,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by at signs4 ,some unusual letters and symbols are accurately represented with ,unicode characters4 7,some handheld devices may not support combining diacriticals such as the circumflex47 ,these are3 consonants with a circumflex accent 2 letter c with an acute accent 2 the diphthong ou with macrons 7many platforms do not support the combining double macron72 and the calculus integral symbol 4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,,international ,,language ,,and ,,science ,,international ,,language ,,and ,,science ,considerations on the ,introduction of an ,international ,language into ,science ,,by ,l4 ,,couturat ,formerly ,professor at the ,university of ,caen4 ,o4 ,,jespersen ,professor at the ,university of ,copenhagen4 ,r4 ,,lorenz ,professor at the ,federal ,polytechnicum of ,zrich4 ,w4 ,,ostwald ,professor emeritus of the ,university of ,leipzig4 ,l4 ,,pfaundler ,professor at the ,university of ,graz4 ,,translated ,,by ,f4 ,g4 ,,donnan ,professor at the ,university of ,liverpool4 ,,london ,,constable ,,company ,,limited #aj ,,orange ,,street ,,leicester ,,square ,w4,c4 #aiaj ,,bradbury1 ,,agnew1 ,,co4 ,,ld41 ,,printers1 ,,london ,,and ,,tonbridge ,,preface ,the question of a so-called world-language1 or better expressed1 an international auxiliary language1 was during the now past ,volapk period1 and is still in the present ,esperanto movement1 so much in the hands of ,utopians1 fanatics and enthusiasts1 that it is difficult to form an unbiassed opinion concerning it1 although a good idea lies at its basis4 ,both the ,volapkists and ,esperantists confused the linguistic aspect of the question with so many side issues that1 not only was it difficult to see the former in its true light1 but also the leaders of the various movements were unable to guide them in the right direction4 ,for this reason discussions concerning an international auxiliary language appeared with good reason to many people to be unpractical1 impossible1 or indeed even ridiculous4 ,matters have1 however1 changed since the ,dlgation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale has taken the matter up4 ,this ,international ,commission1 with its headquarters in ,paris1 and consisting of literary and scientific men of eminent reputation1 was entrusted with the task of investigating the general question of an international auxiliary language4 ,the ,delegation has1 in the course of an activity extending over seven years1 succeeded in showing that a sound idea lies at the root of the various movements for a universal language4 ,freed from all extraneous considerations1 this idea involves the purely linguistic question of the introduction of an international auxiliary language4 ,on the other hand1 the ,delegation has found that neither ,volapk nor ,esperanto have succeeded in solving the problem4 ,as1 however1 ,esperanto was found to contain a number of good principles1 the ,commission finally resolved to work out on purely scientific principles an international auxiliary language on the basis of ,esperanto4 ,the whole question of the introduction of an international auxiliary language has thus arrived at a stage in which it appears worthy of serious discussion4 ,under these circumstances1 the writers of this brochure considered it their first duty to draw the attention of scientific and literary men to the matter1 and so initiate discussion4 ,the object of this book will have been attained1 should they have succeeded in explaining the present state of the question1 and in showing that it is already possible to discuss the introduction of an international auxiliary language into science1 and indeed even seriously to make the attempt to carry it out4 ,it may be remarked that the five authors of this book live in five different countries1 and belong to three different languages4 ,the very considerable correspondence required for the production of their book was carried out with the greatest success in the ,linguo ,internaciona1 whenever any two of the correspondents possessed different mother-tongues4 ,paris1 ,copenhagen1 ,zrich1 ,gross-,bothen1 ,graz4 ,l4 ,,couturat1 ,o4 ,,jespersen1 ,r4 ,,lorenz1 ,w4 ,,ostwald1 ,l4 ,,pfaundler4 ,march1 #aiji4 ,,translator',s ,,preface ,the scientific attitude of mind is necessarily critical1 but never sceptical without proper investigation and knowledge4 ,the ,translator hopes1 therefore1 that ,english-speaking men of science will not judge the question of international language before they have quietly and dispassionately examined the arguments so ably set forth in the following pages4 ,it is not a question of another language2 it is a question of the final solution by the methods of science of one of the greatest of scientific problems4 ,internationalisation of thought is the motto of the twentieth century1 the device on the banner of progress4 ,science1 the ,super-,nation of the world1 must lead the way in this as in all other things4 ,amidst the clangour and the clamour of political and commercial strife1 the quiet empire of knowledge grows1 noiseless and unseen4 ,let all those who believe that this peaceful empire is destined to become the controlling force of the world assist in the attunement of its common language4 ,the ,translator wishes to thank his friend and colleague1 ,professor ,j4 ,p4 ,postgate1 for having very kindly revised the translation of ,chapters ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 ,f4 ,g4 ,,donnan4 ,,university ,,of ,,liverpool1 ,march1 #aiaj4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,the need for a common scientific language1 by ,l4 ,pfaundler #a ,,ii4 ,the ,dlgation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale1 by ,r4 ,lorenz #aa ,,iii4 ,linguistic principles necessary for the construction of an international auxiliary language1 with an appendix on the criticism of ,esperanto1 by ,o4 ,jespersen #bg ,,iv4 ,on the application of logic to the problem of an international language1 by ,l4 ,couturat #db ,v4 ,the relationship of the international language to science1 by ,r4 ,lorenz #ec ,,vi4 ,the question of nomenclature1 by ,w4 ,ostwald #fa ,,vii4 ,conclusion2 ,reading1 ,writing1 and ,speaking1 by ,l4 ,pfaundler #fi ,,appendix ,i4 ,linguo ,internaciona di la ,delegitaro2 grammar1 word-formation1 list of grammatical words #ge ,,ii4 ,specimen pages from the ,international-,english ,dictionary #hb ,,iii4 ,an experiment in double translation #hd ,,iv4 ,uniono di l'amiki di la linguo internaciona2 extracts from the provisional statutes1 and membership form #hf ,,international ,,language ,,and ,,science ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,need ,,for ,a ,,common ,,scientific ,,language ,all who are occupied with the reading or writing of scientific literature have assuredly very often felt the want of a common scientific language1 and regretted the great loss of time and trouble caused by the multiplicity of languages employed in scientific literature4 ,the remarkable and regrettable feature of this state of affairs is that we once possessed1 and have now lost1 such a common language1 namely1 ,latin4 ,even in the first third of the last century ,gauss wrote a portion of his mathematical and physical papers in ,latin1 and up to the middle of the last century the dissertations of the scientific candidates at the ,german universities were translated into ,latin by their philological colleagues1 since the former were no longer sufficiently conversant with that language4 ,the fall of ,latin as the language of scholars and men of science could not1 however1 be prevented1 nor does there exist the faintest chance of its ever recovering its lost position4 ,the reasons for this are known to all4 ,the rise and development of science1 for the expression of whose ideas the language of ,cicero no longer sufficed1 the fall of scholasticism1 with its ,church ,latin1 the diffusion of knowledge amongst people not possessing a university training1 the foundation of technical high schools1 and1 finally1 the growing national sentiment and jealousy of nations who sought to further the spread of their national languages by using them in the works of their scientific men--all this has contributed to displace ,latin by the modern national languages4 ,the result is that1 instead of one common language for scholars and men of science1 we now possess three4 ,it is required or supposed that every scholar or man of science should know at least ,german1 ,french1 and ,english4 ,for the majority of ,german scholars and men of science this may hold good1 but in the case of the ,french it is less true1 and in the case of the ,english least of all4 ,the knowledge of these three languages is1 however1 no longer sufficient1 and that for the following reasons4 ,in the first place1 several other languages must be taken into account1 for many ,italians write only ,italian1 many ,dutchmen only ,dutch1 whilst numerous ,russians1 ,poles1 ,czechs1 ,hungarians1 ,scandinavians1 and ,spaniards employ only their national languages4 ,in this way much escapes general knowledge and recognition1 or is only accessible in a belated or mutilated form4 ,in the second place1 the difficulty of a quick mutual understanding is great1 even for those who can command these three chief languages4 ,if one is possessed of a little natural talent1 one can by dint of industry and much loss of time easily get so far as to read or understand a paper or a letter in a foreign language1 but when it comes to writing 7replying7 the task is incomparably more difficult4 ,one can1 however1 not assume1 when a ,german scholar or man of science replies in ,german to a letter written in ,french or ,english1 that he will be always understood4 ,the matter is much worse in the case of oral intercourse1 especially at scientific congresses4 ,at these the three chief languages mentioned above are usually now declared to be official1 that is to say1 permissible for the delivery of papers4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the language of the country in which the congress is held usually dominates4 ,the ,german speaks ,french in ,paris1 but the ,englishman mostly only ,english1 and demands1 as occurred at the recent ,refrigeration ,congress in ,paris1 the translation into ,english of the papers read at the sectional meetings4 ,only very few can take part in the discussions1 and many must be well content if they are able to understand the usually rapidly delivered papers4 ,many an important criticism is not made because one does not possess the expertness necessary for discussing a question in a foreign language1 and does not wish to expose oneself to the chance of a rebuff1 caused not so much by ignorance of the matter in hand as by want of facility in expression4 ,every member of a congress has noticed that whenever the language employed in the papers changes1 a considerable number of the audience leave with more or less noise1 in order to avoid being compelled to listen to a paper which they do not understand4 ,congresses would be certainly much better attended were it not that these difficulties keep many away4 ,one cannot hope that an increasing diffusion of the knowledge of the three chief languages will cause these difficulties to diminish1 still less to disappear4 ,they will1 rather1 increase still more1 since the number of national languages desiring to take part in the work of civilisation is constantly growing4 ,already1 at the present time1 ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,dutch1 and the ,scandinavian and ,slavonic languages must be taken into account1 besides the three chief languages4 ,national sentiment forces the scientific men of these countries to use the national languages1 even when they perceive that this procedure does not conduce to mutual understanding4 ,even if the scientific men themselves were completely free from national amour propre1 they would be obliged by their fellow-countrymen to employ their own languages1 not so much for the purpose of advancing scientific knowledge and learning as in order to contribute by means of their literary and scientific works to the diffusion of their languages and the advancement of their nations4 ,whoever has observed this phenomenon will be forced to the conclusion that amongst scientific men1 at least in ,europe1 this state of affairs is getting worse rather than better4 ,the increase of the participating languages involves an increase of the periodicals1 just at a time when a concentration of the periodical literature is most desirable4 ,the cost of subscriptions1 translations1 storing1 and registration1 and the labour and time spent thereon1 increase from year to year4 ,above all1 there is a want of translators2 ordinary interpreters are not sufficient1 since a special knowledge of each subject is required4 ,where are such persons to be found in sufficient numbers8 ,and how few and far between are those who1 when they possess the requisite training1 are willing to content themselves with the poorly paid remuneration of a translator6 ,bad or erroneous translations and faulty abstracts are very harmful2 it would be better in such cases that no translation should exist1 as then the original would have to be consulted4 ,these difficulties1 many more of which could be mentioned1 are well known to all scientific men1 since each has suffered more or less from them4 ,the question then is1 ,what remedy can we apply8 ,one proposal is to introduce into secondary schools the teaching of modern instead of classical languages1 in order to render the students1 after matriculation at the universities1 capable of taking part in international scientific intercourse4 ,this proposal has arisen from the view that the learning of modern added to that of the classical languages would overburden the secondary schools1 whilst the learning of modern languages at the universities would cause equal or greater difficulties4 ,few young people possess1 during their years at the university1 sufficient keenness and moral courage to subject themselves to the ordeal of linguistic studies1 from which they have joyfully escaped on their entrance into the university4 ,few possess at that age a full conception of the usefulness and necessity of a knowledge of languages4 ,and it is just those young people who wish to devote themselves to the professions of literature or science who ought to devote their whole time and full powers to their professional work1 and not be obliged to break up their time with linguistic studies4 ,the proposal to exclude the classical languages from the secondary schools has encountered1 however1 from many quarters very weighty objections1 the force of which cannot be denied1 even by the opposite side4 ,we shall1 however1 not enter into this much-debated question1 contenting ourselves with the remark that at the present day insuperable obstacles stand in the way of a complete or partial substitution of modern for classical languages4 ,experience shows also that the teaching of modern languages in schools seldom leads to a practical result1 although it must be conceded that nowadays1 with newer methods1 much better results are obtained than formerly1 when the grammar1 but not the practical use1 was taught4 ,if1 therefore1 the teaching of modern languages cannot well be carried out either at the universities or in the schools1 there remains only the time before school studies4 ,it is1 in fact1 possible 7as is done in many well-to-do families71 by means of a ,french or ,german governess1 to teach a child1 besides its mother tongue1 one of these languages1 in so far as its mental development permits4 ,it is probably inadvisable to teach more than one new language in this way1 in order to avoid injury to the child's own mother tongue4 ,such a knowledge1 however1 is quite insufficient for the needs of the young scientific man1 and so the acquaintance with a language gained in this way requires constant extension and development4 ,but even assuming that the young man continues the study of the language that he has learnt as a child1 or even indeed learns another during his school days1 he will possess at best that approximate knowledge of the three chief languages which we have characterised above as being neither qualitatively nor quantitatively sufficient1 because it does not suffice for oral intercourse1 and because other languages must be taken into account4 ,the proposal has1 therefore1 been made to choose1 by international agreement1 one of the national languages as a universal intermediary language4 ,if everybody learnt this language1 then the difficulty would be surmounted4 ,this proposal is1 however1 still-born4 ,every attempt to realise it is bound to be shipwrecked on the rock of national jealousy1 as has been often shown before1 for it is evident that the nation whose language was chosen would receive a very great advantage4 ,the widely spoken ,english language possesses1 it is true1 a very simple grammar1 but it would be very unsuitable for this purpose on account of its extremely difficult pronunciation4 ,just as science has succeeded in giving to the world a uniform system of weights and measures by choosing instead of a national unit of length one common to all nations1 namely1 the length of an earth quadrant1 so only that language could find general acceptance which was based on the common possession of those peoples for whom it was intended4 ,by that we mean the stock of words common to the three great families of languages1 the ,germanic1 ,romance1 and ,slavonic4 ,against this the objection will be raised3 ,an artificial language2 in other words1 a ,utopia6 ,how could one think of artificially creating a language1 which1 after all1 is a living and spontaneously developing organism8 ,one might as well think of artificially creating a live horse6 ,it is true that one cannot make a live horse1 but one can make an automobile1 which under certain circumstances may replace the horse1 and even excel its performance4 ,but no one would think on that account of totally doing away with horses4 ,in a similar manner the partisans of an artificial language have no wish to displace the natural languages4 ,in poetry and imaginative literature1 wherein the soul of a nation finds its highest expression1 the mother-tongue will always be supreme4#a ,but it is unthinkable1 one will say1 that an artificial language would ever be generally accepted4 ,such statements must be received with caution1 for they have turned out more than once to be wrong4 ,the introduction of a common system of weights and measures was also declared to be impossible at one time1 nevertheless it has since been carried out in science4 ,the construction of a system of telegraph wires connecting the whole civilised world and a telegraph alphabet common to all nations was declared seventy years ago to be an impossibility4 ,now it is ancient history4 ,the maritime nations have agreed upon a common code of signals4 ,when the ,english sailor arrives at the ,japanese coast1 he translates the sentences he wishes to transmit into numbers1 which he signals by means of flags1 and the ,japanese port official translates the signalled numbers by means of the code into ,japanese sentences4 ,why should it therefore be impossible to introduce instead of this intermediary numerical language an intermediary word language1 which would give expression to thought in a better and more direct manner8#b ,quite so1 but such an intermediary language would be much more difficult to create than a code of signals arranged for a limited number of words and phrases4 ,how would it be if this difficulty had been already overcome1 and the intermediary language already created and proved to be serviceable8 ,but that would amount to adding a new language to be learnt to the ones we already have to learn2 there would be no advantage in that6 ,if1 however1 this new language was really not new1 consisting mostly of words known to every educated person2 if its grammar was so simple that its principles could be learned within an hour2 and if1 therefore1 any educated person who knew a single ,romance language could learn the whole language in an incredibly short time1 would it not be an advantage to acquire it8 ,to prove this is a simple problem of permutations and combinations1 and the proof possesses all the certainty of mathematical reasoning4 ,we shall demonstrate that by an example4 ,suppose a large town contains ten districts1 each possessing a pneumatic post-office4 ,in order to connect each district with all the others1 one could lay from each of the ten post-offices nine tubes to the remaining nine post-offices4 ,that would require 7#aj #i7_/b #de tubes4 ,the problem could1 however1 be solved much more easily and cheaply by connecting each of the post-offices by means of a single tube with a central post-office1 which would receive and distribute all the letters1 as is actually the case in practice4 ,we should then require only ten tubes4 ,substitute now for the districts imagined above the languages1 ,german1 ,french1 ,english1 ,italian1 ,russian1 ,spanish1 etc41 with the condition that every person speaking one language should be able to correspond with everybody speaking a different language4 ,in the case of ten languages we should require for every correspondent nine dictionaries1 or altogether ninety dictionaries4 ,every correspondent would have to know nine languages besides his own4 ,if1 however1 we employed an intermediary language1 each person would only require to know this language besides his own4 ,the matter is so simple and the advantage so exceedingly obvious that one can only wonder why it has not been recognised and carried out long ago4 ,it is quite self-evident that1 if one wishes to become acquainted with the imaginative literature and the inner thoughts and feelings of a foreign nation1 one cannot content oneself with translations1 but must study a language in its own country4 ,but how many people learn ,french in order to become acquainted with its literature8 ,the existence of an intermediary language would interfere with such linguistic studies just as little as the invention of the automobile prevents anybody from using a riding or carriage horse4 ,there is no necessity1 therefore1 for philologists or professional linguists to be hostile to the project1 since their sphere of work and influence will not be in any way diminished thereby4 ,on the contrary1 the creation of an artificial language has led to so many interesting questions relating to the structure1 and to such a deeper insight into the nature of language1 and has attracted so many to its study1 that this beautiful department of knowledge will only derive advantage therefrom4 ,it is also remarkable that the original work of ,dr4 ,zamenhof1 which in its principles was characterised by genius1 but in its execution was imperfect and therefore insufficient1 has only through the reforming labours of distinguished philologists attained to that perfection of form and principle required to make it the international auxiliary language of the civilised world4 ,the difficulty of the undertaking no longer lies in the language itself1 but1 rather1 in the task of inspiring all concerned1 and especially the leading thinkers1 with the conviction that it is practically realisable4 ,if this conviction can be sufficiently spread1 the introduction of the auxiliary language will only be a matter of a few months4 ,in order1 however1 to form an opinion on the possibility of this realisation1 it is1 in the first place1 necessary to become acquainted with the main principles1 structure1 and origin of the language which we recommend4 ,l4 ,,pfaundler4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,d,l,,gation ,,pour ,l',,adoption ,d',,une ,,langue ,,auxiliaire ,,internationale ,one of the most important problems of present day civilisation is the introduction of an international auxiliary language4 ,we boast of our international intercourse4 ,the civilised world has extended to new nations and has embraced whole regions of the earth1 and yet1 in spite of the magnificent means of material communication1 nothing of a similar nature has been done for the purpose of uniting minds together in an equally practical manner4 ,recently1 however1 an event has occurred at ,paris which brings us a step further in this direction4 ,the ,dlgation pour l',adoption d'une ,langue ,auxiliaire ,internationale1 which was formed in #aijj as a result of the ,paris ,exhibition1 has1 after an activity of seven years1 arrived at a definite decision4 ,the very fact that modern international relations have brought about such a delegation and entrusted it with work should be sufficient to emphasise the importance of the problem4 ,it is not true that the need for an international auxiliary language disappears with the knowledge of several national languages1 as has been asserted by many who1 on account of their personal knowledge1 have not experienced it4 ,this is especially true of some philologists who overlook the fact that languages form the object of their special studies1 and draw conclusions from themselves concerning the needs of others4 ,expertness in the use of languages does not come so readily to the scientific investigator and the technologist1 whose work lies in other directions1 and so it is in these quarters that the movement for the introduction of an international auxiliary language receives the greatest support4 ,to this must be added the fact that1 as ,ostwald has aptly remarked1 the scientific investigator regards language only as a means of making himself understood4 ,language is not for him something which thinks and poetises1 but rather an instrument for conveying his knowledge and wishes to other people1 much after the fashion whereby the musician is enabled to convey his feelings by means of musical notation and the instruments of the orchestra4 ,the question of the suitability of a language is important in this connection2 and so it does not appear so very strange that it is just the scientific investigators1 technologists1 and philosophers who have never been quite satisfied with living or dead languages4 ,how otherwise can we explain the fact that it is just they who are constantly solving philological problems and constantly occupied with the invention not only of new signs and symbols 7mathematical1 chemical1 crystallographic71 but also new words8 ,the fact is that science1 philosophy1 and technology are constantly waging a fierce battle with existing languages4 ,what they want is a language as simple and clear as the fundamental laws of nature1 as logical as the precision of experiment1 and as many-sided as the complexity of the facts which it has to describe4 ,and so they are constantly working at the creation of this language1 all the words invented by science finding their way unceasingly through the channels of technology into the general vocabulary4 ,these words possess the special property of being international1 that is to say1 understood by all civilised nations1 including the ,japanese4 ,we do not wish1 however1 to stop at this stage of development2 we wish to be able to internationalise not only single ideas1 but also the whole train of thought4 ,for this purpose it is impracticable to make use of any of the national languages1 since they are all so unsuitable1 illogical1 capricious1 and complicated that the student must learn to steer clear of thousands of difficulties before he is able to express himself fairly correctly4 ,it is possible to construct an artificial language with such a regular structure that it can be employed at once without making mistakes4 ,in accordance with these ideas1 the programme of the ,delegation was as follows3-- 7#a7 ,it is desirable that an international auxiliary language should be introduced which1 though not intended to replace the natural languages in the internal life of nations1 should be adapted to written and oral intercourse between persons of different mother-tongues4 7#b7 ,such an international language must1 in order to fulfil its object1 satisfy the following conditions3-- 7a7 ,it must be capable of serving the needs of science as well as those of daily life1 commerce1 and general intercourse4 7b7 ,it must be capable of being easily learnt by all persons of average elementary education1 especially those belonging to the civilised nations of ,europe4 7c7 ,it must not be any one of the living national languages4 7#c7 ,the decision as to the choice of a language is to be referred in the first place to the ,international ,association of ,academies1 but if the latter should refuse to consider the matter or come to no decision1 to the committee of the ,delegation4 7#d7 ,circulars are to be sent to learned1 commercial1 and legal societies requesting them to signify their approval of the above programme4 ,the success of this appeal was extraordinary4 ,it was now evident for the first time how many thousands of people of all nations were enthusiastically in favour of the introduction of an international auxiliary language4 ,the tat de la ,dlgation1 which the latter published yearly1 included on ,october #ast1 #aijg1 in the list of corporate bodies alone1 the names of #caj clubs1 societies1 and congresses1 not a few of which possessed a membership exceeding #a1jjj4 ,it is interesting to rapidly pass in review the extremely varied character of the societies included therein4 ,we find1 for example1 commercial schools1 chambers of commerce1 merchants' clubs1 stenographers1 the printing trade1 correspondence bureaus1 photographic clubs1 associations of municipal and other officials1 societies of shipping employs1 legal clubs1 pedagogic and religious societies1 officers' clubs1 institutes for the deaf and dumb and for the blind1 sociological1 medical1 and health societies1 peace clubs1 political and graphological societies1 touring1 bicycle1 and automobile clubs1 sport clubs1 bibliographic societies and library staffs1 and finally all sorts of special scientific societies and congresses4 ,arranged according to nationality1 we find representatives of ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,denmark1 ,spain1 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,belgium1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,holland1 ,russia 7including ,poland71 ,roumania1 ,austria 7including ,bohemia and ,hungary71 ,mexico1 ,peru1 the ,argentine1 ,algeria1 ,tunis1 the ,united ,states1 ,chile1 etc4 ,there is also the academic list1 which contains the names of no less than #a1bej professors1 belonging to #ahi universities1 technical high schools1 and academies of science1 and coming from #aaj parts of the globe1 extending as far as ,india and ,japan4 ,it may be stated without exaggeration that the programme of the ,delegation found an enthusiastic response in all parts of the world and from people of nearly every occupation and profession1 many persons and societies expressing themselves in favour of the introduction of an international auxiliary language on the condition that it should not be one of the living languages4 ,during the seven years of its existence the ,delegation has carried out the duties entrusted to it in an exemplary manner1 and has performed a gigantic amount of work4 ,in ,may1 #aijg1 the ,delegation considered the time had come to lay the matter before the ,international ,association of ,academies4 ,at that time the report was very wide-spread that the ,association had altogether refused to consider the matter4 ,in reality the ,vienna ,academy1 as ,president of that year1 decided to bring the question before the ,association1 but the latter declined to take the matter up 7twelve votes to eight1 one member not voting74 ,at this point the ,delegation had the right and the duty to speak out4 ,it obtained an expression of opinion from the representatives of all the associated societies and clubs4 ,the result of this was the formation of a working committee1 consisting of sixteen members1 almost entirely scholars and men of science of reputation and members of the different scientific academies4 ,with the representatives of natural science and mathematics were associated philologists and linguists4 ,the committee began to sit on ,october #aeth1 #aijg1 and1 after eighteen sittings held in the ,collge de ,france1 arrived at a decision4 ,before we enter into this matter more fully it will be desirable to give a brief sketch of the historical development of artificial language4 ,anyone desiring to go more deeply into the history of this question 7already three hundred years old7 and the practical attempts at its realisation may be referred to the masterly work of ,l4 ,couturat and ,l4 ,leau1 ,histoire de la ,langue ,universelle 7,paris1 #aijc74 ,in what follows only a few of the most important points will be mentioned4 ,the oldest extant reference to the problem of an international language appears to be contained in the letter written by ,descartes on ,november #bjth1 #afbi1 to his friend ,mersenne4 ,the great philosopher here explains the principles which convinced him that it would be possible to construct an artificial language which could be used as an international auxiliary language4 ,as for ,leibnitz1 who was attracted throughout his whole life by this problem1 his language projects have been recently investigated by ,l4 ,couturat by means of documents1 many of which have never before been published 7,la ,logique de ,leibnitz and ,opuscules et ,fragments ,indits de ,leibnitz74 ,there may further be mentioned the ,ars signorum ,vulgo ,charakter ,universalis et ,lingua ,philosophica 7,london1 #affa7 of ,george ,dalgarno1 and the recently discovered memoir of an unknown author entitled ,carpophorophili ,novum inveniend ,scriptur cumenic ,consilium 7,leipzig1 #agcd74 ,the last-mentioned system in particular strikes one as highly modern in principle4 ,it was only1 however1 at the end of the last century that the era of practical things began with the ,volapk of ,schleyer4 ,the success of this language was very considerable4 ,it possessed about thirty journals1 published in the most different countries1 even in ,japan1 and its literature has been estimated at from #cjj to #djj works4 ,the official lists published in #ahhi contained the names of #bee local groups belonging to the ,universal ,language ,society1 some of which possessed a very considerable membership4 ,the teaching of the language was highly organised1 there being #ijj teachers1 #bjj head teachers1 and #ej professors4 ,this great linguistic experiment was very instructive1 and its significance cannot be underrated4 ,important conclusions concerning the theory and practice of artificial language can be drawn from it1 and especially from a consideration of the circumstances which finally led to the downfall of ,volapk4 ,it turned out that this was due to the errors which ,volapk itself contained1 showing us that in these matters1 as in others1 practical experience is the best teacher4 ,the fate of ,volapk was sealed when its supporters1 in the year #ahhi1 made the experiment of organising a congress at which ,volapk should be spoken4 ,although a few ,volapkists succeeded in speaking the language1 it was only too painfully evident that such a goal could not be reached with this system4 ,almost simultaneously with ,volapk another artificial language had been invented4 ,the ,russian medical man ,dr4 ,zamenhof published his system in #ahhg under the pseudonym of ,doktoro ,esperanto4 ,but as ,esperanto arrived while ,volapk was at its zenith1 it failed at first to attract general attention4 ,it found1 however1 in ,france1 an enthusiastic supporter in the ,marquis de ,beaufront1 who had himself worked out an international language called ,adjuvanto4 ,he gave this up as soon as he came to know about ,esperanto1 and founded the ,socit ,franaise pour la ,propagation de l',esperanto and the journal ,l',esperantiste 7now in its tenth year74 ,france soon became the centre of the new movement1 and indeed almost the whole existence and magnitude of the ,esperanto movement was due to the influence of this man4 ,since then ,esperanto has extended to all countries4 ,the ,esperanto journals appear mostly in a bilingual form1 the number of them being1 as in the ,volapk movement1 about forty-five1 whilst there exist a few journals and periodicals published exclusively in ,esperanto4 ,a special significance attaches to the international congresses organised by the ,esperantists1 at which only ,esperanto is spoken4 ,in #aije1 at ,boulogne-sur-,mer1 there assembled #fjj members1 belonging to about fifteen different nationalities4 ,the differences of pronunciation which1 on account of certain peculiarities of construction in ,esperanto1 must necessarily appear amongst the ,romance nationalities and the ,english1 were not1 we are told1 sufficiently marked to prevent mutual comprehension4 ,the second congress took place at ,geneva in #aijf4 ,at the third congress1 in ,cambridge1 in #aijg1 there were present about #a1djj members1 whilst at the fourth congress1 in ,dresden1 in #aijh1 there assembled also #a1djj members4 ,whatever opinion one may hold about these congresses1 at which much confusion and misunderstanding1 and indeed even much that was ridiculous1 took place1 they represent1 without doubt1 a great and remarkable philological experiment1 and one which demonstrates the possibility of synthetically constructing a language that can be spoken4 ,on the other hand1 however1 the ,esperanto congresses showed1 according to the concordant testimony of all persons of unbiassed opinion1 that the ,esperanto language in no wise represents the final solution of the problem4 ,all farsighted leaders of the ,esperanto movement have been for a long time the more fully conscious of this state of affairs the more profound their knowledge of the ,esperanto language4 ,chief amongst them may be mentioned ,m4 de ,beaufront himself1 who has come forward as one of the leaders of reform1 a reform which in many important respects was recognised as necessary by ,dr4 ,zamenhof himself in a series of interesting memoirs4 ,the recommendations of ,dr4 ,zamenhof were1 however1 rejected in #ahid by the so-called ,fundamentists 7#aeg votes to #ajg71 who were supported by a few great publishing firms interested in the preservation of ,esperanto4 ,by reason of the fact that the ,esperanto alphabet contains no fewer than six special letters to be found in no ordinary printing fount1 the firms referred to possess the monopoly of the very considerable trade in this literature4 ,the ,fundamentists hold the view that1 in spite of a few errors in the auxiliary language1 its success can only be assured by absolute conservatism4 ,they have1 therefore1 declared the grammar1 together with the reading book and vocabulary1 published by ,zamenhof under the title of ,fundamento de ,esperanto1 to be sacrosanct1 and go so far in this matter as to revere as correct and classical ,esperanto the infringements of his own rules1 the grammatical errors1 and even the misprints to be found in the ,fundamento4 ,the idea of a powerful organisation has undoubtedly at first sight something very attractive about it4 ,one must1 however1 not forget1 even in the case of an international language1 that no organisation in the world can arrest the progress of a necessary development4 ,every human contrivance and invention is subject to change1 errors and deficiencies being corrected4 ,especially is a rational development inevitable in the case of things1 such as an international language1 which are subject to the control of our intelligence4 ,conversely it is not difficult to reply to the question1 ,how is it then possible1 when a system has once been chosen1 to carry it out and preserve it8 ,for there are two fundamental qualities which1 happily for us1 are apparent in the history of inventions1 and each of which confers stability quite apart from any conventions1 namely1 a high degree of rational development based on the most profound knowledge and an extraordinary empirical perfection4 ,as examples of the latter may be mentioned the notation of music1 which since ,guido d',arezzo 7born in #iij71 or at any rate since ,johann ,sebastian ,bach1 has not appreciably changed2 the division of time into twenty-four hours and of the hour into sixty minutes1 which is at least three hundred years old2 the face1 mechanism1 and hands of a watch1 which date1 with unimportant changes1 from the ,renaissance2 and1 finally1 the violin1 which retains up to the present day the characteristic form which the ancient ,italians gave it4 ,is it not wonderful that this strangely carved piece of wood must possess just that particular form in order to yield its harmonious tones8 ,as examples of the former may be quoted almost all modern achievements4 ,the metric and decimal systems have come to stay4 ,the bicycle1 the motor car1 and the typewriting machine have undergone successive improvements till finally they have attained to their more or less definite form4 ,we see from this that when inventions have once reached a certain degree of suitability they are not afterwards easily replaced by others4 ,there is1 therefore1 only one adequate criterion of the stability of an international language1 namely1 that of suitability or adaptation to its purpose1 and we maintain that it is only by means of continuous reforms and improvements that it will succeed in satisfying this criterion and so finally attain to stability4 ,in the work of ,couturat and ,leau1 referred to above1 there are described about ten artificial languages which have sprung up during and after the period of ,volapk and ,esperanto1 and in which the experience of their predecessors has been more or less made use of4 ,a study of these attempts leads to the surprising result that they often differ amongst themselves less than1 for example1 the ,romance languages4 ,if1 then1 one were to choose any one of these languages and to direct its systematic development according to the principles which experience and knowledge have shown to be requisite for the construction of an international language1 one would in each case arrive finally at approximately the same result4 ,at the present day the rapid development in every department of life has made us only too ready to regard everything around us as transient4 ,we forget1 however1 that the rapidly accumulating inventions and discoveries which startle and surprise us always refer to new things4 ,one must bear in mind that there also exist things which in their essential features can only be invented once1 and that the international language in its final form is one of these4 ,an excellent means of convincing the incredulous is to demonstrate the absence of arbitrariness in the character of an invention or improvement1 and the degree of general consent which a given system has already obtained4 ,whenever one has recognised the natural and logical basis of a discovery one perceives relationships which restrict the ideas of chance and haphazard originally associated with it in one's mind4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite unnecessary in the case of an international language to be afraid of the arbitrary action of private persons who possess neither the right nor the authority to introduce reforms into ,esperanto1 as ,dr4 ,zamenhof has recently stated4 ,one ought rather to feel sure that the best means of defending an international language against arbitrary changes is the degree of its concordance with sound theoretical principles4 ,wilhelm ,ostwald has given us an account of the work of the ,delegation4 ,the commission consisted of representatives of the ,english1 ,german1 ,italian1 ,scandinavian1 and ,slavonic languages4 ,famous philologists such as ,otto ,jespersen1 of ,copenhagen1 and ,baudouin de ,courtenay1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 as well as the philosopher ,l4 ,couturat1 of ,paris1 rendered priceless services4 ,the proceedings1 which were held in the ,collge de ,france1 began with the interviewing of a number of the inventors of artificial languages or their representatives1 all such people having been invited to the conference4 ,where this procedure was not possible the corresponding writings and documents were examined and discussed4 ,concerning this work ,ostwald writes1 ,although these labours were very fatiguing1 they proved all the more effective for the progressive elucidation of the problem in hand4 ,from the very multiplicity of the attempts at a solution and their discussion there arose in the minds of the workers1 in a manner never to be forgotten1 a clear conception of the main conditions required for a successful solution of the problem1 and a recognition of the errors which a disregard of one or other of these conditions had produced in the existing systems4 ,whilst an account of the nature of these principles and of their application to the construction of an international auxiliary language will be given by competent authorities in the following chapters1 we may here mention that the ,delegation decided that none of the existing systems satisfied the conditions necessary for an international auxiliary language1 but that the widely known ,esperanto could serve as a basis for the working out of such a language1 although it would require to undergo a certain number of changes4 ,a standing committee was elected1 including ,ostwald1 ,couturat1 ,de ,beaufront1 and ,jespersen1 which was entrusted with the task of determining the new forms of the international auxiliary language on the basis of the principles laid down in the sittings mentioned above4 ,the changes carried out by the committee of the ,delegation are embodied in the form of new grammars and dictionaries4 ,the ,delegation succeeded not only in recognising1 but also in correcting in a competent manner1 the errors of ,esperanto1 with the result that we are to-day in possession of a language which in respect of facility1 lucidity1 variety1 and elegance of expression1 represents the high-water mark of international speech4 ,the success which this reform achieved amongst the public and also in ,esperantist circles immediately after the publication by the ,delegation of the first specimen of the new language was astonishing4 ,that which the ,esperantists had scarcely succeeded in doing during six years of their existence took place with astonishing rapidity before our eyes1 and in scarcely as many months there were formed in sixty towns of ,europe and ,america local groups of enthusiastic people affiliated to the ,delegation4 ,unfortunately the ,fundamentists persist in their obstinacy and continue to manifest their discontent4 ,although the new language has sprung from ,esperanto and is based upon it1 the ,esperantists have forbidden that the name ,esperanto should be used4 ,the conventional name ,ido 7i4e41 a descendant7 has therefore been given to it4 ,there exist already some periodicals in the linguo internaciona4 ,the chief organ of the new movement is the periodical ,progreso 7pronounced ,progresso71 oficiala organo di la ,delegitaro por adopto di linguo helpanta internaciona4 ,it is edited by ,professor ,l4 ,couturat in ,paris1 and owes its name1 programme1 and policy to the advice and initiative of ,ostwald4 ,the superiority of ,ido over ,esperanto is so striking and is so incontestably borne out by practical experience that one can now really speak1 after the ,volapk and ,esperanto periods1 of a third world-language movement which has started off with a reaction-velocity hitherto unknown in this department of knowledge4 ,it is characteristic of the new language that it has been taken up by the ,english and ,americans1 whilst an introduction of primitive ,esperanto amongst the ,anglo-,saxons encountered insuperable obstacles1 for1 as was pointed out with good reason1 the ,english language1 especially in regard to its grammar1 was superior to ,esperanto on account of a number of clumsy constructions and errors which the latter contained4 ,but1 apart from the regularity of pronunciation1 ,ido excels the ,english language both in regard to grammar and1 what is of great importance1 brevity1 a printed ,ido text being even briefer than the corresponding ,english one4 ,for the benefit of those who are unacquainted with the nature of international language and who still regard an artificial language as an impossible monstrosity1 we may remark that the new vocabulary contains in round numbers #e1djj stems1 and that1 in spite of the ,romance character which the international language necessarily possesses1 #dj per cent4 of these are common to the following six languages3 ,german1 ,english1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,russian1 ,spanish 7and to many others74 ,moreover1 there are naturally innumerable other stems which occur simultaneously in five or four of the great languages4 ,in the face of this overwhelming evidence1 no one can contest the possibility of an international language1 for the above numbers tell their tale with unmistakable clearness4 ,they prove the existence of the international language apart from every theory4 ,it is only necessary to select judiciously the words common to the living languages1 that is to say1 by an artificial process1 in order to construct the international language4 ,besides the purely linguistic standpoint1 the ,delegation considered the whole question of an international auxiliary language from another and an essential point of view4 ,it is natural1 and sufficiently well known1 that in both the ,volapk and ,esperanto movements the linguistic issue was mixed up with a large amount of disorder1 error1 misunderstanding1 and illusion4 ,this was due to the fact that these movements were largely directed by scientifically untrained persons1 and partly also fell into the hands of fanatics and ,utopians4 ,added to this was the desire to soar to the summits of literature instead of confining themselves to practical matters1 and the truly childish confidence which led them to spoil the classics of different nations by translating them into a language intended for other purposes4 ,this latter trait was even more markedly pronounced in the ,esperanto than in the ,volapk movement4 ,the ,delegation1 as a commission of serious men of science1 has steadily laboured to free the question from all extraneous considerations1 of which we have mentioned only the best known1 and the standpoint which is taken in the periodical ,progreso is in all respects a serious and scientific one4 ,in this way it has been possible to attain finally to a stage at which the whole question can be discussed on its merits4 ,the action of the ,delegation marks1 therefore1 without doubt the beginning of a rational period in the history of the movement for a universal language4 ,henceforth he who comes to mock will have nothing to say1 and the sceptic will have to search for serious and competent reasons if he wishes to maintain his case4 ,the point of view which the ,delegation has taken is that the solution of the problem of an international auxiliary language is a purely scientific and technical question4 ,scientific in a double sense of the word3 in the first place1 because the living germ of an international language is already to be found in science and as an expression of the civilisation of ,europe and ,america1 requiring only an artificial development to bring it to maturity and to give us the international auxiliary language in its final form2 in the second place1 because the method of artificial development of the international language forms itself the object of a science1 and that indeed a new one1 namely1 the philology of auxiliary language4 ,the question is also a technical one because the result obtained by theory is destined for a practical purpose1 namely1 the daily use of mankind4 ,our modern civilisation is signalised by the application of science to practice4 ,we are no longer pure empiricists4 ,science penetrates into every department of daily life1 and all enlightened people are aware that the age of pure empiricism is over4 ,the movement for a universal language possesses its epochs1 like other things1 but we may rest assured that the era of the attempts to solve the problem of auxiliary language in a purely empirical1 or even indeed romantic1 manner has passed away with the ,volapk and ,esperanto periods4 ,the work of the ,delegation has also been in a high degree an organising one4 ,the beginning of the year #aiji gave birth to a ,uniono di l',amiki di la ,linguo ,internaciona1 extending over all parts of the world4 ,from this union are derived by election two directing bodies3 firstly1 the ,komitato1 a commission which looks after matters of organisation and business2 and secondly1 an ,academy1 entrusted with the scientific investigation of the international auxiliary language1 which sees to its steady progress1 corrects the errors and deficiencies which are sure to make their appearance1 decides in doubtful cases1 and regulates the introduction of new words and constructions4 ,the carrying out of this scientific and technical programme has now become the duty of all who feel the necessity for an international means of communicating thought4 ,,richard ,,lorenz4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,linguistic ,,principles ,,necessary ,,for ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,an ,,international ,,auxiliary ,,language1 ,,with ,,appendix3 ,,criticism ,,of ,,esperanto ,there exist more than sixty systems or attempts at an artificial universal language1 and considering the great diversity of these languages1 it might appear hopeless to arrive at unanimity concerning any one of them4 ,when1 however1 one considers the question more closely1 it appears that matters are not so bad as one might imagine4 ,whereas twenty years ago the systems which appeared were as different as day from night1 at the present day one perceives great lines of convergence1 pointing to the time when mankind shall have added to the other triumphs of civilisation that of an auxiliary language recognised and used by everybody1 to the great advantage of all whose horizon is not limited by the boundaries of their mother country4 ,is it possible in a single formula to express everything that is requisite for a practical international language8 ,i think so1 and a brief consideration of the two reasons which prevent us from choosing one of the natural languages as an international language will enable me to arrive very quickly at this formula4 ,the first reason is1 that such a procedure would unfairly benefit one nation at the expense of all the others and would infringe the fundamental principle of neutrality1 which is necessary in all international affairs4 ,the second reason is1 that every language is too difficult for foreigners4 ,all existing languages swarm with difficulties of pronunciation1 spelling1 grammar1 vocabulary1 and especially idiom4 ,it is very seldom that a foreigner succeeds1 even after years of study1 in learning a language sufficiently well to avoid occasionally making one of those mistakes which instantly betray his origin to the natives2 it may be a false stress1 or a word employed with an almost imperceptibly different shade of meaning1 or placed in a position in a sentence where the native would never place it1 or1 finally1 a phrase which1 though logically correct1 is nevertheless not permitted by the usage of the language4 ,on account of their innumerable relationships and associations1 which is indeed what makes them so dear to the nations that employ them1 all natural languages are extraordinarily difficult1 and therefore unsuitable for the purpose of international intercourse4 ,we require1 accordingly1 a language which shall be not only neutral1 but also as easy as possible3 easy to learn1 easy to use1 and easy to understand4 ,these considerations bring me to the sought-for formula1 which we may express in a form similar to the celebrated ethical dictum of ,hutcheson and ,bentham 7,that action is best which accomplishes the greatest happiness for the greatest number73-- ,that international language is best which offers the greatest facility to the greatest number4 ,it may be objected1 however1 that facility is a subjective idea3 what is easy for one is not always easy for another4 ,quite so1 and it is exactly that observation which will serve us as a guide in the investigation of the important conclusions which may be drawn from our fundamental principle4 ,in the first place1 as regards the alphabet and the pronunciation1 our fundamental principle leads to the choice of the ,latin alphabet1 with the exclusion of all accented or otherwise specially modified letters2 neither 1 1 1 1 1 1 nor the circumflexed 1 1 1 1 1 especially invented by ,dr4 ,zamenhof for ,esperanto1 can be tolerated1 for they hinder1 and sometimes even render impossible1 writing1 printing1 and telegraphing4 ,i have shown in the ,introduction to the international dictionaries of ,de ,beaufront and ,couturat how our fundamental principle leads to the following alphabet and the following sound values3 a 7as in father71 b1 c 7like ts71 d1 e 7like e in net or like a in fate71 f1 g 7always hard1 as in go71 h1 i 7like ee in sweet71 j 7either like ,e4#c or like ,f41#c as in journal71 k1 l1 m1 n1 o 7as in go or as in not71 p1 q 7qu1 as in ,g4 or as in ,e471 r1 s 7always unvoiced71 t1 u 7always like oo1 as in too71 v1 x 7as in ,g4 or as in ,e4 ,f4 in the words exist1 exister71 y 7as in ,e4 ,f41 and therefore like ,g4 j71 z 7as in ,e4 ,f41 and therefore like the voiced ,north ,german s in rose71 further the two double letters ch 7as in ,e41 for example church7 and sh 7as in ,e41 ,g4 sch74 ,the strict phonetic canon ,one symbol1 one sound1 is therefore followed in so far as the same sound is never arbitrarily written one way in one word and another way in another word1 and the same letter is never pronounced differently in some words compared with the majority4 ,the small exception that sh and ch are not equivalent to s h and c h respectively cannot cause the least difficulty to anyone1 and the use of qu and x enables us to retain the international spelling of many words1 and1 moreover1 permits two different pronunciations which cause no difficulty of comprehension and simplify the pronunciation for several nations4 ,otherwise we should be faced with the difficult problem of choosing between kwala and kvala1 eksistar and egzistar4 ,it must not be forgotten1 too1 that for our purposes the purely theoretical canon ,one symbol1 one sound1 must be subordinated to the fundamental principle of greatest facility1 of which phonetic simplicity is itself only a consequence4 ,practical considerations must1 in fact1 overrule theoretical objections whenever a small deviation from the fundamental principle ,one symbol1 one sound1 produces greater facility4 ,there remains to be discussed a matter of very great importance for the phonetics of international language4 ,whilst all nations pronounce without difficulty a series of sounds in which the vowels alternate with single consonants1 and almost all nations have no objections to certain groups of consonants which are easily pronounced 7such as tr1 sp1 bl1 etc471 the pronunciation of other heavier groups1 especially at the end of words1 presents the greatest difficulty to many nations4 ,the ,french usually simplify too complicated groups by inserting an unwritten vowel 7as1 for example1 in ,flix7e7 ,faure71 ,italians who speak ,english do almost the same thing in the case of such groups as kstr 7,greek ,street7 or ksp 7sixpence71 and the phonetic usages of other nations do not permit even as many successive consonants as the ,italians4 ,in order to make matters as easy as possible for everybody1 one must avoid the mistake of ,neutral ,idiom1 many of whose words contained very heavy groups of final consonants1 endeavouring rather to follow the example of ,esperanto1 which succeeded very cleverly by means of its predominance of vowel terminations in producing not only grammatical clearness1 but also as easy and flowing a pronunciation as possible4 ,in this way the language becomes musical and pleasant to the ear4 ,we shall now proceed to the question of a vocabulary4 ,in choosing the majority of his stems1 ,dr4 ,zamenhof had already followed the principle of maximum internationality1 but the authors of ,neutral ,idiom were the first to carry out this principle scientifically for the whole language4 ,their procedure was1 however1 somewhat superficial1 since in each particular case they calculated the number of languages to which a given word was common4 ,one must not count the languages 7and ,latin especially must not be counted along with the living languages71 but the people who use them1 for languages are not organisms which possess an individual existence independent of those who speak them4 ,the proper rule1 therefore1 for determining the internationality of a word or stem is to count the number of people who understand it through their mother tongue4 ,this definition of the principle of maximum internationality is simply a necessary consequence of the fundamental principle of the greatest facility for the greatest number4 ,it is natural that each person would prefer the use of the greatest number of words which are familiar to him1 and so1 to be impartial1 we must attach the same value to the individual preferences of the #abj1jjj1jjj who speak ,english as to those of the #ge1jjj1jjj ,germans1 the #gj1jjj1jjj ,russians1 or the #ej1jjj1jjj ,french or ,spanish1 etc4 ,even the languages spoken by the smaller nations must be taken into account in proportion to their numbers4 ,the choice of the words for our neutral language is1 therefore1 a pure question of arithmetic4 ,statistics of the number of people who speak the different languages will not1 however1 furnish us with a complete solution of the problem4 ,in the first place1 there are to be found in the dictionaries technical words and special terms which are only known to a minority of each nation4 ,in the second place1 there occur cases where a word1 though it does not belong to a language1 is1 nevertheless1 known through one or more derivatives4 ,for example1 #ajj is in ,english hundred1 in ,german hundert1 in ,danish hundrede1 and yet the root cent 7zent7 has been long familiar to the world through the terms per cent4 7,g4 prozent71 centesimal1 centimetre1 centennial1 century1 centenary1 ,g4 zentner1 ,danish centner4 ,in the third place1 even when the same word belongs to several languages1 it very often possesses different forms1 due mostly to a different phonetic development1 with the result that the choice of a proper form is very often a delicate matter4 ,the sounds of the word change1 which the ,english and ,french write in the same way1 are very different2 but as we can employ neither the nasal vowel of the ,french nor the diphthong 7ei7 of the most usual ,english pronunciation1 chanj would appear to be the most convenient form for all4 ,in very many cases it is possible to find a common denominator for the different forms4 ,had not in ,english and ,german the external form of many etymologically closely related words diverged so much that it is impossible to find a middle form 7for example1 water1 wasser2 tooth1 zahn2 speak1 sprechen2 soap1 seife2 week1 woche71 the ,germanic element would have been the dominating one on account of the great number of those speaking these two related languages4 ,such being the case1 the ,romance element in ,english usually decides the matter in the majority of instances1 since it coincides with the ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,italian1 or at least with one of these languages1 the result being that our language necessarily possesses a ,romance form in a much higher degree than one might have thought4 ,another very important circumstance 7which ,i have hinted at previously7 acts in the same direction1 the circumstance1 namely1 that numerous ,latin derivatives have passed over into the ,germanic languages even when the stem does not occur there4 ,for example1 ,german possesses the words absentieren1 abstinenz1 artist1 dentist1 dental1 moral1 populr1 which greatly facilitate for a ,german the understanding of the words absenta1 abstenar1 arto1 dento1 moro1 populo1 although he does not possess them in his own language 7with the exception of pbel populacho74 ,sometimes there exists a very troublesome rivalry between two words4 ,in order to render the substantive arm 7limb7 the proper word would seem to be the ,german1 ,english1 and ,scandinavian arm1 until one makes the discovery that the same root arm in the sense of weapon is still more international 7,e41 ,f41 ,i41 ,s41 supported by arme ,g41 ,e41 ,f41 ,r41 armata ,i41 armada ,s41 armieren ,g41 etc471 which compels us for arm 7limb7 to have recourse to a ,romance form4 ,in other cases a more or less arbitrary change of one of the series of words appears to be the only means of avoiding confusing homonyms 7namely1 for door pordo instead of porto1 on account of port carry71 but this procedure must be employed with great caution4 ,before everything else it is necessary to avoid all disguising of words1 which makes them unrecognisable1 aptly described by ,m4 ,blondel as a masquerade4 ,this was set up as a general principle in ,volapk1 and ,esperanto is by no means free from it4 ,as an example of the conflicts which occur now and then may be quoted the expressions for the idea of soul4 ,soul is the word which would be immediately understood by the greatest number of people1 but we cannot employ the ,english diphthong 1 as we must be very sparing in the use of diphthongs1 since they cause very great difficulties in pronunciation4 ,we cannot take over the word in the form sol1 because we require this for the word alone 7,i4 ,s4 solo1 internationally used in music1 ,e4 sole1 ,f4 seul74 ,g4 seele1 supported by the ,scandinavian sjl1 is not familiar to a sufficient number of people1 and1 besides1 we require the word sel for saddle 7,f4 ,i4 ,s474 ,the ,french word me will not do either1 because it is not sufficiently well known outside ,france1 and1 besides1 there is a difficulty here too1 for am- is absolutely required for the idea of love on account of ,f4 ,i4 ,s4 and many derivatives in ,e41 not to mention the god ,amor4 ,the use of the ,latin anim-1 which is the basis of the ,romance forms1 is impossible1 since we cannot do without the adjectival termination -al1 and animal would then mean partly relating to the soul1 partly animal1 which cannot be permitted in an international language4 ,we must resort to the device of changing anim- a little1 whereby we get anmo4 ,this example will show how complicated the task frequently is of finding an international word which will give rise to no confusion or misunderstanding4 ,the degree of internationality of the language of the ,delegation will be evident from the statistics of ,couturat2 he counted the roots of the first dictionaries 7#e1cgi in all7 and found that of these the following numbers occur in the national languages3-- ,french #d1hhj1 i4e4 #ia per #ajj ,italian #d1ded #hc ,spanish #d1bcg #gi ,english #d1bai #gi ,german #c1cjb #fa ,russian #b1hba #eb ,for all these languages the above numbers are relatively higher than in the case of ,esperanto4 ,one of the most effective means of simplifying the vocabulary of a language is a carefully worked-out system of word formation1 which enables everyone1 by means of a series of regular prefixes and suffixes1 to form with the greatest ease a large number of new words1 which are immediately intelligible to all who know the rules4 ,when one has judiciously chosen the roots which occur under different forms in the various natural languages and also selected the derivative terminations with all possible care1 it is astonishing to observe how great a number of words derived with perfect regularity agree with the forms occurring in living languages4 ,with regard to grammar1 the fundamental condition to be required of every system claiming to be an international language is that of perfect regularity4 ,every exception to the rules only serves to produce complications and to render the employment of the language difficult and uncertain4 ,if one knows the conjugation of one verb1 one must know the conjugation of all verbs1 and so on4 ,in the choice of grammatical terminations the statistical method1 which served us for the purpose of the vocabulary1 cannot be strictly applied1 because living languages diverge too much in this matter4 ,nevertheless it does not leave us entirely in the lurch4 ,such cases as the dative and genitive and also the ablative1 etc41 must be expressed by prepositions in conformity with the tendency of ,western ,european languages4 ,it is advisable to have an inflection for the accusative1 although this is only intended for occasional use1 because in the great majority of instances there is no necessity to distinguish it from the nominative4 ,as neither the ,romance languages nor ,english and ,scandinavian possess any accusative inflection1 and as the ,slavonic languages do not give us any help here1 we are obliged to fall back on ,german1 which in the feminine and neuter has no inflection4 ,the masculine1 however1 in many cases has an -n 7den guten knaben74 ,the fact that this termination is also mostly used for the dative1 as well as for the infinitive1 need not prevent us employing it in our language for the accusative4 ,it necessitates the use1 however1 of forms ending in a vowel for the nominative of substantives 7and adjectives and pronouns74 ,it may be remarked that -n as an accusative inflection is also found in ,greek and ,finnish4 ,the only vowels that can be employed in this connection are o and a1 which1 as a matter of fact1 occur very frequently as the terminations of substantives and adjectives in the ,slavonic languages1 as well as in ,i4 and ,s4 ,since grammatical gender1 as distinct from sex1 cannot be permitted in an artificial language1 it is not possible to employ o and a as in natural languages1 where the former is often1 though not exclusively1 used for the masculine 7,i4 ,s41 but in ,r4 and ,polish for the neuter71 and the latter similarly for the feminine4 ,one might be inclined to employ o for the male and a for the female sex1 with the result that one would have no termination for inanimate things1 abstract ideas1 or living beings whose sex is not a matter of importance at the moment4 ,the carrying out of this rule1 however1 leads to considerable difficulties which would take too long to enter into here4 7,this is one of the points which led to most discussion in the ,delegation ,committee47 ,as a matter of fact1 a very great deal can be said in favour of the ,esperanto usage of o for the substantive and a for the adjective1 and1 as ,couturat has remarked1 la bona viro is not any stranger than the ,italian il buono poeta4 ,we need have no compunction in leaving the qualifying adjective without inflection1 as is done1 for instance1 in ,english4 ,the ending -i is very suitable for the plural of substantives1 being used for this purpose in ,italian1 in ,russian and the other ,slavonic languages1 as well as in modern ,greek2 it is also tolerably familiar to the ,english in foreign words1 such as banditti4 ,the only termination which might dispute the honours with -i is -s 7,f41 although usually silent1 ,s41 ,e41 ,g4 partly1 and ,dutch71 but -s cannot be used if we employ the accusative termination -n1 as neither virosn nor virons could be permitted4 ,as regards the inflections of verbs1 we are bound1 if we want a termination for the infinitive1 to choose1 according to our fundamental principle1 the -r of all the ,romance languages1 because neither the ,german -n1 which we have used for other purposes1 nor the palatised ,slavonic -t 7or -71 can be employed1 and ,english possesses no inflection4 ,we require a vowel before the -r1 the choice of which will be evident from what follows4 ,for the active and passive participles we need only consider -nt and -t respectively1 the vowels being also left undecided for the present4 ,the greatest difficulty1 however1 is caused by the finite tenses1 in which we must distinguish present1 past1 and future4 ,in this respect living languages differ so much amongst themselves that the principle of maximum internationality does not suffice1 especially as the inflections of tense are inextricably mixed up with those of person and number1 which for our purposes are quite unnecessary4 ,the ,delegation ,committee have1 therefore1 for the moment been unable to find anything better than the ,esperanto usage of -as for the present1 -is for the past1 and -os for the future4 ,the same series of vowels may also be employed for the infinitive and participles1 so that the normal forms are -ar1 -anta1 and -ata 7the final vowel a here being the adjectival termination71 whilst -ir1 -inta1 -ita1 and -or1 -onta1 -ota1 respectively may be retained for the less frequent cases where one wishes to indicate expressly another tense in the infinitive or participle4 ,a few priori inflections will not cause much harm in a grammar which is so easy that it may be mastered in half an hour4 ,i have now arrived at the end of my investigation1 in which ,i have endeavoured to show the method whereby the language of the ,delegation has been constructed4 ,the result is a language that everyone can easily master1 and which possesses the advantage over other languages that it is based on rational scientific principles and1 therefore1 need not fear that some fine day it will be replaced by another and sensibly different language4 ,naturally improvements will be effected in details where the fundamental principles have not been sufficiently worked out1 but the foundation is sound1 and the common auxiliary language of mankind cannot differ very much from our ,internaciona linguo1 or1 to give it a shorter name1 ,interlinguo1 or1 still shorter1 ,ilo 7from the initial letters74 ,,otto ,,jespersen4 ,,appendix ,,criticism ,,of ,,esperanto ,in connection with the foregoing some critical remarks on ,esperanto may be made1 from which one will readily perceive the reasons which made it impossible for the ,dlgation pour l',adoption d'une ,langue ,internationale to adopt ,esperanto in its present form as the international auxiliary language4 ,dr4 ,zamenhof has given us an interesting account of the way in which his language gradually developed in his mind while he was at the ,warsaw ,gymnasium4 ,before he arrived at the conviction that the material for the vocabulary must be obtained from the ,romance and ,germanic languages1 and that the already existing stock of international words must be used1 he had simply invented his words1 that is to say1 chosen them quite arbitrarily1 but with as much regard to system and brevity as possible4 ,although he himself noticed that such words are difficult to learn and still more difficult to remember1 he has unfortunately retained in the finished language a whole series of such priori formations1 which appear in words of such frequent occurrence as who1 how1 where1 never1 everywhere1 etc4 ,the nul tempe and pro quo chosen by the ,delegation agree1 however1 much better with the general character of language than the neniam and kial of ,dr4 ,zamenhof4 ,some peculiarities may be accounted for by the ,slavonic mother tongue of the author3 for example1 his preference for sibilants and diphthongs1 which is especially evident in the invented words 7e4g41 chi1 here2 chiu1 each2 ech1 even2 ghi1 that2 ghis1 until1 gh and ch being pronounced as ,e4 j and ch74 ,in an article in ,zamenhof's ,krestomatio ,i find1 for example 7p4 #bhh71 chiuj tiuj senantaujughaj kaj honestaj homoj1 kiuj1 anstatau filizofadi pri ghi1 and 7p4 #bic7 tion chi ankorau antau la apero de la unua arta lingvo antauvidis kaj antaudiris chiuj tiuj eminentaj kapoj1 kiuj1 etc4 ,the method of writing x is also ,russian3 ekzameni1 ekzemplo1 etc41 and also ekspedi1 eksplodi2 also kv for qu4 ,french words with oi take ua in ,esperanto when they are spelt in this way in ,russian1 e4g41 trotuaro1 tualeto1 vuala2 otherwise they are spelt with oi or oj1 e4g41 foiro1 fojo1 foino4 ,nacio1 tradicio1 etc41 instead of -iono1 is also ,russian4 ,russian usage has doubtless also inspired such word formations as elparoli and senkulpigi instead of the international pronuncar and exkuzar 7,r4 vygovarivat' and izvin'at'1 corresponding to ,g4 aussprechen and entschuldigen74 ,the peculiarity of using the adverb instead of the adjective in such cases as estas necese vidi1 it is necessary to see1 is probably to be ascribed to the correspondence of the ,russian adverb with the neuter predicate adjective4 ,this rule cannot be permitted1 however1 in an international language1 because1 with a free word order1 it would be impossible to say whether estas vere necese means it is really necessary or it is necessarily true4 ,the compound perfect 7mi estas aminta1 ,i have loved ,i am having loved7 reminds one of the ,polish kochal-em4 ,finally1 the frequent use of the adjective 7in -a7 instead of the genitive 7,zamenhofa lingvo7 and of the two sorts of action expressed by ek and ad 7ekvidi and vidadi used in many cases where the simple vidi would be sufficient7 are to be accounted for by ,russian usages4 ,naturally ,i do not object to the importation of national peculiarities into the international auxiliary language when the latter is enriched thereby4 ,for example1 one must make use of the facility for forming compound words common to the ,germanic and ,slavonic languages in preference to the poverty of ,romance languages in this respect1 and combine it with the more ,romance characteristic of forming new words by means of derivative syllables4 ,but peculiarities of national language which render mutual comprehension and international usage difficult must be most carefully avoided4 ,the unpractical nature of the circumflexed letters has been indicated previously4 ,it may be remarked here1 however1 that in point of system ,zamenhof's letters are very inferior to the similar ones employed in the ,czech language1 since the parallelism in sound between s and 1 z and 1 dz and 1 is disguised by the choice of letters4 ,this produces a very amateurish effect4 ,besides the familiar parts of speech which are indicated by special terminations1 ,zamenhof invented a new class characterised by the termination -au 7kontrau1 almenau72 but the limits of this class1 which includes some1 but not all1 adverbs and prepositions1 are not clearly defined4 ,many words taken from existing languages are disguised1 almost after the fashion of ,volapk3 boji1 ,f4 aboyer2 parkere1 ,f4 par cur2 shvit1 ,g4 schwitzen1 ,e4 sweat2 char1 ,f4 car2 faruno instead of farin2 lerta1 ,f4 alerte 7with a changed meaning71 etc4 ,in this category is to be classed the astonishing nepre 7entirely7 which is derived from the ,russian nepremenno1 just as if one were to take from the ,german word unbedingt the two first syllables and propose unbe as an international word instead of absolute4 ,the economy in the use of stems was carried much too far in ,esperanto1 necessitating the employment of all sorts of compound words1 the discovery of whose meaning requires much racking of one's brains4 ,the employment of all the derivative syllables also as independent words is very ingenious1 but produces a very strange impression on the uninitiated4 ,the method of word formation is greatly wanting in precision1 the limits of the so-called direct derivation in particular being not sufficiently clearly indicated4 ,one example will suffice4 ,starting out from kroni to crown1 krono ought properly to mean crowning1 instead of which it signifies crown1 so that one is forced to use kronado for crowning1 whereas1 according to the rules of ,esperanto1 kronado must mean continuous or repeated crowning1 as if a king were being constantly or repeatedly crowned4#d ,i have brought together here the most important defects in ,esperanto1 the removal of which formed one of the tasks of the ,delegation ,committee4 ,the knowledge of these imperfections does not prevent me from recognising the meritorious services of ,zamenhof1 who1 at a time when the question of the best construction of an international language was not seriously discussed1 succeeded in producing one which was in many respects superior to the attempts of that time1 and which has proved in practice a serviceable1 though very imperfect1 means of international communication4 ,,otto ,,jespersen4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,on ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,logic ,,to ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,an ,,international ,,language ,the problem of an international language has a theoretical as well as a practical importance4 ,i have no intention of discussing the latter here and of explaining once more the necessity of an auxiliary language for international relations of every sort1 and the practical possibility of making oneself understood by means of an artificial language1 a possibility which has been proved by experience4 ,but an international language is also1 according to the words of the celebrated philologist ,h4 ,schuchardt1 a desideratum of science1 in which connection it raises at once problems of philology and logic4 ,that these problems are worthy of the study of scientific men is proved by the discussions of ,professors ,diels and ,gomperz1 the reports made to the ,academy of ,sciences of ,leipzig by ,professors ,brugmann and ,leskien1 and1 finally1 the labours and decisions of the ,committee of the ,dlgation pour l',adoption d'une ,langue ,internationale4 ,the latter1 composed of highly competent scientists and linguists1 has determined the principles necessary for an auxiliary language1 and has practically realised them4 ,my desire in what follows is to show briefly the connection of the international language with logic1 and its claims on the attention and interest of philosophers4 ,in the words of ,leibnitz1 ,languages form the best mirror for the human spirit1 and an exact analysis of the meaning and relationship of words would be the best means of disclosing the operations of the mind 7,n4 ,essais1 ,,iii41 ,,vii41 end74 ,but the majority of philosophers 7with some distinguished exceptions1 e4g41 ,professor ,wundt7 and the majority of linguists 7also with some distinguished exceptions1 e4g41 ,m4 ,bral7 have given little attention to the study of language from the point of view of psychology and logic4 ,now this study is particularly easy and interesting in the case of an artificial language1 since the latter presents a structure analogous to that of our existing languages1 but much simpler and more regular4 ,the words of the international language consist of invariable elements 7morphemes7 of three sorts3 stems1 derivative affixes 7prefixes and suffixes71 and grammatical inflections which1 as in the case of ,european languages1 are always final letters or final syllables4 ,the stems themselves can be divided into two categories3 verb stems1 which express a state1 action1 or relation1 e4g41 dorm1 parol1 frap2 and non-verbal or nominal stems1 which denote an object 7living being or thing71 or express an aspect of it1 e4g41 hom1 dom1 bel1 blind4 ,the latter can produce directly only names 7substantives or adjectives73 man1 house1 beautiful1 blind 7in ,ido1 homo1 domo1 bela1 blinda72 the former1 on the contrary1 produce directly verbs3 to sleep1 to speak1 to strike 7in ,ido1 dormar1 parolar1 frapar71 but they can also give rise to nouns3 sleep1 word1 blow 7in ,ido1 dormo1 parolo1 frapo74 ,the proper rle of the grammatical terminations is to determine the grammatical function of a stem word and to indicate the category to which the word belongs1 whether verb1 substantive1 or adverb4 ,thus parol-ar to speak2 parol-o 7spoken7 word2 parol-a oral2 parol-e orally4 ,the same idea1 namely1 that expressed by the stem word1 always runs through the various categories4 ,this follows from a principle which dominates the whole structure of the international language3 ,every word element 7morpheme7 represents an elementary idea1 which is always the same1 so that a combination of elements has a meaning determined by the combination of the corresponding ideas4 ,this principle is only a corollary to the general principle of uniqueness so clearly enunciated by ,ostwald3 ,there exists a unique and reciprocal correspondence between the ideas and the morphemes which express them4 ,this principle represents evidently the ideal of all language1 for a language1 being essentially a system of symbols1 is only theoretically perfect 7and useful and convenient in practice7 when there exists a unique correspondence between the symbol and the idea symbolised4 ,now it follows from this principle that it is quite incorrect to say1 as is often done1 ,being given a stem1 it suffices to add to it -ar to form a verb1 -o to form a substantive1 -a to form an adjective2 we require to define the sense possessed by this verb1 substantive1 and adjective4 ,in other words1 to every derivative of form there must correspond a derivative of sense which is in no wise arbitrary1 but determined by general rules4 ,if dorm-ar to sleep1 dorm-o cannot mean indifferently the sleeper1 the dormitory1 or the desire to sleep2 if blind-a blind1 blind-o cannot signify at pleasure either blindness or the act of blinding4 ,the rule which must guide us here is the principle enunciated above1 namely1 that a stem always preserves the same sense and expresses the same idea2 if one wishes to express another idea related to the former in a definite way1 it is necessary to add to the stem a morpheme expressing this relationship4 ,the morphemes which denote the relations of our ideas are the affixes of derivation1 which permit us to express a whole family of ideas by the aid and as the function of one fundamental idea1 and to form correspondingly a family of words all derived from the same stem1 as occurs1 as a matter of fact1 in natural languages4 ,certain of these affixes are wrongly classed amongst the grammatical inflections1 such as1 for example1 the participial suffixes which serve to derive an adjective or a substantive from a verb1 denoting him who performs the action1 or is affected by 7subject to7 the state or relationship expressed by the stem3 dorm-ant-a sleeping1 arol-ant-a speaking1 whence1 by simple change of the final letter1 dorm-ant-o sleeper1 parol-ant-o speaker4 ,one will perceive thereby the difference between direct derivation1 which is effected by means of the grammatical inflections1 and indirect derivation1 which is effected by means of the addition of affixes4 ,there is nothing arbitrary about this distinction1 for it rests on the logical principles enunciated above1 which determine the theoretical and practical value of the international language4 ,from these principles follow at once the rules of direct derivation4 ,if one starts from a verbal stem1 what must be the sense of the substantive directly derived from it8 ,this sense can be none other than the state or action expressed by the verb3 dormar to sleep1 dormo sleep2 parolar to speak1 parolo a word2 frapar to strike1 frapo a blow4 ,in these derived words we perceive the sense of the verb stem1 and the proof of that is that in our natural languages we often employ the infinitive for this purpose3 le manger1 le boire1 le dormir1 le rire2 das rennen 7in ,english the verbal in -ing is employed with the sense of the infinitive74 ,indeed1 one might completely identify the verbal substantive with the infinitive4 ,if one starts from a substantival stem1 what must be the relation between the adjective and substantive derived from it8 ,they must necessarily have the same sense1 whichever of the two one considers the primary word2 if avara avaricious1 avaro an avaricious person2 if blinda blind1 blindo a blind person4 ,this rule is all the more necessary in practice as there are a crowd of substantival stems concerning which one could not say whether they produce at first a substantive or an adjective3 vidva widowed1 vidvo widower2 nobela noble1 nobelo nobleman2 santa holy1 santo a saint4 ,this is particularly true of the names of followers of this or that doctrine3 katoliko1 katolika2 skeptiko1 skeptika1 etc4 ,no one would think of using any suffix to derive one of these words from the other4 ,there is only a very slight difference of meaning between a katolika skeptiko and a skeptika katoliko1 the substantive indicating in each case the primary and fundamental idea to which the other is superadded4 ,this brings us to the enunciation of the principle of reversibility1 which may be formulated as follows3 ,every derivation must be reversible2 that is to say1 if one passes from one word to another of the same family in virtue of a certain rule1 one must be able to pass inversely from the second to the first in virtue of a rule which is exactly the inverse of the preceding4 ,that is an evident corollary of the principle of uniqueness1 for otherwise one would be led to give two meanings to the same word4 ,let us suppose1 for example1 that from the noun krono1 a crown1 one imagines it possible to derive directly 7as is the case in certain languages7 the verb kronar to crown4 ,from this verb one could deduce inversely in virtue of the general rule the substantive krono coronation1 so that the same word krono would then mean both crown and coronation4 ,that would be1 however1 a logical error inadmissible in the international language1 however numerous may be the examples of it which occur in living languages4 ,on the contrary1 thanks to the principle of reversibility1 one can proceed from any word whatsoever of a family and arrive at any other word of the same family1 or return to the initial word1 in an absolutely unique manner1 whereas if one did not observe this principle one would inevitably obtain two meanings for the same word4 ,the principle of reversibility fixes the rules of direct derivation for the cases which are the converse of those we have studied4 ,just as the substantive directly derived from a verb denotes the state or action expressed by this verb 7or1 more strictly1 by its root71 so a verb can be derived directly from a substantive only if the latter expresses an action or a state4 ,for example1 paco peace2 can one form the verb pacar1 and if so what will be its meaning8 ,this verb can only signify one thing1 to be in the state of peace1 and not to pacify or make peace1 for in that case paco would mean pacification or conclusion of peace1 and not the state of peace4 ,similarly1 if one can and must convert an adjective into a noun by the simple substitution of -o for -a1 the adjective immediately derived from a substantive can only mean what is --4 ,if homo a man 7a human being71 homa can only mean human in the sense of which is a man 7human being72 homa ento a human being4 ,but if one wishes to obtain an adjective signifying which belongs to --1 which relates to --1 which depends on --1 it is necessary to employ a suffix 7-al73 homala manuo a human hand4 ,one might equally well say manuo di homo the hand of a man 7human being74 ,but just as the preposition di is indispensable for indicating the relationship between two ideas which are not simply juxtaposed1 but depend on each other1 so1 if we wish to express one of the ideas in adjectival form1 we require a suffix which also expresses this relation or dependence4 ,besides1 a suffix of this nature exists under different forms in all our languages3 ,g4 -isch2 ,e4 -ic1 -al1 -ical2 ,f4 -ique1 -al1 -el2 ,i4 -ico2 ,s4 -ico4 ,the choice of -al rather than -ik was determined by reasons of euphony and also internationality1 the derivative adjectives employed in science 7the most international of all7 ending often in -al3 mental1 vocal1 spatial2 rationnel1 universel1 fonctionnel1 etc4 ,in this connection we shall make a general remark4 ,the international language borrows its stems from the ,european languages according to the principle of maximum internationality1 i4e41 adopts for each idea the most international stem1 namely1 that which is familiar to the greatest number of men4 ,but it cannot1 and must not1 borrow their derivatives from living languages without losing all its theoretical and practical advantages1 because the natural derivatives are too irregular4 ,sometimes the same affix has several different meanings2 sometimes the same relationship is expressed by different affixes4 ,in virtue of the principle of uniqueness1 it is necessary to unify and regularise the meaning and employment of the affixes1 assigning to each one a perfectly definite significance and function4 ,undoubtedly one must endeavour to adopt for the affixes forms which are international 7as much as possible71 or at least known in some language 7like the suffix -in of the feminine1 borrowed from the ,german1 e4g41 knigin1 and the prefix mal-1 denoting a contrary1 borrowed from the ,french1 e4g41 malheureux71 so as to reproduce as much as possible international derivatives4 ,but it is chimerical to endeavour to reproduce them all1 since they are irregular and consequently incompatible with that logical regularity of the language on which is based not only its fertility1 but also its simplicity in practical use and its facility for all nationalities 7even for non-,european peoples who are not familiar with the anomalies and caprices of ,european languages74 ,the international language must be autonomous in its formation of words2 when the elements which it borrows from our languages have been once chosen 7in the best possible manner71 it must combine them freely according to its own rules1 preserving their form and sense rigorously invariable4 ,it is by virtue of this condition that it becomes a true language1 richer in certain respects than our own1 since it can form all the useful derivatives which are often wanting in one or the other1 and not merely a simple imitation or copy of our languages1 which would be as difficult as they1 and which would require a previous knowledge of them4 ,we shall not explain here all the forms of indirect derivation1 or enumerate the forty-seven affixes used for this purpose4 ,we shall quote only a few of them for the sake of example1 in order to show the application of the principles enunciated above4 ,if there is one suffix which is particularly useful to philosophers1 it is that which enables one to derive from an adjective the name of the corresponding abstract quality2 that is the ,greek suffix -otet and the ,latin suffix -itat 7-itud71 whence have come the ,french -it1 the ,english -ity1 the ,italian -ita1 the ,spanish -itad2 and the ,german suffix -heit or -keit1 etc4 ,we perceive here a logical relation well known and made use of in all our languages4 ,it must find a place in the international language1 but by what suffix ought it to be represented8 ,now1 if one analyses the idea involved in this suffix1 one will find that beauty1 health1 blindness1 are simply the states or facts of being beautiful1 healthy1 blind4 ,the idea involved in this suffix is then the idea of being1 not the idea of existence1 but the idea of being such and such1 the idea of attribution which is expressed by the copula est4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 to represent it by the ,indo-,european stem of the verb to be1 namely1 es2 bel-es-o beauty2 san-es-o health2 blind-es-o blindness4 ,the fact that this suffix recalls a ,french suffix 7richesse71 an ,italian suffix 7bellezza71 and an ,english suffix -ness 7happiness7 employed in the same sense can only serve as an accessory confirmation of the above choice1 which was dictated by logical motives4 ,moreover1 this agrees perfectly with our general rules2 to be well will be translated by esar sana or san-esar1 and the fact of being well will be saneso health4 ,conversely1 if we start from saneso health1 we can form the verb sanesar to be in 7good7 health4 ,whatever may be the point of departure1 there is no fear of making a mistake or going off the rails in forming these derivatives1 if we observe the principle of reversibility4 ,it would1 therefore1 be not only arbitrary1 but absurd1 to express health by sano1 which latter can only mean a healthy being4 ,for one must not imagine1 as is often stated1 that an adjective expresses a quality2 it expresses precisely he who1 or that which1 possesses the quality in question4 ,that is why all our languages employ a suffix for the purpose of deriving from an adjective the name of the corresponding quality4 ,but our languages often require to express the inverse relation1 namely1 that of the individual possessing a quality to that quality4 ,for just as there are names of qualities which are derived from adjectives1 as beaut1 gaiet1 bellezza1 tapferkeit1 gleichheit1 so there are others which are primary and from which1 therefore1 the corresponding adjectives are derived3 courage1 courageux2 joie1 joyeux2 beauty1 beautiful2 glck1 glcklich2 freude1 freudig4 ,and1 as one sees1 our languages employ in these cases a series of analogous suffixes4 ,the international language must evidently imitate them1 for it cannot decree that all the names of qualities shall be derivative1 nor that they shall all be primary2 that would amount to an arbitrary uniformity contrary to the spirit of our languages and probably also to our logical instincts4 ,the international language must1 therefore1 have a suffix which will serve to derive from the name of a quality the name of the possessor of that quality4 ,that will be -oz1 a ,latin suffix 7formosus1 generosus1 etc471 occurring very frequently in the ,romance and even ,germanic languages 7mysteris1 mysterious1 mystrieux1 misterioso74 ,this suffix is the logical inverse of the preceding one 7-es7 and is quite as indispensable as it4 ,it is a curious fact that our languages exhibit examples of the superposition of these two suffixes considered in respect of their sense1 if not their form3 glck1 glcklich1 glcklichkeit2 beauty1 beautiful1 beautifulness4 ,latin has derived formosus from forma2 ,spanish in its turn has derived hermosura from hermoso1 etc4 ,languages also provide us with frequent examples of the reciprocity of these suffixes4 ,on the one hand1 ,on the other hand1 gaie gives gaiet2 joie gives joyeux2 gay gaiety2 joy joyful2 allegro allegrezza2 gioja giojoso2 frhlich frhlichkeit2 freude freudig4 ,the international language is1 therefore1 faithful not only to logic1 but to the spirit of our languages1 in admitting at the same time the two inverse derivations3 gaya1 gayeso2 joyo1 joyoza4 ,a language which contained the suffix -es1 and not the suffix -oz1 would be lame or one-armed4 ,besides1 this lacuna would manifest itself very quickly in further derivations1 for the latter would violate the principle of reversibility and therefore that of uniqueness4 ,if from joyo were derived joya1 from this adjective1 analogous to gaya1 one could derive inversely joyeso joyo1 thus producing two names for the same quality 7just as above sano would have been synonymous with saneso74 ,if from kurajo 7courage7 were derived kuraja 7courageous71 one could derive from the latter kurajeso1 synonymous with kurajo4 ,and1 on the other hand1 kurajo being the substantive of kuraja1 this word would signify both courage and a courageous person4 ,from want of a single suffix the whole series of derivations would become confused and illogical1 just as in a chain of reasoning a single error1 or in an algebraical calculation a single false equation1 would lead to the most absurd conclusions4 ,to sum up1 one must take care not to derive a word directly from another1 except when they both express the same idea 7apart from the difference of their grammatical rle in the sentence74 ,consequently1 whenever the sense changes1 a word element must be added or disappear1 in order to translate the modification of the idea4 ,it is by virtue of this condition that the language will become the exact and faithful expression of our thoughts1 and will conform to that indwelling and instinctive logic which1 in spite of all sorts of irregularities and exceptions1 animates our languages4 ,in its system of derivation as well as in the rest of its structure1 the international language is nothing but a purified and idealised extract1 a quintessence of the ,european languages4 ,the logic which holds sway there is not the ,aristotelian logic of genus and species1 but rather that logic newly constituted under the name of the logic of relationships1 which is1 however1 as old as the world1 since it lies1 though obscurely1 at the basis of the formative processes in our natural languages4 ,that is the reason why the international language offers to philosophers a particularly instructive field of study4 ,it is worthy of their interest in other respects4 ,not only does it offer to them1 as it does to all men1 a medium of communication between all countries1 but it furnishes them also with an instrument of precision for the analysis and exact expression of the forms of thought1 which is very superior1 from the point of view of logic1 to our traditional languages1 encumbered as these are with confused and ambiguous expressions4 ,it is their duty to contribute to the development and perfecting of a language which1 without losing anything of its practical qualities1 can and must realise by degrees the ideal of human language2 if it is true that there does exist an ideal in our languages1 though hidden and irremediably disfigured by all sorts of anomalies4 ,to quote a saying of ,schuchardt1 ,was die ,sprache gewollt haben die ,sprachen zerstrt4#e ,l4 ,,couturat4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,relationship ,,of ,,the ,,international ,,language ,,to ,,science ,whilst the preceding chapters have sufficiently demonstrated that the construction of an artificial international language is not only possible1 but already in all probability fixed as regards its fundamental principles1 it will be desirable here to give some account of the inner relations between science and the auxiliary language4 ,without doubt one of the most important conditions to be satisfied by an artificial international language is1 that it should be capable of being employed in science4 ,considering the leading part which science plays to-day in the life of nations1 the system which this intellectual ,great ,power will adopt cannot be a matter of indifference2 indeed1 its capability of serving the needs of science might well be regarded as the test of an artificial language4 ,it is1 for example1 conceivable that a particular system1 although unsuitable for the purposes of science1 might work quite well so far as commercial relations are concerned4 ,before we examine the relationship between science and auxiliary language the question may be asked whether an international language is at all necessary in science1 and whether it is likely to be introduced therein4 ,we may consider that this question has been settled by the discussions contained in the previous chapters4 ,the general question of the introduction of an artificial auxiliary language having been answered in the affirmative1 the further question may be raised as to why1 in spite of the existence of different artificial auxiliary languages1 such as ,volapk1 ,esperanto1 ,neutral ,idiom1 ,novilatin1 ,universal1 etc41 science has not long ago adopted and introduced one of them4 ,quite apart from the actual circumstances which have prevented this1 a perfectly precise answer may be given to the above question4 ,there have not been wanting experiments in this direction4 ,already in the ,volapk period endeavours were made to translate scientific works into ,volapk in order to prove that this language could also be of service to science4 ,in particular the translations of ,dr4 ,miess's ,craniology1 ,dr4 ,winkler's ,petrification of ,fishes1 and the ,eastern ,travels of the ,crown ,prince ,rudolph were boasted of by the ,volapkists4 ,esperanto has gone further1 and is1 as a matter of fact1 more capable of development in this direction4 ,there appears a periodical1 ,scienca ,revuo1 which in popular form conveys the most important results of different sciences to ,esperanto readers4 ,fechner's little book on life after death and some others have also been translated4 ,all these attempts possess an extraordinary interest for the great experiment in language on which mankind has been engaged during the last twenty years1 and the greatest thanks are due to their authors4 ,it is only1 indeed1 after many attempts that an experiment can be successfully carried through4 ,but1 without wishing to deny that very remarkable things have been accomplished1 all these experiments prove one fact beyond question1 namely1 that the languages mentioned do not even approximately1 and cannot indeed possibly1 satisfy the requirements which science must demand of the artificial auxiliary language4 ,science could not1 therefore1 have chosen any of these languages as the artificial auxiliary language even had she wished1 nor could she do so in the future without experiencing failure4 ,an examination of the reasons for this state of affairs will enable us to arrive at the relation between science and the international auxiliary language4 ,it can be shown what the nature of this relationship must be1 and it follows therefrom whether any particular system will or will not be serviceable to science4 ,there are two necessary criteria1 namely1 internationality of vocabulary and logical precision of expression4 ,one might be inclined to emphasise the importance of the second criterion without paying any attention whatever to the first1 and to regard a system constructed on a purely logical basis as alone worthy of science4 ,but this would be a retrograde step1 for indeed the question of artificial language originated with the idea of a so-called philosophical language in the mind of ,leibnitz and afterwards4 ,if one takes the point of view that the scientific auxiliary language should be constructed on an ideographic basis 7that is to say1 a system of correlation between symbols and ideas1 which1 however1 as it is a language1 must be capable of being spoken71 one arrives at an priori system1 as it is called in the theory of universal language4 ,thanks to the laborious and self-sacrificing work of the thousands who during the last twenty years have devoted and still devote themselves to the great experiments in language1 we are able nowadays to refer this question to the test of experience4 ,the latter has shown with absolute certainty that priori systems cannot be spoken4 ,the learning of any natural language1 with all its irregularities1 peculiarities1 and anomalies1 is child's play compared to the learning of an priori system4 ,all experiments in this direction have failed and need no longer be seriously considered4 ,but even when an artificial language has not been constructed priori another error1 producing much the same effect1 may very greatly injure its facility in practice4 ,an otherwise so successful system as ,volapk came finally to grief through an error of this sort4 ,although ,volapk was constructed by a man of whom it is said that he was master of1 or at least acquainted with1 fifty-five living languages1 and although1 according to its whole nature1 it appeared to be modelled very closely on natural languages1 nevertheless the abbreviations which ,schleyer introduced so often into the words he took over 7for example1 vol for world1 pk for speak1 ,melop for ,america7 produced the same psychological effect as if his word-formations had been priori4 ,man is1 in fact1 a psychological as well as a logical being4 ,if there is to be any practical outcome1 we must1 therefore1 under all circumstances base our work on the psychological principle of internationality4 ,it is only this which confers on the auxiliary language the quality of being easily learnt and spoken1 which is unconditionally necessary for its practical use in science1 as in other departments of life4 ,such systems are called posteriori1 and experience shows that the more posteriori elements are contained in an international language the more it conforms to ,jespersen's fundamental principle of the greatest ease for the greatest number of people4 ,but1 one may argue1 does it not follow from this that the best solution would be the introduction of a national language into science8 ,certainly not1 for this would not offer the greatest facility to the greatest number of people1 because the formation of the so-called idioms1 which1 apart from grammatical difficulties1 hinder the learning and use of a language1 would in the case of many national languages interfere with the internationality of the vocabulary4 ,these idioms have a very similar effect to the priori word formations1 and diminish the intelligibility1 lucidity1 and facility of logical expression4 ,the only international auxiliary language which will be of practical use in science will be constructed according to the posteriori principle of maximum internationality1 and will be almost or entirely free from idioms4 ,if we add to this that it must possess that logical clearness of expression which we have described above as the second criterion1 we have the general conditions which must be satisfied by an international language suitable for science4 ,apart from the practical value of the principle of internationality1 there exists in science another very special reason for regarding it as a necessary condition to be satisfied by an international auxiliary language4 ,we may inquire1 in fact1 from a purely scientific standpoint1 how far the systems which have been devised up to the present have adjusted themselves to the international language which already exists in science4 ,for all the thousands of words in scientific and technical nomenclature which1 apart from their nationality1 the scientific men of all countries have been inventing for centuries according to very uniform principles1 as well as the likewise largely international expressions of unofficial nomenclature1 form a possession of modern scientific civilisation of such magnitude1 importance1 and value1 that it cannot on any account be sacrificed4 ,on the contrary1 all these words1 as well as many similar ones derived from daily life1 form the true1 natural1 and practical basis of international language4 ,this international auxiliary language1 which forms one of the foundation stones of our general1 scientific1 and technical culture1 is so closely bound up with the life and existence of science and has become so much the second nature of all scientific men1 especially investigators1 that they have long become accustomed to write and think in this language apart from their nationality4 ,it is an easily ascertained fact1 and one that is well known to the scientific men of all countries1 that the latter can read foreign scientific literature much more easily than newspapers or novels written in the same languages4 ,the explanation of this is that the foreign scientific works1 on account of their technical vocabulary1 are written in a language which possesses a much more international character than that of the novels or newspapers4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be denied that there actually exist already1 particularly in science1 the beginnings of an international 7and largely artificially created7 auxiliary language which is written1 spoken1 and read4 ,we find here ready made the first provisional lexicon of the scientific international language4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be urged that science should select any one of the proposed artificial languages1 because the selection of words is by no means an arbitrary process4 ,the only procedure possible to science must be the construction of an international language on the basis of the already existing foundations4 ,science can never accept as an international language1 one which destroys the actually existing internationality of scientific nomenclature4 ,as we see1 these considerations1 like the former1 lead us to the conclusion that the auxiliary language must be based on the principle of maximum internationality2 that is to say1 its vocabulary must be taken posteriori from the international treasury1 and must not be invented according to any priori system or special idiom4 ,it follows from this that the auxiliary language of the future must inevitably be chiefly ,romance in its character1 for ,latin is the international auxiliary language which still lives and flourishes for1 and by means of1 science4 ,the objection might be made here that the simplest solution would be the reintroduction of ,latin into science as the auxiliary language4 ,but this contradicts one of our fundamental premises1 for ,latin fails just as much as all other national languages to satisfy our second criterion1 namely1 that of complete logical precision4 ,besides1 it is too difficult4 ,esperanto does not even approximately satisfy the necessary conditions2 it infringes1 in fact1 all three4 ,on the one hand1 its vocabulary is very far from being constructed according to the principle of maximum internationality2 on the other hand1 the ,esperantists are supposed to make up for this defect by the famous principle of vortfarado 7i4e41 word manufacture671 with the result that their language falls into the error of creating idioms4 ,for example1 in ,esperanto the beginning of the sentence ,a rotary transformer might be called a motor-generator1 but the latter name is usually applied to machines with independent armatures1 is translated in the following way3 ,turnighan alispecigilon oni povas nomi motorproduktanto1 which literally translated reads1 ,a self-turning otherwise-making instrument can be called a motor-producer4 ,apart from these fundamental errors of ,esperanto1 it lacks a systematic method of word formation1 the importance of which has been demonstrated in a masterly and convincing fashion by ,couturat in the previous chapter4 ,hundreds of times the puzzled reader of an ,esperanto text is in doubt about the sense of an adjective1 even such common expressions as stony and made of stone being rendered in ,esperanto by the same word 7shtona74 ,a phrase such as ,it is perhaps possible cannot be accurately translated into ,esperanto1 since1 on account of its simplicity1 the words perhaps and possible are both rendered by the same priori word1 eble4 ,with regard to choice of vocabulary1 other systems1 in particular ,neutral ,idiom1 are exceedingly superior to ,esperanto4 ,in this last product of the ,volapk movement the principle of internationality has been finally recognised4 ,a language academy was founded which constructed a lexicon according to this principle4 ,unfortunately1 as ,jespersen has very fully shown in ,chapter ,,iii41 this principle was not interpreted in the right manner1 so that the language lacks logical clearness in spite of the international character of its vocabulary4 ,we need not1 therefore1 be surprised that science has hitherto been unable to adopt any of the artificial systems as the international auxiliary language4 ,that would have been a false step1 and would only have produced confusion4 ,it is only at the present time that one has arrived at a clear recognition of the principles on which such a language must be based4 ,the only artificial system which can claim that its inventors have endeavoured in its construction to combine and consistently carry out the principles of internationality and logical precision 7namely1 systematic choice of stems and a regular system of derivation7 is1 as will be sufficiently evident from the preceding chapters of this book1 the language of the ,delegation4 ,without doubt the internaciona linguo di la ,delegitaro will have to undergo changes and improvements1 for one cannot expect that such a gigantic task as the introduction of an international auxiliary language can be accomplished all at once4 ,we hold1 however1 that ,ido represents the first artificial language concerning whose introduction into science serious discussion is possible4 ,we may state with full confidence to-day that1 so far as human calculation is possible1 the attempt to carry this out will be crowned with success4 ,on the other hand1 this introduction will not be without a useful reaction on science1 not only in respect to the development and extension of its external life as an international ,great ,power1 but also with regard to the more perfect unification and extension of its language and nomenclature on the lines of strict and complete internationality4 ,an expression of opinion on this point will be given in the following chapter4 ,,richard ,,lorenz4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,nomenclature ,if we take up a book or a paper dealing with mathematics 7especially analysis7 printed in a language1 such as ,japanese1 which is quite unintelligible to us1 we shall1 nevertheless1 soon succeed in finding out what it is about and often in understanding its main contents4 ,the reason of this is1 of course1 that the mathematical formul consist of symbols which are intelligible to us because they are used in the same manner by all civilised nations4 ,the same thing holds good in physics1 and especially in chemistry2 chemical formul contain at the present day such detailed information concerning the relationships of the substances symbolised1 that one might conceive the possibility of writing a chemical paper with formul alone4 ,in the case of the descriptive natural sciences1 the ,latin names of the genera and species1 the ,latin nomenclature of anatomy and other similar groups1 form a common international possession4 ,physiology1 biology1 sociology1 as well as history and ancient philology1 possess as yet1 however1 no system of internationally intelligible terms4 ,in modern philology 7phonetics7 practical endeavours have already been made to construct an international system of sound symbols4 ,all these sciences possess naturally the designation of numbers by means of numerals which have a perfectly international character4 ,since in mathematics not only the quantities1 but also the operations1 are denoted by universally understood symbols1 it is already possible1 with comparatively few additions1 to express long trains of mathematical thought in a manner which is internationally intelligible1 that is1 intelligible to those who are acquainted with the science and its symbols4 ,for a considerable time ,professor ,peano1 in ,turin1 has been publishing works written in this manner4 ,we perceive here the realisation of the ideal of a purely ideographic language1 which can be read by the specialist without his requiring to translate it into the words of any particular form of speech4 ,to quote a similar example from chemistry1 ,j4 ,h4 van't ,hoff1 in one of the publications of his youth1 avoided assigning names to the chemical substances with which he dealt1 considering that his meaning would be much better conveyed by the corresponding structural formul4 ,such a text would be quite intelligible to a trained chemist without the formul calling up in his mind any particular words1 indeed without any such words existing at all4 ,these well-known facts show that the problem of an international language has already been partly solved in science4 ,in so far as definite and fairly stable concepts have been formed in science1 they may be designated by arbitrary symbols1 which may if necessary be universally accepted and understood4 ,hitherto such symbols have been mainly employed for reading1 that is to say intended for the eye1 and not for the voice and ear4 ,for example1 in different languages quite different sounds are assigned to the numerals1 so that1 whilst the written symbols are universally intelligible1 the spoken ones are not4 ,however1 there are a considerable number of exceptions to this statement4 ,the word integral is quite as international as the symbol and the chemical symbol ,tl is pronounced everywhere thallium1 or something very like it4 ,on looking through the table of the chemical elements one finds that more than two-thirds of the names possess similar sounds in the chief languages4 ,differences occur only in the case of the well-known elements1 where the words employed in daily life have found their way into science1 whilst the newly discovered elements all possess international names4 ,it follows from this that the further problem of assigning an international system of sounds to scientific concepts has been in certain departments of science already approximately solved4 ,it is true that the sound is still somewhat dependent on the speech basis of the particular nation1 so that1 for example1 not inconsiderable deviations may occur in ,english4 ,but1 as the written and printed word is always simultaneously known1 the recognition of a name as pronounced by a foreigner does not cause any very great difficulty4 ,there exists here a field of work for those who are interested in the idea of an artificial language which is as fertile as it is interesting4 ,as is well known1 we scientific men suffer a good deal from the fact that the same words are frequently employed for the vague ideas of daily life as well as for the perfectly definite concepts of science4 ,this is indeed one of the most important reasons why new designations for scientific concepts should1 as far as possible1 be taken from the dead languages1 such designations being thereby already international4 ,it ought therefore to be a comparatively easy task to devise by means of this international material and the linguistic rules of the language of the ,delegation a system of international names for the clearly defined concepts of the different sciences4 ,such a system possesses a double purpose4 ,in the first place1 it could1 ,i think1 be used in our present natural languages4 ,certain ,english expressions occurring in electrotechnics1 such as shunt1 extra current1 are employed in ,german and ,french just as if they were national words4 ,the international names in their international form might be employed in every case where a precise scientific terminology was required1 without doing much violence to our natural languages4 ,the inflow of foreign words through the channels of technology and science as well as those of commerce and music has already shown itself to be irresistible1 so that a strict carrying out of the principle of purity in our national languages has been a practical impossibility4 ,in literature properly so called one will endeavour nevertheless to adhere to this principle1 but where the chief question is one of precision of concepts1 as in science1 language must be regarded as a handmaiden1 whose first duty is to obey4 ,for language stands only in a secondary relationship to the independently developed and determined concepts of science1 which have been already fixed by the symbols assigned to them1 just in the same way that language has fixed the concepts of daily life4 ,independent of the above application1 which one may or may not consider practical1 is the internationalisation of scientific publications by means of a universally understood auxiliary language1 which is becoming every day more urgently necessary4 ,this problem1 too1 cannot be attacked until the concepts of all the sciences in question have received their proper designations4 ,the existing dictionaries of international auxiliary languages contain mostly the expressions of daily life1 so that at present these languages are mainly applicable only for such communications4 ,some success can indeed be obtained in the expression of the higher trains of thought of philosophical reasoning1 but here already considerable uncertainty exists4 ,it is clear1 for instance1 that a paper in organic chemistry can only be successfully written in the international language after the translations of the different names for substances occurring in different languages have been mutually agreed upon4 ,consequently the working out of the concepts of the different sciences and the determination of their international designations is the very first task which must be performed before the further objects1 international literature and international oral intercourse in science1 can be considered4 ,it is the duty therefore of the representatives of science who have joined the ,uniono di l',amiki di la ,linguo ,internaciona to apply themselves in the first place to this problem1 since the further success of the whole question depends entirely on its at least provisional solution4 ,the first principle which must guide this work is undoubtedly the general principle of maximum internationality1 which has been used in the construction of the auxiliary language4 ,its application is rendered easy by the fact that1 owing to the use of ,greek and ,latin roots for the designation of scientific concepts1 there is already present a far-reaching internationality1 which must naturally be retained4 ,in the second place1 it will not always be possible to employ in science the same expressions that are used in ordinary speech1 because the effect of the latter is to produce a blunting of the precise connotation of concepts2 whilst science1 on the other hand1 requires clearly defined concepts1 to which must correspond equally distinct expressions4 ,in the third place1 those words which occur frequently in combinations must be chosen as short as possible4 ,here ,i would not shrink from a very considerable mutilation of the most international forms4 ,such long names as wasserstoff or hydrogen cannot be permitted1 and must be reduced to monosyllabic forms4 ,every chemical author must have been times without number annoyed by the terms of three and four syllables for the commonest elements1 and this defect is common to all languages4 ,the objection against such an artificial abbreviation1 which is valid for the language of daily life1 namely1 that it increases the difficulty of the language for those of little education1 does not hold in the case of science1 since it is a matter of indifference to the beginner whether he learns the new name oxygen or oxo 7or any other similar abbreviation71 because in any case he must learn it by heart4 ,such a procedure satisfies also the second condition1 as it facilitates most easily the giving of a special form to scientific terms1 which is different from that of ordinary life4 ,in the fourth place1 it will be advisable in cases where universally known symbols exist1 which consist of letters or have been derived from these 7such as certain mathematical symbols71 to choose the name so that it begins with the same letter4 ,for example1 the constant of gravitation is now universally denoted by g1 and the corresponding international word should therefore begin with ,g4 ,it appears to me doubtful1 however1 whether this principle can be generally carried out4 ,i have examined the names of the chemical elements with this intent1 and have arrived at the conclusion that it would not work without doing considerable violence to general usage4 ,for example1 it would be scarcely possible to find an international name for chlor 7chlorine7 which1 corresponding to the chemical symbol ,cl1 would begin with ,c1 for the latter letter is pronounced ts1 whilst the word chlor 7with corresponding terminations7 is international1 and1 according to its sound1 must be written like kloro or in some similar way4 ,these are the formal suggestions which ,i should like to make with reference to the problem in hand2 they are only intended to indicate how one might proceed1 and are not to be regarded as either exhaustive or infallible4 ,there arises now the second question as to how such work is to be organised4 ,as the same concepts occur in several related sciences1 and must receive the same designations1 it would not be practicable to entrust the construction of the vocabularies to special commissions for each particular science4 ,it would be more advisable to appoint a certain number of persons to collect the material and to make out lists of the concepts for which terms are required1 and then to appoint commissions representing a whole group of sciences to discuss the necessary principles1 after which the details could be worked out and finally subjected to the examination and approval of the whole body4 ,to make matters at once more definite1 ,i think the exact sciences ought to be first taken into consideration1 for in their case the fixation of concepts is most highly developed4 ,there is no need for a replacement of the well-known ,latin nomenclature employed in the descriptive sciences1 nor would any attempt in this direction have any likelihood of success4 ,we must look rather to the distant future1 when all other sciences will have already adapted themselves to the international idiom for the translation of the ,latin names into the forms of the international language 7retaining the stems1 however7 in order to produce for sthetic reasons a uniform system throughout the whole of science4 ,on the other hand1 ,i consider it absolutely necessary to subject the concepts of logic and the theory of cognition to the same process of scientific delimitation and fixation4 ,in the first place1 these sciences belong1 at least theoretically1 to the exact sciences2 and1 in the second place1 work in these departments of knowledge is rendered extraordinarily difficult by the fact that their concepts are expressed in the terms used in daily life1 whose elastic nature constantly frustrates exact work4 ,conversely1 this great process of purification cannot fail to bring to light much that is of value for the theory and systematisation of scientific concepts4 ,for one must be quite clear on a subject oneself before one can make it clear to others4 ,indeed1 even a simple classified list of possibilities1 in which one has earnestly sought to omit nothing of importance1 constitutes in itself a scientific advance1 which is rendered all the more desirable by the fact that in general people have troubled very little about questions of this sort4 ,it may be already foreseen1 and indeed with pleasure1 that such problems are not to be solved offhand1 and will probably require for their final settlement an international congress1 at which the final decisions will be made4 ,for this congress will probably be the first scientific gathering at which1 instead of three1 four1 or five languages1 only one1 and that the international auxiliary language1 will be spoken4 ,,wilhelm ,,ostwald4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,conclusion3 ,,reading1 ,,writing1 ,,and ,,speaking ,anyone who wishes to swim without the help of others is faced by a vicious circle4 ,in order to swim he must jump into the water1 but before he entrusts himself to the water he ought to be able to swim4 ,in spite of this1 many people learn to swim without a teacher4 ,how do they do that8 ,they go at first only into shallow water1 and splash about there until they have become more or less familiar with this element4 ,then1 when they perceive that they can propel themselves in it1 they go gradually into deeper water4 ,if we wish to get scientific men to use the international language1 we must probably recommend the same method and advise them to move about in the shallower regions of every-day language before they venture into the deeper waters of science4 ,the instruction concerning the movements of swimming given by the swimming-master on dry land corresponds to a lesson of a couple of hours on the simple grammar of the international language4 ,further progress1 leading up finally to the introduction of the latter into science1 can be divided into three stages1 which we may describe by the words reading1 writing1 and speaking4 ,i4 ,reading4--,the extraordinary ease with which every educated person1 and especially anyone who has learnt ,latin or one of the ,romance languages1 can read and understand the language of the ,delegation almost without any previous study1 indicates that the first stage will not be difficult of attainment4 ,but one would require scientific reading material in order to gain practice in scientific reading1 and there we are again faced by a vicious circle4 ,for1 in order to create such reading material1 we require authors who can write it1 and yet the latter can only learn to express themselves in the international language by means of already existing reading material4 ,we must therefore at first make use of the language of daily life and carry over into science whatever is found to be suitable for scientific purposes1 after which more sharply defined meanings may be assigned to the words4 ,it has been indicated in the previous article how the remaining special scientific nomenclature can be determined4 ,when this preliminary work is sufficiently advanced the following way will lead quickest to the goal4 ,there will be founded an international journal1 divided into as many divisions as correspond to the groups of sciences to be dealt with4 ,we have here in view more particularly the theoretical and practical sciences of nature1 because they have much more urgent need of an international auxiliary language than the humanities1 whose representatives are more likely to possess a sufficient knowledge of languages4 ,for example1 mathematics1 mathematical astronomy1 mathematical geography1 mathematical physics1 geodesy1 etc41 might form one group2 general and experimental physics1 chemistry and physical chemistry1 electrotechnics and applied chemistry1 mechanics and mechanical engineering1 etc41 a second group2 mineralogy1 petrography1 crystallography1 geology1 etc41 a third group2 biology1 systematic and physiological zoology and botany1 morphology1 etc41 etc41 a fourth group4 ,extensions of these groups and other modes of arrangement might of course be introduced4 ,the foundation at first of several separate periodicals would not be advisable4 ,the following remarks may be made concerning the contents of this journal4 ,in conformity with our plan1 it should not at first contain any original articles1 for the international language is not intended to replace the natural ones1 but only to act as an intermediary between them4 ,besides1 the journal must not contain any insignificant or uninteresting articles if it is to attract and interest readers4 ,but eminent authors1 even if they could command the international language1 would not publish important original articles in a journal which naturally at first would not have any very great circulation4 ,the journal must therefore contain chiefly translations of interesting articles from all branches of science and from all languages1 and also extracts from the more important literary productions4 ,the editorial committee of this journal should be independent of the ,language ,academy1 but nevertheless in close contact with it1 in order1 on the one hand1 to guarantee the correctness of the language by means of the ,academy1 and1 on the other hand1 to help the latter by acting as its scientific adviser4 ,the gradual dissemination of this periodical would have the effect that a considerable number of scientific men1 especially those of the younger generation1 would be induced to read and understand the international language without any expenditure of trouble injurious to their professional work4 ,,ii4 ,writing4--,from reading a comparatively easy step leads to writing4 ,the number of scientific men would soon increase who could either write directly in the international language1 or1 at all events1 translate a paper written in a natural language into the international language4 ,owing to the gradually increasing dissemination of the international ,review1 a first-hand publication of such papers in the ,review would soon be very much in the interest of the authors1 as the acceptance of their papers would itself be a mark of honour1 whilst the rapid distribution amongst all nations would be likewise advantageous4 ,,iii4 ,speaking4--,the speaking of the international language at first in small and then gradually amongst wider circles and finally at international congresses can only be attempted later4 ,this attempt must not1 however1 be made before its success is fully assured1 and the language has received a certain amount of consolidation through its application to writing4 ,we have already remarked in another place that the introduction of the international language is not nearly so difficult as it appears at first sight1 almost the only difficulty being the establishment of the confidence that this goal can be attained4 ,when one tries to swim for the first time it seems as if one would never succeed4 ,but when1 after a few lessons1 one has seen one's comrades moving safely and merrily in the water1 courage comes1 and with it success4 ,we shall therefore show in an appendix by means of an example that the language of the ,delegation is already capable of expressing difficult passages with all possible fidelity4 ,at a time when the language had only just been fixed and when he had very little practice in its use1 ,l4 ,couturat translated into it a particularly difficult passage from the work of ,gomperz 7the ,viennese ,academician7 on ,grecian ,thinkers4 ,the present author1 without having seen the original1 retranslated it at ,graz from the international language into ,german1 and sent this to ,gomperz at ,vienna with the request1 that he would give his opinion on the accuracy of the retranslated passage4 ,gomperz wrote characterising the reproduction as astonishingly exact1 the test as extraordinarily successful1 and the result in a high degree favourable to the possibility of employing the international language4 ,this test must certainly be regarded as a very severe one1 because the ,german language is foreign to the first translator1 whilst1 owing to its philosophical nature1 the subject was not familiar to the second translator as a physicist4 ,for the sake of ,english readers1 a similar experiment has just been made1 the results of which are given in ,appendix ,,iii4 ,a passage from ,professor ,w4 ,james's ,talks to ,teachers on ,psychology1 dealing with the laws of habit1 was translated into ,ido by ,professor ,couturat1 and the ,ido text retranslated into ,english by ,mr4 ,p4 ,d4 ,hugon in ,london1 who was unacquainted with the original4 ,a comparison of the two ,english texts demonstrates the marvellous lucidity of ,ido as a medium for the transmission of thought without distortion4 ,two things are indispensable for the realisation of a great idea4 ,in the first place1 the idea must1 as regards its nature and value1 have a rational foundation1 and its possibility must be demonstrated4 ,in the second place1 there must be present courage1 energy1 and persevering devotion in order to realise practically that which has been recognised to be right and good4 ,no amount of energy1 however great1 can produce a lasting result from a mistaken idea2 but at the same time nothing great has ever been accomplished by doubters and pessimists4 ,the readers of our brochure will concede to us that the idea of an international auxiliary language and its realisation by means of the language of the ,delegation have in the foregoing chapters been fully examined in the cold light of reason and shown to be good and practicable1 whilst the appendices will enable this opinion to be experimentally tested and confirmed4 ,now that the head has done its work1 the heart1 the source of courage and devotion1 must do its part4 ,we have full confidence1 therefore1 in calling upon the representatives of science1 who have followed us so far1 to assist us in the work1 in the first place by joining the ,uniono di l',amiki di la ,linguo ,internaciona and by making its labours known4 ,this step can be taken also by those who do not see in the language as at present constituted the final and best solution of the problem1 for before one can reach the topmost heights one must traverse the intervening stages4 ,we ourselves do not consider that our language is the best possible1 but we regard it as one which is susceptible of continuous improvement without its immediate and future use being injured thereby4 ,,leopold ,,pfaundler4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,linguo ,,internaciona ,,di ,,la ,,delegitaro4 7,,ido74 ,the ,dlgation pour l',adoption d'une ,langue ,auxiliaire ,internationale1 founded in ,paris in #aija1 has received the support of #caj societies of many countries and the approval of #a1bej professors and academicians4 ,it elected in #aijg an international committee1 composed of eminent linguists and men of science1 which1 after having studied all the projects for international language1 adopted ,esperanto with certain modifications4 ,these modifications1 whilst preserving the principles and essential qualities of ,dr4 ,zamenhof's language1 aim at a more logical and strict application of these principles and the elimination of certain unnecessary complications4 ,the following are the principal modifications3-- 7#a7 ,suppression of the accented letters1 thus permitting the language to be printed everywhere1 and at the same time preserving the phonetic and frequently re-establishing the international spelling2 7#b7 ,suppression of certain useless grammatical rules which are very troublesome to many nations1 and especially to persons possessing only an elementary education 7accusative1 concord of the adjective72 7#c7 ,regularisation of the method of derivation1 this being the only means of preventing the intrusion of idioms and of furnishing a solid foundation for the working out of the scientific and technical vocabulary so indispensable for the propagation of the language in the scientific world2 7#d7 ,enrichment of the vocabulary by the adoption of new stems carefully chosen according to the principle of maximum internationality4 ,all the words have1 in fact1 been formed from international stems1 that is to say those which are common to the majority of ,european languages1 with the result that they are immediately recognised by everyone of medium education4 ,it is not necessary therefore to learn a new language2 the international language is the quintessence of the ,european ones4 ,it is1 however1 incomparably more easy than any of them on account of its simplicity and absolute regularity2 there are no useless rules1 and no exceptions4 ,it can be learnt by reading it2 as soon as one can read it one can write it2 as soon as one can write it one can speak it4 ,and experience has proved that the differences of pronunciation amongst people of the most diverse countries are insignificant and cause no trouble at all4 ,to sum up1 the linguo internaciona is a simplified and improved ,esperanto1 very analogous to primitive ,esperanto1 but possessing the advantage over the latter of being immediately intelligible1 so that it is destined to become the international language4 ,besides1 it has already received the warm approval and support of many of the earliest and best ,esperantists4 ,it alone1 thanks to the support of the scientific and literary men of the ,delegation and ,committee1 has a chance of being adopted some day by ,governments and of being introduced into the schools of all countries4 ,the following pages provide a key which enables one to read a text in this language4 ,,grammar4 ,pronunciation4--,all letters are pronounced1 and have always the same sound3 a 7as in father71 c 7like ts71 e 7like e in set1 or a in fate71 g 7always hard1 as in go71 i 7like ee in sweet71 j 7either as in ,english1 or like the ,french j in journal71 o 7like o in not or like o in go71 q 7qu as in ,english1 or like kv71 s 7unvoiced71 u 7like oo in too71 x 7like ks or gz71 y 7as in ,english71 z 7as in ,english71 ch 7as in church71 sh 7as in ,english71 au 7like ow in how71 eu 7 e-u74 ,it will be seen that a certain amount of latitude is permitted1 in order to suit the convenience of different nations4 ,stress 7tonic accent7 on the penultimate syllable1 except in the infinitive1 when it falls on the last syllable 7-ar1 -ir1 -or74 ,since y is a consonant1 it does not count as a separate syllable 7fluvyo74 ,definite ,article4--,la1 for all genders and numbers4 ,substantive4--,ends in -o in the singular1 in -i in the plural4 ,adjective4--,is invariable1 and ends in -a4 ,personal ,pronouns4--,me ,i1 tu thou1 vu you 7singular71 il he or it 7masculine71 el she or it 7feminine71 ol it 7thing72 ni we1 vi you 7plural71 li they 7all genders74 ,if distinction is necessary1 ili they 7masculine71 eli they 7feminine71 oli they 7neuter74 ,possessive ,pronouns4--,mea my1 mine1 tua thy1 thine1 vua your1 yours 7singular71 sa his1 her1 hers1 or its2 nia our1 ours1 via your1 yours 7plural71 lia their1 theirs4 ,in the plural the ending -i is substituted for -a when the above words are used as true possessive pronouns4 ,reflexive ,forms4--,su is used as an objective 7reflexive7 personal pronoun 7for singular and plural7 in the third person4 ,the corresponding possessive forms are sua and sui 7plural pronoun74 ,it may be remarked that the possessive pronominal adjectives sa 7singular7 and lia 7plural7 may be made to indicate sex in the following way3-- ,singular4 ,plural4 ,masculine ilsa ilia ,feminine elsa elia ,neuter olsa olia ,demonstrative ,pronouns4--,ica this1 these2 ita that1 those4 ,the plural forms ici these1 and iti those1 are only used as true demonstrative pronouns4 ,the indeterminate 7neuter7 forms are ico this1 ito that4 ,in all the above words the initial i is usually omitted1 except where euphony requires it4 ,if it is required to indicate sex1 or something which is not alive1 this may be done as follows3-- ,this4 ,that4 ,masculine ilca ilta ,feminine elca elta ,neuter olca olta ,plural ilci ilti ,pronoun etc4 etc4 ,relative and ,interrogative ,pronouns3 qua who1 which1 what2 plural1 qui4 ,quo what 7indeterminate1 general74 ,accusative 7objective case74--,when the direct object of the verb precedes the subject1 the former is indicated by the inflexion -n3 la homo quan vu vidis the person whom you have seen4 ,verb4--,invariable in person and number4 ,endings of the principal tenses3-- ,active ,passive ,infinitive4 ,indicative4 participle4 participle4 ,present -ar -as -anta -ata ,past -ir -is -inta -ita ,future -or -os -onta -ota ,conditional1 -us4 ,imperative1 -ez4 ,the auxiliary verb esar1 to be1 is used for the passive1 and for the compound tenses of the active4 ,passive4 ,present esas amata1 or amesas ,i am 7being7 loved4 ,past esis amata1 or amesis ,i was 7being7 loved4 ,future esos amata1 or amesos ,i will be loved4 ,conditional esus amata1 or amesus ,i would be loved4 ,imperative esez amata1 or amesez be loved4 ,infinite esar amata1 or amesar to be loved4 ,compound ,tenses of the ,active4 ,perfect 7me7 esas aminta 7,i7 have loved4 ,pluperfect 7me7 esis aminta 7,i7 had loved4 ,future perfect 7me7 esos aminta 7,i7 shall have loved4 ,past conditional 7me7 esus aminta 7,i7 should have loved4 ,the past tenses of the passive 7indicating completed states7 are formed by means of the passive participle in -ita3-- 7me7 esis amita 7,i7 had been loved4 7me7 esos amita 7,i7 shall have been loved4 7me7 esus amita 7,i7 would have been loved4 ,derived adverbs are formed by substituting the ending -e for the -a of the adjective or the -o of the noun3 bone well2 nokte at night4 ,,formation ,,of ,,words4 ,all words are composed of three elements1 possessing an invariable form and meaning3 stems1 affixes 7prefixes and suffixes71 and grammatical terminations4 ,prefixes3-- ge-1 the two sexes united3 ge-patri parents4 bo-1 relation by marriage3 bo-patro father-in-law4 ex-1 former1 ex-3 ex-oficero ex-officer4 mal-1 opposite1 contrary3 mal-bela ugly4 mis-1 error1 mistake3 mis-komprenar misunderstand4 mi-1 half3 mi-horo half an hour4 re-1 repetition3 re-dicar repeat1 say again4 retro-1 backwards3 retro-sendar return 7send back74 ne-1 negation3 ne-utila useless 7but mal-utila harmful74 sen-1 want of3 sen-arma unarmed4 ,suffixes3-- -in1 female sex3 frat-ino sister4 -id1 descendant3 ,sem-ido ,semite4 -estr1 chief1 director3 urb-estro mayor4 -an1 member of3 senat-ano senator4 -ism1 system1 doctrine3 socialismo socialism4 -ist1 profession1 occupation3 dent-isto dentist4 -er1 amateur3 fotograf-ero amateur photographer4 -ul1 person who is characterised by 4443 kuras-ulo cuirassier4 -aj1 concrete thing1 consisting of1 or made of3 lan-ajo woollen goods4 -ur1 product1 result3 pikt-uro a picture4 -ar1 collection of a number of similar things3 hom-aro mankind4 -il1 instrument1 tool3 bros-ilo brush4 -ey1 place for 4443 kaval-eyo stable2 dorm-eyo dormitory4 -uy1 container1 recipient3 ink-uyo inkpot4 -yer1 that which bears or carries3 pom-yero apple tree4 -al1 relating to3 nacion-ala national4 -oz1 full of1 provided with3 por-oza porous4 -atr1 similar1 like3 spong-atra sponge-like1 spongy4 -iv1 that which can1 active possibility3 instrukt-iva instructive4 -em1 addicted to3 babil-ema talkative1 garrulous4 -ebl1 passive possibility1 that which can be 4443 vid-ebla visible4 -end1 that which is to be1 or must be 4443 solv-enda to be solved1 requiring solution4 -ind1 worthy of being3 respekt-inda worthy of respect4 -es1 state of being3 san-esar to be well1 whence the substantives expressing state or quality1 e4g41 san-eso health4 -esk1 to commence to do or to be3 dorm-eskar to fall asleep4 -ig1 to make or cause to do or to be3 bel-igar beautify2 dorm-igar to send to sleep4 -ij1 to become3 rich-ijar to get rich4 -iz1 to furnish or provide with3 arm-izar to arm4 -if1 to produce1 bring forth3 frukt-ifar to fructify4 -ad1 repetition1 continuation3 dans-ado dancing4 -eg1 augmentative3 bel-ega very beautiful4 -et1 diminutive3 mont-eto hill1 hillock4 -ach1 derogative3 popul-acho populace1 the mob4 -um1 indeterminate relationship 7see the dictionary71 -esm1 ordinal number3 un-esma first4 -opl1 multiplicative number3 du-opla double4 -on1 fractional number3 tri-ono a third4 -op1 distributive number3 quar-ope in fours4 ,,lexiko ,,di ,,la ,,grammatikala ,,vorti4 a1 ad to1 towards ad maxime at most ad minime at least altra1 -i other 7s7 altru another altro another thing1 something else anke also ankore still1 yet ante before 7time7 aparte apart apene scarcely1 with difficulty apud near1 close by1 at avan before 7place7 balde soon cent hundred ceter-i1 -o the others1 the rest che at the house of cirke around1 about cis on this side of da by de from1 since1 of dek ten di of do therefore1 hence dop after 7position72 behind du two dum during e1 ed and ek out1 out of en in exter outside of1 besides for far from forsan perhaps frue early hiere yesterday hike here ibe there inter between1 among ips-a1 -e self1 even any 7whatsoever7 irg-a1 -u anyone 7whatever7 irgo anything 7whatever7 itere again1 anew ja already jus just at the moment kad whether 7general interrogative7 kam as1 than 7in comparisons7 kande when ke that 7conjunction7 kelk-a1 -i some kin five kontre against1 opposite kun with lor then1 at that time malgre in spite of max 7-ime7 most mem even1 indeed mil thousand min less minime least morge to-morrow mult-a 7-i7 much1 many nam for1 because ne not nek neither1 nor no no nov nine nu well6 now6 nul-a 7-u7 no1 no one nulo nothing nun now nur only o1 od or ok eight olim formerly omn-a 7-i7 each1 all omno all1 everything or now 7conjunction7 per through1 by means of plu more plur-a 7-i7 several po for 7the price of7 poke a little por for1 to 7in order to7 pos after 7time7 precipue especially preske almost1 nearly preter past1 beyond pri concerning1 on pro for1 on account of proxim next qual-a what 7sort of7 quale how1 as quankam although quant-a 7-e7 how much1 how many quar four quaze as if1 so to speak quik at once1 immediately sama the same same similarly sat 7-e7 enough1 sufficiently se if sed but segun according to sempre always sen without sep seven singl-a 7-e single1 singly sis six sive either1 or sub under1 below super above1 over sur on1 upon tal-a such a1 such tal-e thus1 so1 in such a way tam as 7in comparisons7 tamen nevertheless1 yet tant-a 7-e7 so much1 as much1 so tarde late til until tra through1 across trans beyond1 on the other side of tre very tri three tro too ube where1 whither ula- 7-u7 some1 any1 someone1 anyone ulo something1 anything ultre beyond1 besides un 7-u1 -a one ve alas6 vice in place of1 vice ya certainly1 undoubtedly ye preposition of indeterminate meaning yen here is1 there is1 behold yes yes ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,specimen page from the ,,international-,,english ,,dictionary4#f deskript-ar3 to describe2 -o3 description2 -iva3 descriptive ,,efis4 desper-ar3 to despair2 -o3 despair2 -igar3 to drive to despair ,,efis4 despit-ar3 to be vexed1 to fret2 -o3 spite1 despite2 -igar3 to vex ,,efis4 despot-o3 despot2 -eso1 -ismo3 despotism ,,defirs4 destin-ar3 to destine2 -o1 -eso3 destination1 destiny ,,efis4 destrukt-ar3 to destroy2 -o3 destruction2 -iva1 -ema3 destructive ,,efirs4 detal-o3 detail2 -a1 -oza3 detailed2 -e1 -oze3 in detail ,,defirs4 detashment-o 7military73 detachment ,,defirs4 detektiv-o3 detective ,,efr4 determin-ar3 to determine2 -o1 -eso3 determination 7not decision72 -anta1 -iva3 determinative2 -ismo3 determinism ,,defirs4 detriment-ar3 to cause injury or prejudice to 7a person72 -o3 detriment1 damage1 injury 7moral7 ,,efis4 dev-ar3 to be obliged to1 ought1 have to2 -o3 duty ,,fis4 devast-ar3 to devastate2 -o1 eso3 devastation ,,efis4 deviac-ar 7trans4 and intrans473 to deviate2 -o3 deviation ,,efis4 deviz-o3 motto1 device ,,defirs4 devlop-ar3 to develop2 -o1 -eso3 development ,,efi4 devot-a3 devoted2 -eso3 devotion2 -esar1 -igar1 -su3 to devote oneself ,,efi4 dextr-a3 right 7hand1 side72 -e3 on the right ,,is4 dezert-a3 desert1 deserted2 -o3 a desert1 wilderness ,,efis4 dezir-ar3 to wish1 desire2 -o3 wish1 desire ,,efis4 di3 of 7preposition74 di-o1 day 7twenty-four hours72 -ala3 daily ,,eis4 diabet-o3 diabetes ,,defirs4 diablo3 devil2 -ala3 diabolical ,,defirs4 diadem-o3 diadem ,,defirs4 diafan-a3 transparent2 -eso3 transparency ,,fis4 ,specimen page from the ,,english-,,international ,,dictionary4 to describe3 deskriptar4 description3 deskripto4 descriptive3 deskriptiva4 to desecrate3 profanigar4 a desert3 dezerto4 to desert3 desertar4 deserted3 dezerta4 deserter3 desert-anto1 -into4 desertion3 deserto1 to deserve3 meritar4 deserving3 merit-anta1 -oza4 to desiccate 7v4 trans473 sikigar4 desiccated3 sikigita4 design 7 drawing73 desegno4 to desire3 dezirar4 desire3 deziro4 desk 7writing73 pupitro4 7pulpit73 katedro4 to despair3 desperar4 despair3 despero4 despair1 to drive to3 desperigar4 a desperado3 riskemo4 despicable3 mal-prizinda4 to despise3 mal-prizar4 despite 7s471 despito4 7prep47 7 in spite of71 malgre4 despot3 despoto4 despotism3 despot-eso1 -ismo4 desquamation3 squamifo4 dessert3 desero4 destination3 destin-o1 -eso4 to destine3 destinar4 destiny3 destin-o1 -eso4 7 fate73 fato4 to destroy3 destruktar4 destruction3 destrukto4 1 utter3 nuligo4 destructive3 destrukt-iva1 -ema4 detachment 7military73 detashmento4 detail3 detalo1 mal-grandajo4 1 in3 detal-e1 -oze4 detailed3 detal-a1 -oza4 detective3 detektivo4 to deter3 timigar1 impedar4 determination 7not decision73 determin-o1 -eso4 determinative3 determin-anta1 -iva4 to determine3 determinar4 7 decide73 decidigar4 determinism3 determinismo4 to dethrone3 mal-tronizar4 detriment3 detrimento4 to devastate3 devastar4 devastation3 devast-o1 -eso4 to develop3 devlopar4 7photo473 rivelar4 developer 7photo473 rivelilo4 developing 7photo473 rivelo4 development3 devlop-o1 -eso4 to deviate 7v4 trans4 and intrans473 deviacar4 deviation3 deviaco4 ,,appendix ,,iii4 ,,experiment ,,in ,,double ,,translation4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,habit4 ,by ,professor ,w4 ,,james4#g ,i believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence of the fact that we have bodies4 ,the plasticity of the living matter of our nervous system1 in short1 is the reason why we do a thing with difficulty the first time1 but soon do it more and more easily1 and finally1 with sufficient practice1 do it semi-mechanically1 or with hardly any consciousness at all4 ,our nervous systems have 7in ,dr4 ,carpenter's words7 grown to the way in which they have been exercised1 just as a sheet of paper or a coat1 once creased or folded1 tends to fall for ever afterward into the same identical folds4 ,habit is thus a second nature1 or rather1 as the ,duke of ,wellington said1 it is ten times nature1 at any rate as regards its importance in adult life1 for the acquired habits of our training have by that time inhibited or strangled most of the natural impulsive tendencies which were originally there4 ,ninety-nine hundredths or possibly nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual1 from our rising in the morning to our lying down each night4 ,our dressing and undressing1 our eating and drinking1 our greetings and partings1 our hat-raisings and giving way for ladies to precede1 nay1 even most of the forms of our common speech1 are things of a type so fixed by repetition as almost to be classed as reflex actions4 ,to each sort of impression we have an automatic1 ready-made response4 ,my very words to you now are an example of what ,i mean1 for1 having already lectured upon habit and printed a chapter about it in a book1 and read the latter when in print1 ,i find my tongue inevitably falling into old phrases and repeating almost literally what ,i said before4 ,so far as we are thus mere bundles of habit1 we are stereotyped creatures1 imitators and copiers of our past selves4 ,and since this1 under any circumstances1 is what we always tend to become1 it follows first of all that the teacher's prime concern should be to ingrain into the pupil that assortment of habits that shall be most useful to him throughout life4 ,education is for behaviour1 and habits are the stuff of which behaviour consists4 ,,la ,,legi ,,di ,l',,kustumo1 ,traduko en ,ido da ,l4 ,,couturat4 ,me kredas1 ke ni esas submisata a la lego di l'kustumo per konsequo di l'fakto1 ke ni havas korpi4 ,la plastikeso di la vivanta materyo di nia nerva sistemo1 esas1 abreje1 la kauzo ke ni facas un kozo malfacile la unesma foyo1 sed balde plu e plu facile1 e fine1 kun suficanta praktiko1 ni facas ol mi-mekanike1 o kun preske nula koncio4 ,nia nerva sistemi kreskis 7segun la vorti di ,dr4 ,carpenter7 en la voyo en qua li esis exercita1 exakte quale folyo di papero1 o vesto unfoye faldita o shifonigita1 tendencas falar sempre pose en la sama identa falduri4 ,la kustumo esas duesma naturo1 o prefere1 quale dicis ,duko de ,wellington1 ol esas dekople naturo1 omnakaze per sa importo en adulta vivo2 nam la aquirita kustumi di nia eduko en ta tempo impedis o strangulis max multa de la natural impulsiva tendenci1 qui existas origine4 ,novdek nov centoni1 o1 posible1 novcent novdek nov miloni de nia agemeso esas pure automatal e kustuma1 de nia levo matene a nia kusho omnanokte4 ,nia vestizo e malvestizo1 nia manjo e drinko1 nia saluti ed adyi1 nia chapel-levi et voyo-cedi por siorini preteriranta1 ya mem max multa formi di nia komuna parolado1 esas kozi de tipo tante fixigita per repeto1 ke li povas esar klasizita quale agi reflexa4 ,ad omna speco de impreso ni havas automatal1 tute pronta respondo4 ,mea ipsa paroli a vi nun esas exemplo de to1 quon me pensas3 nam1 pro ja facir lecioni pri la kustumo ed imprimigir chapitro pri ol en libro1 e lektir olca dum imprimo1 me trovas mea lango falanta neeviteble en sa malnuva frazi1 e repetanta preske litere1 quon me dicis ante4 ,segun quante ni esas tale pura faski de kustumi1 ni esas stereotipita kreuri1 imitanti e kopianti di nia propra pasinto4 ,e pro ke co1 en omna supozi1 esas to1 quo ni sempre tendencas divenar1 konsequas1 unesme1 ke la precipua skopo di l'instruktisto devas esar inkrustar en la lernanto ta asortajo de kustumi1 qua esos max utila ad il tra sa tuta vivo4 ,l'eduko esas por la konduto1 e la kustumi esas la materyo1 en qua la konduto konsistas4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,habit4 ,i believe that we are subject to the law of habit in consequence of the fact that we have bodies4 ,the plasticity of the living material of our nervous system is1 to put it briefly1 the reason why we do a thing with difficulty the first time1 but soon more and more easily1 and finally1 with sufficient practice1 we do it half mechanically1 or almost without any consciousness4 ,our nervous systems have grown 7in ,dr4 ,carpenter's words7 in the way in which they were trained1 just as a sheet of paper or a garment1 once folded or crumpled1 tends to fall ever after in the same identical creases4 ,habit is a second nature1 or rather1 as the ,duke of ,wellington said1 it is tenfold nature1 at any rate by its importance in adult life1 for the acquired customs of our education by that time have impeded or strangled most of the natural impulsive tendencies which existed originally4 ,ninety-nine hundredths or maybe nine hundred and ninety-nine thousandths of our activity is purely automatic and habitual1 from our rising in the morning to our retiring every night4 ,our dressing and undressing1 our eating and drinking1 our greetings and leave-takings1 our hat-raisings and way-givings to ladies passing by1 even indeed most forms of our common speech1 are things of a type so well fixed by repetition1 that they can be classified as reflex actions4 ,for every kind of impression we have an automatic1 ever-ready response4 ,my very words to you now are an example of what ,i think1 for through having already given lessons about habit1 and having had a chapter printed about it in a book1 and having read the latter in the course of printing1 ,i find my tongue falling unavoidably into its old phrases and repeating almost literally what ,i have said before4 ,inasmuch as we are thus pure bundles of habits1 we are stereotyped creatures1 imitators and copyists of our own past4 ,and because this1 in any case1 is what we always tend to become1 it follows1 in the first place1 that the teacher's chief object must be to incrust in the learner that set of habits which will be most useful to him throughout his whole life4 ,education makes for conduct1 and habits are the material which conduct consists of4 ,retranslated into ,english by ,p4 ,d4 ,,hugon1 who was unacquainted with the original before doing the retranslation1 #bjth ,january1 #aiaj4 ,,appendix ,,iv4 ,,uniono ,,di ,l',,amiki ,,di ,,la ,,linguo ,,internaciona4 ,the following excerpt from the provisional statutes of the ,uniono is only intended to give an indication of its nature4 ,the full statutes will be willingly sent to anyone interested by one of the authors of this brochure or by the ,secretary of the ,uniono1 ,herr ,a4 ,waltisbhl1 #df1 ,bahnhof ,strasse1 ,zrich4 ,,excerpt ,,from ,,the ,,provisional ,,statutes4 7#a7 ,the sole purpose of the ,uniono di l',amiki di la ,linguo ,internaciona is to unite1 for the purposes of common action1 all persons who recognise and approve of the idea of an international language in the form given to it by the ,dlgation pour l',adoption d'une ,langue ,auxiliaire ,internationale4 7#b7 ,the ,uniono accepts as the international auxiliary language the ,linguo internaciona di la ,delegitaro resulting from the labours and decisions of the commission and the working committee of the ,delegation1 but expressly declares that this language is not to be regarded as perfect and infallible4 ,on the contrary1 it takes the view that the language is capable of continuous improvement according to the principles resulting from the work of the ,delegation4 7#c7 ,the ,uniono consists of members of both sexes of all nationalities 7at least eighteen years old7 who are willing to learn the language1 to employ it on all suitable occasions in intercourse with foreigners1 and to take part in its propagation4 7#d7 ,the yearly subscription amounts to #abe francs1 #a shilling1 #a mark1 or #abj krone 7,austrian74 ,half of this sum goes to the ,academy1 the other half to the credit of the ,komitato4 ,permanent membership is obtained by a single payment of #ej francs4 ,persons paying at least #ajj francs in a single payment become membri protektanta4 7#e71 7#f71 7#g7 ,all members take part in the election of the two directing bodies of the ,uniono 7the ,academy and the ,komitato7 according to a specially arranged method of representation 7in which account is taken of the number of adherents belonging to each nationality74 7#h71 7#i71 7#aj7 ,the ,academy is concerned only with questions relating to the development and improvement of the international language4 ,it has to reply within six months to all questions and suggestions emanating from at least three elected representatives4 ,the official organ of the ,academy is the journal ,progreso 7pronounced ,progresso74 ,the ,komitato has the practical direction and organisation of the ,uniono which it controls and represents4 ,it is intended to found in the different countries language courses1 offices for the practical employment of the language in commerce and travel1 and translation bureaus4 ,the ,academy and ,komitato may unite for the purpose of discussing general questions concerning the international language4 7#aa71 7#ab71 7#ac7 deal with local groups1 change of statutes1 dissolution of the ,society1 etc4 7#ad7 ,all questions or proposals to be settled by the ,academy or the ,komitato must be published in the journal ,progreso three months before the decision in order to allow of general discussion4 ,,entrance ,,form4 ,the undersigned declares his 7or her7 adherence to the ,association of ,friends of the ,international ,language1 as constituted by the provisional statutes1 and subscribes for the year #ai4444 or in one life member1 payment protektanta as membro4 ,signature4 ,christian name and surname4 7,please write clearly47 ,address4 ,profession or occupation 7optional74 ,natural language4 ,age4 ,send this form filled up1 together with your subscription 7international money order71 to the ,secretary of the ,society1 ,herr ,a4 ,waltisbhl1 #df1 ,bahnhofstrasse1 ,zrich1 ,switzerland4 ,,uniono ,,di ,l',,amiki ,,di ,,la ,,linguo ,,internaciona4 ,,adherilo4 ,me subskribanta deklaras adherar a l',uniono di l',amiki di la ,linguo ,internaciona1 tala quala ol esas definita en la ,provizora ,statuti1 e me suskriptas#a por la yaro #ai 4444444444444444444444444444 unfoye permananda quale protektanta membro 444444444444 ,subskribo3 ,nomo e prenomo 444444444444444444444444444444 ,adreso 4444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444 ,profesiono 7ne obliga indiko7 444444444444444 ,naturala linguo 4444444444444444444444444444 ,eco 44444444444444444444444444444444 ,sendez ta adherilo kun la suskripto 7per internaciona valoro7 a la sekretaryo-kasisto1 ,so4 ,a4 ,,waltisb,,hl1 #df1 ,bahnhofstrasse1 ,zrich 7,suiso74 #a ,minima suskripto3 fr4 #abe1 shilling #a1 mark #a1 dollar #jbe4 ,permananta membri pagas #ej fr4 unfoye2 protektanta membri pagas #ajj fr4 unfoye4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,we do not therefore approve of the poetical attempts of ,zamenhof1 or the dramatic representation of ,goethe's ,iphigenia4 #b ,for other comparisons1 such as musical notation1 chemical formul1 etc41 compare the excellent brochure of ,w4 ,ostwald1 ,die ,weltsprache4 ,compare also ,l4 ,couturat1 ,pour la ,langue ,internationale4 #c ,here and elsewhere the following abbreviations will be used3-- ,g4 ,german1 ,e4 ,english1 ,f4 ,french1 ,i4 ,italian1 ,r4 ,russian1 and ,s4 ,spanish4 #d ,concerning the criticism of ,esperanto1 cf4 also ,zamenhof1 ,pri ,reformoj en ,esperanto1 #ahid1 represita per zorgo de ,e4 ,javal1 #aijg 7containing many important suggestions which the ,esperantists have now unfortunately forgotten72 ,a4 ,liptay1 ,eine ,gemeinsprache der ,naturvlker1 #ahia2 ,e4 ,beermann1 ,die ,internationale ,hilfssprache ,novilatin1 #aijg2 ,k4 ,brugmann and ,a4 ,leskien1 ,zur ,kritik der ,knstlichen ,weltsprachen1 #aijg2 ,couturat and ,leau1 ,conclusions du ,rapport1 #aijg2 ,l4 ,couturat1 tude sur la ,drivation en ,esperanto1 #aijg2 ,ido1 ,les ,vrais ,principes de la ,langue ,auxiliaire1 #aijh2 many articles in the periodical ,progreso1 #aijh2 ,f4 ,borgius1 ,warum ich ,esperanto verliess1 #aijh4 #e ,what language aimed at languages have destroyed4 ,the remarks contained in this chapter have been developed and applied to the criticism of ,esperanto in my tude sur la ,drivation 7#ast edition1 unpublished1 #aijg1 #bnd edition in ,french and in ,ido1 #aiji74 #f ,the letters ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,i1 ,r1 ,s1 are the initial letters of the names of the six chief ,european languages1 and those placed after any word indicate to which of these languages the corresponding stem is common 7,d ,deutsch 7,german774 #g ,talks to ,teachers on ,psychology1 pp4 #fe1 #ff 7,new ,york1 ,h4 ,holt ,co41 #aijg74 ,,constable ,,co4 ,,ltd ,,chemistry ,,practical ,,methods ,,of ,,inorganic ,,chemistry4 ,by ,e4 ,,mollwo ,,perkin1 ,ph4,d4 #bs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,contents3--,chapter ,i4--,introduction4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,general ,preparations and ,methods4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,salts4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,halogens and ,halogen ,compounds4 ,chapter ,v4--,metallic ,oxides4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,acids4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,preparation of ,metals and ,metalloids4 ,chapter ,,viii4--,special ,preparations4 ,index4 ,the ,journal of the ,faraday ,society4--,this book cannot be too strongly recommended4 ,educational ,news4--,most valuable4 ,the ,lancet4--,the true educational method is set forth in this little work4 ,journal of ,education4--,it is useful both to teacher and to pupil4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,physical ,,chemistry4 ,by ,w4 ,a ,,roth1 ,ph4,d41 etc41 ,late ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,greifswald4 ,translated for the use of ,students by ,a4 ,t4 ,,cameron1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 of the ,university of ,toronto4 ,price #fs4 net4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,,contents3--,chapter ,i4--,introductory4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,the ,determination of ,density4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,determination of ,molecular ,weights in ,solutions4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,thermo-,chemistry4 ,chapter ,v4--,the ,determination of ,optical ,constants4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,the ,thermostat4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,chemical ,statics and ,dynamics4 ,,electro-,,chemistry3 ,chapter ,,viii4--,foundations4 ,chapter ,,ix4--,electrical ,conductivity4 ,chapter ,x4--,faraday's ,law4 ,transport ,numbers4 ,chapter ,,xi4--,measurement of ,differences of ,potential4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,electro-statics4 ,appendix4 ,index4 ,,small ,,tables ,,in ,,the ,,text3 ,molecular elevation of the boiling point and depression of the freezing point4 ,heat of combustion per gram at constant volume4 ,spectrum lines for optical measurements4 ,atomic refraction4 ,conductivities of some standard solutions4 ,dielectric constants4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,chemistry ,,and ,,physics ,,of ,,building ,,materials4 ,by ,,alan ,e4 ,,munby1 ,m4,a4 7,cantab74 ,the elementary principles of science which underlie the study of ,building ,materials in practice4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,technical ,,thermodynamics4 ,by ,dr4 ,,gustav ,,zeuner4 ,first ,english ,edition4 ,from the fifth complete and revised edition of ,grundzge der ,mechanischen ,wrmetheorie4 ,vol4 ,i4--,fundamental ,laws of ,thermodynamics2 ,theory of ,gases4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,the ,theory of ,vapours4 ,authorised ,translation by ,j4 ,f4 ,,klein1 ,d4,e41 ,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering1 ,lehigh ,university4 ,illustrated4 ,two ,volumes4 ,demy #hvo4 ,price #cfs4 net4 ,,experimental ,,and ,,theoretical ,,applications ,,of ,,thermodynamics ,,to ,,chemistry4 ,by ,,professor ,,walter ,,nernst1 ,university of ,berlin4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,entropy3 ,,or1 ,,thermodynamics ,,from ,,an ,,engineer',s ,,standpoint1 ,,and ,,the ,,reversibility ,,of ,,thermodynamics4 ,by ,,james ,,swinburne1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,e4,e41 etc4 ,illustrated with ,diagrams4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,electrical ,,engineering ,,electricity4 ,by ,h4 ,m4 ,,hobart1 ,b4,sc41 ,m4,inst4 ,c4,e41 etc4 ,a ,text-,book designed in particular for ,engineering ,students4 #bjh pages xix4 #dc ,tables and #aae ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,contents3--,the ,generation and ,conduction of ,electricity4 ,copper1 ,aluminium1 and other ,conducting ,materials4 ,energy4 ,the ,kelvin4 ,electricity4 ,continuous ,electricity and ,ohm's ,law4 ,the ,magnetic ,field4 ,conductors ,moving in a ,magnetic ,field4 ,alternating ,electricity4 ,inductance4 ,the ,magnetic ,circuit4 ,insulating ,materials4 ,the ,engineer4--,a rapid glance at the illustrations contained in this book is sufficient to show that it differs very materially from most others having the same title4 ,indeed1 it may be said that the volume possesses that desirable but unusual feature--originality4 ,a chapter on the magnetic field contains information which the student will find well worth acquiring1 and the same applies to that section of the book which deals with conductors moving in a magnetic field4 ,the alternating current section is also good1 and in a number of places it possesses the merit of originality4 ,the book1 as we have already intimated1 is written on practical lines1 and it is a decided improvement on most books we have seen having for their title the word ',electricity'4 ,,continuous ,,current ,,engineering4 ,by ,,alfred ,,hay1 ,d4,sc41 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 ,about #ccj pages4 ,fully ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,a standard text-book for the practical student1 giving a simple account of the component parts of a continuous current lighting and power plant1 dynamos1 motors1 secondary cells1 measuring instruments1 etc4 ,,direct ,,and ,,alternating ,,current ,,testing4 ,by ,,frederick ,,bedell1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,applied ,electricity in ,cornell ,university1 and ,,clarence ,a4 ,,pierce1 ,ph4,d4 #hs4 net4 ,,contents3--,direct ,current ,generators4 ,direct ,current ,motors4 ,synchronous ,alternators4 ,single-,phase ,currents4 ,transformers4 ,polyphase ,currents4 ,phase ,changers4 ,potential ,regulators1 etc4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,electric ,,cables ,,and ,,networks4 ,by ,,alexander ,,russell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc4 ,demy #hvo4 #hs4 net4 ,mechanical ,engineer4-- 444 the work needs only to be known in order to be well appreciated by the electrical profession4 ,,laboratory ,,and ,,factory ,,tests ,,in ,,electrical ,,engineering4 ,by ,,george ,f4 ,,sever and ,,fitzhugh ,,townsend1 ,second ,edition4 ,thoroughly revised4 ,demy #hvo4 #bhb pages4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,this book represents the laboratory work required in the ,electrical ,engineering ,course at ,columbia ,university4 ,it is intended to serve as a text-book for the use of students1 but furthermore it may be found useful by those who are engaged in the electrical profession4 ,,radio-,,telegraphy4 ,by ,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,monckton1 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 ,with #agc ,diagrams and ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,contents3--,preface4 ,electric ,phenomena4 ,electric ,vibrations4 ,electro-,magnetic ,waves4 ,modified ,hertz ,waves used in ,radio-,telegraphy4 ,apparatus used for ,charging the ,oscillator4 ,the ,electric ,oscillator3 ,methods of ,arrangement1 ,practical ,details4 ,the ,receiver3 ,methods of ,arrangement1 ,the ,detecting ,apparatus1 and other details4 ,measurements in ,radio-,telegraphy4 ,the ,experimental ,station at ,elmers ,end3 ,lodge-,muirhead ,system4 ,radio-,telegraph ,station at ,nauen3 ,telefunken ,system4 ,station at ,lyngby3 ,poulsen ,system4 ,the ,lodge-,muirhead ,system1 the ,marconi ,system1 ,telefunken ,system1 and ,poulsen ,system4 ,portable ,stations4 ,radio-,telephony4 ,appendices3 ,the ,morse ,alphabet4 ,electrical ,units used in this ,book4 ,international ,control of ,radio-,telegraphy4 ,index4 ,nature4--,a very interesting and valuable book4 ,,mathematics ,,the ,,calculus ,,and ,,its ,,applications4 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,for ,,beginners1 ,,especially ,,engineering ,,students4 ,with over #djj ,examples1 many of them fully worked out4 ,by ,,robert ,,gordon ,,blaine1 ,m4,e41 ,assoc4,m4,inst4,c4,e4 ,lecturer at the ,city ,guilds' ,technical ,college1 ,finsbury1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,author of ,hydraulic ,machinery1 ,lessons in ,practical ,mechanics1 ,the ,slide ,rule1 etc4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,the difficulties which beset the beginner are fully explained1 and the principles of the differential and integral calculus1 and differential equations1 are clearly set forth in the simplest language2 each rule being illustrated by practical examples4 ,applications of the calculus to problems in engineering and physics form a feature of the work1 which concludes with an up-to-date chapter on ,harmonic ,analysis1 of special interest to electrical engineers and students of electro-technics4 ,,engineering ,,engineering ,,workshops1 ,,machines ,,and ,,processes4 ,by ,f4 ,,zur ,,nedden4 ,translated by ,,john ,a4 ,,davenport4 ,with an ,introduction by ,,sir ,a4 ,b4 ,w4 ,,kennedy1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,inst4,c4,e41 ,m4,inst4,m4,e4 ,plates4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,a handbook of workshop practice for the young engineer4 ,it fills a gap in our books for the practical training of engineers4 ,,machine ,,design4 ,by ,,charles ,h4 ,,benjamin1 ,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering in the ,case ,school of ,applied ,science4 ,numerous ,diagrams and ,tables4 ,demy #hvo4 #hs4 net4 ,prepared primarily as a text-book1 but containing mainly what the writer has found necessary in his own practice as an engineer4 ,as far as possible the formulas for the strength and stiffness of machine details have been fortified by the results of experiments or by the practical experience of manufacturers4 ,,the ,,internal ,,combustion ,,engine3 ,being a ,text-,book on ,gas1 ,oil1 and ,petrol ,engines1 for the use of ,students and ,engineers4 ,by ,h4 ,e4 ,,wimperis1 ,m4,a41 ,assoc4,m4 ,inst4,c4,e41 ,assoc4,m4,inst4,e4,e4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,contents3--,introductory4 ,section ,i4--,,theory3 ,thermodynamic ,cycles4 ,combustion and ,explosion4 ,thermodynamics4 ,section ,,ii4--,,gas ,,engines ,,and ,,gas ,,producers3 ,the ,gas ,engine4 ,the ,gas ,producer4 ,blast ,furnace and ,coke-,oven ,gases4 ,section ,,iii4--,,oil ,,and ,,petrol ,,engines3 ,the ,oil and ,petrol ,engine4 ,petrol ,engine ,efficiency and ,rating4 ,index4 ,,the ,,modern ,,steam ,,engine3 ,,theory1 ,,design1 ,,construction1 ,,use4 ,a ,text-,book for ,students4 ,by ,,john ,,richardson1 ,m4,inst4,c4,e4 ,with #cjj ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,contents3 ,unit of ,power4 ,natural ,forces4 ,early ,types of ,engine4 ,the ,watt ,engine4 ,the ,use of ,steam in ,multiple ,cylinder or ,compound ,engines4 ,valve ,gears4 ,double or ,compound ,slide ,valves4 ,releasing ,valve ,gear4 ,exhaust ,valves and ,valve ,driving ,gear4 ,the ,governor4 ,electrical ,regulation4 ,condensers4 ,the ,steam ,turbine4 ,design of ,details4 ,examples of ,various ,types4 ,feed and ,steam ,heating4 ,hints to ,users4 ,appendix4 ,tables and ,formul4 ,index4 ,engineer4--,essentially a practical treatise4 ,,the ,,construction ,,and ,,working ,,of ,,internal ,,combustion ,,engines4 ,being a ,practical ,manual for ,gas ,engine ,designers1 ,repairs and ,users4 ,by ,r4 ,e4 ,,mathot4 ,translated by ,w4 ,a4 ,,tookey4 ,medium #hvo4 ,with over #cej ,illustrations4 #bds4 net4 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,mechanics ,,of ,,materials4 ,a ,text-,book for ,students in ,engineering ,courses4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,houghton1 ,a4,b41 ,m4,m4,e41 ,associate ,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering1 ,new ,york ,university4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,contents3 ,chapter ,i4--,,applied ,,mechanics4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,,applications4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,,beams4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,,torsion4 ,chapter ,v4--,,the ,,elastic ,,curve4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,,long ,,columns4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,,combined ,,stresses4 ,chapter ,,viii4--,,compound ,,bars ,,and ,,beams4 ,,tables4 ,,hydraulics ,,and ,,its ,,applications4 ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,,gibson1 ,m4,sc41 ,assoc4,mem4,inst4,c4,e41 ,victoria ,university1 ,manchester4 #ggd pages4 #cjh ,figures4 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4 net4 ,engineering ,times4--,this is the best book to date on the subject4 ,,natural ,,sources ,,of ,,power4 ,by ,,robert ,s4 ,,ball1 ,b4,sc41 ,a4,m4,inst4,c4,e4 ,with #ajd ,diagrams and ,illustrations4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,contents3--,preface4 ,units with ,metric ,equivalents and ,abbreviations ,length and ,distance4 ,surface and ,area4 ,volumes4 ,weights and ,measures4 ,pressures4 ,linear ,velocities4 ,angular ,velocities4 ,acceleration4 ,energy4 ,power4 ,introductory ,water ,power and ,methods of ,measuring4 ,application of ,water ,power to the ,propulsion of ,machinery4 ,the ,hydraulic ,turbine4 ,various ,types of ,turbines4 ,construction of ,water ,power ,plants4 ,water ,power ,installations4 ,the ,regulation of ,turbines4 ,wind ,pressure1 ,velocity1 and ,methods of ,measuring4 ,the ,application of ,wind ,power to ,industry4 ,the ,modern ,windmill4 ,constructional ,details4 ,power of ,modern ,windmills4 ,appendices ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,index4 ,,metallurgy ,,malleable ,,cast ,,iron4 ,by ,s4 ,,jones ,,parsons1 ,m4,e4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #hs4 net4 ,the information in this volume is thoroughly practical and reliable1 and the entire process of manufacture is clearly explained1 each stage being treated separately and in detail1 while much valuable information will be found in chapters dealing with design1 patterns1 inspection1 machining1 supplementary processes1 and the application of the material1 the use of which has increased so enormously within the last few years that it is now preferred to steel for many purposes4 ,it is freely illustrated with photographs and line drawings1 and will be invaluable to the professional man and the student4 ,,the ,,precious ,,metals3 ,,comprising ,,gold1 ,,silver1 ,,and ,,platinum4 ,by ,t4 ,,kirke ,,rose1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,d4,sc4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,contents3--,history of ,gold--,properties of ,gold--,compounds of ,gold--,alloys of ,gold--,occurrence of ,gold in ,nature3 ,gold ,ores--,extraction of ,gold from its ,ores3 ,gold ,washing--,treatment of ,gold ,ores by ,crushing and ,amalgamation--,treatment of ,gold ,ores by ,wet ,methods--,silver and its ,alloys--,compounds and ,ores of ,silver--,the ,extraction of ,silver from its ,ores--,refining ,gold and ,silver--,the ,assay of ,gold and ,silver ,ores--,the ,assay of ,gold and ,silver ,bullion--,minting--,manufacture of ,gold and ,silver ,wares--,platinum--,production and ,consumption of the ,precious ,metals4 ,,agriculture ,,soils ,,and ,,manures4 ,by ,j4 ,,alan ,,murray1 ,b4,sc4 ,demy #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,,contents3--,preface4 ,chapter ,i4--,introductory4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,the ,origin of ,soils4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,physical ,properties of ,soils4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,chemistry of ,soils4 ,chapter ,v4--,biology of ,soils4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,fertility4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,principles of ,manuring4 ,chapter ,,viii4--,phosphatic ,manures4 ,chapter ,,ix4--,phospho-,nitrogenous ,manures4 ,chapter ,x4--,nitrogenous ,manures4 ,chapter ,,xi4--,potash ,manures4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,compound and ,miscellaneous ,manures4 ,chapter ,,xiii4--,general ,manures4 ,chapter ,,xiv4--,farmyard ,manure4 ,appendices4--,i4 ,valuation of ,manures2 ,,ii4 ,composition and ,manurial ,value of ,various ,farm ,foods4 ,index4 ,,botany ,,plant ,,physiology ,,and ,,ecology4 ,by ,,frederic ,,edward ,,clements1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,botany in the ,university of ,minnesota4 ,with #abe ,illustrations4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,timber4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,,baterden1 ,assoc4,m4,inst4,c4,e4 ,profusely ,illustrated from ,photographs and ,diagrams4 ,extra ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 net4 ,this is essentially a practical work1 and botany is only incidentally touched upon4 ,the timbers dealt with are those in most general use1 either in their native districts or in the timber trade1 together with some others which are likely before long to come into the market4 ,,cytology ,,the ,,essentials ,,of ,,cytology3 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,living ,,matter4 ,by ,,charles ,,edward ,,walker1 ,assistant ,director of the ,cancer ,research1 ,liverpool1 and ,honorary ,lecturer in ,cytology to the ,school of ,tropical ,medicine in the ,university of ,liverpool2 formerly ,demonstrator of ,zoology in the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london4 ,illustrated4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,political ,,economy ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,political ,,science4 ,by ,,stephen ,,leacock1 formerly ,lecturer on ,political ,science at ,mc,gill ,university1 ,montreal4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,contents3--,part ,i4--,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,state3 ,i4 ,political ,science1 the ,theory of the ,state4 ,,ii4 ,the ,origin of the ,state2 ,fallacious ,theories4 ,,iii4 ,the ,true ,origin of the ,state4 ,,iv4 ,the ,sovereignty of the ,state4 ,v4 ,the ,liberty of the ,individual4 ,,vi4 ,relation of ,states to ,one ,another4 ,,vii4 ,the ,form of the ,state4 ,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,government3 ,i4 ,the ,separation of ,powers4 ,,ii4 ,the ,legislature4 ,,iii4 ,the ,executive4 ,,iv4 ,the ,judiciary and the ,electorate4 ,v4 ,federal ,government4 ,,vi4 ,colonial ,government4 ,,vii4 ,local ,government4 ,,viii4 ,party ,government4 ,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,province ,,of ,,government3 ,i4 ,individualism4 ,,ii4 ,socialism4 ,,iii4 ,the ,modern ,state4 ,,psychology ,,psychology3 ,,an ,,introductory ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,structure ,,and ,,function ,,of ,,human ,,consciousness4 ,by ,,james ,,rowland ,,angell4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 #aj ,,orange ,,street ,,leicester ,,square ,w4,c4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,appendices ,i and ,,ii have several pages of #b-;column data4 ,these are shown in the etext in single-column format4 ,appendix ,,iii consists of #c side-by-side columns over two pages1 each rotated vertically in the original text4 ,these are shown in the etext with column #a 7the segment in ,english7 first4 ,then comes column #b 7the segment translated into ,ido71 followed by column #c 7the segment retranslated back to ,english74 ,the ',entrance ,form' in ,appendix ,,iv is also shown in single-column format1 the ,english version first followed by the ,ido version4 ,the ,footnote near the top of the ,appendix ,,iv ',entrance ,form' 7,ido version7 has its anchor marked as #a1 with its text placed at the bottom of the ,form as in the original text4 ,the other ,footnotes #a to #g are placed at the end of the etext4 ,footnote #c has two anchors on page #bi4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,for example1 mother tongue1 mother-tongue2 ready made1 ready-made2 unbiassed2 superadded2 incrust2 scholasticism2 employs4 ,pg #ad1 ',states1 ,chili1' replaced by ',states1 ,chile1'4 ,pg #ae1 'la ,langue ,universale' replaced by 'la ,langue ,universelle'4 ,pg #ej1 'will be oz' replaced by 'will be -oz'4 ,pg #ef1 ' posterori' replaced by ' posteriori'4 ,pg #hb1 'in detail1 retail' replaced by 'in detail'4