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,,wetmore ,,story      ,d4,c4,l4        
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,,off4 ,,leg4 ,d',,honneur1 ,,etc4      
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,,new ,,york    ,,houghton1 ,,mifflin   
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,copyright1 #ahia1    ,,by ,,william    

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 ,printed by ,h4 ,o4 ,houghton  ,co4    
,,contents4                             
,,page      ,,michel ,,angelo           
#a      ,,phidias1 ,,and ,,the ,,elgin  
,,marbles                               
#di      ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,casting ,,in
 ,,plaster ,,among ,,the ,,ancient      
,,greeks ,,and ,,romans  #aae      ,a   
,,conversation ,,with ,,marcus          
,,aurelius                              
#aij      ,,distortions ,,of ,,the      
,,english ,,stage ,,as ,,instanced ,,in 
8,,macbeth0         #bcb                
,,excursions ,,in ,,art ,,and ,,letters4
          ,,michel ,,angelo4      ,the  
overthrow of the pagan religion was the 
deathblow of pagan ,art4 ,the  temples  
shook to their foundations1 the statues 
of the gods shuddered1  a shadow        
darkened across the pictured and        
sculptured world1 when  through the     

ancient realm was heard the wail1 8,pan1
 great ,pan is dead40  ,the nymphs fled 
to their caves affrighted4 ,dryads1     
,oreads1 and ,naiads  abandoned the     
groves1 mountains1 and streams that they
 for ages had  haunted4 ,their voices   
were heard no more singing by shadowy   
brooks1  their faces peered no longer   
through the sighing woods2 and of all   
the  mighty train of greater and lesser 
divinities and deified heroes to  whom  
,greece and ,rome had bent the knee and 
offered sacrifice1 ,orpheus  alone      
lingered in the guise of the ,good      
,shepherd4    ,christianity struck the  
deathblow not only to pagan ,art1 but   
for a time  to all ,art4 ,sculpture and 
,painting were in its mind closely      
allied  to idolatry4 ,under its         
influence the arts slowly wasted away as
 with  a mortal disease4 ,with          
ever-declining strength they struggled  
for  centuries1 gasping as it were for  
breath1 and finally1 almost in utter    
atrophy1 half alive1 half dead1--a      

ruined1 maimed1 deformed presence1      
shorn of all their glory and driven out 
by the world1--they found a  beggarly   
refuge and sufferance in some ,christian
 church or monastery4    ,the noble and 
majestic statues of the sculptured gods 
of ancient ,greece  were overthrown and 
buried in the ground1 their glowing and 
pictured  figures were swept from the   
walls of temples and dwellings1 and in  
their stead only a crouching1 timid race
 of bloodless saints were seen1  not    
glad to be men1 and fearful of ,god4    
,humanity dared no longer to  stand     
erect1 but groveled in superstitious    
fear1 and lashed its flesh  in penance1 
and was ashamed and afraid of all its   
natural instincts4  ,how then was it    
possible for ,art to live8 ,beauty1     
happiness1 life1 and  joy were but a    
snare and a temptation1 and ,religion   
and ,art1 which can  never be divorced1 
crouched together in fear4    ,the long 
black period of the ,middle ,ages came  
to shroud everything in  ignorance4     

,literature1 art1 poetry1 science1 sank 
into a nightmare of  sleep4 ,only arms  
survived4 ,the world became a           
battlefield1 simply for  power and      
dominion1 until religion1 issuing from  
the ,church1 bore in  its van the banner
 of chivalry4    ,but the seasons of    
history are like the seasons of the     
year4 ,nothing  utterly dies4 ,and after
 the long apparently dead winter of the 
,middle  ,ages the spring came          
again--the spring of the                
,renaissance--when liberty  and humanity
 awoke1 and art1 literature1 science1   
poesy1 all suddenly  felt a new         
influence come over them4 ,the ,church  
itself shook off  its apathy1 inspired  
by a new spirit4 ,liberty1 long         
downtrodden and  tyrannized over1 roused
 itself1 and struck for popular rights4 
,the  great contest of the ,guelphs and 
,ghibellines began4 ,there was a ferment
  throughout all society4 ,the great    
republics of ,italy arose4 ,commerce    
began to flourish2 and despite all the  

wars1 contests1 and feuds of  people and
 nobles1 and the decimations from plague
 and disease1 art1  literature1 science1
 and religion itself1 burst forth into a
 new and  vigorous life4 ,one after     
another there arose those great men     
whose  names shine like planets in      
history--,dante1 with his wonderful     
8,divina  ,commedia10 written1 as it    
were1 with a pen of fire against a      
stormy  background of night2 ,boccaccio1
 with his sunny sheaf of idyllic tales2 
,petrarca1 the earnest lover of liberty1
 the devoted patriot1 the  archologist  
and philosopher as well as poet1 whose  
tender and noble  spirit is marked      
through his exquisitely finished canzone
 and sonnets1  and his various          
philosophical works2 ,villari1 the      
historian2 and all  the illustrious     
company that surrounded the court of    
,lorenzo the                            
,magnificent--,macchiavelli1 ,poliziano1
 ,boiardo1 the three ,pulci1 ,leon      
,battista ,alberti1 ,aretino1 ,pico     

della ,mirandola1 and ,marsilio ,ficino2
  and1 a little later1 ,ariosto and     
,tasso1 whose stanzas are still sung  by
 the gondoliers of ,venice2 and ,guarini
 and ,bibbiena and ,bembo1--and  many   
another in the fields of poesy and      
literature4 ,music then also  began to  
develop itself2 and ,guido di ,arezzo   
arranged the scale and  the new method  
of notation4 ,art also sent forth a     
sudden and glorious  coruscation of     
genius1 beginning with ,cimabue and     
,giotto1 to shake off  the stiff        
cerements of ,byzantine tradition in    
which it had so long been  swathed1 and 
to stretch its limbs to freer action1   
and spread its wings  to higher flights 
of power1 invention1 and beauty4 ,the   
marble gods1  which had lain dethroned  
and buried in the earth for so many     
centuries1  rose with renewed life from 
their graves1 and reasserted over the   
world  of ,art the dominion they had    
lost in the realm of ,religion4 ,it is  
useless to rehearse the familiar names  

that then illumined the golden  age of  
,italian art1 where shine preminent     
those of ,leonardo1 the  widest and most
 universal genius that perhaps the world
 has ever seen2  of ,michel ,angelo1 the
 greatest power that ever expressed     
itself in  stone or color2 of           
,raffaelle1 whose exquisite grace and   
facile design  have never been          
surpassed2 and of ,titian1 ,giorgione1  
,veronese1 and  ,tintoretto1 with their 
,venetian splendors4 ,nor did science   
lag behind4  ,galileo ranged the heavens
 with his telescope1 and1 like a second 
,joshua1 bade the sun stand still2 and  
,columbus1 ploughing the unknown  deep1 
added another continent to the known    
world4    ,this was the ,renaissance or 
new birth in ,italy2 after the long     
drear night of ignorance and darkness1  
again the morning came and  the glory   
returned4 ,as ,italy above all other    
lands is the land of  the ,renaissance1 
so ,florence above all cities is the    
city of the  ,renaissance4 ,its streets 

are haunted by historic associations2 at
  every corner1 and in every byplace or 
piazza1 you meet the spirits  of the    
past4 ,the ghosts of the great men who  
have given such a charm  and perfume to 
history meet you at every turn4 ,here   
they walked and  worked centuries ago2  
here to the imagination they still walk1
 and  they scarcely seem gone4 ,here is 
the stone upon which ,dante sat and     
meditated1--was it an hour ago or six   
centuries8 ,here ,brunelleschi  watched 
the growing of his mighty dome1 and here
 ,michel ,angelo stood  and gazed at it 
while dreaming of that other mighty dome
 of ,st4  ,peter's which he was         
afterwards to raise1 and said1 8,like it
 ,i will  not1 and better ,i cannot40   
,as one walks through the piazza of ,sta
  ,maria ,novella1 and looks up at the  
faade that ,michel ,angelo called  his  
8sposa10 it is not difficult again to   
people it with the glad  procession that
 bore ,cimabue's famous picture1 with   
shouts and pomp  and rejoicing1 to its  

altar within the church4 ,in the ,piazza
 della  ,signoria one may in imagination
 easily gather a crowd of famous men  to
 listen to the piercing tones and       
powerful eloquence of ,savonarola4      
,here gazing up1 one may see towering   
against the sky1 and falling as it  were
 against the trooping clouds1 the       
massive fortress-like structure  of the 
,palazzo ,publico1 with its tall        
machicolated tower1 whence the  bell so 
often called the turbulent populace     
together2 or dropping  one's eyes1      
behold under the lofty arches of the    
,loggia of ,orcagna  the marble         
representations of the ancient and      
modern world assembled                  
together1--peacefully3 the antique      
,ajax1 the ,renaissance ,perseus of     
,cellini1 the ,rape of the ,sabines1 by 
,john of ,bologna1 and the late  group  
of ,polyxines1 by ,fedi1 holding solemn 
and silent conclave4 ,in  the ,piazza   
del ,duomo at the side of               
,brunelleschi's noble dome1 the         

exquisite campanile of ,giotto1 slender1
 graceful1 and joyous1 stands  like a   
bride and whispers ever the name of its 
master and designer4  ,and turning      
round1 one may see the ,baptistery      
celebrated by ,dante1 and  those massive
 bronze doors storied by ,ghiberti1     
which ,michel ,angelo  said were worthy 
to be the doors of ,paradise4 ,history  
and romance  meets us everywhere4 ,the  
old families still give their names to  
the  streets1 and palaces1 and loggie4  
,every now and then a marble slab  upon 
some house records the birth or death   
within of some famous  citizen1 artist1 
writer1 or patriot1 or perpetuates the  
memory of some  great event4 ,there is  
scarcely a street or a square which has 
not  something memorable to say and to  
recall1 and one walks through the       
streets guided by memory1 looking behind
 more than before1 and seeing  with the 
eyes of the imagination4 ,here is the   
,bargello1 by turns the  court of the   
,podest and the prison of ,florence1    

whence so many edicts  were issued1 and 
where the groans of so many prisoners   
were echoed4  ,here is the ,church of   
the ,carmine1 where ,masaccio and ,lippi
 painted  those frescoes which are still
 living on its walls1 though the hands  
that painted and the brains that dreamed
 them into life are gone  forever4 ,here
 are the loggie which were granted only 
to the fifteen  highest citizens1 from  
which fair ladies1 who are now but dust1
 looked  and laughed so many a year ago4
 ,here are the piazze within whose      
tapestried stockades gallant knights    
jousted in armor1 and fair eyes1  gazing
 from above1 8rained influence and      
adjudged the prize40 ,here are  the     
fortifications at which ,michel ,angelo 
worked as an engineer and  as a         
combatant2 and here among the many      
churches1 each one of which  bears on   
its walls or over its altars the painted
 or sculptured work  of some of the     
great artists of the flowering prime of 
,florence1 is  that of the ,santa       

,croce1 the sacred and solemn mausoleum 
of many of  its mighty dead4 ,as we     
wander through its echoing nave at      
twilight1  when the shadows of evening  
are deepening1 we may hold communion    
with  these great spirits of the past4  
,the ,peruzzi and ,baldi ,chapels are   
illustrated by the frescoes of ,giotto4 
,the foot treads upon many a  slab under
 which lie the remains of soldier1 and  
knight1 and noble1  and merchant prince1
 who1 centuries ago1 their labors and   
battles and  commerce done1 were here   
laid to rest4 ,the nave on either side  
is lined  with monumental statues of the
 illustrious dead4 ,ungrateful          
,florence1  who drove her greatest poet 
from her gates to find a grave in       
,ravenna1  patriis extorris ab urbe1    
here tardily and in penitence raised to 
him  a monument after vainly striving to
 reclaim his bones4 ,here1 too1 among   
others1 are the statues and monuments of
 ,michel ,angelo1 ,macchiavelli1        
,galileo1 ,lanzi1 ,aretino1             

,guicciardini1 ,alfieri1 ,leon ,battista
 ,alberti1  and ,raffaelle ,morghen4    
,of all the great men who shed a lustre 
over ,florence1 no one so  domineers    
over it and pervades it with his memory 
and his presence as  ,michel ,angelo4   
,the impression he left upon his own age
 and upon all  subsequent ages is       
deeper1 perhaps1 than that left by any  
other save  ,dante4 ,everything in      
,florence recalls him4 ,the dome of     
,brunelleschi1  impressive and beautiful
 as it is1 and prior in time to that of 
,st4 ,peter's1 cannot rid itself of its 
mighty brother in ,rome4 ,with          
,ghiberti's doors are ever associated   
his words4 ,in ,santa ,croce we all     
pause longer before the tomb where his  
body is laid than before any            
other--even that of ,dante4 ,the empty  
place before the ,palazzo ,vecchio1     
where his ,david stood1 still holds its 
ghost4 ,all places which knew  him in   
life are still haunted by his memory4   
,the house where he lived1  thought1 and

 worked is known to every pilgrim of    
art4 ,the least  fragment which his hand
 touched is there preserved as precious1
 simply  because it was his2 and it is  
with a feeling of reverence that we     
enter  the little closet where his      
mighty works were designed4 ,there still
  stands his folding desk1 lit by a     
little slip of a window2 and there  are 
the shelves and pigeon-holes where he   
kept his pencils1 colors1  tools1 and   
books4 ,the room is so narrow that one  
can scarcely turn  about in it2 and the 
contrast between this narrow1 restricted
 space and  the vastness of the thoughts
 which there were born1 and the extent  
of  his fame which fills the world1 is  
strangely impressive and affecting4     
,here1 barring the door behind him to   
exclude the world1 he sat and  studied  
and wrote and drew1 little dreaming that
 hundreds of thousands  of pilgrims     
would in after-centuries come to visit  
it in reverence from  a continent then  
but just discovered1 and peopled only   

with savages4    ,but more than all     
other places1 the ,church of ,san       
,lorenzo is identified  with him2 and   
the ,medicean ,chapel1 which he         
designed1 is more a  monument to him    
than to those in honor of whom it was   
built4    ,here1 therefore1 under the   
shadow of these noble shapes1 and in the
  silent influence of this solemn place1
 let us cast a hurried glance  over the 
career and character of ,michel ,angelo 
as exhibited in his life  and his       
greatest works4 ,to do more than this   
would be impossible within  the brief   
limits we can here command4 ,we may then
 give a glance into  the adjoining and  
magnificent ,hall1 which is the real    
mausoleum of the  ,medici1 and is       
singularly in contrast with it4         
,michel ,angelo was born at ,caprese1 in
 the ,casentino1 near ,florence1 on     
,march #f1 #adgd or #adge1 according as 
we reckon from the nativity or the      
incarnation of ,christ4 ,he died at     
,rome on ,friday1 ,february #bc1 #aefd1 

at  the ripe age of eighty-nine or      
ninety4 ,he claimed to be of the noble  
family of the ,counts of ,canossa4 ,he  
certainly was of the family of the      
,berlinghi4 ,his father was one of the  
twelve ,buonomini1 and was ,podest  of  
,caprese when ,michel ,angelo was born4 
,from his early youth he showed  a      
strong inclination to art1 and vainly   
his father sought to turn him  aside    
from this vocation4 ,his early studies  
were under ,ghirlandajo4  ,but he soon  
left his master to devote himself to    
sculpture2 and he was  wont to say that 
he 8had imbibed this disposition with   
his nurse's  milk0--she being the wife  
of a stone-carver4 ,lorenzo the         
,magnificent  favored him and received  
him into his household2 and there under 
his  patronage he prosecuted his        
studies1 associating familiarly with    
some  of the most remarkable men of the 
period1 enriching his mind with  their  
conversation1 and giving himself        
earnestly to the study not  only of art1

 but of science and literature4 ,the    
celebrated ,angelo  ,poliziano1 then    
tutor to the sons of ,lorenzo1 was      
strongly attracted  to him1 and seems to
 have adopted him also as a pupil4 ,his 
early  efforts as a sculptor were not   
remarkable2 and though many stories  are
 told of his great promise and          
efficiency1 but little weight is  to be 
given to them4 ,he soon1 however1 began 
to distinguish himself  among his       
contemporaries2 and his ,cupid and      
,bacchus1 though wanting  in all the    
spirit and characteristics of antique   
work1 were1 for the  time and age of the
 sculptor1 important and remarkable4    
,after this  followed the ,piet1 now in 
,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 in which a      
different  spirit began to exhibit      
itself2 but it was not till later on    
that the  great individuality and       
originality of his mind was shown1 when 
from  an inform block of rejected marble
 he hewed the colossal figure of        
,david4 ,he had at last found the great 

path of his genius4 ,from this  time    
forward he went on with ever-increasing 
power--working in many  various arts1   
and stamping on each the powerful       
character of his mind4  ,his grandest   
and most characteristic works in        
sculpture and painting  were executed in
 his middle age4 ,the ,sistine ,chapel  
he completed when  he was thirty-eight  
years old1 the stern figure of the      
,moses when he  was forty1 the great    
sculptures of the ,medici ,chapel when  
he was from  fifty to fifty-five2 and in
 his sixty-sixth year he finished the   
,last  ,judgment4 ,thenceforth his      
thoughts were chiefly given to          
architecture1  with excursions into     
poetry--though during this latter period
 he painted  the frescoes in the        
,pauline ,chapel2 and after being by    
turns sculptor1  painter1 architect1    
engineer1 and poet1 he spent the last   
years of his  life in designing and     
superintending the erection of ,st4     
,peter's at  ,rome4    ,one of his last 

works1 if not the last1 was the model of
 the famous  cupola of ,st4 ,peter's1   
which he never saw completed4 ,in some  
respects  this was departed from in its 
execution by his successors2 but in     
every  change it lost1 and had it been  
carried out strictly as he designed  it1
 it would have been even nobler and more
 beautiful than it is4    ,here was a   
long life of ceaseless study1 of        
untiring industry1 of  never-flagging   
devotion to art4 ,though surrounded by  
discouragements  of every kind1 harassed
 by his family1 forced to obey the      
arbitrary  will of a succession of      
,popes1 and1 in accordance with their   
orders1  to abandon the execution of his
 high artistic conceptions and waste    
months and years on mere mechanic labor 
in superintending mines and             
quarries--driven against his will1 now  
to be a painter when he desired  to be a
 sculptor1 now to be an architect when  
he had learned to be  a painter1 now as 
an engineer to be employed on           

fortifications when  he was longing for 
his art2 through all the exigencies of  
his life1  and all the worrying claims  
of patrons1 family1 and country1 he kept
  steadily on1 never losing courage even
 to the end--a man of noble  life1 high 
faith1 pure instincts1 great intellect1 
powerful will1 and  inexhaustible       
energy2 proud and scornful1 but never   
vain2 violent of  character1 but        
generous and true1--never guilty through
 all his long  life of a single mean or 
unworthy act3 a silent1 serious1        
unsocial1  self-involved man1 oppressed 
with the weight of great thoughts1 and  
burdened by many cares and sorrows4     
,with but a grim humor1 and none  of the
 lighter graces of life1 he went his    
solitary way1 ploughing a  deeper furrow
 in his age than any of his             
contemporaries1 remarkable as  they     
were1--an earnest and unwearied student 
and seeker1 even to the  last4    ,it   
was in his old age that he made a       
drawing of himself in a child's  go-cart

 with the motto 8,ancora imparo0--,i am 
still learning4 ,and one  winter day    
toward the end of his life1 the         
,cardinal ,gonsalvi met him  walking    
down towards the ,colosseum during a    
snowstorm4 ,stopping his  carriage1 the 
,cardinal asked where he was going in   
such stormy weather4  8,to school10 he  
answered 8to try to learn something40   
,slowly1 as years advanced1 his health  
declined1 but his mind retained  to the 
last all its energy and clearness2 and  
many a craggy sonnet  and madrigal he   
wrote towards the end of his life1 full 
of high  thought and feeling--struggling
 for expression1 and almost rebelliously
  submitting to the limits of poetic    
form2 and at last1 peacefully1 after    
eighty-nine long years of earnest labor 
and never-failing faith1 he  passed     
away1 and the great light went out4 ,no6
 it did not go out2 it  still burns as  
brightly as ever across these long      
centuries to illumine  the world4       
,fitly to estimate the power of ,michel 

,angelo as a sculptor1 we must  study   
the great works in the ,medicean ,chapel
 in the ,church of ,san  ,lorenzo1 which
 show the culmination of his genius in  
this branch of art4    ,the original    
church of ,san ,lorenzo was founded in  
#icj1 and is one of  the most ancient in
 ,italy4 ,it was burned down in #adbc1  
and rerected in  #adbe by the ,medici   
from ,brunelleschi's designs4 ,later1 in
 #aebc1 by the  order of ,leo ,x41      
,michel ,angelo designed and began to   
execute the new  sacristy1 which was    
intended to serve as a mausoleum to     
,giuliano dei  ,medici1 ,duke of        
,nemours1 brother of ,leo ,x41 and      
younger son of ,lorenzo  the            
,magnificent2 and to ,lorenzo1 ,duke of 
,urbino1 and grandson of the  great     
,lorenzo4 ,within this mausoleum1 which 
is now called the ,medici  ,chapel1 were
 placed the statues of ,giuliano and    
,lorenzo4 ,they are both  seated on     
lofty pedestals1 and face each other on 
opposite sides of  the chapel4 ,at the  

base of one1 reclining on a huge        
sarcophagus1 are  the colossal figures  
of ,day and ,night1 and at the base of  
the other  the figures of ,aurora and   
,crepuscule4 ,this chapel is quite      
separated  from the church itself4 ,you 
enter from below by a dark and solemn   
crypt1 beneath which are the bodies of  
thirty-four of the family1  with large  
slabs at intervals on the pavement1 on  
which their names  are recorded4 ,you   
ascend a staircase1 and go through a    
corridor into  this chapel4 ,it is      
solemn1 cold1 bare1 white1 and lighted  
from above  by a lantern open to the    
sky4 ,there is no color1 the lower part 
being  carved of white marble1 and the  
upper part and railings wrought in      
stucco4 ,a chill comes over you as you  
enter it2 and the whole place is  awed  
into silence by these majestic and      
solemn figures4 ,you at once  feel      
yourself to be in the presence of an    
influence1 serious1 grand1  impressive1 
and powerful1 and of a character totally

 different from  anything that sculpture
 has hitherto produced1 either in the   
ancient  or modern world4 ,whatever may 
be the defects of these great works1 and
  they are many and evident1 one feels  
that here a lofty intellect and  power  
has struggled1 and fought its way1 so to
 speak1 into the marble1  and brought   
forth from the insensate stone a giant  
brood of almost  supernatural shapes4   
,it is not nature that he has striven to
 render1  but rather to embody thoughts1
 and to clothe in form conceptions      
which surpass the limits of ordinary    
nature4 ,it is idle to apply here  the  
rigid rules of realism4 ,the attitudes  
are distorted1 and almost  impossible4  
,no figure could ever retain the        
position of the ,night at  best for more
 than a moment1 and to sleep in such an 
attitude would be  scarcely possible4   
,and yet a mighty burden of sleep weighs
 down this  figure1 and the solemnity of
 night itself broods over it4 ,so also  
the  ,day is more like a primeval       

titanic form than the representation of 
a  human being4 ,the action of the head1
 for instance1 is beyond nature4  ,the  
head itself is merely blocked out1 and  
scarcely indicated in its  features4    
,but this very fact is in itself a      
stroke of genius2 for the  suggestion of
 mystery in this vague and unfinished   
face is far more  impressive than any   
elaborated head could have been4 ,it is 
supposed  he left it thus1 because he   
found the action too strained4 ,so be   
it2 but here is ,day still involved in  
clouds1 but now arousing from  its      
slumbers1 throwing off the mists of     
darkness1 and rising with a  tremendous 
energy of awakening life4 ,the same     
character also pervades  the ,aurora and
 ,crepuscule4 ,they are not man and     
woman1 they are types  of ideas4 ,one   
lifts its head1 for the morning is      
coming2 one holds its  head abased1 for 
the gloom of evening is drawing on4     
,there is no joy  in any of these       
figures4 ,a terrible sadness and        

seriousness oppresses  them4 ,aurora    
does not smile at the coming of the     
light1 is not glad1  has little hope1   
but looks upon it with a terrible       
weariness1 almost  with despair--for it 
sees little promise1 and doubts far more
 than it  hopes4 ,twilight1 again1      
almost disdainfully sinks to repose4    
,the day  has accomplished almost       
nothing3 oppressed and hopeless1 it sees
 the  darkness close about it4    ,what 
,michel ,angelo meant to embody in these
 statues can only be  guessed--but      
certainly no trivial thought4 ,their    
names convey nothing4  ,it was not      
beauty1 or grace1 or simple truth to    
nature1 that he sought  to express4 ,in 
making them1 the weight of this         
unexplained mystery of  life hung over  
him2 the struggle of humanity against   
superior forces  oppressed him4 ,the    
doubts1 the despair1 the power1 the     
indomitable will  of his own nature are 
in them4 ,they are not the expressions  
of the  natural day of the world1 of the

 glory of the sunrise1 the tenderness   
of the twilight1 the broad gladness of  
day1 or the calm repose of  night2 but  
they are seasons and epochs of the      
spirit of man--its doubts  and fears1   
its sorrows and longings and unrealized 
hopes4 ,the sad  condition of his       
country oppressed him4 ,its shame       
overwhelmed him4 ,his  heart was with   
,savonarola1 to whose excited preaching 
he had listened1  and his mind was      
inflamed by the hope of a spiritual     
regeneration  of ,italy and the world4  
,the gloom of ,dante enshrouded him1 and
 the  terrible shapes of the 8,inferno0 
had made deeper impression on his       
nature than all the sublimed glories of 
the 8,paradiso40 ,his colossal  spirit  
stood fronting the agitated storms of   
passions which then shook  his country1 
like a rugged cliff that braves the     
tempest-whipped  sea--disdainfully      
casting from its violent and raging     
waves1 and longing  almost with a vain  
hope for the time when peace1 honor1    

liberty1 and  religion should rule the  
world4    ,this at least would seem to  
be implied in the lines he wrote under  
his  statue of ,night1 in response to   
the quatrain written there by ,giovan'  
,battista ,strozzi4 ,these are the lines
 of ,strozzi3--       8,la notte che tu 
vedi in si dolci atti      ,dormire1 fu 
da an angelo scolpita      ,in questo   
sasso2 e1 perch dorme1 ha vita          
,destala1 se no 'l credi1 e parleratti40
    ,which may be thus rendered in      
,english3--       8,night1 which in     
peaceful attitude you see      ,here    
sleeping1 from this stone an angel      
wrought4      ,sleeping1 it lives4 ,if  
you believe it not1      ,awaken it1 and
 it will speak to thee40    ,and this   
was ,michel ,angelo's response3--       
8,grato mi  il sonno1 e piu l' esser de 
sasso      ,mentre che il danno e la    
vergogna dura      ,non veder non sentir
 m'  gran ventura      ,per1 non mi     
destar2 deh6 parla basso40    ,which may
 be rendered3--       8,grateful is     

sleep--and more1 of stone to be2        
,so long as crime and shame here hold   
their state1      ,who cannot see nor   
feel is fortunate--      ,therefore     
speak low1 and do not waken me40        
,this would clearly seem to show that   
under these giant shapes he meant  to   
embody allegorically at once the sad    
condition of humanity and the  oppressed
 condition of his country4 ,what lends  
itself still more to  this              
interpretation is the character and     
expression of both the statues  of      
,lorenzo and ,giuliano1 and particularly
 that of ,lorenzo1 who leans  forward   
with his hand raised to his chin in so  
profound and sad a  meditation that the 
world has given it the name of ,il      
,pensiero--not even  calling it ,il     
,pensieroso1 the thinker1 but ,il       
,pensiero1 thought itself2  while the   
attitude and expression of ,giuliano is 
of one who helplessly  holds the sceptre
 and lets the world go1 heedless of all 
its crime and  folly1 and too weak to   

lend his hand to set it right4    ,but  
whatever the interpretation to be given 
to these statues1 in power1             
originality1 and grandeur of character  
they have never been surpassed4  ,it is 
easy to carp at their defects4 ,let them
 all be granted4 ,they  are contorted1  
uneasy1 over-anatomical1 untrue to      
nature4 ,viewed with  the keen and      
searching eye of the critic1 they are   
full of faults1  e pur si muove4 ,there 
is a lift of power1 an energy of        
conception1  a grandeur and boldness of 
treatment which redeems all defects4    
,they  are the work of a great mind1    
spurning the literal1 daring almost the 
impossible1 and using human form as a   
means of thought and expression4  ,it   
may almost be said that in a certain    
sense they are great1 not in  despite of
 their faults1 but by very virtue of    
these faults4 ,in them is  a spirit     
which was unknown to the ,greeks and    
,romans4 ,they sought the  simple1 the  
dignified1 the natural2 beauty was their

 aim and object4  ,their ideal was a    
quiet1 passionless repose1 with little  
action1  little insistence of parts4    
,their treatment was large and noble1   
their  attitude calm4 ,no torments reach
 them1 or if passion enter1 it is       
subdued to beauty3--        8,calm      
pleasures there abide1 majestic pains40 
,their gods looked down upon earth      
through the noblest forms of ,phidias   
with serenity1 heedless of the violent  
struggles of humanity--like  grand and  
peaceful presences4 ,even in the        
,laocon1 which stepped to  the utmost   
permitted bounds of the antique         
sculpture1 there is the  restraint of   
beauty1 and suffering is modified to    
grace4 ,but here in  these ,titans of   
,michel ,angelo there is a new          
spirit--better or worse1  it is new4 ,it
 represents humanity caught in the      
terrible net of ,fate1  storming the    
heavens1 ,prometheus-like1 breaking     
forth from the bonds of  convention1 and
 terrible as grand4 ,but noble as these 

works are1 they  afford no proper school
 for imitation1 and his followers have1 
as has  been fitly said1 only caught the
 contortions without the inspiration  of
 the sibyl4 ,they lift the spirit1      
enlarge the mind1 and energize the  will
 of those who feel them and are willing 
only to feel them2 but they  are bad    
models for imitation4 ,it is only such  
great and original minds  as ,michel    
,angelo who can force the grand and     
powerful out of the wrong  and          
unnatural2 and he himself only at rare  
intervals prevailed in doing  this      
violence to nature4    ,every man has a 
right to be judged by his best4 ,it is  
not the number  of his failures but the 
value of his successes which afford the 
just  gauge of every man's genius4 ,here
 in these great statues ,michel  ,angelo
 succeeded1 and they are the highest    
tide-mark of his power as  a sculptor4  
,the ,moses1 despite its elements of    
strength and power1 is  of a lower      
grade4 ,the ,piet is the work of a young

 man who has not as  yet grown to his   
full strength1 and who is shackled by   
his age and his  contemporaries4 ,the   
,david has high qualities of nobility1  
but it is  constrained to the           
necessities of the marble in which it is
 wrought4  ,the ,christ in the ,church  
of the ,minerva is scarcely worthy of   
him4 ,but  in these impersonations of   
,day1 ,night1 ,twilight1 and ,dawn1 his 
genius  had full scope1 and rose to its 
greatest height4    ,these statues were 
executed by ,michel ,angelo1 with       
various and annoying  interruptions1    
when he was more than fifty-five years  
of age1 and while  he was in ill-health 
and very much overworked4 ,indeed1 such 
was his  condition of health at this    
time that it gave great anxiety to his  
friends1 and ,giovanni ,battista ,mini1 
writing to his friend ,bartolommeo      
,valori on the #bith of ,september1     
#aeca1 says3 8,michel ,angelo has fallen
  off in flesh1 and the other day with  
,buggiardini and ,antonio ,mini we  had 

a private talk about him1 and we came to
 the conclusion that he  will not live  
long unless things are remedied4 ,he    
works very hard1 eats  little and that  
little is bad1 sleeps not at all1 and   
for a month past  his sight has been    
weak1 and he has pains in the head and  
vertigo1 and1  in fine1 his head is     
affected and so is his heart1 but there 
is a cure  for each1 for he is healthy40
 ,he was so besieged on all sides with  
commissions1 and particularly by the    
,duke of ,urbino1 that the ,pope at     
last issued a brief1 ordering him1 under
 pain of excommunication1 to do  no work
 except on these monuments1--and thus he
 was enabled to command  his time and to
 carry on these great works to the      
condition in which  they now are1 though
 he never was able completely to finish 
them4    ,of the same race with them are
 the wonderful frescoes of the sibyls   
and prophets and ,biblical figures and  
,titans that live on the ceiling  of the
 ,sistine ,chapel4 ,and these are as    

amazing as1 perhaps even more  amazing  
in their way than1 the sculpture of the 
,medicean ,chapel4 ,he  was but         
thirty-four years of age when1 at the   
instigation of ,bramante1  he was       
summoned to ,rome by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4
 to decorate the ceiling4 ,it  is       
unpleasant to think that ,bramante1 in  
urging this step upon the  ,pope1 was   
animated with little good-will to       
,michel ,angelo4 ,from all  accounts it 
would seem he was jealous of his growing
 fame1 and deemed  that in undertaking  
this colossal work failure would be     
inevitable4  ,michel ,angelo had indeed 
worked in his youth under ,ghirlandajo1 
but  had soon abandoned his studio and  
devoted himself to sculpture2 and       
though he had painted some few labored  
pictures and produced the  famous       
designs for the great hall of the       
municipality at ,florence1  in          
competition with his famous rival       
,leonardo da ,vinci1 yet these  cartoons
 had never been executed by him1 and his

 fame was chiefly1 if  not solely1 as a 
sculptor4 ,michel ,angelo himself1      
though strongly urged  to this          
undertaking by the ,pope1 was extremely 
averse to it1 and at  first refused1    
declaring that 8painting was not his    
profession40 ,the  ,pope1 however1 was  
persistent1 and ,michel was forced at   
last to yield1  and to accept the       
commission4 ,he then immediately began  
to prepare his  cartoons1 and1 ignorant 
and doubtful of his own powers1 summoned
 to his  assistance several artists in  
,florence1 to learn more properly from  
them the method of painting in fresco4  
,not satisfied with their work on  the  
ceiling1 he suddenly closed the doors   
upon them1 sent them away1  and1        
shutting himself up alone in the chapel1
 erased what they had done  and began   
alone with his own hand4 ,it was only   
about six weeks after  his arrival in   
,rome that he thus began1 and in this   
short space of time  he had completed   
his designs1 framed and erected the     

scaffolds1 laid  on the rough casting   
preparatory to the finishing layer1 and 
commenced  his frescoes4 ,this alone is 
an immense labor1 and shows a wonderful 
mastery of all his powers4 ,the design  
is entirely original1 not only  in the  
composition and character of the figures
 themselves1 but in the  architectural  
divisions and combinations in which they
 are placed4  ,there are no less than   
#cdc figures1 of great variety of       
movements1  grandiose proportions1 and  
many of them of colossal size2 and to   
the  sketches he first designed he seems
 to have absolutely adhered4 ,of        
course1 within such a time he could not 
have made the large cartoons  in which  
the figures were developed in their full
 proportions1 but he  seems only to have
 enlarged them from his figures as first
 sketched4  ,with indomitable energy1   
and a persistence of labor which has    
scarcely  a parallel1 alone and without 
encouragement he prosecuted his task1   
despite the irritations and annoyances  

which he was forced to endure1  the     
constant delays of payment1 the fretful 
complaints of the impatient  ,pope1 the 
accidents and disappointments incident  
to an art in which he  had previously   
had no practice1 and the many and       
worrying troubles from  home by which he
 was constantly pursued4 ,at last the   
,pope's impatience  became imperious2   
and when the vault was only one half    
completed1 he  forced ,michel ,angelo1  
under threats of his severe displeasure1
 to  throw down the scaffolding and     
exhibit it to the world4 ,the chapel was
  accordingly opened on ,all ,saints'   
,day in ,november1 #aejh4 ,the public   
flocked to see it1 and a universal cry  
of admiration was raised4 ,in  the crowd
 which then assembled was ,raffaelle1   
and the impression he  received is plain
 from the fact that his style was at    
once so strongly  modified by it4       
,bramante1 too1 was there1 expecting to 
see the failure  which he had           
anticipated1 and to rejoice in the      

downfall of his great  rival4 ,but he   
was destined to be disappointed1 and1 as
 is recounted1  but as one is unwilling 
to believe1 he used his utmost efforts  
to  induce the ,pope to discharge       
,michel ,angelo and commission          
,raffaelle to  complete the ceiling4 ,it
 is even added that ,raffaelle himself  
joined  in this intrigue1 but there is  
no proof of this1 and let us disbelieve 
it4 ,certain it is that in the presence 
of the ,pope1 when ,michel ,angelo      
broke forth in fierce language against  
,bramante for this injurious  proposal1 
and denounced him for his ignorance and 
incapacity1 he did  not involve         
,raffaelle in the same denunciation4    
,still there seems to  be little doubt  
that the party and friends of ,raffaelle
 exerted their  utmost influence to     
induce the ,pope to substitute him for  
,michel  ,angelo4 ,they did not1        
however1 succeed4 ,the ,pope was        
steadfast1 and  again the doors were    
closed1 and he was ordered to complete  

the work4    ,when again he began to    
paint there is no record4 ,winter is    
unfavorable  to fresco-painting1 and    
when a frost sets in1 it cannot be      
carried  on4 ,in the autumn of #aeaj we 
know that he applied to the ,pope for   
permission to visit his friends in      
,florence1 and for an advance of  money2
 that the ,pope replied by demanding    
when his work would be  completed1 and  
that the artist replied1 8,as soon as ,i
 shall be able20  on which the ,pope1   
repeating his words1 struck him with his
 cane4  ,michel ,angelo was not a man to
 brook this1 and he instantly abandoned 
his work and went to ,florence4 ,the    
,pope1 however1 sent his page  ,accursio
 after him with pacific words1 praying  
him to return1 and with  a purse of     
fifty crowns to pay his expenses2 and   
after some delay he  did return4        
,vasari and ,condivi both assert that   
the vault of the ,sistine ,chapel was   
painted by ,michel ,angelo 8alone and   
unaided1 even by any one to grind  his  

colors1 in twenty months40 ,but this    
cannot be true4 ,he certainly  had      
assistance not only for all the laying  
of the plaster and the  merely          
mechanical work1 but also in the        
painting of the architecture1  and even 
of portions of the figures2 and it now  
seems to be pretty  clear that the      
chapel was not completed until #aeab4   
,but this in itself1  considering all   
the breaks and intervals when the work  
was necessarily  interrupted1 is        
stupendous4    ,the extraordinary       
rapidity with which he worked is clearly
 proved by  the close examination which 
the erection of scaffolding has recently
  enabled ,mr4 ,charles ,heath ,wilson  
and others to make4 ,fresco-painting    
can only be done while the plaster is   
fresh 7hence its name72 and as  the     
plaster laid on one day will not serve  
for the next1 it must be  removed unless
 the painting on it is completed4 ,the  
junction of the  new plaster leaves a   
slight line of division when closely    

examined1 and  thus it is easy to detect
 how much has been accomplished each    
day4 ,it  scarcely seems credible1      
though there can be no doubt of the     
fact1 that  many of the nude figures    
above life-size were painted in two     
days4 ,the  noble reclining figure of   
,adam occupied him only three days2 and 
the  colossal figures of the sibyls and 
prophets1 which1 if standing1 would  be 
eighteen feet in height1 occupied him   
only from three to four days  each4     
,when one considers the size of these   
figures1 the difficulty of  painting    
anything overhead where the artist is   
constrained to work in  a reclining     
position and often lying flat on his    
back1 and the beauty1  tenderness1 and  
careful finish which has been given to  
all parts1  and especially to the heads1
 this rapidity of execution seems almost
  marvelous4    ,seen from below1 these 
figures are solemn and striking2 but    
seen  near by1 their grandeur of        
character is vastly more impressive1 and

  their beauty and refinement1 which are
 less apparent when seen from a         
distance1 are quite as remarkable as    
their power and energy4 ,great as       
,michel ,angelo was as a sculptor1 he   
seems even greater as a painter4  ,not  
only is the design broader and larger1  
but there is a freedom of  attitude1 a  
strength and loftiness of conception1   
and a beauty of  treatment1 which are   
beyond what he reached1 or perhaps      
strove for1 in  his statues4 ,the figure
 of ,adam1 for instance1 is not more    
wonderful  for its novelty and power of 
design than for its truth to nature4    
,the figure of the ,deity1 encompassed  
by angelic forms1 is whirling  down upon
 him like a tempest4 ,his mighty arm is 
outstretched1 and from  his extended    
fingers an electric flash of life seems 
to strike into  the uplifted hand of    
,adam1 whose reclining figure1 issuing  
from the  constraint of death1 and      
quivering with this new thrill of       
animated  being1 stirs into action1 and 

rises half to meet his ,creator4        
,nothing  could be more grand than this 
conception1 more certain than its       
expression1 or more simple than its     
treatment4 ,nothing1 too1 has ever  been
 accomplished in art more powerful1     
varied1 and original than the  colossal 
figures of the sibyls and the prophets4 
,the ,ezekiel1 listening  to the voice  
of inspiration2 the ,jeremiah1          
surcharged with meditative  thought1 and
 weighed down with it as a lowering     
cloud with rain2  the youthful ,daniel1 
writing on his book1 which an angel     
supports2  ,esaias1 in the fullness of  
his manhood1 leaning his elbow on his   
book  and holding his hand suspended    
while turning he listens to the angel   
whose tidings he is to record2 and the  
aged ,zacharias1 with his long  beard1  
swathed in heavy draperies1 and intently
 reading1--these are the  prophets2 and 
alternating with them on the span of the
 arch are the  sibyls1--the noble       
,erythrean1 seated almost in profile1   

with crossed  legs1 and turning the     
leaves of her book with one hand while  
the other  drops at her side1 grand in  
the still serenity of her beauty2 the   
aged  ,persian sibyl1 turning sideway to
 peruse the book which she holds  close 
to her eyes1 while above her recline two
 beautiful naked youths1  and below her 
sleeps a madonna with the child ,christ2
 the ,libyan1  holding high behind her  
with extended arms her open scroll1 and 
looking  down over her shoulder2 the    
,cuman1 old1 weird1 ,dantesque in her   
profile1 with a napkin folded on her    
head1 reading in self-absorption1  while
 two angels gaze at her2 and last1 the  
,delphic1 sweet1 calm1  and beautiful in
 the perfectness of womanhood1 who looks
 serenely  down over her shoulder to    
charm us with a peaceful prophecy4 ,all 
the  faces and heads o these figures are
 evidently drawn from noble and         
characteristic models1--if1 indeed1 any 
models at all are used2 and some  of    
them1 especially those of the ,delphic  

and ,erythrean1 are full of  beauty as  
well as power4 ,all are painted with    
great care and feeling1  and a lofty    
inspiration has guided a loving hand4   
,there is nothing  vague1 feeble1 or    
flimsy in them4 ,they are ideal in the  
true sense--the  strong embodiment of   
great ideas4    ,even to enumerate the  
other figures would require more time   
and space  than can now be given4 ,but  
we cannot pass over in silence the      
wonderful  series illustrative of       
,biblical history which form the centre 
of the  ceiling1 beginning with ,chaos  
struggling into form1 and ending with   
,lot and his children4 ,here in         
succession are the division of light    
from darkness--the ,spirit of ,god      
moving over the face of the waters  7an 
extraordinary conception1 which         
,raffaelle strove in vain to  reproduce 
in another form in the ,loggie of the   
,vatican72 the wonderful  creation of   
,adam2 the temptation of the serpent1   
and the expulsion from  ,paradise1 so   

beautiful in composition and feeling2   
the sacrifice to  ,god2 and finally the 
,flood4    ,besides these are the grand 
nude figures of the decoration1 which   
have  never been equaled2 and many      
,biblical stories1 which1 in the        
richness  and multitude of greater      
things1 are lost1 but which in          
themselves  would suffice to make any   
artist famous3 as1 for instance1 the    
group  called ,rehoboam1 a female figure
 bending forward and resting her  hand  
upon her face1 with the child leaning   
against her knee--a lovely  sculptural  
group1 admirably composed1 and full of  
pathos2 and the  stern1 despairing      
figure entitled ,jesse1 looking straight
 out into the  distance before him--like
 ,fate4    ,here is no attempt at scenic
 effect1 no effort for the picturesque1 
no literal desire for realism1 no       
pictorial graces4 ,a sombre1 noble  tone
 of color pervades them1--harmonizing   
with their grand design1 but  seeking   
nothing for itself1 and sternly         

subjected and restrained to  these      
powerful conceptions4 ,nature silently  
withdraws and looks on1  awed by these  
mighty presences4    ,only a tremendous 
energy and will could have enabled      
,michel ,angelo to  conceive and execute
 these works4 ,the spirit in which he   
worked is  heroic3 oppressed as he was  
by trouble and want1 he never lost      
courage  or faith4 ,here is a fragment  
of a letter he wrote to his brother     
while  employed on this work1 which will
 show the temper and character of the   
man4 ,it is truly in the spirit of the  
,stoics of old3--        8,make no      
friendship nor intimacies with any one  
but the ,almighty      alone4 ,speak    
neither good nor evil of any one1       
because the end      of these things    
cannot yet be known4 ,attend only to    
your own      affairs4 ,i must tell you 
,i have no money40 7,he says this in    
answer to constant applications from his
 unworthy brother for      pecuniary    
assistance47 8,i am1 ,i may say1        

shoeless and naked4 ,i      cannot      
receive the balance of my pay till ,i   
have finished this      work1 and ,i    
suffer much from discomfort and fatigue4
 ,therefore1      when you also have    
trouble to endure1 do not make useless  
complaints1 but try to help yourself40  
,the names of ,raffaelle and ,michel    
,angelo are so associated1 that that  of
 one always rises in the mind when the  
other is mentioned4 ,their  geniuses are
 as absolutely opposite as are their    
characters4 ,each is  the antithesis of 
the other4 ,in the ancient days we have 
the same  kind of difference between    
,homer and ,virgil1 ,demosthenes and    
,cicero1  schylus and ,euripides2 in    
later days1 ,molire and ,racine1        
,rousseau  and ,voltaire1 ,shakespeare  
and ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 ,beethoven and
 ,mozart1  ,dante and ,ariosto1 ,victor 
,hugo and ,lamartine2 or to take our own
 age1  ,delacroix and ,ary ,scheffer1   
,browning and ,tennyson4 ,to the one    
belongs  the sphere of power1 to the    

other that of charm4 ,one fights his way
 to  immortality1 the other woos it4    
,raffaelle was of the latter            
class--sweet of nature1 gentle of       
disposition1 gifted with a rare sense of
 grace1 a facile talent of  design1 and 
a refinement of feeling which1 if it    
sometimes degenerated  into weakness1   
never utterly lost its enchantment4 ,he 
was exceedingly  impressionable1        
reflected by turns the spirit of his    
masters1--was first  ,perugino1 and     
afterwards modified his style to that of
 ,fra ,bartolommeo1  and again1 under   
the influence of ,michel ,angelo1 strove
 to tread in his  footsteps4 ,he was not
 of a deep nature nor of a powerful     
character4  ,there was nothing          
torrential in his genius1 bursting its  
way through  obstacles and sweeping all 
before it4 ,it was rather that of the   
calm  river1 flowing at its own sweet   
will1 and reflecting peacefully the     
passing figures of life4 ,he painted as 
the bird sings4 ,he was an artist       

because nature made him one--not because
 he had vowed himself to art1  and was  
willing to struggle and fight for its   
smile4 ,he was gentle and  friendly--a  
pleasant companion--a superficial       
lover--handsome of person  and pleasing 
of address--who always went surrounded  
by a corona of  followers1 who disliked 
work and left the execution of his      
designs in  great measure to his pupils1
 while he toyed with the ,fornarina4 ,i 
do  not mean to undervalue him in what  
he did4 ,his works are charming--his    
invention was lively4 ,he had the happy 
art of telling his story in  outline1   
better1 perhaps1 than any one else of   
his age4 ,his highest  reach was the    
,madonna di ,s4 ,sisto1 and this        
certainly is full of  that large        
sweetness and spiritual sensibility     
which entitles him to  the common       
epithet of 8,divino40 ,but when he died 
at the early age of  thirty-seven1 he   
had come to his full development1 and   
there is no  reason to suppose that he  

would ever have attained a greater      
height4  ,indeed1 during his latter     
years he was tired of his art1 neglected
  his work1 became more and more        
academic1 and preferred to bask in the  
sunshine of his fame on its broad       
levels1 to girding up his loins to      
struggle up precipitous ascents to      
loftier peaks4 ,the world already  began
 to blame him for this neglect1 and to  
say that he had forgotten  how to paint 
himself1 and gave his designs only to   
his students to  execute4 ,moved by     
these rumors1 he determined alone to    
execute a work  in fresco1 and this work
 was the famous ,galatea of the ,palazzo
 ,farnese4  ,he was far advanced in it1 
when1 during his absence one morning1 a 
dark1 short1 stern-looking man called to
 see him4 ,in the absence of            
,raffaelle1 this man gazed attentively  
at the ,galatea for a long time1  and   
then taking a piece of charcoal1 he     
ascended a ladder which stood  in the   
corner of the vast room1 and drew       

offhand on the wall a colossal  male    
head4 ,then he came down and went away1 
saying to the attendant1  8,if ,signore 
,raffaelle wishes to know who came to   
see him1 show him my  card there on the 
wall40 ,when ,raffaelle returned1 the   
assistant told  him of his visitor1 and 
showed him the head4 8,that is ,michel  
,angelo10  he said1 8or the devil40     
,and ,michel ,angelo it was4 ,raffaelle 
well knew what that powerful and        
colossal head meant1 and he felt the    
terrible truth of its silent  criticism 
on his own work4 ,it meant1 ,your fresco
 is too small for the  room--your style 
is too pleasing and trivial4 ,make      
something grand and  colossal4 ,brace   
your mind to higher purpose1 train your 
hand to nobler  design4 ,i say that     
,raffaelle felt this stern criticism1   
because he  worked no more there1 and   
only carried out this one design4       
,raffaelle's  disposition was sweet and 
attractive1 and he was beloved by all   
his  friends4 ,vasari says of him1 that 

he was as much distinguished by his     
amorevolezza ed umanit1 his affectionate
 and sympathetic nature1  as by his     
excellence as an artist2 and another    
contemporary speaks of  him as of summ  
bonitatis1 perfect sweetness of         
character4 ,all this  one sees in his   
face1 which1 turning1 gazes dreamily at 
us over his  shoulder1 with dark1 soft  
eyes1 long hair1 and smooth1 unsuffering
  cheeks where ,time has ploughed no    
furrows--easy1 charming1 graceful1      
refined1 and somewhat feminine of       
character4    ,michel ,angelo was made  
of sterner stuff than this4 ,his temper 
was  violent1 his bearing haughty1 his  
character impetuous4 ,he had none  of   
the personal graces of his great rival4 
,his face was1 as it were1  hammered    
sternly out by fate2 his brow corrugated
 by care1 his cheeks  worn by thought1  
his hair and beard stiffly curled and   
bull-like2 his  expression sad and      
intense1 with a weary longing in his    
deep-set eyes4  ,doubtless1 at times1   

they flamed with indignation and        
passion--for he  was very irascible1 and
 suffered no liberties to be taken with 
him4  ,he could not 8sport with         
,amaryllis in the shade1 or with the    
tangles  of ,nera's hair40 ,art was his 
mistress1 and a stern mistress she was1 
urging him ever onward to greater       
heights4 ,he loved her with a passion   
of the intellect2 there was nothing he  
would not sacrifice for her4 ,he  was   
willing to be poor1 almost to starve1 to
 labor with incessant zeal1  grudging   
even the time that sleep demanded1 only 
to win her favor4 ,he  could not have   
been a pleasant companion1 and he was   
never a lover of  woman4 ,his friendship
 with ,vittoria ,colonna was worlds away
 from the  senses1--worlds away from    
such a connection as that of ,raffaelle 
with  the ,fornarina4 ,they walked      
together in the higher fields of thought
 and  feeling1 in the region of ideas   
and aspirations4 ,their conversation was
  of art1 and poesy1 and religion1 and  

the mysteries of life4 ,they read  to   
each other their poems1 and discoursed  
on high themes of religion1  and fate1  
and foreknowledge4 ,the sonnets he      
addressed to her were in no  trivial    
vein of human passion or sentiment4     
8,rapt above earth0 7he writes7 8by     
power of one fair face1      ,hers1 in  
whose sway alone my heart delights1     
,i mingle with the ,blest on those pure 
heights      ,where man1 yet mortal1    
rarely finds a place--      ,with ,him  
who made the ,work that ,work accords   
,so well that1 by its help and through  
,his grace1      ,i raise my thoughts1  
inform my deeds and words1              
,clasping her beauty in my soul's       
embrace40    ,in his soul's embrace1 not
 in his arms4 ,when he stood beside her 
dead body1 he silently gazed at her1 not
 daring to imprint a kiss on  that      
serene brow even when life had departed4
 ,if he admired ,petrarca1  it was as a 
philosopher and a patriot1--for his     
canzone to ,liberty1  not for his       

sonnets to ,laura4 ,dante1 whom he      
called ,stella di alto  valor1 the star 
of high power1 was his favorite poet2   
,savonarola his  single friend4 ,the    
8,divina ,commedia10 or rather the      
8,inferno0 alone1  he thought worthy of 
illustration by his pencil2 the         
doctrines of the  latter he warmly      
espoused4 8,true beauty10 says that     
great reformer1  8comes only from the   
soul1 from nobleness of spirit and      
purity of  conduct40 ,and so1 in one of 
his madrigals1 says ,michel ,angelo4    
8,they  are but gross spirits who seek  
in sensual nature the beauty that       
uplifts and moves every healthy         
intelligence even to heaven40    ,for   
the most part he walked alone and       
avoided society1 wrapped up in  his own 
thoughts2 and once1 when meeting        
,raffaelle1 he reproached him  for being
 surrounded by a cortge of flatterers2  
to which ,raffaelle  bitterly retorted1 
8,and you go alone1 like the            
headsman0--andate solo  come un boia4   

,he was essentially original1 and1      
unlike his great rival1 followed  in no 
one's footsteps4 8,chi va dietro agli   
altri non li passa mai  dinanzi10 he    
said1--who follows behind others can    
never pass before  them4    ,yet1 with  
all his ruggedness and imperiousness of 
character1 he had  a deep tenderness of 
nature1 and was ready to meet any       
sacrifice for  those whom he loved4     
,personal privations he cared little    
for1 and sent  to his family all his    
earnings1 save what was absolutely      
necessary to  support life4 ,he had no  
greed for wealth1 no love of display1 no
 desire  for luxuries3 a better son     
never lived1 and his unworthy brother he
  forgave over and over again1 never    
weary of endeavoring to set him on  his 
right path4    ,but at times he broke   
forth with a tremendous energy when     
pushed too  far1 as witness this letter 
to his brother4 ,after saying1 8,if thou
  triest to do well1 and to honor and   
revere thy father1 ,i will aid thee     

like the others1 and will provide for   
thee in good time a place of  business10
 he thus breaks out in his postscript3--
        8,i have not wandered about all 
,italy1 and borne every                 
mortification1 suffered hardship1       
lacerated my body with hard      labor1 
and placed my life in a thousand        
dangers1 except to aid      my family2  
and now that ,i have begun to raise it  
somewhat1 thou      alone art the one to
 embroil and ruin in an hour that which 
,i      have labored so long to         
accomplish4 ,by the body of ,christ1 but
 it      shall be found true that ,i    
shall confound ten thousand such as     
thou art if it be needful1--so be wise1 
and tempt not one who has      already  
too much to bear40    ,he was generous  
and large in his charities4 ,he         
supported out of his  purse many poor   
persons1 married and endowed secretly a 
number of  young girls1 and gave freely 
to all who surrounded him4 8,when ,i    
die10  asked he of his old and faithful 

servant ,urbino1 8what will become  of  
you80 8,i shall seek for another master 
in order to live10 was the  answer4     
8,ah1 poor man60 cried ,michel ,angelo1 
and gave him at once  #aj1jjj golden    
crowns4 ,when this poor servant fell    
ill1 he tended him  with the utmost     
care1 as if he were a brother1 and on   
his death broke  out into loud          
lamentations1 and would not be          
comforted4    ,his fiery and impetuous  
temper1 however1 led him often into     
violence4  ,he was no respecter of      
persons1 and he well knew how to stand  
up for  the rights of man4 ,there was   
nothing of the courtier in him2 and he  
faced the ,pope with an audacious       
firmness of purpose and expression      
unparalleled at that time2 and yet he   
was singularly patient and  enduring1   
and gave way to the variable ,pontiff's 
whims and caprices  whenever they did   
not touch his dignity as a man4 ,long   
periods of time  he allowed himself to  
be employed in superintending the       

quarrying of  marble at ,carrara1 though
 his brain was teeming with great       
conceptions4  ,he was oppressed1        
agitated1 irritated on every side by    
home troubles1  by papal caprices1 and  
by the intestine tumult of his country1 
and much  of his life was wasted in     
merely mechanical work which any        
inferior  man could as well have done4  
,he was forced not only to quarry1 but  
to  do almost all the rude blocking out 
of his statues in marble1 which  should 
have been intrusted to others1 and which
 would have been better  done by mere   
mechanical workmen4 ,his very           
impetuosity1 his very genius1  unfitted 
him for such work3 while he should have 
been creating and  designing1 he was    
doing the rough work of a stone-cutter4 
,so ardent was  his nature1 so burning  
his enthusiasm1 that he could not fitly 
do this  work4 ,he was too impatient to 
get to the form within to take heed of  
the blows he struck at the shapeless    
mass that encumbered it1 and thus  it   

happened that he often ruined his statue
 by striking away what could  never be  
replaced4    ,vigenero thus describes   
him3--        8,i have seen ,michel     
,angelo1 although sixty years of age1   
and      not one of the most robust of  
men1 smite down more scales from      a 
very hard block of marble in a quarter  
of an hour1 than three      young       
marble-cutters would in three or four   
times that space of      time4 ,he flung
 himself upon the marble with such      
impetuosity      and fervor1 as to      
induce me to believe that he would break
 the      work into fragments4 ,with a  
single blow he brought down scales      
of marble of three or four fingers in   
breadth1 and with such      precision to
 the line marked on the marble1 that if 
he had broken      away a very little   
more1 he risked the ruin of the work40  
,this is pitiable4 ,this was not the    
work for a great genius like him1  but  
for a common stone-cutter4 ,what waste  
of time and energy to no  purpose1--nay1

 to worse than no purpose1--to the      
danger1 often the  irreparable injury1  
of the statue4 ,a dull1 plodding1       
patient workman  would have done it far 
better4 ,it is as if an architect should
 be  employed in planing the beams or   
laying the bricks and stones of the     
building he designed4 ,in fact1 ,michel 
,angelo injured1 and in some  cases     
nearly ruined1 most of his statues by   
the very impatience of his  genius4     
,thus the back head of the ,moses has   
been struck away by one of  these blows1
 and everywhere a careful eye detects   
the irreparable blow  beyond its true   
limit4 ,this is not the ,michel ,angelo 
whom we are to  reverence and admire2   
this is an abbozzatore roughing out the 
work4  ,there is no difficulty in       
striking off large cleavings of marble  
at one  stroke--any one can do that2 and
 it is pitiable to find him so engaged4 
,where we do find his technical         
excellence as a sculptor is when he     
comes to the surface--when with the     

drill he draws the outline with such    
force and wonderful precision--when his 
tooth-chisel models out1 with  such pure
 sense of form and such accomplished    
knowledge1 the subtle  anatomies of the 
body and the living curves of the       
palpitant flesh2  and no sculptor can   
examine the colossal figures of the     
,medici ,chapel  without feeling the    
free and mighty touch of a great master 
of the  marble4 ,here the hand and the  
mind work together1 and the stone is    
plastic as clay to his power4    ,it was
 not until ,michel ,angelo was sixty    
years of age that1 on the  death of     
,antonio ,san ,gallo1 he was appointed  
to succeed him as  architect1 and to    
design and carry out the building of    
,st4 ,peter's1  then only rising from   
its foundations4 ,to this appointment he
  answered1 as he had before objected   
when commissioned to paint the  ,sistine
 ,chapel1 8,architecture is not my art40
 ,but his objections were  overruled4   
,the ,pope insisted1 and he was finally 

prevailed upon to  accept this          
commission1 on the noble condition that 
his services should  be gratuitous1 and 
dedicated to the glory of ,god and of   
,his ,apostle1  ,st4 ,peter2 and to this
 he was actuated1 not only by a grand   
sentiment1  but because he was aware    
that hitherto the work had been         
conducted  dishonestly1 and with a sole 
view of greed and gain4 ,receiving      
nothing  himself1 he could the more     
easily suppress all peculation on the   
part  of others4    ,he was1 as he said1
 an old man in years1 but in energy and 
power he  had gained rather than lost1  
and he set himself at once to work1  and
 designed that grand basilica which has 
been the admiration of  centuries1 and  
to swing1 as he said1 in air the        
,pantheon4 ,that mighty  dome is but the
 architectural brother of the great     
statues in the  ,medicean ,chapel1 and  
the ,titan frescoes of the ,sistine     
,chapel4 ,granted  all the defects of   
this splendid basilica1 all the         

objections of all  the critics1 well or 
ill founded1 and all the deformities    
grafted on it  by his successors--there 
it is1 one of the noblest and grandest  
of all  temples to the ,deity1 and one  
of the most beautiful4 ,the dome itself1
  within and without1 is a marvel of    
beauty and grandeur1 to which all  other
 domes1 even that of ,brunelleschi1 must
 yield precedence4 ,it is  the uplifted 
brow and forehead that holds the brain  
of papal ,rome1  calm1 and without a    
frown1 silent1 majestic1 impressive4    
,the church  within has its own         
atmosphere1 which scarcely knows the    
seasons  without2 and when the pageant  
and the pomp of the ,catholic hierarchy 
passes along its nave1 and the sunlight 
builds its golden slanting  bridge of   
light from the lantern to the high      
altar1 and the fumes of  incense rise   
from the clinking censer at ,high ,mass1
 and the solemn  thrill of the silver   
trumpets sounds and swells and          
reverberates  through the dim mosaicked 

dome where the saints are pictured      
above1  cold must be his heart and dull 
his sense who is not touched to         
reverence4 ,here is the type of the     
universal ,church--free and beautiful1  
large and loving2 not grim and sombre   
and sad1 like the northern  ,gothic     
cathedrals4 ,we grieve over all the bad 
taste of its interior  decoration1 all  
the giant and awkward statues1 all the  
lamentable  details1 for which he is not
 responsible2 but still1 despite them   
all1  the impression is great4 ,when at 
twilight the shadows obscure all  these 
trivialities1 when the lofty cross above
 the altar rays forth  its single       
illumination and the tasteless details  
disappear1 and the  towering arches rise
 unbroken with their solemn gulfs of    
darkness1  one can feel how great1 how  
astonishing this church is1 in its broad
  architectural features4    ,at nearly 
this time ,michel ,angelo designed the  
,palazzo ,farnese1  the ,church of ,sta 
,maria degli ,angeli in the ruins of the

 ,baths of  ,diocletian1 the ,laurentian
 ,library and the palaces on the        
,capitol1 and  various other buildings1 
all of which bear testimony to his power
 and  skill as an architect4    ,for    
,st4 ,peter's as it now stands ,michel  
,angelo is not responsible4 ,his  idea  
was to make all subordinate to the dome2
 but after his death1 the  nave was     
prolonged by ,carlo ,maderno1 the faade 
completely changed1 and  the main theme 
of the building was thus almost         
obliterated from the  front4 ,it is     
greatly to be regretted that his        
original design was not  carried out4   
,every change from it was an injury4    
,the only point from  which one can get 
an idea of his intention is from behind 
or at the  side1 and there its colossal 
character is shown4    ,we have thus far
 considered ,michel ,angelo as a        
sculptor1 painter1 and  architect4 ,it  
remains to consider him as a poet4 ,nor 
in his poetry do  we find any difference
 of character from what he exhibited in 

his other  arts4 ,he is rough1          
energetic1 strong1 full of high ideas1  
struggling  with fate1 oppressed and    
weary with life4 ,he has none of the    
sweet  numbers of ,petrarca1 or the     
lively spirit of ,ariosto1 or the       
chivalric  tones of ,tasso4 ,his verse  
is rude1 craggy1 almost disjointed at   
times1  and with little melody in it1   
but it is never feeble4 ,it was not his 
art1 he might have said1 with more      
propriety than when he thus spoke of    
painting and architecture4 ,lofty       
thoughts have wrestled their way into   
verse1 and constrained a rhythmic form  
to obey them4 ,but there is a  constant 
struggle for him in a form which is not 
plastic to his touch4  ,still his poems 
are strong in their crabbedness1 and    
stand like granite  rocks in the general
 sweet mush of ,italian verse4    ,such1
 then1 was ,michel ,angelo1--sculptor1  
painter1 architect1 poet1  engineer1 and
 able in all these arts4 ,nor would it  
have been possible  for him to be so    

great in any one of them had he not     
trained his mind  to all2 for all the   
arts are but the various articulations  
of the  self-same power1 as the fingers 
are of the hand1 and each lends aid to  
the other4 ,only by having all can the  
mind have its full grasp of art4  ,it is
 too often insisted in our days that a  
man to be great in one art  must devote 
himself exclusively to that2 or if he be
 solicited by any  other1 he must merely
 toy with it4 ,such was not the doctrine
 of the  artists of old1 either in      
ancient days of ,greece or at the epoch 
of the  ,renaissance4 ,phidias was a    
painter and architect as well as a      
sculptor1  and so were nearly all the   
men of his time4 ,giotto1 ,leonardo1    
,ghiberti1  ,michel ,angelo1            
,verrocchio1 ,cellini1 ,raffaelle1--in a
 word1 all the great  men of the        
glorious age in ,italy were accomplished
 in many arts4 ,they  more or less      
trained themselves in all4 ,it might be 
said that not a  single great man was   

not versed in more than one art4 ,thence
 it was  that they derived their power4 
,it does not suffice that the arm alone 
is strong2 the whole body strikes with  
every blow4    ,the frescoes in the     
,sistine ,chapel at ,rome1 and the      
statues in the  ,medicean ,chapel at    
,florence1 are the greatest monuments of
 ,michel  ,angelo's power as an artist4 
,whatever may be the defects of these   
great  works1 they are of a ,titanic    
brood1 that have left no successors1  as
 they had no progenitors4 ,they defy    
criticism1 however just1 and  stand by  
themselves outside the beaten track of  
art1 to challenge  our admiration4 ,so  
also1 despite all his faults and        
defects1 how  grand a figure ,michel    
,angelo himself is in history1 how high 
a  place he holds6 ,his name itself is a
 power4 ,he is one of the mighty        
masters that the world cannot forget4   
,kings and emperors die and are         
forgotten1--dynasties change and        
governments fall1--but he1 the silent1  

stern worker1 reigns unmoved in the     
great realm of art4    ,let us leave    
this great presence1 and pass into the  
other splendid  chapel of the ,medici   
which adjoins this1 and mark the        
contrast1 and see  what came of some of 
the titular monarchs of his time who    
fretted their  brief hour across the    
stage1 and wore their purple1 and issued
 their  edicts1 and were fawned upon and
 flattered in their pride of ephemeral  
power4    ,passing across a corridor1   
you enter this domed chapel or          
mausoleum--and  a splendid mausoleum it 
is4 ,its shape is octagonal4 ,it is #fc 
metres in  height1 or about #bjj feet1  
and is lined throughout with the richest
  marbles--of jasper1 coralline1        
persicata1 chalcedony1 mother-of-pearl1 
agate1 giallo and verde antico1         
porphyry1 lapis-lazuli1 onyx1 oriental  
alabaster1 and beautiful petrified      
woods2 and its cost was no less than    
thirty-two millions of francs of to-day4
 ,here were to lie the bodies  of the   

,medici family1 in honor of whom it was 
raised4 ,on each of the  eight sides is 
a vast arch1 and inside six of these are
 six immense  sarcophagi1 four of red   
,egyptian granite and two of gray1 with 
the  arms of the family elaborately     
carved upon them1 and surmounted with   
coronets adorned with precious gems4 ,in
 two of the arches are colossal         
portrait statues1--one of ,ferdinand    
,,iii4 in golden bronze1 by ,pietro     
,tacca2 and the other of ,cosimo ,,ii4  
in brown bronze1 by ,john of ,bologna1  
and both in the richest royal robes4    
,the sarcophagi have the names of       
,ferdinand ,,ii41 ,cosimo ,,iii41       
,francesco ,i41 ,cosimo ,i4 ,all that   
wealth and  taste can do has been done  
to celebrate and perpetuate the memory  
of  these royal dukes that reigned over 
,florence in its prosperous days4       
,and where are the bodies of these royal
 dukes8 ,here comes the saddest  of     
stories4 ,when the early bodies were    
first buried ,i know not2 but in  #agia 

,ferdinand ,,iii4 gathered together all 
the coffins in which they  were laid1   
and had them piled together pell-mell in
 the subterranean  vaults of this       
chapel1 scarcely taking heed to         
distinguish them one  from another2 and 
here they remained1 neglected and       
uncared for1 and  only protected from   
plunder by two wooden doors with common 
keys1  until #aheg4 ,then shame came    
over those who had the custody of the   
place1 and it was determined to put them
 in order4 ,in #ahah there had  been a  
rumor that these ,medicean coffins had  
been violated and robbed  of all the    
articles of value which they contained4 
,but little heed was  paid to this      
rumor1 and it was not until thirty-nine 
years after that  an examination into   
the real facts was made4 ,it was then   
discovered  that the rumor was well     
founded4 ,the forty-nine coffins        
containing the  remains of the family   
were taken down one by one1 and a sad   
state of  things was exposed4 ,some of  

them had been broken into and plundered1
  some were the hiding-places of vermin1
 and such was the nauseous odor  they   
gave forth1 that at least one of the    
persons employed in taking  them down   
lost his life by inhaling it4 ,imperial 
,csar1 dead and turned  to clay1 had    
become hideous and noisome4 ,of many of 
the ducal family  nothing remained but  
fragments of bones and a handful of     
dust4 ,but  where the hand of the robber
 had not been1 the splendid dresses     
covered  with jewels1 the silks and     
satins wrought over with gold           
embroidery1  the richly chased helmets  
and swords crusted with gems and gold1  
still  survived1 though those who had   
worn them in their splendid pageants    
were but dust and crumbling bones within
 them4       8,here were sands1 ignoble 
things1      ,dropped from the ruined   
sides of kings40    ,in many cases1     
where all else that bore the impress of 
life had  vanished1 the hair still      
remained almost as fresh as ever4 ,some 

bodies  which had been carefully        
embalmed were in fair preservation1 but 
some were fearfully altered4 ,ghastly   
and grinning skulls were there1  adorned
 with crowns of gold4 ,dark and         
parchment-like faces were seen  with    
their golden locks rich as ever1 and    
twisted with gems and pearls  and costly
 nets4 ,the ,cardinal ,princes still    
wore their mitres and  red cloaks1 their
 purple pianete and glittering rings1   
their crosses  of white enamel1 their   
jacinths and amethysts and              
sapphires--all had  survived their      
priestly selves4 ,the dried bones of    
,vittoria della  ,rovere ,montefeltro   
7whose very name is poetic7 were draped 
in a robe  of black silk of exquisite   
texture1 trimmed with black and white   
lace1  while on her breast lay a great  
golden medal1 and on one side were her  
emblems and on the other her portrait as
 she was in life1 as if to  say1 8,look 
on this picture and on this40 ,alas1    
poor humanity6 ,beside  her lay1 almost 

a mere skeleton1 ,anna ,luisa1 the      
,electress ,palatine  of the ,rhine1 and
 daughter of ,cosimo ,,iii41 with the   
electoral crown  surmounting her ghastly
 brow and face of black parchment1 a    
crucifix of  silver on her breast1 and  
at her side a medal with her effigy and 
name2  while near her lay her uncle1    
,francesco ,maria1 a mere mass of dust  
and  robes and rags4 ,many had been     
stripped by profane hands of all their  
jewels and insignia1 and among these    
were ,cosimo ,i4 and ,,ii41 ,eleonora   
de ,toledo1 ,maria ,christina1 and      
others1 to the number of twenty4 ,the   
two bodies which were found in the best 
preservation were those of the  ,grand  
,duchess ,giovanna d',austria1 the wife 
of ,francesco ,i41 and their  daughter  
,anna4 ,corruption had scarcely touched 
them1 and there they lay  fresh in color
 as if they had just died--the mother in
 her red satin1  trimmed with lace1 her 
red silk stockings and high-heeled      
shoes1 the  ear-rings hanging from her  

ears1 and her blond hair fresh as ever4 
,and  so1 after centuries had passed1   
the truth became evident of the rumor   
that ran through ,florence at the time  
of their death1 that they had  died of  
poison4 ,the arsenic which had taken    
from them their life had  preserved     
their bodies in death4 ,giovanni delle  
,bande ,nere was also  here1 his battles
 all over1 his bones scattered and loose
 within his  iron armor1 and his rusted 
helmet with its visor down4 ,and this   
was  all that was left of the great     
,medici4 ,is there any lesson sadder    
than  this8 ,these royal persons1 once  
so gay and proud and powerful1 some  of 
whom patronized ,michel ,angelo1 and    
extended to him their gracious  favor1  
and honored him perhaps with a smile1   
now so utterly dethroned  by death1     
their names scarcely known1 or1 if      
known1 not reverenced1  while the poor  
stern artist they looked down upon sits 
like a monarch  on the throne of fame1  
and1 though dead1 rules with his spirit 

and by  his works in the august realm of
 art4 ,who has not heard his name8 ,who 
has not felt his influence8 ,and ages   
shall come1 and generations shall  pass1
 and he will keep his kingdom4          
,,phidias1 ,,and ,,the ,,elgin          
,,marbles4      ,the marble statues in  
the pediment of the ,parthenon at       
,athens1 as  well as the metopes and    
bassi-relievi which adorned the temple  
dedicated to ,minerva1 are popularly    
supposed to have been either the  work  
of ,phidias himself1 or executed by his 
scholars after his designs  and under   
his superintendence4 ,this opinion1 by  
dint of constant  repetition1 has       
finally become accepted as an undoubted 
fact2 but a  careful examination into   
the original authorities will show that 
it is  unsupported by any satisfactory  
evidence4    ,the main ground upon which
 it is founded is that ,phidias was     
appointed  by ,pericles director of the 
public works at ,athens1 and occupied   
that  office during the building of the 

,parthenon4 ,from being the director  he
 is supposed to have been the designer  
at least1 not only of the  temple1 but  
of all the works of art contained in it4
 ,this deduction  is certainly very     
broad to be drawn from so small a fact1 
even if  that fact should be established
 beyond doubt4 ,it resembles the modern 
instance of the popular attribution of  
so many nameless statues of  the        
,renaissance to ,michel ,angelo4 ,and   
there seems to be about as much  reason 
to suppose that ,phidias executed or    
designed all the sculpture  of the      
,parthenon1 because he was the general  
superintendent of public  works at      
,athens1 as to attribute to ,michel     
,angelo the authorship of all  the      
statues in ,st4 ,peter's1 because he was
 mainly the architect and               
superintendent of the work of that great
 ,christian temple4    ,the first fact  
to be opposed to this entirely          
gratuitous assumption is1  that during  
the execution of the great public works 

at ,athens under the  administration of 
,pericles1 ,phidias himself was occupied
 on his great  chryselephantine statue  
of ,athena1 which was the chief ornament
 of the  ,parthenon2 and this alone1    
without considering the other great     
statues  in ivory1 and gold1 and bronze1
 on which he was probably engaged at or 
near the same period1 was amply         
sufficient to occupy his entire time    
and thoughts4    ,the next most         
important fact is that no ancient       
contemporary author  asserts that any of
 the sculptures of the ,parthenon1 with 
the exception  of the chryselephantine  
statue of ,athena1 were executed by him2
 and  considering his fame in his own   
and subsequent ages1 it seems most      
improbable1 to say the least1 that1 had 
he been the author of any of  the other 
statues and alti or bassi-relievi1 not  
only no mention of  this fact1 but no   
allusion to it1 should ever have been   
made4    ,in the next place1 it will be 
found1 on careful examination of the    

ancient writers and of other facts      
bearing on the question1 to be          
exceedingly doubtful whether ,phidias   
ever made any statues in marble4  ,if he
 did execute any works in this material1
 they were exceptions to  his general   
practice1 his art being chiefly in      
toreutic work1 and in  gold and ivory1  
or bronze4 ,it was in these arts that he
 established his  fame2 and there is no 
mention of any work by him in marble    
within five  hundred years of his death4
    ,plutarch1 in his ,life of          
,pericles1 says that 8,phidias was      
appointed  by ,pericles superintendent  
of all the public edifices1 though the  
,athenians had other eminent architects1
 and excellent workmen40 ,it  is plain1 
however1 that even if ,phidias was      
director of the works1  ,plutarch does  
not mean to represent him as the        
architect or artist by  whom they were  
either designed or executed2 for he     
immediately adds  that 8the ,parthenon  
was built by ,callicrates and ,ictinus40

 ,probably  also ,carpion was another   
architect actively engaged upon it1 for 
he and  ,ictinus wrote a work upon it4  
,plutarch then goes on to enumerate     
other  buildings built by different     
artists at this very period during which
  ,phidias was director of public works4
 ,afterwards he positively states  that 
8the golden statue of ,minerva was the  
workmanship of ,phidias1  and his name  
is inscribed on the pedestal20#a and    
adds that1 8as we  have already         
observed1 through the friendship of     
,pericles1 he had the  direction of     
everything1 and all the artists received
 his orders40  ,but he does not say or  
intimate that ,phidias himself made     
anything  in the ,parthenon except the  
statue of ,athena1 unless 8having the   
direction of everything0 is to be       
understood as equivalent to making      
everything himself4 ,such an            
interpretation is1 however1 absolutely  
in contradiction with his statements    
that the ,parthenon was built by        

,callicrates and ,ictinus2 that the     
,temple of ,initiation at ,eleusis was  
begun by ,corbus1 carried on by         
,metagenes1 and finished by ,xenocles   
of ,cholargos2 that the vestibule of the
 ,citadel was finished in five  years by
 ,mnesicles2 and that the ,odeum was    
built under the direction of  ,pericles1
 by which he incurred much ridicule4    
,strabo1 however1 would seem to differ  
from ,plutarch on this point1  and to   
attribute to ,pericles himself1 and not 
to ,phidias1 the general                
superintendence of the public works4    
,speaking of the ,temple of the         
,eleusinian ,ceres at ,eleusis1 and the 
mystic inclosure1 1 built by  ,ictinus1 
he adds1 8,this person it was who made  
the ,parthenon in the  ,acropolis in    
honor of ,minerva1 when ,pericles was   
superintendent of  the public works20   
and in another passage he mentions 8the 
,parthenon  built by ,ictinus1 in which 
is the ,minerva in ivory1 the work of   
,phidias10--thus clearly distinguishing 

the work of ,phidias1 and saying  not a 
word about the metopes1 bassi-relievi1  
or statues in the  pediment1 or         
indicating him as their author4    ,but 
granting that ,plutarch is right1 it is 
quite manifest that  it was impossible  
for ,phidias to have had more than an   
official  superintendence of these great
 works4 ,the sole administration of     
public  affairs was conferred on        
,pericles in ,b4 ,c4 #ddd1 and it was   
not until  then or subsequently that    
,phidias could have been appointed to   
this  office4 ,among the public works   
built at this period were the ,propyla1 
the ,odeum1 the ,parthenon1 the ,temples
 of ,ceres at ,eleusis1 of ,juno at     
,argos1 of ,apollo at ,phigaleia1 and of
 ,zeus at ,olympia--the last being      
finished in ,b4 ,c4 #dcc4 ,within these 
eleven years1 therefore1 ,phidias is    
supposed to have superintended all or a 
portion of these temples1 with  their   
manifold sculptures and statues1 and1 in
 addition1 to have made  the colossal   

chryselephantine statues of ,athena in  
the ,parthenon1 ,zeus  at ,olympia1     
,aphrodite ,urania at ,elis1 and also1  
perhaps1 the ,athena  ,areia in bronze  
at ,plata4    ,but excluding all        
consideration as to the other temples1  
and confining  ourselves solely to the  
,parthenon1 let us see if it be         
possible1 with  all his occupations1 for
 him to have executed the ,athena alone1
 and  also executed or even designed the
 other sculptures of the ,parthenon4    
,in the tympanum there are #dd statues1 
all of heroic size4 ,there were #ib     
metopes representing the battles of the 
,centaurs and ,lapith1 and the  frieze1 
which was covered with elaborate        
bassi-relievi representing  processions 
of men1 women1 and horses with riders1  
was about #ebd feet  in length4         
,there seems to be no distinct statement
 of the exact time when the  ,parthenon 
was begun2 but it certainly was after   
the appointment of  ,pericles in #ddd   
,b4 ,c41 and we know that it was        

finished and dedicated  in #dch ,b4 ,c4 
,this gives us six years as the outside 
possible limits  within which it was    
built4 ,now1 if ,phidias made1 executed1
 or even  modeled or designed1 only the 
#dd statues of the tympanum within this 
period1 he must have been a man of      
astonishing activity and rapidity in    
his work4 ,to do this he must have made 
more than seven heroic statues  in each 
year1 or more than one statue every two 
months for six years4  ,this may safely 
be said to be impossible1 unless we mean
 by the term  designing the making of   
small sketches in clay or terra cotta1  
with  little elaboration or finish4 ,but
 if we add the #ib metopes and the  #ebd
 feet of figures in relief1 the mere    
designing in clay of all the  figures   
and groups becomes impossible4    ,but  
this is not enough3 we know that he     
executed in this time the  colossal     
chryselephantine statue of ,athena1--and
 to the other statues1  therefore1 he   
could only have given the overplus of   

his time which  was not needed for his  
great work4 ,nor are we without data by 
which  we can estimate the probable time
 given to the ,athena alone4 ,at ,elis  
he was engaged exclusively from four to 
five years upon the ,zeus1 in  the      
temple at ,olympia2 and in the execution
 of this colossal work we  know that he 
had the assistance of other artists1 and
 especially of  ,kolotes2 and we also   
know that he did nothing else in this   
temple1  the statues in the two tympana 
having been executed by ,alcamenes  and 
,ponios4 ,in all probability about the  
same amount of time was  given to the   
,athena4 ,supposing1 then1 that he began
 his work on the  ,parthenon immediately
 after the appointment of ,pericles1    
which is most  improbable1 he would have
 had about a year's time in which to    
make all  the statues and reliefs in the
 ,parthenon1 and exercise supervision   
of the public works4 ,if he modeled the 
designs only of the tympana  in this    
period1 he must have made a statue in   

eight days4 ,if he also  modeled the    
designs of the metopes1 #ib in number1  
of two figures each1  he must have given
 less than three days to each1 without  
allowing any  time for the performance  
of his functions of general director1   
and  supposing him also to have worked  
without a day's intermission4 ,such     
suppositions must be rejected as        
approaching so near to impossibilities  
as to render them utterly untenable4    
,all probabilities are in favor  of the 
supposition that1 during the period in  
which the ,parthenon was  constructed1  
,phidias was employed solely upon the   
statue of ,athena1 and  upon the duties 
incident to his position as             
superintendent of public  works4        
,this conclusion will seem all the more 
probable when we consider that          
,phidias1 far from being rapid in his   
execution1 was1 on the contrary1  a slow
 and elaborate worker1 devoting much    
time to the careful and  minute finish  
of his statues4 ,themistius is reported 

by ,plutarch as  saying of him1 that    
8though ,phidias was skillful enough to 
make in gold  or ivory0 7it will be     
observed that he speaks of his work in  
no other  materials7 8the true shape of 
god or man1 yet he did require abundance
  of time and leisure to his work2 so he
 is reported to have spent much  time   
upon the base and sandals of his statue 
of the goddess ,athena40#b    ,we must  
also add another consideration1 and it  
is this3 that in the  time of ,phidias  
it was necessary for a sculptor to do   
far more with  his own hand than it is  
now4 ,modern facilities have greatly    
abridged  the personal labor of the     
sculptor in marble or bronze4 ,the      
present  method of casting in plaster1  
which was then unknown1 or at least     
unpracticed1 enables the sculptor of our
 days to elaborate his work  to the     
utmost finish1 in its full size1 in the 
clay model2 and when  this is completed 
and cast in such a permanent material as
 plaster1  the workman has an absolute  

model1 which he may1 to a certain       
extent1  copy with almost mathematical  
accuracy4 ,the greater portion of the   
work may therefore be now committed to  
inferior hands1 as it requires  only    
mechanical dexterity and care2 while it 
merely remains for the  sculptor himself
 to finish the work in marble1 and add  
such elaboration  of detail and         
expression as he may desire4 ,but in the
 time of ,phidias  this method was      
unknown2 and the sculptor himself was   
forced to do a  much greater part of his
 work in marble4 ,in like manner1 the   
modern  method of casting in bronze is  
so admirable that the labor of the      
artist in finishing the cast is         
comparatively small2 but in the earlier 
period of bronze casting1 there is no   
doubt that the cast originally  was far 
more imperfect1 and the labor of the    
sculptor in finishing  far greater4     
,these facts will in some measure seem  
to account for the  comparatively long  
time during which ,phidias was engaged  

on his works4  ,as there evidently was  
no full-sized and completely finished   
model of  the ,athena or ,zeus for the  
workmen mechanically to copy1 ,phidias  
was  forced to work out the details of  
his great works with his own hands1     
moulding and designing them as he went  
on2 and this he was obliged to  do1 not 
in a plastic material like clay1 but in 
the final material of  his              
statue--whether gold1 ivory1 or bronze4 
,assistants of course he had1  and      
undoubtedly they were very numerous4    
,plutarch tells us that the  public     
works gave employment to carpenters1    
modelers1 brass cutters  and stampers1  
chiselers and engravers1 dyers1 workers 
of ivory and  gold1 and even weavers2#c 
and some of these men certainly worked  
for  ,phidias4 ,in fact1 he used the    
hands of others as much as he could--as 
any sensible artist would2 but a great  
part of his invention and work  was     
carried on in hard and difficult        
materials1 instead of being  perfected  

in a facile clay1 as it would be by a   
modern sculptor2 and  this carried with 
it1 of course1 a great expense of time  
and labor4    ,with these facts in view1
 and considering the great size and     
elaboration of the ivory and gold statue
 of ,athena1 it is quite  evident that  
the few years which elapsed between the 
commencement of  the ,parthenon and its 
dedication would have been amply        
occupied by  this work alone1--and with 
the other duties incident to his        
position  as superintendent of public   
works4 ,more than this1 we shall find it
  difficult to fix the time when he made
 some other of his statues1  unless it  
was during these six years2 and it would
 seem probable that  at or about this   
time he must have been engaged upon the 
,athena ,areia  for the ,platans1 or at 
least upon his chryselephantine statue  
of the  celestial ,venus for the        
,eleans4    ,before proceeding farther  
in this argument1 it may be as well to  
give a glance at the artistic career of 

,phidias1 and the various  works        
executed by him1 or assigned to him by  
different writers of an  after-age4     
,a good deal of discussion has arisen as
 to the age of ,phidias at his  death4  
,the date of his birth is distinctly    
given by no one1 and is  purely a matter
 of conjecture4 ,thiersch1 among others1
 supposes him to  have been already an  
artist of some distinction in the #gbc  
,olympiad1  or about ,b4 ,c4 #dij--the  
date of the battle of ,marathon2 and    
this opinion  he founds chiefly on the  
fact that the ,athena ,promachos1 as    
well as  the group of statues at ,delphi
 and the acrolith of ,athena at ,plata  
made by him1 were cast1 according to    
,pausanias1 from the tithe of the       
spoils taken from the ,medes who        
disembarked at ,marathon4 ,other writers
  suppose him to have been born at about
 the date of the battle of  ,marathon1  
and that the statues executed by him out
 of the spoils were  made some          
twenty-five years later4 ,mr4 ,philip   

,smith1 in his 8,dictionary  of         
,biography and ,mythology10 taking this 
view1 places his birth in the  #gc;d    
,olympiad2 and ,mller is of the same    
opinion4 ,dr4 ,brunn1 on the  contrary1 
thinks it probable that he was born     
about the #gjth ,olympiad1  and ,welcker
 and ,preller agree substantially with  
him4    ,according to the supposition of
 ,thiersch1 placing his birth at #fgb   
,olympiad1 or ,b4 ,c4 #eaj1 he would    
have been twenty years of age at  the   
battle of ,marathon 7,b4 ,c4 #dij71     
seventy-two years of age when he        
finished the chryselephantine statue of 
,athena in the ,parthenon in #hea       
,olympiad 7,b4 ,c4 #dch71 and           
seventy-seven years of age when he      
finished  the chryselephantine statue of
 ,zeus at ,olympia in #hgc ,olympiad    
7,b4 ,c4  #dcc74 ,this1 if we suppose   
that five years elapsed after the battle
 of  ,marathon before the group of      
statues at ,delphi was executed1 would  
make ,phidias twenty-five years old when

 he made them4    ,taking the           
supposition that he was born in the #gbc
 ,olympiad1 and that  the statues at    
,delphi were modeled twenty-five years  
after1 this would  make him also        
twenty-five years of age when he        
executed them2 and  fifty-two years of  
age1 instead of seventy-two1 when he    
finished the  ,athena of the ,parthenon2
 and fifty-seven1 instead of            
seventy-seven1  when he completed the   
,zeus--shortly previous to his death4   
,dr4 ,brunn's supposition that he was   
born in the #gjth ,olympiad1 which is   
also held by ,welcker and ,preller1     
would make him fifty-six when he made   
the ,athena1 and sixty-one when he made 
the ,zeus4    ,in opposition to these   
two later suppositions1 there is this   
one  undisputed fact1 that on the shield
 of the ,athena of the ,parthenon  he   
introduced his own likeness as well as  
that of ,pericles1 in which  he is      
described as representing himself as a  
bald old man 7  7 hurling a stone1 which

 he lifts with both hands1 while        
,pericles is portrayed as a vigorous    
warrior in the full prime of  manhood4  
,he must therefore have intended to     
represent himself as a much  older man  
than ,pericles2 and ,pericles at this   
time was over fifty-two  years of       
age#d--which is the age assigned to     
,phidias himself by some  writers4      
,besides1 a man of fifty-two1 or even of
 fifty-six1 could  scarcely be          
accurately described as an 8old man20   
and an artist making  a portrait of     
himself at that age would be inclined to
 give himself  a little more youth than 
he really possessed4 ,the mere fact that
 he  represents himself as old shows    
that he had in all probability arrived  
at a more advanced period of life1 when 
one accepts old age as too  notorious   
and well-established a fact to be       
disguised4 ,the supposition  of         
,thiersch1 therefore1 would1 in view of 
this fact alone1 seem to be  the best   
founded1 as this would make him         

seventy-two years old when the  ,athena 
was completed1--an age which might      
fairly be called old4    ,mr4 ,smith    
seems to think it very improbable that  
at the age of  eighty-three ,phidias    
could have undertaken to execute the    
,zeus2 but the  fact is1 that           
,thiersch's conjecture would only make  
him seventy-three  when the ,zeus was   
begun1 and certainly at this age it is  
by no means  uncommon for sculptors to  
undertake large works4 ,tenerani1 for   
instance1 in our own time1 had passed   
that age when he executed the  monument 
of ,pius ,,viii41 one of his largest    
works1 and consisting of  four colossal 
figures4 ,besides1 it is to be taken    
into account that  the ,zeus was the    
last work of ,phidias1 and that death   
overtook him  immediately after4    ,on 
the whole1 it would seem that the       
probabilities of the period of his      
birth lie between the middle of the     
#fgth ,olympiad 7,b4 ,c4 #eaj7 and the  
beginning of the #gjth ,olympiad 7,b4   

,c4 #ejj74    ,there is also another    
consideration which is entitled to      
weight in  this connection4 ,suppose    
,phidias to have commenced his artistic 
career  four years after the battle of  
,marathon--in ,b4 ,c4 #dij 7,olymp4     
#gbc74  ,from that time to ,b4 ,c4 #ddd 
7,olymp4 #hcd71 when he began the       
,athena  of the ,parthenon1 there are   
forty-five years2 and during this time  
he is supposed to have executed six     
colossal statues in bronze or           
acrolith1--two of which1 the ,athena    
,promachos and the ,athena ,areia1 were 
from #ej to #fj feet in height--and one1
 the ,athena ,lemnia1 was considered  as
 perhaps his most beautiful work4       
,besides this1 he executed thirteen     
statues at ,delphi1 the size of which is
 not stated4 ,nineteen statues  in      
forty-five years give a little over #b  
years to each2 and if the  thirteen     
statues at ,delphi were colossal1 this  
will certainly seem  insufficient for   
their execution1 when we keep in mind   

the facts--#ast1  ,that ,phidias was a  
slow and elaborate worker2 #b;d1 ,that  
of necessity he  must have done a great 
part of the work in bronze personally2  
#c;d1 ,that  he was occupied four years 
on the ,zeus alone2 #dth1 ,that two of  
these  statues1 at least1 were larger   
than the ,athena of the ,parthenon1     
though  not in the same material4 ,it   
is1 however1 probable1 that the thirteen
  statues at ,delphi were not of        
colossal proportions1 but rather of     
heroic size1 and therefore requiring    
less time in their execution2 and  this 
would enable us to assign a longer time 
to the mighty colossi of  ,athena4      
,certainly1 however1 if we accept the   
theory that ,phidias commenced  working 
twenty-five years after the battle of   
,marathon1 we are in very  great straits
 as to time1 unless the date when these 
colossal statues  were made be          
incorrect1 and unless some of them were 
made after the  ,athena of the          
,parthenon4 ,this1 again1 we cannot     

accept2 for1 from the  date of the      
completion of the ,athena of the        
,parthenon until his death1  there are  
only at most some seven years1 four of  
which were dedicated  to the ,zeus4 ,we 
are then forced to believe that these   
nineteen statues  were made in twenty   
years2 and this is certainly very       
improbable4    ,in this view other      
difficulties also appear1 which it would
 seem  impossible to overcome1 if we    
accept all the statues attributed to    
,phidias as having been executed by him2
 for in such case1 not only must  he    
have made these nineteen statues in     
twenty years1 but some fifteen  more at 
least4 ,taking1 then1 the longest       
supposition as to his age1 and  giving  
him forty-five years of labor for some  
thirty-five statues1 the  time will     
altogether be too restricted4 ,it may be
 as well at this point  of the          
discussion to give a catalogue of the   
works which he is supposed  to have     
executed1 and to examine into the       

probable authenticity of some  of them4 
,the list is as follows3--    #a4 ,the  
,athena1 at ,pellene1 in ,achaia4 ,this 
was probably his first  great work1 if  
we credit ,pausanias1 who says it was   
made before the  ,athena of the         
,acropolis and the ,athena at ,plata4   
8,they say10 says  ,pausanias1 8that    
this statue was made by ,phidias1 and   
before he made  that for the ,athenians1
 which is in their town1 or that which  
is among  the ,platans40    #b-ad4      
,thirteen statues in bronze1 made from  
the spoils of the ,persian  war1 and    
dedicated at ,delphi as a votive        
offering by the ,athenians1             
representing ,athena1 ,apollo1          
,miltiades1 ,erechtheus1 ,cecrops1      
,pandion1  ,peleus1 ,antiochus1 geus1   
,acamas1 ,codrus1 ,theseus1 and         
,phyleus4 8,all  these statues10 says   
,pausanias1 8were made by ,phidias20 and
 on his sole  authority the statement   
stands4 ,he does not mention their size4
    #ae4 ,the colossal ,athena          

,promachos in bronze in the ,acropolis4 
,this  statue1 which was from #ej to #fj
 feet in height1 was made from the      
spoils of ,marathon4 ,it represented the
 goddess holding up her spear and       
shield in the attitude of a combatant1  
and was visible to approaching  vessels 
as far off as ,sunium4 8,on the shield10
 says ,pausanias1 8the  battle of the   
,centaurs and ,lapith was carved by     
,mys2 but ,parrhasius1  the son of      
,evenor1 painted this for ,mys1 and     
likewise the other figures  that are    
seen on the shield40 ,pausanias1        
however1 must be mistaken in  this1     
since ,parrhasius lived about ,olymp4   
#ie 7,b4 ,c4 #djj71 or about  thirty    
years after the death of ,phidias2 and  
it would scarcely be  probable that this
 shield would have remained uncarved and
 unpainted  for from seventy to eighty  
years after the statue was executed4    
#af4 ,the ,athena ,areia1 at ,plata4    
,this was an acrolith1 also made from   
the spoils of ,marathon4 8,this statue10

 says ,pausanias1 8is made of  wood1 and
 is gilt1 except the face and the       
extremities of the hands and  feet1     
which are of ,pentelic marble4 ,its     
magnitude is nearly equal to  that of   
the ,minerva1 which the ,athenians      
dedicated on their tower0 7the          
,promachos74 8,phidias too made this    
statue for the ,platenses40    #ag4 ,the
 ,athena in bronze1 in the ,acropolis1  
called the ,lemnia1 which1  according to
 ,pausanias1 8deserves to be seen above 
all the works of  ,phidias40 ,lucian    
also speaks specially of its beauty4    
#ah4 ,the ,athena mentioned by ,pliny as
 having been dedicated at ,rome1  near  
the ,temple of ,fortune1 by ,paulus     
milius4 ,but whether this  originally   
stood in the ,acropolis is unknown4     
,possibly or probably it  was the same  
statue as that last mentioned4    #ai4  
,the ,cliduchus 7,key-,bearer71 also    
mentioned by ,pliny1 may have been  an  
,athena2 but more probably it           
represented a priestess holding the     

keys1 symbolic of initiation into the   
mysteries4    #bj4 ,the ,athena of the  
,parthenon1 in ivory and gold4    #ba4  
,the ,zeus at ,olympia1 in ivory and    
gold4    #bb4 ,the ,aphrodite ,urania1  
in ivory and gold1 at ,elis4 ,this      
statue1  attributed by ,pausanias to    
,phidias1 8stands with one of its feet  
on a  tortoise40    #bc4 ,a bronze      
figure of ,apollo ,parnopius1 in the    
,acropolis4 ,the  authority for this    
statue is ,pausanias1 who states that   
8it is said to  be the work of          
,phidias10--  4 ,tradition alone gives  
it to ,phidias4    #bd4 ,aphrodite      
,urania1 in marble1 in the temple near  
the ,ceramicus4  ,this also is          
attributed by ,pausanias to ,phidias4   
#be4 ,a statue of the ,mother of the    
,gods1 sitting on a throne1 supported   
by lions1 in the ,metroum near the      
,ceramicus4 ,this is attributed by      
,pausanias and ,arrian to ,phidias4     
,pliny1 on the contrary1 says it is by  
,agoracritos4    #bf4 ,the ,golden      

,throne1 so called1 and supposed        
generally to be that of  the ,athena4   
,what this was is very dubious4 ,it     
could not be the throne  of the ,athena1
 for she had no throne1 and probably was
 another name for  the ,athena herself4 
,plutarch calls it 8    10 and          
,isocrates1 8   40    #bg4 ,statue of   
,athena1 at ,elis1 in ivory and gold4   
,pausanias says it is  attributed to    
,phidias1--8 10--they say it is by      
,phidias4  ,pliny1 however1 says it was 
executed by ,kolotes4    #bh4 ,statue of
 sculapius1 at ,epidaurus4 ,this is     
attributed to ,phidias  by ,athenagoras 
7,legat4 pro ,arist472 but by ,pausanias
 to ,thrasymedes of  ,paros4    #bi4 ,at
 the entrance of the ,ismenion1 near    
,thebes1 are two marble  statues called 
,pronaoi--one of ,athena1 ascribed by   
,pausanias to ,scopas1  and one of      
,hermes1 ascribed by ,pausanias to      
,phidias4    #cj4 ,a ,zeus1 at the      
,olympieum at ,megara4 ,the head of this
 statue was  made of gold and ivory1 the

 rest of clay and gypsum4 8,this work is
  said 77 to have been made by          
,theocosmos1 a citizen of ,megara1  with
 the assistance of ,phidias10 says      
,pausanias1 and it was interrupted  by  
the breaking out of the ,peloponnesian  
war4 ,probably it was executed  solely  
by ,theocosmos4    #ca4 ,the statue of  
,nemesis1 at ,rhamnus1 in marble1       
attributed to  ,phidias by ,pausanias2  
but there can be little question that it
 was made  by ,agoracritos4    #cb4 ,the
 ,amazon4 ,this statue1 which is highly 
praised by ,lucian1 was1  according to  
,pliny1 made by ,phidias in competition 
with ,polyclitus1  ,ctesilaus1 ,cydon1  
and ,phradmon2 the first prize being    
given to  ,polyclitus1 the second to    
,phidias1 the third to ,ctesilaus1 and  
the  fourth to ,cydon4    #cc1 #cd1 #ce4
 ,three bronze statues mentioned by     
,pliny1 the subjects not  stated1 and   
placed by ,catulus in the ,temple of    
,fortune4    #cf4 ,the marble ,venus in 
the portico of ,octavia1 which ,pliny   

says 8is  said to be by ,phidias40      
#cg4 ,the ,horse-,tamer1 in marble1 now 
existing1 and standing before the       
,quirinal in ,rome4    ,there are some  
other statues attributed to ,phidias by 
various writers1  which may be at once  
rejected4 ,among them were the statues  
of ,zeus and  ,apollo at ,patara1 in    
,lycia1 which were supposed by ,clemens 
,alexandrinus  to have been by ,phidias1
 but which are clearly settled to have  
been  by ,bryaxis4 ,so also the ,kairos1
 or ,opportunity1 by ,lysippus1 was     
attributed to ,phidias by ,ausonius2 and
 the famous ,venus of the ,gardens  7 71
 by ,alcamenes1 was said to have        
received its finishing  touches from    
him4    ,it will1 ,i think1 be clear    
that many of the statues in the         
foregoing  list must also be rejected4  
,in the last ten years of his life he   
executed only two statues1 each         
colossal--the ,athena of the ,parthenon1
  and the ,zeus at ,olympia4 ,taking the
 earliest date of his artistic  career  

at five years before the battle of      
,marathon1 according to the  theory of  
,thiersch1 he would1 as we have seen1   
have had forty-five  years only in which
 to execute the other thirty-five       
statues1 besides  all the other and     
minute work to which1 as we shall see1  
he gave his  genius4 ,several1 at least1
 of these statues are colossal1 several 
elaborately wrought in ivory and gold2  
and it is in the highest degree         
improbable that they could have been    
executed in this period of time4    ,on 
examination of the list1 three at least 
will be seen to rest purely  on         
tradition4 ,the ,apollo ,parnopius and  
the ,athena at ,elis are mentioned  by  
,pausanias as being 8said to be0 by     
,phidias4 ,the ,venus of the portico  of
 ,octavia 8is said to be by ,phidias10  
says ,pliny4 ,little weight can  be     
given to current and common opinion in  
respect to the authorship  of works of  
art executed many centuries before1     
about which there is  no written        

documentary proof4 ,in our own time it  
is always exceedingly  difficult1 and   
often impossible1 to decide upon the    
authorship of  pictures and statues of  
one hundred years ago4 ,double that     
period1 and  the difficulty would of    
course be enormously increased4 ,now    
,pausanias  wrote some six hundred years
 after the death of ,phidias1 and yet we
 are  ready to accept as authoritative  
his passing statement that a certain    
statue 8is said0 to be by ,phidias4 ,how
 many statues at the present day  are   
said to be by ,michel ,angelo1 which he 
never saw6 ,how many spurious           
,raffaelles and ,titians adorn our      
galleries6 ,do we not know that every   
traveler in ,italy sees statues 8said to
 be0 by ,michel ,angelo in such  numbers
 that ten ,michel ,angelos could not    
have made them all8 ,there  is scarcely 
a church that does not boast of         
something from his hand4  ,there is no  
reason to suppose that the case was not 
similar in ,greece  fifteen hundred     

years ago1 and none to suppose that     
,pausanias was  superior in artistic    
knowledge and acumen to any average     
intelligent  traveler of his day4 ,he   
did not stop to investigate the grounds 
upon  which the popular or accidental   
account given him as to the authorship  
of any work was founded1 nor does he    
pretend to have done so4 ,he took  it   
for what it was worth4 8,they say the   
statue is by ,phidias40 ,he had1        
besides1 as far as we know1 no written  
authority for what he said1--at  least  
he cites none4    ,again1 in respect to 
the authorship of some of the statues of
 which  he speaks1 he at times differs  
from other writers1 and at times        
unquestionably mistakes4 ,thus1 to cite 
only examples in the case of  ,phidias1 
the statue of ,athena1 at ,elis1 he     
attributes to ,phidias1  while ,pliny   
says it was by ,kolotes4 ,again1 the    
statue of sculapius1  at ,epidaurus1 he 
attributes to ,thrasymedes of ,paros1   
while ,athenagoras  says it was the work

 of ,phidias4 ,in like manner1 the      
statue of the  ,mother of the ,gods1    
which ,pausanias and ,arrian give to    
,phidias1  ,pliny declares to be the    
work of ,agoracritos4 ,still more1      
,pausanias  distinctly affirms that the 
,nemesis at ,rhamnus was executed by    
,phidias2  while ,pliny1 on the         
contrary1 asserts it to be the work of  
,agoracritos4  ,and in this assertion   
,pliny is borne out by ,zenobius1 who   
gives us the  inscription on the branch 
in the hand of ,nemesis3    4 ,strabo1  
however1 hesitates between ,agoracritos 
and an unknown  ,diodotos1 and says it  
was remarkable for beauty and size1 and 
might  well compete with the works of   
,phidias2 and to confuse matters still  
more1 at a later time ,pomponius ,mela1 
,hesychius1 and ,solon agree with       
,pausanias4 ,there would seem1 after    
weighing all authorities1 to be  little 
doubt that the ,nemesis was the work of 
,agoracritos4    ,nothing could more    
clearly show the easy way in which      

traditions grow  like barnacles upon    
artists and works of art1 than the story
 connected  with this statue4 ,pliny    
says that ,agoracritos contended with   
,alcamenes  in making a statue of       
,venus2 and the preference being given  
to that of  ,alcamenes1 he was so       
indignant at the decision that he       
immediately made  certain alterations in
 his own statue1 called it ,nemesis1 and
 sold it  to the people of ,rhamnus1 on 
condition that it should not be set up  
in  ,athens4 ,this is absurd enough4    
,after a statue of ,venus is finished1  
what sort of change would be required to
 make a ,nemesis of it8 ,but  let us see
 how well this statue would have        
represented ,aphrodite4  ,pausanias says
 that 8out of the marble brought by the 
barbarians to  ,marathon for a trophy   
,phidias made a statue of ,nemesis1 and 
on the  head of the goddess there is a  
crown adorned with stags and images  of 
victory of no great magnitude2 and in   
the left hand she holds the  branch of  

an ash-tree1 and in her right a cup1 on 
which the thiopians  are carved--why1 ,i
 cannot assign any reason40 ,now1 in the
 first place1  the assertion that it was
 a work of marble brought to make a     
trophy at  ,marathon is a myth4 ,in the 
next place1 these are certainly peculiar
  characteristics for an ,aphrodite4    
,the statue itself was undoubtedly  a   
noble statue1 however1 and the best work
 of ,agoracritos4 ,as it was  not the   
custom for sculptors in ,greece to      
inscribe their names on  their statues1 
it may have happened that it soon came  
to be popularly  attributed to ,phidias1
 according to the general rule1 that to 
the  master is ascribed the best work of
 his pupil and his school4 ,then  it    
was1 probably1 that the inscription was 
placed on the statue1  reclaiming it for
 its true author4 ,however this may be1 
,photias1  ,suidas1 and ,tzetzes1 as    
late as from the tenth to the twelfth   
century1  are determined that ,phidias  
shall have it1 despite the inscription2 

and accordingly they report and publish1
 many long centuries after--and  gifted 
by what second-sight into the past who  
can tell8--that though  it is true that 
the statue is supposed to have been     
executed by  ,agoracritos1 yet in fact  
it was made by ,phidias1 who generously 
allowed  ,agoracritos to put his name on
 it1 and pass it off as his own4    ,in 
further illustration of this parasitic  
growth of legend and  tradition may be  
also cited in this connection the story 
told by  ,tzetzes the ,grammarian1 some 
seventeen centuries after the death of  
,phidias4 ,according to him1 ,alcamenes 
and ,phidias competed in making a       
statue of ,athena1 to be placed in an   
elevated position2 and when their       
figures were finished and exposed to    
public view near the level of the  eye1 
the preference was decidedly given to   
the figure of ,alcamenes2 but  as soon  
as the figures were elevated to their   
destined position1 the  public declared 
immediately in favor of that of         

,phidias4 ,the object  of the writer of 
this story is to prove the extraordinary
 skill of  ,phidias in optical          
perspective1 and to show that he had    
calculated his  proportions with such   
foresight1 that though the figure1 when 
seen  near the level of the eye1        
appeared inharmonious1 it became        
perfectly  harmonious when seen from far
 below4 ,now all that any artist could  
do  to produce this effect would be1    
perhaps1 to give more length to his     
figures in comparison with their        
breadth4 ,this1 however1 would be not   
only a doubtful expedient in itself1 but
 entirely at variance with  the practice
 of ,phidias4 ,his figures1 like all    
those of his period1  were stouter in   
proportion to their breadth1 and        
particularly stouter  in the relation of
 the lower limbs to the torso1 than the 
figures of  a later period4 ,the canon  
of proportion accepted then was that of 
,polyclitus2 and the proportions were   
afterward varied and the lower  limbs   

were lengthened1 first by ,euphranor1   
and subsequently still more  by         
,lysippus4 ,any distortion or           
falsification of proportion would be    
effective solely in a statue with one   
point of view1 and exhibited  as a      
relief2 for if it were a figure in the  
round1 and seen from all  points1 the   
perspective would be utterly false1     
unless the proportions  were harmonious 
in themselves and true to nature4       
,tzetzes is a great  gossip1 and        
peculiarly untrustworthy in his         
statements2 but his story  is of such a 
nature as to please the ignorant public1
 and it has  been accepted and repeated 
constantly1 though he does not give any 
authority for it1 and plainly invented  
it out 8of the depths of his own        
consciousness10 as the ,german savant   
did the camel4    ,one cannot be too    
careful in accepting traditions about   
artists or  their works4 ,the public    
invents its facts1 and believes what it 
invents4 ,very few of the pleasing      

anecdotes connected with artists  will  
bear critical examination1 any more than
 the famous sayings  attributed on great
 occasions to extraordinary men2 still  
the grand  phrase of ,cambronne is as   
gravely repeated in history as if it had
 some  foundation in fact1 and everybody
 believes that ,da ,vinci died in the   
arms of ,francis ,i4 ,perhaps it is     
scarcely worth while to break up such   
pleasant traditions1 and certainly the  
public resists such attempts4  ,it is so
 delightful to think that the gallant   
and accomplished ,king  of ,france      
supported the great ,italian artist1 and
 soothed his last  moments1 that it     
seems sheer brutality to dissipate such 
an illusion2  yet1 unfortunately1 we    
know that ,leonardo died at ,cloux1 near
 ,amboise1  on ,may #b1 #afgi1--;and    
from a journal kept by the king1 and    
still  7disgracefully enough7 existing  
in the imperial library in ,paris1 we   
know that on that very day he held his  
,court at ,st4 ,germain-en-,laye2  and  

besides this1 ,lomazzo distinctly tells 
us that the king first heard  the news  
of ,leonardo's death from ,melzi2 while 
,melzi himself1 who wrote  to           
,leonardo's friend immediately after his
 death1 makes no mention of  such a     
fact4    ,but to return from this       
digression to a consideration of the    
list of  works attributed to ,phidias4  
,we have already seen that in regard to 
six of the statues there are1 to say the
 least1 strong doubts as to  his        
authorship2 but still more must be      
eliminated4 ,the ,zeus of the           
,olympieum at ,megara 8is said10        
according to ,pausanias1 8to have been  
made by ,theocosmos1 with the assistance
 of ,phidias40 ,this again is mere      
tradition1 which is so weak that it only
 pretends that ,phidias assisted        
,theocosmos4 ,phidias assisting         
,theocosmos has a strange sound2 and it 
is  plain that ,theocosmos is the real  
author of this statue1 even granting    
that the great master may have helped   

the lesser one4    ,again1 ,pausanias   
tells us that of the two marble statues 
called ,pronaoi  at the entrance of the 
,ismenion1 that representing ,athena was
 made by  ,scopas1 and the other of     
,hermes was made by ,phidias4 ,these    
so-called  ,pronaoi were statues        
standing at the entrance of the         
building1 opposite  each other1 a chief 
decorative ornament to the faade4 ,is it
 not  strange that the statue on one    
side should be made by ,phidias1 and    
the opposite pedestal remain unoccupied 
until the time of ,scopas1  nearly a    
century later8 ,is it not plain that the
 temple would not have  been considered 
finished until both statues were placed 
there8 ,and  is it probable that the    
,greeks would have allowed it to remain 
thus  incomplete for a century8         
,besides1 does it not seem singular1 in 
view  of the fact that ,phidias was     
peculiarly celebrated for his statues   
of ,athena1 while ,scopas was celebrated
 for his heroic figures and  demigods1  

that the ,athena should have been       
assigned to ,scopas1 and  the ,hermes to
 ,phidias8 ,when we also add the fact   
that these statues  were in marble1--a  
material in which1 as we shall presently
 see1 ,phidias  certainly worked only   
exceptionally1 if he ever worked at all1
 while  ,scopas was a worker in         
marble1--it will1 ,i think1 be pretty   
clear that  ,pausanias is mistaken in   
attributing this statue of ,hermes to   
,phidias4    ,again1 8,the ,golden      
,throne0 must probably be considered as 
a name for  the ,athena of the          
,parthenon1 since there is no golden    
throne of which  we have any knowledge  
ever made by ,phidias4 ,in like manner  
it is most  probable that the ,athena   
mentioned by ,pliny as being in ,rome   
near the  temple of ,julian1 and        
dedicated by ,paulus milius1 was the    
,athena  ,lemnia in bronze1 taken from  
the ,acropolis4 ,these statues1 which   
are  reckoned as four1 must therefore in
 all probability be considered as  only 

two4    ,there remains one other statue 
in the list which certainly must be     
struck out--the ,horse-,tamer1 still    
existing in ,rome at the present day1   
under the name of 8,il ,colosso di      
,monte ,cavallo40 ,this statue1 or      
rather  group1 stands on the ,quirinal  
,hill1 and on its pedestal are inscribed
  the words 8,opus ,phidi40 ,it is cited
 by ,dr4 ,smith in his ,dictionary  as a
 work of ,phidias1 and he thinks it may 
be the 8altrum colossicon  nudum0 of    
which ,pliny speaks4 ,but ,pliny cited  
this 8colossicon nudum0  in his chapter 
on bronze works2 and as this is in      
marble1 he could not  have referred to  
it4 ,independent of all other           
considerations1 however1  there is one  
simple fact that makes it almost        
impossible that it could  have been the 
work of ,phidias1 though curiously      
enough this simple fact  has apparently 
escaped the observation of critics4 ,it 
is1 that the  cuirass which supports the
 group is a ,roman cuirass and not a    

,greek  cuirass1 such as ,phidias would 
necessarily have made4    ,the legend   
about this group and its companion1     
attributed with equal  absurdity to     
,praxiteles1 is curious4 ,in 8,roma     
,sacra1 ,antica e ,moderna10  which was 
published in ,rome in the latter part of
 the sixteenth  century1 and constantly 
reprinted for at least a hundred years1 
we are  told that these two statues were
 made1 one by ,phidias1 and the other   
by ,praxiteles1 in competition with each
 other1--that they represent  ,alexander
 taming ,bucephalus1 and were brought to
 ,rome by ,tiridates1  ,king of         
,armenia1 as a present to ,nero1--and   
that they were afterwards  restored and 
placed in the ,therm of ,constantine1   
from which place  they were transported 
to the ,quirinal1 and again restored and
 set up  by ,sixtus ,v41 with           
inscriptions1 stating1 that they were   
brought by  ,constantine from ,greece4  
,the inscriptions were as follows3 under
 the horse of the statue  professing to 

be by ,phidias1 was inscribed3          
8,phidias1 nobilis sculptor1  ad        
artificii prstantiam declarandam        
,alexandri ,bucephaalum domantis        
effigiem e marmore expressit40 ,on the  
base was inscribed3 8,signa  ,alexandri 
,magni celebrisque ejus ,bucephal ex    
antiquitatis testimonio  ,phidi et      
,praxitelis emulatione hoc marmore ad   
vivam effigiem expressa  a ,fl4         
,constantino ,max4 e ,grcia advecta     
suisque in ,thermis in hoc  ,quirinali  
monte collocata1 temporis vi deformata1 
laceraque ad ejusdem  ,imperatoris      
memoriam urbisque decorem1 in pristinam 
formam restituta  hic reponi jussit anno
 ,,mdxxxix ,pont4 ,,iv40 ,under the     
horse of ,praxiteles  was inscribed3    
8,praxiteles sculptor ad ,phidi         
emulationem sui monumenta  ingenii      
relinquere cupiens ejusdem ,alexandri   
,bucephalique signa felici  contentione 
perficit40    ,here are a charming      
series of assumptions1 so completely in 
defiance of  history that one cannot    

help smiling2 and were not the fact     
accredited1  it would be difficult to   
believe that these inscriptions could   
have  been placed under these statues4  
,phidias died probably in ,b4 ,c4 #dcb1 
,praxiteles flourished about ,b4 ,c4    
#cfd1 nearly a century later1 and       
,alexander was not born till ,b4 ,c4    
#cef4 ,here we have ,phidias making a   
group of ,alexander and ,bucephalus1 and
 representing an incident which         
occurred a century after his death1 and 
in competition with ,praxiteles4        
,absurdity and ignorance can scarcely go
 further2 and1 as we learn  from 8,roma 
,sacra10 it afterwards occasioned such  
ridicule that ,urban  ,,viii4 removed   
the inscriptions1 and substituted the   
simple words1  8,opus ,phidi0 and 8,opus
 ,praxitelis0 under the respective      
statues1  still adhering to the legend  
that the two groups were the work of    
these great artists4 ,the fact is that  
they are ,roman works1 and were  neither
 brought by ,tiridates from ,armenia to 

present to ,nero1 nor by  ,constantine  
from ,greece4    ,of the statues        
attributed to ,phidias we may then      
strike out eleven as  resting1 on the   
face of the facts1 upon no sufficient   
authority4 ,we  still shall have the    
large number of twenty-six important    
statues1 many  of them colossal1 which  
are far more than sufficient to have    
occupied  his life1 even when reckoned  
at its longest probable term4 ,to this  
number it would be impossible to add the
 marble statues contained in  the       
,parthenon4    ,michel ,angelo lived to 
a great age4 ,he was throughout his life
 a  very hard worker1 devoting all his  
time to art4 ,it is true that  he was   
devoted to architecture and             
fresco-painting1 as well as to          
sculpture1 and that to these arts he    
gave much time2 but still he was  by    
profession specially a sculptor1 and a  
large portion of his life  was given to 
sculpture4 ,he was1 besides1 impetuous  
and even violent  in his marble work2   

and not content with the labor of the   
day1 gave  to it a portion of his       
nights1 working with a candle fixed in  
his  cap--unless1 indeed1 this also be a
 legend1 into which it is better  not to
 inquire too anxiously4 ,still1 in the  
course of his long life  he executed    
very few statues3 of the really         
accredited statues of any  size1 the    
number1 ,i think1 does not exceed       
fifteen--and some of these  are merely  
roughed out and left unfinished4 ,the   
explanation of this is  undoubtedly that
 casting in plaster having been then    
just invented1 and  being very imperfect
 in its development1 he was accustomed  
at once to  rough out his large statues 
from small sketches in terra cotta1     
after  the probable practice of the     
ancients4 ,this obliged him personally  
to do with his own hand much of the hard
 work which now1 with the  increased    
facilities of the art and the perfecting
 of plaster-casting1  can safely be left
 to an ordinary workman2 at all events1 

there are  no full-sized models existing
 of his great works4 ,if1 then1 ,michel 
,angelo1 with twenty years more of life1
 and with all his energy1 could  produce
 only some fifteen statues of heroic    
size1--and these1 many of  them1        
unfinished1--it will not seem necessary 
to suppose that ,phidias  must have     
executed double that number1            
particularly when we remember  the      
colossal size of many of them 7from     
forty to sixty feet in height71  the    
extreme elaboration and fineness of the 
workmanship1 and the  difficulties      
growing out of the materials in which   
they were executed4    ,we have already 
seen1 by the testimony of ,themistius1  
that ,phidias  was by no means rapid in 
his workmanship1 but1 on the contrary1  
slow  and elaborate in his finish--just 
the opposite in these respects from     
,michel ,angelo4 ,this testimony of     
,themistius is borne out by all the     
ancient writers who speak of him4 ,his  
style was a singular combination  of the

 grand and colossal in design with the  
most minute and careful  finish of all  
details4 ,he had a peculiar grace and   
refinement in  his art 7  71 says ,dion 
,chrysostomus1 who in another  passage  
distinguishes him from all his          
predecessors by the delicate  precision 
of his work 7    72    is also          
attributed to him by ,demetrius1 in his 
treatise on ,elocution2  and ,dionysius 
of ,halicarnassus celebrates his art as 
uniting these  qualities of finesse of  
workmanship with grandeur of design 7   
74 ,the minute and almost  excessive    
elaboration of his great works1 as they 
are described by  ancient authors1      
perfectly supports this judgment4 ,take1
 for instance1  the ,zeus at ,olympia1  
or the ,athena of the ,parthenon--his   
two greatest  statues in ivory and gold4
 ,not content with carefully finishing  
the  main figures1 he chased and        
ornamented them1 as well as all the     
accessories in every part1 with the     
minute elaboration of a goldsmith4  ,the

 surface of the mantle of ,zeus was     
wrought over with living figures  and   
flowers4 ,gold and gems were inserted4  
,cedar1 ebony1 and ivory were  inlaid   
and overlaid1 and the whole was         
exquisitely painted4 ,each leg of  the  
throne on which ,zeus sat was supported 
by four ,victories dancing1  and two men
 were in front4 ,the two front legs were
 surmounted by groups  representing a   
,theban youth seized by a sphinx1 and   
beneath each of  these groups were      
,phbus and ,artemis shooting at the     
children of ,niobe2  and still further  
on the legs were represented the battle 
of the  ,amazons and the comrades of    
,achelous4 ,over the back of the throne 
were  three ,graces on one side1 and    
three ,hours on the other4 ,four golden 
lions supported the footstool1 and along
 its border was worked in  relief or    
intaglio the battle of ,theseus with the
 ,amazons4 ,the sides of  the throne    
were ornamented with numerous figures   
representing various  groups and        

actions--such as ,helios mounting his   
chariot1 ,zeus and  ,charis1 ,zeus and  
,hera1 ,aphrodite and ,eros1 ,phbus and 
,artemis1 ,poseidon  and ,amphitrite1   
,athena and ,heracles1 and others4 ,what
 wonderful  elaboration expended on a   
mere accessory of this ,colossus6       
,scarcely less remarkable for its       
extreme ornamentation was the ,athena   
of the ,parthenon4 ,the goddess was     
represented standing1 dressed in a  long
 tunic reaching to her feet1 with the   
gis on her breast1 a helmet  on her     
head1 a spear in her left hand1 touching
 a shield which rested  at her side upon
 the base1 and holding in her right hand
 a golden  ,victory1 six feet in height4
 ,her own height was twenty-six cubits1 
or  about forty feet4 ,her robes were of
 gold beaten out with the hammer2  her  
eyes were of colored marble or ivory1   
with gems inserted4 ,every  portion was 
minutely covered with work4 ,the crest  
of the helmet was a  sphinx1 on either  
side of which were griffins4 ,the gis   

was surrounded  by golden serpents      
interlaced1 and in its centre was a     
golden or ivory  head of ,medusa4 ,the  
shield was embossed with reliefs1       
representing on  the inner side the     
battle of the ,giants with the ,gods1   
and on the outer  side the battle of the
 ,athenians with the ,amazons4 ,beneath 
the spear  was couched a dragon2 and    
even the sandals1 which were four       
dactyls  high1 were ornamented with     
chasings representing the battle of the 
,centaurs with the ,lapith4 ,the base1  
which alone occupied months of  labor1  
was covered by reliefs representing the 
birth of ,pandora1 and  the visit of the
 divinities to her with their gifts--the
 figures being  some twenty in number4  
,the interior or core of the statue was 
probably  of wood1 and over this all the
 nude parts were veneered with plates of
  ivory to imitate flesh1 while the     
draperies and accessories were of  gold 
plates so arranged as to be removable at
 pleasure4    ,here is certainly work   

enough to employ any man a very long    
time in  designing and executing4 ,the  
,victory which ,athena held in her hand 
was  of large life-size1 and might      
easily have occupied a year4 ,besides   
this1 there are the embossed            
bassi-relievi on both sides of the      
shield1 the gis1 with the ,medusa's head
 and golden serpents1 the  dragon at her
 feet1 the sphinx and griffins on her   
helmet1 and the  relievi and chasings   
which ornamented the base and the       
sandals4 ,yet  these are merely         
accessories4 ,what1 then1 must have been
 the time  devoted to the figure itself1
 to the disposition and working out of  
those colossal draperies1 and to the    
perfect elaboration of the head1  the   
arms1 and the extremities6    ,the      
tendency of ,phidias' mind to great     
elaboration and refinement of  finish is
 shown in both of these works4 ,colossal
 as they were1 august  and grand in     
their total expression1 the parts were  
quite as remarkable  for laborious      

detail as the whole was for grandeur and
 impressiveness4  ,he is generally      
considered and spoken of now solely in  
relation to  these great works2 but it  
must be remembered that with the        
ancients  he was also renowned for his  
minute works4 ,julian1 in his ,epistles1
  tells us that he was accustomed to    
amuse himself with making very small    
images1 representing for example bees1  
flies1 cicad1 and fishes1 which  were   
executed with infinite delicacy1 and    
greatly admired4 ,his skill in  the     
toreutic art was also very remarkable2  
and as a chaser1 engraver1  and         
embosser1 he was among the first1 if not
 the first1 of his time4  ,he might be  
called1 in a certain sense1 the ,cellini
 of ,athens--vastly  superior to the    
celebrated ,florentine in grandeur of   
conception1 but  uniting1 like him1 the 
work of the goldsmith to that of the    
sculptor1  and1 like him1 distinguished 
for refinement and fastidiousness of    
execution4    ,to this character and    

style there is nothing that responds in 
the  fragments of the ,parthenon which  
we now possess4 ,the style of the       
figures in the pediment is broad1 large1
 and effective1 but it is  decorative in
 its character4 ,the parts are classed  
and distributed  with skill1 but they   
are often forced1 in order to produce   
effect at a  distance and in the place  
where they were to be seen4 ,they show  
the  practiced hands of men who have    
been trained in a grand school1 but     
they cannot be said to be finished with 
elaborate attention to details  or      
minute study of parts4 ,whatever        
characteristics of his style they  may  
have1 they certainly want  1 which was  
the distinguishing  feature of the work 
of ,phidias4    ,the same remarks apply 
to the metopes and the frieze4 ,it is   
evident  that all these works are of the
 same period2 but in style1 design1 and 
execution they differ from each other1  
as the works of various men in  the same
 school might be expected to differ4 ,in

 grouping1 composition1  treatment1 and 
character of workmanship1 the metopes   
are of quite  another class from the    
,panathenaic ,procession of the frieze4 
,compared  with each other1 the metopes 
are rounder and feebler in form1 tamer  
and more labored in treatment1 and they 
want not only the spirit and  freedom of
 design of the figures in the frieze1   
but also their flat1  decisive1 and     
squared execution4 ,the frieze is very  
rich1 varied1 and  light in composition1
 while the metopes are comparatively    
monotonous  and heavy4 ,nor do the      
metopes differ more from the frieze than
 the  figures in the pediment do from   
both the frieze and the metopes4 ,while 
in execution the pediment sculpture is  
more flat and squared in style  than the
 metopes1 it differs from the frieze in 
the treatment of the  draperies and in  
the proportions and character of the    
figures4 ,as a  design1 the figures on  
the pediment are disconnected1 while    
those of  the frieze are interwoven with

 remarkable skill4 ,again1 not only do  
these three classes1 as classes1 differ 
from each other1 but in each  class     
there are very decided inequalities and 
diversities of style and  workmanship   
between one part and another1--showing  
plainly that they  have been executed by
 various hands1 some of more and some of
 less  skill4 ,but the treatment of all 
is purely decorative1 as it properly    
should be4 ,all of these sculptures were
 subordinated to the temple  which they 
decorated1 and they were executed1 not  
for near and minute  examination1 but to
 produce a calculated effect in the     
position they  were to occupy4 ,fineness
 of workmanship1 delicacy and refinement
 of  detail1 would have been out of     
place and unnecessary1 and evidently    
were not attempted4 ,this1 however1 was 
not the style of ,phidias1 who1  as we  
have seen1 even in the colossal statues 
of ,zeus and ,athena1  elaborated to the
 utmost1 with almost excessive labor1   
not only the  figures themselves1 but   

also the least of the accessories4 ,it  
was in  his nature to do this4 ,he      
wished to leave the impress of all his  
arts  upon these splendid works2 and he 
wrought upon them1 not only as a        
sculptor in the large sense of the word1
 but as a goldsmith1 as an  engraver1 a 
damascener1 an embosser4 ,nothing was   
too rich1 nothing too  large1 nothing   
too small for him4 ,he enjoyed it       
all--the minute detail  as well as the  
colossal mass4 ,it was this peculiarity 
of his nature  that led him to select1  
and almost to create1 the               
chryselephantine  school of art4 ,he had
 been a painter in his youth1 and his   
eye craved  color4 ,the coldness of     
marble did not satisfy him and he       
rejected it1  not only for this reason1 
but because as a material it did not    
lend  itself to the art of the engraver 
and the goldsmith4 ,before his time  the
 colossi had been of bronze or wood4 ,he
 introduced and perfected the  art of   
making them in ivory and gold2 and it   

was as a maker of statues  of divinities
 in these materials and in bronze that  
he attained the  highest renown4    ,but
 abandoning the ground that these marble
 sculptures of the  ,parthenon were     
executed by ,phidias1 let us consider   
whether they  were designed by him4 ,of 
this there is not a vestige of evidence4
  ,it is not only not stated as a fact  
by any ancient writer1 but not  even    
intimated in the most shadowy way1      
unless it be deduced from the  fact     
stated by ,plutarch1 that he was general
 superintendent of public  works1 and   
that he had various classes of workmen  
under his orders4  ,what is meant by    
designing these works8 ,is it meant that
 he modeled  the designs8 ,if this were 
the case1 is it probable that no mention
  would be made of it by any author8 ,we
 are told of other cases in which  works
 were executed from his designs1 and    
from the designs of other  artists4 ,we 
are informed that the figures in the    
tympana of the temple  at ,olympia were 

executed by ,alcamenes and ,ponios2 but 
nothing is said  about those figures in 
the ,parthenon4 ,is there any necessity 
to suppose  these works to have been    
designed by ,phidias8 ,surely not4      
,there were  in ,athens many other      
artists of great distinction who were   
fully able  to design and execute them1 
and among them were men but little      
inferior  to ,phidias himself1 who would
 not readily have accepted his designs1 
and who1 by profession1 were sculptors  
in marble--not1 like ,phidias1          
sculptors in bronze1 or ivory and gold4 
,among those men by whom ,phidias was   
surrounded1 and who were in  these      
various branches of art his rivals or   
his peers1 may be named  ,agoracritos1  
,alcamenes1 ,myron1 ,ponios1 ,kolotes1  
,socrates1 ,praxias1  ,androsthenes1    
,polyclitus1 and ,kalamis1--all         
sculptors in marble4  ,besides these    
there were ,hegias1 ,nestocles1         
,pythagoras1 ,kallimachus1  ,kallon1    
,phradmon1 ,gorgias1 ,lacon1 ,kleoitas1 

and others of less note1  who were more 
specially toreutic artists and sculptors
 in bronze4  ,here is a wonderful       
constellation of genius1 and in it are  
many stars  of the first magnitude4     
,some of these men were peers of        
,phidias in  chryselephantine art4 ,some
 contended with him and won the prize   
over  him4 ,let us take a glance at some
 of the most eminent4    ,polyclitus    
studied under the great ,argive sculptor
 ,ageledas1 and was  a fellow-scholar   
with ,phidias and ,myron4 ,he was the   
rival of ,phidias  in his               
chryselephantine works1 and but little  
if at all inferior to  him in his best  
works4 ,he created the type of ,hera1 as
 ,phidias did  that of ,athena2 and his 
colossal statue of that goddess in ivory
 and  gold at ,argos was admitted to be 
unsurpassed even by the ,athena of the  
,parthenon4 ,strabo asserts that though 
inferior in size and nobleness to  the  
,athena and ,zeus of ,phidias1 it       
equaled them in beauty1 and in its      

artistic execution excelled them 7      
74  ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus accords
 to him1 as to ,phidias1       --the    
character of grandeur1 dignity1  and    
harmony of parts4 ,xenophon places him  
beside ,homer1 ,sophocles1 and  ,zeuxis 
as an artist4 ,among his bronze works1  
the most celebrated were  the           
,diadumenos and the ,doryphoros1 the    
latter of which was called the  ,canon1 
on account of its beauty and perfection 
of proportion4 ,if to  ,phidias was     
accorded the highest praise as the      
sculptor of divinities1  ,polyclitus was
 considered his superior in his statues 
of men4    ,nor was it only as a        
sculptor in bronze1 gold1 and ivory1    
that he was  distinguished4 ,he was     
celebrated also for his marble statues1 
among  which may be mentioned the       
,apollo1 ,leto1 and ,artemis in the     
,temple  of ,artemis1 and the ,orthia in
 ,argolis2 as well as for his skill in  
the toreutic art4 ,in this last art he  
excelled all others2 and ,pliny  says of

 him that he developed and perfected it 
as ,phidias had begun  it--8toreuticen  
sic erudisse ut ,phidias aperuisse40    
,myron1 his fellow-scholar1 had scarcely
 a less reputation1 though in a         
different way4 ,he devoted himself to   
the representation of athletes1  among  
which the most celebrated was the       
,discobolos2 of animals1  of which his  
,cow was the most famous2 and of groups 
of satyrs1 and  sea-monsters1 and       
mythical creatures4 ,he excelled in the 
representation  of life1 action1 and    
expression2 and such was his skill1 that
 ,petronius  says of him that he almost 
expressed the souls of men and animals  
in  his bronzes4    ,agoracritos and    
,alcamenes had a still higher           
distinction than ,myron4  ,the famous   
,aphrodite of the ,gardens 7 71 a marble
 statue by  ,alcamenes1 enjoyed a       
reputation among the ancients scarcely  
if at  all below that of the ,aphrodite 
of ,praxiteles4 ,pliny1 writing five    
hundred years after1 says that ,phidias 

8is said to have given the  finishing   
touches to this statue40 ,but this is   
one of those common and  absurd         
traditions that attach to the work of   
almost every great artist  long after   
his death1 and it may be dismissed at   
once4 ,lucian gives  the statue directly
 and solely to ,alcamenes--and to him   
undoubtedly  it belongs4 ,he had no need
 of the help of ,phidias1 being himself 
a  much more accomplished worker in     
marble1 even should we grant that       
,phidias ever worked at all in this     
material4 ,indeed1 it was specially  as 
a sculptor in marble that he was        
distinguished2 and among other  works   
which he executed in this material were 
the colossal statues of  ,hercules and  
,minerva1 a group of ,procne and ,itys1 
and the statue of  sculapius4 ,but what 
is the more significant in this         
connection is the  fact1 stated by      
,pausanias1 that it was he who executed 
the statues  representing the ,centaurs 
and ,lapith at the marriage of          

,pirithous1  which adorned the back     
tympanum of the ,temple of ,zeus at     
,olympia1 where  the great ,zeus of     
,phidias stood4 ,pausanias speaks of him
 as an artist  8who lived in the age of 
,phidias1 and was the next to him in the
 art of  making statues40               
,agoracritos is called by ,pausanias    
8the pupil and beloved friend of        
,phidias10 and it is most probable that 
he worked with him on the ,athena  and  
the ,zeus4 ,his most famous statue was  
the ,nemesis at ,rhamnus1 which1  as we 
have seen1 is attributed to ,phidias by 
,pausanias1 but which  clearly belongs  
to ,agoracritos4 ,the statue of the     
,mother of the ,gods1  which ,arrian and
 ,pausanias give to ,phidias1 was also  
made by him1  according to ,pliny4      
,kolotes1 who was also a pupil and      
assistant of ,phidias at one time1  was 
a sculptor in marble as well as a       
celebrated artist in ivory and  gold4   
,among other works1 he probably made a  
statue in gold and ivory of  ,athena at 

,elis1 which ,pausanias attributes to   
,phidias1 but which ,pliny  asserts to  
be by ,kolotes4 ,there is no dispute    
that he made the statue  of ,asclepius  
in gold and ivory1 which is much praised
 by ,strabo2 and  he is said by ,pliny  
to have assisted ,phidias in the ,zeus1 
and to have  executed the interior of   
the shield of the ,athena at ,elis1     
which was  painted by ,panus4           
,ponios1 a ,thracian by birth1 was a    
celebrated sculptor in marble as  well  
as bronze2 and1 among other things1 he  
executed the figures in  the front      
tympanum of the ,temple of ,zeus at     
,olympia4 ,in character and  composition
 these figures resemble those of the    
,parthenon1 and they are  executed in   
the same spirit4 ,a fragment from the   
,temple of ,zeus may be  seen in the    
,louvre1 standing beside a fragment of  
one of the metopes of  the ,parthenon4  
,the fragment from the ,temple of ,zeus 
represents ,heracles  with the ,bull4   
,it is fuller and larger in style than  

the fragment  from the ,parthenon1      
which1 seen beside it1 looks stiff and  
meagre in  character1 and the body of   
the ,centaur in the one is decidedly    
inferior  to the body of the ,bull in   
the other4 ,this is probably a portion  
of the  work of ,ponios4    ,praxias and
 ,androsthenes1 too1 worked in marble in
 the same style1  and the figures in the
 tympana of the ,delphic temple were    
executed by  them4 ,the metopes also1 of
 which five are alluded to in the       
,chorus of  ,euripides1 were probably   
their work4    ,theocosmos1 too1 a      
contemporary of ,phidias1 worked with   
him1 according  to ,pausanias1 on the   
,zeus at ,megara1 which was afterwards  
left  unfinished1 on account of the     
,peloponnesian war3 only the head was of
  ivory and gold1 the rest of the body  
being of plastic clay and wood4    ,but 
perhaps the most distinguished of all   
was ,kalamis1 who1 though  probably a   
little younger than ,phidias1 was       
certainly a contemporary4  ,among other 

works1 he executed in bronze an ,apollo 
,alexicacos2 a  chariot in honor of     
,hiero's ,victory at ,olympia2 a marble 
,apollo in the  ,servilian ,gardens in  
,rome2 another bronze ,apollo thirty    
cubits high1  which ,lucullus carried to
 ,rome from ,apollonia2 a beardless     
,asclepius in  gold and ivory2 a ,nike2 
,zeus ,ammon2 ,dionysos2 ,aphrodite2    
,alcmena2 and  the famous ,sosandra1 so 
praised by ,lucian4 ,but what in this   
connection  is peculiarly to be noticed 
is1 that1 besides being renowned for    
his statues of gods and mortals1 he was 
celebrated for his skill in  the        
representation of animals2 and the      
excellence of his horses is  specially  
spoken of by ,ovid1 ,cicero1 ,pausanias1
 ,propertius1 and ,pliny4  ,it would    
therefore1 in this view1 seem much more 
probable that he may  have designed the 
,panathenaic frieze than that it was    
designed by  ,phidias1 who1 as far as we
 know1 had no particular talent for     
horses  or animals4 ,there is no        

indication1 however1 that either of them
 had  anything to do with it4    ,it is 
useless to proceed further in this      
direction4 ,here were men1  specially   
marble workers1 who were amply able to  
execute all the marble  figures of the  
,parthenon1 without recourse to         
,phidias2 and as there  is no indication
 that he ever anywhere executed similar 
works for any  temple1 while at least   
,alcamenes and ,ponios are known to have
 made the  works corresponding to these 
in the ,temple of ,zeus1 there would    
seem to  be far more reason to attribute
 these figures to them than to ,phidias1
  who1 at the time when they were made1 
was too much occupied with his  other   
work to have been able to execute them  
himself4    ,in the absence1 then1 of   
all clear indications as to the artist  
who  made the marble sculptures of the  
,parthenon1 it would seem more  probable
 that they were executed by various     
hands1 and in like  manner as those of  
the ,erechtheum1 built in the #ic;d     

,olympiad1 about  twenty-eight years    
after the building of the ,parthenon4   
,fortunately1  from the discovery of    
certain fragments on which the accounts 
of the  building of the ,erechtheum were
 inscribed at the time1 we are enabled  
to say how these reliefs were made4     
,portions were set off to different     
artists1 each of whom executed his part1
 as described in these  fragments4 ,the 
names of the artists were ,agathenor1   
,iasos1 ,phyromachos1  ,praxias1 and    
,loclos4 ,the inscription begins        
thus--,i give only a fragment  of it--  
4          4             2 and so on4   
,the sign  occurs  four times in the    
inscription4 ,three times the work is by
 ,phyromachos1  and belongs apparently  
to the same group4#e    ,here we have   
names of artists who are unknown to us1 
unless the  ,phyromachos named here is  
the same who1 according to ,pliny1 made 
,alcibiades in a chariot with four      
horses4 ,and as for ,praxias1 he  cannot
 be the well-known ,praxias1 since he in

 all probability died  before the #ib;d 
,olympiad4 ,if1 then1 these sculptures  
were intrusted to  artists whose very   
names have not come down to us1 is it   
not probable  that the decorative       
sculptures of the ,parthenon would have 
been  confided to artists of the same   
class8 ,in such case it would seem most 
natural that no mention would be made of
 them1 more than of the artists  who    
worked on the ,erechtheum1 since they   
were persons of no peculiar  note and   
fame2 while in the ,temple of ,zeus1    
inasmuch as artists of  distinction     
worked1 their names are given4 ,why tell
 us that ,alcamenes  and ,ponios made   
the groups in the tympana at ,olympia1  
and omit to say  anything about similar 
works in the ,parthenon1 if they were   
executed by  ,phidias or any other      
artist of great distinction8    ,here1  
too1 we see that different portions of  
the same work were  assigned to         
different artists1 each working out his 
subjects  separately1 though all working

 in agreement1 to develop a certain     
story  or series of stories4 ,such a    
practice would account for all sorts of 
varieties of design and execution1 and  
would explain the differences  to be    
observed between the various portions of
 the sculptures of the  ,parthenon4     
,a careful examination of the frieze    
alone shows that it must have been      
executed by various artists1 so distinct
 are the different parts as  well in    
execution as in design4    ,the notion  
commonly entertained1 that ,phidias was 
considered in his  age to be vastly     
superior to all contemporary sculptors1 
will scarcely  bear examination4 ,he    
undoubtedly surpassed them all in his   
colossal  chryselephantine statues of   
divinities2 though even in this branch  
of art there was a difference of        
opinion1 and one other artist at  least1
 ,polyclitus1 was held1 in his statue of
 ,hera1 to have stood  abreast of him4  
,strabo declares that it excelled in    
beauty all the  works of ,phidias4 ,but 

in other branches of the art the        
superiority of  ,phidias was not        
admitted2 and he was1 if report be true1
 repeatedly  adjudged a second place in 
his competitions with his rivals4       
,alcamenes1  ,polyclitus1 ,kalamis1 and 
,ctesilaus were his superiors in their  
marble  statues and representations of  
mortals1 and we hear of no work of his  
in marble to compete with theirs4       
,lucian1 for instance1 in his ,dialogue 
on ,statues1 praises equally the ,venus 
of ,praxiteles1 the ,sosandra of        
,kalamis1 the ,aphrodite of the ,gardens
 by ,alcamenes1 and the ,athena  ,lemnia
 and ,amazon of ,phidias2 and out of the
 special beauties of each  he           
reconstructs an ideal image of the most 
beautiful woman4 ,from the  ,cnidian    
,aphrodite of ,praxiteles he takes the  
head1 having no need of  the rest of the
 body 7he says71 as the figure is not to
 be nude2 and  from this head he selects
 the outlines of the hair1 or rather the
  outline of the forehead where it joins

 the hair1 the forehead1 the  delicately
 penciled eyebrows1 and the liquid and  
radiant charm of the  eyes4 ,from the   
,aphrodite of ,alcamenes he takes the   
cheeks and the  lower part of the face1 
and especially the base of the hands1   
the  beautifully proportioned wrists1   
and the flexile taper fingers4 ,from    
,phidias he takes the total contour of  
the face1 the softness of the  jaw1 and 
the symmetrical nose of the ,athena1 and
 the lips and the  neck of the ,amazon4 
,from the ,sosandra of ,kalamis he takes
 her modest  grace and her delicate     
subtle smile1 her chastely arranged     
dress and  her easy bearing4 ,her age   
and stature1 he says1 shall be that of  
the  ,cnidian ,aphrodite1 for this is   
most beautiful in ,praxiteles4 ,for her 
other qualities he draws upon the       
painters4 ,this opinion of ,lucian  is  
particularly interesting and valuable1  
from the fact that he had  studied and  
practiced the art of sculpture under his
 uncle1 who was a  sculptor1 and his    

judgment is therefore of far more value 
than that of  an ordinary connoisseur4  
,pliny also relates a story which has a 
bearing in this connection1 of a        
competition between various celebrated  
artists1 who were contemporaries  at    
this period4 ,the subject was an        
,amazon4 ,the artists themselves were   
to be the judges2 and it was agreed that
 the statue should be held to  be best  
which each artist ranked second to his  
own4 ,the result was that  the first    
prize was adjudged to ,polyclitus1 the  
second to ,phidias1 the  third to       
,ctesilaus1 the fourth to ,cydon1 and   
the fifth to ,phradmon4 ,we  may reject 
the story as a fact1 but its very       
existence proves that the  fame of      
,phidias1 great as it was1 did not so   
entirely eclipse that of  other artists 
of his time as we generally suppose4    
,who of us now would  think that        
,phradmon and ,cydon1 for example1 stood
 on a level to contend  with him1 with  
any chance of other than a disastrous   

defeat8 ,but it is  plain that the      
ancients did not think so1 or this story
 would not have  been invented4    ,we  
now come to the question whether        
,phidias ever worked at all in  marble4 
,his renown undoubtedly rested upon his 
magnificent statues  in ivory and gold1 
and especially upon his ,zeus and       
,athena of the  ,parthenon1 which       
towered above all his other works4 ,so  
wonderful was  the ,zeus1 that it was   
said to have strengthened religion in   
,greece2 and  the ,athena of the        
,parthenon was held to be the glory of  
,athens4 ,the  poets and writers        
celebrate ,phidias always as specially  
the creator of  these great             
chryselephantine works2 and though they 
praise the beauty  of his bronze works1 
and especially of the ,athena ,lemnia1  
it is plain  that these held a secondary
 place in public estimation1 or at all  
events did not stand alone and apart as 
the others did4 ,thus ,propertius  says1
 characterizing the sculptors3--        

8,phidiacus signo se ,juppiter ornat    
eburno2      ,praxitelem propria        
vindicat arte ,lapis2      ,gloria      
,lysippi est animosa effingere signa2   
,exactis ,calamis se mihi jactat equis40
    ,so ,quinctilian says of him3       
8,phidias tamen diis quam hominibus     
efficiendis melior artifex traditur--in 
ebore vero longe citra  mulum1 vel si   
nihil nisi ,minervam ,athenis aut       
,olympium in ,elide  ,jovem fecisset0   
7lib4 xii4 ch4 #aj74 ,but no writer     
anywhere near this  period--even within 
five centuries of it--ever mentions a   
marble figure  by ,phidias1 or          
celebrates him in any way as a sculptor 
in this material4    ,in the evidence   
given before a committee of the ,house  
of ,commons  upon the ,elgin collection 
of marbles1 previous to the purchase of 
them by the nation1 ,richard ,payne     
,knight and ,william ,wilkins gave  it  
as their opinion that these works were  
not by ,phidias1 and that  he was not a 
worker in marble4 ,this statement has   

been rejected by  the author of the work
 on the ,elgin and ,phigaleian ,marbles1
 in the  ,library of ,entertaining      
,knowledge1 as entirely without         
foundation4  ,in this conclusion it must
 be admitted that he follows the opinion
  generally entertained at the present  
day1 and repeated by nearly every       
modern writer4 ,visconti1 to whom he    
refers as refuting satisfactorily  the  
notion of ,knight and ,wilkins1 thus    
argues the question3 8,if it  were      
imagined that ,phidias devoted himself  
to the toreutic art1 and  that he       
employed in his works only ivory and    
metals1 this opinion  would be confuted 
by ,aristotle1 who distinguishes this   
great artist  by the appellation of  --a
 skillful sculptor in  marble--in       
opposition to ,polyclitus1 whom he      
styles simply a statuary1  1 since the  
latter scarcely ever employed his       
talents  except in bronze4 ,in fact1    
several marble statues of ,phidias were 
known to ,pliny1 who might even have    

seen some of them at ,rome1 since  they 
had been removed to this city2 and the  
most famous work of  ,alcamenes1 the    
,venus of the ,gardens1 had only1 as it 
was said1 acquired  so high a degree of 
perfection because ,phidias1 his master1
 had himself  taken pleasure in         
finishing with his own hand his         
beautiful statue in  marble40    ,an    
examination into these statements will  
show1 not only that not one  of them is 
well founded1 but that the authorities  
on which they profess  to stand will not
 at all sustain them4 ,visconti's mind  
is in a nebulous  state as to the whole 
question1 and he confounds things which 
have no  relation to each other4 ,the   
first mistake he makes is in confusing  
the  toreutic art with the art of making
 statues in ivory and gold4 ,i am  aware
 that ,m4 ,quatremere de ,quincy1 in his
 treatise on chryselephantine  statues1 
constantly uses these two terms as      
equivalent2 but in so  doing he is      
admitted by all persons who have        

critically studied the  matter to be    
entirely incorrect4 ,the toreutic art   
was the art of  the engraver1 the       
chaser1 the damascener1 the embosser4   
,it might be  employed1 and undoubtedly 
was employed1 by ,phidias in decorating 
part of his statue1 as it might be      
applied to a bronze statue1 or to  any  
metal surface or slab2 but it was not   
the art of making statues  in any       
material4 ,visconti's next proposition  
is1 that by the term    ,aristotle meant
 to indicate a worker in marble as      
distinguished from an 1 who was a       
statuary in bronze1  and to show that   
,phidias worked in marble1 while        
,polyclitus worked only  or chiefly in  
bronze4 ,neither of these statements can
 be supported2 and  it is impossible    
that ,aristotle could have meant to make
 them4 ,in the  first place1  does not  
mean a worker in marble2   and  were    
specially the art of cutting and        
polishing gems  and precious stones2 and
 a  was a lapidary in relief or         

intaglio1#f not a sculptor of marble    
statues4 ,again1   does not mean a      
sculptor in bronze as distinguished from
 a sculptor in  marble1 but merely a    
maker of statues1 of athletes or heroes1
 in any  material1 whether in wood1     
bronze1 marble1 gold1 or ivory4    ,now1
 when we remember that ,phidias was     
celebrated not only for his  colossal   
works1 but also for his skill as an     
engraver1 embosser1 and  damascener--in 
a word1 for his skill in the toreutic   
art1 which ,pliny  tells us was         
developed by him and perfected by       
,polyclitus1 as well as  for his        
minutely elaborated representations of  
flies1 cicad1 fishes1  and bees--the    
meaning of ,aristotle in applying to him
 the title of   is clear4 ,he was a  in 
the exact meaning of that  term1 and a  
very skillful one4 ,aristotle is equally
 correct in applying  the term 1 maker  
of athletes and heroes1 to ,polyclitus2 
for that great artist had won the       
highest fame of his age for statues  of 

this kind1 and established the laws of  
proportion in his ,diadumenos  and      
,doryphoros4 ,if1 however1 as ,visconti 
imagines1 ,aristotle meant to  indicate 
that ,phidias was a worker in marble1   
while ,polyclitus was  not1 he is       
clearly wrong2 for we know that         
,polyclitus executed various  and       
celebrated statues in marble1 whereas1  
as we shall see1 we have no  clear proof
 that ,phidias ever did4 ,still further1
 if ,aristotle intended  to distinguish 
,phidias from ,polyclitus by saying that
 the one was a  skillful 1 and the other
 was not1 he is again quite wrong1      
whether he meant by that term to        
indicate a toreutic artist or1 as       
,visconti thinks1 a marble worker2 for  
,polyclitus was even more skilled  than 
,phidias in both these arts4 ,again1 if 
he meant to distinguish  the one artist 
from the other as a maker of 1 or       
statues of  divinities1 he is wrong2 for
 the chryselephantine ,hera of          
,polyclitus  rivaled the ,athena of     

,phidias4 ,the plain fact is that       
,aristotle did not  mean to distinguish 
one of these great artists from the     
other in any  such way4 ,he is perfectly
 right in the terms he applies to each2 
but he  did not say1 nor could he have  
intended to say1 that one was a    or an
 1 and the other was not--since1 as we  
know1 both of them were  and 1 and he   
must have  known it4    ,stress has also
 been laid by some writers on the fact  
that ,phidias  is called a  by          
,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 and that  
,tzetzes  speaks of him as       1 and  
that ,hesychius uses the phrase  4      
,these phrases1 even  were they         
inconsistent with the view here taken1  
would be of very  little consequence if 
standing by themselves1 as the earliest 
of these  writers flourished some six   
hundred years1 and the latest some nine 
hundred years1 after ,phidias2 but taken
 in connection with the words  of       
,aristotle1 they may perhaps have some  
little weight4 ,what is a  1 then8 ,why1

 simply an engraver and a chiseler4 ,and
 what does  ,tzetzes mean by       8    
,why1  that ,phidias made statues of    
heroes and athletes in brass1 and that  
he was a chiseler and engraver4 ,the    
words  and  in ,greek1  and scalptura   
and sculptura in ,latin1 though         
originally they  signified generically  
cutting figures out of every solid      
material1 were  afterwards specifically 
applied to intagli and camei1 and are   
the art  of the clator1 or 1 or more    
properly1 perhaps1 restricted to  the   
cutting and engraving of precious       
stones4    ,the next statement of       
,visconti is that several marble statues
 by  ,phidias were known to ,pliny1 and 
that the ,aphrodite of ,alcamenes       
acquired its perfection because ,phidias
 himself finished it4 ,as to  the latter
 branch of this statement nothing more  
need be said4 ,it is  evidently one of  
those idle traditions which are not     
worth considering4  ,but let us see what
 ,pliny actually says4 ,in his account  

of ,phidias he  does not even pretend to
 state1 as an accredited fact1 that     
,phidias  ever worked in marble4 ,in the
 chapter devoted to sculptors in marble 
he  says1 8,it is said1 that even       
,phidias worked in marble0 7et ipsum    
,phidiam tradunt scalpsisse marmora7    
8and that there is a ,venus by  him at  
,rome1 in the buildings of ,octavia1 of 
extraordinary beauty2 but  what is      
certain is0 7quod certum est7 8that he  
was the master of  ,alcamenes1 many of  
whose works are on the sacred temples1  
and whose  celebrated ,venus1 called  1 
is outside the walls4 ,phidias is  said0
 7dicitur7 8to have put the finishing   
touches to this40 ,pliny1  therefore1 by
 no means asserts that ,phidias ever    
executed anything  in marble2 he merely 
says that there is a rumor or tradition 
to that  effect2 but he absolutely      
states as an established fact that      
,alcamenes  was his pupil1 and executed 
the beautiful statue of ,aphrodite2 and 
he  then goes on to say1 as another     

tradition1 that ,phidias assisted him in
  finishing it4 ,here he clearly        
distinguishes between fact and          
tradition1  and his language shows that 
he placed no reliance on the latter4 ,he
  does not even pretend to have seen the
 statue of ,venus1 supposed to be  by   
,phidias1 in the buildings of ,octavia2 
and it is evident1 from the  turn of his
 sentence1 that1 gossiping and credulous
 as he generally  was1 he gave no       
credence to this rumor4    ,the whole   
argument of ,visconti thus falls to the 
ground with the facts  by which he      
attempts to support it4    ,there remain
 for us to consider the marble statues  
ascribed to ,phidias  by ,pausanias1    
which are as follows3 #ast1 ,the        
,nemesis at ,rhamnus2 #b;d1  ,the       
,hermes at the entrance of the ,ismenium
 at ,thebes2 #c;d1 ,the ,aphrodite      
,urania at ,athens1 near the ,ceramicus4
    ,we have already seen that the      
,nemesis at ,rhamnus was not the work   
of ,phidias1 but of ,agoracritos2 that  

,pausanias disagrees with other         
authorities in attributing it to        
,phidias2 and that the name of          
,agoracritos was inscribed upon it as   
its author4 ,this1 therefore1 must  be  
rejected4    ,in the next place1 as to  
the marble ,hermes at the entrance to   
the  ,ismenium4 ,this statue1 as we have
 seen1 was a decorative entrance  statue
 standing before the temple2 and its    
pendant1 ,athena1 according  to         
,pausanias1 was the work of ,scopas1 who
 died a century later4 ,the one         
pedestal could scarcely be left         
unoccupied for a century1 yet this must 
have been the case if ,pausanias is     
right2 and for reasons which have       
already been given1 this statue is1 to  
say the least1 not without very  grave  
doubts4 ,no other author speaks of it1  
and it rests solely on the  authority of
 ,pausanias1 who lived more than six    
centuries after ,phidias4    ,there     
remains1 then1 the ,aphrodite ,urania4  
,pausanias is the sole  authority for   

considering this statue the work of     
,phidias2 and as1  being in marble1 it  
would be the only one ascribed to him   
upon which  there are not either the    
gravest doubts as to his authorship or  
the  clearest indications that he was   
not the author1 we should accept  it    
with caution4 ,can we trust ,pausanias8 
,he certainly does not agree  with other
 writers as to the authorship of various
 statues4 ,the statue  of ,athena at    
,elis1 attributed by him to ,phidias1   
,pliny says is by  ,kolotes4 ,the       
,mother of the ,gods1 said by him to be 
a work of ,phidias1  is1 according to   
,pliny1 the work of ,agoracritos4 ,the  
sculapius at  ,epidaurus1 given by him  
to ,thrasymedes1 is given by            
,athenagoras to  ,phidias4 ,in respect  
of the ,nemesis1 he is clearly mistaken4
 ,pausanias  wrote long after ,pliny1   
when facts were still more obscured by  
time4  ,tradition changes names2        
transmutes facts1 and tends always to   
give  great names to nameless works4 ,he

 was a traveler in ,greece in the age   
of ,marcus ,aurelius1 when the arts1    
even in ,rome1 were in their decline2   
and he only reports what he sees and    
hears4 ,he does not pretend to be  a    
critic or a connoisseur in art4 ,he was 
not one2 and his accounts of  the great 
statues in ,greece are singularly dry   
and meagre4 ,he would  naturally be told
 who was the author of this1 that1 and  
the other  statue that he saw2 and he   
seems to have taken common report       
without  a question1 just as a traveler 
in ,rome without particular knowledge   
or interest in art would accept the     
authorship of the ,colossi in the       
,quirinal1 and without hesitation follow
 the tradition and ascribe them  in his 
book to ,phidias and ,praxiteles4 ,if he
 were always accurate in  these matters1
 or if he had ever shown any critical   
doubts about the  authorship of any     
work1 a statement by him on such a      
subject would  be entitled to more      
consideration2 but as it is1 in view of 

the facts  that no other author before  
him has ascribed the ,aphrodite ,urania 
to ,phidias1 and that if it be by him it
 is his only marble work of  which we   
have any clear testimony1 little faith  
can be placed in the  statement by      
,pausanias4 ,add to this that no        
contemporary of ,phidias1  and no writer
 anywhere near his age1 has ever spoken 
of any marble work  of his1 and ,i think
 we must reject this statue as we have  
rejected the  others4    ,in estimating 
the value of any such statements as to  
the authorship of  statues1 we must keep
 in mind the fact that it was not only  
not the  custom for the ancient ,greek  
sculptors to inscribe their names on    
their  own statues1 but it was not      
ordinarily permitted to them to do so on
  any public work2 and undoubtedly it   
was for this reason that ,phidias       
himself made his own likeness as well as
 the portrait of ,pericles on  the      
shield of the ,athena1 to indicate that 
the work was done by him  while         

,pericles had the administration of     
affairs at ,athens4 ,in the  same way   
,batrachus and ,saurus1 two ,lacedmonian
 artists who built the  temples inclosed
 in the ,portico of ,octavia1 being     
prohibited from  inscribing their names 
on the walls1 adopted the device of     
sculpturing  on the spirals of the      
columns a lizard and a frog1 which their
 names  signified1--thus punning in     
marble1 to perpetuate their names as    
architects of the temples4 ,so also     
,myron is said to have inscribed  his   
name on the thigh of his ,discobolos in 
such minute characters as  to be visible
 only on the closest inspection4 ,in the
 case of some of  the great statues1 the
 names of the authors were exceptionally
 allowed  to be inscribed after their   
deaths2 and this was probably the case  
with the ,zeus of ,phidias4 ,ordinarily 
no such practice was permitted4  ,such  
being the case1 the authorship of ,greek
 statues at the time of  ,pausanias     
would rest entirely upon tradition--and 

tradition is little to  be trusted4     
,besides1 what adds to the difficulty is
 that it was the custom in later  times 
to put the names of ancient sculptors on
 works not made by them1  to give them a
 higher value2 it is of this practice   
that ,phdrus speaks  in one of his      
,fables3--       8sopi nomen sicubi     
interposuero      ,cui reddidi jampridem
 quidquid debui      ,auctoritatis esse 
scito gratia2      ,ut quidem artifices 
nostro faciunt sculo      ,qui pretium  
operibus majus inveniunt1 novo      ,si 
marmore adscripsere ,praxitelem suo     
,trito ,myronem argento40    ,of the    
statues which now exist1 there are only 
some thirty on which  names are         
inscribed1 and these are certainly for  
the most part1 if  not entirely1        
apocryphal4 ,the name of ,phidias1      
together with that of  ,ammonius1 for   
instance1 appears on a monkey in basalt 
in the ,capitol at  ,rome2 that of      
,praxiteles on a draped figure in the   
,louvre2 and that of  ,lysippus on a    

marble ,hercules in the ,pitti ,gallery 
at ,florence--not one  of which is of   
the least value as a work of art4 ,so1  
on the torso of  the ,belvidere is the  
name of ,apollonius2 on the ,farnese    
,hercules that  of ,glycon2 on the      
,gladiator of the ,louvre that of       
,agasias the ,ephesian1  son of         
,dositheos--though these names are not  
mentioned by any writers  of antiquity4 
,no authority can be granted to these   
inscriptions1 and  possibly the very    
fact that these names are on the statues
 is an  indication that they are copies2
 all have 4 ,d',hancarville and         
,dallaway make a distinction between    
and 1--the former1  according to them1  
signifying a copy1 and the latter an    
original work4  ,on the ,nemesis at     
,rhamnus was the inscription1    2 and  
this would seem to confirm their notion4
 ,on the ,zeus of  ,phidias1 also1 was  
the inscription1     '  4    ,i do not  
recall1 however1 a single statue which  
has come down to us  on which the word  

occurs1 except an interesting and       
coarsely  executed relief in the        
,british ,museum1 representing the      
deification  of ,homer4 ,where there is 
any inscription it is 2 but it is an    
exceedingly rare exception that any     
ancient statue has a name inscribed  on 
it4 ,almost all1 if not all1 the statues
 having names of the artists  are of a  
late date1 and probably most of them as 
late as the time of  ,hadrian4 ,it was  
he who revived the art of sculpture2 and
 during his  reign a great number of    
copies1 more or less good1 were made of 
the  famous statues of antiquity2 but   
unfortunately there has not come  down  
to us a single accredited statue by any 
of the great sculptors of  antiquity4   
,there are only two other authorities1  
so far as ,i am aware1 who  mention or  
make any allusion to marble work by     
,phidias2 these must  be considered4    
,seneca1 nearly five hundred years after
 the death  of ,phidias1 says of him1   
8,not only did ,phidias know how to make

 a  statue in ivory1 but he also made   
them in bronze40 ,thus far he speaks    
absolutely2 he then continues           
hypothetically1 8,if you had given him  
marble1 or even a viler material1 he    
would have made the best thing  out of  
it that could be made40#g ,this is      
considered by the author of  the work on
 the ,elgin and ,phigaleian ,marbles an 
important statement  in confirmation of 
,pliny4 ,in reality it contains nothing 
but a simple  hypothetical expression of
 belief that if you had given ,phidias a
  piece of marble he would have made    
something excellent out of it4  ,does   
any one doubt this8 ,seneca states as a 
fact only that ,phidias  really did work
 in ivory and bronze2 and it is plain   
that he knew no  work of ,phidias in    
marble1 or he never would have expressed
 a purely  hypothetical opinion on such 
a matter4    ,the other authority which 
has been evoked in favor of the theory  
that  ,phidias worked in marble is that 
of ,valerius ,maximus1 who states that  

there existed a tradition that he       
desired to execute the ,athena of the   
,parthenon in marble1 but that the      
,athenians would not permit him to  do  
so3 8,iidem ,phidiam tulerunt quamdiu is
 marmore potius quam ebore  ,minervam   
fieri debere dicebat1 quod diutius nitor
 esset mansurus2 sed  ut adjecit et     
vilius tacere jusserunt40 7,lib4 i4 c4  
i41 ,externa #g47    ,there is no       
authority for this tradition4 ,it comes 
up five hundred  years after the death  
of ,phidias1 and is manifestly absurd4  
,phidias  had identified himself and his
 fame with his great chryselephantine   
and bronze works4 ,he knew too well his 
own power1 and his mastery over  these  
arts1 to wish to make the ,athena in any
 other material than that  in which it  
was made4 ,but suppose he did so advise 
the ,athenians1 his  advice was not     
accepted4 ,the statue was not made of   
marble4 ,perhaps  also he proposed to   
them to give it to ,alcamenes1          
,agoracritos1 or  ,polyclitus4 ,what    

sort of value can be given to a         
statement like this  appearing suddenly 
and solely in one writer five hundred   
years after  the ,athena was made8 ,if  
we are to accept such traditions as     
this1 we  may as well 8gape and swallow0
 any gobemouche4 ,let us have at once a 
life of ,shakespeare written in         
,leipzig1 or any other foreign country  
at  least as far away as that4    ,this 
is all the testimony we have as to any  
work by ,phidias in marble4  ,has it any
 real weight8 ,but grant all these      
statements1 vague and  visionary as they
 are1 to their fullest extent1 what do  
they prove8  ,not that ,phidias was     
especially a marble-worker1 but only    
that he made1  exceptionally1 one or two
 statues in marble1 and was supposed by 
some  writers five hundred years after  
his death1 to have had a connection     
with two more1 though other testimony1  
and the facts and dates1 clearly  show  
that he could not have made them1 or at 
least throw the very  gravest doubts    

upon his having done so4 ,in this way1  
we might assert  that ,raffaelle was a  
sculptor1 because he is supposed to have
 made1 or  helped to make1 the statue of
 ,jonah in the ,santa ,maria del ,popolo
 at  ,rome4 ,but to jump from such shaky
 facts to the statement and belief  that
 ,phidias was the author1 or at all     
events the designer1 of all the  marble 
figures in the pediment1 theme topes1   
and the frieze of the  ,parthenon1 is   
truly 8a long cry40 ,where is the ground
 on which such a  belief can be founded8
 ,there is not a statement or even an   
allusion by  any ancient writer to      
justify it4 ,the testimony of ,plutarch1
 so far  as it goes1 is directly opposed
 to it1 and all the known facts are in  
contradiction of it4    ,plutarch says  
that ,phidias was appointed general     
superintendent of  public works2 that he
 made the statue of ,athena in the      
,parthenon2 and  that1 through the      
friendship of ,pericles1 he had the     
direction of  everything1 and all the   

artists received his orders4 ,but he    
contradicts  this immediately1 if he is 
understood to mean anything more than   
that  ,phidias generally ordered who    
should be employed to do this or that   
work2 for he distinctly says that       
,ictinus and ,callicrates made the      
,parthenon1--and we know that ,ictinus  
and ,carpion wrote a book upon it4  ,if 
,phidias designed or executed anything  
else than the ,athena1 why does  not    
,plutarch say so1 when he takes pains to
 tell us he made the ,athena8  ,the     
mention of the one excludes the other4  
,if ,ictinus and ,callicrates  made the 
building1 why may they not have made all
 the rest of the work8  ,were they not  
able to do it8 ,there is no reason to   
doubt their ability  to design and      
execute all the decorative figures      
belonging to the  temple they built4 ,to
 ,ictinus was intrusted the building of 
the ,temple  of ,apollo at ,phigaleia1  
in the sculptures of which there is     
shown  remarkable ability2 and he also  

built the ,temple of the ,eleusinian    
,ceres1 and its mystic inclosure or     
,secos4 ,if ,ictinus and ,callicrates1  
or ,carpion1 did not execute these      
marbles of the ,parthenon1 why may  they
 not have intrusted them to some of the 
numerous artists with whom  ,athens     
swarmed at that time8 ,libon the        
architect built the temple of  ,zeus in 
which the ,zeus of ,phidias stood1 and  
its pediment figures were  sculptured by
 ,alcamenes and ,ponios4 ,is there any  
reason to reject such  a theory8        
,however1 as to this we are entirely in 
the dark2 all our  suppositions are     
purely speculative4 ,nothing seems      
clear1 except that  the figures were not
 made by ,phidias4    ,why did not      
,plutarch tell us who were the sculptors
 of the marbles  in the ,parthenon8     
,probably for the very simple reason    
that he did  not know4 ,he wrote many   
centuries after ,phidias was dead 7about
  ,b4 ,c4 #ff71 and tradition may not   
have brought down the names of any  who 

were concerned in the building of the   
,parthenon1 save those of  the          
architects and of ,phidias4 ,he did not 
attempt to supply the  hiatus--being1 to
 use his own words1 convinced 8of the   
difficulty of  arriving at any truth in 
history3 since if the writers live after
 the  events they relate1 they can but  
be imperfectly informed of facts2  and  
if they describe the persons and        
transactions of their own times1  they  
are tempted by envy and hatred1 or by   
interest and friendship1 to  vitiate and
 pervert the truth40          ,,the     
,,art ,,of ,,casting ,,in ,,plaster     
,,among ,,the ,,ancient ,,greeks ,,and  
,,romans4      ,i4    ,the question     
whether the art of making moulds and    
casts in plaster was  known to the      
ancient ,greeks and ,romans was         
discussed some years ago  by ,mr4       
,charles ,c4 ,perkins1 in an interesting
 pamphlet entitled 8,du  ,moulage en    
,pltre chez les ,anciens10#h in which he
 collected various  passages from       

ancient writers bearing more or less on 
this subject1 and  endeavored by their  
authority to establish the fact that    
this process  was known and practiced at
 a comparatively early period in the    
history  of art4 ,after a careful       
examination of all his citations and    
arguments1  as well as other authorities
 which he does not cite1 we feel        
compelled  to dissent entirely from his 
conclusions4 ,we do not think he has    
made  out his case4 ,the question is an 
interesting one1 however1 from an       
archological point of view at least1 and
 well deserves consideration4    ,the   
only passage among the writings of the  
ancients which at first  sight would    
seem directly to affirm that the process
 of casting in  plaster from life1 from 
clay models1 or from statues in the     
round1 in  the modern meaning of that   
phrase1 was known to the ,greeks and    
,romans  occurs in the 8,natural        
,history0 of ,pliny1 and is as          
follows3--        8,hominis autem       

imaginem gypso e facie ipsa primus      
omnium      expressit1 ceraque in eam   
formam gypsi infusa emendare instituit  
,lysistratus ,sicyonis1 frater ,lysippi1
 de quo diximus4 ,hic et                
similitudinem reddere instituit1 ante   
eum quam pulcherrimum      facere       
studebant4 ,idem et de signis effigiem  
exprimere invenit1      crevitque res in
 tantum1 ut nulla signa statuve sine    
argilla      fierent4 ,quo apparet      
antiquiorem hanc fuisse scientiam quam  
fundendi ris4 ,plast laudatissimi fuere 
,damophilus et ,gorgasus      idemque   
pictores qui ,cereris dem ,rom ad       
,circum ,maximum utroque      genere    
artis su excoluerunt40#i    ,mr4        
,perkins1 following in substance other  
translators1 thus freely  translates and
 develops this passage3--               
8,lysistrate de ,sicyone fut le premier 
prendre en pltre des      moules de la  
figure humaine4 ,dans ces moules il     
coulait de la      cire1 puis il        
corrigeait ces masques de cire d'aprs la

 nature4      ,de la sorte1 il atteignit
 la ressemblance1 tandis qu'avant lui on
      ne s'appliquait qu' faire de      
belles ttes4 ,lysistrate imagina        
aussi de reproduire l'image des statues1
 procd qui obtint      une telle vogue1 
que depuis lors ni figure ni statue ne  
fut      faite sans argile1 et l'on soit
 en conclure que ce procd est           
antrieur  la fonte du bronze40    ,if   
this translation be correct1 there seems
 to be no doubt either that  ,pliny was 
mistaken1 or that the ancients knew and 
practiced the modern  art of casting in 
plaster4    ,is1 then1 this translation 
correct8 ,it seems to us to be an utter 
misapprehension of the whole meaning of 
the passage4 ,pliny says nothing  about 
moulding or casting1 and thus to        
translate and amplify the words  he does
 use is to assume the very facts in     
question4 ,what he really  says is      
literally as follows3--                 
8,lysistratus of ,sicyon1 brother of    
,lysippus1 of whom we have      spoken1 

first of all expressed the image of a   
man in gypsum      from the whole person
 that is1 made full-length portraits1   
and improved it with wax or color1 for1 
as we shall see1      cera means both   
spread over the form4 ,he first began to
 make      likenesses1 whereas before   
him the study was to make persons       
as beautiful as possible4 ,he also      
invented expressing effigies      from  
statues2 and this practice so grew that 
no statues or signa      which were     
full-length figures either painted1     
modeled1 cast      in bronze1 or        
executed in marble were made without    
white clay4      ,from which it would   
seem that this science or process was   
older than that of casting in bronze4   
,the most famous modelers      were     
,damophilus and ,gorgasus1 who were also
 painters1 and who      decorated the   
temple of ,ceres at ,rome with both     
branches of their      art40    ,the    
first sentence1 thus literally rendered1
 it will be perceived1 has  in many     

respects the same ambiguity in ,english 
as in ,latin4 ,the words  8image10      
8expression10 and 8form0 have all a     
double signification1 and  the question 
is what is their true meaning in this   
connection4    ,if it can be shown that 
this passage neither describes nor      
proposes  to describe the process of    
casting in plaster1 as we understand    
that  phrase1 the keystone of the whole 
argument that it was known to  the      
ancients falls out4 ,no other writer    
directly asserts that such  a knowledge 
or practice existed1 and all allusions  
to this matter  contained in any ancient
 author are purely collateral1 and have 
no  force in themselves4 ,further1 some 
well-known facts which we shall have    
occasion to bring forward later are     
entirely opposed to the probability  of 
such a knowledge and practice4    ,it is
 upon this passage in ,pliny1 then1 that
 the whole case depends4  ,now1 in a    
doubtful and obscure question like this1
 dependent upon the  statement of any   

single author1 we have a right to claim 
three things3  first1 that the statement
 should be clear and fairly susceptible 
of  only one explanation2 second1 that  
it should not be contradicted by  a     
subsequent statement immediately        
following2 third1 that the author       
himself should be trustworthy4    ,and  
in the first place1 as to the author4   
,the 8,natural ,history0 of  ,pliny is  
certainly a most interesting1 amusing1  
and in many respects  valuable book1 but
 quite as certainly it is one of the    
most inaccurate  that ever was written1 
abounding in half-knowledge1 second-hand
  information1 legendary statements1 and
 rubbish of every kind4 ,it is1  in a   
word1 the commonplace book of an        
agreeable1 gossiping man1 of  a wide    
reading1 who took little pains to be    
accurate1 who reported  everything he   
heard with slight examination1 who was  
exceedingly  credulous1 and who accepted
 as truth and fact the most ridiculous  
stories4 ,all is fish that comes to his 

net4 ,in his chapters relating  to      
artists and art he is singularly devoid 
of judgment or accurate  knowledge2 he  
constantly confuses things which have no
 relation to  each other1 often         
contradicts himself1 and becomes at     
times utterly  unintelligible4 ,yet we  
are forced to turn to ,pliny1 to give a 
weight  and authority to his words upon 
art1 and to own a deep debt of          
gratitude to him1 not because he is     
trustworthy1 but simply because he      
alone of all the ancient authors1 with  
the exception of ,pausanias1 has  given 
us a detailed account of the statues and
 artists of antiquity4  ,his account of 
the ancient artists and their works is  
the fullest we  have1 and adrift as we  
often are on a wide sea of conjecture1  
we are  glad to seize upon any straws   
and fragments1 8rari nantes in gurgite  
vasto0 of blankness and doubt2 seizing  
here a bit from ,pausanias1  ,herodotus1
 or ,lucian1 there a waif from ,cicero1 
or a floating fragment  from one of the 

great tragic poets1 and glad enough to  
get upon any  such raft as that which   
,pliny gives us1 however leaky and      
rickety4 ,but  seaworthy or trustworthy 
in emergencies ,pliny certainly is not4 
,in the next place1 as to the passage   
under discussion4 ,so far from  its     
being clear and distinct1 its obscurity1
 confusion1 and apparent  contradiction 
are so great as to have baffled every   
effort to explain  it satisfactorily2   
and ,dr4 ,brunn1 one of the most        
accomplished of  archologists1 in his   
history of ,greek art1 finding it       
impossible to  reconcile the different  
sentences1 does not hesitate to treat a 
portion  as an interpolation1 or at     
least out of place where it appears4    
,two views are to be taken of the       
process described by ,pliny3 first1     
that by the term 8cera0 he means wax2   
and second1 that he means color4        
,taking the first view1 let us now      
consider the passage in question1       
sentence by sentence1 and endeavor to   

unravel its real meaning4  ,lysistratus1
 first of all1 made likenesses of men in
 gypsum from their  whole figure 7that  
is1 whole-length portraits71 and        
improved them  with wax 7or color7      
spread over the form 7core or model7 of 
gypsum4  8,imaginem gypso e facie ipsa  
expressit0 are the words of ,pliny which
  ,mr4 ,perkins in common with other    
translators supposes to mean 8made      
moulds in plaster from the              
face10--8prendre en pltre des moules40  
,but  this simple phrase cannot be      
twisted into such a meaning4            
8,exprimere10  according to             
,forcellinus1 is 8effingere1            
rappresentare1 assomigliare1  ritrarre  
dal vivo40 8,exprimere0 alone would be1 
therefore1 according  to this last      
definition1 to make a portrait from     
life4 ,the additional  words1 8imaginem 
e facie ipsa10 make this meaning still  
stronger4  8,imaginem0 means a          
full-length figure or likeness1 and not 
a mould1 as  would be required by ,mr4  

,perkins's translation4 8,exprimere     
imaginem0  cannot be forced to mean     
8made a mould10 whether in gypsum or in 
any  other material4 ,suppose we        
translate the words literally1 8to      
express  an image in plaster10 and      
interpret 8image0 to mean mould1 it is  
plain  that the phrase is wrong2 it     
should be impress and not express4 ,you 
cannot express a mould4 ,it is impressed
 on the face4 ,in like manner  when     
,plautus says 8expressa imago in cera10 
or 8expressa simulacra ex  auro10 he    
means making a portrait in color or in  
gold4 ,again1 8facies0  does not mean   
face1 but the total outward shape1      
appearance1 or figure  of a man4        
8,vultus0 is the proper term for face1  
and is so used by  ,pliny himself2 as   
when he speaks1 for instance1 of the    
portraits of  the head of ,epicurus as  
8vultus ,epicuri10 and distinguishes    
them from  the full-length figures of   
athletes1 8imagines athletarum10 with   
which  the ancients adorned their       

palstra and anointing-rooms4 ,in fact1  
the  whole chapter in which this passage
 occurs relates to portraits1 and  is   
entitled 8honos imaginum40 ,if there    
could be any question on this  point1 it
 would be settled by a passage in ,aulus
 ,gellius 7#ac1 #bi71  in which he      
defines 8facies0 as the build of the    
whole body1--8facies  est factura qudam 
totius corporis20 and ,cicero1 in his   
treatise 8,de  ,legibus0 7#a1 #i71 says1
 8,that which is called #8vultus' exists
 in no  living being except man10--8,is 
qui appellatur vultus nullo in animante 
esse prter hominem potest40#aj ,so      
,virgil in 8vivos ducent de marmore     
vultus0 means the face4 8,imago10 on the
 contrary1 and 8facies0 mean  the whole 
figure2 only 8facies0 means the real    
figure1 and 8imago0 the  imitation of   
it4 ,pliny himself invariably uses them 
so1 and in one of  his letters 7ep4 #g1 
#cc1 #b7 he recommends that we should be
 careful to  select the best artist to  
make a full-length likeness1--8,esse    

nobis cur  solet ut facies nostra ab    
optimo quoque artifice exprimatur40 ,by 
the  word 8exprimatur0 he certainly does
 not refer to casting4 ,so mechanical   
an operation as this surely does not    
require the best of artists4  8,imaginem
 e facie ipsa0 means therefore a        
full-length likeness4    ,again1        
8infundere0 does not necessarily mean   
pour in1 but is quite as  often used in 
the sense of poured over or spread on2  
as where ,ovid  says1 8infundere ceram  
tabellis20 or where ,virgil says1 8campi
 fusi in  omnem partem10 or 8sole infuso
 terris20 or again where ,ovid uses the 
phrases 8collo infusa mariti0 or 8nudos 
humeris infusa capillos10 it  can only  
mean spread over4 ,wax cannot be poured 
into a flat surface  like a tablet1 or  
hair poured into shoulders4    ,mr4     
,perkins1 with ,forcellinus before his  
eyes1 after citing his  definitions of  
8exprimere0 says3 8,explications qui    
toutes rentrent  dans l'ide de          
reprsenter1 de reproduire1 de prendre   

sur le vif1  comme on dit en franais1 et
 par consquent dans l'ide du moulage40  
,but 8ritrarre dal vivo0 means nothing  
more than to make a portrait  from life1
 whatever 8prendre sur le vif0 may mean2
 nor can any one of  ,forcellinus's     
definitions be tortured into an allusion
 to casting4  8,mais10 he continues1    
8cette ide surtout est accuse dans      
,tacite1 qui  dit en parlant d'un       
vtement que dessinait les formes1 un    
vtement  collant #8vestis artus         
exprimens4'0 ,but surely this phrase    
means  simply a garment expressing1 or  
as we should say showing1 the limbs1    
and has nothing more to do with         
8casting0 than 8dessinait les formes0   
has to do with drawing1 or a 8vtement   
collant0 has to do with glue4 ,he  also 
thinks another phrase used by           
,pliny--8expressi cera vultus0--has  a  
similar significance4 ,if all our       
metaphors are to be subjected to  this  
strict test1 we must be very careful how
 we speak4 ,yet these and  similar      

examples1 which he says he could        
multiply1 8peuvent suffire10  he thinks1
 8pour nous autoriser  croire que ,pline
 a voulu dire que  ,lysistrate tait     
l'inventeur de la reproduction des      
statues par le  pltre1 en d'autres      
termes qu'il tait le premier qui avait  
eu l'ide  de se servir du gypse pour    
mouler40 ,this1 to say the least1 is    
going  very far4 ,with such philologic  
views1 what would he think of this      
phrase1 8vera paterni oris effigies10 or
 8vivos ducent de marmore  vultus10 or  
8infans omnibus membris expressa08 ,or1 
to take an ,english  line1 what would he
 make of--        8,the express form and
 image of the ,king08    ,but if ,pliny 
meant casting1 why did he not use the   
appropriate ,latin  word for that       
process--8fundere08 ,in the subsequent  
sentence1 speaking  of casting in brass1
 he says 8fundendi ris40 8,fundere0     
meant to cast1  not 8exprimere40        
,besides1 let us look at the practical  
difficulty in this process4  ,after the 

moulds were made and the wax cast into  
them1 as ,mr4 ,perkins  interprets      
,pliny to mean1 we have still only wax  
impressions1 and not  plaster castings4 
,and how were they got out of the mould 
after they  were cast8 ,we1 in modern   
times1 have learned no method of doing  
this2  we should be obliged first to    
make the mould in plaster1 then to make 
a  cast in plaster in that mould1 then  
on that cast to make a piece-mould  with
 sections to take apart1--an elaborate  
process2 and then we could  get a wax   
cast1 but not before4 ,the fact that the
 cast mentioned by  ,pliny 7supposing he
 means a cast7 is in wax not only       
involves quadruple  labor and skill on  
the part of the caster1 but makes the   
process  impossible1 or next to         
impossible1 if it were simply as he is  
supposed  to describe it4 ,if the cast  
were in plaster1 it would resist1 so    
that  the mould could be broken off from
 it in bits2 but with wax this would  be
 entirely impracticable4    ,let us     

still further consider the phrase       
8ceraque in eam formam gypsi  infusa    
emendare instituit40 ,what does 8cera in
 eam formam infusa0 mean8  ,simply to   
cover or spread wax 7or color7 over that
 model2 just as ,ovid  says 8infundere  
ceram tabellis10 to spread wax over the 
tablets1 not  to pour wax into the      
tablets1 for that was impossible1 they  
being flat  surfaces1 nor to cast them4 
,again1 ,pliny does not say that        
,lysistratus  introduced the practice of
 spreading wax over a core1 or of       
pouring  wax into a form1 or casting2   
but only of improving the likenesses1   
or working them up in the wax after it  
was spread over the plaster3  8instituit
 emendare10 he says1 not 8instituit     
infundere40 8,formam0  here has not the 
signification of mould1 but of model or 
image4  ,undoubtedly the term 8forma0 in
 ,latin was used to signify a mould as  
well as a cast1 or a model1 or a form2  
and in this respect it had the  same    
ambiguity that the corresponding terms  

8mould0 and 8form0 have  in ,english4 ,a
 8form0 is a seat1 as well as a shape   
and a ceremony1  and 8mould0 is         
constantly1 though improperly1 used to  
indicate a  model or the thing moulded1 
as well as the real mould in which it is
  cast2 the phrases 8to model0 and 8to  
mould0 are often synonymous in  meaning4
 ,so 8forma0 was sometimes employed in  
its primary significance  of figure1    
shape1 and configuration1 as when       
,quinctilian says1 8,eadem  cera ali    
atque ali form duci solent10--various   
shapes may be given  to the same wax2   
sometimes in the sense of image1 as when
 ,cicero  speaks of 8form               
clarissimorum10 the images of           
distinguished men2  sometimes to mean a 
model or shape over which a thing is    
wrought1 as  a shoemaker's last1--8,si  
scalpra et formas non sutor emat10 as   
,horace  says2 and sometimes as         
indicating a hollow mould in which      
bronze is  cast1 as when ,pliny says1   
8,ex iis silicibus form fiunt1 in quibus

  ra funduntur10--from these pebbles    
moulds are made1 in which brass is      
cast4 ,but when he uses it in this last 
sense1 it will be observed1  ,pliny     
employs the term 8fundere10 to cast1 and
 not 8exprimere10 nor  8emendare40 ,in  
the passage about ,lysistratus1 then1   
8forma0 would seem  to mean a model1 or 
core1 like the shoemaker's last1 on     
which the wax  was spread for the       
purpose of emending or improving        
something4 ,what is  that something     
which ,pliny tells us he improved by    
this means8 ,what  can it be except the 
8imaginem10 the likeness8 ,there is no  
other word  to which 8emendare0 can     
refer4 ,if1 then1 we understand the     
passage  as meaning that ,lysistratus   
modeled a likeness in gypsum1 and then  
improved it or finished it in wax which 
he spread over the gypsum1 the          
statement is quite intelligible1 and not
 a word is warped from its  correct     
significance4 ,if we adopt the other    
interpretation1 however1  we must       

understand 8imaginem gypso expressit0 to
 mean that he made a  mould in gypsum1  
contrary to the direct force of the     
words2 and with  wax poured into that   
mould 7making 8formam0 equivalent to    
8imaginem10  and referring to it7 he    
emended or improved--something4 ,what8  
,why1 the  mould1--which is absurd4     
,again1 we cannot begin by making       
8imaginem0  mean the cast1 before the   
8formam0 or mould is made2 not only     
because  the practical process is thus  
reversed1 but because then we should    
have a cast in plaster made by pouring  
wax into the mould1 which is  even more 
absurd4 ,taking 8forma0 to have in this 
sentence any of its  meanings except    
8mould10 we have no difficulty in       
understanding it2  taking it as 8mould10
 we are forced to change the primary    
significance  of 8imaginem0 and         
8expressit10 and are involved in very   
serious  questions4    ,in addition to  
these considerations1 it must not be    
forgotten that  this cast of gypsum1    

according to ,mr4 ,perkins's            
interpretation of the  sentence1 was    
made not of the face alone 78vultus07   
which is by no  means an easy process1  
but of the whole figure 78facie071 which
 is a  very hazardous one1 and to which1
 with all the knowledge and experience  
of the present day in casting1 few      
people would be willing to submit4    ,a
 passage of ,alcimus ,avitus1 in his    
poem 8,de ,origine ,mundi0 7lib4 #a1    
#f1 #ge71 throws a clear light on the   
process which seems here to be          
described as the invention of           
,lysistratus3--       8,hc ait1 et      
fragilem dignatus tangere terram        
,temperat humentem conspersa pulvere    
limum      ,molliturque novum dives     
sapientia corpus      ,non aliter quam  
opifex diuturno exercitus usu4          
,flectere laxatas per cuncta sequacia   
ceras      ,et vultus complere rudes aut
 corpora gypso      ,fingere vel segni  
speciem componere massa      ,sic ,pater
 ,omnipotens40    ,here we have the body

 modeled 78fingere0 is to model7 in     
gypsum1 and  the ductile 8cera0 spread  
over all the undulations1 and the rude  
face  finished1 just as ,pliny describes
 it4    ,let us now consider the next   
sentence1 in which he says1 8,hic et    
similitudinem reddere instituit1 ante   
eum quam pulcherrimum facere            
studebant40 ,this certainly has nothing 
to do with casting4 ,it is very         
important as throwing a reflex light on 
the previous sentence4 ,the  whole      
stress of the passage is to bring out   
the fact that ,lysistratus  made        
portraits4 ,he used a peculiar process1 
perhaps1 but his specialty  was that he 
made portraits from life 78imaginem     
hominis e facie ipsa071  which he worked
 up in wax 78emendare cera072 and not   
only this1 but his  portraits were exact
 likenesses 78similitudinem reddere     
instituit071  and not merely ideal      
figures like those of the artists who   
preceded him  78ante eum quam           
pulcherrimum facere studebant074    ,a  

slight glimpse at the history of the art
 will clear up this matter4  ,in the    
early period of sculpture1 only statues 
of divinities were  made1 and up to a   
comparatively late time these archaic   
figures were  copied for religious and  
superstitious reasons1 and the old      
formal  hieratic type was strictly      
observed4 ,it was not until the #ehth   
,olympiad  that iconic statues began to 
be made in honor of the victors in the  
national games1 and these for the       
greater part were rather portraits  of  
the peculiarities of general physical   
developments than of the  face4         
,portrait statues of distinguished men  
now began to be made1  but they were    
very few in number1 and only            
exceptionally allowed  by the state4    
,the first iconic statues1 representing 
,harmodius and  ,aristogeiton1 were made
 in #eji ,b4 ,c4 by ,antenor4 ,phidias  
followed  7#dhj to #dcb ,b4 ,c471 and   
during his period the grand style was in
  its culmination1 and for the most part

 divinities or demigods only  were      
thought worthy subjects for a great     
sculptor4 ,iconic statues  were1        
however1 executed during this period1   
and among the legendary  heroes and     
divinities who formed the subjects of   
the thirteen statues  erected at ,delphi
 and executed by ,phidias out of the    
,persian spoils1  the portrait of       
,miltiades was allowed1#aa but the      
erection of public  portrait statues was
 very rarely permitted1 and the         
introduction by  ,phidias of his own    
portrait and that of ,pericles among the
 combatants  wrought upon the shield of 
his ivory and gold statue of ,athena    
occasioned a prosecution against him for
 impiety4 ,it is said that  ,phidias1 in
 his statue of a youth binding his hair 
with a fillet1  made the portrait of    
,pantarces1 an ,elean who was enamored  
of the  great sculptor1 and who obtained
 the victory at the ,olympian games  in 
the #hfth ,olympiad 7,b4 ,c4 #dce74 ,but
 this story1 which is given by          

,pausanias1 rests1 even by his own      
account1 purely on tradition1 and  was  
apparently founded upon a supposed      
resemblance between ,pantarces  and the 
statue4 ,portraiture in its true sense1 
however1 now began1 and  soon after the 
death of ,phidias1 about the #ijth      
,olympiad1 ,demetrius  obtained         
celebrity as a portrait sculptor4 ,he   
seems to have been the  first to        
introduce the realistic school of       
portraiture1 copying so  carefully from 
life1 particularly in his likenesses of 
old persons1  that he was reproved for  
being too faithful to ,nature4          
,quinctilian  accuses him of being      
8nimius in veritate0 7xii4 #aj72 ,lucian
 in his  8,philopseudes0 calls him an 1 
and1 describing a statue by  him of     
,pelichus the ,corinthian1 says it was  
1--like  the very man himself4          
,callimachus1 also1 at the same period  
obtained  the nickname of 1 on account  
of the extreme detail and  finish of his
 works4 ,these artists flourished nearly

 a century before  ,lysistratus2 and    
,pliny therefore is incorrect in his    
sweeping statement  that before the time
 of ,lysistratus sculptors had only     
endeavored to  make their statues as    
beautiful as possible1 and not to give  
accurate  portraits4 ,still1 these men  
must be considered as exceptions to the 
general practice1 and it was not until  
the time of ,alexander that             
portrait-sculpture in the sense of      
accurate likeness was developed4  ,up to
 that period it still was heroic1       
generalized1 and ideal in its           
character1 with comparatively little    
individuality or detail4 ,the  portrait 
statues1 for instance1 of the ,royal    
,family by ,leochares 7#cgb  ,b4 ,c471  
and that of ,mausolus 7about #cej ,b4   
,c47 on the famous ,mausoleum  erected  
by ,artemisia1 were treated in this     
style4 ,lysippus1 however1  during the  
reign of ,alexander of ,macedon1 by his 
great talent gave a  new impulse and    
development to the school of            

portraiture1 and while  retaining the   
heroic character he gave a more         
realistic truth to his  works4 ,pliny   
speaks of him as distinguished for the  
finish of his work  in the remotest     
details1--8arguti operum custodit in    
minimis rebus40  ,in his portraits of   
,alexander he represented even the      
defects of his  royal patron1 such as   
the stoop of his head sideways4 ,such   
was his  skill that ,alexander declared 
8that none but ,apelles should represent
  him in color1 and none but ,lysippus  
in marble40 ,lysistratus was the        
brother of ,lysippus1 and ,pliny says   
that he introduced the practice of      
making portraits which were not merely  
heroic and ideal likenesses1 but        
faithful representations of the real    
men4 ,in attributing to ,lysistratus    
the introduction of this practice of    
individual portraiture1 ,pliny          
undoubtedly goes beyond the real facts4 
,he did not introduce the  practice1 he 
merely developed it by a peculiar       

process1 giving  additional             
verisimilitude thereby4 ,this process   
was roughly modeling  the likeness in   
plaster1 and then finishing the surface 
and the details  in the 8cera0 with     
which he covered it4    ,in painting1   
the sphere of portraiture was larger    
than in sculpture1  and subject         
apparently to no such restrictions4 ,the
 earliest portrait  on record by any    
great painter was not of hero1          
philosopher1 or  athlete1 but of        
,elpinice1 the daughter of ,miltiades   
and the mistress  of ,polygnotus1 who   
painted her portrait as ,laodice1 one of
 the  daughters of ,priam1 in his famous
 picture representing the 8,rape of     
,cassandra10 in the ,pcile at ,athens4  
,this picture was executed about  #dfc  
,b4 ,c41 when ,elpinice must have been  
at least thirty-five years of  age4     
,dionysius of ,colophon was also a      
distinguished portrait-painter  and     
celebrated for his excessive finish4    
,nicephorus ,chumnus1 the  grammarian1  

describes ,apelles and ,lysippus as     
making and painting         1--being    
likenesses  only wanting breath and     
motion4 ,for one of his portraits of    
,alexander  ,apelles received twenty    
talents of gold 7#e1jjj71 which was     
measured1  not counted1 out to him4 ,he 
also painted the portraits of ,campaspe 
and  ,phryne in the character of ,venus1
 taking the face from ,campaspe and the 
nude figure from ,phryne4 ,speaking of  
,apelles1 ,pliny himself relates in  his
 thirty-sixth book that 8he painted     
portraits so exact to the life  that one
 of those persons called ,metoscopi1 who
 divine events from the  features of    
men1 was enabled1 on examining his      
portraits1 to foretell  the hour of the 
death of the person represented40 ,and  
this monstrous  story ,pliny apparently 
accepts4 ,at all events1 he does not    
question it4  ,parrhasius1 8the most    
insolent and arrogant of artists10 says 
,pliny1  8painted a portrait of himself 
and dedicated it in a public temple  to 

,mercury2 and though the ,athenians had 
publicly proceeded against  ,phidias for
 so doing1 they allowed it to           
,parrhasius1 thus plainly  showing that 
the dignity of sculpture was higher than
 that of painting40    ,but to return   
from this digression to the             
consideration of the passage  by ,pliny 
relating to portraiture in modeling and 
sculpture4 ,in the  sentence immediately
 following1 ,pliny goes on to say1      
8,idem et de  signis effigiem exprimere 
invenit1 crevitque res in tantum1 ut    
nulla  signa statuve sine argilla       
fierent10--,lysistratus also made copies
  from statues1 and this practice came  
so into vogue that no statues  in brass 
or marble were made without white clay4 
,what the meaning  of this sentence is  
we can only guess2 as it stands1 it is  
quite  unintelligible4 ,perhaps he      
intended to say that ,lysistratus set   
the  fashion of making small copies in  
clay or terra cotta of all the  statues 
that were executed4 ,but it is quite    

possible that he meant  nothing of the  
kind4 ,it is plain that if ,lysistratus 
had already  invented casting in        
plaster1 it would have been unnecessary 
to copy  statues in clay1 except for the
 purpose of reduction to statuettes4    
,mr4  ,perkins thinks he may have       
intended to speak of 8esquisses d'argile
  maquettes dont se servent les         
sculpteurs comme point de dpart1        
esquisse reproduite plus tard en marbre 
et avec la mise aux points40  ,but there
 was nothing new in this2 and surely    
,lysistratus could not  be said to have 
invented1 or set the fashion of1 a      
process which  certainly had been       
employed very long before his time4 ,and
 again1 why  make a small statue in clay
 and enlarge it proportionally in       
marble1 if  you can make it at once in  
full size and cast it8 ,nor does ,mr4   
,perkins  seem to be aware that in      
adopting this view1 and translating as  
he does  8de signis effigiem            
exprimere10--to make a small model or   

maquette in  clay1--he abandons his     
explanation of the sentence referring to
 gypsum4  ,for if 8effigiem argilla     
exprimere0 means1 as he says1 to make a 
model  in clay1 why does not 8imaginem  
gypso exprimere0 mean to make a model   
in plaster8 ,besides1 the fact that     
,pliny applies the same terms to a      
process in clay as to one in plaster at 
once puts an end to the matter  so far  
as the question of casting goes4 ,clay  
is not a material to cast  with1 in any 
proper sense of that term4    ,another  
objection to this interpretation that   
,pliny meant a maquette1  8esquisse10 or
 sketch is that 8effigies0 did not mean 
sketch4 ,it  carried with it nearly the 
significance of our own word effigy1--of
  great reality of imitation4 8,imago0  
was a vaguer word1 and might  indicate a
 delusive resemblance as by painting2   
but 8effigiem0 was  ordinarily employed 
to designate a more absolute imitation4 
,thus  ,cicero says1 8,nos vere juris   
german justiti que solidam et expressam 

effigiem nullam tenemus4 ,umbra et      
imaginibus utimur40#ab ,and again1      
8,consectatur nullam eminentem effigiem 
virtutis sed adumbratam  imaginem       
glori40 8,effigies0 would1 therefore1   
carry no such idea as  that of sketch4  
,besides1 not only is 8effigies0 not the
 correct word for sketch1 but  ,pliny   
would scarcely have used it in this     
sense1 when immediately  afterwards1    
speaking of the sketches of ,arcesilaus1
 which sold for more  than the finished 
works of other artists1 he employs the  
appropriate  term for                   
sketches1--8proplasma40 ,in the         
translation of ,pliny1 published  by    
,mr4 ,bohn1 and made by ,mr4 ,bostick   
and ,mr4 ,riley1 this term is           
translated 8models in plaster20 but it  
simply means sketches or  antijicta1 in 
whatever material they were made4 ,the  
words 8plast0  and 8plasma0 have nothing
 to do with plaster4 8,plast0 were      
simply  modelers1 and  was the art of   
modeling1--the plastic art4    ,again1  

,pliny could scarcely have intended to  
say that ,lysistratus  invented modeling
 sketches of statues in clay before     
executing them  in plaster1 since he    
tells us explicitly that ,pasiteles used
 to say  that plastice was the mother of
 statuaria1 scalptura1 et clatura2  and1
 though he was distinguished as first in
 all these arts1 he never  executed     
anything in them until he had first     
modeled it in clay1--8nihil  unquam     
fecit1 antequam finxit40    ,before     
leaving this sentence1 let us take a    
different view of its  possible meaning4
 ,may not ,pliny use the words 8signa0  
and 8signis0 to  mean pictures and not  
statues8 ,undoubtedly 8signum0 was thus 
used1  as where ,plautus speaks of a    
8signum pictum in parieti10--a picture  
painted on the wall2 or where ,virgil   
speaks of a 8pallam signis auroque      
rigentem10--a mantle stiff with         
embroidered figures and gold4 ,in this  
sense the passage would mean that       
,lysistratus made effigies from         

pictures as well as from statues1 and   
that thenceforward not only no  statues 
but no pictures were made without being 
copied in bas-relief1  or in the round1 
argilla1 or white clay4 ,this would     
account for the use  of the word        
8effigiem10 which has a stronger        
significance of reality  than           
8imaginem40    ,the succeeding sentence 
is even more obscure2 and1 unless it be 
interpolated or out of its proper place1
 is quite unintelligible4  ,in the      
connection in which it now stands it is 
absurd4 ,it is as  follows3 8,quo       
apparet antiquiorem hanc fuisse         
scientiam quam fundendi  ris10--by which
 it seems that this knowledge or        
practice was older  than that of casting
 in bronze4 ,what is the 8scientiam0 to 
which he  refers8 ,he has previously    
spoken only of two3 first1 that of      
making  portraits in plaster and wax2   
second1 that of making copies of statues
  in clay1--both1 as he says1 invented  
or introduced into practice by          

,lysistratus4 ,but to say that that     
artist could have invented any  process 
older than that of casting in bronze is 
not only ridiculous in  itself1 but     
inconsistent with what he has previously
 told us2 since at  least two centuries 
previous to the time of ,lysistratus1   
,rhcus and  ,theodorus of ,samos--as we 
learn from ,pausanias1 ,herodotus1 and  
even  ,pliny himself--exercised the art 
of casting in bronze4 ,pausanias1#ac    
indeed1 tells us that these sculptors   
invented this art2 but ,pliny1  with his
 usual inaccuracy and carelessness1 says
 that they invented  8plastice10 or the 
art of modeling 78,in ,samo primos      
omnium plasticen  invenisse ,rhcum et   
,theodorum10 ch4 xxxv471--an art which  
from the very  nature of things must    
have been practiced from the earliest   
and rudest  ages1 almost from the time  
when the first child made the first     
mud-pie4    ,dr4 ,brunn1#ad in          
commenting on this passage in ,pliny1   
accepts the  first sentence as          

describing the art of casting in        
plaster1 but1  finding it impossible to 
reconcile it with the subsequent        
sentences1  ingeniously suggests that it
 was an addition inserted in the margin1
  and afterwards interpolated into the  
text by the copyists in the wrong       
place4 ,throwing out this first sentence
 about ,lysistratus from this  place1 he
 still accepts it1 and interprets it to 
mean that ,lysistratus  invented the art
 of casting4 ,the subsequent sentences  
he connects with  a previous passage in 
,pliny1 in which he gives an account of 
,dibutades  of ,sicyon1 a potter by     
trade1 and relates the legend that this 
artist  drew the outline of the face of 
a girl whom he loved from her shadow on 
the wall1 and his father pressed clay   
upon it within those outlines1  and made
 a typum which he baked4 ,the passage1  
according to ,dr4  ,brunn1 then would   
continue3 8,he ,dibutades also invented 
the making of  effigies from signa1 and 
this practice so increased that         

thenceforward  no statues or signa were 
made without argilla2 so that it appears
  that this art was more ancient than   
that of casting in bronze40 ,by         
accepting this suggestion of ,dr4 ,brunn
 we certainly relieve ,pliny of  the    
absurdity of stating that any           
8scientiam0 or practice invented  by    
,lysistratus was older than casting in  
bronze1 since centuries  before his time
 bronze figures of colossal proportions 
had been cast4  ,but even supposing     
these sentences to refer to ,dibutades  
and not to  ,lysistratus1 they are far  
from being clear or accurate4 ,is it    
possible  to believe that1 while the    
making of brick and earthenware utensils
 and  fictile vases is so ancient that  
the memory of man runneth not to the    
contrary1 no one before ,dibutades had  
ever attempted to model a figure  or a  
face in clay1 or to put a model into a  
furnace and bake it8 ,all  history is   
against such a supposition4 ,images in  
terra cotta were made  by the ancient   

,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 and ,ephesians
 centuries before  ,dibutades4 ,the     
ancient ,etruscan terra cottas previous 
to his epoch were  scattered1 as ,pliny 
himself says1 all over the world3       
8,signa ,tuscanica  per terras          
dispersa40 ,the capitol was decorated   
with earthen statues at  the time of the
 first ,tarquin1 and ,pausanias mentions
 many clay statues  of gods and demigods
 executed in the earliest ages of       
,greece itself4    ,again1 from this    
very passage it is clear that ,pliny    
himself admits  that there were signa   
and statu already existing at the time  
of  ,dibutades1 of which he first made  
effigies4 ,what did ,dibutades invent8  
,certainly not the art of modeling in   
clay1 or of baking the clay4 ,his       
statement1 also1 that thenceforward no  
statues were made without clay  is      
scarcely intelligible1 unless we suppose
 him to mean that clay  models were made
 thenceforward before executing statues 
in stone or  other materials4 ,but he   

does not say this4 ,again1 he cannot    
mean that  ,dibutades first invented    
taking impressions from indented        
outlines1 or  intaglii1 for this was as 
old as the first primitive seal1 and was
 no  more invented by ,dibutades than by
 ,lysistratus4    ,dr4 ,brunn interprets
 the statement in respect to ,dibutades 
as showing  that he was probably the    
first inventor of casting1 at the same  
time  that he also interprets the       
sentences referring to ,lysistratus as  
declaring that he first invented        
casting1--the only difference being     
that the process of the one was in clay1
 and that of the other in  plaster4     
,but is it clear that ,dibutades1       
according to ,pliny1 ever made even  a  
stamp in clay from indented outlines on 
the wall8 ,the passage is  ordinarily so
 interpreted1 but is this interpretation
 correct8 ,pliny  says that ,dibutades  
having traced the shadow on the wall in 
outline1  his father impressed clay     
within that outline1 and thus made a    

typum which he baked with other articles
 of earth1 and which was  long          
afterwards preserved in the ,nymphum at 
,corinth4 ,his words are1  8quibus      
lineis pater ejus impressa argilla typum
 fecit40 ,what1 then1  is the meaning of
 8typum08 ,evidently not a mould1 or    
impression1 but a  relief4 ,had it been 
a mould1 he could have stamped from it a
 hundred  impressions1 since it would   
have been merely a seal with an         
irregularly  relieved outline2 and in   
order to have the repetition of what was
 on  the wall he must perforce have     
stamped from it an impression4 ,this he 
evidently did not do1 or at least       
nothing is said to indicate anything  of
 the kind4 ,he preserved and baked what 
he first obtained1 which1  if it was    
merely a mould1 would have produced1 to 
say the least1 no  effect4 ,the true as 
well as the literal translation of this 
passage  would seem to be1 8within the  
outlines by putting on clay he made a   
relief40 ,this clay he probably modeled 

as well as he could1 keeping  within the
 lines1 and then removed it from the    
wall and baked it4 ,the  same           
interpretation of this passage is given 
by ,giovanni ,battista  ,adriani1 in a  
remarkable essay or rather letter       
addressed by him  to ,giorgio ,vasari in
 #aefg1 in which he gives a summary of  
the most  celebrated ,greek artists and 
their works4 8,typus0 in ,latin had the 
double significance of 8intaglio0 and   
8relievo10 as our word 8type0  has of   
the type itself and the printed         
impression2 and sometimes it  was used  
in one sense and sometimes in the other1
 but it was usually  employed to mean a 
relief4 ,thus ,cicero1 in one of his    
letters to  ,atticus 7lib4 i4 ep4 #aj71 
writes1 8,prterea typos tibi mando quos 
in  tectorio atrioli possim             
includere10--,i commission you also to  
procure me  some reliefs to be inserted 
in the plaster of the anteroom4 ,and    
,pliny  in this passage would plainly   
seem to use the word in the same sense2 

otherwise he would probably have written
 8forma10 as he did in other  cases when
 he meant a mould4 ,not that even that  
word would be free from  all ambiguity1 
but it would more appropriately signify 
a mould4    ,but however ingenious is   
the suggestion of ,dr4 ,brunn that the  
passages  relating to ,lysistratus ought
 to belong to ,dibutades1 the fact is   
that  in all editions of ,pliny they are
 connected with ,lysistratus2 and as    
this suggestion does not dispose of all 
difficulties and clear up the  matter1  
we will proceed to consider them in that
 relation1 and see if  anything can be  
made clearly out of them4    ,plainly1  
if the 8scientiam0 here spoken of refers
 to the invention of  ,lysistratus1 and 
is interpreted to be the art of casting 
in plaster1  it is ridiculously         
incorrect to say that it was older than 
casting  in brass4 ,if that invention be
 of modeling in plaster1 it is also     
entirely incorrect4 ,we know that this  
was practiced at least a century        

previous1--as1 for instance1 in the     
construction of the great statue of     
,zeus at ,megara1 the body of which was 
of plaster and clay1 the head  alone    
being cased in gold and ivory2 and also 
of the ,bacchus in painted  plaster1 of 
which ,pausanias speaks4    ,the only   
way in which we can explain the         
statement that any 8scientiam0  or      
process described by ,pliny as used by  
,lysistratus was older than  the art of 
casting in bronze1 is by supposing he   
meant to say that the  process he       
employed was in itself an old one1 and  
that it was only in  the practical      
application to the making of portraits  
that there was  any novelty1--the       
process of covering a core of plaster   
with wax being  older than casting in   
bronze1 while covering a sketch of      
plaster with  wax and then working that 
surface up from life was new4 ,the      
statement  so understood would be       
intelligible at least1 and1 as far as we
 know1  perfectly correct4 ,the method  

of the ancients in casting bronze       
statues  is not described by any ancient
 writer1 but it is supposed to have been
  this3 ,a fire-proof core was first    
built up of plaster1 clay1 earth1  or   
other materials1 and over this a thin   
and even coating of wax or  pitch was   
spread2 or perhaps1 which is not so     
probable1 the surface was  rasped down  
to the thickness intended for the       
bronze1 and afterwards  covered with a  
thin coating of wax4 ,in either case the
 result would be  the same4 ,the outside
 of this wax being then completely      
covered with  sand or packed clay-dust1 
there would be a thin coating of wax    
inclosed  between the two surfaces1     
which1 melting away before the fused    
metal1  would allow that metal to take  
its place4 ,this would account for the  
remarkable thinness and evenness of the 
ancient bronzes2 for by such  a method  
the core would be perfect1 and the      
artist would naturally  put on as little
 wax as possible4 ,if we suppose the    

statue1 after it  was nearly completed  
in plaster or clay1 not to have been    
rasped down  but simply to have been    
covered with wax1 we shall see that the 
result  would be that the bronze cast   
would be a little fuller in size and    
thicker in proportions than the original
 model4 ,and this is a peculiar         
characteristic of the ancient bronzes1  
especially to be observed in the  limbs 
and joints1 which are generally larger  
and puffier in bronze than  in marble   
statues4    ,now if ,pliny meant to say 
of ,lysistratus that his method of      
modeling  portraits by making a plaster 
figure or core1 and covering the surface
  with wax1 was older than that of      
casting in bronze1 he was quite  right2 
for undoubtedly the process of covering 
a core with wax must  have preceded that
 of casting in bronze1 or at least must 
have been  coincident with it4 ,but at  
the same time this method had previously
  been used only1 or at least chiefly1  
in casting2 whereas ,lysistratus  was   

the first to use it for modeling from   
life and carefully finishing  every     
part4 ,the process was old2 the         
application was new4    ,thus far in    
considering this passage we have        
proceeded on the  hypothesis that the   
8cera0 spoken of was wax4 ,but another  
and quite  different view is also       
possible1 and seems in all probability  
to be the  correct one4 ,pliny may mean 
to refer to quite a different thing1 and
  by the term 8cera0 may have meant not 
wax but color4 8,cer0 was the  common   
term for a painter's colors1 and ,pliny 
himself thus uses it in  defining       
encaustic painting3 8,ceris pingere et  
picturam inurere40 ,varro  also says1   
8,pictores locutulas magnas habent      
arculas ubi discolores  sunt cer40      
,statius also uses the same term when he
 says1 8,apelle  cuperent te scribere   
cer40 ,anacreon1 in his odes1 constantly
 uses   for picture2 as1 for instance1--
                 4    ,here it is not a 
waxen figure1 but a wax1 or oil1--that  

is1 a painting  of ,eros1 not an 4 ,and 
in the same ode the youth replies in    
,doric1  8  0--8,i am not a painter20 or
 even more manifestly in  the ode       
beginning1--          1      1  1       
1      1   1         4                  
1         4    ,and again1--           4
      1 1  4    ,wax was the common     
medium used by painters4 ,after it had  
been purified  and blanched1 their      
colors were mixed with it just as ours  
are with  oil2 and in like manner1 as we
 speak of painting in oils1 they spoke  
of  painting in wax4 ,a head done in    
chalk would no more necessarily mean  a 
head modeled in chalk or plaster1 than  
8imaginem or effigiem cera  expressam0  
would mean a likeness modeled in wax4   
,the substances on which the ancients   
painted were wood1 clay1 plaster1       
stone1 parchment1 and perhaps canvas4   
,the best painters1 however1  rarely    
painted on anything but tablets or      
panels4 8,nulla gloria  artificum est   
nisi eorum qui tabulas pinxere10 says   

,pliny 7xxxv4 #cg74  ,these panels were 
of wood2 they were prepared for painting
 by spreading  over them chalk or white 
plaster 7gypsum71 and on that account   
were  called 840 ,all the paintings on  
walls were also on plaster  covered with
 a composition of chalk and marble dust1
 as is fully  described by              
,vitruvius4#ae    ,let us now apply     
these facts to ,pliny's statement4 ,may 
he not intend  to say1 and is not this a
 legitimate meaning of his words1 that  
,lysistratus first of all modeled       
portraits in gypsum from life1 and  then
 increased the likeness by color laid on
 to the plaster bust4  ,he also made    
colored copies or effigies from brass   
statues 7which  were called1 as we know1
 8cer071 and these came so into vogue   
that  thenceforward there were no       
statues without white clay or chalk1    
which1 as we have seen1 was a           
preparation for the wax color as shown  
by ,vitruvius4 ,in this view of his     
meaning1 the statement that this        

peculiar process is older than that of  
casting in bronze becomes  intelligible1
 if we suppose him to intend to say that
 coloring statues  was a very old       
process1 while coloring portraits in    
exact imitation  of life was the        
invention of ,lysistratus4 ,the         
succeeding sentence  then becomes clear1
 in which he says that the most famous  
plast were  ,damophilus and ,gorgasus1  
who were also painters1 and who         
decorated the  ,temple of ,ceres at     
,rome in both these arts1 since it is   
plain that  these works were both       
modeled and painted4    ,the making of  
portraits in effigy1 colored in         
imitation of life1 had  been a common   
practice in ,rome1 as we learn from     
,pliny himself1 and  these1 because they
 were colored1 were technically called  
8cer0 as  well as 8imagines40 ,it was   
the custom of the great families to set 
up these colored figures in their atria1
 and on particular festivals  to carry  
them in procession through the streets  

of ,rome1 draped with  actual robes such
 as were worn by the persons whom they  
represented4  ,pliny expresses his      
regret that in his time this custom had 
fallen into  disuse1 tending as it did  
to keep fresh and alive the personal    
memory  of great men who had passed away
 from this life4#af    ,it will be      
useful here to consider the character of
 the whole chapter  in which this       
passage appears4 ,it is entitled1       
8,plastices primi  inventores1 de       
simulacris1 et vasis fictilibus et      
pretio eorum40 ,the  object of the      
chapter is to give an account of        
modeling and modelers1  not of casting4 
,in a previous chapter1 where ,pliny is 
speaking of  some early products of the 
plastic art1 and particularly of the    
signa ,tuscanica1 or earthenware        
statues1 he says3 8,it appears to me  a 
singular fact1 that1 though the origin  
of statues was of such great  antiquity 
in ,italy1 the images of the gods1 which
 were consecrated  to them in their     

temples1 should have been fashioned of  
wood or  earthenware1 until the conquest
 of ,asia introduced luxury among us4   
,it will be most convenient to speak of 
the art of making likenesses            
similitudines exprimendi when we come to
 speak of what the ,greeks  call        
#8plastice1' for the art of modeling was
 prior to that of statuary  of bronze   
and marble1--prior quam statuaria fuit4 
,but this last art  has flourished in   
such an infinite degree that to pursue  
the subject  thoroughly would require   
many volumes40 ,thus he announces       
clearly  beforehand what he intends to  
speak of in this chapter which we are   
now  considering1 on plastic4 ,it is the
 art of 8making likenesses1 of the      
first invention of modeling1 of fictile 
vases1 and of their price10  but not of 
casting or of any such invention4 ,the  
previous chapter1 in  which this        
announcement is made of his subsequent  
intention1 is devoted  to casting in    
bronze and brass-work1 or statuaria4    

,after making this  statement1 he goes  
on to enumerate the principal works in  
bronze1 and  then says that portrait    
statues were long afterwards placed in  
the  ,forum and in the atria of private 
houses2 that clients thus did honor  to 
their patrons1 and that in former times 
the statues thus dedicated  were dressed
 in togas3 8,togat effigies antiquitus  
ita dicabantur20 or  ought not          
8dicabantur0 to be dicebantur1--meaning 
that these statues  were called 8togat  
effigies08    ,in the chapter we are now
 considering1 he begins by saying that1 
having already said enough about        
pictures1 he now proposes to append     
some account of the plastic art4 ,then  
he speaks of ,dibutades1 and  relates   
the story of his making the portrait of 
the girl he loved2  and adds that he    
first invented a method of coloring his 
works in  pottery by adding red earth or
 red chalk4 ,then follows the passage   
about ,lysistratus1 who used plaster    
instead of clay to make portraits1      

covering it with wax or color to improve
 the resemblance4 ,after the  passages  
cited1 he goes on to mention other      
celebrated modelers  7plast             
laudatissimi71 among whom were          
,damophilus and ,gorgasus1  who were    
also painters1 and who adorned the      
,temple of ,ceres at ,rome  by the      
exercise of both their arts4 ,according 
to ,varro1 he says1  everything in the  
temples was ,tuscanica1--that is1       
ancient pottery of  the ,etruscan       
school2 and when they were repaired the 
painted coatings  of the walls were     
removed and framed4 ,he also mentions   
,chalcosthenes1  who executed several   
works in baked earth4 ,he cites ,varro  
again as  saying that ,possis at ,rome  
executed grapes1 fruit1 and fishes with 
such  truth to ,nature that they could  
not be distinguished from the real      
things4 ,dibutades1 he also says1       
invented a method of coloring plastic   
composition by adding red earth4        
,throughout the chapter ,pliny is not   

speaking solely of modelers1 but  most  
of those he mentions colored their      
works4 ,the grapes1 fruit1  and fishes  
of ,possis1 the works of ,damophilus and
 ,gorgasus1 the  ,tuscanica in the      
temples1 all were colored in imitation  
of the  objects represented4 ,and       
besides these he mentions particularly  
the  ,jupiter of ,pasiteles1 made in    
clay1 8et ideo miniari solitum10--and   
therefore proper for painting in        
vermilion4 ,he also speaks of  8figlina 
opera10--earthenware painted in         
encaustic1--which were on  the baths of 
,agrippa in ,rome4 ,all this seems to   
lend probability  to the interpretation 
of 8cera0 to mean color and not wax2 at 
all  events1 there is not a word about  
casting1 unless the words relating  to  
,lysistratus can be tortured into such a
 meaning4 ,what adds still  more to the 
probability that this was the real      
thought of ,pliny in  the passage cited 
is the use of the words 8effigies0 and  
8argilla40  8,effigies0 in ,latin is    

distinguished from 8simulacrum0 7which  
may be  a picture as well as a statue71 
both being representations indicating   
something which shows they are not life 
itself1 the one being flat and  the     
other colorless2 while 8effigies0       
carries the idea of deception  with it1 
so far as resemblance goes4 ,thus       
,cicero says1 8,vidistis  non fratrem   
tuum nec vestigium quidem aut           
simulacrum1 sed effigiem  quamdam       
spirantis mortui40 ,so1 also1 8argilla0 
means white clay1 and  not ordinary clay
 out of which terra cotta images were   
made2 and  ,pliny may have intended by  
these words to express the idea that    
after ,lysistratus had made effigies or 
colored copies of brass or  marble      
statues1 white clay was constantly used1
 for the reason that  it was manifestly 
better for coloring4 ,this would relieve
 him from  the absurdity of saying that 
,lysistratus invented or led the way  in
 modeling in clay1 rather than in the   
use of white clay which he  colored4    

,argilla and gypsum would then be nearly
 the same thing1 both  used as a basis  
for colored walls1 upon which 8cera0 or 
color was  laid or infused4 ,this would 
clear up the subsequent statement that  
this art was older than casting in      
bronze1 since it is plain that  coloring
 statues was very ancient4 ,pausanias   
mentions two1--one of the  ,ephesian    
,diana and one of ,bacchus in wood1 gilt
 except the faces1--which  were painted 
with vermilion4 ,so1 in the ,wisdom of  
,solomon 7ch4 xiii4  and xv471 images of
 wood and clay are spoken of1 painted in
 red and  vermilion and stained with    
divers colors2 and in #fcj ,b4 ,c4 there
 were  images in gold1 silver1 stone1   
and wood in ,babylon 7,baruch1 ch4 vi4  
and  xiii471 painted and gilded and     
dressed1 and colored purple4    ,in his 
chapter entitled 8,honos                
,imaginum10--the honor attached to      
portraits1--,pliny says it was the      
custom of the ,romans to adorn  their   
palstra and anointing-rooms with the    

portraits of athletes  78imaginibus     
athletarum071 and to carry about on     
their persons the  face of ,epicurus    
78vultus ,epicuri072 and that they also 
prized the  portraits of strangers      
78alienasque effigies colunt074         
,afterwards1  contrasting the habits of 
the ,romans of his own day with those of
  the ancient ,romans1 he says3 8,and   
since the former have no longer in  them
 any likeness to the minds of their     
ancestors1 they also neglect  the       
likeness of their bodies4 ,how different
 it was10 he continues1  8with our      
ancestors1 who placed in their atria to 
be gazed at these  #8imagines1' and not 
statues by foreign artists in brass or  
marble1 and  kept colored portraits of  
their faces each in its separate case1  
to  serve as #8imagines' to accompany   
their funerals40#ag ,it would seem  from
 this that1 besides the draped images or
 effigies in the halls1  modeled and    
colored busts of others of the family1  
probably of less  distinction1 were also

 kept to be dressed up on occasion1 made
 into  effigies1 and carried in         
procession4 ,other 8imagines0 of the    
most  distinguished personages in the   
family were placed outside at the       
threshold of the house1 hung with the   
spoils of the enemy4    ,it is of these 
8expressi cera vultus0 and these        
8imagines0 kept by the  ,romans as      
proofs of their nobility1 and on which  
their pedigrees were  inscribed1 that   
,ovid speaks when he says1--            
8,per lege dispositas generosa per atria
 ceras40    ,on the sale of the house   
they were not allowed to be destroyed or
  removed1 but passed with it1 and were 
bought by 8novi homines0 7men  of no    
family71 and passed off by them as the  
portraits of their own  ancestors1--just
 as the portraits of ,wardour ,street   
are at the present  day4 ,cicero in his 
invective against ,piso cries out1      
8,obrepsisti ad  honores errore hominum1
 commendatione fumosarum imaginum1      
quarum simile  habes nihil prter        

colorem20 and ,sallust in his ,jugurtha 
says1 8,quia  imagines non habeo1 et    
quia mihi nova nobilitas est40    ,nor  
were the ,romans singular in this custom
 of draping figures with  real stuffs4  
,the images of the gods in early ,greece
 also were draped  and dressed in       
clothes1 and crowns were placed on their
 heads4 ,they  had false hair1 too1     
which was dressed regularly by          
attendants1 and  at stated times they   
were washed and adorned with jewels and 
had  their dresses arranged1 just as if 
they were alive4 ,in later times  this  
custom died out2 but the colossal       
,athena's solid drapery of gold  was    
washed at a certain festival appointed  
for the purpose1 called  ,plyntheria4   
,in ,rome1 however1 the custom was      
maintained to a late day4  ,the images  
of the temples were adorned with real   
drapery1 and purple  mantles were hung  
on the statues of the emperors4 ,the    
,greeks did not  thus treat their       
portrait statues1 and in this the       

,romans were peculiar4    ,the ,roman   
8imagines0 and 8cer0 were probably      
executed in plaster or  some such       
material1 certainly not in marble1 or   
otherwise they would  have been too     
heavy to be carried about in procession4
 ,apparently they  resembled the figures
 which ,lysistratus first began to make1
 and the  process of coloring them1 if  
we understand 8cera0 to mean color1 was 
little else than the old practice1      
called 8circumlitio10 of covering       
marble statues with an encaustic varnish
 of color so as to give them  a delicate
 and tinted surface4 ,the most salient  
example of this is to  be found in the  
anecdote told of ,praxiteles1 who1 when 
he was asked  which of his statues he   
most admired1 answered1 8,those that    
,nicias has  colored10--8quibus ,nicias 
manum admovisset10--,nicias1 who in his 
youth  was celebrated as a painter of   
statues1  1 having  assisted him1 8in   
statuis circumliendis40 ,a similar      
process1 called  1 was also employed in 

finishing walls1 and is thus described  
by  ,vitruvius3 ,after the wall had     
received its color1 it was covered with 
,punic wax and oil1 which was laid on   
evenly with a hard brush1 and then  half
 melted or infused into a smooth surface
 by moving a 8cauterium10  or pan of hot
 coals1 close over it2 and after that it
 was rubbed with a  candle and a clean  
linen cloth4    ,this process1 then1 was
 old as applied to marble statues and to
 plaster  walls4 ,what was new in the   
work of ,lysistratus was that he united 
the  two methods1 by modeling in plaster
 the general likeness and then          
finishing the surface in encaustic4 ,it 
was an old process with a new           
application4    ,to explain such a      
process1 what could be clearer than the 
words ,pliny  uses8 ,we do not need to  
warp a word from its ordinary           
significance4  ,lysistratus made        
portraits in plaster from life1 and     
improved them by  color laid on to the  
model4 ,he thus made realistic1 exact   

resemblances1  whereas before him       
artists had sought only to make heads as
 beautiful  as possible4    ,what1 then1
 were the 8effigies de signis0 that he  
made8 ,we have already  seen that the   
term 8effigies0 had a significance of   
reality and  absolute imitation1 and    
corresponded in great measure to the    
,english  word effigy1 meaning colored  
effigies with real dresses1--like those 
of  ,madame ,tussaud1 for instance4 ,the
 8imagines0 and 8cer0 of the ancient    
,romans were very much like them2 and   
does not ,pliny mean to say that        
,lysistratus copied marble or brass     
statues1 or pictures1 and made these    
effigies from them1 coloring them so as 
to add to the likeness1 and  clothing   
them with real draperies8 and that this 
so grew into vogue  that thenceforward  
there were no statues which were not    
thus copied  in plaster or              
8argilla08--using the term 8argilla10 or
 white clay1  as equivalent to gypsum1  
with which possibly the plaster was     

mixed4  ,as 8argilla0 was the foundation
 with which the ancient panels were     
prepared for painting1 this would seem  
most appropriate in such case4    ,such 
would be the figures alluded to by      
,lucian1 or by ,lexiphanes when  he     
says1 8,if you cull the flower of all   
these various beauties1 you  will in    
your eloquence be like those makers of  
figures in wax and clay  or argilla in  
the ,forum1 colored outside with minium 
and blue1 and  inside only fragile      
clay40    ,according to this            
interpretation of the passage in ,pliny1
 it not  only becomes intelligible as a 
whole1 but is consistent and without    
contradiction2 whereas1 if we suppose   
that he meant to indicate the  process  
of casting in plaster1 his statements   
are not only entirely  obscure and      
inconsecutive1 but ignorant and         
contradictory4      ,,ii4    ,in the    
previous chapter we have critically     
considered the text of ,pliny  bearing  
upon the question whether the ancient   

,greeks and ,romans were  acquainted    
with the art of casting4 ,let us now    
proceed to some general  considerations 
as to the probability that this art was 
known and  practiced by them4    ,in the
 first place1 the distinction between   
modeling and casting must  be constantly
 kept in mind1 and care must be taken   
not to confound  the two totally        
different terms 8mould0 and 8model40    
,that gypsum was  used in modeling there
 can be no doubt1 and it is quite       
possible that  it may have been used to 
fill prepared moulds of stone1 terra    
cotta1  or other materials for the      
making of ectypa4 ,there is indeed no   
proof  of this2 but as we know that     
moulds were made and cut in stone1 into 
which clay was pressed1 to be then      
withdrawn and baked for ectypa with     
which to adorn houses1 so also it is    
possible that gypsum may have  been used
 for this purpose4 ,this1 however1 is   
merely a supposition1  and the fact that
 none of them have ever been found in   

plaster renders  it highly improbable4  
,in these ectypa of clay1 as well as in 
the  impressions taken from them1 there 
are no indications of anything like     
what we call a piece-mould1 composed of 
many sections2 and whenever  there are  
under-cuttings in the ectypa1 which     
could not be withdrawn  from the mould  
and which would fasten them into it1    
these parts of the  ectypa are          
invariably worked by hand4 ,for         
instance1 in the collection  of ,mr4    
,fol in ,rome there are several terra   
cotta figures of low relief  evidently  
stamped from a mould1 which are appliqu1
 or fastened  subsequently to the cista 
of which they form a part4 ,the sutures 
under  each figure are still visible1   
but they are all corrected and worked   
by hand after being withdrawn1 and have 
evidently suffered in being  removed    
from the mould4 ,in the same collection 
there are several  specimens of plaster 
reliefs1 with such deep under-cuttings  
that they  could not have been withdrawn

 from a single piece-mould2 but all     
these  under-cuttings are freely worked 
by hand1 showing plainly that they  were
 not in the stamp or mould2 and it is   
also clear that they were  afterwards   
worked over with fluid plaster1 the     
edges and flats of  which have not been 
rounded1 but left as it was freely laid 
on by hand4  ,it is probable that in    
these cases plaster was pressed into a  
mould in  the same manner as clay1 and  
afterwards worked up and finished4 ,but 
the  slightest examination will show    
clearly that if a mould was employed to 
give a general form to them1 it         
certainly was not a piece-mould2 and    
that they are not castings in the modern
 sense of the word1 but only  rude      
stamps4    ,these are the only          
specimens1 however1 so far as we are    
aware1 of  any such use of plaster for  
low-relief ornaments1--the ectypa which 
have been preserved to us being         
invariably of baked clay4 ,if plaster   
had been used for this purpose1 we      

should expect to find casts in the      
interior of houses or tombs1 where they 
would be protected from the  weather1   
and where they could be easily          
introduced into the walls and  ceilings4
 ,but though elaborately ornamented     
designs in relief1 worked  in gypsum1   
are to be found still fresh and         
uninjured on the ancient  tombs and     
baths1 all of them were freely and      
rapidly modeled by hand  while the      
gypsum was still fresh and plastic1 and 
not a single specimen  of cast plaster  
has been found4 ,it is but a few years  
since the tombs  in the ,via ,latina    
were opened1 and in two of them the     
ceilings1 divided  into compartments1   
were covered with rich and fantastic    
designs of  flowers1 fruit1 arabesques1 
groups of imaginary animals1 sea-nymphs1
  and human figures2 the designs varying
 in each compartment1 and all  modeled  
in the plaster with remarkable vivacity 
and spirit3 not one  of them was cast4  
,so in the houses at ,pompeii1 not a    

vestige of a  figure or ornament cast in
 plaster has ever been found1--nor a    
mould in  plaster2 and when one         
considers that1 being completely        
protected1 they  would naturally have   
survived as well as other far more      
fragile and  destructible objects which 
have been preserved1 the evidence is    
almost  absolute that they never could  
have existed there4 ,if so1 it is in the
  highest degree probable that they     
existed nowhere4 ,it would seem plain1  
then1 that even the first1 simplest1 and
 most natural processes of  casting in  
gypsum were unknown to the ancients1 for
 no other process is  so easy and simple
 as to fill a flat mould with plaster   
and then remove  it1 provided there are 
no under-cuttings4 ,in doing this1      
however1 there  is a slight practical   
difficulty if the mould is in one piece1
 as the  least under-cutting would      
render it impossible to remove the cast 
without injury or breakage4 ,indeed1    
though there were no under-cutting1  it 

would at least be very difficult to     
remove the plaster from a mould  in one 
piece4 ,clay would be removed with far  
greater ease because of  its pliancy1   
and any cracks or imperfections could be
 at once remedied2  add to this that    
baked clay is one of the most enduring  
of materials1  and we have the probable 
reasons why the ancients used it instead
 of  gypsum4 ,but whatever may have been
 their reasons1 it is perfectly  clear  
that they did use clay2 and we have no  
evidence that they ever  used plaster4  
,this use of gypsum to take impressions 
from flat moulds is suggested  by       
,theophrastus1 it would seem1 in his    
treatise on mineralogy1#ah  in which he 
says that plaster 8seems better than    
other materials to  receive             
impressions40 ,the term  means nothing  
more than an  impression1 such as one   
makes in wax from a seal ring1 and such 
as is  common still in plaster2 it is to
 this use that he seems to refer4 ,he   
does not say1 however1 that gypsum was  

really put to this use2 and if  it were1
 it would advance us little in our      
inquiry1 since any material  which is   
soft will receive an impression1 whether
 it be bread1 pitch1  clay1 wax1 or any 
similar substance4    ,but the step from
 this simple process of stamping in a   
shallow mould  to casting from life or  
from the round is enormous4 ,the        
difficulties  are multiplied a          
hundred-fold4 ,it is no longer a simple 
operation1  but a nice and complicated  
one4 ,the part to be cast must first be 
oiled or soaped1 then covered with      
plaster of about the consistency  of    
rich cream1 then divided into sections  
while the material is still  tender1 so 
as to enable the mould to be withdrawn  
part by part without  breakage1 then    
allowed to set1 then removed1 oiled or  
soaped on the  interior surface1 the    
parts all properly replaced1 fluid      
plaster poured  into the mould1--and    
finally1 after the cast is set1 the     
mould must be  carefully removed by a   

hammer and chisel4 ,this is an elaborate
 process  as applied to an arm or a     
hand1 but when applied to a living face 
it  is not only difficult but           
disagreeable1 and unless due care be    
used it  may be dangerous2 and after all
 a cast from the face is hard1 forced1  
and unnatural in its character and      
impression1 however skillfully it  may  
be done1 and can only serve the sculptor
 as the basis of his work4  ,yet if the 
common interpretation of the passage in 
,pliny be accurate1  this is the process
 which was invented and practiced by    
,lysistratus1  and by means of which he 
made portraits4 ,credat ,judus6 ,with   
all our  knowledge and practice1 we do  
not find this to answer in our own time4
    ,but to cast from a statue in clay  
is still more difficult and             
complicated2 there the extremest care   
and nicety are required in making  the  
proper divisions1 in extracting the clay
 and irons1 recommitting  the sections1 
and breaking off the outer shell of the 

mould4 ,in fact1  the modern process is 
so complicated that no one can see it   
without  wondering how it ever came to  
be so thought out and perfected1 or     
without being convinced that it must    
have been slowly arrived at by  many    
steps and many failures4    ,that       
statues were modeled in plaster by the  
ancients there is no doubt4  ,pausanias 
mentions several2#ai and ,spartianus#bj 
also speaks of  8,three ,victories0 in  
plaster1 with palms in their hands1     
erected at  one of the games1--and says 
that on one of the days of the          
,circensian  games when according to    
common custom they were erected1 the    
central  one on which the name of       
,severus was inscribed1 and which bore a
 globe1  was thrown down by a gust of   
wind from the podium1 and that another  
bearing the name of ,geta on it also    
fell and was shattered to pieces4       
,firmicus#ba also relates that after    
,zagreus1 son of ,jupiter1 was slain  by
 the ,titans1 his body was cut to pieces

 and thrown into a cauldron1  from which
 ,minerva rescued the heart and carried 
it to ,jupiter4 ,he then  gave it to    
,semele1 who resuscitated ,zagreus1 and 
,jupiter afterwards  preserved his      
likeness in plaster1--8,ex gypso        
plastico opere perfecit40    ,mr4       
,perkins cites all these instances1 and 
says3 8,they authorize us  to believe   
that the ,greeks and ,romans practiced  
casting in plaster40  ,but in saying    
this he altogether overlooks the very   
plain distinction  between the two      
entirely different operations of casting
 and modeling4  ,we know that they      
modeled in plaster2 the only question is
 whether they  cast in that material4   
,the term for casting1 as we have       
stated1 was  8fundere10 and is always   
used when real casting in brass or other
 metal  is spoken of2 but nowhere is the
 term 8fundere0 applied to any work  in 
gypsum4 8,ars fundendi ro0 is constantly
 spoken of1--8ars fundendi  gypso0      
never4 ,besides1 the very phrase 8ex    

gypso plastico opere  perfecit0 is at   
variance with casting4 ,the words       
8plastico0 and 8opere0  mean modeling1  
and nothing else4    ,but throughout    
this paper by ,mr4 ,perkins these two   
completely distinct  processes are      
constantly confounded with each other4  
,it suffices for  him to find a         
statement in an ancient writer that     
anything is made in  plaster1 or even an
 allusion to a plaster statue1 and at   
once he jumps  to the conclusion that   
the statue was necessarily cast1 and not
 shapen  or modeled4    8,it remains for
 us now10 he says1 8to establish by     
undeniable proof  how little foundation 
there is for the opinion of those who   
pretend  that the ancients did not make 
use of plaster for casting1 supporting  
their opinion on the complete absence of
 statues and statuettes  in plaster1 or 
fragments of any kind found in          
excavations1 when  nevertheless         
thousands of objects of the frailest    
kind are found1 such  as stuccoes1      

vases1 terra cotta1 glass1 wax heads1   
etc4 ,if it be true  that the           
inclemencies of weather and atmospheric 
agents could cause  the disappearance of
 plaster saturated with humidity1 or    
placed in  conditions favorable to its  
destruction1 it does not necessarily    
follow  that these conditions always    
reproduce themselves4 ,it suffices1 to  
convince one's self of this1 to glance  
at the plates #fg1 #gf1 #he1 in  the    
magnificent work published at ,st4      
,petersburg on the antiquities of  the  
,cimmerian ,bosphorus4 ,these plates    
represent plasters preserved in  the    
,museum of the ,hermitage1 coming from a
 tomb on ,mount ,mithridates  opened in 
#ahcb1 and from another tomb at ,kertch 
excavated in #ahdc4  ,these plasters    
date back to the fourth century before  
our era4#bb  ,adorned with various      
colors and executed in relief1 they were
 destined  to be attached as ornaments  
to other objects1 such as sarcophagi1   
pilasters1 walls1 etc40    ,well6 what  

if they were8 ,is this any proof that   
they were cast8 ,mr4  ,perkins is easily
 satisfied1 if he is assured of this    
fact by looking  at engraved plates4    
,are they all of the same size8 ,are    
they identical1  as they would be if    
they were cast from the same mould1 or  
are they  like all other plaster and    
stucco work of the ancients of which we 
are  cognizant1--ornaments modeled by   
hand8 or are they pressures from a      
flat1 shallow mould1 like the ectypa8   
,if the latter1 they are almost  unique2
 and so far they prove that the artists 
who made them understood  this first and
 simplest process of casting1 or rather 
of stamping4  ,but from plates it would 
be impossible to determine this fact1   
and  ,mr4 ,perkins gives us no reason to
 think they are unlike all the other    
ancient stucco work4 ,he does not       
profess to have seen and examined them  
for himself2 at all events1 one fact is 
clear1 that these1 if they are  in      
plaster1 are painted plaster4    ,in the

 ,british ,museum there exist some of   
these so-called casts in  plaster from  
,cyrenaica and from ,kertch4            
,undoubtedly they are nearer to  being  
true casts than anything else which has 
as yet been discovered2  but1 after all1
 a careful examination of them will show
 that they are  not casts in the        
legitimate sense of the word1 but merely
 stamps for  a mould1 and fashioned in  
precisely the same way that was employed
 in  making the hollow terra cottas4 ,to
 make these1 a very rude stamp was      
executed1 with no under-cuttings of any 
kind1 everything being filled  up which 
could impede the removal of the clay1   
which was pressed into  the stamp1 then 
carefully extracted again and finished  
by hand4 ,all  the terra cotta reliefs  
called ectypa were made in this way1 and
 some  of the moulds still exist1--not  
one of them1 however1 in plaster4 ,the  
same process was employed to make some  
of the figures of terra cotta  in the   
round1 by making a mould of two pieces  

divided in the middle1  of a very       
generalized form1 with no               
under-cuttings4 ,into each of these     
moulds a quantity of clay was squeezed2 
the two parts were then removed         
carefully1 and joined together4 ,a      
general form was thus obtained1 and  the
 artist proceeded to model and to finish
 it with more or less care4  ,in this   
way not only ectypa were made in clay   
and afterwards baked1 but  also small   
flat ornaments which were afterwards    
appliqu1 or fastened  on to flat or     
round surfaces1--as on to cista4 ,this  
is the process by  which fragments of   
the figures from ,cyrenaica and ,kertch 
in the ,british  ,museum were made4 ,the
 junction of the two halves is clear4   
,the work is  very rude2 there are no   
under-cuttings2 everything is filled up 
which  would in the least impede the    
withdrawal of the material from the     
stamp4 ,there is1 for instance1 an arm  
and hand1 with the interstices  of the  
fingers quite filled up4 ,but what      

clearly proves that these  figures were 
not cast1 as distinguished from stamped1
 is the head4 ,here  the hair being     
adorned with a wreath with              
under-cuttings1 it could not  be        
withdrawn from the stamp without        
destroying it1 and it is entirely       
appliqu1 or worked on to the head after 
it was removed4 ,had it been  cast1     
there would have been no such           
difficulty4 ,nor1 again1 is it quite    
clear that the material of these figures
 is pure gypsum4 ,it would  rather seem 
to be a mixture of gypsum with white    
clay1 or argilla1 to  give it           
flexibility1 and enable it to be        
withdrawn from the mould4  ,indeed1 it  
may here be observed that it is in every
 way probable that  the gypsum used by  
the ancients in modeling and ornamental 
work was  differently prepared from that
 which we now use1 and was mixed with   
some material which prevented it from   
setting rapidly1 and gave it  strength1 
ductility1 and plasticity4 ,otherwise it

 is difficult to see  how such works as 
those in the tombs of the ,via ,latina1 
which no one  can doubt are modeled by  
hand1 could have been executed with at  
once  so much finish and freedom4       
,gypsum1 as we use it1 would set too    
soon to  enable us to work it in such a 
manner4 ,in the tombs of the ,via       
,latina  which were lately discovered1  
it is worked as freely as if it were    
clay1 and was plainly so prepared as to 
enable the artist to take his  own time 
in modeling1 without fear of its        
hardening--or1 as we call it1           
setting--immediately4    ,this1 then1 is
 nothing new4 ,it is not casting1 and   
these figures are  not casts4 ,they are 
stamps1 just like the ectypa of terra   
cotta4 ,we  know that  or dolls were    
anciently made in this way of wax  and  
gypsum1 or of terra cotta2 and these are
 4    ,to infer from the fact that the  
,greeks knew and practiced the art  of  
pressing into shallow moulds of stone1  
without under-cuttings1  either clay1   

pitch1 wax1 or plaster1 that they also  
understood and  practiced the art of    
making moulds and casts from life or    
from the  round is utterly              
unwarrantable4 ,nothing is more simple  
than the one  art1 while the other is   
extremely complex4 ,the one is merely   
like  making an impression from a seal1 
which would naturally suggest itself  to
 the first person who left the pressure 
of his foot in clay or mud2  the other  
requires various processes of           
calculation and invention4  ,in         
inventions it is not always or          
ordinarily the first step which  costs1 
but the subsequent and calculated steps4
 ,centuries often elapse  between the   
first step and the second4 ,a remarkable
 instance of this  is to be found in the
 history of the invention of printing4  
,the first  steps to this wonderful art 
were taken by the ancient ,romans2 the  
very process by which we now print was  
known and practiced by them2  but the   
application of it to the printing of    

books does not seem to  have occurred to
 their minds4 ,it cannot1 however1 but  
appear most  extraordinary that the idea
 of printing should not have occurred to
  them when we consider the facts of the
 case4 ,pliny relates that ,cato        
published a book containing portraits of
 distinguished persons of his  time1 of 
which there were many copies2 and so far
 as we can conjecture1  these copies    
were probably stamped on parchment or   
some such material1  and afterwards     
colored4 ,putting this together with the
 fact that  ancient bricks have been    
lately found in ,rome with names and    
numbers  stamped upon them by means of  
movable types1 so that the numbers or   
letters could be arranged at will1 we   
might absolutely state that the  ancient
 ,romans understood and practiced the   
art of printing4 ,they  certainly did   
print on their brick2 they probably     
stamped the portraits  of cuts in their 
books1--but so far as we know they never
 united the  processes1 and never       

stamped a book with movable types4      
,adopting ,mr4  ,perkins's method of    
argument1 we might declare1 however1    
that the mere  fact that none of these  
printed books have ever come down to us 
was  entirely inconclusive1 since these 
books might have utterly perished2      
while we have the clearest proof that   
they did print with movable  types on   
brick1 and therefore it is plain that   
they invented printing4  ,the step from 
one of these processes to the other does
 indeed seem  so evident1 so natural1   
almost so inevitable1 that we are       
puzzled to  imagine how they could ever 
have overlooked it4 ,yet there is little
  doubt that they did4 ,but from the    
simple fact of stamping in clay  or     
plaster to the complex process of making
 moulds and casts in the  round requires
 not one step but many1 and each one of 
them requires  calculation and          
invention4 ,indeed1 if the art were now 
to be lost1 it  would be easy to        
conceive that centuries might pass      

before it would be  reinvented4    ,in  
the collection of ,mr4 ,fol of ,rome1 of
 which we have heretofore  spoken1 there
 are some interesting fragments of      
ancient statuettes in  the round1 very  
carefully finished in plaster1 being the
 leg and thigh  of one1 and the         
half-breast and a portion of the torso  
of another4  ,these are as carefully    
finished as if they were in marble1 but 
they  are elaborately worked by hand in 
the plaster1 and not cast4 ,these  are  
exceedingly interesting as showing the  
method of the ancients  in working in   
plaster1 and they clearly illustrate the
 process of  ,lysistratus as described  
by ,pliny1--the only difference being   
that the  surface is of gypsum and not  
of wax1 or color4 ,the interior or core 
of these fragments1 which is solid1 is  
of lime1 or a coarse kind of  gypsum1   
and over the surface of this core is    
spread a thin coating  of fine gypsum1  
which has been elaborately worked and   
smoothed on  while it was fluid4 ,the   

touches and creases on the surface are  
those  of a modeler's hand and stick1   
and it differs in every way from a      
cast4 ,it is therefore plain that the   
artist first made a core1 or  rough     
8imaginem0 or 8formam10 of coarse       
gypsum1 and that he improved1  emended1 
and finished the surface1 not by means  
of 8cera infusa in eam  formam gypsi10  
but of gypsum spread over it1--just as  
,lysistratus did4  ,the language of     
,pliny is an exact description of this  
process4    ,again1 a strong negative   
indication that gypsum was not used for 
casting1 or indeed to any extent in     
modeling1 is to be found in the  chapter
 by ,pliny on gypsum4 8,its use is10 he 
says1 8to whitewash  or parget1 and to  
make small figures to ornament houses1  
and for  wreaths40 ,he also adds that it
 is a good medicine for pains in the    
stomach2 but he entirely omits to       
mention that it was ever used for       
casting4 ,is it possible to believe that
 if it were so used he would  not have  

alluded even to such a fact8 ,would it  
be conceivable that  at the present day 
a chapter could be written on plaster of
 ,paris1  omitting its employment for   
the purpose of casting8 ,after giving us
  this enumeration of the uses to which 
gypsum is applied1 ,pliny goes on  to   
describe its nature1 tell where it is   
found1 and name the different  kinds2   
and he concludes with no allusion to any
 other use than what he  has previously 
stated4    ,again1 ,pliny in the chapter
 on ,lysistratus--which it must be      
remembered  is devoted to               
modeling--mentions one fact which seems 
to be inconsistent  with any knowledge  
at that time of casting4 ,arcesilaus1 he
 says1  modeled a drinking-cup or       
mixing-bowl in plaster1 which he sold to
  ,octavius1 a ,roman knight1#bc for a  
talent 7#bej74 ,it is impossible to     
believe that such an enormous price     
would have been given for a mere        
plaster bowl4 ,if the process of casting
 from it was then understood1           

,arcesilaus might have repeated it in   
cast a thousand times1 and the  original
 and the cast being in the same         
material1 one would have been  quite as 
good as the other1 if retouched4 ,yet he
 seems only to have  made one1 and to   
have asked a talent for that4 ,again1   
,lucullus made a  contract with this    
same artist to model for him in plaster 
a statue of  ,fabatus1 for which he     
agreed to pay him no less than #fj1jjj  
sesterces1  or #ecj4    ,it is worth    
noting1 too1 as a curious fact1 that    
just at the very  time when ,lysistratus
 is supposed to have invented           
plaster-casting1  the art of            
brass-casting began to decline in       
character and style1 and  soon after    
seems to have died out and been lost2 at
 all events1 ,pliny  tells us that soon 
after the #abjth ,olympiad the art      
perished1--8cessavit  deinde ars40 ,and 
as ,lysistratus lived only about        
twenty-five years  previously1 it would 
be singular to find one of these arts   

dying out  just as the other was being  
developed4    ,mr4 ,perkins also thinks 
it valuable to tell us that ,canova was 
of  opinion that the sculptors of       
antiquity made finished sketches1 and   
then by means of proportional compasses 
enlarged them and took points  on the   
marble2 and he adds1 8,we should weigh  
these words of a great  sculptor who    
devoted himself to the most minute      
researches on this  subject1 as well as 
to everything that had relation to the  
fine arts40    ,we agree that we should 
weigh the words of this distinguished   
sculptor1  though we were not aware     
before that he was a profound           
archologist1  or had made minute        
researches on this subject4 ,but how in 
any way does  this tend to prove that   
the ancient ,greeks and ,romans knew how
 to cast  in plaster8 ,we are equally   
unable to see the precise bearing on    
this  question of the fact also stated  
by him1 that the drill is supposed by   
some to have been invented by           

,callimachus1 and by others to have been
  used long before2 or that the pointing
 of a statue was probably known  to the 
,greeks1 and certainly to the ,romans4  
,yet in a certain way the opinion of    
,canova that the ancients made small    
sketches1 and by proportional compasses 
transferred their proportions1          
measures1 and general forms to their    
large works1 has an argumentative       
relation to the subject different from  
what ,mr4 ,perkins probably  supposed4  
,this opinion is undoubtedly well       
founded1 and accepting it  as such1 what
 does it indicate8 ,that the process of 
casting in plaster  was known to the    
ancients8 ,by no means4 ,so far as it   
goes1 it proves  diametrically the      
opposite1--as ,mr4 ,perkins might have  
seen1 had he  weighed the words of this 
great sculptor4    ,in fact1 this leads 
us to one of the strongest arguments    
against the  opinion apparently         
advocated by ,mr4 ,perkins4 ,had the    
ancients known  how to cast in plaster  

from the model1 as they knew how to cast
 in  bronze1 this process of making     
small statuettes and enlarging therefrom
  would have been quite unnecessary4    
,they would thus have escaped the       
incorrectness which is unavoidable in   
such a process1 by at once making  their
 models of full size1 and completely    
finishing them in clay or  other plastic
 material before transferring them to   
the marble4 ,their  process probably was
 to make a small statuette in clay1 and 
then bake  it or dry it4 ,but in        
transferring proportionally this small  
figure  into a large one1 an objection  
occurs4 ,defects scarcely perceptible in
  a small figure become gross defects   
when multiplied into a large one4  ,not 
only variations of one eighth of an inch
 more or less in small  particulars in a
 figure a foot high would alter entirely
 the relative  proportions of a figure  
eight feet high1 but other inaccuracies 
inevitably occurring in enlarging by    
proportional compasses would  increase  

these disproportions1 so that the       
increased figure would  be invariably   
untrue in its effect and in its         
measures4 ,now this is  precisely what  
is apparent to any one who carefully    
studies the antique  statues4 ,even in  
works showing the highest artistic      
knowledge and  skill1 the want of       
correspondence of measures and          
proportions between  the two sides of   
the figure is very manifest2 and the    
larger they are  the more this is       
exhibited4 ,thus1 to take one of the    
highest examples1  in the ,theseus we   
find astonishing knowledge and artistic 
skill in  treatment1 beside             
disagreements of measurement in         
corresponding parts1  which are         
evidently the result of the defective   
mechanical process  of enlargement4 ,the
 legs are beautifully modeled1 but of   
unequal  length1--one being much longer 
in the thigh than the other4 ,the same  
observation is true of the clavicle1 and
 indeed throughout the statue4  ,now    

even an inferior artist would have seen 
and avoided these mistakes  in modeling 
the statue full size1 but the defect    
would be easily passed  over by the eye 
in the small sketch1 particularly if the
 statuette were  merely a sketch1 as was
 in all probability the usual case4 ,it 
would  be difficult to believe that an  
artist with the mastery shown in this   
statue would not have seen and corrected
 these mistakes1 had the model  of this 
figure been of the same size4 ,this of  
course he perceived after  the points   
were taken in the marble and the work   
was roughed out1 but  then it was too   
late to remedy them4 ,this difficulty he
 and all other  artists must constantly 
have felt4 ,the question was how to     
avoid it4  ,nothing could have been more
 simple1 if the modern process of       
casting  in plaster from the clay model 
had been known to them4 ,they would     
simply have modeled the statue in clay  
of its full size1 cast it in  plaster1  
and been sure of its exact proportions  

and measures4    ,let us take one step  
further4 ,had they understood the modern
 process  of casting in plaster from the
 clay or from a statue1 they could from 
the cast have multiplied in marble the  
same statue any number of  times1       
identically or with such minute         
differences as few eyes could  perceive4
 ,the repliche in a modern sculptor's   
studio are scarcely  to be distinguished
 from each other1 and there would have  
been no  difficulty in doing the same   
thing in an ancient sculptor's studio4  
,what is the fact known8 ,so far from   
this being the case1 not only are  there
 comparatively very few repliche even of
 the most famous statues1  for which    
there would necessarily be a great      
demand1 but even in the  various        
repliche which we have there are not    
only no two which approach  to identity 
either in attitude or in size1 but one  
can scarcely say of  any of them that   
the artist had more at best than a vivid
 recollection  of the original or of    

some other replica1 much less that he   
had it  before him to copy even by eye4 
,often the attitude is changed1 as well 
as the size and proportions2 sometimes  
the action is reversed2 and in  all     
cases such differences exist as it is   
impossible that the clumsiest  workman  
could have made with a cast of the      
original before him4 ,nor  do we read or
 hear of any copies in our sense of     
copy2 that is1 exact  reproduction of   
any of the great works of the great     
sculptors4 ,look1  for instance1 at the 
,venus of the ,capitol and the ,venus de
 ,medici  and the ,st4 ,petersburg      
,venus2 they are all repliche of the    
renowned  statue by ,praxiteles1 but    
beyond the general attitude there is no 
resemblance1 not so much as any clever  
artist of to-day could make  from mere  
recollection4 ,look again at the        
portrait busts2 how many are  there of  
,marcus ,aurelius1 ,octavius ,csar1 and 
,lucius ,verus6--and no two  of them    
approaching identity4 ,of the thousands 

of statues which have  been excavated1  
no two are exact copies from the same   
model4 ,there is  at best nothing more  
than a family resemblance among those   
which are  most alike4 ,would this be   
possible1 if the ancients knew and      
practiced  the art of casting in plaster
 as we do8 ,it would seem to be utterly 
impossible1 or at least improbable to   
the highest degree4    ,again1 why      
should not the great artists themselves1
 or their scholars1  have made repliche 
of their famous statues8 ,nothing would 
have been  easier had there been any    
casts from them4 ,they were greatly     
coveted1  and the prices paid for the   
original works were enormous1--so       
enormous  that the largest prices of our
 day shrink into insignificance beside  
them4 ,for the famous nude ,venus by    
,praxiteles1 ,athens1 in her extreme    
desire to possess it1 offered in        
exchange to pay the whole public  debt  
of the state to which it belonged4 ,this
 offer1 however1 was  peremptorily      

refused4 ,yet what could have been more 
easy1 had a cast  of it been in         
existence1 or had they known how to make
 one1 than for  ,praxiteles or his      
scholars to have made an exact replica1 
fully equal  to the original or even    
superior to it1 with additional touches 
of the  master's hand8 ,that this was   
never done1 or hinted at1 proves that1  
the  statue once having passed out of   
the artist's hands1 he could repeat  it 
from memory only by aid of his sketch2  
and this would not only have  cost him  
as much labor as making a new statue1   
but would in no sense  have been        
identical4 ,again1 is it to be supposed 
that if ,polyclitus had  an absolute    
cast of his life-size statue of the     
,doryphoros which would  have enabled   
him to repeat it with exactness1 the    
original would have  commanded such a   
price as one hundred talents1 or        
#be1jjj8 ,or is it  possible to suppose 
that ,arcesilaus would have received a  
gold talent  7#bej7 for a plaster bowl  

which could have been repeated by       
casting1  for almost nothing8 ,it was   
because it was modeled1 and the modern  
process of casting in a piece-mould was 
unknown1 that it commanded such  a      
price4 ,here making a rude stamp without
 under-cuttings would not  suffice4 ,the
 finesse of the work could not be given1
 and the work  would have been destroyed
 or greatly injured in the attempt4     
,if it be a fact that the ,greeks and   
,romans knew this process1 one would    
naturally expect to find at least some  
fragments of casts or moulds  in plaster
 of their great works1--as for instance 
of their small and  exquisite           
,corinthian bronzes1 if not of their    
large figures4 ,but1 so  far as we are  
aware1 nothing of the kind has ever been
 found4 ,the  whole city of ,pompeii in 
the height of its luxury was buried     
under  a fall of ashes1 which for many  
long centuries preserved the most       
refined1 fragile1 and delicate utensils 
and works of art2 and it is  but a few  

years since that we removed these ashes 
and explored its  houses and rooms which
 had been untouched since that fatal    
calamity  befell them of which ,pliny   
gives us so vivid an account4 ,it is on 
the  statements of the younger ,pliny   
himself that those rely who claim  that 
the ancients knew and practiced casting 
in plaster4 ,long before  his day1 then1
 this art had been invented2 and we     
should naturally  expect to find some   
specimens of it in this city of luxury1 
among its  pictures1 its vases1 its     
statues1 and its glass4 ,but in all     
,pompeii  there has not been found a    
vestige of a casting in plaster4 ,its   
stuccoes still remain1 the bas-reliefs  
worked in plaster on its walls  are     
still uninjured1 its paintings are still
 fresh1 its vases unbroken1  its        
household utensils perfect4             
,hermetically sealed up under that      
mound of ashes1 there was nothing to    
injure a cast in any house1 if it       
existed4 ,but there is absolutely       

nothing of the kind4 ,yet this was a    
people devoted to art1 and whose houses 
were filled with knick-knacks  of every 
kind4 ,we find the sculptor's studio1   
but there is not a cast  in it1 nor is  
there the shop of a caster4 ,it is      
plain1 therefore1 that  there was not a 
cast in ,pompeii4    ,but if anywhere   
there were casts from the round there   
were also  piece-moulds from the round4 
,where are they8 ,has any person ever   
heard of one8 ,now a hollow cast is     
comparatively a fragile object2 but  a  
plaster mould1 saturated as it must be  
with oil1 is anything but a  fragile    
object4 ,sheltered from the inclemencies
 of storm and rain1 it  would last for  
thousands of years1 and would even      
resist a century of  exposure to the    
weather of ,italy4 ,but not underground 
nor aboveground  anywhere has such a    
thing been found4 ,whatever moulds have 
been found  are fit only for mere       
stamping4 ,they are extremely rude1     
without  under-cuttings1 and seem merely

 to give a general shape4 ,they are not 
cast upon anything1 but worked out by   
hand1 and are not in plaster4  ,they are
 all small2 nothing ever has been found 
which is either a  mould1 or a cast from
 life1 or from a statue1 or from a vase 
or bowl1  or any careful work of art4   
,an ancient manufactory of terra cotta  
has been lately discovered and          
unearthed at ,arezzo in ,tuscany1 and a 
large number of moulds was  found1 taken
 apparently from vases executed         
originally on some hard  metal1 probably
 in silver4 ,the figures on these moulds
 are of the most  exquisite design and  
execution1 and for beauty and delicacy  
of finish  exceed anything which remains
 to us of ,greek or ,etruscan art4      
,there  are no under-cuttings1 and the  
relief is so low and flat as to yield   
an impression scarcely1 if at all1      
higher than a seal or intaglio4  ,all   
these moulds1 however1 are in terra     
cotta4 ,not one is in plaster1  though  
in this material they could have been   

executed more easily  and exactly1 and  
could have been reproduced in the       
original size4 ,of  course1 first taken1
 as they were1 in soft clay1 then baked1
 they of  necessity shrank in size and  
were subject to warping and cracking1   
all  which defects would have been      
avoided had they been made in plaster4  
,all this would indicate that the use of
 plaster in making moulds was  not      
practiced at that period1 even in such a
 simple operation as this4    ,in face  
of this we must say we do not agree with
 ,mr4 ,perkins when  he thinks he       
8establishes by undeniable proof how    
little founded is  the opinion of those 
who pretend that the ancients did not   
practice  casting in                    
plaster1--sustaining it by the complete 
absence of statues  and statuettes of   
plaster or fragments of any kind in the 
excavations1  when nevertheless         
thousands of objects are found of the   
most fragile  nature20 and especially   
when the undeniable proof which he      

offers is  the existence of some works  
and arabesque ornaments in plaster found
  at ,kertch1 and supposed to belong to 
the fourth century before the           
,christian era1 and which apparently he 
has never seen4 ,on the contrary1  we   
should like to know how he explains the 
fact that no indubitable  ancient moulds
 or castings have ever been found4      
,but ,mr4 ,perkins does not seem to     
reason beyond his texts4 ,he does not   
discuss the probabilities of the case2  
he does not undertake to account  for1  
or to harmonize with his view1 the great
 fact that nothing has  been found of   
ancient art cast in plaster4 ,outside of
 what is written  in books he does not  
venture4 ,he does not even seem to have 
a clear  opinion of his own4 ,he says1  
8,sur ce point casting in plaster les   
textes nous laissent dans les tnbres4   
,faut-il s'en tonner8 ,non6  ,les       
auteurs classiques trompent notre       
curiosit sur des choses d'un  bien autre
 intent4 ,que nous disent-ils des vases 

peints1 dont les  muses de l',europe    
regorgent8 ,rien10 etc4 ,well1 if the   
texts leave us  in darkness1 are we then
 to know nothing and to think nothing8  
,are we  not to exercise our minds1 and 
if a doubtful text seems to indicate  a 
fact utterly at variance with our reason
 and with the facts we  know1 are we to 
treat that text as a fetich1 and bow    
down and worship  it1 because it is     
written in a book8 ,are we to endeavor  
to wrench  everything into harmony with 
it8 ,or1 if it will not agree with facts
  of which there is no doubt1 are we not
 rather to sacrifice the text  than our 
own reason8 ,and especially1 are we to  
pay such reverence to  a doubtful text  
of ,pliny1 the most careless of writers1
 the least  accurate of archologists8   
,as to the painted vases1 no argument or
  ancient texts are needed2 there is no 
question in respect to them2  they      
existed in great numbers2 but in respect
 to casting in plaster  there is nothing
 but texts to depend upon4 ,nay more1   

there is only one  passage in any       
ancient author1 so far as ,i am aware1  
that seems to  assert the existence of  
this process2 and the question is as to 
the  meaning of this very ambiguous     
passage4 ,if it means what ,mr4 ,perkins
  supposes1 where are the moulds2 where 
are the casts2 where are the  finished  
likenesses2 where is there anything1 in 
a word1 to support the  statements of   
,pliny1 as thus interpreted8 ,does it   
not seem amazing that  they should all  
have totally disappeared8    ,that the  
text of ,pliny1 on which all rests1 does
 not mean what it  is supposed to mean  
by ,mr4 ,perkins1 we have endeavored to 
show2 but  at all events1 since it is   
admitted to be most obscure and scarcely
  intelligible1 it would be better to   
throw the text overboard1 if  it is in  
conflict with all we know and is        
improbable in itself1  particularly when
 we take into consideration the corrupt 
condition  of the entire text of ,pliny4
 ,dr4 ,brunn1 who is certainly an able  

and  learned archologist1 does not      
hesitate to reject a portion of this    
very text1 from the words 8idem et de   
signis effigiem exprimere10 as  an      
interpolation2 and there can be no doubt
 in the mind of any one who  carefully  
examines it that this entire passage is 
full of confusion of  ideas and         
statements4    ,mr4 ,perkins endeavors  
to strengthen his position1 and also the
 text of  ,pliny as he understands it1  
by a citation from the 8,tragic         
,jupiter0 of  ,lucian1 in which the     
statue of ,hermes complains that he is  
spotted by  the pitch with which the    
sculptors cover his limbs every day1    
8afin  de les reproduire10 he           
gratuitously adds1 with no authority in 
the  text for such a statement2 and     
apropos of this he tells us that one    
may 8model with pitch mixed with marble 
dust or brick40 ,he adds3 8,it  is what 
the ,italians call #8ciment1' and they  
employ it for the most  delicate parts  
of the mould4 ,it is sufficient in order

 to keep it in a  malleable state to set
 the piece on which one is working near 
the fire1  or to soften it from time to 
time in a bath of hot water40 8,now this
  information10 he continues1 8which we 
owe to one of the most eminent  and     
learned artists of our age1 is very     
precious1 since it gives us  the real   
meaning of the passage in ,lucian40     
,this taken in connection  with a       
passage in ,apollodorus representing    
,ddalus making a statue to  ,hercules   
or  --the word is doubtful--induces ,mr4
 ,perkins  8to conclude1 first1 that two
 centuries before the ,christian era1   
pitch  was used1 mixed without doubt    
with other substances1 to cast statues  
mouler les statues2 second1 that the    
passage in ,lucian not only  contains   
one of those railleries of which the    
,voltaire of antiquity  was so prodigal1
 but leads us to suspect that it veils  
the indication  of one of the processes 
of casting40 ,that is1 first he inclines
 to the  opinion that  7pitch7 is a     

misprint for  7pine wood71 and  that the
 statue made by ,ddalus was in wood2 and
 then he immediately  turns around1 and 
thinks that it proves the existence of  
casting in  plaster4 ,it cannot mean    
both2 and the probability would seem to 
be that  he is wrong in both            
suppositions1 and that ,ddalus was only 
employed in  painting his statue in     
resin or wax4    ,the seriousness of    
this passage is more remarkable than its
 accuracy4  ,who can the eminent and    
learned artist be who has given us this 
so  precious information8--8ce          
renseignement tres-prcieux10--which is  
known  to every humble caster in        
,europe1--though he is not quite correct
 in  the composition of what he says the
 ,italians call 8ciment40 ,he must  be a
 ,french artist who scorns the ,italian 
language as being1 in the  words of     
another of his countrymen1 8rien que de 
mauvais ,franais40  8,ciment0 is not an 
,italian word1 and 8cimento0 has a quite
 different  significance1--that of      

attempt or essay4 ,the ,italian casters 
call this  material 8cera10 though it is
 not wax4 ,but aside from this1 let us  
consider this passage from ,lucian to   
which ,mr4 ,perkins1 following other    
writers1 refers us as showing that the  
process of casting in plaster  was known
 to the ancient ,greeks4    ,the   of   
,lucian is a satire on the divinities of
 ,greece1  and a council of them is     
called to deliberate on what should be  
done  in consequence of an assault upon 
their nature and power by ,damis4 ,the  
gods are called upon1 and a question    
arises as to the precedence they  should
 have1 whether it should be according to
 the material of which  they are        
made1--of ivory1 gold1 bronze1 stone1 or
 clay1--or according to  the excellence 
of their workmanship and the skill of   
the artist2 but  such confusion of      
claims is made that no precedence is    
finally allowed  to any one1 and the    
question as to the reasons and arguments
 of ,damis  and his opponent ,timocles  

is discussed4 ,while this is going on1 a
  figure is seen approaching which is   
thus described3--    8,but who is this  
who comes in such haste  1  1   1      1
 this bronze1 this  beautifully chased  
or engraved1 beautifully outlined1 the  
archaic  in the arrangement of his hair 
1      2 he is clogged with pitch from  
seals or impressions being daily taken  
from it by the sculptors40    ,hermes1  
the bronze1 then answers3--    8,it     
happened lately that my breast and back 
were covered with pitch by  the         
sculptors in bronze1 and a ridiculous   
cuirass was thus formed  on my body1 and
 by imitative art received a complete   
seal from the  brass40#bd    ,this      
passage is supposed to indicate the     
process of casting in plaster4  ,it is  
possible that it may indicate a         
preparation in pitch to cast  in bronze1
 but certainly not in plaster1 which is 
the sole question4  ,it is not workers  
in plaster who are engaged on it1 but   
workers in  bronze2 and what they were  

doing was plainly to take impressions of
  the intaglio chasing or engraving on  
the body of the figure4 ,the            
description of the bronze is that it was
 archaic1 and beautifully  traced and   
engraved4 ,it may have been a term      
engraved with verses1 or  figures1 or   
inscriptions2 and this is by no means   
improbable1 as it  represented ,hermes1 
and as nothing but the breast and back  
was covered  with pitch4 ,at all events1
 the process was one which seems to have
  been carried on1 not for once1 but    
daily4 ,it may have been the famous     
,hermes 1 which was cast in the #cdth   
,olympiad1 and was a study  for brass   
casters4 ,again1 it may not have been a 
figure in the round1  but merely a      
bas-relief1 or intaglio2 and this       
supposition would be  entirely in       
accordance with the hieratic and archaic
 sculpture in  brass1 marble1 and terra 
cotta4 ,many were executed thus in      
intaglio and  engraved1--some of which  
still remain1--and others in relief4 ,a 

list of  such may be found in ,mller's  
8,ancient ,art0 7pp4 #fa-fe74 ,if the   
passage  refers to making a mould for   
casting1 it was for casting in bronze   
and  not in plaster1 though nothing is  
said about casting1 but merely of       
taking impressions or seals4 ,the words 
and   mean ex-pressions from a seal or  
stamp4 ,exactly what the sculptors were 
doing1 however1 to this statue covers   
the process of brass casters4  ,thus    
,lucian1 speaking of a certain brass    
statue in the ,agora1 says3         1   
1--8,you know the brass statue standing 
in the forum1 on which ,i  was occupied 
pitching and drying10 or burning4       
,but there is nothing new in all this1  
and nothing which throws any  light upon
 the subject in question4 ,it was1 as we
 well know1 a common  practice of the   
,greeks1 in making their large statues1 
to build up a  core of wood1 brickwork1 
plaster1 and other materials as a       
foundation  or rough sketch4 ,on the    
surface of this in their                

chryselephantine  statues they veneered 
sheets of gold and ivory1 sometimes     
covering the  entire surface with these 
precious materials1 and sometimes       
finishing  portions of them with an     
exterior of plaster or clay1 which was  
painted  in imitation of life4 ,this for
 instance was the case with the         
,dionysos  in ,kreusis1 described by    
,pausanias1 of which the whole figure   
was  modeled in plaster and afterwards  
colored4 ,it would also seem to have    
been a practice with the ,greek artists 
to cover these roughly executed  cores  
with a composition of resin and pitch   
which they indurated by  fire2 and      
afterwards to finish the surface in the 
same material4 ,such  at least appears  
to be the process indicated by ,lucian  
in the passage  just quoted1 in which he
 speaks of the statue he was engaged in 
pitching and drying2 as well as by      
,apollodorus in a passage in which      
,ddalus is described as making a statue 
of ,hercules in pitch 774  ,the term    

8pissa0 in this last passage has by some
 translators been  supposed to be a     
misprint for  1 meaning that this statue
 was a   executed in pine wood like     
other ,ddalian figures4 ,as it stands   
in the original1 certainly1 it is 1 and 
means pitch2 and it is  quite as        
probable that it is correct and means a 
sort of encaustic  finish with resin and
 gum4 ,however this may be1 there is    
little doubt  that in making their      
bronze statues the ,greeks used a       
surface of wax  and pitch1 or some such 
material1 which was plastic and would   
melt2 and  it is well known that they   
spread wax over their statues to give   
them a  polished surface1 and also      
finished their plaster walls with a     
covering  of wax4    ,in making large   
statues1 a skeleton framework of wood   
was often  employed1 called 1 or 1 which
 was covered with solid                 
material1--clay1 plaster1 brick1 pitch1 
etc41 all welded together to  form a    
solid core over which the surface was   

finished in clay1 plaster1  pitch1      
ivory1 or gold4 ,in the 8,somnium1 seu  
,gallus0 of ,lucian1 ,gallus  says1     
speaking of himself1 8,if he were king1 
he should be like one of  the colossi of
 ,phidias1 ,praxiteles1 or ,myron1 which
 though externally  like ,neptune or    
,jupiter1--splendid with ivory and gold1
 bearing the  trident or the            
thunderbolt1--yet if you look inside you
 will find them  composed of beams and  
bolts and nails traversing them         
everywhere1 and  braces and ridges1 and 
pitch and clay1 and other ugly and      
misshapen  things40    ,it is a curious 
fact bearing generally on this subject  
that no allusion  is ever made to such a
 person as a caster in plaster4         
,plutarch1  enumerating the various     
trades and occupations to which the     
great  public works of his time gave    
employment1 speaks of operatives1       
modelers1 brass-workers1 stone-workers1 
gold and ivory workers1  weavers1 and   
engravers1 but never mentions a caster4 

,philostratus  also1 enumerating the    
different classes of workmen in the     
plastic art1  makes no mention of       
casters4 ,pliny never speaks of them4   
,indeed1 their  existence is never      
mentioned by any ancient writer4    ,all
 things considered1 then1 in conclusion1
 it seems impossible to  believe that   
,pliny intended1 in the passage relating
 to ,lysistratus1 to  declare that he   
invented any method of casting in       
plaster1 but rather  that he intended to
 say that ,lysistratus either modeled   
likenesses in  wax over a core of       
gypsum1 or1 what is much more probable1 
that he  colored his likenesses in      
imitation of life2 and that his         
specialty was  making accurate and      
literal likenesses in the round with    
color1 thus  uniting the two arts of the
 painter and the sculptor4    ,the      
process of casting in plaster1 in our   
acceptation of the phrase1 is  of modern
 origin1 and so far as we know was      
invented in the fifteenth  century1 a   

little before the time of ,verrocchio   
7#adcb-adhh71 the master  of ,leonardo  
da ,vinci4 ,he was among the first who  
employed it1 and may  fairly be said to 
have introduced it4 ,at all events1 the 
first clear  mention of this process of 
which we are aware is by ,vasari in his 
life  of ,verrocchio2 and he states that
 this sculptor and painter 8cast  hands1
 knees1 feet1 legs1 even torsi1 in order
 to copy them at his  leisure2 and that 
soon after casts began to be made from  
the faces of  persons after death1 so   
that one sees in every house in         
,florence1 on  mantel-pieces1 doors1    
windows1 and cornices1 a great number of
 these  portraits1 which seem alive40   
,for some time after it seems to have   
been  used chiefly for taking casts from
 dead faces1--or hands and feet1--and   
not to have been applied to casting from
 models of clay4 ,the general  practice 
of that period was to make a small model
 in clay1 then to bake  it1 and from    
this model by proportional compasses to 

enlarge it and  point it upon the       
marble4 ,the process of casting from    
clay models seems  not to have been     
practiced then1 and so far as we know   
models of full  size in clay were rarely
 if ever made1 until rather a           
comparatively  recent period4           
,a ,,conversation ,,with ,,marcus       
,,aurelius4      ,it was a dark and     
stormy night in ,december4 ,everybody in
 the house had  long been in bed and    
asleep2 but1 deeply interested in the   
8,meditations  of ,marcus ,aurelius10 ,i
 had prolonged my reading until the     
small hours  had begun to increase1 and 
,i heard the bells of the ,capucin      
convent  strike for two o'clock4 ,i then
 laid down my book1 and began to reflect
  upon it4 ,the fire had nearly burned  
out1 and1 unwilling yet to go1 ,i  threw
 on to it a bundle of canne and a couple
 of sticks2 again the  fresh flame      
darted out1 and gave a glow to the room4
 ,outside1 the  storm was fierce and    
passionate4 ,gusts beat against the     

panes1 shaking  the old windows of the  
palace1 and lashing them with wild rain4
 ,at  intervals a sudden blue light     
flashed through the room1 followed by a 
trampling roar of thunder overhead4 ,the
 fierce libeccio howled like  a wild    
beast around the house1 as if in search 
of its prey1 and then  died away1       
disappointed and growling1 and after a  
short interval again  leaped with fresh 
fury against the windows and walls1 as  
if maddened  by their resistance4 ,as ,i
 sat quietly gazing into the fire and   
musing  on many shadows of thought that 
came and passed1 my imagination went    
back into the far past1 when ,marcus    
,aurelius led his legions against  the  
,quadi1 the ,marcomanni1 and the        
,sarmati1 and brought before me the     
weather-beaten tent in which he sat so  
many a bleak and bitter night1  after   
the duty of the day was done1 and all   
his men had retired to  rest1 writing in
 his private diary those noble          
meditations1 which1  though meant solely

 for his private eye1 are one of the    
most precious  heritages we have of     
ancient life and thought4 ,i seemed to  
see him  there in those bleak wilds of  
,pannonia1 seated by night in his tent4 
,at his side burns a flickering torch4  
,sentinels silently pace to and  fro4   
,the cold wind flirts and flaps the     
folds of the prtorium1 and  shakes the  
golden eagle above it4 ,far off is heard
 the howl of the  wolf prowling through 
the shadowy forests that encompass the  
camp2  or the silence is broken by the  
sharp shrill cry of some night bird     
flying overhead through the dark4 ,now  
and then comes the clink of armor  from 
the tents of the cavalry1 or the call of
 the watchword along the  line1 or the  
neighing of horses as the circuitores   
make their rounds4  ,he is ill and worn 
with toil and care4 ,he is alone2 and   
there1 under  the shadow of night1      
beside his camp-table1 he sits and      
meditates1  and writes upon his waxen   
tablets those lofty sentences of        

admonition  to duty and encouragement to
 virtue1 those counselings of himself to
  heroic action1 patient endurance of   
evil1 and tranquillity of life1  that   
breathe the highest spirit of morality  
and philosophy4 ,little did  he think1  
in his lonely watches1 that the words he
 was writing only for  himself would    
still be cherished after long centuries 
had passed away1  and would be pondered 
over by the descendants of nations which
 were  then uncultured barbarians1 as   
low in civilization as the ,pannonians  
against whom he was encamped4 ,yet of   
all the books that ancient  literature  
has left us1 none is to be found        
containing the record of  higher and    
purer thought1 or more earnest and      
unselfish character4 ,as ,i  glanced up 
at the cast of the ,capitoline bust of  
him which stood in the  corner of my    
room1 and saw the sweet melancholy of   
that gentle face1  ere care and         
disappointment had come over it and     
ruled it with lines  of age and anxiety1

 a strange longing came over me to see  
him and hear  his voice1 and a sad sense
 of that great void of time and space   
which  separated us4 ,where is he now8  
,what is he now8 ,i asked myself4 ,in   
what  other distant world of thought and
 being is his spirit moving8 ,has it    
any remembrance of the past8 ,has it any
 knowledge of the present8 ,yet  the    
hand that wrote is now but dust1 which  
may be floating about the  mausoleum    
where he was buried1 near the ,vatican1 
or perhaps lying in  that library of the
 popes upon some stained manuscript of  
this very  work it wrote1 to be blown   
carelessly away by some studious abb as 
he  ranges the volume on its shelf among
 the other precious records of the      
past4    ,the hand is but dust1 yet the 
thoughts that it recorded are fresh and 
living as ever4 ,since he passed from   
this world1 how little progress  have we
 made in philosophy and morality6 ,here 
in this little book are  rules for the  
conduct of life which might shame almost

 any ,christian4  ,here are meditations 
which go to the root of things1 and     
explore the  dim secret world which     
surrounds us1 and return again1 as all  
our  explorations do1 unsatisfied4 ,all 
these centuries have passed1 and we     
still ask the same questions and find no
 answer4 ,where he is now he  knows the 
secret1 or he is beyond the desire to   
know it4 ,the mystery  is solved for him
 which we are guessing1 and his is      
either a larger1  sweeter life1 growing 
on and on--or everlasting rest4 ,a      
stoic1 he found  comfort in his         
philosophy1 as great perhaps as we      
,christians find in  our faith4 ,he     
believed in his gods as we believe in   
ours4 ,how could  they satisfy a mind   
like his8 ,how could these impure and   
passionate  existences1 given to human  
follies and weaknesses1 to low          
intrigues1  to vulgar jealousies1 to    
degraded loves1 satisfy a nature so     
high1 so  self-denying1 so earnest1 so  
pure8 ,yet they were his gods2 to them  

he  sacrificed1 in them he trusted1     
looking forward to a calm future with a 
serenity at least equal to ours1        
undisturbed by misgivings2 believing  in
 justice1 and in unjust gods2 believing 
in purity1 and in impure gods4    8,no60
 said a mild voice1 8,i did not believe 
in impure and unjust gods40    ,and     
looking up1 ,i saw before me the calm   
face of the emperor and  philosopher of 
whom ,i was thinking4 ,there he stood   
before me as ,i knew  him from his busts
 and statues1 with his full brow and    
eyes1 his sweet  mouth1 his curling     
hair1 now a little grizzled with age1   
and a deep  meditative look of tender   
earnestness upon his face4    ,i know   
not why ,i was not startled to see him  
there1 but ,i was not4 ,it  seemed to me
 natural1 as events seem in a dream4    
,the realities1 as we  call those facts 
which are merely visionary and          
transitory1 vanished2  and the          
unrealities1 as we call those of thought
 and being1 usurped  their place4       

,nothing seemed more fitting than that  
he should be there4  ,to the mind all   
things are possible and simple1 and     
there is no time or  space in thought   
which annihilates them4    ,i arose to  
greet my guest with the reverence due to
 such a presence4    8,do not disturb   
yourself10 he said1 smiling2 8,i will   
sit here1 if you  please20 and so       
speaking1 he took the seat opposite me  
at the fire4  8,sit you10 he continued1 
8and ,i will endeavor to answer some of 
the  questions you were asking of       
yourself40    8,had ,i known your       
presence ,i should hardly1 perhaps1 have
 dared to ask  such questions1 or at    
least in such a form10 ,i said4    8,why
 not ask them of me if you ask them of  
yourself80 he responded4  8,they were   
just and natural in themselves1 and the 
forms of things are  of little use to   
one who cares for the essence--just as  
the forms of  the divinities ,i believed
 in are of no consequence compared to   
their  essences4 ,what we call thoughts 

are but too often mere formulas1 which  
by dint of repetition we finally get to 
believe are in themselves  truths1 while
 they are in fact mere dead husks1      
having no life in them1  and which by   
their very rigidity prevent life4 ,no   
single statement1  however plausible1   
can contain truth1 which is infinite in 
form and in  spirit4 ,if we are to talk 
together1 let us free ourselves1 if we  
can1  from formulas1 since they only    
check growth in the spirit1 and1 so to  
speak1 are mere inns at which we rest   
for a moment on account of our          
weariness and weakness4 ,if we stay     
permanently in them we narrow our       
minds1 dwarf our experience1 and make no
 more progress4 ,for what is  truth but 
a continual progression towards the     
divine80    8,yet would you say that    
formulas are of no use8 that we should  
not sum  up in them the best of our     
thought80    8,undoubtedly they are     
useful4 ,they are trunks in which we    
pack our  goods2 but as we acquire more 

goods1 we must have larger and ever     
larger trunks4 ,it is only dead formulas
 which kill1 and the tendency of        
formulas is to die and thus to repress  
thought4 ,look at the nutshell  that    
holds the precious germ of the future   
tree4 ,it is a necessary  prison of a   
moment2 but as that germ quickens and   
spreads1 the shell  must give way1 or   
death is the consequence4 ,the infinite 
truth can be  comprehended in no formula
 and no system4 ,all attempts to do this
 have  resulted in the same end--death4 
,every religious creed should be living1
  but every ,church formalizes it into  
barren words and shapes1 and  erelong1  
,faith--that is1 the living1 aspiring   
principle--dies1 wrapped  up in its     
formal observances or rigid statements1 
and becomes like the  dead mummies of   
the ,egyptians--the form of life1 not   
the reality40    8,too true10 ,i        
answered1 8all history proves it4 ,every
 real and thinking  man feels it4 ,as   
habits get the better of our bodies1 so 

conventions  and formulas get the better
 of our minds4 ,but pray continue2 ,i   
only  listen2 and pardon me for         
interrupting you40    8,what ,i say has 
direct relation to the questions you    
were asking when  ,i entered4 ,there is 
a grain1 often many grains1 of truth in 
every  system of religion1 but complete 
,truth in none4 ,if we wait until we    
attain the perfect before adhering to   
one1 we shall never arrive at  any4     
,each age has its religious ideas1 which
 are the aggregate of its  moral        
perceptions influenced by its           
imaginative bias1 and these are  shapen 
into formulas or systems1 which serve as
 inns1 or churches1  or temples of      
worship4 ,these begin by representing   
the highest  reach of the best thought  
of the age1 but they soon degenerate    
into  commonplaces1 thought moving on   
beyond them1 and of its very vitality   
of nature seeking beyond them4 ,at these
 inns the common mass put up1  and the  
host or priest controls them while they 

are there1 and society  organizes them1 
and so a certain good is attained4 ,in  
what you call the  ancient days1 when ,i
 lived on the earth1 ,i found a system  
already built  and surrounded by strong 
bulwarks of power4 ,to strike at that   
was to  strike at the existence of      
society4 ,a religious revolution is a   
social  revolution2 one cannot alter a  
faith without altering everything out   
of which it is moulded4 ,to do that1    
more evil might result than good4       
,man's nature is such that if you throw 
down the temple of his worship  at once1
 assaulting its very foundations1 you do
 not improve his faith2  you but too    
often annihilate it1 so implanted is it 
in old prejudices1  in the forms stamped
 on the heart in youth1 and in the      
habits of  thought4 ,it is only by      
gradual changes that any real good can  
be  done--by enlarging and developing   
the principles of truth which already   
exist1 and not by overthrowing the whole
 system at once40    8,but in the       

religious system to which you gave your 
adherence10 ,i  exclaimed1 8what was    
there grand and inspiring8 ,what truth  
was there  out of which you could hope  
to develop a true system8 for certainly 
you  could not believe in the divinities
 of your day40    8,reverence to the    
gods that were10 he answered1 8to a     
power above and  beyond us2 recognition 
of divine powers and attributes4 ,this  
lay as the  corner-stone of our worship1
 as it does of yours40    8,almost10 ,i 
cried1 8it seems to me worse to worship 
such gods as yours  than to worship none
 at all4 ,their attributes were at best 
only human1  their conduct was low and  
unworthy1 their passions were sensual   
and  debased4 ,any good man would be    
ashamed to do the acts calmly attributed
  to the divinities you worshiped4      
,this1 in itself1 must have had a       
degrading influence on the nation4 ,how 
could man be ashamed of any act  allowed
 and attributed to the gods80    8,your 
notions on this point are natural10 he  

calmly answered1 8but they  are         
completely mistaken4 ,there is no doubt 
that in every system of  religion the   
tendency is to humanize and1 to a       
certain extent1 degrade  ,god4 ,to      
attribute to ,him our own passions is   
universal1 with the mass4  ,to deify man
 or to humanize ,god is the rule4 ,you  
deify that beautiful  character named   
,christ1 and you humanize ,god by       
representing ,him as  inspired with     
anger and cruelty beyond anything in our
 system4 ,you  attribute to ,him a      
scheme of the universe which is to me   
abhorrent4  ,will you excuse me if ,i   
state thus plainly how it strikes one   
who  belonged to a different age and    
creed1 and who therefore cannot enter   
into the deep-grained prejudices and    
ideas of your century and faith80       
8,speak boldly10 ,i said4 8,do not fear 
to shock me4 ,i am so deeply  planted   
that ,i do not fear to be uprooted in my
 faith4 ,and1 besides1  that is not     
truth which does not court assault1 sure

 to be strengthened  by it4 ,if you can 
overthrow my faith1 overthrow it40      
8,that ,i should be most unwilling to   
do10 he answered4 8,no word would  ,i   
say to produce such a result4 ,in your  
faith there is a noble and  beautiful   
truth1 which sheds a soft lustre over   
life2 and in my own day  the pure and   
philosophic spirit of ,jesus of         
,nazareth was recognized by  me and     
reverenced4 ',t is not of ,him ,i would 
speak1 but rather of the  general scheme
 of the regulation of this world by ,god
 that ,i alluded  to2 and ,i yet pause1 
fearing to shock you by a simple        
statement of this  creed40    8,i pray  
you do not hesitate2 speak6 ,i am ready 
and anxious to hear you40    8,it is    
only in answer to what you say of the   
acts and passions  attributed by us to  
our divinities1 as constituting a clear 
reason why  we should not reverence     
them1 that ,i speak4 ,you attribute to  
your ,god  omnipotence1 omniscience1 and
 infinite love4 ,yet in his omnipotence 

,he made first a world1 and then placed 
in it man and woman1 whom ,he  also made
 and pronounced good4 ,in this1         
according to your belief1 ,he  was      
mistaken4 ,the man and woman proved     
immediately not to be good2 and  ,he1   
omnipotent as ,he was1 was foiled by    
another power named ,satan1  who upset  
at once his whole scheme4 ,after        
infinite consideration and  in pity for 
man1 ,he could or did invent no better  
scheme of redeeming  him than for       
,himself1 or an emanation from ,himself1
 to take the form  of man1 and to suffer
 death through his wickedness and at his
 hands4  ,thus man1 by adding to the    
previous fault the crime of killing ,god
  on the earth1 acquired a claim to be  
saved from the consequences of  his     
first fault4 ,a new crime affords a     
cause of pardon for a previous  fault of
 disobedience4 ,what was this first     
fault1 which induced ,god  to drive the 
first man and woman out of the ,paradise
 ,he had made for  them8 ,simply that   

they ate an apple when they were        
prohibited4 ,is any  pagan legend more  
absurd than this8 ,then for the justice 
of ,god1 on  what principle of right can
 the subsequent crime and               
horror--without  example--of killing    
,god1 or a person1 as you say1 of the   
,trinity1 afford  a reason for removing 
from man a penalty previously incurred8 
,when one  remembers that you assume    
,god to be omniscient as well as        
omnipotent1  and that ,he might have    
made any other scheme1 by simply        
forgiving man1  or obliging him to      
redeem himself by doing good and acting 
virtuously1  instead of committing a    
crime and a horror1 this belief becomes 
still  more strange4 ,nor can you       
explain it yourself2 you only say it is 
a  mystery which is beyond your reason1 
but none the less true4 ,yet though  it 
offends all sense of justice and right  
in my mind1 you believe it  and adhere  
to it as a corner-stone of your faith4  
,are you sure ,i do not  offend you80   

8,pray go on10 ,i said4 8,when you have 
said it is a mystery1 you have  said    
all4 ,shall man1 with his deficient     
reason1 pretend to understand  ,god8    
,this is a truth revealed to us by his  
only begotten ,son1 ,jesus  ,christ1 who
 was himself in a human form2 and when  
,god reveals to us a  mystery1 shall we 
not believe it8 ,shall we measure ,him  
by our feeble  wits80    8,i do not mean
 to argue with you4 ,this is furthest   
from my intention2  though ,i might say 
this holds good of us in the ancient    
days1 as well  as with you now4 ,i only 
wish1 however1 to show you that you     
believe  what you acknowledge to be     
beyond reason--a mystery1 as you call   
it4 ,you  believe this1 and yet you     
despise the pagan for believing what his
 gods  told him1 simply because it was  
unreasonable or ridiculous40    8,the   
question10 ,i said1 8is very different2 
but let it pass4 ,pray go  on40         
8,your ,god is a ,god of infinite love1 
you say4 ,yet in the opinion of  many of

 you1 at least1 this infinitely loving  
,god1 omnipotent1 and  having the power 
to make man as ,he chose1--omniscient1  
and knowing how  to make him good and   
happy if ,he wished to1--has chosen in  
his love  to make him weak and impotent1
 to endow him with passions which are   
temptations to evil1 to afflict him with
 disease and pain1 to render  him       
susceptible to torments of every kind   
and sufferings beyond his  power to     
avoid1 however he strive to be good and 
virtuous and obedient2  and then at the 
last1 after a life of suffering and     
struggle here1  either to save him and  
make him eternally happy1 or1 if ,he so 
elect1  without any reason intelligible 
to you or any one1 to plunge him into   
everlasting torment1 from which he can  
never free himself4 ,now1 ,i  ask you in
 what respect is such a ,god better than
 ,jupiter1 who1 even  according to the  
lowest popular notions1 whatever were   
his passions1  was at least placable2   
who1 whatever were his follies1 was not 

a demon  like this8 ,and when one takes 
into consideration the fact that there  
is not a humane man living who would not
 be ashamed to do to his own  child1    
however vicious1 what he calmly         
attributes to this all-loving  ,god1 the
 belief in such a ,god seems all the    
more extraordinary40    8,it is a       
mystery10 ,i said1 8that one like you1  
born in another age and  tinctured with 
another creed1 could not be expected to 
understand4 ,it  would be useless for me
 to attempt it1 and certainly not now1  
when ,i so  greatly prefer hearing you  
to speaking myself4 ,my purpose is not  
now to  defend my religion1 but to      
listen to your defense of yours40       
8,well1 then1 allow us to have our      
mystery too4 ,if you cannot explain     
all1 neither could we2 but neither with 
us nor with you was that a  reason for  
not believing at all4 ,it was the       
mystery itself1 perhaps1  that attracted
 us and attracts you4 ,the love of the  
unintelligible is  at the root of all   

systems of religion4 ,if man is         
unintelligible to  us1 shall not ,god   
be8 ,man has always invested his gods   
with his own  passions1 and his gods are
 for the most part his own shadows cast 
out  into infinite space1 enlarged1     
gigantic1 and mysterious4 ,man cannot1  
with the utmost exercise of his         
faculties1 get out of himself any more  
than he can leap over his own shadow4   
,he cannot comprehend 7or inclose       
within himself7 ,god1 who comprehends   
and incloses him2 and therefore  he     
vaguely magnifies his own powers1 and   
calls the result ,god4 ,god the         
infinite ,spirit made man2 but man in   
every system of religion makes  ,god4   
,in our own reason ,he is the best that 
we can imagine--that is1  our own selves
 purged of evil and extended4 ,we cannot
 stretch beyond  ourselves40    8,ay1   
but your gods were not the best you     
could conceive4 ,they were  lower of    
nature than man himself in some         
particulars1 and were guilty  of acts   

that you yourself would reprove40       
8,this is because you consider them     
purely in their mythical  history1      
according to the notions of the common  
ignorant mass2 not  looking behind those
 acts which were purely typical1 often  
simply  allegorical1 to the ideas which 
they represented and of which they  were
 incarnations4 ,you cannot believe that 
so low a system as this  satisfied the  
spiritual needs of those august and     
refined souls who  still shine like     
planets in the sky of thought4 ,do you  
suppose that  ,plato and ,epictetus1    
that ,zeno and ,socrates1 that ,seneca  
and ,cicero1  with their expanded minds1
 accepted these low formulas of         
,divinity8  ,as well might ,i suppose   
that the low superstitions of the       
,christian  ,church1 in which the vulgar
 believe1 represent the highest         
philosophy  of the best thinkers4 ,yet  
for long centuries of superstition the  
,church  has been accepted by you just  
as it stands1 with its saints and their 

miracles1 and its singular rites and    
ceremonies4 ,nor has any effort  been   
made to cleanse the bark of ,st4 ,peter 
of the barnacles and rubbish  which     
encumber and defile it4 ,religious faith
 easily degenerates into  superstition  
in the common mind4 ,and why has the    
superstition been  accepted8 ,simply    
because it is so deeply ingrained into  
the belief of  the unthinking mass1 that
 there might be danger of destroying all
 faith  by destroying the follies and   
accidents which had become imbedded in  
it4 ,not only for this2 by means of     
these very superstitions men may be  led
 and governed1 and leaders will not     
surrender or overthrow means  of power4 
,yet the best minds10 he continued1 8did
 what they could in  ancient days to    
purify and refine the popular faith1 and
 sought even  to elevate men's notions  
of the gods by educating their sense of 
the  beautiful1 and by presenting to    
them images of the gods unstained by    
low passions and glorious in their      

forms40    8,but surely your idea of    
,jupiter or ,zeus10 ,i answered1 8was   
most  unworthy when compared with that  
which we entertain of the infinite      
,god1 the source of all created things1 
the sole and supreme ,creator4  ,the    
,hebrews certainly attained a far       
loftier conception in their  ,jehovah   
than you in your ,jupiter40    8,what   
matter names80 he replied2 8,zeus1      
,jehovah1 ,god1 are all mere  names1 and
 the ideas they represented were only   
differenced by the  temperaments and    
character of the various peoples who    
worshiped them40    8,but the ,jehovah  
of the ,jews was not merely the head    
ruler of many  gods1 but a single       
universal ,god1 one and infinite60      
8,no6 ,i think not4 ,the ,jehovah of the
 ,jews underwent many changes and       
developments with the growth of the     
,hebrew people2 and in many of  their   
writings ,he is represented as a        
passionate1 vindictive1 and  even       
unreasonable and unjust ,god1 whose     

passions were modified by  human        
arguments4 ,and1 so far from being a    
universal ,god of all1 ,he was          
specially the ,god of the ,hebrews1 and 
is so constantly represented in  their  
,scriptures4 ,he comes down upon earth  
and interferes personally  in the doings
 of men1 and talks with them1 and       
discusses questions  with them1 and     
sometimes even takes their advice4 ,in  
process of time  this notion is         
modified1 and assumes a nobler type2 but
 ,he is never  the ,universal ,father1  
nor the ,god whose essence is           
,love1--never1 that  is1 until the      
coming of ,christ1 who first enunciated 
the idea that  ,god is love1--rejoicing 
over the saving of man1 far and above   
all  human passions4 #8,vengeance is    
mine' was the original idea of ,jehovah2
  and ,he was feared and worshiped by   
the ,jews as their peculiar ,god1  whose
 chosen people they were4 ,as for his   
unity1 whatever may have  been the      
popular superstitions of the ,greeks and

 ,romans1 ,god is  recognized by the    
greatest and purest minds as one and    
indivisible1  the ,father of all1 who   
commands all1 who creates all1 who is   
invisible  and omnipotent4 ,do you not  
remember the fragment of the ,sibylline 
verses preserved by ,lactantius1#be ,s4 
,theophilus ,antiochenus1  and ,s4      
,justinus1 where it is said that ,zeus  
was one being alone1  self-creating1    
from whom all things are made1 who      
beholds all mortals1  but whom no mortal
 can behold8--         ' '     1       '
             1     4    ,so1 also1      
,pindar cries out3--        #8 2'   4   
,so again1 in the same spirit1 the      
,appian hymn says of ,zeus3--         1 
4    ,and ,euripides exclaims1 #8,where 
is the house1 the fabric reared by man1 
that could contain the immensity of     
,god8'         '  1         1     1     
and adds that the true ,god needs no    
sacrifices on his altar4 ,and  schylus1 
in like manner1 says3--          1   1  
' 1         1   ' 4    ,and ,sophocles1 

also in similar lines1 proclaims the    
unity and  universality of ,god4 ,and   
,theocritus1 in his #8,idylls1' echoes  
the same  sentiment4 ,the same cast of  
thought1 the same lofty idea of ,god1 is
  found among the ancient ,romans4      
,lucan exclaims in his #8,pharsalia3'-- 
#8,jupiter est quod cumque vides1 quo   
cumque moveris4'    ,valerius ,soranus  
makes him the one universal1 omnipotent 
,god1 the  ,father and ,mother of us    
all3--       #8,jupiter omnipotens1     
regum rerumque deumque      ,progenitor 
genetrixque deum deus unus et omnes4'#bf
    ,can any statement be larger and    
more inclusive than this8#bg ,such      
indeed was the true philosophic idea of 
,jupiter1 as entertained by  the best   
and most exalted in ancient days4 ,you  
must go to the highest  sources to learn
 what the highest notions of ,deity are 
among any  people1 and not grope among  
the popular superstitions and myths4    
,then1  again1 what nobler expressions  
of our relation to an infinite and      

universal spirit of ,god are to be found
 than in ,epictetus and ,seneca8  #8,god
 is near you1 is with you1 is within    
you1' ,seneca writes4 #8,a sacred       
spirit dwells within us1 the observer   
and guardian of all our evil and  all   
our good4 ,there is no good man without 
,god4' ,and again3 #8,even from  a      
corner it is possible to spring up into 
heaven4 ,rise1 therefore1  and form     
thyself into a fashion worthy of ,god4' 
,and again3 #8,it is  no advantage that 
conscience is shut up within us4 ,we lie
 open to  ,god4' ,and still again3 #8,do
 you wish to render the gods propitious8
 ,be  virtuous4' ,one might cite such   
passages for hours from the writings of 
these men4 ,can you1 then1 think that   
our notions of ,god and duty were  so   
low and so debased8    8,look1 too1 at  
our arts4 ,art and religion with us and 
the ,greeks  went hand in hand4 ,if you 
seek the true spirit of religion among  
any  people1 you will always find it in 
the productions of their art4 ,in       

sculpture1 the most ideal of the plastic
 arts1 you will see the real  features  
of the gods4 ,they are grand1 calm1     
serene1 dignified1 and  above the taint 
of human passion2 claiming reverence and
 love in their  beauty and perfection   
beyond the human4 ,here there is nothing
 mean or  low4 ,so godlike are they even
 in the poorer specimens of their noble 
figures that have come down to you1 that
 you yourselves recognize in  them ideal
 grace and power4 ,read the reflection  
of our faith in their  forms and        
features1 and you will find in it       
nothing vulgar1 nothing  degrading4 ,the
 best personifications of your own      
divinities in art  look poor beside     
them4 ,god himself in your pictures is  
feeble compared  with the divine        
,jupiter of ,phidias2 the ,madonna weak 
and tame beside  the august grandeur of 
his ,athene4 ,christ in your art is     
pitiable  beside the splendor of        
,apollo2 so far from being the highest  
type of  even man1 he is almost the     

weakest1 composed of pale negatives1 and
  with nothing very positive and grand2 
while your saints are affected1         
cowardly1 and cringing1 compared with   
the heroic demigods of ,greece4  ,in    
art1 at least1 the ancient deities still
 live and command reverence  from a     
serene world beyond change4 ,would you  
know what our faith was1  look at the   
great works of art and at the best      
thoughts of the greatest  minds we      
owned1 and not at the corrupted text of 
popular superstition4  ,these1 indeed1  
were worthy of reverence4 ,they lifted  
the thoughts and  cleared the spirit1   
and filled it with a sense of beauty and
 of power4  ,who could look at that     
magnificent impersonation of ,zeus at   
,olympia1  by ,phidias1 so grand1 so    
simple1 so serene1 with its golden robes
  and hair1 its divine expression of    
power and sweetness1 its immense        
proportions1 its perfection of          
workmanship1 and not feel that they were
  in the presence of an august1         

tremendous1 and impassionate power80    
8,ah60 ,i exclaimed1 8that truly ,i wish
 ,i could have seen--what majesty1  what
 beauty1 it must have had60    8,ay60 he
 answered4 8,no one could see it and not
 be enlarged in spirit  by it40         
8,was1 then1 the ,athena of the         
,parthenon10 ,i asked1 8equal in merit80
    8,it was very different4 ,it wanted 
the power and massive grandeur of the   
,zeus2 but in its dignity and serenity  
it had a wondrous charm4 ,it was  the   
true type of wisdom1 calm above doubt1  
and with a gentle severity  of aspect1  
as if1 undisturbed by the tormenting    
questions that vex  humanity1 it saw the
 eternal truth of things4 ,when ,i      
compare with these  wondrous statues    
your best representations of your       
divinities1 ,i cannot  but feel how vast
 a difference there is2 and when in your
 temples one  sees the prostrate figures
 of men and women clinging to vulgar and
  degraded images of saints1 imploring  
aid and protection from them1 and       

soliciting their interposition against  
the avenging hand of ,deity1 ,i  cannot 
see that you are better than we40       
8,but1 after all1 through this there is 
a belief in a pure and infinite  ,being 
beyond--a ,being beyond all human       
passion2 not imperfect and  subject to  
wild caprices1 and capable of abominable
 acts40    8,you see1 we go back to the 
same question10 he replied4 8,you       
profess  to worship a ,god above nature1
 and yet your prayers are to ,christ1   
the man2 to the saints1 who were lower  
men and women2 and you cling  to these  
as mediators4 ,well2 and we also        
believed in a spirit and  power         
undefined and above all1 whose nature we
 could not grasp1  and who expressed    
himself in every living thing4 ,our gods
 were but  anthropomorphic symbols of   
special powers and developments of an   
infinite and overruling power4 ,they    
partly represent1 in outward shape  and 
form1 philosophic ideas and human       
notions about the infinite ,god1  and   

partly body forth the phenomena of      
nature1 that hint at the great  ultimate
 cause behind them1 of which they are1  
so to speak1 the outward  garment1 by   
which the ,universal ,deity is made     
visible to man4 ,in our  religion nature
 was but the veil which half hid the    
divine powers4  ,everywhere they peered 
out upon us1 from grove and river1 from 
night  and morning1 from lightning and  
storm1 from all the elements and all    
the changes and mysteries of the living 
universe4 ,it delighted us to  feel     
their absolute1 active presence among   
us--not far away from us1  involved in  
utter obscurity1 and beyond our         
comprehension4 ,we saw the  ,great      
,cause in its second plane1 close to us1
 in the growing of the  flower1 in the  
flowing of the stream1 in the drifting  
of the cloud1 in  the rising and setting
 of the sun4 ,our gods 7representing the
 great  idea beyond1 and doing its work7
 were anthropomorphic by necessity1     
just as yours are in art4 ,the popular  

fables are but the mythical  garb behind
 which lie great facts and truths4 ,they
 are symbolical  representations of the 
great processes of nature1 of the laws  
of  life and growth1 of the changes of  
the seasons1 of the strife of the       
elements4 ,apollo was the life-giving   
sun2 ,artemis1 the mysterious  moon2    
,ceres and ,proserpine1 the burial of   
the grain in the earth1 and  its        
reappearance and fructification4 ,so1 on
 another plane1 ,minerva  was the       
philosophic mind of man2 ,venus1 the    
impassioned embodiment of  human love1  
as ,eros was of spiritual affections2   
,bacchus1 the serene  and full enjoyment
 of nature4 ,we but divided             
philosophically what  you sum up in one 
final cause2 but all our divisions      
looked back to  that cause4 ,in an      
imaginative people like the ,greeks1    
there is also a  natural tendency to    
mythical embodiment of facts in history 
as well  as in nature2 and in the early 
periods1 when little was written down1  

traditions easily assumed the myth form4
 ,ideas were reduced to visible  shapes1
 and facts were etherealized into ideas 
and imaginatively  transformed4 ,the    
story of ,diana and ,endymion1 of ,cupid
 and ,psyche1  will always be true--not 
to the reason1 but to the imagination4  
,it  expresses poetically a sentiment   
which cannot die4 ,so1 also1 what       
matters it if ,ddalus built a ship for  
,icarus1 and ,icarus was simply         
drowned8 ,sublimed into poetry1 it      
became a myth1 and ,icarus flew  on     
waxen wings across the sea4 ,all poetry 
is thus allegorical4 ,the  wind will    
always have wings until it ceases to    
blow4 ,these myths are  simply poetic   
moulds of thought1 in which vague       
sentiments1 ideas1  and facts are       
wrought together into an express shape4 
,think what your  own literature or     
thought would be without the old        
,grecian poems4 ,let  the reason reject 
them as it will1 and drive them out into
 the cold1  the imagination will run    

forth and bring them back again to warm 
and  cherish them on its breast4 ,facts1
 as facts1 are but dead husks4 ,the     
spirit cannot live upon them4 ,besides1 
are not our myths enchanting8  ,could   
anything take their place8 ,can science1
 peering into all things1  ever find the
 secrets of nature8 ,after all its      
explorations1 the final  element of     
life1 the motive and inspiring element  
that is the essence  of all the organism
 it uses and without which all is mere  
material1  mere machinery1 flees utterly
 beyond its reach1 and leaves it at last
  with only dust in its hands4 ,does not
 the little child that makes  playmates 
of the flowers1 and the brooks1 and the 
sands1 find ,god there  better than any 
of us8 ,the subtle divinity hides       
anywhere1 entices  everywhere1 is just  
out of reach everywhere4 ,we catch      
glimpses of it1  breathe its odor1 hear 
its dim voice1 see the last flutter of  
its robe1  pursue it endlessly1 and     
never can seize it4 ,the poet is poet   

because  he loves this spirit in nature1
 and comes nearer it2 but he cannot     
grasp it2 and for all his pursuit he    
comes back laden at last with a  secret 
he cannot quite tell1 and shapes us a   
myth to express it as well  as he may40 
8,but surely10 ,i answered1 8we should  
distinguish between mere poetry  and    
fact--between science and fancy4 ,so    
long as we admit the unreality  of      
merely fanciful creations and           
explanations of facts1 we may be        
pleased with them2 but let us not be    
misled by them into a belief of  their  
scientific truth40    8,ah1 'tis the old
 story6 ,the little child has a bit of  
wood1 which to  her1 in the free play of
 her imagination1 is a person with good 
and bad  qualities1 who acts well or    
ill1 whom she loves or despises4 ,she   
whips  it2 she caresses it2 she scolds  
it2 she sends it to school or to bed2   
she forgives it and fondles it4 ,all is 
real to the child2 more real1  perhaps1 
than to the nurse who stands beside her 

and laughs at her1  and says1 #8,how    
silly6 come away6 it is only a stick6'  
,which is right8  ,the ,greeks were the 
child1 and you are the nurse4 ,what is  
truth1 which  is always on our          
lips--truth of history1 truth of        
science1 truth of any  kind8 ,who       
knows--history8 ,two persons standing   
together see the same  occurrence2 is it
 the same to both8 ,far from it4 ,the   
literal friend  is amazed to hear what  
the imaginative friend saw4 ,yet both   
may be  right in their report1 only one 
saw what the other had no senses to     
perceive4 ,we only see and feel         
according to our natures4 ,what we are  
modifies what we see4 ,out of the       
camomile flower the physician makes  a  
decoction1 and the poet a song4 ,history
 is but a dried herbarium of  withered  
facts1 unless the imagination interpret 
them4 ,i cannot but  smile at what is   
called history2 and of all history1 that
 of our own  ,roman world seems the     
strangest1 because1 perhaps1 ,i know it 

best40    8,ah60 ,i broke in1 8how one  
wishes you had written us familiar      
memoirs  of your time1 and given us some
 intimate insight into your life1 your  
thoughts1 your daily doings4 ,we have so
 to grope about in the dark for  any    
knowledge of you4 ,and then1 in the     
history of art1 what dreadful  blanks6  
,i do not feel assured1 except from your
 #8,meditations1' as we  call them1 and 
your letters1 that we really know       
anything accurately  about you4 ,about  
the ,thundering ,legion1 for            
instance1--what is the  truth80         
8,there10 he answered1 8is an instance  
of the ease with which a fable  is made1
 and how a simple fact may be tortured  
into an untruth merely  to suit a       
purpose4 ,when ,i was on my campaign    
against the ,quadi1 in the  year #agd1  
the incident to which you refer         
happened4 ,the spring had been  cold and
 late1 and suddenly the heats of summer 
overtook us in the  enemy's country4    
,after a long and difficult march on a  

very hot day1  we suddenly came upon the
 enemy1 who1 descending from the        
mountains1  attacked us1 overcome with  
fatigue1 in the plains4 ,the battle went
  against us for some time1 for my army 
suffered so from thirst and heat  and   
exhaustion that they were unable to     
repel the attack1 and were  forced back4
 ,while they were in full retreat and   
confusion1 suddenly  the sky became     
clouded over1 and a drenching shower    
poured upon us4 ,my  men1 who were dying
 of thirst1 stopped fighting1 took off  
their helmets  and reversed their       
shields to catch the rain1 and while    
they were thus  engaged the enemy       
renewed their assault with double fury4 
,all seemed  lost1 when suddenly1 as    
sometimes occurs among the mountains1 a 
fierce  wind swept down with terrible   
peals of thunder and vivid flashes of   
lightning2 the rain changed into hail1  
which was blown and driven with  such a 
fury into the faces of the enemy that   
they were confounded and  confused1 and 

began in their turn to fall back4 ,my   
own men1 having the  storm only on their
 backs1 refreshed by the rain they had  
drunken from  their shields and helmets1
 and cooled by their bath1 now anew     
attacked1  and1 pouring upon their foe  
with fury1 cut them to pieces4 ,among my
  soldiers at this time there was an old
 legion1 organized in the time of       
,augustus1 named the ,fulminata1 from   
the fact that they bore on their        
shields a thunderbolt2 upon this simple 
fact was founded the story1  repeated by
 many early writers in the ,christian   
,church1 that this  legion was composed 
of ,christians only1 that the storm was 
a miraculous  interposition of their    
,god in answer to their prayer1 and that
 they  then received the name of        
,fulminata1 in commemoration of this    
miracle4  ,this is the simple truth of  
the case4 ,my men said that ,jupiter    
,pluvius  came to their aid1 and they   
sacrificed to him in gratitude2 and on  
the  column afterwards dedicated to me  

by the ,senate in commemoration of  my  
services1 you will see the sculptured   
figure of ,jupiter ,pluvius1  from whose
 beard1 arms1 and head the water is     
streaming to refresh my  soldiers1 while
 his thunderbolts are flashing against  
the barbarians40    ,as he spoke these  
words1 a flash of lightning1 so intense 
as to blind  the lamps1 gleamed through 
the room1 followed by a startling peal  
of  thunder1 which seemed to shake not  
only the house but the sky above us4    
,he smiled and said1 8,we should have   
said in older time that ,jupiter        
affirmed the truth of my statement2 but 
you are above such puerilities1  ,i     
suppose40    8,certainly ,i should not  
say it was a sign from ,jupiter4 ,the   
thunder was  on the left1 and that was  
considered by you a good omen1 was it   
not8                #8,et cli genitor de
 parte serena      ,intonuit lvum4'0    
8,this thunder on the left was          
considered a good omen4 ,but what was   
it you said after you asked the         

question8 ,you seemed to be making a    
quotation in a strange tongue--at least 
a tongue ,i never heard40    8,that was 
,latin10 ,i answered1 blushing a little1
 8and from  ,virgil--,virgilius1 perhaps
 ,i ought to say1 or perhaps ,maro40    
8,ah6 ,latin1 was it80 he said4 8,i beg 
your pardon2 ,i thought it might  have  
been a charm to avert the ,evil ,eye    
that you were uttering40    8,as        
difficult to understand as the          
,eleusinian mysteries10 ,i said4 8,and1 
by the way1 what were the ,eleusinian   
mysteries80    8,they were mysteries6 ,i
 can merely say to you that they        
concealed  under formal rites the       
worship of the spirit of nature1 as     
symbolized  in ,demeter and ,persephone 
and ,dionysos4 ,in their purest and     
hidden  meaning1 they represented the   
transformation1 purification1 and       
resurrection of humanity in a new form  
and in another existence4 ,but ,i  am   
not at liberty to say more than this4   
,the outward rites were for the         

multitude1 the inner meaning for the    
highest and most developed minds4  ,were
 it permitted to me to explain them to  
you1 ,i think you would not  take so low
 a view of our religious philosophy as  
you now seem to have4  ,what you hear   
and read of was merely the outward and  
mystical drama1  with its lustrations   
and fasting1 and cakes of sesame and    
honey1 and  processions--as symbolical  
in its way as your mass and baptism1 and
  having as pure a significance4        
8,but10 he continued1 8to revert to the 
questions which we were  previously     
discussing4 ,it seems to me that in     
certain respects your  faith is not even
 so satisfactory as ours2 for its       
tendency is to  degrade the present in  
view of the future1 and to debase       
humanity in  its own view4 ,with us life
 was not considered disgraceful1 nor man
 a  mean and contemptible creature4 ,we 
did not systematically humiliate        
ourselves and cringe before the divine  
powers1 but strove to stand  erect1 and 

not to forget that we were made by ,god 
after his own image4  ,we did not affect
 that false humility which in the view  
of the ancient  philosophers was        
contemptible--nay1 even we thought that 
the pride of  humility was of all the   
most despicable4 ,we sought to keep     
ourselves  just1 obedient to our best   
instincts1 temperate and simple1 looking
  upon life as a noble gift of the gods1
 to be used for noble purposes4  ,we    
believed1 beside this1 that virtue      
should be practiced for itself1  and not
 through any hope of reward or any fear 
of punishment here or  hereafter4 ,to   
act up to our highest idea of what was  
right was our  principle1 not out of    
terror or in the hope of conciliating   
,god1 but  because it was right2 and to 
look calmly on death1 not as an evil1   
but  as a step onward to another        
existence4 ,to desire nothing too much2 
to  hold one's self equal to any fate2  
to keep one's self in harmony with      
nature and with one's own nature2 calmly

 to endure what is inevitable1  steadily
 to abstain from all that is wrong2 to  
remember that there is  no such thing as
 misfortune to the brave and wise1 but  
only phantasms  that falsely assume     
these shapes to shake the mind2 that    
when what  we wish does not happen1 we  
should wish what does happen2 that ,god 
hath given us courage1 magnanimity1 and 
fortitude1 so that we may  stand up     
against invasions of evil and bear      
misfortune1--such were our  principles1 
and they enabled us to live heroic      
lives1 vindicating  the nobility of     
human nature1 and not despising it as   
base and lost2  believing in the justice
 of ,god and not in his caprice and     
enmity to  any of us1 and having no     
ignoble fear of the future40    8,but   
are not these principles for the most   
part ours80 ,i answered4 8,do  we not   
believe that virtue is the grand duty of
 man8 ,do none of us seek  to live      
heroic lives1 and sacrifice ourselves to
 do good to the world  and to our       

brothers80    8,certainly1 you lead     
heroic lives2 but your great principle  
is  humility--your great motive1 reward 
or fear4 ,you profess to look on  this  
life as mean and miserable1 and on      
yourselves as creatures of  the dust2   
and you declare that you have no claim  
to be saved from  eternal damnation by  
leading a just life1 but only by a      
capricious  election hereafter4 ,you    
profess that your ,god is a ,god of     
love1 and you  attribute to ,him enmity 
and injustice of which you yourself     
would be  ashamed4 ,you think you are to
 be saved because ,christ died on the   
cross  for you1 and you are not sure of 
it even then4 ,but with us every one    
deserved to be tried on his own merits1 
and to expiate his own errors  and      
crimes40    8,it is supposed by some    
that you were half a ,christian         
yourself4 ,is  this so80    8,if you    
mean that ,i reverenced the life and    
doctrines of ,christ1 and  saw in ,him a
 pure man1 ,i certainly did4 ,but in my 

principles ,i was  a ,stoic purely1 and 
it is only as a philosopher that ,i     
admired the  character of ,christ4 ,you 
think the principles ,he preached were  
new2  they were really as old as the    
world1 almost4 ,his life was blameless1 
and ,he sacrificed his life for his     
principles2 and for this ,i reverence   
,him1 but no further4 ,his followers1   
however1 were far less pure and         
self-denying1 and they sought power and 
endeavored to overthrow the  state40    
8,was it for this you persecuted them80 
,i said4    8,i did not persecute them10
 he answered4 8,as ,christians they were
  perfectly free in ,rome4 ,all         
religions were free1 and all admitted4  
,no  one was interfered with merely for 
his religious belief and worship1       
whether it were that of ,isis1 of       
,mithras1 of ,jehovah1 or of any other  
deity4 ,it was only when the ,christians
 endeavored to attain to power  and     
provoke disturbance in the state1 to    
abuse authority and set at  defiance the

 laws1 that it became necessary--or at  
all events was  considered necessary--to
 stop them4 ,when they were not content 
with  worshiping according to their own 
creed1 but aggressively denounced  the  
popular worship as damnable1 and sought 
to cast public contempt  on all gods but
 their own1 they outraged the public    
sense as much  as if any one now should 
denounce ,christ as a vagabond1 and seek
 by  abuse to overthrow your church by  
all sorts of blasphemous language4  ,nor
 would it matter in the least in your   
own time that any person so  outraging  
decency should be absolutely honest in  
his intentions1 and  assured in his own 
mind of the truth of his own doctrines4 
,suppose one  step further1--that any   
set of men should not only undertake to 
turn  ,christ into ridicule publicly1   
but should also abuse the government and
  conspire to overthrow the monarchy4   
,you would then have a case similar  to 
that of the ,christians in my day4 ,at  
all events1 it was believed  that it was

 a settled plan with them to overthrow  
the empire1 and it  was for this that   
they were1 as you call it1 persecuted4  
,for my own  part1 ,i was sorry for it1 
deeming in such matters it was better to
 take  no measures so severe2 but ,i    
personally had nothing to do with it4   
,it was the fanatical zeal of the       
government1 who1 acting without my      
commands1 took advantage of ancient laws
 to punish the ,christians2 and  this   
your own ,tertullian will prove to you4 
,they undoubtedly supposed  that the    
,christians were endeavoring to create a
 political and social  revolution1--that
 they were in fact ,communists1 as you  
would now call  them1 intent upon       
overthrowing the state4 ,i confess that 
there was  a good deal of color given to
 such a judgment by the conduct of the  
,christians4 ,but as for myself1 as ,i  
said1 ,i was opposed to any movement    
against them1 believing them all to be  
honest of purpose1 though  perhaps      
somewhat excited and fanatical40        

8,why did you think that they were      
,communists80 ,i asked4 8,had you any   
sufficient grounds for such a belief80  
8,surely2 the most ample grounds in the 
very teachings of ,christ  himself4 ,his
 system was essentially communistic1 and
 nothing else4  ,his followers and      
disciples were all ,communists2 they all
 lived in  common1 had a common purse1  
and no one was allowed to own anything4 
,they were ordered by ,christ not to    
labor1 but to live from day to day1  and
 take no heed of the future1 and lay up 
nothing1 but to sell all  they had1 and 
live like the ravens4 ,christ himself   
denounced riches  constantly--not the   
wrong use of riches1 but the mere       
possession of  them2 and said it was    
easier for a camel to go through the eye
 of a  needle1 than for a rich man to   
inherit the kingdom of heaven1--not a   
bad rich man1 observe1 but any rich man4
 ,so1 too1 his story of ,lazarus  and   
,dives turns on the same point4 ,it does
 not appear that ,lazarus was  good1 but

 only that he was poor2 nor does it     
appear that ,dives was bad1  but only   
that he was rich2 and when ,dives in    
,hades prays for a drop  of water1 he is
 told that he had the good things in his
 lifetime1 and  ,lazarus the evil       
things1 and that therefore he is now    
tormented1 and  ,lazarus is comforted40 
8,but1 surely10 ,i answered1 8it was    
intended to mean that ,dives had not    
used his riches properly80    8,nothing 
is said of the kind1 or even intimated2 
for all that appears1  ,dives may have  
been a good man1 and ,lazarus not4 ,the 
only apparent  virtue of ,lazarus is1   
that he was a beggar2 the only fault of 
,dives1  that he was rich4 ,do you not  
remember1 also1 the rich young man who  
desired to become one of ,christ's      
followers1 and asked what he should  do 
to be saved8 ,christ told him that doing
 the commandments1 and being  virtuous  
and honest1 was not enough2 but that he 
must sell all that  he had1 and give it 
to the poor1 and then he could follow   

,him1 and  not otherwise2 and the rich  
good man was very sorrowful1 and went   
away4 ,what does all this mean but      
,communism8 ,yes2 the system ,he would  
carry out was community of goods1 and   
,he would permit no one to have         
possessions of his own4 ,this struck at 
the roots of all established law  and   
rights of property1 and naturally made  
his sect feared and hated  among certain
 classes in ,rome40    8,i am           
astonished10 ,i said1 8to find that you 
have so carefully studied  the records  
of the teachings and doctrines of       
,christ40    8,is it not the duty of any
 man10 he answered1 8especially of one  
in a responsible position1 carefully to 
consider the arguments and  doctrines of
 all who are sincere and earnest in     
their convictions1  and1 however averse 
they may be from our preconceived       
opinions1 to  weigh them1 as far as     
possible1 calmly1 and without prejudice1
 and see  what they really are and what 
truth there may be in them8 and was not 

this peculiarly incumbent on me in the  
case of so noble and spiritual  a       
teacher as ,christ8 ,was it not my duty 
to endeavor1 as far as in me  lay1 first
 to recognize the great principles of   
his teaching1 and then  in their light  
to examine and weigh his very words as  
far as they  are authentically reported 
to us by his followers8 ,it is this     
fixed  notion1 from which we cannot     
easily free ourselves1 that we in our   
own views alone can be right1 that shuts
 up the mind and encrusts our  faith    
with superstitions4 ,we at our best are 
merely men1 subject to  errors1         
short-sighted1 fixed in prejudices1 and 
seeing but a part of  anything4 ,no     
system of religion ever embraced all    
truth2 no system is  without gleams of  
it2 all recognize a higher power above  
us and beyond  our comprehension2 and   
nothing is more unbecoming than to scorn
 what  we have not even striven to      
understand1 or to shut our ears and our 
minds to any doctrine or faith which is 

earnestly1 seriously propounded  and    
accepted by others4 ,unfortunately1 it  
is this narrow-mindedness  and arrogance
 of opinion which has always impeded the
 growth and  development of truth4      
,there is nothing so bitter as religious
  controversy1--nothing which has so    
petrified our intelligence or has       
begotten such crimes and such           
persecutions4 ,therefore it was that ,i 
deemed it my duty to study and endeavor 
to understand the doctrine and  belief  
of all sincere minds1 whether of those  
who worshiped ,jehovah or  ,zeus1       
,mithras or ,christ1 and not to reject  
them as wicked or erroneous  simply     
because they were averse from the faith 
in which ,i had been  educated4 ,will   
you excuse me if ,i say that what amazes
 me in regard to  the ,christian faith  
is1 that while it is claimed that       
,christ is ,god1  and therefore to be   
implicitly obeyed in all his commands1  
so little  intelligence is shown in     
studying those commands1 and such       

willful  perversion in avoiding them    
even when they are plainly enunciated2  
and again1 that while claiming that love
 and forgiveness are the very           
corner-stone of your faith1 you         
,christians none the less not only      
accept war and battle as arbitraments of
 right1 but in the name of  your great  
founder1--nay1 of your very ,god1--have 
endeavored at times to  enforce those   
doctrines by the most hideous of crimes1
 and by wholesale  slaughter of those   
who differed from you in minor          
particulars  of faith2 and still more1  
do constantly even now exhibit such     
narrow-minded adherence to mere words   
and texts1 without consideration  of the
 great principles which underlie them   
and in the light of which  surely they  
are to be interpreted4 ,you are all     
,christians now1 in ,rome4  ,you profess
 absolute faith in the teaching of      
,christ4 ,you profess to  consider his  
life as the great exemplar for all men4 
,do you follow it8  ,do you1 for        

instance1 think it in accordance with   
his teaching or his  example to devote  
your lives selfishly to the laying up of
 riches for  your own individual        
luxuries1 to clothe yourselves in purple
 and fine  linen1 to make broad your    
phylacteries1 or to use vain repetitions
 in  your prayers as the heathen do1    
standing in the synagogues and at the   
corners of the streets1 and to play the 
part of ,dives while ,lazarus is        
starving at your gates8 ,are you any    
better than we heathens1 as you  call   
us1 in all this8 ,do you think ,christ  
would have done thus1 or  smiled        
approval on all you do in his name8 ,ah6
 you say1 it would be  impossible for us
 strictly to carry out this system of   
,christ4 ,it is  beautiful1 but ideal1  
and for us1 in the present state of the 
world1  absolutely impracticable4 ,but  
have you ever tried it8 ,have you ever  
even sought to try it1 and to hold a    
common purse for the interest of  all80 
,i had to bow my head1 and admit that in

 that high sense we are not             
,christians4 8,but10 ,i said1 8to follow
 exactly all these commands1 to  carry  
out all these doctrines1 even to imitate
 his example as set  before us in his   
life1 would be to revolutionize the     
world40    8,but does not the world need
 revolutionizing10 he said1 8according  
to  your own principles80    8,we do    
what we can1 at least we endeavor to do 
so1 as far as we are  able40    8,are   
you sure even of that80 he replied4     
8,are you sure it is not mammon  that   
you really worship1 and not ,christ8    
,but ,i will say no more4 ,you  are but 
mortal men as we were2 and man is       
fallible and weak1 and our  knowledge is
 but half-knowledge at best1 and our    
love and faith have  but feeble wings to
 lift us above the earth on which we    
dwell4 ,look  upon us1 therefore1 as you
 would be looked upon yourselves1 and be
  not too stern on our shortcomings4 ,we
 had our vices and faults and           
deficiencies as you have yours1 but we  

had also our virtues1 and were  on the  
whole as high of purpose1 as            
self-sacrificing1 as pure even as  you2 
but man neither then nor now has led an 
ideal life4    8,but to return to what  
we were saying about our treatment of   
,christians4 ,let me add in my own      
justification that ,i for myself never  
had any hand in persecutions1 either of 
,christians or of others1 nor  was ,i   
ever aware that they were persecuted4 ,i
 knew that persons who  happened to be  
,christians were punished for political 
offenses2 and  that was all1 ,i think1  
that happened4 ,believe me1 my soul was 
averse  from all such things1 nor would 
,i ever allow even my enemies to be     
persecuted1 much less those who merely  
differed from me on moral and           
philosophical theses4 ,nay1 ,i may say  
they differed little from me even  on   
these points1 as you may well see if you
 read my letters on the  subject of the 
proper treatment of one's enemies1      
written to ,lucius  ,verus1 or if you   

will refer to that little diary of mine 
in ,pannonia1  wherein ,i was not so    
base as to lie to myself40    8,indeed10
 ,i cried2 8that book is a precious     
record of the purest and  highest       
morality40    8',tis a poor thing10 he  
answered1 8but sincere4 ,i strove to act
 up to  my best principles2 but life is 
difficult1 and man is not wise1 and our 
opinions are often incorrect4 ,still1 ,i
 strove to act according to my  nature2 
to do the things which were fit for me1 
and not to be diverted  from them by    
fear of any blame2 to keep the divine   
part in me tranquil  and content2 and to
 look upon death and life1 honor and    
dishonor1 pain  and pleasure1 as neither
 good nor evil in themselves1 but only  
in the  way in which we receive them4   
,for fame ,i sought not2 for what is    
fame  but a smoke that vanishes1 a river
 that runs dry1 a lamp that soon is     
extinguished--a tale of a day1 and      
scarcely even so much8 ,therefore1  it  
benefits us not deeply to consider it1  

but to pass on through the  little space
 assigned to us conformably to nature1  
and in content1  and to leave it at last
 grateful for what we have received1    
just as  an olive falls off when it is  
ripe1 blessing nature which produced    
it1 and thanking the tree on which it   
grew4 ,so1 also1 it is our duty  not to 
defile the divinity in our breast1 but  
to follow it tranquilly  and obediently 
as a god1 saying nothing contrary to    
truth1 and doing  nothing contrary to   
justice4 ,for our opinions are but      
running streams1  flowing in various    
ways2 but truth and justice are ever the
 same1 and  permanent1 and our opinions 
break about them as the waves round a   
rock1 while they stand firm forever4    
,for every accident of life there  is a 
corresponding virtue to exercise2 and if
 we consult the divine  within us1 we   
know what it is4 ,as we cannot avoid the
 inevitable1 we  should accept it       
without murmuring2 for we cannot        
struggle against  the gods without      

injuring ourselves4 ,for the good we do 
to others1 we  have our immediate       
reward2 for the evil that others do to  
us1 if we  cease to think of it1 there  
is no evil to us4 ,it is by accepting an
  offense1 and entertaining it in our   
thoughts1 that we increase it1  and     
render ourselves unhappy1 and veil our  
reason1 and disturb our  senses4 ,as for
 our life1 it should be given to proper 
objects1 or it  will not be decent in   
itself2 for a man is the same in quality
 as the  object that engages his        
thoughts4 ,our whole nature takes the   
color of  our thoughts and actions4 ,we 
should also be careful to keep ourselves
  from rash and premature judgments     
about men and things2 for often a       
seeming wrong done to us is a wrong only
 through our misapprehension1  and      
arising from our fault4 ,and so1 making 
life as honest as possible  and calmly  
doing our duty in the present1 as the   
hour and the act  require1 and not too  
curiously considering the future beyond 

us1  standing ever erect1 and believing 
that the gods are just1 we may make  our
 passage through this life no dishonor  
to the ,power that placed us  here4     
,throughout the early portion of my     
life1 my father1 ,antoninus  ,pius1--,i 
call him my father1 for he was ever dear
 to me1 and was like a  father1--taught 
me to be laborious and assiduous1 to be 
serene and just1  to be sober and kind1 
to be brave and without envy or vanity2 
and on  his death-bed1 when he felt the 
shadow coming over him1 he ordered the  
captain of the guard to transfer to me  
the golden statuette of ,fortune1  and  
gave him his last watchword of          
#8,equanimity4' ,from that day to the   
day when1 in my turn1 ,i left the cares 
of empire and of life1 ,i ever  kept    
that watchword in my heart--equanimity2 
nor do ,i know a better one  for any    
man40    8,oh1 tell me1 for you know10  
,i cried1 8what is there behind this    
dark veil which we call death8 ,you have
 told me of your opinions and  thoughts 

and principles of life1 here2 but of    
that life hereafter you  have not said a
 word4 ,what is it80    ,there was a    
blank silence4 ,i looked up--the chair  
was empty6 ,that noble  figure was no   
longer there4    8,fool that ,i was60 ,i
 cried2 8why did ,i discuss with him    
these narrow  questions belonging to    
life and history1 and leave that        
stupendous  question unasked which      
torments us all1 and of which he could  
have  given the solution80    ,i rose   
from my chair1 and after walking up and 
down the room several  minutes1 with the
 influence of him who had left me still 
filling my  being as a refined and      
delicate odor1 ,i went to the window1   
pushed wide  the curtains1 and looked   
out upon the night4 ,the clouds were    
broken1  and through a rift of deep1    
intense blue1 the moon was looking out  
on  the earth4 ,far away1 the heavy and 
ragged storm was hovering over the      
mountains1 sullen and black1 and ,i     
recalled the words of ,st4 ,paul to  the

 ,romans3--    8,when the ,gentiles1    
which have not the law1 do by nature the
 things  contained in the law1 these1   
having not the law1 are a law unto      
themselves20 and 8the doers of the law  
shall be justified40                    
,,distortions ,,of ,,the ,,english      
,,stage ,,as ,,instanced ,,in           
8,,macbeth40      ,art is art because it
 is not nature1 is the motto of the     
,idealisti2 ,art  is but the imitation  
of nature1 say the ,naturalisti4 ,the   
truth lies  between the two4 ,art is    
neither nature alone1 nor can it do     
without  nature4 ,no imitation1 however 
accurate1 for imitation's sake makes a  
good work of art in any other than a    
mechanical sense4 ,and every work  of   
art in which the objects represented are
 inaccurately or imperfectly  imitated  
is in so far deficient4 ,but art works  
by suggestion as well  as by imitation4 
,whatever is untrue to the imagination  
fails to  produce its proper effect1    
however true it be to the fact4 ,the    

most  absolute realism will not answer  
the higher demand of the imagination    
for ideal truth4 ,art is not simply the 
reproduction of nature1 but  nature as  
modified and colored by the spirit of   
the artist4 ,it is a  crystallization   
out of nature of all elements and facts 
related by  affinity to the idea        
intended to be embodied4 ,these solely  
it should  eliminate and draw to itself1
 leaving the rest as unessential4 ,a    
literal adherence to all the accidents  
of nature is not only not  necessary in 
art1 but may even be fatal4 ,the        
enumeration of all the  leaves in a tree
 does not reproduce a tree to the       
imagination1 while a  whole landscape   
may be compressed into a single verse4  
,between the ideal and the natural      
school there is a perpetual struggle4   
,under the purely ideal treatment art   
becomes vague and insipid2 under  the   
purely natural treatment it becomes     
literal and prosaic4 ,the               
,pre-,raphaelites1 in protesting against

 weak sentimentalism and vague          
generalization1 and demanding an honest 
study of nature1 have fallen  into the  
error of exaggerating the importance of 
minute detail1 and1 by  insisting too   
strongly on literal truth1 have         
sometimes lost sight of  that ideal     
truth which is of higher worth4 ,but    
their work was needed1  and it has been 
bravely done4 ,they have roused the age 
out of that dull  conventionalism in    
which it had fallen asleep4 ,they have  
stimulated  thought1 revivified         
sentiment1 and reasserted with word and 
deed the  necessity of nature as a true 
basis of art4    ,as in the arts of     
painting and sculpture1 so in the drama 
and on  the stage a strong reaction is  
taking place against the stilted        
conventionalism and elaborate artifice  
of the last generation4 ,such  plays as 
the 8,nina ,sforza0 of ,mr4 ,troughton1 
the 8,legend of ,florence0  of ,mr4     
,leigh ,hunt1 and the 8,blot in the     
#8,scutcheon0 and 8,colombe's           

,birthday0 of ,mr4 ,browning1 are       
vigorous protests against the feeble    
pretensions and artificial tragedies of 
the previous century4 ,the poems  and   
plays of ,mr4 ,browning breathe a new   
life2 and if as yet they have  only     
found 8fit audience though few10 they   
are stimulating the best  thought of    
this age1 and slowly infusing a new life
 and spirit into it4    ,but the        
traditions of the stage are very strong 
in ,england1 and are not  easily to be  
rooted out4 ,the ,english public has    
become accustomed to  certain           
traditional and conventional modes of   
acting1 which interfere  with the       
freedom of the actor1 and cramp his     
genius within artificial  forms4 ,there 
is almost no attempt on the ,english    
stage to represent  life as it really   
is4 ,tradition and convention stand in  
the stead of  nature4 ,from the moment  
an actor puts his foot on the stage he  
is  taught to mouth and declaim4 ,he    
studies rather to make telling points   

than to give a consistent whole to the  
character he represents4 ,his  utterance
 and action are false and 8stagey40 ,in 
quiet scenes he is  pompous and stilted2
 in tragic scenes1 ranting and violent4 
,he never  forgets his audience1 but1   
standing before the footlights1         
constantly  addresses himself to them as
 if they were personages in the play4   
,habit at last becomes a second nature2 
his taste becomes corrupted1  and he    
ceases to strive to be simple and       
natural4 ,there is1 in a  word1 no      
defect against which ,hamlet warns the  
actor which is not a  characteristic    
feature of ,english acting4 ,it never   
8holds the mirror  up to nature10 but is
 always 8overdone10 without             
8temperance10 full  of mouthing1        
strutting1 bellowing1 and noise4 ,it    
8tears a passion to  tatters1 to very   
rags1 to split the ears of the          
groundlings40 ,and  8there be players   
that ,i have seen play1 and heard others
 praise1 and  that highly1 not to speak 

it profanely1 that1 having neither the  
accent  of ,christians nor the gait of  
,christian1 pagan1 nor ,turk1 have so   
strutted and bellowed1 that ,i have     
thought some of ,nature's journeymen    
had made men1 and not made them well1   
they imitated humanity so  abominably20 
and this needs to be reformed           
altogether4    ,these words of          
,shakespeare show that even in his time 
the inflated1  pompous1 and artificial  
style still in vogue on the ,english    
stage  was a national characteristic4   
,we have scarcely improved1 since old   
traditions cling and hold the stage in  
mortmain4 ,reform moves slowly          
everywhere in ,england2 but the two     
institutions which oppose to it the     
most obstinate resistance are the church
 and the theatre4 ,in both of  these    
tradition stands for nearly as much as  
revelation4 ,each adheres  to its old   
forms1 as if they contained its true    
essence2 each believes  that those forms
 once broken1 the whole spirit would be 

lost2 just  as if they were phials which
 contained a precious liquid1 and must  
be therefore preserved at all costs4    
,the idea that the liquid can be  quite 
as well1 and perhaps better1 kept in    
different phials has never  occurred to 
them4 ,they will die for the phial4     
,still it is plain that a strong        
reaction against this bigoted           
admiration of traditional and           
conventional forms is now perceptible4  
,the facilities of travel and           
intercourse with other nations have     
engendered new notions and modified old 
ones4 ,it is impossible to  compare the 
,french and ,italian stage with the     
,english1 and not  perceive the vast    
inferiority of the latter4 ,in the one  
we see nature1  simplicity1 and life2 in
 the other1 the galvanism of artificial 
convention4 ,it cannot be denied that   
the recent acting of ,hamlet by         
,fechter was to the ,english mind a     
daring and doubtful innovation4 ,it  was
 something so utterly different in      

spirit and style from that to  which we 
have been accustomed that it created a  
sensation2 and while it  found many     
ardent admirers1 it found quite as many 
vehement opposers4  ,the public ranged  
themselves in two parties2 the one      
insisting that  the traditional and     
artificial school1 as represented by    
,garrick1 the  elder ,kean1 and ,cooke1 
was the only safe guide for the tragic  
actor2  and the other arguing that as   
the true function of the stage was to   
hold up the mirror to nature1 acting    
should be as much like life and  as     
little like acting as possible4 ,the    
former1 at the head of which  were the  
friends of ,mr4 ,charles ,kean1 made a  
public demonstration in  his behalf1 and
 scouted these newfangled ,french       
notions of acting4 ,was  it to be       
supposed that any school of acting could
 be superior to that  created and       
established in ,england by the genius of
 such actors as  ,garrick1 the elder    
,kean1 and ,cooke8 ,should foreigners   

presume to teach  us how to interpret   
and represent plays which had been the  
study of the  ,english people for       
centuries8 ,to this it was opposed that1
 however  mortifying to us1 it was a    
fact that the ,germans had led the way  
to a  profounder and more metaphysical  
study of ,shakespeare1 and had taught   
us in many ways how to understand his   
plays1 and that therefore there  was no 
reason why foreigners might not teach us
 how to act them4 ,the  very fact that  
their eyes were not blinded1 nor their  
tongues tied by  traditional            
conventions1 enabled them to study      
,shakespeare with more  freedom and     
directness4 ,there was no deep rut of   
ancient usage out  of which they were   
forced to wrench themselves4 ,and1      
besides1 it was  affirmed1 and with     
truth1 that the ,english stage is the   
jeer of the  world1 and needs thorough  
reform4    ,we have indeed made little  
progress in reforming the stage4 ,mr4   
,charles  ,kean has devoted his talents 

to improving the wardrobe and scenery1  
and  has so far done good service2 but  
in the essential matter of acting we    
are nearly where we were in the past    
century4 ,while the background and      
dresses are reformed1 and the bag-wig in
 which ,garrick played ,hamlet is       
thrown aside1 we have carefully         
preserved all the old points1 all the   
stage-tricks1 and all the stilted       
intonations of the artificial school2   
and the consequence is1 that the sole   
reality is in that which is the  least  
essential4 ,the attention is thus       
withdrawn from the actor to the         
scenery1 and we have a spectacle instead
 of a tragedy4 ,the background  is real1
 but the actor is conventional2 the     
blanket has usurped the  prominent      
place1 and ,shakespeare has retired     
behind it4 ,the bursts of  genius with  
which ,garrick startled the house1 and  
made the audience  forget his bag-wig1  
are wanting1 but all his tricks are     
preserved2 the  corpse is still there1  

but the spirit he put into it is gone4  
,in comedy there is as little           
resemblance to real life as in tragedy2 
humor and wit are travestied by         
buffoonery and grimace4 ,instead of     
pictures of life as it is1 we have      
grotesque daubs and caricatures1 so     
exaggerated and farcical in their       
character as to 8make the judicious     
grieve40 ,the actor and the audience    
react upon each other4 ,the audience    
are generally uneducated1 and for the   
most part agree with ,partridge in  his 
comment on 8,hamlet30 8,give me the king
 for my money10 says he4 ,the  actors   
must bow to this low taste1--           
8,for they who live to please must      
please to live40    ,but tradition has  
worse sins to answer for4 ,it has not   
only ruined our  national acting1 but in
 some cases has overshadowed the drama  
itself1  and perverted the meaning of   
some of the greatest plays of           
,shakespeare4  ,hamlet is not ,hamlet on
 the ,english stage2 he is the tall1    

imposing  figure of ,john ,kemble2 dark1
 melodramatic1 and dressed in black     
velvet4  ,strive as we will1 we cannot  
imagine him as the light-haired ,dane1  
easy and dreamy of temperament1 8fat and
 scant of breath10 essentially          
metaphysical1 hating physical action1   
and wanting energy to put his  thoughts 
into deeds4 ,the whole spirit of the    
acted ,hamlet is southern2  that of the 
real ,hamlet is purely northern4 ,we    
have indeed broken  through an old      
tradition1 according to which1          
incredible as it may  seem1 ,shylock    
used to be acted as a comic character1  
though we are  still far from a real    
understanding of his character4 ,but of 
all the  plays of ,shakespeare none is  
so grossly misunderstood as 8,macbeth40 
,nor is this misapprehension confined to
 the stage2 it prevails even  among     
those who have zealously studied and    
admired ,shakespeare4 ,as ,john  ,kemble
 stands for ,hamlet in our imaginations1
 so does ,mrs4 ,siddons for  ,lady      

,macbeth4 ,she has completely           
transformed this wonderful creation  of 
,shakespeare's1 distorted its true      
features1 and so stamped upon it  her   
own individuality1 that when we think of
 one we have the figure of  the other in
 our minds4 ,the ,lady ,macbeth of ,mrs4
 ,siddons is the only  ,lady ,macbeth we
 know and believe in4 ,she is the       
imperious1 wicked1  cruel wife of       
,macbeth1 urging on her weak and        
kindhearted husband to  abominable      
crimes solely to gratify her own        
ambitious and evil nature4  ,she is     
without heart1 tenderness1 or remorse4  
,devilish in character1  violent in     
purpose1 she is the soul of the whole   
play2 the plotter  and instigator of all
 its horrors2 a fiend-like creature1    
who1 having  a complete mastery over    
,macbeth1 works him to madness by her   
taunts1  and relentlessly drives him on 
against his will to the commission of   
his terrible crimes4 ,we hate her1 as we
 pity ,macbeth4 ,he is weak of  purpose1

 amiable of disposition1 8full of the   
milk of human kindness10  an unwilling  
instrument of all her evil designs1 who1
 wanting force  of will and strength of 
character1 yields reluctantly to her    
infernal  temptations4    ,nothing could
 more clearly prove the great genius of 
,mrs4 ,siddons1 than  that she has been 
able so to stamp upon the public mind   
this amazing  misconception1 that1      
despite all the careful study which of  
late years  has been given to           
,shakespeare1 this notion of the        
character of ,lady  ,macbeth and        
,macbeth should still prevail4 ,yet so  
deeply is it rooted1  and so universal1 
that whoever attempts to eradicate it   
will find his  task most difficult4     
,but1 believing it to be an utter       
distortion of  the characters as        
,shakespeare drew them1 and so at       
variance with the  interior thought1    
conduct1 and development of the play as 
not only  entirely to obscure its real  
meaning1 but to obliterate all its      

finest  and most delicate features1 we  
venture to enter upon this difficult    
task4    ,macbeth and his wife1 so far  
from being the characters above         
described1  are their direct opposites4 
,he is the villain1 who can never       
satiate  himself with crimes4 ,she1     
having committed one crime1 dies of     
remorse4  ,she is essentially a         
woman--acts suddenly and violently1 and 
then  breaks down1 and wastes her life  
and thoughts in bitter repentance4 ,he  
is1 on the contrary1 essentially a      
man--who resolves slowly and with       
calculation1 but once determined and    
entered upon a course of action1        
obstinately pursues it to the end1      
haunted by no remorse for his  crimes1  
and agitated by no regrets and doubts1  
so long as his wicked  plans do not     
miscarry4 ,the spring of his nature is  
ambition2#bh and in  working out his    
ends he is cruel1 pitiless1 and bloody4 
,he is without  a single good trait of  
character2 and from the beginning to the

 end  of the play1 at every step1 he    
develops deeper abysses of cruelty and  
inhumanity in his nature4 ,when he is   
first presented to us1 we1 in  common   
with ,lady ,macbeth1 are completely     
unaware of his baseness4 ,he  is a      
thorough hypocrite1 and deceives us1 as 
he deceived her4 ,we see  that he has a 
grasping ambition1 but we believe that  
he is amiable and  weak of purpose1 for 
so ,lady ,macbeth tells us2 but as the  
play goes  on1 his character develops   
itself1 and at last we find that he has 
neither heart nor tenderness for anybody
 or anything2 that his will is          
unconquerable2 that he is utterly       
without moral sense1 is hopelessly      
selfish1 and wickedly cruel4 ,all he    
loves is power4 ,his ambition is        
insatiable4 ,it grows by what it feeds  
on4 ,the more he has1 the more he       
desires1 and he is ready to commit every
 kind of horror for the sake  of        
attaining his object4 ,he is restrained 
by no scruples of honor1 by  no claims  

of friendship1 by no sensitiveness of   
conscience4 ,he murders  his sovereign1 
from whom he has just received large    
gifts and honors in  his own house2 and 
then instantly compasses the death of   
his nearest  friend and guest1 ,banquo4 
,not content with this1 he then seeks   
the life  of ,macduff2 and1 enraged     
because he has fled1 savagely and in    
cold  blood puts the whole of his family
 to the sword4 ,there is a steady       
growth of evil in his character from the
 beginning to the end1 or  rather a     
steady development of his evil nature4  
,malcolm and ,macduff1 who at first were
 his friends and companions1            
afterwards1 when they had learned to    
8know0 him1 call him 8treacherous0  and 
8devilish40 ,so far from agreeing in the
 character given of him by  ,lady       
,macbeth1 they say1--                   
8,macduff4            ,not in the       
legions      ,of horrid hell can come a 
devil more damned      ,in evil to top  
,macbeth4          ,malcolm4            

,i grant him bloody1      ,luxurious1   
avaricious1 false1 deceitful1           
,sudden1 malicious1 smacking of every   
sin      ,that has a name40    ,yet even
 they admit that       8,this tyrant1   
whose sole name blisters our tongues1   
,was once thought honest40    ,as he had
 deceived the world1 so he deceived his 
wife4 ,his bloody and  treacherous      
nature was at first as unknown to her as
 to his friends4  ,as they thought him  
8honest10 she thought him amiable and   
infirm of  purpose1 greatly ambitious1  
and one who would 8wrongly win10 but yet
  kindly of nature4 ,fiery temptations  
had not as yet brought out the  secret  
writing of his character4 ,it was with  
,macbeth as it was with  ,nero3 their   
real natures did not exhibit themselves 
at first2 but when  once they began to  
develop1 their growth was rapid and     
terrible4 ,and  in each of them there   
was a vein of madness4 ,essentially a   
hypocrite1  and secretive by nature1    
,macbeth had passed for only a brave and

  stern soldier when he first makes his 
appearance4 ,yet even in his  fierce    
,norwegian fight we see a violent and   
bloody spirit4 ,in the  very beginning  
of the play1 one of his soldiers        
describes him1 in his  encounter with   
,macdonald1 as one who1--               
8,disdaining fortune1 with his          
brandished steel1      ,which smoked    
with bloody execution1      ,like       
,valour's minion1      ,carved out his  
passage till he faced the slave2        
,and ne'er shook hands nor bade farewell
 to him      ,till he unseamed him from 
the nape to the chaps1      ,and fixed  
his head upon our battlements40    ,this
 is rather a grim picture1 and scarcely 
corresponds to the  character usually   
assigned to ,macbeth4 ,here is not only 
no infirmity of  purpose1 but a stern1  
unwavering resolution1 carving its way  
through  all difficulties and against   
all opposition4 ,thus far1 however1 all 
his deeds had been loyal and for a      
lawful purpose4 ,still within his  heart

 burnt1 as he himself says1 8black and  
deep desires10 and only  circumstances  
and opportunities were needed to show   
that he could be as  fierce and bloody  
in crime as he had shown himself in     
doing a soldier's  duty4 ,they were     
already urging him in the very first    
scene2 but1  secretive of nature1 he    
kept them out of sight4                 
8,stars1 hide your fires2      ,let not 
light see my black and deep desires2    
,the eye wink at the hand2 yet let that 
be1      ,which the eye fears1 when it  
is done1 to see40    ,thus he cries to  
himself as he speeds to his wife4 ,the  
8murder10 which  was but an hour before 
8fantastical10 has now become a fixed   
resolve4    ,a nature like this1        
secretive1 false1 deceitful1 and wicked1
 which  had thus far satisfied itself in
 a legitimate way1 and1 having no       
temptation in his own house1 had never  
shown its real shape there1  would      
naturally not have been understood by   
his wife4 ,glimpses she  might have of  

what he was1 but not a thorough         
understanding of him4  ,blinded by her  
personal attachment to him1 and herself 
essentially  his opposite in character1 
as we shall see1 she would naturally    
have  misinterpreted him4 ,the secretive
 nature is always a puzzle to the  frank
 nature4 ,accustomed to go straight to  
her object1 whether good or  bad1 she   
was completely deceived by his          
hypocritical and sentimental  pretenses1
 and supposed his nature to be 8full of 
the milk of human  kindness40 ,but time 
also opened her eyes1 though1 perhaps1  
never1 even  to the last1 did she fully 
comprehend him4 8,what thou wouldst     
highly1  that wouldst thou holily10 she 
would never have said after the murder  
of the king4 ,but however this may be1  
that her view of his character  is false
 is proved by the whole play4 ,when did 
he ever show an iota of  kindness8 ,what
 crime did his conscience or the desire 
to act 8holily0  ever prevent his       
committing8 ,when did he ever exhibit   

any want of  bloody determination8      
,infirm of purpose8 ,he was like a tiger
 in his  purposes and in his deeds4 ,the
 murder of ,duncan did not satisfy him4 
,the next morning1 he kills the two     
chamberlains1 in cold blood1 to  gratify
 his wanton cruelty4 ,it was impossible 
that they should testify  against       
him--they had been drugged1 and he could
 have had no fear of  them4 ,then       
immediately he plots the murder of      
,banquo and ,fleance1 and  all the while
 hypocritically conceals his foul       
purposes even from his  wife2 and       
because ,macduff 8failed his presence at
 the tyrant's feast10  he determines    
also to murder him4 ,foiled of this1 he 
then cruelly and  hideously puts to the 
sword his wife and little children4 ,in 
all these  murders1 after the king's1   
,lady ,macbeth not only takes no part1  
but  she is even kept in ignorance of   
them4 ,she drive him to the commission  
of his crimes8 ,she does not know of    
them till they are done4 ,they are      

plotted and determined upon in secret by
 ,macbeth alone1 and carried  into      
execution with a bloody directness and  
suddenness4 ,he is 8bloody1  false1     
deceitful1 sudden10--essentially a      
hypocrite1 false in his  pretenses1     
secret in his plotting1 loud in his     
showy talk1 but sudden  and bloody in   
his crimes and in his malice4    ,thus  
far1 however1 we have seen but one side 
of ,macbeth4 ,the other  side was its   
opposite4 ,bold1 ambitious1 and         
treacherous1 he was also  equally       
imaginative and superstitious4 ,in      
action he feared no man4  ,brave as he  
was cruel1 and ready to meet anything in
 the flesh1 he was  equally visionary of
 head1 a victim of superstitious fears1 
and a mere  coward before the unreal    
fancies evoked by his imagination4 ,he  
has  the ,scottish second-sight1 and    
visions and phantoms shake his soul4    
,show him twenty armed men who seek his 
life1 he encounters them with  a fierce 
joy4 ,show him a white sheet on a pole1 

and tell him it is a  ghost1 and he     
trembles abjectly4 ,he conjures up for  
himself phantoms  that 8unfix his hair  
and make his seated heart knock at his  
ribs20  he is distracted with 8horrible 
imaginings40 ,his excited imagination   
always plays him false and fills him    
with momentary and superstitious  fears2
 but these fears never ultimately       
control his action4 ,they are  fumes of 
the head1 and being purely visionary1   
they are also temporary4  ,they come in 
moments of excitement1 obscure for a    
time his judgment1  and influence his   
ideas2 but having regard solely to      
things unreal1  they vanish with the    
necessity of action4    ,these          
superstitious fears have nothing to do  
with conscience or morals4  ,he has no  
morals2 there is no indication of a     
moral sense in any single  word of the  
whole play4 ,the only passage which     
faintly indicates a  sense of right and 
wrong is when he urges to himself1 as   
reasons why  he should not kill ,duncan1

 not only that the king is his kinsman1 
his  king1 and his guest1 but that he   
has borne his faculties so meekly1  that
 his virtues would plead like angels    
trumpet-tongued against the  deep       
damnation of his taking-off4 ,this1     
however1 is mere talk1 and has          
reference only to the indignation which 
his murder will excite1 not to  any     
sorrow ,macbeth has for the crime4 ,his 
sole doubt is lest he may not  succeed2 
for1 as he says1--                      
8,if the assassination      ,could      
trammel up the consequence1 and catch1  
,with his surcease1 success2 that but   
this blow      ,might be the be-all and 
the end-all here1      ,but here1 upon  
this bank and shoal of time1--          
,we'd jump the life to come40    ,the   
idea of being restrained from committing
 this murder by any  religious or moral 
scruples is very far from his thought4  
,right or  wrong1 good or bad1 have     
nothing to do with the question2 and as 
for  the 8life to come10 that is mere   

folly4    ,but while his moral sense is 
dead1 his imagination is nervously      
alive4  ,it engenders visions that      
terrify him3 after the murder is done1  
he  thinks he hears phantom-voices      
crying1 8,sleep no more6 ,glamis hath   
murdered sleep2 and therefore ,cawdor   
shall sleep no more1 ,macbeth  shall    
sleep no more20 and these voices so work
 upon his superstitious  fears1 that he 
is afraid for the moment to return to   
the chamber1 and  carry the daggers back
 and smear the grooms with blood4 ,he   
is1 as ,lady  ,macbeth says1            
8brainsickly10 and 8fears a painted     
devil40 ,this is  superstition1 not     
remorse--a momentary imaginative fear1  
not a permanent  feeling4 ,in a few     
minutes he has changed his dress1 and   
calmly makes  speeches as if nothing had
 occurred1--nay1 this cold-blooded      
hypocrite  is ready within the hour to  
commit two new and wanton murders on the
  chamberlains1 and boastfully to refer 
them to his loyal spirit and  loving    

heart1 inflamed by horror at the hideous
 murder of the king1  which he has      
himself committed4    ,the same         
superstitious fear attacks him when he  
hears that ,birnam ,wood  is moving to  
,dunsinane ,hill2 but it does not       
prevent this creature1  so 8full of the 
milk of human kindness10 from striking  
the messenger1  calling him 8liar and   
slave10 and threatening1--              
8,if thou speak'st false1      ,upon the
 next tree shalt thou hang alive        
,till famine cling thee40    ,so1 too1  
when ,macduff tells him that he was 8not
 of woman born10 awed  for a moment by  
his superstitious fears1 he cries1--    
8,accursed be that tongue that tells me 
so1      ,for it hath cow'd my better   
part of man6      444 ,i'll not fight   
with thee40    ,at times1 under the     
influence of an over-excitable          
imagination acting  upon a nature       
thoroughly superstitious1 his intellect 
wavers1 and he is  subject to sudden    
aberrations of mind resembling insanity4

 ,they are1  however1 evanescent1 and in
 a moment he recovers his poise1        
descending  through a poetical phase    
into his real and settled character of  
cruelty and wickedness4 ,in the         
dagger-scene1 where he is alone1 these  
three phases are perfectly marked4 ,the 
visionary dagger 8proceeding  from the  
heat-oppressed brain0 soon vanishes1    
then follows the poetic  mania1 and then
 the stern resolution of murder4 ,in the
 banquet-scene1  when the ghost of      
,banquo rises1 the poetic interval is   
less marked1 for  ,macbeth is under the 
restraint of the company and under the  
influence  of his wife2 but scarce has  
the company gone when his real character
  returns4 ,he is again forming new     
resolutions of blood4 ,his mind reverts 
to ,macduff1 whose life he threatens4   
,he is bent 8to know1 by the worst      
means1 the worst20 8strange things ,i   
have in head1 that will to hand40       
,this aberration of mind ,macbeth has in
 common with ,lear1 ,hamlet1 and        

,othello4 ,but in ,macbeth alone does it
 take a superstitious shape4  ,the      
trance of ,othello is but a momentary   
condition1 in which his  goaded         
imagination1 acting upon an irritated   
sense of honor1 love1  and jealousy1    
obliterates for an instant the real     
world4 ,hamlet's  aberration1 when it is
 not feigned1 as for the most part it   
is1 is  but the 8sore distraction0 of a 
mind upon which the burden of a great   
action is fixed1 which he is bound      
either to accept or to reject1 but  in  
regard to which he hesitates1 not       
because he lacks decision of  character1
 but solely because he cannot satisfy   
himself that he has  sure grounds for   
action1 and that he is not deceived as  
to the facts  which are the motive of   
his action2 once satisfied as to the    
grounds  for action1 he is decisive and 
prompt1 as is clearly shown in the      
manner in which he disposes of          
,guildenstern and ,rosencrantz on board 
the vessel1 and in the instant slaying  

of the king himself1 when the  evidence 
of his infamy is clear4 ,but while he is
 yet undecided and  struggling with     
himself to solve this sad problem of the
 king's guilt1  he rejects all ideas of 
love as futile and impertinent1 and1    
more than  that1 doubts whether ,ophelia
 herself is not1 unconsciously to       
herself1  made a tool of by the king and
 queen4 ,lear1 again1 is 8heart-struck40
  ,his madness comes from wounded pride 
and affection4 ,the ingratitude  and    
cruelty of his daughters shake his mind1
 and to his excited spirit  the very    
elements become his 8pernicious         
daughters30 8,i never gave you          
kingdoms1 called you children40 ,in all 
except ,macbeth1 the nature thus  driven
 to madness is noble in itself1 moral in
 its character1 and warm  in its        
affections4 ,the aberrations of ,macbeth
 are superstitious1 and  have nothing to
 do with the morals or the affections4  
,macbeth's imagination is1 however1 a   
ruling characteristic of his  nature4   

,his brain is always active2 and when it
 does not evoke  phantoms1 it indulges  
in fanciful and poetic images4 ,he is a 
poet1 and  turns everything into poetry4
 ,his utterance is generally excited and
  high-flown1 rarely simple and real1   
and almost never expresses his  true    
feelings and thoughts4 ,his heart       
remains cold while his head is  on fire4
 ,on all occasions his first impulse is 
to poetize a little2  and having done   
this1 he goes about his work without    
regard to what  he has said4 ,his       
sayings are one thing2 his doings are   
quite another4  ,shakespeare makes him  
rant intentionally1 as if to show that  
in such  a character the imagination can
 and does work entirely independently   
of real feelings and passions4 ,there is
 no serious character in all            
,shakespeare's plays who constantly     
rants and swells in his speech like     
,macbeth2 and this is plainly to show   
the complete unreality of all  his      
imaginative bursts4 ,in this he differs 

from every other person  in this play4  
,yet when he is really in earnest1 and  
has some plain  business in hand1 he can
 be direct enough in his speech1 as     
throughout  the second interview with   
the weird sisters1 and in the scene with
  the two murderers whom he sends to    
kill ,banquo and ,fleance2 or when1     
enraged at the escape of ,fleance1 he   
forgets to be a hypocrite1 and  his real
 nature clearly expresses itself in     
direct words1 full of  savage resolve4  
,but on all other occasions1 when he is 
not in earnest  and intends to deceive1 
or when his brain is excited1 he        
indulges  in sentimental speeches1      
violent figures of speech1 extravagant  
personifications1 and artificial tropes 
and conceits4 ,even in the              
phantom-voices he imagines crying to him
 over ,duncan's body1 he cannot  help   
this peculiarity4 ,he curiously hunts   
out conceits to express  sleep4 ,he     
8murders sleep1 the innocent sleep2     
sleep1 that knits up the  ravell'd      

sleeve of care1 the death of each day's 
life1 sore labor's  bath1 balm of hurt  
minds1 great nature's second course1    
chief nourisher  in life's feast40 ,no  
wonder that ,lady ,macbeth1 amazed1     
cries out1 8,what  do you mean80 ,but he
 cannot help going on like a mad poet4  
,his language  is full of alliteration1 
fanciful juxtaposition of words1        
assonance1  and jingle4 ,at times1 so   
strong is this habit1 he makes poems to 
himself1 and for the moment half        
believes in them4 ,only compare1 in     
this connection1 the natural1 simple    
pathos of the scene where ,macduff      
hears of the barbarous murder of his    
wife and children1 with the  language of
 ,macbeth1 when the death of ,lady      
,macbeth is announced to  him4 ,macduff 
8pulls his hat upon his brows10 and     
gives vent to his  agony in the simplest
 and most direct words4 ,here the       
feeling is deep  and sincere3--         
8,all my pretty ones8      ,did you say1
 all8--,o hell-kite6--,all8      ,what1 

all my pretty chickens1 and their dam1  
,at one fell swoop8          ,mal4      
,dispute it like a man4          ,macd4 
,i shall do so2      ,but ,i must also  
feel it like a man3      ,i cannot but  
remember such things were1      ,and    
were most precious to me4--,did heaven  
look on1      ,and would not take their 
part8 ,sinful ,macduff1      ,they were 
all struck for thee6 naught that ,i am1 
,not for their own demerits1 but for    
mine1      ,fell slaughter on their     
souls4 ,heaven rest them now6           
99       99       99       99       99  
,o1 ,i could play the woman with my     
eyes40    ,but when ,macbeth is told of 
the death of his wife1 he makes a little
  poem1 full of alliterations and       
conceits4 ,it is an answer to the       
question1 ,what is life like8 ,what can 
we say about it now8       8,to-morrow1 
and to-morrow1 and to-morrow1           
,creeps in this petty pace from day to  
day1      ,to the last syllable of      
recorded time2      ,and all our        

yesterdays have lighted fools      ,the 
way to dusty death4 ,out1 out1 brief    
candle6      ,life's but a walking      
shadow2 a poor player1      ,that struts
 and frets his hour upon the stage1     
,and then is heard no more3 it is a tale
      ,told by an idiot1 full of sound  
and fury1      ,signifying nothing4     
,enter a ,messenger4        ,thou com'st
 to use thy tongue2 thy story quickly40 
,has this any relation to true feeling8 
,do men of any feeling1 whose  hearts   
are touched1 fall to improvising poems  
like this1 filled with  fanciful images1
 when great sorrows come upon them8     
,this speech is full  of 8sound and     
fury1 signifying nothing40 ,there is no 
accent from the  heart in it4 ,it is    
elaborate1 poetic1 cold-blooded4 8,life 
is a candle10  8a poor player10 8a      
walking shadow10 8a tale told by an     
idiot40 ,we  have his customary         
alliterations3 8petty pace10 8dusty     
death10 8day to  day20 his love of      
repeating the same word1 8to-morrow1 and

 to-morrow1  and to-morrow10 just as we 
have 8,if it were done when 'tis done1  
then  'twere well it were done quickly20
 and his 8,sleep no more1 ,macbeth  does
 murder sleep1--sleep1 that knits up10  
etc42 8,sleep no more6 ,glamis  hath    
murdered sleep2 and therefore ,cawdor   
shall sleep no more1 ,macbeth  shall    
sleep no more40 ,he cannot forget       
himself enough to cease to be  ingenious
 in his phrases4 ,as a poem this speech 
is striking2 as an  expression of       
feeling it is perfectly empty4 ,at the  
end of it he has  quite forgotten the   
death of his wife2 he is only employed  
in piling  up figure after figure to    
personify life4 ,what renders the       
unreality  of this still more striking  
is the sudden change which comes over   
him  upon the entrance of the messenger4
 ,in an instant he stops short in his   
poem1 and his tone becomes at once      
decided and harsh2 his wife's death  has
 passed utterly out of his mind4 ,when  
the messenger tells him that  ,birnam   

,wood is beginning to move1 with a      
sudden burst of rage he turns  upon him1
 calls him liar and slave1 and threatens
 to hang him alive  till famine cling   
him1 if his report prove to be          
incorrect4 ,this is the  real ,macbeth4 
,from this time forward he never alludes
 to ,lady ,macbeth2  but1 in a strange  
condition of superstitious fear and     
soldierly  courage1 he calls his men to 
arms1 and goes out crying1--            
8,blow1 wind6 come1 wrack6      ,at     
least we'll die with harness on our     
back40    ,and this throughout is the   
character of ,macbeth's utterances4 ,he 
is not  like ,tartuffe1 a religious     
hypocrite2 he is a poetical and         
sentimental  hypocrite4 ,his phrases and
 figures of speech have no root in his  
real  life2 they are only veneered upon 
them4 8,his words fly up1 his thoughts  
remain below40 ,when he is poetical he  
is never in earnest4 ,sometimes  his    
speeches are merely oratorical1 and made
 from habit and for  effect2 sometimes  

they are hypocritical1 and used to      
conceal his real  intentions2 and       
sometimes they are the expression of an 
inflamed and  diseased imagination      
stimulated by superstition4 ,but they   
are generally  bombastic and swelling in
 tone1 and are so intended to be4 ,his  
habit  of making speeches and inventing 
curious conceits is so strong1 that  he 
even 8unpacks his heart with words0 when
 alone1 so as to leave  himself free and
 direct to act4 ,thus1 in one of his    
famous soliloquies1  mark the unreal    
quality of all the pretended feeling1   
the mixture of  immorality1 bombast1 and
 hypocrisy1 the assonances and          
alliterations1  the plays upon words1   
the extravagant figures1 all showing the
  excitability of the brain and not of  
the heart3--       8,if it were done    
when 'tis done1 then 'twere well        
,it were done quickly4 ,if th'          
assassination      ,could trammel up the
 consequence1 and catch1      ,with his 
surcease1 success2 that but this blow   

,might be the be-all and the end-all    
here1      ,but here1 upon this bank and
 shoal of time1--      ,we'd jump the   
life to come40    ,then1 after some     
questions about killing his guest1 his  
kinsman1 his  king1 which would seem    
honest1 but for what comes after and for
 the  utter reckless immorality which   
has gone before these words1 his        
imagination excites itself1 and runs    
into a wild and extravagant figure      
which means nothing4 ,duncan's virtues1 
he says1--       8,will plead like      
angels trumpet-tongued against      ,the
 deep damnation of his taking-off40     
,no sooner does he begin to swell and   
alliterate again than he goes  wild3--  
8,and pity1 like a naked new-born babe1 
,striding the blast1 or heaven's        
cherubin1 hors'd      ,upon the         
sightless couriers of the air1          
,shall blow the horrid deed in every    
eye1      ,that tears shall drown the   
wind40    ,this is pure rant1 and       
intended to be so4 ,it is the product of

 an  unrestrained imagination which     
exhausts itself in the utterance4 ,but  
it  neither comes from the heart nor    
acts upon the heart4    ,again1 in the  
soliloquy of the air-drawn dagger1 the  
superstitious1  visionary ,macbeth1 who 
always projects his fancies into figures
 and  phantoms1 after addressing this   
8false creation      ,proceeding from   
the heat-oppressed brain10    falls at  
once into poetic declamation about the  
night1 and indulges  himself in strange 
images and personifications4 ,a man     
about to commit a  murder who invents   
these conceits must be a poetical       
villain3--                              
8,now witchcraft celebrates      ,pale  
,hecate's offerings2 and wither'd       
murder1      ,alarum'd by his sentinel1 
the wolf1      ,whose howl's his watch1 
thus with his stealthy pace1      ,with 
,tarquin's ravishing strides1 towards   
his design      ,moves like a ghost40   
,can anything be more extraordinary and 
elaborate than this pressing of  one    

conceit upon another8 ,wither'd murder  
has a sentinel1 the wolf1 who  howls his
 watch1 and who with stealthy pace      
strides with ,tarquin's  ravishing      
strides like a ghost6 ,shakespeare makes
 no other character  systematically talk
 like this4    ,but the fumes of the    
brain pass1 and leave the stern1        
determined man of  action3--            
8,whiles ,i threat1 he lives2           
,words to the heat of deeds too cold    
breath gives4      ,i go1 and it is     
done2 the bell invites me4      ,hear it
 not1 ,duncan2 for it is a knell        
,that summons thee to heaven1 or to     
hell40    ,we have no such rant as this 
in ,lady ,macbeth4 ,in the scenes of the
  murder1 she does not befool herself   
with visions and poetry4 ,she is        
practical1 and her attention is given   
solely to the real facts about  her4    
,contrast the simple language in which  
she speaks1 while waiting  for ,macbeth1
 with his previous rhodomontade4        
,agitated1 in great  emotion1 listening 

for sounds1 doubting whether some       
mischance may  not have befallen to     
prevent the murder1 she speaks in short1
 broken  sentences2 but she does not    
liken her husband to ,tarquin1 and say  
now  is the time when 8witchcraft       
celebrates pale ,hecate's offerings10   
nor  employ this interval in making a   
poem full of conceits4    ,macbeth goes 
in to the king1 and commits the murder2 
no scruples of any  kind prevent him4   
,but when that is secure1 he has a      
superstitious fit1  and imagines        
phantom-voices1 that talk as no phantoms
 ever did before4  ,still he is a coward
 in the presence of phantoms1 and will  
not go back4  ,the deed has been done1  
and ghosts alarm him4    ,but1 as has   
been before observed1 all this raving as
 usual passes by at  once4 ,in a        
half-hour he is as cold and calm as     
ever4 ,the phantom-voices  did not reach
 his conscience1 and awakened no        
remorse4 ,they were the  children of    
superstition and imagination1 and they  

vanished with  cockcrow and daylight1   
leaving no trace behind in his memory4  
,they have  not altered his mood nor his
 plans4    ,we now come to consider     
,lady ,macbeth's character4 ,at all     
points she  was her husband's opposite1 
or rather his complement4 ,where he was 
strong1 she was weak2 where he was weak1
 she was strong4 ,he was  poetical and  
visionary of nature2 she was plain and  
practical4 ,he was  indirect1 false1    
secretive2 she1 on the contrary1 was    
vehement and  impulsive4 ,between what  
she willed and what she did was a       
straight  line4 ,she was troubled by    
none of his superstitious fears or      
visions4  ,her imagination was feeble   
and inactive1 her character was         
energetic2  she saw only the object     
immediately before her1 and she went to 
it with  rapidity and directness of     
purpose4 ,she was skillful in management
  and ready in contrivance1 as women are
 apt to be2 while ,macbeth was  wanting 
in both these qualities1 as men         

generally are4 ,for herself she  seems  
to have had no ambition1 and not        
personally to have coveted the  position
 of queen4 ,her ambition is but the     
reflection of ,macbeth's1  and her great
 crime was wrought in furtherance of his
 suggestions and  promptings4 ,mistaking
 entirely his character at first1 proud 
of his  success for his sake1 and       
rightly reading him so far as to see    
that  his ambition1 which was           
insatiable1 grasped at the throne1 she  
lent  herself to the murder of ,duncan1 
in the belief that a throne once        
obtained1 ,macbeth's ambition would be  
satisfied4 ,her moral sense was         
inactive1 and not sufficient to lead her
 to oppose his project4 ,it  was not1 as
 we shall see1 utterly wanting in her1  
as in ,macbeth4 ,she  seems to have been
 warmly attached to ,macbeth1 and       
always1 after the  murder is committed1 
she endeavors to soothe and tranquillize
 him  with gentle and affectionate      
words4 ,but she could not understand his

  superstitious hesitations when once   
resolved on action4 ,his poetry  and his
 imaginative flights1 as well as his    
visions1 were to her  incomprehensible1 
and she made the natural mistake of     
supposing him to  be infirm of purpose4 
,her mind was one of management and     
detail4 ,the  determination and         
suggestion of the murder are his2 the   
management and  detail of it are hers4  
,this is a master-stroke of             
,shakespeare's1 by  which he at once    
distinguishes the masculine from the    
feminine nature4  ,man is quick to      
propose and suggest a plan in its       
general scope2 woman  is always superior
 in adjusting the details by which it   
may be carried  into execution4 ,lady   
,macbeth's nature was not wicked in     
itself2 it  was susceptible of deep     
feeling and remorse4 ,but her moral     
sense was  sluggish1 while her impulses 
were sudden and vehement2 and as such   
women generally are1 she was irritably  
impatient of the postponement  of any   

project already decided upon4 ,she had a
 strong will1 and gave  expression to it
 in an exaggerated way3--               
8,i have given suck1 and know      ,how 
tender 'tis to love the babe that milks 
me3      ,i would1 while it was smiling 
in my face1      ,have pluck'd my nipple
 from his boneless gums1      ,and      
dash'd the brains out1 had ,i so sworn  
as you      ,have done to this40        
,this is but a vehement1 passionate1 and
 exaggerated way of saying that  if she 
had sworn to herself to do anything1    
however shocking1 as  deliberately and  
determinedly as ,macbeth had to commit  
this murder1 she  would do it in spite  
of consequences1 and not like him be    
8afeard to be  the same in thine own act
 and valor as thou art in desire40 ,she 
does  not mean1 nor did ,shakespeare    
mean1 that so hideous an act would be   
possible for her either to plan or to   
commit2 but to prove her contempt  of   
that condition of mind when 8,i dare    
not0 waits upon 8,i would10 she  seizes 

on the most horrible and repulsive act  
that she can imagine1  and declares     
energetically that1 shocking as that is1
 she would not  hesitate to do even     
that1 had she so sworn to do it as      
,macbeth had4 ,yet  this wild and       
violent figure of speech is generally   
taken as the key  of her whole          
character4 ,it is nothing of the sort2  
for the very line  preceding it proves  
that she had a tenderness of nature     
under all her  energy1 and a power of   
love as well as of will3--              
8,i have given suck1 and know      ,how 
tender 'tis to love the babe that milks 
me40    ,well1 despite that tenderness  
and love1 which you1 ,macbeth1 know ,i  
have1 ,i would have done what is so     
contrary to all my nature1 had ,i so    
sworn as you4 ,throughout this scene her
 sole object is to urge upon  ,macbeth1 
as vehemently as she can1 the folly of  
dallying and hesitating  to carry out a 
project which he alone had conceived1   
suggested1 and  determined1 merely for  

fear of consequences and lest it should 
do him  injury in the eyes of the world4
 ,he never feels nor suggests any moral 
objection2 he does not pretend to feel  
it4 ,his sole fear is lest he may  not  
succeed2 he only doubts whether it would
 not be better to postpone  the         
execution of his project until a more   
fitting time4 ,his decisions  are less  
rapid than hers4 ,she must at once act  
on the first strength of  her resolve4  
,she is impetuous1 and would spring upon
 her prey at once4  ,he1 knowing that   
his fell purpose will only strengthen   
with meditation1  and doubting whether  
the time has come to secure his object1 
proposes  to postpone its execution4    
,but there is no time for this4 ,there  
are  but a few hours in which all must  
be accomplished1 and he is not ready    
with the detail4 ,but to this proposal  
of postponement she says 8,no40  ,she   
knows that he never will rest till it is
 accomplished4 ,neither time  nor place 
adhered when you 8broke this enterprise 

to me10 she says2 and  now1 when both   
8have made themselves10 execute your    
design1 and no  longer let 8,i dare not 
wait upon ,i would40 ,to this he feebly 
opposes1  8,if we should fail10 failure 
being the only thing that troubles him4 
,she then suggests the plan in detail by
 which the murder can be  effected2 and 
he cries out1 in a burst of admiration  
and delight1--                8,bring   
forth men-children only1      ,for thy  
undaunted mettle should compose         
,nothing but males40    ,still1 when the
 time approaches1 ,lady ,macbeth needs  
all her courage1  and she stimulates it 
with wine1 lest it should break down3-- 
8,that which hath made them drunk hath  
made me bold40    ,she preserves her    
courage1 however1 to the end1 never     
loses her  self-possession1 and takes   
care that the plan is carried out fully 
in  all its details4 ,but that          
accomplished1 she utterly breaks down4  
,she  has over-calculated her strength2 
she was not utterly wicked1 and her     

remorses are terrible4 ,from this time  
forward we have no such scenes  between 
her and her husband2 he performs all his
 other murders alone1  without her      
connivance or knowledge4    ,and here   
the main feature of this play must be   
kept in mind4 ,lady  ,macbeth dies of   
remorse for this her crime2 she cannot  
forget it2 it  haunts her in her sleep2 
the damned spot cannot be washed from   
her  conscience or her hand4 ,what a    
fearful cry of remorse and agony is that
  of hers in her dream6--               
8,here's the smell of the blood still3  
all the perfumes of ,arabia      will   
not sweeten this little hand6 ,oh6 oh6  
oh60    ,there is no poetizing here1 no 
sentimental and figurative              
personifications2 it is the cry of a    
wounded heart and conscience4 ,it  is   
written too in prose1 not in verse4 ,it 
is real1 and not fantastic  like the    
rant and poetry of ,macbeth4 ,that      
terrible night remains with  her1 and   
haunts her and tears her like a demon1  

and at last she dies of  it4    ,how is 
it with ,macbeth8 ,does the memory of   
that night torture him8  ,never for a   
moment4 ,he plots new murders4 ,he has  
tasted blood1 and  cannot live without  
it4 ,on1 on he goes1 deeper and deeper  
into blood1  till he is slain2 and      
never1 to the last1 one cry of          
conscience4    ,yet it is thought that  
,lady ,macbeth urged on this amiable    
man1 so  infirm of purpose1 so filled   
with the milk of human kindness1 and was
  the mainspring of his crimes4 ,suffice
 it to say1 in answer to this  view1    
that after ,duncan is killed he keeps   
her in complete ignorance  of all he    
does1 and his murders are thenceforward 
more terrible  and pitiless1 and with no
 faint shadow of excuse or apology4     
,this  cold-hearted villain stops at    
nothing2 even her death does not awaken 
a throb in his heart4 ,is it not        
preposterous to suppose that the        
so-called fiend of the play1 she who    
instigates and drives an unwilling      

victim to crime1 should die of remorse  
for that crime2 while the  amiable      
accomplice1 far from sharing any such   
feeling1 only plunges  deeper into crime
 when she does not instigate him1 and   
develops at  every step an increasing   
brutality and savageness of nature8     
,no2 it is not the tall1 dark1          
commanding1 and imperious figure of     
,mrs4  ,siddons1 with threatening brow  
and inflated nostrils1 that represents  
,lady ,macbeth2 she is not at all of    
such character or features4 ,she is  of 
rather a delicate organization1 of      
medium height1 her hair inclining  to   
red1 her temperament nervous and        
sanguine1 with a florid complexion  and 
little hands4 ,so was ,lucrezia ,borgia2
 and so was ,lady ,macbeth4 ,she  was   
personally fair and attractive4 ,can any
 one imagine ,macbeth calling  a dark1  
towering1 imperious woman like ,mrs4    
,siddons his 8dearest love10  8dear     
wife10 or his 8dearest chuck08    ,but  
it is commonly thought that the murder  

of ,duncan was suggested by  ,lady      
,macbeth1 and that her husband was urged
 into it against his will  and contrary 
to his nature4 ,such a view is utterly  
in contradiction  of the play itself4   
,the suggestion is entirely ,macbeth's1 
and he has  resolved upon it before he  
sees her4 ,the witches are a projection 
of  his own desires and superstitions4  
,they meet him at the commencement of   
the play1 prophesying1 in response to   
his own desires1 that he is thane  of   
,cawdor1 and shall be king hereafter2   
but they respond also to his  fears1 by 
adding that ,banquo's children shall be 
kings4 ,those are the  very points upon 
which all his thoughts hinge--his       
ambition to be king1  his fears lest the
 throne shall pass from his family4     
,hence his hate of  ,banquo and         
,fleance4 ,from this time forward he    
thinks of nothing else4  ,as he rides   
across the heath1 he is self-involved1  
abstracted1 silent1  sullen1 revolving  
in his mind how to compass his designs1 

which are  nothing less than the murder 
of the king4 ,he does not dream that the
  prophecies of the weird women will    
accomplish themselves without his       
assistance1 for they are projections of 
his own thoughts4 ,he instantly         
receives news that he is made thane of  
,cawdor1 and scarcely gives a  thought  
to this honor1 scarcely expresses his   
satisfaction2 when the  news is         
announced he says1--       8,glamis1 and
 thane of ,cawdor3      ,the greatest is
 behind4--,thanks for your pains40      
,and then immediately his mind reverts  
to the promise that ,banquo's  children 
shall be kings3--       8,do you not    
hope your children shall be kings1      
,when those that gave the thane of      
,cawdor to me      ,promis'd no less to 
them80    ,then he falls again into     
gloomy silence1 and talks to himself    
inwardly4  ,what does he say and think8 
,he resolves to murder the king3--      
8,this supernatural soliciting          
,cannot be ill2 cannot be good4 ,if ill1

      ,why hath it given me earnest of  
success1      ,commencing in a truth8   
,i'm thane of ,cawdor4      ,if good1   
why do ,i yield to that suggestion      
,whose horrid image doth unfix my hair1 
,and make my seated heart knock at my   
ribs1      ,against the use of nature8  
,present fears      ,are less than      
horrible imaginings2      ,my thought1  
whose murder yet is but fantastical1    
,shakes so my single state of man1 that 
function      ,is smother'd in surmise2 
and nothing is      ,but what is not40  
,yes1 already he dreams of murder4 ,he  
sees not his way clear2 he will  trust  
to chance2 but he dreams of murder4 ,and
 full of these thoughts1  he rushes to  
his wife to fill her mind with his      
project1 to consult  her as to how it   
can be carried into execution2 for he   
cannot plan in  detail2 and though the  
thought crosses him1 that       8,if    
chance will have me king1 why1 chance   
may crown me1      ,without my stir10   
yet this is but a hope2 for in the next 

scene he has determined to take  the    
matter into his own hands and trust     
nothing to chance4 ,as soon as  he hears
 that ,malcolm is made ,prince of       
,cumberland and heir to the  throne1 he 
determines absolutely to kill the       
king3--       8,the ,prince of          
,cumberland6--,that is a step      ,on  
which ,i must fall down1 or else        
o'erleap1      ,for in my way it lies4  
,stars1 hide your fires2      ,let not  
light see my black and deep desires2    
,the eye wink at the hand2 yet let that 
be1      ,which the eye fears1 when it  
is done1 to see40    ,he has already    
written to ,lady ,macbeth2 and his      
letter has but one  thought and one     
theme1--the promise that he shall be    
king4 ,much as she  fears his nature1   
she knows thoroughly his desires1 and   
has faint  glimpses of his real         
character2 she knows that he means to be
 king1  and sees that he would 8wrongly 
win20 that his ambition is great1 and   
that his mind is filled solely with one 

idea4 ,but she fears that he is  8too   
full of the milk of human kindness to   
catch the nearest way20 and  when she   
hears that ,duncan is coming to the     
castle1 and that ,macbeth  is hurrying  
to see her before the king's arrival1   
she doubts his plan  no longer4 ,for a  
moment she is aghast4 8,thou'rt mad to  
say it10 she  says to the messenger who 
announces the king's approach2 for she  
sees  that he comes to his death3--     
8,the raven himself is hoarse      ,that
 croaks the fatal entrance of ,duncan   
,under my battlements40    ,he has been 
lured here by ,macbeth to compass his   
destruction2 and in a  moment ,macbeth  
will be with her4 ,then1 summoning up   
all her courage at  once1 she resolves  
to aid him in his ambitious and         
murderous design4  ,she calls upon the  
8spirits that tend on mortal thoughts0  
to unsex  her1 to alter her nature1 to  
make her cruel and remorseless1 to let  
nothing intervene to shake her purpose2 
for she is not quite sure of  herself4  

,she knows what 8compunctious visitings 
of nature0 are1 and she  strengthens    
herself against them4 ,she is not       
naturally cruel2 and she  cries out to  
the spirits to 8stop up the access and  
passage to remorse0  now open in her    
nature1 to change her 8milk for gall10  
and to cover her  with 8the dunnest     
smoke of hell10 so that her             
8keen knife see not the wound it makes1 
,nor heaven peep through the blanket of 
the dark1      ,to cry1 ,hold1 hold40   
,in this tremendous apostrophe1 in which
 she goads herself on to crime1  the    
woman's nature is plainly seen4 ,macbeth
 never prays to have his  nature        
altered1 to have any passages to remorse
 closed up2 never fears  8compunctious  
visitings of nature10 nor desires       
darkness to hide his  knife1 so that he 
may not see the wound he makes4 ,but she
 knows she  is a woman1 and that she    
needs to be unsexed1 and feels that she 
is  doing violence to her own nature2   
still her will is strong1 and she  cries

 down her misgivings1 and resolves to   
aid ,macbeth in his design4    ,macbeth 
meets her in this mood4 ,there is no    
salutation or greeting on  his part2 he 
has but one idea1--,duncan is coming1   
and is to be murdered4  ,his first words
 are1--                      8,my       
dearest love1      ,duncan comes here   
to-night40    ,whereupon she asks1 8,and
 when goes hence80 8,to-morrow10 he     
answers1 and  pauses2 and adds1 8as he  
purposes40 ,but in the look and in the  
pause  ,lady ,macbeth has read his whole
 sold and intent4 ,there is murder in   
that look2 and she cries3--             
8,o1 never      ,shall sun that morrow  
see6      ,your face1 my thane1 is as a 
book1 where men      ,may read strange  
matters40    ,there is no explanation   
between them4 ,he has conveyed all his  
intention  by a look and a gesture1 as  
she herself distinctly says4 ,he has    
ridden  headlong1 as fast as horse could
 carry him1 away from the king1 full  of
 this one idea2 and the king has vainly 

8coursed him at the heels10  having the 
purpose1 as he himself says1 8to be his 
purveyor40 ,and  his thoughts have      
spoken in his looks so unmistakably1    
that they are  perfectly understood4 ,if
 there be any doubt by whom the murder  
was  suggested1 it is made perfectly    
clear by what ,lady ,macbeth            
subsequently  says to him in the next   
scene in which they are presented4 ,when
 he  begins to doubt whether the murder 
had not better be postponed1 she        
says3--                  8,what beast   
was't1 then1      ,that made you break  
this enterprise to me80    ,it was not  
of my plotting1 but of your own2 8,nor  
time1 nor place1 did  then adhere1 and  
yet you would make both20 you desired it
 and still  desire it1 but are afraid of
 consequences4 ,these words of hers     
would  indeed seem to indicate that he  
had urged the crime upon her against    
her will at a previous interview not    
reported in the play1 or perhaps  by a  
letter2 for she says distinctly1 that   

when he broke the enterprise  to her1-- 
8,nor time1 nor place1      ,did then   
adhere1 and yet you would make both3    
,they have made themselves40    ,it     
would plainly seem1 therefore1 that     
,macbeth had broken this  enterprise to 
her1 and urged it on her1 even before   
the king had  determined to come to his 
castle1 and that he intended to make    
time  and place4 ,this would account    
completely for her opening speech1 and  
for the fact that he does not make any  
explanation to her of his  intentions   
other than by his look and intonation   
when they first meet2  for certainly    
there is nothing in the play about the  
time and place  of the murder except as 
herein indicated4 ,it would also explain
 the  surprise of ,lady ,macbeth when   
she hears that her husband is coming1   
and the king after him3 8,thou'rt mad to
 say it10 she says2 and 8the  raven     
himself is hoarse that croaks the fatal 
entrance of ,duncan under  my           
battlements40 ,the time and place had   

made themselves1 then2 and it  is on    
hearing this that she suddenly changes  
from calm to vehement  emotion1 and     
makes that wonderful apostrophe to the  
spirits to unsex  her4 ,she sees that   
all has been resolved1 and that she has 
need of her  utmost resolution4         
,there is no warrant of any kind that1  
in the simple words1 8,and when  goes   
hence10 she meant more than she said4   
,it was the most natural  question that 
she could possibly ask4 ,granting that  
she intended  equally with him to commit
 the murder1 what is more natural than  
that  she should wish to know how long  
the king was to stay1 so as to know  how
 soon it was necessary to carry out the 
plan of murder1 and what  time there was
 in which to make all the arrangements8 
,not only ,macbeth  pauses after saying 
8,to-morrow0 7so1 at least1 is the      
punctuation in  all editions71 before   
adding 8as he purposes10 but ,lady      
,macbeth1 in  her answer1 says that she 
sees in his face that he intends that   

8never  shall sun that morrow see40     
,yet1 in the recitation of these parts  
on the stage1 and as generally read1 the
 meaning is given to ,lady  ,macbeth's  
simple words2 and ,macbeth is made      
perfectly innocently to  answer without 
showing in his look any 8strange        
matter40 ,but the king  is coming close 
on his heels2 there is no time to       
arrange details2 and  ,macbeth goes away
 to receive him1 saying1 8,we will speak
 further40    ,the characters1 as       
exhibited in the next scenes1 have been 
already  sufficiently discussed4 ,he    
shows his superstitions1 his visions1   
his  poetry1 and his hesitations2 she1  
with the stern determination of a  woman
 who has screwed her courage to the     
sticking-place1 is agitated  by no      
visions1 but1 feeling the necessity of  
immediate action1 she  occupies herself 
in the arrangements of details1 and thus
 dulls her  conscience4    ,after all   
the excitements which have agitated     
,macbeth--after his  soliloquy1 in which

 he says there is no spur to prick the  
sides of his  intent1 but only vaulting 
ambition2 but if he were sure of        
success1 he  would jump the life to     
come--there comes a moment when he      
either has  or pretends to have a       
hesitation about proceeding further in  
8this  business40 ,he does not hesitate 
for conscience' sake1 but because1      
being ambitious1 he now would like to   
wear the golden opinions he has  won1   
8in their newest gloss10 and not cast   
them aside so soon1 before  he has had  
the satisfaction of being wondered at   
and admired a little  longer4 ,he had   
gained praise and high position1 and his
 vanity was  gratified4 ,he naturally   
would pause before committing a hideous 
murder4  ,but he never pretends that    
this feeling comes from any moral sense4
 ,his  mind has been too long strained  
with one thought2 and1 as in all men  of
 excitable brain1 there comes a moment  
of reaction4 ,he cannot see  his way    
clear4 ,he fears the effect of his      

crime4 ,he does not see how  it can be  
done so that he may avoid suspicion1 and
 attain the object  beyond the murder   
and for which he commits it1 without    
running too  great risks1 and thus      
exposing himself to the vengeance of the
 king's  friends4 ,he fears that his    
8bloody instructions0 may 8return to    
plague  the inventor0--not hereafter1   
but 8here40 ,but what most troubles him 
is1 that he cannot see the practical    
way1 cannot arrange the details  so as  
to secure a chance of avoiding          
suspicion4 ,here his wife comes  to his 
aid4 ,she has thought out a plan and    
arranged the details4 ,she  sternly     
opposes his proposal to abandon his     
design1 for she knows that  his         
hesitation is only for a moment1 and    
that nothing less than to be  king can  
ever satisfy him4 ,better1 then1 do the 
deed at once4 ,his only  opposition     
after this is1 8,if we should fail80    
,but as soon as he sees  the feasibility
 of her plan1 all his scruples are gone2

 he is more than  convinced1 he is      
delighted1 and enters upon it with a joy
 which he does  not pretend to conceal4 
,during all these scenes1 up to the     
murder of ,duncan1 ,lady ,macbeth is    
laboring under an excitement of mind    
which sustains her in carrying  out the 
design of her husband4 ,the time is     
purposely made very  short--only a few  
hours between the arrival of ,duncan and
 his death--so  that she may not break  
down4 ,all is hurry and movement1 and   
arrangement  of detail4 ,there is no    
time for reaction4 ,the very necessity  
for  immediate action serves as an      
irritant to the nerves1 and strains all 
her thoughts and feelings to an         
unnatural pitch4 ,still1 when the murder
  is on the point of being done1 she    
keeps up her courage by drink2 for  the 
strain is almost too great4 ,in this    
excited state her inflamed will  has got
 completely the command of her2 and to  
have it all over1 and  not caring about 
the dreadful design longer1 she says    

that had ,duncan  8not resembled my     
father as he slept1 ,i had done it40    
,but though she  can talk of dashing out
 the brains of her babe while it was    
smiling in  her face1 she was not1 even 
in this excitement1 able to strike      
,duncan1  because she thought he looked 
like her father4 ,her woman's hand would
  have failed her had she attempted it4 
,but all her powers are bound up  in    
this one design4 ,she has come to a     
violent determination1 and this  she    
will carry out1 come what may4 ,she     
thrusts aside all compunction  of       
conscience1 and makes such a noise by   
action in her brain1 that its  still    
small voice cannot be heard4            
,macbeth1 on the contrary1 is of a      
colder and more brutal nature4 ,his     
determination is sullen1 and it lies    
like an immovable rock on which  the    
flames of his imagination burn like     
momentary fires of straw1 and  over     
which his superstitious visions pass    
like clouds or fogs1 and then  clear    

away1 leaving the rock unchanged4 ,just 
before he commits the  murder1 ,banquo  
comes in and tells him that the king    
8hath been in unusual pleasure1 and     
,sent forth great largess to your       
offices4      ,this diamond he greets   
your wife withal1      ,by the name of  
most kind hostess2 and shut up      ,in 
measureless content40    ,but this does 
not touch ,macbeth1 nor induce a        
moment's hesitation4  ,banquo then      
speaks of the three weird sisters1 and  
says1 8,to you they  have show'd some   
truth20 and ,macbeth answers falsely3-- 
8,i think not of them2      ,yet1 when  
we can entreat an hour to serve1        
,we'd spend it in some words upon that  
business1      ,if you would grant the  
time40    ,thus1 cold and collected1 he 
bids him 8,good repose10 sends off the  
servant1 and waits for the bell to ring1
 which is the sign that all  is ready   
for him to murder ,duncan4 ,in this     
interval we have his  three             
characteristic features brought out one 

after the other3 the  cloudy vision of  
the air-drawn dagger2 then the          
straw-fire of his  poetry about ,hecate 
and withered murder's sentinel1 the     
wolf1 and  ,tarquin's ravishing strides2
 and1 as these clear off1 the stern1    
sullen  resolution underneath--8,whiles 
,i threat he lives20 8,i go1 and it is  
done40    ,when the murder is done1 the 
two are equally distinct in             
character1--she energetic and practical1
 he visionary and superstitious2  and so
 they part4    ,thus far1 be it         
observed1 ,lady ,macbeth has supposed   
her husband to be  merely 8infirm of    
purpose20 but the next scene is to open 
her eyes to a  glimpse of his real      
character4    ,macbeth has become       
perfectly calm and cold again in a few  
minutes1 and  makes his appearance      
immediately after the knocking4 ,he is  
completely  master of himself1 offers to
 conduct ,macduff to the king1 and when 
,macduff says he knows it will be a     
8joyful trouble0 to him1 answers  like a

 proverb1 calmly1 8,the labor we delight
 in physics pain40 ,the  king is then   
found dead1 and the noise brings ,lady  
,macbeth from her  room4 ,what a        
difference is now visible in the way in 
which she and he  speak and act6 ,when  
,macduff says1 8,our royal master's     
murdered60 she  cries out1 8,woe6 alas6 
what1 in our house80 and says not a word
 more4  ,macbeth1 however1 who is only  
afraid of shadows1 but who1 with the    
daylight1 has no fear of looking at dead
 bodies1 or adding one or two  more with
 his sword1 goes to the room of ,duncan1
 and then reappears1  without the       
faintest shadow of feeling1 and makes a 
little hypocritical  poem on the        
event3--       8,had ,i but died an hour
 before this chance1      ,i had liv'd a
 blessed time2 for1 from this instant1  
,there's nothing serious in mortality3  
,all is but toys3 renown and grace is   
dead2      ,the wine of life is drawn1  
and the mere lees      ,is left this    
vault to brag of40    8,what is amiss80 

says ,donalbain4 ,and ,macbeth cries1   
8,you are1 and  do not know't4 ,the     
spring1 the head1 the fountain of your  
blood is  stopp'd2 the very source of it
 is stopp'd40    ,this is ,macbeth's    
rant and fustian4 ,he has no feeling1   
and1 as usual1  he makes the pretense of
 poetry serve him4 ,the head1 the       
spring1 the  fountain1 the source is    
stopped1 is stopped4    ,and this stuff 
he recites coolly1 although he has but a
 moment before  wantonly killed the two 
grooms2 nay1 he does not mention it     
until  afterwards1 on their being spoken
 of by ,lenox1 when this hypocritical   
villain cries3--       8,o1 yet ,i do   
repent me of my fury1      ,that ,i did 
kill them4          ,macd4              
,wherefore did you so8          ,macb4  
,who can be wise1 amaz'd1 temperate and 
furious1      ,loyal and neutral1 in a  
moment8 ,no man3      ,the expedition of
 my violent love      ,outrun the       
pauser1 reason4--,here lay ,duncan1     
,his silver skin lac'd with his golden  

blood2      ,and his gash'd stabs look'd
 like a breach in nature1      ,for     
ruin's wasteful entrance3 there1 the    
murderers1      ,steep'd in the colors  
of their trade1 their daggers           
,unmannerly breech'd with gore3 who     
could refrain1      ,that had a heart to
 love1 and in that heart      ,courage  
to make's love known80    ,during this  
amazing speech1 in which he poetizes so 
elaborately1  and with such curious     
artifice coldly paints the picture of   
the man  and friend he had just         
murdered1 ,lady ,macbeth has been       
looking and  listening in silence4      
,suddenly1 for the first time1 she sees 
what her  husband really is2 she sees   
that he has neither heart nor           
conscience2  for no man possessing      
either could have acted or talked as he 
has  since the murder of ,duncan4 ,so   
far from having any feeling of shame  or
 remorse1 he1 without provocation1      
wantonly1 and with no sufficient        
object1 has added two other murders to  

it2 and1 with a cold-blooded  artificial
 hypocrisy1 he paints in his stilted way
 the scene of  ,duncan's death1 and has 
command enough of himself to seek out   
elaborate  and high-flown phrases4 ,but 
,lady ,macbeth1 whose courage1          
stimulated by  excitement1 has carried  
her through the murder1 now suddenly    
breaks  down4 ,this new revelation of   
her husband's character1 and the ghastly
  picture which he summons up before her
 of the scene of the murder1 are  too   
much for her4 ,she swoons1 loses all    
consciousness1 and is carried  out4 ,in 
her violent excitement1 while there was 
something practical  to busy her mind   
and her body with1 she could carry back 
the daggers  and smear the grooms with  
blood2 but she could not bear the vivid 
remembrance of it when there was nothing
 to do1 and when the excitement  was    
over3 as women will go through extreme  
dangers1 stand at the  surgeon's table  
during terrible operations1 be great and
 strong in a  great crisis1 and then    

suddenly faint and fall when the work is
 over1  unable to bear the remembrance  
of what they have gone through4    ,this
 swooning of ,lady ,macbeth is the      
crisis of her nature4 ,from this  time  
forward she is no more what she has     
appeared2 we hear no more  urging of    
,macbeth to strengthen his throne by    
other crimes2 no more  taunts by her    
that he is infirm of purpose2 no more   
allusions to his  amiable weaknesses of 
character4 ,she has begun to know him   
and to fear  him4 ,she only endeavors to
 tranquilize him and content him with   
what  he has got4 ,but still she does   
not know him2 for his nature1 before    
hidden1 like secret writing1 comes out  
little by little before the fire  of his
 heated ambition and superstitious      
fears4    ,at this swooning-point the   
two characters of ,lady ,macbeth and her
  husband cross each other4 ,she has    
thus far only made the running for      
,macbeth1 and he now takes up the race  
and passes her2 she not only does  not  

follow1 but withdraws4 ,henceforth he   
rushes to his goal alone2  alone he     
arranges the death of ,banquo and       
,fleance4    ,when next they meet she is
 no longer the same person we have      
known2 she  feels the gnawing tooth of  
remorse2 she is calmed and cowed by what
 she  has done3--                       
8,nought's had1 all's spent1      ,where
 our desire is got without content3     
',tis safer to be that which we destroy1
      ,than1 by destruction1 dwell in   
doubtful joy40    ,and as ,macbeth      
enters she endeavors to tranquilize his 
mind4 ,she has  his confidence no       
longer2 he avoids her1 and keeps alone  
after the  murder of the king4 ,she1 not
 yet aware of the abysses of his nature1
  and little imagining that he has been 
plotting the murder of ,banquo1         
supposes that the secret of his         
perturbations1 of the solitude he now   
seeks1 and of his avoidance of her1 is  
the remorse that he begins to  feel1 and
 says as he enters3--       8,how now1  

my lord6 why do you keep alone1      ,of
 sorriest fancies your companions       
making1      ,using those thoughts which
 should indeed have died      ,with them
 they think on8 ,things without all     
remedy      ,should be without regard3  
what's done is done40    ,his answer    
shows it is no remorse which is haunting
 him2 his sorry  fancies are new plots  
of murder3        8,we have scotch'd the
 snake1 not kill'd it20    and we are   
still 8in danger of her former tooth40  
8,but let      ,the frame of things     
disjoint1 both the worlds suffer1       
,ere we will eat our meal in fear1 and  
sleep      ,in the affliction of these  
terrible dreams      ,that shake us     
nightly3 better be with the dead1       
,whom we1 to gain our place1 have sent  
to peace1      ,than on the torture of  
the mind to lie      ,in restless       
ecstasy4 ,duncan is in his grave2       
,after life's fitful fever1 he sleeps   
well2      ,treason has done his worst3 
nor steel1 nor poison1      ,malice     

domestic1 foreign levy1 nothing1        
,can touch him further60    ,here is one
 of those cases where he uses his poetry
 as a cloak to his  real thoughts4 ,yet 
despite his hypocrisy1 which takes in   
his wife1 his  real meaning is clear4   
,he would rather die than to go on in   
this fear3  rather be like ,duncan1 whom
 they have at all events 8sent to       
peace10  and whom nothing can 8touch    
further10 than on 8the torture of the   
mind  to lie in restless ecstasy40 ,what
 is this 8fear08 what is this 8torture  
of the mind08 ,is it1 as ,lady ,macbeth 
supposes1 from remorse8 ,oh1 no6  he    
tells us himself what it is2 it is      
solely because ,banquo and ,fleance  are
 alive3--       8,o1 full of scorpions  
is my mind1 dear wife6      ,thou       
know'st that ,banquo1 and his ,fleance1 
lives40    ,this it is that tortures    
him1 and this only4        8,but in them
 nature's copy's not eterne10    says   
she2 meaning1 as she has throughout this
 scene1 solely to console  him and draw 

his thoughts away4 ,they may die2 a     
thousand accidents may  happen to them2 
you may outlive them2 don't torture     
yourself with vain  fears4 8,there's    
comfort yet10 he cries1 8they are       
assailable20 and  now1 after his old    
fashion1 he breaks into poetry3         
8,then be thou jocund3 ere the bat hath 
flown      ,his cloister'd flight2 ere1 
to black ,hecate's summons1      ,the   
shard-borne beetle1 with his drowsy     
hums1      ,hath rung night's yawning   
peal1 there shall be done      ,a deed  
of dreadful note40    8,what's to be    
done80 she cries2 for having completely 
misunderstood him  through all the      
previous part of this interview1 she    
completely fails  to see what he now    
means4 ,but he has no longer confidence 
in her2 and  so1 with caressing words1  
and probably with some caressing act1 he
  answers her3       8,be innocent of   
the knowledge1 dearest chuck1      ,till
 thou applaud the deed40    ,how could  
she suspect his real meaning8 ,this     

murdering hypocrite had  just told her  
that ,banquo was coming to the feast    
that night1 and bade  her be jovial1 and
 said to her1--       8,let your        
remembrance apply to ,banquo2           
,present him eminence1 both with eye and
 tongue40    ,and this he proposes to   
her after having just left the murderers
 whom  he has hired to waylay and kill  
,banquo1 and entertaining no real doubt 
in his mind that ,banquo will never     
reach the supper--certainly never  reach
 it unless his plot miscarries4 ,well   
might she 8marvel at his  words40 ,what 
follows is full of poetry and           
wickedness2 but it is plain  that he was
 a mystery to her now1 a riddle which   
she could not read4    ,the             
banquet-scene now comes1 and ,macbeth1  
believing that he has secured  the death
 of ,banquo and ,fleance1 is happy1     
until the murderers come in  and tell   
him that ,fleance has escaped4 ,this    
upsets him3--       8,then comes my fit 
again3 ,i had else been perfect1        

,whole as the marble1 founded as the    
rock1      ,as broad and general as the 
casing air3      ,now ,i am cabin'd1    
cribb'd1 confin'd1 bound in      ,to    
saucy doubts and fears40    ,so he      
poetizes his condition1 for             
superstitious fears always inflame  his 
imagination2 but he cannot regain his   
composure2 his 8fit0 is on  him1 as it  
8hath been from his youth40 ,he conjures
 up the phantom of  ,banquo to threaten 
him and his throne1 and this ghost      
shakes him with  superstitious terror4  
,lady ,macbeth1 to whom it is invisible1
 rouses  herself at this2 and not only  
not comprehending these starts and flaws
  of fear1 but having a contempt for    
him1 endeavors to recall him to  himself
 by sharp words2 but it is useless1 his 
fit will not leave him1  and the company
 is dismissed in confusion4 ,when the   
guests have gone1  ,lady ,macbeth's     
spirit and courage1 which were          
momentary1 have fled4  ,she does not    
taunt him1 but soothes him4 ,he1 as soon

 as he recovers  himself1 begins with   
,macduff1 whom he also means to         
murder3--       8,strange things ,i have
 in head1 that will to hand1      ,which
 must be acted1 ere they may be         
scann'd40    ,to this she only says1 not
 imagining his meaning1        8,you    
lack the season of all natures1 sleep40 
,henceforward ,lady ,macbeth disappears2
 we hear nothing of her save in  the    
terrible sleep-walking scene2 she is    
dying of remorse4 ,but ,macbeth  goes to
 the weird sisters1 to learn whether    
8,banquo's issue shall ever  reign in   
this kingdom40 ,they answer1 8,seek to  
know no more30 and he  cries out1 8,i   
will be satisfied2 deny me this1 and an 
eternal curse  fall on you40 ,and when  
they show him the issue of ,banquo1     
kings1 he  is enraged beyond control1   
and curses them4 ,henceforth for him no 
hesitations1 no delays4 ,he speaks      
directly enough now4                    
8,from this moment      ,the firstlings 
of my heart shall be      ,the          

firstlings of my hand4 ,and even now1   
,to crown my thoughts with acts1 be it  
thought and done3      ,the castle of   
,macduff ,i will surprise2      ,seize  
upon ,fife2 give to the edge o' th'     
sword      ,his wife1 his babes1 and all
 unfortunate souls      ,that trace him 
in his line4 ,no boasting like a fool2  
,this deed ,i'll do before this purpose 
cool3      ,but no more sights60    ,and
 no more sights he has2 but he is still 
haunted by fears4 ,and when  8the       
,english power is near1 led on by       
,malcolm1 his uncle ,siward1 and  the   
good ,macduff10 burning for revenge1    
,macbeth's spirit falters4 ,he  rushes  
into violent rages and then subsides    
into vague fears1 and then  endeavors to
 strengthen his heart by recalling the  
mysterious promises  of the weird       
sisters that he shall not fall by the   
hand of any man of  woman born1 or      
before ,birnam wood come to ,dunsinane2 
but1 do all he  can1 8he cannot buckle  
his distempered cause within the belt of

 rule10  though he declares1--          
8,the mind ,i sway by and the heart ,i  
bear      ,shall never sag with doubt1  
nor shake with fear40    ,still he does 
fear2 and in one of his dispirited      
moods1 after blazing  out at the        
messenger who tells him of the approach 
of ,birnam wood1--       8,the devil    
damn thee black1 thou cream-fac'd loon6 
,where got'st thou that goose look80    
he says1 finding that there are ten     
thousand men coming to attack him1  and 
his followers are not stanch1--         
8,this push      ,will chair me ever1 or
 disseat me now4      ,i have liv'd long
 enough3 my way of life      ,is fall'n 
into the sear1 the yellow leaf3         
,and that which should accompany old    
age1      ,as honor1 love1 obedience1   
troops of friends1      ,i must not look
 to have2 but1 in their stead1          
,curses1 not loud1 but deep1            
mouth-honor1 breath1      ,which the    
poor heart would fain deny40    ,but in 
a moment he is himself again1 and       

cries3--       8,i'll fight till from my
 bones the flesh be hack'd4      ,give  
me my armor40    ,in this mood the      
illness and death of the queen is       
nothing to him2  he fights bravely to   
the end2 though1 superstitious to the   
last1 his  8better part of man0 is cowed
 by the knowledge that ,macduff 8was    
from  his mother's womb untimely        
ripped10 and so not of woman born4      
,and so1 by the sword of ,macduff1      
perishes the worst villain1 save ,iago1 
that ,shakespeare ever drew4    ,we have
 called the witches the projections of  
,macbeth's evil thoughts1  and suggested
 that they were only objective          
representations of his  inward being4   
,to this it may be objected that they   
were seen also by  ,banquo4 ,but this   
may well be2 for ,banquo also seems to  
have had evil  intentions1 which are    
vaguely hinted at in the play4 ,he      
constantly  harps on the idea that his  
children are to be kings4 ,approaching  
the  castle of ,inverness at night1     

before the murder of the king1 he       
says1--       8,hold1 take my sword4444 
,a heavy summons lies like lead upon me1
      ,and yet ,i would not sleep3      
merciful powers6      ,restrain in me   
the cursed thoughts that nature         
,gives way to in repose6--,give me my   
sword40    ,meeting then ,macbeth1 he   
gives him the diamond sent by the king  
to ,lady  ,macbeth2 and after speaking  
of ,duncan's 8measureless content10 he  
says1--       8,i dreamt last night of  
the three weird sisters3      ,to you   
they have show'd some truth40    ,at    
which ,macbeth proposes an interview1 to
        8,spend it in some words upon   
that business40    ,to which he readily 
consents4    ,the 8cursed thoughts10    
then1 are connected with his dreams     
about the  weird sisters4    ,at his    
next appearance the same thoughts       
agitate him in ,macbeth's  palace at    
,fores4 ,his first words are--in        
soliloquy--       8,thou hast it now1   
king1 ,cawdor1 ,glamis1 all1      ,as   

the weird women promis'd2 and1 ,i fear1 
,thou play'dst most foully for't3 yet it
 was said      ,it should not stand in  
thy posterity1      ,but that myself    
should be the root and father      ,of  
many kings4 ,if there come truth from   
them      7,as upon thee1 ,macbeth1     
their speeches shine71      ,why1 by the
 verities on thee made good1      ,may  
they not be my oracles as well1         
,and set me up in hope8 ,but1 hush6 no  
more40    ,when it is recollected that1 
after the scene on the heath with the   
soldiers1 these are nearly all the words
 we have from ,banquo1 it seems  to be  
pretty clearly indicated that his       
thoughts at least were not  perfectly   
honest and what they should have been4  
,the weird sisters are but outward      
personifications of the evil thoughts   
conceived and fermenting in the brains  
of ,banquo and ,macbeth2 both high  in  
station1 both generals in the king's    
army1 both friends1 and both  nourishing
 evil wishes4 ,they are visible only to 

these two friends2 and  though they are 
represented as having an outer existence
 independent of  them1 they are1        
metaphysically speaking1 but embodiments
 of the hidden  thoughts and desires of 
,banquo and ,macbeth2 as such they are a
 new and  terrible creation1 differing  
from the vulgar flesh-and-blood witches 
of  ,middleton4 ,they look not like the 
inhabitants of the earth2 they vanish   
into thin air2 wild1 vague1 mysterious1 
they come and go1 like devilish         
thoughts that tempt us1 and take shape  
before us1 as if they had come  from the
 other world4 ,the devils that haunt us 
and tempt us come out of  ourselves1    
like the weird sisters of ,macbeth4     
,,index4        ,actors1 in ,england1   
#bcd-bci4      ,adam1 figure of1 by     
,michel ,angelo1 #bf4      ,adriani1    
,giovanni ,battista1 letter of1 to      
,vasari1 #adj4      schines1 statement  
by1 regarding ,miltiades1 #abi1 note4   
schylus and ,euripides1 #cj2            
quotation from1 #bjf4      ,agasias the 

,ephesian1 #aji4      ,agathenor1 #id4  
,ageledas1 teacher of ,polyclitus1 #hh4 
,agoracrites1 #ff1 #fg1 #gj2      and   
,alcamenes1 #ga2      and ,phidias1 #gb2
      statue of ,nemesis1 at ,rhamnus1  
by1 #gj1 #ia4      ,ajax1 the antique1  
#f4      ,alberti1 ,leon ,battista1 #c1 
#h4      ,alcamenes1 #ee2      the      
,venus of the ,gardens1 by1 #fh1 #ij2   
and ,agoracritos1 #ga2      and         
,phidias1 #gb1 #if2      high           
distinction of1 as an artist1 #ij2      
works in the ,temple of ,zeus1 #ic4     
,alcimus ,avitus1 quotation from his ,de
 ,origine ,mundi1 #abg4      ,alexander1
 taming ,bucephalus1 statue of1 at      
,rome1 #gg1 #gh2      praises ,apelles  
and ,lysippus1 #aca4      ,alfieri1 #h4 
,ammonius1 #ajh4      ,anacreon1        
quotations from1 #add4      8,ancora    
imparo10 a motto used by ,michel ,angelo
 in old age1 #ac4      ,androsthenes1   
#hh1 #ib4      ,angelo1 ,michel1 #d-g2  
everything in ,florence recalls1 #h2    
his house1 #h1 #i2      birth1 #i2      

death1 #aj2      early studies1 #aj2    
early efforts as a sculptor1 #aj2       
his ,cupid and ,bacchus1 #aj2      his  
,piet1 #aa1 #bj2      colossal figure of
 ,david1 #aa1 #bj2      ,sistine        
,chapel1 #aa2      the ,moses1 #aa1 #bj2
      ,medici ,chapel1 #aa2             
,pauline ,chapel1 #aa2      the ,last   
,judgment1 #aa2      sculptor1 painter1 
architect1 engineer1 and poet1 #aa1 #dc2
      erection of ,st4 ,peter's1 #aa2   
his circumstances and characteristics1  
#ab2      always learning1 #ac2      his
 later poetry1 #ac2      his power as a 
sculptor1 #ac1 #bj1 #ci2      his great 
works in the ,medicean ,chapel1 #ac-ba2 
meaning of his statues of ,day1 ,night1 
,aurora1 and ,crepuscule1 #af-ah2       
quatrain by1 #ag2      influence of     
,savonarola and ,dante on1 #ag2      his
 works bad models for imitation #bj2    
figure of ,christ by1 in the ,church of 
the ,minerva1 #bj2      his struggles   
against ill-health and overwork1 #bj1   
#ba2      his frescoes in the ,sistine  

,chapel1 #ba-bi2      ,bramante's       
jealousy of1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd2      ,pope  
,julius ,,ii4 strikes him with a cane1  
#be2      his extraordinary rapidity in 
working1 #be1 #bf2      greater as a    
painter than as a sculptor1 #bf2      of
 heroic spirit1 #bi2      fragments of  
letters by1 #cj1 #cf2      ,rafaelle    
and1 #cj-cc1 #ce2      anecdote of1 #cb2
      personal characteristics of1 #cc1 
#cd2      and ,vittoria ,colonna1 #cd2  
extract from a sonnet by1 #cd2          
,dante the favorite poet of1 #ce2       
,savonarola the friend of1 #ce2         
originality of1 #ce2      devotion to   
his family1 #cf2      generosity of1    
#cf1 #cg2      violent temper of1 #cc1  
#cg2      patience of1 #cg2             
difficulties under which he labored1    
#cg1 #ch2      described by ,vigenero1  
#ch2      the impatience of his genius1 
#ci2      appointed architect of ,st4   
,peter's when sixty years old1 #ci2     
,palazzo ,farnese1 the ,church of ,sta4 
,maria degli ,angeli1 and the           

,laurentian ,library1 designed by1 #da2 
not responsible for ,st4 ,peter's as it 
now stands1 #db2      poetry of1 #db1   
#dc2      trained in all the arts1 #dc2 
the greatest monuments of his artistic  
power1 #dd2      enduring kingdom of1   
#dh2      popular errors about1 #di1    
#ej1 #fi2      compared with ,phidias1  
#gi1 #hj4      ,antenor1 the first maker
 of iconic statues1 #abi4               
,antoninus ,pius1 #bcj4      ,apelles1  
and ,alexander1 #aca2      praised by   
,nicephorus ,chumnus1 #acb2      price  
paid for one of his portraits of        
,alexander1 #acb2      portraits of     
,campaspe and ,phryne by1 #acb2         
story about1 by ,pliny1 #acb4           
,aphrodite ,urania1 chryselephantine    
statue of1 by ,phidias1 #ec1 #eh4       
,apollo1 the ,temple of1 at ,phigaleia1 
#ec4      ,apollodorus1 #ahb4           
,apollonius1 #aji4      ,appian hymn1   
the1 #bjf4      ,arcesilaus1 sketches   
by1 #ace2      price received by1 for a 
drinking-cup1 #agj2      for a statue of

 ,fabatus1 #agj1 #agf4      ,aretino1   
#c1 #h4      ,arezzo1 discoveries at1   
#agh4      ,arezzo1 ,guido di1 #d4      
,argos1 the ,temple of ,juno at1 #ec4   
,ariosto1 #c2      ,dante and1 #cj2     
lively spirit of1 #db4      ,aristotle1 
distinction drawn by1 between ,phidias  
and ,polyclitus1          #ii-ajb4      
,arrian1 cited1 #ff1 #gj4      ,art1    
deathblow of pagan1 #a2                 
,christianity and1 #a2      and         
religion1 #b1 #d1 #bjh2      the golden 
age of ,italian1 #d2      spirit of     
,greek and ,roman1 #ai2      ancient    
works of1 difficulty of determining     
authorship of1 #fi2      the toreutic1  
#ajj2      the productions of1 always   
show the true spirit of religion among  
any people1 #bjh2      and nature1 #bcb1
 #bcc4      ,artemisia and ,mausolus1   
#acb4      ,arts1 all1 aid each other1  
#dc4      ,athena ,areia1 statue of1 by 
,phidias1 #ec1 #eh2      its height1    
#fb2      described1 #fe4      ,athena  
,lemnia1 statue of1 by ,phidias1 #fb2   

beauty of1 #fe4      ,athena of the     
,parthenon1 chryselephantine statue1 by 
,phidias1 #ej-fh1            #hb1 #hc1  
#ig1 #ih1 #aaa1 #bji1 #baj4      ,athena
 ,promachos1 the1 cast from spoils taken
 at ,marathon1 #ei2      its height1    
#fb1 #fd4      ,athenagoras1 cited1 #ff1
 #gj4      ,aulus ,gellius1 definition  
of 8facies0 by1 #aba4      ,aurelius1   
,marcus1 the ,meditations of1 #aij-aic1 
#bbh2      how the ,meditations were    
written1 #aia2      no book of ancient  
literature higher and purer1 #aib2      
his dust1 #aib2      a conversation     
with1 #aic-bcj2      ,jesus of ,nazareth
 reverenced by1 #aii2      supposed     
ideas of ,god held by1 #aii-bjb2        
cannot understand modern pronunciation  
of ,latin1 #bag2      purely a ,stoic1  
#bbj2      did not persecute            
,christians1 #bbj2      letters of1 on  
the proper treatment of one's enemies1  
#bbh4      ,aurora1 figure of1 by       
,michel ,angelo1 #ad-ba4      ,ausonius1
 cited1 #fh4        ,baldi ,chapel1 the1

 #g4      ,bargello1 the1 #f4           
,bartolommeo1 ,fra1 #ca4      ,baruch1  
cited1 #aej4      ,batrachus1 #ajg4     
,beethoven and ,mozart1 #cj4            
,bembo1 #d4      ,berlinghi1 family of  
the1 #aj4      ,bibbiena1 #c4           
,biblical history1 in ,michel ,angelo's 
frescoes1 #bh1 #bi4      ,boccaccio1 #c4
      ,boiardo1 #c4      ,borgia1       
,lucrezia1 #bfd4      ,bostick and      
,riley1 translation of ,pliny by1 #ace4 
,bramante1 instigates ,pope ,julius     
,,ii4 to summon ,michel ,angelo         
to ,rome1 #ba2      jealous of ,michel  
,angelo's fame1 #bb2      tries to      
induce the ,pope to discharge ,michel   
,angelo1 #bd4      ,brass-casting1      
decline of the art of1 #agj4            
,brick1 printed on by the ancient       
,romans1 #afg4      ,british ,museum1   
so-called plaster casts in1 #afd1 #afe4 
,bronze statues1 the method of the      
ancients in casting1 #adb4              
,browning1 ,robert1 #bcc4      ,browning
 and ,tennyson1 #cj4      ,brunelleschi1

 #e1 #f1 #h1 #dj2      designs ,church  
of ,san ,lorenzo1 #ac4      ,brunn1     
,dr41 cited1 #ei1 #fj2      on ,pliny's 
,natural ,history1 #abj1 #acg-aci4      
,bryaxis1 #fh4      ,buggiardini1 #ba4  
,buonomini1 ,michel ,angelo's father one
 of the twelve1 #aj4      ,byzantine    
tradition1 #d4        ,callicrates1 and 
the ,parthenon1 #ea1 #eb4               
,callimachus1 nicknamed1 #acj2          
drill supposed to have been invented by1
 #aga4      ,cambronne1 #gd4            
,campaspe1 portrait of1 by ,apelles1    
#acb4      ,canossa1 the ,counts of1    
#aj4      ,canova1 opinion of1 as to the
 use of proportional compasses by       
ancient            sculptors1 #aga4     
,caprese1 birthplace of ,michel ,angelo1
 #i4      ,carmine1 ,church of the1 #g4 
,carpion and the ,parthenon1 #ea4       
,carrara1 ,michel ,angelo at1 #cg4      
,casting1 from life or from the round1  
difficulties of1 #aei1 #afj2            
distinction between1 and modeling1 #aee1
 #afa4      ,casting in plaster1 alleged

 practice of1 among the ,greeks and     
,romans1 #aae-ahi2      introduced by   
,verrocchio1 #ahh4      ,casts1 plaster1
 not found in ancient houses or tombs1  
#aeg1            #aeh1 #agf1 #agg4      
,cato1 book published by1 #afg4         
,catulus1 #fg4      ,cellini1 the       
,renaissance ,perseus of1 #f2           
accomplished in many arts1 #dc4         
,ceres1 the ,temple of1 at ,eleusis1    
#eb1 #ec4      ,chalcosthenes1 executed 
works in baked earth1 #adh4             
,changes1 only gradual1 do real good1   
#aig4      ,christ1 and ,communism1     
#bbb1 #bbc2      example of1 not always 
followed by ,christians1 #bbf4          
,christianity and ,art1 #a4             
,christians1 not persecuted by ,marcus  
,aurelius1 but punished as              
,communists1 #bbj-bbb2      attitude of1
 toward the government1 #bba1 #bbg2     
theory and practice of1 #bbe1 #bbf4     
,cicero1 ,demosthenes and1 #cj2      on 
the meaning of vultus1 #aba2            
quoted1 #abe1 #acd1 #ada1 #adi1 #aeb4   

,cimabue1 #d4      ,clay1 not a material
 for casting1 #acd2      why used by the
 ancients instead of gypsum1 #aeh1 #aei4
      ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 cited1    
#fh4      ,colonna1 ,vittoria1 and      
,michel ,angelo1 #cd4      ,columbus1   
#d4      ,communists1 the early         
followers of ,christ were1 #bbb4        
,compasses1 proportional1 used by       
ancient sculptors1 #aga1 #agb4          
,condivi1 doubtful assertion of1 #be4   
,cooke1 a safe guide for the tragic     
actor1 #bcf4      ,copies1 exact1 not   
made by ancient sculptors1 #agd-agf4    
,corbus1 begins the ,temple of          
,initiation at ,eleusis1 #eb4           
,creed1 every religious1 should be      
living1 #aif4      ,crepuscule1 figure  
of1 by ,michel ,angelo1 #ad-ba4         
,ctesilaus1 #fg1 #ig2      compared with
 ,phidias1 #if4      ,cydon1 competition
 of1 with ,phidias1 #ig1 #ih4           
,cymon1 #fg4      ,cyrenaicn1 the1      
fragments of figures from1 #afd1 #afe4  
,ddalus1 statue to ,hercules by1 #ahb1  

#ahf4      ,dallaway1 cited1 #aji4      
,damophilus1 #aag1 #adf4      ,daniel1  
,michel ,angelo's figure of1 #bg4       
,dante1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #h2      his        
influence on ,michel ,angelo1 #ag2      
and ,ariosto1 #cj2      the favorite    
poet of ,michel ,angelo1 #ce4           
,david1 ,michel ,angelo's statue of1 #h1
 #aa4      ,day1 ,michel ,angelo's      
colossal figure of1 #ad-ba4      ,deity1
 figure of the1 by ,michel ,angelo1 #bg4
      ,delacroix and ,ary ,scheffer1    
#cj4      ,delphi1 group of statues at1 
#ei1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd1 #aba4               
,demetrius1 on the work of ,phidias1    
#ha2      introduces the realistic      
school of portraiture1 #acj4            
,demosthenes and ,cicero1 #cj4          
,devils1 the1 that haunt and tempt us1  
come out of ourselves1 #bhf4            
,d',hancarville1 cited1 #aji4           
,dibutades of ,sicyon1 #acg-aci4        
,diocletian1 ruins of the ,baths of1    
#da4      ,diodotos1 #gj4      ,dion    
,chrysostomos1 on the style of ,phidias1

 #ha4      ,dionysius of ,colophon1     
#acb4      ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1
 on the art of ,phidias1 #ha1 #ajb2     
on the works of ,polyclitus1 #hi4       
,dives and ,lazarus1 #bbc4      ,dolls1 
ancient1 #aff4      ,drama1 reaction in 
the1 against conventionalism1 #bcc4     
,drill1 the1 supposed to have been      
invented by ,callimachus1 #aga4         
,dryads1 #a4      ,dust of the dead1    
#aib4      ,duty1 the1 of considering   
adverse doctrines1 #bbd1 #bbe4          
,ectypa of baked clay1 #aef4            
,eleusinian mysteries1 meaning of the1  
#bag1 #bah4      ,eleusis1 the ,temple  
of ,initiation at1 #eb2      the ,temple
 of ,ceres at1 #eb4      ,elgin marbles1
 the1 #di-aad4      ,elis1 work of      
,phidias at1 #ec1 #ed4      ,elpinice1  
portrait of1 by ,polygnotua1 #acb4      
,epicurus1 the face of1 carried about by
 the ,romans1 #aej4      ,equanimity1   
the last watchword given by ,antoninus  
,pius1 #bcj4      ,erechtheum1 the1 #id4
      ,esaias1 ,michel ,angelo's figure 

of1 #bg4      ,euphranor1 #gc4          
,euripides1 schylus and1 #cj2      on   
the immensity of ,god1 #bjf4            
,ezekiel1 ,michel ,angelo's figure of1  
#bg4        ,fables of the ancients1 the
 mythical garb of great truths1 #baa1   
#bab2      true to the imagination1 not 
to the reason1 #bab4      ,facts1 but   
dead husks1 #bab4      ,faith1 death of1
 #aif2      easily degenerates into     
superstition1 #bjd2      of the ancients
 compared with ours1 #bah-bbj4          
,fame1 what is1 #bbh4      ,fechter1 as 
,hamlet1 #bcf4      ,fedi1 #f4          
,ficino1 ,marsilio1 #c4      ,firmicus1 
story by1 about ,zagreus1 #aja4         
,florence1 the city of the ,renaissance1
 #e2      ungrateful1 #g2      ,dante   
and1 #h4      ,fol1 ,mr41 the collection
 of1 in ,rome1 #aef1 #afh4              
,forcellinus1 cited1 #abj1 #abb1 #abc4  
,forms1 of little consequence1 compared 
to essences1 #aie4      ,formulas check 
growth in the spirit1 #aie2      but are
 useful1 as trunks in which we pack our 

goods1 #aie4      ,fornarina1 the1 #ca1 
#cd4      ,francis ,i4 and ,leonardo da 
,vinci1 #gd4      ,fresco-painting1     
source of the term1 #be4      ,fronto1  
,de differentiis ,vocabulorum of1 #abb1 
note4        ,galatea1 the1 of          
,raffaelle1 #cb4      ,galileo1 #d1 #h4 
,garrick1 #bcf-bch4      ,germans1 as   
students of ,shakespeare1 #bcg4         
,ghiberti1 #f1 #h1 #dc4                 
,ghirlandajo1 ,michel ,angelo's early   
master1 #aj1 #bb4      ,giorgione1 #d4  
,giotto1 #d2      the campanile of1 #f2 
frescoes of1 #g2      accomplished in   
many arts1 #dc4      ,glycon1 #aji4     
,god1 tendency to humanize and degrade1 
#aih2      the justice of1 #bjj2        
supposed ideas of1 held by ,marcus      
,aurelius1 #aii-bjb2      man cannot    
comprehend1 #bjc2      yet man makes1   
#bjc2      ,christian and pagan         
conceptions of1 compared1 #aii-bjh2     
representations of1 in art1 inferior to 
pagan works1 #bjh4      ,gods1 images   
of1 in early ,greece1 with clothes and  

false hair1 #aeb2      the ancient1 but 
anthropomorphic symbols1 #baj4          
,gonsalvi1 ,cardinal1 and ,michel       
,angelo1 #ac4      ,good1 real1 done    
only by gradual changes1 #aig4          
,gorgasus1 #aag1 #adf4      ,gorgias1   
#hh4      ,greek and ,roman art1 the    
spirit of1 #ai4      ,greek sculptors   
not accustomed to put their names on    
statues1 #ajg4      ,guarini1 #c4       
,guelphs end ,ghibellines1 #c4          
,guicciardini1 #h4      ,gypsum1 not    
used by the ancients in casting1        
#aeg-aei1 #afi2      ,pliny on1 #afi4   
,hamlet1 the warnings of1 needed by     
,english actors1 #bcd1 #bce2      not   
,hamlet on the ,english stage1 #bch2    
mental aberration of1 compared with that
 of ,macbeth1 #bdi1 #bej4      ,hegias1 
#hh4      ,hermitage1 ,museum of the1   
#afc4      ,hercules1 statue of1 by     
,ddalus1 #ahb1 #ahf4      ,hesychius1   
cited1 #gj1 #ajc4      ,history1 who    
knows1 #bad2      must be interpreted by
 imagination1 #bad4      ,homer1 and    

,virgil1 #cj2      relief in the        
,british ,museum1 representing the      
deification of1 #aji4      ,honesty of  
intention1 not enough1 #bba4            
,horace1 quotation from1 #abf4          
,horse-,tamer1 the1 statue of1 ascribed 
to ,phidias1 #fg1 #gj-gi4      ,hugo1   
,victor1 and ,lamartine1 #cj4           
,hunt1 ,leigh1 #bcc4        ,iasos1 #id4
      ,iconic statues1 first made by    
,antenor1 #abi4      ,ictinus1 works of1
 #aac4      ,idealisti1 motto of the1   
#bcb4      ,images1 draped with real    
stuffs by the ,greeks and ,romans1 #aeb2
      false hair on1 #aeb4              
,imagination in art1 #bcb2      may work
 independently of real feelings1 #bea4  
,inevitable1 the1 should be accepted    
without murmuring1 #bbi4      ,isis1    
#bba4      ,isocrates1 quoted1 #ff4     
,italy1 the land of the ,renaissance1   
#e4        ,jehovah1 the1 of the ,jews1 
development of1 #bje4      ,jeremiah1   
figure of1 by ,michel ,angelo1 #bg4     
,jesus1 reverenced by ,marcus ,aurelius1

 #aii1 #bbj4      ,john of ,bologna1 the
 ,rape of the ,sabines by1 #f4          
,julian1 statement by1 about ,phidias1  
#hd4      ,julius ,,ii41 ,pope1 and     
,michel ,angelo1 #ba-be2      strikes   
,michel ,angelo with a cane1 #be4       
,juno1 the ,temple of1 at ,argos1 #ec4  
,jupiter1 the true philosophic idea of1 
#bjd-bjg4      ,jupiter ,pluvius1 #baf4 
,kalamis1 #hh2      works of1 #ic2      
compared with ,phidias1 #if4            
,kallimachus1 #hh4      ,kallon1 #hh4   
,kean1 ,charles1 #bcf1 #bcg4      ,kean1
 the elder1 #bcf4      ,kemble1 ,john1  
as ,hamlet1 #bch1 #bci4      ,kertch1   
excavations at1 #afc2      so-called    
casts from1 in the ,british ,museum1    
#afd1 #afe4      ,kleoitas1 #hh4        
,knight1 ,richard ,payne1 opinion of1 on
 the ,elgin marbles1 #ii4      ,kolotes1
 an assistant of ,phidias1 #ee2         
statue of ,athena attributed to1 by     
,pliny1 #ff1 #gj1 #ia4        ,lacon1   
#hh4      ,lactantius1 #bjf4            
,lamartine1 ,victor ,hugo and1 #cj4     

,lanzi1 #h4      ,laocon1 the1 #ai4     
,latin1 modern pronunciation of1        
unintelligible to ,marcus               
,aurelius1 #bag4      ,laurentian       
,library1 the1 #db4      ,lazarus1 and  
,dives1 #bbc4      ,lear1 the aberration
 of mind of1 different from that of     
,macbeth1          #bdi1 #bej4      ,leo
 ,x41 ,pope1 #ac1 #ad4      ,leochares1 
statues by1 #acj4      ,leonardo1 #dc2  
competition of1 with ,michel ,angelo1   
#bb2      story about his death1 #gd4   
,libeccio1 the howling1 #aij4           
,libon1 #aac4      ,lippi1 #g4          
,loclos1 #id4      ,lomazzo1 statement  
by1 about ,leonardo's death1 #gd4       
,lorenzo1 ,duke of ,urbino1 #ad4        
,lorenzo the ,magnificent1 #c2          
favors ,michel ,angelo1 #aj4            
,lucan1 lofty idea of ,god expressed by1
 #bjg4      ,lucian1 cited1 #fe1 #fg2   
his ideal image of the most beautiful   
woman1 #if2      comment by1 on         
,demetrius1 #acj2      the 8,tragic     
,jupiter0 of1 citations from1 #aha-ahe2 

the 8,somnium1 seu ,gallus10 of1 quoted1
 #ahg4      ,lysias1 cited1 #aja1 note4 
,lysippus1 statue of ,opportunity by1   
#fh2      varies the canon of           
proportion1 #gc2      gives a new       
impulse to the school of portraiture1   
#aca2      praised by ,nicephorus       
,chumnus1 #acb4      ,lysistratus1 and  
the art of casting in plaster1 #aaf1    
#aag1 #aci1            #ada1 #adc1 #ade2
      and the practice of portraiture1  
#aca2      probable use of color by1    
#aed4        ,macbeth1 the true         
character of1 #bci-bhe2      not        
understood by ,lady ,macbeth till after 
the murder of ,duncan1 #bda1            
#bdb1 #bdd1 #bgg2      ,shakespeare's   
worst villain1 save ,iago1 #bhd4        
,macbeth1 ,lady1 the real1 #bcj-bda1    
#bea-bhb4      ,macchiavelli1 #c1 #h4   
,maderno1 ,carlo1 ,st4 ,peter's injured 
by1 #db4      ,madonna di ,san ,sisto1  
the1 #cb4      ,mai1 ,cardinal1 #abb1   
note4      ,mammon1 worshiped1 #bbg4    
,man1 inferior to woman in adjusting    

details1 #bei4      ,marathon1 the use  
made of spoils taken from the ,medes at1
 #ei4      ,marbles1 the ,elgin and     
,phigaleian1 work on1 in the ,library of
            ,entertaining ,knowledge1   
#ii1 #aaj4      ,masaccio1 #g4          
,mausolus1 statue of1 #aca4             
,medicean ,chapel1 the1 #i1 #aa2        
great works of ,michel ,angelo in1      
#ac-ba1 #ci4      ,medici1 real         
mausoleum of the1 #i2      burial chapel
 of the1 #dd-dh2      coffins of the1   
neglected and robbed1 #de-dg2      sad  
lesson of their fate1 #dh4      ,medici1
 ,giuliano dei1 mausoleum to1 #ad4      
,melzi1 cited1 #gd4      ,metagenes1 and
 the ,temple of ,initiation at ,eleusis1
 #eb4      ,metoscopi1 a story about1   
#acb4      ,middle ,ages1 the1 #b4      
,middleton1 the witches of1 different   
from ,shakespeare's weird               
sisters1 #bhe1 #bhf4      ,miltiades1   
portrait statue of1 at ,delphi1 #abi4   
,minerva1 ,church of the1 #bj4          
,mini1 ,antonio1 #ba4      ,mini1       

,giovanni ,battista1 letter by1 #ba4    
,mirandola1 ,pico della1 #c4            
,mithras1 #bba1 #bbe4      ,mnesicles1  
#eb4      ,molire and ,racine1 #cj4     
,moses1 statue of1 by ,michel ,angelo1  
#ci4      ,mount ,mithridates1          
excavations at1 #afc4      ,mozart1     
,beethoven and1 #cj4      ,mller1 cited1
 #ei1 #aja1 note1 #ahe4      ,music1    
development of1 #d4      ,myron1 #hh2   
great skill of1 #hi1 #ij2               
inscription on his ,discobolos1 #ajh4   
,mys1 carving by1 #fd4      ,myths1     
enchanting1 #bab4        ,naiads1 #a4   
,narrow-mindedness1 development of truth
 impeded by1 #bbe4      ,naturalisti1   
motto of the1 #bcb4      ,nature and    
art1 #bcb4      ,nemesis1 statue of1 at 
,rhamnus1 #fg1 #gj1 #ga2                
inscription on1 #aji4      ,nero1 #gg1  
#gi2      like ,macbeth1 #bdc4          
,nestocles1 #hh4      ,nicephorus       
,chumnus1 ,apelles and ,lysippus praised
 by1 #acb4      ,nicias1 statues colored
 by1 #aec4      ,night1 ,michel         

,angelo's colossal figure of1 #ad-ba4   
,odeum1 the1 #eb1 #ec4      ,olympia1   
the ,temple of ,zeus at1 #ec1 #ed4      
,opinion1 arrogance of1 development of  
truth impeded by1 #bbe4      ,opinions  
but running streams1 #bbi4              
,orcagna1 the ,loggia of1 #f4           
,oreads1 #a4      ,orpheus1 as the ,good
 ,shepherd1 #a4      ,othello1 the      
trance of1 unlike ,macbeth's aberration 
of mind1 #bdi1 #bej4      ,ovid1 quoted1
 #abb1 #aea4        ,ponios1 #ee1 #hh2  
works of1 #ib1 #ic4      ,pagan religion
 and pagan art1 #a4      ,painting1 and 
sculpture1 #a2      substances used by  
the ancients in1 #ade4      ,palazzo    
,farnese1 the1 #da4      ,pan1 #a4      
,pantarces1 a victor in the ,olympian   
games1 #abi4      ,parrhasius1 #fd2     
paints portrait of himself1 #acb4       
,parthenon1 the1 sculptures in1 #di1    
#ej1 #eb-ee2      builders of1 #ea1 #eb2
      built between #ddd and #dch ,b4   
,c41 #ed2      the extant fragments of1 
not in the style of ,phidias1 #hd-hf2   

probably executed by various hands1 #id4
      ,pasiteles1 #ace4      ,pauline   
,chapel1 the1 #aa4      ,pausanias1     
statements by1 #ei1 #fd-ga1 #ge1 #ia2   
the marble statues ascribed to ,phidias 
by1 #aje-ajg2      on the invention of  
casting in bronze1 #acg4      ,pelichus1
 statue of1 by ,demetrius1 #acj4        
,pensiero1 ,il1 #ah4      ,pericles1    
appoints ,phidias director of public    
works in ,athens1 #di1 #ea2      directs
 the building of the ,odeum1 #eb2       
said by ,strabo to have been director of
 public works1 #eb2      sole           
administrator of public affairs1 #ec2   
likeness of1 by ,phidias1 #fj1 #abi4    
,perkins1 ,charles ,c41 his 8,du        
,moulage en ,pltre chez les ,anciens10  
#aae ff42      confounds modeling and   
casting1 #afb4      ,perugino1 #ca4     
,peruzzi ,chapel1 the1 #g4              
,petrarca1 #c1 #db2      admired by     
,michel ,angelo1 #ce4      ,petronius1  
cited1 #ij4      ,phdrus1 quoted1 #ajh4 
,phidias1 #ai2      painter and         

architect1 as well as sculptor1 #dc2    
and the ,elgin marbles1 #di-aad2        
appointed director of public works by   
,pericles1 #di2      his                
chryselephantine statue of ,athena1     
#ej-fh1 #hb1 #hc1 #ig1 #ih1 #aaa2       
doubtful if he ever made statues in     
marble1 #ea1 #ih-aac2      testimony of 
,plutarch1 #ea1 #eb2      of ,strabo1   
#eb2      impossible for him to have    
done all the work that is attributed to 
him1 #ec-eh1 #fc1 #fh2      a slow and  
elaborate worker1 #ee2                  
disadvantages of1 #ef1 #eg2      date of
 his birth1 #eh-fb2      likeness of1 by
 himself1 #fj1 #abi2      works ascribed
 to1 #fb-fh2      incredible stories    
about1 #ga-gc2      peculiarly          
celebrated for his statues of ,athena1  
#ge2      the ,horse-,tamer1 not the    
work of1 #gf-gi2      compared with     
,michel ,angelo1 #hj2      his style1   
#hj1 #ha2      elaboration of his great 
works1 #ha-hd1 #hf2      the ,cellini of
 ,athens1 #hd2      introduces the art  

of making statues in ivory and gold1    
#hg2      estimation of1 among his      
contemporaries1 #if2      ,propertius   
and ,quinctilian on1 #ih2               
appellation applied to1 by ,aristotle1  
#ii-ajb2      skill of1 in the toreutic 
art1 #aja2      marble statues ascribed 
to1 by ,pausanias1 #aje-ajg2            
prosecuted for impiety1 #abi4           
,phigaleia1 the ,temple of ,apollo at1  
#ec4      ,photias1 #gb4      ,phradmon1
 #fg2      competes with ,phidias1 #ig4 
,phryne1 portrait of1 by ,apelles1 #acb4
      ,phyromachos1 #id4                
,piece-moulds apparently not used by the
 ancient ,greeks and ,romans1           
#aef1 #aeg1 #agf1 #agh4      ,pindar1   
quotation from1 #bjf4      ,pius        
,,viii41 monument of1 by ,tenerani1 #fa4
      ,plaster1 the art of casting in1  
among the ,greeks and ,romans1 #aae-ahi4
      ,plata1 #ec1 #ei4      ,plautus1  
quoted1 #aba1 #ace4      ,pliny1 cited1 
#fe-fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gf1 #hi1 #ij2        
story by1 about ,phidias1 ,polyclitus1  

,ctesilaus1 ,cydon1 and                 
,phradmon1 #ig1 #ih2      statements by1
 about ,phidias1 #ajc1 #ajd2            
quotation from his ,natural ,history1   
#aaf2      meaning of the quotation     
considered1 #aag ff42      the ,natural 
,history characterized1 #aah1 #aai2     
stories by1 about ,apelles and          
,parrhasius1 #acb1 #acc2      ,bostick  
and ,riley's translation of1 #ace2      
his use of the term 8cera10 #add2       
chapter on 8,plastices10 in the ,natural
 ,history1 #adf-aej2      chapter on the
 honor attached to portraits1 #aej1     
#aea4      ,plutarch1 statements by1    
about ,pericles and ,phidias1 #ea1 #eb1 
#ef1 #eg2      quoted1 #ff4             
,plyntheria1 the colossal ,athena's gold
 drapery washed at1 #aeb4               
,poliziano1 ,angelo1 teacher of ,michel 
,angelo1 #c1 #aj4      ,polybius1       
referred to1 #adf1 note4                
,polyclitus1 #fg2      his canon of     
proportion1 #gc2      his works1 #hh1   
#hi2      compared with ,phidias1 #if1  

#ig1 #aja2      price received by1 for  
his ,doryphoros1 #agf4      ,polygnotus1
 the 8,rape of ,cassandra0 by1 #acb4    
,polyxines1 #f4      ,pompeii1 works of 
art found in1 #agg4      ,pomponius     
,mela1 cited1 #gj4      ,popes1 the1 and
 ,michel ,angelo1 #ab4      ,portrait   
statues1 erection of1 in public1 seldom 
allowed by the            ,greeks1 #abi4
      ,portraiture1 in its true sense1  
the beginning of1 #acj2      development
 of1 by ,lysippus and ,lysistratus1     
#aca2      earliest specimen of1 by a   
great painter1 #acb2      use of1 by the
 ,romans1 #aej4      ,possis1 excellent 
work of1 #adh4      ,praxias1 #hh1 #ib1 
#id1 #ie4      ,praxiteles1 statue of   
,alexander taming ,bucephalus1 ascribed 
to1          #gg1 #gh2      praised by  
,lucian1 #if2      and ,nicias1 #aec2   
price offered by ,athens for the ,venus 
of1 #age4      ,pre-,raphaelites1 error 
of the1 #bcc4      ,printing1 among the 
ancient ,romans1 #afg4      ,propertius1
 quoted1 #ih4      ,propyla1 #ec4       

,pulci1 the three1 #c4      ,pythagoras1
 #hh4        ,quinctilian1 quoted1 #ih1 
#abe2      criticises ,demetrius1 #acj4 
,quincy1 ,m4 ,quatremere de1 on         
chryselephantine statues1 #ajj4         
,quirinal ,hill1 statue of the          
,horse-,tamer on the1 #fg1 #gf4         
,racine1 ,molire and1 #cj4              
,raffaelle1 #d1 #h2      and the        
,sistine ,chapel1 #bd2      and ,michel 
,angelo1 #cj-cc1 #ce2      character and
 style of1 #ca2      his finest work1   
#cb2      his early death1 #cb2         
characterized by contemporaries1 #cc2   
and the ,fornarina1 #ca1 #cd2           
accomplished in many arts1 #dc4         
,ravenna1 ,dante's grave at1 #h4        
,reform1 slow movement of1 in ,england1 
#bce4      ,rehoboam1 group by ,michel  
,angelo1 #bi4      ,religion1 and art1  
hand in hand1 #bjh2      no system of1  
ever embraced all truth1 #bbd4          
,religious controversy1 nothing so      
bitter as1 #bbe4      ,religious ideas1 
each age has its1 #aif4                 

,renaissance1 the1 #c-e4                
,revolutionizing the world1 #bbg4       
,rhamnus1 statue of ,nemesis at1 #fg1   
#gj1 #ga4      ,rhcus1 cast in bronze1  
#acf4      ,riches1 denounced by        
,christ1 #bbb4      ,riley and ,bostick1
 translation of ,pliny by1 #ace4        
,roman and ,greek art1 the spirit of1   
#ai4      ,rousseau and ,voltaire1 #cj4 
,s4 ,justinus1 #bjf4      ,s4           
,theophilus ,antiochenus1 #bjf4         
,sallust1 quoted1 #aeb4      ,san       
,gallo1 ,antonio1 architect of ,st4     
,peter's1 #ci4      ,san ,lorenzo1      
,church of1 #i1 #ac4      ,santa ,croce1
 ,church of1 #g1 #h4      ,saurus1 #ajg4
      ,savonarola1 #e2      his         
influence on ,michel ,angelo1 #ag1 #ce4 
,scheffer1 ,ary1 ,delacroix and1 #cj4   
,scopas1 #fg2      celebrated for heroic
 figures and demigods1 #ge2      a      
worker in marble1 #gf4      ,sculpture1 
and idolatry1 #a2      considered more  
dignified than painting1 by the         
,athenians1 #acc4      ,second-sight1   

,macbeth's1 #bdf4      ,secretive       
nature1 the1 always a puzzle to the     
frank nature1 #bdd4      ,semele and    
,zagreus1 #afa4      ,seneca1 quoted1   
#aaj2      sentiments of1 regarding     
,god1 #bjg1 #bjh4      ,shakespeare1 and
 ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 #cj2             
testimony of1 as to ,english actors1    
#bce2      interpreted by the ,germans1 
#bcg2      his meaning perverted on the 
,english stage1 #bch1 #bdj2      no     
serious character of1 rants like        
,macbeth1 #bea2      a master-stroke of1
 #bei2      ,iago and ,macbeth his worst
 villains1 #bhd2      his weird sisters 
a new creation1 #bhe4      ,sibylline   
verses1 fragment of the1 #bjf4          
,sibyls1 representations of1 by ,michel 
,angelo1 #bg1 #bh4      ,siddons1 ,mrs41
 as ,lady ,macbeth1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bfd4   
,sidney1 ,sir ,philip1 ,shakespeare and1
 #cj4      ,sistine ,chapel1 the1 #aa2  
,michel ,angelo's frescoes in1 #ba-bi1  
#dd2      opened to exhibit the frescoes
 in #aejh on ,all-,saints' ,day1 #bc4   

,sixtus ,v41 #gg4      ,smith1 ,philip1 
cited1 #ei1 #fa1 #gf4      ,socrates1   
#hh4      ,solon1 cited1 #gj4           
,sophocles1 unity and universality of   
,god proclaimed by1 #bjj4               
,spartianus1 statues modeled in plaster 
spoken of by1 #afj4      ,st4 ,paul1    
quoted1 #bca4      ,st4 ,peter's1 the   
,dome of1 #e1 #h1 #aa2      ,michel     
,angelo's work upon1 #ci-db2      the   
type of the universal church1 #da2      
,michel ,angelo not responsible for it  
as it now stands1 #db2      changes made
 in1 by ,carlo ,maderno1 #db4      ,sta4
 ,maria degli ,angeli1 ,church of1 #da4 
,stage1 tradition and convention on the 
,english1 #bcd-bdj4      ,statius1      
quoted1 #add4      ,statues1 ancient1   
singular defects in1 #agc4      ,strabo1
 statements by1 about ,pericles and     
,phidias1 #eb2      opinion of1 on the  
statue of ,nemesis1 at ,rhamnus1 #gj2   
on the work of ,polyclitus1 #hi1 #if4   
,strozzi1 ,giovan' ,battista1 quatrain  
by1 #ag4      ,suidas1 #gb4             

,sunium1 #fd4        ,tartuffe1 ,macbeth
 not like1 #bed4      ,tasso1 #c1 #db4  
,tenerani1 #fa4      ,tennyson1         
,browning and1 #cj4      ,terra cotta1  
an ancient manufactory of1 #agh4        
,tertullian1 on the persecution of the  
,christians1 #bbb4      ,themistius1 a  
saying of1 #ef2      cited1 #hj4        
,theocosmos1 #fg1 #ib2      said to have
 been assisted by ,phidias1 #ge4        
,theocritus1 #bjf4      ,theodorus of   
,samos1 cast in bronze1 #acf4           
,theophrastus1 treatise on mineralogy   
by1 #aei4      ,thiersch1 cited1 #ei1   
#fa1 #fh4      ,thoughts1 our whole     
nature colored by our1 #bbi4            
,thrasymedes of ,paros1 #ff1 #gj4       
,thundering ,legion1 the1 true story of1
 #bae1 #baf4      ,tintoretto1 #d4      
,tiridates1 ,king of ,armenia1 #gg1 #gi4
      ,titian1 #d4      ,toreutic art1  
the1 #ajj4      ,tradition1 in ,english 
church and theatre1 #bce2               
,shakespeare's meaning perverted by1    
#bch1 #bdj4      ,traditions about      

artists1 unreliable1 #gd4               
,troughton1 ,mr41 #bcc4      ,truth1    
infinite in form and spirit1 #aie2      
a continual progression towards the     
divine1 #aie2      not all embraced in  
one system of religion1 #bbd2      the  
growth of1 impeded by narrow-mindedness1
 #bbe4      ,tussaud1 ,madame1 #aed4    
,tzetzes the ,grammarian1 story told by1
 #gb2      an untrustworthy gossip1 #gc2
      on ,phidias1 #ajc4        ,urban  
,,viii41 #gh4      ,urbino1 ,michel     
,angelo's servant1 #cg4        ,valerius
 ,maximus1 quoted1 #aaj1 #aaa4          
,valerius ,soranus1 ,god represented by1
 as the ,father and ,mother of          
us all1 #bjg4      ,valori1             
,bartolommeo1 letter to1 #ba4           
,varro1 quoted1 as to the meaning of    
8cera10 #add4      ,vasari1 ,giorgio1   
doubtful assertion of1 #be2      on     
,raffaelle1 #cc2      account by1 of    
,verrocchio's making casts1 #ahh4       
,veronese1 #d4      ,verrocchio1 #dc2   
casting in plaster introduced by1 #ahh4 

,via ,latina1 tombs in the1 #aeg4       
,vigenero1 description of ,michel       
,angelo by1 #ch4      ,villari1 #c4     
,virgil1 ,homer and1 #cj2      quoted1  
#abb1 #acf4      ,visconti1 quoted1 #ii1
 #ajj2      his views examined1         
#ajj-ajd4      ,vitruvius1 #ade2        
description of process used in finishing
 walls by1 #aec4      ,voltaire1        
,rousseau and1 #cj4        ,walls1      
ancient process used in finishing1 #aec4
      ,wardour ,street1 the portraits   
of1 #aeb4      ,wax1 the common vehicle 
of ancient painters1 #add4      8,weird 
,sisters10 the1 but outward             
personifications of evil                
thoughts1 #bhe4      ,welcker and       
,preller1 cited1 #ei1 #fj4              
,wilkins1 ,william1 opinion of1 on the  
,elgin marbles1 #ii4      ,wilson1 ,mr4 
,charles ,heath1 close examination of   
,michel ,angelo's            frescoes   
by1 #be4      8,wisdom of ,solomon10    
the1 cited1 #aej4      ,woman1 superior 
to man in adjusting details1 #bei2      

unable to bear the remembrance of what  
she has gone through1 #bgg4      ,world1
 the1 needs revolutionizing1 #bbg4      
,xenocles of ,cholargos1 finishes the   
,temple of ,initiation at               
,eleusis1 #eb4      ,xenophon1 classes  
,polyclitus with ,homer1 ,sophocles1 and
 ,zeuxis1 as            an artist1 #hi4 
,zacharias1 figure of1 by ,michel       
,angelo1 #bg4      ,zagreus and ,semele1
 #afa4      ,zenobius1 cited1 #gj4      
,zeus1 chryselephantine statue of1 by   
,phidias1 #fc1 #ei-fc1 #fe1 #ha1        
#hf1 #ih1 #bji2      inscription on1    
#aji4      ,zeus1 the ,temple of1 at    
,olympia1 #ec4          ,,footnotes     
#a ,whether this inscription was placed 
there during the life          of       
,phidias does not appear2 but it is     
highly improbable1          and not in  
harmony with the practice of the        
,greeks4        #b ,themistius1 ,orat4  
adeum qui postulaverat ut ex tempore    
sermonem haberet4        #c 1 1 1 1 1   
1 1 4          ,this passage is         

generally cited as a statement by       
,plutarch          that ,phidias        
employed all these men2 but in fact he  
is only          urging1 in             
justification of ,pericles1 and in      
answer to          attacks made against 
him for expending such large sums of    
money in the public works1 that these   
works gave employment          to the   
enumerated classes of artists and       
mechanics4        #d ,the date of the   
birth of ,pericles is unknown1 but he   
began          to take part in public   
affairs in ,b4 ,c4 #dfi1 when he could  
not probably have been less than        
twenty-one years of age4          ,this 
would place his birth at #dij4 ,he died 
in #dbi2 and this          reckoning    
would make him only sixty-one at his    
death4        #e ,a full transcript of  
these inscriptions will be found in     
,dr4 ,brunn's ,geschichte der           
griechischen ,knstler1 i4 #bdi4         
#f ,see ,lysias's ,frag41   2 also1     
,mller's ,ancient          ,art1 #cfj1  

and ,king's ,antique ,gems4        #g   
8,non ex ebore tantum sciebat ,phidias  
facere simulacrum1          faciebat et 
ex re4 ,si marmor illi1 si adhuc        
viliorem          materiam obtulisses1  
fecisset quale ex illa fieri optimum    
potuisset40--,seneca1 ,epist4 #hf4      
#h ,du ,moulage en ,pltre chez les      
,anciens1 par ,m4 ,charles ,c4          
,perkins1 correspondant de l',acadmie   
des ,beaux ,arts1 etc4          ,paris1 
#ahfi4        #i ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist41  
lib4 xxxv4 ch4 xii4       #aj ,so also  
,fronto in his ,de differentiis         
,vocabulorum1          published by     
,cardinal ,mai from palimpsests1 says3  
8,vultus          proprie hominis--os   
omnium--facies plurium40       #aa      
,according to schines1 in his oration   
against ,ctesiphon1          ,miltiades 
desired that his name should be         
inscribed on this          portrait     
statue1 which was placed in the ,pcile2 
but the          ,athenians refused     
their permission4       #ab ,see ,cicero

 ad ,atticum1 xii4 #da4       #ac iii4  
#ab1  #ac2 viii4 #ad1  #e4       #ad    
,geschichte der griechischen ,knstler1  
vol4 i4 p4 #djc4       #ae vii4 #c1 ii  
#h4 ,see1 also1 ,pliny1 xxv4 #di4       
#af ,see1 also1 an account of these     
8imagines0 in ,polybius1 vi4            
#ec4       #ag ,et quoniam animorum     
imagines non sunt1 negliguntur etiam    
corporum4 ,aliter apud majores1 in      
atriis hc erant qu                      
spectarentur1 non signa externorum      
artificum1 nec ra          aut marmora4 
,expressi cera vultus singulis          
disponebantur          armariis ut      
essent imagines qu comitarentur         
gentilicia          funera4--,book #ce1 
ch4 #b4       #ah          4       #ai  
,lib4 ix4 ch4 #bc2 ,lib4 i4 ch4 #dj2    
,lib4 viii4 ch4 #bb4       #bj          
,spartian41 ,sev4 ,hadrian1 #bb4        
#ba ,de ,errore ,profanarum ,religionum4
 ,vid4 ,lobeck aglaopham1          p4   
#ega4       #bb ,as ,lysistratus and his
 brother lived about the #aadth         

,olympiad 7#cbd ,b4 ,c471 if these works
 found at ,kertch were          plaster 
casts1 it is plain that ,lysistratus did
 not          invent casting1 since     
these were before his time2 and if      
,pliny means to say that he did1 he is  
evidently quite wrong4       #bc ,pliny 
says 8exemplar40       #bd              
4       #be ,see ,divin4 ,inst41 lib4 i4
 c4 #f4       #bf ,val4 ,soranus1 cited 
by ,st4 ,augustine1 ,de ,civit4 ,dei1   
lib4          vii4 c4 #i4       #bg ,see
 these passages and others cited in ,s4 
,justinus1          ,cohortat4 ad ,grc4 
et de ,monarchia2 ,clement of           
,alexandria1 ,stromat41 lib4 v41 et     
,admonitio ad ,gentes2          ,s4     
,cyrillus ,alexandrinus1 ,contra        
,julianum1 lib4 i42                     
,athenagoras1 ,legat4 pro ,christian42  
,theodoretus1 ,graec4                   
,affectionum3 ,curat1 lib4 #g4       #bh
                            8,i have no 
spur      ,to prick the sides of my     
intent1 but only      ,vaulting         

ambition40          ,transcriber's      
,notes      ,punctuation1 hyphenation1  
and spelling were made consistent when a
  predominant preference was found in   
this book2 otherwise they were not      
changed4    ,simple typographical errors
 were corrected2 occasional unbalanced  
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,index not checked for     
proper alphabetization or correct page  
references4