,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,a ,,monthly ,,magazine ,,devoted ,,to ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,true ,,culture4 ,,organ ,,of ,,the ,,chautauqua ,,literary ,,and ,,scientific ,,circle4 ,,vol4 ,v4 ,,february1 #ahhe4 ,no4 #e4 ,officers of the ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle4 ,president1 ,lewis ,miller1 ,akron1 ,ohio4 ,chancellor1 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,counselors1 ,the ,rev4 ,lyman ,abbott1 ,d4,d42 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d42 ,bishop ,h4 ,w4 ,warren1 ,d4,d42 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wilkinson1 ,d4,d42 ,edward ,everett ,hale4 ,office ,secretary1 ,miss ,kate ,f4 ,kimball1 ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j4 ,general ,secretary1 ,albert ,m4 ,martin1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,contents ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this table of contents of this periodical was created for the ,,html version to aid the reader4 ,,required ,,reading ,,for ,,february ,how ,english ,differs ,from ,other ,languages #bdg ,sunday ,readings ,february #a #bej ,february #h #bea ,february #ae #bea ,february #bb #beb ,home ,studies in ,chemistry and ,physics ,chemistry of ,fire4--,ancient ,fancies #beb ,temperance ,teachings of ,science3 or1 the ,poison ,problem ,chapter ,v4--,prohibition #bee ,studies in ,kitchen ,science and ,art ,v4 ,tea1 ,coffee and ,chocolate #beg ,household ,beverages #bfj ,huxley on ,science #bfa ,the ,circle of the ,sciences #bfd ,the ,poet's ,vision #bfg ,the ,homelike ,house ,chapter ,,ii4--,the ,family ,parlor #bfh ,national ,aid to ,education #bga ,the ,parson's ,comforter #bgd ,the ,smithsonian ,institution #bge ,geography of the ,heavens for ,february #bgi ,new ,orleans #bhj ,the ,upper ,chautauqua #bhd ,outline of ,required ,readings1 ,february1 #ahhe #bhe ,programs for ,local ,circle ,work #bhf ,local ,circles #bhf ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,classes #bia ,questions and ,answers #bic ,the ,chautauqua ,university ,can ,language ,be ,taught ,by ,correspondence8 #bie ,editor's ,outlook #bif ,editor's ,note-,book #bii ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes on ,required ,readings for ,february #cja ,notes on ,required ,readings in 8,the ,chautauquan0 #cjb ,talk ,about ,books #cje ,special ,notes #cjf ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,graduates #cjf ,,required ,,reading ,,for ,,february4 ,,how ,,english ,,differs ,,from ,,other ,,languages4 ,,by ,,richard ,,grant ,,white4 ,it has occurred to me that some readers of ,,the ,,chautauquan may have been disappointed in these articles because in their judgment they have been thus far not sufficiently 8practical40 ,many people1 far too many1 desire chiefly to find some short1 straight road to knowledge4 ,they like to have some man who is called an 8authority0 upon a certain subject cut his knowledge up into small parcels or 8chunks0 of convenient size1 and arrange them with labels1 alphabetically1 in an article or a book1 so that they maybe referred to at need1 and followed like a recipe for making a pudding1 and with as little thought4 ,but there are no such recipes for acquiring real knowledge4 ,in this way an acquaintance with facts may be made which1 used blindly1 may prove of some immediate service1 and may not4 ,nothing1 however1 learned in this perfunctory way is worthy of the name of knowledge4 ,for it is a barren process2 it really teaches nothing2 it profits nothing2 it does nothing for the education of the person by whom it is adopted4 ,real knowledge comes only by a thoughtful learning of the relations of facts4 ,true as to all subjects1 this is eminently true as to language2 because1 language is eminently a subject of relations4 ,there is hardly a word that we use which has not relations to other words1 and other forms of speech2 relations historical1 spiritual1 almost moral2 to set forth which in detail would furnish occasion for a little essay4 ,the mere learning to speak and to write a language is only a matter of memory and practice2 nothing more4 ,it is child's work1 and it is continually done1 and is best done1 by children4 ,a man may speak and write ,english1 ,french1 ,german or ,latin with unexceptionable correctness and fluency1 and yet know no more about that language than a well instructed parrot would which had been taught to use all the words which he uses4 ,his study would not be a study of language2 and in that which he had painfully learned he might be easily and unconsciously surpassed by a child who had never studied at all4 ,now what ,i hope to do here is to help my readers to some knowledge of the ,english language1 in so far as my own imperfect acquaintance with my mother tongue and its literature will enable me to do so4 ,we have seen what ,english is1 of what stuff it is made1 how it came by its present compositeness of substance2 how it became strong1 and full1 and flexible1 and fervent2 let us now look a little into its structure1 i4 e41 the way in which it is put together1 in doing which we shall see by comparison how it differs from other languages4 ,this matter of structure1 the formation of the sentence1 is the distinctive trait of a language4 ,mere words are not the essential difference between languages4 ,many words are common 7with slight phonetic variation7 to all the languages of the ,aryan or ,indo-,european stock1 as we have already seen4 ,multitudes of words have been adopted into all the modern tongues from other languages ancient and modern1 dead and living1 as most of the readers of ,,the ,,chautauquan know4 ,the bulk of ,english dictionaries like ,webster's and ,worcester's is composed of words which are of ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french or ,italian origin1 and which indeed are essentially the same words in all these languages2 their unlikeness being merely a phonetic variation1 mostly caused by difference in pronunciation1 or change in termination4 ,for example1 flower is in ,latin flos 7genitive floris71 in ,italian fiore1 in ,french fleur1 in ,spanish flor2 each language having somewhat changed the sound of the word1 according to rules or habits which are loosely called laws2 but the word is in all essentially the same4 ,a sentence--many sentences--might be written in ,english1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish and ,german1 in which all the words of subject-matter 7all but verbs like have and be1 and prepositions and conjunctions7 should be essentially the same1 and so like that an intelligent person with some faculty for language1 and who understood any one of these languages1 could apprehend the meaning of any one of the supposed sentences with little difficulty4 ,and yet the sentences would be respectively ,english1 ,latin1 ,french1 and so forth4 ,why and how8 ,it is to the reason of this1 that is the why and the how of it1 that we shall now give a little time and attention4 ,the most important and significant distinction between languages is in their grammar2 that is1 in the structure of the sentence4 ,in the languages mentioned above the greatest unlikeness in this respect is manifested in ,english1 ,latin and ,german1 or to name them in their order of grammatical importance1 ,latin1 ,german and ,english4 ,the term 8grammar0 has two senses2 one large and vague1 and called by some 8philosophical0 or 8scientific0 7phrases commonly used with a deplorable union of pretension and looseness71 which includes all that relates to the history1 the substance and the structure of a language2 the other much narrower and simpler2 the sense implied when the phrases 8good grammar0 and 8bad grammar0 are used4 ,to this sense ,i shall here confine myself1 and shall here repeat a definition of grammar which ,i have given before4,a ,grammar concerns the forms of words and their dependent relations in the sentence4 ,to illustrate this3 ,it is 8bad grammar10 ludicrously1 monstrously bad grammar1 to say in ,latin1 ,nos habeo bonus mater1 and yet these ,latin words1 literally and simply translated in their order1 mean1 ,we have a good mother1 which in ,english is perfectly 8good grammar40 ,in the ,latin 7to call it ,latin7 every word is wrong2 in ,english every word is right4 ,the reason of this is that in ,latin words change their forms according to their relations1 not according to their essential meaning4 ,habeo means have2 but it can not be used to express a plural having2 that requires for we 7nos7 the form habemus4 ,bonus means good2 but it can not be used to express the goodness of a feminine object1 for which the form bona is required4 ,yet further3 ,even bona can not be used to qualify a noun which is the object of a verb1 or1 as we say1 in the objective 7or accusative7 case1 for which the form bonam is required4 ,mater means mother1 but as the object of the verb have1 mater must change its form to matrem4 ,by these required changes of form the ,latin sentence becomes1 ,nos habemus bonam matrem1 which is 8good grammar10 although poor ,latin1 but which1 after all the changes1 means simply1 ,we have a good mother2 nothing more nor less4 ,yet further3 ,the sentence1 as written above1 although grammatical1 is poor ,latin because it is at variance with the habit1 or as it is sometimes called the spirit1 or even the genius1 of the ,latin language4 ,in ,latin the word habemus 7although like habeo it means simply1 have7 is so positively and distinctively limited in use to the first person plural that the pronoun nos--we--is quite superfluous1 and is never used unless with an emphatic purpose2 habemus1 without the nos1 means1 we have4 ,moreover it was the ,latin habit of speech to place the object generally before the verb2 and good ,latin for1 ,we have a good mother would be1 bonam matrem habemus--i4 e41 ,a good mother we have1 or rather 7literally7 ,good mother we have for the ,latin strangely has no articles1 or none which correspond to our an 7or a7 and the1 and which may be translated by them4 ,this illustration1 brief and simple although it be1 is sufficient1 ,i think1 to make the great and essential distinction between ,english and ,latin1 and measurably between ,english and all other modern civilized tongues1 clear to the readers of these articles4 ,the essential difference is not one of words but of the construction of the sentence4 ,in ,latin and other languages that construction depends not upon the thought and the meaning of the words1 but upon the forms of the words--their inflections4 ,now the distinctive trait of ,english is that it is a language without inflections--not absolutely so1 but so to all intents and purposes2 and1 being without inflections1 it is therefore without grammar1 which1 as we have seen1 concerns the forms of words and their dependent relations in the sentence4 ,nos habeo bonus mater is bad grammar because the forms of the words are incorrect according to the usage of the ,latin language4 ,bonus means good2 but for the expression of the quality good in its barest1 simplest idea bonus takes on five forms in ,latin2 bonus for masculine goodness in the singular1 bona for feminine singular1 bonum for neuter singular2 boni masculine plural2 bon feminine plural1 bona neuter plural4 ,to be brief2 for use in various relations1 this word bonus takes on no less than thirteen forms1 of which more need not here be given4 ,mater--mother--takes on eight of these forms or inflections1 which are called cases4 ,but in ,english good has but one form4 ,singular1 plural1 masculine1 feminine1 neuter1 nominative1 possessive1 dative1 objective1 vocative--in whichever of these senses the word which it qualifies is used it has but one form--good4 ,thus it is with all ,english adjectives1 and with articles 7an and the7 which are a kind of adjective4 ,in all other languages adjectives and articles have various forms adapted to the various numbers1 genders1 and cases of nouns4 ,in ,english nouns have two cases 7strictly but one1 the nominative not being a true case71 the second of which is the possessive3 e4 g41 mother's2 and they have a singular and a plural form1 e4 g41 mother1 mothers4 ,in other languages the verb is inflected into a multitude of forms1 expressive of voice 7active and passive71 person1 number and time of action4 ,in ,english the variations of form in the verb are very few4 ,there is no passive voice4 ,the ,english has but one passive verb2 the obsolete hight1 which means1 is called4 ,as to time1 there are only the forms of present and perfect1 e4 g41 love and loved2 as to person and number1 inflections only in the present tense1 e4 g41 love1 lovest1 loves2 and of these one1 lovest1 is obsolete1 or very obsolescent4 ,to these inflected forms there is to be added only the present or indefinite participle loving4 ,beyond this there are in ,english1 by way of inflection1 only the cases of the pronouns1 e4 g41 he1 his1 him1 who1 whose1 whom1 etc4 ,and it is here to be remarked that almost all the questions of 8good grammar0 and 8bad grammar0 that arise in ,english relate to the use of pronouns4 7,for surely we may leave out of consideration here the difficulties of those who say ,i see or ,i seen him1 for ,i saw him1 or ,i have went for ,i have gone1 and the like47 ,here1 therefore1 we have set forth1 although very succinctly1 the distinctive grammatical position of the ,english language4 ,that position is briefly this3 ,in ,english words have 7with the few exceptions mentioned above7 but one form2 and as grammar is concerned only with the formal relations of words in the sentence1 ,english has no grammar4 ,among languages it is the grammarless tongue4 ,let us further illustrate this point by a brief consideration of a subject which is very perplexing to the learners of a foreign language1 and which is not less so to the historical students of language in general2 a subject which1 ,i believe1 has never been explained by the latter with any semblance of satisfaction--gender4 ,all other languages are infested with gender2 in ,english there is no such distinction in words as that of gender4 ,english1 it should be needless to say1 has words to express difference of sex2 that no language can fail to do1 for failing in that1 it would not communicate the facts and thoughts of every-day life4 ,but grammatical gender has no relation to sex1 no relation to the essential characteristics of things4 ,gender1 grammatical gender1 is an attribute of words4 ,he creatures are male1 she creatures female1 and the words which are their names are generally 7but not universally7 masculine and feminine in all languages4 ,things neither male nor female are neuter1 which means merely1 neither4 ,but this is not gender4 ,gender1 as ,i have said before1 is an attribute of words2 of words only4 ,for example1 the ,latin word penna--a pen1 or quill1 is feminine2 in ,french the word table--table1 is also feminine4 ,it is needless to say that there is no question as to the sex of a pen1 or of a table2 nor is there any quality in either of those objects which has a sexual trait or characteristic4 ,in each case it is the word which is of the feminine gender2 and in all1 or almost all1 languages but ,english all or almost all words are afflicted with this mysterious pest of gender4 ,how annoying and perplexing it is1 and how it complicates the use of language1 and makes the acquisition of foreign languages difficult1 no student needs be told4 ,for it creates an ever present and far-reaching perplexity4 ,it dominates the construction of the sentence and binds it up in bonds of iron4 ,for every adjective1 and in ,french and other languages having articles1 every article which is applied to a noun must be of the gender of that noun4 ,you can not say in ,latin bonus penna1 a good pen1 without 8bad grammar10 you must say bona penna4 ,you can not say in ,french un mauvais table1 a bad table1 but must say une mauvaise table2 nor le table1 but la table--although both mean the table1 nothing more nor less4 ,the absurdity of this is made very apparent when a feminine word is applied to a male object4 ,thus majest--majesty1 is feminine2 but when a king is called your majesty1 the words sa majest 7her majesty7 are used because the word majesty is feminine2 and instead of saying he 7il7 did thus or so1 we must say she 7elle7 did it1 although the she was a man2 the reason being that the word majest is feminine4#a ,all this has been swept clean away in ,english1 in which language there is no distinction of gender but only that of sex3 male creatures1 or those so personified1 are masculine1 female1 feminine2 those which have no sex are neuter2 and there an end4 ,english is eminently a language of common sense2 and one marked evidence of this trait is its freeing itself entirely from the nuisance of grammatical gender along with other grammatical trammels4#b ,it has freed itself from those trammels2 for at one time it was hampered by them sorely4 ,anglo-,saxon1 or ,old ,english1 was an inflected speech1 and was tied up in the bonds of gender and other grievous grammatical tetherings4 ,this was long ago2 but it was after ,britain had become ,england1 or ,engle-land1 the land of the ,english people and of ,english speech4 ,when our ,english forefathers were little better than semi-savages1 bloody1 barbarous1 heathen1 worshiping ,thor and ,woden1 and in a state of benighted ignorance of which it would be difficult for those of my readers who have not tried to pierce the darkness of that historical past to form even an approximate notion--at this time1 and in this social and intellectual condition of the speakers of the ,english language1 it was copiously provided with grammar4 ,even ,greek had not much the better of it in this respect4 ,it had not only forms for person and number1 but gender forms1 and cases galore4#c ,take1 for example1 a word which was ,english a thousand years ago1 just as it is to-day1 man4 ,this simple word has undergone no change in all the thousand years1 unless by losing a little breadth of sound2 it having probably been pronounced mahn1 of which sound the rustic mon of provincial ,england is a relic and representative4 ,but man could not be used pure and simple1 under all circumstances and in all cases1 in the ,english of that day any more than1 as we have seen1 mater and bonus could be so used in ,latin4 ,there was the nominative singular--man1 simply2 the genitive mannes--of a man2 the dative men1 to or for a man2 accusative mannan--a man objectively2 nominative plural men2 genitive manna--of men1 or men's2 and a dative mannum--to or for men4 ,of all these various forms or cases of man1 the language has freed itself1 excepting the genitive singular1 mannes1 and the nominative plural1 men4 ,these have been retained1 not by accident1 or neglect1 but at the dictate of common sense1 because convenience and intelligibility required their use4 ,it was found necessary to distinguish the plural from the singular2 and the genitive or possessive idea from the simple and absolute2 but man as a dative or accusative singular1 and men as the same in the plural1 were found quite as useful and convenient as the old inflected forms2 and therefore 7or therefore finally and in a great measure7 the latter were discarded4 ,the genitive or possessive has been retained2 but it has slightly changed its form2 by contraction only1 however2 mannes has become man's4 ,the old sign of the possessive was es2 and it is this1 and not the pronoun his 7as once was supposed7 that is represented in our possessive case1 in which the apostrophe merely marks the elision of the old e4 ,there is really no good reason for the use of the apostrophe1 none which would not apply equally to many other cases in which no elision is marked4 ,in the ,elizabethan era it was not used1 and with no consequent confusion4 ,mans folly1 the boys hat1 ,johns coat1 are as clear in meaning as they would be with the apostrophe2 and the possible confusion of the possessive with the plural1 as in that fancy of the girls1 and that fancy of the girl's is so remote and so very unlikely as to be worthy of little consideration4 ,as to ,english in its earliest form 7,anglo-,saxon7 suffice it here to say in this regard that it was so largely an inflected language1 that is1 it varied the forms of its words so numerously to express time of action1 mode of action1 person1 number1 case1 and gender1 that it is in this respect almost as unlike modern ,english as ,greek is1 and is little less difficult of acquirement to the ,english speaking student of to-day than ,latin4 ,its very articles had gender forms as well as case forms2 and1 moreover1 like the ,mso-,gothic and like the ,greek it had preserved the old dual number 7for the expression of a plural of two7 although only in the personal pronoun4 ,a comparative examination of the pronoun of the first person and of the present tense of the verb to have in their ancient and modern forms will show the mode and the reason of the changes by which ,english has assumed its present character4 ,,old ,,english ,,pronoun ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,person4 ,,singular4 ,,dual4 ,,plural4 ,n4 ic1 ,i4 wit1 us two4 we1 we4 ,g4 min1 of me4 uncer1 of us two4 ure1 of us4 ,d4 me1 to1 for1 with me4 unc1 to or for us two4 us1 to1 for1 with us4 ,a4 me1 me 7objectively74 unc1 us two4 us1 us4 ,the dual form has been swept away entirely as needless1 and worse1 cumbrous and perplexing2 but it will be seen that we have retained every one of the other forms4 ,ic has become ,i2 mine is still the possessive of ,i2 me is still not only the objective form of the first person1 but the dative1 8make me a hat10 or 8buy me a horse10 being merely 8make a hat to or for me10 or 8buy to or for me a horse40 ,we and us will be recognized at sight1 and ure has only changed its pronunciation from oor to our4 ,these forms have been retained in our modern ,english partly because a pronoun is the most ancient of indestructible parts of speech1,b but chiefly because of their usefulness1 their convenience4 ,a brief consideration of them by the intelligent reader will make this so plain that more need not be said on the subject4 ,now let us see the unlike fate of the verb to have4 ,this will be more readily apparent if we look at it in ,latin1 in ,french1 and in ,english 7it is actually the same word in all these languages1 with slight phonetic variation72 and we shall thus also have another demonstration of the manner in which ,english differs from other languages4 ,,singular4 ,,plural4 ,latin4 ,french4 ,english4 ,latin4 ,french4 ,english4 #a4 habeo4 ,j'ai4 ,i have4 habemus4 nous avons4 we have4 #b4 habes4 tu as4 thou hast4 habetis4 vous avez4 you have4 #c4 habet4 il a4 he has4 habent4 ils ont4 they have4 ,it will be seen at once that the ,latin and the ,french have each a special plural form1 and also three forms for the three persons of that number4 ,english has swept away this plural form entirely1 and uses for the plural in all its persons the simple have of the first person singular4 ,the form of the second person singular has also virtually disappeared2 the simple have appearing in its substitute1 you have4 ,whether the form of the third person singular will ever follow the other is doubtful2 but it is certain that our language has lost nothing in clearness1 and has gained much in simplicity by the doing away with all the formal superfluity by which the old numbers and persons were distinguished4 ,this simplification of the forms of words is not absolutely confined to the ,english language4 ,it appears to be a tendency of language2 a modern tendency1 using modern in its widest sense4 ,for this movement toward simplification appears in the ,latin1 in the ,romance tongues formed from it1 and in the ,gothic languages4 ,in none1 however1 does this simplification1 this destruction of superfluous forms1 approach1 even remotely1 that which has taken place in ,english4 ,so different1 indeed1 are the results1 that the process seems1 if not of another kind1 at least as having another motive4 ,for example1 all the other languages retain the absurdity of gender4 ,in this respect ,german is no better than ,french4 ,and let me here remark that the common notion that ,english and ,german are most alike of all modern languages1 and most nearly akin1 is altogether wrong4 ,on the contrary1 ,english and ,german are very unlike2 the most unlike of all the ,gothic 7or ,teutonic7 languages4 ,english and ,french have much greater likeness1 both in substance and in structure4 ,there are more words now common to the ,english language and to the ,french than to ,english and ,german2 and the syntax of the ,french language is very much more like that of the ,english1 than ,german syntax is4 ,a ,french sentence literally translated in the ,french order of the words is1 in most cases1 so like an ,english sentence that it requires little change to be correct ,english1 while a similar translation of a ,german sentence produces an effect both harsh and ludicrous4 ,the simple form of the ,english language is the result of two causes4 ,of these the first in order of time was the conflict and subsequent mingling of the ,old ,english 7,anglo-,saxon7 and the ,norman-,french4 ,when two languages are thus brought together and are both spoken by two peoples1 all that is superfluous in the words of each soon begins to disappear4 ,each people grasps only the essential in the foreign words which it is obliged to use2 each soon adopts the curtailed form of its speech used by the neighbors of another race and speech with whom it is obliged to live in daily communication2 and ere long a composite speech of simpler forms takes the place of two tongues--each of which was more complex in structure1 but less rich and varied in substance4 ,by this process1 out of ,anglo-,saxon and ,norman-,french1 came modern ,english4 ,but not only thus4 ,other languages have mingled1 but never before with such a result4 ,never was there in any other amalgamation1 such an esurience of superfluous form2 a devouring which has to all intents and purposes made ,english a language of one-formed words1 and therefore a language practically without formal grammar4 ,in this characteristic is its strength2 from this comes its flexibility1 its adaptation to all the needs of man1 the highest and the lowest4 ,hence it is eminently the language of common sense as well as of the highest flights of poetry4 ,the ,english mind saw that it was not necessary to have two words to express possession in the singular and in the plural2 that good as clearly expressed the goodness of a woman as of a man1 and that of a dozen men as well as that of one2 that pens and tables needed no distinction of gender in their names2 in fact that nothing was gained1 and that much was lost by these grammatical excrescences2 and therefore they were done away with very thoroughly1 almost entirely4 ,the process was pretty well completed some three hundred years or more ago2 since when no noteworthy changes in this respect have taken place4 ,but it is still going on1 although so slowly as to be perceptible only on close examination4 ,all the little specks of grammar that ,english has are mostly to be found in the pronouns1 as ,i have before remarked4 ,in the use of one of these a change is very gradually taking place4 ,whom has begun to disappear1 began1 indeed1 a long time ago2 but of late is fading somewhat more perceptibly4 ,for example3 all speakers of good ,english say1 ,the man whom ,i saw1 not ,the man who ,i saw2 whom being the objective form of who4 ,but now-a-days not one person in a hundred of the best bred and best educated speakers of ,english asks1 ,whom did you see8 but1 ,who did you see8 ,indeed1 the latter form of the question may be regarded almost as accepted ,english4 ,yet in the latter phrase1 as in the former1 the pronoun is the object of the verb see1 and should strictly have the objective form4 ,but1 ,whom did you see8 would now sound very formal and precise1 almost priggish1 like gotten instead of got4 ,when1 however1 the pronoun is brought in direct contact with the verb1 as in the phrase1 ,the man whom ,i saw1 we shrink from insult to the little semblance of grammar that our language possesses1 and give the word its objective form4 ,the time will probably come1 although it may be remote1 when whom will have altogether disappeared4 ,as to gotten1 its use is now so confined to the over-precise in this country as to make it almost an ,americanism4 ,its disappearance from our language in ,england is also one of the evidences of the process of simplification which is still slowly going on4 ,another1 which has taken place within the memory of the elder living generation1 is the disappearance of the subjunctive mood1 which is now obsolete1 or so very obsolescent as to be met with very rarely4 ,but thirty-five or forty years since correct writers used this mood1 and wrote1 for example1 if he go instead of if he goes4 ,of the effect of this grammarless condition of the ,english language we may see something in a subsequent article4 ,,footnotes ,a 8,every ,day ,english10 chapter xvii4 ,b ,certain uneasy manipulators of speech have lately set themselves at making an impersonal ,english pronoun4 ,vanity of vanities6 ,make a pronoun8 ,as well undertake to build a pyramid4 ,better4 ,there is not a pronoun in use that was not hoary with age before the first stone of ,keops was laid4 ,,sunday ,,readings4 ,,selected ,,by ,,chancellor ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4 ,d4 ,february #a4 ,i find ,david making a syllogism1 in mood and figure1 two propositions he perfected4 7,ps4 lxvi7 #ah4 ,if ,i regard iniquity in my heart1 the ,lord will not hear me4 #ai4 ,but verily ,god hath heard me1 he hath attended to the voice of my prayer4 ,now ,i expected that ,david should have concluded thus3 ,therefore ,i regard not wickedness in my heart4 ,but far otherwise he concludes3 #bj4 ,blessed be ,god1 who hath not turned away my prayer1 nor his mercy from me4 ,thus ,david hath deceived1 but not wronged me4 ,i looked that he should have clapped the crown on his own1 and he puts it on ,god's head4 ,i will learn this excellent logic1 for ,i like ,david's better than ,aristotle's syllogisms1 that1 whatsoever the premises be1 ,i make ,god's glory the conclusion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,young ,king ,jehoash had only a lease of piety1 and not for his own1 but his uncle's life 7#b ,kings xii3#b73 ,he did that which was right in the sight of the ,lord all his days1 wherein ,jehoiada the priest instructed him4 ,jehu was good in the midst of his life1 and a zealous reformer to the utter abolishing of ,baal out of ,israel1 but in his old age 7#b ,kings x3#ca7 he returned to the politic sins of ,jeroboam1 worshiping the calves in ,dan and ,bethel4 ,manasseh was bad in the beginning and middle of his life1 filling ,jerusalem with idolatry2 only toward the end thereof1 when carried into a strange land1 he came home to himself and destroyed the profane altars he had erected4 ,these three put together make one perfect servant of ,god4 ,take the morning and rise with ,jehoash1 the noon and shine with ,jehu1 the night and set with ,manasseh4 ,begin with youth-,jehoash1 continue with man-,jehu1 conclude with old-man-,manasseh1 and all put together will spell one good ,christian1 yea1 one good1 perfect performer4 ,constantly pray to ,god1 that in his due time he would speak peace to thee4''' ,prayers negligently performed draw a curse1 but not prayers weakly performed4 ,the former is when one can do better1 and will not2 the latter is when one would do better1 but1 alas6 he can not4''' ,be diligent in reading the word of ,god1 wherein all comfort is contained4''' ,thou hast a great journey to go1 a wounded conscience has far to travel to find comfort 7and though weary shall be welcome at his journey's end71 and therefore must feed on ,god's word1 even against his own dull disposition1 and shall afterward reap benefit thereby4''' ,be industrious in thy calling2 ,i press this the more because some erroneously conceive that a wounded conscience cancels all indentures of service1 and gives them 7during their affliction7 a dispensation to be idle4 ,let none in like manner pretend that 7during the agony of a wounded conscience7 they are to have no other employment than to sit moping1 to brood over their melancholy1 or else only to attend their devotion2 whereas a good way to divert or assuage their pain within is to take pains without in their vocation4 ,i am confident1 that happy minute which shall put a period to thy misery shall not find thee idle1 but employed1 as some ever secret good is accruing to such who are diligent in their calling4--,fuller4#a ,february #h4 ,the ,deity is intended to be the everlasting field of the human intellect1 as well as the everlasting object of the human heart1 the everlasting portion of all holy and happy minds1 who are destined to spend a blissful but ever active eternity in the contemplation of his glory4''' ,he will forever remain 8the unknown ,god40 ,we shall ever be conscious that we know little compared with what remains to be known of him2 that our most rapturous and lofty songs fall infinitely short of his excellence4 ,if we stretch our powers to the uttermost1 we shall never exhaust his praise1 never render him adequate honor1 never discharge the full amount of claim which he possesses upon our veneration1 obedience1 and gratitude4 ,when we have loved him with the greatest favor1 our love will still be cold compared with his title to our devoted attachment4 ,this will render him the continual source of fresh delight to all eternity4 ,his perfection will be an abyss never to be fathomed2 there will be depths in his excellence which we shall never be able to penetrate4 ,we shall delight in losing ourselves in his infinity4 ,an unbounded prospect will be extended before us2 looking forward through the vista of interminable ages we shall find a blissful occupation for our faculties1 which can never end2 while those faculties will retain their vigor unimpaired1 flourish in the bloom of perpetual youth1 ''' and the full consciousness remain that the ,being whom we contemplate can never be found out to perfection ''' that he may always add to the impression of what we know1 by throwing a veil of indefinite obscurity over his character4 ,the shades in which he will forever conceal himself will have the same tendency to excite our adoring wonder as the effulgence of his glory2 the depths in which he will retire from our view1 the recesses of his wisdom and power as the open paths of his manifestation4 ,were we capable of comprehending the ,deity1 devotion would not be the sublimest employment to which we can attain4 ,in the contemplation of such a ,being we are in no danger of going beyond our subject2 we are conversing with an infinite object1 ''' in the depths of whose essence and purposes we are forever lost4 ,this will probably give all the emotions of freshness and astonishment to the raptures of beatific vision1 and add a delightful zest to the devotions of eternity4 ,this will enable the ,divine ,being to pour in continually fresh accessions of light2 to unfold new views of his character1 disclose new parts of his perfection1 open new mansions of himself1 in which the mind will have ample room to expatiate4 ,thus shall we learn1 to eternity1 that1 so far from exhausting his infinite fullness1 there still remain infinite recesses in his nature unexplored--scenes in his counsels never brought before the view of his creatures2 that we know but 8parts of his ways20 and that instead of exhausting our theme1 we are not even approaching nearer to the comprehension of the ,eternal ,all4 ,it is the mysteriousness of ,god1 the inscrutability of his essence1 the shade in which he is invested1 that will excite those peculiar emotions which nothing but transcendent perfection and unspeakable grandeur can inspire4--,robert ,hall4#b ,february #ae4 ,we need not go far to seek the materials for an acceptable offering2 they lie all around us in the work of our callings1 in the little calls which divine ,providence daily makes to us1 in the little crosses which ,god requires us to take up1 nay1 in our very recreations4 ,the great point is to have the mind set upon seeing and seeking in all things the service of ,christ and the glory of ,god1 and1 lo6 every trifling incident which that mind touches1 every piece of work which it handles1 every dispensation to which it submits becomes a sacrifice4 8,if in our daily walks our mind ,be set to hallow all we find1 ,new treasures still of countless price ,god will provide for sacrifice4 ,we need not bid for cloistered cell ,our neighbor and our work farewell1 ,nor strive to wind ourselves too high ,for sinful man beneath the sky2 ,the trifling round1 the common task ,will furnish all we ought to ask1 ,room to deny ourselves--a road ,to bring us daily nearer ,god40 ,if we allow the beauties of nature to raise our heart to ,god1 we turn that into a sacrifice4 ,if cross incidents1 which could not be avoided or averted1 are taken sweetly and lovingly1 out of homage to the living will of ,god1 this1 too1 is a sacrifice4 ,if work be done in the full view of ,god's assignment of our several tasks and spheres of labor1 and under the consciousness of his presence1 however secular in its character1 it immediately becomes fit for presentation on the altar4 ,if refreshment and amusement are so moderated as to help the spirit instead of dissipating it1 if they are to be seasoned with the wholesome salt of self-denial 7for every sacrifice must be seasoned with salt7 they1 too1 become a holy oblation4 ,if we study even perverse characters1 with a loving hope and belief that we shall find something of ,god and ,christ in them1 which may be made the nucleus of better things1 and instead of shutting ourselves up in a narrow sphere of sympathies1 seek out and try to develop the good points of a generally uncongenial spirit2 if we treat men as ,christ treated them1 counting that somewhere in every one there is a better mind1 and the trace of ,god's finger in creation1 we may thus possibly sanctify an hour which would else be one of irksome constraint1 and after which we might have been oppressed with a heavy feeling that it had been a wasted one4 ,if a small trifle1 destined to purchase some personal luxury or comfort1 be diverted to a charitable and religious end1 this is the regular and standing sacrifice of alms1 recognized by the ,scripture and the ,liturgy4 ,and finally1 if we regard our time as1 next to ,christ1 and the ,holy ,spirit1 the most precious gift of ,god2 if we gather up the fragments and interstices of it in a thrifty and religious manner1 and employ them in some exercise of devotion or some good and useful work1 this1 too1 becomes a tribute which ,god will surely accept with complacency1 if laid upon his altar and united by faith and a devout intention with the one ,sacrifice of our dear ,lord4 ,yes2 if laid upon his altar2 let us never forget or drop out of sight that proviso4 ,it is the altar1 and the altar alone1 which sanctifieth the gift4 ,apart from ,christ and his perfect sacrifice1 an acceptable gift is an impossibility for man4 ,for at best our gifts have in them the sinfulness of our nature2 they are miserably flawed by defectiveness of motive1 duplicity of aim1 infirmity of will4 8,the prayers of all saints10 what force of interpretation must they have with ,god1 if1 as we are sure1 8the effectual1 fervent prayer of a0 7single7 8righteous man availeth much60 ,yet when ,st4 ,john saw in a vision 8the prayers of all saints0 offered 8upon the golden altar which was before the throne10 it was in union with that which alone can perfume the tainted offsprings of even the regenerate man4 8,there was given unto him much increase1 that he should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar which is before the throne40 ,the increase is the intercession of ,jesus4 ,place your offering1 be it prayer or alms1 deed or work1 or submission--in his hands for presentation2 pray him1 as your only priest1 to transact for you with ,god1 and he will do so4 ,and the sense of ,god's favor shall shine out upon thy offering2 and the dew of his blessing shall descend upon it1 and ye shall be gladdened with your ,father's smile4--,goulburn4#c ,february #bb4 ,heaven1 as a place of residence and state of enjoyment1 should always be viewed in contrast with earth4 ,this is a state of pupilage and probation1 that of dignity and promotion4 ,here is conflict1 there victory4 ,this is the race1 that the goal4 ,here we suffer1 there we reign4 ,here we are in exile1 there at home4 ,on earth we are strangers and pilgrims1 in heaven fellow citizens with the saints2 and1 released from the strife and turmoil1 the bitterness and regrets of earth1 are incorporated forever with the household of ,god4 ,this is triumph6 ,how striking the contrast6 ,how must earth and its trials be lost sight of in such a vision6 ,how must this contrast strengthen the ties of confidence1 and kindle the ardor of devotion6 ,what did ,moses care for the perils of the wilderness1 when1 from the storm-defying steep of ,pisgah1 he viewed the land of promise1 imaging forth the green fields of heaven's eternal spring6 ,look at ,elijah1 the immortal ,tishbite1 exchanging the sighs and solitude of his juniper shade1 for wheels of fire and steeds of wind that bore him home to ,god6 ,look at ,paul--poor1 periled and weary1 amid the journeyings and conflicts of his mission3 the hand that once stretched the strong eastern tent1 or wore the dungeon's chain1 now sweeps in boldest strain the harps of heaven4''' ,look at the ,christian of apostolic and early times1 exchanging the clanking of his chains and the curses of his jailor--the dungeon's den and martyr's stake--for the notes of gladness and lofty anthem pealing from lute and harp1 bedecked with eternal amaranth6 ,the load of chain with which he went out to meet the descending car of his triumph1 with its angel escort1 was a richer dowry than the jewels of empire6 ,the taper that flickered in the dungeon of the sainted hero shot a ray more glorious than ever spoke the splendor of the full-orbed moon6 ,what are the crowns or the diadems of all this world's masters or ,csars1 compared with the prospects of such an expectant6 99 99 99 99 99 ,christians6 what need we care1 although on earth we were so poor and low we had nor purse nor pillow2 so few and trodden down we had no power2 and hamlets1 huts and grottoes were the places where we wept and prayed2 if these are to be exchanged for a residence amid the jaspers and chrysolites1 the emeralds and sapphires of the heavenly ,jerusalem6 ,what though soiled by the dust of toil or damp with the dungeon's dew--struggling amid tattered want along our lone and periled path--when even here we find ourselves invested with glory in the night of our being1 and sustained by hopes guiding and pointing us to the temple hymn and the heavenly harp above6 '''--,bascom4#d ,,home ,,studies ,,in ,,chemistry ,,and ,,physics4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,j4 ,t4 ,,edwards1 ,d4,d4 ,director of the ,chautauqua ,school of ,experimental ,science4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,fire4--,,ancient ,,fancies4 ,in all ages1 and among all nations1 fire has been regarded with peculiar interest4 ,of the four great elements so essential to life--earth1 air1 water1 fire--the last has often been considered as divine in its origin and influence4 ,to the unscientific observer it seems more than matter1 and little less than spirit4 ,contemplating a flame1 he sees that while it has form1 it lacks solidity4 ,he may pass a sword through it1 but like the ghost of the story1 no wound is made in its ethereal substance4 ,its touch is softer than down1 but it penetrates the hardest substances4 ,the diamond carves glass1 but flame destroys the diamond4 ,men early found that fire was directly connected with their comfort and progress1 and even essential to their existence4 ,how they first obtained it is still matter of conjecture2 whether it was brought down from the skies1 as the ancient ,greeks supposed1 struck out from the flinty rock1 evolved by the friction of dry wood1 kindled by the lightning1 or obtained from the flaming torch of the volcano1 we can not tell4 ,certain it is1 that having once been obtained1 all the early races were very careful to preserve it4 ,among many it was regarded as sacred1 and kept perpetually burning1 both in their places of worship and in their homes4 ,the officers appointed for its preservation were of the highest rank and influence4 ,among the titles assumed by ,augustus ,csar was that of keeper of the public fire4 ,whenever by accident the fire in the temple of ,vesta1 at ,rome1 was extinguished1 all public business was at once suspended1 because the connection between heaven and earth was believed to be severed1 and must be restored before business could properly proceed4 ,grecian colonists carried fire to their new homes from the altar of ,hestia4 ,the 8,prytaneum0#a of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans was a place where the national fire was kept always burning2 it was here the people gathered1 foreign ambassadors received1 and hospitalities of the state were offered4 ,here1 too1 heads of families obtained coals for lighting their household fires1 which in turn became sacred1 so that every hearth was an altar1 where resided the ,lares and ,penates1 the gods who presided over the welfare of the home4 ,fancies akin to these beliefs of olden time may still be found among the nations of the ,east and in northern ,europe4 ,,modern ,,fallacies4 ,no correct ideas of combustion were attained until the time of ,lavoisier4#b ,this great ,french savant gave precision and accuracy to the investigations of chemical science by the introduction of the balance4 ,he disproved the theory that 8water is the ultimate principle of all things10 and prepared the way for a clear apprehension of the truth that matter1 though constantly changing its form1 is never destroyed4 ,he also announced the correct theory of combustion4 ,until this time scientists had held what was called the 8,phlogiston#c ,theory40 ,we can but smile at the absurdity of this belief1 and yet no hypothesis was ever taught more positively1 or maintained more tenaciously4 ,it declared1 in brief1 that when substances burned1 they parted with a certain material called phlogiston4 ,when1 at length1 its advocates were asked to explain the fact1 discovered by ,dr4 ,priestly1#e that quicksilver1 when burned1 weighed more than before1 they were forced to put forward the ridiculous statement that phlogiston possessed the property of 8buoyancy0 so that when it was contained in a body its weight was lessened2 which was as wise as the brilliant supposition that a person can lift himself over a fence by tugging at his boot straps4 ,after a fierce struggle they were forced to confess that they had placed 8the cart before the horse40 ,the truth was precisely opposite to their statement4 ,substances when they burn take up something instead of giving it off4 ,that something is oxygen1 and a body when burned1 if it can be weighed1 will be found to weigh as much more as the added weight of the oxygen which has united with it4 ,example3 ,iron-rust is iron1 plus oxygen4 ,illustration3 ,,magnesium ,,ribbon ,,burning1 ,,and ,,producing ,,magnesic ,,oxide 7,mg,o74#d ,,the ,,true ,,explanation4 ,we shall here confine ourselves to the consideration of the heat and light produced by chemical action4 ,it will be remembered that by this term 7chemical action7 is meant the process of uniting two or more different elements to form a compound different from either4 ,we usually consider air essential to combustion1 but this is not necessarily the fact4 ,gold foil or powdered antimony1 dropped into a jar of chlorine1 spontaneously ignites4 ,even in the interior of the earth1 heat must be produced by the uniting of any elements that have an affinity for each other4 ,illustration3 ,,boracic ,,acid ,,imparts ,a ,,green ,,color ,,to ,,the ,,flame ,,of ,,alcohol4#f ,the most common agent of combustion is oxygen4 ,of this interesting gas some description has been given in a preceding article4 ,it is the fruitful source of almost all of our artificial heat4 ,the fallen tree in the forest is slowly consumed by it1 not less surely than the flaming wood and coal in our stoves4 ,the human body is a furnace4 ,in the minute corpuscles#g of the blood1 carbon is uniting with oxygen as certainly as are the particles of carbon in the flame of our lamps4 ,oxygen is the scavenger that partially cleans our gutters4 ,it is a bird of prey that devours the offal in our fields and woods4 ,it is nothing less than the gnawing tooth of old ,father ,time himself1 which crumbles cities and destroys all things4 ,combustion1 as we now know it1 consists simply in the union of some combustible material with oxygen4 ,the generic term for all this action is 8oxidation40 ,for convenience1 special names are given to particular modes4 ,when metallic oxidation occurs we call the product 8rusting40 ,when oxygen unites with vegetable matter we call it decaying or rotting2 when with animal substances we term it rotting or putrefaction4 ,when flame is produced1 the word combustion or burning is used4 ,the amount of heat generated is1 in all cases1 proportioned to the amount of chemical action4 ,great ingenuity and skill have been shown in the discovery and utilization of materials best calculated to combine readily with oxygen4 ,to these1 as a class1 has been applied the term ,,hydro-,,carbons4 ,all substances composed essentially of the elements1 hydrogen and carbon1 would come under this designation4 ,these would include coal1 wood1 petroleum1 the fats1 resins1 wax and many others1 with some of the gases1 among which may be named light and heavy carburetted hydrogen1 ,,ch and ,c,h respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,phosphorus ,,burning ,,in ,,oxygen4#h ,in the days of our grandfathers tallow candles were almost universally employed for lighting houses1 and wood for warming them4 ,it would not be impossible to find even now1 in our own country1 homes illuminated 787 by a rag burning in a saucer of fat4 ,some of us are not too young to remember the bundle of candle-rods--nice1 straight sticks used in dipping candles--snugly put away for that purpose1 alas6 sometimes summoned forth to assist in enforcing family discipline6 ,illustration3 ,,green ,,fire ,,colored ,,by ,a ,,salt ,,of ,,barium4#i ,strands of twisted cotton wick were suspended from these sticks1 and successively dipped into a kettle of hot tallow1 until external additions made them of the requisite size4 ,tin candle moulds finally superseded these4 ,then the wick was suspended in the center and the fat poured in4 ,in cooling1 the candles contracted1 and so slipped easily from the moulds4 ,wax candles can not be cast in moulds1 as they expand in cooling4 ,they are made by pouring successive additions upon them4 ,they are afterward given symmetrical form by rolling and shaping4 ,along the sea coast ,i have seen women and children gathering bay berries1#aj a fruit about as large as a grain of black pepper and covered with a grayish-white1 fragrant wax4 ,when these seeds are placed in hot water the wax dissolves and serves the same purpose as tallow1 making delightfully aromatic candles4 ,many of the hydro-carbons possess an agreeable odor4 ,sometimes the woodmen gather the bark and chips of the hickory to smoke hams and shoulders on account of the peculiarly pleasant flavor they impart4 ,in burning1 a candle or lamp becomes a gas factory1 manufacturing and consuming its own product4 ,the flame consists of three cones4 ,the first1 that next to the wick1 is composed solely of gas4 ,it is not hot1 as can be shown by thrusting the end of a match into it1 the match will not ignite4 ,if the match be placed across the flame at the same point it will burn at the edges1 but not in the center4 ,a more striking illustration of the fact that the flame is hot only where it comes in contact with the air1 can be shown in the following manner3 ,place on the bottom of an inverted plate some alcohol1 in the center set a tiny saucer containing powder2 ignite the alcohol1 and the powder will remain undisturbed in the center of the surrounding flame until a draft brings the edge of the flame against the powder1 when it will at once explode4 ,look steadily at the flame of an ordinary candle and you can readily discern the three cones2 the first is gas1 the second gas in rapid combination with the oxygen of the air1 the third the products of this combination--watery vapor1 carbonic anhydride1 and1 possibly1 some unconsumed carbon4 ,illustration3 ,,red ,,fire ,,colored ,,by ,a ,,salt ,,of ,,strontium4#aa ,the process that goes on in our stoves is essentially the same4 ,the carbon and hydrogen of the wood or coal unite with the oxygen that passes through the draft4 ,now note a wonderful provision for our comfort4 ,it has already been remarked that the product of combustion consists of the thing burned1 plus oxygen4 ,suppose1 in the case of our fires1 this product were a solid1 we should then be forced to take out of the stove more material than we put in4 ,the ,creator has1 however1 provided that these resulting materials shall take the form of gas or vapor1 so that they can float away4 ,the ashes that remain form but a small part of the whole4 ,the two most common products of combustion are watery vapor and carbonic anhydride4 ,the illumination of our towns and cities has long been accomplished by the use of gas manufactured from coal4 ,bituminous coal is used for this purpose1 and the process consists in heating it to destructive distillation1 and afterward condensing and absorbing such portions of the volatilized materials as might clog the gas pipes or interfere with perfect combustion4 ,nature1 it is now known1 has her own gas works1 on an immense scale4 ,thirty-five years ago the village of ,fredonia1 ,n4 ,y41 was partially lighted with gas1 and the supply is still unexhausted4 ,indeed1 of late1 many private individuals have sunk pipes two or three hundred feet1 and thus supplied their homes with gas for illuminating1 heating1 and cooking purposes4 ,in ,butler and ,mc,kean counties1 ,pennsylvania1 the production of these gas wells is enormous4 ,many have been burning day and night for years1 while others have been utilized for heating and lighting towns and cities4 ,gas is now extensively used in rolling mills for smelting iron4 ,petroleum1 or rock oil1 which is usually associated with this natural gas1 has now become of immense value to this and other lands4 ,it is one of the chief articles of export from this country1 ranking perhaps as fourth4 ,wells have recently been struck in ,pennsylvania that flowed #e1jjj and #f1jjj barrels per day4 ,illustration3 ,,sodium ,,burning ,,on ,,hot ,,water4#ab ,there is reason to believe that this material is the product of distillation of organic matter in the earth4 ,it is found in porous rock1 usually coarse sand1 at depths varying from three hundred to two thousand feet4 ,when the rock above the sand containing oil is tight1 the gas is often retained1 which by its expansion presses upon the oil and forces it to the surface through the pipes put down for this purpose4 ,this produces a flowing well4 ,when the gas has escaped a pump is necessary4 ,the most useful hydro-carbon now employed is coal4 ,its use was first introduced in the latter part of the twelfth century1 and as late as the thirteenth century petitions were made by residents of ,london demanding its exclusion1 on account of its injurious effect on the health4 ,but now1 ,great ,britain mines annually more than one hundred million tons of coal4 ,its uses are manifold4 ,by it ,england has multiplied her power a thousand fold4 ,it is almost always employed in generating steam1 and the aggregate steam power of ,england is equal to the productive laboring force of four hundred millions of men1 or 8twice the power of the adult working population of the globe40 ,most countries know its value4 ,illustration3 ,,pouring ,,carbon ,,di-,,oxide ,,from ,,one ,,vessel ,,into ,,another ,,to ,,extinguish ,,flame4#ac ,coal is the key that unlocks for us the treasures of the iron ore4 ,it seizes upon the oxygen in the ore1 and liberates the pure metal4 ,by a wonderful provision they often exist in the same mountain1 side by side4 ,i have seen in ,pennsylvania1 running out of the same tunnel in the hills1 car loads of coal and iron ore4 ,among the many advantages possessed by our own country is our immense store of this precious hydro-carbon4 ,with an area of #cjj1jjj1jjj miles of territory1 we have more than #bjj1jjj square miles of known coal producing area1 or one in fifteen4 ,great ,britain has one-half of the coal fields of all ,europe1 but even she has but one square mile of coal to twenty square miles of territory4 ,beside1 our coal seams are of great thickness1 and lie comparatively near the surface4 ,in the far ,west1 vast fields of lignite#ad have been discovered1 so that there seems no prospect of our exhausting our fuel supply for ages to come4 ,the diamond is crystallized carbon1 and can be burned1 though one would hardly care to be warmed by so costly a fire4 ,cleopatra1 in a freak of extravagance1 dissolved a wonderful pearl1 but who could think of the wise queen of ,england using in so wasteful a manner her ,kohinoor4#ae ,six of the great diamonds of the world are called1 by way of eminence1 8,the ,paragons10 and a romantic interest has been attached to this form of carbon among all nations4 ,in point of fact1 however1 the black diamonds of the coal pit are more interesting1 and of far greater value to mankind than these glittering gems from ,golconda1#af ,brazil and the ,dark ,continent4#ag ,,temperance ,,teachings ,,of ,,science2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,poison ,,problem4 ,,by ,,felix ,l4 ,,oswald1 ,m4,d4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,prohibition4 8,rugged or not1 there is no other way40--,luther4 ,the champions of temperance have to contend with two chief adversaries--ignorance and organized crime4 ,the well-organized liquor league can boast of leaders whose want of principles is not extenuated by want of information1 and who deliberately scheme to coin the misery of their fellowmen into dollars and cents4 ,but the machinations of such enemies of mankind would not have availed them against the power of public opinion1 if their cunning had not found a potent ally in the ignorance1 not of their victims only1 but of their passive opponents4 ,we need the moral and intellectual support of a larger class of our fellow-citizens1 before we can hope to secure the effectual aid of legal remedies1 and in that direction the chief obstacles to the progress of our cause have been the prevailing misconceptions on the following points3 #a4 ,,competence ,,of ,,legislative ,,power4--,there can be no doubt that the legislative authority even of civilized governments has been frequently misapplied4 ,the most competent exponents of political economy agree that the state has no business to meddle in such affairs as the fluctuation of market prices1 the rate of interest1 the freedom of international traffic4 ,on more than one occasion ,european governments1 having attempted to regulate the price of bread-stuffs1 etc41 were taught the folly of such interference by commercial dead-locks and the impossibility of procuring the necessaries of life at the prescribed price1 and were thus compelled to remedy the mischief by repealing their enactments4 ,usury laws tend to increase1 instead of decreasing1 the rate of interest1 by obliging the usurer to indemnify himself for the disadvantage of the additional risk4 ,the attempt to increase national revenues by enforcing an artificial balance of trade has ever defeated its own object4 ,it is almost equally certain that compulsory charities do on the whole more harm than good4 ,on the other hand1 there are no more undoubtedly legitimate functions of government than the suppression1 and the1 if possible1 prevention1 of crime1 and the enforcement of health laws2 and it can be demonstrated by every rule of logic and equity that the liquor traffic can be held amenable in both respects4 ,the favorite argument of our opponents is the distinction of crime and vice4 ,for the latter1 they tell us1 society has no remedy1 except in as much as the natural consequences 7disease1 destitution1 etc47 are apt to recoil on the person of the perpetrator2 the evil of intemperance therefore is beyond the reach of the law4 ,we may fully concede the premises without admitting the cogency of the conclusion4 ,the suspected possession or private use of intoxicating liquors would hardly justify the issue of a search warrant1 but the penalties of the law can with full justice be directed against the manufacturer or vender who seeks gain by tempting his fellowmen to indulge in a poison infallibly injurious in any quantity1 and infallibly tending to the development of a body and soul corrupting habit2 they may with equal justice be directed against the consumer1 stupefied or brutalized by the effects of that poison4 ,the rumseller has no right to plead the consent of his victim4 ,the absence of violence or 8malice prepense10#a is a plea that would legalize some of the worst offenses against society4 ,the peddler of obscene literature poisons the souls of our children without a shadow of ill-will against his individual customer4 ,the gambler1 the lottery-shark1 use no manner of force in the pursuit of their prey4 ,by what logic can we justify the interdiction of their industry and condemn that of the liquor traffic8 ,by the criterion of comparative harmlessness8 ,have all the indecencies published since the invention of printing occasioned the thousandth part of the misery caused by the yearly and inevitable consequences of the poison vice8 ,the lottery player may lose or win1 but the customer of the liquor vender is doomed to loss as soon as he approaches the dram-shop4 ,the damage sustained by the habitual player may be confined to a loss of money1 while the habitual drunkard is sure to suffer in health1 character and reputation1 as well as in purse4 ,and shall we condone the conduct of the befuddled drunkard on account of a temporary suspense of conscious reason8 ,that very dementation constitutes his offense4 ,his actions may or may not result in actual mischief1 but he has put the decision of that event beyond his control4 ,the man who gallops headlong through crowded streets is punished for his reckless disregard of other men's safety1 though the hoofs of his horse may have failed to inflict any actual injury4 ,a menagerie keeper would be arrested1 if not lynched1 for turning a city into a pandemonium by letting loose his bears and hyenas1 and for the same reason no man should be permitted to turn himself into a wild beast4 8,virtue must come from within10 says ,prof4 ,newman2#b 8to this problem religion and morality must direct themselves4 ,but vice may come from without2 to hinder this is the care of the statesman40 ,and here1 as elsewhere1 prevention is better than cure4 ,by obviating the temptations of the dram-shop a progressive vice with an incalculable train of mischievous consequences may be nipped in the bud4 ,penal legislation is a sham if it takes cognizance of moral evils only after they have passed the curable stage4 8,it is mere mockery10 says ,cardinal ,manning1#c 8to ask us to put down drunkenness by moral and religious means1 when the legislature facilitates the multiplication of the incitements to intemperance on every side4 ,you might as well call upon me as a captain of a ship and say3 #8,why don't you pump the water out when it is sinking1' when you are scuttling the ship in every direction4 ,if you will cut off the supply of temptation1 ,i will be bound by the help of ,god to convert drunkards1 but until you have taken off this perpetual supply of intoxicating drink we never can cultivate the fields4 ,let the legislature do its part and we will answer for the rest40 ,all civilized nations have recognized not only the right but the duty of legislative authorities to adopt the most stringent measures for the prevention of contagious disease2 yet all epidemics taken together have not caused half as much loss of life and health as the plague of the poison vice4 #b4 ,,magnitude ,,of ,,the ,,evil4--,since health and freedom began to be recognized as the primary conditions of human welfare1 the conviction is gaining ground that the principles of our legislative system need a general revision4 ,it was a step in the right direction when the lawgivers of the ,middle ,ages began to realize the truth that the liberty of individual action should be sacrificed only to urgent consideration of public welfare1 but the modified theories on the comparative importance of these considerations have inaugurated a still more important reform4 ,penal codes gradually ceased to enforce ceremonies and abstruse dogmas and to ignore monstrous municipal and sanitary abuses4 ,the time has passed when legislators raged with extreme penalties against the propagandists of speculative theories and ignored the propagation of slum diseases1 yet1 after all1 there is still a lingering belief in the minds of many contemporaries that intemperance1 as a physical evil1 a 8mere dietetic excess10 does not justify the invasion of personal liberty4 ,they would consent to restrict the freedom of thought and speech rather than the license of the rum-dealer1 yet the tendency of a progressive advance in public opinion promises the advent of a time when that license will appear the chief anomaly of the present age4 ,the numberless minute prescriptions and interdicts of our law books and their silence on the crime of the liquor traffic will make it difficult for coming ages to comprehend the intellectual status of a generation that could wage such uncompromising war against microscopic gnats and consent to gratify the greed of a monstrous vampire4 #c4 ,,self-,,correcting ,,abuses4--,modern physicians admit that various forms of disease which were formerly treated with drastic drugs can be safely trusted to the healing agencies of nature4 ,many social evils1 too1 tend to work out their own cure4 ,high markets encourage competition and have led to a reduction of prices4 ,luxury leads to enforced economy by reducing the resources of the spendthrift4 ,dishonest tradesmen lose custom1 and a ,german government that used to fine editors for publishing unverified rumors might have left it to the subscribers to withdraw their patronage from a purveyor of unreliable news4 ,but there are certain causes of disease that demand the interference of art4 ,poisons1 especially1 require artificial antidotes4 ,if a child has mistaken arsenic for sugar1 its life commonly depends on the timely arrival of a physician4 ,the organism may rid itself of a surfeit1 but is unable to eliminate the virus of a skin disease4 ,alcoholism belongs to the same class of disorders4 ,we need not legislate against corsets2 the absurdities of fashion change and vanish like fleeting clouds1 and their votaries may welcome the change2 but drunkards would remain slaves of their vice though the verdict of public opinion should have made dram-drinking extremely unfashionable4 ,the morbid passion transmitted from sire to son1 and strengthened by years of indulgence1 would defy all moral restraints and yield only to the practical impossibility to obtain the object of its desire4 8,a number of years ago10 says ,dr4 ,isaac ,jennings1 8,i was called to the shipyard in ,derby1 to see ,john ,b41 a man about thirty years of age1 of naturally stout1 robust constitution1 who had fallen from a scaffold in a fit1 head first upon a spike below4 ,in my visit to dress the wounded head1 ,i spoke to him of the folly and danger of continuing to indulge his habit of drinking1 and obtained from him a promise that he would abandon it4 ,not long after ,i learned that he was drinking again1 and reminded him of his promise4 ,his excuse was1 that it would not do for him to abandon the practice of drinking suddenly4 ,a few weeks after this he called at my office and requested me to bleed him1 or do something to prevent a fit1 for he felt much as he did a short time before having the last fit4 ,i said to him1 #8,john1 sit down here with me and let us consider your case a little4' ,i drew two pictures and held before him2 one presented a wife and three little children with a circle of friends made happy and himself respectable and useful in society2 the other1 a wretched family1 and himself mouldering in a drunkard's grave2 and appealed to him to decide which should prove to be the true picture4 ,the poor fellow burst into tears and wept like a child4 ,when he had recovered himself from sobbing so that he could speak he said3 #8,doctor1 to tell you the truth1 it is not that ,i am afraid of the consequences of stopping suddenly that ,i do not give up drinking4 ,i can not do it4 ,i have tried and tried again1 but it is all in vain4 ,sometimes ,i have gone a number of weeks without drinking1 and ,i flattered myself that the temptation was gone1 but it returned1 and now if there was a spot on earth where men lived and could not get spirits1 and ,i could get there1 ,i would start in a minute4' ,i thought ,i had understood something of the difficulties of hard drinkers before1 but this gave me a new impression of the matter1 and most solemnly did ,i charge myself to do what ,i could to make a spot on earth where men could live and couldn't get spirits40 #d4 ,,lesser ,,evils4--,even in a stricter form than any rational friend of temperance would desire its enforcement1 prohibition would not involve any consequences that could possibly make the cure a greater evil than the disease4 ,the predicted aching void resulting from the expurgation of beer-tunnels could be filled by healthier means of recreation4 ,the grief of the superseded poison-mongers would not outweigh the mountain-load of misery and woe which the abolishment of their cursed trade would lift from the shoulders of the nation4 ,when the state of ,iowa declared for prohibition the opponents of that amendment bemoaned the loss entailed by the departure of 8so many industrious and respectable citizens10 i4 e41 from the exodus of the rumsellers6 ,we might just as well be asked to bewail the doom of the ,thugs#d as the subversion of a prosperous industry4 ,we might as well be requested to sympathize with the respectable bloodhound-trainers and knout-manufacturers whom the abolition of slavery threw out of employment4 ,the liquor dealer has no right to complain about the rigor of a law that permits him to depart with the spoils of such a trade4 ,we are told that the mere rumor of ,maine laws has deterred many foreigners from making their homes with us2 that the ,russian peasants decline to come without their brewers and distillers1 and that by general prohibition we would risk to reduce our immigration from every country of northern ,europe4 ,we must take that risk1 and let ,muscovites rot in the bogs of the ,volga if they can not accept our hospitality without turning our bread corn into poison4 ,our utilitarian friends would hardly persuade us to legalize cannibalism in order to encourage a larger immigration of ,fiji islanders4 ,the absence of such guests might not prove an unqualified evil4 ,i shall not insult the intelligence of my readers by repeating the drivel of the wretches who would weigh the reduction of revenues against the happiness of a hell-delivered nation1 and ,i will only mention the reply of a ,british financier who estimates that the increase of national prosperity would offset that reduction in less than five years4 #e4 ,,efficacy ,,of ,,prohibition4--,will prohibition prevent the use of intoxicating liquor8 ,not wholly1 but it will answer its purpose4 ,it will banish distilleries to secret mountain glens and hidden cellars4 ,it will drive the man-traps of the poison-monger from the public streets4 ,it will save our boys from a hundred temptations2 it will help thousands of reformed drunkards to keep their pledge2 it will restore peace and plenty to many hundred thousand homes4 ,more than a century ago the philosopher ,leibnitz#e maintained that the plenary suppression of the liquor traffic would be the most effectual means for reforming the moral status of civilized nations1 and experience has since fully demonstrated the correctness of that opinion4 ,a memorandum endorsed by a large number of statistical vouchers describes the effect of prohibition in ,sweden3 8,the nation rose and fell1 grew prosperous and happy1 or miserable and degraded1 as its rulers and law-makers restrained or permitted the manufacture and sale of that which all along the track of its history has seemed to be the nation's greatest curse40 ''' 8,the vigorously maintained prohibition against spirits in #agec-agef1 and again in #aggb-agge1 proved the enormous benefits effected in moral1 economical1 and other respects1 by abstinence from intoxicating spirits40 ''' 8,this it is which has so helped ,sweden to emerge from moral and material prostration1 and explains the existence of such general indications in that country of comfort and independence among all classes40 ,from the ,edinburgh ,review for ,january1 #ahgc1 we learn that in eighty-nine private estates in ,england and ,scotland1 8the drink traffic has been altogether suppressed1 with the happiest social results4 ,the late ,lord ,palmerston#f suppressed the beer shops in ,romsey as the leases fell in4 ,we know an estate which stretches for miles along the romantic shore of ,loch ,fyne1#g where no whiskey is allowed to be sold4 ,the peasants and fishermen are flourishing4 ,they have all their money in the bank1 and they obtain higher wages than their neighbors when they go to sea0--a proof that a small oasis of temperance can maintain its prosperity in the midst of poison-blighted communities4 ,here and there the wiles of the poison-mongers will undoubtedly succeed in evading the law1 but their power for mischief will be diminished as that of the gambling-hell was diminished in ,homburg and ,baden1#h where temptation was removed out of the track of the uninitiated till the host of victims dwindled away for want of recruits4 ,not the promptings of an innate passion1 but the charm of artificial allurements is the gate by which ninety-nine out of a hundred drunkards have entered the road to ruin4 ,it would be an understatement to say that the temptation of minors will be reduced a hundred fold wherever the total amount of sales has been reduced as much as five fold--a result which has been far exceeded1 even under the present imperfect system of legal control4 8,in the course of my duty as an ,internal ,revenue officer10 says ,superintendent ,hamlin of ,bangor1 8,i have become thoroughly acquainted with the state and extent of the liquor traffic in ,maine1 and ,i have no hesitation in saying that the beer trade is not more than one per cent4 of what ,i remember it to have been1 and the trade in distilled liquors is not more than ten per cent4 of what it was formerly40 8,i think ,i am justified in saying10 reports the ,attorney-,general1 8that there is not an open bar for the sale of intoxicating liquor in this county0 7,androscoggin1 including the manufacturing district of ,lewiston--once a very hotbed of the rum traffic74 8,in the city of ,biddeford1 a manufacturing place of #aa1jjj inhabitants1 for a month at a time not a single arrest for drunkenness has been made or become necessary40 ,and from ,augusta 7the capital of the state73 8,if we were to say that the quantity of liquor sold here is not one-tenth as large as formerly1 we think it would be within the truth2 and the favorable effects of the change upon all the interests of the state are plainly seen everywhere40 8,it is perhaps not necessary10 says the ,boston ,globe1 of ,july #bi1 #ahge1 8to dwell on the evils of intemperance1 and yet people seldom think how great a proportion of these might be prevented by driving the iniquity into its hiding places1 and preventing it from coming forth to lure its victims from among the unwary and comparatively guileless4 ,few young men who are worth saving1 or are likely to be saved to decency and virtue1 would seek it out if it were kept from sight4 ,but when it comes forth in gay and alluring colors1 it draws a procession of our youth into a path that has an awful termination4 ,nor does the evil which springs from an open toleration of the way in which this vice carries on its traffic of destruction fall only on men4 ,a sad proportion of its victims is made up from shop girls and abandoned women who are not so infatuated at the start that they would plunge into a life of infamy if its temptations were strictly under the ban1 and kept widely separated from the world of decency4 ,but it intruded itself upon them4 ,its temptations and opportunities are before their eyes1 and the way is made easy for their feet to go down to death40 8,to what good is it10 says ,lord ,brougham1#i 8that the legislature should pass laws to punish crime1 or that their lordships should occupy themselves in trying to improve the morals of the people by giving them education8 ,what could be the use of sowing a little seed here and plucking up a weed there1 if these beer shops are to be continued to sow the seeds of immorality broadcast over the land1 germinating the most frightful produce that ever has been allowed to grow up in a civilized country1 and1 ,i am ashamed to add1 under the fostering care of ,parliament40 ,the prohibition of the poison traffic has become the urgent duty of every legislator1 the foremost aim of every moral reformer4 ,the verdict of the most eminent statesmen1 physicians1 clergymen1 patriots and philanthropists1 is unanimous on that point4 ,we lack energy1 not competence1 nor the sanction of a higher authority1 to gain the votes of the masses4 8,we can prove the success of prohibition by the experience of our neighboring state10 writes ,dr4 ,herbert ,buchanan1 of ,portsmouth1 ,new ,hampshire2 8all the vicious elements of society are arraigned against us1 but ,i have no fear of the event if we do not cease to agitate the subject40 ,agitation1 a ceaseless appeal to the common sense and conscience of our fellowmen can1 indeed1 not fail to be crowned with ultimate success4 ,the struggle with vice1 with ignorance and mean selfishness may continue1 but it will be our own fault if our adversaries can support their opposition by a single valid argument1 and the battle will be more than half won if a majority of our fellow-citizens have to admit that we contend no longer for a favor1 but for an evident right4 ,,studies ,,in ,,kitchen ,,science ,,and ,,art4 ,v4 ,,tea1 ,,coffee1 ,,and ,,chocolate4 ,,by ,,byron ,d4 ,,halsted1 ,,sc4 ,d4 ,we have here to consider the sources of the three leading dietetic beverages4 ,they are very unlike in general appearance1 but all possess the same vegetable principle1 called an alkaloid1#a though known under different names4 ,thus modern chemistry has proved the identity of the theine of the tea1 the caffeine#b of the coffee and the theo-bromine#c of the chocolate4 ,this same vegetable alkaloid1 remarkable for its large per cent4 of nitrogen1 is found in small quantities in a few other plants1 most of which have been used to some extent for the making of an exhilarating drink4 ,it answers our purpose best to treat each of our three subjects under its respective head4 ,,tea 7,thea viridis#d74--,the tea of commerce is the prepared leaves of a shrub belonging to the order ,camelliace#e represented in the ,united ,states by loblolly bay#f and ,stuartia4#g ,perhaps the most familiar near relative of the tea plant is the camellia of our green houses and window gardens4 ,the wild tea shrub grows from twenty to thirty feet high1 and is found native in ,china and ,japan4 ,when under cultivation the shrub is pruned so as to not exceed six feet in height4 ,the flowers are large1 white and fragrant2 they are produced in clusters in the axils of the simple1 oblong1 evergreen1 serrate leaves4 ,china and ,japan are among the leading tea-growing countries1 its cultivation being chiefly confined between twenty-five and thirty-five north latitude4 ,tea was in general use in ,china in the ninth century1 but it was not until the seventeenth century that it was introduced into ,europe4 ,about the middle of this century the ,east ,india ,company imported tea into ,england1 since which time it has become the regular beverage of many millions of people in all parts of the world4 ,the importations of tea into the ,united ,states for the year ending ,june #cjth1 #ahhd1 were #fg1ffe1iaj pounds4 ,it will be seen that this gives somewhere near a pound and a quarter of tea for each man1 woman and child in this country4 ,most of our ,china tea trade is carried on with ,shanghai1 ,foo ,chow and ,amoy4 ,in ,china the tea shrub is grown chiefly on the southern slopes of hills in poor1 well watered soil1 to which manure is applied4 ,the seeds are dropped in holes at regular intervals1 and during the third year the first crop is obtained4 ,in from seven to ten years the shrubs are cut down and shoots spring up from the stumps1 which continue to yield crops of leaves4 ,a single plant produces on an average between three hundred and three hundred and fifty pounds of dried leaves4 ,the leaves are picked three times a year1 in ,april1 ,may1 and ,june or ,july4 ,the young1 tender leaves of the first gathering make the best tea1 and this is very largely consumed in its native country4 ,the older leaves of the second and third pickings make a poorer quality of tea which abounds in tannin1#h and contains but a small per cent4 of the best elements of superior tea4 ,it was long supposed that black and green sorts of tea were made from distinct varieties1 or even species of plants2 in fact1 there has been a great deal of mystery surrounding the culture and preparation of tea until within the past score of years4 ,authorities now state that there is only one species of plant yielding tea leaves1 and from this all sorts are made4 ,the differences are natural1 being some of them due to climate and conditions of soil1 etc41 while others are the result of the manipulation of the leaves after they are gathered4 ,black and green tea may come from the same shrub1 or even the same branch of a plant4 ,the leaves forming black tea undergo a fermentation before they are dried1 while those designed for green tea are at once submitted to a high heat in iron pans1 and not copper pans1 as generally supposed4 ,after the leaves for black tea have been gathered they are placed in heaps1 when they become flaccid and turn dark from incipient fermentation4 ,the leaves are then rolled between the thumb and fingers or upon bamboo tables until the desired twist is obtained4 ,they next pass to a drying room and are heated in an iron pan2 again twisted1 and afterward dried over a slow fire4 ,the principal difference between the preparation of black and green tea is that in the latter the freshly gathered leaves go at once into the heated pans4 ,the repeated twisting and heating is nearly the same with both classes4 ,the green teas are sometimes artificially colored by using turmeric#i with gypsum or ,prussian blue4 ,a flavor is frequently given to the tea by adding aromatic flowers1 as those of the pekoe and caper4#aj ,among the leading varieties of black tea are3 ,bohea1 a small leaf1 crisp and strong odor1 with brackish taste2 two sorts of ,congous--the large leaf with fine flavor1 and the small leaf with a burnt smell4 ,the ,souchong is the much prized 8,english ,breakfast10 made from leaves of three-year-old trees4 ,only a small part of the so-called ,souchong is genuine4 ,pekoe is made from the tenderest leaves gathered from three-year-old plants while in bloom4 ,oolongs are common kinds of black teas1 much used for mixing with other sorts4 ,of the green teas the ,gunpowder is round1 like shot1 with green color and fragrant taste4 ,the ,imperial is more loosely rolled than the ,gunpowder4 ,young ,hyson is in loose rolls1 which easily crumble to the touch2 it gives a light green infusion4 ,old ,hyson is the older leaves in the picking for ,young ,hyson4 ,twankay consists of mixed and broken leaves1 and is of inferior quality4 ,japan teas are both colored and uncolored1 and come from ,japan2 they are very largely consumed in this country4 ,the chemical composition of a fair sample of tea is2 ,theine1 #a4 to #c4 per cent42 caseine1#aa #ae42 gum1 #ah42 sugar1 4#c2 tannin1 #bf42 aromatic oil1 4#ge2 fat1 #d42 vegetable fiber1 #bj42 mineral substances1 #e42 and water1 #e4 per cent4 ,the tannin is an astringent1 while the theine acts as a gentle excitant upon the nervous system4 ,this is probably enhanced by the warmth of the infusion4 ,the best authorities agree that tea is a valuable article of diet for healthy1 grown people4 ,it however is not suitable for children until growth is completed4 ,adults with irritable constitutions may be injured by tea-drinking4 ,tea is the solace of old age4 ,cibber#ab wrote3 8,tea6 thou soft1 thou sober1 sage and venerable liquid ''' thou female tongue-running1 smile-smoothing1 heart-opening1 wink-tippling cordial1 to whose glorious insipidity ,i owe the happiest moments of my life1 let me fall prostrate40 ,waller#ac truthfully says3 8,tea doth our fancy aid1 ,repress those vapors which the head invade ,and keep the palace of the soul40 ,tea is extensively adulterated in many ways4 ,in ,china exhausted tea leaves and foliage of other trees are employed by millions of pounds each year4 ,willow leaves are among the principal ones used for mixing with tea4 ,a ,british consul once related that at ,shanghai there were at one time #ec1jjj pounds of willow leaves in preparation to be sold as tea4 ,mineral matters are used to color or 8face0 the tea4 8,the common test10 states ,mr4 ,felker1 in his work 8,what the ,grocers ,sell ,us10 8is by infusion2 this is poured off the leaves and examined for color1 taste1 and odor1 all of which are characteristic4''' ,impurities like sand1 iron filings and dirt may be seen among the leaves or at the bottom of the cups4 ,the leaves1 too1 betray by their coarseness and botanical character1 the nature and quality of the tea1 for although the leaves of the genuine tea differ much in form and size1 yet their venation and general structure are very distinctive4''' #8,lie tea1' used to adulterate ,gunpowder tea1 consists of tea dust mixed with mineral substances1 starch and gum1 and then formed into little masses resembling tea40 ,large tea houses employ professional tea tasters who make steepings and judge upon the flavor1 purity1 etc4 ,,coffee4--,the coffee of commerce is the seed of a shrub1 ,coffea ,arabica1#ad belonging to the order ,rubiace1#ae which is represented in the ,united ,states by the charming little 8bluets0 of our pastures in spring4 ,the cape jessamine and bouvardias#af of the green house are near relatives of the coffee plant4 ,the name coffee is probably derived from the ,arabic word ,kahwah1 although some authorities contend that it is traced to ,caffa1 a province of ,abyssinia1 where the coffee plant flourishes in the wild state4 ,the coffee shrub is an evergreen1 growing to the height of twenty feet1 with long1 smooth1 shining leaves4 ,the pure white flowers are produced in clusters in the axils of the leaves and followed by fleshy berries which1 when ripe1 resemble small1 dark red cherries4 ,each berry usually contains two seeds embedded in the yellowish pulp4 ,these seeds1 when separated from the pulp and papery covering1 form the raw coffee of the stores4 ,each seed--improperly called a berry--is somewhat hemispherical1 with a groove running through the middle of the flat side4 ,sometimes one seed is abortive in the berry1 and the other becomes round1 as in the ,wynaad coffee from ,india1 sometimes called 8male berry0 coffee4 ,coffee is cultivated in many countries lying between fifteen north and fifteen south latitude4 ,it may be successfully grown thirty degrees from the equator4 ,like the tea plant1 the coffee shrub favors the well watered mountain slopes4 ,the trees are set in long1 straight rows1 six feet apart1 and six feet from each other in the row4 ,the coffee tree is naturally a plant with long1 straggling shoots1 but under cultivation it is pruned to make a shrub not exceeding six feet in height1 with long1 lateral branches4 ,a full crop should be obtained the third year4 ,the berries are gathered when the pulp begins to shrivel1 and are at once taken to the store-house1 where they are pulped4 ,the berries are passed between large1 rough rollers1 which remove the pulp1 but not the parchment-like covering of the seeds4 ,the berries with the pulp removed are heaped up1 covered with old sacking1 and allowed to ferment for two days4 ,water is turned on and all glutinous matter removed4 ,the seeds are spread out to dry1 after which they are passed between wooden cylinders that remove the thin1 dry covering4 ,the coffee seeds1 after being winnowed1 are assorted into various sizes and packed ready for shipment4 ,a thrifty shrub yields two pounds of marketable coffee4 ,the raw coffee seed has a horny texture1 without the peculiar aroma characteristic of the roasted berry4 ,the early history of coffee is obscure4 ,it has been in use for over a thousand years4 ,the knowledge of its use was first brought into ,arabia from ,abyssinia in the fifteenth century4 8,its peculiar property of dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken advantage of in connection with the prolonged religious services of the ,mohametans1 and its use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up a fierce opposition on the part of the priests4 ,coffee was by them held to be an intoxicant beverage1 and therefore prohibited by the ,koran2#ag and the dreadful penalties of an outraged sacred law were laid over the heads of all who became addicted to its use4 ,notwithstanding the threats of divine retribution1 and though all manner of devices were adopted to check its growth1 the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly among the ,arabians1 ,mohametans1 and the growth of coffee as well as its use as a national beverage became as inseparably associated with ,arabia as tea is with ,china40 ,coffee reached ,great ,britain in the seventeenth century4 ,charles ,,ii4 attempted to suppress coffee houses by proclamation1 because they 8devised and spread abroad divers false1 malicious and scandalous reports to the defamation of his ,majesty's government and to the peace and quiet of the nation40 ,how different is this view from that held by those interested in good government1 peace and prosperity at the present day6 ,we now rejoice in the establishment of coffee houses1 hoping that they may supplant the much dreaded rum shops4 ,it is worthy of note here that the three dietetic beverages treated in this article were all introduced into ,europe at nearly the same time4 ,tea came through the ,dutch2 cocoa was brought from ,south ,america to ,spain1 and coffee came from ,arabia by the way of ,constantinople4 ,coffee was for some time supplied only by ,arabia1 but near the beginning of the eighteenth century its culture was introduced into ,java and the ,west ,india islands4 ,at the present day its culture is general within the tropics1 ,brazil leading the list in amount annually produced4 ,in the ,eastern hemisphere the principal coffee regions are ,java and ,ceylon1 where a superior article is produced4 ,the amount of coffee imported into the ,united ,states during the year ending ,june #cjth1 #ahhd1 was #ecd1ghe1edb pounds1 and #ah1ijg1fbg pounds in excess of the previous year4 ,it is seen that these figures give nearly ten pounds for each individual in this vast country4 ,this amount per capita is exceeded by only a few countries4 ,holland leads all ,european states1 with an average of twenty-one pounds per head1 followed closely by ,belgium1 ,denmark and ,norway4 ,the dietetic value of coffee depends principally upon the alkaloid caffeine or theine which it contains in common with tea and cocoa or chocolate4 ,good coffee contains nearly one per cent4 of this substance4 ,when obtained in a pure state it crystallizes in slender needles4 ,the peculiar aroma of coffee is due to the presence of caffeone1#ah which develops in the process of roasting4 ,it may be isolated as a brown oil1 heavier than water1 by distilling roasted coffee with water4 ,the roasting of coffee is an operation requiring much good judgment1 for by carrying the process beyond a certain point the aroma is destroyed and a disagreeable flavor is produced4 ,roasted coffee when ground quickly deteriorates unless kept in close vessels4 ,mocha coffee1 which is brought from ,arabia1 is the best1 and that from ,java ranks next4 ,much of the so-called ,mocha coffee is raised in ,brazil1 or elsewhere1 and shipped to ,arabia1 after which it finds its way into the markets4 ,the berries of the true ,mocha coffee are small1 dark and yellow2 those of ,java are a paler yellow1 while the ,west ,india and ,brazilian coffees have a greenish-gray tint4 ,the last named coffee is usually sold under the name of ,rio1 an abbreviation of the leading coffee exporting port of ,brazil1 namely1 ,rio de ,janeiro2 ,martinique and ,st4 ,domingo coffees are two other kinds but little known4 ,coffee is principally valuable for its stimulating effects upon the system4 ,it produces a buoyancy of feeling1 lightens the sensation of fatigue1 and sustains the muscles when under prolonged exertion4 ,a cup of rich1 hot coffee seems to infuse new life into an o'er-tired body4 ,equally with tea it is 8the cup that cheers1 but not inebriates40 8,coffee which makes the politician wise ,and see through all things with his half-shut eyes40 ,coffee is the subject of many adulterations1 usually when sold in the ground state4 ,several kinds of seeds resembling coffee in size have been employed to adulterate the whole coffee1 some of which need to be colored before they will pass for the genuine4 ,many kinds of roots are sliced1 dried and roasted for the adulteration of coffee1 among the leading ones of which are chicory1 carrot and the beet4 ,spent tanbark and even dried beef's liver have been thus employed4 ,many of these fraudulent additions can be detected with the microscope4 ,ground coffee floats on water1 while most of the adulterations will sink or discolor the water4 ,there is said to be a machine in ,england for making false berries out of vegetable substance4 ,,chocolate4--,the chocolate of the shops is derived from a small evergreen tree1 native of ,south ,america1 ,mexico1 and ,west ,indias4 ,this tree1 ,theobroma cacao1 has large1 pointed leaves and rose-colored flowers1 which are followed by fruit pods six to ten inches long4 ,the first part of the botanical name is from the ,greek meaning 8food for the gods10 and the second or specific word cacao is the old ,mexican name for the tree4 ,the order ,sterculiace#ai to which the theobroma or chocolate tree belongs is not represented in our flora4 ,it however is known to many by a species of ,mahernia#bj from the cape of ,good ,hope1 cultivated in conservatories4 ,the order contains about #ebj species1 nearly all of which are tropical4 ,the long pods1 while green1 resemble cucumbers1 and when ripe contain from thirty to an hundred seeds1 arranged in rows1 and of the size of sweet almonds4 ,during the season of ripening the pods are gathered daily1 laid in heaps until they have fermented1 when they are opened by hand and the seeds spread in the sun to dry1 after which they are ready for market4 ,before the ,spaniards visited ,mexico the natives made a beverage from the seeds1 which they called chocalat1 and from this we derived our word chocolate4 ,the ,spaniards have the credit of introducing this beverage into ,europe4 ,in the manufacture of chocolate the cocoa 7which is a corruption of the original ,mexican cacao7 beans are roasted similar to the roasting of coffee1 and after the husk is removed they are reduced to a paste4 ,this paste is afterward mixed with equal quantities of sugar and heated and turned into cakes of various shapes familiar to all housekeepers4 ,cacao nibs are the bruised and broken seeds1 and cocoa shells are the thin coverings of the seeds or beans which are separated before the seeds are ground to powder4 ,broma is chocolate prepared for the market in a certain way1 and is a trade name4 ,the importations of chocolate for the year ending ,june #cjth were #ab1bce1cjd pounds1 being an increase of nearly thirty-five per cent4 over the previous year4 ,of the three leading beverages herein briefly described tea is the only one that has been grown as a crop in the ,united ,states4 ,in a reply to an inquiry recently addressed to the ,commissioner of ,agriculture1 it was stated that the tea plant is hardy at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 and that the tea plantations near ,summerville1 ,south ,carolina1 are doing well4 8,there is no trouble about growing the plant1 but the question of profitable culture for the manufacture of tea is quite another thing4''' ,the purpose of the ,department of ,agriculture ''' is to cheapen the present methods or possibly suggest the placing of the teas on the market in a wholly different shape from what is done at present40 ,we may be able to supply our own demands for tea1 but it is not likely that the same will be true of coffee and chocolate4 ,,household ,,beverages4 ,at the breakfast table of a friend not long ago ,i heard the gentleman of the house remark over his fragrant coffee3 8,i laughed at my wife when she went into the cooking school last summer1 ,i thought her a model cook before2 but for some reason she has improved4 ,i never tasted such coffee as this40 ,my hostess answered3 8,the reason is simple enough4 ,i had always cooked by rule before4 ,i learned in my studies in cookery to reason4 ,it makes a great difference40 ,it does make a difference1 and never a greater than in preparing tea1 coffee and chocolate4 ,there is rarely a cup of any one of these beverages on our tables which is fit to drink2 our coffee is bitter and muddy1 tea is either insipid or too strong1 and chocolate has failed to become the popular drink which it deserves to be1 because so rarely well prepared4 ,few cooks understand the nature of either the coffee berry or the tea leaf1 and consequently do not know how to treat them in order to extract their delicious flavor1 aroma1 and nerve-bracing qualities4 ,few cooks have an idea of the extreme delicacy of these articles1 of how scientifically1 even artistically1 they must be treated4 ,to extract an oil or flavor is one of the nicest experiments of the laboratory1 and one for which a chemist selects his materials with the greatest care1 attends strictly to the cleanliness of his vessels1 watches every change in temperature1 and counts even seconds in time4 ,making these beverages is nothing less than performing a delicate chemical experiment1 and yet we are so ignorant or careless about this important work that we attend strictly to neither heat nor time1 and often take just what we can most easily get to work with4 ,if you would have good tea1 coffee and chocolate begin your care with your buying4 ,tea is a most troublesome article to purchase4 ,there are so many varieties on the market1 and so much adulteration that the probability is that unless you are taking extreme precautions you are getting an inferior article4 ,adulteration is astonishingly common1 poor teas being manipulated to make them appear like the first-class grades2 inferior black teas colored to look like high-priced green teas1 8lie tea0 sold in vast quantities1 and made-over teas#a made to pass for fresh4 ,how to obtain the genuine article is the housewife's first problem4 ,careful examination may be made under the microscope for coloring matter1 the tea may be soaked to see if it unrolls into true leaves1 or after washing it in a little water the liquid may be tested with chemicals for foreign substances4 ,but all this means trouble that few housewives care to take4 ,probably the most practical plan is to find by careful experiment a thoroughly reliable#b tea-house and then confine your patronage to it4 ,a pound of tea bought here and another there1 as convenience may dictate or some friend advise1 will insure you nothing but adulteration4 ,the only safe plan is to find a house which sells good tea4 ,your tea bought1 it must be prepared4 ,in making a cup of tea the chemical composition and the effect of each step in its preparation must be observed or your draught will be ruined4 ,the constituents in the leaf which you must look after are the theine1 the aromatic oil1 and the tannin4 ,your tea must be treated in such a way that the first two1 which give to the drink its flavor and aroma1 will be extracted1 but that the bitter tannin will be left undeveloped4 ,the theine and oil are both volatile substances1 so that if your tea is steeped too long1 or if it is boiled1 they will literally fly away1 while the tannin extracted will turn your cup into a bitter1 herby drink4 ,a rule is easily formulated from this bit of science3 ,into a perfectly clean tea-pot1 just scalded with boiling hot water1 put a heaping tablespoonful of tea for each person1 and upon it pour a cup and a half of boiling water for each spoonful4 ,cover your pot with a 8cosy0#c if you have one1 and let it stand on the back of the range1 where it will not boil1 for from five to ten minutes4 ,the length of time required to steep each variety of tea must be determined by experiment1 some varieties taking longer than others4 ,the exact length each housewife must determine when she tries a new kind2 and it may be said of the exact proportion of tea to water that it as well must be determined by experiment4 ,no rule in cooking is inflexible4 ,it must always be modified by the good sense and the scientific care of the cook4 ,the ,english custom of making tea on the table is the prettiest and the most satisfactory4 ,they pour upon the tea required a small quantity of boiling water1 this is placed upon the table1 covered with the 8cosy20 a pot of water taken when boiling from the stove is kept hot by a spirit lamp1 and when the tea is steeped as much boiling water as the quantity of tea used demands is poured into the tea-pot4 ,it is allowed to stand about three minutes and then poured into the cups and on the cream4 ,remember1 cream should always be poured into the cups first for both tea and coffee1 and tea is as much improved by cream as is coffee4 ,the purchase of coffee is beset with the same trouble as that of tea--adulteration4 ,you may get a manufactured berry1 you may get chiccory2 to avoid this careful tests must be applied and only reliable firms patronized4 ,nothing but unbrowned coffee should be bought2 the roasting should be done at home4 ,this process requires particular care4 ,the coffee berry is hard and horny1 water has no effect upon it even when it has been ground4 ,it must be roasted in order that certain constituents may become soluble4 ,these constituents are a fragrant volatile oil called caffeone1 and the caffeine1 which is identical with the theine of tea4 ,by roasting the oil is distributed through the berry and so made soluble1 while the caffeine is developed so that it may be absorbed by water4 ,just the right amount of roasting must be done or the essential constituents will be expelled and the bitter qualities will be made to predominate4 ,i have said that the roasting should be done at home4 ,it may be done in the shops1 of course1 but the operation there is carried on so unscientifically that the aroma is lost on the town instead of being shut up in the berry4 ,only a few days ago1 passing up a business street of a city1 ,i was astonished to find the air heavy with the delicious aroma of coffee4 ,it scented the air for a square1 and only when ,i came to a large grocery store was the mystery explained4 ,the grocer was browning his coffee1 and its odor was serving for an advertisement1 effective1 perhaps1 among the ignorant1 but which would warn every wise housewife not to purchase roasted coffee4 ,the process is best carried on in one of the very nearly perfect coffee roasters to be found in the shops2 if these are not at hand an ordinary dripping pan may be used4 ,it should be covered to prevent loss of aroma1 and should be continually shaken to prevent burning4 ,the entire attention of one person should be given the coffee during this operation4 ,when turned to a rich chestnut brown remove1 keeping covered until quite cool4 ,if left open the aroma escapes very rapidly from warm coffee1 but if kept covered much of that made volatile by the heat is re-absorbed4 ,a tight dish--an air-tight canister is best--must be ready to keep it in4 ,when using1 grind only what you need1 and take care that it is not left coarse1 when the strength can not be extracted1 or that it is not too fine1 when the liquor will be muddy in spite of you2 in this1 as always1 experiment until you know the degree of fineness which ground coffee should have4 ,a heaping tablespoonful of ground coffee to a cup and a half of water is the ordinary proportion for making strong coffee--the only kind which should ever be prepared1 by the way1 the diluting ought always to take place in the cup2 to the required amount of coffee add the white and shell of an egg and cold water to thoroughly wet the whole2 stir up these ingredients in your coffee pot and pour upon them the required amount of boiling hot water4 ,let it boil from ten to fifteen minutes1 pour in half a cup of cold water and remove to the side of the stove where it can not boil4 ,do not boil longer than the exact time which you have found necessary for the kind of coffee you are using1 if you do you lose your flavor and extract in its place a bitter principle which is ruinous4 ,remember always what one of our famous cooks says3 8,there comes a time in baking1 frying or broiling when injured nature revolts and burns up1 but a thing may boil until not a vestige of its original condition remains1 and unless the water evaporates1 it may go on boiling for hours without reminding one by smell or smoke that it is spoiled40 ,your coffee will settle in about five minutes4 ,now if you must use a different coffee urn1 gently pour off the liquor so as not to disturb the grounds4 ,the settling of coffee is an essential point4 ,the regulation method of stirring an egg into the freshly ground berry is undoubtedly best1 but another and more economical practice may take its place4 ,after your freshly roasted berries are cool enough to be easily handled1 add to each pound a fresh egg and stir it in until each kernel is coated smoothly with the mixture4 ,care must be taken that the coffee be not warm enough to cook the egg4 ,when eggs are expensive an economical method is to wash the shells before they are broken1 and use with cold water to settle the coffee4 ,after all these precautions there are still other points to guard4 ,not the least is the condition of the inside of the coffee pot2 it should never be stained1 burnt or coated1 but kept perfectly bright by being washed1 and1 if necessary1 scoured after each meal4 ,it would be a gain in aroma if your coffee pot could always be kept perfectly tight so that none could escape1 and if it could go to the table in the same dish4 ,the pleasant1 suggestive odors which precede a meal are always signs that the most delicious flavors of your coming breakfast1 dinner or tea are escaping1 that through the unskillfulness of your cook you are losing what should give the greatest charm to your meal4 ,caf au lait#d is an excellent drink and easily prepared4 ,make in the usual way a pint of strong coffee1 and into your table urn or a pitcher pour a cup and a half of fresh milk1 scalding hot2 to this add the coffee and let the whole stand for five minutes in a hot place1 or in a kettle of hot water4 ,chocolate is a most delicious drink if properly prepared2 it is1 however1 so often raw1 muddy and strong that we have not been able to educate ourselves to its peculiar disagreeableness4 ,make it by the following rule and you will find it both nutritious and pleasant3 ,select with care the best make of chocolate1 and into a little cold water rub smooth five tablespoonfuls of grated chocolate2 be sure that it be rubbed in smoothly1 a hard particle of chocolate is as unwelcome a visitor in your cup as floating tea leaves or black bobbing bits of coffee berries4 ,so rub it smooth and stir it slowly into five cups of boiling water4 ,let it boil for about five minutes1 and in the meantime heat two cups of milk2 this must be stirred into the boiling chocolate and the whole allowed to simmer for a few minutes longer4 ,you may sweeten it on the fire or in the cup4 ,,huxley ,,on ,,science4,c ,all the time that we are awake we are learning by means of our senses something about the world in which we live and of which we form a part2 we are constantly aware of feeling1 or hearing1 or smelling1 and1 unless we happen to be in the dark1 of seeing2 at intervals we taste4 ,we call the information thus obtained sensation4 ,when we have any of these sensations we commonly say that we feel1 or hear1 or smell1 or see1 or taste something4 ,a certain scent makes us say we smell onions2 a certain flavor1 that we taste apples2 a certain sound1 that we hear a carriage2 a certain appearance before our eyes1 that we see a tree2 and we call that which we thus perceive by the aid of our senses a thing or an object4 ,moreover1 we say of all these things1 or objects1 that they are the causes of the sensations in question1 and that the sensations are the effects of these causes4 ,for example1 if we hear a certain sound1 we say it is caused by a carriage going along the road1 or that it is the effect1 or the consequence1 of a carriage passing along4 ,if there is a strong smell of burning1 we believe it to be the effect of something on fire1 and look about anxiously for the cause of the smell4 ,if we see a tree1 we believe that there is a thing1 or object1 which is the cause of that appearance in our field of view4 ,in the case of the smell of burning1 when we find on looking about1 that something actually is on fire1 we say indifferently either that we have found out the cause of the smell1 or that we know the reason why we perceive that smell2 or that we have explained it4 ,so that to know the reason why of anything1 or to explain it1 is to know the cause of it4 ,but that which is the cause of one thing is the effect of another4 ,thus1 suppose we find some smouldering straw to be the cause of the smell of burning1 we immediately ask what set it on fire1 or what is the cause of its burning8 ,perhaps we find that a lighted lucifer match has been thrown into the straw1 and then we say that the lighted match was the cause of the fire4 ,but a lucifer match would not be in that place unless some person had put it there4 ,that is to say1 the presence of the lucifer match is an effect produced by somebody as cause4 ,so we ask1 why did any one put the match there8 ,was it done carelessly1 or did the person who put it there intend to do so8 ,and if so1 what was his motive1 or the cause which led him to do such a thing8 ,and what was the reason for his having such a motive8 ,it is plain that there is no end to the questions1 one arising out of the other1 that might be asked in this fashion4 ,thus we believe that everything is the effect of something which preceded it as its cause1 and that this cause is the effect of something else1 and so on1 through a chain of causes and effects which goes back as far as we choose to follow it4 ,anything is said to be explained as soon as we have discovered its cause1 or the reason why it exists2 the explanation is fuller1 if we can find out the cause of that cause2 and the further we can trace the chain of causes and effects1 the more satisfactory is the explanation4 ,but no explanation of anything can be complete1 because human knowledge1 at its best1 goes but a very little way back toward the beginning of things4 ,when a thing is found always to cause a particular effect1 we call that effect sometimes a property1 sometimes a power of the thing4 ,thus the odor of onions is said to be a property of onions1 because onions always cause that particular sensation of smell to arise1 when they are brought near the nose2 lead is said to have the property of heaviness1 because it always causes us to have the feeling of weight when we handle it2 a stream is said to have the power to turn a waterwheel1 because it causes the waterwheel to turn2 and a venomous snake is said to have the power to kill a man1 because its bite may cause a man to die4 ,properties and powers1 then1 are certain effects caused by the things which are said to possess them4 ,a great many of the things brought to our knowledge by our senses1 such as houses and furniture1 carriages and machines1 are termed artificial things or objects1 because they have been shaped by the art of man2 indeed1 they are generally said to be made by man4 ,but a far greater number of things owe nothing to the hand of man1 and would be just what they are if mankind did not exist--such as the sky and the clouds2 the sun1 moon and stars2 the sea with its rocks and shingly or sandy shores2 the hills and dales of the land2 and all wild plants and animals4 ,things of this kind are termed natural objects1 and to the whole of them we give the name of ,nature4 ,although this distinction between nature and art1 between natural and artificial things1 is very easily made and very convenient1 it is needful to remember that1 in the long run1 we owe everything to nature2 that even those artificial objects which we commonly say are made by men1 are only natural objects shaped and moved by men2 and that1 in the sense of creating1 that is to say1 of causing something to exist which did not exist in some other shape before1 man can make nothing whatever4 ,moreover1 we must recollect that what men do in the way of shaping and bringing together or separating natural objects1 is done in virtue of the powers which they themselves possess as natural objects4 ,artificial things are1 in fact1 all produced by the action of that part of nature which we call mankind1 upon the rest4 ,we talk of 8making0 a box1 and rightly enough1 if we mean only that we have shaped the pieces of wood and nailed them together2 but the wood is a natural object and so is the iron of the nails4 ,a watch is 8made0 of the natural objects gold and other metals1 sand1 soda1 rubies1 brought together1 and shaped in various ways2 a coat is 8made0 of the natural object1 wool2 and a frock of the natural objects1 cotton or silk4 ,moreover1 the men who make all these things are natural objects4 ,carpenters1 builders1 shoemakers1 and all other artisans and artists1 are persons who have learned so much of the powers and properties of certain natural objects1 and of the chain of causes and effects in nature1 as enables them to shape and put together those natural objects1 so as to make them useful to man4 ,a carpenter could not1 as we say1 8make0 a chair unless he knew something of the properties and powers of wood2 a blacksmith could not 8make0 a horseshoe unless he knew that it is a property of iron to become soft and easily hammered into shape when it is made red-hot2 a brickmaker must know many of the properties of clay2 and a plumber could not do his work unless he knew that lead has the properties of softness and flexibility1 and that a moderate heat causes it to melt4 ,so that the practice of every art implies a certain knowledge of natural causes and effects2 and the improvement of the arts depends upon our learning more and more of the properties and powers of natural objects1 and discovering how to turn the properties and the powers of things and the connections of cause and effect among them to our own advantage4 ,among natural objects1 as we have seen1 there are some that we can get hold of and turn to account4 ,but all the greatest things in nature and the links of cause and effect which connect them1 are utterly beyond our reach4 ,the sun rises and sets2 the moon and the stars move through the sky2 fine weather and storms1 cold and heat1 alternate4 ,the sea changes from violent disturbance to glassy calm1 as the winds sweep over it with varying strength or die away2 innumerable plants and animals come in being and vanish again1 without our being able to exert the slightest influence on the majestic procession of the series of great natural events4 ,hurricanes ravage one spot2 earthquakes destroy another2 volcanic eruptions lay waste a third4 ,a fine season scatters wealth and abundance here1 and a long drought brings pestilence and famine there4 ,in all such cases1 the direct influence of man avails him nothing2 and1 so long as he is ignorant1 he is the mere sport of the greater powers of nature4 ,but the first thing that men learned1 as soon as they began to study nature carefully1 was that some events take place in regular order and that some causes always give rise to the same effects4 ,the sun always rises on one side and sets on the other side of the sky2 the changes of the moon follow one another in the same order and with similar intervals2 some stars never sink below the horizon of the place in which we live2 the seasons are more or less regular2 water always flows down-hill2 fire always burns2 plants grow up from seed and yield seed1 from which like plants grow up again2 animals are born1 grow1 reach maturity1 and die1 age after age1 in the same way4 ,thus the notion of an order of nature and of a fixity in the relation of cause and effect between things gradually entered the minds of men4 ,so far as such order prevailed it was felt that things were explained2 while the things that could not be explained were said to have come about by chance1 or to happen by accident4 ,but the more carefully nature has been studied1 the more widely has order been found to prevail1 while what seemed disorder has proved to be nothing but complexity2 until1 at present1 no one is so foolish as to believe that anything happens by chance1 or that there are any real accidents1 in the sense of events which have no cause4 ,and if we say that a thing happens by chance1 everybody admits that all we really mean is1 that we do not know its cause or the reason why that particular thing happens4 ,chance and accident are only aliases#a of ignorance4 ,at this present moment1 as ,i look out of my window1 it is raining and blowing hard1 and the branches of the trees are waving wildly to and fro4 ,it may be that a man has taken shelter under one of these trees2 perhaps1 if a stronger gust than usual comes1 a branch will break1 fall upon the man1 and seriously hurt him4 ,if that happens it will be called an 8accident10 and the man will perhaps say that by 8chance0 he went out1 and then 8chanced0 to take refuge under the tree1 and so the 8accident0 happened4 ,but there is neither chance nor accident in the matter4 ,the storm is the effect of causes operating upon the atmosphere1 perhaps hundreds of miles away2 every vibration of a leaf is the consequence of the mechanical force of the wind acting on the surface exposed to it2 if the bough breaks1 it will do so in consequence of the relation between its strength and the force of the wind2 if it falls upon the man it will do so in consequence of the action of other definite natural causes2 and the position of the man under it is only the last term in a series of causes and effects1 which have followed one another in natural order1 from that cause1 the effect of which was his setting out1 to that the effect of which was his stepping under the tree4 ,but1 inasmuch as we are not wise enough to be able to unravel all these long and complicated series of causes and effects which lead to the falling of the branch upon the man1 we call such an event an accident4 ,when we have made out by careful and repeated observation that something is always the cause of a certain effect1 or that certain events always take place in the same order1 we speak of the truth thus discovered as a law of nature4 ,thus it is a law of nature that anything heavy falls to the ground if it is unsupported2 it is a law of nature that1 under ordinary conditions1 lead is soft and heavy1 while flint is hard and brittle2 because experience shows us that heavy things always do fall if they are unsupported1 that1 under ordinary conditions1 lead is always soft1 and that flint is always hard4 ,in fact1 everything that we know about the powers and properties of natural objects and about the order of nature may properly be termed a law of nature4 ,but it is desirable to remember that which is very often forgotten1 that the laws of nature are not the causes of the order of nature1 but only our way of stating as much as we have made out of that order4 ,stones do not fall to the ground in consequence of the law just stated1 as people sometimes carelessly say2 but the law is the way of asserting that which invariably happens when heavy bodies at the surface of the earth1 stones among the rest1 are free to move4 ,the laws of nature are1 in fact1 in this respect1 similar to the laws which men make for the guidance of their conduct toward one another4 ,there are laws about the payment of taxes1 and there are laws against stealing or murder4 ,but the law is not the cause of a man's paying his taxes1 nor is it the cause of his abstaining from theft and murder4 ,the law is simply a statement of what will happen to a man if he does not pay his taxes1 and if he commits theft or murder2 and the cause of his paying his taxes1 or abstaining from crime 7in the absence of any better motive7 is the fear of consequences which is the effect of his belief in that statement4 ,a law of man tells what we may expect society will do under certain circumstances2 and a law of nature tells us what we may expect natural objects will do under certain circumstances4 ,each contains information addressed to our intelligence1 and except so far as it ,influences our intelligence1 it is merely so much sound or writing4 ,while there is this much analogy between human and natural laws1 however1 certain essential differences between the two must not be overlooked4 ,human law consists of commands addressed to voluntary agents1 which they may obey or disobey2 and the law is not rendered null and void by being broken4 ,natural laws1 on the other hand1 are not commands1 but assertions respecting the invariable order of nature2 and they remain laws only so long as they can be shown to express that order4 ,to speak of the violation1 or the suspension1 of a law of nature is an absurdity4 ,all that the phrase can really mean is that1 under certain circumstances the assertion contained in the law is not true2 and the just conclusion is1 not that the order of nature is interrupted1 but that we have made a mistake in stating that order4 ,a true natural law is a universal rule1 and1 as such1 admits of no exceptions4 ,again1 human laws have no meaning apart from the existence of human society4 ,natural laws express the general course of nature1 of which human society forms only an insignificant fraction4 ,if nothing happens by chance1 but everything in nature follows a definite order1 and if the laws of nature embody that which we have been able to learn about the order of nature in accurate language1 then it becomes very important for us to know as many as we can of these laws of nature1 in order that we may guide our conduct by them4 ,any man who should attempt to live in a country without reference to the laws of that country would very soon find himself in trouble4 ,and if he were fined1 imprisoned1 or even hanged1 sensible people would probably consider that he had earned his fate by his folly4 ,in like manner1 any one who tries to live upon the face of this earth without attention to the laws of nature will live there for but a very short time1 most of which will be passed in exceeding discomfort2 a peculiarity of natural laws1 as distinguished from those of human enactment1 being that they take effect without summons or prosecution4 ,in fact1 nobody could live for half a day unless he attended to some of the laws of nature2 and thousands of us are dying daily1 or living miserably1 because men have not yet been sufficiently zealous to learn the code of nature4 ,it has already been seen that the practice of all our arts and industries depends upon our knowing the properties of natural objects which we can get hold of and put together2 and though we may be able to exert no direct control over the greater natural objects and the general succession of causes and effects in nature1 yet1 if we know the properties and powers of these objects1 and the customary order of events1 we may elude that which is injurious to us1 and profit by that which is favorable4 ,thus1 though men can nowise alter the reasons or change the process of growth in plants1 yet having learned the order of nature in these matters1 they make arrangements for sowing and reaping accordingly2 they can not make the wind blow1 but when it does blow they take advantage of its known powers and probable direction to sail ships and turn wind-mills2 they can not arrest the lightning1 but they can make it harmless by means of conductors1 the construction of which implies a knowledge of some of the laws of that electricity of which lightning is one of the manifestations4 ,forewarned is forearmed1 says the proverb2 and knowledge of the laws of nature is forewarning of that which we may expect to happen1 when we have to deal with natural objects4 ,no line can be drawn between common knowledge of things and scientific knowledge2 nor between common reasoning and scientific reasoning4 ,in strictness all accurate knowledge is science2 and all exact reasoning is scientific reasoning4 ,the method of observation and experiment1 by which such great results are obtained in science1 is identically the same as that which is employed by every one1 every day of his life1 but refined and rendered precise4 ,if a child acquires a new toy1 he observes its characters and experiments upon its properties2 and we are all of us constantly making observations and experiments upon one thing or another4 ,but those who have never tried to observe accurately will be surprised to find how difficult a business it is4 ,there is not one person in a hundred who can describe the commonest occurrence with even an approach to accuracy4 ,that is to say1 either he will omit something which did occur1 and which is of importance1 or he will imply or suggest the occurrence of something which he did not actually observe1 but which he unconsciously infers must have happened4 ,when two truthful witnesses contradict one another in a court of justice1 it usually turns out that one or other1 or sometimes both1 are confounding their inferences from what they saw with that which they actually saw4 ,a swears that ,b picked his pocket4 ,it turns out that all ,a really knows is that he felt a hand in his pocket when ,b was close to him2 and that ,b was not the thief1 but ,c1 whom ,a did not observe4 ,untrained observers mix up together their inferences from what they see with that which they actually see in the most wonderful way2 and even experienced and careful observers are in constant danger of falling into the same error4 ,scientific observation is such as is at once full1 precise1 and free from unconscious inference4 ,experiment is the observation of that which happens when we intentionally bring natural objects together1 or separate them1 or in any way change the conditions under which they are placed4 ,scientific experiment1 therefore1 is scientific observation1 performed under accurately known artificial conditions4 ,it is a matter of common observation that water sometimes freezes4 ,the observation becomes scientific when we ascertain under what exact conditions the change of water into ice takes place4 ,the commonest experiments tell us that wood floats in water4 ,scientific experiment shows that1 in floating1 it displaces its own weight of the water4 ,scientific reasoning differs from ordinary reasoning in just the same way as scientific observation and experiment differ from ordinary observation and experiment--that is to say1 it strives to be accurate2 and it is just as hard to reason accurately as it is to observe accurately4 ,in scientific reasoning general rules are collected from the observation of many particular cases2 and1 when these general rules are established1 conclusions are deduced from them1 just as in everyday life4 ,if a boy says that 8marbles are hard10 he has drawn a conclusion as to marbles in general from the marbles he happens to have seen and felt1 and has reasoned in that mode which is technically termed induction4 ,if he declines to try to break a marble with his teeth1 it is because he consciously or unconsciously performs the converse operation of deduction from the general rule 8marbles are too hard to break with one's teeth40 ,you will learn more about the process of reasoning when you study logic1 which treats of that subject in full4 ,at present1 it is sufficient to know that the laws of nature are the general rules respecting the behavior of natural objects1 which have been collected from innumerable observations and experiments2 or1 in other words1 that they are inductions from those observations and experiments4 ,the practical and theoretical results of science are the products of deductive reasoning from these general rules4 ,thus science and common sense are not opposed1 as people sometimes fancy them to be1 but science is perfected common sense4 ,scientific reasoning is simply very careful common reasoning1 and common knowledge grows into scientific knowledge as it becomes more and more exact and complete4 ,the way to science then lies through common knowledge2 we must extend that knowledge by common observation and experiment1 and learn how to state the results of our investigations accurately1 in general rules or laws of nature2 finally1 we must learn how to reason accurately from these rules1 and thus arrive at rational explanations of natural phenomena1 which may suffice for our guidance in life4 ,,footnotes ,c ,from ,science ,primers4 ,introductory4 ,by ,prof4 ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,the ,,circle ,,of ,,the ,,sciences4 ,science means classified knowledge4 ,there may be much general knowledge that is not science4 ,it attains to that dignity only when the particular facts known are generalized1 and arranged in some order1 instead of being jumbled together1 and lying about loosely in the memory1 to be taken up at random4 ,especially must the basal facts of the science be verified1 not assumed4 ,information that is general and assured1 though as yet lacking system and a proper ordering of the elementary facts1 may1 and usually will in time advance to the dignity of science4 ,history warrants this expectation4 ,only let not the boast be made1 or the honor conferred prematurely4 ,geography1 chemistry1 and political economy are all now sciences4 ,the first has been recognized among the sciences from an early day1 though it has advanced rapidly during the present century4 ,the last two are comparatively new members1 having held their place in the 8,circle0 scarcely a hundred years4 ,true1 many of the facts of chemistry1 and the principles of political economy had been known for ages1 but the knowledge men had of them lacked either system or certainty1 or both4 ,so1 also1 in respect to mineralogy1 botany1 and zology1 a store of known facts had been for ages accumulating1 before they could rightly be called sciences4 ,to reach that distinction the quality and orderly arrangement of the things known are as necessary as the quantity4 ,in the heading of this series of articles1 8,circle0 does not suggest the rim of a wheel1 or a curved line all the points of which are equally distant from the center around which it is drawn1 but rather a group of sciences1 just as 8social circle10 and 8circle of friends0 indicate the amicable relations of the persons without saying anything of their positions in the place of their meeting4 ,it is a goodly group1 this family of the sciences1 and the members now so numerous and having such distinctive characteristics will be introduced1 not as a body but severally1 and in five classes3 ,the ,mathematical1 ,physical1 ,mental1 ,moral1 and ,social ,sciences4 ,they hold such intimate relations with each other1 mutually giving and receiving aid1 that we will not attempt to keep the members of classes from mixing occasionally in our account of them1 as they often do in reality4 ,mathematics is the science of quantities and numbers4 ,its principles are of the first importance1 and are of service in all the departments of science4 ,in several of its subdivisions1 of which brief mention will be made1 it uses known quantities for the determination of those unknown1 reasoning from certain relations existing between them4 ,the qualities it discusses are represented by diagrams1 figures1 or symbols1 adopted for the purpose4 ,it is customary to speak of pure and mixed1 or abstract and applied mathematics2 the former treating of laws1 principles1 and relations in the abstract1 or without any special reference to anything as actual or existing4 ,the latter discusses the principles1 laws and relations in connection with existing phenomena4 ,the operations with numbers and symbols in pure mathematics1 dealing only with abstract quantities1 do not necessarily imply the idea of matter4 ,those of the science as applied have much to do with material phenomena4 ,the elements that enter into the calculations in both cases are axioms or self-evident truths1 things that are known intuitively1 or grasped by the reason soon as presented1 only in applied mathematics1 used more or less in all sciences1 these same axiomatic1 self-evident truths are employed in the discussion of natural objects1 the laws1 properties1 and relations of which are learned mostly by experience and induction4 ,the sciences classed as pure mathematics are ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 ,algebra1 ,analytical ,geometry and ,calculus4 ,arithmetic is eminently the science of numbers1 and treats of1 or practically illustrates their nature and uses4 ,it employs the nine ,arabic digits or figures with the addition of the cipher1 giving them various positions to express numerical values1 and not the native qualities or functions of the things to which they are applied4 ,the methods are the same1 and the results obtained equally true1 whatever may be the nature of the quantities about which inquiry is made4 ,the elementary or fundamental idea in arithmetic is unity1 expressed by the figure #a1 from which1 with the help of the other eight digits1 and the individually valueless cipher1 #j1 expressions for all the other values1 whole or fractional1 are formed4 ,as arithmetical processes underlie1 or enter into1 the work of nearly all mathematical calculations1 its great importance as a science is evident2 though as often taught in our schools and used in business1 it is simply a method of reckoning or computation4 ,algebra is a kindred science1 that1 by the use of letters and symbols1 enables us to solve more readily all difficult questions relating to numbers4 ,it is1 indeed1 a kind of universal arithmetic4 ,in the ordinary arithmetic the numbers or figures employed1 taken separately1 have always the same value1 and the result1 when1 sometimes by a tedious process1 obtained1 is applicable only to the particular question proposed1 but in solving the problem by algebra1 since we employ letters to which any values may be attributed at pleasure1 the result obtained is largely applicable to all questions of a particular class4 ,thus1 having the sum and difference of two quantities given1 we readily obtain an algebraic expression for the quantities themselves4 ,by the new method the goal is reached speedily1 and the cabalistic terms1 that may1 at his first attempts1 perplex and discourage the young student1 become his delight2 and in many difficult processes greatly shorten the work1 enabling him with ease to solve problems that to the common arithmetician are tedious1 if not impossible4 ,geometry1 one of the oldest of sciences1 measures extension1 treats of order and proportion in space4 ,its working elements are not numbers or symbols1 but points1 and lines1 either straight or curved1 and surfaces1 with volumes1 or solids4 ,the simpler problems1 when successfully demonstrated1 are used in solving those more complicated1 making the progress easy4 ,lines are made up of points1 and have extension only in one direction4 ,surfaces have length and breadth1 and are distinguished as triangles1 quadrilaterals1 polygons1 etc41 according to the number of lines that circumscribe them4 ,solids have length1 breadth1 and thickness4 ,from a few elementary facts1 much geometrical science has been deduced1 by very simple1 logical processes4 ,it is intimately related to other sciences1 and of much practical importance2 but1 if there were no other advantage derived1 as a discipline of the reasoning faculty there can be nothing better4 ,to pursue the study profitably there is little need of an instructor4 ,class recitations are helpful1 but let any one intent on personal culture1 and having only a little time for the work1 get a good elementary treatise on plane and solid geometry1 and study it4 ,the exercise will become a delight1 will give strength and grip to the faculties1 and furnish protection against the mental dissipation caused by spending much time in the hasty1 careless reading of what is fitly called light literature4 ,analytical geometry is that branch which examines1 discusses and develops the properties of geometrical magnitudes by the use of algebraic symbols4 ,the questions or problems are solved1 not1 as in plane geometry1 by diagrams or figures drawn to show certain relations of magnitudes1 but by making algebraic symbols represent them1 and thus solving the problems4 ,analysis is much used in simple algebraic processes1 but more in analytical geometry1 and in differential and integral calculus1 which has been called the transcendental analysis4 ,it is useful as a higher branch of the science1 and without it the best achievements of the greatest mathematicians would scarcely have been possible4 ,these last named branches are generally best pursued in our higher academies and colleges4 ,a college course would be sadly deficient without them1 but only for exceptional cases would it be advisable to put them in a course of study to be pursued privately4 ,if this brief mention of the higher mathematics kindles desire for further knowledge1 and you hesitate to grapple with them alone1 by all means go to college1 and after a proper introduction1 wherein the chief embarrassment is felt1 even calculus will be found an agreeable acquaintance4 ,under the head of 8,mixed ,mathematics10 applicable to both laws or abstract principles and facts1 the discussion of things as actual and possible1 we have first1 mechanics1 the science that treats of the various forces and their different effects4 ,by force is meant any power that tends to prevent1 produce1 or modify motion4 ,three are recognized--7#a7 gravitation1 or the attraction of bodies toward each other2 7#b7 the cause1 whatever it may be1 of light1 heat1 and electricity2 7#c7 life1 an equally mysterious power producing the actions of animals and the growth of plants4 ,these forces1 though entirely unseen and their causes unknown1 are definite quantities4 ,we readily conceive of one force as equal to1 or greater than another1 and know that equal forces1 applied in opposite directions1 balance each other4 ,to everything that moves there is force applied greater than the resistance to be overcome4 ,a number of forces may act on an object at the same time1 accelerating1 retarding1 or changing the direction of the motion given to it4 ,when the forces are so balanced as to hold the body on which they act in a state of equilibrium1 their action and consequent phenomena are investigated under the head of ,,statics1 or the science which treats of bodies at rest4 ,when motion is produced1 ,,dynamics considers the laws that govern the moving bodies and the phenomena that result4 ,these branches of mechanical science are of great practical importance1 and a knowledge of them would save from many blunders and failures resulting from incompetence4 ,the same laws govern in the movement of all bodies1 whether solid or liquid4 ,hydrostatics1 ,hydrodynamics1 ,hydraulics1 etc41 are branches of the same science1 and worthy of separate mention only because they apply the general principles of statics and dynamics to the phenomena of rest or motion in liquids4 ,the foundation for all that is peculiar in these branches with the lengthened names1 and that together may be called ,hydro-mechanics1 lies in the properties that distinguish the liquid from other states of material bodies1 whether gaseous or solid1 viz43 in the presence of cohesion1 but with great mobility of parts and more or less elasticity4 ,some peculiarities are so noteworthy as to deserve mention even in this limited presentation4 ,because of the only slight cohesive attraction1 and entire freedom of motion among the particles1 liquid bodies possess no definite form of their own1 but adapt themselves to the form of the excavations or vessels containing them4 ,they1 of course1 vary much in their fluidity1 the mobile liquids1 as water and alcohol1 flowing more readily than molasses1 heavy oils1 and tar4 ,fluids at rest press equally in all directions1 upward1 downward1 and laterally4 ,in this1 also1 they differ from solids that press only down1 or in the direction of the center of gravitation4 ,if not confined they can not be heaped up1 but their particles seek a common level4 ,an absolute water level is1 of course1 possible only when the area covered is so limited that lines joining all the points on the surface with the center of gravity are practically parallel1 or their convergence an inappreciable quantity4 ,in large bodies of water1 as the ocean1 the surface corresponds with the general rotundity of the earth4 ,the fact of the equal pressure of liquids in all directions1 and with the same intensity1 is found of great importance in practical mechanics4 ,the strong pressure of a small column of water is finely illustrated by simple experiment with the water bellows1 or hydraulic paradox1 in which one pound of water in a tube lifts a hundred pounds on the top of the bellows1 and the greater the disproportion between the diameter of the tube and that of the top of the bellows1 the greater weight it will raise4 ,more than two hundred years ago ,pascal showed the enormous pressure exerted by a lofty column of water in a small tube4 ,a strong cask was filled with water1 and a small tube forty feet high closely fitted in its head1 when a few pints of water poured into it burst the cask1 and would have done so if it had been made of the strongest oaken staves and bound with hoops of iron4 ,this is the power used in the hydraulic press1 a very simple machine of much value in the industrial arts when there is a demand for great force that can be slowly and steadily applied1 as in compressing cloth1 oil cake1 paper1 gunpowder and numerous other things4 ,its parts are so few that it can be described without a model to represent it4 ,a small1 upright cylinder1 with a closely fitting piston used as a pump to draw and force the water1 and connected at the base by a tube with a much larger cylinder directly under the substance to be pressed1 in which there is also a piston to be moved upward1 though water tight4 ,the whole is secured in position by powerful frame work4 ,beneath the piston the water is received4 ,and knowing the principles of hydrostatics we can estimate its power4 ,if the areas of the lower surfaces of the two pistons are to each other as one to four hundred square inches1 one pound pressure on the small one will deliver to the lower surface of the large one a pressure equal to four hundred pounds weight4 ,but let the arms of the lever used as the force pump handle be to each other as one to fifty4 ,then when a force of fifty pounds is applied at the end of the long arm of the lever it will descend with a force of #ejejb1ejj1 and there will be delivered on the lower surface of the large piston a power to raise it expressed by #ejejdjja1jjj1jjj4 ,some allowance must be made for friction or other impediments1 say one fourth1 which is more than enough1 and still a man or boy at the end of that pump handle would be able to lift at least three hundred and seventy-five tons4 ,the sciences we have been considering under the general name of mechanics1 which is derived from a ,greek word that means to contrive1 invent1 construct1 have much to do with machinery1 with the methods of construction1 the propelling forces1 and the phenomena produced4 ,there were machinists and some simple machines propelled by human or brute force1 by weights and springs1 by falling or running water1 and air in motion before the laws of motion and forces were understood1 or the rude mechanic arts began to assume the character of a science4 ,the machines were1 of course1 imperfect1 and lacked efficiency1 while many of those now in use seem nearly perfect and adapted to the work expected of them4 ,but notwithstanding the marvelous advance that has been made in the manufacture of machinery1 and the intelligent application of mechanical powers1 we look for still greater things as possible in the future4 ,it is well1 however1 never to forget that whatever the seeming may be1 the most perfect machine of human invention does not create force4 ,that is as impossible for man as it is to give life or create matter4 ,all he can do is to collect1 concentrate and use1 to the best advantage1 the forces that exist4 ,he may by skillful appliances gain a great mechanic advantage1 and overcome very formidable resistance1 but he must be content to do it very slowly2 and it has been often said that 8what he gains in power he loses in speed40 ,in many cases this seems a necessity1 and he must submit to it4 ,his simplest machine1 if the fulcrum is placed very near the weight1 gives a man tremendous power gained by his position at the long arm of the machine4 ,but the point at which he applies the force must move much faster and a greater distance than the object against which it is directed4 ,so when a man with a system of pulleys raises to the top of a tower a block of granite that four men might lift from the ground he sacrifices in speed what he gains in the new way of applying the force he has for the purpose4 ,you visit a large manufacturing establishment or the mechanical department of a great national or international industrial exposition and see a whole acre of machinery of all kinds1 shafts1 wheels1 saws1 lathes1 and spindles in rapid motion1 and1 astonished at the complications1 inquire for the power that carries the whole4 ,you will possibly find it is in some remote part of the premises1 and shut up in the motionless boiler where the steam is said to be generated1 which only means that the water heated expands and struggles to escape from its confinement1 while man understanding the laws of its action manages to liberate the force under conditions that make it his servant4 ,the science of numbers and magnitudes1 useful in discussing the distances1 measurements1 and motions of terrestrial bodies1 is especially so in its application to astronomy4 ,astronomy as a physical science will receive consideration in the next number2 here only the mathematical elements are noticed1 and they are everywhere manifest4 ,the same general laws control all material bodies1 those near to us1 and those seen at a distance4 ,so the science of the stars is not now mere theory1 but has all the elements of mathematical certainty4 ,when dealing with such vast numbers and magnitudes as engage the astronomer's attention1 with a few known principles or laws1 and abundant recorded telescopic observations for the basis of their work1 men can calculate even more accurately than they can count or measure4 ,having once prepared their theorem1 aided by the logarithms of ,napier#a that simplify and shorten the more difficult arithmetical calculations1 they can readily determine the distance1 magnitude and motions of a planet1 and know that it is done with sufficient exactness4 ,the distances of the heavenly bodies are generally determined by their parallax1 that is the difference between the directions of the bodies as seen from two different points4 ,the inclination of the lines thus drawn is the angle of parallax4 ,by supposing the lines prolonged to the sun1 and other lines drawn through the points selected to the center of the earth a quadrangle is formed1 all the angles and sides of which are easily found4 ,in measuring very minute parallaxes it may not be possible to determine the exact position of the body as projected on the celestial sphere1 but in that case recourse can be had to relative parallax1 or the difference between the parallaxes of two bodies lying nearly in the same direction4 ,the best opportunity for this is afforded by the transit of ,venus1 and on this account great interest is felt in that phenomenon1 and extensive preparations are made for taking accurate observations4 ,the figure1 size and density of the celestial bodies have all been calculated with approximate certainty4 ,the orbits1 through which they pass in their revolutions1 described1 and their velocities ascertained4 ,there is a solar system of which the sun is the center1 and in its relation to the planets stationary1 though really moving on through infinite space2 the orbits through which planets move are not circles1 but more or less elliptic1 having the sun at one focus of the ellipse4 ,that planets move in ellipses was announced by ,kepler#b as the first law governing their motions1 and a second deduced from this and confirmed by observations1 is that they do not move with equal velocity in all parts of their orbits2 and that a line drawn from the center of the earth to the center of the sun passes over equal spaces in equal times4 ,he also found as a third law that the squares of the times of the revolutions of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun4 ,navigation shows how vessels are directed in their course upon the great waters4 ,in proportion as the 8paths of the seas0 have become open1 safe and free for all1 they are found paths of knowledge and civilization4 ,the science1 small at its beginning1 has grown to its present advanced state by slow degrees1 helped by contributions from the most opposite sources4 ,practical but uneducated seamen have doubtless done much1 as their ingenuity is often1 in emergencies1 taxed to supply means of safety and success that are wanting4 ,more has been contributed by scholars1 secluded philosophic men whose lives are spent 8in communion with the skies10 in observing the motions of the heavenly bodies and studying the laws by which they are regulated4 ,but perhaps the most valuable service has been rendered by another class who combine an experience of the sea with much knowledge of astronomical science1 men acquainted with the needs of seamen and qualified to meet them4 ,the introduction of the mariner's compass early in the fifteenth century was an epoch in the history of navigation1 as it made seamen in a measure independent of the sun and stars4 ,this was an incalculable advantage1 as soon became apparent to those who adopted the compass as their guide4 ,of the many improvements and helps in the science of navigation we can only name1 as conspicuous1 the invention of ,mercator's chart#c in #aefi1 ,davis's quadrant#d about #afjj1 and ,hadley's quadrant a century later4 ,the character of the instruments and a glance at the ,nautical ,almanac will show how largely both mathematics and astronomy enter into the science of navigation4 ,nor is it quite safe to take passage with a shipmaster who has but limited knowledge of either4 ,he should at least thoroughly understand his instruments and be a ready1 accurate computer4 ,geometry grew out of the practice of surveying1 and now embodies many of the laws and principles of the science4 ,there are several distinct systems of surveying1 classed according to the purposes contemplated4 ,it is astronomically employed in determining the figure of the earth by the actual measurement of arcs4 ,a fair knowledge of mathematics and trigonometry is required in what are known as coast surveys4 ,land surveying is of the plainest kind1 and employed in finding the contents of areas1 or in dividing large tracts into lots of smaller dimensions4 ,the chief difficulty is in getting the exact bearing of the lines and the measure of the angles when the plot is an irregular polygon4 ,topographical surveying1 beside the measurement of lines and angles1 takes note of variations of level1 that the draft may properly represent superficial inequalities4 ,maritime surveying is an important branch1 fixing the positions of shoals1 rocks and shore-lines4 ,mine surveying determines the location of works in the mine and decides whether the excavations conform1 as required1 to lines on the surface4 ,the compass and chain are the surveyor's most common instruments1 but others are used according to the nature of the surveys to be made4 ,incompetency or carelessness in surveys often occasions serious trouble and loss4 ,fortifications for the defense of cities and the protection of soldiers are as ancient as the existence of armies4 ,the former1 built in time of peace1 of such form and materials as military science and experience suggest1 are called 8permanent fortifications20 and the temporary works constructed as the exigencies of a campaign require are 8field fortifications40 ,the art and science have been practiced and studied in all ages1 and there is now an immense literature on the subject4 ,as methods of defense must be adjusted to those of attack the earlier permanent fortifications1 in the progress of society and after the introduction of artillery1 became nearly worthless4 ,high stone walls are a protection while they stand1 but1 however strong1 they can be battered down by heavy siege guns that have less effect when directed against earth works1 which seem less formidable4 ,a place thoroughly fortified is seldom taken by a sudden assault4 ,the ,united ,states have fortified less than most of the great ,european nations1 but are by no means defenseless4 ,previous to #ahfj there had been expended on our forts more than #cj1jjj1jjj2 and all the exposed positions have been greatly strengthened within the last twenty-five years4 ,end of ,required ,reading for ,february4 ,,the ,,poet',s ,,vision4 ,,by ,,mary ,a4 ,,lathbury4 ,my ,lady ,lily1 the waters sleep1 ,and the winds are among the clover2 ,would ,i could hear the tale you told ,the ,poet once1 till with voice of gold ,singing it over and over ,he came to the court and cried1 8,o king1 ,my song of thy state and glory ,is dead on my lips6 ,i am done with strife1 ,and courts1 and conquests4 ,a song of life ,i have learned from a water lily40 8,carol us then thy pretty song1 ,sir ,poet60 the king cried1 sneering2 ,so standing stateliest of them all ,the length of the royal banquet hall1 ,and flinging a look unfearing1 ,full on the king and his court1 who sat ,smiling in fine derision1 ,he sang or chanted as chants a seer ,when sense is fading1 and draweth near ,the high beatific vision4 ,he sang of life in the soil of death1 ,a seed of a heavenly sowing2 ,asleep in the murk and mire of earth1 ,in silence waiting its wondrous birth1 ,of death or of life unknowing4 ,he sang of the ,sun of ,life--,his quest ,in our death-deeps dark and chilly2 ,of love that quickens to life the dead1 ,as the sun rays seek in the river-bed ,the germ of the water lily4 ,he sang of ,faith--of the eye that seeks ,with a sightless aspiration ,the source of ,love and the fount of ,light1 ,till far in the folds of the utmost night1 ,storm-swept with fierce temptation1 ,a light breaks through like a faint white star1 ,that grows and grows like the dawning1 ,till1 veiled in vapors1 it hangs above ,the wakened soul as the face of ,love1 ,and ,life has begun its morning4 ,he sang of ,life in the spring o' day1 ,of patience1 and truth1 and duty1-- ,the narrow ways to the full release1 ,when1 lapped in light and a dream of peace1 ,it bursts as a flower to beauty4 ,he sang--and his words fell thick and fast-- ,of the resurrection glory2 ,of good from evil1 of life from death1 ,and then1 with hesitant1 bated breath1 ,the ,god-man's marvelous story4 ,then silence fell on the king and court1 ,and out through the open portal ,the poet passed with a solemn stride ,into the midnight spaces wide1 ,or into the life immortal4 ,my ,lady ,lily1 you will not wake1 ,wrapped in your dreams ,elysian1 ,but this is the mystic tale you hold1 ,deep in your tremulous heart of gold2 ,and this was the ,poet's vision4 ,,the ,,homelike ,,house4 ,,by ,,susan ,,hayes ,,ward4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,family ,,parlor4 ,from the gay world we'll oft retire ,to our own family and fire1 ,where love our hours employs2 ,no noisy neighbor enters here ,no intermeddling stranger near1 ,to spoil our heartfelt joys4 --,n4 ,cotton4 ,the room which above all others should be furnished with the most loving thought and lavish expense is the household parlor1 or family sitting room4 ,here the father reads his evening paper1 the mother busies herself with her ready needle1 the children 8with books1 or work or healthful play40 ,this should be to eye and body preminently a restful room1 commodious1 cheerful4 ,if the reception room for visitors needs the cheer of firelight1 how much more the living room of the household4 ,whittier's description of the homely comfort of an old ,new ,england farm house remains unexcelled in the literature of house furnishing3 8,shut in from all the world without ,we sat the clean-winged hearth about1 ,content to let the north wind roar ,in baffled rage at pane and door1 ,while the red logs before us beat ,the frost line back with tropic heat2 ,and ever1 when a louder blast ,shook beam and rafter as it passed1 ,the merrier up its roaring draught ,the great throat of the chimney laughed4 ,the house-dog on his paws outspread ,laid to the fire his drowsy head1 ,the cat's dark silhouette on the wall ,a couchant tiger's seemed to fall1 ,and1 for the winter fireside meet1 ,between the andiron's straddling feet ,the mug of cider simmered slow1 ,the apples sputtered in a row4 ,and1 close at hand1 the basket stood ,with nuts from brown ,october's wood4 ,what matter how the night behaved8 ,what matter how the north wind raved8 ,blow high1 blow low1 not all its snow ,could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow40 ,for the sake of restfulness to the eye1 the walls and carpet should be neutral in tone1 making a good background to the family figures2 the wall paper being of a good all-overish pattern that will not detract from pictures that may hang on it1 and the carpet or rug well mixed1 of not too loud a pattern1 and without strong contrasts of light and dark4 ,blue wall papers are hard to deal with1 but creams1 fawns1 soft greenish or olive-grays1 and simple leaf patterns with slight variations of color or shade are all good for walls that are to be hung with pictures1 as a sitting room should be4 ,common butchers' paper1 put on in sheets1 the better textured cartridge paper1 or sheathing paper with a pretty variation introduced by way of frieze or dado are all restful to the eye and good for the sitting room walls4 ,the greens used should not be sharp and crude1 but should be modified1 making them yellowish1 bluish1 or grayish4 ,so with reds1 which will be better yellowish1 slightly bluish 7not purplish71 or brownish2 and yellows which must be modified into creams1 old-golds1 or fawns4 ,this rule is for large surfaces4 ,a little pure1 bright color can be introduced here and there by way of decoration1 and must appear somewhere in the room if it is to have a cheerful look1 but wait till your pictures are hung before you introduce much brilliant color4 ,it may take the life out of them4 ,picture-rods are a great convenience1 and1 after the first expense1 save much trouble1 and much marring of walls by driving nails4 ,the picture-rod should run below the frieze1 and a box of picture-hooks of suitable size for the rods should be kept ready to hand1 and picture-wire so that a new painting or engraving when it comes home may find its place at once and not stand on the floor for a month waiting till the master can drive a nail4 ,as for the wall decorations1 there should be a looking-glass for family convenience either in this parlor or the entry way 7the parlor is the better place71 and the best pictures the house affords1 always making sure that they are good pictures4 ,better always a good photograph1 or wood-cut1 or etching1 than a poor chromo1 steel engraving1 or water-color2 and better1 a hundred fold1 a good water-color than a poor oil painting4 ,if your family portraits are poor1 consign them to the garret or the upstairs hall1 but1 if possible1 have at least one good painting in your home-room1 even if it does cost money2 and remember that a first-hand sketch by a good living artist is better than a second-hand copy of an old master4 ,but one good painting in a house1 whether a copy or an original1 is a continual art lesson4 ,a woman of taste will not mix all manner of pictures together on one wall4 ,if possible1 she will keep oil paintings by themselves1 and not put them in juxtaposition with water-colors--nor will she put a picture suited only to a gallery in a family sitting room4 ,nor will she put ,bacchantes in the same group with worshiping cherubs4 ,there is a vast deal of stuff purely ephemeral that women are apt to load their walls with--,christmas1 ,new ,year1 ,easter and birthday cards1 and painted panels1 which may do very well to exhibit during the holidays or the day or two after the birthday2 then1 having had their day1 they should cease to obtrude if not to be4 ,there should be a box or receptacle for all this clutter2 such souvenirs are admirable for their suggestions to the amateur decorator or embroiderer of the family1 but they should not be allowed to spot the walls1 to hang from the side brackets or to decorate the looking-glass4 8,god bless our home0 is a devout aspiration which is better carried out in a godly life than worked in cross-stitch and hung over the sitting room door4 ,i have seen ,scripture texts deftly inwrought into the mural decoration of a sea-side cottage1 verses from the sailors' ,psalm being painted in a decorative way between border lines of frieze or dado1 where they did not seem out of place1 but the summer boarders were well nigh driven from another cottage because of a card-board abomination hung over the mantel piece of their sitting room1 with indigo clouds and grass-green waves1 with a three-quarters-length ,christ in all colors of the rainbow uttering the magic words worked in shaded reds--8,peace1 ,be ,still40 ,the matter of mottoes has been overdone1 and it is always safe to leave them out altogether4 ,paintings upon plush must be exceedingly good to make them worth hanging anywhere4 ,usually such decoration is a waste of expensive material4 ,any way1 plush is too easily spoiled by dust or careless handling to make it welcome in the family room4 ,painting upon picture and looking-glass frames is another misuse of decoration4 ,a ,london artist with rare ingenuity paints a stalk of lilies to hide a flaw in his hall mirror1 and straightway the 8,decorative ,art0 salesrooms all over our land effloresce with blooming mirror frames whose unpruned vines straggle and trail over every glass4 ,the beauty of a mirror is to have it absolutely clear and free from dust and dirt1 finger marks or paint blotches1 throughout its entire surface4 ,flower painting in polychrome upon frames and easels is utterly out of place1 as it calls the eye off from the picture which the frame or easel holds1 and reminds one of a servant decked out in finery surreptitiously borrowed from her mistress's wardrobe4 ,marble mantel pieces1 to be good1 must be expensive4 ,a simple pine mantel piece with a little incised ornament is far better than white or cold gray marble4 ,raised1 stuck-on ornament is objectionable1 whether in wood or stone1 but mantel pieces1 book-cases and cabinets give a fine opportunity for domestic carving1 and one can but wonder that more home ingenuity is not expended on the construction and carving of mantels and other woodwork in our rooms1 such as doors and windows4 ,i have seen a wooden mantel piece small1 plain1 and somewhat cheap and inferior-looking1 so improved by a little carving1 judiciously introduced by the man of the house--a small panel set in here1 and the edge of the shelf prettily finished--that the whole thing grew dignified at once and became a worthy ornament of the 8spare room10 when painted in harmony with the rest of the woodwork4 ,the youngest whittlers might be taught to use tools for the family good1 if parents were only willing to go to a little trouble and expense in providing models1 tools and wood for their use1 and a comfortable chimney nook where the work could be carried on4 ,in the schools of ,philadelphia ,mr4 ,leland has shown how much may be done by boys and girls when their efforts are wisely directed4 ,when there is no room in the house specially set apart as a library1 cabinets and book cases form an important part of the sitting room furniture4 ,i would have book shelves of some sort in every room of a house2 but in the room where the family gathers there should be a special shelf for books of reference4 ,an encyclopdia is of as much value to the household as a wood lot is to the farm4 ,better wear your old silk gown or shabby overcoat another year1 or two years even1 and have your book of reference always at hand for the general good4 ,the unabridged dictionary is a necessity1 and should stand in its rack easy of access to school children and their elders as well4 ,a household book of poetry1 ,dana's or ,bryant's1 or whatever may be better1 and an equally comprehensive volume of religious verse like ,gilman's1 or ,palgrave's choice 8,golden ,treasury10 should be well thumbed by the children1 and should be placed temptingly at hand1 not locked behind glass doors4 ,glazed doors are demanded by collectors who revel in vellum1 uncut leaves1 and rare editions1 but cases that are well backed and that have leathern1 or even moreen or flannel1 valences tacked to the shelves1 will serve well enough to protect books in a house where all the reading matter is for daily use or study4 ,a low book case three or four feet high and broad enough to fill a generous wall space1 running1 if need be1 across one side of the room1 may be found ample enough for a family whose library is limited4 ,pictures and vases can be ranged upon its top4 ,i know a room that holds three or four such book cases of ebonized pine1 filled with books and made gay with valences of scarlet moreen1 which yet scorns to be called 8the library10 and is only known as the family 8sitting room40 ,valences of leather or wool are sufficient to protect the books from dust if the cases are well backed4 ,in addition to the book case1 hanging shelves for children's books1 or cabinets for collections of any sort1 can be made of pine1 and when absolutely plain1 if neatly varnished1 need not prove unsightly4 ,they may even be made very ornamental by a bright curtain1 plain or embroidered1 with rings attached that run lightly over a brass rod or wire1 and screen the contents of the shelves from the too inquisitive eye4 ,it is really a happy day for a household when one of its members develops a hobby and begins to make a collection--not of buttons or business cards1 but of something on which genuine study will not come amiss1 and there is hardly any line in which one is likely to interest himself where he may not often pick up for a mere trifle much that will be of special value to his collection1 much that1 by itself1 would be comparatively worthless1 but which in a collection has added worth and dignity2 and any collection makes a new point of interest in a home4 ,in a quiet country town where ,i once lived1 the boys of the village took to collecting butterflies and insects4 ,farmers carried turpentine or benzine in their pockets1 and would come home from their haying fields with hats gay with the captured moths and butterflies they were taking to the collectors of their several households4 ,thus homes hitherto utterly wanting in any sthetic influence1 seemed to brighten into something positively charming1 when father and mother1 son and daughter clustered about the drawers in the front parlor1 exhibiting to any chance visitor the fragile treasures so carefully arranged within them1 and when a new specimen was captured the collector would 8,run it o'er and o'er with greedy view1 ,and look and look again1 as he would look it through40 ,think of the many lines in which the collector may work6 ,the postage stamp craze was by no means to be despised2 it was a good geography lesson for the children1 and well up to the times1 throwing in a little history as well4 ,coin collecting is yet more profitable in the same lines1 and when confined to the coins of one's own land1 gives a wide enough range for the average collector4 ,for the out-of-door student there are shells1 sea mosses and birds' eggs1 flowers to press1 and minerals to secure4 ,one boy hunts up ,indian relics1 another collects weapons of various sorts1 from 8,the old queen's arm which ,gran'ther ,young ,fetched back from ,concord1 busted10 to an ,australian boomerang or a ,south ,sea ,island club brought by the sailor uncle from some voyage of long ago4 ,one dear1 old lady has a choice collection of bits of lace all dated and named2 another of pieces of brocade1 an admirable commentary on silk manufactory4 ,here we find a treasurer of fans1 and there of snuff-boxes2 here of children's photographs1 and there of photographs or autographs of famous men2 and everywhere1 all over our land1 will be found the covetous collector of rare1 old china and pottery4 ,let the children be encouraged to interest themselves in some such lines as these1 not so as to make nuisances of themselves and museums of their homes--there will be little danger of that--but enough to give them a wholesome enthusiasm in some particular line of study4 ,a vast deal of general information is disseminated through a household1 unconsciously absorbed1 as it were1 when each one has a hobby of his own1 and gives out of his choicest discoveries for the common good4 ,as to the sitting room furniture1 there are a few essentials that must be emphasized4 ,there should be a table large enough for half a dozen people to sit around of an evening--a round one is best--strong1 solid1 and covered with a serviceable cloth4 ,there are handsome woolen table covers that grow yet handsomer with age as their colors mellow together1 but the best is expensive4 ,a square of plain felt does very well1 and is in better taste than the scarlet and green felt cloths stamped with black figures that were so prevalent twenty years ago4 ,a figured cloth shows spots less than a plain one4 ,if a mat of some sort1 or even a newspaper1 is always laid down under any lamp that burns kerosene1 and if a blotter is always used where writing or painting is going on1 a plain cloth ought to last for years4 ,light should abound where the family sit together1 sunlight by day and good gas or lamp light by night should be generously supplied4 ,a good duplex burner or a double student lamp uses no more oil than several small lamps dotted down here and there1 about the room1 and it brings the family together about the central table4 ,so with the drop light1 which is an essential where gas is used4 ,the wise woman discards gas in her sitting room1 however1 and uses good oil1 which is far better for the eyes4 ,there should be a writing desk in the room4 ,the old-fashioned secretary was a valuable piece of sitting room furniture1 and many a good one has been recalled from the attic within the last few years1 and1 by a judicious use of soda water1 has been freed from old paint1 and when scrubbed and rubbed1 it has shone as good as new1 and much more useful than the modern ,davenport4 ,there should be large1 easy chairs1 not too low1 for the use of the men of the house1 and for elderly people who find it hard to rise gracefully and with ease from soft1 low chairs4 ,there should also be low chairs with broad seats1 and short arms1 or none at all1 for those who must busy themselves with sewing1 knitting1 and embroidery1 and comfortable camp chairs that can be lightly lifted by the children and carried here and there about the room4 ,let the chairs1 in fact let everything be strong and comfortable in this room4 ,a heavy man is often put to great inconvenience because the chairs at his disposal are too flimsy to bear his weight4 ,there are countless stories told of the ,rev4 ,phillips ,brooks1 and men of his build1 who dare not laugh at a dinner party lest their chairs resolve themselves into kindling wood at the first mirthful shake4 ,in my own parlor there is one chair deep1 broad1 and of marvelous strength1 bought with an eye to the needs of a friendly neighbor of grand dimensions4 8,this is a chair that ,mr4 ,b4 can't break10 said the kindly donor who had witnessed the collapsing of ordinary parlor chairs under his ponderous weight4 ,remember that no chair should be expected to do service that has not connecting rungs between the legs4 ,there should be1 also1 a lounge or sofa in this room1 with ample pillow1 not a round horse-hair cylinder1 but something useful1 restful1 and not too fine4 ,let the color be as perfect as may be1 but if the material of which it is made be really too splendid for daily use1 its glories should be veiled behind a strong1 washable tidy4 ,i have seen a gray linen square or towel1 with drawn work at the ends1 such as costs fifty cents1 perhaps1 at the linen shops1 with a few long-stemmed poppies bending together in a row at one end1 wrought in outline1 with the familiar legend1 8,we are all nodding1 nid1 nid1 nodding10 running sleepily down the center4 ,that had just sentiment enough1 and art enough for its place and use4 ,tidies are mere clutter if not intended to be brushed against and used4 ,paintings on blue satin1 decked out with lace1 are out of taste in any room1 however fine1 and out of place on any chair4 ,no chair should be too daintily dressed out to be sat upon2 and no painting should so hang as to invite shoulders clad in black broadcloth to rub themselves against it4 8,tidies0 or 8chair backs10 if used at all1 should be of a firm material1 not easily crumpled1 should be firmly attached1 should give off little or no lint1 and should be washed when they are soiled1 or thrown away4 ,they are better when off the white4 ,there should be a wrap of some sort1 afghan1 ,mexican or army blanket1 railway rug or shawl thrown over the foot of the sofa1 with which to cover up the invalid of the household1 or any one who is tempted to lounge awhile4 ,other sitting room comforts1 though not essentials1 are a sewing table1 stand or basket with drawers or pockets attached1 for the convenience of needlewomen1 a portable screen1 two-leaved and not too large1 that can shut off draughts from rheumatic shoulders1 and an occasional hassock or footstool--8crickets0 our grandmothers called them in ,new ,england4 ,the covering of tables1 chairs1 etc41 affords an opportunity to introduce color into the room1 but it is not at all necessary that the chairs should all be covered with stuffs of the same quality or color4 ,unless very well chosen1 plain colors are apt to stare1 like the sharp green 8rep0 that was so long popular1 and whose good wearing qualities made it so hard to displace4 ,if the manufacturers had only kept pace with the times1 and produced the stuff in good1 plain shades that would keep their colors1 or figured in good designs1 it would still hold its own against all the so-called tapestry goods that the upholsterers offer us4 8,rep10 however1 was utterly unsuitable for curtains2 it was stiff and wiry1 and hung in ungainly folds4 ,for our sitting room some light drapery at the windows is advisable4 ,if the room has no blinds1 there should be some sort of thick shades or venetian blinds4 ,there is a yellowish brown holland that is admirable for the purpose2 but with outside or inside blinds1 a thin curtain like ,madras muslin is all that is necessary to shade the blackness of the windows at night1 or to temper the brightness of the sunlight by day4 ,the advantage of ,madras muslin or ,cretan cloth over lace1 muslin1 or cheese cloth curtains lies in the color and figure2 colored and figured curtains showing to better advantage against the light than plain white1 and looking fresher much longer2 they 8furnish0 a room more4 ,whatever curtains are used1 they should be hung with rings from rods of brass1 bamboo1 or wood--varnished pine is good enough--so that they can be pushed entirely to one side with ease4 ,rods should not be too large and should be finished at the ends with some simple ornament1 as a plain ball which pulls off at one end1 so as to allow the rings to slip over the rod4 ,the curtains may be long1 if hung outside the window frame1 and just reach the floor1 or they may hang from the upper sash and just reach to the window ledge1 so as to cover only the window2 or they may be half curtains hanging from a small rod or wire so as to screen only the lower sash4 ,it is not at all necessary to treat the windows alike4 ,a bay window may have a long1 heavy curtain running across the bay and forming a nook where two or three may sit cosily together1 and the other windows may be treated to sash or half-sash curtains of soft silk1 ,madras muslin1 or even ,turkey red calico4 ,where a window is filled with plants1 the little half curtain running upon a brass wire and falling over the lower sash serves1 on winter nights1 as a slight protection for the plants from outer air1 and can be thrust to one side by day1 and tucked up out of sight4 ,a little drapery is a great relief in a room where there are bare floors and much display of woodwork in doors and window frames4 ,then1 a portire in place of a closet door1 a hanging before a book case1 or curtains at the windows would relieve the bareness of the room as nothing else could4 ,curtains should not repeat the color of the walls1 nor should portires be of the same material and color as the curtains4 ,woodwork1 however1 when painted should repeat the wall color1 though it should be somewhat lighter in shade4 ,there lacks but little to make our home parlor complete4 ,a piano1 if practice thereon will not interfere with the occupancy of the room by the household2 otherwise let the piano be kept where music lessons given and studied will not disturb the family serenity2 for many reasons the drawing room is the best place for the piano1 it is more likely to be treated with respect by mischievous fingers there than in the living room2 and a clock1 the plainer the better--no little ,french fanciful affair1 but something substantial1 that can last like the tall1 ancestral eight-day time piece4 ,should the clock stand on the mantel it is not essential to have balancing ornaments on either side4 ,the choicest treasures of the house should indeed adorn the mantel piece1 but it is never necessary to have two of a kind standing at equal distances from the center4 ,this is the room in which all things should seem to grow into a likeness to the household1 and to grow old with it4 ,here no changes should be made but for good cause1 and always for the better1 never by the wholesale4 ,nor should furniture be introduced that is so staringly new and gay as to put the rest out of countenance and make it look shabby by comparison4 ,there are plenty of good stuffs subdued enough in color to harmonize with any long used parlor1 no matter how old the carpet nor how faded the chair seats4 ,whatever is good and old1 though worn1 let us respect1 preserve1 and repair4 ,,national ,,aid ,,to ,,education4 ,,by ,,general ,,john ,a4 ,,logan1 ,u4 ,s4 ,senator from ,illinois4 ,to bring to light and expose to public gaze our national defects or social deformities is an unpleasant and generally thankless task1 but so long as we shirk it1 just so long will they remain to our national detriment and disgrace4 ,to be conscious of disease1 to locate and properly diagnose it1 is to be half-way on the road to good health4 ,it is not necessary in this age of enlightenment to dwell upon the manifest and manifold advantages to a people and to a nation1 of education4 ,they are palpable1 and conceded by all men4 ,illiteracy1 then1 must as plainly be a disadvantage to a nation1 a hindrance to the advancement and welfare of its people1 and an evil which should be eradicated4 ,we ,americans boast1 and boast rightfully1 of the high position in the scale of intelligence we occupy as a people2 but pride in that fact should not blind our eyes to our existing imperfections4 ,we are proud of the attainments of our men of letters2 we rejoice in the achievements of our scientists and inventors2 we glory in our rapid advance among the nations to wealth and power2 and we fail to give serious heed to the hundreds of thousands of our people who are growing up every year in clouded ignorance1 without even the rudiments of education4 ,if we examine with care our census returns and the reports of our ,bureau of ,education1 we will be startled by some of the facts they reveal4 ,to follow many of these revelations in detail might lead to an accusation of making invidious distinctions1 but there are enough to which the attention of the country may be called without the shadow of justification for such a charge4 ,let us look at these4 ,take the ,bulletin of 8,illiteracy in the ,united ,states10 as returned at the tenth census1 and its first line reveals the deplorable fact that of the #cf1gfa1fjg persons of ten years of age and upward1 #d1ibc1dea 7over one-seventh7 are unable to read1 and #f1bci1ieh 7nearly one-sixth7 are unable to write4 ,it appears1 moreover1 from other census tabulations presented,d to the ,united ,states ,senate that1 of the #ej1aee1ghc persons constituting our population in #ahhj1 there were equally proportioned between the white and colored races1 #d1bjd1cfc of both sexes over twenty-one years of age unable to write1 or about #b1jjj1jjj 8illiterates0 out of the #aj1jjj1jjj persons at that time entitled to vote2 or1 in other words1 one of every five voters in the ,united ,states unable to write his name4 ,from other statistics of that census it appears also that #a1fdj1jjj voters were unable to read4 ,thus we have the astounding assurance that while one in every five voters can not write the ballot that he wishes to deposit1 one in every six voters can not even read the ballot that he places in the box6 ,it is this one illiterate voter in every five 7or six7 voters who holds the balance of power at our elections4 ,while a very large proportion of our population1 and also of that portion of it which exercises the elective franchise1 can both read and write1 yet a great number of these are very little the more intelligent because their limited ability to do either or both is so imperfect and so rarely availed of4 ,alluding to these1 a committee of the ,united ,states ,senate 7,report #aja1 ,pt4 #b1 first session1 ,forty-eighth ,congress71 said3 8,of those who can write1 multitudes do not place a sentence on paper twice in a lifetime4 ,thousands never get an idea from the printed page40 ,yet these are the men who may at any time subject the country to their control--men who hold the weighty balance of political power4 ,to the patriot1 to the lover of republican institutions1 to the advocate of unrestricted individual suffrage1 this fact is appalling4 ,but it is none the less a fact that should be known4 ,nor may the advocates of monarchical systems of government and of restricted suffrage take comfort from that fact4 ,that the deciding ballot in our political contests may be an ignorant one does not prove the evil or folly of unrestricted suffrage4 ,not at all4 ,cancer in the breast does not prove the folly of life4 ,nor is a jammed finger necessarily fatal4 ,these simply remind us that in the one case the knife1 and in the other the lotion1 should be quickly and efficiently used4 ,so with the ignorant ballot4 ,its existence merely proves the absolute necessity of prompt and vigorous action to enlighten it--of educating him who casts it--of taking counsel from the past and present and providently guarding the future4 ,it teaches us that while we are properly horrified at any desecration of the sacred right of suffrage--whether by bulldozing1 ballot-box stuffing1 false counting1 or other methods of intimidation or of fraud--it is high time to arouse ourselves to a state of facts existing around us and under our very noses1 constituting a sacrilege only differing from these others in degree2 to realize1 in time to remedy it1 that at every election we witness1 at almost every voting precinct in the land1 a constant1 never-failing1 almost winked-at desecration by power-clad ignorance of that right2 to realize the great dangers from this source that we have thus far happily escaped2 to properly apprehend the possible perils thus stored up for us in the bosom of the future1 and by timely1 energetic and sufficient action to arrest them4 ,thus the very knowledge that one in every five of our voters exercises ignorantly this undue and prodigious power must nerve a free and enlightened people to make immediate and adequate provision both to aid and to make obligatory the elementary education of those who in due time will inherit from us the right of suffrage4 ,it can not be too often or too strongly urged1 under the light of this revelation from the census returns1 that an ignorant ballot is a dangerous ballot1 because it may be at once heedless1 and easily deceived2 that an educated ballot is1 to the degree of education1 an enlightened ballot--possibly wrong-headed or mistaken at times1 but as a rule careful1 brave and pure2 and that1 as the ballot is placed in the hands of all ,americans1 education--the means by which they may discriminatingly cast that ballot--should be open and free to all4 ,the very existence of the ,republic depends upon the proper use of the potential ballot4 ,education alone can teach that proper use4 ,hence it is that 8education to all0 is the chief corner stone of the ,republic2 and to make that secure1 no effort however great1 no expense however large1 should be withheld4 ,here then1 with the fact staring us in the face1 that the one potential vote of every five votes that decides all the great political questions of the day--questions involving the most complex and far-reaching principles of government--questions of finance1 of diplomacy1 of commerce1 of trade1 of the tariff1 of the relations of capital and labor1 and others whose solution perplexes the minds of our very ablest statesmen--is an utterly ignorant vote1 can the ,american people hesitate to demand of ,congress not only immediate but adequate remedial legislation in the shape of ample national aid to elementary education for all of school age1 and obligatory attendance within reasonable limits8 ,but this is not the only fact bearing heavily upon the question of the necessity of national aid to our public school system4 ,if we examine the details of these census tabulations we shall find that much the larger portion of this illiteracy is found in some thirteen or fourteen states4 ,taking these states and territories in which the proportion of 8illiterates0 7those unable to write7 to the total state or territorial population of ten years of age and upward exceeds #be per cent41 we find that ratio to be3 ,in ,alabama1 #ej4i per cent42 ,arkansas1 #ch2 ,florida1 #dc4d2 ,georgia1 #di4i2 ,kentucky1 #bi4i2 ,louisiana1 #di4a2 ,mississippi1 #di4e2 ,new ,mexico1 #fe2 ,north ,carolina1 #dh4c2 ,south ,carolina1 #ee4d2 ,tennessee1 #ch4g2 ,texas1 #bi4g2 and ,virginia1 #dj4f4 ,massing these twelve states and one territory together1 we find they include a population of #aj1jgi1acj of ten years of age and upward1 of which number no less than #d1cbd1eac1 or over two fifths1 are unable to write--forty-three out of every one hundred unable to sign their own names--while of the #bf1fhb1dgg persons of like age in the remaining states and territories1 the number of such illiterates is but #a1iae1dde1 or a little over seven in every one hundred4 ,we are all of course aware that this large proportion of illiteracy in the states named is largely owing to the presence of the colored population4 ,nevertheless the fact remains that these people1 to whom all the rights of citizenship have been accorded1 and who will hereafter form a very important and possibly predominating factor in the administration of the affairs of many of these states1 as well as an important factor in national affairs1 must remain for a long time in ignorance unless some other means of educating them be adopted than that which now obtains4 ,but let no one deceive himself with the idea that this undue and lamentable ratio of illiteracy in these particular states is due wholly to the presence of the colored population4 ,unfortunately illiteracy prevails to a very considerable and almost an alarming extent among their native white population also4 ,thus the census tabulations show that the proportion of 8illiterates0 7those unable to write71 in the total native white population1 ten years of age and upward1 is3 ,in ,alabama1 #be percent42 ,arkansas1 #be4e2 ,florida1 #bj4g2 ,georgia1 #bc4b2 ,kentucky1 #bb4h2 ,louisiana1 #ai4h2 ,mississippi1 #af4f2 ,new ,mexico1 #fd4b2 ,north ,carolina1 #ca4g2 ,south ,carolina1 #bb4d2 ,tennessee1 #bg4h2 ,texas1 #ac4i2 and ,virginia1 #ah4e4 ,massing them we find that of the #f1jaj1gad native whites1 ten years of age and upward1 within the territorial limits mentioned1 there are as many as #a1cie1dda--;being #bc4b per cent41 or nearly one in every four of the whites--unable to write4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the surprising illiteracy in these states is not wholly attributable to the presence therein of the colored race4 ,it is somewhat humiliating to have to confess to the world by our own official figures that one out of every four of the native whites over ten years of age in twelve states and one territory of our ,republic is unable to write his own name1 especially when we compare it with the additional fact1 derived from the same tabulation1 that the illiteracy of the foreign born of these same localities does not rise in any instance above #aj4i per cent4 ,turning to the other side of the picture we may find some grains of comparative consolation in observing the fact that of the remaining #ai1gge1jge native whites1 ten years of age and upward1 in the ,united ,states only #hfj1jai--or #d4c per cent41 being one in twenty-three--are unable to write4 ,this favorable condition of one part of the country1 however1 only serves to bring out in sharper contrast the sad condition of the other part1 and should spur the philanthropist and statesman to renewed and more strenuous effort to obliterate1 or at least ameliorate1 this alarming sectional inequality in the degree of illiteracy4 ,were it not for the hope of ultimately removing this inequality by attaining an educational homogeneity or equality on the higher level as between the sections1 one might almost be tempted to wish for an educational equalization on the lower grade2 for as long as that inequality continues to exist1 so long must it prove a source of irritation and danger in a thousand forms4 ,as to the situation in the old slave states1 where the colored population is proportionately large1 it is not difficult to understand it4 ,we can appreciate the dread on the part of the whites of an 8uprising10 as it is termed1 of the colored people4 ,but the words of ,jefferson,e--possibly prophetic unless averted by the exercise of wisdom and fairness--have in them a depth of meaning that none but those whites can fully realize when1 speaking of the slaves1 he says3 8,and can the liberties of a nation be thought secure when we have removed their only firm basis1 a conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are the gift of ,god8 ,that they are not to be violated but with his wrath8 ,indeed ,i tremble for my country when ,i reflect that ,god is just2 that his justice can not sleep forever2 that considering numbers1 nature and natural means only1 a revolution of the wheel of fortune1 an exchange of situation is among the possible events2 that it may become probable by supernatural interference6 ,the ,almighty has no attribute which can take sides with us in such a contest40 ,aside from the overawing influence of a large standing army there is but one thing that can prevent a race-conflict1 the very possibility of which we dread to contemplate1 and that is the benign and liberalizing influence of education1 resulting in a free and untrammeled exercise of the elective franchise4 ,give the former and you will unquestionably secure the latter4 ,that the local as well as sectional inequality in education can be overcome by no other means than by national aid1 will be further demonstrated4 ,nor is it just that we should expect or ask it to be otherwise4 ,no matter now what may have caused this inequality1 the fact that it exists is that which now momentously concerns us4 ,we know it can not be removed by recurring to the cause2 and it will become more and more evident as we examine the subject that only by speedy and efficient congressional action can we now insure that future educational equilibrium1 not only between the races and between the sections1 but also between the people in each state1 which will have so important a bearing upon the destinies of this nation1 and is so essential to the continued peace1 prosperity and contentment of its people4 ,another fact of great importance1 as bearing upon the necessity for national aid to education1 is revealed by the census returns4 ,it is a curious as well as an important revelation1 because it shows that the ratio of children or persons under twenty-one years of age to the adults1 is considerably larger in some states than in others1 and correspondingly increases the educational burden4 ,the principle involved in this condition of affairs may be simply illustrated thus3 ,suppose the head of each family had to pay directly for the education of his own children4 ,then1 even with an equality of means1 the burden would1 as a matter of course1 fall heavier on the one with a numerous than the one with a small progeny4 ,to make apparent the effect of this inequality in the proportion of minors to adults in different parts of our common country1 let us suppose that the mean average cost of schooling is four dollars per annum for each child4 ,it appears that in ,connecticut1 out of every one hundred persons1 fifty-nine are adults1 and forty-one are minors4 ,at this supposed rate1 then1 the fifty-nine adults would have each to pay two dollars and seventy-eight cents per annum in order to make up the one hundred and sixty-four dollars per annum needed for the education of the forty-one children4 ,it appears also that in ,south ,carolina1 out of every one hundred persons1 forty-three are adults and fifty-seven are minors4 ,at the supposed rate1 then1 these forty-three adults would have each to pay five dollars and thirty cents per annum in order to make up the two hundred and twenty-eight dollars per annum needed for the education of the fifty-seven children4 ,now1 this is a very important fact1 indeed1 and must lead all fair minded advocates of education to modify somewhat the criticisms they may have made touching the expenditure in the ,south for education as compared with that in the ,north and ,west2 for here it becomes palpable that two dollars and seventy-eight cents per adult in ,connecticut is equivalent to five dollars and thirty cents per adult in ,south ,carolina for the schooling of the children respectively1 in those states4 ,nearly twice as much in one state as in the other4 ,but this result is from an assumed uniform mean average standard of the cost of educating each child in the ,union4 ,let us test the matter by a comparison founded on actual cost4 ,take1 for instance1 the states of ,maine and ,mississippi4 ,in ,maine there are fifty-eight adults to forty-two minors in every one hundred persons4 ,in ,mississippi there are forty-three adults to fifty-seven minors in every one hundred persons4 ,in ,maine,f the educational expenditure per capita of the school population is four dollars and sixty-seven cents per annum4 ,this enforces an annual expenditure for this purpose of three dollars and thirty-eight cents by each adult4 ,an equal school tax of four dollars and sixty-seven cents per annum for each scholar1 imposed upon the adult population of ,mississippi would call for six dollars and nineteen cents from each adult--or nearly twice what the adult of ,maine must pay4 ,the effects of this disparity will be more fully dwelt upon at a later period4 ,but it must surely be already apparent that this inequality of the educational burden created by the disparity existing between the populations of various portions of our country can alone be met and remedied by some aid from the general government4 ,it is true that the facts thus far adduced indicate rather the necessity for national assistance to certain sections or states than for general and uniform aid to all4 ,but a further study and the development of other facts will1 as we proceed1 more fully reveal1 not alone the wisdom and necessity of such aid to all1 but the character and extent of the aid required4 ,before we reach that period1 however1 there are facts touching other phases of inequality of burden that are worthy of close and careful consideration4 ,careful tabulations from the census returns show that a school enrollment of #bb4d per cent4 of the total population of ,missouri amounts to but #hh4f per cent4 of the school population of that state1 fixing the standard of school age as between six and sixteen years2 while a school enrollment of #bb per cent4 of the total population of ,new ,jersey is equal to,g #aja4e per cent4 of her school population4 ,hence1 although ,missouri has a somewhat larger percentage in school of her total population than has ,new ,jersey1 yet she lacks more than #aa per cent4 of having all her children of school age enrolled as scholars2 while a slightly smaller per cent4 of her total population places more than all the school age children of ,new ,jersey in school4 ,so also with ,vermont1 where a school enrollment of #bb per cent4 of the total population gives #aji4e per cent4 in school1 of all of school age4 ,comparing ,nebraska and ,connecticut1 we find that while #bb4c per cent4 of the total population of the former state enrolled in the schools amounts to but #ie4d per cent4 of her children of school age1 #ba4c per cent4 of the total population of the latter state enrolled in the schools is equivalent to #aaj4c per cent4 of her children of school age4 ,massachusetts has to send #ai4b per cent4 of her total population to school in order to equal #ajd4h per cent4 of her children of school age1 while ,illinois has to send to school #bd4e per cent4 of her population to reach a like ratio of enrolled scholars to children of school age4 ,even in states situated so near to each other as ,pennsylvania and ,new ,york we observe this inequality4 ,in the former1 where the school enrollment is #bb4h per cent4 of the total population1 it is but #ii4d per cent4 of the children of school age1 while in ,new ,york #bc per cent4 of the total population enrolled in the schools is #aab4d per cent4 of her children of school age4 ,thus far have been selected for comparison some of those states the ratios of whose school enrollment to the total population were about the same4 ,but while these contrasts bring out very clearly the inequality in the burden of educating the children of our country1 yet there are more marked illustrations at hand4 ,take ,arkansas1 ,west ,virginia and ,new ,york1 for instance4 ,in ,arkansas the school enrollment is #ac4e per cent4 of population1 and but #ea4c per cent4 of the children of school age4 ,at the same ratio a school enrollment of #bc per cent4 of total population in ,arkansas would be but #hg4d per cent4 of the children of school age4 ,west ,virginia has a school enrollment of #bc4c per cent4 of total population1 which is only #hg4i per cent4 of her children of school age4 ,yet ,new ,york1 as we have already seen1 by an enrollment of #bc per cent4 of her total population secures schooling for #aac4c per cent4--more than all--of her children of school age4 ,comparing other states1 one with the other--such as ,alabama with ,maine1 ,georgia with ,new ,hampshire1 ,tennessee with ,rhode ,island1 ,mississippi with ,massachusetts1 etc4--we see similar1 and in some cases even greater inequality4 ,let us now apply these facts practically1 and thus reach a clearer understanding of the effect of this great disparity4 ,the actual mean average cost of the schooling of each public school scholar in the ,united ,states is about ten dollars4 ,assuming then that the adult population of each state bears the burden of educating its children1 and that all the children of school age in each state are enrolled in the schools--as they should be--let us ascertain how much the tax per capita would be on the adults bearing this burden in each state and territory4 ,in other words1 let us discover how much in each state and territory must every adult 7male or female7 pay every year in order to supply the ten dollars per annum that it costs to educate each and every child in that state or territory4 ,it would cost each adult in ,montana1 #a4ie2 in ,wyoming1 #b4ab2 ,nevada1 #b4ab2 ,colorado1 #b4bj2 ,arizona1 #b4cd2 ,new ,hampshire1 #b4gh2 ,idaho1 #c4jj2 ,massachusetts1 #c4bc2 ,dakota1 #c4cj2 ,rhode ,island1 #c4bb2 ,california1 #c4cc2 ,connecticut1 #c4bg2 ,maine1 #c4dc2 ,vermont1 #c4df2 ,new ,york1 #c4ef2 ,district of ,columbia1 #c4gg2 ,washington1 #c4id2 ,new ,jersey1 #d4jb2 ,michigan1 #d4ae2 ,oregon1 #d4bi2 ,delaware1 #d4ca2 ,pennsylvania1 #d4bf2 ,ohio1 #d4ee2 ,maryland1 #d4ee2 ,nebraska1 #d4gg2 ,minnesota1 #d4gj2 ,new ,mexico1 #d4fe2 ,wisconsin1 #d4hf2 ,illinois1 #d4hh2 ,indiana1 #e4jj2 ,iowa1 #e4aj2 ,missouri1 #e4bh2 ,kansas1 #e4cb2 ,louisiana1 #e4ed2 ,north ,carolina1 #e4fg2 ,virginia1 #e4ei2 ,texas1 #e4hf2 ,kentucky1 #e4fe2 ,florida1 #e4gh2 ,utah1 #f4jg2 ,alabama1 #f4ab2 ,arkansas1 #f4ab2 ,georgia1 #e4ih2 ,south ,carolina1 #e4ih2 ,tennessee1 #f4jj2 ,west ,virginia1 #e4hf1 and ,mississippi1 #f4bh--while1 massing the entire ,union1 the cost to each adult in it would be #d4gj4 ,thus we find that while the school tax on each adult in ,new ,york would be but #c4ef1 in the adjoining state of ,pennsylvania it would be #d4bf2 that while in ,massachusetts it would be but #c4bc1 in ,illinois it would be #d4hh--;a difference of #a4fe per capita to the adult2 that while in ,new ,hampshire it would be but #b4gh1 in ,mississippi it would be more than double that amount4 ,but the reader can himself1 by a glance at the list presented1 perceive even more glaring inequalities than these in the relative burdens which would be imposed upon the adult population of the various states and territories1 were that burden to be placed entirely on their shoulders4 ,if it be the true policy of a nation to equalize1 as far as possible1 the necessary burdens imposed upon its people1 then we certainly have before us in these statistics1 a condition of facts demanding serious consideration and efficacious action by the general government4 ,if inequality in the burdens imposed in order to educate our children be any argument in favor of national aid to education--and who will venture to deny it8--then we have in these statistics positive evidence of very great and possibly hitherto unsuspected inequalities2 inequalities of which none could be aware without a close and critical analysis of the figures1 the developments of which as previously hinted1 may well cause us to modify somewhat the reproaches we may have felt inclined to cast upon some of our states for what seemed to be a lack of proper effort on their part in the direction of education4 ,while1 however1 reproachful criticism of them still appears to some extent justifiable1 yet the deductions from rearrangement and classification of the census and educational bureau tables show that the fault does not altogether lie at the doors of those among whom the greatest amount of illiteracy is found4 ,in order to make this clear let us examine the ratio of children enrolled in schools1 not to the state1 but to the adult population4 ,that ratio is1 in ,alabama1 #cd4f per cent42 ,arkansas1 #ca4d2 ,california1 #ce4b2 ,colorado1 #ag4g2 ,connecticut1 #cf4a2 ,delaware1 #cd4f2 ,district of ,columbia1 #cb4a2 ,florida1 #ce4h2 ,georgia1 #db2 ,illinois1 #ej2 ,indiana1 #ed4c2 ,iowa1 #ef2 ,kansas1 #ec4h2 ,kentucky1 #cf4c2 ,louisiana1 #ai4h2 ,maine1 #dj2 ,maryland1 #ca4d2 ,massachusetts1 #cc4e2 ,michigan1 #dd2 ,minnesota1 #dg4h2 ,mississippi1 #dh4f2 ,missouri1 #dg4g2 ,nebraska1 #de4e2 ,new ,hampshire1 #ca4c2 ,new ,jersey1 #dj4g2 ,new ,york1 #dj4c2 ,north ,carolina1 #dj4g2 ,ohio1 #dg4h2 ,pennsylvania1 #db4b2 ,rhode ,island1 #cj4b2 ,south ,carolina1 #cb4c2 ,tennessee1 #di4a2 ,texas1 #be4b2 ,utah1 #dd4d2 ,vermont1 #ch2 ,virginia1 #ce4d2 ,west ,virginia1 #ea4h2 ,wisconsin1 #ej4d1 and in the entire ,union1 #db per cent4 ,now1 the mean average number of children in the ,united ,states enrolled in the schools being forty-two to every one hundred adults1 what is our surprise to find1 in the figures just given1 that every ,new ,england state1 as well as ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and the ,district of ,columbia1 falls below this average1 while on the other hand1 every northwestern state 7including ,ohio1 ,missouri and ,kansas71 as well as ,mississippi1 ,tennessee and ,west ,virginia1 stands above it6 ,that in proportion to the adult population of those states1 there are more children at school in ,mississippi1 ,tennessee and ,west ,virginia1 than in any of the ,new ,england states1 is1 indeed1 an astounding revelation4 ,supposing1 then1 the cost of educating a child in those states to be the same1 it follows that each one hundred adults in ,mississippi1 ,tennessee1 and ,west ,virginia are paying more to educate their children than is paid by the same number of adults in any ,new ,england state6 ,at first sight these statistical results fairly stagger one1 and give rise to doubts of their accuracy4 ,but a careful examination of them will satisfy any reasonable mind that these developments are veritable facts1 if the census returns and the school enrollment reported by the ,commissioners of ,education are to be accepted--being based upon and directly calculated from them4 ,even supposing the existence of some deficiencies in the returns or some minor errors in the calculations1 the general facts they reveal must be accepted as true4 ,,to ,,be ,,continued4 ,,footnotes ,d ,by ,senator ,butler1 of ,south ,carolina4 ,e 8,notes on ,virginia1 ,fourth ,american ,edition1 ,n4 ,y4 #ahja10 p4 #bda4 ,f ,see ,report of ,commissioner of ,education for #ahha1 page #di4 ,g ,the surplus of percentage being due doubtless to the attendance at school of some children beyond the school age prescribed by law4 ,,the ,,parson',s ,,comforter4 ,,by ,,frederick ,,langbridge4 ,the parson goes about his daily ways ,with all the parish troubles in his head1 ,and takes his ,bible out1 and reads and prays1 ,beside the sufferer's chair1 the dying bed4 ,whate'er the secret skeleton may be-- ,doubt1 drink1 or debt--that keeps within his lair1 ,when parson comes1 the owner turns the key1 ,and lets him out to 8squeak and gibber0 there4 ,it seems a possibility unguessed-- ,or little borne in mind1 if haply known-- ,the he who cheers in trouble all the rest ,may now and then have troubles of his own4 ,alas6 ,god knows1 he has his foe to fight1 ,his closet-atomy1 severe and grim2 ,all others claim his comfort as of right1 ,but1 hapless parson6 who shall comfort him8 ,a friend he has to whom he may repair 7,beside that ,one who carries all our grief71 ,and when his load is more than he can bear ,he seeks his comforter1 and finds relief4 ,he finds a cottage1 very poor and small1 ,the meanest tenement where all are mean2 ,yet decency and order mark it all3-- ,the panes are bright1 the step severely clean4 ,he lifts the latch--his comforter is there1 ,propt in the bed1 where now for weeks she stays1 ,or1 haply1 seated knitting in her chair1 ,if this be one of those rare 8better days40 ,a tiny woman1 stunted1 bent1 and thin2 ,her features sharp with pain that always wakes2 ,the nimble hand she holds the needles in ,is warped and wrenched by dire rheumatic aches4 ,sometimes1 but seldom1 neighbors hear her moan1 ,wrung by some sudden stress of fiercer pain2 ,often they hear her pray1 but none has known1 ,no single soul has heard her lips complain4 ,the parson enters1 and a gracious smile ,over the poor pinched features brightly grows2 ,she lets the needles rest a little while2 8,you're kindly welcome sir60--ah6 that he knows4 ,he takes the ,book1 and opens at the place-- ,no need to ask her which her favorite psalm2 ,and1 as he reads1 upon her tortured face ,there comes a holy rapture1 deep and calm4 ,she murmurs softly with him as he reads 7,she can repeat the ,psalter through at will72 8,he feeds me in green pastures1 and ,he leads1 ,he leads me forth beside the waters still40 ,the reading's done1 and now the prayer is said2 ,he bids farewell1 and leaves her to her pain2 ,but grace and blessing on his soul are shed-- ,he goes forth comforted and strong again4 ,he takes his way1 on divers errands bound1 ,abler to plead1 and warn1 and comfort woes2 ,that is the darkest house on all his round1 ,and yet1 be sure1 the happiest house he knows4 ,,the ,,smithsonian ,,institution4 ,,by ,g4 ,,brown ,,goode4 8,let the trust of ,,james ,,smithson to the ,united ,states of ,america be faithfully executed by their representatives in ,congress1 let the result accomplish his object1 #8the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men1' and a wreath of more unfading verdure shall entwine itself in the lapse of future ages around the name of ,smithson1 than the united hands of tradition1 history1 and poetry have braided around the name of ,percy through the long perspective in ages past of a thousand years40--,john ,quincy ,adams4 ,the name of the ,smithsonian ,institution is a household word throughout ,north ,america1 and its fame is current wherever printed literature exists4 ,abroad it is regarded as the chief exponent of the scientific activities of the people of the ,united ,states1 and the administrative scientific department of our government4 ,at home1 its actual relations to the administration are better understood1 and it is looked upon in its proper capacity--that of an organization closely affiliated to the government and tenderly cherished by its officers1 yet1 in virtue of its independent foundation1 independent of political favor1 and ready to encourage1 advise and coperate with any public or private enterprise without the necessity of annual appeals to the congressional committees on appropriations4 ,visitors to the national capital usually carry away pleasant memories of the quiet old building among the trees in the mall1 with its medival battlements and turrets of brown stone conspicuous from every point of view1 and the multitude who enter its halls are at least impressed with the fact that the national treasure houses are becoming filled with valuable collections rather faster than the available money and space will allow to be properly arranged and displayed4 ,only a very few1 however1 of the four hundred thousand persons who visited the buildings last year can have had the opportunity to inspect the administrative offices or the scientific laboratories1 and very few indeed of those who are acquainted with the general nature of the operations of the establishment1 have the slightest conception of their meaning and importance4 ,no class of ,american people1 except indeed our scientific investigators1 better understand and appreciate the work of the ,institution than do our members of ,congress1 as is clearly shown by the uniform liberality with which1 throughout many successive terms1 regardless of changes in the political complexion of the administration1 they have supported its policy1 by the care with which they disseminate its reports1 by the judgment with which they select their representatives in its board of regents1 and above all1 by the scrupulous care with which they have protected its independence from political complications4 ,through the disinterested labors of ,washington correspondents1 novelists1 and playwrights1 the average congressman of current1 popular belief1 is not a person remarkable either for manners1 honesty or intellect4 ,residents of ,washington1 however1 do not find the representative men at the ,capital counterparts of the eminent politicians depicted by the author of 8,democracy10 but in their stead1 practical men of business1 hard-working in their committees and hard-worked by their constituents4 ,it is its support by these men1 and through them by the people of the ,united ,states1 that has enabled the ,smithsonian ,institution to do its work in the past4 ,it is to such support that it will owe its efficiency in the future1 and it seems right that every opportunity should be taken to explain its operations to the public4 ,representatives of the best classes of thinking ,americans will no doubt thoroughly appreciate the benefits which education has received and will continue to receive from the proper administration of the ,smithsonian bequest4 ,the story of the foundation of the ,institution sounds more like a romance than like fact4 ,its history seems like the fulfillment of some ancient prophecy--even more strikingly so because it is evident that the future is to fulfill the promise of the past4 ,the father of the founder of the ,smithsonian ,institution was one of the most distinguished members of the ,english peerage4 ,upon the plate of his coffin in ,westminster ,abbey1 where he was buried 8in great pomp0 in #aghf1 he is described as 8the most high1 puissant and most noble prince ,hugh ,percy1 ,duke and ,earl of ,northumberland1 ,earl ,percy1 ,baron ,warkworth and ,lovaine1 ,lord ,lieutenant and ,custos ,rotulorum of the ,counties of ,middlesex and ,northumberland1 ,vice ,admiral of the ,county of ,northumberland and of all ,america1 one of the ,lords of ,his ,majesty's most ,honorable ,privy ,council and ,knight of the most noble ,order of the ,garter1 etc41 etc40 ,while his aged father was sustaining this overwhelming accumulation of dignities1 and while his elder brother1 ,earl ,percy1 was acting as ,lieutenant-,general in the war against the rebellious ,british colonies in ,north ,america 7he commanded the reinforcements at the battle of ,lexington in #agge1 and led the column that reduced ,fort ,washington1 near ,new ,york in #aggf71 ,james ,smithson1 a youth of modest fortune1 inherited from his mother1 was laying the foundations of a scientific education in the ,english schools and colleges1 receiving the degree of ,master of ,arts at ,pembroke ,college1 ,oxford1 in #aghf1 the year of his father's death4 ,he was then known as ,james ,louis ,macie1 ,esq41 and did not assume the name of ,smithson until fourteen years later1 after he had attained to some reputation as a man of science4 ,his mother was not the ,duchess of ,northumberland1 but a cousin of her father's1 ,elizabeth ,hungerford1 who was subsequently known as ,mrs4 ,macie4 ,she appears to have been the daughter and heiress of ,sir ,george ,hungerford of ,audley and the ,hon4 ,frances ,seymour1 sister of the ,duke of ,somerset and aunt of ,algernon ,seymour1 ,lord ,percy1 by marriage with whose daughter ,sir ,hugh ,smithson was enabled to assume the name of ,percy and the title of ,duke of ,northumberland4 ,the ,smithsons were an old ,yorkshire family1 ,sir ,hugh ,smithson1 the great-grandfather of ,james ,smithson1 having been created baronet in #affj by ,charles ,,ii4 after his restoration4 ,the names of ,percy and ,northumberland were1 as has been stated1 assumed by ,james ,smithson's father4 ,these barren1 genealogical details are referred to because they seem to be necessary to the understanding of ,james ,smithson's career4 ,proud of his descent he undoubtedly was4 ,in his will he describes his identity himself in these words3 8,i1 ,james ,smithson1 son of ,hugh1 first ,duke of ,northumberland and ,elizabeth1 heiress of the ,hungerfords of ,audley1 and niece to ,charles the ,proud1 ,duke of ,somerset40 ,he was1 however1 a man of broad1 philosophic mind1 in whom a thorough training in the best scientific methods of his day1 and associations with leading investigators in ,germany and ,france1 and his brother ,fellows of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 had developed a generous appreciation of the value of scholarship and scientific culture4 ,in one of his manuscripts was found the following sentiment1 which ,i have already referred to as prophetic in its ring3 8,the best blood of ,england flows in my veins2 on my father's side ,i am a ,northumberland1 on my mother's ,i am related to kings1 but this avails me not4 ,my name shall live in the memory of man when the titles of the ,northumberlands and the ,percys are extinct and forgotten40 ,these words came to my mind last summer in ,london when ,i saw the present ,duke of ,northumberland1 grandson of ,smithson's half-brother1 a feeble old man1 still one of ,england's greatest dignitaries1 following in the train of the ,prince of ,wales1 and rising to falter out a feeble speech proposing a vote of thanks to ,his ,royal ,highness for presiding at one of the conferences of the ,international ,fisheries' ,exhibition1 upon the occasion of an address by ,prof4 ,huxley1 president of the ,royal ,society4 ,the name of the ,smithsonian ,institution has a world-wide fame2 but who outside of ,english court circles ever heard of ,algernon ,george ,percy1 ,duke of ,northumberland8 ,smithson seems early in life to have become imbued with the scientific spirit of his time4 ,in #aghd1 while still an undergraduate at ,oxford1 he made a scientific exploration of the coasts of ,scotland in company with a party of geologists4 ,in #aghg he was admitted as a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and during the remaining forty-two years of his life1 a considerable portion of which was passed upon the continent1 in ,berlin1 ,paris1 ,rome1 ,florence and ,geneva1 he was the associate of the leading men of science1 and devoted himself to research4 ,he made an extensive collection of minerals1 which was destroyed by the burning of a portion of the ,smithsonian building in #ahfe1 and always carried with him a portable chemical laboratory4 ,his contributions to science are included in twenty-seven memoirs1 chiefly upon topics in mineralogy and organic chemistry1 but a number of them relating to applied science and the industrial arts4 ,his work was by no means of an epoch-making character1 but seems to have been remarkable for its minute accuracy4 ,smithson was a much greater man than his published writings would indicate4 ,in his eulogy the president of the ,royal ,society remarked3 8,he carried with him the esteem of various private friends1 and of a still larger number of persons who admired and appreciated his acquirements40 ,he was evidently a man of broad1 general culture1 who understood thoroughly the needs of the world in the direction of scientific endowment1 and whose action in bequeathing his estate to the people of ,america was deliberate and well considered4 ,in his admirable little monograph entitled 8,smithson and ,his ,bequest10 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,rhees has shown the tendency of the time of ,smithson to have been in the direction of establishing permanent scientific institutions4 ,between #aghb and #ahbf1 over twenty of the most important academies and societies now in existence were organized4 ,this period he remarks 8was not less marked by the gloom occasioned by long protracted and almost universal war1 and the extent and rapidity of its social changes1 than by the luster of its brilliant discoveries in science1 and its useful inventions in the arts4 ,pure1 abstract science had many illustrious votaries1 and the practical applications of its truths gave to the world many of the great inventions by means of which civilization has made such immense and rapid progress40 ,he quotes in support of these statements the words of ,lord ,brougham1 the representative statesman of the day4 8,to instruct the people in the rudiments of philosophy10 ,brougham remarked1 8would of itself be an object sufficiently brilliant to allure the noblest ambition40 ,he recommended this idea to the wealthy men of ,england1 pointing out how1 by the promotion of such ends1 a man1 however averse to the turmoil of public affairs1 may enjoy the noblest gratification of which the most aspiring nature is susceptible1 and may influence by his single exertions the character and fortunes of a whole generation4 ,very closely do these ideas agree with those expressed by ,smithson in various passages in his note books1 especially with that which is used for a motto upon the publications of the ,institution3 8,every man is a valuable member of society who1 by his observations1 researches1 and experiments1 procures knowledge for men40 ,or this3 8,it is in his knowledge that man has found his greatness and his happiness1 the high superiority which he holds over the other animals who inherit the earth with him1 and consequently1 no ignorance is probably without loss to him1 no error without evil40 ,it was with a mind full of such thoughts as these1 with perhaps the support and inspiration of ,lord ,brougham's words quoted above from his 8,treatise on ,popular ,education10 printed in #ahbe1 with such models in mind as the ,royal ,society1 whose object is 8the improvement of natural knowledge10 the ,royal ,institution 8for diffusing the knowledge and facilitating the general introduction of useful mechanical inventions and improvements1 and for teaching the application of science to the common purposes of life10 and the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge established in ,london in #ahbe1 that in #ahbf ,smithson drew up his will containing the following weighty provision3 8,i bequeath the whole of my property to the ,united ,states of ,america to found at ,washington1 under the name of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men40 ,no one has been able to show why he selected the ,united ,states as the seat of his foundation4 ,he had no acquaintances in ,america1 nor does he appear to have had any books relating to ,america save two4 ,rhees quotes from one of these1 8,travels ,through ,north ,america10 by ,isaac ,weld1 secretary of the ,royal ,society1 a paragraph concerning ,washington1 then a small town of #e1jjj inhabitants1 in which it is predicted that 8the ,federal city1 as soon as navigation is perfected1 will increase most rapidly1 and that at a future day1 if the affairs of the ,united ,states go on as rapidly as they have done1 it will become the grand emporium of the ,west1 and rival in magnitude and splendor the cities of the whole world40 ,inspired by a belief in the future greatness of the new nation1 realizing that while the needs of ,england were well met by existing organizations such as would not be likely to spring up for many years in a new1 poor1 and growing country1 he founded in the new ,england an institution of learning1 the civilizing power of which has been of incalculable value4 ,who can attempt to say what the condition of the ,united ,states would have been to-day without this bequest8 ,in the words of ,john ,quincy ,adams3 8,of all the foundations of establishments for pious or charitable uses which ever signalized the spirit of the age or the comprehensive beneficence of the founder1 none can be named more deserving the approbation of mankind40 ,when the fact of the bequest became known1 some six years after ,smithson's death1 much opposition was shown in ,congress toward its acceptance4 ,eminent statesmen like ,calhoun and ,preston argued that it was beneath the dignity of the ,united ,states to receive presents1 and that it was too cheap a way of conferring immortality on the donor4 ,the wise counsels and enthusiastic labors of ,john ,quincy ,adams1 who seems to have had from the first a thorough appreciation of the importance of the matter1 finally prevailed1 and the ,hon4 ,richard ,rush was sent to ,england to prosecute the claim4 ,he entered suit in the ,courts of ,chancery1 in the name of the ,president of the ,united ,states1 and in less than two years--an event unparalleled in the ,court of ,chancery--had obtained a favorable decision4 ,the legacy was brought over in the form of #ajd1ifj gold sovereigns which were delivered ,september #ast1 #ahch1 to the ,philadelphia mint1 where they were immediately recoined into ,american money1 producing #ejh1cah4df1 as the first installment of the ,smithsonian legacy4 ,this was increased in #ahfa to #ecd1ebi4ji4 ,for eight years the legacy lay in the ,treasury1 while the wise men of the nation tried to decide what to do with it4 ,in this instance the adage that in the multitude of counselors there is wisdom did not appear to be applicable in the ordinary interpretation4 ,the delay1 though irksome to those who desired to see immediate results1 was1 however1 the best thing in the end for the interests of the trust4 ,every imaginable disposition of the legacy was proposed and discussed in ,congress2 the debates fill nearly three hundred and fifty pages of ,rhees's compilation of ,smithsonian documents4 ,letters by the hundred1 advisory1 expostulatory and dissuasive were received from representative thinkers and from societies at home and abroad4 ,every man had a scheme peculiar to himself1 and opposed all other schemes with a vigor proportionate to their dissimilarity to his own4 ,schools of every grade1 from a national university to an agricultural school1 a normal school and a school for the blind were proposed4 ,a library1 a botanical garden1 an observatory1 a chemical laboratory1 a popular publishing house1 a lecture lyceum1 an art museum1 any and all of these and many more were proposed and advocated by this voluntary congress of many men of many minds4 ,it is not necessary in this place to discuss the history of the period at length1 nor to relate the manner in which the prevalence of wiser councils was brought about4 ,it is sufficient to say that though the new institution was burdened from the start with various undertakings which have since proved unprofitable or better suited to the capacity of other institutions1 such have been the flexibility of its organization and the vitality of its membership that it has been able to work out a career for itself unparalleled in the history of benevolent foundations4 ,it need not be said that the accomplishment of these effects was the result of long continued effort on the part of men of unusual ability1 energy and personal influence4 ,no board of trustees or regents1 no succession of officers serving out their terms in rotation could have developed from a chaos of conflicting opinions1 a strongly individualized establishment like the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,the names of ,joseph ,henry and ,spencer ,f4 ,baird are so thoroughly identified with that of the ,institution that their biographies combined would form an almost complete history of its operations4 ,a thirty-two years' term of uninterrupted administrative service has been rendered by one1 thirty-four years by the other4 ,it is very doubtful whether any other institution has ever had the benefit of such an uninterrupted administration of thirty-eight years1 beginning with its birth and continuing in an unbroken line of consistent policy a career of increasing usefulness and enterprise4 ,joseph ,henry1 the first secretary1 entered upon his duties at the end of the year #ahdf1 a man already famous as an investigator in physical science1 a professor of fourteen years' standing in ,princeton ,college1 and recognized as eminent in scientific and general acquirements4 ,from the age of forty-seven to that of seventy-nine1 his life was merged in that of the ,institution4 ,professor ,asa ,gray has pointed out so clearly the deep impression which he made upon the ,institution while it was yet plastic1 that ,i venture to quote his words in order to explain the character of this new force in the evolution of good results from the ,smithson benefaction4 8,some time before his appointment10 writes ,professor ,gray1 8he had been requested by members of the ,board of ,regents to examine the will of ,smithson and to suggest a plan of organization by which the object of the bequest might1 in his opinion1 best be realized4 ,he did so1 and the plan he drew was in their hands when he was chosen secretary4 ,the plan was based on the conviction #8that the intention of the donor was to advance science by original research and publication2 that the establishment was for the benefit of mankind generally1 and that all unnecessary expenditures on local objects would be violations of the trust4' ,his #8,programme of ,organization' was submitted to the ,board of ,regents in the following year1 was adopted as its governing policy1 and has been reprinted in full or in part in almost every annual report4 ,if the ,institution is now known and praised throughout the world of science and letters1 if it is fulfilling the will of its founder and the reasonable expectations of the nation which accepted and established the trust1 the credit is mainly due to the practical wisdom1 the catholic spirit1 and the indomitable perseverance of its first secretary1 to whom the establishing act gave much power of shaping ends1 which as rough-hewn by ,congress were susceptible of various diversion4 ,henry took his stand on the broad and ample terms of the bequest1 #8for the increase and diffusion of useful knowledge among men1' and he never narrowed his mind and to locality gave what was meant for mankind4 ,he proposed only one restriction1 of wisdom and necessity1 that in view of the limited means of the ,institution1 it ought not to undertake anything which could be done1 and well done1 by other existing instrumentalities4 ,so as occasion arose he lightened its load and saved its energies by giving over to other agencies some of its cherished work40 ,the character of the work done in manifold directions will be discussed topically below2 its spirit is sufficiently indicated in ,dr4 ,gray's terse summary just quoted4 ,professor ,henry died in #ahgh4 8,remembering his great career as a man of science10 remarked ,president ,garfield1 8as a man who served his ,government with singular ability and faithfulness1 who was loved and venerated by every circle who was blessed with the light of his friendship1 the worthiest and the best1 whose life added new luster to the glory of the human race1 we shall be most fortunate if ever in the future we see his like again40,h ,his statue1 erected by ,congress1 stands in the ,smithsonian ,park4 ,concerning the influence of ,professor ,baird1 upon whom the mantle of his predecessor has descended1 it would perhaps be premature and out of taste to speak4 ,his eminence as a naturalist and his patriotic service as ,commissioner of ,fisheries are too well known to need mention1 and indeed may be quite as appropriately discussed elsewhere4 ,as assistant secretary from the age of twenty-four he was intimately associated with ,professor ,henry for twenty-seven years1 and his executive ability found full scope in the development of the systems of publication and international exchange1 as well as the museum1 and the explorations1 biological and ethnological1 which were from the beginning under his charge4 ,as secretary his policy has been a direct continuation of that of ,professor ,henry4 ,the services of ,mr4 ,william ,j4 ,rhees1 for thirty-two years chief clerk1 merit also especial notice4 ,the formal direction of the ,institution is vested in a board of regents1 consisting of the ,vice ,president and ,chief ,justice of the ,united ,states1 three members each from the ,senate and the ,house of ,representatives1 and six persons citizens of the ,united ,states appointed by ,congress4 ,the ,president and his cabinet are ex officio members of the ,institution1 and there is a provision1 not at present carried into effect1 providing for the election of honorary members of the ,institution4 ,the secretary is the only executive officer of the board1 and is responsible to the board for his conduct of affairs4 ,the regents meet once a year in ,january4 ,many eminent men have served in the capacity of regents1 and the records of their proceedings indicate that their interest in the work under their charge has been uniformly very active4 ,the building occupied by the ,institution and bearing its name is an ornate structure of ,seneca brown stone1 occupying a prominent position in the 8,mall0 which extends from the ,capitol to the ,washington monument4 ,this building was begun in #ahdg and completed in #ahee4 ,it is hybrid in character1 combining features selected from both ,gothic and ,romanesque style1 and is more admired by the public than by connoisseurs in architecture4 ,it is doubtful if a building more unsuited to the purposes for which it was designed was ever constructed4 ,the diversion of the funds of the ,smithsonian bequest to this building was one of ,professor ,henry's greatest griefs1 and before the close of his life by careful economy of the annual income1 he had succeeded in restoring the entire sum1 amounting to about #dej1jjj to the permanent endowment fund1 beside increasing this fund nearly #aej1jjj over and above the original bequest4 ,the eastern wing of the building1 for so many years the hospitable home of the secretary1 has been reconstructed internally1 and the offices of the ,institution are all established within its walls4 ,the remainder of the building is occupied by laboratories and exhibition halls connected with the ,national ,museum4 ,another building has recently been built east of the ,smithsonian for the reception of a portion of the national collections4 ,this was put up by congressional appropriation1 and ,congress has at last recognized the justice of the claim1 so many years urged upon them by the secretary1 that the ,smithson money should not be used to provide shelter for the government cabinets1 and has assumed the care of the ,smithsonian building and votes money for its repairs and maintenance4 ,few people who visit ,washington make the proper discrimination between the ,smithsonian ,institution proper1 and the establishments under its custody4 ,what they see is the ,national ,museum4 ,the relations of the ,museum to the ,institution will be discussed more fully in a separate article1 but it is necessary to state just here that it is not the property of the ,institution1 but rather its ward--its management being intrusted by law to the ,institution which is provided with funds for its maintenance by annual congressional grants4 ,in early days the ,smithsonian supported collections of its own1 but these were not primarily for public exhibition1 but for the uses of scientific investigators4 ,professor ,henry always maintained that not one cent of the ,smithson fund could with propriety be applied to the support of the ,national ,museum1 and his view is now the accepted one4 ,in the ,smithsonian proper1 little is to be seen by visitors4 ,in the regents' room is an interesting collection of relics of the founder1 including his portrait1 his scientific library1 and certain of his pictures and personal effects4 ,beside the regents' room there are offices1 store rooms and packing rooms occupied by busy clerks and mechanics4 ,the ,smithsonian is1 first of all1 an executive establishment1 to which have been confided various trusts1 to be mentioned hereafter4 ,it is also a publishing house1 and an 8exchange0 for the reception and transmission of scientific materials4 ,the great masses of books in brown wrappers and cases of papers1 apparatus and specimens constitute therefore the greater bulk of the material with which it has to deal4 ,the leading feature of the plan proposed by ,professor ,henry was from the first 8to assist men of science in making original researches1 to publish them in a series of volumes1 and to give a copy of them to every first-class library on the face of the earth40 ,the manner in which the first item of policy has been carried out can not be described here4 ,those who wish to know how it has been done must consult the thirty-four thick volumes of the annual reports1 presented to and printed by ,congress4 ,it is safe to say1 however1 in general terms that there is probably not a scientific investigator in ,america to whom the helping hand of the ,institution has not at some time been of service1 and that assistance of this sort has been by no means restricted to this side of the ,atlantic4 ,books1 apparatus and laboratory accommodations have been supplied in thousands of instances1 and every year a certain number of money grants have been made4 ,not less important has been the personal encouragement afforded1 especially to beginners and persons remote from other advice1 in the hundreds of thousands of letters which have been written by the two secretaries during the seventy years of their added terms of office4 ,no communication is ever passed by unnoticed and the archive rooms of the ,institution packed from floor to ceiling with letter files and letter copy books are well worthy of inspection4 ,the publications of the establishment are as numerous as those of a great publishing house1 and as a matter of fact1 they are all given away2 although there is a provision for their sale at cost price1 ,i doubt if a thousand dollars' worth has been sold in five years4 ,there are three series1 the aspect of which must be familiar to every observing person who has ever spent a day among the shelves in any ,american library of respectable standing4 ,the ,smithsonian 8,contributions to ,knowledge10 now including twenty-three stately volumes quarto with #aaf memoirs1 in all #ab1def pages1 and numerous fine plates1 the ,smithsonian miscellaneous collection1 in octavo1 containing #abb papers with #bj1bii pages1 and thirty-five annual reports4 ,the papers included in these volumes are all published separately1 the number of separate volumes printed up to this time being above #ejj4 ,these include papers varying in length from #d to #a1jjj pages1 by the most eminent specialists in every branch of science4 ,the most recent work1 one now in progress1 two volumes having been published1 is a systematic work on the botany of ,north ,america by ,dr4 ,asa ,gray2 another is an illustrated work on prehistoric fishing1 by ,dr4 ,charles ,rau4 ,i have never seen an estimate of the value of the books distributed during the thirty-eight years1 but ,i should judge that it can not fall below #a1jjj1jjj1 estimating the prices at standing publishing rates4 ,in addition to the direct publications of the ,institution let us look at the numerous magnificent volumes of scientific reports printed in more or less direct coperation with the ,institution by the various government surveys and exploring expeditions1 at government expense4 ,who can doubt that the extent of this literature1 which is a constant source of comment in foreign scientific journals1 where it is desired to stimulate ,european governments to publish scientific researches in a similar way1 is largely a product of the influence of the ,institution8 ,one of the main features of the ,institution in its early days was its library4 ,its publications were distributed throughout the world to every scientific and literary institution of good repute1 and in exchange they sent their own publications4 ,in this way an immense collection of scientific periodicals and journals was received1 and the ,smithsonian library became one of the most extensive in the world in this department4 ,books came in freely from other quarters and the support of the library became a great burden to the ,smithson fund4 ,the same policy which led to the abandonment of the ,smithsonian cabinet1 led to a transfer of the library1 and in #ahff the books were transferred to the ,capitol where they are cared for as a section of the national library under the name of 8,the ,smithsonian ,deposit40 ,the books come in as heretofore1 in exchange and as donations1 and are sent weekly to their place of custody at the other end of the mall4 ,the increase in #ahhc amounted to #aa1gci books and pamphlets1 and the total deposit amounts to about #ajj1jjj volumes4 ,several thousand volumes are retained in the working libraries of the ,institution4 ,at the time of the ,smithson bequest the endowment of research had scarcely been attempted in ,america4 ,there were schools and colleges in which science was taught and certain of the professors employed in these institutions were engaged in original investigation4 ,there were a few young and struggling scientific societies1 the ,american ,academy of ,sciences in ,boston1 and the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history1 the ,connecticut ,academy of ,sciences1 the ,new ,york ,lyceum of ,natural ,history 7now the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences71 the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 and the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences in ,philadelphia4 ,the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science was not organized until #ahdj4 ,the publications of these societies were necessarily very limited in extent and influence1 but then together with the monthly journal published at ,new ,haven1 by ,professor ,silliman1 they embodied the chief outcome of ,american scientific work4 ,science in ,america was an infant in swaddling clothes4 ,forty years have passed and ,american science now stands by the side of the science of ,britain1 of ,germany1 of ,france1 a fellow worker1 competing on an equal footing in nearly every field of research4 ,no one is likely to question the statement that the ,smithsonian ,institution has done what was absolutely indispensable to the rapid and symmetrical development of ,american scientific institutions1 and it is equally certain that the progress of ,american science has had an immense influence upon the welfare of ,america in every department of intellectual and industrial activity4 ,it has offered a helping hand to every institution and every individual in ,america capable of profiting by its generous aid1 and has stimulated coperation by them with similar workers abroad4 ,in this way its influence has been enormous1 but still greater has been the benefit of its stimulating powers upon the policy of the general government toward scientific ends4 ,,footnotes ,h 8,one trait10 remarks ,professor ,gray1 8may not be wholly omitted from the biography of one who has well been called #8the model of a ,christian gentleman1' and who is also our best example of a physical philosopher4 ,his life was the practical harmony of the two characters4 ,his entire freedom from the doubts which disturb some minds is shown in that last letter which he dictated1 in which he touches the grounds of faith1 both in natural and revealed religion2 also in his sententious declaration upon some earlier occasions1 that the person who thought there could be any real conflict between science and religion must be either very young in science or very ignorant of religion40 ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,heavens ,,for ,,february4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,m4 ,b4 ,,goff1 ,western ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,,the ,,sun4 8,now when the cheerless empire of the sky ,to ,capricorn the ,centaur ,archer yields1 ,and fierce ,aquarius stains the inverted year2 ,hung o'er the farthest verge of heaven1 the ,,sun ,scarce spreads o'er ether the dejected day4 ,faint are his gleams1 and ineffectual shoot ,his struggling rays in horizontal lines1 ,through the thick air2 as clothed in cloudy storm1 ,weak1 wan1 and broad1 he skirts the southern sky2 ,and1 soon descending1 to the long dark night1 ,wide-shading all1 the prostrate world resigns40 ,but as the days go by1 his rays no longer struggle 8through the thick air0 in 8horizontal lines10 nor does he so closely 8skirt the southern sky10 but higher mounting pierces with penetrating power the dark shadows1 lessening 8the long1 dark night10 driving 8the dusky shades away40 ,so rapidly do these changes occur that in four weeks our daylight increases one hour and seven minutes1 or our length of days from ten hours and nine minutes on the #ast to eleven hours sixteen minutes on the #bhth4 ,on the #ast1 #afth and #bhth the sun rises at #g3ji1 #f3eb and #f3cd a4 m41 and on the same days sets at #e3ah1 #e3cf and #e3ej p4 m4 respectively4 ,,the ,,moon ,presents us with great regularity her changes3 ,last quarter on the #fth at #e3bi p4 m42 new1 on the #adth1 at #i3ac p4 m42 first quarter1 on the #bb;d1 at #e3bc a4 m42 and full on the #bhth1 at #aj3eb p4 m4 ,in apogee 7farthest from earth7 on the #ith1 at #g3bd p4 m42 in perigee 7nearest the earth7 on the #beth1 at #f3bd p4 m4 ,least elevation1 #ajth1 amounting to #cj #i2 greatest elevation1 #bdth1 equal to #ff #de4 ,,mercury1 8,the fleet-footed10 makes a direct motion of #dc #ah #cg1 moving from about the middle of the constellation ,sagittarius and through ,capricornus1 and is the companion of ,venus throughout the month 7see 8,venus074 ,rises on the #ast at #e3ee a4 m41 and sets at #c3ac p4 m42 on the #afth1 rises at #f3ab a4 m41 sets at #c3ej p4 m42 on the #bhth1 rises at #f3bb a4 m41 sets at #d3df p4 m4 ,on the #aath1 at #g3jj p4 m41 is #dd south of ,venus2 on the #abth1 at #d3jj a4 m41 farthest from the sun2 on the #acth1 at #e3db a4 m41 #e #ef south of the moon4 ,,venus ,and ,mercury are both morning stars during the entire month1 and are so intimately connected as to afford a fine opportunity for making the acquaintance of the latter4 ,on the #ast ,venus is about one and a half degrees east and #a #ch north of ,mercury2 but as ,mercury moves more rapidly than ,venus1 he will overtake and pass her on the evening of the #aath at a point #dd south2 on the #bb;d1 he will cross her orbit to the north1 and at a distance of #c east2 and on the #bhth will be found nearly #f east and #ec north of her4 ,before the #aath ,mercury will rise earlier than ,venus2 on the #aath they will practically rise at the same time2 after the #aath ,mercury will rise later than ,venus4 ,on the #ast ,venus rises at #f3jj a4 m42 on the #afth1 at #f3je a4 m42 and on the #bhth1 at #f3jc a4 m4 ,she sets on the corresponding days at #c3ah1 #c3ea and #d3ai p4 m4 respectively4 ,her motion is direct and amounts to #ce #ed #aj2 on the #acth1 at #e3ah a m41 she is #e #i south of the moon4 ,her diameter decreases from #aa4b on the #ast to #aj4f on the #bhth4 ,,mars ,will during this month be both evening and morning star1 changing his relation on the #aath1 on which date he will be in conjunction with the sun1 and will not be visible to the naked eye4 ,his motion will amount to #ba #be #cb direct1 and his diameter remain at #d4b4 ,on the #adth1 at #aj3dd p4 m41 he will be #d #cj south of the moon2 on the #bhth1 at #b3jj p4 m41 in perihelion1 or nearest the sun4 ,on the #ast he will rise at #g3bf a4 m4 and set at #e3bb p4 m42 on the #afth1 rise at #f3eh a4 m41 set at #e3bd p4 m42 on the #bhth1 rise at #f3ce a4 m41 set at #e3be p4 m4 ,,jupiter ,rises on the #ast at #f3dh p4 m41 and sets on the #b;d at #h3jf a4 m42 rises on the #aeth at #e3dh p4 m41 sets at #g3ab a4 m4 on the #afth2 rises at #e3dg p4 m4 on the #bhth and sets the next day at #e3ag a4 m4 ,on the #ast1 at #b3jg a4 m41 he is #d #i north of the moon2 on the #aith1 at #b3jj a4 m41 in opposition to the sun1 that is1 on the opposite side of the sun from the earth2 on the #bhth1 at #f3dc a4 m41 he is again in conjunction with the moon1 being #d #bg north of our satellite4 ,during the month his diameter increases two-tenths of a second1 and he has a retrograde motion of #c #bd #h4 ,the statement that ,jupiter retrogrades some #c may puzzle some of our younger readers1 who have doubtless been instructed in what is a fact1 that not one of our planets has a retrograde motion2 but that all move from west to east about the sun as a center4 ,what we mean by retrograde is really only apparent retrograde2 and it was something very puzzling to the early astronomers1 particularly to those who thought that the earth and not the sun was the center of our system2 that the sun and all the heavenly bodies revolved each day about our earth4 ,when it was discovered that the earth revolved each day on its axis1 and all the planets revolved about the sun1 the retrograde motions were comparatively easy to understand4 ,let us see if we can obtain a clear idea of ,jupiter's actions for this month4 ,as we view him on the night of the #ast he appears about five degrees east and #a #b south of the bright star ,regulus1 which can be seen almost the entire night as the brightest of the six stars forming the sickle in the constellation ,leo4 ,noting his position again on the night of the #bhth1 we find that he has moved westward about #c1 and is only about #a east and #ag north of ,regulus2 thus1 as we say1 having retrograded about #c4 ,to assist us in understanding this1 let us take an orange to represent the sun1 a grain 7of mustard1 for example7 to represent the earth1 a pea to represent ,jupiter1 and a point of some kind for ,regulus4 ,now place these objects on a stand in the following order3 ,in one line1 at the beginning1 the orange2 two inches distant1 the grain2 eight inches farther1 the pea4 ,next draw a line through the center of the orange so as to make an angle of five degrees with the line through the orange1 grain and pea1 and at as great a distance as convenient1 stick a pin to represent ,regulus4 ,now move the grain and pea 7the former about two and one-fourth times as fast as the latter7 about the orange as a center1 in the direction of the movement of the hands of the clock 7that is1 from left to right74 ,we can readily see that on account of the more rapid motion of the grain1 together with its being nearer the orange1 that the pea will fall behind2 and if we sight along the line of the grain and pea1 the latter will be seen nearer the line joining the orange and the pin2 and should we continue the moving of the grain and pea1 making similar observations1 we should find the pea approaching nearer and nearer1 and perhaps even passing the line through the orange and pin4 ,these relative motions we can see will continue until the grain makes nearly one-fourth of a circumference1 after which the pea appears to make a movement in exactly the opposite direction4 ,now the foregoing represents tolerably well the relative positions and movements for this month of the bodies named4 ,the earth1 ,jupiter and ,regulus are on the same side of the sun2 the earth nearest1 ,jupiter next 7about five times as far as the earth71 and ,regulus next 7at a distance of say #bj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles71 and five degrees west of the line joining the earth and ,jupiter4 7,these bodies we know move at the average rate of #ah4ch and #h4jf miles per second respectively47 ,our standpoint is the earth1 and as we move eastwardly so much more rapidly than ,jupiter1 we find him dropping back each day1 and apparently approaching nearer to ,regulus1 till at the end of the month we find him as before stated1 only about #a east of that star4 ,should we watch him through ,march and ,april1 we should find him retrograding during the former month and twenty-two days of the latter1 on the #bc;d of ,april being #a west of ,regulus2 and on the same date1 as the earth would be going directly away from him1 he would appear stationary2 and immediately afterward would seem to start again toward the east4 ,jupiter1 as we know1 is one of the superior planets1 and an explanation of his retrograde motion explains that of all the others of his kind4 ,a little ingenuity1 putting the earth for ,jupiter and ,mercury or ,venus for the earth1 will show what is meant by the retrograde motion of the inferior planets4 ,,saturn ,rises at #ab3eh p4 m4 on the #ast and sets at #c3cd a4 m4 on the #b;d2 rises at #aa3eh a4 m4 on the #afth and sets at #b3ce a4 m4 on the #agth2 rises at #aa3ab a4 m4 on the #bhth and sets at #a3dh a4 m4 on ,march #ast4 ,on the #afth1 at #d3jj a4 m41 stationary2 on #bc;d1 at #c3ba a4 m41 #c #dd north of the moon4 ,diameter diminishes one second4 ,will be an evening star during the entire month1 and thus afford most convenient opportunities for observations4 ,,uranus ,has a retrograde motion of #di #ec2 diameter1 #c4h4 ,on the #c;d1 at #c3be a4 m41 is #a #g north of the moon2 on the #cast of ,january it rises at #i3be p4 m4 and sets on the #ast at #i3bc a4 m42 on the #aeth1 rises at #h3bd p4 m4 and sets on the #afth at #h3bb a4 m42 rises on the #bgth at #g3ce p4 m4 and sets on the #bhth at #g3ce a4 m4 ,it is now a little south of the equator1 in the constellation ,virgo1 and will remain in that constellation some six years4 ,,neptune ,is only mentioned1 lest the omission of his name might be regarded as a 8slight40 ,he is a slow-goer1 and1 except that his presence confirms a law1 we hardly know what he was created for4 ,however1 his habits are quite regular2 and we note that he takes the rle of evening star1 setting on the #b;d at #a3bb a4 m42 on the #agth1 at #ab3bc a4 m41 and on the #bhth1 at #aa3cg p4 m4 ,has a direct motion of #ad #ce2 a diameter of #b4f2 and on the #hth1 at #i3jj p4 m41 is #ij east of the sun4 ,,new ,,orleans4 ,,by ,,george ,,alfred ,,townsend4 ,new ,orleans is our most pleasing ,american city to persons from a northern climate4 ,florida presents no place important enough to illustrate a large general society4 ,texas has rising towns1 but the ,anglo-,saxon domination there brings them more and more into resemblance to our own settled ,english1 or rather1 ,british communities4 ,in ,san ,francisco we are charmed not only with a complete change of foliage1 scenery1 and climate1 but with unexpected varieties in the population1 there being a little tinge of the south of ,europe as well as of ,mexico and of the ,celestial ,kingdom in the speculative yet placid elements there4 ,yet ,new ,orleans is not so hard as even ,san ,francisco4 ,it is a land not merely of fruit1 but of the sugar-cane4 ,it lies on that warm gulf whose farther shores were more historical three hundred years ago than now4 ,as time advances and we complete our own connections and general developments we see more and more that the ,american destiny must be southward4 ,canada1 which has had a much longer history than the ,united ,states1 presents even now but a thin rim of settlement1 and her entire population from the banks of ,newfoundland to ,vancouver's ,island is not equal to that of the single state of ,new ,york4 ,on the other hand1 ,mexico1 through which the ,americans have built costly railroad systems piercing to the very capital city1 has a population certainly twice that of ,canada1 and probably three times the number1 considering the extension of ,mexico toward ,central ,america4 ,american diplomacy has little other ground to cover for the near future1 than the republics to the south of us4 ,the surfeit of enterprises and of productions in the ,united ,states compels us to consider a time when we must not only find markets in the ,spanish ,american states1 but shall become1 if not pioneers1 as we once were1 certainly competitors in the ,pacific ,ocean1 of the ,english1 ,germans1 and other modern nations4 ,we have opened a way to the ,pacific by railroad1 but the canal long contemplated across ,central ,america will operate more impartially toward shippers1 will cheapen the movement of goods1 and incline the ,united ,states rapidly toward an understanding of the new peoples to our southwest1 in methods no doubt providentially designed4 ,new ,orleans has been so clearly understood by our railroad magnates that they have hastened1 almost without public assistance1 to connect her not only with great points like ,hampton ,roads1 ,richmond1 ,cincinnati and ,chicago1 but the railroads are finished from ,san ,francisco to ,new ,orleans1 and the only continental railroad system from ocean to ocean under a single management1 does not pass by ,chicago1 but by ,new ,orleans4 ,the ,americans originally stimulated by the governmental credit to build from the ,missouri ,river to ,san ,francisco1 have upon their own credit and earnings stretched a railroad through ,california nearly to the gulf of that name1 and then across the deserts and ,texas1 until ,new ,orleans is at this moment the ,atlantic seaport of ,california4 ,mr4 ,gould1 who succeeded ,colonel ,thomas ,a4 ,scott1 has stretched another railroad system parallel to ,mr4 ,huntington's from the desert through ,northern ,texas and down the ,red ,river to ,new ,orleans4 ,near the close of the past year another important railroad was built from ,memphis directly to ,new ,orleans4 ,a little earlier last year the ,cincinnati ,southern ,railroad was extended directly to ,new ,orleans by the great syndicate which had leased it4 ,therefore1 there now run into ,new ,orleans four lines of rail east of the ,mississippi ,river1 and two great lines west of the ,mississippi4 ,contrast this with the railroad facilities which existed there only fourteen years ago4 ,at that time ,new ,orleans had only one railroad to the north1 and that had certain connections1 and was under no consolidated sway4 ,it was not even connected with its adjacent city of ,mobile by rail4 ,it had no railroad facilities whatever to reach ,texas1 except a little piece of road which ran to the ,gulf near the mouth of the ,atchafalaya1 and there found steamships for ,galveston4 ,while other cities in the ,south have shown a cheerful energy to revive themselves1 and while new cities have started up at many points1 and have become respectable centers of trade1 ,new ,orleans has retained all that imperial promise under freedom which she had in the palmiest days of slavery4 ,perhaps no city in the ,south1 or in the world1 has so thoroughly changed its ideas1 political and social1 in spite of sharp contests for party supremacy there4 ,the great exhibition of the present year is the best instance that ,new ,orleans means to lead the industrial spirit of the ,south1 and to become no longer the great filibuster in the tropics1 but the energetic merchant and projector there4 ,no lawless impulse guided the erection of the great buildings which are now crowded with the productions of ,america and ,mexico4 ,the attempt to let the sugar interests of ,louisiana and ,mississippi go in favor of the productions of ,cuba and the ,east ,indies1 distinctly points the people at the mouth of the ,mississippi to the fact that their alliance is probably to be with the ,northern states1 not merely in politics1 but in commerce4 ,new ,orleans is not the only ,french city in the ,united ,states1 but it is the only one which preserves the ,french quality and language perfectly1 and in that respect resembles ,montreal and ,quebec4 ,st4 ,louis had a ,french and ,spanish basis1 but when that post became ,american the small ,latin element was compelled1 in self-defense1 to adopt the language and living of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,new ,orleans1 however1 had a sufficient start when the ,americans occupied it in #ahjc1 to grow relatively with the ,american settlers and consequently two cities arose side by side1 which still preserve their differences as much as if a quarter of ,london and a quarter of ,paris had been cut out and united4 ,besides1 there was a large rural and planting element in ,louisiana1 of the ,french stock1 which has assisted to keep up the ,french infusion1 and hence the market at ,new ,orleans is the most characteristic thing in the city1 where the habitants and the hucksters1 the fishers from the ,gulf1 and the porters and carters1 carry us back to a scene anterior to the ,france of to-day1 or before republican ideas had reached the far ,french colonies4 ,new ,orleans1 too1 constantly received emigration from neighboring ,french and ,spanish islands and coasts as they were affected by negro insurrections1 or by internal revolutions4 ,naturally the fleeing planters from ,hayti and the ,lesser ,antilles made their way to the nearest large town1 and the steam shipping of the ,gulf all concentrates at the two centers of the ellipse1 ,new ,orleans and ,havana4 ,the ,mississippi ,river1 which is the only river of the first class on the globe to pass through a cultivated land and an enlightened population1 sufficiently marks ,new ,orleans as the eye of its destiny adjacent to its mouth4 ,there are many ,americans who have never been to ,new ,orleans1 who are unaware that it1 like ,new ,york1 has two distinct harbors or outlets4 ,as ,new ,york has ,long ,island ,sound and the ,bay of ,new ,york1 one opening a hundred miles to the east of the other1 so ,new ,orleans has a lake system close by which gives her internal communication far to the east1 or almost to the bay of ,mobile1 and saves her two hundred miles of round-about river navigation to reach her own coasts4 ,it may be thought that ,new ,orleans is too far from the mouth of the ,mississippi to command that the commerce of the ,gulf should come a hundred miles up that river for her benefit1 yet ,philadelphia and ,baltimore are quite as far from the ocean1 and these cities have easily commanded a great interior trade through the communications they possessed1 and from the products they had to supply4 ,coal1 for example1 makes the most effective article of the commerce of both ,baltimore and ,philadelphia1 and coal is more valuable in the ,gulf because farther from the mines1 than it is on the near east coast4 ,the coal furnished to the shipping at ,new ,orleans has descended the entire line of the river1 yet by such easy facilities that at ,new ,orleans it is probably the cheapest coal in the world for the distance it has to come to get a market4 ,great floats1 of which dozens are hauled by a small tug or tow boat1 go down the ,ohio to its mouth1 and pass on to ,new ,orleans and are there so easily discharged that the lumber in them finds a market with the coal4 ,besides1 the railroad projectors1 without other inducement than their own sagacity1 have concurred in running all their railroads to ,new ,orleans1 for the country at the mouth of the ,mississippi is neither so healthy nor so strategical for trade as this old town which was founded by the ,french under the direction of their government when they picked slowly and carefully the sites of future trade and military empire4 ,these same ,french located ,st4 ,louis1 and it has not been found advisable by any succeeding generation to try a better situation4 ,we may ask whether ,new ,orleans has as great an antiquity as our own ,english cities8 ,it is not as old as ,philadelphia by almost thirty years1 and is somewhat younger than ,charleston1 and is about fifteen years older than ,savannah4 ,of course it does not compare in antiquity with the colonial cities of the northeast1 such as ,new ,york1 ,albany1 ,boston1 ,montreal and ,quebec4 ,but it is nearly a century older than any of our important ,anglo-,teuton cities of the ,west4 ,it is more than half a century older than ,cincinnati1 and we may almost call it a century older than ,chicago4 ,st4 ,louis was its ,albany1 or upstream neighbor1 and was under the same political domination4 ,mobile was the parent place the ,french established on the ,gulf1 and ,governor ,bienville made ,new ,orleans his capital as late as #agbc1 or about nine years before the birth of ,general ,washington4 ,soon after this a levee was built in front of the new town1 and the early ,french authors and novelists took pleasure in visiting it1 and even at that date they called it 8the famous place40 ,as in ,quebec and ,montreal1 the early ,french settlement was almost simultaneous with the bringing out of monks and nuns1 and soon a cathedral was conceived and nunneries were built4 ,the ,french1 however1 had not the vigorous nature of the ,english in founding new places1 and after nearly half a century of occupation there were hardly three thousand persons in it to transfer to the ,spanish who took possession of the place in the midst of a revolution1 and had some of the best ,french citizens shot in order to be a terror to what the ,spanish governor1 ,o',reilly1 already suspected to exist in ,french ,louisiana1 the spirit of independence1 which ,spain wanted to extirpate in all her colonies1 fearing that they would speedily rise to importance and overwhelm the parent power4 ,spain had been dismembered by a treaty early in the eighteenth century1 and was left with enormous ,american possessions1 and with a very small ,spain to handle them4 ,the ,spanish cabinet then conceived the policy of preventing the growth of the colonies1 so as to keep them down1 use them merely for trade1 and not let that spirit of municipal independence which makes great fermentations in states commence anywhere4 ,some of the ,spanish governors1 however1 ordered public buildings to be constructed1 and the ,american residents at ,new ,orleans say that the ,spanish sway of about forty years has left better monuments than the ,french4 ,a ,spanish infusion of settlers marks the present population1 and the ,americans call all the ,latin races1 no matter whether they come from ,france and her islands1 or ,spain and her coasts1 by the name of ,creoles4 ,a curious feature of ,new ,orleans is the existence of considerable elements there from states as foreign to ourselves as ,yucatan4 ,at the close of the ,american ,revolution there were less than five thousand persons in ,new ,orleans4 ,during that ,revolution a considerable number of respectable ,british settlers who wanted to avoid the ,war of ,independence1 settled in ,west ,florida and about ,natchez1 and in other spots contiguous to ,new ,orleans4 ,hence the ,revolution was hardly over before the first chapter of manifest destiny was directed from ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio and ,kentucky upon the opening of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,that physical achievement was so important to the producers on the ,ohio and the ,tennessee ,rivers that schemes of every sort were tried to hasten the opening of commerce to the ,gulf4 ,one ,senator of the ,united ,states was expelled from his place for an intrigue partaking of the nature of treason with the ,british who still backed up the ,spanish on the ,gulf2 and a ,vice ,president was actually pursued nearly to the ,gulf and brought back and tried for treason at ,richmond4 ,how long the ,united ,states might have had to wait the slow course of diplomacy or the rough chance of war to get ,new ,orleans1 is uncertain1 but ,napoleon1 who had acquired ,louisiana by his mastery over ,spain1 believing that he could not hold it against the ,english fleets1 made haste to sell it to the ,americans for a sum of money and old commercial claims4 ,eighty-two years ago1 or about the rounded lifetime of an old man1 the ,americans occupied ,new ,orleans1 and much of the city burnt up the year our forefathers were voting for the first ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,a ,french newspaper had been issued in ,new ,orleans several years before the ,american possession4 ,there were perhaps eight thousand persons in the city when it was transferred to us4 ,twelve years after the transfer1 the ,americans under ,general ,jackson had to give battle to hold the city1 which the ,english attacked with the best troops they had used in ,spain against ,napoleon who had already fallen4 ,napoleon was contemplating his last endeavor to astonish the world at ,waterloo1 when the ,english and ,americans1 unconscious that a treaty of peace had been made between themselves1 fought the battle of ,new ,orleans1 which resulted in more disaster to the ,british arms than any battle on land during our second conflict for independence4 ,in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral stand the monuments and statues of ,packenham and ,gibbs who lost their lives in the marshes around ,new ,orleans4 ,in #ahfb1 ,farragut with his fleet took ,new ,orleans4 ,his victory drove an entering wedge into the heart of the ,confederacy and gave to the navy of the ,united ,states a prestige which it had never enjoyed and which in its present enfeebled state it is rapidly losing4 ,new ,orleans was the wealthiest and most populous city of the ,confederacy2 it was four times larger than either ,charleston or ,richmond1 and before the war had the largest export trade of any city in the world4 ,commanding mid-continental navigation and being the key to the ,gulf1 its military value was equal to its commercial importance4 ,the plan for the capture of ,new ,orleans by the navy1 and the reduction of the forts which guarded the approach to it from the south1 originated in the ,navy ,department in the fall of #ahfa4 ,the credit for proposing this plan has been claimed by more persons than one1 and it is likely that it was conceived and developed from suggestions and hints received from a variety of sources4 ,it was determined that a naval expedition should be sent against ,new ,orleans4 ,the plan found little favor with army officers1 but the ,president became interested in it and ,secretary ,welles set about carrying it into effect4 ,the attention of military men was concentrated on a proposed combination of the forces of the army and the navy for the capture of ,new ,orleans1 in an expedition which was to descend to the city from the upper waters of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,this scheme seemed more attractive1 and the idea of taking ,new ,orleans by means of a fleet advancing from the ,gulf had never been entertained in military circles4 ,when ,stanton became ,secretary of ,war and was told of the proposed naval expedition1 he was astonished at the originality and audacity of the idea and exclaimed3 8,an attack upon ,new ,orleans by the navy6 ,i never heard of it6 ,it is the best news you could give me40 ,secretary ,stanton entered cordially into the spirit of the project and increased the number of the troops which ,general ,mc,clelland had promised1 from ten thousand to eighteen thousand4 ,shortly after this1 ,general ,b4 ,f4 ,butler was made acquainted with the purpose of ,secretary ,welles and he was given the command of the military force which was to hold ,new ,orleans after the fleet had taken it4 ,there is no evidence that ,general ,butler suggested any of the important plans or details for the expedition or that he had any definite plans concerning it4 ,congress had ordered the blockade of #c1ejj miles of coast line4 ,there were scarcely ships enough to maintain it1 and the vessels for the ,new ,orleans expedition had to be built or procured from other sources4 ,after the ,secretary of the ,navy had decided to send a fleet against ,new ,orleans and had given orders for the construction of it1 the most serious question which presented itself was the selection of a commander4 ,all of the naval officers of high rank were suggested and considered4 ,it was to be the most powerful and splendid fleet ever gathered under the stars and stripes1 and the ,department moved cautiously in the matter of choosing a leader for it4 ,finally the name of ,david ,glasgow ,farragut was proposed4 ,the ,secretary of the ,navy remembered that years before in the war with ,mexico1 ,farragut had offered a daring plan for the capture of the strong fort of ,san ,juan de ,ulloa1 at ,vera ,cruz4 ,he proposed that the fort be 8boarded0 by attaching long ladders to the masts of the attacking ships1 which should then be towed up to the walls of the fort4 ,secretary ,welles was impressed at the time with the boldness and dash of the scheme1 and though he had not seen ,farragut since that day1 and really knew very little of him1 yet after some consultation he decided to offer him the command of the fleet4 ,farragut1 who had never had a squadron1 gladly accepted the honor and the responsibility4 ,he had been trained by a life of study and active service for some great emergency like this1 which came late in life1 in his sixty-second year1 but he was prepared for it and he knew it4 ,farragut adopted the plans which had been considered by the ,navy ,department and made them his own4 ,he grasped the work before him with a degree of earnestness and enthusiasm unusual in men of his age4 ,secretary ,welles says of him at that time3 8,in every particular he came up to all that was expected or required of him4 ,he determined to pass the forts and restore ,new ,orleans4 ,he might not come back1 he said1 but the city would be ours40 ,after his arrival at ,ship ,island on the #beth of ,march1 #ahfb1 ,farragut wrote3 8,i have now attained what ,i have been looking for all my life--a flag--and having attained it1 all that is necessary to complete the scene is a victory4 ,if ,i die in the attempt it will only be what every officer has to expect4 ,he who dies in doing his duty to his country and at peace with his ,god1 has played out the drama of life to the best advantage40 ,here was a genuine pious hero of the old school1 determined to do or to die4 ,his task was a herculean one4 ,new ,orleans was defended by two forts erected at the lowest favorable point for the location of military works1 above the ,gulf4 ,fort ,st4 ,philip occupied the left bank of the river1 and a short distance below it on the right bank stood ,fort ,jackson4 ,these forts mounted in all one hundred and fifteen guns4 ,a fort on the site of ,jackson in #ahae held the ,british fleet in check for nine days4 ,the rebel forts were garrisoned by #a1ejj men commanded by ,general ,j4 ,k4 ,duncan4 ,a short distance above the forts lay fifteen rebel vessels4 ,this fleet included the iron ram 8,manassas0 and a great floating battery clad with railroad iron4 ,below the forts a heavy chain supported by the hulks of eight dismasted ships obstructed the river4 ,farragut was to break through the chain1 fight his way by the forts1 destroy or capture the rebel fleet and then steam up to ,new ,orleans and place that city under his guns4 ,the attack was commenced by the mortar fleet4 ,for six days the mortars poured a ceaseless fire of shells into the fort4 ,the shells were flying through the air at all times2 nearly six thousand were thrown1 but the forts were damaged very little and the ,confederate loss was only fourteen killed and thirty-nine wounded4 ,it was determined to pass the forts on ,april #bdth4 ,at sunset on the #bc;d there were indications of the approaching conflict on every ship in ,farragut's fleet4 ,the attack was to be made under cover of darkness4 ,at eleven o'clock that night an officer signaled that an opening which had been made in the chain was still clear4 ,five minutes before two o'clock in the morning two red lights were displayed from the peak of the flag ship4 ,it was the signal to steam up the river4 ,in about one hour the fleet of seventeen vessels1 in three divisions1 was moving4 ,the moon was rising1 but its light was lost in the fierce flames from bonfires and fire rafts4 ,both forts opened fire upon the first ship as she passed through the row of hulks4 ,five minutes later the little 8,cayuga0 was pouring grape and canister into ,fort ,st4 ,philip1 and in ten minutes more she had passed from the range of its guns and was in the arms of the rebel fleet4 ,it was a lively moment for the brave little boat4 ,eleven rebel gunboats tried to demolish her at once4 ,she could not go forward1 she would not go backward4 ,there was nothing to do but to close with the enemy4 ,she drove an 8eleven inch0 shot through one of her antagonists and it ran aground and burned up4 ,another one was crippled by a well directed shot1 and the 8,cayuga0 was about to grapple with the third when two ships of the ,union fleet came to her aid1 the 8,oneida0 and the 8,varuna40 ,the former ran into one of the rebel ships and almost cut her in twain4 ,the 8,varuna0 was rammed by the 8,manassas0 and another ship and went to the bottom in fifteen minutes4 ,while she was going down she fired into one of her adversaries and so damaged her that she had to surrender to the 8,oneida10 and she sent a shell into another rebel gunboat which exploded its boiler4 ,all the time the remaining vessels of the first division were steaming by the forts1 pouring tremendous volleys into them and receiving tremendous discharges in return4 ,farragut's flag ship1 the 8,hartford10 led the second division of the fleet4 ,she was a noble vessel1 splendidly equipped2 she steamed into the fight and was followed by the long line of ships in the second and third divisions4 ,by this hour day was dawning1 but heavy clouds of smoke hung over the river and no light from the east reached the battling ships4 ,the cannonading which all along had been terrific was now growing sublime4 ,three hundred heavily shotted guns were flashing and roaring over the dark water4 ,the ,union ships advanced to the fray like the famous 8,light ,brigade10 with cannon to the right of them1 to the left of them and before them4 ,probably it was the most picturesque naval battle in the world's history4 ,thirty-four armed vessels and two great forts were struggling in the early morning4 ,the sun seemed to stand still in the heavens4 ,the light of the guns was brighter than the orb of day1 and ,farragut's gunners had to aim at the cannon flashes from the rebel forts4 ,the forts themselves were not visible4 ,the vessels of the enemy were not visible4 ,our ships were striking great blows in the dark and they always struck with deadly effect4 ,from points above the rebels pushed great fire barges loaded with blazing pitch and cotton into the stream4 ,these rafts came floating down and when they did not ignite our ships they illuminated them for the ,confederate marksmen4 ,a flaming fire raft was hurled against the 8,hartford0 and flames ran from the water's edge to the mast top4 ,the well trained crew extinguished the fire and within five minutes the 8,hartford0 destroyed a rebel steamer filled with boarding parties4 ,the 8,brooklyn10 another ,union ship1 encountered a fire raft and for a time lay helpless before the merciless guns of ,fort ,jackson4 ,disentangling herself1 she steamed up to the fort and poured such withering broadsides into it that its guns were silenced for a time1 and the gunners were seen by the ship's crew as they peered through the cannon-lighted portholes1 to be fleeing from their guns4 ,at this time the vessels which had passed the forts were doing good work1 and the stream was filled with wrecked and burning ,confederate gunboats4 ,fire rafts and wrecks came drifting down side by side1 and frequently one of the latter would explode with a loud report4 ,the low1 curved iron rams glided about like gigantic serpents of the sea4 ,boarding parties were overrunning some vessels and being repulsed from others4 ,it was an awful1 dazzling and furiously shifting panorama4 ,the last ship to pass the forts on that memorable morning was the 8,penola40 ,in the light of a blazing raft she received the discharge of the forty guns of ,st4 ,philip1 and passed on to join the victorious fleet above4 8,and thus10 says ,farragut's son1 8was accomplished a feat in naval warfare which had no precedent1 and which is still without a parallel except the one furnished by ,farragut himself two years later at ,mobile40 ,on the morning of the next day the fleet moved up to ,new ,orleans4 ,at noon ,captain ,bailey was sent to demand of the mayor of the city its unconditional surrender1 and that the flag of ,louisiana be removed from the ,city ,hall4 ,the mayor refused to haul down the flag or to make a formal surrender of the city4 ,while the officers and men of the fleet were attending divine service the next day1 they were startled by the discharge of a howitzer from the main mast of the 8,pensacola40 ,the watchman in the rigging had seen four men tear down the flag of the ,union from the roof of the mint1 and had at once fired the gun which was trained on the flag staff4 ,on the #bhth the forts surrendered to ,commander ,porter1 who had been pounding away at them with his mortars4 ,may #ast1 ,general ,butler and his troops entered ,new ,orleans1 and ,farragut turned the city over to him4 ,his administration was vigorous1 but was hateful to the citizens4 ,he hanged ,mumford1 the leader of the mob which tore the ,union flag from the mint2 he issued his celebrated woman order which placed every female who insulted a ,union soldier on the level of the street walker2 he treated with severity a ,mrs4 ,phillips1 who jeered at the remains of a ,union soldier4 ,he is condemned for all of these things by very many people4 ,many dishonest things were done during his administration1 but repose1 vigor and security were the characteristics of it4 ,general ,butler was a just1 efficient1 straightforward tyrant1 not cruel1 but possessed of an inflexible determination to make his will the law and to make his cause succeed4 ,after ,general ,butler came ,general ,banks4 ,he endeavored to restore loyalty to the state by good treatment1 but fell into the error of reposing trust in a type of men who could not understand freedom nor adopt even a business patriotism for the sake of their own prosperity4 ,by the census of #ahhj ,new ,orleans showed for three-quarters of a century of ,american rule a population of #baf1jjj people1 of whom #age1jjj are natives of the ,united ,states1 and only #eh1jjj are colored people4 ,new ,orleans stood the tenth of ,american cities1 with more than #cf1jjj houses1 and more than #de1jjj families4 ,although the manufactures of ,new ,orleans were in their infancy they had an annual product of nineteen million dollars1 and paid nearly four million dollars a year wages4 ,looking over the list of states to discover the origin of the people of ,new ,orleans1 the remarkable fact appears that of her #baf1jjj people more then #aea1jjj are natives of ,louisiana4 ,the neighboring state of ,mississippi has not put thirty-eight hundred souls into ,new ,orleans4 ,alabama1 which is within two or three hours' ride by cars1 has not two thousand native children in ,new ,orleans1 but ,new ,york has over two thousand of her progeny settled in ,new ,orleans1 and ,virginia has #d1cjj4 ,of the #da1jjj foreign population1 nearly #g1jjj are natives of ,france1 showing that there is a constant immigration1 as in the days of ,bienville1 from old ,france to new ,france4 ,germany has contributed to ,new ,orleans #ad1jjj emigrants4 ,about the same number have come to ,new ,orleans from ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,spain has contributed about #hjj of her natives1 ,italy about #b1jjj1 ,switzerland nearly #ejj1 ,mexico only #cjj1 and the ,west ,indies scarcely #djj4 ,these are suggestive figures1 and show that since the great rebellion those elements go to the far ,south which have the most original emigrating spirit and the greater variety of self-sustaining trades and pursuits4 ,a man who can do nothing1 make nothing1 improve nothing1 has the least of all motives to emigrate4 ,the debt of ,new ,orleans was about seventeen million dollars at the last advices1 considerably less than the debts of ,baltimore and ,washington1 but some four millions more than the debt of ,chicago4 ,railroads and other municipal improvements were responsible for a good deal of this debt4 ,since the war ,new ,orleans has been transformed from the likeness of a quiet old ,french city like ,orleans which gave it name1 to the appearance of a new ,french city with pretty relics here and there1 and strong cosmopolitan attachments4 ,the great river which sweeps in splendid curves past this city has compelled the streets to conform to some extent to its shores1 but the consequence is a charming disposition of streets to both those who hate crooked streets1 and those who hate straight ones4 ,the town may be likened to the spokes of a wheel with streets laid out between the spokes in both directions1 and conforming to them to some extent4 ,in front of the city stretches the great bank called the levee1 at the foot of which ride the majestic steamers which come from all portions of the ,mississippi valley and are often like palaces in cardboard1 and since the jetties have been made a success by ,captain ,eads and the ,united ,states engineers1 you also see at ,new ,orleans1 riding cosily1 the huge steamships from ,new ,york1 ,liverpool and ,cuba4 ,the chief maritime lines from ,new ,york to ,texas now stop at ,new ,orleans and the journey is continued by rail4 ,this great levee1 which is an artificial hill thrown up to keep the river back1 is lined with the sugar hogsheads and cotton bales of the ,south1 with coal and iron1 plows and stoves1 kegs of nails1 merchandise assembled from all parts of the globe1 and massive presses driven by steam to further compress the bales of cotton and reduce them in bulk for shipment4 ,a canal runs through the city1 and its other termination is on ,lake ,pontchartrain4 ,at the lake is a beautiful new resort built in recent years1 nearly as agreeable as ,chautauqua ,lake1 and the peculiar ,creole and negro cooking of ,new ,orleans is to be found in perfection there1 as well as at the ,spanish fort1 in the environs of the city4 ,the shops of ,new ,orleans are open to the air all winter long1 and art of a local nature is taking root there4 ,whatever the ,gulf produces is to be seen at the ,creole capital1 and a visit to it for even a few days is the next thing to a trip to ,europe4 ,,the ,,upper ,,chautauqua4 ,,by ,,chancellor ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4,d4 ,there is a ,chautauqua further on4 ,first1 there is a lake level1 and just above it is the level of the 8,point10 with its pleasant grass1 its winding walks1 its old ,auditorium1 shaded and hallowed with memories that have grown through multiplying years4 ,the old cottages1 and many of the old cottagers remain about this ,auditorium--reminders of the old times1 and the oldest times1 of ,chautauqua1 when the first vesper service announced that 8,the ,day ,goeth ,away10 and the 8,nearer ,my ,god to ,thee10 rang out under these forest arches4 ,who that was there can ever forget that hour8 ,the altars were aglow that night1 and hearts on fire4 ,it was an experiment1 but from the first it was an assured success4 ,the time will come when the remaining sharers in that first feast in the evening light will be very few1 and the last of them will receive honor1 and the children of ,chautauqua will listen to their story as with quivering lips and kindling eye they speak about that first evening under the trees1 the words that broke the sacred silence1 the songs that bore praise and wonder and joy to the heavens1 and the friendships that were formed there never to be broken4 ,how many who joined in the first ,chautauqua service have already 8fallen on sleep0 and gone out into a world sleepless and without nightfall1 where1 for vesper chant are substituted the hallelujahs of an eternal morning4 ,but let us go up higher4 ,beyond the ,point and ,auditorium level are the terraces that run along the hillside1 one above another1 gardens and cottages1 with pathways and winding roads1 leading up under welcome shadows to a higher ,chautauqua--a long stretch of table-land crowned now with ,temple and ,chapel1 ,pyramid1 ,museum and ,hall of ,philosophy1 while beyond1 in the open fields toward the north we reach the highest point of our ,assembly grounds1 one of the highest on the lake4 ,thus from the landing and the beginning of our journey we ascend from the lowest to the highest1 and find beauty1 delight1 pleasant welcomes and rewards all the way4 ,this study in the lay of the land which makes the physical ,chautauqua is an allegory4 ,there is an upper ,chautauqua4 ,and not all who visit the place see it1 and not all who become ,chautauquans reach it4 ,the ,chautauqua movement is progressive1 and its friends and students are expected to make advancement in the line of its conceptions and provisions4 ,it has court beyond court in which it unfolds its progressive aims and introduces its disciples to the higher privileges of culture which it provides4 ,no fences or lines mark these successive stages4 ,they do not correspond with the topographical elevations1 although we have found in the one a figure or symbol of the other4 ,but such gradation exists1 and ,i shall point it out4 ,i4 ,,the ,,assembly--,is the first point of approach to the true ,chautauqua4 ,it is the outer court open to the whole world4 ,it has no restraints upon those who come1 save those which are necessary to guarantee a financial support to the institution1 and those rules of ordinary decorum which are essential to the quiet enjoyment and profit of those who pay their tribute and wait for the promised compensation4 ,and this compensation comes in lectures on the widest range of topics1 from the 8,philosophy of ,locke and ,berkeley0 to the light and cheery discussions about 8,fools and their ,folly40 ,concerts by gifted artists1 characterizations by rare impersonators1 illustrations of life and manners in remote regions1 by the aid of costumer and tableaux vivants1 stories of travel1 with photographic accompaniments colored1 magnified1 and illuminated2 sermons by able ministers1 lessons by competent teachers1 attractions for lighthearted youth and wearied but rational age1 in bonfires1 processions1 fireworks1 illuminated fleets--these are the features of the outer court of ,chautauqua for the entertainment1 awakening1 and broadening of people who come with no far-reaching or serious purpose1 but who come to 8hear0 and 8see0 and have 8a good time40 ,they are simply recipients4 ,the will-power lies dormant1 save as some stirring statement of lecture or sermon1 or some unsyllabled passage in music opens the soul to the worlds all about it replete with marvel1 beauty and power4 ,so much for the outer ,chautauqua4 ,there are those who see this--only this and nothing more4 ,they come and go4 ,they wonder why they and others come1 and yet they think they may come again--but are not sure4 ,they do not forget ,chautauqua1 and they do not 8go wild0 over it4 ,they smile at other people1 whom they call 8fanatics10 because they are full of it1 and 8bound to come again10 and to 8come every year10 and always1 and 8would be willing to live there40 ,these have seen the ,upper ,chautauqua--for beyond the 8,assembly0 is ,,ii4 ,,the ,,circle4--,it is another court--further in1 and a little higher up--with a white-pillared hall among the trees--8,the ,hall in the ,grove10 about which a book has been written1 and in which songs are sung and weird services held1 and where strange inspirations fall on people4 ,for those who belong to the ,circle--the 8,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c40 as everybody calls it--are advanced ,chautauquans4 ,they know why they come to the place4 ,and they know when to come4 ,they keep a calendar1 and they mark the feasts1 and they know what to do when they are there4 ,they seem at home4 ,there are hosts of them--all knowing each other1 and apparently bound together by some secret association which has a mystic power4 ,they wear badges on certain days1 badges of different styles and colors and legends4 ,in all this there is something singular and beautiful4 ,this 8,circle0 is a company of pledged readers in wide ranges of literature4 ,the 8,assembly0 contains people who listen4 ,the 8,circle0 is made up of people who read4 ,the 8,assembly0 covers a few weeks4 ,the 8,circle0 casts its canopy over the year and the years4 ,the 8,assembly0 is at ,chautauqua4 ,the 8,circle0 carries ,chautauqua to the world's end--to the east and to the west1 to ,canada1 to ,florida1 to ,scotland1 to the ,sandwich ,islands1 to ,india1 and ,japan1 to ,cape ,colony--everywhere4 ,the members of the 8,circle0 stand on a higher plane than the ,assembly1 because they put will into the work4 ,they read what they ought1 for months and years1 everywhere1 getting larger views of the world1 and worthier views of life1 and nobler views of the race1 and of ,god the ,father of all4 ,the 8,circle0 takes a wide sweep in the world of letters4 ,its themes are those of the college world4 ,it puts the preparatory and college curriculums into good1 readable ,english1 and helps people out of college to know what is going on there2 what the young people study in history1 language1 and literature2 what authors they read1 and what estimate is to be placed on them and their work4 ,it gives glimpses of science1 physical and metaphysical--pointing down to the rocks and up to the stars1 and about to the fields and seas and the forms of life in plant and animal4 ,whatever college boys study1 the 8,circle0 provides in some form and degree for parents to read1 that home and college may be one in outlook and sympathy1 in aim and delight4 ,but there is something beyond4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,inner ,,circle4--,beyond the readers are the students--those who have completed the four years' reading in the 8,circle10 and the members of the 8,society of the ,hall in the ,grove20 have filled out the various memoranda2 have certain seals on their ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 diplomas1 testifying to this fact1 and to the reading of the additional books4 ,these walk on the higher levels4 ,their names are enrolled in the 8,order of the ,white ,seal40 ,their faces are turned toward the ,upper ,chautauqua4 ,it is possible that the members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 who walk in the inner circle may meet those who rank with them1 although they have come hither by other routes--through the 8,chautauqua ,teachers' ,retreat10 the 8,chautauqua ,spare ,minute ,courses10 and the 8,chautauqua ,assembly ,normal ,courses40 ,as students1 they all rejoice in the larger places of ,chautauqua4 ,but there are heights beyond these heights4 8,hearers10 8readers10 8student-readers10 successively mark the three ascending grades of the ,chautauqua movement1 as outlined in the 8,assembly10 the 8,circle10 and the 8,inner ,circle40 ,beyond these three stages1 we come to ,,iv4 ,,the ,,university ,,circle4--,here are members of 8,the ,league of the ,round ,table10 whose seven seals on the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 diploma entitle them to this higher honor4 ,here1 too1 are advanced students in the 8,chautauqua ,school of ,languages20 these walk in the outer courts and among the sacred corridors adjoining the ,university itself4 ,chautauqua now means more than ever to them4 ,the towers of the ,university rise above them4 ,they ask why its doors may not open to them1 and why they may not rejoice in work1 real work1 with after-tests in genuine examinations1 and after-honors in diploma and degrees4 ,some remain in this goodly place1 hearing the songs that float down from the higher halls1 enjoying converse with their fellows of the grander degree1 and encouraging other and younger and more vigorous companions to go up and possess the land4 ,others knock at the door by the upper step1 and as it opens1 they enter the fifth and highest form of the ,chautauqua movement-- ,v4 ,,the ,,university1 with its schools1 colleges1 and academiae2 its teachers and professors1 its text-books and tasks1 its rigid examinations1 and its promotions4 ,concerning the ,,university1 ,i shall write later on4 ,,outline ,,of ,,required ,,readings4 ,,february1 #ahhe4 ,first ,week 7ending ,february #g74--a4 8,college ,greek ,course10 from page #hc to #ajg4 #b4 8,chemistry10 chapters ,i1 ,,ii and ,,iii4 #c4 8,how to ,help the ,poor10 from page #a to #cb4 #d4 8,how ,english ,differs from other ,languages10 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #e4 ,sunday ,readings for ,february #a1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,second ,week 7ending ,february #ad74--a4 8,college ,greek ,course10 from page #ajg to #acc4 #b4 8,chemistry10 chapters ,,iv and ,v4 #c4 8,how to ,help the ,poor10 from page #cb to #ff4 #d4 8,temperance ,teachings of ,science0 and 8,home ,studies in ,chemistry and ,physics10 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #e4 ,sunday ,readings for ,february #h1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,third ,week 7ending ,february #ba74--a4 8,college ,greek ,course10 from page #acc to #aed4 #b4 8,chemistry10 chapters ,,vi and ,,vii4 #c4 8,how to ,help the ,poor10 from page #ff to #ib4 #d4 8,kitchen ,science and ,art10 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #e4 ,sunday ,readings for ,february #ae1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fourth ,week 7ending ,february #bh74--a4 8,college ,greek ,course10 from page #aed to #ahg4 #b4 8,chemistry10 chapter ,,viii4 #c4 8,how to ,help the ,poor10 from page #ib to #abe4 #d4 8,the ,circle of ,sciences0 and 8,huxley on ,science10 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #e4 ,sunday ,readings for ,february #bb1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,,programs ,,for ,,local ,,circle ,,work4 ,,first ,,week ,,in ,,february4 #a4 ,essay--,the ,life of ,plato4 #b4 ,selection--8,translators of ,homer40 ,from the 8,prose ,writings of ,william ,cullen ,bryant10 vol4 ii4 #c4 ,fifteen minutes' talk on ,home ,decoration4 #d4 ,select ,reading--,extracts from the ,life of ,pericles1 found in 8,the ,young ,folks' ,plutarch40 ,music4 #e4 ,essay--,lavoisier and the ,phlogiston ,theory ,in the 8,history of the ,inductive ,sciences10 by ,whewell1 a good reference will be found4 #f4 ,what we have all seen 7mentally1 perhaps17 at ,new ,orleans this week4 ,reports being made by each one of what he has read1 heard or witnessed4 #g4 ,report of ,critic1 who is to be appointed at the beginning of the evening1 and who is to note and correct all mistakes4 ,,monthly ,,program4 #a4 ,roll call--,quotations from schylus1 taken from the 8,college ,greek ,course40 #b4 ,essay--,socrates4 #c4 ,select ,reading--8,valentine's ,day40 ,by ,charles ,lamb4 ,found in his 8,elia40 ,music4 #d4 ,a ,general ,talk on ,huxley and his ,teachings4 ,let each one come prepared to read or tell something about him4 #e4 ,essay--,the ,greek ,drama4 #f4 ,debate--,resolved1 that it is wrong to feed tramps4 ,,founder',s ,,day--,,february #bc4 8,he tried the luxury of doing good40 ,music4 #a4 ,roll-call--,quotations on the ,companionship of ,books4 #b4 ,essay--,new ,departures in ,education4 ,reference can be made to ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel1 ,col4 ,parker1 and others4 ,music4 #c4 ,recitation--,alone with ,my ,conscience4 ,found in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,october1 #ahhd4 #d4 ,a ,paper on the ,chautauqua ,institutions4 ,music4 #e4 ,select ,reading--,proper ,method of ,employing ,time4 ,by ,addison4 #f4 ,a ,conversazione--,subject3 ,what ,chautauqua has done for me4 ,entered into informally by all members of the circle4 ,music4 ,,longfellow',s ,,day--,,february #bg4 8,high as our hearts he stood40 #a4 ,roll call--,quotations from ,longfellow4 #b4 ,let several members who have been appointed beforehand give brief accounts of different periods of the poet's life1 such as3 ,his early life1 his years in college1 his life as a college professor1 his travels abroad1 his literary work1 his home in the ,craigie ,house1 and his love for children4 ,music4 #c4 ,recitation--8,the ,hanging of the ,crane40 #d4 ,select ,reading--,extracts from 8,outre-,mer40 ,music4 #e4 ,essay--,longfellow's ,characteristics as a ,writer4 #f4 ,recitation--8,the ,poet and the ,children40 ,by ,john ,g4 ,whittier4 #g4 ,a ,paper--,the ,tributes to ,longfellow by ,eminent ,men and ,women4 #h4 ,an analytical study of the poem 8,sandalphon40 99 99 99 99 99 ,a delightful ,longfellow entertainment may be arranged from 8,evangeline0 or 8,miles ,standish40 ,the poem chosen should be carefully cut so as not to require more than an hour for reading4 ,let a good reader be chosen1 and as he reads let the most picturesque and striking passages be represented by tableaux4 ,help in preparing programs for ,longfellow's ,day may be found in the following articles3 ,the ,century1 ,june1 #ahhb1 8,henry ,wadsworth ,longfellow10 poem2 ,the ,century1 ,october1 #ahhc1 8,longfellow20 ,the ,century1 ,november1 #ahgh1 8,henry ,wadsworth ,longfellow20 ,allibone's 8,dictionary of ,authors20 ,griswold1 8,poets and ,poetry of ,america20 ,duyckinck1 8,cyclopdia of ,american ,literature10 vol4 ii42 ,north ,american ,review1 ,january #ahdj1 ,july #ahdb1 ,july #ahde1 and ,january #ahdh2 ,fraser's ,magazine1 ,march #ahdh2 ,british ,quarterly ,review for ,january and ,april #ahfd2 ,the ,literary ,world1 vol4 xii41 ,no4 #e2 8,homes of ,american ,authors10 by ,george ,william ,curtis2 8,american ,classics for ,schools10 vol4 i2 8,longfellow ,leaflets0--these convenient little slips have been prepared for schools1 but will be found very useful for large circles4 ,they may be had of ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,local ,,circles4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,mottoes4 8,we ,study the ,word and the ,works of ,god40--8,let us keep our ,heavenly ,father in the ,midst40--8,never be ,discouraged40 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,memorial ,,days4 #a4 ,,opening ,,day--,october #a4 #b4 ,,bryant ,,day--,november #c4 #c4 ,,special ,,sunday--,november1 second ,sunday4 #d4 ,,milton ,,day--,december #i4 #e4 ,,college ,,day--,january1 last ,thursday4 #f4 ,,special ,,sunday--,february1 second ,sunday4 #g4 ,,founder',s ,,day--,february #bc4 #h4 ,,longfellow ,,day--,february #bg4 #i4 ,,shakspere ,,day--,april #bc4 #aj4 ,,addison ,,day--,may #a4 #aa4 ,,special ,,sunday--,may1 second ,sunday4 #ab4 ,,special ,,sunday--,july1 second ,sunday4 #ac4 ,,inauguration ,,day--,august1 first ,saturday after first ,tuesday2 anniversary of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 at ,chautauqua4 #ad4 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,day--,august1 second ,saturday after first ,tuesday2 anniversary of the dedication of ,st4 ,paul's ,grove at ,chautauqua4 #ae4 ,,commencement ,,day--,august1 third ,tuesday4 #af4 ,,garfield ,,day--,september #ai4 ,one of the most profitable half hours of the local circle evening is that spent in general conversation on a particular topic4 ,it furnishes a practice which is of incalculable value4 ,at the same time it is not possible to put a number on a program of which it is more difficult to make a perfect success4 ,of course many circles have learned the art of talking4 ,at ,,shiloh1 ,n4 ,y41 the 8,atlantic0 circle of sixteen members1 a busy1 prosperous organization1 to introduce variety into their programs1 often hold a 8meeting of informal conversation10 but very many of us can not succeed4 ,at the root of our trouble lies that totally false idea that the ability to converse is the gift of a few4 ,when leaders suggest a conversazione the difficulties presented seem almost insurmountable4 ,the members contend that they can not talk2 they will not try2 they urge that while history and science make excellent studies1 they are too 8heavy0 for conversation2 they fly the subject and intrude a chit-chat which totally destroys serious conversation4 ,some time ago we saw successfully tried in a circle of about twenty members1 the following method for cultivating conversation3 ,the subject was introduced by the leader in a brief and earnest talk4 ,he showed the barrenness of ideas and the lack of fine and exact expression in our social converse4 ,he urged the possibility and the duty of every one becoming an entertaining talker4 ,an interest was thoroughly aroused1 and a vote was carried by the society to devote a half hour to talking on subjects suggested by the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 readings4 ,each member promised to confine himself to the subject1 to come prepared to follow the whole subject1 and to give particular items on certain points4 ,members were bound to ask questions1 to look up pictures to illustrate1 anecdotes to enliven and wise words to enforce the points brought out4 ,they learned to talk1 and to talk on worthy subjects4 ,their experience soon grew to be a little like that which happened to a member of the ,,hollister1 ,,california1 circle4 ,a lady meeting her1 remarked3 8,i am getting jealous of those ,chautauquans1 for if two of them meet they can talk of nothing but those old ,greeks40 ,our friends grew to talk so well that a lady1 applying for admission1 said3 8,i want to join your society1 for it seems to me that a society which inspires so much intelligent conversation must be very valuable40 ,every circle of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 which has had experience in this work should lend to others its ideas and suggestions4 ,but now let us turn to something which is much easier to chat over than are methods for improving ourselves in conversation--our circles4 ,,nova ,,scotia gives no hint in its report from the ,,halifax ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 of the bleakness which we usually associate with its stormy northern coast4 ,this ,halifax circle announces itself in a flourishing condition1 with a regular membership of fifteen and with twenty or thirty regular attendants4 ,the growth of the work in ,nova ,scotia is apparent to them and they look for an addition of many members soon4 ,already the number of members in ,nova ,scotia is nearly double that of last year4 ,at the extreme eastern point of ,,maine1 in the pretty village of ,,lubec1 the 8,pansies0 have taken root4 ,the busy little 8,quoddy0 circle of eight members forms the nucleus around which1 we trust1 will collect a future legion of as interested members as are our present friends4----,another ,pine-,tree state town1 ,,brownfield1 has a circle reading its third year's course4 ,it would be difficult1 they think1 to find more enthusiastic workers4----,on the southern point of the beautiful ,moosehead ,lake1 in the town of ,,greenville1 a circle of 8,plymouth ,rocks0 was founded in ,november1 #ahhd4 ,the class express increasing interest in their readings1 and are confident of a large growth in numbers during the year4 ,the 8,north ,star0 is the pretty name they have chosen for their circle4 ,,new ,,hampshire sends two year-old circles to our columns this month4 ,one from ,,tilton reorganized last fall with twenty-four members4 ,they meet fortnightly and remember all the memorial days4 ,may their name1 8,winnipisaukee10 prove auspicious1 and the 8smile of the ,great ,spirit0 be ever with them4----,the 8,st4 ,paul0 circle1 which was organized in the fall of #ahhc1 at ,,manchester1 ,n4 ,h41 but not reported to ,,the ,,chautauquan1 was reorganized last fall with a membership of thirty-seven4 ,they have in the circle twenty-one of the class of '#hh1 while only five are of the class of '#hg--;a proof that the 8,chautauqua ,idea0 is growing in favor4 ,they prepare interesting programs consisting of essays1 readings1 talks1 etc4 ,also1 they use the 8,chautauqua ,songs10 and find them a great help4 ,the circle at ,,plainfield1 ,,vermont1 consists of fourteen hard working members and is in its first year4 ,they find great enjoyment in their reading4 ,last ,november1 the loss by death of one of their most active and loved members1 ,mrs4 ,f4 ,a4 ,drinell1 threw a shadow over their circle1 but they have persisted in their work4----,to the numbers of pretty programs which have come to our table has been added a neatly painted one from ,,rutland1 ,,vt41 a souvenir of the ,milton ,memorial ,reception held by the 8,alpha0 branch of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,this entertainment was very highly complimented by the local press4 ,a member of the 8,mizpah0 circle of ,,new ,,bedford1 ,,mass41 pays a very high compliment to the character of that circle's work4 ,he writes that he has learned more of ,greek history and literature in the four meetings which their circle had held when he wrote1 than in all the time he gave last year to solitary study4 ,certainly the circle must be accomplishing its design of doing 8solid work40 ,nor are their numbers1 though but six1 a drawback4 ,a small circle1 if perfectly congenial1 has some strong advantages4----,last month ,,east ,,weymouth1 ,,mass41 reported the circle which has had such a vigorous growth this year4 ,now we hear of a new circle in the sister city of ,,south ,,weymouth1 and very soon we may hope to do something more than formally introduce our new friend4----,the 8,parker ,hill0 local circle1 of ,,boston1 organized in ,september1 #ahhc1 has become so much interested in the circles which month after month send their greetings and their suggestions to ,,the ,,chautauquan',s columns1 that it joins our number4 ,very glad we are to present it--the only circle1 so far as we remember1 composed entirely of young men4 ,thirteen of them form this club1 all of them connected with the ,highland ,congregational ,church1 of which the ,rev4 ,a4 ,e4 ,dunning1 the honored president of the 8,plymouth ,rocks10 has been pastor4 ,a particularly happy suggestion1 it seems to us1 is contained in a special feature of their program4 ,they require each member to suggest at each meeting1 in writing1 some subject for the next meeting's program4 ,these suggestions being read by the president1 the circle selects from them a sufficient number of topics to occupy the allotted time4 ,the subjects are then assigned to the various members4----,from two other ,massachusetts circles come pleasant letters4 ,one from ,,cape ,,cod says3 8,we call ourselves the #8,seaside' circle1 and our name is very appropriate1 for #8the sea' lies both east and south of us4 ,we are located in the #8elbow' of the #8right arm' of ,massachusetts1 and scarce an hour in our lives passes that we do not feel the invigorating breezes of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,at present we number fourteen regular and three local members1 one '#he1 four '#hgs1 and the rest '#hhs4 ,our enthusiasm is great1 and1 as is the experience of every local circle1 increases with every meeting40----,and another from ,,falmouth3 8,our #8,neptune' circle is prosperously started this year with twenty-three active members4 ,we are encouraged1 as this is more than double our last year's membership4 ,we try to keep the line of study for each evening separate1 one evening being devoted to science1 another to ,greek4 ,last week we took up the #8,iliad1' different members giving five-minute sketches of its gods and heroes4 ,at other meetings we have had successful experiments in carbon and hydrogen4 ,our local badges bear the letters ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 with the trident1 the symbol of our circle40 ,with this letter the writer sends a bit of experience which is very interesting4 8,last summer10 she writes1 8while visiting the #8,morning ,star1' as she lay at the wharf before starting on her noble life work1 ,i found the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 books in the captain's library4 ,i never before so fully realized the bond of sympathy between ,chautauquans4 ,mrs4 ,bray1 the captain's wife1 told me that she and her husband belonged to the class of '#he4 ,they take the readings together while far out on the deep40 ,,connecticut has a goodly array of items for the month4 ,,norwich sends us several of its capital programs2 peculiarly attractive is the one for ,milton's ,day4----,,bristol reports a circle of twenty-four members1 organized in ,october last1 and boasts1 most justly1 of ten school teachers in its ranks4 ,all the regular work arranged for circles they have been performing1 and report most pleasant special meetings on ,bryant and ,milton ,days4----,,winsted has sent us a ,new ,year greeting4 ,a happy circle they are1 with their enormous membership of sixty-one members1 and 8not one lazy one in our ranks10 the secretary writes4----,at ,,new ,,britain the ,milton ,day service was very pleasant4 ,the professor of ,english literature in the ,state ,normal ,school gave a talk on ,milton1 and the evening closed with a question match4 ,the plan of reviewing each work read has been adopted at ,,bristol1 ,r4 ,i4 ,an unusually interesting review was prepared on the 8,art of ,speech40 ,the epitome which the writer gives of the opening chapter will not only be interesting1 it may serve to disentangle some one's ideas on the puzzling growth of ,english3 ,with ,chapter first our toil begins1 ',tis like a penance for our sins ,to try to read it over4 ,we read it once1 we read it twice1 ,with close attention read it thrice1 ,its meaning to discover4 ,we find1 at last1 that ,english speech ,through long succeeding years1 doth reach ,back to primeval ages4 ,from ,aryan root it sprang at first-- ,how long ago1 tell us who durst-- ,and grew by easy stages4 ,teutonic trunk and ,german branch ,and ,saxon twig grew strong and stanch1 ,and ,norman foliage crowned it2 ,from ,latin grafts it gained new strength ,and from ,greek scions1 too1 at length ,grew thrifty leaves around it4 ,the fruits upon the wondrous tree1 ,if we should test1 we soon should see ,have many foreign flavors4 ,from ,spanish1 ,dutch1 and ,portuguese1 ,italian1 ,indian1 and ,chinese1 ,have they derived their savors4 ,the 8,knowledge ,seekers10 of ,,jamestown1 ,r4 ,i41 form a new circle4 ,until this year they were a branch of the local circle in ,,newport1 but as six members were added they have formed a circle of their own4----8,pawcatuck0 local circle1 of the '#hh class1 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 was organized ,september #bc1 #ahhd1 in the village of ,,carolina1 a small manufacturing place in southern ,rhode ,island4 ,the circle has now twenty-four members and meets weekly4 ,considering the fact that there are only about #cge inhabitants in the place1 in all1 and that fully one half of this number are mill operatives1 the size of the circle is remarkable4 ,the members are all thoroughly interested in the work1 and are taking hold of it in a very commendable manner4 ,from all directions throughout ,,new ,,york ,,state good news of growing circles reaches us4 ,away up north1 in ,,jefferson ,,county1 in the village of ,,adams1 there has been organized 8a real live ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c40 ,it is modeled on the broad ,chautauquan platform1 and has three churches represented in its officers4 ,the program of their ,bryant ,memorial ,day exercises was a model of happily chosen selections1 and we learn from the columns of their local paper that it was as happily rendered4----,a very profitable plan of assigning subjects is followed at ,,kingston1 ,n4 ,y41 in their circle of seven members4 ,each member is given1 at the beginning of the year1 a subject from the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 readings1 to which he devotes his entire attention2 thus our correspondent writes that during last year she furnished outlines and questions upon the subject of 8,art10 and that this year her theme is 8,kitchen ,science and ,art40 ,we like the plan4----,in the pleasant town of ,,mount ,,kisco1 not far from ,new ,york ,city1 there is a circle which dates back to a public meeting in the interests of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 held by one of the pastors of the town1 in the fall of #ahhb4 ,a thriving circle of the class of #ahhf still exists there4 ,their plan of work is very comprehensive1 including ,chautauqua music1 general discussions1 essays and social observance of the special days4----,the ,,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 has a membership of forty-six of the classes of '#he1 '#hf1 '#hg and '#hh4 ,the meetings1 held bi-monthly1 are full of life and interest4 ,they observe memorial days generally4 ,one of their most active members has moved to ,,cazenovia1 ,n4 ,y41 ,mrs4 ,rev4 ,h4 ,f4 ,spencer1 vice president4 ,she writes3 8,our circle1 here1 is in embryo--think how prosy to come down to a circle of three or four40----,the ,,newfield circle of fifteen members was organized last fall1 and held their meetings every ,friday evening4 ,their president1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,rogers1 is a graduate of the class of '#hb4----;,in an interesting letter from the president of a circle at ,,binghamton1 ,n4 ,y41 we have found some very good hints4 ,he says3 8,here in ,binghamton our circle numbers twenty4 ,we call ourselves the #8,f4 ,f4 ,f4' circle1 from our motto3 #8,fortiter1 fideliter1 feliciter'--bravely1 faithfully1 successfully4 ,two things our programs all include3 ,first1 devotional exercises1 remembering that #8we study the ,word' as well as #8the works of ,god4' ,we use the ,chautauqua hymns1 all singing together and greatly enjoy it4 ,secondly1 roll call4 ,this is one of our most interesting exercises4 ,we respond by quotations from one or more authors1 specially designated for the evening1 and keep a record of every quotation given4 ,in this way we are compiling what promises to be a very interesting book of choice quotations4 ,our members are very much in earnest1 and every meeting finds them all present40----,the history of one of the circles at ,,olean1 ,n4 ,y41 has been sent us by its secretary3 8,the #8,whitney' circle 7,baptist7 was so named in honor of the venerable ,dr4 ,whitney1 one of the fathers of the ,first ,baptist ,church4 ,this circle was organized in the fall of #ahhc1 with a membership of thirty4 ,this fall we have reorganized1 with a membership that bids fair to double that of last year4 ,each member1 in alphabetical order1 takes part in the exercises1 and are nearly all active workers4 ,our meetings open with the #8,chautauqua ,songs1' followed by the roll call1 each member answering with an apt quotation from the readings4 ,our program then consists of a drill on subjects gone over in the readings for the past two weeks4 ,two essays1 on subjects in harmony with the readings1 are read each evening4 ,we also have interesting scientific experiments conducted by ,dr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,mudge1 a scientist of this city4 ,we have introduced a novel feature called the #8,tug of ,war1' in which sides are chosen in spelling-down style1 and questions asked on a book which has been completed4 ,guesses at the ,greek alphabet and ,greek words are also features of our programs4 ,we also observe some of the memorial days4 ,last summer our superintendent1 the ,rev4 ,mac,clymont1 secured ,chancellor ,vincent to lecture for us4 ,we invited the ,m4 ,e4 circle1 and had a splendid lecture4 ,taken altogether1 we may say our circle is in a prosperous and flourishing condition40 ,the ,,keystone ,,state is in no way behind ,new ,england and its ,,empire neighbor this month in reports4 ,from ,,connelsville1 on the banks of the ,youghiogheny1 comes a hearty greeting to all ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 classmates4 ,it is from the sturdy 8,spartans10 of the class of '#hh4 ,the circle1 organized on ,opening ,day1 numbered at its start twenty-four members4 ,the 8,athenian0 circle of '#hf and the 8,pansy0 circle of '#hg proposed a consolidation of forces2 so large was the circle that a public meeting place was necessary4 ,the best talent of the city is in the circle1 and to belong to its rank is a good recommendation wherever the circle is known4----,at ,,mount ,,pleasant1 ,,pa41 a circle was formed in ,october consisting of fifty-one members1 all but four of which belong to the class of '#hh4 ,they promise us a full report when fairly started in their work4----,a friend at ,,verona1 ,,pa41 writes3 8,our name is the #8,verona ,resolutes1' our age two months1 our number fifteen4 ,we owe our existence to the fact that three of our new members attended ,chautauqua ,lake ,assembly1 and one ,mountain ,lake ,park ,assembly1 where they caught the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 fever1 and upon returning home spread the disease until fifteen are found upon the fever list4 ,we are enjoying it1 though1 and hope our recovery will be slow1 if recovery means loss of interest40----,,west ,,philadelphia has a new circle--the 8,parsonage0 circle4 ,they number six and promise to try to increase their list4 ,no doubt their efforts will succeed1 the present circle being due to the efforts of three members who last year read alone4----,the ,elizabeth ,herald1 of ,,elizabeth1 ,,pa41 contained recently the following pleasant notice of the circle in that town3 8,,chautauqua ,,circle4--,this flourishing institution is pursuing a course of study and research and enjoying an exchange of ideas1 which is a veritable reveling in intellectual and social pleasures1 unknown to many of the community whose congenial tastes and capabilities would1 if properly directed and cultured1 lead them to a sharing of these delights1 so far above the frivolities too common to young life4 ,for instance1 at the regular meeting of this week1 in addition to the regular quiz and discussion of the set topics1 the ,milton ,memorial ,day was observed with services of an appropriate nature4 ,the evening was a most pleasant one throughout1 and after the regular program was concluded the members1 loth to leave1 remained1 singing and talking in pleasant1 informal fashion1 for some time40----,we are pleased to notice here1 a kindly compliment to the president of the flourishing circle of thirty at ,,washington1 ,professor ,lyon1 of ,washington and ,jefferson ,college4 ,our friend says of him3 8,in our studies in chemistry1 etc41 we have the benefit of his knowledge and skill1 and obliging disposition1 for he always carries from the college to our rooms the apparatus needed for explanation and experiment40 ,this circle held a 8sociable0 on the evening of ,december #aath1 each member inviting a friend4 ,it was an enjoyable affair and may be the means of adding members4----,in kind remembrance of ,mary ,vincent1 the mother of ,chancellor ,vincent1 the members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 at ,,petersburg1 ,,pa4 have named their circle the 8,mary ,vincent0 circle--a peculiarly fitting tribute1 ,mrs4 ,vincent having been well known and deeply honored by many ,chautauquans in that vicinity4 ,the ,,cincinnati1 ,,ohio1 members of the ,s4 ,h4 ,g4 held their yearly reception to the new class1 in the pleasant parlor of the ,first ,presbyterian ,church1 in ,october4 ,the 8,irrepressibles0 were right royally received4 ,the president of the society1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,o',connell1 welcomed the class into the society4 ,the following were the toasts1 to which hearty responses were given3 8,the ,class of '#hb20 8,class of '#hc20 8,class of '#hd20 8,the ,founder of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4--,chancellor ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent20 8,chautauqua1 the ,mecca of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c420 8,cincinnati ,circles20 8,chautauqua ,music40 ,the musical part of the program was unusually fine4 ,the collation was a part of the program in which every one present took part4 ,the following are the officers for the ensuing year3 ,president1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,o',connell1 '#hb3 vice presidents3 ,class of '#hb1 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,j4 ,pyle2 class of '#hc1 ,mrs4 ,i4 ,w4 ,joyce2 class of '#hd1 ,miss ,sarah ,trotter2 recording secretary1 ,miss ,julia ,kolbe2 corresponding secretary1 ,mr4 ,m4 ,s4 ,turrill2 treasurer1 ,miss ,selina ,wood4 ,the society separated brimful of enthusiasm for the success of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,bryant's ,day was celebrated by the ,cincinnati circles at the ,third ,presbyterian ,church4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,logan presided4 ,among the excellent things on the program were an essay on ,w4 ,c4 ,bryant1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,johnson1 a piano solo by ,miss ,belle ,burnham1 and a recitation1 8,waiting by the ,gate10 by ,miss ,nellie ,allan4 ,a union vesper service was held by the circles at ,grace ,m4 ,p4 ,church1 on the ,special ,sunday1 ,november #ith4 ,the service was conducted by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,spohr1 of ,grace ,church1 and ,dr4 ,ridgeway1 of ,mount ,auburn1 gave a very fine address upon 8,praise40 ,this being the 8,greek0 year in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course1 the various circles have added to their names that letter of the ,greek alphabet which will indicate their rank in order of organization4----,the local circle of ,,mount ,,pleasant1 ,,ohio1 came into existence in ,october of #ahhc4 ,the circle has the usual officers1 and meets twice a month at the homes of the members4 ,the enrollment is nineteen1 with a large average attendance4 ,they have local talent enlisted1 and the meetings are instructive and interesting4 ,the work of #ahhc and #ahhd was thoroughly accomplished4 ,one new circle enters the list this month from ,,friendswood1 ,,ind4 ,it is formed of twelve members--enthusiastic and brave they must be1 for they report themselves as living in the country several miles apart4 ,not only are they overcoming the difficulty of regular meetings under these circumstances1 they are contemplating enlisting others in their work4----,another zealous ,,indiana circle is at ,,corydon4 ,it is a year old1 and believes itself to have done better work than any other circle in the country1 an assertion that their method warrants1 for they have adopted the novel plan of a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 school1 where one member is appointed to hear the lesson and every other comes prepared to recite4 ,our ,corydon friends gave a delightful ,milton reception to over thirty guests4----,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 local circle of ,,fort ,,wayne began its fifth year's work on ,garfield ,day--officers were elected1 and seventeen new members added4 ,the subjects under consideration are conducted in a conversational manner4 ,one evening was devoted to chemistry1 with highly interesting and successful experiments given by the leader1 who is professor of science at the ,m4 ,e4 ,college4 ,they have held one 8,sunday ,evening ,vesper ,service10 which proved such an inspiration that they purpose having more4 8,at the age of five years10 they write1 8we are truly #8,irrepressible1' #8,invincible1' and as firm and steady as old ,plymouth ,rock itself40 ,altogether 8we are a live and enthusiastic circle1 possessed with the true #8,chautauqua ,idea4'0 ,a letter received from a lady well known to readers of ,,the ,,chautauquan1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,j4 ,bugbee1 says of a circle lately started at ,,evanston1 ,,ill43 8,i am happy to report from this glorious ,athens of the ,west a flourishing circle of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 organized on the first ,monday evening in ,november1 and numbering now between forty and fifty members4 ,we have started out with an enthusiasm which we hope will not abate1 and indeed we do not expect it to do so under our present fortunate leadership4 ,we have for president ,mr4 ,weeden ,a4 ,sawyer1 of this place4 ,he presides with dignity and ease1 and carries forward the business of the circle with promptness and dispatch4 ,we are also happy in our instructor1 the ,rev4 ,f4 ,clatworthy1 pastor of the ,baptist church of ,evanston1 who shows wonderful adaptation for this work1 and is heartily in sympathy with the ,chautauqua ,idea1 and endeavors closely to follow out the plan for local circles40----,at ,,hinsdale1 ,,ill41 a circle was organized in the fall of #ahhb4 ,the circle was conducted in a very informal manner1 having but one officer--secretary--8each member taking her turn as leader1 and our exercises were merely the discussions of the past week's reading4 ,in the fall of #ahhc we again organized1 this time admitting gentlemen1 electing a president and secretary1 and taking to ourselves a name1 #8,the ,alpha ,chautauqua ,circle4' ,our membership increased to eighteen4 ,meeting every ,monday evening1 our exercises were the same as during the preceding year4 ,we celebrated three of the memorial days1 which proved not only pleasant and interesting1 but very instructive4 ,this last fall our ,chautauquans were so enthusiastic that the first meeting was called for ,september #dth4 ,we reorganized with only nine members2 since then have admitted two more4 ,if it can be possible1 our work this year seems more interesting than ever4 ,we continue to meet weekly1 and have now decided to take one text-book1 or one month's reading in ,,the ,,chautauquan at a time1 finishing one subject before taking up another2 thinking thereby to obtain a better understanding of the same4 ,shall also use the questions and answers in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 said lessons to be conducted the same as a spelling match4 ,the members respond to the roll call with appropriate quotations1 thus far from ,greek authors4 ,we have been too busy to observe the memorial days this year1 otherwise than by quotations from the author in question4 ,two of our circle are members of the #8,pansy' class4 ,one of our number graduated last year1 who is now an honorary member of the local circle1 acting as critic2 and we shall have one graduate this year40 ,a genuine proof of good work is this bit of experience from ,,tecumseh1 ,,mich43 8,at the beginning of this year10 the president writes1 8we members of '#hf reviewed thoroughly our ,greek history for the benefit of those of our circle belonging to the classes of '#hg and '#hh4 ,we were highly gratified with the proficiency of the class of '#hf4 ,how well we remember two years ago the despondency of many of the members at the hard ,greek words1 and now they pronounce them with ease and fluency4 ,any one would have been convinced of the benefits of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 who could have listened to those reviews of ,greek history40----,the ,bryant memorial was very pleasantly observed by the local circle of ,,escanaba1 ,,mich4 ,mrs4 ,w4 ,h4 ,tibbals1 '#hf1 invited the members to dinner at #f o'clock4 ,nine of the members were present4 ,after the repast1 at which each member present received as a souvenir a pallet painted by the hostess1 the literary feast was enjoyed4 ,select reading1 8,early ,life of the ,author20 selection1 8,the ,rivulet20 selection1 8,the ,autumn ,woods20 essay1 ,bryant and his ,contemporaries2 selection1 8,the ,planting of the ,apple ,tree20 selection1 8,the ,crowded ,street20 essay1 ,bryant1 the ,poet2 analytical study of the 8,west ,wind20 questions prepared by the president4 ,sad news and a beautiful tribute to the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 come to us from ,,waupan1 ,,wis41 whence the secretary writes3 8,our ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 opens this year with added enthusiasm in its membership1 and an increasing number4 ,the ,bryant ,memorial ,day was observed in a fitting manner by sentiments1 readings1 discussion1 and a biographical sketch1 all bearing upon the great poet4 ,the selections and topics were in accord with our feelings1 as we had just met with our first loss since organizing five years ago1 in the death of one of our youngest and brightest members1 ,mrs4 ,jennie ,weed ,hinkley4 ,as we review the life of our beloved sister1 we can see a symmetry and beauty of character that needed no further lights and shades4 ,our studies make us better mothers and housekeepers1 better able to take our places in the prayer meeting1 better able to guide our children1 and to understand the work they do in the school room40----,the 8,pansy0 class of ,,sparta1 ,,wis41 also sends its greetings to all the members of the ,people's ,college4 ,a friend telling the story of the circle says3 8,our little ,spartan class passed through the first year of its existence without a break in the circle1 and profiting by the favorable circumstances1 observed among others1 ,shakspere ,memorial ,day with more than the ordinary preparation1 closing with a basket picnic1 served at the house of one of the members4 ,this year1 however1 sickness has overtaken two of the members1 and one still remains an invalid2 nevertheless1 our progress has been steady4 ,we have observed ,bryant's and ,milton's ,days by interesting exercises40 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is coming well to the front this year in ,,st4 ,,paul1 ,,minn4 ,the year was begun by a lecture from ,dr4 ,vincent on ,monday evening1 ,october #fth1 on the 8,chautauqua ,idea40 ,this aroused the enthusiasm of the old ,chautauquans and brought in a large addition of new members4 ,on ,thursday evening1 ,october #bc;d1 the 8,pioneer0 circle was reorganized with nineteen members1 which have since become twenty-five4 ,on ,monday evening1 ,november #c;d 7,bryant ,day71 the 8,canadian ,american0 circle was formed1 with ten members4 ,there have been at least four other circles formed1 with a membership of about eighty4 ,on the evening of ,november #bgth1 ,thanksgiving night1 the 8,pioneer0 circle held its regular meeting in the parlors of the ,first ,m4 ,e4 ,church4 ,all the other circles in the city were represented1 about eighty persons being present4 ,among the other visitors they were delighted to welcome ,prof4 ,j4 ,l4 ,corning1 of ,ocean ,grove1 ,n4 ,j41 a name well known to all ,chautauquans4 ,his address on the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 at ,ocean ,grove and the ,chautauqua ,university was both instructive and enjoyable4 ,the program was in celebration of both ,bryant and ,thanksgiving ,days1 and included essays on ,bryant's life and works and the origin of ,thanksgiving day1 with selections from ,bryant's works and ,thanksgiving day poems4 ,altogether the evening was a very pleasant one4 ,they are making arrangements for forming a central circle somewhat after the plan of the ,toronto central circle and the ,troy circle4 ,three new circles are reported this month from ,,iowa4 ,at ,,wapello a circle of five members2 at ,,parkersburg one of nine members2 and at ,,elvira1 one of ten4 ,each reports the work as a delightful revelation1 and expresses the hope that they may be able to largely increase their numbers4----,in the fall of #ahhc a circle was organized in ,,missouri ,,valley1 ,,iowa4 ,it consisted of some fifteen members1 some of whom1 for want of time1 failed to do the reading4 ,during the past year a number of the members left the town1 one of whom--,president ,sabine--graduated in the class of #ahhd4 ,though the class is scattered1 several are doing the reading4 ,we are always particularly glad to hear from the ,,blue ,,grass ,,state1 perhaps because our friends there have not sent us frequent reports4 ,this month a friend writes of the circle at ,,hardensburg3 8,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 of this place is prosecuting its work with unabating energy and zeal4 ,we organized early in ,september1 with eighteen members1 that we might be entirely ready for ,opening ,day4 ,however1 there was so much severe illness in our town1 and especially among some of the friends of our circle1 that it was late in the ,circle year before we did anything more toward having a meeting4 ,when at last through the ,father's providence we were permitted to meet again1 we found that nearly every member had #8read up' to date4 ,we meet on ,tuesday evening of each week and carry out the program as furnished for each week in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,we keep each memorial day40 ,another ,southern state to report is ,,louisiana4 ,from ,,lake ,,providence this letter comes3 8,we have twenty-two members between fifteen and twenty-one years old4 ,we meet once a week2 at roll call each answers by reciting1 #8,we study the ,word and works of ,god1' #8,let us keep our ,heavenly ,father in the midst1' #8,never be discouraged4' ,we assign lessons from the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course for each week as given by ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,in our class the member who is most attentive1 whose conduct is best1 who learns the lessons recited most thoroughly1 is made president of the class4 ,the places of vice president1 secretary1 etc41 are filled in this way4 ,the lessons which have been memorized by particular members1 are learned at their recital by the other members who were not appointed to learn these lessons4 ,in this way the work is done thoroughly1 and for hours the interest and enthusiasm do not cool2 however1 we change from one study to another to prevent any from becoming monotonous4 ,nineteen members of our circle are college students1 but for the most of them this will be their last year at school2 so we are trying to fill them with the ,chautauqua spirit of learning1 morality1 truth and ,christian worth1 that it may linger with them and develop them through all the future into strong and true1 noble and pure womanhood and manhood4 ,having established this circle among the young1 we are now working to originate one among the grown4 ,we talk of it a great deal in our social life2 have induced eight to become members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 and hope to largely increase the numbers40 ,,springfield1 ,,missouri1 sends the following interesting history3 8,in ,october1 #ahhc1 a wave of ,chautauqua enthusiasm reached our beautiful city of the ,ozarks4 ,through the influence of two or three energetic ladies1 it resulted in the organization of the #8,queen ,city' circle of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,the circle began with a membership of fifteen ladies1 representing eight religious denominations4 ,regular meetings were held once a week1 all the memorial days kept1 and the year's work finished in ,june4 ,in ,october1 #ahhd1 our circle was reorganized with the same officers4 ,our members returned full of enthusiasm and ready for work4 ,on ,opening ,day we endeavored to lay before our new members and visitors--having opened our doors to all interested--the object1 the magnitude and the blessing of the #8,chautauqua ,idea4' ,those interested1 and others to whom the #8,idea' was entirely new caught the enthusiasm1 and many applications for membership were presented from both gentlemen and ladies4 ,as the #8,queen ,city' circle is a woman's circle exclusively1 holding its meetings in the afternoon1 it was thought best to organize another circle1 to which both ladies and gentlemen could be admitted4 ,on ,bryant's ,day the new circle was formed1 with a membership of thirty-one4 ,their meetings will be held on ,tuesday evening of each week4 ,it is the intention of the two circles to work together as closely as possible4 ,the #8,queen ,city' circle meets once a week in a pleasant parlor1 which we owe to the courtesy of one of our members4 ,we study the readings for the week thoroughly4 ,topics are assigned by our instruction committee a week in advance for special study1 greater research and more thought being thus brought to bear upon the lesson4 ,criticism upon pronunciation1 inaccuracies of speech1 etc41 is unsparingly given to all4 ,we are trying to make thorough study of our text-book on #8,parliamentary ,practice1' and endeavor to observe all the rules of a deliberative body4 ,our work is both profitable and delightful1 and ,i think it safe to say that our circle can never languish4 ,already the '#hgs are living in joyful anticipation of the day when they will be permitted to pass beneath the ,arches at ,chautauqua40----,a word also comes from ,,kansas ,,city4 ,there are six circles there1 the oldest of which is the 8,kansas ,city0 circle1 whose interest was so great that the weekly meetings were kept up during last summer1 without any vacation4 ,october #ast1 they reorganized1 with a membership of twenty-five4 ,two graduates are reading with this circle this year4 ,a pleasant account of work done in the interest of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 has reached our table from ,,hiawatha1 ,,kansas4 ,a graduate of the class of '#hd it comes from3 8,i have talked ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 to my friends until ,i have declared that it will soon be necessary for me to get a new tongue4 ,i went to our editor to-day and asked his assistance in spreading the work4 ,he has kindly consented to print whatever we wish4 ,there are many things in ,,the ,,chautauquan that would enlighten the people concerning the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4--what it is1 and what it is doing--but the very ones who most need this information do not take ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,by the assistance of our editor we can bring this knowledge to the people4 ,i tell my friends that ,i can not help being enthusiastic on this subject1 because ,i am an #8,irrepressible4' ,a #8,pioneer' and an #8,invincible' moved to our town this fall4 ,beside these we have a few #8,progressives1' #8,pansies1' and #8,plymouth ,rocks4' ,we meet in one of the offices in the court house for our regular meetings--it being a more central point for all--but ,i invited the circle to my home for a late meeting4 ,i wished to show them the growth of the ,persian empire and ,alexander's dominions as pictured on ,adams's #8,synchronological ,chart4' ,i bought one this summer at ,chautauqua4 ,since my return ,i made an easel for the chart of hard pine1 open-mortised four cross-pieces1 on two of which ,i fastened the chart1 and chamfered the edges4 ,the boards were #8in the rough' when ,i took them1 but ,i smoothed them1 sand-papered and oiled them1 then blackened the chamfered edges and varnished the easel4 ,several carpenters have examined my work and all say my joining is perfect and the work well done1 and yet ,i never handled tools until ,i went to ,chautauqua last summer and took instructions40----,a new circle has been organized at ,,hartford1 ,,kansas4 ,it consists of seventeen members1 representing a variety of professions and employments4 ,the work has proven pleasant and profitable to them thus far4 ,right glad we are to hear from ,,nebraska4 ,a breezy letter comes from the circle at ,,york1 in which the writer tells us3 8,we have twenty-four members4 ,we feel quite encouraged when we remember that we began last year with only four4 ,nearly every meeting adds a new name to our roll4 ,our members are all enthusiastic and in earnest1 preferring to let anything else go rather than miss one #8,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4' ,i really think nothing less than a #8,nebraska blizzard' or cyclone would keep some of our members away4 ,we pursued the ,chautauqua plan of questions and answers last year very successfully1 and are proceeding in the same way this year1 although our programs vary according to the option of the leader4 ,each member leads in the order his name stands on the secretary's roll4 ,in this way the timid ones of our circle are brought out4 ,we usually have written questions on the readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan2 they are either handed to the secretary to be read1 or exchanged4 ,we are fortunate in having a professor of our college as a member1 and just now he is making the study of chemistry very interesting and pleasant4 ,we certainly do appreciate our ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c40 ,,wyoming ,,territory is the western limit of our circle travels for ,february4 ,at ,,cheyenne1 the 8,j4 ,l4 ,taylor0 circle organized in #ahhc has reorganized with a membership of twelve4 ,the secretary writes3 8,while we are all young people1 having many daily duties and cares1 our interest in ,chautauqua steadily increases1 as we feel it broadens our outlook over the world1 and draws us nearer and nearer to our ideal of a higher life4 ,we hope to be able to report much good work done in the future--as we feel that we can not stop with only moderate endeavors40 ,,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,classes4 ,,class ,,of #ahhe4 8,press on1 reaching after those things which are before40 ,,officers4 ,president--,j4 ,b4 ,underwood1 ,meriden1 ,conn4 ,vice ,president--,c4 ,m4 ,nichols1 ,springfield1 ,ohio4 ,treasurer--,miss ,carrie ,hart1 ,aurora1 ,ind4 ,secretary--,miss ,m4 ,m4 ,canfield1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,executive ,committee--,officers of the class4 ,class badges may be procured of either ,president or ,treasurer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the badges for '#he1 phnix-like1 have risen from their ashes and can now be furnished promptly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,president ,underwood would be glad if circles composed of members of the ,class of '#he would inform him of their existence and send name of president and secretary1 that he may visit them when possible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,canadian classmate writes3 8,i am prosecuting my studies in connection with the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 all alone in a remote corner of our country1 and find my greatest pleasure in holding communion with the good and great of the present and past ages4 ,i am well pleased with the motto for our class and hope to be among those who verify its appropriateness by passing through the ,gates next summer at ,chautauqua40 99 99 99 99 99 ,one member of '#he writes3 8,having just read the ,december column of '#he in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 have concluded to show my enthusiasm by sending for our colors40 ,we can all say amen to this3 8,please place my name on the roll of the ,invincibles1 and may ,god for dear ,jesus' sake help us all to #8,press on1 reaching after those things which are before4'0 99 99 99 99 99 ,another says3 8,although ,i was nearly fifty years of age when ,i commenced study in this way1 yet am greatly interested and love it more and more4 ,i hope to #8press on1 reaching after those things which are before1' until ,i can stand in the immediate presence of ,him whom my soul loveth40 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,kentucky comes this testimony3 8,i am hoping to be able1 literally1 to #8pass through the ,gates' next ,august and receive from ,chancellor ,vincent my diploma4 ,i was at ,chautauqua in '#hc1 and will not be content till ,i go again4 ,my interest and enthusiasm increase as the four years draw to a close4 ,during this time ,i have pursued my studies alone1 having failed entirely to form even a #8straight line' in my neighborhood1 five miles from ,versailles4 ,although ,i would doubtless have enjoyed being connected with a circle1 ,i know that studying the course1 even alone1 has very greatly benefited me4 ,one of these benefits1 and by no means the least1 has been the increasing and strengthening of my taste for solid reading40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,york4--8,i have often wished that ,i could express my gratitude for1 and appreciation of1 my ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 studies and associations1 but when ,i attempt it my list of adjectives seems all too meager and inadequate4 ,since taking up the course1 life and all that pertains to it assume a different aspect4 ,i have gained an outlook which gives life a charm and attractiveness of which ,i had never dreamed4 ,i had passed my forty-fifth year when ,i comprehended the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 plan sufficiently to see that it was for such illiterate people as ,i4 ,the benefits ,i have received are past computation40 99 99 99 99 99 ,our ,class ,memorial to our loved alma mater must not be forgotten4 ,we want to prepare for a memorial1 a present worthy our name and aim4 ,fifty-five 7#ee7 names have up to this time been sent to the treasurer1 with contributions to the class fund 7some sending more than the amount requested74 ,that is but a small beginning of the hundreds to hear from4 ,,class ,,of '#hf4 8,we study for light1 to bless with light40 ,,class ,,organization4 ,president--,the ,rev4 ,b4 ,p4 ,snow1 ,biddeford1 ,maine4 ,vice ,presidents--,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,whitley1 ,salisbury1 ,maryland2 ,mr4 ,l4 ,f4 ,houghton1 ,peoria1 ,illinois2 ,mr4 ,walter ,y4 ,morgan1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio2 ,mrs4 ,delia ,browne1 ,louisville1 ,kentucky2 ,miss ,florence ,finch1 ,palestine1 ,texas4 ,secretary--,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,l4 ,austin1 ,new ,albany1 ,ind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the officers of '#hf send greeting to their classmates and co-workers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the new class badge will soon be ready to send out4 ,the color of the badge remains the same1 but the class emblem and motto will be added4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from ,colorado--,durango--comes this encouraging bit of class news3 8,we have eleven members in our class and are pursuing our studies this winter with unabated interest4 ,belonging to the class of '#hf1 we mean to be true to the name #8,progressives4' ,we hold our meetings every ,monday evening1 and follow the program laid out in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,there seems to be a growing interest in the ,chautauqua work1 and we hope to have another class organized in our little town before many months4 ,the members of the present class are busy workers1 teachers1 mothers and housekeepers1 but they have continued the course with increasing interest to this the third year1 and purpose finishing the full course40 ,,class ,,of #ahhg4--8,,the ,,pansies40 8,neglect not the gift that is in thee40 ,,officers4 ,president--,the ,rev4 ,frank ,russell1 ,mansfield1 ,ohio4 ,western ,secretary--,k4 ,a4 ,burnell1 ,esq41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,eastern ,secretary--,j4 ,a4 ,steven1 ,m4,d41 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,treasurer--,either ,secretary1 from either of whom badges may be procured4 ,executive ,committee--,the officers of the class4 ,class paper may be procured from ,mr4 ,henry ,hart1 ,atlanta1 ,ga4 ,the ,canadian ,pansies are doing good work in the promotion of the ,chautauqua ,idea4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the leaves swung lazily and slow1 ,the wind hummed low its reverie1 ,chautauqua bells with loving chime ,pealed forth their sweetest melody4 ,their quaint1 weird music rolling on1 ,mingling with heaven's azure ray1 ,enwrapped the earth with bright1 new joy2 ,it was our 8,pansies'0 natal day4 ,remembrance fond brings back the hour ,when on our breast the pansy blue ,we placed1 with earnest1 fervent prayer ,that to its trust we might be true4 ,again1 again1 and yet again1 ,our widening circle grew apace2 ,and pansies bloomed on every side2 ,north1 ,south and ,west each claimed a place4 ,and now a year with hurried tread1 ,has paced its tiny cycle round1 ,girdled with moments richly spent ,in wanderings on classic ground4 ,methinks we scarce could well have crowned ,the year agone with richer gems ,than these bright visions of the past1 ,tho' culled from monarch's diadems4 ,a goodly company our band-- ,twice seven thousand now we claim2 ,and purpose with a royal love ,thro' every land to spread its fame4 ,tinted is the horizon's rim ,with wisdom's deep1 ethereal blue1 ,yet all may reach its shining goal1 ,if firm their trust and true4 ,e'en though the path may rugged be1 ,and lengthening shadows bar the way1 ,onward we'll press with firmer zeal1 ,knowing success shall crown the day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,new ,england ,branch of the ,pansy class held its reunion ,november #bhth in the ,people's ,church in ,boston4 ,the first hour1 from one to two p4 m41 was spent in social enjoyment4 ,prof4 ,sherwin then introduced himself in one of his characteristic speeches and concluded by presenting the ,new ,england president1 the ,rev4 ,f4 ,m4 ,gardner4 ,he was unknown to many of the members1 as he was elected on the last day of the ,framingham ,assembly1 when many of the class had gone home4 ,the president made an appropriate and pleasing address4 ,the secretary1 ,miss ,corey1 then read her report4 ,the pupils of the ,boston ,conservatory of ,music1 under the direction of ,prof4 ,sherwin1 gave a delightful musical entertainment4 ,at the close of the musical program the ,rev4 ,j4 ,w4 ,hamilton1 pastor of the church1 addressed the class in a very happy and interesting manner4 ,a class poem was read by ,miss ,nell ,robinson1 of ,lowell1 ,mass41 which finds its place in this ,pansy column this month4 ,after some business the meeting was closed by singing a ,chautauqua song4 ,nearly one hundred and fifty were present at this meeting4 ,during the session the secretary called attention to the samples of class paper which had been sent on from ,atlanta by direction of the committee appointed at ,chautauqua last summer4 ,the samples met the approval of those present4 ,,class ,,of #ahhh4--8,,the ,,plymouth ,,rocks40 8,let us be seen by our deeds40 ,,class ,,organization4 ,president--,the ,rev4 ,a4 ,e4 ,dunning4 ,vice ,presidents--,prof4 ,w4 ,n4 ,ellis1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y42 the ,rev4 ,wm4 ,g4 ,roberts1 ,bellevue1 ,ohio4 ,secretary--,miss ,m4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,treasurer--,miss ,m4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all items for this column should be sent to the ,rev4 ,c4 ,c4 ,mc,lean1 ,jacksonville1 ,florida4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,class of '#hh will undoubtedly increase its numerical strength at the ,florida ,chautauqua1 to be held at ,lake ,de ,funiak1 ,february #ajth to ,march #ith1 #ahhe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,miss ,ella ,pearsall1 the secretary1 writes that in ,october a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 was organized in ,matteawau1 ,new ,york1 taking as its motto1 8,labor and ,progress40 99 99 99 99 99 ,one from ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 writes objecting to our name1 8,plymouth ,rock40 99 99 99 99 99 ,mrs4 ,c4 ,h4 ,pike1 of ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 informs us that at one of their meetings1 they made successful experiments in chemistry1 before a delighted audience4 ,speaks well for our '#hhs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,rev4 ,h4 ,l4 ,brickett1 of ,linnfield ,center1 ,mass41 class '#hh1 was appointed as a committee of one to confer with the granite companies of ,new ,england in regard to a base of granite for the proposed new ,hall of ,philosophy at ,chautauqua1 and has been successful in having donated one from the best granite1 to be highly polished1 bearing our name1 monogram1 motto1 and year of our class4 ,it is valued at #ajj4 ,we extend to him1 in the name of the 8,plymouth ,rocks10 the '#hhs1 more than thanks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,dunning1 of ,boston1 has consented to deliver the address at our first annual 8spread0 in ,august next4 99 99 99 99 99 ,stationery and badges for '#hh may be secured of ,henry ,hart1 ,atlanta1 ,ga4 99 99 99 99 99 ,good for '#hh4 ,in the eight or ten circles found in ,st4 ,paul1 ,minn41 about four fifths of the members are of the class of '#hh4 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers4 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,on 8,,college ,,greek ,,course ,,in ,,english10 8,,chemistry10 ,,and 8,,how ,,to ,,help ,,the ,,poor40 ,,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,martin1 ,general ,secretary ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,i4--,,twenty-,,five ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,on 8,,college ,,greek ,,course ,,in ,,english0--,,from ,,page #hc ,,to ,,page #ahg4 #a4 ,q4 ,who is foremost among ,greek philosophers8 ,a4 ,socrates4 #b4 ,q4 ,who is foremost of ,greek philosophical writers8 ,a4 ,plato4 #c4 ,q4 ,what four works have been the fruit1 direct or indirect1 of ,plato's 8,republic80 ,a4 ,cicero's 8,de ,republica10 ,st4 ,augustine's 8,city of ,god10 ,sir ,thomas ,more's 8,utopia10 and ,bacon's 8,new ,atlantis40 #d4 ,q4 ,in any just representation of ,plato1 who could not but be a very conspicuous figure8 ,a4 ,socrates4 #e4 ,q4 ,in the first extract given from ,plato's 8,republic10 what does the speaker1 ,glaucon1 undertake to set forth for ,socrates to overthrow8 ,a4 ,a notion which he avers to be current and accepted among men1 that injustice is better policy than justice4 #f4 ,q4 ,from the discussion of the nature of justice and injustice1 to what does ,plato make a very unexpected passage8 ,a4 ,to that form of discussion which has given its name to the 8,republic0--the ideal state4 #g4 ,q4 ,who has recently made a scholarly and adequate translation of ,plato's entire works into ,english8 ,a4 ,mr4 ,jowett4 #h4 ,q4 ,how is the so-styled 8,platonic love0 defined in the 8,republic80 ,a4 8,a friend should use no other familiarity to his love than a father would use to his son1 and this only for a virtuous end1 and he must first have the other's consent40 #i4 ,q4 ,what was the 8,socratic dmon0 to which ,plato alludes in his 8,republic80 ,a4 ,a benign and beneficent influence--a kind of divinity within him that governed the conduct of ,socrates4 #aj4 ,q4 ,how is the ,timus of ,plato described8 ,a4 ,as of all the writings of ,plato the most obscure and most repulsive to modern readers1 while the most influential of all over the ancient and medival world4 #aa4 ,q4 ,what are some of the other best known works of ,plato8 ,a4 8,the ,laws10 the 8,symposium10 the 8,phdrus10 the 8,gorgias10 and the 8,parmenides40 #ab4 ,q4 ,what is the name of the dialogue in which ,plato tells of the end of ,socrates8 ,a4 ,the 8,phdo40 #ac4 ,q4 ,what was the sentence of antiquity in regard to ,plato8 ,a4 ,that ,zeus1 if he had spoken ,greek1 would have spoken it like ,plato4 #ad4 ,q4 ,who was a distinguished pupil of ,plato8 ,a4 ,aristotle1 and in influence on human thought he equaled and rivaled his master4 #ae4 ,q4 ,how does our author state the difference between ancient tragedy and modern1 in a single antithetical sentence8 ,a4 ,modern tragedy presents real life idealized2 ancient tragedy presents an ideal life realized4 #af4 ,q4 ,what did ,greek tragedy have for its chief purpose8 ,a4 ,to teach4 #ag4 ,q4 ,how were ,greek tragedies represented8 ,a4 ,by daylight1 in the open air1 before assemblages that numbered their tens of thousands of spectators4 #ah4 ,q4 ,what is said of the dress of the actors8 ,a4 ,the actors wore masks on their faces and buskins on their feet4 ,beside this they wore a kind of wig designed to make them look taller1 and dressed with padding to make them look larger4 #ai4 ,q4 ,who were the three masters of ,greek tragedy8 ,a4 schylus1 ,sophocles and ,euripides4 #bj4 ,q4 ,when and where was schylus born8 ,a4 ,in #ebe ,b4 ,c41 in an ,attic village near ,athens4 #ba4 ,q4 ,in the present volume1 from what tragedy of schylus are selections presented8 ,a4 8,prometheus ,bound40 #bb4 ,q4 ,who was ,prometheus8 ,a4 ,a mythical being of superhuman rank1 who stole fire from heaven and brought it to men4 ,for this offense against ,zeus he was condemned to be chained alive to a rocky cliff in the ,caucasus4 #bc4 ,q4 ,what other great tragic poet was contemporary with schylus8 ,a4 ,sophocles4 #bd4 ,q4 ,from what masterpiece of ,sophocles are the selections of the present volume made8 ,a4 8dipus ,tyrannus1 or dipus the ,king40 #be4 ,q4 ,how is this tragedy considered by1 perhaps1 the majority of qualified critics8 ,a4 ,to be not only the best work of ,sophocles1 but the 8bright1 consummate flower0 of all ,greek tragedy4 ,,ii4--,,twenty-,,five ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,on 8,,chemistry0--,,from ,,beginning ,,of ,,book ,,to ,,page #hd4 #bf4 ,q4 ,of what does chemistry treat8 ,a4 ,all kinds of material substances4 #bg4 ,q4 ,what is said of the number of the various kinds of matter already existing on our earth8 ,a4 ,the number is so great that the various kinds have never been so much as counted1 much less described1 in any list or volume4 #bh4 ,q4 ,of what are all things known to chemists made up8 ,a4 ,a few simple substances1 either existing alone or in richly various combinations4 #bi4 ,q4 ,what are called chemical elements1 and what compounds8 ,a4 ,the simplest substances when alone are called the chemical elements1 or elementary substances2 the things resulting when different elements are united are called compounds4 #cj4 ,q4 ,what does the two-fold character of chemical study involve8 ,a4 ,first1 the examination of elementary substances and their compounds4 ,second1 a consideration of the many general and special laws and forces which determine the various possible combinations4 #ca4 ,q4 ,how many elementary substances are there now generally recognized as such8 ,a4 ,sixty-six4 #cb4 ,q4 ,about how many of the elements possess names that are familiar to ordinary readers8 ,a4 ,about one sixth of them4 #cc4 ,q4 ,of what two elementary substances is it probable that three fourths of our globe is composed8 ,a4 ,of oxygen one half1 and of silicon one fourth4 #cd4 ,q4 ,what general name is given to most of the elements8 ,a4 ,metals4 #ce4 ,q4 ,what symbol and what weight has each element8 ,a4 ,an atomic symbol and an atomic weight4 #cf4 ,q4 ,how is an atom of each elementary substance designated8 ,a4 ,by a symbol1 usually the initial letter of the native or ,latin name of the substance4 #cg4 ,q4 ,what are three properties an elementary substance accepted as a metal should possess8 ,a4 ,it must possess the property of existing in a solid condition2 it should possess the metallic luster2 and it should possess the power and tendency to readily form a chemical union with oxygen4 #ch4 ,q4 ,what are called binary and what ternary compounds8 ,a4 ,compounds having only two kinds of elements are called binaries4 ,compounds having three kinds of elements are called ternaries4 #ci4 ,q4 ,what four binary compounds are given as examples8 ,a4 ,hydric chloride1 sulphur di-oxide1 sulphur tri-oxide1 and plumbic oxide4 #dj4 ,q4 ,under what two heads are the principal ternaries grouped8 ,a4 ,acids and salts4 #da4 ,q4 ,what are the two principal ternary acids used by chemists8 ,a4 ,nitric acid and sulphuric acid4 #db4 ,q4 ,what is meant by the term atom8 ,a4 ,it is that portion of any kind of matter that is to human beings indivisible in fact4 #dc4 ,q4 ,with what invisible1 occult power is each atom and each molecule endowed8 ,a4 ,a power called chemical affinity4 #dd4 ,q4 ,what are three of the peculiarities of chemical affinity8 ,a4 ,each kind of atom has its peculiar chemical affinities4 ,each atom has a certain equivalence or atom-fixing power4 ,chemical changes produce striking results4 #de4 ,q4 ,what is the most common way of producing hydrogen8 ,a4 ,by bringing together sulphuric acid and zinc4 #df4 ,q4 ,what are some of the properties of hydrogen as a gas8 ,a4 ,it is colorless1 odorless1 tasteless1 and1 bulk for bulk1 it is the lightest substance known in nature4 #dg4 ,q4 ,what is the most interesting chemical property of hydrogen8 ,a4 ,its power to unite with oxygen4 #dh4 ,q4 ,what is said of the uses to which hydrogen may be put8 ,a4 ,as an elementary gas it finds but few applications in the arts4 #di4 ,q4 ,for what standards is hydrogen used by chemists8 ,a4 ,as the standard of equivalence or atom-fixing power2 the standard of atomic weight1 and the standard of density for gases4 #ej4 ,q4 ,what did the remarkable lightness of hydrogen early suggest8 ,a4 ,the fitness of that gas for the inflation of balloons4 ,,iii4--,,twenty-,,five ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,on 8,,how ,,to ,,help ,,the ,,poor40 #ea4 ,q4 ,what is the aim of the book1 8,how to ,help the ,poor80 ,a4 ,to give a few suggestions to visitors among the poor1 and to lead all such visitors to attend the conferences which are now held weekly in almost every district of our large cities4 #eb4 ,q4 ,what is one of the most direct commands in the ,christian ,scripture8 ,a4 8,give to him that asketh40 #ec4 ,q4 ,why need there be no beggars in our ,american cities8 ,a4 ,labor is wanted everywhere1 especially educated labor2 nowhere is the supply of the latter equal to the demand4 #ed4 ,q4 ,what do the people crying continually 8give to us0 really need8 ,a4 ,a chance to learn how to work1 and sufficient protection in the meantime from the evils of idleness1 drunkenness and vice4 #ee4 ,q4 ,what is 8out-door relief80 ,a4 ,it is the giving of money 7or its equivalent7 which is raised by taxing the people1 if the applicants come under certain rules and laws4 #ef4 ,q4 ,to what conclusion does ,mr4 ,seth ,low1 of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 come in regard to 8out-door relief80 ,a4 ,that out-door relief1 in the ,united ,states as elsewhere1 tends inevitably and surely to increase pauperism4 #eg4 ,q4 ,of what three parts is the conference of a district composed8 ,a4 ,first1 the district committee2 second1 the representatives of societies and officers2 third1 the visitors4 #eh4 ,q4 ,how does one writer state that the disciplining of our immense poor population must be effected8 ,a4 ,by individual influence2 and this power can change it from a mob of paupers and semi-paupers into a body of self-dependent workers4 #ei4 ,q4 ,what does not1 and what does visiting the poor mean8 ,a4 ,visiting the poor does not mean entering the room of a person hitherto unknown to make a call4 ,it means that we are invited to visit a miserable abode for the purpose1 first1 of discovering the cause of that misery4 #fj4 ,q4 ,what does ,dr4 ,tuckerman say of every child who is a beggar8 ,a4 ,every child who is a beggar1 almost without exception1 will become a vagrant and probably a thief4 #fa4 ,q4 ,what is the only just reason for taking children from their natural homes8 ,a4 ,to lift them out of moral poverty4 ,material poverty1 alone1 is not sufficient cause4 #fb4 ,q4 ,what do the statistics of the ,labor ,bureau show in regard to homeless young women in ,boston8 ,a4 ,that there are twenty thousand homeless young women in ,boston whose wages average only four dollars per week4 #fc4 ,q4 ,what is the first suggestion made for the better care of the aged8 ,a4 ,by patient study of each individual1 and by ingenious experiment of one plan after another1 some fit occupation can often be found which shall bring both happiness and profit4 #fd4 ,q4 ,when does not private charity do its full part8 ,a4 ,while any other than almshouse cases are allowed to fall into the care of the city authorities4 #fe4 ,q4 ,what does experience1 as the opportunities for observation widen1 induce the writer to believe8 ,a4 ,that every human being can do something if he has a chance1 and is intended to fill some gap in the universal plan4 #ff4 ,q4 ,what does ,edward ,denison say of the crime of begging8 ,a4 ,it does not consist in the mere solicitation of alms4 ,the gist of the offense is the intention of preying upon society2 and of this intent the asking alms is only evidence--not proof4 #fg4 ,q4 ,what is the root of a very large proportion of the suffering of the poor in the cities of ,america8 ,a4 ,drunkenness4 #fh4 ,q4 ,what is one of the first duties of a visitor in entering a tenement house8 ,a4 ,to use his senses4 #fi4 ,q4 ,what knowledge means physical salvation1 and thus a better prospect for understanding the spiritual8 ,a4 ,how to make even the smallest home clean and attractive1 and to get the largest return from every dollar earned4 #gj4 ,q4 ,what is one of the earliest and most important topics which should engage the attention of the visitor8 ,a4 ,that of helping people to save4 #ga4 ,q4 ,what drives people into solitude8 ,a4 ,trouble of any kind1 and especially any misfortune which has a tendency to lower a person in the social scale4 #gb4 ,q4 ,what is said of many of the poor who most deeply need visitors8 ,a4 ,they are lonely persons1 and the fact of finding a friend at last is encouragement to them and the beginning of better times4 #gc4 ,q4 ,what is almost the only true help of the worldly sort which it is possible to give the poor8 ,a4 ,to teach them how to use even the small share of goods and talents intrusted to them4 #gd4 ,q4 ,what truth has been made clear in regard to the expenditure of money and goods alone8 ,a4 ,that it does not alleviate poverty4 #ge4 ,q4 ,what has experience taught differently from the assertions that certain evils can not be helped1 and that we may as well let things alone8 ,a4 ,that evils can be helped1 and to let things alone is to lend ourselves to wrong4 ,,the ,,chautauqua ,,university4 ,,can ,,language ,,be ,,taught ,,by ,,correspondence8 ,,by ,,prof4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,holmes1 ,a4,m4 ,can a language be taught by correspondence8 ,unhesitatingly1 yes6 ,experience1 though brief1 gives warrant for the answer4 ,the constantly increasing number of advertisements appearing in journals of wide circulation gives evidence that teachers at least believe instruction by this method both possible and profitable4 ,it is in this belief that the only danger to the system lies4 ,incompetency in this field must fail4 ,it can be hidden by no outward show4 ,no would-be teacher1 with text-book and printed question in hand1 can parade before a class and hear a recitation4 ,only a teacher1 a real teacher1 can hope for success in this work1 and that must come by methods entirely foreign to the ordinary methods of the class-room4 ,born a teacher1 not made2 such must be he who would successfully use the correspondence system in his work of teaching4 ,such teachers are rare1 even in comparison with the multitudes of those who already fill the places in our hundreds of thousands of schools1 and still more rare in the ranks of the throng which1 filling the avenues leading to them1 is expectantly awaiting the constantly occurring vacancies4 ,for this reason we have said that the growing demand for correspondence schools constitutes their principal danger2 for persons aware of this demand and allured by the hope of swelling moderate incomes1 though they have no peculiar appreciation of the particular requirements demanded to fit one for the work1 will yet enter the lists as competitors in this field4 ,the inevitable results must be failure by the teacher1 discouragement to honest and earnest students who can find no other means for acquiring education1 distrust of the practicability of the system1 and discredit for correspondence teachers as a class4 ,to avoid this1 to provide only competent instructors1 and to arrange and systematize as broad and comprehensive a course of study as is furnished by an institution is one of the purposes of the ,chautauqua ,university4 ,in such a course languages1 ancient and modern1 must be taught1 and must be taught by correspondence1 or not at all4 ,but while it will be conceded that instruction by correspondence is possible1 in ordinary branches1 yet the honest inquirer will ask in view of the peculiarities surrounding the subject of foreign languages1 the question which begins this paper3 ,can a language be taught by correspondence8 ,again we answer1 unhesitatingly1 yes6 and in no dubious way1 but with a measure of success fully equal to that possible by oral instruction4 ,the question of the time necessary to complete any given topic is not germane to this discussion4 ,yet in passing1 it may be said1 that of two persons who should be able to devote their whole time to study1 one using oral and the other correspondence methods1 we see no reason why the first should have any advantage in point of time required for the completion of any prescribed course of study4 ,we present four reasons in support of the answer we have so positively given3 ,,first--,the class of students seeking this instruction is more teachable than can be easily found elsewhere4 ,its members rank in earnestness and intensity of application with the best of those pursuing post-graduate or special courses in resident and special institutions4 ,they are men already in professional life1 physicians1 attorneys1 pastors1 journalists and teachers4 ,they are men who1 having long looked wistfully from a distance at our great educational institutions without being able to avail themselves of their advantages1 suddenly find excellent educational advantages brought to their very doors and offered on terms which they can easily accept4 ,they are young men and women who during their school days felt the necessity of making the best use of their time1 and acquired habits of steady application1 of critical study1 and of economy in the use of spare moments2 but whose school days were limited by unconquerable circumstances to the village academy or high school1 or even to the less ambitious country district school4 ,these classes are easier to teach than almost any other1 since they are ready to do to the fullest extent the work which alone can make any teaching successful4 ,,second--,more skill is required in the work of preparing and assigning lessons than is ordinarily shown4 ,the art of assigning lessons should form a part in every scheme of pedagogical instruction4 ,unfortunately1 the methods with which most who have memories of the class room are familiar are worthy subjects for criticism4 ,the recitation hour passes rapidly in question and answer over the technicalities of the text4 ,the closing moments are sufficient to direct a continuation of the advance reading1 a review of previous lessons1 and the assignment of certain portions from the grammar4 ,there is no definite direction as to special points to be examined2 no provision for particular work in etymology1 or analysis1 or comparison2 no synthetic outline for the next day's thought2 no aids to help the student to test his own work or to detect his own errors before the next recitation assembly4 ,such methods or lack of methods in the correspondence school would surely cause its failure4 ,how to assign lessons becomes here the crucial test of the teacher's power4 ,he must so lay out the work to be done that the pupil whom he has never seen will be stimulated to effort and not grow discouraged2 will be led from the world of the known at his feet1 into the world of the unknown in which the teacher lives2 will be allowed to make no misuse of time in unprofitable study2 will be wisely directed in the acquirement of lexical and grammatical knowledge1 and will be enabled to test his own work with ever increasing accuracy4 ,such a teacher can not fail of success in his effort to teach a language by correspondence4 ,,third--,more care is required in the matter of interrogation4 ,thorough mastery of the art of interrogation is an essential2 almost priceless in any teaching--here it is a sine qua non4 ,the presence of teacher and pupil in the class room makes questioning easy2 the oral question is quickly given1 quickly answered1 and many questions may be used to elicit a single truth1 or to impress a single lesson4 ,but the correspondence teacher is not so favored4 ,his questions must be so framed that one1 or at the most two1 shall suffice4 ,again1 the oral teacher through lack of memory and long custom1 may allow his questions to become a mere matter of routine1 and daily tread the same monotonous round4 ,we speak from memory when we assert of a college class1 that it became so familiar with the questions asked during ,greek hour in junior year1 as to be able to answer the coming question almost before its utterance4 ,this will not do for the correspondence teacher4 ,his questions must be only such as his lesson directions have suggested2 they must be committed to paper1 in remorseless ink2 they are to be subjected to scrutiny2 they must not be obscure1 or repetitious2 and their range must be as wide as his students' knowledge4 ,such questioning can not fail of success4 ,,fourth--,more earnest and thorough study is required of the student4 ,he has in a certain sense the work of two persons to perform1 his own and his teacher's2 his own1 in that he investigates and acquires as directed2 his teacher's1 in that he must prove and test that which he has done and is doing1 by efforts of memory1 by work of comparison1 and by strict grammatical rule4 ,he must recite to himself1 ask of himself the questions which he must answer1 and correct himself before finally his finished work is returned to his teacher for revision4 ,we think we have made sufficiently plain the possibility of success in teaching a language by correspondence4 ,the reasons seem to us conclusive4 ,that which remains to be said is even more potent4 ,after all thinking1 reasoning and objecting is done1 after all testimony for or against has been received the established fact remains1 successful teaching of languages1 ancient and modern1 by correspondence alone1 has been done within the years just past1 is now being done1 and will be yet more effectively and widely done with each advancing year4 ,in support of these statements1 which we believe are true1 we present a testimonial from an experienced teacher1 who has been and is a member of the ,college of ,modern ,languages in the ,chautauqua ,university4 ,it is as follows3 8,i have been a member of the ,german class in the ,chautauqua ,correspondence ,school of ,languages for two years1 and ,i consider this plan of study1 including the six weeks' instruction each year at ,chautauqua1 superior to any other4 ,the method is not only more comprehensive1 it also advances the pupil much more rapidly1 makes him more thorough1 broadens his culture1 enables him to become familiar with history1 with literature1 with art1 and better than all1 teaches him how to acquire knowledge40 ,we add two statements of fact which can be verified as proofs of popular opinion regarding correspondence schools3 ,,first--,that the ,director of the ,department of ,new ,testament ,greek in the ,chautauqua ,school of ,theology has students to the number of almost four hundred who rely for instruction entirely upon correspondence lessons4 ,,second--,that the ,dean of the ,department of ,hebrew in the same institution has under instruction by the same methods1 in the different enterprises with which he is connected1 about seven hundred students4 ,could there be anything more significant8 ,,editor',s ,,outlook4 8,,minor ,,morals40 ,the importance of good breeding can not be too diligently insisted upon4 ,but what is good breeding8 ,this is hardly to be understood as synonymous with good manners1 though certainly involving them4 ,nor is it quite the same thing as exemplary or agreeable behavior1 though likely to insure it4 ,the latter is entirely the product of constant practice4 ,good manners1 polished behavior1 are the fruit of long discipline--perfection herein being reached only when these manners become habitual1 natural1 instinctive4 ,true courtesy1 meanwhile1 involves something deeper than mere manners or motions4 ,it has its seat in the heart--its root in the moral nature4 ,fundamentally it consists in an inward kindly1 neighborly1 tender feeling toward every one1 an interest in1 and a desire to promote everybody's welfare4 ,genuine courtesy1 in a word1 is born of love1 springs from a benevolent disposition1 a brotherly1 chivalric impulse4 ,but what is good breeding8 ,it consists in this inward principle of good will1 and the outward habit of graceful demeanor combined--it consists in the aforesaid inward gracious impulse1 rooted in the heart1 and finding natural outward expression1 or interpretation1 through that disciplined elegance of deportment of which ,i have spoken4 ,to the inward impulse1 or sentiment1 duly awakened1 the outward1 educated habit naturally1 instinctively responds2 and we have the deportment1 or carriage1 of the truly polished or accomplished gentleman or lady4 ,these twin principles1 the inward nurture and the outward culture or training1 working together1 underlie what in the highest sense is to be understood as good breeding4 ,the practical value of the accomplishment under consideration can not well be overestimated4 ,how charming1 truly1 this gentlemanly1 lady-like conduct--this kindly1 graceful1 genial way of carrying one's self socially4 ,true courtesy1 verily1 is as delightful as a song4 ,more eloquent is it1 we may say1 than any oratory4 ,it is a fine art4 ,better still1 it is ,christian4 ,is it not at once a privilege and a duty to promote the pleasure of others8 ,as has just been suggested1 how may we more effectually minister to the pleasure of others than by a charming behavior8 ,by cultivated1 agreeable manners1 moreover1 we immensely enhance our personal influence--our power for good4 ,a person of agreeable manners1 by uniformly pleasing1 will1 naturally1 always be popular--have hosts of friends4 ,while1 whatever one's worth or attainments1 we yet shun his presence if he be disagreeable or offensive in manner or speech2 on the other hand1 we instinctively covet the society of one who1 in any way1 delights us4 ,the irresistible charm of polished manners1 even when cultivated solely for commercial purposes1 is well illustrated by a remark said to have been made by ,mr4 ,beecher concerning the clerks in the shops of ,paris4 ,they were1 he said1 so polite and engaging in their attentions that his first impression always was that he must have met them somewhere before4 ,and who has not1 indeed1 under the influence of the benign spirit1 the genial and engaging manners1 the kindly and obliging offices of the accomplished tradesman1 often felt his prejudices give way1 his original intentions to purchase nothing yield1 and1 instead1 a purpose gradually spring up in his mind to do just the opposite of what he originally designed8 ,nothing can be more evident1 therefore1 than that this matter of manners and breeding is a no unimportant part of one's education1 constituting1 truly1 a no insignificant part of every true man's character4 ,how greatly1 then1 does that youth stand in his own light1 who1 for any cause1 neglects his manners4 ,the thoroughly courteous youth1 other things equal1 will surely win his way to success4 ,personally agreeable in all his ways1 he conciliates opposing prejudices1 charms the indifferent1 and makes every one he meets his friend4 ,the boorish man1 on the contrary1 as inevitably blocks his way to fortune by awakening1 on the part of those with whom he has to do1 only sentiments of aversion and disgust4 ,girls1 for some reason1 seem to take more naturally and kindly to graceful ways1 to gentle courtesies1 than boys4 ,young ,america1 we think1 is characteristically boorish1 if not clownish4 ,the boy of the period manifestly places no adequate value on good manners4 ,doubtless this matter of breeding--this careful cultivation of a genial and amiable deportment--is sadly neglected in our day4 ,the youth of our day should be taught not only that rudeness and vulgarity never pay2 but that while awkwardness is disagreeable and burdensome1 the slightest approach to rowdyism is detestable and unpardonable4 ,some one has very happily represented good manners as 8minor morals40 ,and certain it is that vulgarity and vice are intimately related2 that the low1 vulgar fellow will ever be found but a few removes from a positively vicious one4 ,love1 refinement1 social cultivation are all closely allied with righteousness2 these1 always and everywhere1 constitute the true gentleman and lady4 ,,the ,,councils ,,at ,,baltimore4 ,it was a noteworthy fact that two of the three great religious bodies of this country were holding councils in the same city in the last days of #ahhd4 ,the city of ,baltimore enjoys the distinction of being both a ,catholic and a ,methodist city4 ,the former is the older claimant1 since it was founded by ,english ,catholics2 but ,methodism1 also founded by ,englishmen1 has a ,baltimore history which occasioned the centennial conference of last month4 ,it was in ,baltimore1 ,christmas #aghd1 that a few circuit riders organized the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church4 ,it is doubtless through the effectiveness of that organization that ,methodism holds its position as the religious union of the largest population embraced in any one organization in this country4 ,the ,catholics are ordinarily reckoned the most numerous1 because they count population and ,methodists count only members2 but taking the former basis as a common measure1 the various branches of ,methodism are doubtless the most numerous2 and it is probable that by the same tests the ,baptists outnumber the ,catholics4 ,if the ,presbyterian bodies could be counted together1 and the ,lutherans and ,congregationalists included1 we should have a third great body of ,protestants which may possibly outnumber the ,catholics4 ,two other communions1 the ,protestant ,episcopal and the ,unitarian1 would be in the first rank of religious influence if we attempted to measure and compare by this test4 ,taking account of members only1 the most difficult problem of religious statistics is to determine whether any religious organization is relatively increasing4 ,the unattached population1 and the independent ,protestant organizations1 have been growing in numbers for a score of years2 and the ,protestant communions can not count by population without including the same persons in more than one church4 ,it is not surprising that the ,catholics most easily make an imposing array in the statistical tables4 ,the precise count is not important in this place4 ,the ,catholics and ,methodists are large bodies of ,american ,christians1 and they have some common features as well as some striking contrasts4 ,both communions owe their success 7if we take worldly measurement7 to their vigorous management and subordination of their clergy for the good of the common cause4 ,a ,methodist itinerant and a ,catholic priest resemble each other very little1 but they are alike in being men who are 8sent10 and who 8obey orders40 ,their personal choices and well-being are subordinated to a service and devotion4 ,they alike resign at the doors of the temple their rights to serve and please themselves4 ,it may be said that all ,christians should do this2 but this self-surrender is to the priest and the itinerants objective as well as subjective4 ,it means that they go where they are sent by a human authority which they identify with the divine will4 ,they are sacrificed to the general good2 they suffer that others may rejoice--always under an external and visible authority4 ,another point of resemblance is the practical liberty of laymen in both churches4 ,theoretically the ,catholic and the ,methodist laymen are both bound to considerable service and duties4 ,methodism began in a rigor of religious duties which makes one wonder how ,john ,wesley missed founding a new ,catholic order of world-renouncing priests and lay brothers4 ,catholicism is theoretically even more rigorous4 ,in the progress of this century1 both laities have achieved more liberty than is good for them2 the priest and the itinerant serve and sacrifice for all4 ,a bright-eyed ,methodist editor called attention some years ago to the fact that his church tolerates no heresy in ministers and pays little attention to the doctrinal vagaries of its laymen4 ,it is doubtless true of both ,catholics and ,methodists2 though neither church is prepared to make any admission of the sort or ever will be4 ,the theory in each case calls for sound believing2 and it is probably a just judgment which says that liberty is the atmosphere required for the growth of sound faith4 ,another point of resemblance between ,catholic and ,methodist is that both communions have had a great mission to preach to the poor2 and that they have preached to such effect that large numbers of their poor have become rich1 not so obviously in faith as in worldly goods4 ,we mean not to sneer1 but to put our finger on the objective reality which lies before us4 ,he is a careless man who fails to see that ,methodism and ,catholicism have produced industry1 thrift1 temperance and wealth in classes of people who were miserably poor at the outset4 ,the fact has long been understood of ,methodists2 a special fact has obscured this large one among ,catholics4 ,there has been a steady inflow of poverty from the ,old ,world and the ,catholics have received into their communion a very large portion of this poverty4 ,their needy have been most abundantly recruited and continue to be4 ,but at the same time their poor have grown wealthy all over the land4 ,the ,puritan farmer is disappearing in ,new ,england and the ,irish ,catholic is taking his place4 ,wealthy ,catholics abound in all the large cities4 ,there are many points of contrast between the two communions4 ,we suggest a single one1 still looking at externals and not at creeds4 ,while ,methodism has for a quarter of a century been one of the most influential factors in politics--not at all as a machine1 but altogether as an influence--,catholicism has during the same period almost lapsed out of sight as a political element4 ,this resulted from the foreign character and training of the majority of the priests and people1 and from wise avoidance of occasions of odium by the ,catholic prelates4 ,we suggest this contrast without drawing any inferences from it4 ,for the near future1 it is safe to predict a change on the ,catholic side4 ,their ,baltimore council will1 by force of associations which are full of significance1 tend to produce change4 ,in ,baltimore the ,catholic may properly remember his claims to be and live an ,american of the ,americans4 ,that church has had a vast body of foreigners to naturalize2 it has done the work under an array of obstacles which seemed too formidable to be overcome4 ,it is a near day when the ,americanism of the ,catholics of this country will come to the proof of its quality and value4 ,at ,baltimore the thoughtful priest must have been moved to remember what claims he has on the country and what claims the country has on him4 ,we shall as a people suffer some bitter trials and humiliations if the ,catholics are not to be genuine ,americans and ardent patriots4 ,they are too many to be neutral or hostile4 ,a ,,poor ,,man',s ,,motor4 ,the labor problem has not yet received a solution4 ,its central difficulty is to secure to workmen a fair share of the blessings of life4 ,no one supposes that1 taking the world together1 they do now receive a fair share4 ,in this country1 workmen have fared uncommonly well2 but there is a belief1 resting on some facts1 that the actual rewards of labor1 as measured in the blessings of life1 are rapidly declining1 and must go on declining under the existing industrial system4 ,some theories on the subject are no longer tenable4 ,the workman's theory that capital robs him is not sound4 ,money1 once worth ten per cent41 has fallen to three per cent4 for perfectly safe loans2 when higher interest is paid1 it is paid for conducting the business of lending 7as in banks7 or for risks of the loans4 ,the government can borrow a thousand and more millions at two and one-half to three per cent4--and this shows what a hard time of it capital is having4 ,the risks of manufacturing probably bleed labor2 but the bleeding is not in the form of which the workman thinks4 ,it is not profit but loss which drives the lancet in to the hilt4 ,political economists have shown 7and they are entirely unanimous7 that the high profits produce a competition which brings down profits4 ,capital is cheap2 large profits can be made only in conditions which are monopolistic4 ,our system of industrial exchange has one very weak place1 called credit4 ,this credit is a hole in the net through which industrial gains are dropped into the bottomless sea2 and the system is so fixed upon us that there is no hope of reform in our day4 ,to pay when we buy more and more offends something in our make-up4 ,a wise man proposed that one1 two and five dollar bills be abolished1 in order that we might circulate1 as the ,french do1 a large amount of silver4 ,a member of ,congress immediately amended the suggestion thus3 8,no4 ,put this silver in the ,united ,states ,treasury1 and let us use #8silver notes4'0 ,we insist upon having even a credit money1 and object to 8the trouble0 of handling coin4 ,this refined and transcendental sentiment1 or taste1 or stheticism about coin runs through us4 ,the man who always pays1 as well as the sneak who never pays if he can avoid it1 says1 8,charge it10 when he buys goods4 ,goods are sold by the manufacturer to the jobber on credit2 the jobber sells to the wholesale houses on credit2 the wholesale dealers sell to retailers on credit2 the retailers sell to consumers on credit4 ,it is within the mark to say1 that more is lost in these four credit traps than capital gets--much more4 ,it is not1 in fact1 the capitalist1 but the well-dressed and the shabbily-dressed thieves who cheat and rob labor4 ,at first sight1 the reader will wonder how the losses of the four credits come home to labor4 ,we reply3 they are merely the aggregate of the risks incurred in making staple goods--all other risks being insignificant in such manufacturing4 ,the order of things is like this3 what the jobber loses the manufacturer loses by the failure of the jobber4 ,the jobber loses what the dealers between him and the consumers lose4 ,not quite all1 perhaps1 for the capitals of the dealers must be of some worth2 but the consumer has1 in the end1 to pay all these losses1 and the result is an enhanced price4 ,in other words1 a bale of goods starts out with a burden of risk which grows as it travels1 and adds to the cost of goods so much that the consumer can not buy as much as he needs4 ,the from #bej to #cjj or more failures each week tell a part of the workman's trouble2 another vast body of his losses does not go to record at all4 ,it is the fifty-cents-on-a-dollar compromise system between wholesalers and retailers4 ,workmen ought to get what consumers pay1 less three per cent4 on capital and about as much more for risk of ordinary kinds and a fair cost of handling goods4 ,we maintain a system of extraordinary risks1 called a credit system1 which consumes two or three times as much as capital4 ,it is plain that workmen can not get 7we write of such staples as cotton cloth7 pay for lost goods4 ,wherever they are lost1 the sums lost can not reach labor4 ,we do not enter into the details of this argument2 we have suggested reasons for believing that a cash system would stop one of the great leaks of the industrial system4 ,there are other great wastes in the existing forms of industrial management which1 like the credit system1 come out of the bones and blood of the workman4 ,we pass them by to suggest that the industrial system has gone wrong1 and can never go right1 under the empire of steam4 ,steam is a centralizer4 ,it concentrates industry1 and by packing laborers into a small compass enhances the cost of living and enlarges the area of losses on sales and of distress in hard times4 ,and to go at once to our solution of the labor problem1 we will describe it as decentralization4 ,a writer in ,mac,millan's ,magazine suggests that electric motors may prove to be the decentralizing force4 ,of course1 it is not in the power of any material agent to effect great changes except as it coperates with our inclinations4 ,the expensiveness of steam machinery coperated with our inclination to congregate in cities4 ,we have congregated there4 ,the larger half of our growth is in towns4 ,the result is dear food1 dear rent1 pestilential diseases1 moral degradation4 ,when we grow sick of the experiment of building a modern ,babel1 our inclinations may coperate with a motor energy which is plebeian and democratic4 ,let us suppose1 then1 that a workman can make any of the innumerable small articles which have iron or steel for a material4 ,this workman has his bits of machinery and tools in his house4 ,they do not cost more than a carpenter's chest of tools4 ,he has the skill2 he has the tools2 he wants power4 ,but a neighbor tells him that he can buy in quart or gallon cans stored-up electricity1 and by a little contrivance1 which may cost fifty cents1 he can attach his machinery to this democratic motor and be an independent workman1 with all the advantages of machinery4 ,he can make all these iron and steel contrivances in the middle of a prairie and sell them to his neighbors for cheap food and cheap rent4 ,the divisibility of electric power may make it the poor man's friend4 ,you can not buy five cents' worth of steam2 there is now no reason to doubt that electric power may be sold in five-cent packages if there is a demand for it in such form4 ,there is a vast aggregate of small manufacturing4 ,of course there are great industries to which our solution would not apply2 but if half the laborers of the country could work profitably1 each man by himself1 in his own house--just as cobblers work--then the strain on the large industries1 such as iron and steel making1 would be so far reduced that workmen in those branches would probably command1 permanently1 excellent wages4 ,this article aims to do nothing more than to open a window of hope4 ,we shall need to change a great deal2 but the poor man's motor will probably help us to change4 ,a good many monopolies have grown up because steam favored their growth2 others are the fruits of general ignorance4 ,under the sway of ignorance1 the trade-mark becomes a tyrant1 a grasping monopolist4 ,for example1 there are no patents on sewing machines1 but machines of certain firms1 wearing a certain trade-mark1 command a monopoly price4 ,any good mechanic can build a good sewing machine for ten dollars4 ,there might be men in every town engaged in supplying the local wants in the matter of sewing machines4 ,no large factories1 no heavy transportation bills1 no eloquent traveling agents would be needed4 ,there are thousands of things to which the same rule will apply when there is a poor man's motor and such a diffusion of intelligence that the poor man can make1 and people will buy1 the home-made articles4 ,the empire of the trade-mark will disappear when the motor and the intelligence come along1 and both seem to be coming4 ,it will not be necessary--if the motor arrives--to herd people together like cattle1 or to transport goods long distances4 ,the workmen will carry their kits of tools to the villages and live independently and cheaply in the midst of their customers4 ,is this a dream8 ,but why should it not come true8 ,,reformed ,,criminals4 ,the ,french government is considering a proposition to restore the custom of deporting criminals4 ,it is remarkable that the practical argument on this subject is decidedly favorable to this system4 ,the argument against it is a sentimental one4 ,the unsettled question about punishments for other than capital offenses is1 how to secure the reform of criminals4 ,under the best managed prisons1 reform of a lasting kind is rare4 ,the best management seems to succeed until the prisoner is set at liberty4 ,then the reformed man finds himself an object of suspicion to orderly people and of special interest and sympathy to the criminal classes4 ,the former will not employ him and the latter will4 ,the result is1 in most cases1 that he relapses into crime4 ,perhaps there is some hope that the better classes may improve in their habits2 but unless they do1 it is well nigh useless to reform criminals in prison4 ,the poor men who come out into an unsympathetic world which does not believe in their reformation1 and in which unreformed ex-convicts are numerous enough to keep the general distrust of their class alive1 have nothing like a fair chance to begin the world over again4 ,if there were any hope that prisons could be perfected so as to reform all convicts1 public prejudice could be broken down2 but it is too much to expect that the general public will acquire a habit of distinguishing between good and bad ex-convicts4 ,this is the difficulty for which no device has yet been found which will take it out of the path of humanitarian prison discipline4 ,no faith is more stable than that which1 among the public at large1 affirms the total depravity of some men2 especially of ex-convicts4 ,turning to penal colonies1 experience is most favorable to the belief that it opens the road to reform4 ,the reports on the ,british penal colonies are especially cheerful from this point of view4 ,the majority of the criminals sent abroad during three centuries reformed their lives4 ,australia ought to be the most disorderly country on the globe1 if deporting criminals to a colony could produce a bad society4 ,but notwithstanding the fact that ,england sent a large criminal population to that colony1 ,australia is one of the most orderly and respectable of the ,english dependencies4 ,the only possible explanation is that the official reports are true1 and that the convicts did actually reform4 ,if ,botany ,bay did not reform them1 the honest opportunities of that vast island did coperate with their good purpose and promote their reform4 ,england deported criminals from #aeig to #ahfg--;a period of #bgj years4 ,during the ,war of ,independence she suspended deportation and enrolled her convicts in the armies sent to subjugate us4 ,in #ahch more than #ajj1jjj criminals had been sent to ,australia4 ,an official report sets forth that in #ahej an enumeration of ex-convicts in ,australia accounted for #dh1fjj1 and that all of them except an insignificant fraction were living honestly4 ,but it will be said that ,australia protested against the continuance of the system4 ,this is not the exact fact4 ,in dealing with the question1 the ,english government threw upon the ,australians all the expense of the surveillance of the deported criminals4 ,the colonial government demanded1 most righteously that ,england should pay this bill of expense2 but rather than pay it the ,english ,parliament chose to abolish the system of deportation4 ,the colonists did make sentimental objections to receiving convicts1 but they did so on the ground that the cost of watching the criminals of ,england was unjustly thrown upon them4 ,a ,french writer remarks that in this case1 as in the quarrel with us1 the money question was allowed to prevail over statesmanship4 ,the ,british ex-convict is worse off than our own because there are fewer opportunities for men under the reproach of prison service4 ,the ,french proposition to resort again to penal colonies1 or rather to dumping ship-loads of criminals on new and undeveloped countries1 suggests the seriousness of the question4 ,every ,french colony will object to receiving the vicious cargoes of humanity2 but the objections will lose their violence if the home government shall send a proper proportion of ,french gold with each cargo4 ,the testimony on the subject seems to show that if the transported men are such as to give signs of real reform1 ninety-five per cent4 of them will make good citizens4 ,the open country1 the new moral scenery1 the necessities of that new world1 conspire with good resolutions to maintain reformed habits4 ,what shall we do with our reformed prisoners8 ,it is not improbable that in a few years ,england will imitate ,france and restore the system of deportation4 ,why should not we make an experiment8 ,alaska1 at least1 might safely be used for the purpose4 ,it would not be difficult to devise a system under which the best class of reformed men should be offered land and a small outfit in some remote corner of our country4 ,by selecting the best1 and making their removal voluntary1 we might save to society the larger part of the men whom our prisons reform4 ,we do not wish to disguise the fact that1 however remote the place1 the men who have lived by crime and escaped punishment would endanger the virtue of the ex-convict4 ,but the criminal classes do not flow to the farthest frontiers except in scanty streams2 and the ,alaskan territory is as yet as safe as a wilderness can be4 ,some scheme of the sort is worth the devising4 ,we are making little headway under our present best systems1 simply because the ex-convict has no chance4 ,can he be given a fair chance8 ,,editor',s ,,note-,,book4 ,the ,civil ,service ,reform ,league--and every reform is dependent upon an organization--has addressed a letter to ,president-elect ,cleveland1 asking him what he proposes to do about removals from office4 ,mr4 ,cleveland answers1 with full information1 that he believes in the doctrine of civil service reform4 ,we think that the practical application of the letter to the civil service will make a real and safe basis for judgment4 ,till we see this1 we deem it wise not to express an opinion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the old 8,liberty bell10 which was on exhibition during the ,centennial at ,philadelphia1 has been taken to the ,new ,orleans ,exposition in charge of a committee4 ,the council of ,philadelphia passed a resolution authorizing its removal from ,independence ,hall for that purpose4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our national ,congress is the subject of a shameful scandal1 and the worst feature of it is1 our ,senators and ,representatives know it1 but fail to correct it themselves4 ,it is this3 ,by figures prepared by the ,public ,printer1 it appears that during the last four congresses nearly six hundred speeches have been published in the 8,congressional ,record0 as a part of the debates and proceedings of ,congress1 but not one of them was ever delivered in the ,house of ,representatives4 ,here is a number of printed but undelivered speeches of ,senators4 ,this is an unnecessary expense entailed on the government4 ,it is a falsehood and makes the 8,record0 a lie1 for you can not tell by reading it what has been said or done in ,congress4 ,senator ,vest has introduced a resolution into the ,senate to abolish the practice1 but it is still an open question whether a body of men who do such things will have the moral courage to vote their undelivered speeches out of the 8,record40 99 99 99 99 99 ,our readers will find the article by ,general ,john ,a4 ,logan1 elsewhere in this impression1 full of interesting and very remarkable statements concerning rudimentary education in the different states4 ,we think his points concerning the common schools in the ,southern states will be a surprise to many people4 ,another article on the subject from the ,general's pen will appear in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,march4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a number of ,bradstreet's1 issued in the latter part of ,december1 shows that at that time the whole number of men out of employment in the ,united ,states1 because the establishments had shut down1 and by reason of strikes1 etc41 was #caf1jjj1 or thirteen per cent4 of the whole number employed in #ahhj1 which was #b1deb1gdi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,concerning ,general ,b4 ,f4 ,butler1 it is announced that he has signed an agreement with a publishing house to write his political reminiscences1 in two volumes1 for which he is to receive #ej1jjj in cash and a royalty beside4 ,the advent of ,messrs4 ,blaine and ,butler into the literary world is suggestive4 ,it is altogether probable that both of these men regard literary fame1 when compared to political favor1 as a more substantial and enduring quantity1 and believe that their names will live longer in literature than in politics4 ,of course1 there may be other motives prompting them1 but to some men fame hath its peculiar charms4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it was a surprise and sorrow to ,christian people to learn that the management at ,new ,orleans had decided to keep the ,exposition open on the ,sabbath4 ,the very liberal--perhaps we ought to say lax--ideas about the observance of the ,sabbath which prevail throughout the country deserve serious thought4 ,certainly to extend opportunities for making sight seeing and pleasure seeking part of the day's work should be emphatically discouraged4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of ,chautauqua's staunchest friends and most devoted workers1 the ,rev4 ,s4 ,mc,gerald1 has entered a new field of work4 ,in a recent issue of the ,buffalo ,christian ,advocate we find his name announced as the future editor of that paper4 ,mr4 ,mc,gerald's new and important position is sure to be well filled4 ,he has the hearty good wishes of all ,chautauquans in his new enterprise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,indians of ,arizona made an exhibit at the recent fair of that territory1 which ought to open the public mind to the degree of civilization which some ,indians have attained1 and suggest1 as well1 the possibility of such civilization for all ,indians4 ,the first premium for the best modern plow displayed was awarded them1 and to show their taste for the antique as well as the modern1 it may be mentioned that a wooden plow was displayed which was an exact counterpart of those used #b1jjj years ago in the valley of the ,nile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is no doubt of it--the cause of much human failure and misery is insomnia4 ,mr4 ,gladstone has found the only panacea in ,christendom which prevents and cures this dread disease1 and he gave the secret to the world recently1 when he said3 8,i never allow business of any kind to enter my chamber door4 ,in all my political life ,i have never been kept awake five minutes by any debate in ,parliament40 99 99 99 99 99 ,now that ,mark ,twain is attempting to become his own publisher1 it may be of interest to read the record of his occupations4 ,he has been in turn1 practical printer1 steamboat pilot1 private secretary1 miner1 reporter1 lecturer and book-maker4 ,should he succeed in his publishing scheme1 he may start a fashion among successful writers which will be hard on publishing houses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a winter resort where the thermometer falls frequently to #dj below zero1 is fully launched at ,saranac ,lake1 in the ,adirondacks4 ,the hotels are reported full1 and prices of lots have gone up with the usual nimbleness which characterizes embryo resorts4 ,if peculiar1 this new fashion may serve as a blessing to the idle and half sick people who are apt to patronize fashionable resorts by bringing into use many vigorous and healthful winter sports4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the wonderful ,fish ,river caves1 discovered last year in ,new ,south ,wales1 have been given a new name by the government of that country1 and will henceforth be known as the ,jenolan caves4 ,astonishing discoveries are reported to have been made there recently4 ,our own ,kentucky wonder begins to dwindle before the reports of these new subterranean palaces and gardens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a reading people we know ourselves to be1 but it is rather astonishing to discover that we publish twelve times as many daily papers as the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the ,athenum calls attention to the fact that while the ,united ,states has one daily paper to every #aj1jjj inhabitants1 the ,english have one to every #abj1jjj4 ,it would be gratifying if we could feel sure that the quality stood in the same ratio4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the work of the ,chautauqua ,university is attracting attention far and wide4 ,in a recent issue of the ,irish ,christian ,advocate1 published in ,belfast1 we notice in answer to a correspondent's query1 as to 8,what is the ,chautauqua ,university80 a long and enthusiastic article upon the plan4 ,the adaptation of the 8,chautauqua ,idea0 to all people and all countries is very wonderful4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a lady is said to have recently offered #ej1jjj to the ,boston school authorities1 to be devoted to the filling of the teeth of children whose parents were too poor to employ dentists4 ,should she devote her money to the purchase of tooth brushes and toothpicks1 and employ a police of teeth1 who would compel their daily use by children from babyhood up1 she would confer an inestimable benefit upon future generations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,frances ,power ,cobbe1 well known to the readers of ,,the ,,chautauquan1 concludes her powerful article on 8,a ,faithless ,world10 in the ,december issue of ,the ,contemporary ,review1 with these strong words3 8,we have been told that in the event of the fall of religion1 #8life would remain in most particulars and to most people much what it is at present2' it appears to me1 on the contrary1 that there is actually nothing in life which would be left unchanged after such a catastrophe40 99 99 99 99 99 ,a wise thing is being done in ,london4 ,a series of popular lectures upon the subject of precautions--national1 local and personal--to be taken against cholera1 has been begun4 ,now that the menace of this dread disease hangs over our own country1 it would be a sensible plan for cities and villages to provide a similar course of instruction4 ,it could be easily arranged1 too4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are happy to extend congratulations to a well known contributor to ,,the ,,chautauquan1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,bishop4 ,mr4 ,bishop was married in ,buffalo1 ,december #cast1 to ,miss ,emma ,mulkins1 of that city4 ,as the former editor of the ,jamestown 7,n4 ,y47 ,journal1 of the ,buffalo ,express1 and at present of ,the ,countryside1 of ,new ,york1 as an editorial writer on ,the ,assembly ,herald1 as the author of 8,pictures in ,english ,history10 and of frequent entertaining articles in our columns1 ,mr4 ,bishop is widely and favorably known4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the assignee's sale of the stock of imported books and fine art publications of ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,bouton1 of ,new ,york1 is now advertised4 ,it is a real shock to know that this rare collection must be sacrificed4 ,for years his rooms have been a resort for book lovers1 and a liberal education to the loiterers about his counters4 ,perhaps there is no collection in ,america1 outside of the libraries1 the sale of which would cause such general regret4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,notes ,,on ,,required ,,readings ,,for ,,february4 ,,college ,,greek ,,course ,,in ,,english4 ,articles on ,plato may be found in the following works3 ,plato's 8,republic10 ,de ,quincey2 8,plato10 ,encyclopdia ,britannica2 ,smith's 8,greek and ,roman ,biography10 at the beginning of the various editions of his works2 ,mahaffey's 8,classical ,greek ,literature20 ,mller's 8,literature of ,ancient ,greece20 8,against the ,atheists10 ,christian ,examiner1 vol4 xl1 p4 #ajh2 8,life of ,plato10 ,methodist ,quarterly1 vol4 xx1 p4 #cfh2 8,on the ,immortality of the ,soul10 ,christian ,repository1 vol4 xxii1 p4 #ejg2 8,platonism10 ,baptist ,quarterly1 vol4 i1 p4 #bb2 8,ethical ,philosophy10 ,american ,church ,repository1 vol4 xxii1 p4 #age4 ,p4 #hf4--8;,cicero10 etc4 ,the 8,de ,republica0 was a dialogue on what is the best form of the state2 the 8,city of ,god0 treats of the body of ,christians in distinction from the ,city of the ,world1 or those out of the church4 ,st4 ,augustine wrote this book after the sack of ,rome by ,alaric to answer the assertion that the destruction of the country was a punishment for the desertion of the pagan deities2 8,utopia0 is the story of an imaginary land supposed to have been discovered by a companion of ,amerigo ,vespucci1 where the laws were perfect2 the 8,new ,atlantis0 was an island in the middle of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 where ,bacon represents himself to have been shipwrecked1 and where he found societies for cultivating art and the sciences4 ,p4 #if4--8;,dmon40 8,this demon or genius of ,socrates1 which was not personified by himself1 was regarded by ,plutarch as an intermediate being between gods and men1 by the fathers of the church as an evil spirit1 by ,le ,clerc as one of the fallen angels1 by ,ficino and ,dacier as a good angel1 and by later writers as a personification of conscience or practical instinct1 or individual tact40 ,p4 #ih4--8,origen40 7#ahe8-bed87 ,this eminent writer of the early church fathers made an effort to reconcile ,platonism with ,christianity1 and in his commentaries on the ,scriptures used the allegorical method almost entirely4 8,the literal sense is always secondary2 and the critic never fails where it is possible to find in the simplest fact or the plainest exhortation some hidden meaning40 ,p4 #ii4--8,lemma40 ,when in demonstrating a proposition a second proposition is introduced and assumed as true1 or demonstrated for immediate use1 it is called a lemma4 ,p4 #ajj4--8,oneida ,community40 ,a society founded at ,oneida1 ,new ,york ,state1 by one ,john ,humphrey ,noyes1 a perfectionist4 ,he introduced into this community his peculiar views1 persuading them to practice a community of women and of goods1 to allow women equal business and social privileges with the men1 and to live in a 8unitary home40 ,p4 #ajd4--8,silenus40 ,an attendant of ,bacchus4 ,he is represented as a very ugly old man1 fat1 with a bald head and pug nose1 and always intoxicated4 ,generally he rode an ass or was carried by the satyrs4 ,silenus was also represented as an inspired prophet4 ,when drunk and asleep he was in the power of mortals who could compel him to sing and prophesy by surrounding him with chains of flowers4 ,p4 #aje4--8,marsyas40 ,see ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes1 page #eg of ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,october4 8,corybantian reveler40 ,so called from the ,corybantes1 the priests of ,cybele in ,phrygia4 ,they celebrated her worship in the wildest1 most frenzied dances4 ,the drum and cymbal accompanied this dance4 ,p4 #ajg4--8;,brasidas40 ,the most famous of the ,spartan leaders in the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,after taking many ,athenian cities in ,macedonia he was killed at ,amphipolis1 where he defeated ,cleon4 ,he was honored by the inhabitants as a hero4 8,nestor40 ,an aged ,greek hero of the ,trojan war1 whose wisdom and advice were considered equal to the gods4 8,antenor0 held a position among the ,trojans similar to that of ,nestor among the ,greeks4 ,his advice1 however1 was not followed by his countrymen1 and he offered to deliver the city to the ,greeks4 ,upon the capture of ,troy he was spared by the victors4 ,p4 #ajh4--8;,boreas40 ,the ,north ,wind was fabled to live in ,thrace4 ,the allusion here is to the story that he carried away ,orithyia1 the daughter of the king of ,attica1 for his wife4 8,agra20 the demus south of ,attica was called ,agra4 ,it contained two temples2 one to ,diana1 the other to ,ceres4 8,typhon40 ,a monster born of ,tartarus and ,ga1 who attempted to revenge the overthrow of the ,titans4 ,his head reached to heaven1 his eyes poured forth flame1 and serpents were twined about his body4 ,jupiter killed him with lightning4 ,p4 #aji4--8;,agnus ,castus10 or the 8chaste tree10 the name given to a plant native to the ,mediterranean countries1 which became associated with the idea of chastity1 it is said1 from the similarity of the name agnus to the ,greek word chaste4 ,grecian matrons strewed their couches with its leaves during the feast of ,ceres1 and in the convents of ,southern ,europe a syrup made of its fruit was used by the nuns4 8,achelous40 ,a river god--a son of ,oceanus--from the earliest times worshiped generally throughout ,greece4 ,at one time he took the form of a bull in a fight with ,hercules1 who conquered him and took one of his horns4 ,this horn the ,naiads afterward changed into the horn of plenty4 ,p4 #aah4--8,sunium40 ,the promontory forming the southern extremity of ,attica2 a town of the same name stood upon it4 ,p4 #aba4--8,swan's ,utterance40 ,referring to the fable told of the swan1 that it sings its sweetest song at death--8the sweetest song is the last he sings40 ,thus in 8,othello10 8,i will play the swan and die in music40 ,p4 #abg4--,the chapter on schylus may be supplemented by the following readings3 8,theory of ,greek ,tragedy10 ,de ,quincey2 ,mller1 ,mure1 and ,mahaffy on schylus1 in their histories of ,greek ,literature2 ,talfourd's 8,tragic ,poets of ,greece10 from 8,history of ,greek ,literature20 ,symond's 8,studies of the ,greek ,poets10 ,christian ,examiner1 ,vol4 xliii1 p4 #adj2 ,contemporary ,magazine1 ,vol4 iii1 p4 #cea2 ,biblia ,sacra1 ,vol4 xvi1 p4 #ced2 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 lxvii1 p4 #djg4 ,p4 #abi4--8;,cyprid40 ,a poem1 author unknown1 called ,cyprid or ,cypria1 8either because the author came from ,cyprus1 or because it celebrated the ,cyprian goddess1 ,aphrodite1 and detailed from the commencement her action in the ,trojan war4''' ,the poem was an introduction to the #8,iliad1' telling a vast number of myths and leading the reader from the first cause of the war up to the tenth year of its duration4 ,it is easy to see that such a vast subject1 loosely connected1 must have failed to afford the artistic unity which underlies the course of the #8,iliad4'0 8,little ,iliad40 ,a poem by ,lesches1 a ,lesbian4 ,it relates the complete story of the sack of ,troy1 from the contest of ,achilles to the fall of ,troy4 ,the 8,competition for the ,arms10 we have had in the 8,iliad40 8,philoctetes0 was the chief archer of the ,greeks1 having been instructed by ,hercules in the use of the bow4 ,on the voyage to ,troy he was bitten by a snake and left on the island of ,lemnos4 ,in the tenth year of the war the oracle declared the city could not be taken without the arrows of ,hercules4 ,philoctetes was brought1 and having slain ,paris1 the city was taken4 8,neoptolemus10 a son of ,achilles1 was one of the warriors that the oracle declared necessary for the capture of ,troy4 ,he was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse4 8,eurypylus0 who came from ,ormenion to ,troy1 played a prominent part in battle1 slaying many ,trojans2 he was wounded by ,paris4 8,ulysses ,mendicant10 the story of the wanderings of ,ulysses4 8,lacna10 the ,lacedmonian woman1 referring to ,helen4 8,illii-persis10 treats of the plundering of ,troy after the capture1 and 8,apoplus10 of the sailing away of the ships4 8,sinon40 ,after the wooden horse was finished1 ,sinon mutilated his body and allowed himself to be captured by the ,trojans4 ,he told them that he had been maltreated by his countrymen1 and that if they 7the ,trojans7 would drag the horse into the city they would conquer the ,greeks4 ,after the ,trojans had followed his advice he let the ,greeks out of the horse4 8,troades10 the ,trojans4 ,p4 #acd4--8,trilogy40 ,a set of three dramas4 ,each one is in itself complete1 but the three are related1 one event following or growing out of another1 as in ,shakspere's ,henry ,,vi4 ,p4 #acg4--8,new made kings40 ,this allusion will be explained by reading the story of ,cronos and ,zeus on page #gg of ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,november4 ,p4 #add4--8,sweet ,muse-,mother40 ,see page #gc of 8,brief ,history of ,greece40 ,p4 #ade4--8,mantic40 ,prophetic2 derived from the ,greek word for prophetic4 ,p4 #aeb4--8,protagonist40 ,one who fills the leading part in a drama1 and hence in any enterprise4 ,p4 #aec4--8;,ettrick ,shepherd40 ,a name given to the ,scottish poet1 ,james ,hogg4 ,his home was in the ,ettrick forest1 and when a boy he had been a shepherd4 ,the reference here is to the articles he contributed to the series of papers which appeared in ,blackwood between #ahbb and #ahce1 called ,noctes ,ambrosian1 and which were principally written by ,christopher ,north4 ,p4 #aed4--8,sophocles40 ,in connection with the chapter on ,sophocles the following readings may be used3 8,classical ,writers10 an essay on his life and writings by ,campbell2 ,talfourd's 8,history of ,greek ,literature10 chapter on 8,the ,tragic ,poets of ,greece20 ,symond's 8,studies of the ,greek ,poets20 ,baptist ,quarterly1 ,jan4 #ahgg2 ,mahaffy's 8,history of ,classical ,greek ,literature20 ,mure's 8,critical ,history of the ,language and ,literature of ,ancient ,greece20 an account of the performance of 8dipus ,tyrannus10 at ,harvard in ,may1 #ahha1 will be found in ,the ,century1 ,november1 #ahha2 ,harvard ,register1 ,april1 #ahha2 ,boston ,sunday ,herald1 ,march #bg1 #ahha2 ,new ,york ,evening ,post1 ,april #bb1 #ahha4 ,p4 #agc4--8;,aban40 ,from ,aba1 a town of ,phocis1 where stood a very ancient temple and oracle of ,apollo4 ,,chemistry4 ,p4 #ac4--,the abbreviations used in the atomic symbols are taken from the ,latin or ,greek names1 and when these differ from the ,english there seems to be no correspondence between the name of the element and its atomic symbol2 as ,au for gold4 ,hydrogen is the lightest form of matter known1 and the weight of its atom is taken as the unit of the system of weights4 ,in the table the numbers in the column of atomic weights give the weight of one atom of each substance as compared with one atom of hydrogen4 ,for instance1 an atom of aluminum is twenty-seven times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen4 ,a-lumi-num2 ,brmne2 ,caesium 7ksi-um72 ,cerium 7seri-um72 ,chlorine 7klrne72 ,chrmi-um2 ,di-dyni-um2 ,erbi-um2 ,fluor-ne2 ,gll-um2 ,hydro-gen2 ,glu-cinum 7glu-snum72 ,i-rid-um2 ,io-dne2 ,lantha-num2 ,lith-um2 ,manganese 7manga-neze72 ,ml-yb-dnum2 ,n-obi-um2 ,ntr-gen2 ,osmi-um2 ,pal-ld-um2 ,phosph-rus2 ,plat-num1 or ,pla-tnum2 ,po-tass-um2 ,rhd-um2 ,ru-bidi-um2 ,ru-thn-um2 ,scand-um2 ,se-ln-um2 ,strontium 7stronsh-um72 ,tanta-lum2 ,tel-luri-um2 ,thalli-um2 ,thori-um2 ,t-tani-um2 ,tungsten2 ,u-rni-um2 ,va-ndi-um2 ,yt-terbi-um2 ,zir-cni-um4 ,p4 #ai4--8;,guyten de ,morveau10 gwton dh morv4 7#agcg-ahaf47 ,a ,french chemist4 ,he suggested a new nomenclature which was adopted by ,lavoisier1 and wrote a 8,dictionary of ,chemistry40 ,p4 #cc4--,the symbols are to be read by calling the letters and the small numbers one after the other1 in the order in which they occur4 ,if a compound contains an element which requires two letters to express it1 the latter one1 always a small letter1 as on page #ce1 ,ag,n,o1 it is to be read in the same way1 with a shorter pause between the ,a and g than between the other letters1 as ,a-g--,n--,o-4 ,ag and ,o might be compared to words of two syllables4 ,the number always belongs to the letter which it follows4 ,p4 #fj4 8,sir ,humphrey ,davy40 ,see ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes1 page #ei of vol4 v of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 8,biot10 ,jean ,baptiste 7b74 7#aggd-ahfb47 ,a ,french savant4 ,his fame rests upon his mathematical1 physical1 and astronomical writings4 ,biot's description of ,cavendish1 translated from the ,french3 8,the richest of all learned men1 and probably1 also1 the most learned of all rich men40 ,p4 #fc4--8,la ,trappe40 ,a ,benedictine convent in ,france1 famous for the austerity of its monks1 founded in the twelfth century4 8,van ,helmont40 7#aegg-afdd47 ,a ,flemish physician1 chemist1 and philosopher4 ,he attempted a reform in medicine1 but his system was so mingled with mysticism that it is not of much practical value4 ,he succeeded1 however1 in introducing much exactness into science4 ,,notes ,,on ,,required ,,readings ,,in 8,,the ,,chautauquan40 ,,how ,,english ,,differs ,,from ,,other ,,languages4 #a4 ,perhaps this absurdity1 and the complications it involves1 may be better illustrated by the following few lines from one of ,de,bertrand's novels4 7,they might be found in a dozen others47 8,madame10 dit il1 8il y a l une feminine personne qui demand ,m4 le ,baron40 8,quelle feminine est cette feminine personne80 8,c'est un masculine monsieur10 etc4,i ,thus1 it will be seen1 both feminine and masculine articles must be used to designate the same object2 and a person must be spoken of as feminine1 although the person is a man2 the reason being that personne1 the word1 is feminine4--,richard ,grant ,white4 ,i 8,madame10 said he1 8there is a person without who asks for the ,baron40 8,who is this person80 8,it is a gentleman10 etc4 #b4 ,for contrary to apparently reasonable assumption1 the history of language shows that minute and highly wrought grammatical forms are the signs1 or at least the accompaniments1 not of advanced civilization and high culture1 but of a rude and savage condition of society4 ,the further we penetrate the obscure of antiquity1 the more grammar we find4 ,the oldest language known to us1 the ,sanskrit1 is the most complex and elaborate in its grammar2 the youngest1 ,english1 is1 to all intents and purposes1 grammarless2 and ,sanskrit grammar is at least four thousand years old4 ,my readers will now see why it was that ,i said the minute forms and complicated grammatical relations of the ,greek language are not the signs of a high development of language1 but were relics of barbarism4--,richard ,grant ,white4 #c4 8,galore10 g-lore4 ,plenty1 abundance4 ,,sunday ,,readings4 #a4 8,fuller10 ,thomas4 7#afjh-affa47 ,an ,english author and divine4 8,the style of all his writings is extremely quaint and idiomatic1 in short1 simple sentences1 and singularly free from the pedantry of his times40--,american ,cyclopdia4 #b4 8,robert ,hall40 7#agfd-ahca47 ,an ,english writer and preacher of the ,baptist church4 ,when he was eleven years of age his teacher said that he could not keep up with the boy4 ,no man in modern times ranked higher as an orator4 #c4 8,goulburn40 7#ahah-47 ,an ,english clergyman4 ,he was in #ahei head master of the ,rugby ,school1 in #ahff was made ,dean of ,norwich4 ,he was a voluminous and popular writer4 #d4 8,bascom10 ,richard ,h4 7#agif-ahej47 ,an ,american clergyman1 bishop of the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church1 ,south4 ,his works comprise sermons1 addresses and lectures4 ,,chemistry4 #a4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this note was omitted in the original4 ,wikipedia has to say3 8,in general in ancient ,greece1 each state1 city or village possessed its own central hearth and sacred fire1 representing the unity and vitality of the community4 ,the fire was kept alight continuously1 tended by the king or members of his family4 ,the building in which this fire was kept was the ,prytaneum1 and the chieftain 7the king or prytanis7 probably made it his residence40 #b4 8,lavoisier10 lvwze-4 ,see ,appleton's 8,chemistry10 pages #ai1 #ba and #aah4 ,he was condemned to death by a revolutionary tribunal at ,paris on a frivolous charge brought against him as one of the farmers of the taxes during the ,reign of ,terror4 #c4 8,phlogiston10 flo-jiston4 ,stahl supposed it to be pure fire1 fixed in combustible bodies in order to distinguish it from fire in a state of liberty4 #d4 8,magnesium40 ,a shining1 almost silver-white metal4 ,when heated it may be rolled out into very thin1 long strips resembling ribbons1 which will burn with an intense light4 ,in burning it produces magnesium oxide or magnesia1 which falls as a fine white powder4 #e4 8,dr4 ,priestly40 ,see 8,chemistry10 page #aah4 7#agcc-ahjd47 ,an eminent ,english divine and philosopher4 ,his partiality to the ,french ,revolution excited the ,english against him1 and in one of the riots his home1 library and manuscripts were destroyed by the fire kindled by an angry mob4 ,his later home was in ,northumberland1 ,pa4 ,he wrote between seventy and eighty volumes on history1 literature1 theology and science4 #f4 ,in a few volcanic districts steam escapes from the earth1 which contains small quantities of boric acid4 ,these vapors are condensed into water1 which is again evaporated and the acid crystallized out4 ,when this acid is mixed with alcohol and the solution set on fire it burns with a green flame4 ,see 8,chemistry10 page #aeg4 #g4 8,corpuscles of the blood40 ,minute particles1 both red and white1 existing in the blood1 which can be seen under a microscope4 ,in the human species the red corpuscles are thick and circular4 ,they are so small that ,young says it would take #bee1jjj of them to cover a surface of a square inch4 ,they are elastic and pliant1 so that they can pass through blood vessels having a smaller diameter than themselves4 ,the white corpuscles are more globular than the red1 and contain more fat1 and have the power of changing their form4 ,these spontaneous changes have been thought by some scientists a proof that they are microscopic animals4 ,but this is scarcely a sufficient reason for admitting that they are animalcul1 as the muscles of a body1 when separated from it1 often manifest apparently spontaneous movements4 #h4 ,phosphoric acid is always produced by burning phosphorus in air or oxygen4 ,the experiment may be performed as follows1 but before undertaking it see page #afg of the 8,chemistry10 and note with how much care it must be handled3 ,place a fragment of carefully dried phosphorus in a small cup on a stand in the middle of a large plate1 ignite it by a hot wire1 and place over it a bell-glass4 ,white fumes will fill the glass and aggregate into small particles1 which will fall to the plate1 presenting the appearance of a miniature snow storm4 #i4 ,barium is a yellow1 lustrous1 malleable metal4 ,it is used in fireworks1 for the green color it gives off in burning4 #aj4 8,bayberries40 ,the plant1 called also wax myrtle1 is a low1 crooked shrub found throughout the ,united ,states1 especially near the sea coast4 ,it grows to a height of from three to eight feet4 ,the naked flowers appear in ,april and ,may1 in clusters1 of which from four to nine ripen into dry berries4 ,plantations of them have long been cultivated in ,europe1 and they have been raised in ,algeria4 ,for many years they have been an article of commerce4 ,a bushel of the berries will yield from four to five pounds of wax4 #aa4 8,strontium40 ,it takes its name from ,strontian1 in ,scotland1 where it was first observed as a carbonate4 ,it is a pale yellow metal1 harder than lead4 ,if strontium carbonate be dissolved in nitric acid and mixed with combustible substances it will burn with a beautiful carmine red flame1 and for this purpose is much used in fireworks4 #ab4 8,sodium40 ,see 8,chemistry10 page #fg4 ,it is a lustrous1 silver-white1 soft metal4 ,when thrown upon water1 if it be prevented from moving1 or if the water be warm1 it ignites1 burning with its characteristic yellow flame4 #ac4 ,extinguishing flame by carbon di-oxide4 ,see 8,chemistry10 page #bah4 #ad4 8,lignite40 ,also called brown coal4 ,it is the most imperfectly mineralized form of coal4 ,in some instances plants are so little changed that they can easily be classified by the structure of the leaves and the fruit4 ,the fiber has become so impregnated with bitumen that it burns with its peculiar flame and smoke4 ,the jet so much used in jewelry is a black variety of lignite1 very compact in texture1 and taking a high polish4 #ae4 8,kohinoor10 koh-i-noor 7mountain of light74 ,this famous stone is now in possession of ,queen ,victoria4 ,it was obtained before the ,christian era in one of the mines of ,golconda1 and passed to successive sovereigns of ,india until it was borne away by a ,persian conqueror in the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,in #ahac it was bought back by the ruler of ,punjaub4 ,when ,punjaub was annexed to the ,east ,india ,company's territory it was surrendered to the ,queen of ,england4 ,it is said to have weighed about #ijj carats originally1 but by cutting to have been reduced to a weight of nearly #bgi carats4 ,by recutting it was again reduced so as to weigh #ahf carats1 and at this time was shown 7#ahea7 at the ,great ,exhibition4 ,since that time it has been again recut1 for the third time1 and now weighs #abc carats1 and is estimated at #fjj1jjj4 ,for the other 8,paragons0 see 8,chemistry10 page #bjd4 ,it is questioned whether the 8,grand ,mogul0 is a pure diamond4 ,the largest undoubted diamond is the 8,orloff10 in the scepter of the ,emperor of ,russia4 ,it weighs #aid carats4 ,the 8,regent0 or 8,pitt0 is thought to be the purest and most perfect brilliant in ,europe4 ,it weighs now #acf carats1 but its original weight was #daj carats1 and the fragments split off when it was cut were valued at some thousand pounds4 ,it was placed in the hilt of the sword of state by ,napoleon ,i4 ,the 8,grand ,duke0 belongs to the ,emperor of ,austria1 and weighs #acd carats4 ,the 8,star of the ,south10 found in ,brazil1 weighs #abd carats4 ,the 8,sancy0 weighs only #ec carats4 ,it belongs to the ,emperor of ,russia4 #af4 8,golconda40 ,an ancient city and fortress of ,india1 once the metropolis of the kingdom of ,golconda4 ,it is renowned for its diamonds1 which are1 in truth1 only cut there4 #ag4 8,the ,dark ,continent40 ,africa1 so called because so little has been known of it through all history2 but through the zeal and enterprise of modern explorers we are led to hope that 8the day is not far distant when the secret places of this land of mystery will be penetrated by the light of science and civilization40 ,,temperance ,,teachings ,,of ,,science4 #a4 8,malice prepense40 ,malice aforethought1 deliberately and previously planned4 #b4 8,professor ,newman40 ,see ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,november #ahhd1 page #aae4 #c4 8,cardinal ,manning40 7#ahjh-47 ,an ,english ,roman ,catholic cardinal1 the author of several works4 ,he is the son of the late ,william ,manning1 member of ,parliament1 and governor of the ,bank of ,england4 ,he was educated at ,oxford1 as a member of the ,church of ,england4 ,in #aheg he joined the ,catholics1 and was ordained priest4 ,in #ahfe he was nominated by the pope ,archbishop of ,westminster1 and in #ahge he was made cardinal1 an office next in rank to that of pope4 ,he is one of the most prominent men in ,london1 and the leading representative of the ,roman ,catholic ,church in ,england4 #d4 8,thugs40 ,a set of robbers and assassins who lived in ,india1 and worshiped the goddess ,kali4 ,they roamed over the country in bands1 and put to death by strangulation any traveler whom they met4 ,the ,british government has exterminated them4 #e4 8,leibnitz40 ,see notes on the 8,art of ,speech0 in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,november1 #ahhd4 #f4 8,lord ,palmerston40 7#aghd-ahfe47 ,a ,british statesman4 ,he succeeded ,lord ,aberdeen as prime minister in #ahee1 and retired in #aheh1 on account of the defeat of a bill introduced with reference to the attempted murder of ,napoleon ,,iii4 by ,orsini4 ,in #ahei he was again made premier and held the post until his death4 #g4 8,loch ,fyne40 ,an inlet of the sea on the western coast of ,scotland1 running into ,argyle for about forty miles1 with an average width of five miles4 ,the town of ,inverary stands near its head4 #h4 8,homberg40 ,a town in ,prussia1 noted for the gambling which was extensively carried on there formerly1 but which was suppressed by the ,prussian government in #ahgj4 8,baden10 or 8,baden-,baden40 ,a ,german watering place situated on the ,oos1 at the foot of the ,black ,forest4 ,it was formerly celebrated for the gaming tables found in the ,conversationshaus1 which was the principal resort for visitors4 ,the licenses for gambling expired in #ahgb1 and have not since been renewed4 ,those who have read 8,daniel ,deronda0 will remember that it was at ,baden that ,deronda first saw ,gwendolen ,harleth1 when she was engaged in gambling4 ,the description of the persons gathered round the long tables is very interesting and vivid1 and gives a good insight into fashionable life at ,baden in those days4 #i4 8,lord ,brougham40 7#aggi-ahfh47 ,lord ,chancellor of ,england4 ,he took a strong stand on the side of the suppression of the slave trade1 and favored ,roman ,catholic emancipation1 and labored earnestly in the cause of popular education4 ,as an orator he was second only to ,canning4 ,,kitchen ,,science ,,and ,,art4 #a4 8,alkaloid40 ,the name given to those extracts of vegetables which will unite with acids to form salts4 #b4 8,caffeine10 caf-fine4 ,the alkaloid of coffee2 the same extract of tea is called thine4 ,it is present in coffee to the extent of one per cent42 in tea from two to six per cent4 ,it can be extracted by using acetate of lead4 ,it has a bitter taste1 and acts powerfully upon the system when taken in doses of from two to ten grains1 causing palpitation of the heart1 confusion of the senses1 and sleeplessness4 #c4 8,theo-bromine40 ,the alkaloid of chocolate1 extracted in the same manner as from tea or coffee4 #d4 8,thea viridis10 thea vir-dis4 7,green tea47 ,the name given to that species of tea plant formerly supposed to yield green tea4 #e4 8,camilliace10 cam-milli-ce-e4 ,an order of plants comprising trees or shrubs with alternate1 simple1 feather-veined leaves1 and regular flowers4 #f4 8,loblolly bay40 ,a tree found in the ,southern ,states1 growing to the height of from thirty to eighty feet1 having long1 narrow leaves1 and large1 white flowers1 about two inches across1 and resembling the single camellia4 #g4 8,stuartia40 ,catesby4 ,a shrub having deciduous leaves1 and large1 fragrant1 white flowers4 #h4 8,tannin40 ,the astringent principle contained in a great variety of plants1 which renders them capable of combining with skins of animals to form leather4 #i4 8,turmeric10 turmeric4 ,a name given to the tuber-like root of a plant found in ,asia4 ,as prepared for commerce the roots are of the size of the little finger1 and two or three inches long1 of a yellowish color4 ,they have an odor like ginger1 and an aromatic taste4 ,they form an orange-yellow powder1 which is used in dyeing4 ,prussian blue is prepared from prussic acid1 potassium1 and a solution of sulphate of iron4 ,gypsum is a native sulphate of lime1 that1 when calcined1 forms plaster of ,paris4 #aj4 8,caper40 ,the caper bush is a native of the south of ,europe2 it is a climbing shrub which flowers all summer4 ,the buds are gathered every morning1 and preserved in vinegar and salt4 ,they have an agreeable pungency of taste4 8,pekoe40 ,the young leaf buds of a kind of tea known as the pekoe1 which is the choicest of black teas1 are gathered as early as ,april1 and sometimes mixed with other teas1 to flavor them4 #aa4 8,caseine10 cse-ine4 ,an organic compound allied to albumen1 found in milk4 ,it may be coagulated and separated from the milk by the application of rennet4 #ab4 8,cibber10 sibber4 7#afga-ageg47 ,an ,english poet1 appointed to be poet laureate in #agcj4 ,he figures in the 8,dunciad40 ,see ,,the ,,chautauquan1 vol4 v1 page #bac4 #ac4 8,waller40 7#afje-afhg47 ,an ,english poet4 #ad4 8,coffea ,arabica10 cof-fea ,a-rabi-ca4 #ae4 8,rubiace10 ru-bi-ase-4 ,an order of herbaceous plants of which there are three or four hundred species2 abounding chiefly in the northern hemisphere and upon the mountains in the tropics4 #af4 8,bouvardias40 ,a class of autumn and winter blooming house plants in the northern climates4 ,leaves regular2 flowers appear in clusters1 and are something like the honeysuckle in form4 ,they vary in color from a pure white to a deep scarlet4 #ag4 8,koran40 ,the sacred book of the ,mohammedans1 and their chief authority1 also1 in political1 military1 and ethical matters4 #ah4 8,caffeone40 ,a fragrant1 volatile oil contained in coffee4 #ai4 8,sterculiace10 stercu-li-ase-4 ,large trees or shrubs1 with simple or compound leaves1 and flowers like those of the mallow1 except that the anthers turn outward4 #bj4 8,mahernia10 usually called ,mahernia odorata1 is an exotic flowering shrub cultivated in conservatories1 mostly for its rich fragrance4 ,,household ,,beverages4 #a4 8,made-over tea40 ,in ,chinese tea houses1 large jars are kept1 into which the dregs of all the tea that has been used are thrown4 ,these exhausted leaves are dried1 carefully rolled again1 and thrown upon the market for a second sale4 ,it is said this tea is easily detected if coloring matter has been used1 but when re-rolled without1 only a chemical analysis can disclose the fraud4 #b4 8,reliable40 ,much fault has been found by critics with this word4 ,it is claimed that it has no right to a place in our language4 ,able or ible is a suffix which1 added to the stem of a transitive verb1 gives an adjective which may be defined by placing the word able before the passive infinitive of the verb whose stem has been used2 for example3 tolerable1 able to be tolerated2 admissable1 able to be admitted2 deniable1 able to be denied1 etc4 ,but reliable means able to be relied upon4 ,the preposition has to be supplied4 ,the proper form of the adjective would be the awkward word1 8relionable10 or 8reliuponable40 ,the word is favored in the dictionaries1 but trustworthy is preferable4 #c4 8,cosey40 ,a wadded cap made to fit the tea-pot closely1 and thus hold in the aroma and the heat4 #d4 8,caf au lait10 c-f l4 ,,huxley ,,on ,,science4 #a4 8,aliases40 ,the plural of alias 7le-as74 ,meaning another name1 an assumed name4 ,,the ,,circle ,,of ,,the ,,sciences4 #a4 8,napier10 nape-er1 ,john4 7#aeej-afag47 ,an ,english mathematician4 8,logarithms0 are numbers so related to natural numbers that the multiplication and division of the latter may be performed by addition and subtraction1 and the raising to powers and the extraction of roots by the multiplication and division of the former4 ,they are arranged in tables which can be readily understood and used1 and they save enormous calculations and labor4 #b4 8,kepler10 ,johann4 ,a ,german astronomer4 #c4 8,mercator's ,chart40 ,in all the charts in use before ,mercator's1 curved lines were drawn representing the meridians and parallels4 ,a vessel which followed these lines always receded too far from the equator1 and1 if land did not intervene1 would describe a spiral course and finally reach the pole4 ,mercator constructed a map as follows3 ,a line1 ,,ab1 was drawn representing the equator1 and was divided into #cf1 #bd or #ah equal parts for meridians at #aj1 #ae1 or #bj apart1 and the meridians were then drawn through them perpendicular to ,,ab4 ,the distance of the parallels and the tropics1 and the arctic circles were marked from the equator on the sides1 and these points joined by straight lines4 ,the map does not give a natural representation1 as the polar regions are immensely exaggerated4 ,the distortions in the form of the countries and the relative distances of places are rectified by making the degrees of latitude increase proportionably to those of longitude4 #d4 8,quadrant40 ,quadrants were used for surveying1 making astronomical observations1 and1 in navigation1 for determining the meridian altitude of the sun1 and from that the latitude of the observer4 ,they were made of a great variety of form and size to suit their several uses4 ,the interest attaching to them at the present time is chiefly historical1 as they have been superseded by the sextant and the full circle4 8,davis40 ,an eminent ,english navigator of the latter part of the sixteenth century4 8,hadley10 ,john4 ,an ,english mathematician of the early part of the eighteenth century4 ,an intimate friend of ,newton4 ,,talk ,,about ,,books4 ,that most remarkable poem of the ,orient1 the 8,rubiyt0,j of ,omar ,khayym1 has recently had the rare fortune of receiving from translator1 artist and publisher an almost perfect treatment4 ,its translation places it among ,english classic poems1 its illustration and make-up among ,american classic art books4 ,this poem1 very imperfectly known among us1 is the work of a ,persian astronomer and poet1 ,omar ,khayym1 or ,omar the ,tent-,maker1 a native of ,naishapr1 in ,khorassan4 ,he was born in the latter half of the eleventh century1 and became a favorite of the rulers of the realm4 ,his life was1 so goes the chronicle1 8busied in winning knowledge of every kind1 and especially in astronomy1 wherein he attained to a very high preminence4 ,under the ,sultanate of ,malik ,shah1 he came to ,merv and obtained great praise for his proficiency in science1 and the ,sultan showered favors upon him40 ,omar was an honest thinker2 he refused the hollow mysticism of the times1 and framed a system which approaches ,epicureanism4 ,his views of life1 his fruitless search for ,providence1 his sad conclusion1 8,i came like water1 and like wind ,i go10 together with his final refuge in the wine cup1 with the command 8,drink1 for you know not whence you came nor why1 ,drink1 for you know not why you go1 nor where10 are the subjects of his 8,rubiyt10 or quatrains4 ,in the original these verses have no connection4 ,the translator1 ,mr4 ,edward ,fitzgerald1 selected those which seemed to him most suitable1 and arranged them into a sort of eclogue4 ,this translation met with a hearty reception4 ,mr4 ,fitzgerald had been fortunate enough to make ,omar ,khayym much more lucid and entertaining than ,omar had made himself4 ,an interpretation of the poem was undertaken in ,may #ahhc1 by ,elihu ,vedder4 ,the interest in the elegant volume just issued by ,messrs4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 centers1 of course1 about these illustrations4 ,there is not a line of the poem but what takes a new and powerful meaning under his treatment4 ,indeed1 it seems as if in many cases the verses were but a key-note1 the drawing the completed strain4 ,the artist seems to have been inspired by the same sense of mystery1 sadness1 and final devotion to pleasure which influenced the author4 ,his idea of ,omar's philosophy is most beautifully represented in the picture called 8,omar's ,emblem40 ,in it life is represented by a whirling stream1 upon which the mortal1 under the form of a rose1 has floated in4 ,along the stream the leaves are scattered here and there1 while crushed and half petalless the rose floats into oblivion4 ,this whirl of life surrounds what we may suppose to be the emblem which incessantly confronted ,omar's mind--a human skull2 upon this is perched a singing nightingale--a sign of the music which in spite of the mockery of existence the poet always heard1 and in which he found the sole relief for living4 ,the pictures include a wealth of suggestion which only diligent and sympathetic study discloses4 ,they show surprising fancy and versatility1 while at the same time the finish of each is most perfect4 ,among the handsome books of the year must be classed ,cassell's new edition of 8,atala10,k ,chauteaubriand's charming romance of ,indian life and love4 ,though the story is far from filling our modern ideas of a novel1 it is one of those rare1 pure love tales which never loses its hold upon us4 ,it will always keep its place with 8,undine0 and 8,paul and ,virginia40 ,the present edition contains illustrations by ,gustave ,dor1 which1 though inferior in some respects to later works by him1 are still very beautiful pictures4 ,only a few of the illustrations of the 8,atala0 show that weird power and strong imagination for which ,dor is so famous1 but what we miss there is quite made up by the interest we feel in his conceptions of ,american scenery1 of which he knew nothing except from description4 ,these conceptions1 if sometimes very incorrect1 are still full of exuberant fancy4 ,the binding and letter-press of the volume are superior1 making a most charming gift book4 ,the 8,prose ,writings of ,william ,cullen ,bryant10,l edited by ,parke ,godwin will meet with a cordial welcome from all readers of good literature4 ,they appear in two volumes1 and properly belong to a set called 8,the ,life and ,works of ,william ,cullen ,bryant10 forming the fifth and sixth volumes of the set4 ,it was the thought of the editor at first to publish entire the orations1 addresses1 and various letters of ,mr4 ,bryant1 but careful consideration led him to think that this would extend the work beyond desirable limits2 so it was confined to a few selections from the various departments in which the author displayed his power4 ,volume ,v of the set1 or ,i of the 8,prose ,writings10 contains several 8,literary ,essays10 8,narratives10 and 8,commemorative ,discourses0 on ,cooper1 ,irving1 ,halleck1 and ,verplanck4 ,volume ,,ii contains 8,sketches of ,travel10 8,occasional ,addresses10 comprising those on ,shakspere1 ,scott1 ,burns1 ,goethe1 ,schiller1 and many others2 and 8,editorial ,comments and ,criticisms40 ,the selections are all timely and well adapted to catch the reader's fancy and interest4 ,there can scarcely fail to come to one1 however1 who is the possessor of these books1 a feeling of regret that the editor did not follow his original intention and give more of the writings of the author4 ,the wish to have at hand the complete works of the great ,american1 and to have them in as attractive a form as that in which ,mr4 ,godwin has arranged them is strong enough to far outweigh his unjustifiable fear of making too voluminous a collection4 ,,footnotes ,j ,rubiyt of ,omar ,khayym1 the ,astronomer-,poet of ,persia4 ,rendered into ,english verse by ,edward ,fitzgerald1 with an accompaniment of drawings by ,elihu ,vedder4 ,boston3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #ahhd4 ,price1 #be4 ,k ,atala4 ,by ,chauteaubriand4 ,translated by ,james ,spence ,harry4 ,illustrated by ,gustave ,dor4 ,introduction by ,edward ,j4 ,harding4 ,extra cloth1 full gilt1 #e4jj3 full ,morocco1 extra1 #aj4 ,new ,york3 ,cassell ,co4 #ahhd4 ,l ,prose ,writings of ,william ,cullen ,bryant4 ,edited by ,parke ,godwin4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhd4 ,,books ,,received4 ,euphrasia and ,alberta4 ,poetic ,romances4 ,by ,john ,ap ,thomas ,jones4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co4 #ahhd4 ,french ,conversation4 ,by ,j4 ,d4 ,gaillard4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhe4 ,journal of the ,general ,conference of the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church1 held in ,philadelphia1 ,may1 #ahhd4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,david ,s4 ,monroe1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,phillips ,hunt4 ,cincinnati3 ,cranston ,stowe4 ,the ,life of ,john ,howard ,payne4 ,author of ,home1 ,sweet ,home4 ,with illustrations4 ,by ,gabriel ,harrison4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co4 #ahhe4 ,elements of ,geometry4 ,by ,eli ,t4 ,tappan1 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhe4 ,elements of ,english ,speech4 ,by ,isaac ,bassett ,choate4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhd4 ,the ,life of the ,rev4 ,philip ,william ,otterbein4 ,by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,w4 ,dewey1 ,a4 ,m4 ,with an introduction by ,bishop ,j4 ,weaver1 ,d4,d4 ,dayton1 ,ohio3 ,united ,brethren ,publishing ,house4 #ahhd4 ,the ,children of the ,bible4 ,by ,fannie ,l4 ,armstrong4 ,with an introduction by ,frances ,e4 ,willard4 ,new ,york3 ,fowler ,wells ,co41 ,publishers4 ,price1 #a4 ,outlines of ,metaphysics4 ,by ,herman ,lotze4 ,translated and edited by ,george ,t4 ,ladd4 ,boston3 ,ginn1 ,heath ,co4 #ahhd4 ,appleton's ,chart ,primer4 ,by ,rebecca ,d4 ,rickoff4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhe4 ,the ,a ,b ,c ,reader4 ,by ,sarah ,f4 ,buckalew and ,margaret ,w4 ,wells4 ,new ,york3 ,a4 ,lovell ,co4 ,the ,philosophy of ,ralph ,cudworth4 ,by ,charles ,e4 ,lowry1 ,a4 ,m4 ,new ,york3 ,phillips ,hunt4 ,cincinnati3 ,cranston ,stowe4 #ahhd4 ,elements of ,calculus4 ,by ,james ,m4 ,taylor4 ,boston3 ,ginn1 ,heath ,co4 #ahhd4 ,notes on ,ingersoll4 ,by the ,rev4 ,l4 ,a4 ,lambert4 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y43 ,buffalo ,catholic ,publication ,company4 #ahhd4 ,the ,methodist ,year ,book for #ahhe4 ,edited by ,w4 ,h4 ,de ,puy1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,new ,york3 ,phillips ,hunt4 ,cincinnati3 ,cranston ,stowe4 ,one ,little ,rebel4 ,by ,julia ,b4 ,smith4 ,new ,york3 ,phillips ,hunt4 ,cincinnati3 ,cranston ,stowe4 #ahhd ,the ,story of the ,resurrection4 ,by ,william ,h4 ,furness1 ,d4,d4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co4 #ahhe4 ,square and ,compass4 ,by ,oliver ,optic4 ,with illustrations4 ,boston3 ,lee and ,shepard4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,t4 ,dillingham4 #ahhe4 ,friends in ,feathers and ,fur4 ,for ,young ,folks4 ,by ,james ,johannot4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahhe4 ,,special ,,notes4 ,among the many beautiful things which art and taste and money combined to furnish for the holidays nothing surpassed the ,christmas cards of ,l4 ,prang ,co4 ,in design1 coloring and finish it is difficult to see how they could be improved4 ,it will interest those of our readers who expect to visit the ,new ,orleans ,exposition to know that all ,messrs4 ,prang ,co4's former prize cards and the frames1 with consecutive proofs of a reproduction1 have been sent to the ,massachusetts department at ,new ,orleans by special invitation of the ,state ,commission4 ,the collection of prize designs recently exhibited in ,new ,york and ,boston by ,mr4 ,l4 ,prang is now1 by special invitation1 shown in the ,art ,institute in ,chicago1 and1 in response to a similar request made by the managers of the ,museum of ,fine ,arts at ,st4 ,louis1 this collection of paintings will be sent to that city later on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the banquet of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,alumni1 which was to have been in ,boston in ,february1 will be held at ,lake ,view1 ,wednesday1 ,july #bb4 ,the committee decided upon this change when it was found that ,chancellor ,vincent1 ,professors ,hurlbut and ,holmes1 also ,prof4 ,sherwin1 could not be present in ,february4 99 99 99 99 99 ,important to members of the ,class of #ahhh4 ,the first article on 8,how to make ,home ,beautiful10 which was published in ,alma ,mater ,no4 #b last year1 will be mailed to all members of the class of #ahhh1 during the present year1 #ahhd-e4 ,we were unable to have this article reprinted in time to accompany ,alma ,mater ,no4 #c1 which was sent last month to all members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the last copy of ,the ,outlook published by the class of #ahhd appeared in ,december4 ,it contains much news of interest to the class1 the class list of graduates as made up to ,november #ast1 including #a1chg names1 and the editor's farewell4 ,the ,outlook has been a faithful and zealous advocate of the interests of the 8,irrepressibles40 99 99 99 99 99 ,people of all denominations loved and honored ,bishops ,simpson and ,asbury of the ,m4 ,e4 ,church4 ,at the recent centennial celebration of that church a fitting souvenir to these two noble men was displayed in the form of medallions1 on which were embossed the heads of the two bishops4 ,these medallions were mounted in a leather case lined with satin4 ,it forms a beautiful object for any one's collection of souvenirs4 99 99 99 99 99 '#hb ,,class ,,motto4--,members of the ,pioneer class are reminded that the selection of a motto was remitted to a committee4 ,any member prepared to make a suggestion in the matter is invited to send it to ,lewis ,c4 ,peake1 ,drawer #b1eei1 ,toronto1 ,canada4 ,the general feeling of the class was that the motto should be in ,english4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,chautauqua ,,musical ,,reading ,,club is a new department of ,chautauqua work4 ,the course has been thoughtfully arranged in consultation with many among the most cultured musicians in the land1 and is of such recognized merit that1 with the hearty approval of the faculty1 it has been adopted in the ,new ,england ,conservatory of ,music at ,boston4 ,information may be obtained concerning the ,c4 ,m4 ,r4 ,c4 by addressing ,w4 ,f4 ,sherwin1 ,director ,c4 ,m4 ,r4 ,c41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,graduates4 ,the following list of graduates of the ,class of #ahhd appears according to states4 ,it has been prepared with care by the office secretary1 ,miss ,kate ,f4 ,kimball4 ,persons whose names are marked 99 have died since graduation4 ,maine4 ,allen1 ,mrs4 ,almira ,l4 ,beale1 ,miss ,annie ,c4 ,beck1 the ,rev4 ,charles ,a4 ,bruce1 ,mrs4 ,eveleen ,buck1 ,mrs4 ,f4 ,r4 ,estes1 ,miss ,eva ,m4 ,fletcher1 ,mrs4 ,sarah ,f4 ,french1 ,mrs4 ,emma ,m4 ,grant1 ,mrs4 ,nellie ,hobart1 ,mrs4 ,augusta ,a4 ,longfellow1 ,miss ,mary ,o4 ,lunt1 ,miss ,mary ,k4 ,page1 ,mrs4 ,geo4 ,n4 ,palmer1 ,mrs4 ,maria ,b4 ,reynolds1 ,mrs4 ,mary ,j4 ,robinson1 ,mrs4 ,frances ,h4 ,b4 ,sanborn1 ,miss ,gulielma ,p4 ,skinner1 ,miss ,sarah ,e4 ,varney1 ,miss ,clara ,b4 ,woodbury1 ,mrs4 ,mae ,b4 ,new ,hampshire4 ,avaun1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,baker1 ,miss ,nellie ,m4 ,beckwith1 the ,rev4 ,geo4 ,a4 ,cleworth1 ,mrs4 ,cleora ,b4 ,emerson1 ,miss ,hattie ,e4 ,farwell1 ,mrs4 ,marion ,l4 ,james1 ,mrs4 ,lizzie ,b4 ,lane1 ,john ,g4 ,lewis1 ,mrs4 ,hannah ,e4 ,moore1 ,george ,w4 ,pettengill1 ,miss ,selina ,d4 ,russell1 ,mrs4 ,helen ,i4 ,senter1 ,miss ,nella ,m4 ,shepherd1 ,miss ,betsey ,b4 ,stiles1 ,miss ,nellie ,worthley4 ,mrs4 ,emma ,l4 ,vermont4 ,clark1 ,mrs4 ,mary ,w4 ,clark1 ,miss ,susan ,e4 ,farnham1 ,mrs4 ,roswell ,farr1 ,miss ,hattie ,j4 ,howell1 ,mrs4 ,elsie ,s4 ,lovejoy1 ,miss ,martha ,h4 ,merrill1 the ,rev4 ,charles ,h4 ,merrill1 ,mrs4 ,laura ,b4 ,read1 ,miss ,keziah ,h4 ,sheldon1 ,mrs4 ,charles ,f4 ,stedman1 ,miss ,clara ,m4 ,streeter1 ,miss ,emilie ,e4 ,thomas1 ,mrs4 ,h41 ,jr4 ,wires1 ,mrs4 ,eveline ,w4 ,massachusetts4 ,alexander1 ,miss ,harriet ,i4 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,mrs4 ,elvira ,e4 ,hammond1 ,miss ,hulda ,a4 ,harrison1 ,miss ,elbertina ,c4 ,hathaway1 ,mrs4 ,alice ,v4 ,hesser1 ,mrs4 ,mary ,e4 ,mantz1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,f4 ,mc,kelvy1 the ,rev4 ,charles ,mock1 ,miss ,clara ,e4 ,nusbaum1 ,mrs4 ,lucretia ,j4 ,osgood1 ,miss ,jennie ,phillips1 ,mrs4 ,hattie ,w4 ,read1 ,william ,e4 ,rogers1 ,william ,selby1 ,miss ,mattie ,k4 ,a4 ,shafter1 ,mrs4 ,helen ,s4 ,shattuck1 ,mrs4 ,e4 ,m4 ,shuey1 ,mrs4 ,lillian ,h4 ,shuey1 ,m4 ,m4 ,thomas1 ,mrs4 ,flora ,m4 ,thomasson1 ,mrs4 ,martha ,e4 ,warring1 ,hattie ,b4 ,white1 ,miss ,nellie ,f4 ,whitney1 ,mrs4 ,julia ,a4 ,wilcox1 ,miss ,gussie ,m4 ,wilson1 ,miss ,mary ,e4 ,canada4 ,beer1 ,mrs4 ,rachel ,m4 ,l4 ,beswick1 ,miss ,emma ,coleman1 ,mrs4 ,caroline ,collins1 ,john ,r4 ,courtright1 ,mrs4 ,gertrude ,s4 ,curry1 ,mrs4 ,catharine ,dudman1 ,miss ,sarah ,a4 ,dunspaugh1 ,mrs4 ,leonora ,c4 ,farquhar1 ,miss ,mary ,l4 ,freeland1 ,mrs4 ,andrew ,griffith1 ,mrs4 ,lucinda ,p4 ,gurney1 ,edward1 ,jr4 ,gurney1 ,mrs4 ,mary ,f4 ,henderson1 ,miss ,frances ,m4 ,henderson1 the ,rev4 ,william ,henderson1 ,miss ,jennie ,hooper1 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,t4 ,horsey1 ,miss ,maria ,horsey1 ,miss ,heppie ,jackson1 ,miss ,eliza ,j4 ,james1 ,david ,kerr1 ,mrs4 ,jennie ,langlois1 ,miss ,ida ,m4 ,leake1 ,miss ,annie ,lemon1 ,miss ,emily ,j4 ,longard1 ,charles ,h4 ,lucas1 ,mrs4 ,hattie ,j4 ,mc,donald1 the ,rev4 ,c4 ,d4 ,millar1 ,james ,e4 ,murray1 ,mrs4 ,almey ,j4 ,murray1 ,dr4 ,sydney ,s4 ,orr1 ,william ,h4 ,platt1 ,mrs4 ,harriet ,l4 ,scott1 the ,rev4 ,charles ,t4 ,strickland1 ,john ,r4 ,thurlow1 ,mrs4 ,isaac ,e4 ,watson1 ,miss ,georgiana ,woodside1 ,mrs4 ,jane ,hawaiian ,islands4 ,coleman1 ,mrs4 ,hattie ,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,obvious punctuation errors repaired4 ,page #beb1 8probation0 changed to 8promotion0 7that of dignity and promotion7 ,page #bgc1 8#aaj4c0 changed to 8#aaj4c per cent40 7is equivalent to #aaj4c per cent4 of7 ,page #bib1 8,durengo0 changed to 8,durango0 7,from ,colorado--,durango--comes7 ,page #cje1 8,episopal0 changed to 8,episcopal0 7the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church7 ,page #cjf1 8,informa-0 changed to 8,information0 7,information may be obtained7 ,page #cji1 8,illtnois0 changed to 8,illinois0 7section heading3 ,illinois47 ,page #caj1 8,owen1 ,miss ,lucy ,a40 moved to correct place in alphabetical list3 from between ,peacock and ,perrin1 to between ,mellen and ,pack4