,,the ,,gallery ,,of ,,portraits3 ,,with ,,memoirs4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,committee4 ,chairman--,the ,right ,hon4 the ,,lord ,,chancellor4 ,vice-,chairman--,the ,right ,hon4 ,,lord ,,john ,,russel1 ,m4,p41 ,paymaster ,general4 ,treasurer--,,william ,,tooke1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,w4 ,allen1 ,esq41 ,f4,r and ,r4,a4,s4 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,visc4 ,althorp1 ,m4,p4 ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,lord ,auckland1 ,president of the ,board of ,trade4 ,w4 ,b4 ,baring1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,capt4 ,f4 ,beaufort1 ,r4,n41 ,f4,r4 and ,r4,a4,s41 ,hydrographer to the ,admiralty4 ,sir ,c4 ,bell1 ,f4,r4,s4,l and ,e4 ,john ,bostock1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,the ,rt4 ,rev4 the ,bishop of ,chichester4 ,william ,coulson1 ,esq4 ,r4 ,d4 ,craig1 ,esq4 ,wm4 ,crawford1 ,esq4 ,j4 ,frederick ,daniell1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,lord ,dover1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,lieut4 ,drummond1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,viscount ,ebrington1 ,m4,p4 ,t4 ,f4 ,ellis1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,john ,elliotson1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,howard ,elphinstone1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,thomas ,falconer1 ,esq4 ,i4 ,l4 ,goldsmid1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4 and ,r4,a4,s4 ,b4 ,gompertz1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4 and ,r4,a4,s4 ,g4 ,b4 ,greenough1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4 and ,l4,s4 ,h4 ,hallam1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,a4 ,m4 ,d4 ,hill1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,rowland ,hill1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,edwin ,hill1 ,esq4 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,sir ,j4 ,c4 ,hobhouse1 ,bart4 ,m4,p41 ,secretary at ,war4 ,david ,jardine1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,the ,rt4 ,hon4 the ,lord ,chief ,justice of ,england4 ,henry ,b4 ,ker1 ,esq4 ,th4 ,hewitt ,key1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,george ,c4 ,lewis1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,edward ,lloyd1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,james ,loch1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,george ,long1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,j4 ,w4 ,lubbock1 ,esq41 ,f4,r41 ,r4,a4 and ,l4,s4,s4 ,zachary ,macaulay1 ,esq4 ,h4 ,malden1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,sir ,b4 ,h4 ,malkin1 ,m4,a4 ,a4 ,t4 ,malkin1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,james ,manning1 ,esq4 ,j4 ,herman ,merivale1 ,esq41 ,f4,a4,s4 ,james ,mill1 ,esq4 ,w4 ,h4 ,ord1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,sir ,h4 ,parnell1 ,bt4 ,m4,p4 ,rt4 ,hon4 ,t4 ,s4 ,rice1 ,m4,p41 ,f4,a4,s41 ,secretary to the ,treasury4 ,dr4 ,roget1 ,sec4 ,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,sir ,m4 ,a4 ,shee1 ,p4,r4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,rev4 ,richard ,sheepshanks1 ,m4,a4 ,j4 ,smith1 ,esq41 ,m ,p4 ,wm4 ,sturch1 ,esq4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,t4 ,thomson1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,n4 ,a4 ,vigors1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,john ,ward1 ,esq4 ,h4 ,waymouth1 ,esq4 ,j4 ,whishaw1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,john ,wrottesley1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,sec4 ,r4,a4,s4 ,,local ,,committees4 ,anglesea--,rev4 ,e4 ,williams4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,johnson4 ,mr4 ,miller4 ,ashburton--,j4 ,f4 ,kingston1 ,esq4 ,bilston--,rev4 ,w4 ,leigh4 ,birmingham--,reverend ,j4 ,corrie1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,chairman4 ,paul ,moon ,james1 ,esq41 ,treasurer4 ,jos4 ,parkes1 ,esq4 ,w4 ,redfern1 ,esq4 ,honorary ,secs4 ,bonn--,leonard ,horner1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4,l4 ,e4 ,bristol--,j4 ,n4 ,sanders1 ,esq41 ,chairman4 ,j4 ,reynolds1 ,esq41 ,treasurer4 ,j4 ,b4 ,estlin1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,secretary4 ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds--,b4 ,bevan1 ,esq4 ,cambridge--,rev4 ,james ,bowstead1 ,m4,a4 ,rev4 ,prof4 ,henslow1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,g4,s4 ,rev4 ,leonard ,jenyns1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,rev4 ,john ,lodge1 ,m4,a4 ,rev4 ,geo4 ,peacock1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,g4,s4 ,rev4 ,prof4 ,sedgwick ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,g4,s4 ,professor ,smyth1 ,m4,a4 ,rev4 ,c4 ,thirlwall1 ,m4,a4 ,b4 ,w4 ,rothman1 ,esq41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 and ,g4,s4 ,rev4 ,george ,waddington4 ,canterbury--,alexander ,b4 ,higgins4 ,esq4 ,canton--,j4 ,f4 ,davis1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,carnarvon--,r4 ,a4 ,poole1 ,esq4 ,william ,roberts1 ,esq4 ,chester--,hayes ,lyon1 ,esq4 ,dr4 ,cumming4 ,dr4 ,jones4 ,henry ,potts1 ,esq4 ,dr4 ,thackery4 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,thorp4 ---- ,wardell1 ,esq4 ---- ,wedge1 ,esq4 ,chichester--,dr4 ,forbes1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,dr4 ,sanden1 and ,c4 ,c4 ,dendy1 ,esq4 ,coventry--,arthur ,gregory4 ,denbigh--,john ,maddocks1 ,esq4 ,thomas ,evans1 ,esq4 ,derby--,joseph ,strutt1 ,esq4 ,devonport--,lt4 ,col ,j4 ,hamilton ,smith1 ,f4,r4 and ,l4,s4 ,john ,coles1 ,esq4 ,etruria--,jos4 ,wedgwood1 ,esq4 ,exeter--,rev4 ,j4 ,p4 ,jones4 ,j4 ,tyrrell1 ,esq4 ,glasgow--,k4 ,finlay1 ,esq4 ,d4 ,bannatyne1 ,esq4 ,rt4 ,grahame1 ,esq4 ,professor ,mylne4 ,alexander ,mc,grigor1 ,esq4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 ,honorary ,secretary4 ,glamorganshire--,dr4 ,malkin1 ,cowbridge4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,r1 ,paul1 ,lantwit4 ,w4 ,williams1 ,esq4 ,aberpergwm4 ,holywell--,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,blackwall4 ,keighley1 ,yorkshire--,rev4 ,t4 ,dury1 ,m4,a4 ,launceston--,rev4 ,j4 ,barfitt4 ,leamington ,spa--,dr4 ,loudon1 ,m4,d4 ,leeds--,j4 ,marshall1 ,esq4 ,benjamin ,gott1 ,esq4 ,j4 ,marshall1 ,jun41 ,esq4 ,lewes--,j4 ,w4 ,woollgar1 ,esq4 ,liverpool ,local ,association--,dr4 ,traill1 ,chairman4 ,j4 ,mulleneux1 ,esq41 ,treasurer4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,sheperd4 ,j4 ,ashton ,yates1 ,esq4 ,ludlow--,t4 ,a4 ,knight1 ,esq41 ,p4,h4,s4 ,maidenhead--,r4 ,goolden1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,manchester ,local ,association--,g4 ,w4 ,wood1 ,esq41 ,m4,p41 ,chairman4 ,benjamin ,heywood1 ,esq41 ,treasurer4 ,t4 ,w4 ,winstanley1 ,esq41 ,hon4 ,sec4 ,sir ,g4 ,philips1 ,bart41 ,m4,p4 ,monmouth--,j4 ,h4 ,moggridge1 ,esq4 ,neath--,john ,rowland1 ,esq4 ,newcastle--,james ,losh1 ,esq4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,turner4 ,newport--,ab4 ,clarke1 ,esq4 ,t4 ,cooke1 ,jun41 ,esq4 ,r4 ,g4 ,kirkpatrick1 ,esq4 ,newport ,pagnell--,j4 ,millar1 ,esq4 ,newton1 ,montgomeryshire--,w4 ,pugh1 ,esq4 ,norwich--,rt4 ,hon4 ,lord ,suffield4 ,richard ,bacon1 ,esq4 ,plymouth--,george ,harvey1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,rippon--,rev4 ,h4 ,p4 ,hamilton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 and ,g4,s4 ,rev4 ,p4 ,ewart1 ,m4,a4 ,ruthen--,rev4 the ,warden of4 ,humphreys ,jones1 ,esq4 ,sheffield--,j4 ,h4 ,abraham1 ,esq4 ,shrewsbury--,r4 ,a4 ,slaney1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,south ,petherton--,john ,nicholetts1 ,esq4 ,st4 ,asaph--,rev4 ,george ,strong4 ,stockport--,h4 ,marsland1 ,esq41 ,treasurer4 ,henry ,coppock1 ,esq41 ,secretary4 ,tavistock--,rev4 ,w4 ,evans4 ,john ,rundle1 ,esq4 ,warwick--,dr4 ,conolly4 ,the ,rev4 ,william ,field1 7,leamington74 ,waterford--,sir ,john ,newport4 ,bart41 ,m4,p4 ,wolverhampton--,j4 ,pearson1 ,esq4 ,worcester--,dr4 ,corbett1 ,m4,d4 ,dr4 ,hastings4 ,m4,d4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hebb1 ,esq4 ,wrexham--,thomas ,edgworth1 ,esq4 ,j4 ,e4 ,bowman1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,treasurer4 ,major ,william ,lloyd4 ,yarmouth--,c4 ,e4 ,rumbold1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,dawson ,turner1 ,esq4 ,york--,rev4 ,j4 ,kenrick1 ,m4,a4 ,john ,wood1 ,esq41 ,m4,p4 ,,thomas ,,coates1 ,secretary1 ,no4 #ei1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,printed by ,,william ,,clowes1 ,stamford ,street4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,under ,,the ,,superintendence ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,useful ,,knowledge4 ,,the ,,gallery ,,of ,,portraits3 ,,with ,,memoirs4 ,,volume ,i4 ,,london3 ,,charles ,,knight1 ,,pall-,,mall ,,east4 #ahcc4 ,,price ,,one ,,guinea1 ,,bound ,,in ,,cloth4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,portraits ,,and ,,biographies ,,contained ,,in ,,this ,,volume4 ,page4 #a4 ,dante #a #b4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy #aa #c4 ,kosciusko #ba #d4 ,flaxman #bg #e4 ,copernicus #cd #f4 ,milton #dc #g4 ,jas4 ,watt #ee #h4 ,turenne #fc #i4 ,hon4 ,r4 ,boyle #gb #aj4 ,sir ,i4 ,newton #gi #aa4 ,michael ,angelo #hi #ab4 ,moliere #ie #ac4 ,c4 ,j4 ,fox #ajc #ad4 ,bossuet #aac #ae4 ,lorenzo de ,medici #abb #af4 ,geo4 ,buchanan #abi #ag4 ,fnlon #acg #ah4 ,sir ,c4 ,wren #add #ai4 ,corneille #aec #bj4 ,halley #afa #ba4 ,sully #afi #bb4 ,n4 ,poussin #agg #bc4 ,harvey #ahe #bd4 ,sir ,j4 ,banks #aic ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,w4 ,,clowes ,stamford ,street4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,c4 ,e4 ,wagstaff4 ,,dante ,,alighieri4 ,from a ,print by ,raffaelle ,morghen1 after a ,picture by ,tofanelli4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,,gallery ,,of ,,portraits4 ,illustration ,,dante ,while the more northern nations of modern ,europe began to cultivate a national and peculiar literature in their vernacular tongues1 instead of using ,latin as the only vehicle of written thought1 it was some time before the popular language of ,italy received that attention which might have been expected from the prevalence of free institutions1 and the constant intercourse between neighbouring states speaking in similar dialects4 ,at last the example of other countries prevailed1 and a native poetry sprung up in ,italy4 ,if it be allowable to compare the progress of the national mind to the stages of life1 the ,italian ,muse may be said to have been born in ,sicily with ,ciullo d',alcamo in #aaij2 to have reached childhood in ,lombardy with ,guido ,guinicelli1 about #abbj2 and to have attained youth in ,tuscany with ,guido ,cavalcanti1 about #abhj4 ,but she suddenly started into perfect maturity when ,dante appeared1 surpassing all his predecessors in lyrical composition1 and astounding the world with that mighty monument of ,christian poetry1 which after five centuries of progressive civilization still stands sublime as one of the most magnificent productions of genius4 ,dante ,alighieri1 the true founder of ,italian literature1 was born at ,florence ,a4,d4 #abfe1 of a family of some note4 ,the name of ,dante1 by which he is generally known1 often mistaken for that of his family1 is a mere contraction of his ,christian name ,durante4 ,yet an infant when his father died1 that heavy loss was lightened by the judicious solicitude with which his mother superintended his education4 ,she intrusted him to the care of ,brunetto ,latini1 a man of great repute as a poet as well as a philosopher2 and he soon made so rapid a progress1 both in science and literature1 as might justify the most sanguine hopes of his future eminence4 ,early as he developed the extraordinary powers of his understanding1 he was not less precocious in evincing that susceptibility to deep and tender impressions1 to which he afterwards owed his sublimest inspirations4 ,but his passion was of a very mysterious character4 ,it arose in his boyhood1 for a girl 8still in her infancy10 and it never ceased1 or lost its intensity1 though she died in the flower of her age1 and he survived her more than thirty years4 ,whether he was enamoured of a human being1 or of a creature of his own imagination1--one of those phantoms of heavenly beauty and virtue so common to the dreams and reveries of youth1--it is extremely difficult to ascertain4 ,some of his biographers are of opinion that the lady whom he has celebrated in his works under the name of ,bice1 or ,beatrice1 was the daughter of ,folco ,portinari1 a noble ,florentine2 while others contend that she is merely a personification of wisdom or moral philosophy4 ,but ,dante's own account of his love is given in terms often so enigmatical and apparently contradictory1 that it is almost impossible to make them agree perfectly with either of these suppositions4 ,whatever its object1 his affection seems to have been most chaste and spiritual in its nature4 ,instead of alienating him from literary pursuits1 it increased his thirst after knowledge1 and ennobled and purified his feelings4 ,with the aid of this powerful incentive1 he soon distinguished himself above the youth of his native city1 not only by his acquirements1 but also by elegance of manners1 and amenity of temper4 ,thus occupied by his studies1 refined and exalted by his love1 and cherished by his countrymen1 the morning of his life was sunned by the unclouded smiles of fortune1 as if to render darker by the contrast the long and gloomy evening which awaited him4 ,his pilgrimage on earth was cast in one of the most stormy periods recorded in history4 ,the ,church and the ,empire had been long engaged in a scandalous contest1 and had often involved a great part of ,europe in their quarrels4 ,italy was especially distracted by two contending parties1 the ,guelfs1 who adhered to the ,pope1 and the ,ghibelines1 who espoused the cause of the ,emperor4 ,in the year #abff1 after a long alternation of ruinous reverses and ferocious triumphs1 the ,guelfs of ,florence drove the ,ghibelines out of their city1 and at last permanently established themselves in power4 ,the family of ,dante belonged to the victorious party2 and while he remained in ,florence1 it would have been dangerous1 perhaps impossible1 to avoid mingling in these civil broils4 ,he accordingly went out against the ,ghibelines of ,arezzo in #abhi2 and in the following year against those of ,pisa4 ,in the former campaign he took part in the battle of ,campaldino1 in which1 after a long and doubtful conflict1 the ,aretines were completely defeated4 ,on that memorable day he fought valiantly in the front line of the ,guelf cavalry1 manifesting the same energy in warfare1 which he had displayed in his studies and in his love4 ,but soon after the tumults of the camp had interfered with the calm of his private and meditative life1 his adored ,beatrice1 whether an earthly mistress1 or an abstraction of his moral and literary studies1 was torn from him4 ,this loss1 which in his writings he never ceases to lament1 reduced him to extreme despondency4 ,nevertheless in #abia1 but a few months after it1 he married a lady of the noble family of the ,donati1 by whom he had numerous offspring2 a circumstance which would indicate a strange inconsistency of character1 had his heart been really preoccupied by another love4 ,this connexion with one of the first families of the republic may have smoothed his way to civic eminence2 but if ,boccaccio1 usually a slanderer of the fair sex1 be credited1 the lady's temper proved unfavourable to domestic comfort4 ,he now entirely devoted himself to the business of government1 and attained such reputation as a statesman1 that hardly any transaction of importance took place without his advice4 ,it has even been asserted that he was employed in no less than fourteen embassies to foreign courts4 ,there may be some exaggeration in this statement2 but it is certain that in #acjj1 at the early age of five and thirty1 he was elected one of the ,priors1 or chief magistrates of the republic2 a mark of popular favour which ended in his total ruin4 ,about this time1 the ,guelfs of ,florence split into two new divisions called ,bianchi and ,neri 7whites and blacks71 from the denominations of two factions which had originated at ,pistoja1 in consequence of a dispute between two branches of the ,cancellieri family4 ,the ,bianchi were chiefly citizens recently risen to importance1 who1 having received no personal injury from the ,ghibelines1 were disposed to treat them with moderation2 while the ,neri consisted almost entirely of ancient nobles1 who1 having formerly been the leaders of the ,guelfs1 still retained a furious animosity against the ,ghibelines4 ,all endeavours to bring them to a reconciliation proved useless3 they soon passed from rancour to contumely1 and from contumely to open violence4 ,the city was now in the utmost confusion1 and was very near being turned into a scene of war and carnage1 when the ,priors1 hardly knowing what course to pursue1 invoked the advice of ,dante4 ,his situation was most perplexing and critical4 ,the relations of his wife were at the head of the ,neri2 while ,guido ,cavalcante1 his dearest friend on earth1 was one of the foremost leaders of the ,bianchi4 ,nevertheless1 silencing all the claims of private affection for the good of his country1 he proposed to banish the principal agitators of both parties4 ,by the adoption of this measure1 public tranquillity was for a time restored4 ,but ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 could not suffer independent citizens to govern the republic4 ,he sent ,charles de ,valois to ,florence under colour of pacifying the contending parties1 but in truth to re-establish in power the men most blindly devoted to his own interests4 ,the ,french prince1 after having made the most solemn promises to the ,florentine government1 that he would act with rigorous impartiality and adopt only conciliatory measures1 obtained admission into the city1 at the beginning of ,november1 #acja4 ,making no account of the engagements he had entered into1 he now permitted the ,neri to perpetrate the most atrocious outrages on the families of their opponents1 and to close this scene of horror by pronouncing sentence of exile and confiscation upon six hundred of the most illustrious citizens4 ,dante was among the victims4 ,he had made himself obnoxious1 both to the ,neri1 whom he had caused to be banished1 and to ,charles de ,valois1 whose intrusion in the internal affairs of the commonwealth he had firmly opposed in council4 ,accordingly1 his house was pillaged and razed1 his property confiscated1 and his life saved only by his absence at ,rome1 whither he had been sent for the purpose of propitiating the ,pope4 ,highly disgusted at the treacherous conduct of ,boniface1 who had been deluding him all the while with vain hopes and honeyed words1 he suddenly left ,rome1 and hastened to ,siena4 ,on his arrival he heard that he had been charged with embezzling the public money1 and condemned to be burned1 if he should fall into the hands of his enemies4 ,his indignation now reached its height2 and in despair of ever being restored to his native city except by arms1 he repaired to ,arezzo1 and united his exertions to those of the other ,bianchi1 who1 making common cause with the ,ghibelines1 formed themselves into an army with the object of entering ,florence by force4 ,but their hopes were disappointed2 and after four years of abortive attempts they dispersed1 each in pursuit of his own fortune4 ,the noble1 opulent citizen1 the statesman and minister1 the profound philosopher1 accustomed in all and each of these characters to the respectful homage of his countrymen1 was now1 to use his own words1 8driven about by the cold wind that springs out of sad poverty10 and compelled 8to taste how bitter is another's bread1 how hard it is to mount and to descend another's stairs40 ,but the change from affluence to want was not the worst evil that awaited the high-minded patriot in banishment4 ,for this he found compensation in the consciousness of having done his duty to his country4 ,but he suffered much more from being mixed1 and sometimes even confounded1 with other exiles1 whose perverse actions tended to disgrace the cause for which he had sacrificed all his private affections and interests4 ,his misery was carried to the utmost by a continual struggle between his nice sense of honour and the pressure of want2 by an excessive fear that his intentions might be misunderstood1 and a constant readiness to mistake those of others4 ,this morbid feeling he has pathetically expressed in several passages1 which can scarce be read without profound emotion4 ,in this mental torture he wandered throughout ,italy1 from town to town1 and from the palace of one of his benefactors to that of another1 without ever finding a resting place for his wounded spirit4 ,he stooped in vain to address letters of supplication to the ,florentines2 the rancour of his enemies was not to be softened by prayers4 ,meanwhile the hopes of the ,ghibelines were again raised1 when ,henry ,,vii41 who had been elected ,emperor in #acjh1 entered ,italy to regain the rights of sovereignty which his predecessors had lost4 ,elated by the better prospects which appeared to open1 ,dante became a strenuous advocate of the imperial cause4 ,he composed a treatise on monarchy1 in which he asserted the rights of the empire against the encroachments of the ,court of ,rome3 he wrote a circular both to the ,kings and ,princes of ,italy1 and to the ,senators of ,rome1 admonishing them to give an honourable reception to their ,sovereign2 and he sent a hortatory epistle to the ,emperor himself1 urging him to turn his arms against ,florence1 and to visit that refractory city with severe punishment4 ,henry did accordingly lay siege to ,florence in ,september1 #acab1 but without success2 and the hopes of the ,ghibelines were finally extinguished in the following ,august1 by his death1 under strong suspicion of poison4 ,thus ,dante1 in consequence of his recent conduct1 saw himself farther than ever from restoration to his beloved ,florence4 ,the unfortunate exile1 now reduced to despair1 resumed his wanderings1 often returning to ,verona1 where the ,scaligeri family always received him at their court with peculiar kindness4 ,it has been asserted that his thirst for knowledge led him to ,paris and ,oxford4 ,his journey to ,england is still involved in doubt2 but it appears certain1 that he visited ,paris1 where he is said to have acquired great fame1 by holding public disputations on several questions of theology4 ,on his return to ,italy1 he at length found a permanent refuge at ,ravenna1 at the court of ,guido da ,polenta1 the father of that ill-fated ,francesca da ,rimini1 for whom the celebrated episode of ,dante has engaged the sympathy of succeeding ages4 ,the reception which he experienced from this ,prince1 who was a patron of learning and a poet1 was marked by the reverence due to his character1 no less than by the kindness excited by his misfortunes4 ,in order to employ his diplomatic talents1 and give him the pleasing consciousness of being useful to his host1 ,guido sent him as ambassador1 to negotiate a peace with ,venice4 ,dante1 happy at having an opportunity of evincing his gratitude to his benefactor1 proceeded on his mission with sanguine expectation of success4 ,but being unable to obtain a public audience from the ,venetians1 he returned to ,ravenna1 so overwhelmed with fatigue and mortification1 that he died shortly afterwards1 in the fifty-seventh year of his age1 ,a4 ,d4 #acba1 receiving splendid obsequies from his disconsolate patron1 who himself assumed the office of pronouncing a funeral oration on the dead body4 ,the portrait of ,dante has been handed down to posterity1 both by history and the arts4 ,he is represented as a man of middle stature1 with a pensive and melancholy expression of countenance4 ,his face was long1 his nose aquiline1 his eyes rather prominent1 but full of fire1 his cheek bones large1 and his under lip projecting beyond the upper one2 his complexion was dark1 his hair and beard thick and curled4 ,these features were so marked1 that all his likenesses1 whether on medals1 or marble1 or canvas1 bear a striking resemblance to each other4 ,boccaccio describes him as grave and sedate in his manners1 courteous and civil in his address1 and extremely temperate in his way of living2 whilst ,villani asserts1 that he was harsh1 reserved1 and disdainful in his deportment4 ,but the latter writer must have painted ,dante such as he was in his exile1 when the bitter cup of sorrow had changed the gravity of his temper into austerity4 ,he spoke seldom1 but displayed a remarkable subtleness in his answers4 ,the consciousness of worth had inspired him with a noble pride which spurned vice in all its aspects1 and disdained condescending to any thing like flattery or dissimulation4 ,earnest in study1 and attached to solitude1 he was at times liable to fits of absence4 ,the testimony of his contemporaries1 and the still better evidence of his own works1 prove that his hours of seclusion were heedfully employed4 ,he was intimately conversant with several languages2 extensively read in classical literature1 and deeply versed in the staple learning of the age1 scholastic theology1 and the ,aristotelian philosophy4 ,he had acquired a considerable knowledge of geography1 astronomy1 and mathematics2 had made himself thoroughly acquainted with mythology and history1 both sacred and profane2 nor had he neglected to adorn his mind with the more elegant accomplishments of the fine arts4 ,the mass of ,dante's writings1 considering the unfavourable circumstances under which he laboured1 is almost as wonderful as the extent of his attainments4 ,the treatise #8,de ,monarchia1' which he composed on the arrival of ,henry ,,vii4 in ,italy1 is one of the most ingenious productions that ever appeared1 in refutation of the temporal pretensions of the ,court of ,rome4 ,it was hailed with triumphant joy by the ,ghibelines1 and loaded with vituperation by the ,guelfs4 ,the succeeding emperor1 ,lewis of ,bavaria1 laid great stress on its arguments as supporting his claims against ,john ,,xxii42 and on that account1 the ,pope had it burnt publicly by the ,cardinal du ,pujet1 his legate in ,lombardy1 who would even have disinterred and burnt ,dante's body1 and scattered his ashes to the wind1 if some influential citizens had not interposed4 ,another ,latin work1 #8,de ,vulgari ,eloquentia1' treats of the origin1 history1 and use of the genuine ,italian tongue4 ,it is full of interesting and curious research1 and is still classed among the most judicious and philosophical works that ,italy possesses on the subject4 ,he meant to have comprised it in four books1 but unfortunately only lived to complete two4 ,of his ,italian productions1 the earliest was1 perhaps1 the #8,vita ,nuova1' a mixture of mysterious poetry and prose1 in which he gives a detailed account of his love for ,beatrice4 ,it is pervaded by a spirit of soft melancholy extremely touching2 and it contains several passages having all the distinctness and individuality of truth2 but1 on the other hand1 it is interspersed with visions and dreams1 and metaphysical conceits1 from which it receives all the appearance of an allegorical invention4 ,he also composed about thirty sonnets1 and nearly as many #8,canzoni1' or songs1 both on love and morality4 ,the sonnets1 though not destitute of grace and ingenuity1 are not distinguished by any particular excellence4 ,the songs display a vigour of style1 a sublimity of thought1 a depth of feeling1 and a richness of imagery not known before3 they betoken the poet and the philosopher4 ,on fourteen of these1 he attempted in his old age to write a minute commentary1 to which he gave the title of #8,convito1' or ,banquet1 as being intended 8to administer the food of wisdom to the ignorant20 but he could only extend it to three4 ,thus he produced the first specimen of severe ,italian prose2 and if he indulged rather too much in fanciful allegories and scholastic subtleties1 these blemishes are amply counterbalanced by a store of erudition1 an elevation of sentiment1 and a matchless eloquence1 which it is difficult not to admire4 ,these works1 omitting several others of inferior value1 would have been more than sufficient to place ,dante above all his contemporaries2 yet1 they stand at an immeasurable distance from the #8,divina ,commedia1' the great poem by which he has recommended his name to the veneration of the remotest posterity4 ,the ,divine ,comedy is the narrative of a mysterious journey through hell1 purgatory1 and paradise1 which he supposes himself to have performed in the year #acjj1 during the passion week1 having ,virgil as his guide through the two regions of woe1 and ,beatrice through that of happiness4 ,no creation of the human mind ever excelled this mighty vision in originality and vastness of design2 nor did any one ever choose a more appropriate subject for the expression of all his thoughts and feelings4 ,the mechanical construction of his spiritual world allowed him room for developing his geographical and astronomical knowledge3 the punishments and rewards allotted to the characters introduced1 gave him an excellent opportunity for a display of his theological and philosophical learning3 the continual succession of innumerable spirits of different ages1 nations1 and conditions1 enabled him to expatiate in the fields of ancient and modern history1 and to expose thoroughly the degradation of ,italian society in his own times2 while the whole afforded him ample scope for a full exertion of his poetical endowments1 and for the illustration of the moral lesson1 which1 whatever his real meaning may have been1 is ostensibly the object of his poem4 ,neither were his powers of execution inferior to those of conception4 ,rising from the deepest abyss of torture and despair1 through every degree of suffering and hope1 up to the sublimest beatitude1 he imparts the most vivid and intense dramatic interest to a wonderful variety of scenes which he brings before the reader4 ,awful1 vehement1 and terrific in hell1 in proportion as he advances through purgatory and paradise1 he contrives to modify his style in such a manner as to become more pleasing in his images1 more easy in his expressions1 more delicate in his sentiments1 and more regular in his versification4 ,his characters live and move2 the objects which he depicts are clear and palpable2 his similes are generally new and just2 his reflections evince throughout the highest tone of morality2 his energetic language makes a deep and vigorous impression both on the reason and the imagination2 and the graphic force with which1 by a few bold strokes1 he throws before the eye of his reader a perfect and living picture1 is wholly unequalled4 ,it is true1 however1 that his constant solicitude for conciseness and effect led him1 sometimes1 into a harsh and barbarous phraseology1 and into the most unrestrained innovations2 but considering the rudeness of his age1 and the unformed state of his language1 he seems hardly open to the censure of a candid critic on this account4 ,on the other hand1 it is impossible not to wonder how1 in spite of such obstacles1 he could so happily express all the wild conceptions of his fancy1 the most abstract theories of philosophy1 and the most profound mysteries of religion4 ,the occasional obscurity and coldness of the ,divine ,comedy proceeds much less from defects of style1 than from didactic disquisitions and historical allusions which become every day less intelligible and less interesting4 ,to be understood and appreciated as a whole1 and in its parts1 it requires a store of antiquated knowledge which is now of little use4 ,even at the period of its publication1 when its geography and astronomy were not yet exploded1 its philosophy and theology still current1 and many of its incidents and personages still fresh in the memory of thousands1 it was considered rather as a treasure of moral wisdom1 than as a book of amusement4 ,the city of ,florence1 and several other towns of ,italy1 soon established professorships for the express purpose of explaining it to the public4 ,two sons of ,dante wrote commentaries for its illustration3 ,boccaccio1 ,benvenuto da ,imola1 and many others followed the example in rapid succession2 and even a few years since ,foscolo and ,rossetti excited fresh curiosity and interest by the novelty of their views4 ,notwithstanding the learning and ingenuity of all its expositors1 the hidden meaning of the #8,divina ,commedia' is not yet perfectly made out1 though ,rossetti1 in his #8,spirito ,antipapale1' lately published1 seems to have shown1 that under the exterior of moral precepts1 it contains a most bitter satire against the court of ,rome4 ,but whether time shall remove these obscurities1 or thicken the mist which hangs around this extraordinary production1 it will be ever memorable as the mighty work which gave being and form to the beautiful language of ,italy1 impressed a new character on the poetry of modern ,europe1 and inspired the genius of ,michael ,angelo and of ,milton4 ,there is no life of ,dante which can be recommended as decidedly superior to the rest4 ,the earliest is that of ,boccaccio2 but it evidently cannot be relied on for the facts of his life4 ,there are others by ,lionardo1 ,aretino1 ,fabroni1 ,pelli1 ,tiraboschi1 c4 ,the ,english reader will find a fuller account prefixed to ,mr4 ,carey's translation of the #8,divina ,commedia1' and in ,mr4 ,stebbing's ,lives of the ,italian ,poets4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,e4 ,scriven4 ,,sir ,,humphrey ,,davy4 ,from the original ,picture by ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,davy ,where the length of the memoir necessarily bears a small proportion to the quantity of matter which presses on the biographer's attention1 two courses lie open to his choice2 either to select a few remarkable passages in his subject's life for full discussion1 or to give a general and popular sketch of his personal history4 ,the latter plan seems here the more advisable4 ,to many readers a minute analysis of ,davy's physical researches would be unintelligible1 without full explanations of the very instruments and objects with1 and upon which1 he worked4 ,we shall therefore make it our chief object to trace his private history1 interspersing notices of his labours and discoveries1 but leaving to publications of expressly scientific character the task of doing justice to his scientific fame4 ,both departments have been fully treated in the ,life published by ,dr4 ,paris4 ,humphry ,davy was born near ,penzance in ,cornwall1 ,december #ag1 #aggh1 of a family in independent1 though humble circumstances1 which for a century and a half had possessed and resided upon a small estate situated in ,mount's ,bay4 ,though no prodigy of precocious intellect1 his childhood gave reasonable promise of future talent2 and especially manifested the dawning of a vivid imagination1 united with a strong turn for experiments in natural philosophy4 ,one of his favourite amusements was to exhibit to his playfellows the operation of melting in a candle scraps of tin2 or to make and explode detonating balls4 ,another was the inventing and repeating to them fairy tales and romances4 ,at times1 however1 he would exercise his eloquence upon graver subjects2 and1 when no better could be obtained1 the future lecturer is said to have found a staid1 if not attentive1 audience in a circle of chairs4 ,at an early age he was placed at school at ,penzance1 where1 in the usual acceptation of the words1 he profited little3 his own opinion1 however1 was different4 8,i consider it fortunate10 he wrote to a member of his family1 8that ,i was left much to myself as a child1 and put upon no particular plan of study1 and that ,i enjoyed much idleness at ,mr4 ,coryton's school4 ,i perhaps owe to these circumstances the little talents that ,i have1 and their peculiar application3 what ,i am1 ,i have made myself4 ,i say this without vanity1 and in pure simplicity of heart40 ,he was soon removed to the school at ,truro1 where he remained two years1 undistinguished except by a love of poetry1 which manifested itself in composition at an early age4 ,this1 indeed1 continued to be a favourite amusement1 until1 in mature life1 he became absorbed in scientific pursuits3 and it has been said upon high authority1 that if ,davy had not been the first chemist1 he would have been the first poet of his age4 ,this opinion must look for support1 not to his metrical productions1 which in truth nowise justify it1 but to the vivid imagination and high powers of eloquence1 which1 in the vigour and freshness of youth1 delighted the fashionable1 as much as his discoveries amazed the scientific world4 ,in #agid his father died1 and his mother in consequence removed from ,varfell1 the patrimonial estate1 to ,penzance1 where ,davy was apprenticed to ,mr4 ,borlase1 a surgeon in that town4 ,for the medical part of his new profession he showed distaste2 but his attention was at once turned to the study of chemistry1 which he pursued thenceforward with undeviating zeal4 ,akin to this pursuit1 and fostered by the natural features of his native country1 was his early taste for geology4 8,how often10 said ,davy to his friend and biographer on being shown a drawing of ,botallack mine1--8how often when a boy have ,i wandered about these rocks in search of new minerals1 and when fatigued1 sat down upon the turf1 and exercised my fancy in anticipations of scientific renown40 ,the notoriety which1 in a small town1 he readily acquired as the boy who was 8so fond of chemical experiments10 introduced him to a valuable friend1 ,mr4 ,davies ,gilbert1 in early life his patron1 in mature age his successor in the chair of the ,royal ,society4 ,by him the young man was introduced to ,dr4 ,beddoes1 who was at that time seeking an assistant in conducting the ,pneumatic ,institution1 then newly established at ,bristol1 for the purpose of investigating the properties of aeriform fluids1 and the possibility of using them as medical agents4 ,it was not intended that1 in forming this engagement1 ,davy should give up the line of life marked out for him2 on the contrary1 his abode at ,bristol was considered part of his professional education4 ,but his genius led him another way1 and this lucky engagement opened a career of usefulness and fame1 which under other circumstances might have been long delayed4 ,the arrangement was concluded upon liberal terms1 and in ,october1 #agih1 before he was twenty years old1 he left his home in high spirits to enter upon independent life4 ,it is to his honour1 that as soon as a competent1 though temporary provision was thus secured1 he resigned1 in favour of his mother and sisters1 all his claims upon the paternal estate4 ,soon after removing to ,bristol1 he published1 in a work entitled #8,contributions to ,medical and ,physical ,knowledge1' edited by ,dr4 ,beddoes1 some essays on heat1 light1 and respiration4 ,of these it will be sufficient to say1 that with much promise of future excellence1 they show a most unbridled imagination1 and contain many speculations so unfounded and absurd1 that in after-life he bitterly regretted their publication4 ,during his engagement1 his zeal and intrepidity were signally displayed in attempts to breathe different gases1 supposed1 or known1 to be highly destructive to life1 with a view to ascertain the nature of their effects4 ,two of these experiments1 the inhaling of nitrous gas and carburetted hydrogen are remarkable1 because in each he narrowly escaped death4 ,but his attention was especially turned to the gas called nitrous oxide1 which1 upon respiration1 appeared to transport the breather into a new and highly pleasurable state of feeling1 to rouse the imagination1 and give new vigour to the most sublime emotions of the soul4 ,the effects produced1 exaggerated by the enthusiasm of the patients1 were in fact closely analogous to intoxication2 and many persons still remember the curiosity and amusement1 excited by the freaks of poets and grave philosophers1 while under the operation of this novel stimulus4 ,in #ahjj he published #8,researches ,chemical and ,philosophical1 respecting ,nitrous ,oxide and its ,respiration4' ,the novelty of the results announced1 combined with the ability shown in their investigation1 and the youth of the author1 produced a great sensation in philosophical circles2 and through the celebrity thus acquired1 and the favourable opinion of him formed upon personal acquaintance by several eminent philosophers of the day1 he was offered by the conductors of the ,royal ,institution1 the office of ,assistant ,lecturer in ,chemistry1 with the understanding that ere long he should be made sole ,professor4 ,this negotiation took place in the spring of #ahja1 and on ,may #ca1 #ahjb1 he was raised to the higher appointment4 ,to ,davy1 the quitting ,bristol for ,london was the epoch of a transformation--an elevation from the chrysalis to the butterfly state4 ,in youth his person1 voice1 and address were alike uncouth2 and at first sight they produced so unfavourable an impression upon ,count ,rumford1 that he expressed much regret at having sanctioned so unpromising an engagement4 ,the veteran philosopher soon found reason to change his opinion4 ,davy's first course of lectures1 which was not delivered till the spring of #ahjb1 excited a sensation unequalled before or since4 ,not only the philosophical but the literary and fashionable world crowded to hear him2 and his vivid imagination1 fired by enthusiastic love for the science which he professed1 gave1 to one of the most abstruse of studies1 a charm confessed by persons the least likely to feel its influence4 ,the strongest possible testimony to his richness of illustration is supplied by ,mr4 ,coleridge3--8,i go10 he said1 8to ,davy's lectures to increase my stock of metaphors40 ,had this been all1 the young prodigy would soon have ceased to dazzle2 but his fame was maintained and increased by the success which waited on his undertakings2 and1 in a word1 ,davy became the lion of the day4 ,the effect of this sudden change was by no means good4 ,sought and caressed by the highest circles of the metropolis1 he endeavoured to assume the deportment of a man of fashion2 but the strange dress sat awkwardly1 and ill replaced a natural candour and warmth of feeling1 which had singularly won upon the acquaintance of his early life4 ,it is but justice1 however1 to add that his regard for his family and early friends was not cooled by this alteration in his society and prospects4 ,our limits are too narrow to admit even a sketch of the various trains of original investigation pursued by ,davy1 during his connection with the ,institution4 ,of these1 the most important is that series of electrical inquiries pursued from #ahjj to #ahjf1 the results of which were developed in his celebrated first ,bakerian ,lecture1 delivered in the autumn of the latter year1 before the ,royal ,society1 which received from the ,french ,institute the prize of #cjjj francs1 established by the ,first ,consul1 for the best experiment in electricity or galvanism4 ,in it he investigated the nature of electric action1 and disclosed a new class of phenomena illustrative of the power of the ,voltaic battery in decomposing bodies2 which1 in the following year1 led to the most striking of his discoveries1 the resolution of the fixed alkalies1 potash and soda1 into metallic bases4 ,this discovery took place in ,october1 #ahjg1 and was published in his second ,bakerian ,lecture1 delivered in the following ,november4 ,the novelty and brilliancy of the view thus opened1 raised public curiosity to the highest pitch3 the laboratory of the ,institution was crowded with visitors1 and the high excitement thus produced1 acting upon a frame exhausted by fatigue1 produced a violent fever1 in which for many days1 he lay between life and death4 ,not until the following ,march was he able to resume his duties as a lecturer4 ,during the next four years he was chiefly employed in endeavouring to decompose other bodies1 in prosecuting his inquiries into the nature of the alkalies and in obtaining similar metallic bases from the earths1 in which he partially succeeded4 ,the resolution of nitrogen was attempted without success4 ,in tracing the nature of muriatic and oxymuriatic acid1 he was more fortunate2 and proved the latter to be an undecompounded substance1 in direct opposition to his own opinion1 recorded at an earlier period4 ,this discovery is the more honourable1 for nothing renders the admission of truth so difficult1 as having advocated error4 ,on the #hth ,april1 #ahab1 he received the honour of knighthood from the ,prince ,regent1 in testimony of his scientific merits4 ,this was the more welcome1 because he was on the eve of exchanging a life of professional labour for one1 not of idleness1 for he pursued his course of discovery with unabated zeal1 but of affluence and independence4 ,on the #aath of the same month1 he married ,mrs4 ,apreece1 a lady possessed of ample fortune2 previous to which he delivered his farewell lecture to the ,royal ,institution4 ,at the same time he appears to have resigned the office of ,secretary to the ,royal ,society1 to which he had been appointed in #ahjg4 ,two months afterwards he published #8,elements of ,chemical ,philosophy1' which he dedicated to ,lady ,davy1 8as a pledge that he should continue to pursue science with unabated ardour40 ,in ,march1 #ahac1 appeared the #8,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry1' containing the substance of a course of lectures delivered for ten successive seasons before the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,that part of the ,continent which was under ,french influence1 being strictly closed against the ,english at this time1 it is much to the credit of ,napoleon1 that he immediately assented to a wish expressed by ,davy1 and seconded by the ,imperial ,institute1 that he might be allowed to visit the extinct volcanoes in ,auvergne1 and thence proceed to make observations on ,vesuvius while in a state of action4 ,he reached ,paris1 ,oct4 #bgth1 #ahac4 ,the ,french philosophers received him with enthusiasm3 it is to be regretted that at the time of his departure their feelings were much less cordial4 ,there was a coldness1 and pride1 or what seemed pride1 in his manner1 which disgusted a body of men too justly sensible of their own merit to brook slights2 especially when1 in spite of national jealousy1 they had done most cordial and unhesitating justice to the transcendent achievements of the ,british philosopher4 ,nor was this the only ground for dissatisfaction4 ,iodine had been recently discovered in ,paris1 but its nature was still unknown4 ,davy obtained a portion1 and proceeded to experiment upon it4 ,this was thought by many an unfair interference with the fame and rights of the original investigators4 ,davy himself felt that some explanation at least was due1 in a paper which he transmitted to the ,royal ,society2 and as the passage in question contained what1 though perhaps not meant to be such1 might easily be construed into an insinuation1 that but for him1 the results communicated in that paper might not have been obtained1 it was not likely to conciliate4 ,there is probably much truth in the excuse offered by his biographer1 for the superciliousness charged against him upon this1 and other occasions1 that it was merely the cloak of a perpetual and painful timidity4 ,it is remarkable that1 with a highly poetical temperament1 he seems to have been senseless to the beauties of art4 ,the wonders of the ,louvre extracted no sign of pleasure3 he paced the rooms with hurried steps1 in apathy1 roused only by the sight of an ,antinous sculptured in alabaster1 8,gracious ,heaven60 he then exclaimed1 8what a beautiful stalactite40 ,from ,paris1 ,dec4 #bith1 he proceeded without visiting ,auvergne1 to ,montpellier1 ,genoa1 ,florence1 ,rome1 and ,naples1 which he reached ,may #hth1 #ahad4 ,at various places he prosecuted his researches upon iodine2 and at ,florence1 he availed himself of the great burning lens to experiment upon the combustion of the diamond1 and other forms of carbon4 ,at ,naples and ,rome he instituted a minute and laborious inquiry into the colours used in painting by the ancients2 the results of which appeared in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahae4 ,the autumn of #ahae is rendered memorable by the discovery of the safety-lamp1 one of the most beneficial applications of science to economical purposes yet made1 by which hundreds1 perhaps thousands1 of lives have been preserved4 ,davy was led to the consideration of this subject by an application from ,dr4 ,gray1 now ,bishop of ,bristol1 the ,chairman of a ,society established in #ahac1 at ,bishop-,wearmouth1 to consider and promote the means of preventing accidents by fire in coal-pits4 ,being then in ,scotland1 he visited the mines on his return southward1 and was supplied with specimens of fire-damp1 which1 on reaching ,london1 he proceeded to examine4 ,he soon discovered that the carburetted hydrogen gas1 called fire-damp by the miners1 would not explode when mixed with less than six1 or more than fourteen times its volume of air2 and further1 that the explosive mixture could not be fired in tubes of small diameters and proportionate lengths4 ,gradually diminishing their dimensions1 he arrived at the conclusion that a tissue of wire1 in which the meshes do not exceed a certain small diameter1 which may be considered as the ultimate limit of a series of such tubes1 is impervious to the inflamed air2 and that a lamp covered with such tissue1 may be used with perfect safety even in an explosive mixture1 which takes fire1 and burns within the cage1 securely cut off from the power of doing harm4 ,thus when the atmosphere is so impure that the flame of the lamp itself cannot be maintained1 the ,davy still supplies light to the miner1 and turns his worst enemy into an obedient servant4 ,this invention1 the certain source of large profit1 he presented with characteristic liberality to the public4 ,the words are preserved1 in which when pressed to secure to himself the benefit of it by a patent1 he declined to do so1 in conformity with the high-minded resolution which he formed upon acquiring independent wealth1 of never making his scientific eminence subservient to gain3--8,i have enough for all my views and purposes1 more wealth might be troublesome1 and distract my attention from those pursuits in which ,i delight4 ,more wealth could not increase my fame or happiness4 ,it might undoubtedly enable me to put four horses to my carriage1 but what would it avail me to have it said1 that ,sir ,humphry drives his carriage and four80 ,he who used wealth and distinction to such good purpose1 may be forgiven the weakness if he estimated them at too high a value4 ,the coal-owners of the north presented to him a service of plate1 in testimony of their gratitude4 ,he underwent1 however1 considerable vexation from claims to priority of invention1 set up by some persons connected with the collieries1 whose attention had been turned with very imperfect success to the same end4 ,the controversy has long been settled in his favour1 by the decision of the most eminent names in ,british science1 and the general voice of the owners of the ,newcastle coal-field3 and while the pits are worked1 the name of ,davy1 given by the colliers to the safety-lamp1 cannot be forgotten4 ,in #ahah he again visited ,naples1 with a view of applying the resources of chemistry to facilitate the unrolling of the papyri found in ,herculaneum4 ,these1 it is well known1 are generally in a state resembling charcoal1 often cemented into a solid mass1 and the texture so entirely destroyed1 that it is hardly possible to separate the layers4 ,examination of some specimens transmitted to ,england satisfied him that they had not been subjected to heat1 and that instead of being a true charcoal1 they were analogous to peat or to the lignite called ,bovey coal4 ,he concluded1 therefore1 that the rolls were cemented into one mass by a substance produced by fermentation in their vegetable substance1 and hoped to be able so far to destroy this1 as to facilitate the detaching one layer from another1 without obliterating the writing4 ,with this view he submitted fragments to the operation of chlorine and iodine1 with such fair hope of success1 that he was encouraged to proceed to ,naples2 the ,government furnishing him with every recommendation1 and defraying the expenses of such assistants as he thought it necessary to take out4 ,his success1 however1 fell short of his hopes2 and partly from disappointment1 partly from a belief that unfair obstacles were thrown in his way by interested persons1 he abandoned the undertaking at the end of two months1 having partially unrolled twenty-three ,,mss4 and examined about one hundred and twenty1 which offered no prospect of success4 ,his visit to ,naples led1 however1 to one conclusion of interest to geologists1 that the strata which cover ,herculaneum are not lava1 but a tufa consolidated by moisture1 and resembling that at ,pompeii except in its hardness4 ,in ,october1 #ahah1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy was created a baronet1 as a reward for his scientific services4 ,soon after his return to ,england in #ahbj1 died ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 the venerable ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,davy succeeded to the chair1 which he retained till forced to quit it by ill health1 zealous in fulfilling its duties1 without relaxing in his private labours4 ,it would have been better had he not obtained this honour4 ,his scientific pride disgusted some2 his aristocratic airs1 unpardonable in one so humbly born1 excited the ridicule of others4 ,much of this weakness may be traced to the pernicious effects of early flattery4 ,had he been content with chemical fame1 he would have spared some mortifications and heart-burnings both to himself and others4 ,his demeanour changed1 immediately after the delivery of his first lecture4 ,on the following day he dined with his early friend and patron1 ,sir ,henry ,englefield1 who1 speaking of his behaviour on that day after eighteen years had elapsed1 said1 8,it was the last effort of expiring nature40 ,such frailties1 though just grounds of censure and regret to his contemporaries1 will be lost in the splendour of his discoveries4 ,yet is the observation of them not useless as a warning to others3 for the higher the station1 the more closely will the actions of him who fills it be scrutinised1 especially if his elevation be the work of his own hands4 ,in #ahbc he undertook1 in consequence of an application from ,government to the ,royal ,society1 an inquiry into the possibility of preventing the rapid decay of the copper sheathing of ships4 ,his former ,voltaic discoveries at once explained the cause and suggested a remedy4 ,when two metals in contact with each other are exposed to moisture1 the more oxidable rapidly decays1 while on the less oxidable no effect is produced4 ,thus a very small piece of iron or zinc was found effectually to stop the solution of a very large surface of copper4 ,several ships were accordingly fitted with protectors1 as they were called1 which succeeded perfectly in preserving the copper2 but their use was found to be attended by an evil greater than that which they remedied4 ,the ships' bottoms grew foul with unexampled rapidity2 and the protectors were finally abandoned by the ,admiralty in #ahbh4 ,this failure was a source of much ill-natured remark to the many whom ,davy had offended1 or who were jealous of his reputation1 and of deep mortification to himself4 ,indeed he displayed an impatience of censure1 and irritability of temper1 far from dignified3 the spoilt child of fortune1 he could not bear the feeling of defeat1 still less the triumph of his enemies4 ,this weakness may perhaps be partly ascribed to declining health1 which must always more or less overcloud the mind1 especially of one whose amusements as well as his employments were of an active and stirring kind4 ,to the sports of fly-fishing and shooting he was devotedly attached2 and jealous1 even to a ludicrous degree1 of his reputation and success1 which it is said not always to have been so great as he would willingly have had it believed4 ,but his failing health gradually curtailed his enjoyment of these pleasures1 and towards the end of #ahbe1 the indisposition which his friends had long seen stealing on him reached its crisis in the form of an apoplectic attack4 ,all immediate cause of alarm was soon removed2 but the traces of his illness remained in a slight degree of paralysis1 which impaired1 though without materially affecting1 his muscular powers4 ,by the advice of his physicians he hastened abroad1 and passed the rest of the winter1 and the spring1 at ,ravenna4 ,in the summer he visited the ,tyrol and ,illyria1 and finding his health still precarious1 resigned the chair of the ,royal ,society4 ,in the autumn he returned to ,england1 having gained little strength4 ,the early winter he spent in ,somersetshire1 at the house of an old and valued friend1 too weak for severe mental exertion1 or to pursue successfully his favourite sports4 ,yet the ruling passion was still shown in the amusement of his sick hours1 which were chiefly devoted to the preparation of #8,salmonia4' ,of the merits of this book as a manual for the fly-fisher1 we presume not to speak4 ,to the general reader it may be safely recommended1 as containing many eloquent and poetical passages1 with much amusing information respecting the varieties and habits of the trout and salmon species1 and of the insect tribes on which they feed4 ,in the spring of #ahbh1 ,davy once more sought the ,continent in search of health4 ,his steps were turned to that favourite district1 of which he speaks as the 8most glorious country in ,europe1 ,illyria and ,styria20 where he solaced the weary hours of sickness1 by such field-sports as his failing health enabled him to pursue1 in the revision of an improved edition of #8,salmonia1' and in the composition of the #8,last ,days of a ,philosopher4' ,of this he says1 in a letter dated ,rome1 ,february #f1 #ahbi1 8,i write and philosophise a good deal1 and have nearly finished a work with a higher aim than #8,salmonia4' ,it contains the essence of my philosophical opinions1 and some of my poetical reveries40 ,under this sanction1 the reader will peruse with pleasure the sketch contained in the third dialogue of a geological history of the earth1 and the other questions of natural philosophy which are discussed4 ,a large portion of the work is occupied by metaphysical and religious disquisitions4 ,as a moral philosopher1 his opinions do not seem entitled to peculiar weight4 ,of his visionary excursion to the limits of the solar system1 it is not fair to speak but as the play of an exuberant imagination1 mastering the sober faculties of the mind4 ,the work contains many passages1 reflective and descriptive1 of unusual beauty2 and is a remarkable production to have been composed under the wasting influence of that disease1 which1 of all others1 usually exerts the most benumbing influence4 ,the winter of #ahbh-i he spent at ,rome2 with returning spring he expressed a wish to visit ,geneva1 but his hours were numbered4 ,he reached that city on ,may #bh1 unusually cheerful2 dined heartily on fish1 and desired to be daily supplied with every variety which the lake afforded3 a trifling circumstance1 yet interesting from its connection with his love of sport4 ,in the course of the night he was seized with a fresh attack1 and expired early in the morning without a struggle4 ,his remains were honoured by the magistrates with a public funeral1 and repose in the cemetery of ,plain ,palais4 ,he died without issue1 and the baronetcy is in consequence extinct4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4 ,,kosciuszko4 ,from a ,print engraved in #ahbi by ,a4 ,pleszczynski1 a ,pole4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,kosciusko ,among the remarkable men of modern times1 there is perhaps none1 whose fame is purer from reproach1 than that of ,thaddeus ,kosciusko4 ,his name is enshrined in the ruins of his unhappy country1 which1 with heroic bravery and devotion1 he sought to defend against foreign oppression1 and foreign domination4 ,kosciusko was born at ,warsaw1 about the year #agee4 ,he was educated at the school of ,cadets1 in that city1 where he distinguished himself so much in scientific studies as well as in drawing1 that he was selected as one of four students of that institution1 who were sent to travel at the expense of the state1 with a view of perfecting their talents4 ,in this capacity he visited ,france1 where he remained for several years1 devoting himself to studies of various kinds4 ,on his return to his own country he entered the army1 and obtained the command of a company4 ,but he was soon obliged to expatriate himself again1 in order to fly from a violent but unrequited passion1 for the daughter of the ,marshal of ,lithuania1 one of the first officers of state of the ,polish court4 ,he bent his step to that part of ,north ,america1 which was then waging its war of independence against ,england4 ,here he entered the army1 and served with distinction1 as one of the adjutants of ,general ,washington4 ,while thus employed1 he became acquainted with ,la ,fayette1 ,lameth1 and other distinguished ,frenchmen1 serving in the same cause2 and was honoured by receiving the most flattering praises from ,franklin1 as well as the public thanks of the ,congress of the ,united ,provinces4 ,he was also decorated with the new ,american order of ,cincinnatus1 being the only ,european1 except ,la ,fayette1 to whom it was given4 ,at the termination of the war he returned to his own country1 where he lived in retirement till the year #aghi1 at which period he was promoted by the ,diet to the rank of ,major-,general4 ,that body was at this time endeavouring to place its military force upon a respectable footing1 in the vain hope of restraining and diminishing the domineering influence of foreign powers1 in what still remained of ,poland4 ,it also occupied itself in changing the vicious constitution of that unfortunate and ill-governed country--in rendering the monarchy hereditary--in declaring universal toleration--and in preserving the privileges of the nobility1 while at the same time it ameliorated the condition of the lower orders4 ,in all these improvements1 ,stanislas ,poniatowski1 the reigning king1 readily concurred2 though the avowed intention of the ,diet was1 to render the crown hereditary in the ,saxon family4 ,the ,king of ,prussia 7,frederic ,william ,,ii471 who1 from the time of the ,treaty of ,cherson in #aghg1 between ,russia and ,austria1 had become hostile to the former power1 also encouraged the ,poles in their proceedings2 and even gave them the most positive assurances of assisting them1 in case the changes they were effecting occasioned any attacks from other sovereigns4 ,russia at length1 having made peace with the ,turks1 prepared to throw her sword into the scale4 ,a formidable opposition to the measures of the ,diet had arisen1 even among the ,poles themselves1 and occasioned what was called the confederation of ,targowicz1 to which the ,empress of ,russia promised her assistance4 ,the feeble ,stanislas1 who had proclaimed the new constitution1 in #agia1 bound himself in #agib to sanction the ,diet of ,grodno1 which restored the ancient constitution1 with all its vices and all its abuses4 ,in the meanwhile1 ,frederic ,william1 ,king of ,prussia1 who had so mainly contributed to excite the ,poles to their enterprises1 basely deserted them1 and refused to give them any assistance4 ,on the contrary1 he stood aloof from the contest1 waiting for that share of the spoil1 which the haughty ,empress of the north might think proper to allot to him1 as the reward of his non-interference4 ,but though thus betrayed on all sides1 the ,poles were not disposed to submit without a struggle4 ,they flew to arms1 and found in the nephew of their king1 the ,prince ,joseph ,poniatowski1 a general worthy to conduct so glorious a cause4 ,under his command ,kosciusko first became known in ,european warfare4 ,he distinguished himself in the battle of ,zielenec1 and still more in that of ,dubienska1 which took place on the #ahth of ,june1 #agib4 ,upon this latter occasion1 he defended for six hours1 with only four thousand men1 against fifteen thousand ,russians1 a post which had been slightly fortified in twenty-four hours1 and at last retired with inconsiderable loss4 ,but the contest was too unequal to last2 the patriots were overwhelmed by enemies from without1 and betrayed by traitors within1 at the head of whom was their own sovereign4 ,the ,russians took possession of the country1 and proceeded to appropriate those portions of ,lithuania and ,volhynia1 which suited their convenience2 while ,prussia1 the friendly ,prussia1 invaded another part of the kingdom4 ,under these circumstances1 the most distinguished officers in the ,polish army retired from the service1 and of this number was ,kosciusko4 ,miserable at the fate of his unhappy country1 and at the same time an object of suspicion to the ruling powers1 he left his native land1 and retired to ,leipsic2 where he received intelligence of the honour which had been conferred upon him by the ,legislative ,assembly of ,france1 who had invested him with the quality of a ,french citizen4 ,but his fellow-countrymen were still anxious to make another struggle for independence2 and they unanimously selected ,kosciusko as their chief and generalissimo4 ,he obeyed the call1 and found the patriots eager to combat under his orders4 ,even the noble ,joseph ,poniatowski1 who had previously commanded in chief1 returned from ,france1 whither he had retired1 and received from the hands of ,kosciusko the charge of a portion of his army4 ,the patriots had risen in the north of ,poland1 to which part ,kosciusko first directed his steps4 ,anxious to begin his campaign with an action of vigour1 he marched rapidly towards ,cracow1 which town he entered triumphantly on the #bdth of ,march1 #agid4 ,he forthwith published a manifesto against the ,russians2 and then1 at the head of only five thousand men1 he marched to meet their army4 ,he encountered1 on the #dth of ,april1 ten thousand ,russians at a place called ,wraclawic2 and entirely defeated them1 after a combat of four hours4 ,he returned in triumph to ,cracow1 and shortly afterwards marched along the left bank of the ,vistula to ,polaniec1 where he established his head quarters4 ,meanwhile the inhabitants of ,warsaw1 animated by the recital of the heroic deeds of their countrymen1 had also raised the standard of independence1 and were successful in driving the ,russians from the city1 after a murderous conflict of three days4 ,in ,lithuania and ,samogitia an equally successful revolution was effected1 before the end of ,april2 while the ,polish troops stationed in ,volhynia and ,podolia1 marched to the reinforcement of ,kosciusko4 ,thus far fortune seemed to smile upon the cause of ,polish freedom--the scene was1 however1 about to change4 ,the undaunted ,kosciusko1 having first organised a national council to conduct the affairs of government1 again advanced against the ,russians4 ,on his march1 he met a new enemy1 in the person of the faithless ,frederic ,william of ,prussia2 who1 without having even gone through the preliminary of declaring war1 had advanced into ,poland1 at the head of forty thousand men4 ,kosciusko1 with but thirteen thousand men1 attacked the ,prussian army on the #hth of ,june1 at ,szcekociny4 ,the battle was long and bloody2 at length1 overwhelmed with numbers1 he was obliged to retreat towards ,warsaw4 ,this he effected in so able a manner1 that his enemies did not dare to harass him in his march2 and he effectually covered the capital1 and maintained his position for two months against vigorous and continued attacks4 ,immediately after this reverse the ,polish ,general ,zaionczeck lost the battle of ,chelm1 and the ,governor of ,cracow had the baseness to deliver the town to the ,prussians1 without attempting a defence4 ,these disasters occasioned disturbances among the disaffected at ,warsaw1 which1 however1 were put down by the vigour and firmness of ,kosciusko4 ,on the #acth of ,july1 the forces of the ,prussians and ,russians1 amounting to fifty thousand men1 assembled under the walls of ,warsaw1 and commenced the siege of that city4 ,after six weeks spent before the place1 and a succession of bloody conflicts1 the confederates were obliged to raise the siege2 but this respite to the ,poles was but of short duration4 ,their enemies increased fearfully in number1 while their own resources diminished4 ,austria now determined to assist in the annihilation of ,poland1 and caused a body of her troops to enter that kingdom4 ,nearly at the same moment1 the ,russians ravaged ,lithuania2 and the two corps of the ,russian army1 commanded by ,suwarof and ,fersen1 effected their junction in spite of the battle of ,krupezyce1 which the ,poles had ventured upon with doubtful issue1 against the first of these commanders1 on the #afth of ,september4 ,upon receiving intelligence of these events1 ,kosciusko left ,warsaw and placed himself at the head of the ,polish army4 ,he was attacked by the very superior forces of the confederates on the #ajth of ,october1 #agid1 at a place called ,macieiowice2 and for many hours supported the combat against overwhelming odds4 ,at length he was severely wounded1 and as he fell1 he uttered the prophetic words1 8,finis ,poloni40 ,it is asserted1 that he had exacted from his followers an oath1 not to suffer him to fall alive into the hands of the ,russians1 and that in consequence the ,polish cavalry1 being unable to carry him off1 inflicted some severe sabre wounds on him1 and left him for dead on the field2 a savage fidelity1 which we half admire even in condemning it4 ,be this as it may1 he was recognised and delivered from the plunderers by some ,cossack chiefs2 and thus was saved from death to meet a scarcely less harsh fate--imprisonment in a ,russian dungeon4 ,thomas ,wawrzecki became the successor of ,kosciusko in the command of the army2 but with the loss of their heroic leader1 all hope had deserted the breasts of the ,poles4 ,they still1 however1 fought with all the obstinacy of despair1 and defended the suburb of ,warsaw1 called ,praga1 with great gallantry4 ,at length this post was wrested from them4 ,warsaw itself capitulated on the #ith of ,november1 #agid2 and this calamity was followed by the entire dissolution of the ,polish army on the #ahth of the same month4 ,during this time1 ,kosciusko remained in prison at ,petersburgh2 but1 at the end of two years1 the death of his persecutress the ,empress ,catherine released him4 ,one of the first acts of the ,emperor ,paul was to restore him to liberty1 and to load him with various marks of his favour4 ,among other gifts of the autocrat was a pension1 by which1 however1 the high-spirited patriot would never consent to profit4 ,no sooner was he beyond the reach of ,russian influence than he returned to the donor the instrument1 by which this humiliating favour was conferred4 ,from this period the life of ,kosciusko was passed in retirement4 ,he went first to ,england1 and then to the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,he returned to the ,old ,world in #agih1 and took up his abode in ,france1 where he divided his time between ,paris1 and a country-house he had bought near ,fontainbleau4 ,while here he received the appropriate present of the sword of ,john ,sobieski1 which was sent to him by some of his countrymen serving in the ,french armies in ,italy1 who had found it in the shrine at ,loretto4 ,napoleon1 when about to invade ,poland in #ahjg1 wished to use the name of ,kosciusko1 in order to rally the people of the country round his standard4 ,the patriot1 aware that no real freedom was to be hoped for under such auspices1 at once refused to lend himself to his wishes4 ,upon this the ,emperor forged ,kosciusko's signature to an address to the ,poles1 which was distributed throughout the country4 ,nor would he permit the injured person to deny the authenticity of this act in any public manner4 ,the real state of the case was1 however1 made known to many through the private representations of ,kosciusko2 but he was never able to publish a formal denial of the transaction till after the fall of ,napoleon4 ,when the ,russians in #ahad had penetrated into ,champagne1 and were advancing towards ,paris1 they were astonished to hear that their former adversary was living in retirement in that part of the country4 ,the circumstances of this discovery were striking4 ,the commune in which ,kosciusko lived was subjected to plunder1 and among the troops thus engaged he observed a ,polish regiment4 ,transported with anger he rushed among them1 and thus addressed the officers3 8,when ,i commanded brave soldiers they never pillaged2 and ,i should have punished severely subalterns who allowed of disorders such as those which we see around4 ,still more severely should ,i have punished older officers1 who authorized such conduct by their culpable neglect40--8,and who are you10 was the general cry1 8that you dare to speak with such boldness to us80--8,i am ,kosciusko40 ,the effect was electric3 the soldiery cast down their arms1 prostrated themselves at his feet1 and cast dust upon their heads according to a national usage1 supplicating his forgiveness for the fault which they had committed4 ,for twenty years the name of ,kosciusko had not been heard in ,poland save as that of an exile2 yet it still retained its ancient power over ,polish hearts2 a power never used but for some good and generous end4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander honoured him with a long interview1 and offered him an asylum in his own country4 ,but nothing could induce ,kosciusko again to see his unfortunate native land4 ,in #ahae1 he retired to ,soleure1 in ,switzerland2 where he died1 ,october #afth1 #ahag1 in consequence of an injury received by a fall from his horse4 ,not long before he had abolished slavery upon his ,polish estate1 and declared all his serfs entirely free1 by a deed registered and executed with every formality that could ensure the full performance of his intention4 ,the mortal remains of ,kosciusko were removed to ,poland at the expense of ,alexander1 and have found a fitting place of rest in the cathedral of ,cracow1 between those of his companions in arms1 ,joseph ,poniatowski1 and the greatest of ,polish warriors1 ,john ,sobieski4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,r4 ,woodman4 ,,john ,,flaxman4 ,from the original ,picture by ,john ,jackson1 in the possession of the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,dover4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,flaxman ,it was not till the time of ,banks and ,flaxman1 that the ,english school had produced any notable specimens of the lofty and heroic style in sculpture4 ,wilton1 ,bacon1 and ,nollekens1 were respectable in their line1 which was nearly confined to allegorical monuments and busts4 ,roubilliac1 though eminently unclassical1 possessed a superior style of art1 and has executed some works which for strength and liveliness of expression may challenge competition in this or any other country4 ,but the attainments and genius of the two first-mentioned artists were of a different1 and a loftier class4 ,those1 however1 who trace the history of the lives of ,flaxman and ,banks1 will find1 that whatever they achieved in the higher departments of sculpture was due solely to their ardent pursuit of excellence1 almost unaided by that patronage1 which1 in this country1 has been so liberally bestowed on other branches of the fine arts4 ,the heroic beauty and noble proportions of the ,mourning ,achilles1 fully establish the claim of ,banks to a high rank as a poetic sculptor2 this fine work of art1 however1 remained for years in plaster during his life1 and after his death was presented to the ,british ,gallery1 where it now stands in the hall1 8as a warning10 observes ,mr4 ,allan ,cunningham1 8to all sculptors who enter1 that works of classic fancy find slender encouragement here60 ,with respect to ,flaxman1 in an early period of his professional career1 he executed the outline illustrations of ,homer1 schylus1 and ,dante1 which at once established his fame2 and yet1 during a long life1 no single patron called upon him to embody in marble any one of these lofty conceptions1 the very existence of which forms the chief glory of the ,english school of poetic design4 ,the progress of sculpture in this country has been very recently traced by ,mr4 ,allan ,cunningham1 in his amusing #8,memoirs of ,british ,sculptors4' ,of these1 the last1 and most interesting1 is that of ,flaxman1 from the spirited and amusing pages of which1 together with the memoir prefixed to the ,lectures on ,sculpture1 this short account has been chiefly extracted4 ,john ,flaxman1 the second son of a moulder of figures1 who kept a shop in the ,strand for the sale of plaster casts1 was born in #agee4 ,like most who have been eminent as artists1 he early manifested a taste for drawing4 ,as soon as he could hold a pencil1 he took delight in copying whatever he saw1 and at an age when most children are engrossed with childish sports1 he had read many books1 and had begun to trace upon paper the lineaments and actions of those heroes who had engaged his fancy4 ,numerous stories are told of his fondness for that art to which his mature energies were devoted2 and1 allowing somewhat for the fond recollections of parents and friends1 it is fully established that young ,flaxman early showed proofs both of application and genius4 ,to this development of his talents1 his bodily constitution may have lent some aid1 for his health from infancy was delicate1 and a weak1 and somewhat deformed frame1 indisposed him from joining in the usual games of children4 ,his station in life did not enable him to profit by the common means of education2 he gathered his knowledge from various sources1 and mastered what he wanted by some of those ready methods which form part of the inspirations of genius4 ,the introduction1 through the means of an early patron1 ,mr4 ,mathew1 to ,mrs4 ,barbauld1 contributed to improve his education and form his taste4 ,in his fifteenth year he became a student in the ,royal ,academy4 ,here he formed an intimacy with ,blake and ,stothard1 both artists of original talent2 but1 like their more eminent companion1 less favoured by fortune than many not so deserving of patronage and applause4 ,at the ,academy1 ,flaxman obtained the silver medal1 but in the contest for the gold one1 he was worsted by ,engleheart1 a name now entirely forgotten4 ,flaxman1 however1 though humbled and mortified1 was only stimulated by this defeat to greater exertions and more unwearied application4 ,the narrow circumstances of his father did not allow him to devote his whole time to unproductive study4 ,his first employment was for the ,wedgewoods2 and to this fortunate combination of genius in the artist1 and enterprise1 skill1 and taste in the manufacturers1 the sudden and rapid improvement of the porcelain of this country is mainly to be ascribed4 8,the subjects executed by ,flaxman were chiefly small groups in very low relief1 from subjects of ancient verse and history2 many of which10 observes ,mr4 ,a4 ,cunningham1 8are equal in beauty and simplicity to his designs for marble3 the ,etruscan vases and the architectural ornaments of ,greece supplied him with the finest shapes2 these he embellished with his own inventions1 and a taste for forms of elegance began to be diffused over the land4 ,flaxman loved to allude1 even when his name was established1 to these humble labours2 and since his death1 the original models have been eagerly sought after40 ,a set of chessmen1 also executed for the ,wedgewoods1 are exceedingly beautiful4 ,whilst earning by his labour a decent subsistence1 he continued his devotion to the pursuit of his art1 making designs from the ,greek poets1 the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 and the ,bible4 ,he exhibited various works at the ,academy2 but it does not appear that he was enabled by patronage to execute any of these in marble1 and it is1 perhaps1 owing to the little practice that he had in early life in this mode of working1 that his admitted want of excellence in this branch of the art of sculpture is to be attributed4 ,in #aghb he left his father's home1 and married an amiable and accomplished woman1 whose society and affection formed the chief happiness of his after life4 ,all those who knew them1 describe in glowing terms the harmony and mutual affection in which they lived4 ,in #aghg he determined to visit ,rome4 ,two monuments which he executed before his departure deserve notice4 ,one is in memory of ,collins4 ,it represents the poet seated1 reading what he told ,dr4 ,johnson was his only book1 #8,,the ,,bible1' whilst his lyre and poetical compositions lie neglected on the ground4 ,the second is erected in ,gloucester cathedral1 to ,mrs4 ,morley1 who perished with her child at sea1 and is represented as rising with the infant from the waves1 at the summons of angels4 ,the simple and serene beauty of this work is admirably suited for monumental sculpture4 ,how he profited whilst at ,rome by the study of those noble specimens of ancient art1 to which modern artists resort as the best school of excellence1 is shown in the outline illustrations of ,homer1 schylus1 and ,dante2 works which spread his fame throughout ,europe1 and at once stamped the character of the ,english ,school of ,design4 ,these compositions1 which have been the admiration of every nation where art is cultivated1 which have been repeatedly published in ,germany and ,italy1 as well as in ,england1 and which have been commented on with unlimited praise by ,schlegel1 and almost every other modern writer on the fine arts1 were made1 the ,homeric series for fifteen shillings2 those taken from schylus and ,dante1 for one guinea each4 ,it is not creditable to ,english taste that this country does not possess a single group1 or even bas-relief1 executed from them1 although the author lived for more than thirty years after their publication4 ,of the illustrations of the ,iliad1 there are in all thirty-nine2 of the ,odyssey1 thirty-four4 ,of the designs from ,dante1 thirty-eight are taken from the ,hell1 thirty-eight from the ,purgatory1 and thirty-three from the ,paradise4 ,the ,homeric series was made for ,mrs4 ,hare4 ,the illustrations of schylus were undertaken at the desire of the ,countess ,spencer2 and those of the ,divina ,commedia were executed for ,mr4 ,thomas ,hope1 one of ,flaxman's early patrons1 for whom1 whilst at ,rome1 he executed in marble a very beautiful small-sized group of ,cephalus and ,aurora4 ,of these three series1 the ,homeric is the most popular4 ,this preference may1 perhaps1 be accounted for by the ,grecian poem being more generally familiar than that of ,dante3 yet the subject of the ,divina ,commedia in many respects appears to have been more congenial to the talents of the artist2 and perhaps an impartial judgment will pronounce1 that of all the works of ,flaxman1 the designs from ,dante best exhibit his peculiar genius4 ,during his stay at ,rome he executed for ,frederick1 ,earl of ,bristol and ,bishop of ,derry1 a group in marble1 which consisted of four figures larger than life1 representing the fury of ,athamas1 from ,ovid's ,metamorphoses3 by this he lost money1 the price agreed on being only six hundred guineas2 a sum insufficient to cover the expenses of the work4 ,the recollection of this piece of patronage was so disgusting1 to use the word by which he himself once characterized it1 that in after life he could not bear to talk on the subject4 ,whilst in ,italy he made numerous drawings and memoranda upon ancient art1 which afterwards formed the groundwork of his lectures on sculpture4 ,after an absence of seven years he returned to ,england1 and engaged a house in ,buckingham-street1 in which he continued to reside till his death4 ,his first great work after his return was a monument to the ,earl of ,mansfield4 ,in #agig he was elected an associate1 and in #ahjj1 a member of the ,royal ,academy1 to which he presented1 on his admission1 a marble group of ,apollo and ,marpessa4 ,he visited for a short time1 in #ahjb1 the splendid collections of the ,louvre1 in order to revive his early recollection of the works of art which had been brought from ,rome4 ,in #ahaj1 a professorship of sculpture having been established by the ,academy1 he was elected to fill the chair1 and his lectures were commenced in #ahaa4 ,those who had formed high expectations of eloquence1 and of felicity of diction and illustration1 were disappointed4 ,the sedate gravity of his manner1 his unimpassioned tone1 and the somewhat dull catalogue of statues and works of art which he occasionally introduced1 conduced to tire a general audience4 ,but the ten lectures1 which have been published since his death1 must always furnish an important manual to every student in sculpture4 ,the lectures on ,beauty1 and the contrast of ,ancient and ,modern ,sculpture1 are peculiarly interesting1 and embody nearly all which can be said on the leading principles of art4 ,in addition to these lectures he wrote several anonymous articles1 which are enumerated by ,mr4 ,cunningham4 ,these were the #8,character of the ,works of ,romney1' for ,hayley's life of that artist1 and either the whole or part of the articles1 ,armour1 ,basso-relievo1 ,beauty1 ,bronze1 ,bust1 ,composition1 ,cast1 ,ceres1 in ,rees's ,cyclopdia4 ,many of the opinions put forth in these different essays he has embodied in his lectures4 ,besides the designs already noticed1 he executed numerous illustrations of the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 forty designs for ,sotheby's translation of ,oberon1 and thirty-six designs from ,hesiod1 illustrating the story of ,pandora1 and exhibiting the effects of her descent on earth4 ,the subjects from ,hesiod were those in which his poetic fancy appeared most to delight4 ,in #ahbj1 ,flaxman lost his wife1 with whom he had lived in uninterrupted happiness for thirty-eight years1 and from the effects of this bereavement he seemed never entirely to recover4 ,a beloved sister1 and the sister of her whom he most loved1 remained to him1 and continued his companions till his death4 ,at the time of this domestic misfortune the artist was in the zenith of his fame4 ,commissions poured in1 and among them1 one order especially worthy of his talents1 for a group of the ,archangel ,michael vanquishing ,satan1 given by the ,earl of ,egremont1 a nobleman who has omitted no opportunity of patronising the fine arts in this country4 ,this group exhibits more grandeur of conception than any work of art of modern times4 ,unfortunately the marble of which it was cut was much discoloured1 and the work was not entirely finished at his death4 ,amongst the finest of ,flaxman's later productions1 ,mr4 ,cunningham enumerates his ,pysche1 the pastoral ,apollo 7also in the possession of ,lord ,egremont71 and two small statues of ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael4 ,but the most remarkable of them is the shield of ,achilles1 designed and modelled for ,messrs4 ,rundell and ,bridge1 the silversmiths4 ,the diameter is three feet1 and the description of ,homer has been strictly followed4 ,in the centre is the chariot of the sun1 in bold relief1 almost starting from the surface1 surrounded by the most remarkable of the heavenly bodies3 around the rim is rolled the ever flowing ocean4 ,the intermediate space is occupied by twelve scenes1 beautifully designed in conformity with the words of the poet4 ,for this the artist was paid #fbj4 ,four casts of it in silver were taken1 the first for the late ,king1 another for the ,duke of ,york1 the third for ,lord ,lonsdale1 the fourth for the ,duke of ,northumberland4 ,flaxman died on the #gth of ,december1 #ahbf1 of an inflammation of the lungs1 the result of a cold4 ,in person he was small1 and slightly deformed1 but his countenance was peculiarly placid and benign1 and greatly expressive of genius4 ,his dress1 manners1 and mode of life were simple in the extreme3 he was never found at the parties of the rich and great1 and mixed little even with his professional brethren4 ,his life was spent in a small circle of affectionate friends1 in his studio1 and in his workshops1 where those whom he employed looked up to him as a father4 ,amongst the different classes of his works1 the religious and the poetic were those in which he chiefly excelled4 ,the number of pure and exalted conceptions1 which he has left sketched in plaster or outlined in pencil1 is quite extraordinary4 8,his solitude10 observes ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 8was made enjoyment to him by a fancy teeming with images of tenderness1 purity1 or grandeur4 ,his genius1 in the strictest sense of the word1 was original and inventive40 ,among the most important of his works not before noticed1 is his monument to the memory of ,sir ,francis ,baring1 in ,mitcheldever ,church1 ,hants1 a work of exquisite beauty1 both in design and expression1 embodying the words1 8,thy kingdom come--thy will be done--deliver us from evil40 ,he also executed1 among others1 monuments to the memory of ,mary ,lushington1 of ,lewisham1 in ,kent1 to the ,countess ,spencer1 to the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,clowes1 of ,st4 ,john's ,church1 ,manchester1 and to the ,yarborough family at ,street ,thorpe1 near ,york4 ,this last1 and one to ,edward ,bulmer1 representing an aged man instructing a youthful pair1 ,flaxman considered the best of his compositions4 ,he executed several historical monuments to naval and military commanders4 ,these deal too largely in emblems and allegories1 ,britannias1 lions1 victories1 and wreaths of laurel1 to add much to the reputation of the artist3 especially as his forte lay in the exquisite feeling and grace of his conceptions1 not in manual dexterity of execution2 the chief merit to which such cold and uninteresting productions can lay claim4 ,he executed statues of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds2 of ,sir ,john ,moore1 in bronze1 of colossal size1 for ,glasgow2 of ,pitt1 for the ,town-,hall of the same city2 of ,burns2 and of ,kemble1 in the character of ,coriolanus4 ,that of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds 7one of his earliest7 is perhaps the best4 ,many of his works were sent abroad3 for ,india he executed a statue of the ,rajah of ,tanjore1 and a monument to the celebrated ,schwartz2 two monuments in memory of ,lord ,cornwallis1 a figure of ,warren ,hastings1 and a statue of the ,marquess of ,hastings4 ,since the death of ,flaxman1 six plates have been published by his sister1 from his designs4 ,the subjects are religious2 the engravings are admirable fac-similes of the original drawings1 which were made in his best time2 and perhaps there is no published work of his more illustrative of the peculiar taste and genius of the artist4 ,our ,portrait has been engraved from a fine picture by ,jackson1 in the possession of ,lord ,dover4 ,there is also an excellent portrait painted by ,howard1 and a good bust of ,flaxman was executed by ,baily some few years before our artist's death4 ,illustration3 8,feed the hungry10 from a bas-relief of ,flaxman4 ,illustration ,,copernicus ,the illustrious discoverer of the true planetary motions1 whose features are represented on the accompanying plate1 lived during the latter part of the fifteenth century1 and the first half of the following one4 ,notwithstanding the success and celebrity of the theory which still bears his name1 the materials are very scanty for personal details regarding his life and character4 ,this ignorance is not the result of recent neglect4 ,a century had scarcely elapsed from the time of his death1 when ,gassendi1 who1 at the request of the poet ,chapelain1 undertook to compile an account of him1 was forced to preface it by a similar declaration4 ,whilst ,europe rang from one end to the other with the fierce dispute to which the new views of the relation and motions of the heavenly bodies gave rise1 the character1 the situation and manner of life1 almost the country1 of the great author of the controversy1 remained unknown to the greater number of his admirers and opponents4 ,even the name of the discoverer of the ,copernican system now appears strange1 except in the ,latinised form of ,copernicus1 in which alone it occurs in his own writings and in those of his commentators4 ,nicolas ,cpernik#a1 to use his genuine appellation1 was a native of ,thorn1 a city of ,polish ,prussia1 situated on the river ,weichsel or ,vistula4 ,he was born in the year #adgc4 ,little is known of his parents1 except that his father1 whose name also was ,nicolas1 was a surgeon1 and1 as it is believed1 of ,german extraction4 ,the elder ,cpernik was undoubtedly a stranger at ,thorn1 where he was naturalized in #adfb3 he married ,barbara1 of the noble ,polish family of ,watzelrode4 ,luke1 one of her brothers1 attained the high dignity of ,bishop of ,ermeland in the year #adhi1 and the prospects of advancement which this connection held out to young ,cpernik1 probably induced his father to destine him to the ecclesiastical profession4 ,he acquired at home the first elements of a liberal education1 and afterwards graduated at ,cracow1 where he remained till he received the diploma of ,doctor in ,arts and ,medicine from that university4 ,he is said to have made considerable proficiency in the latter branch of study2 and possessed1 even in more advanced life1 so high a reputation for skill and knowledge1 as to produce an erroneous belief that he had once followed medicine4 ,footnote #a3 ,the authority for this manner of spelling the name is ,hartknoch1 ,alt und ,neues ,preussen4 ,the inscription1 ,nicolao ,copernico1 which appears on the plate1 is a literal copy of the inscription on the original picture4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,e4 ,scriven4 ,,nicolao ,,copernico4 ,from a ,picture in the possession of the ,royal ,society1 presented by ,dr4 ,wolf1 of ,dantzic1 ,june #f1 #aggj4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,he also exhibited at an early age a very decided taste for mathematical studies1 especially for astronomy2 and attended the lectures1 both public and private1 of ,albert ,brudzewski1 then mathematical professor at ,cracow4 ,under his tuition1 ,copernicus1 as we shall hereafter call him1 became acquainted with the works of the astronomer1 ,john ,mller1 7now more commonly known by his assumed appellation of ,regiomontanus17 and the reputation of this celebrated man is said to have exercised a marked influence in deciding the bent of his future studies4 ,mller died at ,rome a few years after the birth of ,copernicus1 and when the latter had reached an age capable of appreciating excellence and nourishing emulation1 he found ,mller's works disseminated through every civilized country of ,europe1 his genius and acquirements the subject of universal admiration1 and his premature death still regretted as a public calamity4 ,the feelings to which the contemplation of ,mller's success gave rise1 were still more excited by a journey into ,italy1 which ,copernicus undertook about the year #adie4 ,one of his brothers and his maternal uncle were already settled in ,rome1 which was therefore the point to which his steps eventually tended4 ,he quitted home in his twenty-third year2 when his diligence in cultivating the practical part of astronomy had already procured for him some reputation as a skilful observer4 ,it seems to have been in contemplation of this journey that he began to study painting1 in which he afterwards became a tolerable proficient4 ,bologna was the first place at which he made any stay1 being drawn thither by the reputation of the astronomical professor1 ,dominic ,maria ,novarra4 ,copernicus was not more delighted with this able instructor than ,novarra with his intelligent pupil4 ,he soon became an assistant and companion of ,novarra in his observations1 and in this capacity acquired considerable distinction1 so that on his departure from ,bologna and arrival at ,rome1 he found that his reputation had preceded him4 ,he was appointed to a professorship in that city1 where he continued to teach mathematics for some years with considerable success4 ,it does not appear at what time ,copernicus entered into holy orders3 probably it may have been during his residence at ,rome2 for on his return home he was named to the superintendence of the principal church in his native city ,thorn4 ,not long afterwards his uncle ,luke1 who1 in #adhi1 succeeded ,nicolas von ,thungen in the bishopric of ,ermeland1 enrolled him as one of the canons of his chapter4 ,the cathedral church of the diocese of ,ermeland is situated at ,frauenburg1 a small town built near one of the mouths of the ,vistula1 on the shore of the lake called ,frische ,haff1 separated only by a narrow strip of land from the ,gulf of ,dantzig4 ,in this situation1 rendered unfavourable to astronomical observations by the frequent marshy exhalations rising from the river and lake1 ,copernicus took up his future abode1 and made it the principal place of his residence during the remainder of his life4 ,here those astronomical speculations were renewed and perfected1 the results of which have for ever consigned to oblivion the subtle contrivances invented by his predecessors to account for the anomalies of their own complicated theories4 ,but we should form a very erroneous opinion of the life and character of ,copernicus1 if we considered him1 as it is probable that by most he is considered1 the quiet inhabitant of a cloister1 immersed solely in speculative inquiries4 ,his disposition did not unfit him for taking an active share in the stirring events which were occurring around him1 and it was not left entirely to his choice whether he would remain a mere spectator of them4 ,the chapter of ,ermeland1 at the time when he became a member of it1 was the centre of a violent political struggle1 in the decision of which ,copernicus himself was called on to act a considerable part4 ,in the latter half of the fifteenth century1 a bitter war was carried on between the ,king of ,poland and a military religious fraternity1 called the ,teutonic or ,german ,knights of ,st4 ,mary of ,jerusalem1 who were incorporated towards the end of the twelfth century4 ,having been called into ,prussia1 they established themselves permanently in the country1 built ,thorn and several other cities1 and gradually acquired a considerable share of independent power4 ,on the death of ,paul von ,segendorf1 bishop of ,ermeland1 ,casimir1 king of ,poland1 in pursuance of a design which he was then prosecuting1 to get into his own hands the nomination to all the bishoprics in his dominions1 appointed his secretary1 ,stanislas ,opporowski1 to the vacant see4 ,the chapter of ,ermeland proceeded notwithstanding to a separate nomination1 and elected ,nicolas von ,thungen4 ,opporowski1 backed by ,casimir1 entered ,ermeland at the head of a powerful army4 ,from this period the new ,bishop of ,ermeland necessarily made common cause with the ,german ,knights2 they renounced their allegiance to the crown of ,poland1 and threw themselves on the protection of ,matthias king of ,hungary4 ,at length1 ,casimir finding himself unable to master the confederacy1 separated ,nicolas von ,thungen from it1 by agreeing to recognise him as ,prince-,bishop of ,ermeland1 on the usual condition of homage4 ,nicolas thus became confirmed in his dignity1 but his unhappy subjects did not fare better on that account1 the country being now exposed to the fury of the ,german ,knights1 as it had suffered before from the violence of the ,polish soldiery4 ,these disturbances were continued during the life of ,luke ,watzelrode1 and the city of ,frauenburg1 as well as its neighbour ,braunsburg1 frequently became the theatre of warlike operations4 ,the management of the see was often committed to the care of ,copernicus during the absence of his uncle1 who on political grounds resided for the most part at the ,court2 and his activity in maintaining the rights of the chapter rendered him especially obnoxious to the ,teutonic ,order4 ,in one of the short intervals of tranquillity1 they took occasion to cite him before the meeting of the ,states at ,posen1 on account of some of his reports to his uncle concerning their encroachments4 ,gassendi1 who mentions this circumstance1 merely adds that at length his own and his uncle's merit secured the latter in the possession of his dignity4 ,in #aeab ,watzelrode died1 and ,copernicus was chosen as administrator of the see until the appointment of the new bishop1 ,fabian von ,losingen4 ,in #aeah the knights under their grand master1 ,albert of ,brandenburg1 took possession of ,frauenburg and burnt it to the ground4 ,during the following year hostilities continued in the immediate neighbourhood of ,frauenburg1 but in the course of that summer1 negotiations for peace between the ,teutonic ,order and the ,king of ,poland were begun1 through the mediation of the bishop4 ,at last a truce was agreed upon for four years1 during which ,fabian von ,losingen died1 and ,copernicus was again chosen administrator of the bishopric4 ,in #aebe peace was concluded with the ,teutonic ,knights1 ,albert having consented to receive ,prussia as a temporal fief from the ,king of ,poland4 ,it was probably on this occasion that ,copernicus was selected to represent the chapter of ,ermeland at the ,diet at ,graudenz1 where the terms of peace were finally settled2 and by his firmness the chapter recovered great part of the possessions which had been endangered during the war4 ,this service to his chapter was followed by another of more widely extended importance4 ,during the struggle1 which had continued with little interruption for more than half a century1 the currency had become greatly debased and depreciated2 and one of the most important subjects of deliberation at the meeting at ,graudenz related to the best method of restoring it4 ,there was a great difference of opinion whether the intended new coinage should be struck according to the old value of the currency1 or according to that to which it had fallen in consequence of its adulteration4 ,to assist in the settlement of this important question1 ,copernicus drew up a table of the relative value of the coins1 then in circulation throughout the country4 ,he presented this to the ,states1 accompanied by a memoir on the same subject1 an extract from which may be seen in ,hartknoch's ,history of ,prussia4 ,throughout the troublesome period of which we have just given an outline1 ,copernicus seems to have displayed much political courage and talent4 ,when tranquillity was at length restored1 he resumed the astronomical studies which had been thus interrupted by more active duties4 ,there appears to be little doubt that the philosopher began to meditate on the ideas which led him to the true knowledge of the constitution of the solar system1 at least as early as #aejg4 ,every one1 who has heard the name of ,copernicus mentioned1 is aware that before him the general belief was1 that the earth occupies the centre of the universe2 that the changes of day and night are produced by the rapid revolution of the heavens1 such as our senses erroneously lead us to believe1 until more accurate and complicated observation teaches us the contrary2 that the change of seasons and apparent motions of the planetary bodies are caused by the revolution of the sun and planets from west to east round the earth1 in orbits of various complexity1 subject to the common daily motion of all from east to west4 ,instead of the daily motion of the heavens from east to west1 ,copernicus substituted the revolution of the earth itself from west to east4 ,he explained the other phenomena of the planetary motions by supposing the sun to be fixed1 and the earth and other planets to revolve about him2 not1 however1 in simple circular orbits1 according to the popular view of the ,copernican theory4 ,it was absolutely necessary to retain much of the old machinery of deferent and epicycle so long as the prejudice existed1 from which ,copernicus himself was not free1 that nothing but circular motion is to be found in the heavens4 ,another step was made by the following generation1 and astronomers were taught by ,kepler to believe that the circular motion which they were so anxious to preserve in their theories1 has no real existence in the planetary orbits4 ,the advantage of the new system above the old1 was1 that by not denying to the earth the motion which it really possesses1 the author had to invent epicycles to explain only the real irregularities of the motions of the other planets1 and not those apparent ones which arise out of the motion of the orb from which they are viewed4 ,it is commonly said that besides the two motions already mentioned1 ,copernicus attributed to the earth a third annual revolution on its axis4 ,this was necessary from the idea which he had formed of its motion in its orbit4 ,he conceived the earth to be carried round as if resting on a lever centred in the sun1 which would cause the poles of the daily motion to point successively to different parts of the heavens2 the third motion was added to restore these poles to their true position in every part of the orbit4 ,it was afterwards seen that these two annual motions might be considered as resulting from one of a different kind1 and in this simpler form they are now always considered by astronomical writers4 ,it would be an interesting inquiry to follow ,copernicus through the train of reasoning which induced him to venture upon these changes2 but it is impossible to attempt this1 or to explain his system1 within the limits to which this sketch is necessarily confined4 ,in one point of view1 his peculiar merit appears not to be in general sufficiently insisted upon4 ,if he had merely suggested the principles of his new theory1 he would doubtless have acquired1 as now1 the glory of lighting upon the true order of the solar system1 and of founding thereupon a new school of astronomy3 but his peculiar and characteristic merit1 that by which he really earned his reputation1 and which entitles him to take rank by the side of ,newton in the history of astronomy1 was the result of his conviction1 that if his principles were indeed true1 they would be verified by the examination of details1 and the persevering resolution with which he thereupon set himself to rebuild an astronomical theory from the foundation4 ,this was the reason1 at least as much as the fear of incurring censure1 why he delayed the publication of his system for thirty-six years4 ,during the greater part of that time he was employed in collecting1 by careful observation1 the materials of which it is constructed3 the opinions on which it is based1 comprising the whole of what was afterwards declared to be heretical and impious1 were widely known to be entertained by him long before the work itself appeared4 ,he delayed to announce them formally1 until he was able at the same time to show that they were not random guesses1 taken up from a mere affectation of novelty2 but that with their assistance he had compiled tables of the planetary motions1 which were immediately acknowledged even by those whose minds revolted most against the means by which they were obtained1 to be far more correct than any which till then had appeared4 ,copernicus's book seems to have been nearly completed in #aecf1 which is the date of a letter addressed to him by ,cardinal ,schonberg1 prefixed to the work4 ,so far at this time was the church of ,rome from having decided on the line of stubborn opposition to the new opinions1 which1 in the following century1 so much to her own disgrace1 she adopted1 that ,copernicus was chiefly moved to complete and publish his work by the solicitations of this cardinal1 and of ,tindemann ,giese1 the bishop of ,culm2 and the book itself was dedicated to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 ,it is entitled1 #8,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,clestium1 ,libri ,,vi4' ,the dedication is written in a very different strain from that to which his followers were soon afterwards restricted4 ,he there boldly avows his expectation that his theory would be attacked as contrary to the ,scriptures1 and his contempt of such ill-considered judgment4 ,a more timid preface1 in which the new theory is spoken of as a mere mathematical hypothesis1 was added to this dedication by ,osiander1 to whom ,copernicus had entrusted the care of preparing the book for publication4 ,it has been said that the author was far from approving this1 and if his death had not followed closely upon its publication1 it is not improbable that he would have suppressed it4 ,the revolution of opinion that has followed the publication of this memorable work was not immediately perceptible3 even to the end of the sixteenth century1 as ,montucla observes1 the number of converts to its doctrines might be easily reckoned4 ,the majority contented themselves with a disdainful sneer at the folly of introducing such ridiculous notions among the grave doctrines of astronomy3 but although impertinent1 it was as yet considered harmless2 and all those who were at the pains to examine the reasoning on which the new theory was grounded1 were allowed1 unmolested1 to own themselves convinced by it4 ,it was not until the spirit of philosophical inquiry was fully awakened1 that the church of ,rome became sensible how much danger lurked in the new doctrines2 and when the struggle began in earnest between the partisans of truth and falsehood1 the censures pronounced upon the advocates of the earth's motion1 were in fact aimed through them at all who presumed1 even in natural phenomena1 to see with other eyes than those of their spiritual advisers4 ,copernicus did not live to witness any part of the effect produced by his book4 ,a sudden attack of dysentery and paralysis put an end to his life1 within a few hours after the first printed copy had been shown to him1 in his seventy-second year1 on the #bdth ,may1 #aedc1 one century before the birth of ,newton4 ,the house at ,thorn1 in which he is said to have been born1 is still shown1 as well as that at ,frauenburg1 in which he passed the greater part of his life4 ,an hydraulic machine1 of which only the remains now exist1 for supplying the houses of the canons with water1 and another of similar construction at ,graudenz1 which is still in use1 are said to have been constructed by him4 ,an account of them may be seen in ,nanke's ,travels4 ,from the little that is known of ,copernicus's private character1 his morals appear to have been unexceptionable2 his temper good1 his disposition kind1 but inclining to seriousness4 ,he was so highly esteemed in his own neighbourhood1 that the attempt of a dramatic author to satirise him1 by introducing his doctrine of the earth's motion upon the stage at ,elbing1 was received by the audience with the greatest indignation4 ,he was buried in the cemetery of the chapter of ,ermeland1 and only a plain marble slab1 inscribed with his name1 marked the place of his interment4 ,until this was rediscovered in the latter half of the last century1 an opinion prevailed that his remains had been transported to ,thorn1 and buried in the church of ,st4 ,john1 where the portrait of him is preserved1 from which most of the prints in circulation have been taken4 ,it is engraved in ,hartknoch's ,prussia1 and1 according to that author1 copies of it were frequently made4 ,the portrait prefixed to ,gassendi's life1 is a copy of that given in ,boissard1 with the addition of a furred robe4 ,there is a good engraving of the same likeness1 by ,falck1 a ,polish artist1 who lived about a century later than ,copernicus4 ,in the year #aehd1 ,tycho ,brahe commissioned ,elia ,olai to visit ,frauenburg1 for the purpose of more accurately determining the latitude of ,copernicus's observatory1 and1 on that occasion1 received as a present from the chapter the ,ptolemaic scales1 made by the astronomer himself1 which he used in his observatory1 and also a portrait of him said to have been painted by his own hand4 ,tycho placed these memorials1 with great honour1 in his own observatory1 but it is not known what became of them after his death1 and the dispersion of his instruments4 ,the portrait1 from which the engraving prefixed to this account is taken1 belongs to the ,royal ,society1 to which it was sent by ,dr4 ,wolff1 from ,dantzig1 in #aggf4 ,it was copied by ,lormann1 a ,prussian artist1 from one which had been long preserved and recognised as an original in the collection of the ,dukes of ,saxe ,gotha4 ,in #agce1 ,prince ,grabowski1 bishop of ,ermeland1 exchanged for it the portrait of an ancestor of the reigning duke1 who had been formerly bishop of that see4 ,grabowski left it to his chamberlain1 ,m4 ,hussarzewski1 in whose possession it remained when the copy was made4 ,dr4 ,wolff1 in the letter accompanying his present1 7inserted in the ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 lxvii47 declares that this original had been compared with the ,thorn portrait1 and that the resemblance of the two is perfect4 ,it does not appear very striking in the engravings4 ,a colossal statue of ,copernicus1 executed by ,thorwaldsen1 was erected at ,warsaw in #ahcj1 with all the demonstrations of honour due to the memory of a man who holds so distinguished a place in the history of human discoveries4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,t4 ,woolnoth4 ,,john ,,milton4 ,from a ,miniature of the same size by ,faithorne4 ,anno #affg1 in the possession of ,william ,falconer ,esq4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,milton ,that sanctity which settles on the memory of a great man1 ought upon a double motive to be vigilantly sustained by his countrymen2 first1 out of gratitude to him1 as one column of the national grandeur2 secondly1 with a practical purpose of transmitting unimpaired to posterity the benefit of ennobling models4 ,high standards of excellence are among the happiest distinctions by which the modern ages of the world have an advantage over earlier1 and we are all interested by duty as well as policy in preserving them inviolate4 ,to the benefit of this principle1 none amongst the great men of ,england is better entitled than ,milton1 whether as respects his transcendent merit1 or the harshness with which his memory has been treated4 ,john ,milton was born in ,london on the #ith day of ,december1 #afjh4 ,his father1 in early life1 had suffered for conscience' sake1 having been disinherited upon his abjuring the popish faith4 ,he pursued the laborious profession of a scrivener1 and having realised an ample fortune1 retired into the country to enjoy it4 ,educated at ,oxford1 he gave his son the best education that the age afforded4 ,at first1 young ,milton had the benefit of a private tutor3 from him he was removed to ,st4 ,paul's ,school2 next he proceeded to ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and finally1 after several years' preparation by extensive reading1 he pursued a course of continental travel4 ,it is to be observed1 that his tutor1 ,thomas ,young1 was a ,puritan1 and there is reason to believe that ,puritan politics prevailed among the fellows of his college4 ,this must not be forgotten in speculating on ,milton's public life1 and his inexorable hostility to the established government in church and state2 for it will thus appear probable1 that he was at no time withdrawn from the influence of ,puritan connections4 ,in #afcb1 having taken the degree of ,m4,a41 ,milton finally quitted the ,university1 leaving behind him a very brilliant reputation1 and a general good will in his own college4 ,his father had now retired from ,london1 and lived upon his own estate at ,horton1 in ,buckinghamshire4 ,in this rural solitude1 ,milton passed the next five years1 resorting to ,london only at rare intervals1 for the purchase of books or music4 ,his time was chiefly occupied with the study of ,greek and ,roman1 and1 no doubt1 also of ,italian literature4 ,but that he was not negligent of composition1 and that he applied himself with great zeal to the culture of his native literature1 we have a splendid record in his #8,comus1' which1 upon the strongest presumptions1 is ascribed to this period of his life4 ,in the same neighbourhood1 and within the same five years1 it is believed that he produced also the ,arcades1 and the ,lycidas1 together with ,l',allegro1 and ,il ,penseroso4 ,in #afcg ,milton's mother died1 and in the following year he commenced his travels4 ,the state of ,europe confined his choice of ground to ,france and ,italy4 ,the former excited in him but little interest4 ,after a short stay at ,paris he pursued the direct route to ,nice1 where he embarked for ,genoa1 and thence proceeded to ,pisa1 ,florence1 ,rome1 and ,naples4 ,he originally meant to extend his tour to ,sicily and ,greece2 but the news of the first ,scotch war1 having now reached him1 agitated his mind with too much patriotic sympathy to allow of his embarking on a scheme of such uncertain duration4 ,yet his homeward movements were not remarkable for expedition4 ,he had already spent two months in ,florence1 and as many in ,rome1 yet he devoted the same space of time to each of them on his return4 ,from ,florence he proceeded to ,lucca1 and thence1 by ,bologna and ,ferrara1 to ,venice2 where he remained one month1 and then pursued his homeward route through ,verona1 ,milan1 and ,geneva4 ,sir ,henry ,wotton had recommended1 as the rule of his conduct1 a celebrated ,italian proverb1 inculcating the policy of reserve and dissimulation4 ,from a practised diplomatist1 this advice was characteristic2 but it did not suit the frankness of ,milton's manners1 nor the nobleness of his mind4 ,he has himself stated to us his own rule of conduct1 which was to move no questions of controversy1 yet not to evade them when pressed upon him by others4 ,upon this principle he acted1 not without some offence to his associates1 nor wholly without danger to himself4 ,but the offence1 doubtless1 was blended with respect2 the danger was passed2 and he returned home with all his purposes fulfilled4 ,he had conversed with ,galileo2 he had seen whatever was most interesting in the monuments of ,roman grandeur1 or the triumphs of ,italian art2 and he could report with truth1 that in spite of his religion1 every where undissembled1 he had been honoured by the attentions of the great1 and by the compliments of the learned4 ,after fifteen months of absence1 ,milton found himself again in ,london at a crisis of unusual interest4 ,the king was on the eve of his second expedition against the ,scotch2 and we may suppose ,milton to have been watching the course of events with profound anxiety1 not without some anticipation of the patriotic labour which awaited him4 ,meantime he occupied himself with the education of his sister's two sons1 and soon after1 by way of obtaining an honourable maintenance1 increased the number of his pupils4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 himself at one period of his life a schoolmaster1 on this occasion indulges in a sneer which is too injurious to be neglected4 8,let not our veneration for ,milton10 says he1 8forbid us to look with some degree of merriment on great promises and small performance3 on the man who hastens home because his countrymen are contending for their liberty2 and when he reaches the scene of action1 vapours away his patriotism in a private boarding-school40 ,it is not true that ,milton had made 8great promises10 or any promises at all4 ,but if he had made the greatest1 his exertions for the next sixteen years nobly redeemed them4 ,in what way did ,dr4 ,johnson expect that his patriotism should be expressed8 ,as a soldier8 ,milton has himself urged his bodily weakness and intellectual strength1 as reasons for following a line of duty for which he was better fitted4 ,was he influenced in his choice by fear of military dangers or hardships8 ,far from it3 8for ,i did not10 he says1 8shun those evils1 without engaging to render to my fellow-citizens services much more useful1 and attended with no less of danger40 ,what services were those8 ,we shall state them in his own words1 anticipated from an after period4 8,when ,i observed that there are in all three modes of liberty--first1 ecclesiastical liberty2 secondly1 civil liberty2 thirdly1 domestic3 having myself already treated of the first1 and noticing that the magistrate was taking steps in behalf of the second1 ,i concluded that the third1 that is to say1 domestic1 or household liberty1 remained to me as my peculiar province4 ,and whereas this again is capable of a threefold division1 accordingly as it regards the interests of conjugal life in the first place1 or those of education in the second1 or finally the freedom of speech1 and the right of giving full publication to sound opinions1--,i took it upon myself to defend all three1 the first1 by my ,doctrine and ,discipline of ,divorce1 the second1 by my ,tractate upon ,education1 the third1 by my ,areopagitica40 ,in #afda he conducted his defence of ecclesiastical liberty1 in a series of attacks upon episcopacy4 ,these are written in a bitter spirit of abusive hostility1 for which we seek an insufficient apology in his exclusive converse with a party which held bishops in abhorrence1 and in the low personal respectability of a large portion of the episcopal bench4 ,at ,whitsuntide1 in the year #afde1 having reached his #ceth year1 he married ,mary ,powel1 a young lady of good extraction in the county of ,oxford4 ,one month after1 he allowed his wife to visit her family4 ,this permission1 in itself somewhat singular1 the lady abused2 for when summoned back to her home1 she refused to return4 ,upon this provocation1 ,milton set himself seriously to consider the extent of the obligations imposed by the nuptial vow2 and soon came to the conclusion1 that in point of conscience it was not less dissoluble for hopeless incompatibility of temper than for positive adultery1 and that human laws1 in as far as they opposed this principle1 called for reformation4 ,these views he laid before the public in his ,doctrine and ,discipline of ,divorce4 ,in treating this question1 he had relied entirely upon the force of argument1 not aware that he had the countenance of any great authorities2 but finding soon afterwards that some of the early reformers1 ,bucer and ,p4 ,martyr1 had taken the same view as himself1 he drew up an account of their comments on this subject4 ,hence arose the second of his tracts on ,divorce4 ,meantime1 as it was certain that many would abide by what they supposed to be the positive language of ,scripture1 in opposition to all authority whatsoever1 he thought it advisable to write a third tract on the proper interpretation of the chief passages in ,scripture1 which refer to this point4 ,a fourth tract1 by way of answer to the different writers who had opposed his opinions1 terminated the series4 ,meantime the lady1 whose rash conduct had provoked her husband into these speculations1 saw reason to repent of her indiscretion1 and finding that ,milton held her desertion to have cancelled all claims upon his justice1 wisely resolved upon making her appeal to his generosity4 ,this appeal was not made in vain3 in a single interview at the house of a common friend1 where she had contrived to surprise him1 and suddenly to throw herself at his feet1 he granted her a full forgiveness3 and so little did he allow himself to remember her misconduct1 or that of her family1 in having countenanced her desertion1 that soon afterwards1 when they were involved in the general ruin of the royal cause1 he received the whole of them into his house1 and exerted his political influence very freely in their behalf4 ,fully to appreciate this behaviour1 we must recollect that ,milton was not rich1 and that no part of his wife's marriage portion 7#ajjj7 was ever paid to him4 ,his thoughts now settled upon the subject of education1 which it must not be forgotten that he connected systematically with domestic liberty4 ,in #afdd he published his essay on this great theme1 in the form of a letter to his friend ,hartlib1 himself a person of no slight consideration4 ,in the same year he wrote his #8,areopagitica1 a speech for the liberty of unlicensed printing4' ,this we are to consider in the light of an oral pleading1 or regular oration1 for he tells us expressly ,def4 #b4 that he wrote it 8ad just orationis modum40 ,it is the finest specimen extant of generous scorn4 ,and very remarkable it is1 that ,milton1 who broke the ground on this great theme1 has exhausted the arguments which bear upon it4 ,he opened the subject3 he closed it4 ,and were there no other monument of his patriotism and his genius1 for this alone he would deserve to be held in perpetual veneration4 ,in the following year1 #afde1 was published the first collection of his early poems3 with his sanction1 undoubtedly1 but probably not upon his suggestion4 ,the times were too full of anxiety to allow of much encouragement to polite literature3 at no period were there fewer readers of poetry4 ,and for himself in particular1 with the exception of a few sonnets1 it is probable that he composed as little as others read1 for the next ten years3 so great were his political exertions4 ,early in #afdi the king was put to death4 ,for a full view of the state of parties which led to this memorable event1 we must refer the reader to the history of the times4 ,that act was done by the ,independent party1 to which ,milton belonged1 and was precipitated by the intrigues of the ,presbyterians1 who were making common cause with the king1 to ensure the overthrow of the ,independents4 ,the lamentations and outcries of the ,presbyterians were long and loud4 ,under colour of a generous sympathy with the unhappy prince1 they mourned for their own political extinction1 and the triumph of their enemies4 ,this ,milton well knew1 and to expose the selfishness of their clamours1 as well as to disarm their appeals to the popular feeling1 he now published his #8,tenure of ,kings and ,magistrates4' ,in the first part of this1 he addresses himself to the general question of tyrannicide1 justifying it1 first1 by arguments of general reason1 and secondly1 by the authority of the reformers4 ,but in the latter part he argues the case personally1 contending that the ,presbyterians at least were not entitled to condemn the king's death1 who1 in levying war1 and doing battle against the king's person1 had done so much that tended to no other result4 8,if then10 is his argument1 8in these proceedings against their king1 they may not finish1 by the usual course of justice1 what they have begun1 they could not lawfully begin at all40 ,the argument seems inconclusive1 even as addressed ad hominem3 the struggle bore the character of a war between independent parties1 rather than a judicial inquiry1 and in war the life of a prisoner becomes sacred4 ,at this time the ,council of ,state had resolved no longer to employ the language of a rival people in their international concerns1 but to use the ,latin tongue as a neutral and indifferent instrument4 ,the office of ,latin ,secretary1 therefore1 was created1 and bestowed upon ,milton4 ,his hours from henceforth must have been pretty well occupied by official labours4 ,yet at this time he undertook a service to the state1 more invidious1 and perhaps more perilous1 than any in which his politics ever involved him4 ,on the very day of the king's execution1 and even below the scaffold1 had been sold the earliest copies of a work1 admirably fitted to shake the new government1 and for the sensation which it produced at the time1 and the lasting controversy which it has engendered1 one of the most remarkable known in literary history4 ,this was the #8,eikon ,basilike1 or ,royal ,image1' professing to be a series of meditations drawn up by the late king1 on the leading events from the very beginning of the national troubles4 ,appearing at this critical moment1 and co-operating with the strong reaction of the public mind1 already effected in the king's favour by his violent death1 this book produced an impression absolutely unparalleled in any age4 ,fifty thousand copies1 it is asserted1 were sold within one year2 and a posthumous power was thus given to the king's name by one little book1 which exceeded1 in alarm to his enemies1 all that his armies could accomplish in his lifetime4 ,no remedy could meet the evil in degree4 ,as the only one that seemed fitted to it in kind1 ,milton drew up a running commentary upon each separate head of the original3 and as that had been entitled the king's image1 he gave to his own the title of #8,eikonoclastes1 or ,image-breaker1' 8the famous surname of many ,greek emperors1 who broke all superstitious images in pieces40 ,this work was drawn up with the usual polemic ability of ,milton2 but by its very plan and purpose1 it threw him upon difficulties which no ability could meet4 ,it had that inevitable disadvantage which belongs to all ministerial and secondary works3 the order and choice of topics being all determined by the ,eikon1 ,milton1 for the first time1 wore an air of constraint and servility1 following a leader and obeying his motions1 as an engraver is controlled by the designer1 or a translator by his original4 ,it is plain1 from the pains he took to exonerate himself from such a reproach1 that he felt his task to be an invidious one4 ,the majesty of grief1 expressing itself with ,christian meekness1 and appealing1 as it were from the grave1 to the consciences of men1 could not be violated without a recoil of angry feeling1 ruinous to the effect of any logic1 or rhetoric the most persuasive4 ,the affliction of a great prince1 his solitude1 his rigorous imprisonment1 his constancy to some purposes which were not selfish1 his dignity of demeanour in the midst of his heavy trials1 and his truly ,christian fortitude in his final sufferings--these formed a rhetoric which made its way to all hearts4 ,against such influences the eloquence of ,greece would have been vain4 ,the nation was spell-bound2 and a majority of its population neither could or would be disenchanted4 ,milton was ere long called to plead the same great cause of liberty upon an ampler stage1 and before a more equitable audience2 to plead not on behalf of his party against the ,presbyterians and ,royalists1 but on behalf of his country against the insults of a hired ,frenchman1 and at the bar of the whole ,christian world4 ,charles ,,ii4 had resolved to state his father's case to all ,europe4 ,this was natural1 for very few people on the continent knew what cause had brought his father to the block1 or why he himself was a vagrant exile from his throne4 ,for his advocate he selected ,claudius ,salmasius1 and that was most injudicious4 ,this man1 eminent among the scholars of the day1 had some brilliant accomplishments1 which were useless in such a service1 while in those which were really indispensable1 he was singularly deficient4 ,he was ignorant of the world1 wanting in temper and self-command1 conspicuously unfurnished with eloquence1 or the accomplishments of a good writer1 and not so much as master of a pure ,latin style4 ,even as a scholar1 he was very unequal2 he had committed more important blunders than any man of his age1 and being generally hated1 had been more frequently exposed than others to the harsh chastisements of men inferior to himself in learning4 ,yet the most remarkable deficiency of all which ,salmasius betrayed1 was in his entire ignorance1 whether historical or constitutional1 of every thing which belonged to the case4 ,having such an antagonist1 inferior to him in all possible qualifications1 whether of nature1 of art1 of situation1 it may be supposed that ,milton's triumph was absolute4 ,he was now thoroughly indemnified for the poor success of his #8,eikonoclastes4' ,in that instance he had the mortification of knowing that all ,england read and wept over the king's book1 whilst his own reply was scarcely heard of4 ,but here the tables were turned3 the very friends of ,salmasius complained1 that while his defence was rarely inquired after1 the answer to it1 #8,defensio pro ,populo ,anglicano1' was the subject of conversation from one end of ,europe to the other4 ,it was burnt publicly at ,paris and ,toulouse3 and by way of special annoyance to ,salmasius1 who lived in ,holland1 was translated into ,dutch4 ,salmasius died in #afec1 before he could accomplish an answer that satisfied himself3 and the fragment which he left behind him was not published1 until it was no longer safe for ,milton to rejoin4 ,meantime others pressed forward against ,milton in the same controversy1 of whom some were neglected1 one was resigned to the pen of his nephew1 ,philips1 and one answered diffusely by himself4 ,this was ,du ,moulin1 or1 as ,milton persisted in believing1 ,morus1 a reformed minister then resident in ,holland1 and at one time a friend of ,salmasius4 ,for two years after the publication of this man's book 7,regii ,sanguinis ,clamor7 ,milton received multiplied assurances from ,holland that ,morus was its true author4 ,this was not wonderful4 ,morus had corrected the press1 had adopted the principles and passions of the book1 and perhaps at first had not been displeased to find himself reputed the author4 ,in reply1 ,milton published his #8,defensio ,secunda pro ,populo ,anglicano1' seasoned in every page with some stinging allusions to ,morus4 ,all the circumstances of his early life are recalled1 and some were such as the grave divine would willingly have concealed from the public eye4 ,he endeavoured to avert too late the storm of wit and satire about to burst on him1 by denying the work1 and even revealing the author's real name3 but ,milton resolutely refused to make the slightest alteration4 ,the true reason of this probably was that the work was written so exclusively against ,morus1 full of personal scandal1 and puns and gibes upon his name1 which in ,greek signifies foolish1 that it would have been useless as an answer to any other person4 ,in ,milton's conduct on this occasion1 there is a want both of charity and candour4 ,personally1 however1 ,morus had little ground for complaint3 he had bearded the lion by submitting to be reputed the author of a work not his own4 ,morus replied1 and ,milton closed the controversy by a defence of himself1 in #afee4 ,he had1 indeed1 about this time some domestic afflictions1 which reminded him of the frail tenure on which all human blessings were held1 and the necessity that he should now begin to concentrate his mind upon the great works which he meditated4 ,in #afea his first wife died1 after she had given him three daughters4 ,in that year he had already lost the use of one eye1 and was warned by the physicians that if he persisted in his task of replying to ,salmasius1 he would probably lose the other4 ,the warning was soon accomplished1 according to the common account1 in #afed2 but upon collating his letter to ,philaras the ,athenian1 with his own pathetic statement in the ,defensio ,secunda1 we are disposed to date it from #afeb4 ,in #afee he resigned his office of secretary1 in which he had latterly been obliged to use an assistant4 ,some time before this period1 he had married his second wife1 ,catherine ,woodcock1 to whom it is supposed that he was very tenderly attached4 ,in #afeg she died in child-birth1 together with her child1 an event which he has recorded in a very beautiful sonnet4 ,this loss1 added to his blindness1 must have made his home1 for some years1 desolate and comfortless4 ,distress1 indeed1 was now gathering rapidly upon him4 ,the death of ,cromwell in the following year1 and the imbecile character of his eldest son1 held out an invitation to the aspiring intriguers of the day1 which they were not slow to improve4 ,it soon became too evident to ,milton's discernment1 that all things were hurrying forward to restoration of the ejected family4 ,sensible of the risk1 therefore1 and without much hope1 but obeying the summons of his conscience1 he wrote a short tract on the ready and easy way to establish a free commonwealth1 concluding with these noble words1 8,thus much ,i should perhaps have said1 though ,i were sure ,i should have spoken only to trees and stones1 and had none to cry to1 but with the ,prophet1 ,oh earth6 earth6 earth6 to tell the very soil itself what her perverse inhabitants are deaf to4 ,nay1 though what ,i have spoken should happen which ,thou suffer not1 who didst create free1 nor ,thou next1 who didst redeem us from being servants of men to be the last words of our expiring liberty40 ,a slighter pamphlet on the same subject1 #8,brief ,notes' upon a sermon by one ,dr4 ,griffiths1 must be supposed to be written rather with a religious purpose of correcting a false application of sacred texts1 than with any great expectation of benefiting his party4 ,dr4 ,johnson1 with unseemly violence1 says1 that he kicked when he could strike no longer3 more justly it might be said that he held up a solitary hand of protestation on behalf of that cause now in its expiring struggles1 which he had maintained when prosperous2 and that he continued to the last one uniform language1 though he now believed resistance to be hopeless1 and knew it to be full of peril4 ,that peril was soon realised4 ,in the spring of #affj1 the ,restoration was accomplished amidst the tumultuous rejoicings of the people4 ,it was certain that the vengeance of government would lose no time in marking its victims2 for some of them in anticipation had already fled4 ,milton wisely withdrew from the first fury of the persecution1 which now descended on his party4 ,he secreted himself in ,london1 and when he returned into the public eye in the winter1 found himself no farther punished1 than by a general disqualification for the public service1 and the disgrace of a public burning inflicted on his ,eikonoclastes1 and his ,defensio pro ,populo ,anglicano4 ,apparently it was not long after this time that he married his third wife1 ,elizabeth ,minshul1 a lady of good family in ,cheshire4 ,in what year he began the composition of his #8,paradise ,lost1' is not certainly known3 some have supposed in #afeh4 ,there is better ground for fixing the period of its close4 ,during the plague of #affe he retired to ,chalfont1 and at that time ,elwood the quaker read the poem in a finished state4 ,the general interruption of business in ,london occasioned by the plague1 and prolonged by the great fire in #afff1 explain why the publication was delayed for nearly two years4 ,the contract with the publisher is dated ,april #bf1 #affg1 and in the course of that year the ,paradise ,lost was published4 ,originally it was printed in ten books3 in the second1 and subsequent editions1 the seventh and tenth books were each divided into two4 ,milton received only five pounds in the first instance on the publication of the book4 ,his farther profits were regulated by the sale of the three first editions4 ,each was to consist of fifteen hundred copies1 and on the second and third respectively reaching a sale of thirteen hundred1 he was to receive a farther sum of five pounds for each2 making a total of fifteen pounds4 ,the receipt for the second sum of five pounds is dated ,april #bf1 #affi4 ,in #afgj ,milton published his ,history of ,britain1 from the fabulous period to the ,norman conquest4 ,and in the same year he published in one volume ,paradise ,regained and ,samson ,agonistes4 ,the ,paradise ,regained1 it has been currently asserted that ,milton preferred to ,paradise ,lost4 ,this is not true2 but he may have been justly offended by the false principles on which some of his friends maintained a reasonable opinion4 ,the ,paradise ,regained is inferior by the necessity of its subject and design4 ,in the ,paradise ,lost ,milton had a field properly adapted to a poet's purposes3 a few hints in ,scripture were expanded4 ,nothing was altered1 nothing absolutely added3 but that1 which was told in the ,scriptures in sum1 or in its last results1 was developed into its whole succession of parts4 ,thus1 for instance1 8,there was war in ,heaven10 furnished the matter for a whole book4 ,now for the latter poem1 which part of our ,saviour's life was it best to select as that in which ,paradise was ,regained8 ,he might have taken the ,crucifixion1 and here he had a much wider field than in the ,temptation2 but then he was subject to this dilemma4 ,if he modified1 or in any way altered1 the full details of the four ,evangelists1 he shocked the religious sense of all ,christians2 yet1 the purposes of a poet would often require that he should so modify them4 ,with a fine sense of this difficulty1 he chose the narrow basis of the ,temptation in the ,wilderness1 because there the whole had been wrapt up in ,scripture in a few brief abstractions4 ,thus1 8,he showed him all the kingdoms of the earth10 is expanded1 without offence to the nicest religious scruple1 into that matchless succession of pictures1 which bring before us the learned glories of ,athens1 ,rome in her civil grandeur1 and the barbaric splendour of ,parthia4 ,the actors being only two1 the action of ,paradise ,regained is unavoidably limited4 ,but in respect of composition1 it is perhaps more elaborately finished than ,paradise ,lost4 ,in #afgb he published in ,latin1 a new scheme of ,logic1 on the method of ,ramus1 in which ,dr4 ,johnson suspects him to have meditated the very eccentric crime of rebellion against the universities4 ,be that as it may1 this little book is in one view not without interest3 all scholastic systems of logic confound logic and metaphysics2 and some of ,milton's metaphysical doctrines1 as the present ,bishop of ,winchester has noticed1 have a reference to the doctrines brought forward in his posthumous ,theology4 ,the history of the last-named work is remarkable4 ,that such a treatise had existed1 was well known1 but it had disappeared1 and was supposed to be irrecoverably lost4 ,but in the year #ahbc1 a ,latin manuscript was discovered in the ,state-,paper ,office1 under circumstances which left little doubt of its being the identical work which ,milton was known to have composed2 and this belief was corroborated by internal evidence4 ,by the ,king's command1 it was edited by ,mr4 ,sumner1 the present ,bishop of ,winchester1 and separately published in a translation4 ,the title is #8,de ,doctrina ,christiana1 libri duo posthumi'--,a ,treatise on ,christian ,doctrine1 compiled from the ,holy ,scriptures alone4 ,in elegance of style1 and sublimity of occasional passages1 it is decidedly inferior to other of his prose works4 ,as a system of theology1 probably no denomination of ,christians would be inclined to bestow other than a very sparing praise upon it4 ,still it is well worth the notice of those students1 who are qualified to weigh the opinions1 and profit by the errors of such a writer1 as being composed with ,milton's usual originality of thought and inquiry1 and as being remarkable for the boldness with which he follows up his arguments to their legitimate conclusion1 however startling those conclusions may be4 ,what he published after the scheme of logic1 is not important enough to merit a separate notice4 ,his end was now approaching4 ,in the summer of #afgd he was still cheerful1 and in the possession of his intellectual faculties4 ,but the vigour of his bodily constitution had been silently giving way1 through a long course of years1 to the ravages of gout4 ,it was at length thoroughly undermined3 and about the tenth of ,november1 #afgd1 he died with tranquillity so profound1 that his attendants were unable to determine the exact moment of his decease4 ,he was buried1 with unusual marks of honour1 in the chancel of ,st4 ,giles' at ,cripplegate4 ,the published lives of ,milton are very numerous4 ,among the best and most copious are those prefixed to the editions of ,milton's works by ,bishop ,newton1 ,todd1 and ,symmons4 ,an article of considerable length1 founded upon the latter1 will be found in ,rees's ,cyclopdia4 ,but the most remarkable is that written by ,dr4 ,johnson in his #8,lives of the ,british ,poets2' production grievously disfigured by prejudice1 yet well deserving the student's attentions for its intrinsic merits1 as well as for the celebrity which it has attained4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,c4 ,e4 ,wagstaff4 ,,james ,,watt4 ,from a ,picture by ,sir ,w4 ,beechey in the possession of ,j4 ,watt ,esq4 of ,aston ,hall4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,watt ,those who by cultivating the arts of peace have risen from obscurity to fame and wealth1 seldom leave to the biographer such ample memorials of their private lives as he could wish to work upon4 ,the details of a life spent in the laboratory or in the workshop rarely present much variety2 or possess much interest1 except when treated scientifically for the benefit of the scientific reader4 ,such is the case with ,james ,watt3 the history of his long and prosperous life is little more than the history of his scientific pursuits2 and this must plead our excuse if it chance that the reader should here find less personal information about him than he may desire4 ,fortunately his character has been sketched before it was too late1 by the masterly hand of one who knew him well4 ,most of the accounts of him already published are said1 by those best qualified to judge1 to be inaccurate4 ,the same authority is pledged to the general correctness of the article ,watt1 in the supplement to the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 and from that article the facts of this short memoir are taken4 ,both the grandfather and uncle of ,james ,watt were men of some repute in the ,west of ,scotland1 as mathematical teachers and surveyors4 ,his father was a merchant at ,greenock1 where ,watt was born1 ,june #ai1 #agcf1 and where he received the rudiments of his education4 ,our knowledge of the first twenty years of his life may be comprised in a few short sentences4 ,at an early age he manifested a partiality for the practical part of mechanics1 which he retained through life1 taking pleasure in the manual exercise of his early trade1 even when hundreds of hands were ready to do his bidding4 ,in his eighteenth year he went to ,london1 to obtain instruction in the profession of a mathematical instrument-maker2 but he remained there little more than a year1 being compelled to return home by the precariousness of his health4 ,in #ageg1 shortly after his return home1 he was appointed instrument-maker to the ,university of ,glasgow1 and accommodated with premises within the precincts of that learned body4 ,robert ,simpson1 ,adam ,smith1 and ,dr4 ,black1 were then some of the professors2 and from communication with such men1 ,watt could not fail to derive the most valuable mental discipline4 ,with ,dr4 ,black1 and with ,john ,robison1 then a student1 afterwards eminent as a mathematician and natural philosopher1 he formed a friendship which was continued through life4 ,in #agfc he removed into the town of ,glasgow1 intending to practise as a civil engineer1 and in the following year was married to his cousin ,miss ,miller4 ,in the winter of #agfc-d1 his mind was directed to the earnest prosecution of those inventions which have made his name celebrated over the world1 by having to repair a working model of a steam-engine on ,newcomen's construction1 for the lectures of the ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,in treating this subject1 we must presume that the reader possesses a competent acquaintance with the history and construction of the steam-engine4 ,those who do not possess the requisite knowledge1 will find it briefly and clearly stated in a short treatise written by ,mr4 ,farey1 and in many works of easy access4 ,newcomen's engine1 at the time of which we speak1 was of the last and most approved construction4 ,the moving power was the weight of the air pressing on the upper side of a piston working in a cylinder2 steam being employed at the termination of each downward stroke to raise the piston with its load of air up again1 and then to form a vacuum by its condensation when cooled by a jet of cold water1 which was thrown into the cylinder when the admission of steam was stopped4 ,upon repairing the model1 ,watt was struck by the incapability of the boiler to produce a sufficient supply of steam1 though it was larger in proportion to the cylinder than was usual in working engines4 ,this arose from the nature of the cylinder1 which being made of brass1 a better conductor of heat than cast-iron1 and presenting1 in consequence of its small size1 a much larger surface in proportion to its solid content than the cylinders of working engines1 necessarily cooled faster between the strokes1 and therefore at every fresh admission consumed a greater proportionate quantity of steam4 ,but being made aware of a much greater consumption of steam than he had imagined1 he was not satisfied without a thorough inquiry into the cause4 ,with this view he made experiments upon the merits of boilers of different constructions2 on the effect of substituting a less perfect conductor1 as wood1 for the material of the cylinder2 on the quantity of coal required to evaporate a given quantity of water2 on the degree of expansion of water in the shape of steam3 and he constructed a boiler which showed the quantity of water evaporated in a given time1 and thus enabled him to calculate the quantity of steam consumed at each stroke of the engine4 ,this proved to be several times the content of the cylinder4 ,he soon discovered that1 whatever the size and construction of the cylinder1 an admission of hot steam into it must necessarily be attended with very great waste1 if1 in condensing the steam previously admitted1 that vessel had been cooled down sufficiently to produce a vacuum at all approaching to a perfect one4 ,if1 on the other hand1 to prevent this waste1 he cooled it less thoroughly1 a considerable quantity of steam remained uncondensed within1 and by its resistance weakened the power of the descending stroke4 ,these considerations pointed out a vital defect in ,newcomen's construction3 involving either a loss of steam1 and consequent waste of fuel1 or a loss of power from the piston's descending at every stroke through a very imperfect vacuum4 ,it soon occurred to ,watt1 that if the condensation were performed in a separate vessel1 one great evil1 the cooling of the cylinder1 and the consequent waste of steam1 would be avoided4 ,the idea once started1 he soon verified it by experiment4 ,by means of an arrangement of cocks1 a communication was opened between the cylinder1 and a distinct vessel exhausted of its air1 at the moment when the former was filled with steam4 ,the vapour of course rushed to fill up the vacuum1 and was there condensed by the application of external cold1 or by a jet of water3 so that fresh steam being continually drawn off from the cylinder to supply the vacuum continually created1 the density of that which remained might be reduced within any assignable limits4 ,this was the great and fundamental improvement4 ,still1 however1 there was a radical defect in the atmospheric engine1 inasmuch as the air being admitted into the cylinder at every stroke1 a great deal of heat was abstracted1 and a proportionate quantity of steam wasted4 ,to remedy this1 ,watt excluded the air from the cylinder altogether2 and recurred to the original plan of making steam the moving power of the engine1 not a mere agent to produce a vacuum4 ,in removing the difficulties of construction which beset this new plan1 he displayed great ingenuity and powers of resource4 ,on the old plan1 if the cylinder was not bored quite true1 or the piston not accurately fitted1 a little water poured upon the top rendered it perfectly air-tight1 and the leakage into the cylinder was of little consequence1 so long as the injection water was thrown into that vessel4 ,but on the new plan1 no water could possibly be admitted within the cylinder2 and it was necessary1 not merely that the piston should be air-tight1 but that it should work through an air-tight collar1 that no portion of the steam admitted above it might escape4 ,this he accomplished by packing the piston and the stuffing-box1 as it is called1 through which the piston-rod works1 with hemp4 ,a farther improvement consisted in equalizing the motion of the engine by admitting the steam alternately above and below the piston1 by which the power is doubled in the same space1 and with the same strength of material4 ,the vacuum of the condenser was perfected by adding a powerful pump1 which at once drew off the condensed1 and injection water1 and with it any portion of air which might find admission2 as this would interfere with the action of the engine1 if allowed to accumulate4 ,his last great change was to cut off the communication between the cylinder and the boiler1 when a portion only1 as one-third or one-half1 of the stroke was performed2 leaving it to the expansive power of the steam to complete it4 ,by this1 economy of steam was obtained2 together with the power of varying the effort of the engine according to the work which it has to do1 by admitting the steam through a greater or smaller portion of the stroke4 ,these are the chief improvements which ,watt effected at different periods of his life4 ,of the patient ingenuity by which they were rendered complete1 and the many beautiful contrivances by which he gave to senseless matter an almost instinctive power of self-adjustment1 with precision of action more than belongs to any animated being1 we cannot speak2 nor would it be easy to render description intelligible without the help of diagrams4 ,his first patent bears date ,june #e1 #agfi1 so that some time elapsed between the invention and publication of his improvements4 ,the delay arose partly from his own want of funds1 and the difficulty of finding a person possessed of capital1 who could appreciate the merit of his invention2 partly from his own increasing occupation as a civil engineer4 ,in that capacity he soon acquired reputation1 and was employed in various works of importance4 ,in #agfg he made a survey for a canal1 projected1 but not executed1 between the ,clyde and ,forth4 ,he also made the original survey for the ,crinan ,canal1 since carried into effect by ,mr4 ,rennie2 and was employed extensively in forming harbours1 deepening rivers1 constructing bridges1 and all the most important labours of his profession4 ,the last and greatest work of this kind on which he was employed1 was a survey for a canal between ,fort ,william and ,inverness1 where the ,caledonian ,canal now runs4 ,at last ,dr4 ,roebuck1 the establisher of the ,carron iron-works1 became ,watt's partner in the patent1 upon condition that he should supply the necessary funds for bringing out the invention1 and receive in return two-thirds of the profit4 ,that gentleman1 however1 was unable to fulfil his share of the contract1 and in #aggd resigned his interest to ,mr4 ,boulton1 the proprietor of the ,soho works1 near ,birmingham4 ,watt then determined to remove his residence to ,england2 a step to which he probably was rendered more favourable by the death of his wife in #aggc4 ,in #agge1 ,parliament1 in consideration of the national importance of ,mr4 ,watt's inventions1 and the difficulty and expense of introducing them to public notice1 prolonged the duration of his patent for twenty-five years4 ,the partners now erected engines for pumping water upon a large scale1 and it was found by comparative trials that the saving of fuel amounted to three-fourths of the whole quantity consumed by the engines formerly in use4 ,this fact once established1 the new machine was soon introduced into the deep mines of ,cornwall1 where1 of all places1 its merits could best be tried4 ,the patentees were paid by receiving one-third of the savings of fuel4 ,from the time that the new value of their invention was fully proved1 ,messrs4 ,boulton and ,watt had to maintain a harassing contest with numerous invaders of their patent rights2 and it was not until near the expiration of the patent in #ahjj1 that the question was definitively settled in their favour4 ,these attacks1 however1 did not prevent ,watt from realizing an ample fortune1 the well-earned reward of his industry and ability1 with which he established himself at ,heathfield1 in the county of ,stafford4 ,at one period ,watt devoted much attention to the construction of a rotary engine1 in which the power of the steam should be applied directly to produce circular motion4 ,like all who have yet attempted to solve this problem1 he failed to obtain a satisfactory result2 and turned his attention in consequence to discover the best means of converting reciprocal into rotary motion4 ,for this purpose he originally intended to use the crank2 but having been forestalled by a neighbouring manufacturer1 who took out a patent for it1 having obtained his knowledge1 as it is said1 surreptitiously from one of ,watt's workmen1 he invented the combination called the sun and planet wheels4 ,afterwards he recurred to the crank1 without a shadow of opposition from the patentee4 ,he was also the author of that elegant contrivance1 the parallel motion1 which superseded the old-fashioned beam and chain1 and rendered possible the introduction of the double engine1 in which an upward1 as well as a downward force is applied4 ,his attention1 however1 was not confined to the subject of steam4 ,he invented a copying machine1 for which he took out a patent1 in #aghj4 ,in the winter of #aghd-e1 he erected an apparatus1 the first of its kind1 for warming his apartments by steam4 ,he also introduced into ,england the method of bleaching with oxymuriatic acid1 or chlorine1 invented and communicated to him for publication by his friend ,berthollet4 ,towards the conclusion of life1 he constructed a machine for making fac-similes of busts and other carved work2 and also busied himself in forming a composition for casts1 possessing much of the transparency and hardness of marble4 ,with chemistry ,watt was well acquainted4 ,in #aghb he published a paper in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 entitled1 #8,thoughts on the constituent parts of ,water1 and of ,dephlogisticated ,air4' ,his only other literary undertaking was the revision of ,professor ,robison's articles on ,steam and ,steam ,engines1 in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 to which he added notes containing an account of his own experiments on steam1 and a history of his improvements in the engine4 ,about the year #agge he married his second wife1 ,miss ,macgregor4 ,though his health had been delicate through life1 yet he reached the advanced age of eighty-four4 ,he died at his house at ,heathfield1 ,august #be1 #ahai4 ,chantrey made a bust of him some years before his death2 from which the same distinguished artist has since executed two marble statues1 one for his tomb1 the other for the ,hunterian ,museum at ,glasgow2 and a third in bronze1 also for ,glasgow1 which has recently been erected there4 ,it represents ,watt seated in deep thought1 a pair of compasses in his hand1 and a scroll1 on which is the draught of a steam-engine1 open on his knee4 ,we cannot better close this account1 than with a short extract from the sketch of his character1 to which we have alluded in a former page4 ,after speaking of the lasting celebrity which ,watt has acquired by his mechanical inventions1 the author continues1 that 8to those to whom he more immediately belonged1 who lived in his society and enjoyed his conversation1 this is not1 perhaps1 the character in which he will be most frequently recalled1--most deeply lamented1--or even most highly admired4 ,independently of his great attainments in mechanics1 ,mr4 ,watt was an extraordinary and in many respects a wonderful man4 ,perhaps no individual in his age possessed so much and such varied and exact information1 had read so much1 or remembered what he had read so accurately and well4 ,he had infinite quickness of apprehension1 a prodigious memory1 and a certain rectifying and methodising power of understanding1 which extracted something precious out of all that was presented to it4 ,his stores of miscellaneous knowledge were immense1 and yet less astonishing than the command he had at all times over them4 ,it seemed as if every subject that was casually started in conversation with him1 had been that which he had been last occupied in studying and exhausting2 such was the copiousness1 the precision1 and the admirable clearness of the information which he poured out upon it without effort or hesitation4 ,nor was this promptitude and compass of knowledge confined1 in any degree1 to the studies connected with his ordinary pursuits4 ,that he should have been minutely and extensively skilled in chemistry and the arts1 and in most of the branches of physical science1 might1 perhaps1 have been conjectured2 but it could not have been inferred from his usual occupations1 and probably is not generally known1 that he was curiously learned in many branches of antiquity1 metaphysics1 medicine1 and etymology2 and perfectly at home in all the details of architecture1 music1 and law4 ,he was well acquainted1 too1 with most of the modern languages1 and familiar with their most recent literature4 ,nor was it at all extraordinary to hear the great mechanician and engineer detailing and expounding1 for hours together1 the metaphysical theories of the ,german logicians1 or criticising the measures or the matter of the ,german poetry4 99 99 99 8,it is needless to say1 that with those vast resources1 his conversation was at all times rich and instructive in no ordinary degree4 ,but it was1 if possible1 still more pleasing than wise1 and had all the charms of familiarity1 with all the substantial treasures of knowledge4 ,no man could be more social in his spirit1 less assuming or fastidious in his manners1 or more kind and indulgent towards all who approached him4 99 99 99 ,his talk1 too1 though overflowing with information1 had no resemblance to lecturing1 or solemn discoursing2 but1 on the contrary1 was full of colloquial spirit and pleasantry4 ,he had a certain quiet and grave humour1 which ran through most of his conversation1 and a vein of temperate jocularity1 which gave infinite zest and effect to the condensed and inexhaustible information which formed its main staple and characteristic4 ,there was a little air of affected testiness1 and a tone of pretended rebuke and contradiction1 which he used towards his younger friends1 that was always felt by them as an endearing mark of his kindness and familiarity1 and prized accordingly1 far beyond all the solemn compliments that ever proceeded from the lips of authority4 ,his voice was deep and powerful2 though he commonly spoke in a low and somewhat monotonous tone1 which harmonized admirably with the weight and brevity of his observations1 and set off to the greatest advantage the pleasant anecdotes which he delivered with the same grave tone1 and the same calm smile playing soberly on his lips4 ,there was nothing of effort1 indeed1 or of impatience1 any more than of pride or levity1 in his demeanour2 and there was a finer expression of reposing strength1 and mild self-possession in his manner1 than we ever recollect to have met with in any other person4 ,he had in his character the utmost abhorrence for all sorts of forwardness1 parade1 and pretension2 and indeed never failed to put all such impostors out of countenance1 by the manly plainness and honest intrepidity of his language and deportment4 8,he was twice married1 but has left no issue but one son1 long associated with him in his business and studies1 and two grandchildren by a daughter who predeceased him4 ,he was fellow of the ,royal ,societies both of ,london and ,edinburgh1 and one of the few ,englishmen who were elected members of the ,national ,institute of ,france4 ,all men of learning and of science were his cordial friends2 and such was the influence of his mild character1 and perfect fairness and liberality1 even upon the pretender to these accomplishments1 that he lived to disarm even envy itself1 and died1 we verily believe1 without a single enemy40 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4 ,,marshal ,,turenne4 ,from the original ,picture by ,latour1 in the collection of the ,muse ,royale1 ,paris4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,turenne ,henri de la ,tour d',auvergne1 ,vicomte de ,turenne1 born ,september #afth1 #afaa1 was the second son of the ,duc de ,bouillon1 prince of ,sedan1 and of ,elizabeth of ,nassau1 daughter of the celebrated ,william of ,orange1 to whose courage and talents the ,netherlands mainly owed their deliverance from ,spain4 ,both parents being zealous ,calvinists1 ,turenne was of course brought up in the same faith4 ,soon after his father's death1 the ,duchess sent him1 when he was not yet thirteen years old1 into the ,low ,countries1 to learn the art of war under his uncle1 ,maurice of ,nassau1 who commanded the troops of ,holland in the protracted struggle between that country and ,spain4 ,maurice held that there was no royal road to military skill1 and placed his young relation in the ranks1 as a volunteer1 where for some time he served1 enduring all hardships to which the common soldiers were exposed4 ,in his second campaign he was promoted to the command of a company1 which he retained for four years1 distinguished by the admirable discipline of his men1 by unceasing attention to the due performance of his own duty1 and by his eagerness to witness1 and become thoroughly acquainted with1 every branch of service4 ,in the year #afcj1 family circumstances rendered it expedient that he should return to ,france1 where the court received him with distinction1 and invested him with the command of a regiment4 ,four years elapsed before ,turenne had an opportunity of distinguishing himself in the service of his native country4 ,his first laurels were reaped in #afcd1 at the siege of the strong fortress of ,la ,motte1 in ,lorraine1 where he headed the assault1 and1 by his skill and bravery1 mainly contributed to its success4 ,for this exploit he was raised at the early age of twenty-three to the rank of ,marechal de ,camp1 the second grade of military rank in ,france4 ,in the following year1 the breaking out of war between ,france and ,austria opened a wider field of action4 ,turenne held a subordinate command in the army1 which1 under the ,cardinal de la ,valette1 marched into ,germany to support the ,swedes1 commanded by the ,duke of ,weimar4 ,at first fortune smiled on the allies2 but1 ere long1 scarcity of provisions compelled them to a disastrous retreat over a ruined country1 in the face of the enemy4 ,on this occasion the young soldier's ability and disinterestedness were equally conspicuous4 ,he sold his plate and equipage for the use of the army2 threw away his baggage to load the waggons with those stragglers who must otherwise have been abandoned2 and marched on foot1 while he gave up his own horse to the relief of one who had fallen1 exhausted by hunger and fatigue4 ,these are the acts which win the attachment of soldiers1 and ,turenne was idolized by his4 ,our limits will not allow of the relation of those campaigns in which the subject of this memoir filled a subordinate part4 ,in #afcg-h he again served under ,la ,valette1 in ,flanders and ,germany1 after which he was made ,lieutenant-,general1 a rank not previously existing in ,france4 ,the three following years he was employed in ,italy and ,savoy1 and in #afdb made a campaign in ,roussillon1 under the eye of ,louis ,,xiii4 ,in the spring of #afdc1 the ,king died2 and in the autumn of the same year1 ,turenne received from the ,queen ,mother and ,regent1 ,anne of ,austria1 a ,marshal's baton1 the appropriate reward of his long and brilliant services4 ,four years a captain1 four a colonel1 three ,marechal de ,camp1 five lieutenant-general1 he had served in all stations from the ranks upwards1 and distinguished himself in them not only by military talent1 but by strict honour and trustworthiness1 rare virtues in those turbulent times when men were familiar with civil war1 and the great nobility were too powerful to be peaceful subjects4 ,soon after his promotion1 he was sent to ,germany1 to collect and reorganise the ,french army1 which had been roughly handled at ,duttlingen4 ,it wanted rest1 men1 and money1 and he settled it in good quarters1 raised recruits1 and pledged his own credit for the necessary sums4 ,the effects of his exertions were soon seen4 ,he arrived in ,alsace1 ,december1 #afdc1 and in the following ,may was at the head of #aj1jjj men1 well armed and equipped1 with whom he felt strong enough to attack the ,imperial army1 and raise the siege of ,fribourg4 ,at that moment the glory which he hoped and was entitled to obtain1 as the reward of five months' labour1 was snatched from him by the arrival of the celebrated ,prince de ,cond1 at that time ,duc d',enghien1 to assume the command4 ,the vexation which ,turenne must have felt was increased by the difference of age1 for the ,prince was ten years his junior1 and of personal character4 ,cond was ardent and impetuous1 and flushed by his brilliant victory at ,rocroi the year before2 ,turenne cool1 calculating1 and cautious1 unwearied in preparing a certainty of success beforehand1 yet prompt in striking when the decisive moment was come4 ,the difference of their characters was exemplified upon this occasion4 ,merci1 the ,austrian commander1 had taken up a strong position1 which ,turenne said could not be forced2 but at the same time pointed out the means of turning it4 ,cond differed from him1 and the second in command was obliged to submit4 ,on two successive days two bloody and unsuccessful assaults were made3 on the third ,turenne's advice was taken1 and on the first demonstration of this change of plan ,merci retreated4 ,in the following year1 ill supplied with every thing1 and forced to separate his troops widely to obtain subsistence1 he was attacked at ,mariendal1 and worsted by his old antagonist ,merci4 ,this1 his first defeat1 he felt severely3 still he retained his position1 and was again ready to meet the enemy1 when he received positive orders from ,mazarin to undertake nothing before the arrival of ,cond4 ,zealous for his country and careless of personal slights1 he marched without complaint under the command of his rival3 and his magnanimity was rewarded at the battle of ,nordlingen1 in #afde1 where the centre and right wing having failed in their attack1 ,turenne with the left wing broke the enemy's right1 and falling on his centre in flank1 threw it into utter confusion4 ,for this service he received the most cordial and ample acknowledgments from ,cond1 both on the field1 and in his despatches to the ,queen ,regent4 ,soon after1 ,cond1 who was wounded in the battle1 resigned his command into the hands of ,turenne4 ,the following campaigns of #afdf-g-h exhibited a series of successes1 by means of which he drove the ,duke of ,bavaria from his dominions1 and reduced the ,emperor to seek for peace4 ,this was concluded at ,munster in #afdh1 and to ,turenne's exertions the termination of the thirty years' war is mainly to be ascribed4 ,the repose of ,france was soon broken by civil war4 ,mazarin's administration1 oppressive in all respects1 but especially in fiscal matters1 had produced no small discontent throughout the country1 and especially in ,paris2 where the parliament openly espoused the cause of the people against the minister1 and were joined by several of the highest nobility1 urged by various motives of private interest or personal pique4 ,among these were the ,prince of ,conti1 the ,duc de ,longueville1 and the ,duc de ,bouillon4 ,mazarin1 in alarm1 endeavoured to enlist the ambition of ,turenne in his favour1 by offering the government of ,alsace1 and the hand of his own niece1 as the price of his adherence to the court4 ,the ,viscount1 pressed by both parties1 avoided to declare his adhesion to either3 but he unequivocally expressed his disapprobation of the ,cardinal's proceedings1 and1 being superseded in his command1 retired peaceably to ,holland4 ,there he remained till the convention of ,ruel effected a hollow and insincere reconciliation between the court and one of the jarring parties of which the ,fronde was composed4 ,that reconciliation was soon broken by the sudden arrest of ,cond1 ,conti1 and the ,duc de ,longueville4 ,turenne then threw himself into the arms of the ,fronde2 urged partly by indignation at this act of violence1 partly by a sympathy with the interests of his brother1 the ,duc de ,bouillon2 but more1 it is said1 by a devoted attachment to the ,duchesse de ,longueville1 who turned the great soldier to her purposes1 and laughed at his passion4 ,he sold his plate2 the ,duchess sold her jewels3 they concluded an alliance with ,spain1 and the ,viscount was soon at the head of an army4 ,but the heterogeneous mass of ,frenchmen1 ,spaniards1 and ,germans1 melted away during the first campaign2 and ,turenne1 at the head of eight thousand men1 found himself obliged to encounter the royal army1 twenty thousand strong4 ,in the battle which ensued1 he distinguished his personal bravery in several desperate charges3 but the disparity was too great2 and this defeat of ,rhetel was of serious consequence to the ,fronde party4 ,convinced at last that his true interest lay rather on the side of the court1 then managed by a woman and a priest1 where he might be supreme in military matters1 than in supporting the cause of an impetuous and self-willed leader1 such as ,cond1 ,turenne gladly listened to overtures of accommodation1 and passed over to the support of the regency4 ,his conduct in this war appears to be the most objectionable part of a long and1 for that age1 singularly honest life4 ,the fault1 however1 seems to have been rather in espousing1 than in abandoning1 the cause of the ,fronde4 ,many of that party were doubtless actuated by sincerely patriotic motives4 ,such1 however1 were not the motives of ,turenne1 nor of the nobility to whom he attached himself3 and if1 in returning to his allegiance1 he followed the call of interest as decidedly as he had followed the call of passion in revolting1 it was at least a recurrence to his former principle of loyalty1 from which1 in after-life1 he never swerved4 ,the value of his services was soon made evident4 ,twice1 at the head of very inferior troops1 he checked ,cond in the career of victory3 and again compelled him to fight under the walls of ,paris2 where1 in the celebrated battle of the ,faubourg ,st4 ,antoine1 the ,prince and his army narrowly escaped destruction4 ,finally1 he re-established the court at ,paris1 and compelled ,cond to quit the realm4 ,these important events took place in one campaign of six months1 in #afeb4 ,in #afed he again took the field against his former friend and commander1 ,cond1 who had taken refuge in ,spain1 and now led a foreign army against his country4 ,the most remarkable operation of the campaign was the raising the siege of ,arras2 which the ,spaniards had invested1 according to the most approved fashion of the day1 with a strong double line of circumvallation1 within which the besieging army was supposed to be securely sheltered against the sallies of the garrison cooped up within1 and the efforts of their friends from without4 ,turenne marched to the relief of the place4 ,this could only be effected by forcing the enemy's entrenchments2 which were accordingly attacked1 contrary to the opinion of his own officers1 and carried at all points1 despite the personal exertions of ,cond4 ,the ,spaniards were forced to retreat4 ,it is remarkable that ,turenne1 not long after1 was himself defeated in precisely similar circumstances1 under the walls of ,valenciennes1 round which he had drawn lines of circumvallation4 ,once more he found himself in the same position at ,dunkirk4 ,on this occasion he marched out of his lines to meet the enemy1 rather than wait1 and suffer them to choose their point of attack3 and the celebrated battle of the ,dunes or ,sandhills ensued1 in which he gained a brilliant victory over the best ,spanish troops1 with ,cond at their head4 ,this took place in #afeg4 ,dunkirk and the greater part of ,flanders fell into the hands of the ,french in consequence2 and these successes led to the treaty of the ,pyrenees1 which terminated the war in #afeh4 ,turenne's signal services were appreciated and rewarded by the entire confidence both of the regency1 and of ,louis himself1 after he attained his majority and took the reins of state into his own hands4 ,at the ,king's marriage1 in #affj1 he was created ,marshal-,general of the ,french armies1 with the significant words1 8,il ne tient qu'a vous que ce soit davantage40 ,the monarch is supposed to have meditated the revival of the high dignity of ,constable of ,france1 which could not be held by a ,protestant4 ,if this were so1 it was a tempting bribe2 but it failed4 ,covetousness was no part of ,turenne's character2 and for ambition1 his calm and strong mind could not but see that a dignity won by such unworthy means would not elevate him in men's eyes4 ,we would willingly attribute his conduct to a higher principle2 but there is reason to believe that henceforth he rather sought to be converted from the strict tenets of ,calvinism in which he had been brought up4 ,it is at least certain1 from his correspondence1 that about this time he applied himself to theological studies1 with which an imperfect education1 and a life spent in camps1 had little familiarized him2 and that in the year #affh he solemnly renounced the ,protestant church4 ,however1 he asked and received nothing for himself1 and was refused one trifling favour which he requested for his nephew3 and perhaps the most fair and probable explanation of his conversion is1 that his profession of ,calvinism had been habitual and nominal1 not founded upon inquiry and conviction2 and that in becoming a convert to ,catholicism1 he had little to give up1 while his mind was strongly biassed in favour of the fashionable and established creed4 ,when war broke out afresh between ,france and ,spain1 in #affg1 ,louis ,,xiv4 made his first campaign under ,turenne's guidance1 and gained possession of nearly the whole of ,flanders4 ,in #afgb1 when ,louis resolved to undertake in person the conquest of ,holland1 he again placed the command1 under himself1 in ,turenne's hands1 and disgraced several marshals who refused to receive orders from the ,viscount1 considering themselves his equals in military rank4 ,how ,le ,grand ,monarque forced the passage of the ,rhine when there was no army to oppose him1 and conquered city after city1 till he was stopped by inundations1 under the walls of ,amsterdam1 has been said and sung by his flatterers2 and need not be repeated here4 ,but after the ,king had left the army1 when the ,princes of ,germany came to the assistance of ,holland1 and her affairs took a more favourable turn under the able guidance of the ,prince of ,orange1 a wider field was offered for the display of ,turenne's talents4 ,in the campaign of #afgc he drove the ,elector of ,brandenburg1 who had come to the assistance of the ,dutch1 back to ,berlin1 and compelled him to negotiate for peace4 ,in the same year he was opposed1 for the first time1 to the ,imperial ,general ,montecuculi1 celebrated for his military writings1 as well as for his exploits in the field4 ,the meeting of these two great generals produced no decisive results4 ,turenne returned to ,paris in the winter1 and was received with the most flattering marks of favour4 ,on the approach of spring1 he was sent back to take command of the ,french army in ,alsace1 which1 amounting to no more than ten thousand men1 was pressed by a powerful confederation of the troops of the empire1 and those of ,brandenburg1 once again in the field4 ,turenne set himself to beat the allies in detail1 before they could form a junction4 ,he passed the ,rhine1 marched forty ,french leagues in four days1 and came up with the ,imperialists1 under the ,duke of ,lorraine1 at ,sintzheim4 ,they occupied a strong position1 their wings resting on mountains2 their centre protected by a river and a fortified town4 ,turenne hesitated3 it seemed rash to attack2 but a victory was needful before the combination of the two armies should render their force irresistible1 and he commanded the best troops of ,france4 ,the event justified his confidence4 ,every post was carried sword in hand4 ,the ,marshal had his horse killed under him1 and was slightly wounded4 ,to the officers1 who crowded round him with congratulations1 he replied1 with one of those short and happy speeches which tell upon an army more than the most laboured harangues1 8,with troops like you1 gentlemen1 a man ought to attack boldly1 for he is sure to conquer40 ,the beaten army fell back behind the ,neckar1 where they effected a junction with the troops of ,brandenburg3 but they dared attempt nothing further1 and left the ,palatinate in the quiet possession of ,turenne4 ,under his eye1 and1 as it appears from his own letters1 at his express recommendation1 as a matter of policy1 that wretched country was laid waste to a deplorable extent4 ,this transaction went far beyond the ordinary license of war1 and excited general indignation even in that unscrupulous age4 ,it will ever be remembered as a foul stain upon the character of the general who executed1 and of the king and minister who ordered or consented to it4 ,having carried fire and sword through that part of the ,palatinate which lay upon the right or ,german bank of the ,rhine1 he crossed that river4 ,but the ,imperial troops1 reinforced by the ,saxons and ,hessians to the amount of sixty thousand men1 pressed him hard3 and it seemed impossible to keep the field against so great a disparity of force2 his own troops not amounting to more than twenty thousand4 ,he retreated into ,lorraine1 abandoning the fertile plains of ,alsace to the enemy1 led his army behind the ,vosges mountains1 and crossing them by unfrequented routes1 surprised the enemy at ,colmar1 beat him at ,mulhausen and ,turkheim1 and forced him to recross the ,rhine4 ,this is esteemed the most brilliant of ,turenne's campaigns1 and it was conceived and conducted with the greater boldness1 being in opposition to the orders of ,louvois4 8,i know10 he wrote to that minister1 in remonstrating1 and indeed refusing to follow his directions1 8,i know the strength of the ,imperialists1 their generals1 and the country in which we are4 ,i take all upon myself1 and charge myself with whatever may occur40 ,returning to ,paris at the end of the campaign1 his journey through ,france resembled a triumphal progress2 such was the popular enthusiasm in his favour4 ,not less flattering was his reception by the ,king1 whose undeviating regard and confidence1 undimmed by jealousy or envy1 is creditable alike to the monarch and to his faithful subject4 ,at this time ,turenne1 it is said1 had serious thoughts of retiring to a convent1 and was induced only by the earnest remonstrances of the ,king1 and his representations of the critical state of ,france1 to resume his command4 ,returning to the ,upper ,rhine1 he was again opposed to ,montecuculi4 ,for two months the resources and well-matched skill of the rival captains were displayed in a series of marches and counter-marches1 in which every movement was so well foreseen and guarded against1 that no opportunity occurred for coming to action with advantage to either side4 ,at last the art of ,turenne appeared to prevail2 when1 not many minutes after he had expressed the full belief that victory was in his grasp1 a cannon-ball struck him while engaged in reconnoitring the enemy's position1 previous to giving battle1 and he fell dead from his horse1 ,july #bgth1 #afge4 ,the same shot carried off the arm of ,st4 ,hilaire1 commander-in-chief of the artillery4 8,weep not for me10 said the brave soldier to his son1 8it is for that great man that we ought to weep40 ,his subordinates possessed neither the talents requisite to follow up his plans1 nor the confidence of the troops1 who perceived their hesitation1 and were eager to avenge the death of their beloved general4 8,loose the piebald10 so they named ,turenne's horse1 was the cry2 8he will lead us on40 ,but those on whom the command devolved thought of nothing less than of attacking the enemy2 and after holding a hurried council of war1 retreated in all haste across the ,rhine4 ,the ,swabian peasants let the spot where he fell lie fallow for many years1 and carefully preserved a tree under which he had been sitting just before4 ,strange that the people who had suffered so much at his hands1 should regard his memory with such respect4 ,the character of ,turenne was more remarkable for solidity than for brilliancy4 ,many generals may have been better qualified to complete a campaign by one decisive blow2 few probably have laid the scheme of a campaign with more judgment1 or shown more skill and patience in carrying their plans into effect4 ,and it is remarkable that1 contrary to general experience1 he became much more enterprising in advanced years than he had been in youth4 ,of that impetuous spirit1 which sometimes carries men to success where caution would have hesitated and failed1 he possessed little4 ,in his earlier years he seldom ventured to give battle1 except where victory was nearly certain3 but a course of victory inspired confidence1 and trained by long practice to distinguish the difficult from the impossible1 he adopted in his later campaigns a bolder style of tactics than had seemed congenial to his original temper4 ,in this respect he offered a remarkable contrast to his rival in fame1 ,cond1 who1 celebrated in early life for the headlong valour1 even to rashness1 of his enterprises1 became in old age prudent almost to timidity4 ,equally calm in success or in defeat1 ,turenne was always ready to prosecute the one1 or to repair the other4 ,and he carried the same temper into private life1 where he was distinguished for the dignity with which he avoided quarrels1 under circumstances in which lesser men would have found it hard to do so1 without incurring the reproach of cowardice4 ,nor must we pass over his thorough honesty and disinterestedness in pecuniary matters2 a quality more rare in a great man then than it is now4 ,in #afec he married the daughter of the ,duc de la ,force4 ,she died in #afff1 without leaving children4 ,turenne composed memoirs of his own life1 which are published in the ,life of him by the ,chevalier ,ramsay4 ,there is also a collection of his ,military ,maxims1 by ,captain ,williamson4 ,in #aghb ,grimoard published his #8,collection des ,memoirs du ,marechal de ,turenne4' ,deschamps1 an officer who served under him1 wrote a full account of his two last campaigns2 and the history of his four last campaigns has been published under the name of ,beaurain4 ,we may also refer the reader for the history of these times to ,voltaire1 ,sicle de ,louis ,,xiv4 ,illustration3 ,french ,cavalier of the seventeenth century4 ,illustration ,,boyle ,this excellent and accomplished person was one of those who do honour to high birth and ample fortune1 by employing them1 not as the means of selfish gratification or personal aggrandisement1 but in the furtherance of every useful pursuit1 and every benevolent purpose4 ,by the lover of science he is honoured as one of the first and most successful cultivators of experimental philosophy2 to the ,christian his memory is endeared1 as that of one1 who1 in the most licentious period of ,english history1 showed a rare example of religion and virtue in exalted station1 and was an early and zealous promoter of the diffusion of the ,scriptures in foreign lands4 ,robert ,boyle was the youngest son but one of a statesman eminent in the successive reigns of ,elizabeth1 and the first ,james and ,charles2 and well known in ,ireland by the honourable title of the ,great ,earl of ,cork4 ,he has left an unfinished sketch of his own early life1 in which he assumes the name of ,philaretus1 a lover of virtue2 and speaks of his childhood as characterized by two things1 a more than usual inclination to study1 and a rigid observance of truth in all things4 ,he was born in ,ireland1 ,january #be1 #afbf-g4 ,in his ninth year he was sent1 with his elder brother ,francis1 to ,eton1 where he spent between three and four years3 in the early part of which1 under the guidance of an able and judicious tutor1 he made great progress both in the acquisition of knowledge1 and in forming habits of accurate and diligent inquiry4 ,but his studies were interrupted by a severe ague2 and while recovering from that disorder he contracted a habit of desultory reading1 which it afterwards cost him some pains to conquer by a laborious course of mathematical calculations4 ,during his abode at ,eton several remarkable escapes from imminent peril occurred to him1 upon which1 in after-life1 he looked back with reverential gratitude1 and with the full conviction that the direct hand of an overruling providence was to be traced in them4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,r4 ,woodman4 ,,robert ,,boyle4 ,from an original ,picture1 in the possession of ,lord ,dover4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,towards the close of #afcg1 as it should seem1 his father1 who had purchased the manor of ,stalbridge1 in ,dorsetshire1 took him home4 ,in ,october1 #afch1 he was sent abroad1 under the charge of a governor1 with his brother ,francis4 ,they visited ,france1 ,switzerland1 and ,italy2 and ,philaretus's narrative of his travels is not without interest4 ,the only incident which we shall mention as occurring during this period1 is one which may be thought by many scarcely worthy of notice4 ,boyle himself used to speak of it as the most considerable accident of his whole life2 and for its influence upon his life it ought not to be omitted4 ,while staying at ,geneva1 he was waked in the night by a thunder-storm of remarkable violence4 ,taken unprepared and startled1 it struck him that the day of judgment was at hand2 8whereupon10 to use his own words1 8the consideration of his unpreparedness to welcome it1 and the hideousness of being surprised by it in an unfit condition1 made him resolve and vow1 that if his fears that night were disappointed1 all further additions to his life should be more religiously and watchfully employed40 ,he has been spoken of as being a sceptic before this sudden conversion4 ,this does not appear from his own account1 farther than as any boy of fourteen may be so called1 who has never taken the trouble fully to convince himself of those truths which he professes to believe4 ,on the breaking out of the rebellion in #afdb1 the troubled state of ,england1 and the death of the ,earl of ,cork1 involved the brothers in considerable pecuniary difficulties4 ,they returned to ,england in #afdd1 and ,robert1 after a short delay1 took possession of the manor of ,stalbridge1 which1 with a considerable property in ,ireland1 had been bequeathed to him by his father4 ,by the interest of his brother and sister1 ,lord ,broghill and ,lady ,ranelagh1 who were on good terms with the ruling party1 he obtained protections for his property1 and for the next six years made ,stalbridge his principal abode4 ,this portion of his life was chiefly spent in the study of ethical and natural philosophy2 and his name began already to be respected among the men of science of the day4 ,in #afeb he went to ,ireland to look after his property1 and spent the greater part of the next two years there4 ,returning to ,england in #afed1 he settled at ,oxford4 ,that which especially directed him to this place1 besides its being generally suited to the prosecution of all his literary and philosophical pursuits1 was the presence of that knot of learned men1 from whom the ,royal ,society took its rise4 ,it consisted of a few only1 but those eminent2 ,bishop ,wilkins1 ,wallis1 ,ward1 ,wren1 and others1 who used to meet for the purpose of conferring upon philosophical subjects1 and mutually communicating and reasoning on their respective experiments and discoveries4 ,at the restoration1 ,boyle was treated with great respect by the ,king2 and was strongly pressed to enter the church by ,lord ,clarendon1 who thought that his high birth1 eminent learning1 and exemplary character might be of material service to the revived establishment4 ,after serious consideration he declined the proposal1 upon two accounts1 as he told ,burnet2 first1 because he thought that while he performed no ecclesiastical duties1 and received no pay1 his testimony in favour of religion would carry more weight2 secondly1 because he felt no especial vocation to take holy orders1 which he considered indispensable to the proper entering into that service4 ,from this time forwards1 ,boyle's life is not much more than the history of his works4 ,it passed in an even current of tranquil happiness1 and diligent employment1 little broken1 except by illness1 from which he was a great sufferer4 ,at an early age1 he was attacked by the stone1 and continued through life subject to paroxysms of that dreadful disease3 and in #afgj1 he was afflicted with a severe paralytic complaint1 from which he fortunately recovered without sustaining any mental injury4 ,on the incorporation of the ,royal ,society in #affc1 he was named as one of the council1 in the charter2 and as he had been one of the original members1 so through his life he continued to publish his shorter treatises in their ,transactions4 ,in #affb he was appointed by the ,king1 ,governor of the ,corporation for propagating the ,gospel in ,new ,england4 ,the diffusion of ,christianity was a favourite subject of exertion with him through life4 ,for the sole purpose of exerting a more effectual influence in introducing it into ,india1 he became a ,director of the ,east ,india ,company2 and1 at his own expense1 caused the ,gospels and ,acts to be translated into ,malay1 and five hundred copies to be printed and sent abroad4 ,he also caused a translation of the ,bible into ,irish to be made and published1 at an expense of #gjj2 and bore great part of the expense of a similar undertaking in the ,welsh language4 ,to other works of the same sort he was a liberal contributor3 and as in speech and writing he was a zealous1 yet temperate advocate of religion1 so he showed his sincerity by a ready extension of his ample funds to all objects which tended to promote the religious welfare of his fellow-creatures4 ,in the year #afff he took up his abode in ,london1 where he continued for the remainder of his life4 ,we have little more to state of his personal history4 ,he was elected ,president of the ,royal ,society in #afhj1 but declined that well-earned honour1 as having1 in his own words1 8a great 7and perhaps peculiar7 tenderness in point of oaths40 ,in the course of #afhh he began to feel his strength decline1 and set himself seriously to complete those of his undertakings which he judged most important1 and to arrange such of his papers as required to be prepared for publication4 ,it gives us rather a curious notion of the scientific morality of the day1 to learn that he had been a great sufferer by the stealing of his papers4 ,such at least was his own belief1 hinted in a public advertisement1 and expressed more fully in his private communications4 ,his manuscript books disappeared in an incomprehensible way1 insomuch that he resolved to write upon loose sheets of paper1 8that the ignorance of the coherence might keep men from thinking them worth stealing40 ,notwithstanding he complains of numerous losses1 and expresses a determination to secure the 8remaining part of his writings1 especially those that contain most matters of fact1 by sending them maimed and unfinished1 as they come to hand1 to the press40 ,a still more serious loss occurred to him through the carelessness of a servant1 who broke a bottle of vitriol over a box of manuscripts prepared for publication1 by which a large part of them were utterly ruined4 ,to these misfortunes1 the non-appearance of many promised works1 and the imperfect state of others1 is to be ascribed4 ,during the years #afhi-ij1 he gradually withdrew himself more and more from his other employments1 and from the claims of society1 to devote himself entirely to the preparation of his papers4 ,he died1 unmarried1 ,december #ca1 #afia1 aged sixty-five years1 and was buried in the chancel of ,st4 ,martin's-in-the-fields4 ,to give merely the dates and titles of ,boyle's several publications1 would occupy several pages4 ,they are collected in five volumes folio1 by ,dr4 ,birch1 and amount in number to ninety-seven4 ,the philosophical works have been abridged in three volumes quarto by ,dr4 ,shaw1 who has prefixed to his edition a character of the author1 and of his works4 ,from #affj to the end of his life1 every year brought fresh evidence of his close application to science1 and the versatility of his talents1 and the extent of his knowledge4 ,his attention was directed to chemistry1 mathematics1 mechanics1 medicine1 anatomy2 but more especially to the former1 in its many branches3 and though he is not altogether free from the reproach of credulity1 and appears not to have entirely freed himself from the delusions of the alchymists1 still he did more towards overthrowing their mischievous doctrines1 and establishing his favourite science on a firm foundation1 than any man2 and his indefatigable diligence in inquiry1 and unquestioned honesty of relation1 entitle him to a very high place among the fathers of modern chemistry4 ,on this point we may quote the testimony of the celebrated ,boerhaave1 7,chemistry1 vol4 i4 p4 #ee17 who says1 that among the writers who have treated of ,chemistry with a view to natural philosophy and medicine1 we may reckon among the chief1 the ,hon4 ,robert ,boyle4 ,redi also1 in his #8,experimenta ,naturalia1' affirms that in experimental philosophy there never was any man so distinguished1 and that perhaps there never will be his equal in discovering natural causes4 ,it is1 however1 as the father of pneumatic philosophy that his scientific fame is most securely based4 ,to the invention of the air-pump he possesses no claim1 an instrument of that sort having been exhibited in #afed by ,otto ,guericke of ,magdeburg3 but his improvements1 and his well-combined and ingenious experiments first made that instrument of value1 and proved the elasticity of the air4 ,these were given to the world in his first published1 and perhaps his most important work1 entitled1 #8,new ,experiments upon the ,spring of the ,air4' ,a considerable portion of ,boyle's works is occupied by religious treatises4 ,two of these1 #8,seraphic ,love1' and a #8,free ,discourse against ,swearing1' were written before he had reached the age of twenty2 though not published for many years after4 ,he established by his will an annual lecture1 8in proof of the ,christian religion against notorious infidels40 ,bentley was the first preacher on this foundation4 ,boyle's funeral sermon was preached by ,bishop ,burnet1 who had been under some obligation to him for assistance in publishing his ,history of the ,reformation4 ,the sermon has been considered one of ,burnet's best2 and it has this advantage1 that funeral panegyric has seldom been more sincerely and honestly bestowed4 ,we conclude by quoting one or two passages1 which illustrate the beauty of ,boyle's private character4 8,he had brought his mind to such a freedom that he was not apt to be imposed on2 and his modesty was such that he did not dictate to others2 but proposed his own sense with a due and decent distrust1 and was ever very ready to hearken to what was suggested to him by others4 ,when he differed from any1 he expressed himself in so humble and obliging a way that he never treated things or persons with neglect1 and ,i never heard that he offended any one person in his whole life by any part of his demeanour4 ,for if at any time he saw cause to speak roundly to any1 it was never in passion1 or with any reproachful or indecent expressions4 ,and as he was careful to give those who conversed with him no cause or colour for displeasure1 he was yet more careful of those who were absent1 never to speak ill of any1 in which he was the exactest man ,i ever knew4 ,if the discourse turned to be hard on any1 he was presently silent2 and if the subject was too long dwelt on1 he would at last interpose1 and1 between reproof and raillery1 divert it4 8,he was exactly civil1 even to ceremony1 and though he felt his easiness of access1 and the desires of many1 all strangers in particular1 to be much with him1 made great waste of his time2 yet1 as he was severe in that1 not to be denied when he was at home1 so he said he knew the heart of a stranger1 and how much eased his own had been1 while travelling1 if admitted to the conversation of those he desired to see2 therefore he thought his obligation to strangers was more than bare civility2 it was a piece of religious charity in him4 8,he had1 for almost forty years1 laboured under such a feebleness of body1 and such lowness of strength and spirits1 that it will appear a surprising thing to imagine how it was possible for him to read1 to meditate1 to try experiments1 and write as he did4 ,he bore all his infirmities1 and some sharp pains1 with the decency and submission that became a ,christian and philosopher4 ,he had about him all that unaffected neglect of pomp in clothes1 lodging1 furniture1 and equipage1 which agreed with his grave and serious course of life4 ,he was advised to a very ungrateful simplicity of diet1 which1 by all appearance1 was that which preserved him so long beyond all men's expectation4 ,this he observed so strictly1 that in the course of above thirty years he neither ate nor drank to gratify the varieties of appetite1 but merely to support nature2 and was so regular in it1 that he never once transgressed the rule1 measure and kind that were prescribed him4 99 99 99 8,his knowledge was of so vast an extent1 that were it not for the variety of vouchers in their several sort1 ,i should be afraid to say all ,i know4 ,he carried the study of ,hebrew very far into the ,rabbinical writings and the other ,oriental languages4 ,he had read so much out of the ,fathers1 that he had formed out of it a clear judgment of all the eminent ones4 ,he had read a vast deal on the ,scriptures1 and had gone very nicely through the whole controversies on religion1 and was a true master of the whole body of divinity4 ,he read the whole compass of the mathematical sciences2 and though he did not set himself to spring any new game1 yet he knew even the abstrusest parts of geometry4 ,geography1 in the several parts of it that related to navigation or travelling1 history1 and books of travels1 were his diversions4 ,he went very nicely through all the parts of physic2 only the tenderness of his nature made him less able to endure the exactness of anatomical dissections1 especially of living animals1 though he knew them to be most instructive4 ,but for the history of nature1 ancient or modern1 of the productions of all countries1 of the virtues and improvements of plants1 of ores and minerals1 and all the varieties that are in them in different climates1 he was by much1 by very much1 the readiest and perfectest ,i ever knew1 in the greatest compass1 and with the truest exactness4 ,this put him in the way of making that vast variety of experiments1 beyond any man1 as far as we know1 that ever lived4 ,and in these1 as he made a great progress in new discoveries1 so he used so nice a strictness1 and delivered them with so scrupulous a truth1 that all who have examined them1 may find how safely the world may depend upon them4 ,but his peculiar and favourite study was chemistry1 in which he engaged with none of those ravenous and ambitious designs that draw many into them4 ,his design was only to find out ,nature1 to see into what principles things might be resolved1 and of what they were compounded1 and to prepare good medicaments for the bodies of men4 ,he spent neither his time nor his fortune upon the vain pursuits of high promises and pretensions4 ,he always kept himself within the compass that his estate might well bear4 ,and as he made chemistry much the better for his dealing with it1 so he never made himself either the worse1 or the poorer for it40 ,it would be easy to multiply testimonies of the high reputation in which ,boyle was held3 indeed the reader will find numerous instances collected in the article ,boyle1 in ,dr4 ,kippis's ,biographia ,britannica1 the perusal of which will amply gratify the reader's curiosity4 ,still more detailed accounts of ,boyle's life and character will be found in other works to which we have already referred1 especially in ,dr4 ,birch's ,life4 ,illustration3 ,air-,pump4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,e4 ,scriven4 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton4 ,from the original ,picture by ,vanderbank in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,newton ,isaac ,newton was born on ,christmas-day1 #afdb 7,o4 ,s471 at ,woolsthorpe1 a hamlet in the parish of ,colsterworth1 in ,lincolnshire4 ,in that spot his family had possessed a small estate for more than a hundred years2 and his father died there a few months after his marriage to ,harriet ,ayscough1 and before the birth of his son4 ,the widow soon married again1 and removed to ,north ,witham1 the rectory of her second husband1 ,mr4 ,smith1 leaving her son1 a weakly child who had not been expected to live through the earliest infancy1 under the charge of her mother4 ,newton's education was commenced at the parish school1 and at the age of twelve he was sent to ,grantham for classical instruction4 ,at first he was idle1 but soon rose to the head of the school4 ,the peculiar bent of his mind soon showed itself in his recreations4 ,he was fond of drawing1 and sometimes wrote verses2 but he chiefly amused himself with mechanical contrivances4 ,among these was a model of a wind-mill1 turned either by the wind1 or by a mouse enclosed in it1 which he called the miller2 a mechanical carriage moved by the person who sat in it2 and a water-clock1 which was long used in the family of ,mr4 ,clarke1 an apothecary1 with whom he boarded at ,grantham4 ,this was not his only method of measuring time3 the house at ,woolsthorpe1 whither he returned at the age of fifteen1 still contains dials made by him during his residence there4 ,mr4 ,smith died in #afef1 and his widow then returned to ,woolsthorpe with her three children by her second marriage4 ,she brought ,newton himself also thither1 in the hope that he might be useful in the management of the farm4 ,this expectation was fortunately disappointed4 ,when sent to ,grantham on business1 he used to leave its execution to the servant who accompanied him1 and passed his time in reading1 sometimes by the way-side1 sometimes at the house of ,mr4 ,clark4 ,his mother no longer opposed the evident tendency of his disposition4 ,he returned to school at ,grantham1 and was removed thence in his eighteenth year to ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,the #eth of ,june1 #affj1 was the day of his admission as a sizer into that distinguished society4 ,he applied himself eagerly to the study of mathematics1 and mastered its difficulties with an ease and rapidity which he was afterwards inclined almost to regret1 from an opinion that a closer attention to its elementary parts would have improved the elegance of his own methods of demonstration4 ,in #affd he became a scholar of his college1 and in #affg was elected to a fellowship1 which he retained beyond the regular time of its expiration in #afge1 by a special dispensation authorizing him to hold it without taking orders4 ,it is necessary to return to an earlier date1 to trace the series of ,newton's discoveries4 ,this is not the occasion for a minute enumeration of them1 or for any elaborate discussion of their value or explanation of their principles2 but their history and succession require some notice4 ,the earliest appear to have related to pure mathematics4 ,the study of ,dr4 ,wallis's works led him to investigate certain properties of series1 and this course of research soon conducted him to the celebrated ,binomial ,theorem4 ,the exact date of his invention of the method of ,fluxions is not known2 but it was anterior to #afff1 when the breaking out of the plague obliged him for a time to quit ,cambridge1 and consequently when he was only about twenty-three years old4 ,this change of residence interrupted his optical researches1 in which he had already laid the foundation of his great discoveries4 ,he had decomposed light into the coloured rays of which it is compounded1 and having thus ascertained the principal cause of the confusion of the images formed by refraction1 he had turned his attention to the construction of telescopes which should act by reflection1 and be free from this evil4 ,he had not1 however1 overcome the practical difficulties of his undertaking1 when his retreat from ,cambridge for a time stopped this train of experiment and invention4 ,on quitting ,cambridge ,newton retired to ,woolsthorpe1 where his mind was principally employed upon the system of the world4 ,the theory of ,copernicus and the discoveries of ,galileo and ,kepler had at length furnished the materials from which the true system was to be deduced4 ,it was indeed all involved in ,kepler's celebrated laws4 ,the equable description of areas proved the existence of a central force2 the elliptical form of the planetary orbits1 and the relation between their magnitude and the time occupied in describing them1 ascertained the law of its variation4 ,but no one had arisen to demonstrate these necessary consequences1 or even to conjecture the universal principle from which they were derived4 ,the existence of a central force had been surmised1 and the law of its action guessed at2 but no proof had been given of either1 and little attention had been awakened by the conjecture4 ,newton's discovery appears to have been quite independent of any speculations of his predecessors4 ,the circumstances attending it are well known3 the very spot in which it first dawned upon him is ascertained4 ,he was sitting in the garden at ,woolsthorpe1 when the fall of an apple called his attention to the force which caused its descent1 to the probable limits of its action and law of its operation4 ,its power was not sensibly diminished at any distance at which experiments had been made3 might it not then extend to the moon and guide that luminary in her orbit8 ,it was certain that her motion was regulated in the same manner as that of the planets round the sun3 if1 therefore1 the law of the sun's action could be ascertained1 that by which the earth acted would also be found by analogy4 ,newton1 therefore1 proceeded to ascertain by calculation from the known elements of the planetary orbits1 the law of the sun's action4 ,the great experiment remained3 the trial whether the moon's motions showed the force acting upon her to correspond with the theoretical amount of terrestrial gravity at her distance4 ,the result was disappointment4 ,the trial was to be made by ascertaining the exact space by which the earth's action turned the moon aside from her course in a given time4 ,this depended on her actual distance from the earth1 which was only known by comparison with the earth's diameter4 ,the received estimate of that quantity was very erroneous2 it proceeded on the supposition that a degree of latitude was only sixty ,english miles1 nearly a seventh part less than its actual length4 ,the calculation of the moon's distance and of the space described by her1 gave results involved in the same proportion of error2 and thus the space actually described appeared to be a seventh part less than that which corresponded to the theory4 ,it was not ,newton's habit to force the results of experiments into conformity with hypothesis4 ,he could not1 indeed1 abandon his leading idea1 which rested1 in the case of the planetary motions1 on something very nearly amounting to demonstration4 ,but it seemed that some modification was required before it could be applied to the moon's motion1 and no satisfactory solution of the difficulty occurred4 ,the scheme therefore was incomplete1 and1 in conformity with his constant habit of producing nothing till it was fully matured1 ,newton kept it undivulged for many years4 ,on his return to ,cambridge ,newton again applied himself to the construction of reflecting telescopes1 and succeeded in effecting it in #affh4 ,in the following year ,dr4 ,barrow resigned in his favour the ,lucasian professorship of mathematics1 which ,newton continued to hold till the year #agjc1 when ,whiston1 who had been his deputy from #afii1 succeeded him in the chair4 ,on ,january #aa1 #afgb1 ,newton was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,he was then best known by the invention of the reflecting telescope2 but immediately on his election he communicated to the ,society the particulars of his theory of light1 on which he had already delivered three courses of lectures at ,cambridge1 and they were shortly afterwards published in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,it is impossible here to state the various phenomena of light and colours which were first detected and explained by ,newton4 ,they entirely changed the science of optics1 and every advance which has since been made in it has only added to the importance and confirmed the value of his observations4 ,the success of the new theory was complete4 ,newton1 however1 was much vexed and harassed by the discussions which it occasioned4 ,the annoyance which he thus experienced made him even think of abandoning the pursuit of science1 and although it failed to withdraw him from the studies to which he was devoted1 it confirmed him in his unwillingness to publish their results4 ,the next few years of ,newton's life were not marked by any remarkable events4 ,they were passed almost entirely at ,cambridge1 in the prosecution of the researches in which he was engaged4 ,the most important incident was the communication to ,oldenburgh1 and1 through him1 to ,leibnitz1 that he possessed a method of determining maxima and minima1 of drawing tangents1 and performing other difficult mathematical operations4 ,this was the method of fluxions1 but he did not announce its name or its processes4 ,leibnitz1 in return1 explained to him the principles and processes of the ,differential ,calculus4 ,this correspondence took place in the years #afgf and #afgg3 but the method of fluxions had been communicated to ,barrow and ,collins as early as #affi1 in a tract1 first printed in #agaa1 under the title #8,analysis per equationes numero terminorum infinitas4' ,newton had indeed intended to publish his discovery as an introduction to an edition of ,kinckhuysen's ,algebra1 which he undertook to prepare in #afgb2 but the fear of controversy prevented him1 and the method of fluxions was not publicly announced till the appearance of the ,principia in #afhg4 ,the edition of ,kinckhuysen's treatise did not appear2 but the same year1 #afgb1 was marked by ,newton's editing the ,geography of ,varenius4 ,in #afgi ,newton's attention was again called to the theory of gravitation1 and by a fuller investigation of the conditions of elliptical motion1 he was confirmed in the opinion that the phenomena of the planets were referable to an attractive force in the sun1 of which the intensity varied in the inverse proportion of the square of the distance4 ,the difficulty about the amount of the moon's motion remained1 but it was shortly to be removed4 ,in #afgi ,picard effected a new measurement of a degree of the earth's surface1 and ,newton heard of the result at a meeting of the ,royal ,society in ,june1 #afhb4 ,he immediately returned home to repeat his former calculation with these new data4 ,every step of the process made it more probable that the discrepance which had so long perplexed him would wholly disappear3 and so great was his excitement at the prospect of entire success that he was unable to proceed with the calculation1 and intrusted its completion to a friend4 ,the triumph was perfect1 and he found the theory of his youth sufficient to explain all the great phenomena of nature4 ,from this time ,newton devoted unremitting attention to the development of his system1 and a period of nearly two years was entirely absorbed by it4 ,in #afhd the outline of the mighty work was finished2 yet it is likely that it would still have remained unknown1 had not ,halley1 who was himself on the track of some part of the discovery1 gone to ,cambridge in ,august of that year to consult ,newton about some difficulties he had met with4 ,newton communicated to him a treatise ,de ,motu ,corporum1 which afterwards1 with some additions1 formed the first two books of the ,principia4 ,even then ,halley found it difficult to persuade him to communicate the treatise to the ,royal ,society1 but he finally did so in ,april1 #afhf1 with a desire that it should not immediately be published1 as there were yet many things to complete4 ,hooke1 whose unwearied ingenuity had guessed at the true law of gravity1 immediately claimed to himself the honour of the discovery2 how unjustly it is needless to say1 for the merit consisted not in the conjecture but the demonstration4 ,newton was inclined in consequence to prevent the publication of the work1 or at least of the third part1 ,de ,mundi ,systemate1 in which the mathematical conclusions of the former books were applied to the system of the universe4 ,happily his reluctance was overcome1 and the whole work was published in ,may1 #afhg4 ,its doctrines were too novel and surprising to meet with immediate assent2 but the illustrious author at once received the tribute of admiration for the boldness which had formed1 and the skill which had developed his theory1 and he lived to see it become the common philosophical creed of all nations4 ,we next find ,newton acting in a very different character4 ,james ,,ii4 had insulted the ,university of ,cambridge by a requisition to admit a ,benedictine monk to the degree of ,master of ,arts without taking the oaths enjoined by the constitution of the ,university4 ,the mandate was disobeyed2 and the ,vice-,chancellor was summoned before the ,ecclesiastical ,commission to answer for the contempt4 ,nine delegates1 of whom ,newton was one1 were appointed by the ,university to defend their proceedings2 and their exertions were successful4 ,he was soon after elected to the ,convention ,parliament as member for the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,that parliament was dissolved in ,february1 #afij1 and ,newton1 who was not a candidate for a seat in the one which succeeded it1 returned to ,cambridge1 where he continued to reside for some years1 notwithstanding the efforts of ,locke1 and some other distinguished persons with whom he had become acquainted in ,london1 to fix him permanently in the metropolis4 ,during this time he continued to be occupied with philosophical research1 and with scientific and literary correspondence4 ,chemical investigations appear to have engaged much of his time2 but the principal results of his studies were lost to the world by a fire in his chambers about the year #afib4 ,the consequences of this accident have been very differently related4 ,according to one version1 a favourite dog1 called ,diamond1 caused the mischief1 and the story has been often told1 that ,newton was only provoked1 by the loss of the labour of years1 to the exclamation1 8,oh1 ,diamond6 ,diamond6 thou little knowest the mischief thou hast done40 ,another1 and probably a better authenticated account1 represents the disappointment as preying deeply on his spirits for at least a month from the occurrence4 ,we have more means of tracing ,newton's other pursuits about this time4 ,history1 chronology1 and divinity were his favourite relaxations from science1 and his reputation stood high as a proficient in these studies4 ,in #afij he communicated to ,locke his #8,historical account of two notable corruptions of the ,scriptures1' which was first published long after his death4 ,about the same time he was engaged in those researches which were afterwards embodied in his ,observations on the ,prophecies3 and in ,december1 #afib1 he was in correspondence with ,bentley on the application of his own system to the support of natural theology4 ,during the latter part of #afib and the beginning of #afic ,newton's health was considerably impaired1 and he laboured in the summer under some epidemic disorder4 ,it is not likely that the precise character or amount of his indisposition will ever be discovered2 but it seems1 though the opinion has been much controverted1 that for a short time it affected his understanding1 and that in ,september1 #afic1 he was not in the full possession of his mental faculties4 ,the disease was soon removed1 and there is no reason to suppose that it ever recurred4 ,but the course of his life was changed2 and from this time forward he devoted himself chiefly to the completion of his former works1 and abstained from any new career of continued research4 ,his time indeed was less at his own disposal than it had been4 ,in #afif1 ,mr4 ,montague1 the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 an early friend of ,newton1 appointed him to the ,wardenship of the ,mint1 and in #afii he was raised to the office of ,master4 ,he removed to ,london1 and was much occupied1 especially during the new coinage in #afif and #afig1 with the duties of his office4 ,still he found time to superintend the editions of his earlier works1 which successively appeared with very material additions and improvements4 ,the great work on ,optics appeared for the first time in a complete form in #agjd1 after the death of ,hooke had freed ,newton from the fear of new controversies4 ,it was accompanied by some of his earlier mathematical treatises2 and contained also1 in addition to the principal subject of the work1 suggestions on a variety of subjects of the highest philosophical interest1 embodied in the shape of queries4 ,among these is to be found the first suggestion of the polarity of light2 and we may mention at the same time1 although they occur in a different part of the work1 the remarkable conjectures1 since verified1 of the combustible nature of the diamond1 and the existence of an inflammable principle in water4 ,the second edition of the ,principia appeared under the care of ,cotes in #agac1 after having been the subject of correspondence between ,newton and his editor for nearly four years4 ,dr4 ,pemberton published a third edition in #agbe1 and he frequently communicated about the work with ,newton who was then eighty-two years old4 ,these were the chief scientific employments of ,newton's latter life3 and it is not necessary to particularize all its minor details4 ,in #agab he made some improvements in his ,arithmetica ,universalis1 a work containing his algebraical discoveries1 of which ,whiston had surreptitiously published an edition in #agjg4 ,it is also worthy of remark that at the beginning of the year #afig1 ,john ,bernouilli addressed two problems as a challenge to the mathematicians of ,europe1 and that ,leibnitz in #agaf made a similar appeal to the ,english analysts2 and that ,newton in each case undertook and succeeded in the investigation4 ,this enumeration of ,newton's philosophical employments has far outrun the order of time4 ,after his return to ,london1 compliments and honours flowed in rapidly upon him4 ,in #afii he was elected one of the first foreign associates of the ,acadmie des ,sciences at ,paris2 and in #agja he was a second time returned to ,parliament by the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,he did not1 however1 long retain his seat4 ,at the election in #agje he was at the bottom of the poll1 and he does not appear again to have been a candidate4 ,in #agjc he was chosen ,president of the ,royal ,society1 and held that office till his death4 ,in #agje he was knighted by ,queen ,anne upon her visit to ,cambridge4 ,newton's life in ,london was one of much dignity and comfort4 ,he was courted by the distinguished of all ranks1 and particularly by the ,princess of ,wales1 who derived much pleasure from her intercourse both with him and ,leibnitz4 ,his domestic establishment was liberal1 and was superintended during great part of his time by his niece1 ,mrs4 ,barton1 a woman of much beauty and talent1 who married ,mr4 ,conduitt1 his assistant and successor at the ,mint4 ,newton's liberality was almost boundless1 yet he died rich4 ,the only material drawback to ,newton's enjoyment during this portion of his life1 seems to have arisen from controversies as to the history and originality of his discoveries2 a molestation to which his slowness to publish them very naturally exposed him4 ,there was a long and angry dispute with ,leibnitz about the priority of fluxions or the differential calculus2 and1 after the fashion of most disputes1 it diverged widely from the original ground1 and it became necessary for ,newton to vindicate the religious and metaphysical tendencies of his greatest works4 ,his success was complete on all points4 ,leibnitz does not appear to have been acquainted with the method of fluxions at the time of his own discovery1 but there is now no doubt of ,newton's having preceded him by some years2 and the attacks made on the tendency of ,newton's discoveries have long been remembered only as disgracing their author4 ,but such discussions had always been distasteful to ,newton1 and this controversy1 which was conducted with great rancour by his opponents and some of his supporters1 embittered his later years4 ,the same fate awaited him in another instance4 ,his system of ,chronology had been long conceived1 but he had not communicated it to any one until he explained it to the ,princess of ,wales4 ,at her desire1 he afterwards1 in #agah1 drew up a short abstract of it for her use1 and sent it to her on condition that no one else should see it4 ,she afterwards requested that the ,abb ,conti might have a copy of it1 and ,newton complied1 but still on the terms that it should not be farther divulged4 ,conti1 however1 showed the manuscript at ,paris to ,freret1 who1 without the author's permission1 translated and published it with observations in opposition to its doctrines4 ,newton drew up a reply which was printed in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #agbe1 and this was the signal for a new attack by ,souciet4 ,newton was then roused to his last great exertion1 that of fully digesting his system2 which as yet existed only in confused papers1 and preparing it for the press4 ,he did not live to complete his task1 but the work was left in a state of great forwardness1 and was published in #agbh by ,mr4 ,conduitt4 ,its value is well known4 ,as a refutation of the systems of chronology then received1 it is almost demonstrative2 and the affirmative conclusions1 if not always minutely correct1 or even generally satisfactory1 are yet among the most valuable contributions which science has made to history4 ,with the exception of the attack of #afic1 ,newton's health had usually been very good4 ,but he suffered much from stone during the last few years of his life4 ,his mental faculties remained in general unaffected1 but his memory was much impaired4 ,from the year #agbe he lived at ,kensington1 but was still fond of going occasionally to ,london1 and visited it on ,february #bhth1 #agbg1 to preside at a meeting of the ,royal ,society4 ,the fatigue appears to have been too great3 for the disease attacked him violently on the #dth of ,march1 and he lingered till the #bjth1 when he died4 ,his sufferings were severe1 but his temper was never soured1 nor the benevolence of his nature obscured4 ,indeed his moral was not less admirable than his intellectual character1 and it was guided and supported by that religion1 which he had studied not from speculative curiosity1 but with the serious application of a mind habitually occupied with its duties1 and earnestly desirous of its advancement4 ,newton died without a will1 and his property descended to ,mrs4 ,conduitt and his other relations in the same degree4 ,he was buried with great pomp in ,westminster ,abbey1 where there is a monument to his memory1 erected by his relations4 ,his ,chronology appeared1 as has been already mentioned1 almost immediately after his death2 and the ,lectiones ,optic1 the substance of his lectures at ,cambridge in the years #affi1 #afgj1 and #afga1 were published from his manuscripts in #agbi4 ,in #agcc1 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,smith1 one of the descendants of his mother's second marriage1 published the ,observations on the ,prophecies4 ,these1 in addition to the works already mentioned1 are ,newton's principal writings2 there are1 however1 several smaller tracts1 some of which appeared during his lifetime1 and some after his death1 which it is not necessary here to specify4 ,they would have conferred much honour on most philosophers2--they are hardly remembered in reckoning up ,newton's titles to fame4 ,illustration3 ,roubiliac's ,statue from the ,chapel of ,trinity ,college4 ,many portraits of ,newton are in existence4 ,the ,royal ,society possesses two2 and ,lord ,egremont is the owner of one1 which is engraved as the frontispiece to ,dr4 ,brewster's ,life of ,newton4 ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 abounds in memorials of its greatest ornament4 ,almost every room dedicated to public purposes possesses a picture of him1 and the chapel is adorned by ,roubiliac's noble statue4 ,the library also has a bust by the same artist1 of perhaps even superior excellence4 ,as works of art these are far superior to any of the paintings extant3 but they have not the claim to authenticity possessed by the contemporary portraits4 ,it is remarkable1 that until the recent publication of ,dr4 ,brewster's life1 no one had thought it worth while to devote an entire work to the history of so remarkable a man as ,newton4 ,there is1 however1 an elaborate memoir of him1 written by ,m4 ,biot1 in the ,biographie ,universelle1 which has been republished in the ,library of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,r4 ,woodman4 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,buonaroti4 ,from a ,picture by ,v4 ,campil1 in the possession of the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,dover4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,michael ,,angelo ,michael ,angelo ,buonaroti was born at the castle of ,caprese in ,tuscany1 on ,march #f1 #adgd-e4 ,he was descended from a noble1 though not a wealthy family2 and his father endeavoured to check the fondness for drawing which he showed at an early age1 lest he should disgrace his parentage by following what was then deemed little better than a mechanical employment4 ,fortunately for the arts1 the bent of the son's genius was too decided to be foiled by the parent's pride2 and in ,april1 #adhh1 young ,buonaroti was placed under the tuition of ,ghirlandaio1 then the most eminent painter in ,italy4 ,he soon distinguished himself above his fellow pupils1 and was fortunate in attracting the notice of ,lorenzo de ,medici2 but the early death of his patron1 and the troubles which ensued in ,florence1 clouded the brilliant prospects which seemed open to him4 ,he first visited ,rome when about twenty-two years old1 at the invitation of ,cardinal ,st4 ,giorgio2 and resided in that city for a year1 without being employed to execute anything for his pretended patron4 ,he obtained three commissions1 however1 from other quarters2 one for a ,cupid1 a second for a statue of ,bacchus1 a third for a ,virgin and dead ,christ1 which forms the altar-piece of a chapel in ,st4 ,peter's4 ,the latter work was the most important1 and established his character as one of the first sculptors of the day4 ,returning to ,florence soon after the appointment of ,sodarini to be perpetual ,gonfaloniere1 or standard-bearer1 an office equivalent to that of president of the republic1 he found ampler room for the development of his talents in the favour of the chief magistrate2 for whom he executed the celebrated statue of ,david1 in marble1 placed in front of the ,palazzo ,vecchio2 and another statue of ,david1 and a group of ,david and ,goliath1 both in bronze4 ,to this period we are also to refer an oil picture of a ,holy ,family1 painted for ,angelo ,doni1 and now in the ,florence gallery2 the only oil painting which can be authenticated as proceeding from his hand4 ,the accounts of ,michael ,angelo's early life relate so exclusively to his skill and practice as a sculptor1 that some wonder may be felt as to the means by which he acquired the technical science and dexterity necessary to the painter4 ,but it was in composition1 and as a draughtsman that he excelled1 not as a colourist2 and the same intimate knowledge of the human figure1 and freedom and boldness of hand1 which guided his chisel1 often1 it is said1 without a model1 will account for the anatomical excellence and energy of his drawings4 ,nevertheless it is surprising to find him at this early age rivalling1 and indeed by general suffrage excelling in his own art ,leonardo da ,vinci1 not only the first painter of his generation1 but one of the most accomplished persons of his age4 ,the work to which we allude1 the celebrated ,cartoon of ,pisa1 painted as a companion to a battle-piece of ,leonardo1 has long disappeared2 and is generally supposed to have been destroyed clandestinely by ,baccio ,bandinelli1 a rival artist1 of whose envious and cowardly temper some amusing anecdotes are related in ,benvenuto ,cellini's autobiography4 ,it represented a party of ,florentine soldiers1 disturbed1 while bathing in the ,arno1 by a sudden call to arms4 ,only one copy of it is said to exist1 which is preserved in ,mr4 ,coke's collection at ,holkham4 ,when ,julius ,,ii4 ascended the papal chair1 he invited ,michael ,angelo to ,rome1 and commissioned him to erect a splendid tomb4 ,the original design1 a sketch of which may be seen in ,bottari's edition of ,vasari1 was for an insulated building1 thirty-four feet six inches by twenty-three feet1 ornamented with forty statues1 many of colossal size1 and a vast number of bronze and marble columns1 basso-relievos1 and every species of architectural decoration of the richest sort4 ,this commission1 upon the due execution of which ,michael ,angelo set his heart1 as a worthy opportunity of immortalizing his name1 was destined to involve him in a long train of vexations4 ,during the life of ,julius1 the attention which he wished to concentrate on this one great work was distracted by a variety of other employments forced on him by his patron4 ,upon his death1 it was resolved to finish it on a smaller scale3 but its progress was then more seriously interrupted by the eagerness of successive ,popes to employ the great artist on works which should immortalize their own names as liberal patrons of the arts4 ,ultimately1 after much dissatisfaction and dispute on the part of ,pope ,julius's heirs1 the form of the monument was altered2 and as it now stands in the church of ,st4 ,pietro in ,vinculis1 it consists only of a faade1 ornamented by seven statues1 three of which are from the hand of ,michael ,angelo1 the others are by inferior artists4 ,the central figure is the celebrated ,moses1 by many considered the finest modern work of sculpture2 and this is the only part of the original composition4 ,during the same pontificate1 ,michael ,angelo painted the ceiling of the ,sistine chapel4 ,the employment was not to his taste2 but it was forced upon him by ,pope ,julius4 ,he had never tried his powers in fresco painting2 and that branch of the art1 as is well known1 involves many difficulties1 which1 though merely mechanical1 it requires some practice and experience to surmount4 ,having first completed the design in a series of cartoons1 he sent to ,florence to engage the ablest assistants to be found3 but their labours were unsatisfactory1 and dismissing them1 he set to work himself1 and executed the whole vault with his own hands1 in the short space of twenty months4 ,julius ,,ii4 died in #aeac4 ,the next nine years1 comprehending the pontificate of ,leo ,x41 are an entire blank in ,michael ,angelo's life1 so far as regards the practice of his art4 ,he was employed the whole time1 by the ,pope's express order1 in superintending some new marble quarries in the mountains of ,tuscany4 ,during the pontificate of ,adrian ,,vi4 he resided at ,florence1 where ,giuliano de ,medici1 afterwards ,clement ,,vii41 employed him to build a new library and sacristy to the church of ,st4 ,lorenzo1 and a sepulchral chapel1 to serve as a mausoleum for the ducal family4 ,he was also employed to execute two monuments in honour of ,giuliano1 the brother1 and ,lorenzo de ,medici1 the nephew1 of ,leo ,x4 ,the princes are represented seated1 in the ,roman military habit1 above two sarcophagi4 ,below are two recumbent figures to each monument1 one pair representing ,morning and ,evening2 the other1 ,day and ,night4 ,the reason for this singular choice of personages is not explained4 ,we cannot enter upon the maze of ,italian politics1 which led to the siege of ,florence by the imperial troops in #aebi-cj4 ,michael ,angelo's well-known and varied talent led to his being appointed chief engineer and master of the ordnance to the city2 in which capacity he gained new honour by his skill1 resolution1 and patriotism4 ,during this turbulent time he began a picture of ,leda1 which was sent to ,france1 and fell into the possession of ,francis ,i4 ,it has long been lost2 the original cartoon is in the collection of the ,royal ,academy4 ,michael ,angelo's second work in fresco1 the ,last ,judgment1 occupying the east end of the ,sistine chapel1 seems to have been begun in #aecc or #aecd4 ,it was not finished till #aeda4 ,his last and only other works of this kind were two large pictures in the ,pauline chapel1 representing the ,martyrdom of ,st4 ,peter1 and the ,conversion of ,st4 ,paul4 ,these were not completed till he had reached the advanced age of seventy-five4 ,in #aedf died ,antonio da ,san ,gallo1 the third architect employed in the rebuilding of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,the project of renewing the metropolitan church of ,rome was first suggested to the ambitious mind of ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 by the impossibility of finding any place in the then existing cathedral1 worthy of the splendid monument which he had ordered ,michael ,angelo to execute4 ,bramante1 ,raphael1 and ,san ,gallo1 were successively appointed to conduct the mighty undertaking1 and removed by death4 ,san ,gallo had deviated materially from the design of ,bramante4 ,michael ,angelo disapproved of his alterations2 but was deterred from returning to the original plan by its vast extent1 and the necessity of contracting the extent of the work so as to meet the impoverished state of the ,papal treasury1 produced by the spreading of the ,reformation in ,germany and ,england4 ,he accordingly gave in the design from which the present building was erected1 which1 gigantic as it is1 falls short of the dimensions of that which ,julius proposed to raise4 ,having now reached the advanced age of seventy-one1 it was with reluctance that he undertook so heavy a charge4 ,it was1 indeed1 only by the absolute command of the ,pope that he was induced to do so2 and on the unusual condition that he should receive no salary1 as he accepted the office purely from devotional feelings4 ,he also made it a condition that he should be absolutely empowered to discharge any persons employed in the works1 and to supply their places at his pleasure4 ,to the independent and upright feelings which led him to insist on this latter clause1 the factious opposition1 which harassed the remainder of his life1 is partly to be ascribed4 ,disinterested himself1 he suffered no peculation under his administration2 and he was repaid by the hatred of a powerful party connected with those whose vanity his appointment wounded1 or whose interests his honesty crossed4 ,repeated attempts were made to procure his removal1 to which he would willingly have yielded1 but for a due sense of the greatness of the work which he had undertaken1 and reluctance to quit it1 until too far advanced to be altered and spoiled by some inferior hand4 ,this praiseworthy solicitude was not disappointed4 ,during the life of ,paul1 and through four succeeding pontificates1 he held the situation of chief architect2 and before his death1 in ,february1 #aefc-d1 the cupola was raised1 and the principal features of the building unalterably determined4 ,his earlier architectural works are to be seen at ,florence4 ,they consist of the faade and sacristy of the church of ,st4 ,lorenzo1 left unfinished by ,brunelleschi1 the mausoleum of the ,medici family1 and the ,laurentian library4 ,during the latter part of his life he amused his leisure hours by working on a group representing a dead ,christ1 supported by the ,virgin and ,nicodemus1 which he intended for an altar-piece to the chapel in which he should himself be interred4 ,it was never finished1 however1 and is now in the cathedral of ,florence4 ,but1 from the time of his assuming the charge of ,st4 ,peter's1 his attention was almost entirely devoted to architecture4 ,his chief works were the completion of the ,farnese palace1 begun by ,san ,gallo2 the palace of the ,senator of ,rome1 the picture galleries1 and flight of steps leading up to the convent of ,araceli1 all situated on the ,capitoline hill2 and the conversion of the baths of ,diocletian into the church of ,s4 ,maria degli ,angeli4 ,michael ,angelo1 though he painted few pictures himself1 frequently gave designs to be executed by his favourite pupils1 especially ,sebastiano del ,piombo4 ,such was the origin of the magnificent ,raising of ,lazarus1 in the ,national ,gallery4 ,like many artists of that age1 he aspired to be a poet4 ,his works consist chiefly of sonnets1 modelled on the style of ,petrarch4 ,religion and ,love are the prevailing subjects4 ,the ,life of ,michael ,angelo1 by ,mr4 ,duppa1 will gratify the curiosity of the ,english reader1 who wishes to pursue the subject beyond this mere list of the artist's principal works4 ,to the ,italian reader we may recommend the lives of ,condivi and ,vasari1 as containing the original information from which subsequent writers have drawn their accounts4 ,to do justice to the versatile1 yet profound genius of this great man1 is a task which we must leave to such writers as ,reynolds and ,fuseli1 in whose lectures the reader will find ample evidence of the profound admiration with which they regarded him4 ,nor can we conclude better than with the short but energetic character given by the latter1 of his favourite artist's style of genius1 and of his principal works3-- 8,sublimity of conception1 grandeur of form1 and breadth of manner1 are the elements of ,michael ,angelo's style4 ,by these principles he selected or rejected the objects of imitation4 ,as painter1 as sculptor1 as architect1 he attempted1 and above any other man1 succeeded1 to unite magnificence of plan1 and endless variety of subordinate parts1 with the utmost simplicity and breadth4 ,his line is uniformly grand3 character and beauty were admitted only as far as they could be made subservient to grandeur4 ,to give the appearance of perfect ease to the most perplexing difficulty1 was the exclusive power of ,michael ,angelo4 ,he is the inventor of epic painting1 in that sublime circle of the ,sistine chapel which exhibits the origin1 the progress1 and the final dispensations of theocracy4 ,he has personified motion in the groups of the ,cartoon of ,pisa2 embodied sentiment on the monuments of ,s4 ,lorenzo2 unravelled the features of meditation in the ,prophets and ,sibyls of the ,sistine chapel2 and in the ,last ,judgment1 with every attitude that varies the human body1 traced the master-trait of every passion that sways the human heart4 ,though1 as sculptor1 he expressed the character of flesh more perfectly than all who came before or went after him1 yet he never submitted to copy an individual1 ,julius ,,ii4 only excepted2 and in him he represented the reigning passion rather than the man4 ,in painting he has contented himself with a negative colour1 and as the painter of mankind1 rejected all meretricious ornament4 ,the fabric of ,st4 ,peter's1 scattered into infinity of jarring parts by ,bramante and his successors1 he concentrated2 suspended the cupola1 and to the most complex gave the air of the most simple of edifices4 ,such1 take him for all in all1 was ,m4 ,angelo1 the salt of art3 sometimes he no doubt had his moments of dereliction1 deviated into manner1 or perplexed the grandeur of his forms with futile and ostentatious anatomy3 both met with armies of copyists2 and it has been his fate to be censured for their folly40--7,lecture ,,ii47 ,illustration3 ,,jackson ,from the ,monument of ,giuliano de ,medici4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,j4 ,posselwhite4 ,,moliere4 ,from the original ,picture of ,lebrun's ,school1 in the collection of the ,muse ,royale4 ,paris4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,moliere ,moliere1 the contemporary of ,corneille and ,racine1 whose original and real name was ,jean ,baptiste ,poquelin1 was born at ,paris on the #aeth ,january1 #afbb4 ,his father and mother were both in trade2 and they brought up their son to their own occupation4 ,at the age of fourteen1 young ,poquelin could neither read1 write1 nor cast accounts4 ,but the grandfather was very fond of him2 and being himself a great lover of plays1 often took his favourite to the theatre4 ,the natural genius of the boy was1 by this initiation1 kindled into a decided taste for dramatic entertainments3 a disgust to trade was the consequence1 and a desire of that mental cultivation from which he had hitherto been debarred4 ,his father consented at length to his becoming a pupil of the ,jesuits at the ,college of ,clermont4 ,he remained there five years1 and was fortunate enough to be the class-fellow of ,armand de ,bourbon1 ,prince de ,conti1 whose friendship and protection proved of signal service to him in after-life4 ,he studied under the celebrated ,gassendi1 who was so impressed by the apparent aptitude of young ,poquelin to receive instruction1 that he admitted him to the private lectures given to his other pupils4 ,gassendi was in the habit of breaking a lance with two great rivals3 ,aristotle1 at the head of ancient1 and ,descartes1 then at the head of modern philosophy4 ,by witnessing this combat1 ,poquelin acquired a habit of independent reasoning1 sound principles1 extensive knowledge1 and that feeling of practical good sense1 which was so conspicuous not only in his most laboured1 but even in his lightest productions4 ,his studies under ,gassendi were abruptly terminated by the following circumstance4 ,his father was attached to the court in the double capacity of valet-de-chambre and tapestry-maker2 and the son had the reversion of these places4 ,when ,louis ,,xiii4 went to ,narbonne in #afda1 the old man was ill1 and the young one was obliged to officiate for him4 ,on his return to ,paris1 his passion for the stage1 which had first led him into the paths of literature1 revived with renewed strength4 ,the taste of ,cardinal de ,richelieu for theatrical performances was communicated to the nation at large1 and a peculiar protection was granted to dramatic poets4 ,many little societies were formed for acting plays in private houses1 for the amusement at least of the performers4 ,poquelin collected a company of young stage-stricken heroes1 who so far exceeded all their rivals1 as to earn for their establishment the pompous title of ,the ,illustrious ,theatre4 ,he now determined to make the stage his profession1 and changing his name1 according to the usage in such cases1 adopted that of ,moliere4 ,he disappears during the time of the civil wars1 from #afdh to #afeb2 but we may suppose the interval to have been passed in composing some of those pieces which were afterwards brought before the public4 ,when the disturbances ceased1 ,moliere1 in partnership with an actress of ,champagne1 named ,la ,bjard1 formed a strolling company2 and his first regular piece1 called ,l',etourdi1 or the ,blunderer1 was performed at ,lyons in #afec4 ,another company of comedians settled in that town was deserted by the spectators in favour of these clever vagabonds2 and the principal performers of the regular establishment took the hint1 pocketed their dignity1 and joined ,moliere4 ,the united company transferred itself to ,languedoc1 and were retained in the service of the ,prince of ,conti4 ,during the ,carnival of #afeh1 the troop1 having resumed their vagrant life1 were playing at ,grenoble4 ,the following summer was passed at ,rouen4 ,when so near ,paris1 ,moliere made occasional journeys thither1 with the earnest hope of bettering his fortune in the metropolis1 where the market for talent is always brisk and open1 the competition1 though severe1 fair and encouraging4 ,once more he received protection from his august fellow-collegian1 who introduced him to ,monsieur1 and ultimately to the ,king himself4 ,the company appeared before their ,majesties and the court for the first time1 on the #c;d of ,november1 #afeh1 on a stage erected in the ,hall of the ,guards in the ,old ,louvre4 ,their success was so complete that the ,king gave orders for their permanent settlement in ,paris1 and they were allowed to act alternately with the ,italian players in the ,hall of the ,petit ,bourbon4 ,in #affc a pension of a thousand livres was granted to ,moliere1 and in #affe his company was taken altogether into the ,king's service4 ,as in the course of about fifteen years he produced more than double that number of dramatic pieces1 instead of giving1 within our narrow limits1 a mere dry catalogue of titles1 we shall make some more detailed remarks on a few of those masterpieces1 in different styles1 which not only raised the character of ,french comedy to a great height in ,france itself1 but in a great measure furnished the staple to some of our own most distinguished writers4 ,among many persons of taste and judgment1 the ,misantrope has borne the character of being the most finished of all ,moliere's pieces2 of combining the most powerful efforts of united genius and art4 ,the subject is single1 and the unities are exactly observed4 ,the principal person of the drama is strongly conceived1 and brought out with the boldest strokes of the master's pencil3 it is throughout uniform1 and in strict keeping4 ,the subordinate persons are equally well drawn1 and fitted for their business in the scene1 so as to throw an artist-like light upon the chief figure4 ,the scenes and incidents are so contrived and conducted as to diversify the main character1 and set it in various points of view4 ,the sentiments are strong and nervous as well as proper2 and the good sense with which the piece is fraught1 proves that the bustle and dissipation of the court and the theatre had not obliterated the lessons of the college1 or the lectures of ,gassendi4 ,the title of the play will at once bring to the mind of an ,englishman our own ,timon of ,athens2 but there are scarcely any other points of resemblance4 ,the ancient and the modern ,man-hater had little in common3 the ,athenian was the victim of personal ill-treatment2 having suffered by excess of good-nature and credulity1 he runs into the other extreme of suspicion and revenge4 ,moliere's ,man-hater owes his character to the severity of virtue1 which can give no quarter to the vices of mankind2 to that sincerity which disdains indiscriminate complaisance1 and the prostitution of the language of friendship to the flattery of fools and knaves4 ,wycherley1 in his ,plain ,dealer1 has given the ,french ,misantrope an ,english dress4 ,manly is a character of humour1 speaking and acting from a peculiar bias of temper and inclination2 but the coarseness of the plain dealing is not to be tolerated1 and what ,manly does goes near to counteract the moral effect of what he says4 ,by way of contrasting the various talents of the author1 than whom none better understood human nature in its various ramifications1 or copied more skilfully every shade and gradation of manners1 we may just mention the ,bourgeois ,gentilhomme1 exhibiting the folly and affectation of a cit turned man of fashion4 ,if the moral of the ,misantrope be pure1 the wit of the ,bourgeois is terse and diverting4 ,in several of his comedies he has treated medicine and its professors not only with freedom but severity2 it was1 however1 perverted medicine only1 and its quack professors that were the subjects of his ridicule4 ,the respectable members of the faculty could be no more affected by the satire1 nor displeased by what they could not fear1 than a true prophet by the punishment of imposture4 ,those who are acquainted with the history of the science will recollect the state of it at ,paris in ,moliere's time1 and the character of the physicians4 ,their whole employment was confined to searching after visionary specifics1 and experimental trickery in chemistry4 ,the cause of a disease was never inquired after1 nor the symptoms regarded2 but hypothetical jargon and random prescription were thrown like dust into the eyes of the patient1 to the exclusion of a practice founded on science and observation4 ,thus medicine became a pest instead of a remedy2 and this state of things justified the chastisement inflicted4 ,les ,prcieuses ,ridicules is a comedy intended to reprove a vain1 fantastical1 and preposterous humour prevailing very much about that time in ,france4 ,it had the desired effect1 and conduced materially towards rooting out a taste in manners so unreasonable and ridiculous4 ,tartuffe1 or ,the ,impostor1 has occasionally1 and even recently1 sometimes to the disturbance of the public peace in ,france1 given great offence not only to those who felt the justice1 and winced under the severity of the satire2 but to others1 who suspected that a blow was aimed at religion1 under the mask of an attack upon hypocrisy4 ,but its intrinsic merit1 the truth of the drawing1 and the justness of the colouring1 have secured patrons for it among persons of unquestionable sense1 virtue1 learning1 and taste2 and it has always triumphed over the violence of opposition4 ,cibber1 a vamper of other men's plays1 has borrowed from it his favourite ,nonjuror1 and applied it to the purposes of a political party4 ,on this adaptation has been grafted a more modern attack on the ,methodists1 under the title of ,the ,hypocrite4 ,but however great may be the merit of this celebrated drama1 it cannot boast of entire originality4 ,machiavelli left behind him three comedies1 the fruits of a statesman's leisure hours4 ,in all three1 the author has exhibited the hand of a master2 he has painted mankind in the spirit of truth1 and unmasked falsehood and hypocrisy in a tone of profound contempt4 ,two monks1 a brother ,timothy and a brother ,alberico1 are represented with too much wit and keenness of sarcasm to have been overlooked by ,moliere in his working up of the third specimen4 ,the first three acts of the ,tartuffe were played for the first time at court before the piece was finished4 ,masques of pomp1 magnificence and panegyric1 such as usually furnish out the amusement of royal saloons1 are forgotten as soon as they have served the purpose of the moment3 but masterpieces like that now in question perpetuate their own renown1 and leave a lasting memorial of what is supposed to be a phenomenon1 a princely taste for genuine wit4 ,les ,fcheux was the first piece in which dancing was so connected with the dramatic action1 as to fill up the intervals without breaking the thread of the story4 ,le ,mariage ,forc was borrowed from ,rabelais1 to whom both ,moliere and ,la ,fontaine were deeply indebted4 ,the ,aristotelian and ,pyrrhonian philosophy1 as travestied by modern doctors1 furnishes occasion for lively satire and clever buffoonery4 ,the horror with which ,pancrace calls down the vengeance of heaven on him who should dare to say the form of a hat1 instead of the figure of a hat1 is a pleasant parody on the unintelligible absurdities of the schools4 ,according to ,marphurius1 philosophy commands us to suspend our judgment1 and to speak of every thing with uncertainty2 not to say ,i am come1 but1 ,i think that ,i am come4 ,la ,princesse d',elide1 though not one of ,moliere's happiest efforts1 deserves notice on account of its contributing to the festivities of the court1 by an adaptation of ingenious allegories to the manners and events of the time4 ,this satire was aimed at the illusion of ,judicial ,astrology1 after which many princes of the period were running mad2 and in particular ,victor ,amadeus1 ,duke of ,savoy1 father of the ,duchess of ,burgundy1 who kept an astrologer about his person even after his abdication4 ,the dramatic antiquary may find some amusement in comparing the ftes of the ,french court with the masques of ,ben ,jonson1 ,davenant1 and others1 exhibited before our ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i42 but here the interest ends4 ,it is sufficient to remark1 that the masques of the ,english court owed their power of pleasing to the ingenuity of the machinist and the flattery of the poet4 ,the little dramas performed before the royal family of ,france tickled the ears of the audience by the pungency of their wit and ridicule4 ,the ,miser has been pretty closely translated1 for the version is little more1 by ,henry ,fielding2 but not so happily as he himself seems to have imagined4 ,the subject of that excellent comedy1 ,les ,femmes ,savantes1 in which the ridicule is kept within reasonable bounds1 and female faults and virtues are painted with a proper gradation of colouring1 where what the painters call a medium tint harmonizes the extremes of light and shade1 was taken up by ,goldoni with that coarse and abrupt pencilling of black and white1 which has always been the vice of the ,italian stage4 ,it has indeed been advanced as a reproach to ,moliere1 that he too often charged his comic pictures with the extravagance of caricature3 but if we compare even the most farcical of his scenes with the speaking pantomimes and half-improvisations of ,italy1 we must pronounce him a model of delicacy and classical propriety4 ,his last comedy was ,le ,malade ,imaginaire4 ,it was acted for the fourth time on the #agth ,february1 #afgc4 ,the principal character represented is that of a sick man1 who1 to carry on a purpose of the plot1 pretends to be dead4 ,this part was played by ,moliere himself4 ,the popular story was1 that when he was to discover that it was only a feint1 he could neither speak nor get up1 being actually dead4 ,the wits and epigrammatists made the most of the occurrence2 those who could not write good ,french1 treated it with bad ,latin4 ,but unluckily for the stability of their conceits1 they were not built on the foundation of truth4 ,though very ill1 and obviously in much pain1 he was able to finish the play4 ,he went home1 and was put to bed3 his cough increased violently2 a vessel burst in his lungs1 and he was suffocated with blood in about half an hour after4 ,he was only in his fifty-second year when this event took place4 ,the ,king was extremely affected at this sudden loss1 by which1 as ,johnson said of ,garrick1 the gaiety of nations was eclipsed2 and as a strong mark of his regard1 he prevailed with the archbishop of ,paris to allow of his being interred in consecrated ground4 ,nothing short of so absolute a ,king's interposition could have effected this2 for1 independently of the general sentence of excommunication then in force against scenic performers1 ,moliere had drawn upon himself the resentment of the ecclesiastics in particular1 by exposing the hypocrites of their cloth1 as well as the bigots among the laity4 ,those who ridicule folly and knavery in all orders of men must expect to be treated as ,moliere was1 and to have the foolish and knavish of all orders for enemies4 ,during his life1 ,paris and the court were stirred up and inflamed against the dramatist2 and on more than one occasion1 he must have fallen a sacrifice to the indignation of the clergy1 had he not been protected by the ,king4 ,the friend of his life did not desert him when he was dead2 but procured for his insensible remains that decent respect1 which all nations have consented to pay1 as a tribute even to themselves4 ,voltaire characterizes ,moliere as the best comic poet of any nation2 and treats the posthumous hostility which made a difficulty about his burial as a reproach both to ,france and to the ,catholic religion4 ,professing to have reperused the comedians of antiquity for the purpose of comparison1 he gives it as his judgment1 that the ,french dramatist is entitled to the preference4 ,he grounds this decision on the art and regularity of the modern theatre1 contrasted with the unconnected scenes of the ancients1 their weak intrigues1 and the strange practice of declaring by the mouths of the actors1 in cold and unnatural monologues1 what they had done and what they intended to do4 ,he concludes by saying that ,moliere did for comedy what ,corneille had done for tragedy2 and that the ,french were superior on this ground to all the people upon earth4 ,a country possessing such a comic drama as ours1 throughout the course of about two centuries1 with ,much ado about ,nothing at one end of the list1 and ,the ,school for ,scandal at the other1 will be inclined to demur to this broad national assumption3 but we1 in our turn1 must in candour confess1 that though the chronological precedence of ,shakspeare1 ,jonson1 ,fletcher1 ,massinger1 and ,ford1 had established a glorious stage for us before ,moliere was born1 or while he was yet in petticoats2 yet our most eminent comic writers in the reigns of ,william ,,iii41 ,anne1 and ,george ,i41 drank deep and often from the abundant source of ,french comedy4 ,but ,moliere's influence was most beneficially exerted in reclaiming his countrymen from a fondness for such ,italian conceits as ringing the changes upon odours and ardours1 c41 to which authors like ,scudery1 ,voiture1 and ,balzac had given an ephemeral fashion4 ,boileau and ,moliere principally contributed to arm the ,french against the invasion from beyond the ,alps1 of such madrigal-writers as ,marini1 ,achillini1 and ,prti4 ,it is not true that ,moliere1 when he commenced his career1 found the theatre absolutely destitute of good comedies4 ,corneille had already produced ,le ,menteur1 a piece combining character with intrigue1 imported from the ,spanish stage4 ,moliere had produced only two of his most esteemed plays1 when the public was gratified with ,la ,mre ,coquette of ,quinault1 than which few pieces were more happy either in point of character or intrigue4 ,but if ,corneille be the first legitimate model for tragedy1 ,moliere was so for comedy4 ,the general shaping of his plots1 the connexion of his scenes1 his dramatic consistency and propriety were attempted to be copied by succeeding writers3 but who could compete with him in wit and spirit8 ,his well-directed attacks did more than any thing to rescue the public from the impertinence of subaltern courtiers affecting airs of importance2 from the affectation of conceited1 and the pedantry of learned1 ladies2 from the quackery of professional costume and barbarous ,latin on the part of the medical tribe4 ,moliere was the legislator of conventional proprieties4 ,that period might well be called the ,augustan age of ,france1 which saw the tragedies of ,corneille and ,racine2 the comedies of ,moliere2 the birth of modern music in the symphonies of ,lulli2 the pulpit eloquence of ,bossuet and ,bourdaloe4 ,louis ,,xiv4 was the hearer and the patron of all these2 and his taste was duly appreciated and adopted by the accomplished ,madame1 by a ,cond1 a ,turenne1 and a ,colbert1 followed by a long train of eminent men in every department of the state and of society4 ,little has come down to us respecting ,moliere's personal history or habits1 excepting that his marriage was not among the happy or creditable events of his life4 ,so little did he in his own case weigh the evils of disproportioned age1 however sarcastically he might imagine them in fictitious scenes1 that he took for his partner the daughter of ,la ,bjard1 the associate of his strolling career4 ,if his choice were a fault1 it carried its punishment along with it4 ,he was very jealous1 and the young lady was an accomplished coquette4 ,the bickerings of married life were the frequent and successful topics of his comedies2 and his enemies asserted1 that in drawing such scenes1 he possessed the advantage of painting from the life4 ,of that ridicule which had so often set the theatre in a roar1 he was himself the serious subject1 the repentant and writhing victim4 ,fuller accounts of ,moliere are to be found prefixed to the best editions of his works3 we may mention those of ,joly1 ,petitot1 and ,auger4 ,an article of considerable length1 by the last-named author1 is devoted to our poet in the ,biographie ,universelle4 ,illustration3 ,scene from ,les ,prcieuses ,ridicules4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,i4 ,w4 ,cook4 ,,charles ,,james ,,fox4 ,from a ,picture by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds in the possession of ,lord ,holland4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,fox ,the ,right ,honourable ,charles ,james ,fox was third son of the ,right ,honourable ,henry ,fox1 afterwards ,lord ,holland1 and of ,lady ,georgina ,caroline ,fox1 eldest daughter of ,charles1 second ,duke of ,richmond4 ,he was born ,january #bdth1 #agdi1 ,n4 ,s4 ,mr4 ,fox received his education at ,eton2 and the favourite studies of the place had more than ordinary influence over his tastes and literary pursuits in after-life4 ,before he left school1 his father was so imprudent as to carry him to ,paris and ,spa4 ,to his early associations at the latter place may be ascribed that propensity to gaming1 which was the bane of two-thirds of his life4 ,as the present article is not designed to be a mere panegyric1 we abandon the indulgence of this fatal passion to the severest censure that can be bestowed upon it by the philosopher and the moralist3 but justice demands it at our hands to say1 that after the adjustment of ,mr4 ,fox's affairs by his friends1 personal and political1 he resolutely conquered what habit had almost raised into second nature1 and abstained from play with scrupulous fidelity4 ,it may further be remarked1 that while the paroxysms of the fever were most violent1 his mind was never interrupted from more worthy objects of pursuit4 ,the following anecdote will show the divided empire which discordant passions alternately usurped over his heart4 ,on a night when he had sustained some serious losses1 his deportment assumed so much of the character of despair1 that his friends became uneasy3 they followed him at distance enough to elude his observation1 from the clubhouse to his home in the neighbourhood4 ,they knocked at his door in time1 as they thought1 to have prevented any rash act1 and rushed into the library4 ,there they found the object of their anxiety stretched on the ground without his coat1 before the fire3 his hand neither grasping a razor nor a pistol1 but his eyes intently fixed on the pages of ,herodotus4 ,the old historian had engrossed him wholly from the moment when he took up the volume1 and the ruins of his own air-built castles vanished from before him1 as soon as he got sight of the venerable remains of the ancient world4 ,at ,oxford ,mr4 ,fox distinguished himself by his powers of application1 as well as by the intuitive quickness of his parts4 ,on quitting the university1 he accompanied his father and mother to the south of ,europe4 ,not finding a good ,italian master at ,naples1 he taught himself that language during the winter1 and contracted a strong partiality for ,italian literature4 ,in a letter from ,florence to ,mr4 ,fitz-,patrick1 he conjures that gentleman to learn ,italian as fast as he can1 if it were only to read ,ariosto2 and adds1 8,there is more good poetry in ,italian than in all other languages ,i understand put together40 ,at a later period of life1 if we may judge from the tenor of his correspondence with eminent scholars1 he would have transferred that praise from the ,italian to the ,greek tongue4 ,at this time he was very fond of acting plays1 and was in all respects the man of fashion4 ,those who recollect the simplicity1 bordering on negligence1 of his outward garb late in life1 will smile at the idea of ,mr4 ,fox with a powdered toupee and red heels to his shoes1 the hero of private theatricals4 ,during his absence1 in #agfh1 he was chosen to represent ,midhurst1 and made his first speech on the #aeth ,april1 #agfi4 ,according to ,horace ,walpole1 he spoke with violence1 but with infinite superiority of parts4 ,circumscribed as we are as to space1 we shall not follow ,mr4 ,fox's subaltern career in the ,house of ,commons4 ,it was his breach with ,lord ,north that raised him into a party leader4 ,he had previously formed an intimate acquaintance with ,mr4 ,burke4 ,he began by receiving the lessons of that eminent person as a pupil2 but the master was soon so convinced of his scholar's greatness of character1 and statesman-like turn of mind1 that he resigned the lead to him1 and became an efficient coadjutor in the ,rockingham party1 of which1 in the ,house of ,commons1 he had almost been the dictator4 ,the ,american war roused all the energies of ,mr4 ,fox's mind4 ,the discussions to which it gave rise involved all the first principles of free government4 ,the vicissitudes of the contest tried the firmness of the parliamentary opposition4 ,its duration exercised their perseverance4 ,its magnitude and the dangers of the country called forth their powers4 ,gibbon says1 8,mr4 ,fox discovered powers for regular debate1 which neither his friends hoped nor his enemies dreaded40 ,the following passage1 from a letter to ,mr4 ,fitz-,patrick1 written in #aggh1 illustrates his honourable and independent character3 8,people flatter me that ,i continue to gain rather than lose estimation as an orator2 and ,i am so convinced this is all ,i ever shall gain 7unless ,i choose to be one of the meanest of men71 that ,i never think of any other object of ambition4 ,i am certainly ambitious by nature1 but ,i have1 or think ,i have1 totally subdued that passion4 ,i have still as much vanity as ever1 which is a happier passion by far1 because great reputation1 ,i think1 ,i may acquire and keep2 great situations ,i never can acquire1 nor1 if acquired1 keep1 without making sacrifices that ,i will never make40 ,in the summer of #aggh1 he rejected ,lord ,weymouth's overtures to join the ministry1 and took his station as the leading commoner in the ,rockingham party1 to which he had become attached on principle long before he enlisted permanently in its ranks4 ,the conspicuous features of that party1 and of ,mr4 ,fox's public character1 were the love of peace with foreign powers1 the spirit of conciliation in home management1 an ardent attachment to civil and religious liberty4 ,the day of triumph came at last1 when a resolution against the further prosecution of the ,american war was carried in the ,commons4 ,the ,king was compelled1 reluctantly1 to part with the supporters of his favourite principles1 and had nothing left but to sow the seeds of disunion between the ,rockingham and ,chatham or ,shelburne party1 united on the subject of ,america1 but disagreeing on many other points both of external and internal policy4 ,in this he was but too successful4 ,we have neither space nor inclination to unravel the web of court intrigue2 but we may remark that ,lord ,rockingham's demands were too extensive to be palatable3 they involved the independence of ,america1 the pacification of ,ireland1 bills for economical and parliamentary reform1 to be brought into ,parliament as ministerial measures4 ,but the untimely death of ,lord ,rockingham frustrated his enlightened and enlarged designs1 by dissolving the ministry over which he had presided4 ,mr4 ,fox has been blamed for the precipitancy of his resignation4 ,the tone of sentiment in a letter before quoted will both account and apologise for the rashness if it were such2 and it is obvious that the sacrifice of personal feeling1 or even of political consistency1 could not long have deferred it1 amidst the cabals and clashing interests of party4 ,mr4 ,fox's policy was to detach ,holland and ,america from ,france1 and to form a continental balance against the ,house of ,bourbon4 ,lord ,shelburne's system was to conciliate ,france1 and to treat her allies as dependent powers4 ,lord ,shelburne had the ear of the ,king4 ,he strengthened himself with some of the old supporters of the ,american war1 to fill the vacant offices1 and made ,mr4 ,pitt1 just rising into eminence1 his ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,there were now three parties in the ,commons2 the ministerial1 the ,whig or ,rockingham1 and the third consisting of those members of the late war ministry who had not been invited to join the present4 ,a coalition of some two of these three parties was almost unavoidable3 the public would have most approved of a reunion among the ,whigs2 but there had been too much of mutual recrimination and dispute to admit of reconciliation4 ,nothing1 therefore1 remained but a junction of the two parties in opposition4 ,a judicious friend of ,mr4 ,fox said1 8that to undertake the government with ,lord ,north1 was to risk their credit on very unsafe grounds4 ,unless a real good government is the consequence of this junction1 nothing can justify it to the public40 ,popular feeling was strongly against this coalition1 mainly on account of some personal acrimony vented by ,mr4 ,fox1 in the boiling over of his wrath during the ,american contest1 which seemed to bear upon the moral character of his opponent4 ,it is to be considered1 however1 that the most amiable persons1 if enthusiastic1 are apt in the heat of passion to launch out into invective far more violent than their natural benevolence would justify in their cooler moments4 ,the question on which ,mr4 ,fox and ,lord ,north had been so acrimoniously opposed1 had ceased to exist3 and perhaps there existed no solid reason against the union of the two parties4 ,but the measure was almost universally believed to arise from corrupt motives3 it afforded a fine scope for satire and caricature2 and these have no small influence upon the politics of the multitude4 ,and while the people were displeased1 the ,king was decidedly unfriendly to the administration which had forced itself upon him4 ,he considered the ,rockingham party as enemies to his prerogative1 as well as friends to ,american independence4 ,he was forced to take them in1 but resolved to throw them out again4 ,the unpopular ,india bill1 which ,mr4 ,pitt afterwards adopted with some modifications1 furnished the opportunity4 ,the offence taken by the people against the coalition1 made them lend a ready ear to the charge of ministerial oligarchy3 the ,king disguised his sentiments till the last moment1 procured the rejection of the bill in the ,lords1 and instantly dismissed his ministers4 ,the coalition was still in possession of the ,house of ,commons2 but the voice of the people supported the minister1 a dissolution was resorted to1 and the will of the ,king was accomplished4 ,from #aghd to #agib1 ,mr4 ,fox was leader of a powerful party in the ,house of ,commons1 in opposition to ,mr4 ,pitt4 ,the ,westminster ,scrutiny1 the ,regency1 the abatement of ,impeachments by a dissolution of ,parliament1 the ,libel ,bill1 the ,russian ,armament1 and the ,repeal of the ,corporation and ,test ,acts1 were the topics which called forth his most powerful exertions4 ,his force as a professed orator was conspicuously displayed in ,westminster ,hall1 on the trial of ,warren ,hastings2 but the triumph of his talents is to be found in those masterly replies to his antagonists1 in which cutting sarcasm and close argument1 logical acuteness and metaphysical subtlety were so combined1 as to surpass all that modern experience had witnessed4 ,the constitutional doctrines of ,mr4 ,fox on the ,regency question were much canvassed1 and1 by many1 severely censured4 ,the fact was1 that the case was new2 provided for neither by law1 precedent1 nor analogy4 ,lord ,loughborough first suggested the ,prince's claim of right2 and it was hastily adopted by ,mr4 ,fox1 who had returned from ,italy just as the discussion was pending4 ,mr4 ,fox's ,libel ,bill places him among the most constitutional of our legislators4 ,he saved his country from an unnecessary1 unjust1 and expensive war1 by his exertions on occasion of the ,russian ,armament4 ,the controversy on the ,test and ,corporation ,acts has lost its interest1 from having since been satisfactorily set at rest4 ,but as1 in a sketch like the present1 we have more to do with the character of ,mr4 ,fox's mind than with his political history1 we will here introduce an anecdote which the writer of this life heard related many years ago1 by ,dr4 ,abraham ,rees1 well known both in the scientific world1 and as a leading divine in the dissenting interest4 ,we have already spoken of the intuitive quickness of ,mr4 ,fox's parts2 and the following anecdote will set that peculiarity in a strong light4 ,on the day of the debate1 ,dr4 ,rees waited on ,mr4 ,fox with a deputation1 to engage his support in their cause4 ,he received them courteously2 but1 though a friend to religious liberty1 was evidently unacquainted with the strong points and principal bearings of their peculiar case4 ,he listened attentively to their exposition1 and1 with an eye that looked them through and through1 put four or five searching questions4 ,they withdrew after a short conference1 and as they walked up ,st4 ,james's ,street1 ,mr4 ,fox passed them booted1 as going to take air and exercise1 to enable him to encounter the heat of the ,house and the storm of debate4 ,from the gallery they saw him enter the ,house with whip in hand1 as just dismounted4 ,when he rose to speak1 he displayed such mastery of his subject1 his arguments and illustrations were so various1 his views so profound and statesman-like1 that a stranger must have imagined the question at issue between the high church party and the dissenters to have been the main subject of his study throughout life4 ,that his principles of civil and religious liberty should have enabled him to declaim in splendid generalities was to be expected2 but he entered as fully and deeply into the fundamental principles and most subtle distinctions of the question1 as did those to whom it was of vital importance1 and that after a short conference of some twenty minutes4 ,the ,french revolution is a topic of such magnitude1 that we can only touch upon ,mr4 ,fox's opinions and conduct with respect to it4 ,after the taking of the ,bastille1 he describes it as 8the greatest1 and much the best event that ever happened in the world3 all my prepossessions against ,french connections for this country will be at an end1 and indeed most part of my ,european system of politics will be altered1 if this revolution has the consequence that ,i expect40 ,but it had not that consequence2 and his views were completely changed by the trial and execution of the ,king and ,queen of ,france4 ,but because he did not catch that contagious disease1 made up of alarm and desperate violence1 which involved his country in a disastrous war1 he was represented as the blind apologist of injustice and massacre1 as the careless1 if not jacobinical spectator of the downfall of monarchy4 ,mr4 ,burke was the first to quarrel with ,mr4 ,fox1 and this quarrel led to the temporary estrangement from him of many of his oldest and most valuable friends4 ,but 8time and the hour0 restored the good understanding between the members of the party1 with the exception of ,mr4 ,burke1 who died while the paroxysm of ,antigallican mania was at its height4 ,mr4 ,fox opposed to the utmost the war1 into which the minister was unwillingly forced4 ,but as his passions became heated1 and the difficulties of his situation increased1 ,mr4 ,pitt adopted all ,mr4 ,burke's views1 and the rash project of a bellum internecinum4 ,both the public principles and the personal character of ,mr4 ,fox were the subject of daily calumnies2 and the warmth of his early testimony in favour of the ,french revolution was continually thrown in his teeth1 after the #ajth of ,august1 the massacres of ,september1 and the success of ,dumourier4 ,but his whole conduct during this struggle was clear and consistent4 ,at the dawn of the revolution1 he felt and spoke as a citizen of the world2 but he was the last man alive to have merged patriotism in the vague generalities of universal benevolence4 ,when his own country became implicated in the strife1 he no longer felt and spoke as a citizen of the world1 but as a ,british statesman2 and endeavoured to persuade his countrymen1 not for ,french interests but for their own1 to stand aloof from continental politics1 relying1 for the maintenance of a proud independence and dignified neutrality1 on their insular situation and their wooden walls4 ,his advice was not listened to1 and his mind grew indisposed towards public business4 ,he says in a letter1 dated ,april1 #agie1 8,i am perfectly happy in the country4 ,i have quite resources enough to employ my mind1 and the great resource of literature ,i am fonder of every day40 ,after making a vigorous1 but unsuccessful opposition to the ,treason and ,sedition bills1 he and his remaining friends seceded from parliament4 ,he passed the years from #agig to #ahjb1 principally in retirement at ,st4 ,ann's ,hill2 and they were the happiest of his life4 ,his mornings passed in gardening and farming1 his evenings over books and in conversation with his family and friends4 ,during this period1 his attention was much given to the ,greek ,tragedies and to ,homer1 whom he read not only with the ardent mind of a poet1 but with the microscopic eye of a critic4 ,his correspondence with an eminent scholar of the time was full of sagacious remarks on the suggestions and explanations of the commentators1 as well as on the text of the poem4 ,at this time also he conceived the plan of that history of which he left only a splendid fragment in a state fit for publication4 ,he had been diligent in collecting materials1 and scrupulous in verifying them4 ,his partiality for the ,greek classics followed him into this pursuit1 and probably retarded his progress4 ,he is considered to have taken for his model ,thucydides1 a writer strictly impartial in his narrative1 grave even to severity in his style4 ,he went to ,paris with ,mrs4 ,fox in the summer of #ahjb1 partly to satisfy their mutual curiosity after so long an estrangement from the ,continent1 but principally for the purpose of examining the copious materials for the reign of ,james ,,ii4 deposited in the ,scotch college there4 ,every thing was thrown open to him in the most liberal manner1 and1 as the unflinching friend of peace through good and evil report1 he was received with enthusiasm both by the people and the government4 ,he had several interviews with ,buonaparte3 the chief topics of their conversation were the concordat1 the trial by jury1 the freedom1 amounting in the opinion of the ,first ,consul to licentiousness1 of the ,english press1 the difference between ,asiatic and ,european society4 ,on one occasion he indignantly repelled the charge against ,mr4 ,windham1 of being accessory to the plot of the infernal machine1 alleging the utter impossibility of an ,english gentleman descending to so disgraceful a device4 ,during his stay in ,france1 he visited ,la ,fayette at his country seat of ,la ,grange4 ,our limits will not allow us to enter1 ever so cursorily1 into his political career after the renewal of the war4 ,his advice was wise1 and consistent with himself2 but it was not accepted4 ,the ,king's dislike of him was not to be overcome4 ,the death of ,mr4 ,pitt1 however1 made the admission of ,mr4 ,fox and the ,whigs1 in conjunction with ,lord ,grenville1 a matter of necessity4 ,mr4 ,fox's desire of peace induced him to take the office of ,secretary of ,state for ,foreign ,affairs2 and1 before his fatal illness1 he had begun a negotiation for that main object of his whole life1 with every apparent prospect of success4 ,the hopes entertained from his accession to power were prematurely cut off2 but his short career in office was honourably marked by the ministerial measure1 determined on during his life1 and carried after his decease1 of the abolition of the ,slave ,trade4 ,the complaint of which he died was dropsy1 occasioned probably by the duties of office1 and the fatigue of constant attendance in the ,house of ,commons1 after the comparative seclusion and learned ease in which he had lived for several years4 ,he expired on the #acth of ,september1 #ahjf1 with his senses perfect and his understanding unclouded to the last4 ,we conclude this brief account of ,mr4 ,fox with the character drawn of him by one who knew him well1 and was fully qualified to appreciate him1--,sir ,james ,macintosh4 8,mr4 ,fox united1 in a most remarkable degree1 the seemingly repugnant characters of the mildest of men and the most vehement of orators4 ,in private life he was gentle1 modest1 placable1 kind1 of simple manners1 and so averse from dogmatism1 as to be not only unostentatious1 but even something inactive in conversation4 ,his superiority was never felt but in the instruction which he imparted1 or in the attention which his generous preference usually directed to the more obscure members of the company4 ,the simplicity of his manners was far from excluding that perfect urbanity and amenity which flowed still more from the mildness of his nature1 than from familiar intercourse with the most polished society of ,europe4 ,the pleasantry perhaps of no man of wit had so unlaboured an appearance4 ,it seemed rather to escape from his mind1 than to be produced by it4 ,he had lived on the most intimate terms with all his contemporaries distinguished by wit1 politeness1 or philosophy2 by learning1 or the talents of public life4 ,in the course of thirty years he had known almost every man in ,europe1 whose intercourse could strengthen1 or enrich1 or polish the mind4 ,his own literature was various and elegant4 ,in classical erudition1 which by the custom of ,england is more peculiarly called learning1 he was inferior to few professed scholars4 ,like all men of genius1 he delighted to take refuge in poetry1 from the vulgarity and irritation of business4 ,his own verses were easy and pleasant1 and might have claimed no low place among those which the ,french call vers de socit4 ,the poetical character of his mind was displayed by his extraordinary partiality for the poetry of the two most poetical nations1 or at least languages of the west1 those of the ,greeks and of the ,italians4 ,he disliked political conversation1 and never willingly took any part in it4 8,to speak of him justly as an orator1 would require a long essay4 ,every where natural1 he carried into public something of that simple and negligent exterior which belonged to him in private4 ,when he began to speak1 a common observer might have thought him awkward2 and even a consummate judge could only have been struck with the exquisite justness of his ideas1 and the transparent simplicity of his manners4 ,but no sooner had he spoken for some time1 than he was changed into another being4 ,he forgot himself and every thing around him4 ,he thought only of his subject4 ,his genius warmed and kindled as he went on4 ,he darted fire into his audience4 ,torrents of impetuous and irresistible eloquence swept along their feelings and conviction4 ,he certainly possessed above all moderns that union of reason1 simplicity1 and vehemence1 which formed the prince of orators4 ,he was the most ,demosthenean speaker since the days of ,demosthenes4 #8,i knew him1' says ,mr4 ,burke1 in a pamphlet written after their unhappy difference1 #8when he was nineteen2 since which time he has risen1 by slow degrees1 to be the most brilliant and accomplished debater the world ever saw4' 8,the quiet dignity of a mind roused only by great objects1 the absence of petty bustle1 the contempt of show1 the abhorrence of intrigue1 the plainness and downrightness1 and the thorough good nature which distinguished ,mr4 ,fox1 seem to render him no unfit representative of the old ,english character1 which if it ever changed1 we should be sanguine indeed to expect to see it succeeded by a better4 ,the simplicity of his character inspired confidence1 the ardour of his eloquence roused enthusiasm1 and the gentleness of his manners invited friendship4 #8,i admired1' says ,mr4 ,gibbon1 after describing a day passed with him at ,lausanne1 #8the powers of a superior man1 as they are blended1 in his attractive character1 with all the softness and simplicity of a child3 no human being was ever more free from any taint of malignity1 vanity1 or falsehood4' 8,the measures which he supported or opposed may divide the opinion of posterity1 as they have divided those of the present age4 ,but he will most certainly command the unanimous reverence of future generations1 by his pure sentiments towards the commonwealth2 by his zeal for the civil and religious rights of all men2 by his liberal principles1 favourable to mild government1 to the unfettered exercise of the human faculties1 and the progressive civilization of mankind2 by his ardent love for a country1 of which the well-being and greatness were1 indeed1 inseparable from his own glory2 and by his profound reverence for that free constitution which he was universally admitted to understand better than any other man of his age1 both in an exactly legal and in a comprehensively philosophical sense40 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,r4 ,woodman4 ,,bossuet4 ,from the original ,picture by ,h4 ,rigaud1 in the ,collection of the ,institute of ,france4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,bossuet ,the life of the ,bishop of ,meaux1 a theologian and polemic familiarly known to his countrymen as the oracle of their church1 forms an important part of the ecclesiastical history of the seventeenth century4 ,a short personal memoir of such a man can serve only to excite curiosity1 and in some measure to direct more extended inquiries4 ,jacques-,benigne ,bossuet1 whose father and ancestors were honourably distinguished in the profession of the law1 was born at ,dijon1 ,september #bg1 #afbg4 ,he was placed in his childhood at the college of the ,jesuits in his native town2 whence1 at the age of fifteen1 he was removed to the college of ,navarre in ,paris4 ,at both these places his progress as a student was so rapid that he passed for a prodigy4 ,it may be mentioned1 not more as a proof of precocious intellect than as characteristic of the times1 that soon after his removal to ,paris1 whither the fame of his genius had preceded him1 he was invited to exhibit his powers as a preacher at the ,hotel de ,rambouillet in his sixteenth year4 ,his performance was received with great approbation4 ,in the year #afeb he was ordained priest1 and1 his talents having already made him known1 he soon after received preferment in the cathedral church of ,metz1 of which he became successively canon1 archdeacon1 and dean4 ,it was here that he published his ,refutation of the ,catechism of ,paul ,ferri1 a protestant divine of high reputation4 ,this was the first of that series of controversial writings which contributed1 more than all his other works1 to procure for him the high authority which he enjoyed in the church4 ,he came forward in the field of controversy at a time when public attention was fixed on the subject1 and when the favourite object both with ,church and ,state was the peaceable conversion of the ,protestants4 ,richelieu in the preceding reign had crushed1 by the vigour of his administration1 the political power of the ,protestant party4 ,he1 in common with many other statesmen1 ,catholic and ,protestant1 had conceived a notion that uniformity of religious profession was necessary to the tranquillity of the state4 ,but1 though unchecked in the prosecution of his objects by any scruples of conscience or feelings of humanity1 he would have considered the employment of force1 where persuasion could be effectual1 to be1 in the language of a modern politician1 not a crime but a blunder4 ,when therefore the army had done its work1 he put in action a scheme for reclaiming the ,protestants by every species of politic contrivance4 ,the system commenced by him was continued by others2 and of all those who laboured in the cause1 ,bossuet was indubitably the most able and the most distinguished4 ,his first effort1 the ,refutation of the ,catechism1 recommended him to the notice of the ,queen-,mother2 and the favour which he now enjoyed at court was further increased by the fame of his eloquence in the pulpit1 which he had frequent opportunities of displaying at ,paris1 whither he was called from time to time by ecclesiastical business4 ,he was summoned to preach at the chapel of the ,louvre before ,louis ,,xiv41 who was pleased to express1 in a letter to ,bossuet's father1 the great delight which he received from the sermons of his son2 for the versatile taste of the great monarch enabled him in one hour to recreate himself with the wit and beauty of his mistresses1 and in the next to listen with undiminished pleasure to the exhortations of a ,christian pastor4 ,but ,bossuet had still stronger claims on the gratitude of ,louis by converting to the ,roman ,catholic faith the celebrated ,turenne4 ,this victory is said to have been achieved by his well-known ,exposition1 written in the year #affh1 and published in #afga4 ,so great was his influence at this time1 that he was requested by the ,archbishop of ,paris to interfere in one of those many disputes which the ,papal decrees against the tenets of ,jansenius occasioned4 ,the nuns of ,port-,royal1 who were attached to the doctrine and discipline of the ,jansenists1 were required to subscribe the celebrated ,formulary1 which selected for condemnation five propositions said to be contained in a certain huge work of ,jansenius4 ,those excellent women modestly submitted1 that they were ready to accept any doctrine propounded by the ,church1 and even to affix their names to the condemnation of the obnoxious propositions2 but that they could not assert that these propositions were to be found in a book which they had never seen4 ,in this difficulty the assistance of ,bossuet was requested1 who1 after several conferences1 wrote a long letter to the refractory nuns1 highly commended for its acute logic and sound divinity4 ,much of the logic and divinity was probably thrown away upon the persons for whose use they were intended2 but there was one part of the letter sufficiently intelligible4 ,he congratulated them on their total exemption from all obligation to examine1 and from the task of self-guidance2 and assured them that it was their bounden duty1 as well as their happy privilege1 to subscribe and assent to every thing which was placed before them by authority4 ,the nuns were not convinced4 ,they escaped however for the present2 but in the end they paid dearly for their passive resistance to the decision of ,pope ,alexander ,,vii4 on a matter of fact4 ,in the year #affi1 ,bossuet was promoted to the bishopric of ,condom1 which he resigned the following year on being appointed to the important office of ,preceptor to the ,dauphin4 ,history has told us nothing of the pupil1 but that his capacity was mean1 and his disposition sordid4 ,to him1 however1 the world is indebted for the most celebrated of ,bossuet's performances4 ,the ,introduction to ,universal ,history was written expressly for his use2 and this masterly work may serve to confirm an opinion1 entertained even by his friends1 that ,bossuet was not peculiarly qualified for his situation4 ,to compose such a work for such a boy was worse than a waste of power4 ,though devoted closely and conscientiously to the duties of his new office1 he was not altogether withdrawn from what might be called his vocation1 the prosecution of controversy4 ,it was during the period of his connexion with the ,court1 that his celebrated conference occurred with the ,protestant ,claude4 ,mlle4 de ,duras1 a niece of ,turenne1 had conceived scruples respecting the soundness of her ,protestant principles1 from the perusal of ,bossuet's #8,exposition4' ,she consulted ,m4 ,claude1 who promised to resolve her doubts in the presence of ,bossuet himself4 ,the challenge was accepted1 and the memorable conference was the result4 ,both parties published an account of it2 and their statements1 as might be expected without suspicion of dishonesty on either side1 did not entirely agree4 ,the lady was content to follow the example of her uncle4 ,bossuet's engagement with the ,dauphin was concluded in the year #afha1 when he was rewarded with the bishopric of ,meaux4 ,in so short a memoir of such a man1 where only the most prominent occurrences of his life can be noticed1 there is danger lest the reader should regard him only in the character of a controversialist1 or in the proud station of acknowledged leader of the ,church4 ,it is the more necessary1 therefore1 in this place to observe1 that1 to the comparatively obscure but really important duties of his diocese1 he brought the same zeal and energy which he displayed on a more conspicuous theatre2 and that he could readily exchange the pen of the polemic for that of the devout and affectionate pastor4 ,louis1 however1 was not disposed to leave the ,bishop undisturbed in his retirement4 ,he was soon called forth to be the advocate of his temporal against his spiritual master4 ,the ,kings of ,france had long exercised certain powers in ecclesiastical matters1 which had rather been tolerated than sanctioned by the ,popes4 ,louis was determined not only to preserve1 but considerably to extend1 what his predecessors had enjoyed4 ,hence a sharp altercation was carried on for many years between him and the ,see of ,rome4 ,but1 in #afhb1 in consequence of a threatening brief issued by that haughty pontiff1 ,innocent ,,xii41 he summoned1 by the advice of his clergy1 for the purpose of settling the matters in debate1 a general ,assembly of the ,church4 ,of this famous ,assembly ,bossuet was deservedly regarded as the most influential member4 ,he opened the proceedings with a sermon1 having reference to the subjects which were to come under consideration4 ,in this discourse the reader may find1 perhaps1 some marks of that embarrassment which he is supposed to have felt4 ,he had the deepest sense of the unbounded power and awful majesty of kings in general1 and the highest personal veneration for ,louis in particular2 but then1 on the other hand1 the degree of allegiance which he owed to his spiritual head it was almost impiety to define4 ,so1 after having illustrated1 with all the force of his eloquence1 the inviolable dignity of the ,church1 and fully established the supremacy of ,st4 ,peter1 he carries up1 as it were in a parallel line1 the loftiest panegyric on the monarchy and monarchs of ,france4 ,the discourse was celebrated for its ability1 and without doubt the conflicting topics were managed with great skill4 ,his difficulties did not cease with the dismissal of the ,assembly4 ,the question of the ,rgale1 or the right of the ,king to the revenues of every vacant see1 and to collate to the simple benefices within its jurisdiction1 was settled not at all to the satisfaction of the ,pope2 and the declaration of the ,assembly1 drawn up by ,bossuet himself1 was fiercely attacked by the ,transalpine divines4 ,it was1 of course1 as vigorously defended by its author1 who was in consequence accused by all his enemies1 and some of his friends1 of having forgotten his duty to the ,pope in his subserviency to the ,king4 ,nothing wearied by his exertions in the royal cause1 he had scarcely left the ,assembly1 when he resumed his labours in defence of the ,church against heresy4 ,several smaller works1 put forth from time to time1 seemed to be only a preparation for his great effort in the year #afhh1 when he published his #8,history of the ,variations in the ,protestant ,churches4' ,in this book he has made the most of what may be called the staple argument of the ,catholics against the ,protestants4 ,the course of the narrative has now brought us beyond the period of the memorable revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes2 and it will naturally be asked1 in what light ,bossuet regarded this act of folly and oppression4 ,neither his disposition nor his judgment would lead him to approve the atrocities perpetrated by the government2 but1 in a letter to the ,intendant of ,languedoc1 he labours to justify the use of pains and penalties in enforcing religious conformity2 that is1 he justifies the act of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,in this matter he was not advanced beyond his times2 but1 whatever may have been his theory of the lawfulness of persecution1 his conduct towards the ,protestants was such as to obtain for him the praise even of his opponents4 ,hitherto we have seen ,bossuet labouring incessantly to reconcile the ,huguenots of ,france to the established religion4 ,but1 about this time1 he took part in a more grand and comprehensive measure1 sanctioned by the ,emperor1 and some other sovereign princes of ,germany1 for the reunion of the great body of the ,lutherans throughout ,europe with the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,they engaged the ,bishop of ,neustadt to open a communication with ,molanus1 a ,protestant doctor of high reputation in ,hanover4 ,with these negotiators were afterwards joined ,leibnitz on the part of the ,protestants1 and ,bossuet on that of the ,roman ,catholics4 ,between these two great men the correspondence was carried on for ten years1 in a spirit worthy of themselves and the cause in which they were engaged2 and it terminated1 as probably they both expected that it would terminate1 in leaving the two ,churches in the same state of separation in which it found them4 ,it would have been well for the fame of ,bossuet if the course of his latter days had been marked only by this defeat1--if it had not been signalized1 when grey hairs had increased the veneration which his genius and services had procured him1 by an inglorious victory over a weak woman1 and a friend4 ,the history of ,madame ,guyon1 and the revival of mysticism under the name of ,quietism1 principally by her means1 will more properly be found in a ,life of ,fenelon4 ,the part which ,bossuet took in the proceedings respecting her must be here very briefly noticed4 ,as universal referee in matters of religion1 he was called upon to examine her doctrines1 which began to excite the jealousy of the ,church4 ,his conduct towards her1 in the first instance1 was mild and forbearing2 but either zeal or anger betrayed him at length into a cruel persecution of this amiable visionary4 ,fenelon1 who had partly adopted her views of ,christian perfection1 and thoroughly admired her ,christian character1 was required by ,bossuet to surrender to him at once his opinions and his feelings4 ,fenelon was willing to do much1 but would not consent to sacrifice his integrity to the offended pride of the irritated prelate4 ,he defended his opinions in print1 and the points in debate were1 by his desire1 referred to the ,pope2 and to him they should in common decency have been left3 but we are disgusted with a detail of miserable intrigues1 carried on in the council appointed by the ,pope to examine the matter1 and of vehement remonstrances with which his holiness himself was assailed1 with the avowed object of extorting a reluctant condemnation4 ,the warmest friends of ,bossuet do not attempt to defend him on the plea that these things were done without his concurrence2 they insist only on his disinterested zeal for religion4 ,but let it be remembered1 that this interference with ,papal deliberation proceeded from one who believed the ,vicar of ,christ to be solemnly deciding1 with the aid of the ,holy ,spirit1 a point of faith for the benefit of the whole ,catholic ,church4 ,bossuet triumphed2 and from that moment sunk perceptibly in the general esteem of his countrymen4 ,during the few remaining years of his life he maintained his wonted activity1 and in his last illness we find with pleasure that the ,bible was his companion1 and that he could employ his intervals of repose from severe suffering in composing a commentary on the #bc;d psalm4 ,he died ,april #ab1 #agjd1 in his #gfth year4 ,the authority which ,bossuet acquired was such1 that he may be said not only to have guided the ,gallican ,church during his life1 but in some measure to have left upon it the permanent impression of his own character4 ,of this authority no adequate notion can be formed from the preceding sketch4 ,few even of his works1 which fill twenty volumes quarto1 have been noticed4 ,it should1 however1 be mentioned that he was employed by ,louis ,,xiv4 in an attempt to overcome the religious scruples of ,james ,,ii41 whose conscience revolted from that exercise of the prerogative in favour of the ,protestant ,church1 which his restoration to the throne would have required4 ,the laboured and somewhat extraordinary letter which ,bossuet wrote on this occasion is dated ,may #bb1 #afic4 ,his countrymen claim for ,bossuet an exalted place among historians1 orators1 and theologians4 ,the honours bestowed by them on his #8,introduction to ,universal ,history' have been continued by more impartial judges2 and1 even when unsupported by reference to the age in which it was written1 it stands forth on its own merits as a noble effort of a comprehensive and penetrating mind4 ,his ,funeral ,orations come to us recommended by the judgment of ,voltaire1 who ascribes to ,bossuet alone1 of all his contemporaries1 the praise of real eloquence4 ,the ,english reader will often be rewarded by passages1 which in oratorical power have seldom been surpassed1 and which may induce him to forgive much that is cold1 inflated1 and unnatural4 ,but the ,orations must be considered also as ,christian discourses delivered by a minister of the ,gospel from a ,christian pulpit4 ,they were composed1 for the most part1 to grace the obsequies of royal persons1 and are1 in fact1 dedicated to the honour and glory of kings and princes4 ,a text from ,scripture is the peg on which is hung every thing which can minister to human pride1 and dignify the vanities of a court2 and the effect is but slightly impaired by well-turned phrases1 proper to the occasion1 on the nothingness of earthly things4 ,but the orator is not content with general declamation1 with prostrating himself before his magnificent visions of ancient pedigrees2--he descends to the meanest personal flattery of the living and the dead4 ,when the ,duchess of ,orleans was laid in her coffin1 her friends might hope that her frailties would be buried with her2 but they could hardly expect that a ,christian monitor should hold her forth as an exquisite specimen of female excellence1 the glory of ,france1 whom ,heaven itself had rescued from her enemies to present as a precious and inestimable gift to the ,french nation4 ,but on this occasion ,bossuet was not yet perfect in his art1 or the subject was not sufficiently disgraceful to draw forth all his powers4 ,when afterwards called to speak over the dead body of the ,queen1 whose heart had withered under the wrongs which a licentious husband1 amidst external respect1 had heaped upon her1 he finds it a fitting opportunity to pronounce at the same time a panegyric on the ,king4 ,he recounts the victories won by the ,french arms1 and ascribes them all to the prowess of his hero4 ,but ,louis is not only the taker of cities1 he is the conqueror of himself2 and the royal sensualist is praised for the government of his passions1 the despot for his clemency and justice1 and the grasping conqueror for his moderation4 ,the controversial writings of ,bossuet deserve more regard than either his ,history or his ,orations1 if the importance of a book is to be measured by the extent and permanency of its effects4 ,the ,exposition of the ,doctrines of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 one of the shortest1 but perhaps the most notable1 of his theological works1 was published under circumstances which gave occasion to a story of mysterious suppression and alteration4 ,but a more serious charge has been brought against the author1 of having deliberately misrepresented the doctrines of his ,church1 in order to entrap the ,protestants4 ,so grave an accusation ought not to be lightly entertained2 and though suspicion is excited by symptoms of disingenuous management in the controversy1 to which the publication gave birth2 and though it appears to be demonstrable that the ,roman ,catholic religion1 as commonly professed1 and that many of its doctrines1 as expressed or implied in some of its authorised formularies1 differ essentially from the picture which ,bossuet has drawn1 yet it should at least be remembered that the book itself was eventually1 though tardily1 sanctioned by the highest authority in the ,church4 ,it is possible that ,bossuet may by his ,exposition have converted many beside ,turenne2 but there can be no doubt that he has wrought an extensive1 though a less obvious1 change within the bosom of his own ,church4 ,the high authority of his name would give currency to his opinions on any subject connected with religion2 and many sincere ,roman ,catholics1 who had felt the objections urged against certain practices and dogmas of their own ,church1 would rejoice to find1 on the authority of ,bossuet1 that they were not obliged to own them4 ,the charge of insincerity has been extended beyond the particular instance to the general character of the ,bishop2 and it has been asserted that he held1 in secret1 opinions inconsistent with those which he publicly professed4 ,this charge1 which is destitute of all proof1 seems to have been the joint invention of over-zealous ,protestants and pretended philosophers4 ,enough has been shown to justify us in supposing that he was not one of those rare characters which can break loose from all the obstacles that oppose themselves to the simple love and uncompromising search of truth4 ,some men1 like his illustrious countryman ,du ,pin1 struggle to be free4 ,it should seem that ,bossuet1 if circumstances fettered him1 would not be conscious of his thraldom2 that he would exert all the energies of his powerful mind1 not to escape from his prison1 but to render it a tenable fortress1 or a commodious dwelling4 ,it would be foolish and unjust to infer from this that he would persevere through life in deliberately maintaining what he had discovered to be false1 on the most momentous of all subjects4 ,a complete catalogue of his works may be found at the end of the ,life of ,bossuet in the ,biographie ,universelle4 ,the ,life itself1 which is obviously written by a partial friend1 contains much information in a small compass4 ,the affair of ,quietism1 and the contest between ,bossuet and ,fenelon1 are minutely detailed with great accuracy in the ,life of ,fenelon by the ,cardinal de ,bausset1 whose impartiality seems to have been secured by the profound veneration which he entertained for each of the combatants1 though the impression left on the reader's mind is not favourable to the character of ,bossuet4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,lorenzo ,,de ,,medici4 ,,lorenzo ,,de ,,medici4 ,among the genealogists who wasted their ingenuity to fabricate an imposing pedigree for ,lorenzo de ,medici1 some pretended to derive his origin from the paladins of ,charlemagne1 and others to trace it to the eleventh century4 ,but it is well ascertained that his ancestors only emerged from the inferior orders of the people of ,florence in the course of the fourteenth century1 when1 by engaging in great commercial speculations1 and by signalizing themselves as partisans of the populace of that republic1 they speedily acquired considerable wealth and political importance4 ,giovanni di ,bicci1 his great grandfather1 may be regarded as the first illustrious personage of the family1 and as the author of that crafty system of policy1 mainly founded on affability and liberality1 by which his posterity sprung rapidly to overwhelming greatness4 ,by an assiduous application to trade he made vast additions to his paternal inheritance2 by flattering the passions of the lowest classes he obtained the highest dignities in the state4 ,he died in #adbh1 deeply regretted by his party1 and leaving two sons1 ,cosmo and ,lorenzo1 from the latter of whom descended the ,grand ,dukes of ,tuscany4 ,cosmo was nearly forty when he succeeded to the riches and popularity of his father2 and he had not only conducted for several years a commercial establishment which held counting-houses in all the principal cities of ,europe and in the ,levant1 but had also participated in the weightier concerns of government4 ,the form of the ,florentine constitution was then democratical3 the nobility had been long excluded from the administration of the republic2 and the citizens1 though divided into twenty-one guilds1 or corporations of arts and trades1 from seven of which alone the magistracy were chosen1 had1 however1 an equal share in the nomination of the magistrates1 who were changed every two months4 ,the lower corporations1 owing principally to the manuvres of ,salvestro de ,medici1 had risen in #acgh against the higher1 demanding a still more complete equality1 and had taken the direction of the commonwealth into their own hands2 but after having raised a carder of wool to the supreme power1 and involved themselves in the evils of anarchy1 convinced at last of their own incapacity1 they had again submitted to the wiser guidance of that kind of burgher-aristocracy which they had subverted2 and that party1 headed by the ,albizzi and some other families of distinction1 had1 ever since #achb1 governed the state with unexampled happiness and glory4 ,the republic had been aggrandized by the important acquisition of ,leghorn1 ,pisa1 ,arezzo1 and other ,tuscan cities2 its agriculture was in the most prosperous condition2 its commerce had received a prodigious developement2 its decided superiority in the cultivation of literature1 the sciences1 and the arts1 had placed it foremost in the career of ,european civilization2 and its generous but wise external policy had constituted it as the guardian of the liberties of ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,c4 ,e4 ,wagstaff4 ,,lorenzo ,,de ,,medici4 ,from a ,print by ,raffaelle ,morghen1 after a ,picture by ,g4 ,vasari4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,to this beneficent administration the aspiring ,cosmo had long offered a troublesome opposition2 and he now succeeded in ensnaring it into a ruinous war with ,lucca1 by which he obtained the double object of destroying its popularity1 and of employing considerable sums of money with unusual profit4 ,but the reverses of the republic were attributed to a treasonable correspondence between him and the enemy1 and in #adcc he was seized and condemned to ten years' banishment1 having averted capital punishment by a timely bribe4 ,the absence of a citizen who spent more than a great king in acts of piety1 benevolence1 and liberality1 was1 however1 severely felt in the small city of ,florence1 and the intelligence of the honours he received everywhere in his exile raised him still more in public estimation4 ,the number of his friends increased1 indeed1 so rapidly1 that at the ,september elections in the following year they completely defeated the ruling party1 and chose a set of magistrates by whom he was immediately recalled4 ,this event1 erroneously considered as a victory of the people over an aristocracy1 was1 properly speaking1 a triumph of the populace over the more educated classes of the community1 and it proved fatal to the republic4 ,placed by fame1 wealth1 and talent1 at an immeasurable elevation above the obscure materials of his faction1 from the moment of his return to that of his death1 ,august1 #adfd1 ,cosmo exercised such an influence in the state1 that1 though he seldom filled any ostensible office1 he governed it with absolute authority by means of persons wholly subservient to his will4 ,but1 under the pretence of maintaining peace and tranquillity1 he superseded its free institutions by a junto invested with dictatorial power2 he caused an alarming number of the most respectable citizens to be banished1 ruined by confiscation1 or even put to death1 on the slightest suspicion that by their wealth or connexions they might oppose his schemes of ambition2 and he laboured with indefatigable zeal to enslave his own confiding countrymen1 not only by spreading secret corruption at home1 but also by changing the foreign policy of his predecessors1 and helping his great friend1 ,francesco ,sforza1 and other usurpers1 to crush the liberties of neighbouring states4 ,cosmo is nevertheless entitled to the grateful recollections of posterity for the efficient patronage he afforded learning and the arts1 though he evidently carried it to excess as a means of promoting his political designs4 ,he was profuse of favours and pensions to all who cultivated literature or philosophy with success2 he bought at enormous prices whatever manuscripts or masterpieces of art his agents could collect in ,europe or ,asia2 he ornamented ,florence and its environs with splendid palaces1 churches1 convents1 and public libraries4 ,he died in the seventy-fifth year of his age1 just after a decree of the senate had honoured him with the title of ,father of his country1 which was subsequently inscribed on his tomb4 ,lorenzo de ,medici1 the subject of the present memoir1 was born at ,florence on the #ast of ,january1 #addh4 ,his father was ,piero1 the son and successor of ,cosmo3 his mother1 ,lucretia ,tornabuoni1 a lady of some repute1 both as a patroness of learning and as a poetess4 ,he had scarcely left the nursery when he acquired the first rudiments of knowledge under the care and tuition of ,gentile d',urbino1 afterwards ,bishop of ,arezzo4 ,cristoforo ,landino was next engaged to direct his education2 and ,argyropylus taught him the ,greek language and the ,aristotelian philosophy1 whilst ,marsilio ,ficino instilled into his youthful mind the precepts and doctrines of ,plato4 ,the rapidity of his proficiency was equal to the celebrity of his masters1 and to the indications of talent that he had given in childhood4 ,piero1 who was prevented by a precarious state of health from attending regularly to business1 rejoiced at the prospect of soon having in his own son a strenuous and trusty coadjutor2 and on the death of ,cosmo1 the domestic education of ,lorenzo being completed1 he sent him to visit the principal courts of ,italy1 in order to initiate him into political life1 and to afford him an opportunity of forming such personal connexions as might advance the interests of the family4 ,piero pretended to succeed to ,cosmo's authority1 as if it had been a part of his patrimony2 but the ,florentine statesmen1 who thought themselves superior to him in age1 capacities1 and public services1 disdained to pay him the same deference they had shown the more eminent abilities of his father4 ,besides1 ,cosmo had taken especial care to conciliate the esteem and affection of his countrymen4 ,he had never refused gifts1 loans1 or credit to any of the citizens1 and never raised his manners or his domestic establishment above the simplicity of common life4 ,but ,piero seemed to have no regard for the feelings of others3 he ruined several merchants by attempting to withdraw considerable capital from commerce2 he allowed his subordinate agents to make a most profligate and corrupt monopoly of government2 and he shocked the republican notions of his countrymen by seeking to marry ,lorenzo into a princely family4 ,these causes of discontent arrayed against him a formidable party1 under the direction of ,agnolo ,acciajuoli1 ,niccolo ,soderini1 and ,luca ,pitti1 the founder of the magnificent palace1 now the residence of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany4 ,a parliament of the people rejected ,piero's proposition of re-appointing the dictatorial junto1 whose power expired in ,september1 #adfe4 ,his cause was evidently lost1 had his enemies continued firmly united2 but the defection of the unprincipled ,luca ,pitti enabled him to recover his authority1 which he soon secured by banishing his opponents1 and by investing five of his dependants with the right of choosing the magistracy4 ,lorenzo is said on this occasion to have been of great assistance to his father2 and a letter of ,ferdinand1 ,king of ,naples1 is still extant1 in which that perfidious monarch congratulates him on the active part he had taken in the triumph1 and in the consequent curtailment of popular rights4 ,the populace of ,florence were now entertained with splendid festivals1 and with two tournaments1 in which ,lorenzo and his brother ,giuliano bore away the prizes4 ,these tournaments form an epoch in the history of literature2 the victory of ,lorenzo having been commemorated by the verses of ,luca ,pulci1 and that of ,giuliano1 by a poem of ,politian1 which restored ,italian poetry to its former splendour4 ,about this period1 #adfh1 ,lorenzo became enamoured1 or rather fancied himself enamoured1 of a lady whom he described as prodigiously endowed with all the charms of her sex1 and he strove to immortalize his love in song4 ,but1 whether real or supposed1 his passion did not prevent him from marrying ,clarice ,orsini1 of the famous ,roman family of that name4 ,the nuptials were celebrated on the #dth of ,june1 #adfi1 on a scale of royal magnificence4 ,the death of ,piero1 which happened about the end of the same year1 was not followed by any interruption of public tranquillity4 ,the republicans were now either old or in exile2 the rising generation grew up with principles of obedience to the ,medici2 and ,lorenzo was easily acknowledged as the chief of the state4 ,an attempt at revolution was made a few months afterwards at ,prato1 by ,bernardo ,nardi and some other ,florentine exiles2 but the complete inertness of the inhabitants rendered it unsuccessful4 ,nardi and six of his accomplices were executed at ,florence2 the remainder at ,prato4 ,surrounded by a host of poets1 philosophers1 and artists1 ,lorenzo1 however1 left the republic under the misgovernment of its former rulers1 whilst he gave himself up to the avocations of youth1 and indulged an extraordinary taste for pompous shows and effeminate indulgence1 which had a most pernicious influence on the morals of his fellow-citizens4 ,the ostentatious visit which his infamous friend ,galeazzo ,sforza paid him in #adga1 with a court sadly celebrated for its corruption and profligacy1 is lamented by historians as one of the greatest disasters that befell the republic4 ,lorenzo went soon afterwards on a deputation to ,rome1 for the purpose of congratulating ,sixtus ,,iv4 on his elevation to the papal chair4 ,he met with the kindest reception2 was made treasurer of the ,holy ,see1 and honoured with other favours2 but he could not obtain a cardinal's hat for his brother ,giuliano4 ,accustomed to have his wishes readily gratified1 he could not brook the refusal1 and he sought his revenge in constantly thwarting the ,pope in his politics1 whether they tended to the advancement of his nephews1 or to the liberty and independence of ,italy4 ,a disagreement1 which arose in #adgb1 between the city of ,volterra and the republic of ,florence1 afforded another instance of the peremptoriness of his character4 ,he1 at first1 made some endeavours to convince the inhabitants of ,volterra of their imprudence2 but finding that the exasperated citizens rejected his advice1 he prevailed on the ,florentine government to repress them by force1 though his uncle ,tomaso ,soderini and other statesmen of more experience strongly recommended conciliatory measures4 ,an army was accordingly sent under the command of the ,count of ,urbino1 which1 after obtaining admission into the unfortunate city by capitulation1 despoiled and plundered its inhabitants for a whole day4 ,though1 on his first succeeding to his father1 ,lorenzo did not attempt to exercise the sovereign authority in person1 he assumed it by degrees1 in proportion as he advanced in manhood2 and he even became so jealous of all those from whom any rivalry might be feared1 that he depressed them to the utmost of his power4 ,his brother1 less ambitious and less arrogant than himself1 tried to stop him in his tyrannical career2 but ,giuliano was five years younger3 his representations had no effect2 and these vexatious proceedings gave origin to the conspiracy of the ,pazzi4 ,the parties engaged in this famous attempt were several members of the distinguished family of the ,pazzi1 whom ,lorenzo had injured in their interests as well as in their feelings2 ,girolamo ,riario1 a nephew of the ,pope1 whose hatred he had excited by continual opposition to his designs2 ,francesco ,salviati1 ,archbishop of ,pisa1 whom he had prevented from taking possession of his see2 and several other individuals of inferior note1 who were either moved by private or public wrongs4 ,after vain endeavours to seize the two brothers together1 the conspirators resolved to execute their enterprize in the cathedral of ,florence1 on the #bfth of ,april1 #adgh1 in the course of a religious ceremony at which they were both to be present4 ,at the moment that the priest raised the host1 and all the congregation bowed down their heads1 ,giuliano fell under the dagger of ,bernardo ,bandini1 whilst ,lorenzo was so fortunate as to escape1 and shut himself up in the sacristy until his friends came to his assistance4 ,a simultaneous attack on the palace of government failed of success1 and the ,archbishop ,salviati1 who had directed it1 was hung out of the palace windows in his prelatical robes4 ,all those who were implicated in the conspiracy1 or connected in any way with the conspirators1 were immediately put to death4 ,lorenzo exerted all his influence to obtain those who had taken refuge abroad2 and his wrath was not appeased until the blood of two hundred citizens was shed4 ,the ,pope pronounced a sentence of excommunication against him and the chief magistrates for having hanged an archbishop2 and sent a crusade of almost all ,italy against the republic1 requiring that its leaders should be given up to suffer for their scandalous misdemeanour4 ,the superior forces of the enemy ravaged the ,florentine territory with impunity3 the people began to murmur against a war in which they were involved for the sake of an individual2 and ,lorenzo could not but see that his situation became every day more critical and alarming4 ,but having been confidently apprized that ,ferdinand was disposed to a reconciliation with him1 he took the resolution of going to ,naples1 as ambassador of the republic1 in the hope of detaching the ,king from the league1 and of inducing him to negotiate a peace with the ,pope4 ,through his eloquence and his gold1 he was successful in his mission2 and after three months' absence1 at the beginning of ,march1 #adhj1 he returned to ,florence1 where he was received with the greatest applause and exultation by the populace1 to whom the dangers incurred by him in his embassy had been artfully exaggerated4 ,this ebullition of popular favour encouraged ,lorenzo to complete the consolidation of his power by fresh encroachments on the rights of his countrymen4 ,in #adha another plot was formed against him2 but his watchful agents discovered it1 and ,battista ,frescobaldi1 with two of his accomplices1 were hanged4 ,tranquil and secure at home1 as well as peaceful and respected abroad1 he now diverted his mind from public business to literary leisure1 and spent his time in the society of men of talent1 in philosophical studies1 and in poetical composition4 ,but his rational enjoyments had a short duration4 ,early in #adib he was attacked by a slow fever1 which1 combined with his hereditary complaints1 warned him of his approaching end4 ,having sent to request the attendance of the famous ,savonarola1 to whom he was desirous of making his confession1 the austere ,dominican readily complied with his wish1 but declared he could not absolve him unless he restored to his fellow-citizens the rights of which he had despoiled them4 ,to such a reparation ,lorenzo would not consent2 and he died without obtaining the absolution he had invoked4 ,piero1 the eldest of his three sons1 was deprived of the sovereignty in consequence of the reaction that the eloquent sermons of ,savonarola produced in the morals of ,florence4 ,giovanni1 whom ,innocent ,,viii41 by a prostitution of ecclesiastical honours unprecedented in the annals of the church1 had raised to the ,cardinalship at the early age of thirteen1 became ,pope under the name of ,leo ,x41 and gave rise to the ,reformation by his extreme profligacy and extravagance2 and ,giuliano1 who afterwards allied himself by marriage to the royal ,house of ,france1 was elevated to the dignity of ,duke of ,nemours4 ,lorenzo de ,medici has been extolled with immoderate applause as a poet1 a patron of learning1 and a statesman4 ,his voluminous poetical compositions1 embracing subjects of love1 rural life1 philosophy1 religious enthusiasm1 and coarse licentiousness1 exhibit an uncommon versatility of genius1 a rich imagination1 and a remarkable purity of language2 but in spite of the exaggerated eulogies lavished on them by his own flatterers and by those of his dependants1 they never obtained any popularity1 and are now nearly buried in oblivion4 ,his efforts for the diffusion of knowledge and taste shine more conspicuous2 in this laudable course he followed the traces of ,cosmo and of his father4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to conceive any strong reverence or respect for his memory without forgetting his political conduct1 which is far from deserving any praise4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,e4 ,scriven4 ,,george ,,buchanan4 ,from a ,picture by ,francis ,pourbus ,sen4 in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,buchanan ,george ,buchanan was born in ,february1 #aejf1 at a small village called ,killearn1 on the borders of ,stirlingshire and ,dumbartonshire4 ,he came1 as he says1 8of a family more gentle and ancient than wealthy40 ,his father dying1 left a wife and eight children in a state of poverty4 ,george1 one of the youngest1 was befriended1 and1 perhaps1 saved from want and obscurity1 by the kindness of his mother's brother1 ,james ,heriot1 who had early remarked his nephew's talents1 and determined to foster them by a good education4 ,the ancient friendship between ,france and ,scotland1 cemented by their mutual hate of ,england1 was then in full force4 ,the ,scotch respected the superiority of the ,french in manners1 arts1 and learning2 and very commonly sent the wealthier and more promising of their youth to be educated by their more polished neighbours4 ,accordingly ,buchanan1 at the age of fourteen1 was sent by his uncle to the ,university of ,paris4 ,here he applied himself most diligently to the prescribed course of study1 which consisted principally in a careful perusal of the best ,latin authors1 especially the poets4 ,this kind of learning was peculiarly suited to his taste and genius2 and he made such progress1 as not only to become a sound scholar1 but one of the most graceful ,latin writers of modern times4 ,after having remained in ,paris for the space of two years1 which he must have employed to much better purpose than most youths of his age1 the death of his kind uncle reduced him again to poverty4 ,partly on this account1 partly from ill health1 he returned to his own country1 and spent a year at home4 ,alter having recruited his strength1 he entered as a common soldier into a body of troops that was brought over from ,france by ,john ,duke of ,albany1 then ,regent of ,scotland1 for the purpose of opposing the ,english4 ,buchanan himself says that he went into the army 8to learn the art of war20 it is probable that his needy circumstances were of more weight than this reason4 ,during this campaign he was subjected to great hardships from severe falls of snow2 in consequence of which he relapsed into his former illness2 and was obliged to return home a second time1 where he was confined to his bed a great part of the winter4 ,but on his recovery1 in the spring of #aebd1 when he was just entering upon his #ahth year1 he again took to his studies1 and pursued them with great ardour4 ,he seems to have found friends at this time rich enough to send him to the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews1 on which foundation he was entered as a pauper1 a term which corresponds to the servitor and sizer of the ,english ,universities4 ,john ,mair1 better known 7through ,buchanan#b7 by his ,latinized name of ,major1 was then reading lectures at ,st4 ,andrews on grammar and logic4 ,he soon heard of the superior accomplishments of the poor student1 and immediately took him under his protection4 ,buchanan1 notwithstanding his avowed contempt for his old tutor1 must have imbibed from ,major many of his opinions4 ,he was of an ardent temper1 and easy1 as his contemporaries tell us1 to lead whichever way his friends desired him to go2 he was also of an inquiring disposition1 and never could endure absurdities of any kind4 ,this sort of mind must have found great delight in the doctrines which ,major taught4 ,he affirmed the superiority of general councils over the papacy1 even to the depriving a ,pope of his spiritual authority in case of misdemeanour2 he denied the lawfulness of the ,pope's temporal sway2 he held that tithes were an institution of mere human appointment1 which might be dropped or changed at the pleasure of the people2 he railed bitterly against the immoralities and abominations of the ,romish priesthood4 ,in political matters his creed coincides exactly with ,buchanan's published opinions1--that the authority of kings was not of divine right1 but was solely through the people1 for the people2 that by a lawful convention of states1 any king1 in case of tyranny or misgovernment1 might be controlled1 divested of his power1 or capitally executed according to circumstances4 ,but if ,major1 who was a weak man and a bad arguer1 had such weight with ,buchanan1 ,john ,knox1 the celebrated ,scottish reformer1 who was a fellow-student with him at ,st4 ,andrews1 must have had still more4 ,they began a strict friendship at this place1 which only ended with their lives4 ,knox speaks very highly of him at a late period of his own life3 8,that notabil man1 ,mr4 ,george ,bucquhanane1 remainis alyve to this day1 in the yeir of ,god #aeff yeares1 to the glory of ,god1 to the gret honor of this natioun1 and to the comfort of thame that delyte in letters and vertew4 ,that singular work of ,david's ,psalmes1 in ,latin meetere and poesie1 besyd many uther1 can witness the rare graices of ,god gevin to that man40 ,these two men speedily discovered the absurdity of the art of logic1 as it was then taught4 ,buchanan tells us that its proper name was the art of sophistry4 ,their mutual longings for better reasonings1 and better thoughts to reason upon1 produced great effects in the reformation of their native country4 ,footnote #b3 ,see his epigram4 8,in ,johannem solo cognomento ,majorem ut ipse in fionte libri scripsit40 ,cum scateat nugis solo cognomine ,major1 ,nec sit in immenso patina sana libro2 ,non minem titulis quod se veracibus ornet2 ,nec semper mendax fingere ,creta solet4 ,the book was 8ane most fulish tractate on ane most emptie subject40 ,after ,buchanan had finished his studies at ,st4 ,andrew's1 and taken the degree of ,bachelor of ,arts1 he accompanied ,major to ,paris1 where his attention was more seriously turned towards the doctrines of the reformation1 which at that time were eagerly and warmly discussed2 but whether from fear of the consequences1 or from other motives1 he did not then declare himself to be a ,lutheran4 ,for five years he remained abroad1 sometimes employed1 sometimes in considerable want2 at the end of which time he returned to ,scotland with the ,earl of ,cassilis1 by whom he had been engaged as a travelling companion4 ,his noble patron introduced him at the court of ,james ,v4 the father of ,mary ,stuart4 ,james retained him as tutor to his natural son1 ,james ,stuart1 afterwards ,abbot of ,kelso4 ,it has been proved that he was not tutor to the ,king's other natural son1 ,james ,stuart1 afterwards ,earl of ,murray and ,regent of ,scotland1 whose first title was ,prior of ,st4 ,andrews4 ,while he was at court1 having a good deal of leisure1 he amused himself with writing a pretty severe satire on the monks1 to which he gives the name of 8,somnium40 ,he feigns in this piece that ,saint ,francis d',assize had appeared to him in a dream1 and besought him to become a monk of his order4 ,the poet answers1 8that he is nowise fit for the purpose2 because he could not find in his heart to become slavish1 impudent1 deceitful1 or beggarly1 and that moreover very few monks had the good fortune1 as he understood1 to reach even the gates of paradise40 ,this short satire was too well written1 and too bitter1 to pass unnoticed1 and the sufferers laid their complaint before the king3 but as ,buchanan's name had not been put to it1 they had no proof against him1 and the matter dropped4 ,soon after the ,franciscans fell into disgrace at ,court2 and ,james himself instigated the poet to renew the attack4 ,he obeyed1 but did not half satisfy the ,king's anger in the light and playful piece which he produced4 ,on a second command to be still more severe1 he produced his famous satire #8,franciscanus1' in which he brings all his powers of wit and poetry to bear upon the unfortunate brotherhood4 ,the argument of the poem is as follows3--he supposes that a friend of his is earnestly desirous to become a ,cordelier1 upon which he tells him that he also had had a similar intention1 but had been dissuaded from it by a third person1 whose reasons he proceeds to relate4 ,they turn upon the wretched morals and conduct of those who belonged to the order1 as exhibited in the abominable lessons which he puts in the mouth of an ancient monk1 the instructor of the novices4 ,he does not give this man the character of a rough and ignorant priest1 but makes him tell his tale cleverly1 giving free vent to every refinement in evil which the age was acquainted with1 and speaking the most home truths of his brethren without fear or scruple4 ,the ,latin is pure1 and free from the barbarisms of the time4 ,after such a caustic production1 it is no wonder that the party assailed made use of every means to destroy its author4 ,the ,king1 who was a weak and variable man1 after much importunity on their part1 allowed them to have ,buchanan arrested in the year #aeci1 on the plea of heresy1 along with many others who held his opinions about the state of the ,scottish church4 ,cardinal ,beatoun1 above all others1 used his best endeavours to procure sentence against him2 he even bribed the ,king to effect his purpose4 ,but ,buchanan's friends gave him timely warning of the prelate's exertions1 and1 as he was not very carefully guarded1 he made his escape out of the window of his prison1 and fled to ,england4 ,he found1 however1 that ,england was no safe place for him1 for at that time ,henry ,,viii4 was burning1 on the same day and at the same stake1 both protestant and papist1 with the most unflinching impartiality4 ,he went over1 therefore1 for the third time into ,france2 but on his arrival at ,paris1 finding his old enemy the ,cardinal ,beatoun ambassador at the ,french court1 and being fearful that means might be taken to have him arrested1 he closed with the offer of a learned ,portuguese1 ,andrea di ,govea1 to become a tutor at the new college at ,bourdeaux4 ,during his residence there he composed his famous ,latin ,tragedies1 #8,jephthes' and #8,joannes ,baptistes1' and translated the ,medea and ,alcestis of ,euripides into ,latin metre1 for the youth of his college4 ,the two latter show that his acquaintance with the ,greek language was by no means superficial4 ,after holding this situation for about three years1 ,buchanan went with ,govea1 at the instance of the ,king of ,portugal1 to a lately established school at ,coimbra4 ,before he ventured into ,portugal1 however1 he took care to let the ,king know that his ,franciscanus was undertaken at the command of his sovereign1 and therefore ought nowise to endanger his safety in ,portugal4 ,the ,king promised him his protection4 ,but he had not been at ,coimbra long1 before he was accused by the monks of heresy1 and the ,king1 forgetting his promise1 allowed them to keep ,buchanan prisoner in a convent1 as they declared1 for the purpose of reclaiming him4 ,they gave him as a penance the task of translating the ,psalms of ,david from the ,vulgate into ,latin verse4 ,this he accomplished to admiration2 and his production is acknowledged to surpass all works of the like sort4 ,the metres are chiefly lyrical4 ,he was soon after dismissed from prison1 and took ship for ,england1 and staying there but a short time1 he returned again to ,france4 ,here the ,marechal de ,brissac intrusted him with the education of his son ,timoleon de ,coss4 ,while thus employed he studied1 more particularly than he had hitherto done1 the controversies of the day with regard to religion1 and became most probably a confirmed protestant1 though he did not openly renounce catholicism till some time afterwards4 ,he wrote1 and dedicated to his pupil1 a much admired piece1 entitled #8,sphra1' during his tutorship4 ,in the year #aefj he returned again to ,scotland1 the reformed religion being then prevalent there1 and became publicly a member of the ,protestant ,kirk4 ,the most important1 because the most public part of ,buchanan's life now begins4 ,such a man could not long remain unnoticed by the great in ,scotland1 and ,mary ,stuart herself became one of his best friends4 ,he had written for her two epithalamia1 one on her marriage with the ,dauphin1 and one on her marriage with ,lord ,darnley4 ,her respect for his abilities was very great1 and she had him appointed tutor to her son a month after he was born1 in the year #aeff4 ,it is a matter of no small wonder1 that ,buchanan1 who was ,james's most influential tutor1 for the three others1 who were joined in the commission with him1 were under his superintendence1 should have educated him as he did1 or made him what he was4 ,a book which ,buchanan published1 and which is among the most famous of his works1 #8,de jure ,regni apud ,scotos1' being a conversation between himself and ,maitland the ,queen's secretary1 contains 7though dedicated to his royal pupil7 sentiments totally at variance with all the notions of ,james4 ,in it ,buchanan follows the ancient models of what was thought a perfect state of policy4 ,he proves that men were born to live socially1--that they elected kings to protect the laws which bind them together1--that if new laws are made by kings1 they must be also subjected to the opinion of the states of the nation1--that a king is the father of his people for good1 not for evil1--that this was the original intention in the choice of ,scottish kings1--that the crown is not necessarily hereditary1 and that its transmission by natural descent but for its certainty is not defensible1--that a violation of the laws by the monarch may be punished even to the death1 according to the enormity of it1--that when ,st4 ,paul talks of obedience to authorities he spoke to a low condition of persons1 and to a minority in the various countries in which they were1--that it is not necessary that a king should be tried by his peers4 ,he concludes by saying1 8that if in other countries the people chose to exalt their kings above the laws1 it seems to have been the evident intention of ,scotland to make her kings inferior to them40 ,in matters of religion he rails against episcopal authority of all kinds4 ,now nothing can be more opposed than all this to the opinions of ,james1 who most strongly upheld the divine right of kings1 and episcopal authority4 ,buchanan1 when he was accused of making ,james a pedant1 declared it to be 8because he was fit for nothing else40 ,he was a stern and unyielding master1 and no sparer of the rod1 even though applied to the back of royalty2 and this may in some measure account for the want of influence which he had over the ,king's mind4 ,james advises his son1 in his not to attend to the abominable scandals of such men as ,buchanan and ,knox1 8who are persons of seditious spirit1 and all who hold their opinions40 ,it might have been well1 however1 for the unfortunate ,charles if he had been rather more swayed by the opinions of the tutor1 and less by the lessons of the pupil4 ,in the early part of ,buchanan's tutorship he attached himself strongly to the interests of the ,regent1 ,murray2 and as the patron fell off from the interests of ,mary1 so did the historian1 till at last he became the bitterest of her enemies4 ,he alone has ventured to assert in print his belief of her criminal connexion with ,david ,rizzio1 in his #8,detectio ,mari ,regin1' published in #aega2 and he was her great accuser at the court of ,elizabeth1 when appointed one of the commissioners to inquire into ,mary's conduct1 she being a prisoner in ,england4 ,buchanan too lies under the serious charge of having forged the controverted letters1 supposed to have passed between ,mary and her third husband ,bothwell1 while she was yet the wife of ,earl ,darnley1 from which documents it was made to appear that she was art and part in the murder of her ,royal ,consort4 ,whether he really forged these letters or not1 is a question perhaps too deeply buried in the dust of antiquity to admit of proof4 ,he offered to swear to their genuineness1 however1 which was an ill return1 if that were all his fault1 to the kindness he had received from her4 ,his friendship for ,murray continued firm all his life2 this man was one of the few persons he seems to have been really attached to4 ,through the ,earl's interest1 ,buchanan was made keeper of the ,scottish seals1 and a ,lord of ,session4 ,nothing is told us of his abilities as a practical politician1 but it may be supposed that he was fitted for the office he held1 for ,murray was very careful in the choice of his public servants4 ,buchanan's last work1 on which he spent the remaining fourteen years of his life1 is yet to be spoken of1--his ,history of ,scotland4 ,in this1 which like the rest of his productions was written in ,latin1 he has been said to unite the elegance of ,livy with the brevity of ,sallust4 ,with this praise1 however1 and with that which is due to his lively and interesting way of relating a story1 our commendations of this work must begin and end4 ,as a history1 it is valueless4 ,the early part is a tissue of fable1 without dates or authorities1 as indeed he had none to give2 the latter is the work of an acrimonious and able partisan1 not of a calm inquirer and observer of the times in which he lived4 ,the work is divided into four books4 ,the first three contain a long dissertation on the derivation of the name of ,britain1--a geographical description of ,scotland1 with some poetical accounts of its ancient manners and customs1--a treatise on the ancient inhabitants of ,britain1 chiefly taken from the traditionary accounts of the bards1 and the fables of the monks engrafted on them1 on the vestiges of ancient religions1 and on the resemblances of the various languages of different parts of the island4 ,the real history of ,scotland does not begin till the fourth book2 it consists of an account of a regular succession of one hundred and eight kings1 from ,fergus ,i4 to ,james ,,vi41 a space extending from the beginning of the sixth century to the end of the sixteenth4 ,the apocryphal nature of the greater part of these monarchs is now so fully admitted1 that it is unnecessary to dilate upon them4 ,edward ,i41 as is well known1 destroyed all the genuine records of ,scottish history which he could find4 ,buchanan1 instead of rejecting the absurd traditionary tales of bards and monks1 has merely laboured to dress up a creditable history for the honour of ,scotland1 and to 8clothe with all the beauties and graces of fiction1 those legends which formerly had only its wildness and extravagance40 ,this work1 and his ,de jure ,regni apud ,scotos1 he published at the same time1 very shortly before his death2 and1 while he was on his death-bed1 the ,scottish ,parliament condemned them both as false and seditious books4 ,we may lay part of this condemnation to ,james's account4 ,it is not probable that he would allow so much abuse of his mother as they contained1 directly and indirectly1 to pass without some public stigma4 ,there remain to be noticed only two small pieces of this author in the ,scottish language1 one a grievous complaint to the ,scottish peers1 arising from the assassination of the ,earl of ,murray2 the other1 a severe satire against ,secretary ,maitland1 for the readiness with which he changed from party to party3 this has the title of #8,chameleon4' ,buchanan died at the good old age of seventy-four1 in his dotage as his enemies said1 but in full vigour of mind as his last great work1 his ,history1 has proved4 ,much has been said in his dispraise by enemies of every class1 his chief detractors being the partisans of ,mary ,stuart and the ,romish priesthood4 ,the first of these accuse him of ingratitude to ,major1 ,mary1 ,morton1 ,maitland1 and to others of his benefactors2 of forging the letters above-mentioned1 and of perjury in offering to swear to them4 ,the latter accuse him of licentiousness1 of drunkenness1 and falsehood2 and one of them has descended so far as to quarrel with his personal ugliness4 ,of these charges many are1 to say the least1 unproved2 many appear to be altogether untrue4 ,but his fame rests rather on his persevering industry1 his excellent scholarship1 and his fine genius1 than upon his moral qualities4 ,buchanan wrote his own life in ,latin two years before his death4 ,to this work1 to ,mackenzie's #8,lives and ,characters of the most eminent writers of the ,scots ,nation1' to the ,biographia ,britannica1 and the numerous authorities on insulated points there quoted1 we may refer those who wish to pursue this subject4 ,buchanan's works were collected and edited by the grammarian ,ruddiman1 and printed by ,freebairn1 at ,edinburgh1 in the year #agae1 in two volumes1 folio4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,j4 ,thomson4 ,f,n,,lon4 ,from the original ,picture by ,vivien in the ,collection at the ,louvre4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,fenelon ,francois de ,salignac de ,lamothe-,fenelon was born ,august #fth1 #afea1 at the ,castle of ,fenelon1 of a noble and ancient family in the province of ,perigord4 ,early proofs of talent and genius induced his uncle1 the ,marquis de ,fenelon1 a man of no ordinary merit1 to take him under his immediate care and superintendence4 ,by him he was placed at the seminary of ,st4 ,sulpice1 then lately founded in ,paris for the purpose of educating young men for the church4 ,the studies of the young ,abb were not encouraged by visions of a stall and a mitre4 ,it seems that the object of his earliest ambition was1 as a missionary1 to carry the blessings of the ,gospel to the savages of ,north ,america1 or to the ,mahometans and heretics of ,greece and ,anatolia4 ,the fears1 however1 or the hopes of his friends detained him at home1 and after his ordination he confined himself for several years to the duties of the ministry in the parish of ,st4 ,sulpice4 ,at the age of twenty-seven he was appointed superior of a society which had for its object the instruction and encouragement of female converts to the ,church of ,rome2 and from this time he took up his abode with his uncle4 ,in this house he first became known to ,bossuet1 by whose recommendation he was intrusted with the conduct of a mission1 charged with the duty of reclaiming the ,protestants in the province of ,poitou1 in the memorable year #afhe1 when the ,huguenots were writhing under the infliction of the dragonnade1 employed by the government to give full effect to the revocation of the edict of ,nantes4 ,fenelon had no mind to have dragoons for his coadjutors1 and requested that all show of martial terror might be removed from the places which he visited4 ,his future proceedings were in strict conformity with this gentle commencement1 and consequently exposed him to the harassing remonstrances of his superiors4 ,his services in ,poitou were not acknowledged by any reward from the government1 for ,louis ,,xiv4 had begun to look coldly upon him2 but it was not his fortune to remain long in obscurity4 ,amongst the visitors at his uncle's house1 whose friendship he had the happiness to gain1 was the ,duke de ,beauvilliers1 a man who could live at the court of ,louis without ceasing to live as a ,christian4 ,this nobleman was appointed in the year #afhi ,governor of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 the grandson of ,louis1 and heir1 after his father the ,dauphin1 to the throne of ,france4 ,his first act was to appoint ,fenelon preceptor to his royal charge1 then in his eighth year1 and already distinguished for the frightful violence of his passions1 his insolent demeanour1 and tyrannical spirit4 ,the child had1 however1 an affectionate heart and a quick sense of shame4 ,fenelon gained his love and confidence1 and used his power to impress upon him the ,christian's method of self-government4 ,his headstrong pupil was subdued1 not by the fear of man1 but by the fear of ,god4 ,in the task of instruction less difficulty awaited him2 for the young prince was remarkably intelligent and industrious4 ,the progress of a royal student is likely to be rated at his full amount by common fame2 but there is reason to believe that in this case it was rapid and substantial4 ,in #afid he was presented to the ,abbey of ,st4 ,valery1 and two years afterwards promoted to the ,archbishopric of ,cambray1 with a command that he should retain his office of preceptor1 giving personal attendance only during the three months of absence from his diocese which the ,canons allowed4 ,in resigning his abbey1 which from conscientious motives he refused to keep with his archbishopric1 he was careful to assign such reasons as might not convey an indirect censure of the numerous pluralists among his clerical brethren4 ,probably this excess of delicacy1 which it is easy to admire and difficult to justify1 was hardly requisite in the case of many of the offenders4 ,one of them1 the ,archbishop of ,rheims1 when informed of the conscientious conduct of ,fenelon1 made the following reply3 8,m4 de ,cambray with his sentiments does right in resigning his benefice1 and ,i with my sentiments do very right in keeping mine40 ,this mode of defence is capable of very general application1 and is in fact very generally used1 being good for other cases beside that of pluralities4 ,this preferment was the last mark of royal favour which he received4 ,louis was never cordially his friend1 and there were many at court eager to convert him into an enemy4 ,an opportunity was afforded by ,fenelon's connexion with ,madame ,guyon4 ,it is well known that this lady was the great apostle of the ,quietists1 a sect of religionists1 so called1 because they studied to attain a state of perfect contemplation1 in which the soul is the passive recipient of divine light4 ,she was especially noted for her doctrine of pure love2 she taught that ,christian perfection consisted in a disinterested love of ,god1 excluding the hope of happiness and fear of misery1 and that this perfection was attainable by man4 ,fenelon first became acquainted with her at the house of his friend the ,duke de ,beauvilliers1 and1 convinced of the sincerity of her religion1 was disposed to regard her more favourably from a notion that her religious opinions1 against which a loud clamour had been raised1 coincided very nearly with his own4 ,it has been the fashion to represent him as her convert and disciple4 ,the truth is1 that he was deeply versed in the writings of the later mystics2 men who1 with all their extravagance1 were perhaps the best representatives of the ,christian character to be found among the ,roman ,catholics of their time4 ,he considered the doctrine of ,madame ,guyon to be substantially the same with that of his favourite authors2 and whatever appeared exceptionable in her expositions1 he attributed to loose and exaggerated expression natural to her sex and character4 ,the approbation of ,fenelon gave currency to the fair ,quietist amongst orthodox members of the church4 ,at last the bishops began to take alarm3 the clamour was renewed1 and the examination of her doctrines solemnly intrusted to ,bossuet and two other learned divines4 ,fenelon was avowedly her friend2 yet no one hitherto had breathed a suspicion of any flaw in his orthodoxy4 ,it was even during the examination1 and towards the close of it1 that he was promoted to the ,archbishopric of ,cambray4 ,the blow came at length from the hand of his most valued friend4 ,he had been altogether passive in the proceedings respecting ,madame ,guyon4 ,bossuet1 who had been provoked into vehement wrath1 and had resolved to crush her1 was sufficiently irritated by this temperate neutrality4 ,but when ,fenelon found himself obliged to publish his #8,maxims of the ,saints1' in which1 without attacking others1 he defends his own views of some of the controverted points1 ,bossuet1 in a tumult of zeal1 threw himself at the feet of ,louis1 denounced his friend as a dangerous fanatic1 and besought the ,king to interpose the royal arm between the ,church and pollution4 ,fenelon offered to submit his book to the judgment of the ,pope4 ,permission was granted in very ungracious terms1 and presently followed by a sentence of banishment to his diocese4 ,this sudden reverse of fortune1 which he received without even whispering a complaint1 served to show the forbearance and meekness of his spirit1 but it deprived him of none of his powers4 ,an animated controversy arose between him and ,bossuet1 and all ,europe beheld with admiration the boldness and success with which he maintained his ground against the renowned and veteran disputant2 and that1 too1 in the face of fearful discouragement4 ,the whole power of the court was arrayed against him1 and he stood alone2 for his powerful friends had left his side4 ,the ,cardinal de ,noailles and others1 who had in private expressed unqualified approbation of his book1 meanly withheld a public acknowledgment of their opinions4 ,whilst his enemy enjoyed every facility1 and had ,louis and his courtiers and courtly bishops to cheer him on1 it was with difficulty that ,fenelon could find a printer who would venture to put to the press a work which bore his name4 ,under these disadvantages1 harassed in mind1 and with infirm health1 he replied to the deliberate and artful attacks of his adversary with a rapidity which1 under any circumstances1 would have been astonishing4 ,he was now gaining ground daily in public opinion4 ,the ,pope also1 who knew his merit1 was very unwilling to condemn4 ,his persecutors were excited to additional efforts4 ,he had already been banished from court2 now he was deprived of the name of preceptor1 and of his salary1--of that very salary which some time before he had eagerly offered to resign1 in consideration of the embarrassed state of the royal treasury4 ,the flagging zeal of the ,pope was stimulated by threats conveyed in letters from ,louis penned by ,bossuet4 ,at length the sentence of condemnation was obtained2 but in too mild a form to satisfy altogether the courtly party4 ,no bull was issued4 ,a simple brief pronounced certain propositions to be erroneous and dangerous1 and condemned the book which contained them1 without sentencing it in the usual manner to the flames4 ,it is needless to say that ,fenelon submitted4 ,he published without delay the sentence of condemnation1 noting the selected propositions1 and expressing his entire acquiescence in the judgment pronounced2 and prohibited the faithful in his diocese from reading or having in their possession his own work1 which up to that moment he had defended so manfully4 ,protestants1 who are too apt in judging the conduct of ,roman ,catholics1 to forget every thing but their zeal1 have raised an outcry against his meanness and dissimulation4 ,fenelon was a sincere member of a ,church which claimed infallibility4 ,we may regret the thraldom in which such a mind was held by an authority from which the ,protestant happily is free2 but the censure which falls on him personally for this act is certainly misplaced4 ,the faint hopes which his friends might have cherished1 that when the storm had passed he would be restored to favour1 were soon extinguished by an event1 which1 whilst it closed against him for ever the doors of the palace1 secured him a place in history1 and without which it is probable that he would never have become the subject even of a short memoir4 ,a manuscript which he had intrusted to a servant to copy1 was treacherously sold by this man to a printer in ,paris1 who immediately put it to the press1 under the title of ,continuation of the ,fourth ,book of the ,odyssey1 or ,adventures of ,telemachus1 ,son of ,ulysses1 with the royal privilege1 dated ,april #f1 #afii4 ,it was told at court that the forthcoming work was from the pen of the obnoxious archbishop2 and before the impression of the first volume was completed1 orders were given to suppress it1 to punish the printers1 and seize the copies already printed4 ,a few however escaped the hands of the police1 and were rapidly circulated4 ,one of them1 together with a copy of the remaining part of the manuscript1 soon after came into the possession of a printer at the ,hague1 who could publish it without danger4 ,so eager was the curiosity which the violent proceedings of the ,french court had excited1 that the press could hardly be made1 with the utmost exertion1 to keep pace with the demand4 ,such is the history of the first appearance of ,telemachus4 ,louis was persuaded to think that the whole book was intended to be a satire on him1 his court1 and government2 and the world was persuaded for a time to think the same4 ,so1 whilst the wrath of the ,king was roused to the uttermost1 all ,europe was sounding forth the praises of ,fenelon4 ,the numerous enemies of ,louis exulted at the supposed exhibition of his tyranny and profligate life4 ,the philosophers were charmed with the liberal and enlightened views of civil government which they seemed to discover4 ,it is now well known that the anger and the praise were alike undeserved4 ,the book was probably written for the use of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 certainly at a time when ,fenelon enjoyed the favour of his sovereign1 and was desirous to retain it4 ,he may have forgotten that it was impossible to describe a good and a bad king1 a virtuous and a profligate court1 without saying much that would bear hard upon ,louis and his friends4 ,as for his political enlightenment1 it is certain that he had his full share of the monarchical principles of his time and nation4 ,he wished to have good kings1 but he made no provision for bad ones4 ,it is difficult to believe that ,louis was seriously alarmed at his notions of political economy4 ,that science was not in a very advanced state2 but no one could fear that a prince could be induced by the lessons of his tutor to collect all the artificers of luxury in his capital1 and drive them in a body into the fields to cultivate potatoes and cabbages1 with a belief that he would thus make the country a garden1 and the town a seat of the ,muses4 ,nothing was now left to ,fenelon but to devote himself to his episcopal duties1 which he seems to have discharged with equal zeal and ability4 ,the course of his domestic life1 as described by an eyewitness1 was retired1 and1 to a remarkable degree1 uniform4 ,strangers were courteously and hospitably received2 but his society was confined for the most part to the ecclesiastics who resided in his house4 ,amongst them were some of his own relations1 to whom he was tenderly attached1 but for whose preferment1 it should be noticed1 he never manifested an unbecoming eagerness4 ,his only recreation was a solitary walk in the fields1 where it was his employment1 as he observes to a friend1 to converse with his ,god4 ,if in his rambles he fell in with any of the poorer part of his flock1 he would sit with them on the grass1 and discourse about their temporal as well as their spiritual concerns2 and sometimes he would visit them in their humble sheds1 and partake of such refreshment as they offered him4 ,in the beginning of the #ahth century we find him engaged at once in controversy and politics4 ,the revival of the old dispute with the ,jansenists1 to whom he was strongly opposed1 obliged him to take up his pen2 but in using it he never forgot his own maxim1 that 8rigour and severity are not of the spirit of the ,gospel40 ,for a knowledge of his political labours we are indebted to his biographer1 the ,cardinal de ,bausset1 who first published his letters to the ,duke de ,beauvilliers on the subject of the war which followed the grand alliance in the year #agja4 ,in them he not only considers the general questions of the succession to the ,spanish monarchy1 the objects of the confederated powers1 and the measures best calculated to avert or soften their hostility1 but even enters into details of military operations1 discusses the merits of the various generals1 stations the different armies1 and sketches a plan of the campaign4 ,towards the close of the war he communicated to the ,duke de ,chevreuse heads of a very extensive reform in all the departments of government4 ,this reform did not suppose any fundamental change of the old despotism4 ,it was intended1 doubtless1 for the consideration of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 to whose succession all ,france was looking forward with sanguine hopes1 founded on the acknowledged excellence of his character1 which ,fenelon himself had so happily contributed to form4 ,but amongst the other trials which visited his latter days1 he was destined to mourn the death of his pupil4 ,fenelon did not long survive the general pacification4 ,after a short illness and intense bodily suffering1 which he seems to have supported by calling to mind the sufferings of his ,saviour1 he died ,february #gth1 #agae1 in the sixty-fourth year of his age4 ,no money was found in his coffers4 ,the produce of the sale of his furniture1 together with the arrears of rent due to him1 were appropriated1 by his direction1 to pious and charitable purposes4 ,the calumnies with which he was assailed during the affair of ,quietism were remembered only to the disadvantage of their authors4 ,the public seem eventually to have regarded him as a man who was persecuted because he refused to be a persecutor2 who had maintained1 at all hazards1 what he believed to be the cause of truth and justice2 and had resigned his opinion only at that moment when conscience required the sacrifice4 ,universal homage was paid by his contemporaries to his talents and genius4 ,in the grasp and power of his intellect1 and in the extent and completeness of his knowledge1 none probably would have ventured to compare him with ,bossuet2 but in fertility and brilliancy of imagination1 in a ready and dexterous use of his materials1 and in that quality which his countrymen call esprit1 he was supposed to have no superior4 ,bossuet himself said of him 8,il brille d'esprit1 il est tout esprit1 il en a bien plus que moi40 ,it is obvious that his great work1 the ,adventures of ,telemachus1 was1 in the first instance1 indebted for some portion of its popularity to circumstances which had no connexion with its merits2 but we cannot attribute to the same cause the continued hold which it has maintained on the public favour4 ,those who are ignorant of the interest which attended its first appearance still feel the charm of that beautiful language which is made the vehicle of the purest morality and the most ennobling sentiments4 ,in the many editions through which it passed1 between its first publication and the death of the author1 ,fenelon took no concern4 ,publicly he neither avowed nor disavowed the work1 though he prepared corrections and additions for future editors4 ,all obstacles to its open circulation were removed by the death of ,louis2 and in the year #agag1 the ,marquis de ,fenelon1 his great-nephew1 presented to ,louis ,,xv4 a new and correct edition1 superintended by himself1 from which the text of all subsequent editions has been taken4 ,the best authority for the life of ,fenelon accessible to the public is the laborious work of his biographer1 the ,cardinal de ,bausset1 which is rendered particularly valuable by the great number of original documents which appear at the end of each volume4 ,its value would be increased if much of the theological discussion were omitted1 and the four volumes compressed into three4 ,illustration ,,wren ,christopher ,wren1 the most celebrated of ,british architects1 was born at ,east ,knoyle in ,wiltshire1 ,october #bj1 #afcb4 ,his father was ,rector of that parish1 ,dean of ,windsor1 and ,registrar of the ,order of the ,garter3 his uncle1 ,dr4 ,matthew ,wren1 was successively ,bishop of ,hereford1 of ,norwich1 and of ,ely2 and was one of the greatest sufferers for the royal cause during the ,commonwealth1 having been imprisoned nearly twenty years in the ,tower without ever having been brought to trial4 ,the political predilections of ,wren's family may be sufficiently understood from these notices2 but he himself1 although his leaning probably was to the side which had been espoused by his father and his uncle1 seems to have taken no active part in state affairs4 ,the period of his long life comprehended a series of the mightiest national convulsions and changes that ever took place in ,england--the civil war--the overthrow of the monarchy--the domination of ,cromwell--the ,restoration--the ,revolution--the union with ,scotland--and1 finally1 the accession of a new family to the throne2 but we do not find that in the high region of philosophy and art in which he moved1 he ever allowed himself to be either withdrawn from or interrupted in his course by any of these great events of the outer world4 ,his health in his early years was extremely delicate4 ,on this account he received the commencement of his education at home under the superintendence of his father and a domestic tutor4 ,he was then sent to ,westminster ,school1 over which the celebrated ,busby had just come to preside4 ,the only memorial which we possess of ,wren's schoolboy days1 is a dedication in ,latin verse1 addressed by him to his father in his thirteenth year1 of an astronomical machine which he had invented1 and which seems from his description to have been a sort of apparatus for representing the celestial motions1 such as we now call an orrery4 ,his genius is also stated to have displayed itself at this early age in other mechanical contrivances4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4 ,,sir ,,christopher ,,wren4 ,from the original picture by ,sir ,g4 ,kneller1 in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,in #afdf he was sent to ,oxford1 and entered as a gentleman commoner at ,wadham ,college4 ,of his academical life we can say little more than that it confirmed the promise of his early proficiency4 ,he was especially distinguished by his mathematical acquirements1 and gained the notice and acquaintance of many of the most learned and influential persons belonging to the university4 ,several short treatises and mechanical inventions are assigned to this period of his life3 but as these have long ceased to interest any but curious inquirers into the history of literature or science1 we can only indicate their existence1 and refer to other and more comprehensive works4 ,in #afej ,wren graduated as ,bachelor of ,arts4 ,he was elected ,fellow of ,all ,souls on the #b;d of ,november1 #afec1 and took the degree of ,master of ,arts on the #abth of ,december in the same year4 ,of the subjects which engaged his active and versatile mind at this time1 one of the chief was the science of ,anatomy2 and he is1 on apparently good grounds1 thought to have first suggested and tried the interesting experiment of injecting liquids of various kinds into the veins of living animals1--a process of surgery1 which1 applied to the transfusion of healthy blood into a morbid or deficient circulation1 has been revived1 not without some promise of important results1 in our own day4 ,another subject which attracted much of his attention was the ,barometer2 but he has no claim whatever1 either to the invention of that instrument1 or to the detection of the great principle of physics1 of which it is an exemplification4 ,the notion which has been taken up of his right to supplant the illustrious ,torricelli here1 has arisen merely from mistaking the question with regard to the causes of the fluctuations in the height of the barometrical column1 while the instrument continues in the same place1 for the entirely different question as to the cause why the fluid remains suspended at all2 about which1 since the celebrated experiments of ,pascal1 published in #afdg1 there never has been any controversy4 ,it was the former phenomenon only which was attributed by some to the influence of the moon1 and which ,wren and many of his contemporaries exercised their ingenuity1 as many of their successors have done1 in endeavouring to explain4 ,in carrying on these investigations and experiments1 ,wren's diligence was stimulated and assisted by his having been admitted a member1 about this period1 of that celebrated association of philosophical inquirers1 out of whose meetings1 begun some years before1 eventually arose the ,royal ,society4 ,but1 like several others of the more eminent members1 he was soon removed from the comparative retirement of ,oxford4 ,on the #gth of ,august1 #afeg1 being then only in his twenty-fifth year1 he was chosen to the ,professorship of ,astronomy in ,gresham ,college4 ,this chair he held till the #hth of ,march1 #affa1 when he resigned it in consequence of having1 on the #cast of ,january preceding1 received the appointment of ,savilian ,professor of ,astronomy at ,oxford4 ,on the #abth of ,september1 #affa1 he took his degree of ,doctor of ,civil ,law at ,oxford1 and was soon after admitted ad eundem by the sister university4 ,during all this time he had continued to cultivate assiduously the various branches of mathematical and physical science1 and to extend his reputation both by his lectures and by his communications to the 8,philosophical ,club10 as it was called1 which1 in #afeh1 had been transferred to ,london1 and usually met on the ,wednesday of every week at ,gresham ,college1 in ,wren's class-room1 and1 on the ,thursday1 in that of his associate ,rooke1 the ,professor of ,geometry4 ,the longitude1 the calculation of solar eclipses1 and the examination and delineation of insects and animalcula by means of the microscope1 may be enumerated among the subjects to which he is known to have devoted his attention4 ,on the #aeth of ,july1 #affbc1 he and his associates were incorporated under the title of the ,royal ,society2 and ,wren1 who drew out the preamble of the charter1 bore a chief part in the effecting of this arrangement4 ,footnote #c3 ,in the ,life of ,boyle this event is stated to have occurred in #affc4 ,a second charter was granted to the ,society1 in that year1 on the #bb;d of ,april4 ,the future architect of ,st4 ,paul's had already been called upon to devote a portion of his time to the professional exercise of that art from which he was destined to derive his greatest and most lasting distinction4 ,sir ,john ,denham1 the poet1 had on the ,restoration been rewarded for his services by the place of ,surveyor of the ,royal ,works2 but although1 in his own words1 he then gave over poetical lines1 and made it his business to draw such others as might be more serviceable to his ,majesty1 and he hoped more lasting1 it soon became apparent that his genius was much better suited to 8build the lofty rhyme0 than to construct more substantial edifices4 ,in these circumstances ,wren1 who was known among his other accomplishments to be well acquainted with the principles of architecture1 was sent for1 and engaged to do the duties of the office in the capacity of ,denham's assistant or deputy4 ,this was in the year #affa4 ,it does not appear that for some time he was employed in any work of consequence in his new character2 and in #affc it was proposed to send him out to ,africa1 to superintend the construction of a new harbour and fortifications at the town of ,tangier1 which had been recently made over by ,portugal to the ,english ,crown1 on the marriage of ,charles with the ,infanta ,catherine4 ,this employment he wisely declined1 alleging the injury he apprehended to his health from a residence in ,africa4 ,meanwhile1 the situation which he held1 and his scientific reputation1 began to bring him something to do at home4 ,sheldon1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 who was ,chancellor of the ,university of ,oxford1 had resolved to erect at his own expense a new theatre1 or hall1 for the public meetings of the ,university2 and this building ,wren was commissioned to design4 ,the ,sheldonian ,theatre1 celebrated for its unrivalled roof of eighty feet in length by seventy in breadth1 supported without either arch or pillar1 was ,wren's first public work1 having been begun this year1 although it was not finished till #affh4 ,about the same time he was employed to erect a new chapel for ,pembroke ,college1 in the ,university of ,cambridge1 to be built at the charge of his uncle1 the ,bishop of ,ely4 ,but1 while he was about to commence these buildings1 he was appointed to take a leading part in another work1 which ultimately became the principal occupation of the best years of his life1 and enabled him to afford to his contemporaries and to posterity by far the most magnificent display of his architectural skill and genius4 ,ever since the ,restoration1 the repair of the ,metropolitan ,cathedral of ,st4 ,paul's1 which during the time of the ,commonwealth had been surrendered to the most deplorable desecration and outrage1 had been anxiously contemplated2 and on the #ahth of ,april1 #affc1 letters patent were at length issued by the ,king1 appointing a number of ,commissioners1 among whom ,wren was one1 to superintend the undertaking4 ,under their direction a survey of the state of the building was taken1 and some progress was made in the reparation of its most material injuries1 when1 after the sum of between three and four thousand pounds had been expended1 the great fire1 which broke out on the night of ,sunday1 the #b;d of ,september1 #afff1 on the following day reduced the whole pile to a heap of ruins4 ,a considerable part of the year before this ,wren had spent in ,paris1 having proceeded thither1 it would seem1 about ,midsummer1 #affe1 and remained till the following spring4 ,the object of his visit was to improve himself in the profession in which he had embarked1 by the inspection and study of the various public buildings which adorned the ,french capital1 where the celebrated ,bernini was at this time employed on the ,louvre1 with a thousand workmen under him1 occupied in all the various departments of the art1 and forming altogether1 in ,wren's opinion1 probably the best school of architecture to be then found in ,europe4 ,he appears accordingly to have employed his time1 with his characteristic activity1 in examining everything deserving of attention in the city and its neighbourhood2 and lost no opportunity either of making sketches of remarkable edifices himself1 or of procuring them from others1 so that1 as he writes to one of his correspondents1 he hoped to bring home with him almost all ,france on paper4 ,the terrible visitation1 which a few months after his return laid half the metropolis of his native country in ashes1 opened to him a much wider field whereon to exercise the talent which he had been thus eager to cultivate and strengthen by enlarged knowledge1 than he could1 while so engaged1 have expected ever to possess4 ,he was not slow to seize the opportunity2 and while the ashes of the city were yet alive1 drew up a plan for its restoration1 the leading features of which were a broad street running from ,aldgate to ,temple ,bar1 with a large square for the reception of the new cathedral of ,st4 ,paul2 and a range of handsome quays along the river4 ,the paramount necessity of speed in restoring the dwellings of a houseless multitude1 prevented the adoption of this project2 and the new streets were in general formed nearly on the line of the old ones4 ,but they were widened and straightened1 and the houses were built of brick instead of wood4 ,soon after the fire1 ,wren was appointed ,surveyor-,general and principal ,architect for rebuilding the parish churches2 and on the #bhth of ,march1 #affi1 a few days after the death of ,sir ,john ,denham1 he was made ,surveyor-,general of the ,royal ,works1 the office which he had for some time executed as deputy4 ,on the #cjth of ,july he was unanimously chosen ,surveyor-,general of the repairs of ,st4 ,paul's 7another office which ,denham had also held7 by the commissioners appointed to superintend that work1 of whom he was himself one4 ,at first it was still thought possible to repair the cathedral2 and a part of it was actually fitted up as a temporary choir1 and service performed in it4 ,after some time1 however1 it became evident that the only way in which it could ever be restored was by rebuilding the whole from the foundation4 ,before the close of the year #afgb ,wren had prepared and submitted to the ,king different plans for the new church2 and his ,majesty having fixed upon the one which he preferred1 a commission for commencing the work was issued on the #abth of ,november1 #afgc4 ,on the #bjth of the same month1 ,wren1 who had been re-appointed architect for the work1 and also one of the commissioners1 was knighted at ,whitehall1 having resigned his professorship at ,oxford in the preceding ,april4 ,during the space of time which had elapsed since the fire1 the ,surveyor-,general of ,public ,works had begun or finished various minor buildings connected with the restoration of the city1 and also some in other parts of the kingdom4 ,among the former may be mentioned the fine column called the ,monument2 the church of ,st4 ,mary-le-,bow in ,cheapside1 the spire of which is considered the most beautiful he ever constructed1 and a masterpiece of science1 both begun in #afga1 and finished in #afgg2 and the church of ,st4 ,stephens1 ,walbrook1 begun #afgb1 and finished in #afgi1 the interior of which is one of the most exquisite specimens of architectural art which the world contains1 and has excited1 perhaps1 more enthusiastic admiration than anything else that ,wren has done4 ,during the whole of this time1 too1 notwithstanding the little leisure which his professional avocations must have left him1 he appears to have continued his philosophical pursuits1 and his attendance on the ,royal ,society1 of which1 from the first1 he had been one of the most active and valuable members4 ,his communications1 and the experiments which he suggested1 embraced some of the profoundest parts of astronomy and the mathematics1 as well as various points in anatomy and natural history1 and the chemical and mechanical arts4 ,the design which ,wren had prepared for the new ,cathedral1 and which had been approved by the ,king1 being that of which a model is still preserved in an apartment over the ,morning-,prayer ,chapel1 did not in some respects please the majority of his brother-commissioners1 who insisted that1 in order to give the building the true cathedral form1 the aisles should be added at the sides as they now stand1 although the architect is said to have felt so strongly the injury done by that alteration1 that he actually shed tears in speaking of it4 ,this difficulty1 however1 being at length settled1 his ,majesty1 on the #adth ,may1 #afge1 issued his warrant for immediately commencing the work2 and accordingly1 after a few weeks more had been spent in throwing down the old walls and removing the rubbish1 the first stone was laid by ,sir ,christopher1 assisted by his master-mason1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,strong1 on the #bast of ,june4 ,from this time the building proceeded steadily till its completion in #agaj2 in which year the highest stone of the lantern on the cupola was laid by ,mr4 ,christopher ,wren1 the son of the architect1 as representing his venerable father1 now in the seventy-eighth year of his age4 ,the salary which ,sir ,christopher ,wren received as architect of ,st4 ,paul's was only #bjj a year4 ,yet in the last years of his superintendence a moiety of this pittance was withheld from him by the ,commissioners1 under the authority of a clause which they had got inserted in an act of parliament entitling them to keep back the money till the work should be finished1 by way of thereby ensuring the requisite expedition in the architect4 ,even after the building had been actually completed1 they still continued1 on the same pretence1 to refuse payment of the arrears due1 alleging that certain things yet remained to be done1 which1 after all1 objections and difficulties interposed by themselves alone prevented from being performed4 ,like his great predecessor1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,wren was too honest and zealous in the discharge of his duty not to have provoked the enmity of many persons who had their private ends to serve in the discharge of a great public duty4 ,he was at last obliged to petition the ,queen on the subject of the treatment to which he was subjected2 but it was not till after a struggle of some years that he succeeded in obtaining redress4 ,the faction by whom he was thus opposed even attempted to blacken his character by a direct charge of peculation1 or at least of connivance at that crime1 in a pamphlet entitled #8,frauds and ,abuses at ,st4 ,paul's1' which appeared in #agab1 and in reference to which ,sir ,christopher deemed it proper to appeal to the public in an anonymous reply published the year after1 wherein he vindicated himself triumphantly from the aspersions which had been thrown upon him4 ,the other architectural works which he designed and executed during this period1 both in ,london and elsewhere1 are far too numerous to be mentioned in detail4 ,among them were the parish church of ,st4 ,bride1 in ,fleet ,street1 which was finished in #afhj1 and the beautiful spire of which1 originally two hundred and thirty-four feet in height1 has been deemed to rival that of ,st4 ,mary-le-,bow2 the church of ,st4 ,james1 ,westminster1 finished in #afhc1 a building in almost all its parts not more remarkable for its beauty than for its scientific construction2 and of which the roof especially1 both for its strength and elegance1 and for its adaptation to the distinct conveyance of sound1 has been reckoned a singularly happy triumph of art2 and the church of ,st4 ,andrew1 ,holborn1 a fine specimen of a commodious and an imposing interior3 besides many others of inferior note4 ,in #afif he commenced the building of the present ,hospital at ,greenwich1 of which he lived to complete the greater part4 ,this is undoubtedly one of the most splendid erections of our great architect4 ,among his less successful works may be enumerated ,chelsea ,hospital1 begun in #afhb1 and finished in #afij1 a plain1 but not an inelegant building2 his additions to the ,palace of ,hampton ,court1 carried on from #afij to #afid1 which are certainly not in the best taste2 and his repairs at ,westminster ,abbey1 of which he was appointed ,surveyor-,general in #afih4 ,in his attempt to restore and complete this venerable edifice1 his ignorance of the principles of the ,gothic style1 and his want of taste for its peculiar beauties1 made him fail perhaps more egregiously than on any other occasion4 ,in #afgi he completed the ,library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 one of the most magnificent of his works2 and in #afhc1 the ,chapel of ,queen's ,college1 and the ,ashmolean ,museum1 at ,oxford4 ,the same year he began the erection of the extensive pile of ,winchester ,castle1 originally intended for a royal palace1 but now used as a military barrack4 ,to these works are to be added a long list of halls for the city companies1 and other public buildings1 as well as a considerable number of private edifices4 ,among the latter was ,marlborough ,house1 ,pall-,mall4 ,indeed scarcely a building of importance was undertaken during this long period which he was not called upon to design or superintend4 ,the activity both of mind and body must have been extraordinary1 which enabled him to accomplish what he did1 not to speak of the ready and fertile ingenuity1 and the inexhaustible sources of invention and science he must have possessed1 to meet the incessant demands that were made for new and varying displays of his contriving skill4 ,it appears1 too1 in addition to all this1 that the duties imposed upon him by his place of ,surveyor of ,public ,works1 for which he only received a salary of #ajj a year1 were of an extremely harassing description1 and must have consumed a great deal of his time4 ,claims and disputes as to rights of property1 and petitions or complaints in regard to the infringement of the building regulations in every part of the metropolis and its vicinity1 seem to have been constantly submitted to his examination and adjudication2 and ,mr4 ,elmes has printed many of his reports upon these cases from the original manuscripts1 which afford striking evidence both of the promptitude with which he gave his attention to the numerous calls thus made upon him1 and of the large expenditure of time and labour they must have cost him4 ,the long series of years during which ,wren was occupied in the accomplishment of his greatest work1 and which had conducted him from the middle stage of life to old age1 brought to him also of course various other changes4 ,he had been twice married1 and had become the father of two sons and a daughter1 of whom the eldest1 ,christopher1 was the author of ,parentalia1 or ,memoirs of the ,family of the ,wrens4 ,in #afhj1 he was elected to the ,presidency of the ,royal ,society1 on its being declined by ,mr4 ,boyle2 and this honourable office he held for two years2 during which1 notwithstanding all his other occupations1 we find him occupying the chair in person at almost every meeting1 and still continuing to take his usual prominent part in the scientific discussions of the evening4 ,in #afhd there was added to his other appointments that of ,comptroller of the ,works at ,windsor4 ,in ,may1 #afhe1 he entered parliament as one of the members for ,plympton2 and he also sat for ,windsor both in the convention which met after the revolution1 and in the first parliament of ,william ,,iii4 ,he afterwards sat for ,weymouth in the parliament which met in ,february1 #agjj1 and which was dissolved in ,november of the year following4 ,the evening of ,wren's life was marked by neglect and ingratitude4 ,in the eighty-sixth year of his age he was removed from the office of ,surveyor-,general1 which he had held for forty-nine years1 in favour of one ,benson1 whose incapacity and dishonesty soon led to his disgrace and dismissal4 ,fortunately ,wren's temper was too happy and placid to be affected by the loss of court favour1 and he retired to his home at ,hampton ,court1 where he spent the last five years of his life chiefly in the study of the ,scriptures1 and the revision of his philosophical works4 ,he died ,february #be1 #agbc1 in the ninety-first year of his age4 ,more minute accounts of his life are to be found in the ,parentalia1 already mentioned1 and in ,mr4 ,elmes's quarto volume4 ,we may also refer the reader to a longer memoir in the ,library of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,illustration3 ,interior of ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,t4 ,woolnoth4 ,,corneille4 ,from an original ,picture by ,c4 ,lebrun in the possession of the ,institute of ,france4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,corneille ,peter ,corneille was born at ,rouen1 on the #fth of ,june1 #afjf4 ,his father was in the profession of the law1 and held an office of trust under ,louis ,,xiii4 ,young ,corneille was educated in the ,jesuits' ,college at ,rouen2 and1 while there1 formed an attachment to that society1 which he maintained unimpaired in after-life4 ,he was destined for the bar1 at which he practised for a short time1 but had no turn for business2 and with better warrant than the many1 who mistake a lazy and vagabond inclination for genius and the muse1 he quitted the path of ambition and preferment for a road to fame1 shorter1 and therefore better suited to an aspiring1 but impatient mind4 ,a ,french writer congratulates his country1 that he who would have made an obscure and ill-qualified provincial barrister1 became1 by change of place and pursuits1 the glory and ornament of a great empire in its most splendid day4 ,corneille 8left his calling for an idle trade10 without having bespoken the favour of the public by any minor specimens of poetical talent4 ,he seems indeed to have hung loose upon society1 till a petty affair of gallantry discovered the mine of his natural genius1 though not in his purest and richest vein4 ,the story is told by ,fontenelle1 and has been related of many others with nearly the same incidents2 being the common-place of youthful adventure4 ,one of ,corneille's friends had introduced him to his intended wife2 and the lady1 without any imputation of treachery on the part of the supplanter1 took such a fancy to him1 as induced her to play the jilt towards his introducer4 ,corneille moulded the embarrassment into a comedy entitled ,melite4 ,the drama had hitherto been at a low ebb among the ,french4 ,their tragedy was flat and languid3 to comedy1 properly so called1 they had no pretensions4 ,the theatre therefore had hitherto been little attended by persons of condition4 ,racine describes the ,french stage when ,corneille began to write1 as absolutely without order or regularity1 taste or knowledge1 as to what constituted the real merits of the drama4 ,the writers1 he says1 were as ignorant as the spectators4 ,their subjects were extravagant and improbable2 neither manners nor characters were delineated4 ,the diction was still more faulty than the action2 the wit was confined to the lowest puns4 ,in short1 all the rules of art1 even those of decency and propriety1 were violated4 ,this description gives us the history of the infant drama in all ages and countries2 of ,thespis in his cart1 and of ,gammer ,gurton's needle4 ,while the ,french theatre was in this state of degradation1 ,melite appeared4 ,whatever its faults might be1 there was something in it like originality of character2 some indications of a comic vein1 and some ingenious combinations4 ,the public hailed the new era with delight1 and the poet was astonished at his own success4 ,the stage seemed all at once to flourish and to have taken its proper station among the elegant arts and rational amusements4 ,on the strength of this acquisition1 a new company of actors was formed2 and the successful experiment was followed up by a series of pieces of the same kind1 between the years #afcb and #afce4 ,imperfect as they were1 we may trace in them some sketches of new character1 which the more methodical and practised dramatists of a later period filled out with more skill and higher colouring1 but with little claim to invention4 ,we owe to ,corneille one of the most entertaining personages in modern comedy1--the ,chambermaid2 who has succeeded to the office of the ,nurse in the elder drama4 ,this change was partly1 perhaps principally1 produced by that great revolution in the modern stage which introduced women upon the boards4 ,while female characters were consigned to male representatives1 the poet took every opportunity of throwing his heroines into breeches to slur over the awkwardness of the boys2 and the subordinate instruments of the plot were duly enveloped in the hoods and flannels of decrepit age1 while the hard features of the adult male were easily manufactured into wrinkles4 ,but when once real women were brought forward1 they had their own interests to manage as well as those of the author2 and the artificial disguise of their persons would ill have accorded with those speculations1 of which personal beauty formed a main ingredient4 ,it was their business therefore1 while they conducted the love-affairs of their mistresses1 to interweave an underplot between themselves and the valets4 ,less attractive perhaps than their young ladies in outward show1 they obtained compensation in the piquancy of wit intrusted to their delivery1 and thus divided the interest among the spectators in no disadvantageous proportion4 ,corneille was also the first who brought the dialogue of polished society upon the ,french stage1 which had hitherto been confined to the vulgarities of low comedy or the bombast of inflated tragedy4 ,but it is time to rescue him from the obscurity of his own early compositions4 ,his first tragedy was ,medea1 copied principally from the faulty model of ,seneca1 whose prolix declamation1 thus early adopted1 probably exercised an unfavourable influence on the after fortunes of the national tragedy4 ,his nephew ,fontenelle1 indeed1 says that 8he took flight at once1 and soared instantly to the sublime40 ,but this sentence has not been confirmed by more impartial critics4 ,the ,continent has condemned the witchcraft2 but we are bound to uphold it in defence of our own ,shakspeare1 who has clothed his hags with more picturesque and awful attributes than the magnificent and imperial sorceries of ,corneille1 ,seneca1 or even ,euripides himself have exhibited4 ,the year #afcg was the era of the production of the ,cid2 the play not only of ,france1 but of ,europe1 for it has been translated into most languages4 ,but a sudden reputation involves its possessor in many vexations4 ,poets were in those days compelled to be courtiers1 if they would prosper4 ,at the ,hotel de ,rambouillet1 an assembly was held1 consisting of courtly and fashionable authors1 who wasted their time in composing thses d'amour and other fopperies of romantic literature4 ,over this society1 as well as over the politics of ,europe1 ,richelieu chose to be umpire4 ,he was also the founder of the ,french ,academy1 and the avowed patron of its members4 ,with this hold upon their good manners1 he kept four authors in pay1 for the purpose of filling out his own dramatic and poetical skeletons4 ,corneille consented to be one of the party1 and was so ignorant of the ways of courts as to fancy that he might exercise his judgment independently4 ,he was even simple enough to be astonished that the well-meant liberty of making some alterations in the plot of one of these ministerial dramas should give offence3 but as he was too proud to surrender his own judgment1 or to risk future affronts from the revulsion of the ,cardinal's goodwill1 he withdrew from the palace1 and abandoned himself to uncontrolled intercourse with the ,muse4 ,richelieu therefore became the principal instigator of a cabal1 which the envy of the wits sufficiently inclined them to form4 ,under such auspices1 they entered into a conspiracy against the uncourtly offender4 ,the prime minister could not endure that the successful intriguer in political life should be taxed with failure in unravelling the intricacies of a fictitious interest3 he therefore looked at the real defects in a performance approved by the public with a jaundiced eye1 and with but a half-opened one at its unrivalled beauties4 ,as universal patron1 he had settled a pension on the poet2 but he levelled insidious and clandestine shafts against his fame4 ,the 8irritable tribe0 willingly ran to arms1 with ,scuderi at their head1 who wrote hostile remarks on the ,cid1 addressed to the ,academy in the form of an appeal1 in the course of which he quaintly termed himself the evangelist of truth4 ,according to the statutes of the ,academy1 that august body could not take upon itself the decision1 without the consent of both parties4 ,corneille1 however indignant professionally1 was under too many personal obligations to the ,cardinal to spurn the authority of a tribunal erected by him4 ,he therefore gave his assent to the reference1 but in terms of considerable haughtiness4 ,the ,academy drew up a critique1 to which they gave the modest title of 8,sentiments of the ,french ,academy on the tragicomedy of the ,cid40 ,in the execution of this delicate commission1 the learned members contrived to reconcile the demands of sound taste and criticism with the tact and suppleness of courtiers4 ,they gratified the splenetic temper of the minister by censures1 the justice of which could not be gainsayed3 but they praised the beauties of the great scenes with a nobleness of panegyric1 which took from the author all right to complain of partiality4 ,this solemn judgment was given after five months of debate and negotiation between the ,cardinal and the academicians1 who dreaded official frowns if they wholly acquitted1 and public disgust if they condemned against evidence4 ,if it be considered that this infant institution owed its birth to ,richelieu1 and depended on him for its future growth1 the verdict is highly honourable to the individuals1 and creditable to the literary character1 even when disadvantageously circumstanced by being entangled in the trammels of a court4 ,our limits will not permit the examination of insulated passages1 nor even individual tragedies3 but independently of the splendour of the execution1 other circumstances attending the career of the ,cid produced a strong impression on the remainder of ,corneille's dramatic life4 ,the ,cid was taken from two ,spanish plays1 and several passages were actual translations2 but not in sufficient number to invalidate the author's claim to a large share of originality4 ,to set that question at rest1 in the editions published by himself1 he gave the passages taken from the ,spanish at the bottom of the page4 ,yet it was objected by his rivals and libellers1 that the author of ,medea and the ,cid could only imitate or translate3 that he had stolen the first of his tragedies from ,seneca1 the second from ,guillen de ,castro3 a clever borrower1 without a spark of tragic genius or invention6 ,unluckily for this bold assertion1 among other ,european languages1 this ,french play was translated into ,spanish2 and the nation1 whence the piece was professedly derived1 thought it worth while to recover it in the dress given to it by an illustrious foreigner4 ,against such unfounded censures it will be sufficient to quote the authority of ,boileau1 who speaks of the ,cid as a merveille naissante4 ,having achieved his first great success on a ,spanish subject and after a ,spanish model1 it is not improbable that1 had all gone smoothly1 he would have continued to draw his resources from the same fountain4 ,but vexation and resentment1 usually at variance with good policy1 now conspired with it2 and put him on seeking a new road to fame4 ,he had1 as it should seem1 intended to transplant a succession of ,spanish histories and fables1 with all the entanglement of ,spanish contrivance in the weaving of plots4 ,but in weighing the objections started against his piece1 he found that they applied rather to his ,spanish originals than to his own adaptation2 he therefore determined to cut the knot of future controversy1 by adopting the severity of the classical model4 ,to this we owe ,horace1 ,pompe1 ,cinna1 and ,polyeucte2--masterpieces which his more polished but more feeble successors in vain aspired to emulate4 ,thus did this eager war of criticism produce a crisis in the dramatic history of ,france4 ,its stage would probably1 but for this1 have been heroic and chivalrous1 not1 as it is1 ,roman1 and after the manner of the ancients4 ,it might even have rivalled our own in tragicomedy2--that monster stigmatized by ,voltaire as the offspring of barbarism1 although1 and perhaps because1 he 8pilfered snug0 from it2 and might hope1 by undervaluing the article1 to escape detection as the purloiner4 ,at the end of three years1 devoted to the study of the ancients1 the injured author avenged the injuries levelled against the ,cid by the production of ,horace4 ,although the impetuous poet had not yet subdued his genius to the trammels of just arrangement1 unity of action1 and the other severe rules of the classic drama1 such was the originality of conception1 the force of character1 and grandeur of sentiment displayed in this performance1 that new views of excellence were opened to the astonished audience4 ,voltaire1 with all the pedantry of mechanical criticism1 objects to ,horace1 that in it there are three tragedies instead of one4 ,whatever may be the force of this objection with the ,french1 it will weigh little with a people inured to the irregular sublimity and unfettered splendour of ,shakspeare4 ,cinna redeemed many of the errors of ,horace1 and improved upon its various merits4 ,the suffrages of the public were divided between it and ,polyeucte1 as the author's masterpiece4 ,but ,dryden considered the ,cid and ,china as his two best plays2 and speaks of ,polyeucte sarcastically1 as 8in matters of religion1 as solemn as the long stops upon our organs40 ,before the performance of ,polyeucte1 ,corneille read it at the ,hotel de ,rambouillet4 ,that tribunal affected sovereign authority in affairs of wit4 ,even the reputation of the author1 now in all its splendour1 could no further command the civilities of the critics1 than to 8damn with faint praise40 ,some days afterwards1 ,voiture called on ,corneille1 and1 after much complimentary circumlocution1 took the liberty of just hinting1 that its success was not likely to answer expectation3 above all1 that its ,christian spirit was calculated to give offence4 ,corneille1 much alarmed1 was about to withdraw it from rehearsal3 the persuasions of an inferior player spirited him up to risk the consequences of avowing himself a ,christian in an infidel court4 ,thus1 probably1 a hanger-on of the theatre had the honour of preventing a repetition of that malice1 by which rival wits attempted to arrest the career of the ,cid4 ,the winter of #afda-db produced ,la ,mort de ,pompe and ,le ,menteur4 ,the opening of ,la ,mort de ,pompe has been frequently commended for grandeur of conception and originality2 and the skill cannot be denied1 by which the enunciation of the circumstances producing the interest of the piece is rendered consistent with the dignity of the subject and characters4 ,the same praise cannot be conceded to the inflation of the dialogue and the intolerable length of the speeches4 ,but the concluding speech of ,csar to the second scene of the third act1 and the whole of the fourth act1 notwithstanding the censure of ,dryden1 both on this tragedy and the ,cinna1 that 8they are not so properly to be called plays1 as long discourses of reason and state10 may be selected as favourable specimens of the style and power of ,french dialogue4 ,a short notice will be sufficient for the comedy of ,corneille2 and the production of ,le ,menteur1 his most celebrated piece1 affords the fittest opportunity4 ,as the ,cid was imitated from ,guillen de ,castro1 ,lop de ,vega furnished the groundwork of ,le ,menteur4 ,it is considered to be the first genuine example of the comedy of intrigue and character in ,france2 for ,melite was at best but a mere attempt4 ,before this time1 there was no unsophisticated nature1 no conventional manners1 no truth of delineation4 ,mirth was raised by extravagance1 and curiosity by incidents bordering on the impossible4 ,corneille appealed to nature and to truth3 however imperfect the execution1 in comparison with that of his next successor in comedy1 he proved that he knew how ,thalia as well as ,melpomene ought to be drawn4 ,the greatest compliment1 perhaps1 that can be paid to his genius is1 that he pointed out the road both to ,racine and ,moliere4 ,the year #afde gave birth to ,rodogune1 in which1 having before touched the springs of wonder and pity1 he worked on his audience by the more powerful engine of terror4 ,his subsequent pieces were below his former level1 and betrayed1 not so much the decay of genius from the growing infirmities of nature1 as that fatal mistake in writing themselves out1 so common to authors in the province of imagination4 ,the cold reception of ,pertharite disgusted the poet1 and he renounced the stage in a splenetic little preface to the printed play1 complaining that 8he had been an author too long to be a fashionable one40 ,the turmoil of the court and the gaiety of the theatre had not effaced his early sentiments of piety and religion2 he therefore betook himself to the translation of ,kempis's ,imitation of ,jesus ,christ1 which he performed very finely4 ,this gave rise to a ridiculous and unfounded story1 that the first book was imposed on him as a penance2 the second1 by the ,queen's command2 and the third1 by the terrors of conscience during a severe illness4 ,as the mortification of failure faded away with time1 his passion for the theatre revived4 ,notwithstanding some misgivings1 he was encouraged by ,fouquet ,destrin in #afei1 after six years' absence4 ,he began again1 with more benefit to his popularity than to his true fame1 with dipus2--the noblest and most pathetic subject1 most nobly treated1 of ancient tragedy4 ,la ,toison d',or came next2 a spectacle got up for the ,king's marriage2--a species of piece in which the poet always plays a subordinate part to the scene-painter and the dressmaker4 ,sertorius is to be noticed as having given scope to the fine declamatory powers of ,mademoiselle ,clairon1 the ,siddons of the ,french stage4 ,berenice rose to an unenviable fame1 principally in consequence of the following circumstances4 ,henrietta of ,england1 then ,duchess of ,orleans1 whom ,fontenelle had the good manners to compliment as 8a princess who had a high relish for works of genius1 and had been able to call forth some sparks of it even in a barbarous country10 privately set ,corneille and ,racine to work on the same subject4 ,their pieces were represented at the same time2 and the struggle between a worn-out veteran and a champion in the vigour of youth1 terminated1 as might have been expected1 in the victory of the latter4 ,this literary contest was known by the title of 8the duel40 ,the experiment proves the love of mischief1 but says little for the good taste or benevolence of the royal instigator4 ,pulchrie and ,surena were his last productions3 both better than ,berenice1 with sufficient merit to render the close of his literary life respectable1 if not splendid4 ,the personal history of ,corneille furnishes little anecdote2 we have only further to state1 that he was chosen a ,member of the ,french ,academy in #afdg1 and was ,dean of that society at the time of his death1 which took place in #afhd1 in his seventy-ninth year4 ,he is said to have been a man of a devout and melancholy cast4 ,he spoke little in company1 even on subjects which his pursuits had made his own4 ,the author of #8,melanges d',histoire et du ,literature1' a work published under the name of ,vigneut ,marville1 but really written by the ,pre ,bonaventure d',ayounne1 a ,cistercian monk of ,paris1 says1 that 8the first time he saw him1 he took him for a tradesman of ,rouen4 ,his conversation was so heavy as to be extremely tiresome if it lasted long40 ,but whatever might be the outward coarseness or dulness of the man1 he was mild of temper in his family1 a good husband1 parent1 and friend4 ,his worth and integrity were unquestionable2 nor had his connexion with the court1 of which he was not fond1 taught him that art of cringing so necessary to fortune and promotion4 ,hence his reputation was almost the only advantage accruing to him from his productions4 ,his works have been often printed1 and consist of more than thirty plays1 tragedies and comedies4 ,those who wish for a more detailed account of this great writer will find it in his life1 by ,fontenelle1 in ,voltaire's several prefaces1 in ,racine's ,speech to the ,french ,academy on the admission of his brother ,thomas1 and in ,bayle4 ,many scattered remarks on him may also be found throughout ,dryden's critical prefaces4 ,illustration3 ,tragic ,masks1 from ,pompeii4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,w4 ,t4 ,fry4 ,,halley ,from an original ,picture ascribed to ,dahl in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,halley ,edmund ,halley1 one of the greatest astronomers of an age which produced many1 was born at a country house named ,haggerston1 in the parish of ,st4 ,leonard1 ,shoreditch1 ,october #bi1 #afef4 ,his father1 a wealthy citizen and soap-boiler1 intrusted the care of his son's education to ,dr4 ,gale1 master of ,st4 ,paul's ,school4 ,here young ,halley applied himself to the study of mathematics and astronomy with what was then considered great success2 for1 before he left school1 he understood the use of the celestial globe1 and could construct a sun-dial2 and1 as he has himself informed us1 had already observed the variation of the needle4 ,in #afgc1 being in the seventeenth year of his age1 he was entered of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford1 and two years afterwards gave the first proof of his astronomical genius by publishing1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #afgf1 8a direct and geometrical method of finding the ,aphelia and ,eccentricities of the ,planets40 ,his father1 who seems to have had none of that antipathy to a son's engaging in literary or scientific pursuits1 which is represented as common to men of commerce by the writers of that age1 supplied him liberally with astronomical instruments4 ,thus assisted1 he made many observations1 particularly of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 by means of which he discovered that the motion of ,saturn was slower1 and that of ,jupiter quicker than could be accounted for by the existing tables2 and made some progress in correcting those tables accordingly4 ,but he soon found that nothing could be done without a good catalogue of the stars4 ,this1 it appears1 he had some intention of forming2 but finding that ,hevelius and ,flamsteed were already employed on the same work1 he proposed to himself to proceed to the southern hemisphere1 and to complete the design by observing those stars which never rise above the horizons of ,dantzic and ,greenwich4 ,having obtained his father's consent1 and an allowance of #cjj a-year2 and having fixed upon ,st4 ,helena as the most convenient spot1 he applied to ,sir ,joseph ,williamson and ,sir ,jonas ,moor1 the ,secretary of ,state and the ,surveyor of the ,ordnance4 ,these gentlemen represented his intention in a favourable light to ,charles ,,ii41 and also to the ,east-,india ,company1 who promised him every assistance in their power4 ,thus protected1 he set out for ,st4 ,helena in #afgf2 his principal instruments being a sextant of five feet and a half radius1 and a telescope of twenty-four feet in length4 ,he found the climate not so favourable as he had been led to believe1 and moreover describes himself as disgusted with the treatment he received from the ,governor4 ,under these disadvantages1 he nevertheless formed a catalogue of #cej stars1 which he afterwards published under the name of #8,catalogus ,stellarum ,australium4' ,he called a new constellation which he had observed1 by the title of ,robur ,carolinum1 in honour of the well-known oak of ,charles ,,ii4 ,while at ,st4 ,helena he also observed a transit of ,mercury1 and suggested the use which might be made of similar phenomena in the determination of the sun's distance from the earth4 ,he first observed the necessity of shortening the pendulum as it approached the equator2 or1 at least1 when ,hook afterwards mentioned the circumstance to ,newton1 it was the first time the latter had heard of the fact4 ,soon after his return to ,england1 in ,november1 #afgh1 ,halley obtained the degree of ,m4,a4 from the ,university of ,oxford1 by royal mandate1 and was elected ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,this body had been requested by ,hevelius to select some person who might add the southern stars to his catalogue4 ,a dispute was also pending between him and ,hook1 as to the use of telescopes in observing the stars1 to which the former objected4 ,to aid ,hevelius1 as well as to decide upon the character of his observations1 ,halley went to ,dantzic1 and it is related1 as a proof of the energy of his character1 that in one month from the time of his landing in ,england he published his catalogue1 procured a mandate1 took the degree1 was elected ,f4,r4,s41 arranged to go to ,dantzic1 and wrote to ,hevelius4 ,he arrived on the #bfth of ,may1 #afgi1 and the same night entered upon a series of observations with ,hevelius1 which he continued till ,july1 when he returned to ,england1 fully satisfied of his coadjutor's accuracy4 ,in #afhj he again visited the continent4 ,between ,paris and ,calais he had a sight of the celebrated comet of that year1 well known as the one by observations of which the orbit of these bodies was discovered to be nearly a parabola4 ,he returned from his travels in the year #afha1 and shortly after married the daughter of a ,mr4 ,tooke then ,auditor of the ,exchequer1 which union lasted fifty-five years4 ,he settled at ,islington1 where1 for more than ten years1 he occupied himself with his usual pursuits1 of the results of which we shall presently speak more particularly4 ,in #afia the ,savilian ,professorship of ,astronomy became vacant1 and1 as ,whiston relates1 on the authority of ,dr4 ,bentley1 ,bishop ,stillingfleet was requested to recommend ,mr4 ,halley4 ,but the astronomer's avowed disbelief of ,christianity interfered with his election in this instance1 and the ,professorship was given to ,dr4 ,gregory4 ,it is related by ,sir ,david ,brewster that ,halley1 when inclined to enter upon religious subjects with ,newton1 always received a check in words like the following1 8,you have not studied the subject--,i have40 ,after the above-mentioned failure1 our astronomer received from ,king ,william the commission of ,captain in the ,navy1 with command of a small vessel4 ,the singularity of the reward need not surprise us1 when the same monarch offered a company of dragoons to ,swift3 indeed the pursuits of ,captain ,halley were nearly akin to those of navigation1 and he himself might be almost as well qualified for sailing1 though perhaps not for fighting a ship1 as most of his brother officers4 ,in his new character ,halley made two voyages1 the first to the ,mediterranean1 the ,brazils1 and the ,west ,indies1 for the purpose of ascertaining the variation of the magnet1 a subject in which he was much interested1 and of which he afterwards published a chart2 the second to ascertain the latitudes and longitudes of the principal points in the ,british ,channel1 and the course of the tides4 ,in #agjc he was elected ,savilian ,professor of ,geometry1 on the death of the celebrated ,wallis4 ,he received1 about the same time1 the degree of ,doctor of ,laws1 which is conferred without requiring subscription to the ,articles of the ,church4 ,in his connexion with the ,university he superintended several parts of the edition of the ,greek ,geometers1 which was printed at the ,university press4 ,halley succeeded ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 in #agac1 as ,secretary to the ,royal ,society2 and1 in #agai1 on the death of ,flamsteed1 he was appointed ,astronomer ,royal at ,greenwich4 ,in this employment he continued till his death1 under the patronage of ,queen ,caroline1 wife of ,george ,,ii41 who procured for him the half-pay of the rank he formerly held in the navy4 ,in #agcg he was seized with a paralytic disorder2 but nevertheless continued his labours till within a short time of his death1 which took place in ,january1 #agdb1 at the age of eighty-five4 ,he was interred at ,lee1 near ,blackheath1 where a monument was erected to him and his wife by their two daughters4 ,in person ,dr4 ,halley was rather tall1 thin1 and fair1 and remarkable as well for energy as vivacity of character4 ,he cultivated the friendship and acquired the esteem of his most distinguished contemporaries1 and particularly of ,newton1 spite of their very different opinions4 ,indeed it may be said that to him we owe1 in some degree1 the publication of the #8,principia2' for ,halley being engaged upon the consideration of ,kepler's law1 as it had been discovered by observation1 viz41 that the squares of the periodic times of planets are as the cubes of their distances1 and suspecting that this might be accounted for on the supposition of a centripetal force1 varying inversely as the square of the distance1 applied himself to prove the connexion geometrically1 in which he was unable to succeed4 ,in this difficulty he applied to ,hook and ,wren1 neither of whom could help him1 and was recommended to consult ,newton1 then ,lucasian ,professor at ,cambridge4 ,following this advice1 he found in ,newton all he wanted2 and did not rest until he had persuaded his new acquaintance to give the results of his discoveries to the world4 ,in about two years after this1 the first edition of the #8,principia' was published1 and the proofs were corrected by ,halley1 who supplied the well-known ,latin verses which stand at the beginning of the work4 ,in conversation1 ,halley appears to have been of a jocose and somewhat satirical disposition4 ,the following anecdote of him1 which is told by ,whiston1 displays the usual modesty of the latter1 when speaking of himself3 8,on my refusal from him of a glass of wine on a ,wednesday or ,friday1 he said he was afraid ,i had a pope in my belly1 which ,i denied1 and added somewhat bluntly1 that had it not been for the rise now and then of a ,luther or a ,whiston1 he would himself have gone down on his knees to ,st4 ,winifred or ,st4 ,bridget1 which he knew not how to contradict40 ,it is related that when ,queen ,caroline offered to obtain an increase of ,halley's salary as ,astronomer ,royal1 he replied1 8,pray1 your ,majesty1 do no such thing1 for should the salary be increased1 it might become an object of emolument to place there some unqualified needy dependant1 to the ruin of the institution40 ,and yet the sum which he would not suffer to be increased was only #ajj a-year4 ,to give even a catalogue of the various labours of ,halley1 would require more space than we can here devote to the subject4 ,for a more detailed account both of his life and discoveries1 we must refer the reader to the ,biographia ,britannica1 to ,delambre1 ,histoire de l',astronomie au dix-huitime ,siecle1 livre ,,ii41 and the ,philosophical ,transactions of the time in which he lived2 or better perhaps to the ,miscellanea ,curiosa1 ,london1 #agbf1 a selection of papers from the ,transactions1 containing the most remarkable of those written by ,halley4 ,we shall1 nevertheless1 proceed briefly to notice a few of the discoveries on which the fame of our astronomer is built4 ,the most remarkable of them1 to a common reader1 is the conjecture of the return of a comet4 ,some earlier astronomers1 as ,kepler1 had imagined the motion of these bodies to be rectilinear4 ,newton1 in explaining the principle of universal gravitation1 showed how a comet might describe a parabola1 and also how to calculate its motion1 and compare it with observation4 ,hevelius had already indicated the curvature of a comet's path1 and ,drfel1 a ,saxon clergyman1 had calculated the path of the comet of #afhj upon this supposition4 ,halley1 in computing the parabolic elements of all the comets which had been well observed up to his time1 suspected1 from the general likeness of the three1 that the comets of #aeca1 #afjg1 and #afhb1 were the same4 ,he was the more confirmed in this1 by knowing that comets had been seen1 though no good observations were recorded1 in the years #acje1 #achj1 and #adef1 giving1 with the former dates1 a chain of differences of #ge and #gf years alternately4 ,halley supposed1 therefore1 that the orbit of this comet was1 not a parabola1 but a very elongated ellipse1 and that it would return about the year #ageh4 ,the truth of his conjecture was fully confirmed in ,january1 #agei1 by ,messier4 ,the first person1 however1 who saw ,halley's comet1 as it is now called1 was ,george ,palitzch1 a farmer in the neighbourhood of ,dresden1 who had studied astronomy by himself1 and fitted up a small observatory4 ,but a much more useful exertion of ,halley's genius and power of calculation is to be found in his researches on the lunar theory4 ,it is to him that we are indebted for first starting the idea of finding the longitude at sea by means of the moon's place1 which is now universally adopted4 ,the principle of this problem is as follows4 ,an observer at sea can readily find the time of day by means of the sun or a star1 and can thereby correct a watch4 ,if he could at the same moment in which he finds his own time1 also discover that at ,greenwich1 the difference between the two1 turned into degrees1 minutes1 and seconds1 would be his longitude east or west of ,greenwich4 ,if1 therefore1 he carries with him a ,nautical ,almanac1 in which the times of various astronomical phenomena are registered1 as they will take place at ,greenwich1 or rather as they will be seen by an observer placed at the centre of the earth with a ,greenwich clock1 he can observe any one of these phenomena1 and reduce it also to the centre4 ,he will then know the corresponding moments of time1 for his own position and that of ,greenwich4 ,the moon traverses the whole of its orbit in little more than #bg days1 and therefore moves rapidly with respect to the fixed stars1 its motion being nearly a whole sign of the zodiac in #dh hours4 ,if we observe the distance between the moon and a star1 and find it to be ten degrees1 the longitude of the place in which the observation is made can be known as aforesaid1 if the almanac will tell what time it was at ,greenwich when the moon was at that same distance from the star4 ,in the time of ,halley1 though it was known that the moon moved nearly in an ellipse1 yet the elements of that ellipse1 and the various irregularities to which it is subject1 were very imperfectly ascertained4 ,it had1 however1 been known even from the time of the ,chaldeans1 that some of these irregularities have a period1 as it is called1 of little more than eighteen years1 that is1 begin again in the same order after every eighteen years2 the periods and quantities of several other errors had also been discovered with something like accuracy4 ,to make good lunar tables1 that is1 tables from which the place of the moon might be correctly calculated beforehand1 became the object of ,halley's ambition4 ,he therefore observed the moon diligently during the whole of one of the periods of eighteen years1 that is1 from the end of #agba to that of #agci1 and produced tables which were published in #agdi1 after his death1 and were of great service to astronomers4 ,he also made another observation on the motion of the moon1 which has since given rise to one of the finest discoveries of ,laplace4 ,in calculating from our tables the time of an ancient eclipse1 observed at ,babylon1 ,b4 ,c4 #gbj1 he found that1 had the tables been correct1 it would have happened three hours sooner than1 according to ,ptolemy1 it did happen4 ,this might have arisen from an error in the ,babylonian observation2 but on looking at other eclipses1 he found that the ancient ones always happened later than the time indicated by his table1 and that the difference became less and less as he approached his own time4 ,from hence he concluded that the moon's average daily motion is subject to a very small acceleration1 so that a lunar month at present is in a very slight degree shorter than a month in the time of the ,chaldeans4 ,this was afterwards shown by ,laplace to arise from a very slow diminution in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit1 caused by the attraction of the planets4 ,for a further account of ,halley's astronomical labours1 we may refer to the ,history of ,astronomy in the ,library of ,useful ,knowledge1 page #gi4 ,we must also ascribe to ,halley the first correct application of the barometer to the measurement of the heights of mountains4 ,mariotte1 who first enunciated the remarkable law that the elastic forces of gases are in the inverse proportion of the spaces which they occupy1 had previously given a formula for the determination of these same heights1 entirely wrong in principle1 and inapplicable in practice4 ,halley1 whose profound mathematical knowledge made him fully equal to the task1 investigated and discovered the common formula1 which1 with some corrections for the temperature of the mercury in the barometer and the air without it1 is in use at this day4 ,we have already mentioned that ,halley sailed to various parts of the earth with a view to determine the variation of the magnet4 ,the result of his labours was communicated to the ,royal ,society in a map of the lines of equal variation1 and also of the course of the trade-winds4 ,he attempted to explain the phenomena of the compass by supposing that the earth is one great magnet1 having four poles1 two near each pole of the equator2 and further accounts for the variation which the compass undergoes from year to year in the same place1 by imagining a magnetic sphere1 interior to the surface of the earth1 which nucleus or inner globe turns on an axis with a velocity of rotation very little differing from that of the earth itself4 ,this hypothesis has shared the fate of many others purely mathematical2 that is1 invented to show how the observed phenomena might be produced1 without any ground of observation for believing that they really are so produced4 ,if we put together the astronomical and geographical discoveries of ,halley1 and remember that the former were principally confined to those points which bear upon the subjects of the latter1 we shall be able to find a title for their author less liable to cavil than that of the ,prince of ,astronomers1 which has sometimes been bestowed upon him2 we may safely say that no man1 either before or since1 has done more to improve the theoretical part of navigation1 by the diligent observation alike of heavenly and earthly phenomena4 ,we pass over many minor subjects1 such as his improvement of the diving-bell1 or his measurement of the quantity of fluid abstracted by evaporation from the sea1 to come to an application of science in which he led the way1--the investigation of the law of mortality4 ,from observations communicated to the ,royal ,society of the births and deaths in the city of ,breslau1 he constructed the first table of mortality1 which was in a great measure the foundation of the celebrated hypothesis of ,de ,moivre1 that the decrements of human life are nearly equal at all ages2 that is1 that out of eighty-six persons born1 one dies every year1 until all are gone4 ,halley's table as might be expected1 was not very applicable to human life in ,england1 either then or now1 but the effect of example is conspicuous in this instance4 ,before the death of ,halley the tables of ,kerseboom were published1 and four years afterwards1 those of ,de ,parcieux4 ,we will not enlarge on the purely mathematical investigations of ,halley1 which would possess but little interest for the general reader4 ,we may mention1 however1 his method for the solution of equations1 his #8,analogy of the ,logarithmic ,tangents to the ,meridian ,line1 or sum of the secants1' his algebraic investigation of the place of the focus of a lens1 and his improvement of the method of finding logarithms4 ,from the latter we quote a sentence1 which1 to the reader1 for whose benefit we have omitted entering upon any discussion of these subjects1 will appear amusing enough1 if indeed he does not shrink to see how much he has degenerated from his ancestors4 ,after describing a process which contains calculation enough for most people2 and which further directs to multiply sixty figures by sixty figures1 he adds1 8,if the curiosity of any gentleman that has leisure1 would prompt him to undertake to do the logarithms of all prime numbers under #ajj1jjj to #be or #cj figures1 ,i dare assure him that the facility of this method will invite him thereto2 nor can anything more easy be desired4 ,and to encourage him1 ,i here give the logarithms of the first prime numbers under #bj to #fj places40 ,one look at these encouraging rows of figures would be sufficient for any but a calculating boy4 ,no one who is conversant with the mathematics and their applications can read the life of the mathematicians of the seventeenth century without a strong feeling of respect for the manner in which they overcame obstacles1 and of gratitude for the labour which they have saved their successors4 ,the brilliancy of later names has1 in some degree1 eclipsed their fame with the multitude2 but no one acquainted with the history of science can forget1 how with poor instruments and imperfect processes1 they achieved successes1 but for which ,laplace might have made the first rude attempts towards finding the longitude1 and ,lagrange might have discovered the law which connects the coefficients of the binomial theorem4 ,but even of these men the same thing may one day be said2 and future analysts may wonder how ,laplace1 with his paltry means of investigation1 could account for the phenomenon of the acceleration of the moon's motion2 and future astronomers may1 should such a sentence as the present ever meet their eyes1 be surprised that the observers of the nineteenth century should hold their heads so high above those of the seventeenth4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,w4 ,holl4 ,,sully4 ,from the original ,picture by an unknown ,artist in the private collection of ,louis ,philippe1 ,king of the ,french4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,sully ,the ,duc de ,sully is celebrated as the companion1 minister1 and historian of ,henry ,,iv41 the most popular of ,french monarchs4 ,eminent among his contemporaries both as a soldier and as a financier1 it is his especial glory that he laboured to promote the welfare of the industrious classes1 when other statesmen regarded them but as the fount from which royal extravagance was to be supplied4 ,maximilian1 son of ,franois de ,bethune1 ,baron de ,rosny1 and of ,charlotte ,dauvet1 daughter of a ,president of the ,chamber of ,accounts at ,paris1 was born at ,rosny in the year #aeei4 ,his family was ancient1 illustrious1 and once wealthy1 but his paternal grandfather had almost ruined it by his extravagance1 his maternal grandfather disinherited him because he embraced the reformed religion2 and with a slight annual allowance young ,rosny had to seek his own fortune in the extravagant profession of arms4 ,by a sage economy and order he1 however1 supported himself1 and escaped the dependence and dishonour consequent on extravagance in a poor man4 ,when thirteen years of age he was presented by his father to the young ,prince of ,navarre1 who was only seven years older than himself1 and who at once conceived that affection for him which was destined to cease only with his own life4 ,on the memorable day of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 ,rosny was in ,paris1 engaged in the prosecution of his studies4 ,a known member of the ,protestant ,church1 his life was in jeopardy3 his servant and his tutor fell victims to the rage of the ,papists1 and he himself1 obliged to quit his chambers for a safer hiding-place1 and exposed to imminent dangers in traversing the streets1 owed his deliverance more than once to a union of courage and coolness not very common in a youth of thirteen4 ,after this event he1 as well as his patron and friend ,henry of ,navarre1 conformed for a time to the observances of the ,roman ,catholic religion2 but in #aegf1 when ,henry escaped from the thraldom in which he had been held1 abjured ,catholicism and placed himself at the head of a ,protestant army1 ,rosny was the companion of his flight1 and first began to carry arms in his service4 ,his noble birth1 and the favour of his master1 would at once have secured him military rank1 but ,rosny preferred to serve as a simple volunteer1 in order1 as he said1 to learn the art of war by its elements4 ,at the surprise of ,rde1 at the siege of ,villefranche1 at the taking of ,eause and ,cahors1 at the battle of ,marmande1 and in all the dangerous affairs in which ,henry engaged1 ,rosny was always at his side4 ,his good services1 and the affection borne him by his master1 did not1 however1 prevent a quarrel1 which1 it must be said1 was provoked by his own imprudence and aggravated by his own pride4 ,in spite of the commands of the ,prince of ,navarre1 who had wisely prohibited the practice of referring private quarrels to the arbitrement of the sword1 ,rosny acted as second in a duel1 in which one of the principals was desperately wounded4 ,the ,prince's anger at the breach of discipline was exasperated by a strong personal regard for the wounded man4 ,he sent for ,sully1 rebuked him in harsh terms1 and said that he deserved to lose his head for what he had done4 ,the pride of the young soldier was touched2 he replied that he was neither vassal nor subject of ,navarre1 and would henceforth seek the service of a more grateful master4 ,the ,prince rejoined in severe terms and turned his back on him2 and ,rosny was quitting the court1 when the ,queen1 who knew his value1 interfered1 and reconciled him with her son4 ,not long after he quitted ,henry's service1 alleging that he had pledged his word to accompany the ,duc d',alenon1 afterwards ,duc d',anjou1 brother of ,henry ,,iii41 in his contest for the sovereignty of ,flanders2 where1 in case of success1 he was to be put in possession of the estates which had belonged to his maternal grandfather4 ,in this campaign he gained neither honour nor profit1 and soon returned to his original master4 ,henry received him with open arms1 and1 as if to prove that absence had not affected his confidence and esteem1 sent him a few days after on an important mission to ,paris4 ,in the troubled times which followed1 ,rosny was unshaken in devotion to the cause which he had espoused4 ,he accompanied ,henry1 when that prince1 with only nineteen followers1 threw himself1 as a last resource1 into ,la ,rochelle4 ,he undertook an embassy from that city to ,henry ,,iii41 then almost as much persecuted by the ,league as the ,king of ,navarre himself4 ,in his ,memoirs he has left a striking description of the degraded condition of that sovereign1 who had entirely abandoned himself to favourites and menials of the court4 8,his ,majesty was in his cabinet2 he had his sword by his side1 a hood thrown over his shoulders1 a little bonnet on his head1 and a basket full of little dogs hung round his neck by a broad riband40 ,he listened to ,rosny with vacant stupidity1 neither moving his feet1 his hands1 nor his head4 ,when he spoke1 he complained of the audacity and insults of the ,league--said that nothing would go well in ,france until the ,king of ,navarre went to mass--but agreed1 finally1 that ,rosny might treat with the envoys of the ,protestant ,cantons of ,switzerland1 in his name as well as the ,king of ,navarre's1 for the raising of twenty thousand ,swiss troops1 to be employed between the two sovereigns4 ,henry1 through his imprudence1 lost all the advantages which his faithful servant's treaty with the ,swiss might have secured to him2 but neither disgusted nor dispirited by this folly1 ,rosny persevered in his attachment to a cause which seemed altogether desperate to most others4 ,he was at the siege of ,fontenay1 and at the brilliant victory of ,coutras1 for which the ,king of ,navarre was materially indebted to the artillery under ,rosny's command4 ,his next great undertaking was to effect an entire reconciliation between his master and the ,king of ,france4 ,having succeeded in this1 the eyes of all ,france thenceforward rested upon him as the only man who could re-establish the distracted kingdom4 ,such was the enthusiasm of many of the ,french at the time1 that they called him 8,le ,dieu ,rosny40 ,the desired reconciliation had not long been made when ,henry ,,iii4 was assassinated by a fanatic monk1 and the ,king of ,navarre laid claim to the vacant throne4 ,but much remained to be done ere he could tranquilly seat himself upon it4 ,his religion was an insurmountable obstacle to the mass of the nation1 and the ,league was all-powerful in many parts of ,france and held possession of ,paris4 ,rosny fought with his accustomed valour at the battles of ,arques and ,ivry4 ,at the latter he well nigh lost his life3 he received five wounds1 had two horses killed under him1 and fell at last among a heap of slain4 ,the manner in which he retired from this field1 with four prisoners of the highest distinction and the standard of the enemy's commander-in-chief1 is one of the most romantic incidents to be found in authentic history4 ,after the victory of ,ivry1 ,rosny did not receive the rewards he merited1 and he remained for some time at his estate under pretence of ill health1 but secretly disinclined to return to the service of one who had shown little real gratitude for his long and faithful adherence4 ,no sooner1 however1 did he learn that ,henry was about to undertake the siege of ,paris1 than he left his retreat and hastened again to his master's side4 ,his wounds were still uncured3 he appeared before the ,king leaning on crutches and with an arm in a sling4 ,touched by his devotedness and his melancholy state1 ,henry loaded him with caresses1 and insisted that he should not expose himself for the present but remain near his person to assist him with his counsels4 ,when ,henry first meditated his recantation of the ,protestant faith1 he consulted ,rosny on this all-important subject4 ,the honest soldier after reviewing the state of the parties opposed to the ,king1 and holding out the hope that they would disagree among themselves and fall to pieces1 said1 8,with regard to your change of religion1 it cannot be otherwise than advantageous to you1 seeing that your enemies have no other pretext for their hostility1 but1 sire1 it is between you and your conscience to decide on this important article#d40 ,shortly after this conversation the death of the ,duke of ,parma relieved ,henry from one of his most formidable enemies2 but the implacable ,leaguers1 now becoming meanly desperate1 laid plots against his life1 and1 it is said1 even sent assassins to ,mantes1 where the ,king was residing4 ,henry thought to provide for his personal safety by continually surrounding himself by a corps of faithful ,english soldiers who were in his service2 but ,rosny1 knowing the craft and audacity of fanaticism1 and warned of the danger which menaced the competitor for the crown by the untimely fate of its last wearer1 was kept in a state of continual alarm4 ,at last1 sinking his attachment to the reformed religion in his attachment to his ,king and his friend1 he supplicated1 on his knees1 that he would conform to the doctrines of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,and this the ,king did almost immediately after4 ,rosny continued a ,protestant4 ,many of the cities of ,france now submitted to ,henry1 but ,rouen1 one of the most important of the number1 was only gained over by the skilful negotiations of ,rosny1 who shortly after treated1 and with equal success1 with the ,duke de ,bouillon1 the ,duke de ,guise1 and other formidable enemies of the ,king4 ,in return for these valuable services1 he was admitted into the ,councils of ,war and ,finance1 where his honesty and the favour of his master soon roused the corrupt and jealous members of those departments of government against him4 ,so great1 indeed1 were his annoyances that in the absence of ,henry he withdrew again to his estates1 and was only induced to return to his post by a personal visit from his sovereign4 ,footnote #d3 ,mmoires de ,sully4 ,the ,king1 who was now strong enough to attack the ,spaniards in their dominions in the ,low ,countries1 laid siege to ,arras3 but through the bad conduct of those who administered the finances of the state1 he not only found himself unprovided with all that was necessary to prosecute his undertaking with success1 but was left in a state of entire and even personal destitution4 ,in these difficulties he called ,rosny to his assistance1 and placed him at the head of the finances4 ,under the new minister's able and honest management1 affairs soon changed their aspect3 the treasury was replenished1 while at the same time the people found their burdens lightened by economy4 ,rosny had prepared himself for this office1 in the discharge of which he became a true benefactor of ,france1 by a profound study of accounts and of the revenues and resources of the country2 and when the post was given to him1 for a considerable time he laboured night and day to detect the impolicy and the peculation of those who preceded him1 and to re-establish the finances of the country4 ,in #afja ,rosny visited ,england1 under pretence of travelling for his amusement1 but in reality to ascertain the political views1 and to secure the friendship of ,elizabeth4 ,on the ,queen's death1 a formal embassy to ,james ,i4 was contemplated1 but a dangerous illness which the ,king suffered at ,fontainebleau delayed this measure4 ,henry1 who thought he was dying1 sent for the long-tried ,rosny to his bed-side1 and in his presence he desired the ,queen to retain his faithful minister1 as the welfare of herself1 her family1 and of the nation were dear to her4 ,the ,king1 however1 recovered1 and in the month of ,june1 #afjc1 ,rosny1 with a numerous suite1 departed on his mission4 ,after a residence of several weeks in ,england1 he succeeded in concluding an advantageous treaty with ,james ,i4 ,the following year he composed a treatise on religious tolerance1 which he at one time hoped might reconcile the animosities of the ,catholics and ,protestants4 ,if he failed in this1 he left an example1 rare at that time1 of an enlightened and liberal spirit4 ,shortly after he wrote a memorial indicating the means by which the commerce and finances of ,france might be still further improved4 ,at that time the political sciences could scarcely be said to exist2 and it is not to be supposed that the minister's views were at all times just and enlarged4 ,they show1 at all events1 that he looked to the industry of the people as the source of national wealth2 and to their welfare as one1 at least1 of the objects of government4 8,tillage and pasturage10 it was a favourite saying of his1 8are the two paps by which ,france is nourished--the real treasures of ,peru40 ,to manufactures he was less favourable1 and his obstinacy on this head retarded many of ,henry's schemes for the encouragement of national industry4 ,his real glory as a minister is to be sought in the exactness which he introduced into the management of the finances2 and in the vigour with which he repressed peculation in his subordinates1 and gave the whole weight of his influence to check the needless expenditure of a profligate court1 to curtail those feudal claims which bore hardest on the vassals1 and to oppose all privileges and monopolies1 commonly bestowed upon courtiers in those days1 which cramp the prosperity of a nation1 to put a comparatively trifling sum into the pocket of a single person4 ,one day the ,duchesse de ,verneuil1 one of ,henry's favourites1 remonstrated with him for his severity in this respect1 alleging that the ,king had a good right to make presents to his mistresses and nobility4 ,his answer should be generally known4 8,this were well1 ,madam1 if the ,king took the money from his own purse2 but it is against reason to take it from the shopkeepers1 artisans1 and agricultural labourers1 since it is they who support the ,king and all of us1 and they would be well content with a single master1 without having so many cousins1 relations1 and mistresses to maintain40 ,his enemies insinuated that in the service of the state he had not neglected his own interest2 and it is certain that he acquired immense wealth4 ,cardinal ,richelieu1 however1 no friend to him1 contents himself with the insinuation that if the last years of his administration were less austere than the first1 it could not1 at least1 be said that they were profitable to himself without being very profitable to the state also4 ,to his other offices he added those of ,grand ,master of the ,ordnance1 and ,surveyor-,general of ,public ,works4 ,the artillery had always been a favourite branch of the service with him2 and he was esteemed one of the best generals of the age for the attack or defence of fortified places4 ,as ,master of the ,ordnance he mainly contributed to the success of the war with the ,duke of ,savoy4 ,the army was well paid and provided1 the artillery always at its place at the proper time1 and a general reform was felt throughout the service4 ,in peace he was not less active in superintending the construction and repair of fortifications2 and in those still more valuable labours which tend to facilitate intercourse1 and provide for the internal wants of a nation4 ,one of his chief works was a canal to join the ,seine and ,loire4 ,there were few good engineers in those times1 and ,rosny1 with his usual industry and earnestness1 went himself to the spot and superintended the commencement of the work he had projected4 ,in #afjf1 after many brief quarrels between him and his master1 caused chiefly by the intrigues of ,henry's mistresses and worthless courtiers1 ,rosny was created ,duc de ,sully and a ,peer of ,france4 ,the licentiousness of the ,king1 and the power he allowed his mistresses to obtain over him1 had continually thwarted ,sully and undone much of the good they had together proposed and executed4 ,the minister's remonstrances were frequent1 bold1 and at times even violent2 indeed1 his whole life had been distinguished by an honest bluntness2 but the propensities of the amorous monarch were incurable1 and his faithful servant had the mortification of seeing him disgrace the last years of his life by an infatuation for the ,princess of ,cond4 ,henry had already determined on a war with his old enemies the ,spaniards1 when the flight of this lady with her husband1 who took refuge in the states of the house of ,austria1 induced him to hurry on his preparations to attack both the ,emperor and the ,king of ,spain4 ,sully1 at this time1 had amassed forty millions of livres in the treasury of the state1 and he engaged moreover to increase this sum to sixty or to seventy millions without laying on any new taxes4 ,he had also provided the most numerous and magnificent corps of artillery that had ever been seen in ,europe4 ,but in the midst of these grand preparations ,henry's mind was agitated by his insane passion for the ,princess of ,cond1 and oppressed by a presentiment of his fate4 ,he was indeed told on every hand that plots were laid against his life2 his romantic courage forsook him1 he became absent and suspicious1 and at last distrusted even his faithful minister4 ,sully now no longer saw his master except at short intervals1 and lived1 retired from the court1 at the ,arsenal1 his official residence as ,grand ,master of the ,artillery4 ,the naturally confident and noble nature of ,henry1 and his old attachment for the sharer in all his fortunes1 triumphed however over his weaknesses and illusions1 and he determined to pay ,sully a visit and to excuse himself for his late coldness4 ,with these amiable intentions the ,king left his palace1 and was on his way to the ,arsenal in an open carriage1 when he was stabbed to the heart by the fanatic ,ravaillac4 ,on the death of ,henry ,,iv4 ,sully would have continued his valuable services under the ,queen-widow1 ,mary de' ,medici1 who was appointed ,regent1 but that ,princess resigning herself and the government of the state to intriguing ,italians1 headed by the unpopular ,concini1 the honest and indignant minister quitted office and the court for ever1 and retired to his estates4 ,the life ,sully led in his retreat was most rational and dignified4 ,unmoved by the ingratitude of the court1 of which he was continually receiving fresh proofs1 he continued to love the country he had so long governed2 and though a zealous ,protestant to the last1 he would never join in the intrigues of the ,hugonots1 which he dreaded might renew the horrors of civil war4 ,to find occupation for his active mind he dictated his ,memoirs to four secretaries1 whom1 for many years1 he retained in his service1 and who1 in the #8,economies ,royales1' better known under the title of #8,mmoires de ,sully1' preserved not only the most interesting details of the life of their noble master and of ,henry ,,iv41 but the fullest account of the history and policy1 manners and customs1 of the age in which ,sully lived4 ,neither the occupations of war nor of politics1 in which he had been absorbed for thirty-four years1 had eradicated his original taste for polite literature2 and in his retirement he composed many pieces not only in prose but in verse4 ,one of his poetical compositions1 which is a parallel between ,henry ,,iv4 and ,julius ,csar1 was translated into ,latin and much admired throughout ,europe4 ,after having lived thirty years in this retirement1 the great ,sully expired at his ,chteau of ,villebonne1 in the eighty-second year of his age1 on the #bb;d ,december1 #afda--the same year in which ,lord ,strafford1 the minister of ,charles ,i41 was beheaded in ,london1 and in which the grave closed over the widow of ,henry ,,iv41 ,mary de' ,medici1 who died at ,cologne in obscurity and great poverty4 ,it is to be regretted that no author has yet produced a life of ,sully worthy of the subject4 ,the #8,economies ,royales' is the great storehouse of information1 but its prolixity and singularity of style render it little attractive to the general reader4 ,the following works1 however1 may be consulted3--',les ,vies des ,hommes ,illustres de la ,france1' by ,m4 ,d',auvigny1 and the memoir in the #8,biographie ,universelle4' ,illustration ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,j4 ,posselwhite4 ,n4 ,,poussin4 ,from the original ,picture by himself in the ,gallery of the ,louvre4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,poussin ,truth and compliment are happily united in ,poussin's observation to a noble amateur1 8,you wanted but the stimulus of necessity to have become a great painter40 ,the artist had himself felt this stimulus1 and he knew its value in producing resolution and habits of industry4 ,his family was noble1 but indigent3 ,john1 his father1 a native of ,soissons1 and a soldier of fortune1 served during the reigns of ,charles ,,ix41 ,henry ,,iii41 and ,henry ,,iv41 with more reputation than profit4 ,at last1 finding that in the trade of arms his valour was likely to be its own reward1 he married the widow of a solicitor1 resigned his military employments1 and fixed his abode at ,andelys in ,normandy1 where1 in ,june #aeid1 his son ,nicholas1 the subject of the present memoir1 was born4 ,the district in which ,andelys is situated is remarkable for its picturesque beauty1 and from the scenery which surrounded him the genius of ,poussin drew its first inspiration4 ,his sketches of landscape attracted the notice and commendation of ,quintin ,varin1 an artist residing in the neighbourhood4 ,animated by praise1 young ,poussin earnestly solicited his father that he might become ,varin's pupil3 a request to which the prudent parent1 after long hesitation1 reluctantly acceded4 ,he knew that in such a pursuit as that of the fine arts1 much of the aspirant's life must be expended before a just estimate of his professional talents can be formed1 and that even where talent exists1 the success of the possessor is not always commensurate to its claims4 ,the youth1 however1 was fortunate in meeting1 in the first instance1 with a preceptor whose instructions1 founded on just principles1 left him nothing to unlearn4 ,he remained with ,varin until his eighteenth year1 when he went to ,paris1 and studied under ,ferdinand ,elle1 and ,l',allemand1 two artists then in fashion1 from whom he learned nothing4 ,in the mean time he had become acquainted with several persons who appreciated his dawning talents1 and felt an interest in his fortunes4 ,among the rest1 a young nobleman of ,poitou manifested an almost fraternal attachment towards him1 relieved his pecuniary wants1 and among other services introduced him to ,courtois1 the ,king's mathematician1 who possessed a fine collection of prints by ,marc ,antonio1 and a great number of drawings and sketches by ,raffaelle1 ,giulio ,romano1 and other great masters of the ,roman school4 ,these treasures ,poussin studied and copied with sedulous zeal and attention1 and he was frequently heard to advert to this circumstance as one of the most fortunate of his life1 inasmuch as the contemplation of these fine examples had fixed his taste1 and determined the bent of his powers towards the higher branches of art1 at a time when his mind was fluctuating between the attractions of different schools4 ,the young ,poitevin1 being summoned to return home1 invited ,poussin to become his companion1 and to undertake a series of pictures1 calculated1 by its extent as well as its excellence1 to do honour to his paternal mansion4 ,but his mother regarded the fine arts and those who patronised them with equal and unqualified contempt3 and suffering in her house the exercise of none but what she considered useful talents1 she assigned to ,poussin the office of house-steward1 and his visions of fame were at once dispelled by the humble occupation of overlooking the servants1 and keeping accounts4 ,it may easily be supposed that the young artist did not deport himself very meekly under the new appointments which had thus unexpectedly been thrust upon him4 ,without asking the sympathy or assistance even of his friend1 who1 it would appear1 had acquiesced too readily in his mother's arrangements1 he quitted the house and made his way to ,paris on foot2 having no other means of support on the road than the extemporaneous productions of his pencil4 ,in consequence of the hardships which he experienced during this journey1 he was attacked by a fever on reaching ,paris1 which obliged him to return to ,andelys4 ,after the lapse of a year1 having recruited his health1 he made arrangements to execute a long-cherished purpose of a journey to ,rome4 ,but with an improvidence not uncommon in artists1 and sometimes falsely said to be characteristic of genius1 he calculated his resources so inaccurately that in two successive attempts he was obliged to return1 leaving his purpose unaccomplished4 ,in the first instance he reached ,florence1 but in the second1 he got no farther than ,lyons4 ,the disappointment1 however1 was attended with good results1 for on his return to ,paris1 a circumstance occurred which at once raised him into high reputation4 ,the ,jesuits had ordered a set of pictures for a high festival1 which were to display the miracles worked by their patron saints1 ,ignatius ,loyola1 and ,francis ,xavier4 ,of these1 six were executed by ,poussin1 in a very short space of time2 the pictures were little more than sketches1 but they exhibited such powers of composition and expression1 that he was at once acknowledged to have distanced all competitors4 ,his acquaintance was now sought by amateurs and literati2 but the chief advantage which accrued to him was the friendship of the ,chevalier ,marini1 a distinguished ,italian1 who had settled in ,paris1 and engaged with interest in the cultivation of elegant literature and the arts4 ,his mind was stored with classical erudition1 and he delighted to exercise his poetic talent on the then fashionable fables of heathen mythology4 ,such pursuits were congenial to ,poussin's turn of mind2 and by the advice1 and with the assistance of ,marini1 he entered deeply into the study of the ,latin and ,italian authors4 ,hence he drew the elements of that knowledge of the customs1 manners1 and habits of antiquity1 by which his works are so eminently distinguished4 ,marini1 soon after1 went to ,rome1 and was anxious that ,poussin should accompany him2 but this the artist found impossible1 from the number of unfinished commissions on his hands4 ,in the ensuing year1 however1 #afbd1 his long-cherished wish was accomplished1 and he trod the streets of the ,eternal ,city4 ,among the innumerable pilgrims who have thronged to that mighty shrine1 no one ever1 perhaps1 approached it with deeper reverence than ,poussin1 or studied in the school of antiquity with more zeal and success4 ,he commenced his labours with that enthusiasm which the objects around him could not fail to inspire1 and comprehended in the round of his studies the different sciences which bore collaterally upon his art4 ,some of his finest works are among those which he produced at this period2 but his talents were not at first appreciated in ,rome1 and the spectre of penury still haunted his study4 ,his friend ,marini had gone to ,naples1 where he died1 and the ,cardinal ,barberini1 to whose favour he had been especially recommended1 was absent on a legation in ,spain4 ,among other works which his necessities compelled him to dispose of at this time for a trifling sum1 was 8,the ,ark of ,god in the hands of the ,philistines10 which was purchased from him for fifty crowns1 and sold shortly afterwards to the ,duc de ,richelieu for one thousand4 ,accident and ill health combined with poverty to overcloud the early part of his abode in ,rome4 ,the ,french were then very unpopular1 on account of some differences existing between the ,court of ,france and the ,holy ,see4 ,poussin was assaulted in the streets by some of the ,pope's soldiery1 severely wounded by a sabre-cut in the hand1 and only escaped more serious injury by the spirit and resolution with which he defended himself4 ,after recovering from this injury1 he was again rendered unable to pursue his art by a lingering illness2 in the course of which a fellow-countryman1 named ,jean ,dughet1 took him to his own home1 and treated him with care1 which soon restored him to health4 ,six months afterwards he married the daughter of his host1 and subsequently adopted his wife's brother1 ,gaspar1 who assumed his name1 and has shared its honours by his splendid landscapes4 ,with part of his wife's portion ,poussin purchased a house on the ,pincian ,hill1 which is still pointed out as an object of interest to travellers and students4 ,from this period the fortune of ,poussin began to improve4 ,relieved from his embarrassments1 and tranquillized by domestic comfort1 he proceeded in the calm exercise of his powers2 and the fine works on which his reputation is founded were painted in rapid succession4 ,cardinal ,barberini1 who had returned to ,rome1 engaged him to execute one of the large paintings ordered to be copied in mosaic for ,st4 ,peter's ,church4 ,the subject was the ,martyrdom of ,st4 ,erasmus2 but the picture1 which is now in the ,vatican1 furnishes no reason for regret that ,poussin did not more frequently employ himself on works of large dimensions4 ,a circumstance occurred at this time which it is gratifying to relate1 as it exhibits two distinguished men engaged in the honourable task of promoting the success and vindicating the reputation of each other4 ,when ,poussin arrived at ,rome1 he found the lovers of art divided into two parties1 composed respectively of the admirers of ,guido and ,domenichino4 ,two pictures had been painted by those artists1 which1 as if to decide their rival claims1 were hung opposite to each other in the church of ,san ,gregorio4 ,the subjects were similar2 the one the ,flagellation1 the other the ,martyrdom of the ,saint from whom the church is named4 ,the performance of ,guido was the one most generally preferred3 but ,poussin formed a different judgment1 and sat down to copy the picture of the less popular artist4 ,domenichino1 on being informed of this1 although he was then suffering from illness1 ordered himself to be carried to the church1 where he entered into conversation with ,poussin1 to whom he was personally unknown1 and who indeed imagined him to be dead4 ,a friendly intimacy was the consequence of this interview1 which was exceedingly advantageous to ,poussin1 as ,domenichino took pleasure in communicating all that knowledge of art1 which long experience had enabled him to acquire4 ,shortly after this ,domenichino quitted ,rome for ,naples1 and the storm of envy and detraction seemed to gather force in his absence4 ,so much was his reputation injured1 that the monks of the convent of ,san ,girolamo della ,carit1 who had in their possession his superb picture of the ,communion of ,st4 ,jerome1 ordered it to be removed from the walls and consigned to a cellar as a thing utterly contemptible4 ,this anecdote1 were it not attested by unquestionable evidence1 would be difficult to believe2 for the merits of the picture require no deep knowledge of art to be duly appreciated3 it is not less admirable in colour and effect than in sentiment and character4 ,the intelligent monks1 however1 wishing for a picture to supply its place1 engaged ,poussin to paint one1 acquainting him at the same time that they could save him the expense of canvass1 by sending him a worthless daub1 over which he might paint4 ,the astonishment of ,poussin on receiving the picture may be easily conceived4 ,he immediately directed it to be carried to the church from whence it had been taken1 and announced his intention to deliver a public disquisition on its merits4 ,this he accordingly did to a large auditory1 and with such force of reasoning and illustration1 that malice was silenced and prejudice convinced2 and the name of ,domenichino assumed from that time its just rank in public estimation4 ,the pictures of ,poussin1 as he advanced in his career1 were eagerly purchased by connoisseurs from all countries1 and his fame was at length established throughout ,europe4 ,in #afch a project was suggested to ,louis ,,xiii41 by ,cardinal ,richelieu1 for finishing the ,louvre1 and adorning the royal palaces1 according to the magnificent plans of ,francis ,i4 ,the high reputation of ,poussin marked him out as the person best qualified for the partial execution and entire superintendence of these splendid works2 and accordingly a letter was transmitted to him by order of the ,french monarch1 appointing him his principal painter1 and requesting his immediate attendance at ,paris4 ,but so absorbed was the artist in his studies1 and so unambitious was his temper1 that he allowed two years to elapse before he attended to this flattering requisition2 nor is it probable that he would have quitted ,rome at all1 had not a gentleman been despatched from the court of ,france to bring him4 ,on his arrival1 he was presented to the ,king1 who received him with courtesy1 and assigned him a liberal income4 ,placed in the full enjoyment of fame and wealth1 ,poussin's situation might well appear enviable to his less favoured brethren in art4 ,but his station1 brilliant as it was1 proved ill-suited to his disposition3 and his letters to his friends in ,rome were soon filled with the language of disappointment and complaint4 ,he felt that he was no longer exercising his genius as an artist1 but labouring as an artisan4 ,commissions were poured in upon him from the court with merciless rapidity1 without the slightest calculation of the time requisite to the production of works of art4 ,on one occasion he was required to execute a picture containing sixteen figures1 larger than life1 within six weeks4 ,nor was this the worst3 the triflers of the court obtruded on him1 with irritating politeness1 the most insignificant employments2 designs for chimney-pieces1 ornamental cabinets1 bindings for books1 repairing pictures1 c4 ,to complete the catalogue of annoyances1 his coadjutors in the public works1 ,le ,mercier the architect1 and the painters ,vouet and ,fouquieres1 thwarted and opposed him in every particular2 until at length1 worn out and disgusted1 he applied for permission to return to ,rome4 ,this he obtained with some difficulty1 and not without a stipulation that he should revisit ,paris within twelve months4 ,it is not improbable that the condition would never have been fulfilled2 but the ,king's death in the following year released him from the obligation4 ,the last works executed by ,poussin in ,paris were two allegorical subjects3 the one1 ,time bringing ,truth to light1 and delivering her from the fiends1 ,malice and ,envy2 in which an allusion was most probably meant to the controversies in which he had been engaged3 the other1 in which his intention is less equivocal1 is an imitation of bas-relief1 in the ceiling of the ,louvre1 where his opponents1 ,fouquieres1 ,le ,mercier1 and ,vouet1 are consigned to the derision of posterity under the figures of ,folly1 ,ignorance1 and ,envy4 ,perhaps the happiest1 and not an inconsiderable1 portion of ,poussin's life1 was that which intervened between his return to ,rome and his death4 ,experience of the cabals and disquietudes of ,paris had no doubt taught him to value the classical serenity of his adopted home4 ,although in possession of great and undisputed fame1 and sufficiently affluent1 he continued to labour in his art with unrelaxing diligence1 if that may be called labour which constituted his highest gratification4 ,his talents and moral worth drew round him a large circle of the learned and the polite1 who anxiously sought his society during his leisure hours2 and in his evening walks on the ,pincian ,hill1 he might have been said to resemble one of the philosophers of antiquity1 surrounded by his friends and disciples4 ,thus he descended1 with tranquil dignity1 into the vale of life4 ,in #affe he suffered from a stroke of the palsy1 and1 shortly after1 the death of his wife plunged him into the deepest affliction4 ,he perceived his own end to be approaching1 and awaited it with calm resignation4 ,he died in his #gb;d year1 ,a4 ,d4 #affe1 and was buried with public honours in the church of ,san ,lorenzo in ,lucina4 ,the pictures of ,poussin are so numerous1 and so generally dispersed1 that every one1 whose attention has been directed to the arts1 must have a pretty accurate impression of his style4 ,it is a style of perfect originality1 reminding us somewhat of ancient art1 but without a tincture of imitation of any modern master4 ,for a short time ,poussin sought a model in the school of ,titian1 but turned from that task to copy the pictures discovered among the ruins of ancient ,rome4 ,apparently he wished to give his works something of the subdued tone which ,time has communicated to those relics2 and hence1 in some of his pictures1 there is a singular discrepancy between the subject and the effect4 ,he delighted to paint antique revels1 bacchanalians1 dancing nymphs1 c42 but his tints never accord with gay subjects1 nor exhibit the vivacity and freshness proper to such scenes4 ,the solemn and sombre hue of his colouring is far better adapted to grand or pathetic subjects4 ,considering the implicit and almost idolatrous admiration with which ,poussin regarded the antique statues1 it is astonishing that he should not have infused into his own forms more of the spirit in which these are conceived2 for1 in this point1 imitation could not have been carried too far4 ,but the reverse is the case3 his figures are direct transcripts of individual models1 usually correct in proportion1 but seldom rendered ideal1 or generalized into beauty4 ,a still greater defect is chargeable on his composition1 which is almost invariably scattered and confused1 without a centre of interest or point of unity4 ,his principal figures are mixed up with the subordinate ones1 and those again with the accessories in the back-ground4 ,what1 then1 are the qualities by which ,poussin has acquired his high reputation8 ,the principal one we conceive to consist in that very simplicity and severity1 by which perhaps the eye is at first offended4 ,he appears to feel himself above the necessity of superficial ornament4 ,he is always thoroughly in earnest2 his figures perform their business with an emphasis which rivets our attention1 we become identified with the subject1 and lose all thought of the painter in his performance4 ,this is a result never produced by an inferior artist4 ,on the whole1 although we cannot assign ,poussin a place by the side of ,raffaelle1 ,rubens1 ,titian1 and some others1 who may be considered the giants of art1 and compose the foremost rank1 he certainly stands among those who are most eminent in the second4 ,his compositions1 which are very numerous1 are varied with great skill1 and surprise us1 not unfrequently1 with novel and striking combinations2 and several among them--we may adduce particularly the ,ark of ,god among the ,philistines1 the ,deluge1 and the ,slaughter of the ,innocents--could only have originated in a mind of a very exalted order4 ,several of ,poussin's finest works are in this country4 ,in the ,dulwich ,gallery there is1 we believe1 the largest number to be found in any one collection4 ,among those1 the subject of the ,angels appearing to ,abraham is treated with considerable grace and beauty4 ,the picture of ,moses striking the rock1 in the possession of the ,marquis of ,stafford1 is one of ,poussin's most profound and elaborate performances2 and1 in the ,national ,gallery1 the two ,bacchanalian subjects will furnish a full idea both of his powers and deficiencies in treating that favourite class of compositions4 ,the reader will find a more detailed account of the life and works of ,poussin in ,lanzi's #8,storia ,pittorica dell',italia1' and ,bellori's #8,vite di ,pittori moderni4' ,there is an ,english life of him written by ,maria ,graham4 ,much critical information concerning his style and performances will be found in the writings of ,mengs1 ,reynolds1 and ,fuseli4 ,illustration3 ,holy ,family2 from a picture by ,poussin4 ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,e4 ,scriven4 ,w4 ,,harvey1 ,m4,d4 ,from the original ,picture by ,c4 ,jansen in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,harvey ,william ,harvey was born on the #ast of ,april1 #aegh1 at ,folkstone1 on the southern coast of ,kent4 ,he was the eldest of nine children2 of the rest little more is known than that several of the brothers were among the most eminent merchants in the city of ,london during the reigns of the two first ,stuarts4 ,his father1 ,thomas ,harvey1 followed no profession4 ,he married ,joanna ,falke at the age of twenty1 and lived upon his own estate at ,folkstone4 ,this property devolved by inheritance upon his eldest son2 and the greatest part of it was eventually bequeathed by him to the college at which he was educated4 ,at ten years of age he commenced his studies at the grammar school in ,canterbury2 and upon the #cast of ,may1 #aeic1 soon after the completion of his fifteenth year1 was admitted as a pensioner at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,at that time a familiar acquaintance with logic and the learned languages was indispensable as a first step in the prosecution of all the branches of science1 especially of medicine2 and the skill with which ,harvey avails himself of the scholastic form of reasoning in his great work on the ,circulation1 with the elegant ,latin style of all his writings1 particularly of his latest work on the ,generation of ,animals1 afford a sufficient proof of his diligence in the prosecution of these preliminary studies during the next four years1 which he spent at ,cambridge4 ,the two next were occupied in visiting the principal cities and seminaries of the ,continent4 ,he then prepared to address himself to those investigations to which the rest of his life was devoted2 and the scene of his introduction to them could not have been better chosen than at the ,university of ,padua1 where he became a student in his twenty-second year4 ,the ancient physicians gathered what they knew of anatomy from inaccurate dissections of the lower animals2 and the slender knowledge thus acquired1 however inadequate to unfold the complicated functions of the human frame1 was abundantly sufficient as a basis for conjecture1 of which they took full advantage4 ,with them every thing became easy to explain1 precisely because nothing was understood2 and the nature and treatment of disease1 the great object of medicine and of its subsidiary sciences1 was hardily abandoned to the conduct of the imagination1 and sought for literally among the stars4 ,nevertheless1 so firmly was their authority established1 that even down to the close of the sixteenth century the naturalists of ,europe still continued to derive all their physiology1 and the greater part of their anatomy and medicine1 from the works of ,aristotle and ,galen1 read not in the original ,greek1 but re-translated into ,latin from the interpolated versions of the ,arabian physicians4 ,the opinions entertained by these dictators in the republic of letters1 and consequently by their submissive followers1 with regard to the structure and functions of the organs concerned in the circulation1 were particularly fanciful and confused1 so much so that it would be no easy task to give an intelligible account of them that would not be tedious from its length4 ,it will be enough to say1 that a scarcely more oppressive mass of mischievous error was cleared away from the science of astronomy by the discovery of ,newton1 than that from which physiology was disencumbered by the discovery of ,harvey4 ,but though the work was completed by an ,englishman1 it is to ,italy that1 in anatomy1 as in most of the sciences1 we owe the first attempts to cast off the thraldom of the ancients4 ,mundinus had published a work in the year #acae1 which contained a few original observations of his own2 and his essay was so well received that it remained the text-book of the ,italian schools of anatomy for upwards of two centuries4 ,it was enriched from time to time by various annotators1 among the chief of whom were ,achillini1 and ,berengarius1 the first person who published anatomical plates4 ,but the great reformer of anatomy was ,vesalius1 who1 born at ,brussels in #aead1 had attained such early celebrity during his studies at ,paris and ,louvain1 that he was invited by the republic of ,venice in his twenty-second year to the chair of anatomy at ,padua1 which he filled for seven years with the highest reputation4 ,he also taught at ,bologna1 and subsequently1 by the invitation of ,cosmo de' ,medici1 at ,pisa4 ,the first edition of his work #8,de ,corporis ,humani fabric1' was printed at ,basle in the year #aedc2 it is perhaps one of the most successful efforts of human industry and research1 and from the date of its publication begins an entirely new era in the science of which it treats4 ,the despotic sway hitherto maintained in the schools of medicine by the writings of ,aristotle and ,galen was now shaken to its foundation1 and a new race of anatomists eagerly pressed forward in the path of discovery4 ,among these no one was more conspicuous than ,fallopius1 the disciple1 successor1 and in fame the rival1 of ,vesalius1 at ,padua4 ,after him the anatomical professorship was filled by ,fabricius ab ,aquapendente1 the last of the distinguished anatomists who flourished at ,padua in the sixteenth century4 ,harvey became his pupil in #aeii1 and from this time he appears to have applied himself seriously to the study of anatomy4 ,the first germ of the discovery which has shed immortal honour on his name and country was conceived in the lecture-room of ,fabricius4 ,he remained at ,padua for two years2 and having received the degree of ,doctor in ,arts and ,medicine with unusual marks of distinction1 returned to ,england early in the year #afjb4 ,two years afterwards he commenced practice in ,london1 and married the daughter of ,dr4 ,launcelot ,browne1 by whom he had no children4 ,he became a fellow of the ,college of ,physicians when about thirty years of age1 having in the mean time renewed his degree of ,doctor in ,medicine at ,cambridge2 and was soon after elected ,physician to ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 which office he retained till a late period of his life4 ,on the #dth of ,august1 #afae1 he was appointed ,reader of ,anatomy and ,surgery to the ,college of ,physicians4 ,from some scattered hints in his writings it appears that his doctrine of the circulation was first advanced in his lectures at the college about four years afterwards2 and a note-book in his own handwriting is still preserved at the ,british ,museum1 in which the principal arguments by which it is substantiated are briefly set down1 as if for reference in the lecture-room4 ,yet with the characteristic caution and modesty of true genius1 he continued for nine years longer to reason and experimentalize upon what is now considered one of the simplest1 as it is undoubtedly the most important1 known law of animal nature2 and it was not till the year #afbh1 the fifty-first of his life1 that he consented to publish his discovery to the world4 ,in that year the #8,exercitatio ,anatomica de ,motu ,cordis et ,sanguinis' was published at ,frankfort4 ,this masterly treatise begins with a short outline and refutation of the opinions of former anatomists on the movement of the animal fluids and the function of the heart2 the author discriminating with care1 and anxiously acknowledging the glimpses of the truth to be met with in their writings2 as if he had not only kept in mind the justice due to previous discoveries1 and the prudence of softening the novelty and veiling the extent of his own1 but had foreseen the preposterous imputation of plagiarism1 which1 with other inconsistent charges1 was afterwards brought forward against him4 ,this short sketch is followed by a plain exposition of the anatomy of the circulation1 and a detail of the results of numerous experiments2 and the new theory is finally maintained in a strain of close and powerful reasoning1 and followed into some of its most important consequences4 ,the whole argument is conducted in simple and unpretending language1 with great perspicuity1 and scrupulous attention to logical form4 ,the doctrine announced by ,harvey may be briefly stated thus3-- ,when the blood supplied for the various processes which are carried on in the living body has undergone a certain degree of change1 it requires to be purified by the act of respiration4 ,for this purpose it is urged onwards by fresh blood from behind into the veins2 and returning in them from all parts of the body1 enters a cavity of the heart called the right auricle4 ,at the same time the purified blood returning from the lungs by the pulmonary veins1 passes into the left auricle4 ,when these two cavities1 which are distinct from each other1 are sufficiently dilated1 they contract1 and force the blood which they contain into two other much more muscular cavities called respectively the right and left ventricle1 all retrogression into the auricles being prevented by valves1 which admit of a passage in one direction only4 ,the ventricles then contract in their turn with great force1 and at the same instant2 and propel their blood1 the right1 by the pulmonary artery into the lungs2 the left1 which is much the stronger of the two1 into all parts of the body1 by the great artery called the arta1 and its branches2 all return being prevented as before by valves situated at the orifices of those vessels1 which are closed most accurately when the ventricles relax1 by the backward pressure of the blood arising from the elasticity of the arteries4 ,thus the purified blood passes from the lungs by the pulmonary veins through the left auricle into the ventricle of the same side1 by which it is distributed into all parts of the body1 driving the vitiated blood before it2 and the vitiated blood is pushed into and along the veins to the right auricle1 and thence is sent into the right ventricle1 which propels it by the pulmonary artery through the lungs4 ,in this manner a double circulation is kept up by the sole agency of the heart1 through the lungs1 and through the body2 the contractions of the auricles and ventricles taking place alternately4 ,to prevent any backward motion of the blood in the superficial veins1 which might happen from their liability to external pressure1 they are also provided with simple and very complete valves which admit of a passage only towards the heart4 ,they were first remarked by ,fabricius ab ,aquapendente1 and exhibited in his lectures to ,harvey among the rest of his pupils2 but their function remained a mystery till it was explained by the discovery of the circulation4 ,it is related by ,boyle1 upon ,harvey's own authority1 that the first idea of this comprehensive principle suggested itself to him when considering the structure of these valves4 ,the pulmonary circulation had been surmised by ,galen1 and maintained by his successors2 but no proof even of this insulated portion of the truth1 more than amounted to strong probability1 had been given till the time of ,harvey2 and no plausible claim to the discovery1 still less to the demonstration1 of the general circulation has ever been set up in opposition to his4 ,indeed its truth was quite inconsistent with the ideas everywhere entertained in the schools on the functions of the heart and other viscera1 and was destructive of many favourite theories4 ,the new doctrine1 therefore1 as may well be supposed1 was received by most of the anatomists of the period with distrust1 and by all with surprise4 ,some of them undertook to refute it2 but their objections turned principally on the silence of ,galen1 or consisted of the most frivolous cavils3 the controversy1 too1 assumed the form of personal abuse even more speedily than is usually the case when authority is at issue with reason4 ,to such opposition ,harvey for some time did not think it necessary to reply2 but some of his friends in ,england1 and of the adherents to his doctrine on the ,continent1 warmly took up his defence4 ,at length he was induced to take a personal share in the dispute in answer to ,riolanus1 a ,parisian anatomist of some celebrity1 whose objections were distinguished by some show of philosophy1 and unusual abstinence from abuse4 ,the answer was conciliatory and complete1 but ineffectual to produce conviction2 and in reply to ,harvey's appeal to direct experiment1 his opponent urged nothing but conjecture and assertion4 ,harvey once more rejoined at considerable length2 taking occasion to give a spirited rebuke to the unworthy reception he had met with1 in which it seems that ,riolanus had now permitted himself to join2 adducing several new and conclusive experiments in support of his theory2 and entering at large upon its value in simplifying physiology and the study of diseases1 with other interesting collateral topics4 ,riolanus1 however1 still remained unconvinced2 and his second rejoinder was treated by ,harvey with contemptuous silence4 ,he had already exhausted the subject in the two excellent controversial pieces just mentioned1 the last of which is said to have been written at ,oxford about #aede2 and he never resumed the discussion in print4 ,time had now come to the assistance of argument1 and his discovery began to be generally admitted4 ,to this indeed his opponents contributed by a still more singular discovery of their own1 namely1 that the facts had been observed1 and the important inference drawn long before4 ,this was the mere allegation of envy1 chafed at the achievements of another1 which1 from their apparent facility1 might have been its own4 ,it is indeed strange that the simple mechanism thus explained should have been unobserved or misunderstood so long2 and nothing can account for it but the imperceptible lightness as well as the strength of the chains which authority imposes on the mind4 ,in the year #afbc ,harvey became ,physician ,extraordinary to ,james ,i41 and seven years later was appointed ,physician to ,charles4 ,he followed the fortunes of that monarch1 who treated him with great distinction1 during the first years of the civil war1 and he was present at the battle of ,edgehill in #afdb4 ,having been incorporated ,doctor of ,physic by the ,university of ,oxford1 he was promoted by ,charles to the ,wardenship of ,merton ,college in #afde2 but he did not retain this office very long1 his predecessor ,dr4 ,brent being reinstated by the parliament after the surrender of ,oxford in the following year4 ,harvey then returned to ,london and resided with his brother ,eliab at ,cockaine-house in the ,poultry4 ,about the time of ,charles's execution he gave up his practice1 which had never been considerable1 probably in consequence of his devotion to the scientific1 rather than the practical parts of his profession4 ,he himself1 however1 attributed his want of success to the enmity excited by his discovery4 ,after a second visit to the ,continent1 he secluded himself in the country1 sometimes at his own house in ,lambeth1 and sometimes with his brother ,eliab at ,combe in ,surrey4 ,here he was visited by his friend ,dr4 ,ent in #afea1 by whom he was persuaded to allow the publication of his work on the ,generation of ,animals4 ,it was the fruit of many years of experiment and meditation2 and though the vehicle of no remarkable discovery1 is replete with interest and research1 and contains passages of brilliant and even poetical eloquence4 ,the object of his work is to trace the germ through all its changes to the period of maturity2 and the illustrations are principally drawn from the phenomena exhibited by eggs in the process of incubation1 which he watched with great care1 and has described with minuteness and fidelity4 ,the microscope had not at that time the perfection it has since attained2 and consequently ,harvey's account of the first appearance of the chick is somewhat inaccurate1 and has been superseded by the observations of ,malpighi1 ,hunter1 and others4 ,the experiments upon which he chiefly relied in this department of natural history had been repeated in the presence of ,charles ,i41 who appears to have taken great interest in the studies of his physician4 ,in the year #afec1 the seventy-fifth of his life1 ,harvey presented the ,college of ,physicians with the title-deeds of a building erected in their garden1 and elegantly fitted up at his expense1 with a library and museum1 and commodious apartments for their social meetings4 ,upon this occasion he resigned the ,professorship of ,anatomy1 which he had held for nearly forty years1 and was succeeded by ,dr4 ,glisson4 ,in #afed he was elected to the ,presidency of the ,college1 which he declined on the plea of age2 and the former ,president1 ,sir ,francis ,prujean1 was re-elected at his request4 ,two years afterwards he made a donation to the college of a part of his patrimonial estate to the yearly value of #ef1 as a provision for the maintenance of the library and an annual festival and oration in commemoration of benefactors4 ,at length his constitution1 which had long been harassed by the gout1 yielded to the increasing infirmities of age1 and he died in his eightieth year1 on the #c;d of ,june1 #afeg4 ,he was buried at ,hempstead in ,essex1 in a vault belonging to his brother ,eliab1 who was his principal heir1 and his remains were followed to the grave by a numerous procession of the body of which he had been so illustrious and munificent a member4 ,the best edition of his works is that edited by the ,college of ,physicians in #agff1 to which is prefixed a valuable notice of his life1 and an account of the controversy to which his discovery of the circulation gave rise4 ,all that remain of his writings in addition to those which have been already mentioned1 are an account of the dissection of ,thomas ,parr1 who died at the age of #aec1 and a few letters addressed to various ,continental anatomists4 ,his lodgings at ,whitehall had been plundered in the early part of the civil war1 of many papers containing manuscript notes of experiments and observations1 chiefly relating to comparative anatomy4 ,this was a loss which he always continued to lament4 ,the missing papers have never been recovered4 ,in person he was below the middle size1 but well-proportioned4 ,he had a dark complexion1 black hair1 and small lively eyes4 ,in his youth his temper is said to have been very hasty4 ,if so he was cured of this defect as he grew older2 for nothing can be more courteous and temperate than his controversial writings1 and the genuine kindness and modesty which were conspicuous in all his dealings with others1 with his instructive conversation1 gained him many attached and excellent friends4 ,he was fond of meditation and retirement2 and there is much in his works to characterize him as a man of warm and unaffected piety4 ,there are several histories of his life2 a very elegant one has lately been published in a volume of the ,family ,library1 entitled #8,lives of ,british ,physicians4' ,illustration3 ,engraved by ,c4 ,e4 ,wagstaff4 ,,sir ,j4 ,,banks4 ,from a ,picture by ,j4 ,phillips1 in the possession of the ,royal ,society4 ,under the ,superintendance of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ,london4 ,published by ,charles ,knight1 ,pall ,mall ,east4 ,illustration ,,banks ,posterity is likely to do scanty justice to the merits of ,banks1 when the grateful recollections of his contemporaries shall have passed away4 ,his name is connected with no great discovery1 no striking improvement2 and he has left no literary works from which the extent of his industry1 or the amount of his knowledge can be estimated4 ,yet he did much for the cause of science2 much by his personal exertions1 more by a judicious and liberal use of the advantages of fortune4 ,for more than half a century a zealous and successful student of natural history in general1 and particularly of botany1 the history of his scientific life is to be found in the records of science during that long and active period4 ,we shall not attempt to compress so intricate and extensive a subject within the brief limits of three or four pages2 but confine ourselves to a short sketch of his character and personal adventures4 ,some fitting person will1 it is to be hoped1 ere too late1 undertake to write the life of our distinguished countryman upon a scale calculated to do justice to his merits3 at present this task is not only unperformed1 but unattempted4 ,joseph ,banks was born in ,london1 ,february #ac1 #agdc4 ,of his childhood we find few memorials4 ,he passed through the ordinary routine of education2 having been first committed to the care of a private tutor at home1 then placed at ,harrow1 afterwards at ,eton1 and finally sent to complete his studies at ,christchurch1 ,oxford4 ,born to the inheritance of an ample fortune1 and left an orphan at the age of eighteen1 it is no small praise that he was not allured by the combined temptations of youth1 wealth1 and freedom1 to seek his happiness in vicious1 or even idle pleasures4 ,science1 in one of its most attractive branches1 the study of animated nature1 was his amusement as a schoolboy1 and the favourite pursuit of his mature years3 and he was rewarded for his devotion1 not merely in the rank and estimation which he obtained by its means1 but also in his immunity from the dangers which society throws in the way of those who have the means of gratifying their own passions1 and the vanities and interests of their friends4 ,he quitted the university in the year #agfc4 ,in #agff he gave a proof of his zeal for knowledge by engaging in a voyage to ,newfoundland4 ,he was induced to choose that most unattractive region1 by having the opportunity of accompanying a friend1 ,lieutenant ,phipps1 afterwards ,lord ,mulgrave1 well known as a navigator of the ,polar ,seas1 who was sent out in a ship of war to protect the fisheries4 ,soon after his return a much more interesting and important field of inquiry was opened to him by the progress of discovery in the southern hemisphere4 ,in #agfd ,commodore ,byron1 in #agff ,captains ,wallis and ,carteret were sent into the ,south ,sea1 to investigate the geography of that immense and then unfrequented region4 ,these expeditions were succeeded in #agfh by another under the command of ,captain ,cook1 who first obtained celebrity as a navigator upon this occasion4 ,lord ,sandwich1 then ,first ,lord of the ,admiralty1 possessed an estate in ,lincolnshire on the borders of ,whittlesea ,mere4 ,mr4 ,banks's chief property lay in the same neighbourhood3 and it so chanced that similarity of tastes1 and especially a common predilection for all aquatic amusements1 had produced a great intimacy between the statesman and his young country neighbour4 ,to this fortunate circumstance it may probably be ascribed1 that on ,mr4 ,banks expressing a wish to accompany the projected expedition1 his desire was immediately granted4 ,his preparations were made on the most liberal scale4 ,he laid in an ample store of such articles as would be useful or acceptable to the savage tribes whom he was about to visit3 and besides the usual philosophical apparatus of a voyage of discovery1 he engaged two draughtsmen to make accurate representations of such objects as could not be preserved1 or conveyed to ,england2 and he secured the services of ,dr4 ,solander1 a ,swedish naturalist1 a pupil of ,linnus1 who had previously been placed on the establishment of the ,british ,museum4 ,the history of this voyage belongs to the life of ,cook4 ,the expedition bent its course for the ,southern ,ocean1 through the ,straits of ,le ,maire1 at the southern end of ,america4 ,mr4 ,banks and ,dr4 ,solander landed on the desolate island of ,terra del ,fuego1 where the severity of the cold had very nearly proved fatal to several of their party4 ,dr4 ,solander in particular was so entirely overcome by the drowsiness consequent on extreme cold and exhaustion1 that it was with great difficulty1 and by the unwearied exertion and resolution of his more robust companion1 that he was prevented from falling into that sleep which is the forerunner of death4 ,their farther course lay through the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean to ,otaheite1 which had been selected as a fitting place for the main object of the voyage1 the observing of the passage of ,venus over the sun's disk4 ,at that island their stay was consequently prolonged for several months1 during which the ,europeans and the natives mingled together1 generally on the most friendly terms4 ,in this intercourse ,mr4 ,banks took a very leading part4 ,his liberality1 and the high station which he evidently held among the strangers1 conciliated the attachment and respect of the unpolished islanders3 and the mingled suavity and firmness of his temper and demeanour rendered him singularly fitted both to protect the weaker party from the occasional wantonness or presumption of their visitors1 and to check their knavery1 and obtain satisfaction for the thefts which they not unfrequently committed4 ,once the astronomical purposes of the navigators were nearly frustrated by the loss of the large brass quadrant2 and the recovery of this important instrument was chiefly due to the exertions and influence of ,mr4 ,banks4 ,both hemispheres owe to him a tribute of gratitude2 for while he gave the savages the improved tools1 the esculent vegetables1 and the domesticated animals of ,europe1 his exertions led to the introduction of the breadfruit1 and of the productive sugar-cane peculiar to ,otaheite1 into our ,west-,india colonies4 ,after the lapse of three years the voyagers returned home1 and were received with lively interest by all classes of society4 ,part of their collections were lost through an accident which happened to the vessel3 but the greater portion was preserved1 and their novelty and beauty excited the admiration of naturalists4 ,george ,,iii41 who delighted in everything connected with horticulture and farming1 manifested a warm interest in inquiring into the results of the expedition1 and conceived a liking for the young traveller1 which continued unimpaired even to the close of his public life4 ,it was ,mr4 ,banks's intention to accompany ,captain ,cook in his second voyage1 in #aggb3 but the ,navy ,board showed no willingness to provide that accommodation which the extent of his preparations and the number of his scientific followers required1 and he gave up the project1 which indeed he could not satisfactorily execute4 ,in the summer of that year he went to ,iceland4 ,passing along the western coast of ,scotland1 he was led to visit ,staffa1 in consequence of local information2 and to his description that singular island was first indebted for its general celebrity4 ,he spent a month in ,iceland4 ,an account of this visit has been published by ,m4 ,von ,troil1 a ,swedish clergyman1 who formed one of the party4 ,on this1 as on other occasions1 ,mr4 ,banks1 unwearied in quest of knowledge1 seemed careless of the fame to which most would have aspired as the reward of their labours4 ,of none of his travels has he himself given any account in a separate publication2 indeed1 a few papers in the ,horticultural ,transactions1 and a very curious account of the causes of mildew in corn1 not printed for sale1 constitute the mass of his published works4 ,but his visit was productive of much good to the ,icelanders1 though it remained uncommemorated in expensive quartos4 ,he watched over their welfare1 when their communication with ,denmark was interrupted by war between that country and ,england2 and twice sent cargoes of corn1 at his own expense1 to relieve their sufferings in seasons of scarcity4 ,his benevolence was warmly acknowledged by the ,danish ,court4 ,returning to ,england1 ,mr4 ,banks1 at the early age of thirty1 entered on that tranquil and useful course of life1 from which during a long series of years he never deviated4 ,his thirst for travel was checked or satiated2 he undertook no more distant expeditions1 but he ceased not to cultivate the sciences1 for which he had undergone so many hardships4 ,it was long hoped that he would publish some account of the rich harvest of vegetable productions which he had collected in the unknown regions of the ,pacific2 and for this purpose it was known that he had caused a very large number of plates to be engraved at a great expense3 but1 most probably owing to the death of ,solander1 these have never been given to the world4 ,but if he hesitated to communicate himself to the public the results of his labours1 in amends his museum and his library were placed most freely at the command of those who sought1 and were able to profit by his assistance2 and to these sources many splendid works1 especially on botany1 have mainly owed their merits1 and perhaps their existence4 ,from the period of his return from ,iceland ,mr4 ,banks took an active part in the affairs of the ,royal ,society4 ,his house was constantly open to men of science1 whether ,british or foreign1 and by the urbanity of his manners1 and his liberal use of the advantages of fortune1 he acquired that popularity which six years afterwards led to his election as ,president of that distinguished body4 ,two or three years afterwards a dangerous schism had nearly arisen in the ,society1 chiefly in consequence of the unreasonable anger of a party of mathematicians1 headed by ,dr4 ,horsley1 afterwards ,bishop of ,st4 ,david's1 who looked with contempt on sciences unsusceptible of mathematical proof1 and loudly exclaimed against the chair of ,newton being filled1 as they phrased it1 by an amateur4 ,it would be little profitable to rake up the embers of an ancient and unworthy feud4 ,we shall only state therefore that ,banks was elected in ,november1 #aggh2 that for some time a violent opposition was raised against him2 and that in ,january1 #aghd1 the ,society1 by a formal resolution1 declared itself satisfied with the choice which it had made4 ,horsley and a few others seceded1 and for the rest of his life ,banks continued the undisputed and popular president2 a period of forty-one years from the epoch of his election4 ,we have said that at an early age ,mr4 ,banks was fortunate in gaining the royal favour2 marks of which were not wanting4 ,in #agha he was created a baronet2 in #agie he received the ,order of the ,bath1 then very rarely bestowed upon civilians and commoners2 and in #agig he was made a ,privy ,councillor4 ,the friendship between the ,king and the subject was cemented by similarity of pursuits2 for the latter was a practical farmer as well as a philosopher1 and under his care the value of his estates in ,lincolnshire was considerably increased by improvements in the drainage of that singular country1 in the direction of which ,sir ,joseph took an active part4 ,he is said to have possessed such influence over the ,king's mind1 that ministers sometimes availed themselves of it to recommend a measure unpalatable to their honest but somewhat obstinate master4 ,we know not whether this be better founded than most other stories of back-stairs influence1 easily thrown out and difficult to be refuted3 it is at least certain that if ,banks possessed such power1 he deserves great credit for the singular moderation with which he used it4 ,for himself he asked and received nothing3 fortunately his station in society was one which renders disinterestedness an easy1 if not a common virtue4 ,his influence was directed to facilitate scientific undertakings1 to soften to men of science the inconveniences of the long war of the ,revolution1 to procure the restoration of their papers and collections when taken by an enemy1 or the alleviation of their sufferings in captivity4 ,the ,french were especially indebted to him for such services4 ,it is said by an eminent member of the ,institute1 in his ,eloge upon ,banks1 that no less than ten times1 collections addressed to the ,jardin du ,roi at ,paris1 and captured by the ,english1 were restored by his intercession to their original destination4 ,he thought that national hostility should find no entrance among followers of science2 and the delicacy of his views on this subject is well displayed in a letter written on one of these occasions to ,jussieu1 where he says that he would on no account rob of a single botanical idea a man who had gone to seek them at the peril of his life4 ,in #ahjb the ,national ,institute of ,france1 being then re-modelled1 elected him at the head of their ,foreign ,associates1 whose number was limited to eight4 ,cavendish1 ,maskelyne1 and ,herschel were also members of this distinguished list4 ,in replying to the letter which announced this honour1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks expressed his gratitude in terms which gave offence to some members of that distinguished ,society over which he himself presided4 ,this exposed him to a virulent attack from an anonymous enemy1 who published the letter in question in the ,english papers1 accompanied by a most acrimonious address to the author of it2 prompted1 it is evident1 not so much by a reasonable and patriotic jealousy1 as by ancient pique1 and a bitter detestation even of the science of revolutionary ,france4 ,towards the close of life ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 who in youth had possessed a robust constitution1 and a dignified and prepossessing figure1 was grievously afflicted by gout4 ,he endured the sufferings of disease with patience and cheerfulness1 and died ,may #ai1 #ahbj1 leaving no children4 ,lady ,banks1 whom he had married in #aggi1 survived him several years4 ,his magnificent library he devised to the ,british ,museum2 and among other bequests for scientific purposes1 he left an annuity to ,mr4 ,frederic ,bauer1 an artist whom he had long employed in making botanical drawings from the garden at ,kew1 upon condition that he should continue the series4 ,illustration3 ,banksia ericifolia4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,changed 8he had a numerous offspring0 to 8he had numerous offspring0 on p4 #c4 #b4 ,changed 8campaigns bolder style0 to 8campaigns a bolder style0 on p4 #gj4 #c4 ,silently corrected typographical errors4 #d4 ,retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed4 #e4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #f4 ,superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or ,mister4