allegorical figures relating first to the liberal monarchy of the early years of the ,revolution1 and then in the sterner days of the ,convention 7when indeed the existence of the works was only saved by the presence of mind of the minister ,par7 to the patriotic efforts of the leaders1 and to the successes of the republican armies4 ,portraits of the heroes of the national assemblies and of the clubs1 surmounted by caps of liberty and framed in arrangements of pikes and drums1 replaced the nymphs and flowers of an earlier period1 and even the guillotine1 it is said1 has found a place in the decoration4 ,a few years later the military element was even more predominant4 ,eagles and thunderbolts1 surrounded by trophies of war1 battle-scenes and the entry into ,paris of the victorious legions1 commemorate the conquests of ,napoleon4 ,after the ,restoration the decoration of the gigantic vases1 each new one overtopping its predecessor1 became more and more pictorial4 ,to obtain a better field for this pictorial display the greatest pains were taken to produce large plaques of porcelain1 some as much as four feet in length1 on which a school of accomplished artists painted laborious reproductions of famous pictures1 ancient and modern4 ,not a few of these enamel-painters1 at this time1 came from ,geneva1 and some of the ablest were ladies4 ,many remarkable specimens of this misdirected skill may be seen in the ,svres ,museum1 and also in a room of the picture-gallery at ,turin4 ,under the republican rgime that succeeded the revolution of #ahdh1 it was again proposed for a moment to sever the connection with the ,state1 but with the establishment of the second empire a fresh life was given to the manufactory1 on the appointment of ,dieterle1 an artist of repute1 to the directorship4 ,some new developments were now attempted1 especially in the introduction of coloured pastes4 ,it was only after many fruitless attempts that any results were obtained by this new system4 ,it is indeed a process quite foreign to the nature of porcelain1 and even when technically successful the result is far from satisfactory4 ,at a later time1 however1 the experience gained by the experiments of ,salvtat enabled a potter of great skill and some feeling for art to employ the coloured pastes with greater simplicity and better effect4 ,m4 ,solon1 since so well known in ,england1 was the most successful worker in this material4 ,the decoration in his hands took the form of a white slip1 or barbotine1 laid on a coloured ground4 ,after firing1 the light and shade of the design is brought out by the varying thickness of the now translucent coating1 which allows more or less of the coloured ground to be seen through it4 ,in spite of its delicacy and refinement the effect of this work is somewhat effete1 both in style and colour4 ,in inferior hands1 working with poorer material1 the result is deplorable4 ,at the present time1 after experiments with many materials--the crystalline glazes made with bismuth were at one time in favour--it is to the production of artistic effects by means of single glazes that the greatest attention is given at ,svres1 following more or less in the lines of the flamb wares of ,china4 ,not long since1 a proposal was again made in the ,chamber of ,deputies that the support of the ,government should be withdrawn from the factory4 ,it is said that a timely report in an ,english paper to the effect that1 in such a case1 the works would be run by an ,anglo-,american syndicate1 had not a little to do with the defeat of this motion4 ,,lesser ,,parisian ,,factories ,,of ,,hard ,,paste4--,in spite of the numerous edicts and proclamations by which it was attempted to maintain the monopoly of the royal works at ,svres1 there were in ,paris1 in the time of ,louis ,,xvi41 a number of private factories1 some of them under the patronage of members of the royal family4 ,it was in ,paris that ,brancas ,lauraguais1 as early as #ageh1 made his experiments with kaolin1 and here1 in the ,saint-,lazare district1 one of the ,hannong family 7,pierre ,antoine1 of the third generation1 the same who had lately failed at ,vincennes7 made porcelain after the ,german style1 perhaps before #aggj4 ,these works were patronised at a later day by the king's brother1 the ,comte d',artois4 ,again1 in #aggc1 one ,locr started in the ,rue ,fontaine au ,roi the #8manufacture de porcelaine ,allemande de la ,courtille4' ,his marks of arrows 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ei71 torches1 or later1 ears of wheat1 crossed in imitation of the ,saxon swords1 are found on ware of some artistic merit4 ,but perhaps the most remarkable of the ,parisian factories was that started at ,clignancourt1 in #agge1 by ,pierre ,deruelle1 under the powerful protection of ,monsieur 7the king's brother1 afterwards ,louis ,,xviii474 ,the royal edicts 7as indeed was often the case elsewhere7 against the use of gold were ignored in this case1 and the ,svres ware--the simpler forms then in fashion--was cleverly imitated4 ,the earlier mark1 a windmill 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fa71 pointed to the famous moulin on the neighbouring ,montmartre4 ,at a later time the letter ,m1 under a crown1 referred to the royal patron4 ,the queen herself took under her patronage the factory started in #aggh by ,lebuf in the ,rue ,thiroux4 ,this is the #8,porcelaine de la ,reine1' marked with the letter ,a under a crown 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fb71 often decorated with leaves and little sprigs of the barbeau1 the cornflower1 then so much in fashion4 ,these flowers1 indeed1 may be found on many other wares1 ,english and ,french1 about this time4 ,the ,duc d',angoulme was the patron of the works started in #aghj1 in the ,rue de ,bondy4 ,it is noteworthy that this factory survived1 still under the original founders1 ,guerhard and ,dihl1 to the days of ,louis ,,xviii4 ,dihl was1 as it were1 a forerunner of ,brongniart1 being the first potter in ,france to employ the newly discovered colours derived from rarer metallic bases4 ,the ,rue de ,bondy factory had also the credit of producing elaborate copies of pictures on plaques of porcelain before such things were attempted at ,svres4 ,the factory established in #aghd at the ,pont aux ,choux is chiefly remarkable for the patronage of the ,duc d',orlans1 ,philippe galit4 ,starting with the brother of ,louis ,,xiv41 whose arms are found on gigantic vases of #8old ,japan1' this was the fifth member of the ,orleans family who had interested himself with porcelain1 in one way or another4 ,i have only mentioned a few of the more important ,parisian factories4 ,franks1 in his ,catalogue of ,continental ,porcelain1 gives a list of seventeen works4 ,examples of most of these may be found either in the ,franks collection or in that of ,mr4 ,fitzhenry4 ,after the ,restoration the work done in ,paris became more and more confined to the decoration of porcelain made elsewhere4 ,a special industry--for such it may well be called--was the imitation of older wares1 both ,oriental and ,european4 ,for this somewhat ambiguous work the ,samson family has acquired a ,european reputation4 ,at the present day many more or less amateur potter-artists are working in ,paris4 ,specimens of their work may be studied in the yearly salons4 ,it is no uncommon thing to see--in the neighbourhood of the ,panthon1 for instance--a notice in a window pointing out to those interested1 that a kiln for porcelain or fayence will be fired at such and such a date4 ,during the last hundred years ,limoges has become more and more the centre of the porcelain industry of ,france4 ,a very hard1 refractory porcelain is here made from the excellent kaolin of ,saint-,yrieix1 and this ware not only occupies in ,france the position of our ,staffordshire earthenware and semi-porcelain1 but competes with these wares in the markets of the world4 ,one of the largest works was started some years ago with ,american capital1 and the ,united ,states1 until lately1 drew their principal supplies of porcelain from this district4#aih ,it is to a chemist attached to one of these factories1 to ,m4 ,dubreuil1 that we are indebted for our best account of the technical and chemical processes employed at the present day in the manufacture and decoration of porcelain 7see the work quoted on p4 #ae74 ,at ,limoges there is a ceramic museum1 the most important in ,france after that at ,svres1 the contents of which have been described by ,m4 ,e4 ,garnier in a catalogue which1 as far as continental porcelain is concerned1 has1 so far1 no rival4#aii ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,soft ,,and ,,hybrid ,,porcelains ,,of ,,italy ,,and ,,spain ,the porcelain made in ,italy in the eighteenth century is not of much importance either from a technical or an artistic point of view4 ,with the exception of the ,capo di ,monte ware and its imitations1 examples are rarely found in ,english collections4 ,on the whole the decoration is poor in effect1 and closely follows in the wake of the ,german wares4 ,this is the case at least with most of the porcelain made in the north of ,italy4 ,following1 probably unconsciously1 the example of the early ,medici ware1 the refractory element in the eighteenth-century porcelain of ,italy has generally been found in a natural kaolinic clay which here replaces the quartz-sand and the lime of the ,french soft paste1 and it is this peculiarity in their composition which led ,brongniart to form a special class for what he called the hybrid pastes of ,italy4 ,,venice4--,there is1 as we have seen1 strong evidence that porcelain was made in ,venice in the sixteenth century1 but such evidence is1 unfortunately1 only documentary4 ,we are in almost as bad a position when we come to the ware manufactured in the city1 perhaps as early as #agbj1 by the ,vezzi1 a family of lately ennobled goldsmiths 7see ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,drake1 ,notes on ,venetian ,ceramics1 ,london1 #ahfh1 privately printed74 ,this ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xli4 #a ,,and #b--,,venetian1 ,,blue ,,and ,,white #c--,,meissen #d--;,,frankenthal1 ,,lilac ,,and ,,gold ware was made by ,saxon workmen with clay obtained from ,saxony4 ,to this factory1 however1 we can safely attribute the tall cup and saucer1 with the arms of ,benedict ,,xiii4 7#agbd-cj71 and the mark #8,vena' 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fc71 in the ,franks collection 7,no4 #ddf74 ,at this time ,hunger1 the ,saxon painter and gilder1 was in ,venice4 ,he was already back at ,meissen in #agbe1 and ,dr4 ,brinckmann thinks that he may have brought back from ,venice the process of passing the gilding through the muffle1 which about that time replaced1 at ,meissen1 the older plan of #8lac-gilding4' ,the ,vezzi works were closed in #agdj1 and not till #ageh do we hear of fresh attempts to imitate the ,meissen ware4 ,this time it was a ,saxon family driven out from ,meissen by the war1 one ,hewelcke and his wife1 who set up a short-lived factory in which they attempted to make porcelain #8ad uso di ,sassonia4' ,it was probably with the assistance of ,hewelcke that ,geminiano ,cozzi in #agfd established the porcelain works where 7as we learn from the report drawn up by the ,inquisitor alle ,arti a few years later7 he gave employment to forty-five workmen4 ,cozzi made porcelain #8ad uso di ,giappone1' much of which was exported to ,trieste and the ,levant4#bjj ,this ware1 decorated in ,oriental style1 must have been made exclusively for the trade with the ,east1 for1 to judge from the specimens in our museums1 it was rather the ware of ,meissen than that of ,imari that ,cozzi took as his model4 ,we find on his porcelain small views1 especially coast-scenes and ports1 outlined in black and gold2 again1 on tea-and coffee-services1 flower-pieces and chinoiseries4 ,he turned out also some biscuit and glazed statuettes of considerable merit4 ,cozzi's factory survived until #ahab4 ,an anchor in red1 larger than that used at ,chelsea1 and of a different shape1 is the mark usually found on this china#bja 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fd74 ,,le ,,nove4--,a ,venetian family1 the ,antonibon1 had early in the eighteenth century established an important manufactory of majolica at ,le ,nove1 near ,bassano4 ,later on they turned their attention to porcelain and1 after the year #agfj1 ,pasquale ,antonibon produced some successful ware marked with a star 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fe74 ,one or two well modelled and carefully finished specimens of this porcelain at ,south ,kensington show the influence of both ,meissen and ,svres4 ,these works were in operation as late as #ahbe4 ,,vinovo4--,in the royal castle of ,vinovo or ,vineuf1 near ,turin1 some unsuccessful endeavours to manufacture porcelain were made with the help of one of the younger ,hannongs of ,strassburg4 ,a ,turin doctor1 ,vittore ,amadeo ,gioanetti1 who had already made numerous experiments with the clays and rocks of the district1 met with better success about #aghj4 ,the paste of this ware contains a considerable amount of silicate of magnesia1 obtained from a deposit of magnesite discovered in the neighbourhood by the doctor4#bjb ,this hybrid ware is more easily fusible than a true porcelain1 but it resists well rapid variations of temperature4 ,the usual mark is the letter ,v surmounted by the cross of the house of ,savoy 7,,pl4 ,d4 #ff74 ,,capo ,,di ,,monte4--,here in the northern suburbs of ,naples1 just beneath the ,royal ,palace1 an important factory of soft-paste porcelain was established in #agdb4 ,don ,carlos1 of ,bourbon-,farnese extraction1 had recently exchanged his dukedom of ,parma for the throne of the ,two ,sicilies4 ,in #agch he had married a ,saxon princess1 but there is little sign of any ,german influence either in the design or composition of the ware made at his new porcelain factory at ,capo di ,monte4 ,like his cousin at ,versailles at a later date1 he took the keenest interest in the sale of his porcelain4 ,an annual fair was held in front of the palace1 and a large purchase there was a sure passport to the favour of the king1 who is even said to have worked as a potter himself4 ,when in #agei ,don ,carlos succeeded to the throne of ,spain as ,charles ,,iii41 he1 as it were1 carried his porcelain works with him1 taking away the best workmen1 so that little of interest was made at ,naples after that date4 ,to this earlier period belong the plain white pieces often in imitation of sea-shells1 or again resting on a heap of smaller shells moulded probably from nature 7a very similar ware was made at ,bow and other ,english factories74 ,we find also highly coloured statuettes and groups of figures4 ,but the name of ,capo di ,monte is associated above all with another style of decoration4 ,the surface of the ware in this case is covered by groups of figures1 mythological subjects by preference1 and by vegetation1 moulded in low relief and delicately coloured4 ,this was the ware imitated at ,doccia in later days1 and also1 it would seem1 at ,herend1 in ,hungary4 ,but perhaps the most characteristic pieces then made at ,naples are the little detached figures1 generally grotesques1 delicately modelled and painted 7,,pl4 ,,xlii474 ,in this ,capo di ,monte porcelain we may note generally the prevalence of extreme rococo forms4 ,the glaze of the white ware has a pleasant warm tone resembling that of some of the ,fukien porcelain1 which may in part have served as a model4 ,when the factory was re-established first at ,portici and then again at ,naples1 a very different influence is perceptible4 ,there is a service at ,windsor presented by the ,king of ,naples to ,george ,,iii4 in #aghg1 decorated with #8peintures ,hetrusques1' that is to say1 with reproductions of antiques in the ,museo ,borbonico4 ,this later ware generally bears as a mark an ,n surmounted by a crown4 ,,doccia4--,the interest of the factory at ,doccia1 some five miles to the west of ,florence1 where majolica and many varieties of porcelain have been made for the last one hundred and seventy years1 centres round the ,ginori family4 ,the founder of those works1 the ,marchese ,carlo ,ginori1#bjc who belonged to an old ,florentine family1 was sent1 in #agcg1 by the ,grand ,duke on a diplomatic mission to the ,emperor ,francis ,i4 ,he had already1 at his villa near ,sesto1 succeeded in making some imitations of ,oriental porcelain1 and on his return from ,vienna he brought back with him the arcanist ,carl ,wandhelein4 ,with his assistance ,ginori was able in a short time to turn out some well modelled statuettes4 ,the paste1 however1 was not very white or uniform1 and the larger pieces are generally disfigured by fissures4 ,to this time belongs probably a large statuette of a crouching ,venus at ,south ,kensington4 ,this kind of ware had its inspiration1 no doubt1 in the ambitious attempts to replace the works of the sculptor with which the ,meissen factory was occupied about this time4 ,ginori was soon after appointed ,governor of ,leghorn1#bjd and he is said to have despatched a vessel to ,china expressly to bring back the kaolin of that country4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlii4 #a1 #b ,,and #c--;,,capo ,,di ,,mente #d--;,,doccia ,the works at ,doccia and the schools and museums attached to them are frequently referred to by our eighteenth century travellers4 ,there appears to have been a period of decline1 as was not unnatural1 during the ,napoleonic wars1 but by the early part of the nineteenth century the factory at ,doccia had become one of the most important in ,europe4 ,on the death of the founder1 in #ageg1 the works had been carried on by his son ,lorenzo1 and he in his turn was succeeded by ,carlo ,leopoldo1 who introduced a new type of furnace4 ,this remarkable dynasty of noble potters has carried on the ,doccia works to the present day4 ,beside a large outturn of enamelled fayence and of hard porcelain1 ad uso di ,francia1 a milder or hybrid type of paste has been largely made1 and the materials have been obtained from many sources1 native and foreign4 ,the dealers' shops in ,italy have been inundated with imitations of the old majolica1 and with the help of moulds obtained from the moribund ,capo di ,monte works1 close imitations of that ware have long been made at ,doccia4 ,indeed the bulk of the porcelain decorated with mythological figures in low relief 7more especially the larger pieces so often seen in dealers' shops and in salerooms7 has its origin in ,tuscany rather than at ,naples4 ,the mark1 a star formed of two superimposed triangles1 is derived from the arms of the family1 but this mark has often been omitted4 ,in the eighteenth century many kinds of ware were imitated2 the plain white porcelain is1 however1 the most interesting1 such as the already mentioned statuettes and the imitations of the ,fukien ware1 specimens of which were sent by ,sir ,horace ,mann to ,walpole in #agfj4 ,this kind of ware is whiter and of a more dead aspect than that made at ,naples and at ,buen ,retiro4 ,in the ,franks collection are specimens from an interesting series of small medallions with portraits of the grand ducal and other families1 in white relief on a grey-blue ground4 ,these were made at ,doccia1 probably towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,,spain ,,buen ,,retiro4--,during the sixteenth century we have frequent references to the importation of ,oriental porcelain into the ,peninsula--the white ware of ,fukien is said to have been above all prized4 ,in the seventeenth century we find ,portuguese travelling merchants selling porcelain at the fair of ,st4 ,germain1 and we hear that their stalls were visited by people of quality from ,paris4 7,cf4 p4 #bcj47 ,but this ware of the ,far ,east has left little or no mark upon the fayence or porcelain made in ,spain4 ,in the former1 at least1 the influence of the nearer ,saracenic ,east has always remained predominant4#bje ,the porcelain fever that raged at times in the rest of ,europe seems to have left ,spain untouched until the advent of the half-,french1 half-,italian king in #agei4 ,charles ,,iii41 who abandoned his ,neapolitan throne in that year to succeed his brother as ,king of ,spain1 was on the whole the best of the many descendants of ,louis ,,xiv4 who ruled in ,france1 ,spain1 and ,italy in the eighteenth century4 ,we have seen that he was an enthusiastic potter1 and his first care1 even before leaving ,naples1 was to see to the transhipping to ,spain of practically the whole of the staff1 to say nothing of the moulds and other appliances in use at the ,capo di ,monte factory4 ,don ,juan ,riao1 in his ,handbook of ,spanish ,arts1 gives the names of nineteen modellers and fourteen painters who sailed for ,alicante in a vessel specially chartered for this purpose4 ,among these ,italian emigrants two names are worthy of mention--,buonicelli--he and his son after him superintended the new works till the end of the century--and ,gricci 7there were three men of this name among the modellers71 the designer of the famous porcelain chamber at ,aranjuez4 ,the new factory1 known as ,la ,china1 was erected in the garden of the ,buen ,retiro1 a palace in the suburbs of ,madrid4 ,here for the next thirty years1 that is until the death of ,charles ,,iii4 in #aghh1 supported by a large yearly grant1 and surrounded by the strictest secrecy1 was made the porcelain destined for the decoration of the royal palaces and for presentation to other courts4 ,only in the time of ,joseph1 ,napoleon's brother1 and of ,ferdinand ,,vii41 was the ware from the royal works allowed to come into the market1 and this was at a period of decline4 ,the ,buen ,retiro gardens were the scene of desperate fighting between the ,english and the ,french in the year #ahab1 during which the porcelain works were completely destroyed4 ,we hear1 at the commencement1 of quarrels between the ,spanish and ,italian workmen1 and of breakdowns in the kilns4 ,but ,charles and his director1 ,buonicelli1 must soon have surmounted the preliminary difficulties1 for already1 during the years #agfc to #agfe 7as we learn from an inscription on one of the slabs71 ,giuseppe ,gricci was occupied in decorating the porcelain chamber1 the famous ,gabineto of the palace at ,aranjuez1 which surpassed in magnificence the earlier room of the same description at ,portici4 ,the large plaques which surround this chamber are decorated with groups of ,japanese figures in high relief1 carefully modelled and painted4 ,between these plaques rise tall looking-glasses brought from the king's new glass-works at ,la ,granja1 and the porcelain frames of these mirrors are elaborately decorated with fruits and flowers4 ,there is another of these porcelain cabinets in the ,royal ,palace at ,madrid2 this time the plaques are ornamented with children in high relief4 ,here and in the other ,spanish palaces1 at ,aranjuez1 at ,la ,granja1 and at the ,escurial1 may still be seen vases of porcelain from ,buen ,retiro1 some of them six or seven feet in height4 ,these vases are often set in gilt bronze mountings and filled with branches of porcelain flowers4 ,among the specimens of ,spanish porcelain that we see in ,english collections1 it is the plain white ware that interests us most4 ,this is of a very beautiful warm tint1 and the vases are surrounded by amorini in full relief among flowers1 or again by sea-shells modelled from nature1 as in the case of the ,capo di ,monte ware4 ,but many other things were made--imitations of ,wedgwood1 for example1 white relief on a dull blue ground4 ,in its last days the factory fell under ,french influence1 and an attempt was made to imitate the hard paste of ,svres with the aid of native clays4 ,it would seem that some of the paste made at an earlier time was of a hybrid nature1 containing magnesia1 like that of ,vinovo4 ,the factory was re-established by ,ferdinand ,,vii4 after his restoration1 at the ,moncloa1 near ,madrid1 but with little success4 ,close at hand1 at ,la ,florida1 near the well-known ,paseo1 an attempt has been lately made to revive the works4 ,zuluaga1 the famous metal-worker1 has interested himself in these new works1 but the ware made is of little interest4 ,the fleur-de-lis of the ,bourbons1 generally painted in blue under the glaze1 is the only mark that need be mentioned2 it is probable that this mark was already in use at ,naples 7,,pl4 ,d4 #fg74 ,at ,alcora1 in the province of ,valencia1 the ,conde d',aranda had established an important factory of artistic fayence as early as the year #agbe4 ,aranda played no small part in the short-lived revival of prosperity in ,spain that followed the accession of ,charles ,,iii4 ,in #agfd we find him sending to ,dresden for an arcanist1 and in #aggd he obtained the services of a ,french expert1 one ,martin1 from ,svres4 ,each in his turn covenanted with the count to make true porcelain1 and we are told that he sent specimens of his ware to his friend ,voltaire at ,ferney4 ,don ,juan ,riao gives a full account of this factory1 but there do not seem to be any specimens of ,aranda's wares in ,english collections that are anything better than a fine fayence4 ,in the ,museo ,arqueologico at ,madrid there is a large collection of porcelain and fayence from ,buen ,retiro1 ,la ,moncloa1 ,alcora1 and ,talavera4 ,,portugal4--,some hard-paste porcelain was made at ,lisbon before the year #agge1 and at ,vista ,alegre1 near ,oporto1 the factory started about #agij is still carried on4 ,certain medallions of biscuit porcelain1 in the style of ,wedgwood1 have found their way into the ,schreiber and ,franks collections4 ,to judge from an inscription on a minute plaque suitable for setting in a ring1 in the latter collection1 these medallions were made at the ,royal ,arsenal at ,lisbon in #agib4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,english ,,porcelain ,,introduction--,,the ,,soft-,,paste ,,porcelain ,,of ,,chelsea ,,and ,,bow ,in spite of the considerable literature that has sprung up upon the subject1 we know little of the early history of ,english soft-paste porcelain4 ,we have already spoken of the experiments made by ,dr4 ,dwight in the seventeenth century4 ,dr4 ,lister1 writing in #afii 7see above1 p4 #bhb71 shows a remarkable acquaintance with the technical qualities of various kinds of porcelain3 he speaks of #8the inward ,substance and ,matter of the ,pots' made at ,saint-,cloud as the very same as that of the ,chinese1 #8hard and fine as ,marble1 and the self-same grain on this side vitrification4 ,further1 the transparency of the ,pots the very same4' ,he had expected that at best they #8might have arrived at the ,gomron ware1 which is indeed little else but a total vitrification4'#bjf ,the man who wrote this must have been thoroughly acquainted with the physical qualities of porcelain2 he must already have made some study of the subject4 ,and yet not only at that time1 but for the next forty-five years1 there is a total absence of any evidence1 documentary or practical1 that porcelain was made anywhere in ,england4#bjg ,meantime new porcelain works were springing up in various parts of ,germany1 and in ,france the factories of ,saint-,cloud and ,chantilly had long been at work4 ,it is indeed from a ,french document that we get our first hint as to the existence of porcelain works in ,england before the year #agde4 ,in an #8arrest du ,conseil d'tat du ,roy' of that year1 by which ,charles ,adam is authorised to establish a porcelain factory at ,vincennes1 a note of alarm is sounded4 #8,a new establishment that has lately been founded in ,england for the manufacture of porcelain1 which appears by the nature of its composition more beautiful than that of ,saxony1' will probably1 so the document states1 lead to the new ,english ware replacing that of ,french origin 7,marryat1 p4 #cga74 ,for one reason or another there appears to have been a great outburst of interest in porcelain about the year #agde4 ,the works at ,bow were probably started at that time4 ,there are in existence dated pieces of that year which were almost certainly made at ,chelsea1 and these were no first efforts4 ,as early as this1 some porcelain figures may possibly have been made at ,derby1#bjh so that we may perhaps take the ten years preceding #agej as the period during which the industry was obscurely passing through its experimental stage4 ,after this time1 those who had been first in the field reaped a good harvest1 for during the next decade the china mania was at its height1 and afforded much material for the satirical and comic writers of the day4 ,to sum up the history of ,english porcelain in the eighteenth century1 we may take it that about the year #agdj the first attempts were made to imitate the various kinds of ,oriental and ,continental porcelain that were every year coming more and more into use2 that by the year #agej several factories were at work2 and finally1 that by #aghj the best had already been accomplished1 and the decline had already begun4 ,taken as a whole1 our ,english porcelain1 whether of soft or hard paste1 shows little originality4 ,from the point of view of design and decoration we may divide the ware made during the eighteenth century into two schools3-- 7a7 ,the ,oriental school1 the wares principally imitated being--#a4 ,the white porcelain of ,fukien1 with decoration in relief1 often of prunus blossom4 #b4 #8,blue and white1' the blue under the glaze--this is often combined with the previous class4 #c4 ,the earlier type of ,imari1 that known at the time as #8old ,japan1' or #8partridge and wheatsheaf4' #d4 ,the somewhat later type of ,imari with brocaded pattern1 what we now call #8old ,japan4' ,the enamelled wares of the great revival under ,kang-he and his successors1 though valued by collectors both here and in ,france1 were less often copied4 7b7 ,the ,european school1 which derived its inspiration from--#a4 ,the early wares of ,saint-,cloud1 and later from those of ,vincennes and ,svres4 ,speaking generally1 the influence of ,svres became predominant after #agee1 and to some extent ousted the earlier ,oriental motifs4 #b4 ,dresden1 which gave the type for the statuettes and also for the elaborate painting of flowers and realistic landscapes on plates and dishes4 ,this ,german influence1 favouring a dullish scheme of colour and a #8tight' execution1 was more apparent at an earlier and again at a later period2 during the best time1 say from #agee to #aggj1 it was eclipsed by that of ,svres4 ,it must be remembered that ,england is the only country where porcelain has been successfully made without royal or princely patronage4 ,the various kilns were here without exception founded as commercial speculations--they were essentially the outcome of middle-class enterprise4 ,there was1 it is true1 at one time some question at ,chelsea of royal patronage1 as represented by the ,duke of ,cumberland1 but this came to nothing4 ,some interest was taken and some advice given on the artistic side by one or two great noblemen--by the third ,duke of ,argyll1 for instance1 an admirer of the #8,kakiyemon' decoration--but the capital to start and maintain the works came from the pockets of the more enterprising and businesslike of the designers and decorators themselves1 men like ,sprimont and ,duesbury1 assisted by local bankers1 merchants1 and physicians4 ,as a result1 we find that a great feature in the commercial management1 one that was quite peculiar to our island1 was formed by the annual sales by auction1 advertised beforehand in the local papers4 ,it was by careful search through these advertisements and through the old sale catalogues that the late ,mr4 ,nightingale was able to clear up some at least of the difficulties and misconceptions that have surrounded the history of ,english porcelain4 ,the too ready acceptance of anecdotes and #8pleasant stories1' copied from one writer to another with occasional embellishments1 has been the cause of much confusion4 ,these have originated in many cases from the senile gossip of decayed workmen4 ,the same may be said of the disproportionate attention given to marks1 to which more care has been given than to a critical discrimination of the differences that distinguish the paste1 the glaze1 and the decoration of different wares4 ,how little was known a few years ago about the composition of our ,english porcelains is shown by the general acceptance of the statement that ,spode1 about the year #ahjj1 introduced the use of bone-ash4 ,it is now known that nearly fifty years before that time the use of a phosphatic paste was general in ,england1 and1 according to ,professor ,church1 in ninety per cent4 of the specimens in our collections bone-ash is an essential constituent4 ,thus the one original discovery that we can claim for our country was either forgotten or ignored4 ,apart from the hard porcelain of ,plymouth and ,bristol1 our ,english pastes may be divided into three classes4 ,that first used was probably copied as closely as possible from the pastes of ,saint-,cloud and ,chantilly4 ,it was a mixture of sand from ,alum ,bay and pipeclay from ,dorsetshire1 with an amount of glass1 in the form of a frit1 sufficient to ensure translucency4 ,before long the sand and clay were replaced in great measure by bone-ash1 and we get the #8natural soft paste' especially characteristic of ,english eighteenth century porcelain4 ,finally1 at the beginning of the next century ,spode replaced the glassy frit by a mixture of kaolin and china-stone1 retaining the bone-ash4 ,a paste of this type has been in use ever since4 ,thus1 in the year #ahdj1 the ordinary commercial porcelain of ,staffordshire1 which in its origin was a development of the artistic wares of the eighteenth century1 was made from ,cornish kaolin #ca parts1 ,cornish china-stone #bf per cent41 flint #be per cent41 and #8prepared bones' #dje per cent4#bji ,the last material is made from the roasted bones of oxen1 now largely imported for this purpose from ,south ,america4 ,the glaze on the earlier wares was essentially a silicate of lead and potash1 compounded from white lead1 nitre1 and salt4 ,but at present a harder glaze is used for the ,staffordshire porcelain3 it contains1 in addition to the above substances1 a considerable quantity of china-stone and china-clay1 together with a little borax4 ,our ,english porcelain of the eighteenth century may be divided roughly into five periods3-- #a4 ,the early or primitive period1 very often characterised by ,chinese1 and especially ,japanese1 schemes of decoration4 ,oriental wares are closely copied1 sometimes perhaps with the object of deception4 ,the paste1 containing no bone-ash1 is soft and very waxy in appearance4 ,much of the ground is left unpainted1 and there is no gilding4 ,there is a great uncertainty as to the place of manufacture of many of these early pieces4 #b4 ,the fine period--approximately #agee to #agfh--;especially associated with the name of ,sprimont1 at ,chelsea4 ,the influence of the contemporary production at ,svres is very marked4 #c4 ,the ,duesbury period1 #agfh to #aghf4 ,simple classical forms are predominant at ,chelsea and ,derby4 ,the rich decoration previously in use at ,chelsea is continued at ,worcester1 but applied to pieces of simpler outline1 the vases often copying ,chinese forms4 #d4 ,the early commercial period4 ,the business firms at ,derby and ,worcester almost monopolise the market4 ,somewhat later the factories in the ,severn valley form a link with the next period4 #e4 ,the ,staffordshire commercial period1 equally commercial and essentially eclectic4 ,everything is copied1 and there is a constant tendency to hark back to older types4 ,it is possible that some such historical arrangement1 combined with a division according to types of decoration1 might be made the basis of an account of ,english porcelain2 but it will be a safer course to follow the usual topographical division1 treating the different factories more or less in the order of the date of their foundation4 ,,chelsea4--,the year #agde is the earliest date to which any piece of ,chelsea ware can with certainty be assigned4 ,the factory ceased to exist as an independent seat of manufacture before #aggj4 ,in this short interval there were apparently some years during which very little china was made4 ,it is thus essentially an early ware1 and ,horace ,walpole in his catalogue already speaks of #8old ,chelsea4' ,we know absolutely nothing about the origin of the works4 ,the ,duke of ,buckingham1 in the time of ,charles ,,ii41 is said to have been interested in some glass-works in this neighbourhood1 and to have brought over workmen from ,venice4 ,the duke's glass-houses were1 however1 more probably at ,lambeth4 ,at any rate1 at that time1 the #8cones1' as the glass-houses were called1 appear to have been regarded as places suitable equally for the making of glass or the firing of pottery--so at least ,i glean from the terms of an advertisement in which some of these #8cones' are offered for sale4 ,the origin of the well-known anchor-mark of ,chelsea has been sought in ,venice1 but1 as far as porcelain is concerned1 it was probably in use at ,chelsea at an earlier date than in the latter town4 ,our knowledge of the existence of a factory at ,chelsea before #agdi rests on the survival of two little cream-jugs of white ware moulded in the so-called #8goat and bee' pattern4 ,like some other pieces to which an early date may be assigned1 these little jugs bear as a mark a rough triangle scratched in the paste 7,,pl4 ,e4 #fh71 but they stand alone in the fact that beneath the triangle has been added1 before baking1 in a scrawly hand1 #8,chelsea1 #agde4'baj ,thanks to them we are able1 upon material evidence1 to put back the origin of ,english porcelain for five years at least4#baa ,in the year #agdg1 we are told in the ,london ,tradesman1 that at a house at ,greenwich1 and at another at ,chelsea1 the undertakers had been for some time trying to imitate the porcelain of ,china and ,dresden1 and in the same year a number of ,staffordshire potters migrated to ,london to find work in the ,chelsea factory 7,shaw's ,rise and ,progress of the ,staffordshire ,potteries74 ,in a ,london paper of ,december #agdi there is an advertisement of the sale of a freehold messuage in #8,great ,china ,row1 ,chelsea4' ,this was no mere misprint--,china for ,cheyne--7the two words were pronounced alike at that time71 for we come across the same spelling in more than one instance at a later date4#bab ,there is a real confusion of the two names1 arising probably from the interest taken in the porcelain factory lately established in the neighbourhood2 and this very confusion is good evidence of the extent to which the china question was occupying people's minds at the time4 ,two months later1 in ,january #agej1 we hear for the first time of ,mr4 ,charles ,gouyn1 but he is already1 at that date1 the late proprietor and chief manager of the #8,chelsea ,house4' ,of this ,gouyn1 presumably the founder of the works1 we know nothing4 ,he was probably of ,french or ,belgian origin4#bac ,of ,gouyn's successor1 ,nicholas ,sprimont1 we know something more4 ,like his contemporary ,duplessis1 at ,svres1 he was a silversmith1 working at one time in ,soho4 ,sprimont entered his name at ,goldsmith ,hall in #agdb1 and his mark is found on a pair of silver dishes ornamented with shells and corals now at ,windsor4 ,for twenty years 7#agdi-fi7 the factory at ,chelsea was dependent upon ,sprimont's efforts4 ,he was financier1 director1 and designer4 ,when he was ill the kilns were not lighted4 ,when finally1 in #agfd1 he had to go in search of health to #8the ,german ,spau1' the stock and plant were offered for sale4 ,at an early period--soon after #agec1 it would seem1 but possibly somewhat later--he appealed to the ,government against the connivance of the custom-house officials at the smuggling in of ,dresden china4 ,in this #8,case of the ,undertaker of the ,chelsea ,manufacture of ,porcelain1' ,sprimont points out that #8as the law stands1 painted ,earthenware#bad other than that from ,india is not enterable at the ,custom ,house1 otherwise than for private use4' #8,the regulation1' says ,sprimont1 #8is1 however1 evaded1 especially by a certain foreign minister whose official residence has become a warehouse for this commerce4 ,what chance had a private person in a match with a crowned head8' ,from this #8,case' we learn that no porcelain or other ware1 apart from the importations of the ,east ,india ,company1 was allowed to enter the country1 but that an exception was made in the case of plain white ware suitable for subsequent decoration in ,england4#bae ,private individuals1 however1 might import a certain amount of ,european porcelain for their own use on payment of a small duty4 #8,this concession1' says ,sprimont1 #8was greatly abused4' ,who1 however1 is the #8crowned head' who is so anxious to push the sale of his own goods in the ,english market8 ,the ,elector of ,saxony1 it is usually said2 but if we could put the date of the #8undertaker's case' a few years later1 between #agei and #agfa 7there are1 ,i allow1 some difficulties in so doing71 this charge would fit in well with the efforts of ,frederick the ,great to convert the stock of porcelain he found at ,meissen into the much-needed cash4#baf ,the factory at ,chelsea was situated beyond the west extremity of the original ,cheyne ,row1 just before you come to the old church4 ,the works extended for some distance along the west side of ,lawrence ,street4 ,nothing is left of them now1 but during some excavations made near at hand1 in #ahdc1 many fragments of porcelain were found4 ,these pieces belong1 it would seem1 to an early period of the manufacture4 ,we have already pointed out that neither the ,chelsea works1 nor indeed any other ,english porcelain factory1 at any time received direct financial support either from the royal family or from the ,government4 ,sir ,everard ,fawkner1 however1 secretary to the ,duke of ,cumberland1 was a collector of china1 and took some interest in the works4 ,it was through his influence1 perhaps1 that the #8butcher of ,culloden' appears at one time to have been brought1 in some way1 into connection with the ,chelsea factory4#bag ,again1 soon after his accession1 the young ,king ,george ,,iii4 sent to the ,duke of ,mecklenburg a complete service of ,chelsea porcelain which cost #abjj4 ,this is1 ,i think1 our first known instance in ,england of royal patronage1 even in this restricted sense4 ,in common with the other porcelain made at the time1 the decoration1 and even the shapes1 of much of the early ware of ,chelsea were derived from ,oriental models4 ,of these ,eastern types1 the #8wheatsheaf and partridge' 7more properly quail7 was most in favour4 ,the ,chelsea imitations of the old ,japanese ware are distinguished by the abundant use of a heavy iron-red enamel4 ,there are several specimens of this ware at ,south ,kensington1 but ,i would call attention1 above all1 to a very curious compotier in the ,jermyn ,street collection4#bah ,this dish has a brown rim1 and round the margin a quaint decoration of foxes amid clusters of red grapes4 ,this is a very old ,chinese motif1 only we should have squirrels in place of foxes4 ,but the ,chelsea #8,kakiyemon' never equalled that of ,chantilly1 or perhaps even the copies made at ,bow4 ,on the other hand1 the ,chelsea plates made in imitation of the brocaded #8old ,japan' are unsurpassed among ,european wares 7,,pl4 ,,xlv74 ,equally early1 perhaps1 are the plates and dishes with decorations of flowers and birds on a large scale sprawling over the surface4 ,in these last examples the colours are poor and heavy1 and the general execution very rough4 ,many of the plain white pieces also belong to this early period4#bai ,in the year #aged ,sprimont introduced the system of periodic sales by auction2#bbj and we can in some measure trace the progress of the manufacture in the advertisements and in the rare catalogues that have been preserved4 ,thus in the advertisement of the first sale of #aged we already find mention of groups of figures4 ,the next sale1 a few months later1 was made up of #8the entire ,stock of ,,porcelain ,,toys 444 ,snuff-boxes1 ,smelling-,bottles1 ,etwees1 and ,trinkets for ,watches 7mounted in ,gold and unmounted7 in various beautiful ,shapes of an elegant ,design and curiously painted in ,enamel4' ,there was also in this sale a large parcel of porcelain hafts for table and dessert knives and forks4 ,this is the first mention that we have of these fascinating little #8toys and trinkets4' ,they often bear inscriptions in a somewhat lame ,french1 which we might have looked for rather on the rival wares of #8,stratford-atte-,bowe' than at a factory where we have reason to believe more than one ,frenchman was employed4 ,of these toys a representative collection was made by ,lady ,charlotte ,schreiber1 and there are many charming specimens in the ,british ,museum4 ,we must remember that about this time1 and perhaps earlier 7#agdj-ej71 ,saint-,cloud and1 above all1 ,mennecy1 were turning out a similar class of objects4 ,the ,chelsea sale of #agef is the earliest of which a catalogue has been preserved1 and in it we find the first mention of the #8mazareen' blue1 a colour after this time largely used as a ground for the more elaborate vases1 both at ,chelsea and at other ,english factories4 ,the rage for porcelain was then at its height1 and we see traces of this in the advertisements of the time2 but in #ageg ,sprimont fell ill1 and little was made at ,chelsea4 ,in #agei the collection of ,chelsea porcelain made by the already-mentioned ,sir ,everard ,fawkner1 lately deceased1 was sold by auction4 ,the sale occupied several days1 and in the advertisement we come across the earliest reference to the use of green en camaeu--#8a tea and coffee equipage1 exquisitely painted in green landscapes4' ,it was about this time1 ,professor ,church thinks1 that the artificial frit-paste was replaced at ,chelsea by one containing a large quantity of bone-ash 7as much as fifty per cent4 in some cases74 ,the earlier material of the ,french type must have been very difficult to work1 and it softened so readily in the kiln that many specimens were spoiled in the firing4 ,it had1 however1 a certain mellow charm given by its translucency and by the close unison of paste and glaze1 that was never equalled in the later material4 ,indeed the high-water mark of the ,chelsea factory was reached in the years that succeeded ,sprimont's first illness of #ageg4 ,it was then that the use of gilding became more general4#bba ,the gold was laid on by means of an amalgam1 the mercury being expelled by the heat of the muffle4 ,the result1 after burnishing1 was to give a brilliant surface of pure gold unlike the solid chiselled lines and bands of dullish surface seen on ,svres china4 ,but from an artistic point of view this result is not very satisfactory--indeed1 nothing has helped more to give a certain garish and vulgar air to much of the ,english porcelain made at this time4 ,in the notice of the spring sale of #agfj1 ,sprimont sings the praises of #8a few pieces of some new colours that have been found this year at a very large expense1 incredible labour and close application4' ,among these new colours we must probably reckon the beautiful claret or deep purplish crimson1 the one colour of our ,english porcelain that has never been surpassed or even equalled on the ,continent4 ,it differs from the contemporary rose ,pompadour not only by the greater intensity of its hue1 but by being a transparent colour4 ,this claret is1 of course1 derived from the purple of ,cassius1 and the peculiar tint is said to be due to the addition to the gold of a small amount of silver4 ,among the other colours introduced at this time was probably a blue made in imitation of the famous turquoise of ,svres4 ,this blue is very rare as a ground colour at ,chelsea1 and the tint is generally greenish and opaque4 ,it is found at its best on a large vase in the ,british ,museum with open-work cover and handles4 ,in a diluted form the turquoise blue is often found as a wash upon the drapery of statuettes4 ,the rose ,pompadour of ,svres was also imitated at a later date1 but not very successfully4 ,this is the time of the more ambitious vases1 with a monochrome ground generally of deep blue and reserved panels painted with pastoral or mythological subjects1 or with fantastic #8exotic' birds and flowers4 ,the painting1 even in the finest examples1 never attained the delicacy of the ,svres prototype1 and it is often lamentably inefficient1 but at the same time this very rudeness of execution sometimes adds to the decorative effect of the ensemble4 ,these vases are above all distinguished by the strangely contorted shapes that ,sprimont so loved to give to the handles1 covers1 and feet4 ,all these points are well illustrated in the vases 7made in the years #agfb and #agfc7 that ,dr4 ,garnier gave to the ,foundling ,hospital and to the ,british ,museum4 ,the painting on these specimens is particularly bad and heavy4 ,the mythological subjects1 in the style of ,boucher1 on the famous garniture with claret ground1 now belonging to ,lord ,burton1 show a greater delicacy--in execution at least4 ,this exaggerated rococo treatment--in the extreme forms even the bilateral symmetry is abandoned--was doubtless suggested by the forms of the ormolu mountings 7for handles and feet especially7 then much in vogue4#bbb ,to a somewhat earlier date belong the moulded reproductions of animals1 vegetables1 and fruit so well represented in the ,schreiber collection4 ,in the case of some of the models of birds1 the plumage is admirably reproduced1 and in a sufficiently bold style4 ,notice especially some covered dishes in the form of partridges and doves4 ,there was a sale of these #8,chelsea ,tureens in the shape of hen and chickens1 swans1 rabbits1 carp1 etc41' in #agef4 ,how brilliant and decorative in general effect was some of the ware made by ,sprimont in his later days may be well seen in the collection presented to ,south ,kensington by ,miss ,emily ,thomson4 ,it consists chiefly of plates and cups with grounds of deep ,mazarin blue1 and more especially of the rich claret or maroon of ,chelsea 7,,pl4 ,,xliii474 ,technically1 however1 many of these pieces are very imperfect--the thick glaze accumulated in pools and fissured by cracks1 the painting rude--and yet for all this a plate of this ware which has found its way by some accident into an adjacent case1 full of the finest ,svres of the best period1 shines out from its surroundings like a jewel4 ,the single figures and groups are mentioned in the earliest advertisements--some of the plain white statuettes date back probably to the first days of the works4 ,here the ,english potters1 in applying the soft paste covered with a thick1 brilliant glaze to such a purpose1 were breaking fresh ground4 ,the crispness and the finish of the ,dresden statuettes they could never attain to with these materials4 ,the ,english figures and groups1 whether made at ,chelsea or elsewhere1 are generally wanting in sharpness and precision of outline1 a consequence in great measure of the thick-flowing glaze4 ,in the kiln they had to be supported by an elaborate system of struts to prevent the fusible material from collapsing1 and this alone must have hampered the modeller in the selection of the design4 ,many of these ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliii4 ,,chelsea ,english statuettes are childishly and hastily modelled1 and yet here and there1 perhaps almost by an accident1 the modeller has succeeded in giving a nave charm and vivacity to the little figure that disarms all criticism4 ,i could point to perhaps a dozen examples in our museums to illustrate this4 ,many of these statuettes are disfigured by the tawdry gilding1 and by the ugly rococo or #8scroll' bases which are always present in the ,chelsea examples4 ,the colouring is distinguished by the skilful use of pale and gradated tints3 the greenish turquoise1 the rouge d'or--both the ,english and the ,french tints--and the pea green1 are--thanks1 perhaps1 to the crystalline glaze into which these colours melt--boldly combined without any unpleasant effect#bbc 7,,pl4 ,,xliv474 ,sprimont1 who after all is perhaps the most interesting figure in the history of ,english porcelain1 was after the year #agfa constantly interrupted by ill-health1 and the outturn of the kilns was for several years very irregular2 finally in #agfi the remaining stock was sold by auction4 ,the next year1 the contents of the factory1 the moulds1 the models--in wax1 brass1 or lead--the mills and the presses were purchased privately by ,duesbury en bloc1 greatly to the disappointment of ,wedgwood1 who had his eye upon certain of the models4 ,duesbury also took over the lease of the ,chelsea works1 and carried them on conjointly with his main factory at ,derby until the year #aghd4 ,in that year1 on the expiration of the already prolonged lease1 the factory at ,chelsea was finally abandoned and the kilns pulled down4 ,the sales which had previously taken place at ,burnsall's in ,charles ,street1 ,berkeley ,square1 were now held at ,mr4 ,christie's #8in his great room1 late the ,royal ,academy1 in ,pall ,mall4' ,it was there that #8,messrs4 ,duesbury and ,co4' disposed at intervals of the produce of the combined works4 ,but the history of ,chelsea porcelain as a genre apart comes to an end with the departure of ,sprimont4 ,during the remaining years of their existence1 the ,chelsea works formed merely a dependency of those at ,derby4 ,as to the marks used at ,chelsea1 of the early incised triangle1 which was formerly ascribed to ,bow1 we have already spoken4 ,the anchor in relief on a raised oval cartouche 7,,pl4 ,e4 #fi7 is found on relatively early ware2 it is associated with a waxy1 translucent paste1 and a simple decoration without gilding4 ,the mark1 par excellence1 of ,chelsea is the red anchor 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gj71 but on richly decorated pieces1 and especially those with much gilding1 the anchor is often inscribed in gold4 ,,bow4--,from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the year #agdd there is no trace of the issue of any ,english patent relating to the manufacture of porcelain4 ,in the latter year1 however1 a specification was registered according to which ,edward ,heylyn1 of the parish of ,bow1 merchant1 and ,thomas ,frye1 of the parish of ,west ,ham1 painter1 professed to make porcelain1 by mixing with #8an earth the produce of the ,cherokee nation in ,america1 called by the natives ,unaker1' a glass composed of flint and potash4 ,this unaker1 no doubt a kind of kaolin 7we are told that the sand and mica had to be carefully washed away71 was much talked of at this time 7especially in ,quaker circles71 and its use preceded by some years that of the ,cornish china-clay4 ,possibly something resembling porcelain was made at ,bow for a short time with these incongruous materials2 but in the winter of #agdh-di a second patent ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliv4 ,chelsea4 ,coloured enamels4 was taken out1 this time by ,frye alone1 #8for a new method of making a certain ware which is not inferior in beauty and fineness1 and is rather superior in strength than the earthenware that is brought from the ,east ,indies1 and is commonly known by the name of ,china1 ,japan1 or porcelain ware4' ,in the description of the materials employed under the vague denomination of #8a virgin earth' produced by the calcination1 grinding1 and washing of certain animals1 vegetables1 and fossils1 we probably have1 as ,professor ,church has pointed out1 the first mention of bone-ash as a material for porcelain4 ,according to the specification1 the paste should contain four-ninths by weight of the #8virgin earth1' and taking this to mean bone-ash1 this proportion corresponds most closely with the amount of phosphate of lime found by ,professor ,church in some of the fragments from the site of the works which we shall describe directly4 ,frye's glaze was to be compounded from a mixture of red lead1 saltpetre and sand1 with the addition of a small quantity of smalt1 to correct the yellow colour of the paste4#bbd ,thomas ,frye was an artist of some standing who1 towards the close of his life1 #8scraped' some mezzotints still valued by collectors4 ,he died in #agfb1 and in his epitaph it is claimed for him that he was #8the inventor and first manufacturer of porcelain in ,england4' ,the works of which ,frye was the manager before the failure of his health in #agei were situated close to the high road just beyond the bridge over the river ,lea4 ,close by1 in #ahfh1 when making some excavations for a drain in the grounds of a match-factory1 a number of fragments of porcelain were found1 among them pieces of plain white with prunus #8sprigs' in relief1 and others poorly decorated with under-glaze blue4 ,some of these fragments were evidently #8wasters4' ,with them were found some broken #8seggars1' and1 what is still more interesting1 a circular cake of frit1 so that the site of the kilns must have been near at hand4#bbe ,the model of the ,bow factory1 we are told1 was taken from that at ,canton1 in ,china4 ,it would be interesting to know to what building the reference is made1 for it is doubtful whether porcelain was ever made at ,canton4 ,in any case1 the name given to the factory1 #8,the ,new ,canton ,works1' is interesting4 ,here in the east of ,london1 one was then1 as now1 perceptibly nearer to ,china and the ,east ,indies than at ,chelsea4 ,the river and the docks are at hand1 and there is indeed only one stage--a long one1 it is true--between us and ,canton4 ,so at ,bow we find the ,oriental decoration more prevalent and surviving longer than elsewhere4 ,the outturn of the kilns1 like that of ,chelsea1 was sold periodically by auction1 but the sales took place in the city for the most part1 and the principal warehouse was in ,cornhill4 ,though so difficult to identify nowadays1 a large quantity of porcelain must have been produced by the ,bow factory during the thirty years of its independent existence4 ,like its rival at ,chelsea1 the works had many ups and downs1 and ,crowther1 the proprietor1 became bankrupt in #agfc4 ,compared with ,chelsea1 however1 the bulk of the ware produced was no doubt of a common and cheap kind4 ,sprimont1 in his #8,case of the ,undertaker1' says somewhat contemptuously1 #8,the chief endeavours at ,bow have been towards making a more ordinary ware for common use4' ,this is1 of course1 the dictum of a rival1 but the ,bow firm1 in their advertisements1 only claim to provide #8china suitable for gentlemen's kitchens1 for private families and taverns4' ,there has been the widest difference of opinion as to the actual specimens of porcelain that may with certainty be classed as the produce of the kilns at ,bow4 ,the earliest dated pieces are of a very modest kind--certain little cylindrical ink-pots4 ,there is one in the collection formerly at ,jermyn ,street1 with the inscription #8,made at ,new ,canton1 #agea'2 another in a private collection is dated a year earlier4 ,the execution is rough1 and the hastily coloured decoration of flowers is in the ,japanese style4 ,some little time after this1 in #agec1 we find proof that the kilns were turning out much more ware than the proprietor could find painters to decorate4#bbf ,they advertise in a ,birmingham newspaper for #8painters in the blue and white potting way and enamelers in china-ware'2 also for #8painters brought up in the ,snuff-box way1 ,japanning1 ,fan-painting1 etc4' ,they are at the same time in search of persons #8who can model small figures in clay neatly4' ,such advertisements seem to come from a commercial house with a large but perhaps irregular outturn4 ,sprimont would probably have exercised more care in the selection of his artists4 ,there is a famous punch-bowl in the ,british ,museum which is above all the pice justificative of the ,bow porcelain works4 ,on the inside of the cover of the box in which it is preserved is a long inscription1 signed at the foot by ,t4 ,craft1 and with the date #agij4bbg ,thomas ,craft1 formerly an enamel-painter at ,bow1 was probably at that time a very old man4 ,this bowl1 he tells us1 was made at ,bow about #agfj1 and painted by him #8in what we used to call the old ,japan taste1 a taste at that time much esteemed by the then ,duke of ,argyle4' ,this is interesting4 ,craft refers probably to the so-called #8partridge and wheatsheaf' style1 and the duke was doubtless a collector of this ware1 like his contemporaries at ,chantilly and the ,palais ,royal4 ,but the decoration of this bowl has unfortunately nothing ,japanese about it1 except to some degree in the colour of the enamels employed4 ,the heavy wreaths made up of minute flowers1 upon which ,mr4 ,craft tells us that he expended two dwts4 of gold and about a fortnight of his time1 take their inspiration rather from ,meissen4 7,compare the wreaths1 ,,pl4 ,,xlv4 #b47 ,the works1 he continues1 which employed ninety painters and about two hundred turners1 throwers1 etc41#bbh had now1 in #agij1 #8like ,shakespeare's cloud-capt towers1 etc41' shared the fate of #8the famous cities of ,troy1 ,carthage1 etc4' ,the site was occupied by a manufactory of turpentine and some small tenements4 ,mr4 ,craft1 however1 tells us that he never used this punch-bowl but in particular respect of his company1 and he hopes that those to whom it may pass may be equally abstemious4 ,it is at present in the charge of the trustees of the ,british ,museum4 ,many of the more elaborate figures and highly finished vases classed as #8,bow' in the ,schreiber collection at ,south ,kensington are now regarded by most specialists as the production1 some of the ,derby works1 and others of the ,chelsea and even the ,worcester kilns4 ,in view of the uncertainty and difference of opinion about the ware that is to be attributed to ,bow1 it is important to note the physical qualities of undoubted specimens4 ,professor ,church lays stress upon the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlv4 #a--;,,chelsea1 ,,coloured ,,enamels #b--;,,bow1 ,,coloured ,,enamels general thickness of the ware1 the remarkable translucency of the thinner parts1 and upon the fact that the transmitted light is of a somewhat yellowish tint1 not greenish1 as in the ,worcester porcelain4 ,the glaze1 though nearly white1 is of a pale straw colour1 and it tends to accumulate round the reliefs2 it contains much lead1 and is liable to become iridescent and discoloured 7,english ,porcelain1 p4 #ca74 ,i would add that a majority of the undoubted examples--,i rely especially upon those collected by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks1 now in the ,british ,museum--are distinguished by a certain dirty and speckled appearance of the surface of the glaze4 ,i think that the ,bow china has been less influenced than other of our wares by ,french and ,german examples4 ,apart from the ,oriental decoration of some of the earlier pieces1 it is on the whole a very ,english ware4 ,the process of transfer-printing1 which had been first applied to china by ,sadler of ,liverpool about the year #agej1 and which had been in use at perhaps as early a date on the enamels of ,battersea1 where ,hancock was working at this time1 was employed a few years later at ,bow4#bbi ,a preliminary outline was sometimes printed under the glaze1 and this subsequently enlivened by enamel colours laid on by hand1 as we see on some barbarously painted dishes with ,chinese subjects in the ,british ,museum4 ,this transfer-printing is an essentially ,english process3 it has since been carried round the world in the wake of our ,staffordshire pottery1 and the process has even been applied to porcelain in ,japan4 ,to the general adoption of this mechanical process1 more than to any other cause1 we may attribute the dying out of the school of artist-craftsmen who painted on china1 and the extinction of all feeling for the decorative value of the designs applied to the ware4 ,i would call attention to some small figures in the collection formerly in the ,geological ,museum4 ,these little statuettes are in a white glazed ware of a slightly greenish tint1 and they are attributed to ,bow4 ,the #8,draped ,warrior' and the #8,seated ,nuns' appear to be taken from models of a considerably earlier period1 and their artistic merit is undeniable4 ,john ,bacon1 the fashionable sculptor of ,george ,,iii4's time1 is said to have found employment1 when young1 both as a modeller and painter of porcelain4 ,he was certainly apprenticed in #agee to a ,mr4 ,crispe of ,bow ,churchyard1 the proprietor of some pottery-works at ,lambeth1 and he may very likely have worked for ,crowther1 at ,bow1 after the expiration of his apprenticeship4 ,a dagger or sword with one or more dots near the hilt1 associated with an anchor1 is the mark especially characteristic of the ware made at ,bow 7,,pl4 ,e4 #ga71 but much porcelain attributed to this factory carries no mark4 ,a monogram formed of the letters ,t and ,f found on some early ware is perhaps to be referred to ,thomas ,frye1 but the ,worcester factory also used this mark 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gb74 ,,longton ,,hall4--,it has lately been recognised that porcelain was made in the ,staffordshire potteries1 probably as early as the middle of the century4#bcj ,this was at ,longton ,hall1 in the borough of ,stoke-upon-,trent4 ,from an advertisement in a ,birmingham paper 7,july #bg1 #ageb7 we learn that ,w4 ,littler and ,co4 were ready to supply #8a great variety of ornamental porcelain in the most fashionable and genteel taste4' ,it was ,mr4 ,nightingale1 ,i think1 who first traced certain pieces of china1 marked with two ,l's crossed 7,,pl4 ,e4 #ha71 to ,littler's factory4 ,this porcelain had previously been attributed to ,bow4 ,the ,longton ,hall ware has no claim to any artistic merit4 ,a crude blue is the prevailing ground colour1 and the contorted shapes copy rudely the rococo of ,sprimont's ,chelsea ware4 ,the mouldings on the dishes and plates often take the form of leaves4 ,some of this porcelain is exceptionally thin compared with other ,english wares of this comparatively early period4 ,the flower-painting on the reserved panels of the plates should1 however1 be noticed4 ,the carefully executed bunches of roses1 somewhat realistically treated1 are perhaps the earliest specimens of a style very prevalent at a later time in ,england1 one which found its most famous exponent in ,billingsley's work at ,nantgarw and elsewhere4 ,william ,duesbury1 a native of the district1 was working at ,longton ,hall early in the fifties as a painter in enamel4 ,nothing is known of this factory after the year #ageh4bca ,there is some reason to believe that it fell into the hands of ,duesbury1 but this is a disputed question4 ,professor ,church has analysed several specimens of the ,longton ,hall china4 ,it contains no bone-ash1 and is in composition very close to the early ,chelsea ware4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,english ,,porcelain--7continued74 ,,the ,,soft ,,paste ,,of ,,derby1 ,,worcester1 ,,caughley1 ,,coalport1 ,,swansea1 ,,nantgarw1 ,,lowestoft1 ,,liverpool1 ,,pinxton1 ,,rockingham1 ,,church ,,gresley1 ,,spode1 ,,and ,,belleek4 ,derby4--,porcelain of some kind was probably made at ,derby not much later than the date of the first establishment of ,frye's works at ,bow4 ,mr4 ,bemrose quotes entries from the work-book of ,duesbury1 which show that during the years #agea-ec he was busy enamelling the products not only of the #8,chellsea and ,bogh' kilns1 but that1 although resident in ,london1 he received work from ,derby also4 ,indeed the price1 eight shillings1 that he got for enamelling #8one pair of ,darby figars large1' is higher than his usual charge for painting the ,chelsea statuettes 7,bow1 ,chelsea1 and ,derby ,porcelain74#bcb ,william ,duesbury was a ,staffordshire man4 ,as early as the year #agdb1 when he was only seventeen1 he was working in ,london as an enameller for weekly wages4 ,this we know from his work-book1 which has been preserved4 ,it would be interesting to know what it was that he enamelled at this early date4 ,from the same book we learn that in the years #agea-ec he was in ,london decorating china figures for the most part4 ,these he distinguishes as ,bow1 or ,bogh1 ,chellsea1 ,darby1 and ,staffordshire4 ,in #ageb he paid a bill of #f1 #ais4 for colours1 although at that time little gold was used by him4 ,among other entries in his work-book at this period we find the following note3 #8,how to color the group1 a gentleman ,busing a ,lady--gentlm a gold trimd cote1 a pink wastcot crimson and trimd with gold and black breeches and socs1 the lade a flourd sack with yellow robings1 a black stomegar1 her hare black1 his wig powdrd4' ,each piece that he coloured is carefully noted1 and the price that he obtained given4 ,for instance1 #8pair of le ,dresden figars1' #8,chellsea ,nurs1' #8a pair of ,baccosses1' #8a hartychoake4'#bcc ,we have already referred to ,duesbury's connection with ,littler's works1--we may note that his father was living at ,longton ,hall at this time4 ,in ,december #agef there was a sale in ,london1 by order of the #8,derby ,porcelain ,manufactory1' of figures1 services1 etc41 #8after the finest ,dresden models4' ,for some time the #8,derby ,china ,company' sold their goods through their factor at #8,oliver ,cromwell's ,drawing-,room' near the ,admiralty4 ,it would seem that in #agef ,duesbury entered into some kind of partnership1 at ,derby1 with ,heath and ,planch1 the first a banker and proprietor of pottery-works at ,cockpit ,hill1 and the latter a #8china-maker1' of whom various more or less apocryphal stories are told4 ,all we can safely say is that ,planch had probably been working for some time at ,derby as a modeller of figures4 ,in the year #ageh the ,derby works were enlarged and the number of workmen doubled1 and this change has been coupled with the closing of ,littler's factory at ,longton ,hall about the same time4 ,but from this date to the year #agfi1 all that we know of the ,derby factory is derived from a few advertisements in ,london papers4 ,it is indeed a very remarkable fact that1 in spite of the most persevering researches--for how thoroughly the ground has been gleaned we can judge by looking through the elaborate works of ,haslem1 ,bemrose1 and the late ,mr4 ,nightingale--we can hardly point to a single specimen of porcelain made at ,derby before the year #aggj1 nor do we know of any mark that can be assigned to an earlier period than this4 ,can it be that up to this time the works were chiefly occupied in copying the wares1 and perhaps the marks1 not only of ,dresden1 but also of ,chelsea and ,bow8 ,when the ,chelsea factory and its contents were sold in #agfi1 it was ,duesbury1 and not the ,derby ,china ,company1 who was the purchaser4 ,after the year #agge1 when the ,bow works were also purchased1 he had1 with the exception of the ,worcester manufactory1 practically no rival in the field4 ,we may take the year #aggj as the turning-point in the history of ,english porcelain4 ,in ,france1 by this time1 the rococo of ,louis ,,xv4's reign was already giving way to the simpler1 and in part more classical1 forms that distinguish the next reign1 for it is common knowledge that the style known as ,louis ,,xvi4 came into vogue several years before the accession of that king4 ,in ,england the change can be best traced in the work of the silversmith1 seeing that in such work there can be no uncertainty as to the date4 ,already1 before the end of the sixties1 we find in the silver plate then made outlines formed of simple curves and even straight lines replacing the troubled rococo scrolls1 and by the year #aggj the new classical forms have carried the whole field4 ,and in like manner the china made by ,duesbury1 both at ,chelsea and ,derby1 follows the new fashion4 ,but the vases bearing the ,chelsea-,derby mark of an anchor crossing the down-stroke of the letter ,d 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gc7 differ from those made by ,sprimont not only in outline4 ,a new scheme of decoration has come in1 one that continued with no radical change for the next fifty years and more4 ,let us take the ,chelsea-,derby vase in the ,jones collection--it stands in company with several others of the ,sprimont rococo type4 ,notice the oblique fluted mouldings of the upper part 7a motif taken directly from the silversmith71 which are accentuated by deep blue and gold lines on a white ground 7this is a scheme of decoration above all characteristic of ,derby china74 ,the reserved panels on the body of the vase are painted with pastoral subjects4 ,here there is little change1 but around these panels the ground is completely covered with flowers of various kinds--each species can be made out1 but full-blown double roses predominate4 ,these full-blown roses are a note that distinguishes ,english porcelain from this time onwards4 ,as they become larger1 and occupy a more prominent place1 the painting loses all trace of decorative feeling4 ,billingsley carried them in his wanderings to all the porcelain factories of ,england1 and we are finally landed in the monstrosities of ,rockingham and the insipidities of ,nantgarw4 ,one point we have omitted to mention in our description of the ,chelsea-,derby vase at ,south ,kensington4 ,the handles1 winged figures somewhat classically treated1 are of unglazed ware4 ,this is an example of the famous ,derby biscuit1 or bisque1 as it is sometimes called1 which we now know was made as early as #agga4 ,the greatest care was taken in the preparation of this biscuit ware2 any piece with the slightest defect was rejected4 ,the material allows of a sharpness and high finish which would be lost in the thick covering of the glazed ware4 ,the paste in many of the examples has acquired a somewhat shiny surface1 as if covered with a skin of glaze4 ,the best known specimens date from the last years of the century1 when ,spengler1 a modeller from ,zurich1 was engaged by the second ,duesbury4 ,in them we see exemplified that mixture of the sentimental and the pseudo-classical so much admired at this time4 ,the shepherd with his dog 7there is an example at ,south ,kensington7 is taken from a ,roman relief1 the head perhaps from an ,antinous4 ,the shepherdess has been reading ,richardson1 if not ,jean ,jacques1 and they both take life very seriously4 ,we find1 however1 the ,chelsea-,derby mark on enamelled figures that differ little from the earlier and more frivolous type4 ,these survivals1 as it were1 of the rococo school stand no longer upon a scroll pediment1 but on a rocky ground1 amid careful reproductions of natural objects1 stumps of trees1 shells1 or what not4 ,the colours1 too1 have become somewhat stronger2 the pale1 greenish blue of the earlier pieces is replaced by a fuller turquoise hue4 ,it was at this time1 or a little later1 that the process of #8casting' was introduced for these statuettes4 ,this was a process of ,english origin1 though it is now extensively used at ,svres and elsewhere abroad4 ,we have described the various modifications of this plan in a previous chapter 7p4 #be74 ,in the case of these statuettes1 the figure is first modelled in tough clay2 the head and limbs are then cut off4 ,a plaster-of-,paris mould is then made of each of the separate parts1 a cream-like slip is poured into the mould and quickly poured out before all the water is absorbed1 a layer of the paste remaining on the sides of the mould4 ,this layer is detached when sufficiently dry2 the pieces are then joined together by means of the same slip1 and the outline of the figure sharpened with a modelling tool4#bcd ,porcelain made by this casting process is not so dense as that made on the old system2 its specific gravity is appreciably lower4 ,the moulding or repairing knife may be1 to some extent1 replaced by the use of a brush1 but a less sharp outline is obtained in this case4 ,in the furnace these figures have to be supported by an elaborate scaffolding of props1 and the shrinkage of the clay during the firing is another source of difficulty4 ,in the ,british ,museum may be seen a garniture of vases1 of a type very characteristic of the early ,chelsea-,derby time4 ,a pale turquoise ground is overlaid with white flowers in low relief4 ,this is but a modification of the ,german schnee-ball decoration4 ,somewhat later the pte tendre of ,svres is evidently taken as a model1 as in the cabaret which was given by ,queen ,charlotte to one of her maids of honour4 ,this #8equipage1' to give it its ,english name1 has also found its way into our national collection4 ,it has the rare jonquil ground with a border of blue and gold4 ,for smaller objects1 for cups1 saucers1 and plates1 a simpler style of decoration is in favour4 ,the wreaths of little blue flowers1 forget-me-nots1 and corn-flowers 7the ,french barbeau71 relieved with touches of green and gold1 remind one of the similar ware made at ,svres1 and more especially at some of the smaller ,parisian factories during the early years of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the elaborately decorated #8old ,japan' was much copied at ,derby1 but so unintelligently that the patterns degenerated into meaningless forms1 known as #8rock ,japan1' #8witches ,japan1' and even #8,grecian ,japan'6 ,this was the beginning of a barbarous style of decoration1 in vogue in the ,staffordshire potteries at a later time both for porcelain and earthenware1 in which scattered members of the original scheme are jumbled together at the whim of the ignorant painter4#bce ,the subsequent vicissitudes of the ,derby factory may be traced in the marks in use at successive dates4 ,the combined anchor and ,d was apparently employed at ,chelsea as long as the factory existed1 but at ,derby a crown with jewelled bows was introduced in #aggc 7,,pl4 ,e4 #ge71 perhaps on the occasion of some vellit of royal patronage1 although we have no definite evidence of anything of the kind4#bcf ,somewhat later we find two batons crossed1 with three dots in each angle 7similar to the #8billiard' mark on some ,dutch porcelain7 inserted on ,derby porcelain between the crown and the letter ,d 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gd74 ,william ,duesbury died in #aghf4 ,his son1 the second ,william1 shortly before his death in #agif1 took into partnership ,michael ,kean1 a miniature-painter1 and now a ,k was combined with the ,d on the mark4 ,in #ahac the factory was leased to ,robert ,bloor by the third ,william ,duesbury1 and after that time we hear no more of that family in connection with ,derby4 ,bloor conducted the works on #8business principles' until his death in #ahdf4 ,if for nothing else1 his name should be remembered in connection with a wonderfully brilliant claret1 or rouge d'or1 that he succeeded in making4 ,there is a vase with this ground in the ,jermyn ,street collection which has excited the admiration of foreign experts4 ,bloor used the old mark1 in red1 up to #ahca at least4 ,before that time1 however1 the crown had lost the jewels upon its bows4 ,at this period china-clay and china-stone were more and more used1 and the porcelain became harder and somewhat opaque4 ,as a consequence of the higher melting1 or rather softening1 points of both body and glaze1 the enamels lost something of their brilliancy and lustre4 ,the present porcelain factory at ,derby cannot strictly be regarded as a direct descendant of the old works on the ,nottingham ,road1 whose career came to an end after ,bloor's death in #ahdf4 ,,worcester4--,we have seen how ,william ,duesbury1 an obscure and illiterate painter of china images from the ,staffordshire potteries1 had after the absorption of the factories of ,chelsea and ,bow 7as well probably as that established by ,littler in ,duesbury's own country7 become a kind of china king4 ,there was one factory1 however1 skilfully managed and established on a firm financial basis which remained entirely independent of him4 ,of the origin of this factory--the ,worcester ,china ,works--we have1 quite exceptionally1 a full record4 ,these works1 we may add1 are also exceptional in another respect--they have had a continuous history from the year of their foundation to the present day1 that is to say for more than a century and a half4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,binns has in his possession a copy of the articles of association #8for carrying on the ,worcester ,tonquin manufacture4'#bcg ,they are dated ,january #d1 #agea4 ,the forty-five shares of #ajj each were divided among fifteen original partners1 of whom two claim to possess the secret1 art1 mystery1 and process of making porcelain4 ,these two were ,john ,wall1 doctor of medicine1 and ,william ,davis1 apothecary4 ,we have no record of the preliminary experiments said to have been made by these two men in a laboratory over the apothecary's shop1 nor do we know for how long these experiments had been carried on4 ,two workmen1 however1 who had already been employed by them for some time1 were retained by the new company and well paid as an inducement to keep secret the process of manufacture4 ,it was the apothecary ,davis1 probably1 who brought the scientific knowledge1 but ,dr4 ,wall also1 besides being a portrait-painter who had acquired some renown at ,oxford and in his native town 7he had made designs for painted glass among other things71 was an energetic1 practical man with some scientific pretensions2 nor must we forget the two workmen1 who probably had a good deal to say in the matter4 ,a site for the new factory was found in ,warmstry ,house1 a fine old mansion that had belonged to the ,windsor family1 situated some hundred yards to the north of the cathedral1 and the kilns were erected in the grounds which sloped down to the river4 ,the biscuit kiln and the glazing-kiln were enclosed in long roofed buildings apparently without conspicuous chimneys4 ,only the great kiln for the #8segurs' takes the conical shape that we associate with pottery-ovens4#bch ,the pressing1 modelling1 and throwing galleries were established in the old house itself1 where there was also a #8secret room4' ,the little that we know of the composition of the paste1 or rather pastes1 for there were two or more varieties used for the fine and common ware respectively1 is derived from a paper 7now in the possession of ,mr4 ,binns7 drawn up in #agfd by ,richard ,holdship1 one of the original partners4 ,in that year ,holdship 7he was an engraver who had been associated with the introduction of the transfer process7 became bankrupt1 and now entered the service of ,duesbury and ,heath at ,derby4 ,from this paper we learn that the ordinary paste used at ,worcester contained about two-thirds of a glassy material 7a mixture of flint-glass1 crown-glass1 and a specially prepared frit71 and one-third of a soapy rock1 that is to say of a steatite1 from ,cornwall4 ,the composition of the glaze is interesting3--it contained1 besides the usual constituents1 #ad per cent4 of #8foreign china1' #b per cent4 of #8tin-ashes1' and #jc per cent4 of smalt4 ,we should add that on the whole the glaze of ,worcester china is somewhat harder than that of other ,english soft-paste wares4 ,along with this recipe is #8a process for making porcelain ware1 without soapy rock or glass1 in imitation of ,nanquin1 being an opaque body4' ,this #8,nanquin' ware was made by mixing bone-ash with an equal weight of a very silicious frit3 to the mixture #h per cent4 of ,barnstaple clay and a small quantity of smalt were added4 ,we learn from other sources 7e4g4 ,borlase's ,history of ,cornwall1 #ageh7 that the agents of the ,worcester company were busy searching for and purchasing steatite rock1 especially at ,mullion1 in the ,lizard district4#bci ,of the porcelain produced during the first sixteen years of the ,worcester factory we know a little more than of that of the corresponding time at ,derby4 ,this was an eclectic period3 the wares 7and the marks also7 of ,chantilly1 ,meissen1 and ,chelsea were copied4 ,it was the ,oriental models1 however1 that were most in favour1 especially the blue and white of ,china1 small pieces of which were imitated with some success4 ,for the enamelled ware1 the brocaded ,imari1 our #8old ,japan1' rather than the older ,kakiyemon ware1 served as a type4 ,at this time1 too1 a strange attempt was made to copy the marks of the ,chinese porcelain4 ,we can trace1 sometimes1 the well-known characters of the ,ming dynasty 7#8great' and #8bright'7 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gf74 ,in other cases ,arabic numerals are arranged so as roughly to resemble a ,chinese character4 ,the idea was probably taken from old ,delft ware on which similar marks are found1 as also occasionally on ,bow and on some ,salopian porcelain4 ,again1 we find a degenerate seal character1 perhaps derived from the popular ,japanese mark ,fu 7happiness71 taking a form something like the design of a ,union ,jack 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gh74 ,the decoration of the ,chinese famille rouge was also copied--we find it1 for example1 on the edges of little white cups and bowls with basket-work designs in low relief1 of which there are some specimens at ,south ,kensington4 ,to an early period1 also1 belongs the ware decorated in black 7or less often in lilac71 with figures and landscapes1 #8transferred' by a variety of ingenious processes1 which we need not describe here1 from an engraved copper-plate4 ,used before this time on enamels at ,battersea and on earthenware at ,liverpool1 it was with the #8jet enamelled' ware of ,worcester1 printed from the plates specially made for the purpose by ,robert ,hancock 7who had previously been employed at ,battersea under the ,frenchman ,ravenet71 that the new process was above all associated4 ,here1 for the first time perhaps in its history1 porcelain was #8made to speak1' to use ,napoleon's phrase4 ,on it the hero of the day was immortalised3 in #ageg we find ,frederick the ,great1 crowned by a winged ,genius2 at a later time the ,marquis of ,granby and the elder ,pitt4 ,it is ,hancock1 it would seem1 that we must regard as the capo scuola of another #8school of decoration1' one which1 spreading at a later time to ,staffordshire1 has been carried to all parts of the world where transfer-printed ,english crockery has penetrated4 ,the basis of this decoration is a classical ruin--generally a fragment of the entablature of a ,roman temple supported on a few columns2 add to this a pointed building something between an obelisk and a pyramid1#bdj the whole enclosed in a framework of conventional trees4 ,upon how many millions of jugs and basins was this pattern repeated1 in black1 in green1 and in lilac6 ,at some future day1 by the study of potsherds so decorated collected in many lands1 an archologist may be able to trace the course of ,english commerce in the nineteenth century1 and to draw strange inferences as to the state of the arts at that time in our country4 ,this #8jet-enamelled' transfer was printed over the glaze2 sometimes1 to enliven the effect1 other colours1 painted by hand1 were added1 with disastrous results4 ,in the blue and white printed ware1 on the other hand1 the cobalt pigment is applied under the glaze4 ,the paste of this transfer-printed porcelain is often of good quality and very translucent1 and the finer earlier specimens are much sought after by collectors4 ,we have seen that at least from the cultur-historisch point of view this printed china is not without interest4 ,after #agfc ,sprimont's factory at ,chelsea was only working at irregular intervals4 ,some time later1 about #agfh1 many of the enamel-painters migrated to ,worcester1 where capable artists seem to have been in great demand4 ,it is usual to attribute to this migration a new scheme of decoration that came into vogue at ,worcester in the seventies4 ,this was the period of the vases with deep blue grounds and panels brilliantly painted with flowers and bright-plumaged tropical birds4 ,the bleu du roi ground 7we must remember that1 like the similar grounds at ,chelsea and ,longport1 this pigment was painted sous couverte7 is often covered with the salmon-scales in a deeper tint so characteristic of the period2 at other times it is replaced by a poudr blue4 ,the hand of the ,chelsea artist is to be recognised in the decoration of the panels1 but the vases are generally of simple contours1 often octagonal and1 on the whole1 following ,chinese shapes4 ,it is this richly decorated ware1 produced especially between #aggj and #aghj1 which now commands such extravagant prices in the ,london market4 ,on the other hand1 the new classical forms already in favour at ,derby and in ,france were not as yet adopted at ,worcester--they came in later1 and then in a more debased form4 ,in fact1 the special mark of this1 the finest period in these works1 is the application of a rich style of painting that we generally associate with rococo shapes1 to vases which otherwise retain the form and decoration of their ,chinese prototypes4 ,somewhat later1 from ,svres1 no doubt1 came the canary yellow1 generally poor in tone and of uneven strength4 ,the simple floral wreaths of the ,louis ,,xvi4 period are here represented by the pretty #8trellis' design1 green festoons hanging from reddish poles 7,,pl4 ,,xlvi474 ,much of the ,worcester porcelain was from an early time decorated in ,london4 ,in #agfh we find ,mr4 ,j4 ,giles 7no doubt the #8,mr4 ,gyles of ,kentish ,town' to whose kiln ,thomas ,craft took his famous punch-bowl to be #8burnt' at a charge of #cs47 described in an advertisement as #8china and enamel painter1 proprietor of the ,worcester ,porcelain ,warehouse1 up one pair of stairs in ,cockspur ,street4' ,here the nobility and gentry may find #8articles useful and ornamental curiously painted in the ,dresden1 ,chelsea1 and ,chinese taste4' ,at a later time the ,baxter family occupied much the same position as ,giles4 ,the elder ,baxter had ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvi4 ,,worcester workshops at ,goldsmith ,street1 ,gough ,square1#bda and here white porcelain from many sources was decorated4 ,there is a curious water-colour drawing1 representing the interior of this workshop1 at ,south ,kensington4 ,it is the work of the younger ,baxter1 famous in his day as a painter on porcelain4 ,the pale1 anmic faces of the artists--one of them wears a large pair of spectacles--crouching over their work in a narrow1 crowded room1 may be taken as evidence that this occupation was injurious both to the eyesight and to the general health 7,,pl4 ,,lxvii474 ,to return to the general history of the ,worcester factory4 ,in #aggj we hear of a strike among the painters1 who were alarmed at the spread of the underglaze printing process4 ,the movement was not unconnected1 probably1 with the introduction of new blood from ,chelsea4 ,in #aggb there was a general shuffling-up and reorganisation of the company1 with the result that ,dr4 ,wall and the two ,davises1 father and son1 finally gained possession of nearly all the shares4 ,but the doctor died in #aggf1 and seven years later the whole concern was sold to ,mr4 ,flight1 a ,london jeweller1 who had previously acted as agent for the company4 ,at the same time ,chamberlain1 an original apprentice1 and a man who had taken a leading part of late in the artistic management1 seceded from the company1 and1 with his son1 set up an independent manufactory4 ,after the visit of ,george ,,iii4 to the works in #aghh1 the factory became #8,royal1' and this is1 perhaps1 the nearest approach to a royal patronage that we can find in the history of ,english porcelain4 ,in time the ,chamberlain offshoot came to flourish more than the original stock1 and finally1 in #ahdj1 the older firm1 then known as #8,flight and ,barr1' was absorbed by it4 ,towards the end of the eighteenth century many magnificent services of china were made for the royal family1 painted with finished pictures in the style admired at the time4 ,the porcelain was again #8made to speak4' ,in answer to the ,napoleonic victories figured on the ware of ,svres1 we in ,england painted naval emblems and portraits of ,lord ,nelson on our plates and dishes4 ,the joint-stock company which now owns the ,worcester factory was founded in #ahfb4 ,since that time great efforts have been made to keep on a level with the artistic movements of the day4 ,much attention has been paid to the modelling of the handles1 the stands and the covers of the vases1 so that some of them are works of art by themselves4 ,the porcelain has been designed and decorated in #8the style of the ,italian renaissance1' in the #8,french style1' then for a time a ,japanese influence prevailed1 to be followed by vases in #8,persian style1' and then back to the #8,florentine renaissance' once more4 ,but running through the whole1 we may perhaps trace a soupon of the ,french art of the later nineteenth century4 ,apart from the imitative marks of the early period which we have already mentioned1 we find at an early date the letter ,w1 either for ,wall or ,worcester 7so the ,d of the rival works may stand either for ,derby or ,duesbury74 ,another early mark1 borrowed probably from ,frye and the ,bow works1 is the ,t4 ,f4 monogram which occurs on some underglaze blue and white pieces4 ,the crescent 7,,pl4 ,e4 #gg71 used up to #agic1 is chiefly found on ware decorated with transfer printing3 when this printing is in blue under the glaze1 a solid or ruled crescent is found4 ,the later firms1 as #8,flight and ,barr' and #8,chamberlain1' print their names in full4 ,a number of small marks found on ,worcester china--more than seventy have been noted--were added in most cases to identify the painters and gilders4 ,,smaller ,,west ,,of ,,england ,,soft-,,paste ,,factories4 ,this will be the most convenient place to say something of a small group of factories where china was made towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,it is a distinctly ,west of ,england family1 owing its origin in a measure to ,worcester1 but also forming a link between that factory and the ,staffordshire works4 ,we include in it the ,shropshire porcelains of ,caughley and ,coalbrookdale1 together with ,swansea and ,nantgarw4 ,,caughley4--,the #8,salopian ,porcelain ,works' were started in #aggb at ,caughley1 near ,broseley1 in ,shropshire1 a neighbourhood long famous for its earthenware4 ,it was here that ,thomas ,turner1 a man of some social standing who came from ,worcester1 devoted himself more especially to printing in blue under the glaze4 ,it was at ,caughley1 it would seem1 about #aghj1 that the famous #8willow pattern' was first used4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a curious little oblong dish that shows this design in an undeveloped form4 ,turner1 it is said1 first printed complete dinner-services1 in dark blue1 with this pattern4 ,not long after this he went to ,france1 and brought back a batch of ,french painters1 whose influence may perhaps be seen in the ware made at a later time at ,coalport4 ,some of the printed work is delicately executed1 and when the decoration is judiciously heightened with a little gilding1 the effect is not unpleasing4 ,we hear also of dinner-services painted with #8,chantille sprigs1' and ,turner also supplied ,chamberlain with plain white ware to be subsequently decorated at ,worcester4 ,at a later time much gilding was applied to a richly decorated porcelain4 ,some of this ware is stamped with the word #8,salopian1' other pieces have the letters ,s or ,c printed or painted under the glaze2 but both ,dresden and even ,worcester marks were also used4 ,two men1 at a later time representatives of the industrial phase of porcelain1 ,john ,rose and ,thomas ,minton1 were trained in these short-lived works4 ,,coalport ,,or ,,coalbrookdale4--,here1 on the left bank of the ,severn1 nearly opposite the last-named factory1 ,john ,rose began making porcelain soon after #aghj4 ,in #agii he purchased from ,turner 7whose apprentice he had been7 the ,caughley works1 and in #ahad he removed the whole plant to ,coalbrookdale4 ,here1 too1 came ,billingsley after the closing of the ,nantgarw works1 and here he worked till his death in #ahbh4 ,during the first half of the nineteenth century the firm of ,john ,rose and ,company was a successful rival to the ,davenports1 ,mintons1 and ,copelands4 ,rose excelled in the production of gorgeous vases decorated with picture panels1 and ,billingsley kept up the supply of his ,english roses4 ,the older wares of ,svres and ,chelsea were copied not unsuccessfully1 and the appropriate mark was not omitted4 ,the firm seems to have above all prided itself upon the beauty of its rose ,pompadour grounds1 and at a later time1 after #ahej1 both this ground and the turquoise blue were largely applied to the pseudo-,svres porcelain that found its way to the ,london china-shops4 ,in #ahbj ,rose was granted a medal by the ,society of ,arts for a leadless glaze1 compounded of felspar and borax4 ,the factory at ,coalport continues to produce much china on the same lines4 ,near at hand1 at ,madeley1 some very close imitations of the old ,svres were made by ,randall between #ahcj and #ahdj4 ,for the origin of this ,english ,svres we must go back to the year #ahac1 when we hear of the agents of ,london dealers buying up white and slightly decorated ,svres soft paste4 ,any enamel colour on them was removed by hydrofluoric acid1 and the surface was richly decorated in the ,pompadour style4 ,randall soon after this time was engaged with similar work in ,london3 his turquoise blues are especially praised4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlvii ,water-colour ,drawing4 ,enamel ,painters at work4 ,,swansea ,,and ,,nantgarw4--,at the beginning of the nineteenth century some works at ,swansea1 where a so-called #8opaque porcelain' had been lately manufactured1 were purchased by ,mr4 ,lewis ,w4 ,dillwyn4 ,mr4 ,dillwyn was a keen naturalist3 he induced ,mr4 ,young1 a draughtsman who had been employed by him in illustrating works on natural history1 to learn the art of enamel-painting on porcelain4 ,young devoted himself to painting birds1 shells1 and above all butterflies4 ,in spite of the aim at scientific accuracy1 the artistic effect of these delicately painted butterflies1 scattered here and there over the dead white paste1 is not unpleasant4 ,there were some good specimens of this form of decoration in the old ,jermyn ,street collection1 but most of them1 ,i think1 are not painted on a true porcelain4 ,meantime1 at ,nantgarw 7,anglic ,nantgarrow71 some ten miles north of ,cardiff1 a small porcelain factory had been established by one ,william ,beely and his son-in-law1 ,samuel ,walker4 ,mr4 ,dillwyn1 who visited the ,nantgarw works in #ahad1 at the instigation of his friend ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 found these two men making an admirable soft-paste porcelain1 remarkable for its translucency4 #8,i agreed with them1' so ,mr4 ,dillwyn reported1 #8for a removal to the ,cambrian pottery i4e4 to ,swansea1 where two new kilns were prepared under their direction4 ,when endeavouring to improve and strengthen this beautiful body1 ,i was surprised at receiving a notice from ,messrs4 ,flight and ,barr of ,worcester1 charging the parties calling themselves ,walker and ,beely with having clandestinely left an engagement at their works4' ,beely was in fact no other than ,billingsley1 the wandering artist and #8arcanist' who in #aggd was apprenticed to ,duesbury at ,derby1 and had there learned the art of painting flowers on porcelain4 ,we hear that in #agic he was also landlord of the #8,nottingham ,arms1' but in spite1 or perhaps rather in consequence1 of thus having two strings to his bow1 he soon after left ,derby1 and for twenty years led a roving life4 ,in #agif he was at ,pinxton1 and it was here1 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,turner 7,the ,ceramics of ,swansea and ,nantgarw71 whom ,i now follow1 that he perfected his famous granulated frit body4 ,then follows an obscure period1 during which we hear of ,billingsley at ,mansfield1 and again as a china manufacturer at ,torksey1 in ,lincolnshire4 ,finally1 in #ahjh1 he settled down to work at ,worcester under the name of ,beely4 ,his later migrations to ,nantgarw1 to ,swansea1 and finally to ,coalport1 we have already referred to4 ,three years after ,billingsley's removal to ,swansea1 the manufacture of porcelain was abandoned by ,mr4 ,dillwyn3 this was in #ahag1 barely six years from the time when ,billingsley started the ,nantgarw works4 ,it is not quite certain whether the marks that distinguish the two wares--#8,nantgarw' above the letters #8,c4 ,w4' in one case1 #8,swansea' sometimes with the addition of a trident 7,,pl4 ,e4 #hj7 in the other--can always be relied on to distinguish the two factories3 the former mark may have continued in use after the removal to ,swansea4 ,the paste of some of the ware made at ,swansea was very different from that of ,billingsley's glassy porcelain4 ,we know that both china-clay and steatite from the ,lizard were employed here1 producing a somewhat hard and opaque body4 ,apart from their paste1 renowned for its absolute whiteness and considerable translucency1 ,billingsley and his pupils1 ,pardoe and ,walker1 have acquired a certain fame by their enamel-painting on this ,nantgarw porcelain4 ,life-size roses1 auriculas1 tulips1 and lilies were their favourite flowers4 ,this was the culmination1 as it were1 of the school that delighted above all in the double rose1 a not very paintable flower1 at least in a decorative point of view4 ,we saw its beginnings at ,derby more than thirty years before this time4 ,but ,baxter the younger1 whom we have come across at his father's workshop in ,gough ,square1 painted figure-subjects on the ,swansea porcelain1 and some of the translucent ware of the ,nantgarw type was sent up to ,london unenamelled1 there to be converted into the old soft paste of ,svres4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before we return to the ,west of ,england to treat of the true hard porcelain of ,plymouth and ,bristol1 there remain to be mentioned briefly a few unimportant factories of soft paste--unimportant1 that is1 from the point of view of art4 ,,lowestoft4--,taking advantage of some suitable clay found in the neighbourhood1 and of the fine silvery sand of the shore1 a manufactory of soft paste was established at ,lowestoft about #agef4 ,later on we find some references to a #8,lowestoft ,porcelain ,company4' ,the ware produced was chiefly blue and white1 with views of the neighbourhood1 but other small pieces are found crudely painted in colour4 ,the execution of much of this ware is very summary1 and the glaze is often dull and spotted4 ,a blue and white plate in the ,british ,museum1 with poudr ground and panels painted with views of ,lowestoft and the neighbourhood1 is an unusually favourable specimen4 ,more commonly we find jugs and ink-pots with inscriptions--#8,a ,trifle from ,lowestoft1' etc4--and with dates in one or two cases ranging from #agfb to #aghi4 ,whether any hard porcelain from other sources was ever painted at ,lowestoft is very doubtful4#bdb ,the #8,lowestoft porcelain' of the dealers is now known to have been painted by ,chinese artists at ,canton4 ,that this is so was conclusively proved many years ago by ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4 ,the thrashing out of the question had the advantage of throwing much light on the origin of this curious pseudo-,european decoration4 ,the greater part of this porcelain painted at ,canton is covered with elaborate armorial designs1 and it was made not only for ,england but for other ,european countries that traded with the ,east4 ,the history of this ,sinico-,european ware is well illustrated in a large collection brought together chiefly by the late ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks and now in the ,british ,museum4#bdc ,,liverpool4--,pottery had been an article of export from ,liverpool from an early date1 and much of the ware exported 7it went above all to ,america7 was made in the neighbourhood4 ,during the sixties of the eighteenth century more than one of the local potters began to make a soft-paste porcelain4 ,one of these men--,richard ,chaffers--we find scouring the county of ,cornwall in search of soap-stone and china-clay1 as early probably as the year #agee4 ,professor ,church gives the recipe for the #8china body' used in #agfi by another potter--,pennington4 ,the materials are bone-ash1 ,lynn sand1 flint1 and clay1#bdd the latter probably from ,cornwall4 ,there is a good deal of uncertainty as to the identification of the ,liverpool china3 some of it has perhaps been classed as ,worcester or ,salopian4 ,examples of the ware attributed to this town may be found at ,south ,kensington2 they are somewhat rudely printed in a heavy dark blue4 ,but it is probable that very little true porcelain was made at ,liverpool in the eighteenth century4 ,early in the next century an important factory for pottery and porcelain was founded on the opposite side of the ,mersey1 and thither many workmen were brought from ,staffordshire4 ,porcelain was made there until the year #ahda4 ,the ware was marked #8,herculaneum1' the name of the works4 ,we find at times a bird holding a branch in its beak used as a mark4 ,this is the #8liver1' the crest of the town of ,liverpool4 ,the liver1 indeed1 is occasionally found on ware of an earlier date4 ,,pinxton4--,our chief interest in the factory established in #agie at ,pinxton1 on the borders of ,derbyshire and ,northampton1 by ,john ,coke1 is derived from the temporary residence there of ,billingsley4 ,this was his first stopping-place after leaving the ,derby works3 here he remained until #ahja1 and it was here1 probably1 that he developed the #8china body' used by him afterwards at ,nantgarw4 ,there were some pleasing specimens of the ,pinxton ware in the old ,jermyn ,street collection simply decorated with #8,french twigs' in blue and green4 ,the ice-pail at ,south ,kensington1 with canary ground and frieze of roses1 illustrated in ,professor ,church's little book1 was probably painted by ,billingsley4 ,at ,,church ,,gresley1 in the extreme south of ,derbyshire1 an ambitious attempt to make a porcelain of high quality nearly ruined ,sir ,nigel ,gresley1 the representative of the old family long settled there4 ,this was in #agie1 and after three successive owners had sunk their fortunes in the factory1 the works were finally closed in #ahjh4 ,i can point to no example of porcelain that can with certainty be attributed to these kilns4 ,pottery and encaustic tiles are1 however1 still made in the district4 ,,rockingham ,,porcelain4--,at ,swinton1 in the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 not far from ,sheffield1 pottery-works were established in the eighteenth century on the estates of the ,wentworth family4 ,these potteries were called after the ,marquis of ,rockingham1 who was more than once at the head of the ,government1 and the name was carried over to the porcelain which was made there by ,thomas ,brameld in the next century4 ,this factory was in existence from #ahbj to #ahdb1 and the ware turned out well represents the taste of the time4 #8,brameld1' we are told1 #8spared no labour or cost in bringing his porcelain to perfection1 and in the painting and gilding he employed the best artists4' ,the ornate dinner-services made by him for ,william ,,iv4 and other royal personages probably surpassed in elaborate decoration and expense of production anything of the kind ever made in ,england4 ,at ,south ,kensington is a gigantic vase--it is more than three feet in height1--on the top is a gilt rhinoceros1 an oak branch embraces the sides1 the base is modelled in the form of three paws1 and the whole body of the vase is covered with a series of highly finished pictures1 chiefly flower pieces4 ,this vase is a unique example of everything that should be avoided in the modelling and decoration of porcelain4 ,on some of the ,rockingham china we find a griffin as a mark1 in honour of ,lord ,fitzwilliam1 who had succeeded to the ,wentworth estates on the death of his uncle1 ,lord ,rockingham4 99 99 99 99 99 ,already1 at the commencement of the nineteenth century1 the manufacture of porcelain in ,england was beginning to be concentrated in the hands of a few large firms in the pottery district of ,north ,staffordshire1 and here a definite type of #8china body' was established suitable for practical use4 ,bone-ash mixed with china-stone and china-clay from ,cornwall were and still remain the essential constituents of this paste3 to these materials ground flints are sometimes added4 ,although it is apart from our purpose to trace the history of the great ,staffordshire firms1 we must say a word of one family--the ,spodes of ,stoke-upon-,trent4 ,the firm founded by them was in a measure the common centre from which the later establishments had their origin4 ,josiah ,spode the elder had been making pottery of various kinds at ,stoke since the year #agdi2 he it was who introduced the blue willow pattern to the ,staffordshire potteries4 ,it was to his son1 the second ,josiah1 that the credit of first using bone-ash as an ingredient of porcelain was so long ascribed4 ,the statement thus put is of course absurd4 ,his real merit lay in abandoning the use of a frit and adopting a china-body consisting simply of a mixture of china-stone and china-clay from ,cornwall1 with a large proportion of bone-ash1 and thus settling once for all the composition of the industrial porcelain of ,england1 a ware differing in many respects from the eighteenth century soft pastes1 and one capable of being manufactured on a large scale without the risks that always attended the firing of the latter4 ,his #8felspar porcelain1' often so marked1 is of less consequence1 but by using pure felspar instead of china-stone he forestalled the practice since adopted by many continental works1 where felspar of ,scandinavian origin is now largely used4 ,later on1 when ,william ,copeland joined the firm1 they became the most important makers of porcelain and earthenware in ,england1 and the ,continent was inundated with their wares4 ,the founder of the rival firm of ,minton was a ,shropshire man3 at the end of the eighteenth century he had been apprenticed to ,turner at ,caughley1 and he1 too1 worked at one time in the ,spode factory4 ,at a later date both firms claimed the credit for the invention of an improved kind of biscuit1 the ,parian ware1 of which much was heard about the middle of the last century4 ,there is at ,south ,kensington a representative collection of the finer ,spode wares1 presented by a niece of the second ,josiah4 ,great technical perfection was attained1 and the enamel colours are remarkably brilliant and effective4 ,i have already referred to a large tray1 on which the brocade pattern of the old ,imari is seen in the last stage of decay4 ,the elements of the design have fallen to pieces1 and lie helplessly scattered over the surface4 ,yet this is a carefully finished piece1 and the enamels are of good quality4 ,i take this tray as a typical example of a style of decoration with coloured enamels both on porcelain and earthenware which prevailed not many years ago on wares in domestic use4 ,along with the transfer-printed camaeu mentioned on page #cfj1 these wares found their way to most parts of ,europe and ,america4 ,,belleek4--,probably the last attempt that has been made with us to establish a new factory of porcelain was at ,belleek1 near ,lough ,erne1 in northern ,ireland4 ,here1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,armstrong1 a very fine and translucent paste was first made in #aheg1 and a peculiar nacreous lustre was given to the ware by the use of a glaze prepared with a salt of bismuth4 ,the local felspar was employed together with china-clay brought from ,cornwall4 ,some care was given to the modelling in imitation of shells and corals4 ,little of this ware1 which may be classed as a hard-paste porcelain1 has been made of recent years4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,english ,,porcelain--7continued74 ,,the ,,hard ,,paste ,,of ,,plymouth ,,and ,,bristol ,the manufacture of true porcelain had but a short life in ,england4 ,the ware has no especial artistic merit1 nor was it ever commercially of much importance4 ,and yet in the history of this short-lived attempt to imitate the porcelain of ,china and ,saxony1 we find so many points 7in the composition and technique of the ware above all7 that illustrate and confirm what we have said in some early chapters1 that we shall have to follow up this history somewhat closely4 ,moreover1 the two men1 thanks to whose energy and scientific knowledge the difficulties attending the first manufacture of the new substance were overcome1 interest us in more ways than one4 ,there is1 in the first place1 ,cookworthy the quaker1 who1 once he had solved the practical problem that had hitherto baffled all the potters and arcanists of ,england and ,france1 was content to return to a quiet life among the little coterie of #8friends' at ,plymouth4 ,the other is ,champion1 the friend of ,burke1 who1 after his business had been ruined by the ,american ,war1 preferred to end his life as a farmer in the new country1 with whose struggle for independence he had throughout sympathised4 ,the two letters of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles on the manufacture of porcelain in ,china were known through their publication in ,du ,halde's collection soon after the date 7#agbb7 at which the second one was written4 ,the search for the essential constituents of a true porcelain at once began4 ,one of the first results of this search was the appearance of the #8,unaker1 the produce of the ,cherokee nation of ,america1' which is mentioned in ,frye's patent of #agdd4 ,shortly after the middle of the century1 as we learn from ,borlase's ,history of ,cornwall 7published in #ageh71 the attention of more than one manufacturer of porcelain was directed to that county4 ,but no one probably was so well equipped for the search as ,william ,cookworthy1 the druggist of ,plymouth--he was already thoroughly acquainted with the geology of the county4 ,cookworthy1 too1 must have carefully studied the letters of the ,jesuit missionary4 ,in the memoir written by him at a later date 7it is given in full in ,owen's ,two ,centuries of ,ceramic ,art at ,bristol7 he clearly distinguishes #8the petunse1 the ,caulin1 and the ,wha-she1' or soapy rock4#bde ,in fact it is this that gives to ,cookworthy so important a place in the history of porcelain4 ,he was probably the first in ,europe to attack practically1 and finally to conquer1 the problem of making a true porcelain strictly on the lines of the ,chinese as interpreted by the ,pre ,d',entrecolles4 ,bttger's success1 if one is to accept the official ,german account1 was rather the result of some happy accident--an accident1 it is true1 of which only a man of genius knows how to avail himself4 ,cookworthy had his attention directed to the subject by an ,american quaker1 of whom he writes1 in ,may #agde3 #8,i had lately with me the person who hath discovered the ,china-earth4 ,he had several examples of the ,china ware of their making with him1 which were1 ,i think1 equal to the ,asiatic2 444 having read ,du ,halde1 he discovered both the ,china-stone and the ,caulin4'#bdf ,both the petuntse and the #8,caulin' were first identified by ,cookworthy at ,tregonnin ,hill 7between ,marazion and ,helston7--this was about #agej4 ,the nature and mode of occurrence of both the growan or moor-stone and of the growan clay1 to use the local names1 are admirably described by him4 ,soon after this he found the two materials at ,st4 ,stephen's1 between ,truro and ,st4 ,austell1 in the centre of what is now the great china-clay district of ,cornwall4 ,there must have been many experiments with the new materials1 and many failures1 before the year #agfh1 when ,cookworthy took out his patent1 and with the pecuniary assistance of ,thomas ,pitt of ,boconnoc 7later ,lord ,camelford7 started his factory at ,plymouth4 ,it is doubtful whether this factory was in existence for more than two years4 ,in any case there is evidence that already1 by the year #aggj1 the #8,plymouth ,new ,invented ,porcelain ,manufactory' was at work at ,bristol4 ,we have proof1 too1 that before this time ,richard ,champion and others had been working in the latter town with the new ,cornish materials4 ,champion had been asked by ,lord ,hyndford to make a report upon some kaolin sent to him from ,south ,carolina4 ,in his reply he says3 #8,i had it tried at a manufactory set up some time ago on the principle of the ,chinese porcelain1 but not being successful1 is given up4444 ,the proprietors of the works in ,bristol imagined they had discovered in ,cornwall all the materials similar to the ,chinese2 but though they burnt the body part tolerably well1 yet there were impurities in the glaze or stone which were insurmountable even in the greatest fire they could give it1 and which was equal to the ,glasshouse heat4444 ,i have sent some i4e4 of the ,carolina clay to ,worcester1 but this and all the ,english porcelains being composed of frits1 there is no probability of success4' ,this is written in ,february #agff1 before the date of ,cookworthy's patent4#bdg ,meantime1 in ,france1 two men of some scientific pretensions1 both of them members of the ,acadmie des ,sciences1 ,lauraguais#bdh and ,d',arcet1 had discovered the kaolin deposits near ,alenon4 ,lauraguais had soon after #agfj succeeded in making some kind of porcelain with the materials he had found4 ,he was1 however1 forestalled by ,guettard1 a rival chemist in the service of the ,duke of ,orleans1 who in ,november #agfe read a paper before the ,acadmie on the kaolin and petuntse of ,alenon4 ,lauraguais1 in disgust1 after a violent rejoinder1 came over to ,england4 ,in a curious letter dated ,april #agff1 ,dr4 ,darwin1 writing to ,wedgwood1 says3 #8,count ,laragaut has been at ,birmingham offer'd ye ,secret of making ye finest old ,china as cheap as your ,pots4 ,he says ye materials are in ,england4 ,that ye secret has cost #af1jjj--yt,he will sell it for #bjjj--;,he is a ,man of ,science1 dislikes his own ,country1 was six months in ye ,bastile for speaking against ye ,government--loves every thing ,english'2 but1 adds ,darwin1 #8,i suspect his ,scientific ,passion is stronger than perfect ,sanity' 7,miss ,meteyard1 ,life of ,wedgwood1 vol4 i4 p4 #dcf74 ,lauraguais1 in #agff1 proposed to take out a patent for making not only the coarser species of china1 but #8the more beautiful ware of the ,indies and the finest of ,japan4' ,the specification was never enrolled1 and nothing came of it4 ,there exist1 however1 a few specimens of china marked with the letters ,b4 ,l4 7,brancas ,lauraguais7 in a flowing hand1 which are attributed to the ,count4#bdi ,the paste1 says ,professor ,church1 is fine1 hard1 and of good colour4 ,an analysis gives #eh per cent4 of silica1 #cf per cent4 of alumina1 and #f per cent4 of other bases4 ,it will be observed that the percentage of alumina in this porcelain is exceptionally high4 ,we see1 therefore1 that before the year #aggj1 when ,cookworthy removed to ,bristol1 true porcelain had been made in more than one place in ,england1 but not with enough success to allow the new ware to compete with the soft pastes of ,worcester and elsewhere4 ,so in ,france1 although the new paste was introduced at ,svres in #agfi1 it was only in #aggd1 so ,brongniart tells us1 that the manufacture of hard porcelain was firmly established4 ,champion seems to have been on friendly terms with ,cookworthy1 and in #aggc he bought from the latter the entire patent rights4 ,in the two previous years much of the new porcelain had been made4 ,it is claimed for it in advertisements that1 unlike the ,english china generally1 it will wear as well as the ,east ,indian1 and that the enamelled porcelain1 though nearly as cheap as the ,english blue and white1 #8comes very near1 and in some pieces equals1 the ,dresden1 which this work more particularly imitates4' ,this is from a local journal of ,november #aggb1 and we may add that not only the ware was imitated1 but also the well-known marks of ,dresden4#bej ,now1 if we turn from these general considerations to examine the nature of the ,west of ,england ware1 we find some difficulty in drawing a line between the early1 partly experimental1 porcelain made at ,plymouth and the later1 more successful1 products of the ,bristol kilns4 ,nor will the mark1 the alchemist's sign for ,jupiter#bea 7,,pl4 ,e4 #hc71 first used on the ,plymouth porcelain1 help us much1 for the same mark was certainly used to some extent after ,cookworthy's migration to ,bristol4 ,to ,plymouth we must attribute the plain white ware with a glaze of dull hue1 disfigured by dark lines where the glaze lies thick in the interstices4 ,cookworthy1 we know1 attempted to make his glaze from the ,cornish stone without the addition of any other substances4#beb ,in other cases he followed the recipe given by the ,pre ,d',entrecolles1 and gave greater fusibility to the growan-stone by adding a small quantity of a frit made from a mixture of lime and fern ashes4 ,cookworthy even ventured to follow the ,chinese plan1 and applied the glaze to the raw ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlviii4 #a--,,plymouth1 ,,white ,,glazed ,,ware #b--;,,bristol1 ,,coloured ,,enamels or very slightly baked paste4 ,the blue and white made by him1 if we may judge from the little mug in the ,british ,museum1 with the arms of ,plymouth and the date1 ,march #ad1 #agfh1 was of very poor quality4 ,the ,oriental designs on his enamelled porcelain seem to have come to him by way of ,chantilly4 ,more successful was the plain white ware modelled in relief1 in a way that often calls to mind the early work of ,bow4 ,a good example is the #8,tridacna' salt-cellar in the former ,jermyn ,street collection4 ,at least one ,french modeller and enameller was employed at ,plymouth1 and after the removal to ,bristol we find the name of a ,german also4 ,henry ,bone1 a ,truro man1 who afterwards became famous as a miniature-painter in enamels1 entered the works at ,bristol as a lad1 and passed there the six years of his apprenticeship4 ,bone1 who later on wrote ,r4,a4 after his name1 was the principal representative in ,england of the school of painters in enamel upon slabs of porcelain1 that played so important a part at ,svres at the beginning of the last century4 ,at one time a modeller of some skill must have been employed4 ,perhaps this was the mysterious ,soqui or ,le ,quoi4#bec ,some little statuettes in the ,schreiber collection at ,south ,kensington1 #8the ,seasons1' as represented by boys and girls1 are charmingly modelled4 ,but we must not look for any brilliancy of colour in the enamels4 ,the highly infusible nature of the paste1 and what is even more important1 of the glaze1 added immensely to the difficulty of obtaining anything of the kind4 ,if we compare the enamels on these statuettes with those on the ,chelsea and ,derby figures in the same collection1 the difference is at once apparent4 ,the two most important colours in the latter wares1 the rose-pink and the turquoise1 it was impossible to develop at the high temperature required to soften the refractory glaze of the hard porcelain4 ,the greens1 however1 and the coral reds of the ,bristol figures are more successful4 ,in the specifications of #agge there is mention of a glaze containing much kaolin mixed with some arsenic and tin oxide4#bed ,such a glaze might allow of more brilliancy in the enamels1 and it is to be noticed in this connection that some statuettes long classed as ,chelsea have only comparatively lately been recognised as consisting of the ,bristol paste4 ,perhaps what we may regard as the most remarkable1 certainly the most original1 work produced by ,champion are the little circular or oval plaques of white biscuit4 ,these medallions vary from four to nine inches in diameter4 ,the central field contains a coat-of-arms modelled in low relief1 or more rarely a portrait bust1 and among these last we find heads of ,benjamin ,franklin and of ,george ,washington1 pointing to the political sympathies of ,champion4 ,a wreath of flowers in full relief surrounds the field--the sharpness and the finish in the modelling of these minute leaves and blossoms has never been approached in this or other material4 ,in the manner of treatment1 these wreaths are thoroughly ,english1 and we are reminded of the flowers carved in wood by ,grinling ,gibbons 7,,pl4 ,,xlix474 ,champion made also a commoner ware1 which he called #8cottage china4' ,this was summarily decorated in colours without any gilding4 ,the glaze on this ware was applied over the raw paste1 on the ,chinese plan that had already been tried by ,cookworthy4 ,champion was an active politician and a vehement ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlix4 #a--;,,bristol1 ,,white ,,biscuit #b--;,,bristol1 ,,white ,,glazed ,,ware supporter of the ,american colonists in their dispute with the mother country4 ,the visit of ,edmund ,burke to ,bristol in #aggd1 and his election as member for the city1 may be regarded as the climax of his career4 ,then it was that the famous tea-set was presented by ,champion and his wife to ,mrs4 ,burke1 as a pignus amiciti4 ,still more elaborately decorated was the other service that ,burke gave to ,mrs4 ,smith1 the wife of the friend of ,champion1 at whose house he stayed on this occasion4 ,the shapes and the decoration of this service were founded on ,dresden models1 and the wreaths of laurels that formed an essential part of the design afforded a good field for the display of the green colour in which ,champion excelled4 ,but ,champion's troubles were now to begin4 ,in #agge his petition to ,parliament for a renewal of his patent was vigorously opposed by ,wedgwood4 ,champion must have been put to great expense--he exhibited before a committee of the ,house some selected specimens of his porcelain4 ,he1 however1 won his case1 though the monopoly in the employment of the ,cornish clays was restricted to their use as a material for transparent wares1 a point of some importance to the ,staffordshire potter4 ,but meantime the ,american ,war was ruining his business--for ,champion was in the first place a merchant trading with the ,west ,indies and ,america--and it is probable that little porcelain was made by him after #aggg4 ,the next year ,wedgwood1 his inveterate opponent1 in a letter to ,bentley1 says of him1 #8,poor ,champion1 you may have heard1 is quite demolished4444 ,i suppose we might buy some ,growan-stone and ,growan-clay now upon easy terms4' ,in #agha1 after a long negotiation1 he disposed of his patent to some ,staffordshire potters1 and shortly after this he emigrated to ,america4 ,champion was only forty-eight years old when1 in #agia1 he died at his new home in ,south ,carolina4 ,as ,professor ,church has pointed out1 the paste of the ,bristol porcelain is of exceptional hardness4 ,it is1 in fact1 in some specimens as hard as quartz1 that is1 say1 the hardness is equal to #g in the scale of the mineralogist3 the hardness of ,oriental porcelain1 it will be remembered1 varies between #f and #fe2 the glaze on the ,bristol china is about #f on the same scale4 ,the fractured surface may be described as subconchoidal and somewhat flaky1 with a greasy to vitreous lustre4 ,on the ,plymouth and ,bristol wares1 especially on the larger vases1 may often be seen1 when viewed in a favourable light1 certain spiral ridges1 the result of the unequal pressure of the #8thrower's' hand4 ,similar ridges may indeed be observed at times on other hard paste wares1 both ,chinese and ,european1 and this #8wreathing' or vissage1 as ,brongniart long ago pointed out1 is the result of the too great plasticity of the clay1--a clay may1 in fact1 be too #8fat' to work well on the wheel4 ,this plasticity1 however1 would be of advantage to the modeller1 especially when working on a very small scale2 indeed the delicate floral reliefs in biscuit1 on the plaques we have already spoken of1 could only have been made from a fine and unctuous clay4 ,how refractory to heat this same paste is1 was well proved by the fire at the ,alexandra ,palace in #ahgc1 when so many fine specimens of ,english porcelain were destroyed4 ,a biscuit plaque or medallion of ,bristol porcelain passed uninjured 7by heat at least7 through this fire1 while the soft porcelain alongside of it was completely melted4 ,the paste1 then1 of this ,bristol ware is remarkable both for its resistance to heat and for its great plasticity4 ,these are both qualities that point to an excess of kaolin in its composition1 and this excess is confirmed by analysis4 ,professor ,church found in a specimen of ,bristol china #fc per cent4 of silica1 #cc per cent4 of alumina1 and only #d per cent4 of lime and alkalis4 ,the percentage of alumina is about the same as that in the hard pastes of ,meissen and of ,svres1 but the small amount of the other bases is quite exceptional4 ,a paste of this composition would contain about #fe per cent4 of kaolin4 ,and here1 before ending1 we may for a moment return to what is1 perhaps1 the crucial point of all in the composition of true porcelain--for it is one that has a radical influence both on the technical and on the artistic side4 ,the first question we must ask when inquiring into the composition of any specimen of porcelain is this--,what proportion of kaolin enters into its composition8 ,or if it is a matter of the primary constituents of the paste--,what is the percentage of alumina that it contains8 ,now we may consider the composition of kaolin1 after removing the water1 to be silica #ed per cent4 and alumina #df per cent41 and the nearer the composition of our porcelain approaches to these figures1 the greater will be its hardness1 its resistance to fire1 and the greater also the plasticity of the paste--the greater in fact will be what we have called the #8severity' of the type4#bee ,now for the other component of porcelain1 the petuntse or china-stone4 ,the composition of this material differs widely1 but let us take the mean of some analyses of ,cornish stone4 ,on this basis we may take silica #gb per cent41 alumina #ah per cent41 other bases #aj per cent41 as our type4 ,the result of adding such a material to our kaolin will be to increase the percentage of silica and of the #8other bases1' and to diminish the percentage of alumina in the resultant mixture4 ,our paste now becomes less plastic and the resultant porcelain more readily softened by heat1 but at the same time less hard4 ,so far every one would be agreed4 ,but the question now arises1 are we to attribute this increased fusibility to the higher percentage of the other bases 7these are1 in the case of ,european porcelain1 practically lime and potash71 or in a measure at least to the increased amount of silica in the paste8 ,we have here three variants1 the silica1 the alumina1 and the #8other bases1' and the case is therefore somewhat complicated4 ,i think1 however1 that the careful examination of any table giving the composition of various types of porcelain would show that up to a certain point an increase in the amount of silica promotes a lower softening-point in the paste1 and this in cases where there is no important change in the proportion of the #8other bases4' ,i will illustrate this by comparing the composition of the severe hard paste of ,svres on the one hand with an analysis of a mild type of ,chinese porcelain on the other3-- ,svres hard paste 7#ahdc74 ,chinese porcelain4 ,silica1 #eh per cent4 #gje per cent4 ,alumina1 #cde 0 #ba 0 ,other bases1 #ge 0 #ge 0 ,no doubt1 if the percentage of silica is further increased1 say beyond #gh or #hj per cent41 we get again a practically infusible body4 ,but with a paste of this composition the resultant ware is no longer translucent--we pass from the region of porcelain to a true stoneware4 ,thus we see that in composition a mild porcelain forms a middle term between stoneware on the one hand1 and a severe porcelain on the other4 ,in other words1 stoneware cannot be regarded as an extreme type of a refractory porcelain4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,contemporary ,,european ,,porcelain ,we have seen that in ,england the new aims and the new schemes of decoration that have so profoundly affected most of our industrial arts have so far had little influence upon the porcelain manufactured by the large ,staffordshire firms4 ,here and there1 as by ,mr4 ,bernard ,moore of ,longton1 an attempt has been made to take up the problem of the flamb glazes1 which has so fascinated the ,french potters4 ,mr4 ,moore has succeeded in making some sang de buf vases which in outline and colour closely follow the ,chinese models4 ,otherwise the many skilful artists--more than one of them1 ,i think1 are ,frenchmen--employed by our porcelain manufacturers have been content to follow in the main the old traditions1 nor has any occasional attempt that has been made to imitate1 not the latest but rather the work of the last generation at ,svres1 produced any very satisfactory results4 ,it cannot be denied that both in the design and in the decoration our ,english porcelain has1 for some time1 remained outside the art movement of the day4 ,indeed at the present time1 and for the last twenty years1 whatever of interest we can find in the contemporary production of porcelain1 centres in two factories--,svres and ,copenhagen4 ,to the latter works we must now return for a moment4 ,the royal factory1 of which we have already spoken1 was closed after the disastrous war of #ahfd4 ,but during the eighties a number of able men1 both artists and men of science1 occupied themselves with the new porcelain problems1 and in #ahhh a fresh company was formed1 the #8,alumina4' ,these men--,i will only mention ,philip ,schou--were much impressed by the technical and artistic merits of the porcelain lately sent from ,japan1 highly finished ware decorated under the glaze with great delicacy and generally in subdued colours4 ,they were influenced above all by the work of the ,japanese potter ,miyagawa ,kozan1 called ,makudzo4 ,the ,danish porcelain produced during the nineties is distinguished as a whole by its cool1 subdued colours1 with a prevalence of various pearly tints approaching more or less to celadon4 ,in the carefully executed but boldly designed decoration1 we see the influence both of the ,japanese naturalists and of the impressionist painters of the day4 ,the snow scenes1 the rocks1 the dancing waves and the sea birds have been suggested by the stormy coasts of the ,baltic and the ,north ,sea4 ,it is from the primitive rocks of this coast that the pure felspar1 which plays so large a part both in the paste and in the glaze1 has been obtained4 ,it was at ,copenhagen probably that the crystalline glazes1 derived from salts of bismuth1 were first made--this was by ,engelhart1 about #ahhd4 ,at a rival ,danish factory--that of ,bing and ,grndhal--many clever artists1 some of them ladies1 have modelled in porcelain figures of animals either in the round or in relief on the sides of vases3 we find dogs1 cats1 and even seals 7but not the human figure74 ,indeed in this kind of work something in the nature of a school has grown up4 ,fresh life has lately been given to the old works at ,rrstrand1 near ,stockholm4 ,here in the underglaze decoration the same cool1 pearly colours that we find in favour at ,copenhagen are predominant4 ,great care has lately been devoted to the modelling of flowers4 ,at the ,rozenburg works1 near the ,hague1 a new paste has been invented by ,juriann ,kok4 ,the extraordinary tenacity and plasticity of this material allows of its being worked into the strangest forms--some of the vases1 with long1 thin1 angular handles1 suggest work in hammered metal4 ,by means of a fantastic decoration--quaint1 elongated figures1 and forms of marine life1 such as the long-clawed ,japanese lobster--a certain original cachet has been given to this ware4 ,the ,charlottenburg works1 near ,berlin1 have lately felt the influence both of ,copenhagen and of the new school of ,svres4 ,everything has been lately tried--sculpturesque developments in various directions1 and again the decoration of large wall surfaces with porcelain plaques enamelled so as to resemble oil pictures2 but as in former days1 so now1 the technical and scientific side of this industry tends to prevail over the artistic4 ,m4 douard ,garnier1 the late director of the ,museum at ,svres1 in a report upon the porcelain exhibited at ,paris in #aijj1 has ably summed up his impressions of the wares now being manufactured in various parts of ,europe1 and ,i cannot do better than follow so excellent an authority in his #8appreciations' of this modern porcelain4 ,m4 ,garnier dates the latest renaissance of ,european porcelain from the new ground struck out in the seventies1 not only at ,svres1 by ,deck and others1 but also in many private kilns1 as by ,bracquemont in ,paris and by ,haviland in the ,limoges district4 ,what specially distinguishes the latest work is the advantage taken of the new colours that can now be employed with the grand feu so as to participate in the brilliancy and purity of the glaze4 ,a delicacy of tone1 a transparency and a harmony are now obtainable which contrasts favourably with the dry and dull colours of the old methods of painting4 ,on the other hand1 says ,m4 ,garnier1 the progress in chemical knowledge has been so rapid that the new processes and colours have tended to become the masters of the artists who employ them1 instead of remaining subtle tools in their hands4 ,this tendency is especially noticeable at ,copenhagen1 and the crystalline glazes1 derived from bismuth1 that have spread thence all over ,europe1 are a case in point4 ,so again1 starting from the flamb glaze of the ,chinese1 the modern potter is inclined to run riot with the numerous new materials at his command4 ,at ,svres--,i follow ,m4 ,garnier's report--advantage has been taken of the new porcelain paste 7that of the #8milder' ,chinese type7 to revive in the biscuit ware the reproductions of works of sculpture for which the factory was so renowned in the days of the pte tendre4 ,the pureness and softness of the material and the skill of the manipulation are noteworthy apart from the artistic merit of the work4 7,let me here call attention to the fifteen figures by ,lonard1 #8,le ,jeu de l'charpe1' in the new biscuit ware47 ,this revolution in the style of decoration has now spread to other parts of ,france1 and has affected the great commercial factories of the south-west1 especially the ware made by the firm of ,haviland4 ,english porcelain was but poorly represented at ,paris in #aijj2 besides1 as we have said1 it is in other branches of the potter's art that we have to look for a reflection of our new native school of decoration4 ,it is indeed a curious fact that many of the designs that we associate with ,morris and his followers may be found rather upon the wares of ,copenhagen and ,svres than on our ,english porcelain4 ,i cannot1 however1 pass over some criticisms of ,m4 ,garnier1 in which he falls foul of certain tendencies in the fashioning and decoration of the wares turned out by our big ,staffordshire firms4 ,as to how far these criticisms are merited1 any one may form an opinion for himself by a glance at the shop-windows of ,london4 #8,the ,english paste1' says ,m4 ,garnier1 #8is of a special nature which lends itself admirably both to the shaping and to the decoration2 the execution is hors ligne1 but this is accompanied by an overloading of detail1 a heaviness in the decoration1 and a want of harmony and proportion between the different parts of the piece that cause one to regret that so much talent and care have been employed only to arrive at so very unsatisfactory a result4 ,besides this1 we notice in the ,english cramiste a want of sincerity1 with the result that at first sight you cannot tell what manner of substance you are looking at1 whether it is porcelain or dirty ivory1 or again a gilt ceramic ware rather than a bronze with a poor patina4' ,a curious point in connection with this criticism is that1 if ,i am not mistaken1 a good deal of the work thus severely dealt with has been designed1 if not executed1 by ,french artists4 ,it is made1 however1 to satisfy the demand of our great unleavened middle-class4 ,turning to the porcelain from the royal works at ,charlottenburg1 ,m4 ,garnier finds fault with the exuberance and overloading of the sculptures and reliefs4 ,but certain large architectural pieces and some frames in rococo style1 in pure white ware1 excite his admiration1 for the beauty of the paste1 the purity and the limpidity of the glaze1 and the marvellous way in which the technical difficulties of the execution have been surmounted2 so1 too1 for the brilliancy of the colouring and the way in which the enamel colours combine with and form one material with the glaze1 as if one were looking at a soft-paste ware4 ,above all1 in some pieces of the #8new porcelain'--for the milder paste is now in use at ,berlin to some extent--the colours of the grand feu and the purity of the enamel are remarkable4 ,at ,meissen1 says ,m4 ,garnier1 they are still working on the old lines3 reproductions of the models made a century and a half ago by ,kndler are as much as ever in demand4 ,certain ambitious attempts in a newer style have resulted in errors that will add nothing to the fame of the works4 7,dr4 ,heintze1 the present director1 has especially devoted himself to the development of the new colours under the glaze4 ,but the porcelain now produced1 apart from the copies of the old wares1 follows in the lines either of the ,copenhagen porcelain1 or again1 at times1 of the coloured pastes of ,svres47 ,certain districts of ,northern ,bohemia have become of late centres of ceramic industry4 ,the predominant bad taste and over-decoration of the porcelain made there 7,i still follow ,m4 ,garnier7 is above all exemplified in certain coloured statuettes1 #8articles de bazar which corrupt the taste of the public and whose sale ought to be prohibited4' ,an exception must be made for the produce of the ,pirkenhausen works1 near ,carlsbad4 ,the marvellous plasticity of the paste1 made from the rich deposits of kaolin near ,zottlitz1 has been taken full advantage of1 not only on the wheel and in the mould2 it has allowed also of the free modelling of the superadded reliefs by the artist's hand4 ,the factory at ,herend1 in ,hungary1 founded in #ahci1 no longer turns out the ware of ,oriental style1 so much admired by ,brongniart1 by ,humboldt1 and by ,thiers4 ,herr ,fischer1 the director and principal artist1 has lately made good imitations of the coloured pastes of ,svres1 with leaves and branches in relief4 ,at ,st4 ,petersburg the imitation of the over-decorated hard paste of ,svres has been abandoned in favour of the soft and harmonious colours and the pure and limpid glazes of ,copenhagen4 ,the vases with designs of white paste1 in relief upon coloured grounds1 in a manner now little in favour at ,svres1 are less happy4 ,at the ,kousnetzoff factory1 at ,moscow1 a polychrome decoration1 in imitation of ,byzantine embroideries and enamels1 has been applied to tea-services of somewhat geometrical forms1 while the ,french porcelain of the time of ,louis ,philippe continues to be imitated4 ,at ,copenhagen1 says ,m4 ,garnier1 the new porcelain1 which since its introduction in #ahhi has been praised and exalted in all the art journals of ,europe1 is still produced on the same lines4 ,not to speak of the new and strange results already obtained from coloured and enamelled glazes1 greater experience in the use of the extended palette at the command of the decorator has produced results in which we find an admirable delicacy and restraint4 ,it was1 however1 from ,svres that the impulse first came4 ,we can trace it in the work turned out of late years by ,messrs4 ,bing and ,grndhal4 ,but in place of the amiable and gracious art of ,france we find here a severe1 sometimes we might almost say a rude1 style1 but one not without character and elevation4 ,at ,rrstrand1 near ,stockholm 7see above1 p4 #chh71 the work still continues on the lines of the older porcelain of ,copenhagen 7i4e4 in the style in favour ten or twelve years ago71 with the same simplicity and charm in the decoration and delicacy in the modelled relief4 ,perhaps we may attribute to a special quality in the felspar of the north the pure and refined quality so noticeable in the pastes and glazes4 ,at ,rozenburg1 continues ,m4 ,garnier1 a factory already well known for its fayence1 a very original kind of porcelain has lately been made4 ,the composition of the paste1 though based on kaolin1 presents some peculiarities4 ,the ware is of an incredible thinness and lightness1 and the strange decoration1 based in part upon ,japanese motives1 is not without charm and originality4 ,the shapes of the vases1 however1 go too far in the direction of eccentricity4 7,cf4 p4 #chi47 ,as at ,meissen1 so in the porcelain now made in ,italy there is a total absence of all personality and novelty1 and the old1 well-beaten road is still followed4 ,at ,florence this is carried so far that the old moulds acquired so many years ago from the ,capo di ,monte works are still in use4 #8,ce sont des choses1' says ,m4 ,garnier1 #8qui prtent trop au 8truquage0 et qu'il faut laisser aux fabricants de vieuxneuf4' ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,marks ,,on ,,the ,,following ,,plates 7,a4 ,,to ,e47 ,,chinese ,,marks #a4 ,ta ,ming ,yung-lo1 #adjb-adbd4 ,mark of ,yung-lo1 engraved under the glaze in early seal or #8tadpole' characters4 #b4 ,ta ,ming ,hsuan-te nien chi1 #adbe-adce4 #c4 ,cheng-hua nien chi1 #adfd-adhg4 #d4 ,ta ,ming ,cheng-te nien chi1 #aeje-aeba4 #e4 ,ta ,ming ,kia-,tsing nien chi1 #aeba-aeff4 #f4 ,ta ,ming ,lung-king nien chi1 #aeff-aegb4 #g4 ,ta ,ming ,wan-li nien chi1 #aegb-afai4 #h4 ,ta ,tsing ,kang-he nien chi1 #affa-agbb4 #i4 ,ta ,tsing ,yung-cheng nien chi1 #agbb-agce4 #aj4 ,do4 do41 in seal characters4 #aa4 ,ta ,tsing ,kien-lung nien chi1 #agce-agie4 ,seal characters4 #ab4 ,ta ,tsing ,kia-king nien chi1 #agie-ahbj4 ,seal characters4 #ac4 ,ta ,tsing ,tao-kwang nien chi1 #ahbj-ahej4 ,seal characters4 #ad4 ,ta ,tsing ,tung-chi nien chi1 #ahfa-ahgd4 ,seal characters4 #ae4 ,wan chang shan tu4 #8,scholarship lofty as the ,hills and the ,great ,bear4' #af4 ,ki yuh pao ting chi chin4 #8,a gem among precious vessels of rare jade4' #ag4 ,shun-ti tang chi4 #8,made at the ,shun-ti 7cultivation of virtue7 ,hall4' #ah4 ,tsae chuan chi lo4 #8,enjoying themselves in the waters4' #ai4 ,conventionalised seal character for ,sho--longevity4 #ai;,a4 ,fu1 a bat1 a synonym of fu--happiness4 ,,japanese ,,marks #bj4 ,kai-raku yen sei4 #8,made at the ,kai-raku house4' #ba4 ,ken-zan4 ,the maker's name4 #bb4 ,yei-raku4 ,the seal granted to ,zengoro4 ,seal character4 #bc4 ,fuku4 ,happiness4 7,chinese1 ,fu47 ,seal character4 #bd4 ,hopin chi liu4 7,japanese1 ,ka hin shi riu74 ,see p4 #aii note4 ,,german ,,marks #be4 ,meissen4 ,the rod of sculapius4 #bf4 ,meissen4 ,monogram of ,augustus ,,ii41 ,king of ,poland4 #bg4 ,meissen4 ,crossed swords and letter 7for painter or director74 #bh4 ,vienna4 ,the shield of ,austria4 #bi4 ,hchst4 ,the wheel of the ,mainz archbishops1 surmounted by a cross4 #cj4 ,frstenberg4 ,the initial letter of the town4 #ca4 ,berlin4 ,the sceptre carried by the ,brandenburg elector as grand chamberlain of the empire4 #cb4 ,frankenthal4 ,crowned lion of the palatinate2 the monogram ,j4 ,a4 ,h41 probably for ,joseph ,adam ,hannong4 #cc4 ,frankenthal4 ,the monogram of ,karl ,theodor1 surmounted by a crown4 #cd4 ,nymphenburg4 ,quarter of shield with arms of ,bavaria4 #ce4 ,ludwigsburg4 ,arms of ,wrtemberg4 ,three stag horns4 #cf4 ,ludwigsburg4 ,monogram of ,duke ,charles1 surmounted by ducal crown4 #cg4 ,fulda4 ,double ,f1 for #8,frstliche ,fuldaische4' #ch4 ,fulda4 ,cross from the arms of the prince bishop4 #ci4 ,herend4 ,below--the arms of ,hungary4 ,,dutch1 ,,danish1 ,,swedish1 ,,and ,,russian ,,marks #dj4 ,weesp4 ,crossed swords and three dots4 ,similar mark used elsewhere4 #da4 ,oude ,loosdrecht4 ,the #8,m3' stands for manufactuur4' #db4 ,the ,hague4 ,the arms of the town4 #dc4 ,copenhagen4 ,the wavy lines represent the #8three ,belts4' #dd4 ,sweden2 ,marieberg4 ,the three crowns from the arms of ,sweden4 #de4 ,moscow4 ,st4 ,george surrounded by band1 with inscription4 ,above1 the ,russian eagle4 #df4 ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,monogram of ,catherine ,,ii4 7,ekaterina74 ,,belgian ,,and ,,swiss ,,marks #dg4 ,tournay4 ,a tower1 the arms of the town4 #dh4 ,tournay4 ,crossed swords and four crosses4 #di4 ,zurich4 ,german ,z and two dots4 #ej4 ,nyon4 ,a fish4 ,,french ,,marks #ea4 ,saint-,cloud4 ,the sun1 emblem of ,louis ,,xiv4 #eb4 ,saint-,cloud4 ,initials of town and of director of factory--,trou4 #ec4 ,chantilly4 ,a hunter's horn4 #ed4 ,mennecy4 ,d4 ,v41 for the ,duc de ,villeroy4 #ee4 ,vincennes4 ,the initials of ,louis ,,xv4 crossed1 without year-mark4 #ef4 ,vincennes4 ,initials of ,louis ,,xv42 year-mark for #agec1 and decorator's mark 7,h474 #eg4 ,svres4 ,time of ,first ,empire4 ,the #g stands for #ahjg4 #eh4 ,svres4 ,double ,c1 enclosing ,x1 for ,charles ,x4 #bd for #ahbd4 #ei4 ,paris2 ,courtille4 ,two crossed arrows4 #fj4 ,orleans 7874 ,label with three points from ducal arms4 #fa4 ,paris2 ,clignancourt4 ,the windmill of ,montmartre4 #fb4 ,paris2 ,rue ,thiroux4 ,a1 for ,marie ,antoinette1 under a crown4 ,,italian ,,and ,,spanish ,,marks #fc4 ,venice4 ,incised4 ,probably of ,vezzi family4 #fd4 ,venice4 ,anchor of ,cozzi factory4 #fe4 ,le ,nove4 ,star of eight points4 #ff4 ,vinovo4 ,cross of ,savoy above letter ,v1 for the town4 #fg4 ,madrid1 ,buen ,retiro4 ,the fleur-de-lis from the royal arms4 ,,english ,,marks #fh4 ,chelsea4 ,triangle1 incised4 #fi4 ,chelsea4 ,anchor1 in relief4 #gj4 ,chelsea4 ,anchor4 #ga4 ,bow4 ,anchor and dagger4 #gb4 ,bow4 ,monogram of ,thomas ,frye4 787 ,perhaps sometimes a ,worcester mark4 #gc4 ,chelsea-,derby4 ,anchor and letter ,d4 #gd4 ,derby4 ,jewelled crown1 crossed batons1 with dots and letter ,d4 #ge4 ,derby4 ,jewelled crown and letter ,d4 #gf4 ,worcester4 ,imitation of ,chinese characters4 #gg4 ,worcester4 ,crescent4 #gh4 ,worcester4 ,imitation ,chinese seal character4 #gi4 ,worcester4 ,crossed swords and number4 #hj4 ,swansea4 ,trident4 #ha4 ,longton ,hall4 ,crossed ,l's and dots4 #hb4 ,plymouth4 ,the symbol for tin4 #hc4 ,bristol4 ,symbol for tin1 with a cross4 #hd4 ,bristol4 ,crossed swords1 erased4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,a4--,,chinese ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,plate ,b4--,,chinese ,,marks--continued4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,plate ,c4--,,german ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,dutch1 ,,danish1 ,,swedish1 ,,and ,,russian ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,plate ,d4--,,belgian ,,and ,,swiss ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,french ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,italian ,,and ,,spanish ,,marks ,illustration3 ,,plate ,e4--,,english ,,marks ,,index #8,aging' of clay1 #ai-bj ,alcora1 attempts to make porcelain at1 #cbd #8,alumina' ,company at ,copenhagen1 #chh ,alumina1 proportion of1 in hard pastes1 #g1 #che ,amiot1 ,pre1 sends china from ,pekin1 #eb note1 #bih note ,amoy1 export of porcelain from1 #abg1 #adb ---- stoneware made near1 #aff ,annam1 porcelain made in1 #age ,arab trade with ,china1 #bji ---- traders1 ,chinese porcelain distributed by1 #baj seq4 ---- writers on ,chinese porcelain1 #fj1 #bji-bag ,arabian ,nights1 ,martabani ware mentioned1 #baf ,arabic inscriptions on ,chinese porcelain1 #id ,aranjuez1 porcelain gabineto at1 #cbc ,arita1 porcelain district of ,japan1 #aha-ahb1 #aic ,armorial china1 #afd1 #bec1 #cfi ---- ---- decorated at ,canton1 #aad1 #afd ,arras1 porcelain made at1 #bhi ,arrow-holders in ,chinese porcelain1 #aci ,assyrian and ,babylonian glazes1 #cc ,augustus the ,strong1 collects ,chinese porcelain1 #aei ---- ---- his collection of porcelain1 #bbg ---- ---- porcelain in exchange for dragoons1 #bbh ---- ---- his taste as a collector1 #bdd-bde ,augustus the ,strong1 his ambition to imitate ,oriental porcelain1 #bde ,bachelier1 art inspector at ,svres1 #bia ---- his memoir on the ,svres works1 #bij ---- quoted1 #bid1 #bie1 #bif1 #cja ,bacon1 ,john1 modeller at ,bow1 #cdh ,barbin at ,mennecy1 #bhg ,barbotine1 or slip1 #ai1 #cab ,batavian porcelain1 #ajb ---- ---- term how used1 #bbc ,baxter1 family of enamellers1 #cfb-cfc1 #cfi ,belleek porcelain1 #cgd ,bemrose1 ,mr41 on ,derby porcelain1 #cej ,berlin1 ,meissen staff removed to1 #bfb ---- ,wegeli's earlier porcelain1 #bfb ---- contemporary porcelain1 #chi1 #cia ---- porcelain and ,frederick the ,great1 #bfb ---- ---- methods of sale1 #bfc ---- ---- marks on1 #bfd ,bertin1 the ,french minister1 his ,chinese porcelain1 #eb note1 #bih note ,billingsley1 ,w41 #cff1 #cfg-cfh1 #cga ,bing and ,grndhal factory at ,copenhagen1 #chh1 #cic ,binns1 ,mr41 documents relating to ,english porcelain1 #ceg1 #ceh ,biscuit oven1 #bg ,bismuth used in glaze1 #cgd1 #chh1 #cij ,black glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #adi ,bloor1 ,robert1 at ,derby1 #cef #8,blue and white1' origin of ,chinese1 #ge1 #aef ---- ---- of ,ming period1 #ha-he1 #aeg ---- ---- how distinguished1 #hc ---- ---- of ,wan-li period1 #ie1 #aeg ---- ---- ,chinese name for1 #aee ---- ---- ,chinese porcelain1 #aee-afj ---- ---- earliest ,chinese1 #aef ---- ---- origin of ,chinese1 #aef ---- ---- ,chinese porcelain1 with hatched lines1 #afj ,blue decoration sous couverte1 #dc ---- enamel1 difficulty of successful application1 #ii note ---- ---- used with famille verte1 #aja ,boccaro ware1 made in ,china1 #aff ---- ---- imitated by ,bttger1 #bdg ,bohemia1 ,northern1 contemporary porcelain1 #cib ,bondy1 ,rue de1 ,paris1 factory at1 #cac ,bone1 ,henry1 employed at ,bristol1 #cha ---- ---- paints on slabs of porcelain1 #cha ,bone-ash in ,english porcelain1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cch1 #cdc1 #cgb-cgc ,borneo1 ,chinese porcelain found in1 #aef1 #bji-baj ---- ,chinese trade with1 #bji ,bttger1 his life1 #bdf-bdh ---- as an alchemist1 #bdf1 #bdh ---- his porcelain at the ,leipsic ,fair1 #bdg1 #bdi ---- compared with other great potters1 #bej ---- assistance from ,dutch potters1 #bej note ---- the number of his experiments with enamels and glazes1 #beb ,bttger-ware1 polished1 #bdh ---- with enamel colours1 #bdi ---- with brown glaze1 #bdi ,boucher1 his models used at ,svres1 #bif ,bourbon1 ,duc de1 and ,chantilly1 #bhf ,bow1 fragments of porcelain found at1 #cdc ---- nature of porcelain there made1 #cdd-cde ---- ,craft's punch-bowl1 #cde-cdf ---- marks on porcelain1 #cdh ---- factory1 origin of1 #cdb ---- ---- bought by ,duesbury1 #ceb ---- porcelain1 #cdb-cdh ,brameld1 ,thomas1 and ,rockingham porcelain1 #cgb ,brancas ,lauraguais1 experiments with kaolin1 #cje1 #cac1 #cgh1 #cgi ,brinkley1 ,captain1 on ,japanese ceramics1 #aid ---- ---- quoted1 #aif ,bristol porcelain1 #cgi-chf ---- ---- marks on1 #chj ---- ---- colours on statuettes1 #cha-chb ---- ---- medallions with floral wreaths1 #chb ---- ---- #8cottage china1' #chb ---- ---- glaze on1 #chb ---- ---- hardness of paste1 #chd ---- ---- great infusibility1 #chd ---- ---- composition1 #chd ---- ---- plasticity of clay1 #chd ,british ,museum1 ,oriental porcelain in1 #ec ,brongniart1 director at ,svres1 #cjc ---- sells stock of undecorated ,svres soft paste1 #cjd ---- introduces severe type of paste1 #cjg ---- his influence at ,svres1 #cjh-cji ,bronzes1 early ,chinese1 influence of shapes on porcelain1 #eg ,brown glazes of ,chinese1 #gd note ,brhl1 ,count1 armorial china for1 #bec ,brunswick1 ,duke of1 and ,frstenberg porcelain1 #bfe ,buen ,retiro1 ,madrid1 porcelain factory at1 #cbb-cbd ,buonicelli1 director at ,buen ,retiro1 #cbc ,burke at ,bristol1 #chc ,burleigh ,house1 early ,chinese porcelain formerly at1 #he1 #bbb ,bushell1 ,dr41 work on ,chinese porcelain1 #ae1 #ed1 #ia1 #aec ---- translations from ,chinese works on ,korea1 #aga ---- manuscript1 #fa ---- ---- quoted1 #hf1 #ach ,cailloux in ,french porcelain1 #af ,canton1 early ,arab trade1 #bji ---- enamellers on porcelain1 #ajh1 #aad1 #afd1 #afe ,capo di ,monte1 ,naples1 porcelain factory at1 #cah-cbj ,capo di ,monte factory removed to ,portici1 #cbj ,carlos1 ,don1 at ,naples1 makes porcelain1 #cai ---- ---- now ,charles ,,iii4 of ,spain1 carries his workmen to ,buen ,retiro1 #cai ,cassettes4 ,see ,seggars4 ,casting1 process described1 #be1 #ced ---- used for ,derby statuettes1 #ced ,catherine ,,ii41 her ,svres dinner-service1 #bih ,caughley porcelain1 #cfe ,celadon glazes1 #db ---- word used in restricted sense1 #fd ---- of ,sung dynasty1 #fc-fe1 #acb1 #add ---- origin of term1 #fd note ---- early examples in ,european collections1 #ga ---- later ,chinese ware1 #ade ---- made in ,siam1 #agc1 #bab note ---- ,japanese1 #aib1 #aie1 #aig ---- old pieces in ,japan1 #agh1 #bja ---- 7martabani7 in ,persia1 #bae ---- earliest specimen at ,oxford1 #bah ,censors1 influence of1 on ,chinese arts1 #gd ,ch'ai yao1 early ,chinese ware1 #fb ,chambrelans or chamberers1 term explained1 #cjc ,champion1 ,r41 #cge1 #cgg1 #cgi1 #chb-chc ,chang1 the elder and younger brothers1 #fe ,cha-no-yu1 ,japanese tea ceremony1 #agh ,chantilly1 porcelain made at1 #bhe-bhg ---- sprig pattern1 #bhf ---- marks on porcelain1 #bhg ,chao ,ju-kua1 his report on early ,chinese trade1 #baj ,chardin on porcelain in ,persia1 #bae ,charlottenburg factory1 #chi1 #cia ,chelsea-,derby porcelain1 #cda1 #ceb-cee ---- ---- marks on1 #ceb ---- ---- new forms introduced1 #ceb-cec ---- ---- statuettes made by #8casting1' #ced ,chelsea factory1 site of1 #cce ---- ---- end of1 #cda ---- porcelain1 #cca-cdb ,chelsea porcelain1 an early ware1 #ccb ---- ---- marks on earliest pieces1 #ccb ---- ---- ,japanese wares imitated1 #ccf ---- ---- sales of1 #ccg1 #cda ---- ---- claret colour on1 #cch1 #cdj ---- ---- use of gold on1 #cch ---- ---- rococo forms1 #cci ---- ---- turquoise on1 #cci ---- ---- statuettes1 #cdj ---- ---- models of birds and fruit1 #cdj ---- ---- marks on1 #cdb ,cheng-hua 7#adfd-hg71 use of date-mark1 #hb ---- enamelled ware1 #hf ---- porcelain of1 #ic ,cheng-tai enamels on copper1 #hh1 #ic ,cheng-te 7#aeje-ba71 porcelain of1 #id ,cheng-tung 7#adce-di71 double date-mark1 #ic ,cheyne ,row called ,china ,row1 #ccc #8,chicken cups' of ,cheng-hua1 #ic ,chicoineau family1 #bdj1 #bhb1 #bhd1 #bhh ,chimie1 in ,french soft pastes1 #bhj ,china collecting1 ridicule attached to1 #fa1 #bdc ---- origin of ,english term1 #bbb ---- clay4 ,see ,kaolin4 ---- stone 7see also ,petuntse71 #i1 #aj ---- ---- preparation of1 #af ,chinese characters1 varieties of1 #aag-aah ---- porcelain exported to different countries1 #ej ---- ---- influence of old traditions1 #ea ---- ---- mistakes in early classification1 #eb ---- ---- late origin compared to other arts1 #ef ---- ---- survival of old types1 #eh ---- ---- classification of1 #eh1 #ada ---- ---- old native accounts of1 #fj ---- ---- composition of early wares1 #fi ---- ---- plain white ware1 #ada-add ---- ---- unglazed ware1 #add ---- stonewares1 #afe-afg ---- trade with the ,west1 #bji seq4 ,ching 7blue71 ,julien's wrong use of word1 #fd note ,ching-tsu1 ,chinese term for celadon1 #fd ,chini1 ,persian word for china or porcelain1 #di note1 #bbb ,christian subjects on ,chinese and ,japanese porcelain1 #acc1 #ahb ,chromium1 as a source of green1 #cjd1 #cji ,chn yao1 early ,chinese ware1 #fe1 #aeb ---- ---- numbers engraved on1 #ff ,church ,gresley porcelain1 #cga ,church1 ,prof41 on composition of porcelain1 #e1 #fi1 #bda1 #cch1 #cdc1 #cgj1 #chd ,ciron1 ,ciquaire1 at ,chantilly1 #bhe #8,clair-de-lune' glaze 7yueh-pai71 #aje1 #adh ,clignancourt1 ,paris1 factory at1 #cac ,cloisonn enamels on ,japanese porcelain1 #bjc ,coalport or ,coalbrookdale porcelain1 #cff ,cobalt blue1 sources of that used by ,chinese1 #dj1 #ge note1 #ib ---- ---- how prepared by ,chinese1 #acj ---- ---- grounds of ,chinese1 #adh ,coloured pastes1 #dj1 #caa ,colours used in decoration of porcelain 7see also ,enamels71 #ci ---- resistance to fire1 #da ,cond1 house of1 and ,chantilly1 #bhe-bhg ,constantin1 painter on porcelain1 #bga ,contemporary porcelain1 #chg-cid ---- ---- use of new colours and glazes1 #chi-cij ,cookworthy1 ,william1 #cge-chj ---- ---- search for china-clay1 #cgf-cgg ,copenhagen1 porcelain made at1 #bgd ---- contemporary work1 #chh1 #cic ---- ,japanese influence1 #chh ,copper-red under glaze1 #hj1 #acj ---- ---- examples in ,british ,museum1 #ha ---- ---- of ,hsuan-te1 #ib ,copper-red glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #aej-aed ,coral-red grounds on ,chinese porcelain1 #aae ,cornflower or barbeau on porcelain1 #cac1 #cee ,cornwall1 search for materials for porcelain1 #cei1 #cgf-cgh ,cottage china made at ,bristol1 #chb ,courtille1 ,la1 ,paris1 factory at1 #cac ,couverte1 ,french term for glaze1 #ca ,cozzi1 makes porcelain at ,venice1 #cag ,crackle ware1 old ,chinese 7,ko yao71 #fe ---- ---- ,chinese1 varieties of1 #de ---- ---- glazes of1 #ade ---- ---- equivalent to ,ko yao1 #ade ---- ---- ,korean1 #aga ,craft1 ,thomas1 his punch-bowl1 #cde-cdf #8,crazing' of glazes1 #cb #8,crow-claws1' term explained1 #bi ---- marks of1 on ,japanese porcelain1 #aia #8,crusader's ,cup' at ,dresden1 #gg1 #aeb1 #bag ,danish porcelain1 #bgc1 #chh1 #cic ,darwin1 ,dr41 letter to ,wedgwood1 #cgh ,date-marks on ,chinese porcelain1 #hb ---- ---- method of reckoning1 #ia note ---- ---- cyclical1 #aaj note ---- ---- two systems1 #aah ---- ---- how written1 #aah ---- ---- earliest example1 #aai ---- ---- those of ,kang-he rare1 #aai ---- ---- on ,svres porcelain1 #cjb ,dauphin1 collector of ,oriental porcelain1 #bcj ,decoration of porcelain1 ,tang-ying's principles1 #aab ,dgourdi1 ,feu1 term explained1 #bf ,delft ware1 early imitations of ,chinese porcelain in1 #bbd ---- ---- competition with ,chinese porcelain1 #bcd ---- ---- in ,england1 #bdj ,demi grand feu1 term explained1 #ei ---- ---- glazes of1 #ih ---- ---- ware of1 #gi1 #ajf ,derby biscuit1 or bisque1 #cec-ced ---- porcelain1 #cej-ceg ---- ---- little known of early period1 #cea ---- ---- sold in ,london1 #cea ---- ---- degenerate patterns1 #cee ---- ---- #8old ,japan' copied1 #cee ---- ---- marks on1 #cef ,dietrich1 #8professor of painting' at ,meissen1 #bef ,dillwyn1 ,l4 ,w41 at ,swansea1 #cfg-cfh ,doccia1 near ,florence1 porcelain factory at1 #cbj-cbb ---- ,chinese white ware and ,capo di ,monte porcelain imitated1 #cba ---- contemporary work1 #cid ,dresden1 ,chinese porcelain at1 #afa ---- ,ethnographical ,museum1 ,chinese porcelain from various lands1 #baa ---- ,oriental porcelain presented by ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 #bbh ---- collection of porcelain1 #bbg1 #bde ---- approximate date of bulk of specimens1 #bbh ---- porcelain4 ,see ,meissen porcelain4 ,duesbury1 ,william1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdi1 #cej-ceb1 #cef ---- and ,longton ,hall1 #cdi ,duesbury's work-book1 quotations from1 #cej-cea ,duplessis1 the king's goldsmith1 at ,svres1 #bia1 #bif ,dutch dealers supply ,augustus of ,saxony with porcelain1 #bbh ---- painters1 ,chinese porcelain in their pictures1 #aei ---- trade with ,china1 #bbj ---- ---- with ,japan1 #ahc-ahd ,dwight1 ,dr41 attempts to make porcelain at ,fulham1 #bdj-bda ---- ---- nature of the paste made by him1 #bda ---- ,lydia1 stoneware figure of1 #bdb ,earthenware1 term used to include porcelain1 #ccd note ,egg-shell porcelain1 #ajg ,egypt1 ,chinese porcelain found in1 #aeh1 #baa1 #bab1 #bae1 #baf ,egyptian fayence and glazes1 #cc ,eisen-porzellan of ,bttger1 #bdh ,empress-,dowager of ,china a connoisseur of porcelain1 #aae-aaf ,enamel colours on ,meissen porcelain1 #bea-beb ,enamelled fayence compared with porcelain1 #gc ---- porcelain1 ,saracenic origin of1 #hg1 #hh ,enamelled porcelain of ,ming dynasty1 #hf-ia1 #afa ---- ---- three classes1 #ij ,enamels1 always superimposed on glaze1 #ca ---- relation to subjacent glaze1 #de ---- on ,european porcelain1 #de ---- on ,chinese porcelain1 #de-dh ---- on ,japanese porcelain1 #aib ---- firing of1 #df ---- new sources of colour1 #dh ---- ---- at ,svres1 #cji ---- on copper1 influence on porcelain enamels1 #hh ,encastage1 term explained1 #bh ,england1 how ,chinese porcelain first reached1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbc ---- early attempts to make porcelain in1 #bdj-bdb ,english porcelain1 rival influence of ,svres and ,dresden1 #cbh ---- ---- copies ,oriental and ,continental models1 #cbh ---- ---- three types of soft-paste1 #ccj ---- ---- royal patronage1 #cbi1 #cce1 #cef ---- ---- divided into five periods1 #cca ---- ---- contemporary work1 #cij-cia ---- trade with ,east1 #bba ,engobe4 ,see ,slip4 ,d',entrecolles1 ,pre1 his letters1 how written1 #abf ---- ---- reception of letters in ,europe1 #abf ---- ---- summary of letters1 #abg-acf ,european enamelling on white ,chinese porcelain1 #afe ---- influence on ,chinese porcelain1 #aji1 #ace1 #aei1 #afb ---- market1 ,chinese porcelain for1 #afc-afd ---- porcelain1 early attempts at manufacture1 #bce-bdc ,faonnage1 or shaping1 #bj ,falconet1 his models used at ,svres1 #bif ,famille rose1 #ajf-aaj ---- ---- ,european influence on painting1 #aji ,famille verte1 #ih-ajb ---- ---- with black ground1 #ajj ---- ---- relation to ,ming enamels1 #ajj ,favorite1 ,la1 near ,baden1 porcelain cabinet1 #bbg ,fawkner1 ,sir ,everard1 and ,chelsea porcelain1 #cce-ccg ,fayence1 enamelled1 competition with porcelain in seventeenth century1 #bcc ---- ---- practical disadvantages of1 #bcd ,felspar1 #i1 #aj ---- decomposition of1 #aj ---- how far equivalent to china-stone1 #af note1 #bea ---- pure1 used in ,danish and ,swedish porcelain1 #chh1 #cic ,feng ,ting ware1 white ,chinese porcelain1 #fh1 #adb ,firing of porcelain1 chemical reaction1 #aa ---- ---- systems described1 #bf1 #aia ---- ---- at ,king-te-chen1 #acc ,fischer1 ,herr1 at ,herend1 #bga1 #cib ,flamb glazes1 #db ---- ---- on ,chinese porcelain1 #aeb ---- ---- firing of1 #aeb1 #aec ---- ---- how painted on1 #aec ---- ware1 early type1 #ff ,florence1 porcelain made in sixteenth century4 ,see ,medici4 ,flour-spar used in glaze at ,frstenberg1 #bfe ,flowers in porcelain at ,meissen1 #bed1 #bic note ---- ---- at ,vincennes1 #bic ,fond laque on ,chinese porcelain1 #ajb ---- ---- much found in ,persia1 #adg ,forms of ,chinese porcelain1 #acg-ada ---- of ,japanese porcelain1 #aib ,fostt rubbish-heaps1 fragment of ,chinese porcelain found in1 #baf ,fouliang1 ,annals of1 #abg ,france1 early collectors of ,oriental porcelain in1 #bbi-bca ,francesco1 ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 makes porcelain1 #bcg ,frankenthal1 porcelain made at1 #bfg ,franks1 ,sir ,a4 ,w41 on ,oriental china1 #ec1 #aba1 #ahe ---- ---- on ,strassburg porcelain1 #bgj ---- ---- on ,parisian kilns1 #cad ---- ---- on ,lowestoft porcelain1 #cgj ,frederick the ,great and porcelain1 #bee1 #bfb1 #bgd1 #bge1 #cce ,frits1 used in ,french soft pastes1 #bgi ,frye1 ,thomas1 at ,bow1 #cdb-cdc ,fuel used in firing porcelain1 #bh ,fukien1 ,chinese province1 two wares made1 #ff1 #adb ---- white porcelain1 #adb-adc ---- ---- imitated in ,europe1 #adb ---- ---- decorated in ,england1 #add ---- enamelled porcelain1 #adc ,fulda1 porcelain made at1 #bfh ,fulham1 ,dr4 ,dwight attempts to make porcelain at1 #bdj ,furnaces for firing porcelain1 three types described1 #bg ---- for ,chinese porcelain1 #acd ---- for ,japanese porcelain1 #aia ---- for ,french soft pastes1 #bhj ,frstenberg1 porcelain made at1 #bfe ,fusibility of porcelain1 experiments at ,svres1 #h1 #ah ,gardner1 at ,tver1 makes porcelain1 #bge ,garnier1 douard1 late director at ,svres1 #caj ---- ---- report on contemporary porcelain1 #chi-cid ,garniture1 term explained1 #bc ---- de chemine in ,chinese porcelain1 #aci ,geneva1 porcelain painters at1 #bga1 #caa ,gersaint1 his catalogue of ,oriental porcelain1 #bcj ,ginori family at ,doccia1 #cbj-cba ,glass1 possible influence on early ,chinese glazes1 #eg ---- made by ,hu imitated in porcelain1 #aac ,glazes1 #ab1 #cj-ch ---- preparation of1 #cj ---- applied to unbaked ware by ,chinese1 #cj ,glazes1 called oil by ,chinese1 #ca ---- distinguished from enamels1 #ca ---- fusibility of1 #cb ---- on ,egyptian fayence1 #cb ---- composition of ancient1 #cc1 #add-aed ---- three main classes of1 #cd ---- on ,chinese porcelain1 #ce ---- relation to subjacent paste1 #ce ---- containing lime1 #ce-cf ---- at ,svres of two types1 #cf ---- on ,european porcelain1 composition of1 #cf ---- on ,chinese porcelain1 composition of1 #cg ---- when first used by ,chinese1 #fi ---- sole source of decoration on early ,chinese porcelain1 #gj ---- for ,french soft pastes1 #bha ---- for hard pastes at ,svres and ,limoges1 #cjf #8,glozing' or glazing oven1 #bg ,gold as source of red colour 7see also ,rouge d'or71 #hi ,gotzkowski1 ,berlin banker1 #bfb ,gotha1 ,museum at1 early ,chinese porcelain1 #gb1 #agd1 #bab ---- porcelain made at1 #bfi ,gouyn1 ,charles1 manager at ,chelsea1 #ccc ,granite1 primary source of both kaolin and petuntse1 #i ,granitic rocks1 varieties of1 #i ,granja1 ,la1 porcelain gabineto at1 #cbc ,gravant1 potter at ,svres1 #bij1 #bid ,graviata bowls1 #aae ,green and blue enamels not successfully united by ,chinese1 #ih note ---- ---- on two vases of ,ming porcelain in ,british ,museum1 #ii note ---- glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #adi ---- of famille verte1 how applied1 #ii-ajj ,grieninger1 manager at ,berlin1 #bfc ,growan-stone and clay1 #cgg ,hague1 porcelain made at1 #bgc1 #chi1 #cic ,hampton ,court1 ,oriental porcelain at1 #ahe1 #bbe-bbf ,hampton ,court1 no specimens of famille rose or of #8,old ,japan1' #bbe ---- ---- age of porcelain represented at1 #bbf ---- ---- ,queen ,mary's china cabinet1 #bbf ,hancock1 ,robert1 working at ,battersea1 #cdg ---- ---- and transfer-printing1 #cfj ,handles1 fixing of1 #bc ,hannong family1 ,strassburg potters1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #cje1 #cac1 #cah ,hardness of porcelain1 #e1 #ah ,haslem1 ,j41 on casting process at ,derby1 #bf1 #ced ,hat-stands in ,chinese porcelain1 #aci ,haviland factory at ,limoges1 #chi1 #cij ,hellot1 chemical adviser at ,svres1 #bia1 #cjj ---- his memoir quoted1 #bgh-bhj1 #bid1 #bii ,herculaneum works at ,liverpool1 #cga ,herend1 in ,hungary1 porcelain factory at1 #bga1 #cib ,herold or ,hroldt at ,meissen1 #bec ,hippisley1 translations from ,chinese1 #ia note ,hirado or ,mikchi ware1 #aic-aie ,hirth1 ,dr41 on early ,chinese trade1 etc41 #ed1 #baj-bac ---- ---- collection of early ,chinese porcelain1 #gb ,hchst1 porcelain made at1 #bfd ,holdship1 ,richard1 #ceh ,holland1 ,chinese #8blue and white' early imported1 #aeh ---- ,chinese porcelain in1 #bbi ---- porcelain made in1 #bgb-bgd1 #chi1 #cic ,hookah-bases of ,chinese porcelain1 #adj ,hsuan-te 7#adbe-ce71 porcelain of1 #ib ---- blue and white of1 #hc ,hua-shi1 a stone used in ,chinese porcelain1 #aca1 #cgf ,hungary1 porcelain made in1 #bga1 #cib ,hung-chi 7#adhg-aeje71 porcelain of1 #ic1 #adg ,hunger1 at ,vienna1 #bfj ,hunger1 at ,venice1 #cag ,hybrid pastes of ,italy1 #caf ,imari porcelain1 #ahf-aic ---- ---- elements of decoration1 #ahg ---- ---- relation to early ,chinese enamelled wares1 #ahg-ahh ---- ---- relation to other ,japanese wares1 #ahh ---- ---- copied at ,king-te-chen1 #ahh note ---- ---- composition of paste1 #aij ---- ---- source and nature of materials1 #aij ---- ---- in ,dresden collection1 #bbi ,incense1 vessels used in burning1 of ,chinese porcelain1 #ach ,india1 ,chinese porcelain found in1 #he1 #aeh ---- porcelain enamelled at ,canton for1 #afe ,insufflation of glaze by ,chinese1 #cj ,iron-red in fine lines to imitate the rouge-d'or1 examples at ,dresden1 #afb ,jade1 highly esteemed in ,china1 #eg ---- influence on early ,chinese glazes1 #eg ,japan1 early pottery of1 #agg1 #agi ---- ,korean potters in1 #agi ---- porcelain of1 #agg-bjg ,japanese experts on ,chinese porcelain1 #ee ---- porcelain1 how introduced from ,china1 #ahj-aha ---- ---- early export of #8blue and white1' #ahb ---- ---- exported by ,dutch1 #ahc-ahd ---- ---- sources of information1 #ahc note1 #aic note ---- ---- export stimulated by troubles in ,china1 #ahd ---- ---- princely patronage of1 #ahi1 #aid ---- ---- founded on ,ming types1 #ahi1 #aig1 #aii ---- ---- composition of paste1 #aij ,japanese porcelain1 preliminary firing1 #aia ---- ---- glazes how prepared1 #aia ---- ---- furnaces1 #aia ---- ---- marks of crows-feet1 #aia ---- ---- shapes and uses1 #aib ---- ---- colours employed1 #aib ---- ---- celadon1 #aib1 #aie1 #aig1 #bja ---- ---- stories of processes discovered by spies1 #aif1 #bjb1 #bjc ---- ---- influence of conservative criticism on1 #bjf ---- trade with ,china1 #agh ,julien1 ,stanislas1 translations from ,chinese1 #ec ,ju yao1 early ,chinese ware1 #fb ,kaga or ,kutani ware1 #bjc-bjf ,kai-feng ,fu1 old ,sung capital1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe ,kakiyemon1 a potter of ,hizen1 #ahc ---- ware1 #ahe ---- ---- blue enamel over glaze1 #ahf ---- ---- imitated at ,meissen1 #bec ---- ---- imitated at ,chantilly1 #bhf ,kndler at ,meissen1 #bec ---- chief modeller of #8,dresden figures1' #bec ,kang-he 7#affa-agbb71 porcelain of1 #if ---- his date-mark1 why rare1 #aai ,kaolin1 #h1 #aj ---- preparation of1 #af ---- proportion of1 in hard pastes1 #ag1 #che ---- search for in ,france1 #cje-cjf ---- found at ,alenon and ,st4 ,yrieix1 #cje-cjf1 #cgh ---- found in ,cornwall1 #cgf-cgh ,kaolinic stoneware1 use of term1 #fi ,karl ,theodor1 ,elector ,palatine1 #bfj1 #bfg ,kenzan1 potter at ,kioto1 #aig ,khanfu1 ,arab name for ,hangchow1 #bji ,kia-king 7#agie-ahbj71 porcelain of1 #aad1 #aee ,kia-tsing 7#aeba-ff71 porcelain of1 #id ,kien-lung 7#agce-agie71 porcelain of1 #aje-aad ---- his poems inscribed on porcelain1 #aac ,kien-lung1 ,svres porcelain for1 #bih ,kien yao1 old ,chinese ware1 #ff1 #ahj ---- ---- example in ,british ,museum1 #ga ---- ---- white porcelain1 #adb1 #adc ,kilns for firing porcelain4 ,see ,furnaces4 ,king-te-chen in early days1 #fb ---- oppression of court officials1 #id ---- in ,kang-he's reign1 #if ---- lists of porcelain made1 #ie1 #ajd1 #aae ---- burned1 #aae1 #abe1 #bbj ---- position1 #abc-abe ---- ,pekin1 how reached from1 #abc ---- ,canton1 how reached from1 #abd ---- relation to ,jao-chau and ,fouliang1 #abd-abe ---- description of town1 #abe1 #abg ---- materials brought down in junks1 #abh ---- foreign designs copied at1 #afe ---- works abandoned for long period in seventeenth century1 #bbj ,kinsay or ,hangchow1 #fb1 #fc1 #bji ,kioto1 porcelain made at1 #aif-aii ---- potters copied ,ming enamelled wares1 #aih ---- wares1 rcherch rudeness of1 #aig ,kishiu ware or -niwa yaki1 #aii ---- ---- imitated for export at ,tokiyo and ,kobe1 #bjj ,kiyomidzu1 suburb of ,kioto1 porcelain made at1 #aig1 #aih ,kizayemon family1 court purveyors of porcelain1 #ahh ,kochi1 meaning of ,japanese term1 #age ---- ware of ,japanese1 #bja ,kok1 ,juriann1 his new porcelain at the ,hague1 #chi1 #cic ,koransha1 combination of ,japanese potters1 #aic ,korea1 relations with ,china and ,japan1 #afh ---- fanciful attribution of various wares to1 #afi1 #ahf ,korean porcelain1 classification of1 #agj ---- ---- celadon1 #agj ---- ---- plain white1 #agj ---- ---- crackle ware1 #aga ,korean porcelain described in early ,chinese books1 #aga ---- inlaid with white slip1 #aga ---- potters in ,japan1 #afi ,koreans1 early use of enamel colours by1 #afi ,kousnetzoff factory1 ,moscow1 #cib ,ko yao1 early ,chinese ware1 #fc1 #fe1 #ade #8,kronenburg porcelain1' origin of name1 #bfg ,kuang-tung porcelain of ,raynal1 #aff ,kuang yao1 stoneware1 #aff ---- ---- early ,chinese ware1 #fc ,kublai ,khan1 #gb1 #bac ,kutani or ,kaga ware1 #bjc-bjf ---- ware1 relation to ,imari porcelain1 #bjd ---- ---- marks on1 #bje ,kwan-yin1 statues of1 #ace1 #adc1 #bbf ,lace imitated in porcelain at ,berlin1 #bfd ,lang ,ting-tso1 superintendent at ,king-te-chen1 #if note1 #ajc1 #aea ,lang yao1 origin of name1 #ajc ,langen1 von1 at ,frstenberg1 #bfe ---- ---- at ,copenhagen1 #bgd ,laque ,burgaut1 #aad ,lathe1 use of1 in shaping porcelain1 #bb ,lead in glaze1 #cc-cd ,leithner1 chemist at ,vienna1 #bfa ,lemon-yellow1 opaque glaze on ,chinese porcelain1 #aaa-aae ,lille1 porcelain made at1 #bhd ---- coal early used in porcelain kilns1 #bhe ,lime in paste or glaze of porcelain1 #ce-cf1 #bea ,limoges district1 porcelain works in1 #ae1 #cad-cae1 #chi-cij ---- enamel copied in ,chinese porcelain1 #ace note ,lister1 ,dr4 ,martin1 at ,saint-,cloud1 #bhb1 #cbf ,lists of porcelain made for ,chinese court1 #ie1 #aae ,lithophanic porcelain1 at ,berlin1 #bfd ,littler at ,longton ,hall1 #cdh ,liverpool porcelain1 #cgj-cga ,london1 ,west of ,england porcelain painted in1 #cfc1 #cff1 #cfi ,longton ,hall porcelain1 #cdh-cdi ,lowestoft and ,oriental armorial porcelain1 #cfi-cgj ---- china1 so-called1 #afe1 #cfi ---- porcelain1 #cfi-cgj ,ludwigsburg1 porcelain made at1 #bff ,lung-chuan celadon1 reproduced at ,king-te-chen1 #acb ---- yao1 early ,chinese ware1 #fc ,lung-king 7#aeff-gb71 porcelain of1 #ie ,lustre ware1 attempted imitation by ,chinese1 #gd note ,lyle1 ,mr41 on old ,siamese porcelain1 #agc ,macaulay on china collectors1 #fa note ,madeley1 ,svres porcelain copied by ,randall at1 #cff ,magnesia1 an element of porcelain paste1 #ab1 #aca ---- in paste of ,vinovo porcelain1 #cah ---- in paste of ,spanish porcelain1 #cbd ,magnets1 removal of iron from slip by1 #ai ,magots1 decorated in famille verte style1 #ajj ,mainwaring1 ,mr4 ,massey1 his collection of ,dresden figures1 #bed note ,mainz1 elector of1 and ,hchst porcelain1 #bfd ,manchu or ,tsing dynasty1 #if ,mandarin china1 #aad ,manganese-purple glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #ih1 #adg ---- ---- in the ,san-tsai enamels1 #ii ,marcolini1 ,count1 director at ,meissen1 #bef ,marieberg1 porcelain made at1 #bgc ,marks on ,chinese porcelain1 #aag-abb ---- ---- how and where applied1 #aag1 #aai ---- ---- give little information1 #aai1 #abb ---- ---- ,tang or hall1 ,chai or studio1 #abj ---- ---- allusive1 descriptive1 emblems and devices1 #abj-aba ---- ---- #8canting' devices1 #aba ,marks on ,european porcelain4 ,see under the principal factories4 ---- on ,japanese porcelain1 #aig1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bje ,marnes1 used in ,french soft pastes1 #bgi ,martabani celadon1 examples in ,european collections1 #ga ---- ware1 #fd-fe1 #baj seq41 #add1 #agc1 #bae ,materials of porcelain1 ,m4 ,vogt's experiments1 #ag ,maubre1 flower-painter on porcelain1 #bga ,mazarin or powder-blue grounds of ,chinese1 #adh ,medici1 ,lorenzo de'1 receives present of ,chinese porcelain1 #bag ---- porcelain1 #bcf-bch ---- ---- only identified lately1 #bcf ---- ---- ,vasari's account1 #bcf ---- ---- decoration of1 #bcg ---- ---- composition of1 #bcg ---- ---- marks1 #bch ,medicine-flasks 7yao-ping7 or snuff-bottles of ,chinese porcelain1 #aac-aad1 #adj ---- ---- of ,chinese porcelain1 used by ,arabs1 found in ,egyptian tombs1 #adj ,meissen porcelain1 #bdd-beh ---- ---- composition1 #g1 #bej-bea ---- ---- first successfully made 7#agac-agaf71 #bdi ---- ---- composition of glaze1 #bea ---- ---- hardness of paste1 and difficulties in application of enamels1 #bea ---- ---- early pieces mostly defective1 #beb ---- ---- #8,dresden figure groups1' #bec ---- ---- imitation of ,chinese magots1 #bec ---- ---- armorial designs1 #bec ---- ---- flowers imitated1 #bed ---- ---- attempts to make large figures1 #bed ---- ---- effects of ,seven ,years' ,war1 #bee ---- ---- important position of enamel painters1 #bee ,meissen porcelain1 early exported to ,turkey1 #bee note ---- ---- marks on1 #beg ---- ---- recent work1 #beg1 #cib ---- ---- marks on1 copied1 #beh ---- ---- smuggled into ,england1 #ccd ,melchior at ,hchst1 #bfe ---- at ,frankenthal1 #bfh ,mennecy1 porcelain made at1 #bhg-bhh ,mica1 an element in ,chinese porcelain1 #aa1 #aca1 #cgf note ,mikchi or ,hirado ware1 #aic-aie ,ming dynasty1 porcelain of1 #gh-ie ---- porcelain1 colour decoration1 #gi1 #hf-ia1 #afa ---- ---- #8blue and white1' #ha-he1 #ie1 #aeg ,minton1 ,thomas1 #cff1 #cgc ,mirror black glaze on ,chinese porcelain1 #acj1 #adi ,mohammedan forms of ,chinese porcelain1 #adj ,mo-hung1 iron-red painted over glaze1 #aej ,mokubei1 potter at ,kioto1 #bja ,moore1 ,bernard1 imitates ,chinese glazes1 #chg ,morikaga1 painted on ,kaga ware1 #bjd ,moulding1 antiquity of process1 #bc-be ---- process described1 #bc-be1 #abh ---- largely used for ,chinese porcelain1 #aab ,muffle-stoves for firing enamels1 #dg1 #bha ,nabeshima or ,okchi ware1 #aie ,nantgarw porcelain1 #cfg-cfh ,napoleon's ideas for decoration of porcelain1 #cjh ,niderwiller1 porcelain made at1 #bgj ,nien-hao4 ,see ,date-marks4 ,nien ,hsi-yao1 superintendent at ,king-te-chen1 #ajd-aje ,nien yao1 #aje ,nightingale1 ,mr41 on sales of ,chelsea porcelain1 #cce note1 #ccf note ,ninsei1 potter at ,kioto1 #aif ,nove1 ,le1 porcelain factory at1 #cah ,nymphenburg1 porcelain made at1 #bfg ,nyon1 porcelain made at1 #bga ,okeover plate in ,british ,museum1 #afd ,okchi or ,nabeshima ware1 #aie #8,old ,japan4' ,see ,imari4 -niwa yaki or ,kishiu ware1 #aii-bjj ,oriental porcelain1 earliest specimens in ,europe1 #bag-bah ,orleans1 ,duke of1 collector of ,oriental porcelain1 #bcj ---- ---- and ,saint-,cloud1 #bhc ---- family1 interest in porcelain1 #cad ---- porcelain made at1 #bhh ,ormolu mountings at ,svres1 #big ---- ---- on ,english porcelain1 #cci ,orry de ,fulvi at ,vincennes1 #bij ,oude ,amstel1 ,dutch porcelain1 #bgc ---- ,loosdrecht1 porcelain made at1 #bgb ,ovens for firing porcelain4 ,see ,furnaces4 ,owari porcelain1 #bja-bjc ---- ---- materials and composition1 #aij ---- ---- cheap ware for export1 #bjc ,owen1 ,mr41 on ,bristol porcelain1 #cgf1 #cha note ,painted glazes1 term explained1 #dd1 #ei ---- ---- on ,ming porcelain1 #gi ---- ---- of ,hsuan-te1 #ib ,painters on ,chinese porcelain1 #ajh ---- ---- signatures of1 #ajh ---- ---- division of work1 #abi ---- on ,svres porcelain1 signatures of1 #cjc ,painting1 schools of1 in ,china1 #hb ---- on porcelain4 ,see also ,enamelling4 ,palissy probably endeavoured to make porcelain1 #bci note ,parian ware1 #cgc ,paris1 soft-paste factories at1 #bhh ---- hard-paste factories at1 #cab-cad ,pte-sur-pte1 #da1 #caa #8,peach-bloom' glaze1 #aje1 #aed ,pen-rests in ,chinese porcelain1 #aci ,persia1 ,chinese porcelain in1 #adg1 #aeg1 #bae1 #baf ,persian fayence compared with ,chinese porcelain1 #gc ,persian fayence1 early use of blue under glaze1 #gd1 #ge ---- ---- ,chinese influence on1 #gf ---- ,gulf1 early ,chinese trade with1 #bac ---- ---- ,english trade with1 #bba ---- inscription on fifteenth century ,chinese porcelain1 #id ,petuntse 7see also ,china-stone71 #h1 #aj ---- proportion of1 in hard pastes1 #che ,pierced decoration in ,chinese porcelain1 #aed ,pillows in ,chinese porcelain1 #aci ,pinxton porcelain1 #cga ---- ,billingsley makes porcelain at1 #cfh1 #cga ,pirkenhausen factory1 ,carlsbad1 #cib ,place1 ,dr41 of ,york1 experiments with various clays1 #bdb ,planch1 modeller at ,derby1 #cea ,plymouth porcelain1 #cge-cha ---- ---- composition of glaze1 #chj ---- ---- marks on1 #chj ,poems on ,chinese porcelain1 #aac ,poison detected by ,chinese porcelain1 #bae ,polo1 ,marco1 account of ,china1 #gb ---- ---- on ,chinese porcelain1 #bac-bad ,pompadour1 ,marquise de1 and ,svres1 #bij1 #bib1 #bie1 #cjj ,porcelain1 physical properties of1 #e ---- microscopical structure1 #e ---- chemical composition1 #f-ab ---- materials1 #ad-ah ---- transition to kaolinic stoneware in ,japanese porcelain1 #bjf ---- vague early use of the word1 #bag ---- early reports in ,europe as to its composition1 #bbc #8,porcelain fever' at time of ,seven ,years' ,war1 #bee ,porcelain or purslane1 word1 how used in ,elizabethan times1 #bbb ,portugal1 porcelain made in1 #cbe ,portuguese in ,china1 #bai ---- as importers of porcelain1 #bbb1 #bcj ,poterat family of ,rouen1 #bci1 #bhb1 #bhd ,potsherds of ,chinese porcelain1 ground up for paste of ,english porcelain1 #cbf note ,potter's wheel1 #bj-bb ---- ---- early forms1 #bj-ba ,pourcelainnes1 the word1 how used by ,marco ,polo1 #bad ,pressing1 process described1 #bc ,quan-yin1 or ,kwan-yin 7,jap4 ,kwannon71 #ace1 #adc1 #bbf ,randall copies ,svres porcelain1 #cff ,raynal1 ,abb1 on ,chinese porcelain1 #he ---- ---- quoted1 #aff1 #bca ---- ---- on classification of ,oriental porcelain1 #bbc note ,raumur makes porcelain1 #bgh ,red decoration sous couverte1 #dc ,red ,sea ports1 early ,chinese trade with1 #bac ,reine1 porcelaine de la1 made in ,rue ,thiroux1 #cac ,reproductions of old types of ,chinese porcelain1 #ajd1 #aae ,riao1 ,don ,juan1 on ,spanish porcelain1 #cbb1 #cbe ,rice-grain1 in pierced decoration1 #aee ,ringler1 the arcanist1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bfg ,risampei1 a ,korean1 at ,arita1 #aha ,ritual vessels in ,chinese porcelain1 colours of1 #ach ,rockingham porcelain1 #cga-cgb ,rrstrand1 porcelain made at1 #bgc ---- ---- contemporary work1 #chh1 #cic ,rose1 ,john1 #cfe1 #cff ,rose-red grounds 7opaque71 mei-kwei1 on ,chinese porcelain1 #aaj ,roses on ,english porcelain1 #ceb1 #cfh ,rouen porcelain1 #bch-bci1 #bhb ---- ---- examples where found1 #bci ,rouge d'or on ,chinese porcelain1 #ajg ---- ---- date of introduction in ,china1 #aaj note ---- ---- not mentioned by ,d',entrecolles1 #acf ---- ---- late introduction in ,japan1 #ahi1 #bje ---- ---- used early at ,saint-,cloud1 #bhc ,rouge d'or1 source of1 #bhd note ---- ---- mentioned in ,de ,frasnay's poem1 #bhd note ,rozenburg works at the ,hague1 #chi1 #cic ,russian porcelain1 #bgd1 #cib ,sacrifice of the potter ,tung1 #aac ,saint-,cloud1 porcelain made at1 #bhb-bhd ---- seventeenth century designs on porcelain1 #bhc ,st4 ,petersburg1 porcelain made at1 #bgd1 #cib ,saladin's present of ,chinese porcelain1 #bae ,salting collection1 early vase with cloisons1 #hj ---- ---- enamelled bowl with ,cheng-te mark1 #hi1 #afa ---- ---- famille verte with black ground1 #aja ,salvtat1 notes to ,julien's work1 #ec ,samson1 imitates old wares1 #cad ,sanda celadon1 #bja ,sang de buf glazes1 #db ---- ---- imitated in ,england1 #chg ---- ---- on ,chinese porcelain1 #aea ,san tsai or #8three-colour' glazes1 #dd ---- ---- the #8three colours' of ,ming enamels1 #hi1 #ig ---- ---- relation to ,kishiu ware1 #ih ,saracenic glass1 enamels on1 #hh ---- ---- found in ,china1 #hh note ---- motives and forms in ,chinese porcelain1 #gf1 #adj ---- origin of enamelled porcelain1 #hg1 #hh ,sassanian influence on ,far ,east1 #gj note ,sawankalok1 porcelain made at1 #agc1 #bab note ,sceaux1 porcelain made at1 #bhh ,schneeball-vasen1 #bed ,schnorrische ,erde used by ,bttger1 #bej ,seggars1 preparation and arrangement in furnace1 #bh-bi ---- arrangement in ,chinese furnaces1 #acc ---- late introduction in ,japan1 #ahh ,sei-ji1 ,japanese term for celadon1 #fd ,sentoku1 ,japanese reading of ,hsuan-te1 #ib ,seto1 village in ,owari1 connection with ,japanese porcelain1 #ahj1 #bjb ,seto-mono1 ,japanese equivalent to #8china1' #bjb ,sve for ,svres1 #bij note #8,severe' or kaolinic porcelain1 #ag-ah1 #che-chf ,svres1 experimental work at1 #ae ---- hard paste1 two types1 #ag ---- the new porcelain1 #ah ---- the soft paste of1 #bhi-cjd ---- porcelain works removed to1 #bib ---- edicts against competing works1 #bie ---- the factory a fashionable lounge1 #bie ---- date of the best work1 #big ---- soft paste abandoned1 #cjc ---- ---- repainted at later dates1 #cjd ---- the hard paste of1 #cje-cab ---- ,german workmen at1 #cje ---- ,macquer succeeds ,hellot1 #cje ---- early hard paste of mild type1 #cjf ---- the new mild type of hard paste1 #cjg1 #cij ---- proposed withdrawal of ,state support1 #caj1 #caa1 #cab ---- hard paste1 analysis of1 #chf ---- contemporary porcelain1 #chi1 #cij ---- laboratory1 chemical and technical researches on ,chinese porcelain1 #dg-dh1 #ee ---- porcelain sold at ,versailles1 #bib ---- ---- biscuit figures1 #bif ---- ---- royal dinner-services1 #big-bih ---- ---- colours of grounds on1 #bii ---- ---- turquoise enamel1 how prepared1 #bii ---- ---- ,rose carne or ,pompadour1 #cjj ---- ---- gilding on1 #cja ---- ---- date-marks on1 #cjb ---- ---- jewelled decoration1 #cjb ---- ---- artists' marks on1 #cjc ---- ---- felspathic glaze1 #cjf ---- ---- glaze on early hard paste1 #cjf ---- ---- big vases of1 #cjg-cjh ---- ---- the ,napoleonic decoration1 #cjh ---- ---- changes in decoration illustrate history1 #caj ---- ---- coloured pastes1 #caa ---- ---- pictorial plaques1 #bga1 #caa ---- ---- later developments1 #cab1 #cij #8,shaping1' term explained1 #bj ,sha-t'ai or #8sand-bodied' relation to hua-shi1 #acb ---- ---- used as slip1 #aed ,shonsui1 first made porcelain in ,japan1 #aha ,siamese porcelain1 #agb-age ---- ---- primitive methods of support in kilns1 #agd1 #baa ---- ---- ,buddhist emblems1 #age ---- ---- decorated at ,canton1 #age ,signatures of painters on famille rose plates1 #ajh ,silica1 proportion of1 in hard pastes1 #g1 #che ,silver plate replaced in ,france by porcelain1 #bhe ,slip or barbotine1 #ai1 #cab ---- decoration of ,chinese porcelain1 #adf1 #adg1 #aed ,slop-blending1 #af ,snuff-bottles of ,chinese porcelain1 #aac-aad1 #adj ,soft pastes1 how distinguished1 #bgg note ---- ---- of ,france1 origin of1 #bgg-bgi ---- ---- composition1 #bgi ,solon1 ,m41 at ,svres1 #caa ,sometsuke1 ,japanese term for #8blue and white1' #ahg ,souffl glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #cj1 #aej ,sous couverte or under-glaze decoration1 #dc ,spain1 porcelain made in1 #cbb-cbd ---- ,chinese porcelain early imported1 #cbb ,spengler of ,zurich at ,derby1 #ced ,spode family of ,stoke1 #cgb-cgc ---- ,josiah1 abandons use of frit in porcelain1 #cgc ---- ---- his felspar porcelain1 #cgc ---- ware1 #cgc-cgd ,sprimont1 ,nicholas1 manager at ,chelsea1 #ccc1 #cch1 #cda ---- ---- his ,case of the ,undertaker1 #ccd ,staffordshire porcelain1 composition1 #cgb ,steatite in ,chinese porcelain1 #aca ---- used at ,worcester1 #cei ---- used at ,swansea1 #cfh ---- relation to ,hua-she1 #cgf note ,stoneware1 relation of1 to porcelain1 #g1 #chf ---- composition1 #g ,stonewares of ,chinese1 #afe-afg ,strassburg1 porcelain made at1 #bfi ,strawberry ,hill1 porcelain at1 #bff1 #bhc1 #cba1 #cgi note ,sui-ki1 ,chinese term for crackle or truit ware1 #adf ,sumatra1 ,chinese trade with1 #baj ,sung dynasty of ,china1 #fb ---- porcelain1 #fb-fh ---- ---- copied in later times1 #eb1 #ajd ---- ---- rarity in ,european collections1 #ga ,su-ni-po and ,su-ma-li1 cobalt blues of ,arab origin1 #ib ,swansea porcelain1 #cfg-cfi ,swedish porcelain1 #bgc ---- ---- contemporary work1 #chh1 #cic ,swinton1 ,rockingham porcelain made at1 #cga ,swiss porcelain1 #bgj ,ta-mo 7,jap4 ,daruma71 #adc ,tang dynasty of ,china1 importance of1 #ef1 #bji ,tang-ying1 superintendent at ,king-te-chen1 #aaj ---- report on manufacture of porcelain1 #aaa-aac ,tao-kwang 7#ahbj-ej71 porcelain of1 #aae ,tea drinking1 influence on ceramic wares1 #agi1 #bbd1 #bdc ---- ---- ridiculed in drinking-song1 #bdc ,tek-kwa or ,te-hua1 #adb #8,throwing' on wheel1 #bj-bb ,thringer ,wald1 porcelain made in1 #bfi ,tin enamel used at ,chantilly1 #bhf1 #bid ,tin-glazed fayence1 #gc ,tin in glaze1 #cc-cd ,ting yao1 old ,chinese ware1 #fg1 #ada ,tingui of ,marco ,polo1 #bac-bad ,tokugawa period1 decline of art in later times1 #aih1 #bje ,toshiro1 ,japanese potter1 #ahj ,to-t'ai1 #8bodiless' porcelain1 #ia ,tournai1 porcelain made at1 #bhi ,toys made of ,mennecy porcelain1 #bhg ---- made of ,chelsea porcelain1 #ccg ,transfer-printing at ,bow1 #cdg ---- at ,worcester1 #cfj #8,transmutation' glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #ff1 #aej-aed1 #aea note ,trembleuse saucers1 #bhc1 #bid ,trenchard family1 early pieces of ,chinese porcelain in possession of1 #bai ,triads of colour--,san-tsai1 #hi1 #ig ,trou1 ,henri1 at ,saint-,cloud1 #bhc ,tsang ,ying-hsuan1 superintendent at ,king-te-chen1 #if ,tschirnhaus1 glass made by1 #bdf-bdg1 #bgh ---- his connection with ,bttger1 #bdf-bdg1 #bdh ,tsing or ,manchu dynasty1 #if ,tung1 the potter's god1 #aac ,tung-chi 7#ahfa-gd71 porcelain of1 #aae ,tu ,ting ware1 term explained1 #fh ,turks use coffee-cups of ,oriental porcelain1 #bbd ,turner1 ,thomas1 at ,caughley1 #cfe ,turquoise glaze on ,chinese porcelain1 #ig1 #adg ---- grounds 7opaque7--fei-tsui--on ,chinese porcelain1 #aaj-aaa ---- ---- on ,svres porcelain1 #bii ---- ---- on ,chelsea porcelain1 #cci ,tu-ting1 #adb ,tzu-ching1 writer of ,bushell ,,ms41 #fa1 #gi1 #hf ,tzu-kin 7burnished gold71 ,chinese name for fond laque1 #adf ,unaker1 kaolin from ,america1 #cdb1 #cgf1 #cgh ,uranium1 black enamel from1 #bfa ,uses of ,chinese porcelain1 #acg-ada ---- of ,japanese porcelain1 #aib ,venice1 ,chinese porcelain in ,st4 ,mark's1 #gg note ---- early attempts to make porcelain in1 #bce ---- ,oriental porcelain abundant in seventeenth century1 #bce note ---- porcelain made at1 #caf-cah ---- ,german influence on porcelain1 #cag ,vernadsky1 on chemical reaction in firing porcelain1 #aa ,vezzi family at ,venice1 #caf ,vienna1 origin of porcelain works1 #bfj ---- porcelain1 decoration1 #bfj ---- ---- marks on1 #bfj ,villeroy1 ,duc de1 and ,mennecy1 #bhg ,vincennes1 porcelain made at1 #bhi-bia1 #bic-bie ---- bleu du roi1 #bid ---- early perfection of porcelain1 #bie ,vinovo1 or ,vineuf1 porcelain factory at1 #cah ,vissage or wreathing1 #bb1 #ajf note1 #chd ,vogt1 ,m41 of ,svres1 quoted1 #ag1 #bgh ,wall1 ,dr4 ,john1 at ,worcester1 #ceg1 #cfc ,walpole1 ,horace1 porcelain from ,doccia1 #cba ,wan-li 7#aegb-afai71 his present of porcelain to ,jehangir1 #he ---- porcelain of1 #ie ,warham1 ,archbishop1 celadon bowl at ,oxford1 #bah #8,wasters1' importance of discovery of1 #bi ,watteau1 influence on ,german art1 #bec ,wedgwood1 his ,jasper ware1 #dj ---- at ,meissen1 #bef ---- and fugitive workmen1 #cha note ---- his opposition to ,champion1 #chc ,weesp1 in ,holland1 porcelain made at1 #bgb ,white ,chinese porcelain1 two families of1 #fh ,willow pattern at ,caughley1 #cfe ,worcester porcelain1 #ceg-cfd ---- ---- foundation of factory1 #ceg ---- ---- composition of pastes1 #ceh ---- ---- the factory described1 #ceh ---- ---- ,oriental wares copied1 #cei ---- ---- portraits of celebrities1 #cfj1 #cfd ---- ---- marks on1 #cfj1 #cfd ---- ---- transfer-printing1 #cfj-cfa ---- ---- migration of painters from ,chelsea1 #cfa ---- ---- bleu du roi grounds1 #cfa-cfb ---- ---- decorated in ,london1 #cfb-cfc ---- ---- the ,chamberlain factory1 #cfc ---- ---- late developments1 #cfd #8,wreathing' or vissage1 #bb1 #ajf note1 #chd ,wu-kung1 five vessels on ,buddhist shrine1 #ach ,wu-sh 7see ,garniture71 #aci ,wu-tsai1 the #8five colours' of ,ming enamels1 #hi ---- relation to famille verte1 #aja ,yang-tsai1 #8foreign colours1' associated with ,indian enamels1 #afe ,yao-pien1 or furnace transmutation1 #aeb ,yao-ping1 or medicine-flasks1 #aac1 #adj ,yeiraku ware1 #aih-aii ,yeisen1 potter at ,kioto1 #aig ,yellow glazes on ,chinese porcelain1 #id1 #adg ,yi-hsing yao1 stoneware1 #afe ,yuan or ,mongol dynasty1 #gb ---- ---- porcelain of1 #gg1 #aeb ,yung-cheng 7#agbb-ce71 porcelain of1 #ajc-aje ---- copies of old wares1 #ajd ---- his early interest in porcelain1 #ace ,yung-lo 7#adjb-bd71 early date-mark1 #fg ---- porcelain of1 #fh1 #ia ,zaitun1 #adb1 #bji1 #bac ,zanzibar1 ,chinese porcelain found at1 #baa ,zengoro1 family of ,japanese potters1 #aih ---- his coral red1 his ,yeiraku seal1 #aih-aii ---- his ,kairaku ware in ,kishiu1 #bjj ---- ,hozen at ,kutani1 #bje ,zurich1 porcelain made at1 #bgj ,printed by ,t4 and ,a4 ,,constable1 ,printers to ,his ,majesty at the ,edinburgh ,university ,press ,,footnotes3 #a ,some ,english porcelain is stated by ,professor ,church to have a hardness equal to that of quartz4 ,see below1 #8,bristol ,porcelain4' #b ,we have thought it well1 once for all1 to treat briefly of the scientific aspect of our subject1 but those who are not interested in this point of view may pass over the next few pages4 #c ,i shall return to this point in a later chapter4 ,i lay the more stress on this fact1 as it is often stated that the hard and slightly translucent stonewares1 such as the ,fulham ware of ,dwight1 which contains as much as eighty per cent4 of silica1 form one degree of a series of which true porcelain is the next term4 ,the fact is1 those who sought to make porcelain by a refinement in the manufacture of stoneware were as much astray as those who started from a fusible glass frit4 #d ,the china-stone of ,cornwall might1 in part at least1 be claimed as an old volcanic rock1 and that used in the ,imari district of ,japan is distinctly of volcanic origin4 ,both these rocks1 however1 consist essentially of a mixture of quartz and felspar4 #e ,for further details consult the authorities quoted in the ,handbook of the ,jermyn ,street ,collection1 p4 #e2 for sections showing the relation of the beds of kaolin to the surrounding rock1 see ,brongniart's ,trait des ,arts ,cramiques1 vol4 i4 #f ,it is to the scattered notices and essays of ,mr4 ,william ,burton that we must go for information in this country4 ,in his new work on ,english ,porcelain he does not treat upon this side of the subject4 #g ,the most complete work on the processes of manufacture is now ,dubreuil's ,la ,porcelaine1 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,it forms part forty-two in ,fremy's ,encyclopdie ,chimique4 ,this volume brings up to date and replaces in some measure the great work of ,alexandre ,brongniart1 the ,trait des ,arts ,cramiques 7two volumes1 with a quarto volume of plates71 ,paris1 #ahdd4 ,m4 ,georges ,vogt in ,la ,porcelaine1 ,paris1 #ahic1 gives valuable details of the processes employed at ,svres4 #h ,the cailloux of the ,french4 ,this material is often described as felspar1 but ,i think that quartz can seldom be completely absent4 #i ,i should1 however1 be inclined to class not only much of the porcelain of ,japan1 but some of that made in ,germany and in south-west ,france1 rather in the #8severe' kaolinic than in the intermediary class of ,m4 ,vogt4 #aj ,we can1 however1 distinguish1 in the tomb paintings of the ,middle ,empire1 an earlier form without the lower table4 ,this earlier type1 moved by hand from the upper table1 was that used by the ,greeks at least as late as the sixth century ,b4,c41 and a similar primitive wheel is still used in ,india4 ,on later ,egyptian monuments of ,ptolemaic time1 the potter is seen moving the wheel by pressing his foot on a second lower table1 as now at ,svres and elsewhere4 ,both forms of wheel appear to have been used by the ,italian potters of the ,renaissance4 #aa ,this seam is often visible on vases of old ,chinese porcelain1 and may be taken as a sign that the object has been moulded4 #ab ,porcelain in ,china followed1 as we shall see1 in the wake of the more early developed arts of the bronze-caster and the jade-carver4 ,hence the prevalence in the early wares of shapes unsuitable to the wheel4 #ac ,i think that this is a more practical division than the one made by ,m4 ,vogt and adopted by ,dr4 ,bushell4 #ad ,an important exception is to be noted in the case of the firing of large vases in ,china4 #ae ,a good instance of the first case is the finding of crow-claws in the rubbish-heaps of ,fostt or ,old ,cairo4 ,as to the method of support indicating the place of origin1 see what is said below about the celadon ware of ,siam4 #af ,there is only one exception of any importance--the porcelain of ,chantilly1 much of which has an opaque stanniferous glaze4 #ag ,so we can infer from the magnificent wall decoration of the ,achmenian period brought home from ,susa by ,m4 ,dieulafoi4 #ah ,a glaze of this nature was in the ,saracenic ,east applied to a layer of fine white slip1 which itself formed a coating on the coarse paste4 ,such a combination1 often very difficult to distinguish from a tin enamel1 we find on the wall-tiles of ,persia and ,damascus4 #ai ,metallic gold has1 of course1 been applied to the decoration of porcelain in all countries4 #bj ,the colour of the ruby glass in our thirteenth century windows has a very similar origin4 ,in this case the art was lost and only in a measure recovered at a later period4 ,as in the case of the ,chinese glaze1 the point was to seize the moment when the copper was first reduced and1 in a minute state of division1 was suspended in floccular masses in the glass4 #ba ,with these colours a dark blue is sometimes associated4 ,is this derived like the turquoise from copper8 ,it is a curious fact that we have here exactly the same range of colours that we find in the little glass bottles of ,phnician or ,egyptian origin1 with zig-zag patterns 7#aejj-djj ,b4,c474 #bb ,see ,vogt1 ,la ,porcelaine1 p4 #bai4 ,the problem is really more complicated4 ,for simplicity's sake we have ignored the changes that take place in the glaze that lies between the enamels and the paste4 #bc ,the same result may be obtained by painting one colour over the other1 as we find in the black ground of the famille verte4 #bd ,in ,persia1 where for three centuries at least the ,chinese wares have been known and imitated1 the word chini has almost the same connotation4 ,see below for a discussion of the route by which this word reached ,england4 #be ,during the eighteenth century1 however1 the ,french missionaries remained in friendly relation with the ,chinese court1 especially with the ,emperor ,kien-lung1 a man of culture and a poet4 ,the ,pre ,amiot sent home not only letters with valuable information1 but from time to time presents of porcelain from the emperor4 ,he was in correspondence with the minister ,bertin1 who was himself a keen collector of porcelain4 ,see the notes in the ,catalogue of ,bertin's sale1 ,paris1 #ahae4 #bf ,thanks to the industry of the present curator1 ,herr ,zimmermann1 the same may now be said of the great collection at ,dresden4 #bg ,for a discussion1 and for many illustrations of the art of these early dynasties which survives chiefly in objects of jade or bronze1 see ,palologue1 ,art ,chinois1 ,paris1 #ahhg4 #bh ,the wild statements as to the transparency1 above all1 of the ,sung and even the ,tang porcelain may1 however1 appear to receive some confirmation from the reports of the old ,arab travellers4 ,but how much credence we can give to these authorities may be gleaned from a description of the fayence of ,egypt1 by a ,persian traveller of the eleventh century4 #8,this ware of ,misr1' he says1 #8is so fine and diaphanous that the hand may be seen through it when it is applied to the side of the vessel4' ,he is speaking not of porcelain1 but of a silicious glazed earthenware6 #bi ,pekin ,oriental ,society1 #ahhf2 see also ,bushell's ,ceramic ,art1 p4 #acb seq4 #cj ,see the passage in his ,history 7chapter ix47 where this stern censor1 referring to the passion for collecting china1 rebukes the #8frivolous and inelegant fashion' for #8these grotesque baubles4' #ca ,the name ,cladon first occurs in the ,astre1 the once famous novel of ,honor ,d',urf4 ,when later in the seventeenth century ,cladon1 the courtier-shepherd1 was introduced on the stage1 he appeared in a costume of greyish green1 which became the fashionable colour of the time1 and his name was transferred to the ,chinese porcelain with a glaze of very similar colour1 which was first introduced into ,france about that period4 #cb ,julien translated the word ching as blue1 an unfortunate rendering in this case1 which has been the cause of much confusion4 ,he was so far justified in this1 in that the same word is used by the ,chinese for the cobalt blue of our #8blue and white1' while it was not applied by them to a pronounced green tint4 #cc ,i shall return to this point when treating of ,english porcelain4 #cd ,somewhat later the ,chinese were for a time neighbours of the ,sassanian empire1 where the arts of glazing pottery and making glass were highly developed4 ,sassanian bronzes1 and probably textiles1 have found their way to ,japan4 #ce ,the salt-glazed ware of ,europe seems to be the only important exception to this perhaps rather sweeping generalisation4 #cf ,it is possible1 however1 that some of the various tints of brown used from early ,ming times1 especially that known to the ,chinese as #8old gold1' may have been suggested by this copper lustre4 ,the ground on which this lustre is superimposed in some old ,persian wares is of a very similar shade4 ,dr4 ,bushell mentions a tradition that the old potters tried to produce a yellow colour by adding metallic gold to their glaze1 but that the gold all disappeared in the heat of the grand feu4 ,they had therefore to fall back upon the or bruni4 #cg ,consult for this ware the beautifully illustrated monographs of ,mr4 ,henry ,wallis on early ,persian ceramics4 #ch ,the cobalt pigment itself1 when not of native origin1 was known to the ,chinese in ,ming times as ,hui-hui ch'ing or #8,mohammedan blue4' ,the other names for the material1 sunipo and sumali1 probably point in the same direction4 #ci ,a little white oval vase1 in the ,treasury of ,st4 ,mark's1 at ,venice1 may possibly be of this old ,ting ware4 ,the decoration is in low relief1 and four little rings for suspension surround the mouth4 ,in any case this is the only piece in this famous collection that has any claim to be classed as porcelain4 #dj ,the style of this cloisonn decoration is almost identical with that seen in the two magnificent lacquer screens with landscapes and ,buddhist emblems at ,south ,kensington4 ,the chains of pearls and pendeloques are characteristic of a style of painting often found on the beams and ceilings of the old ,buddhist temples of ,japan4 ,this is1 ,i think1 a motif not found elsewhere on ,chinese porcelain4 #da ,the late ,m4 ,du ,sartel gives in his work on ,chinese porcelain good photographs of some jars of this class in his collection4 ,he was one of the first to call attention to this ware4 #db ,this dull surface is especially noticeable in some of the specimens with ,arabic inscriptions in the ,british ,museum2 these date from the ,cheng-te period 7#aeje-ba74 #dc ,in ,persia1 too1 and in that country accompanied by many other varieties of ,chinese porcelain4 ,for examples of these wares see above all the collection at ,south ,kensington4 #dd ,relations des ,musulmans avec les ,chinois4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that further research may bring to light some information on this subject4 ,since writing this ,i hear from ,dr4 ,bushell that some specimens of ,saracenic enamelled glass1 presumably of the fourteenth century1 have lately been purchased in ,pekin4 ,the ,arab trade with ,china was probably never more active than in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,it is with the ,memlook ,sultans1 then ruling a wide empire from ,cairo1 that we must associate most of this enamelled glass1 and the ,eastern trade was in their hands4 #de ,see ,bushell1 p4 #ded4 #df ,note that cobalt as an enamel colour was not applied on porcelain during ,ming times4 #dg ,there is1 however1 a curious old bowl in the ,salting collection with the nien-hao of ,cheng-te 7#aeje-ba71 on which a design of iron red1 two shades of green1 a brownish purple1 and a cobalt blue of poor lavender tint1 all these colours over the glaze1 is combined with an underglaze decoration of fish1 in a full copper red4 ,note also the early use of a cobalt blue enamel1 sur couverte1 in the ,kakiyemon ware of ,japan4 #dh ,much of this kind was translated by ,julien1 and a good summary may be found in ,hippisley's paper contributed to the ,smithsonian ,institute1 but the information from the same and other sources is more accurately translated and critically analysed in the seventh and eighth chapters of ,dr4 ,bushell's great work4 #di ,yung-lo1 according to the ,chinese reckoning1 did not commence his reign until the new year's day following the death of his predecessor 7#adjc74 ,i have1 however1 thought it better to adopt the ,european method of reckoning dates4 #ej ,the name ,sentoku that they give to it is the ,japanese reading of the characters forming this emperor's name4 #ea ,we may mention that a pair of wide-mouthed vases of this ware1 shown at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #ahif1 bore the nien-hao of ,kia-tsing 7#aeba-ff7 inscribed round the mouth4 #eb ,more properly a fresh name was given to the period1 but for the sake of brevity we here as elsewhere identify the emperor's name with that given to the nien-hao4 #ec ,the ,trenchard bowls1 mentioned below1 belong probably to this or to the following reign4 #ed ,but this name is also applied by some to the older ,su-ma-li blue4 #ee ,perhaps the earliest nien-hao on a piece of blue and white in which we can place any confidence4 #ef ,a predecessor of his as viceroy and superintendent at ,king-te-chen was ,lang ,ting-tso1 from whom the famous ,lang yao1 the sang de buf1 had its name1 though this derivation is not absolutely certain4 ,it could only have been quite in the last days of the latter viceroy's rule that much good work was turned out from the kilns4 #eg ,it will be observed that the turquoise blue and the green1 both derived from copper1 so happily combined in the wall-tiles of the ,saracenic ,east1 are in ,china rarely found united in the decoration of the same piece1 and this arises from practical difficulties connected with the fluxes and the firing4 ,at least the two colours are never successfully combined1 for the attempt was apparently made in ,ming times1 and of this some instances are given in the following note4 ,indeed ,i should be inclined to regard such a combination on any piece as an evidence of early1 probably of ,ming1 origin4 #eh ,i would especially point to a remarkable water-vessel1 about ten inches high1 in the collection at ,dresden4 ,this vase is in the form of a phnix4 ,green1 as well as turquoise1 purple and yellow are all found in the decoration1 and the colours are all well developed4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum--a collection in many ways remarkable for the number of exceptional types illustrated--a jar with cover1 of this class4 ,the ground is a dull purple covered with small spirals of black2 the rest of the decoration--rocks1 waves1 flowers1 and jewels--is mainly green of two shades with a little yellow4 ,on some of the flowers1 however1 we see a poor attempt at turquoise blue4 ,next to this example stands a baluster-shaped vase with tall1 straight neck 7,,pl4 ,,vii4 #b474 ,the ground is here of a pale greyish yellow1 with crackles of a darker shade--so far1 in fact1 of a ,ko yao type4 ,the decoration is of a predominant leafy green1 with a little purple and yellow here and there2 but on the flowers we find1 in addition1 an enamel of turquoise1 poor in colour1 indeed1 but certainly a copper blue4 ,both these examples are classed as ,ming1 and both would seem to show that the combination of the turquoise enamel 7essentially a silicate of copper and soda7 with the lead-fluxed green had been attempted in ,ming times4 ,it was1 however1 impossible to obtain satisfactory results in this way1 so that in ,kang-he's time the turquoise was reserved for the demi grand feu1 and the green alone used as an enamel over the glaze4 #ei #8,muffle-colours1' of course in these later examples painted over the glaze1 and therefore to be classed as enamels4 #fj ,in this respect we may compare such decoration to a dark water-colour drawing on white paper1 where advantage is only taken of the white ground for scattered lights here and there4 #fa ,we must always think of this great man in connection with his contemporary in ,france1 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,omitting the early years of the ,french king1 before he attained his majority1 the two long reigns run almost exactly together4 #fb ,this list is to be found in ,julien's book4 ,dr4 ,bushell has since given a more accurate translation1 accompanied by a careful analysis 7,chinese ,ceramics1 chapter xii474 #fc ,the red paste of early times was1 however1 imitated1 and a #8copper paste' is also mentioned in connection with these old wares4 ,the last expression is obscure1 but it has certainly nothing to do with an enamel on copper4 #fd ,on the other hand1 on some large showy vases of this time we can trace a series of rings1 giving an uneven surface4 ,these are caused either by the undue pressure of the potter's fingers 7vissage71 or perhaps in part by the way in which the successive stages of the jar were built up with #8sausage-shaped' rolls of clay4 #fe ,how this iron red was manipulated1 apparently at a transition period1 so as to obtain an effect approaching that of the rouge d'or1 is described on page #afb4 #ff ,a ruby-red can be obtained by careful manipulation from gold alone4 ,we may regard the addition of tin as a convenient method of developing the colour which was apparently known to the medival alchemists4 #fg ,it would be a point of special interest to determine the date when these two colours--the pink 7used as a ground7 and the opaque turquoise blue--were first used in ,china4 ,their presence together with the lemon-yellow gives perhaps the first note of a period of decline4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a bowl and saucer covered on the outside with this rose enamel and bearing this unusual inscription--#8the ,sin-chou year occurring again4' ,this expression was referred by ,franks to the sixty-first year of the reign of ,kang-he1 when the cyclical year in which his reign began recurred again1 an unprecedented fact in ,chinese history4 ,in the same collection is a saucer-shaped plate with a pale pink ground with the mark of the period ,yung-cheng4 ,but the evidence in favour of a somewhat later date for the fully developed use of the rouge d'or seems to me fairly strong4 ,dr4 ,bushell1 however1 tells me that he has seen other examples where the same inscription is found upon ware decorated with the rouge d'or1 and that he accepts the early date 7#agbb7 on the ,sin-chou plate4 ,i return to this question on page #acf4 #fh ,julien omitted this curious passage in his translation as devoid of interest6 #fi ,there are two magnificent vases of the black lacquered ware1 each about eight feet high1 in the ,muse ,guimet1 and of the brown variety a well-preserved spherical bowl may be seen at ,south ,kensington4 #gj ,the snuff-bottles of the ,chinese represent the inro of the ,japanese4 ,both were originally used for pills and for eye medicine4 #ga ,dr4 ,bushell tells us that she is an accomplished artist and calligraphist1 and that her autograph signature is much valued4 ,she is said to have sent down from the palace1 to be copied at ,king-te-chen1 bowls and dishes of the time of ,kien-lung1 just as that emperor in his day forwarded from ,pekin examples of ,sung and ,ming wares with the same object4 ,so the old tradition is kept up6 #gb ,these references are to the plates of marks at the end of the book4 #gc ,see1 however1 p4 #aaj note1 for a curious instance of its use4 #gd ,a good example of a date-mark of ,wan-li in this position may be seen on the vase reproduced on ,,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #b4 #ge ,why1 by the way1 do we find1 in catalogues otherwise well edited1 porcelain ascribed to the ,kang-he dynasty8 ,one might as well speak of the ,louis ,,xiv4 dynasty4 #gf ,at least such was the case when the ,canal was in working order4 ,for some time since1 the ,grand ,canal has only been navigable when the country is flooded4 #gg ,i cannot find the exact date of the first publication of these letters4 ,in the eighteenth century we find them generally quoted from ,du ,halde4 #gh ,this is a passage made use of by ,longfellow in those often-quoted lines beginning-- #8,a burning town1 or seeming so1 ,three thousand furnaces that glow1' etc4 #gi ,if we are to understand by this #8transparent pebble' some form of arsenic1 for it would seem that arsenic 7and not tin as with us7 is the base of the opaque white enamels of the ,chinese1 it is difficult to believe that so volatile a substance could be thus prepared4 #hj ,for the use of steatite in ,english porcelain see chap4 xxii4 ,at ,vinovo1 in ,piedmont1 another magnesian mineral has been employed for the paste4 #ha ,in the following summary ,i have kept to the ,pre ,d',entrecolles's words as far as possible1 but with considerable abbreviations4 #hb ,we must here think of the more sober famille verte lantern at ,south ,kensington1 rather than of the magnificent specimen of pierced work in the ,salting collection1 which is of later date4 #hc ,the unique bowl of ,chinese porcelain illustrated in ,du ,sartel's book1 of which the outside is decorated in black and gold in imitation of the ,limoges enamel of the renaissance1 may have had some such origin4 ,this piece1 on which even the initials of the original ,french artist have been copied1 was formerly in the ,marquis collection1 and is now to be seen in the ,grandidier ,gallery at the ,louvre4 #hd ,we have already alluded to this point1 propos of a bowl in the ,british ,museum2 see p4 #aaj note4 #he ,this branch of the subject is fully worked out in chapter xvii4 of ,dr4 ,bushell's work4 #hf ,when compared with a similar collection of ,european wares1 perhaps the most noticeable difference is the small number of vessels adapted to pouring4 ,so much is this the case that when we find a spout or lip on a specimen of ,chinese porcelain1 the piece takes at once a somewhat exotic aspect1 and we are reminded of the ,arab ,ibraik1 or the ,european ewer4 #hg ,it is a curious fact that ,london chemists now send out their pills in little glass bottles almost identical in shape and size with these ,chinese yao-ping4 #hh ,the word is used in a restricted sense as explained above4 #hi ,we have far too often to fall back on names of ,french origin4 ,our colour-vocabulary in the case of the enamels and glazes of porcelain is a sadly poor one4 #ij ,in the case of some monochrome ware the colour may have been painted on the raw paste or on the biscuit1 and a colourless glaze then added2 or again1 as in the case of the coral red mentioned below1 it may be painted like an enamel over the glaze4 #ia ,it must1 however1 be remembered that this carved lacquer itself is sometimes applied as a coating to porcelain in ,china4 #ib ,it would be convenient to have a name to include the whole series--the flamb1 the sang de buf1 the lavender ,yuan1 and perhaps also the peach-bloom and the #8robin's egg4' ,i would propose to include all these classes under the head of transmutation glazes4 #ic ,a ,french writer compares the effect to the #8palette d'un coloriste montre sous un morceau de glace' 7,e4 de ,goncourt1 ,la ,maison d'un ,artiste74 #id ,there were many kinds of #8furnace transmutations' known to the ,chinese1 mostly of a miraculous nature 7see ,bushell1 p4 #bai74 #ie ,when applied to the whole surface1 a similar slip forms the ground on which the decoration is painted in the case of many kinds of ,european and ,saracenic fayence1 but in such ware the slip is used to conceal a more or less coarse and coloured paste4 #if ,it may1 however1 be noticed1 on close examination1 that the crackles do not seem to be developed in the lower glaze covered by the slip4 ,this would rather point to both the first and the second coats of glaze1 as well as the intermediate slip1 being all applied before the firing4 #ig ,not that we need claim any great age for these plates1 but it is in such places that old types 7as e4g4 the celadon7 are likely to continue in fashion4 #ih ,we may perhaps connect the first steady export of #8blue and white' direct to ,europe with the establishment of the ,dutch at ,nagasaki1 where they probably employed ,chinese workmen4 #ii ,so what is by far the most successful imitation of ,chinese #8blue and white' ever produced in ,europe was made by the ,dutch1 in the enamelled fayence of ,delft1 about the middle of the century4 #ajj ,in ,japanese art also we find the prunus as a symbol of the approaching spring1 but there the branches are covered with freshly fallen snow4 ,the contrast of the weather in early spring1 in ,china and ,japan respectively1 could not be better expressed--by ice in the one case1 by soft thawing snow in the other4 #aja ,dr4 ,zimmermann1 the curator of the ,dresden ,museum1 regards the black division of the famille verte as a product of the demi grand feu1 i4e4 he holds that the black and green was painted on the biscuit4 ,but this is certainly not the case with the fully developed examples4 ,i may say that this class is only represented at ,dresden by some small roughly painted plates4 #ajb ,we find it so used1 however1 upon the ,japanese #8,kakiyemon' porcelain1 some of which cannot be much later than the middle of the seventeenth century4 #ajc ,since writing this ,i have discovered a tall-necked bottle of this ware at ,south ,kensington1 which is stated to have been purchased in ,persia 7,,pl4 ,,xx474 #ajd ,that is to say1 no attempt was ever made to imitate the material--the hard paste4 #aje ,an important collection of armorial china was bequeathed to the ,museum in #ahhg by the ,rev4 ,charles ,walker4 #ajf ,this plate belongs to a group in which the arms1 above all the mantlings1 are in the style of the seventeenth century4 ,on these the gules is always rendered by an opaque iron-red1 although the new rouge d'or is freely used in the rest of the decoration4 ,i learn from my friend ,colonel ,croft ,lyons that the arms on this plate are those of ,leake ,okeover1 who was born in #agja4 ,the initials1 repeated four times on the margin1 ,l4 ,m4 ,o41 stand for ,leake and his wife ,mary4 ,the plate1 therefore1 cannot well have been painted before1 say1 #agbe4 #ajg ,this class of ,kuang yao must not be confused with the old heavy pieces of ,yuan ware mentioned on p4 #gg4 #ajh ,i quote1 with a few contractions1 from the edition of #aggd4 #aji ,i have examined the ,korean pottery in the ,british ,museum1 at ,svres1 and that in some of the ,german museums1 but ,i have not seen the specimens in the ,ethnographical ,museum at ,hamburg1 which are said to be very remarkable4 #aaj ,for an account of the exploration of ,sawankalok1 see ,man1 the volume for #aija4 ,by the kind permission of ,mr4 ,read ,i have been able to closely examine the specimens which are now deposited in the ,british ,museum4 #aaa ,we may mention that the ,japanese appear also to give the name of ,kochi to other wares1 especially to the deep blue and turquoise porcelain with decoration in ribbed cloisons which we have attributed to early ,ming times4 #aab ,we may compare with this the impulse given1 some four hundred years later1 in ,europe1 to the spread of the use of porcelain at the time when tea was first introduced in the ,west4 #aac ,see page #ff4 ,this ,sung ware is known to the ,japanese as #8,temmoku1' and is highly esteemed by them4 #aad ,many1 however1 of these so-called ,jesuit plates were probably painted at ,king-te-chen at a later date4 ,christianity was finally and ruthlessly crushed in ,japan after the rebellion of #afcg3 in ,china it was tolerated up to the close of the reign of ,kang-he 7#agba74 ,i must refer back to a quotation from the ,pre ,d',entrecolles given on p4 #acc4 ,see also a curious note in ,marryat1 where a statuette of ,quanyin1 with the boy patron of learning1 is described as #8a ,virgin and ,child4'--,pottery and ,porcelain1 p4 #bic4 #aae ,in the ,dresden collection are several cases full of this early ,japanese blue and white4 #aaf ,the ,chinese1 however1 were given much greater liberty than the ,dutch4 #aag ,see the ,south ,kensington handbook on ,japanese pottery1 p4 #hf4 ,in the chapter on ,japanese ceramics contained in the magnificently illustrated ,history of the ,arts of ,japan1 published in #aija in connection with the ,paris ,exhibition1 a little further light is thrown on the history of porcelain in that country4 ,but in this work and in the other guides published at the time of our ,american and ,european exhibitions 7and the same may be said of the ,japanese report contained in the ,south ,kensington handbook71 the same scanty materials are served up again and again4 #aah ,ambassades ,mmorables de la ,compagnie des ,indes ,orientales des ,provinces ,unies vers les ,empereurs du ,japon1 ,amsterdam1 #afhj1 ,part ,,ii4 p4 #ajb4 ,i take the reference from ,marryat1 but ,i have not been able to find the book4 #aai ,we know of no ,chinese type to which we can refer this decoration4 ,certain points of resemblance have been found with the work of the great contemporary ,japanese artist ,tanyu4 ,the most characteristic motifs are the tiger1 the dancing boy with long sleeves1 and the straw hedge4 #abj ,the #8old ,japan' was at one time closely copied at ,king-te-chen for exportation to ,europe4 7,cf4 ,,pl4 ,,xxiv4 #a47 #aba ,the composition of the ,owari porcelain is more normal1 the silica only amounting to #fe per cent42 but as the paste contains little or no lime1 it comes nearer to the hard porcelain of ,berlin than to the milder ,chinese type4 #abb ,much1 however1 of the china-stone of ,cornwall differs little in composition from the ,imari stone2 but the latter contains1 as we have said1 soda1 in place of the more usual potash4 #abc ,it is to this ,koransha1 ,i understand1 that we are indebted for the historical notices on ,japanese porcelain that have appeared on the occasion of our successive international exhibitions 7see above1 p4 #ahc note74 #abd ,captain ,brinkley speaks of the lower edge being serrated1 but ,i have never seen any specimen of this serration4 #abe ,another seal was granted to ,zengoro with the inscription 7reading in ,chinese7 ,hopin chi liu 7,,pl4 ,b4 #bd74 ,this refers to an old tradition that ,shun1 a ,chinese emperor of very early date1 had1 before his accession to the throne1 made pottery at a place called ,hopin1 in ,honan4 ,this story is told by ,ssuma ,chien1 the #8,herodotus of ,china1' and would be well known to scholars in ,japan4 ,these characters are sometimes found on ,japanese ware4 7,cf4 ,bushell1 chap4 i41 and the ,franks catalogue1 fig4 #aia1 where1 however1 the words are wrongly interpreted47 ,yeiraku1 ,i should add1 may be also rendered #8long content4' #abf ,this question of the relation between the ,kishiu1 the ,kochi of the ,japanese1 and our class of old ,ming wares with coloured glazes1 is full of difficulties4 ,it remains for some ,japanese connoisseur1 who is at the same time both an expert in ceramics and a good ,chinese scholar1 to clear it up4 #abg ,this work is analysed by ,dr4 ,hirth in his essay on ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain already referred to4 #abh ,dr4 ,meyer1 who brought this collection together1 has always supported the theory that in early days no true porcelain was ever made except in ,china4 ,in support of this he points to the specimens1 including #8wasters1' from ,sawankalok in ,siam1 in this collection1 as being all of stoneware4 ,we have seen 7p4 #agc7 that more recent excavations in the same neighbourhood have brought to light fragments of true porcelain of undoubted local manufacture4 ,it is true1 however1 that most of the examples of celadon in the ,dresden collection are of what we should call a kaolinic stoneware4 #abi ,i suppose that ,franks1 who refers to this notice1 was satisfied that the present really consisted of ,chinese ware4 ,many slips have been made in quoting this passage1 but ,i will only point out that ,nureddin1 who died in #aagc1 has no claim to the title of caliph4 #acj ,this belief1 however1 long lingered not only in the ,east1 but even in ,europe4 ,according to some1 if poison was present1 the bowl lost its transparency2 others state that the liquid would boil up in the centre1 remaining clear round the edge4 ,in a ,french comic poem1 written as late as #agaf1 among other merits possessed by vessels of ,chinese porcelain1 it is claimed for them that-- #8,ils font connatre les mystres ,des bouillons la ,brinvillire4' #aca ,by far the greater number of the fragments are of local or at least of ,saracenic origin1 and many of them may be as old as the date mentioned in the text4 ,but at ,fostt1 at all events1 some of the pot-sherds are of a much later date4 ,there are important collections of fragments from these rubbish-heaps both in the ,british ,museum and at ,south ,kensington4 #acb ,professor ,karabacek of ,vienna quotes from the encyclopdist ,hdji ,khalifa1 who died in #afeh3 #8,the precious magnificent celadon dishes seen in his time were manufactured and exported at ,martabani1 in ,pegu4' #acc ,the little bowl of apple-green porcelain in the ,british ,museum1 #8garnished' with a mounting of the time of ,henry ,,viii41 has perhaps as long a ,european history4 ,the two #8,trenchard' bowls 7in spite of the later date of the mounting7 probably came to ,england in #aejf4 #acd ,i think that it is not unlikely that during the time that ,king-te-chen lay waste1 kilns may have been erected somewhere in the neighbourhood of the ,canton river1 and that from these kilns originated much of the rough ware1 hastily decorated in blue1 that reached ,india and ,persia in such quantities at this time 7cf4 the statement of ,raynal quoted on p4 #aff74 ,we have spoken in the last chapter of the influence of these events upon the ,japanese trade4 #ace ,i am referring1 of course1 to ,stuart times4 ,in the eighteenth century the so-called ,gombroon ware was of ,persian origin1 and recognised as such in ,england4 #acf ,the word #8china' is used in this sense1 ,i think1 by no other ,european nation4 #acg ,see1 however1 for the ,portuguese merchants who sold porcelain in ,france1 the note on page #bcj4 #ach ,the ,abb ,raynal1 writing about #aggj1 says that connoisseurs divide ,oriental porcelain into six classes--#8truite1 vieille blanche1 de ,japon1 de ,chine1 le ,japon ,chin et la porcelaine des ,indes4' #aci ,marryat's extracts are unfortunately often carelessly quoted2 nor is it easy in all cases to control them by reference to the originals4 #adj ,august ,,ii4 certainly bought a collection of porcelain from the ,bassetouche family for #fgej thalers4 ,it would be interesting to know of what wares this collection consisted4 ,the only further additions until quite recent times have been to the ,european department4 #ada ,the tradition of the #8dinner-service' made in ,china for ,charles ,v41 and presented by him to ,moritz of ,saxony 7or1 as others say1 captured from him by that prince71 belongs to the same category of stories as that of the crusader's cup4 ,no such commission as this was possible at so early a date1 and there is nothing in the ,dresden collection that could be connected with such a service4 #adb #8,menez-moi chez les ,portugais ,nous y verrons peu de frais ,des marchandises de la ,chine 444 de la porcelaine fine1' etc4--,scarron1 ,paris ,burlesque4 #adc ,in #afhi ,madame de ,svign notes the quantity of ,oriental porcelain imported at ,l',orient4 #add ,are we to identify these with some huge ,imari vases1 now in the ,louvre1 with coats of arms bearing the ,french lilies and the label of ,orleans8 ,some similar vases1 with the same arms1 have lately been seen in dealers' shops in ,london4 #ade ,the catalogues of ,gersaint and of some other early ,french collections may be found at ,south ,kensington4 #adf ,passeri1 writing in #ageb in favour of the then neglected majolica1 claims that #8la parte brutale dell' uomo sar a favor delle porcellane1 ma l'intellettuale e raziocinativa giudicher a favor delle nostre majoliche4' #adg ,recent researches in the archives of ,venice have proved that ,oriental porcelain was comparatively abundant in ,venice at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,dr4 ,ludwig has shown me extracts from the inventory of the property of a rich #8cittadino' who died in #aebf1 in which can be distinguished plain white1 blue and white1 and porcelain decorated with red1 green1 and gold4 #adh ,it is quite possible that ,palissy may have tried his hand at this problem4 ,m4 ,solon has suggested that in the many years' labour at ,saintes 7when attempting especially to imitate #8the cup with white enamel'7 ,palissy was really seeking to make porcelain4 #adi ,i take the following from the excellent catalogue of the ,ceramic ,museum at ,limoges1 by ,e4 ,garnier3 #8#aabe4 ,pot ,pommade1 de forme cylindrique godronn la partie infrieure et dcor en bleu d'une bande de lambrequins4 ,marque ,a4,p4' ,some other small pieces in this museum are classed as ,rouen porcelain4 #aej ,professor ,church allows that #8the substance of some of these statuettes is distinctly porcellanous4' ,he found1 however1 in a fragment of this ware as much as #gie per cent4 of silica1 and only #abe per cent4 of alumina 7,cantor ,lectures1 #ahha74 #aea ,this feeling is well expressed in a contemporary drinking-song3-- #8,to drink is a ,christian diversion ,unfit for your ,turk or your ,persian2 ,let ,mohammedan fools live by heathenish rules1 ,and get drunk over tea-cups and coffee1 ,but let ,british lads sing1 give a rouse for the king1 ,a fig for your ,turk and your ,sophi4' ,the punch-bowl of porcelain1 however1 came to the rescue about this time4 #aeb ,in the porcelain gallery at ,dresden may be seen 7together with one or two small lumps of gold and silver1 the results of ,bttger's alchemistic experiments7 some snuff-boxes and little flasks of a marbled glass1 made by ,tschirnhaus at an early date4 ,it is probable that the latter experimenter's researches lay rather in the way of a frit-made soft paste1 on the same lines as the contemporary attempts in ,france4 #aec ,and yet1 forty years later 7so well was the secret kept71 it was maintained by practical authorities in ,france that the ,saxon ware was no true porcelain1 but only some kind of hard enamel4 ,see ,hellot's ,mmoire1 quoted below4 #aed ,we hear1 however1 of ,dutch potters being engaged as early as #agjh1 and with their assistance ,bttger1 in #agji1 made some imitations of ,delft ware4 #aee ,in a contemporary ,german pamphlet1 which ,i only know from a ,french translation 7,secret des ,vrais ,porcelaines de la ,chine et de ,saxe1 ,paris1 #ageb71 a certain #8spath alkalin' is mentioned as an important element in ,saxon porcelain1 and this substance is identified with the petuntse of the ,pre ,d',entrecolles4 #aef ,if this colour is derived from the purple of ,cassius1 as seems probable1 it is an important instance of the early use of this pigment upon porcelain4 #aeg ,above all the famous #8,swan ,service' of #agcf1 ,kndler's masterpiece4 #aeh ,we had in ,england until lately an unrivalled collection of these little groups--priceless specimens of the best period4 ,they were exhibited by their owner1 ,mr4 ,massey ,mainwaring1 for some time at ,bethnal ,green4 ,this collection has1 however1 now found its way to ,america4 #aei ,on the other hand1 as early as #agcb the ,meissen ware was finding its way to the ,east4 ,quantities of little coffee-cups 7known as ,trken ,copjen1 corrupted into ,trken ,kpfchen7 were sent to ,constantinople to be re-exported to other ,mohammedan countries4 #afj ,we may remind the reader that it was a syndicate of ,berlin merchants who at an earlier date sought1 it is said1 to purchase from ,bttger his secret4 ,there is little doubt1 however1 that the anecdotes about ,ringler1 which abound in the notices on ,german porcelain1 are little more than #8porcelain myths4' ,very similar anecdotes are told of the early days at ,vincennes1 and in ,japan1 as we have seen1 such stories sometimes take a more tragical form4 ,there is a strong temptation1 no doubt1 in traversing the somewhat arid ground of ,german ceramics1 to fall back on such tales4 ,at all events they belong to the class of tendenz ,mhrchen1 and illustrate the difficulties to be overcome at that time in starting a new factory4 #afa ,not but that we have proof of his interest in the subject1 as the following letter1 dated ,meissen1 ,march #bh1 #agfa1 will show4 ,it is written to ,madame ,camas1 his chre ,maman1 who was then with the queen at ,magdeburg3--#8,i send you1 my dear mamma1 a little trifle1 by way of keepsake and memento4 ,you may use the box for your rouge1 for your patches1 or you may put snuff in it or bonbons or pills4444 ,i have ordered porcelain for all the world1 for ,schnhausen1 for my sisters-in-law1--in fact ,i am rich in this brittle material only4 ,and ,i hope the receivers will accept it as current money3 for the truth is1 we are poor as can be1 good mamma4 ,i have nothing left but my honour1 my coat1 my sword1 and my porcelain4'--,carlyle's ,frederick the ,great1 ,book xx4 chap4 vi4 ,marryat1 who gives this letter in his notes1 mixes up ,carlyle's comments with the text4 #afb ,the ,hohenzollern shield bears two sceptres in saltire en surtout4 #afc ,another account gives the credit to ,von ,lwenfinck1 a porcelain painter from ,meissen4 #afd ,politically1 that is to say2 for the town formed part of the #8,pays d'trangers1' and its commercial and social relations were still rather with ,germany than with ,france4 #afe ,i take these facts about the ,hannong family from ,sir ,a4 ,wollaston ,franks's ,catalogue of ,continental ,porcelain1 #ahif4 #aff ,in the same year we find ,count ,schimmelmann1 who at a later date interested himself in the ,copenhagen factory1 selling by auction at ,hamburg some of the vast stocks of ,meissen china that ,frederick had thrown on the market4 #afg ,as a royal factory1 however1 it became extinct in #ahfd4 ,see chap4 xxiii4 #afh ,thus we have1 during the ,seven ,years' ,war1 ,frederick's three bitter opponents--,maria ,theresa in ,austria1 ,elizabeth in ,russia1 and the ,marquise de ,pompadour in ,france--all taking an active interest in promoting the manufacture of porcelain1 and this rivalry may have added to the zest of ,frederick when he looted ,meissen and sought to make ,berlin take its place as the metropolis of porcelain4 #afi ,an ,american writer has arranged the tests by which soft pastes may be distinguished from true porcelains under six heads4 #a4 ,the file test4--,soft porcelain may be marked by a file4 #b4 ,the foot test4--,in hard porcelain the foot is generally rough and unglazed4 ,this test is rather of value in distinguishing porcelain from fayence4 #c4 ,the fire test4--,depending on the greater fusibility of the soft pastes4 #d4 ,chemical test4 #e4 ,colour test4--,soft paste is generally mellow ivory by transmitted light1 and this is especially true of #8bone-ware4' ,the hard paste tends to bluish shades4 #f4 ,fracture test4--,the fracture is glassy to vitreous1 and the glaze passes into the paste in the case of hard pastes 7the subconchoidal splintery fracture is rather the point to observe72 dry and chalky1 and the glaze more or less separated from the paste in the case of soft pastes4--,e4 ,a4 ,barber1 ,pottery and ,porcelain of the ,united ,states1 ,new ,york1 #aija4 #agj ,de ,raumur1 we must remember1 had made some kind of hard-paste porcelain from ,chinese materials4 ,after that he fell back upon his devitrified glass4 ,something very similar had been made by ,tschirnhaus many years before4 #aga ,these1 ,i think1 are almost the only instances in which a distinctly seventeenth century decoration is to be found on porcelain4 #agb ,these trembleuse saucers of the early eighteenth century have a projecting ring into which the base of the teacup fits4 #agc ,the extreme limits for this mark are #agab-fb1 but ,chaffers says it was not used before #agcj1 according to another authority not before #agce4 ,de ,frasnay1 in a note to his curious little poem in praise of fayence 7#agce71 says3 #8le secret du beau rouge n'est gure connu en ,france que d'un trs petit nombre de personnes4' ,the point is of interest in connection with the origin of the famille rose in ,china4 ,we may here note that the minute quantity of gold--the source of all these pink and purple colours--is not necessarily introduced in the form of the tin salt1 the purple of ,cassius4 ,but this difficult question will be best treated in connection with the history of glass4 #agd ,generally known as the ,duc de ,bourbon 7#agaj-dj74 ,he was an enthusiast for the art of the ,far ,east4 ,an important work on ,chinese art was published under his auspices in #agce4 ,he imitated the painted hangings of the ,east1 and even attempted to make ,japanese lacquer4 ,after his death1 the two brothers ,dubois1 piciers ,chantilly1 migrated to ,vincennes1 and the ,chantilly works were for a time neglected4 ,see ,gustave ,macon1 ,les arts dans la ,maison de ,cond1 #aijc4 #age ,of the many ,european imitations of the #8,kakiyemon' style the ,chantilly is most successful1 while the #8,old ,japan' was best copied at ,chelsea4 ,no ,european imitation in porcelain of the ,chinese blue and white approaches in brilliancy that made in ,delft ware in the seventeenth century4 #agf ,the porcelain of ,saint-,cloud and ,chantilly is well represented in the ,fitzhenry collection4 #agg ,some twenty miles south of ,paris1 not far from ,corbeil4 #agh ,the name is written #8,sves' in ,english catalogues of the eighteenth century1 and the same form is found sometimes in contemporary ,french writings4 ,we may compare the favourite signature #8,fdric' of the ,prussian king4 #agi ,mmoire ,historique pour la ,manufacture1 rdig en #agha par ,bachelier1 re-edited1 with preface and notes1 by ,g4 ,gouellain1 ,paris1 #ahgh4 #ahj ,see the note on p4 #bhf4 ,it would seem that the first successes at ,vincennes were1 in a measure1 dependent upon the temporary breaking up of the factory at ,chantilly on the death of the ,duc de ,bourbon in #agdj4 #aha ,at a later time this man had a contract for the delivery of the paste1 the secret of which he preserved1 at a fixed rate per pound4 ,in one year he is said to have received for this #hjj1jjj livres6 #ahb ,such is my general impression1 but ,m4 ,garnier1 ,i see1 speaks highly of his artistic capabilities4 ,bachelier founded in #agfc a free school of design1 one of the few institutions of the old rgime that have survived the many changes of government4 ,it still exists as the cole ,nationale des ,beaux-,arts4 #ahc ,by this we get a hint as to the kind of ware made at ,vincennes at the commencement1 when under the influence of ,chantilly4 #ahd ,the account-books of these sales are still preserved4 ,m4 ,davillier1 in his little book on ,les porcelaines de ,svres et ,madame du ,barry1 quotes the record of purchases made 7at a later date1 for the most part7 by the royal family1 by ,madame du ,deffand1 and by ,m4 de ,voltaire4 ,the latter bought1 for #abj livres1 #8,deux bustes de mondit ,sieur1 en biscuit4' ,besides this1 large sales were made yearly to the trade4 #ahe ,the above description is that given by the ,prince de ,ligne in his memoirs4 ,in the ,johanneum at ,dresden there is now to be seen a #8bouquet' which in every way corresponds to the prince's account4 ,the ,meissen works for long had the credit of this trophy1 but it is now acknowledged that it is identical with the present sent by the dauphine1 in #agdh1 to her father1 the ,elector of ,saxony4 ,m4 ,davillier quotes a curious account from a contemporary memoir describing the difficulties and expenses incurred in transporting this #8bouquet' from ,paris to ,dresden4 ,are we1 then1 to regard it as the actual present given by ,m4 de ,fulvi to the queen1 or as a duplicate8 #ahf ,see for this and other references to porcelain in the chronique scandaleuse of the day1 the little book of ,m4 ,davillier quoted above4 #ahg ,some attention was paid to the housing and comfort of the workmen at the new establishment1 but ,bachelier makes no mention of #8the gardens1 cascades1 fruit-trees1 groves1 woods1 and a small chase for the artists1 who enjoyed to hunt the stag and the wild boar none the less for their sedentary lives in the art palace' 7,marryat1 p4 #dad74 ,on the contrary1 we are told that in a few years the houses and workshops were already threatening to fall down on the workmen's heads4 #ahh ,m4 ,bertin was himself a great collector of ,chinese porcelain4 ,in the avertissement of the catalogue of his collection which was sold in ,paris in #ahae1 we are told that through the medium of the ,pre ,amiot he obtained many choice specimens1 some of them direct presents from the ,chinese emperor4 ,we have already alluded to ,kien-lung's interest in exotic wares1 and to the influence of these upon the native decoration4 #ahi ,in the fond lapis caillout the deep blue ground is painted with fine veins of gold1 to imitate the pyrites which generally accompanies the native stone 7lapis lazuli74 ,it was used as early as #ageh 7see ,wallace collection1 ,gallery ,,xviii41 ,case ,c474 #aij ,as many as one hundred and sixty pieces1 it is said1 were carried off during a fire at ,tsarskoe ,selo4 ,some of these were afterwards repurchased by the ,tsar ,nicholas4 #aia ,marryat quotes a passage to the following effect from a little work published at ,venice soon after the death of the favourite4 ,praising the good taste of the #8,madame ,marchesa1' the writer states that this was1 above all1 manifested in the adornment of her table4 ,all the porcelain was expressly manufactured for her at ,svres1 and was of a rose colour mixed with gold4 ,the value amounted to #beg1jjj livres1 and no sovereign possessed a service of equal beauty4 #aib ,it is found as a ground on pieces bearing the earliest letter-marks1 so that it is difficult to accept the statement that it was first made by ,xhrouet1 a painter of landscapes1 in #ageg4 #aic ,much of it found its way to ,england1 and was there decorated in the old ,svres style1 both in ,london and in the ,west4 #aid ,for a detailed description of these deposits and their geological relations1 see ,brongniart's great work4 #aie ,napoleon at one time sent ,daru to ,svres to convey to ,brongniart1 in the most lively terms1 his dissatisfaction with what he called the simplicity and tameness of the designs in use at ,svres4 ,every piece should1 he protests1 #8dire quelque chose4' ,every plate should record glorious deeds1 the capture of the enemy's towns1 or the triumphant return of the victors4 #aif ,we must1 however1 place some of these discoveries to the credit of the staff of the ,viennese factory1 and ,dihl again1 the chemist of the porcelain works in the ,rue de ,bondy1 has a claim to others4 #aig ,the death of ,m4 ,garnier occurred since the above was written4 #aih ,the use of a bone-paste ware of the #8,spode' type is1 however1 now prevalent not only in many parts of the continent1 but porcelain of this kind is now largely made in the ,united ,states4 #aii ,unless it be in the catalogue drawn up by ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks for his collection of continental china4 ,the ceramic collection in the ,hamburg ,museum has also been very thoroughly catalogued by ,dr4 ,brinckmann4 #bjj ,it is curious to find ,venice at this time exporting porcelain to the ,east1 for at an earlier period it was through this town that so much ,oriental porcelain and fayence reached ,europe4 #bja ,this ,venetian china1 either of hard paste or of the hybrid class1 must not be confused with the opaque glass1 the lattimo1 or1 more properly1 ,latisuol1 ware1 made about #agcj in imitation of porcelain both at ,murano1 and also near ,bassano4 #bjb ,compare with this the use of steatite1 a magnesian rock1 from the ,lizard1 at ,worcester1 and at other ,west of ,england factories4 ,the ,chinese have also at times made use of a steatitic rock4 #bjc ,marryat 7p4 #dea7 gives an interesting account of this enterprising man4 ,he was occupied also in the draining of marshes1 the improvement of agriculture1 and the promotion of commerce4 #bjd ,with this appointment we may perhaps connect the elaborate trophy of white porcelain at ,south ,kensington4 ,the figures of slaves on which this is supported are modelled after those of ,tacca on the celebrated monument at ,leghorn4 ,this piece is attributed1 however1 to the ,capo di ,monte factory4 #bje ,the word #8china' is sometimes used in ,spain in the same vague sense as in ,england1 but the name seems only to have come in with the ,staffordshire ware so largely imported in the last century4 ,note1 however1 that the factory at ,buen ,retiro was known as ,la ,china4 #bjf ,i quote this remarkable passage from ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,franks's paper on the origin of the ,chelsea porcelain works 7,archol4 ,journal1 #ahfb74 ,marryat misquotes and misinterprets the passage4 #bjg ,one possible exception to this very general statement may be found in a pamphlet quoted by ,mr4 ,solon1 ,instructions how to make as good china as was ever sold by the ,east ,india ,company by ,a4 ,hill1 ,london1 #agaf4 ,according to this writer1 fragments of ,oriental china were to be finely ground and mixed with fluxing and plastic materials to form a paste4 ,now there is evidence that at a much later date #8potsherds' were imported from ,china1 and ground up to form an ingredient of the porcelain1 both at ,bow and at ,worcester4 #bjh ,the memorandum-book of ,duesbury1 the future porcelain king1 begins in #agdb4 ,he was then working1 on weekly wages1 as an #8enameller' of china figures4 ,but was the ware that he was decorating at this time a true porcelain8 #bji ,mr4 ,burton says that at the present day the ,staffordshire porcelain is composed of bone-ash #f parts1 china-stone #d parts1 and kaolin #c parts4 #baj ,mr4 ,willett1 of ,brighton1 has a pair of #8goat and bee' jugs in silver1 with the hall-mark of #agci4 #baa ,there is an interesting series of these very early pieces in the ,british ,museum4 ,a white ware salt-cellar1 with crayfish in relief1 has the triangle mark4 ,a jug1 in the form of a grotesque ,chinaman1 is a good specimen of the early paste4 ,we notice the same waxy look in the paste that we find in the ,saint-,cloud ware4 ,the surface1 however1 is generally grayer4 #bab ,in #ageh we find an advertisement of a house to let in #8,china ,walk1' ,chelsea4 #bac ,both ,gouyn and his successor1 ,sprimont1 were very likely ,walloons from the neighbourhood of ,lige4 ,in a contemporary work1 however1 the latter is spoken of as #8a ,french artist of great abilities4' ,rouguet's ,present ,state of the ,arts1 #agee4 #bad ,note the term #8earthenware4' ,as in a much earlier proclamation of the time of ,charles ,,ii4 7forbidding the importation of painted earthenware1 except #8those of ,china1 and stone bottles and jugs'71 the word is used officially to include porcelain4 #bae ,such a regulation would seem to show that in ,england the enamel-painters were in the field earlier than the manufacturers of porcelain4 #baf ,the later date is supported by the statement of ,sprimont in his #8,case1' that #8the ground flat of the manufacturer has gone on still increasing1' for we know that the works were enlarged in #ageg4 ,the expression #8crowned head' applies better to the ,king of ,prussia than to the ,elector of ,saxony4 ,in #agfj1 as we have seen1 ,count ,schimmelmann was at ,hamburg selling1 on behalf of ,frederick1 part of the vast stocks accumulated at ,meissen4 #bag ,in a ,london paper of ,december #d1 #agfc1 appeared the following statement--,i quote from ,mr4 ,nightingale's book1--#8,a few days since1 his ,r4 ,highness the ,duke of ,cumberland was at ,mr4 ,sprimont's manufactory at ,chelsea1 and we are informed that his ,highness will shortly purchase the same1 that so matchless an art should not be lost4' ,a week later1 however1 a formal contradiction of this report appeared in another paper1 in the form of a note at the end of an advertisement of the sale of the contents of ,sprimont's factory4 ,all this has a very modern air4 ,we have a skilful combination of the ballon d'essai and the puff preliminary4 #bah ,this collection has lately disappeared from its old home in the ,geological ,museum1 where it had been the delight of two generations of collectors4 ,most of the specimens have1 however1 quite recently been discovered at ,south ,kensington4 #bai ,much of the white ware at this time was decorated outside by #8chamberers4' ,compare the memorandum-book of ,duesbury quoted below4 #bbj ,the advertisement of these sales in contemporary newspapers1 and many of the catalogues1 have been collected together and reprinted by the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,nightingale4 #bba ,before this time the gold had been simply laid on with japanner's size and only gently heated4 ,see ,burton's ,english ,porcelain1 p4 #df4 #bbb ,there was a revival of the practice of mounting1 or1 to use the old term1 #8garnishing' porcelain in ormolu about this time4 ,at ,boulton's works at ,soho1 near ,birmingham1 famous1 a little later1 in the history of the steam-engine1 these metal mountings were largely made1 and ,wedgwood began to apply them to some of his wares 7see ,nightingale1 p4 xxxiv474 #bbc ,i can find no confirmation of the statement that ,roubiliac modelled figures for ,sprimont4 ,certain statuettes bearing an ,r4 impressed on the paste have been attributed to him4 ,there is no reference to any such work in the life of the artist by ,m4 ,le ,roy de ,st4 ,croix 7,lyons1 #ahhf74 ,roubiliac1 who died in #agfb1 was already in #agej at the height of his reputation1 and fully employed in more important work4 #bbd ,mr4 ,burton points out that it would be quite impossible to make a translucent ware with the materials of the first patent4 ,he doubts also the use of bone-ash in the earlier porcelain of ,bow1 the paste of which is distinctly of the ,saint-,cloud type4 ,i think1 however1 that there can be little doubt but that the #8virgin earth' refers to bone-ash1 and the fragments from ,bow in which this substance has been found seem to be derived from an early ware4 #bbe ,specimens from this find may be seen at the ,british ,museum1 at ,south ,kensington1 and in the late ,jermyn ,street collection4 ,an interesting and detailed account of the fragments1 which were excavated and arranged by ,mr4 ,higgins of the adjacent match-works1 will be found in ,chaffers's ,marks1 pp4 #ijh seq4 #bbf ,this difficulty of making the decoration keep pace with the outturn of the kilns was felt at this time at other kilns--from ,king-te-chen to ,svres and ,worcester4 ,recourse was more and more had to the outside enameller--the #8chamberer'--on the one hand1 and to transfer-printing on the other4 #bbg ,this document is exhibited at the ,british ,museum by the side of the punch-bowl4 #bbh ,these figures are probably exaggerated4 ,sprimont1 a little earlier1 says that he was employing at ,chelsea #8at least one hundred hands4' #bbi #8,printed teas and mugs' are mentioned in ,bowcocke's memorandum-book in #agef4 #bcj ,see ,nightingale's ,english ,porcelain1 pp4 li4 seq41 and ,bemrose's ,bow1 ,chelsea1 and ,derby ,porcelain1 pp4 #aec seq4 #bca ,the rococo vases1 however1 of this ware in the ,british ,museum seem to be of a somewhat later date1 if we take ,sprimont's work at ,chelsea as a criterion4 #bcb ,these #8,darby figars' may possibly have been of earthenware4 ,there are some richly painted statuettes of this material at ,south ,kensington1 though these indeed seem to be of a somewhat later date4 #bcc ,mr4 ,bemrose1 in his work on ,bow1 ,chelsea1 and ,derby ,porcelain1 gives photographic reproductions of several pages from ,duesbury's work-book4 #bcd ,these details ,i take from the notes of a man who had formerly practical experience of such work--,mr4 ,haslem1 in his ,old ,derby ,china ,factory4 #bce ,and yet the colours are sometimes brilliant and effective--for example1 on a large dish or tray of ,spode ware at ,south ,kensington 7see below1 p4 #cgc74 ,this strange #8breaking-down' of the old ,japanese patterns may be compared to the scattered fragments of the original ,greek design that we see on the pre-,roman coins of ,gaul and ,britain4 #bcf ,it appears from a correspondence that has been preserved that in #agia the second ,duesbury was looking out for royal support4 #8,a gentleman about the court' whom he consulted recommended him to seek the patronage of the ,duke of ,clarence1 for1 said he1 #8the duke is the only prince that pays the tradespeople4' ,at that time there was great jealousy of the ,worcester works1 where the king had lately made large purchases4 #bcg ,why ,tonquin1 of all places8 ,we should rather have expected to find ,nankin or ,canton1 as at ,bow4 #bch ,see the engraving in the ,gentleman's ,magazine for ,august #ageb4 ,this was in the nature of a puff4 ,in the corner we read #8,a sale of the ,manufacture will begin at the ,worcester ,music ,meeting on ,september #bjth1 with great variety of ware and1 'tis said1 at a moderate price4' ,edward ,cave1 the originator of the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 and #8the father of parliamentary reporting1' was an important shareholder of the ,worcester works4 #bci ,steatite is essentially a silicate of magnesia4 ,we have seen that a soapy rock1 probably of this nature1 entered at times into the composition of the porcelain made at ,king-te-chen4 ,at a later time silicate of magnesia1 in various forms1 has found its way into the hybrid pastes of ,italy and ,spain4 #bdj ,these two buildings may be probably traced back to the ,temple of ,vespasian1 in the ,forum1 and to the ,pyramid of ,cestius respectively4 ,hancock must have got his materials from ,french and ,italian engravings after ,claude and ,pannini4 #bda ,dr4 ,johnson was for a long time a close neighbour--his well-known interest in the manufacture of porcelain must have brought him into contact with the ,baxter family4 ,we find a ,baxter mentioned in ,bowcocke's notes as early as #agea4 ,see ,chaffers1 p4 #hif4 #bdb ,the teapot in the ,schreiber collection with the mark #8,allen1 ,lowestoft1' must be regarded as a supercherie4 ,the painting on it of a crucifixion is evidently by a ,chinese hand4 ,this teapot has1 however1 been connected with an ,allen of ,lowestoft1 a porcelain enameller and amateur glass-stainer4 #bdc ,some recent discoveries of moulds make it1 however1 probable that the early wares of ,worcester and ,bow were imitated at ,lowestoft4 #bdd ,we are told that the first three of these substances are to be fritted together1 but this would be manifestly impossible4 ,the recipe is curious as being an anticipation of the materials used by ,spode thirty years later4 ,but we must receive most of these recipes that have thus come down to us cum grano4 #bde ,this #8soapy rock' was at once identified with the steatite of the ,lizard4 ,the other porcelain experts1 from ,worcester and from ,liverpool1 who visited ,cornwall about this time1 seem to have devoted their attention more especially to this substance4 ,they were thus1 to some extent1 on a false scent1 for the ,pre ,d',entrecolles probably somewhat exaggerated the importance of this ,wha-she1 and1 moreover1 as has been shown by later ,french investigation1 most of the material of soapy consistency employed at ,king-te-chen is no true steatite or magnesian silicate1 but rather a more fusible variety of the petuntse1 containing much mica4 #bdf ,was ,frye1 the painter of ,bow1 who first made use of the ,american earth1 also a quaker8 ,cookworthy and ,champion1 it appears1 first became acquainted with one another through the medium of one of the ,bristol ,frys1 and it is known that moulds and patterns from ,bow were used at ,plymouth4 ,it is at least remarkable that we should be indebted for our knowledge of the constitution of ,chinese porcelain1 in the first place1 to a ,jesuit father1 and then to a member of the ,society of ,friends2 while1 on the other hand1 ,bttger--like ,cookworthy1 a druggist--was an adept in the dark arts4 #bdg ,besides the factory mentioned in this letter1 we hear from the diary of ,dr4 ,pococke that as early as #agej a white ware with reliefs was made at the #8,lowris ,china house' with #8soapy-rock from ,lizard ,point4' ,a sauce-boat marked #8,bristoll' is referred to these works in the ,guide to ,english ,pottery in the ,british ,museum1 p4 #aji4 #bdh ,lauraguais 7,comte de71 ,duc de ,brancas1 born #agcc2 died #ahbd4 #bdi ,see p4 #cjf4 ,at ,strawberry ,hill was #8,michael ,angelo's ,bacchus1 made in the china of the ,comte de ,lauraguais1 from the collection of the ,comte de ,caylus' 7,walpole's ,works1 ii4 #dje seq474 #bej ,by ,champion1 at least1 at a later time4 ,the cross swords have in some cases been subsequently obliterated 7,,pl4 ,e4 #hd74 ,mr4 ,owen thinks that this was in consequence of a quarrel with the custom-house authorities in #agge4 #bea ,and for tin also4 ,the mark was adopted1 no doubt1 in honour of the #8premier' product of ,cornwall4 ,it would1 however1 be more in place on a ware with an opaque tin glaze1 such as the soft paste of ,chantilly4 #beb ,so at ,svres during the greater part of the last century the glaze has consisted of pegmatite1 a very similar material to the ,cornish growan-stone4 ,the inconveniences of such a glaze have been pointed out by ,vogt and others4 #bec ,of another workman employed by ,champion1 one ,anthony ,amatt1 ,mr4 ,hugh ,owen gives some particulars4 ,at one time1 attempting to cross the ,channel and find employment in ,france1 he was arrested--at the instigation1 it is said1 of ,wedgwood--and confined for some time as a ,state prisoner4 ,amatt died in #ahea at the age of ninety-two4 ,wedgwood was very active in preventing the emigration of ,english potters1 who1 he declared1 were lured from their country by ,french and ,german agents 7,meteyard's ,wedgwood1 ii4 p4 #dge74 #bed ,there are also in existence some examples of undoubted ,bristol hard-paste porcelain1 covered with a soft lead glaze4 #bee ,the porcelain made by ,count ,lauraguais1 to judge by the analysis given above1 must have contained even more kaolin than the ,bristol ware4