,transcriber's ,note3 ,apparent typographical errors have been corrected4 ,archaic and inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been preserved4 ,illustration3 ,flag ,,two ,,centuries ,,of ,,shipbuilding ,illustration3 ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,argyll4 ,,two ,,centuries ,,of ,,shipbuilding ,,by ,,the ,,scotts ,,at ,,greenock4 ,illustration3 decoration ,partly ,reprinted from ,engineering4 ,illustration3 decoration ,take it all in all1 a ship of the line is the most honourable thing that man1 as a gregarious animal1 has ever produced4444 ,into that he has put as much of his human patience1 common sense1 forethought1 experimental philosophy1 self-control1 habits of order and obedience1 thoroughly wrought hand-work1 defiance of brute elements1 careless courage1 careful patriotism1 and calm expectation of the judgment of ,god1 as can well be put into a space of #cjj feet long by #hj feet broad4--,,ruskin4 ,illustration3 sailing ship ,,london3 ,,offices ,,of ,,engineering1 #ce and #cf1 ,,bedford ,,street1 ,w4,c4 #aijf4 ,contents4 ,illustration3 decoration ,,page ,,personalia xi ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,sailing ,,ship #a ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,steamship #ae ,table ,i4 ,epoch-,marking ,steamers built by the ,scotts1 #ahai to #ahda #ca ,table ,,ii4 ,progress in the ,economy of the ,marine ,engine1 #ahgb to #aija #da ,a ,,century',s ,,work ,,for ,,the ,,navy #dc ,table ,,iii4 ,progressive ,types of ,warship ,machinery1 and their ,economy1 #ahdj to #aije #ec ,table ,,iv4 ,particulars of the ,successive ,large ,naval ,guns1 #ahjj to #aije #ef ,table ,v4 ,size and ,fighting ,qualities of ,british ,battleships of ,different ,periods1 #ahfa to #aije #ei ,,yachting ,,and ,,yachts #fc ,table ,,vi4 ,general ,particulars of ,principal ,steam ,yachts ,built by ,scotts' ,company #fi ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century #gc ,numbers of ,british and ,foreign1 and of ,oversea and ,channel1 ,steamers1 of over #af knots speed #ge ,table ,,vii4 ,records of ,coal ,consumption of ,steamship ,narragansett #gi ,,efficiency3 ,,design3 ,,administration #hh ,,the ,,shipbuilding ,,yard #id ,,the ,,engine ,,and ,,boiler ,,works #ajf ,list of ,illustrations4 ,illustration3 decoration ,,page ,h4,m4,s4 ,argyll 7,plate ,i47 ,frontispiece ,,personalia4 ,portraits of ,william ,scott 7born #agbb1 died #agfi72 ,john ,scott 7born #ageb1 died #ahcg72 ,william ,scott1 his ,brother 7born #agfe72 and ,charles ,cuningham ,scott 7born #agid1 died #ahge7 7,plate ,,ii47 ,adjoining page #a ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b4 7born #ahcj1 died #aijc72 ,robert ,sinclair ,scott 7born #ahdc1 died #aije72 ,charles ,cuningham ,scott 7the present ,chairman72 ,robert ,lyons ,scott 7,plate ,,iii47 ,adjoining page #a ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,sailing ,,ship4 7,,pages #a ,,to #ad47 ,the ,beginnings 7,plate ,,iv47 ,facing page #b ,greenock and ,scotts' ,yard in the ,eighteenth ,century 7,plate ,v47 ,facing page #d ,a ,west ,indiaman #g ,a ,typical ,east ,indiaman #i ,the ,lord of the ,isles 7,plate ,,vi47 ,facing page #aj ,the ,archibald ,russell 7,plate ,,vii47 #ab ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,steamship4 7,,pages #ae ,,to #db47 ,early ,steamboats at ,greenock1 #ahbj 7,plate ,,viii47 ,facing page #af ,the ,city of ,glasgow 7,plate ,,ix47 #bj ,a ,side-,lever ,engine of #ahca #bc ,an ,engine of #ahcb #be ,scotts' ,first ,p4 and ,o4 ,liner1 the ,tagus 7,plate ,x47 ,facing page #bf ,type of ,side-,lever ,engine of #ahdj #bi ,double-,geared ,engine for ,early ,atlantic ,liner #cb ,a ,pioneer in ,water-,tube ,boilers 7,the ,rowan ,boiler7 #ce ,high-,pressure ,machinery in the ,thetis 7,plate ,,xi47 ,facing page #cf ,the ,machinery of the ,achilles #ch ,general ,arrangement of the ,machinery of the ,achilles 7,plate ,,xii47 ,facing page #ch ,the ,achilles of #ahfe1 off ,gravesend 7,plate ,,xiii47 #dj ,a ,,century',s ,,work ,,for ,,the ,,navy4 7,,pages #dc ,,to #fb47 ,model of ,h4,m4,s4 ,prince of ,wales1 #ahjc 7,plate ,,xiv47 ,facing page #dc ,the ,launch of the ,first ,clyde-,built ,steam ,frigate ,greenock1 #ahdi 7,plate ,,xv47 ,facing page #dd ,machinery in ,h4,m4,,ss4 ,hecla1 and ,hecate #ahci 7,plate ,,xvi47 ,facing page #df ,machinery of ,h4,m4,s4 ,greenock1 #ahdh #dh ,machinery of ,h4,m4,s4 ,canopus1 #aijj #di ,h4,m4,s4 ,thrush1 #ahhi 7,plate ,,xvii47 ,facing page #ej ,engines of ,h4,m4,s4 ,thrush1 #ahhi 7,plate ,,xviii47 #eb ,h4,m4 ,battleship ,prince of ,wales 7,plate ,,xix47 #eh ,propelling ,engines of ,h4,m4,s4 ,argyll 7,plate ,,xx47 #fj ,,yachting ,,and ,,yachts4 7,,pages #fc ,,to #gb47 ,the ,erin1 ,owned by ,sir ,thomas ,lipton1 ,bart4 7,plate ,,xxi47 ,facing page #fc ,the ,clarence1 an ,early ,racing ,cutter 7,plate ,,xxii47 #fd ,the ,greta of #ahgf2 the ,greta of #ahie 7,plate ,,xxiii47 ,facing page #ff ,the ,margarita2 the ,tuscarora 7,plate ,,xxiv47 #fh ,the ,saloons of the ,beryl1 ,owned by ,lord ,inverclyde 7,plate ,,xxv47 ,facing page #gj ,typical ,yacht ,engines 7,plate ,,xxvi47 #gb ,,the ,,twentieth ,,century4 7,,pages #gc ,,to #hg47 ,dining-,saloon in a ,mail ,steamer2 ,drawing-,room in the ,steam ,yacht ,foros 7,plate ,,xxvii47 ,facing page #gc ,the ,donaldson ,liner ,cassandra 7,plate ,,xxviii47 #gd ,the ,holt ,liner ,achilles of #aijj 7,plate ,,xxix47 #gf ,the ,largest ,oil-,carrying ,steamer afloat--the ,narragansett 7,plate ,,xxx47 ,facing page #gh ,the ,launch of a ,china ,steamer 7,plate ,,xxxi47 #hj ,the ,china ,navigation ,company's ,t4,,ss4 ,fengtien 7,plate ,,xxxii47 ,adjoining page #ha ,the ,british ,india ,company's ,,ss4 ,bharata 7,plate ,,xxxiii47 ,facing page #hb ,one of ,twenty ,thames ,steamers ,engined by the ,scotts 7,plate ,,xxxiv47 ,facing page #hd ,engines and ,boilers for ,twenty ,london ,county ,council ,steamers 7,plate ,,xxxv47 ,adjoining page #he ,typical ,propelling ,machinery 7,plate ,,xxxvi47 ,facing page #hf ,,efficiency3 ,,design3 ,,administration4 7,,pages #hh ,,to #ic47 ,shipbuilding 7,plate ,,xxxvii47 ,facing page #hh ,the ,launch of ,h4,m4,s4 ,argyll 7,plate ,,xxxviii47 #ij ,engine ,construction 7,plate ,,xxxix47 #ib ,,the ,,shipbuilding ,,yard4 7,,pages #id ,,to #aje47 ,the ,moulding ,loft 7,plate ,,xl47 ,facing page #id ,beam ,shearing ,machine2 ,bevelling ,machine2 ,hydraulic ,joggling ,machine 7,plate ,,xli47 ,adjoining page #ie ,in one of the ,platers' ,sheds 7,plate ,,xlii47 ,facing #if ,punching and ,shearing 7,plate ,,xliii47 #ih ,the ,fitting-out ,dock 7,plate ,,xliv47 #ajj ,the ,graving ,dock 7,plate ,,xlv47 ,adjoining #aja ,the ,saw ,mill 7,plate ,,xlvi47 ,facing #ajb ,two ,views in the ,joiners' ,shops 7,plate ,,xlvii47 ,adjoining #ajc ,electric ,generators in the ,power ,station2 ,hydraulic ,pumps and ,air-,compressors in the ,power ,station 7,plate ,,xlviii47 ,facing page #ajd ,,the ,,engine ,,and ,,boiler ,,works4 7,,pages #ajf ,,to #aaf47 ,view in ,main ,machine ,shop 7,plate ,,xlix47 ,facing page #ajf ,vertical ,planing ,machine2 ,multiple ,spindle ,drilling ,machine 7,plate ,l47 ,facing page #ajh ,surfacing and ,boring ,lathe 7,plate ,,li47 ,adjoining #aji ,brass-,finishing ,shop 7,plate ,,lii47 ,facing #aaj ,tool1 ,gauge1 ,template and ,jig ,department 7,plate ,,liii47 #aab ,in the ,boiler ,shop 7,plate ,,liv47 #aad ,hydraulic ,plate-,bending ,machine #aad ,illustration3 decoration ,personalia4 ,illustration3 decoration ,,john ,,scott 7,i7 founded the firm in #agaa1 and engaged in the building of herring busses and small craft4 ,there is1 unfortunately1 no engraving of him extant1 so that our series of portraits on ,plates ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 adjoining page #a1 is to this extent incomplete4 ,,william ,,scott1 his son1 born #agbb1 died #agfi1 succeeded him1 and1 with his brother1 extended the business alike as regards the extent of the works1 and the types of vessels built4 ,his first square-rigged ship--of #agfe--was the first vessel built on the ,clyde for owners out of ,scotland4 ,,john ,,scott 7,,ii71 born #ageb1 died #ahcg1 son of ,william1 greatly developed the works and built the dry dock and basin now included1 with the original ,yard1 in the establishment of ,messrs4 ,caird and ,co41 ,limited4 ,under his rgime many ocean-going sailing ships were constructed1 ship-work for the ,navy was undertaken1 the manufacture of steam machinery commenced in #ahbe1 and ,admiralty orders undertaken for engines for dockyard--as well as ,greenock-built frigates4 ,he built the ,custom ,house ,quay in #agia1 bought ,halkshill1 the family seat1 in #ahae1 was a partner in the ,greenock ,bank1 and otherwise promoted the industries of the town4 ,his brother1 ,,william ,,scott 7,,ii71 born #agef1 migrated to ,barnstaple1 where he carried on an extensive shipbuilding industry1 obtaining engines for the most of his steamships from the ,greenock ,works4 ,,charles ,,cuningham ,,scott1 born #agid1 died #ahge1 son of ,john ,scott 7,,ii71 along with his elder brother1 ,john ,scott 7,,iii71 born #aghe1 died #ahgd1 carried on the business as ,john ,scott and ,sons1 developing still further the progressive policy of his father1 who had been responsible for the works for about half a century4 ,the ,cartsdyke ,yard was commenced in #ahej by ,charles ,cuningham ,scott1 and his son ,john1 under the style of ,scott and ,co41 and this firm is the one which has maintained the continuity of the ,scotts' association with shipbuilding4 ,,john ,,scott 7,,iv71 born #ahcj1 died #aijc1a and ,,robert ,,sinclair ,,scott1 born #ahdc1 died #aije1 sons of ,charles ,cuningham ,scott1 were responsible for the progress for nearly forty years1 and the former was created a ,companion of the ,bath 7,c4,b47 in #ahhg4 ,during their rgime the firm took a large part in the introduction of the steamship for over-sea voyages2 in the development of high steam pressures and of the multiple-expansion engine1 which greatly improved the economy of the steam engine2 and in naval work1 with its incidental advancement4 ,they completely reconstructed the ,cartsdyke ,works1 and greatly improved what is now known as the ,cartsburn ,dockyard1 modernising the equipment4 ,the co-partnery was1 for family reasons1 registered in #aijj under the ,limited ,liability ,company ,law4 ,,charles ,,cuningham ,,scott1 son of ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b41 is now the head of the concern and ,chairman of the ,company 7,scotts' ,shipbuilding and ,engineering ,company1 ,limited71 and with him on the directorate are his brother ,,robert ,,lyons ,,scott1 ,c4 ,mumme1 and ,james ,brown4 ,illustration3 decoration ,illustration3 ,william ,scott 7#agbb-agfi7 ,illustration3 ,john ,scott 7#ageb-ahcg7 ,illustration3 ,william ,scott 7born #agef7 ,illustration3 ,charles ,c4 ,scott 7#agid-ahge7 ,illustration3 ,john ,scott 7#ahcj-aijc7 ,illustration3 ,p4 ,sinclair ,scott 7#ahdc-aije7 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,c4 ,scott ,illustration3 ,r4 ,l4 ,scott ,,footnote3 #a ,this date is incorrectly given as #aijd at the end of the third paragraph on page #ff4 ,illustration3 decoration ,the ,era of the ,sailing ,ship4 ,illustration3 decoration ,the maintenance of an industry for two hundred years by one family1 in the direct line of succession and in one locality1 is almost unique in the history of western manufactures4 ,such a record proves that the successive generations have displayed diligence1 prudence1 and enterprise2 otherwise it would not have been possible for them to have held continuously a foremost place in the face of incessant competition consequent upon the general advance in science1 the introduction of superior constructional materials1 and the invention of new machinery4 ,it indicates also the maintenance of a high standard of workmanship as well as integrity and business capacity2 because time is the most important factor in proving efficiency and in establishing credit for durability of work1 without which no reputation can be retained for such a long period4 ,the ,scotts began the building of ships in ,greenock in #agaa4 ,to-day1 their descendants of the sixth generation worthily maintain the high traditions which have accumulated during the intervening two hundred years4 ,it is impossible to form an adequate conception of the service rendered by this one firm to the science of marine construction and to ,britain1 the leading maritime nation of the world4 ,we should require to review in detail the successive steps3 firstly1 in the perfection of the sailing ship1 from the sloops and brigantines of the eighteenth century1 to such beautiful clippers as ,scotts' ,lord of the ,isles1 which in #ahef made the record voyage from ,china1 and did much to wrest from the ,americans the blue ribbon of the ocean2 and1 secondly1 in the development of the steamship from its inception early in the nineteenth century to the leviathans of to-day4 ,in successive epochs in the history of naval architecture the ,scotts have played a creditable part1 and to some of the more important improvements initiated or advanced by the firm reference will be made in our brief survey of the work done during the past two centuries4 ,unfortunately1 some years ago1 most of the old-time records were destroyed by a fire at the shipyard1 so that our review of the early work is largely from contemporary publications1 and is unavoidably incomplete4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv4 ,from an ,engraving by ,e4 ,w4 ,cooke1 ,r4,a4 ,,the ,,beginnings4 ,the beginnings were small1 for ,scotland had not yet attained to industrial importance1 and had little oversea commerce4 ,the first trans-,atlantic voyage made by a ,clyde ship was in #afhf1 when a ,greenock-built vessel was employed on a special mission to carry twenty-two persons transported to ,carolina for attending conventicles and being disaffected to ,government4#b ,american ships were most numerous on the western seas1 and the ,east ,india ,company had a monopoly of the eastern seas1 so far as ,britain was concerned1 and preferred to build their ships in ,india1 although many were constructed on the south coast of ,england4 ,this monopoly checked progress4 ,there was little or no incentive to improvement in merchant ships1 and the naval authorities were too busy fighting ,continental nations to risk extensive experimental work4 ,we have it on the authority of ,sir ,nathaniel ,barnaby1 ,k4,c4,b41#c that neither ,government nor private builders made much progress in improving methods of construction4 ,the first letters patent granted for improvements relating to ships bear the date ,january #agth1 #afah1 but the result of a thorough investigation of all patents between #afah and #ahaj discloses no improvement worth recording1 except in the manufacture of sheathing and the construction of pumps4 ,the ,scotts1 like a few other shipbuilders on the ,clyde1 were concerned for the greater part of the eighteenth century in the building of fishing and coasting boats4 ,there belonged to ,greenock1 in #agbh1 as many as nine hundred of such fishing boats1 locally built1 each carrying from twenty to twenty-four nets and manned by a crew of four men4 ,for many years the business of the firm consisted almost entirely in the building of herring busses and small craft employed in the fishing trade1 the first establishment being at the mouth of the ,west ,burn1 on land leased from the ,shaw family4 ,the shipbuilding industry was carried on intermittently1 and the ,scotts were the first to give it stability and continuity4 ,in #ageb1 the ,greenland whale fisheries were engaged in1 and this led to a development in the size of craft4 ,the first square-rigged vessel built in the port was a brig1 named ,greenock1 constructed in #agfj1 for the ,west ,indian trade4 ,in #agfe1 ,william ,scott1 who had succeeded the original founder--his father1 ,john ,scott--built a large square-rigged ship for some merchants of the town of ,hull1 the timber for which came from the ,ducal woods at ,hamilton4 ,this ship is notable as being probably the first ship built on the ,clyde for owners out of ,scotland4#d ,to take a fairly representative year 7#aggf71 eighteen vessels1 ranging up to #gg tons1 and of a total of #ajgc tons burden1 were constructed in ,greenock1 and of the number six were built by the ,scotts4#e ,although the work could be more cheaply done on the ,clyde than at ,london or ,bristol1 there was for a long time a strong prejudice against ,english owners ordering vessels from the north1 and against ,scotch vessels taking any part in the oversea trade4 ,the ,jacobite risings had also affected the industry1 but the ,war of ,independence in ,america had far-reaching beneficial results4 ,it is true that prior to this the rich fields of the ,english colonial possessions1 as well as the ,english markets1 had been opened to the commerce of ,scotland1 and that the merchants of ,glasgow had developed extensive commercial operations with the ,west ,indies and ,british ,north ,america2 but1 although there was thus a considerable oversea trade between the ,clyde and the ,western hemisphere1 all the large vessels trading to the ,clyde were built in ,america4#f ,the shipbuilding industry in the ,states was thus a very extensive one2 and1 in #agfi1 there were launched1 in the ,north ,american ,colonies1 three hundred and eighty-nine vessels of #bj1jjj tons burden1 which was far in excess of the annual ,british output4#g ,this was largely owing to the limitless supply of timber in ,america1 and to the import duties on constructional material imposed in this country to suit the ,english growers of oak1 the price of which advanced in the eighteenth century from #b #aes4 to #g #gs4 per load4#h ,the ,brunswick1 of #fjj tons1 carpenters' measurement1 to carry #ajjj tons real burden1 built by the ,scotts in #agia for the ,nova ,scotia trade2 and the ,caledonia1 of #fej tons1 built by the ,scotts in #agid1 for the carriage of timber for the ,navy yards--each the largest ship in ,scotland of its respective year--signalised the beginning of a period of greater activity1 especially in respect of large ocean ships4 ,some years before--#agfg--the ,scotts had feued ground for a building yard on the shore east of the ,west ,burn4 ,they added a graving dock of considerable size1 and the inaugural proceedings included a dinner held on the floor of the dock4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v4 ,from an ,old ,engraving4 ,,greenock ,,and ,,scotts' ,,yard ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4 ,other developments contributed to the prosperity of the port of ,greenock1 the chief of the establishment being ,john ,scott of the third generation1 who was born in #ageb1 and died in #ahcg4 ,his brother1 ,william ,scott1 also the second of that name1 migrated to ,bristol1 where he carried on an extensive trade as a shipbuilder4 ,the latter was the father of ,james ,m4 ,scott1 who is still remembered by some old inhabitants as the founder1 about #ahdg1 of penny banks in ,greenock and of the ,artisans' ,club4 ,john ,scott1 after his brother's departure1 carried on the business under the name of ,john ,scott and ,sons1 and did great service not only for the town1 but also for the advancement of the business4 ,in three successive years1 #aghg1 #aghh1 and #aghi1 he bought three large plots from the ninth ,lord ,cathcart1 for the extension of the works4#i ,these then extended almost from the ,west ,quay to the ,west ,burn4 ,he also1 in #agia1 constructed the old steamboat or custom-house quay1#aj and played a large part in developing the banking facilities of the town4 ,he bought1 in #ahae1 ,halkshill1 near ,largs1 which has continued the residence of the family4 ,in view of the association of the firm with the town1 it may be worth interpolating here a statement of the growth of the population of ,greenock1 with the sources from which the figures have been taken4 ,year4 ,population4 ,source4 #agjj #a1cbh ,campbell's ,history1 page #bc4 #ahja #ag1deh ,weir's ,history1 page #abj4 #aija #fh1adb ,census ,returns1 vol4 i41 page #bab4 ,shipbuilding work1 however1 was still in craft which to-day would be considered insignificant4 ,the increase of the mercantile fleet of ,england throughout the eighteenth century was only fivefold in respect of numbers1 and sixfold in tonnage2 the average size shows an augmentation from #hj tons to only #ajj tons1 and there was no improvement in labour-economising appliances for the working of the ship1 as the ratio of men to tonnage was at the beginning of the century practically one to every #aj tons1 and at the close one to #ac tons4#aa ,in the nineteenth century1 the tonnage increased eightfold1 but in view of the adoption of steam the actual carrying capacity was augmented nearly thirtyfold2 the average size of ship increased to #gfj tons4 ,practically1 every ship in the eighteenth century carried guns1 the average being two per vessel4 ,it was not until #ahec that there was omitted from the mail contracts the clause which provided that each mail vessel must be built to carry guns of the largest calibre in use4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,west ,,indiaman4 7,see page #ab47 ,the nineteenth century brought every incentive to the development of shipbuilding4 ,nelson taught the lesson1 never to be forgotten1 that sea-power is essential to the commercial expansion--even to the existence--of our island kingdom1 with its corollary1 that the merchant fleet is as necessary to this mastery of the sea as fighting squadrons4 ,the sea became our home2 there arose a renewed love of exploration1 and an ambition for colonisation4 ,success brought the chastening influence of responsibility1 with a higher appreciation of the advantage of a conciliatory policy towards foreign nations4 ,contemporaneously with the growth of this conception of empire there arose a war of retaliation in shipping with the newly-formed ,united ,states of ,america1 which continued for half a century4 ,although not without its regrettable incidents1 it stimulated a rivalry in the shipping and shipbuilding industries which was ultimately as beneficial as it had been pronounced4 ,the monopoly of the ,east ,india ,company in the ,eastern shipping trade terminated1 so far as ,india was concerned1 in #ahad1 and as regards ,china in #ahcd4 ,this removed an influence which had hitherto retarded enterprise in naval construction--especially on the ,clyde--due to the ,company's preference for building their ships in ,india1 and in the south of ,england ports4 ,private owners1 too1 entered more vigorously into competition with ,american clippers which had first commenced trade with ,china in #aghh4 ,with the widening of the maritime interests and the intensification of competition there was awakened a general desire to increase the strength of ships4 ,in this respect1 as in others1 there had been little advance either in the ,navy or in the mercantile marine4 ,it was exceptional for a ship of the eighteenth century to continue in service for more than twelve or fifteen years4 ,this was due partly to defective constructional details1 and partly to the ineffective methods of preserving timber4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical ,,east ,,indiaman4 7,see page #ab47 ,ships were then built up#ab of a series of transverse ribs1 connected together by the outside planking and by the ceiling4 ,there was no filling between the ribs4 ,the ship's structure thus suffered severely from hogging and sagging stresses4 ,the ,french tried to improve this by introducing oblique iron riders across the ceiling1 or by laying the ceiling and the outside planking diagonally1 while in other instances the whole was strengthened with vertical or diagonal riders2 but none of these systems gave complete satisfaction4 ,the ,sepping system was introduced about #ahaj1 and was early adopted by the ,scotts4 ,the bottom of the ship was formed into a solid mass of timber4 ,the beams were connected with the side of the ship by thick longitudinal timbers below the knees1 and by other stiffening members4 ,a trussed frame was laid on the inside of the transverse frame in the hold of the ship1 and the decks were laid diagonally4 ,these members bound the ship in all directions1 so as to resist the stresses due to the ship working in a seaway4 ,the method of preserving the timber adopted at the beginning of the eighteenth century was to char the inner surface of the log1 while the outer surface was kept wet2 but this was superseded early in the century by the stoving system1 which consisted in placing timber in wet sand1 and subjecting it to the action of heat1 for such time as was necessary to extract the residue of the sap and bring the timber to a condition of suppleness4 ,this process continued until #agcf1 after which the timber itself was steamed4 ,copper sheathing was first employed on warships in #agfa2 prior to this lead had been used1 but only occasionally4 ,american shipbuilders held an important position1 even in the ,british trade1 for some time after the ,declaration of ,independence2 but there was then developed a pronounced spirit of emulation amongst the ,british firms1 which had a marked effect on competition in western seas4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century much of the oversea work done by the ,scotts was for the ,west ,indian trade4 ,the vessels were not often of more than #fjj tons1 but the firm continued steadily to develop their business4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi4 ,,the ,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,isles4 7,see page #ac47 ,between #aggc and #ahbi1 the period of expansion under the second ,john ,scott1 to which we have already referred1 the output was #af1hjj tons4#ac ,this output included a succession of fine ships for the ,west ,india trade1 to the order of some of the old ,glasgow companies1 amongst the number being ,stirling1 ,gordon and ,company2 ,j4 ,campbell and ,company2 ,james ,young and ,company2 and ,muir and ,fairlie4 ,we may mention as typical ships1 the ,grenada1 of #fej tons burden1 and the ,john ,campbell1 of #ddf tons1 built in #ahjf1 the first ships launched on the ,clyde with all rigging in position4 ,thus early1 too1 the ,scotts had entered upon the construction of that long series of yachts1 sailing and steam1 which has brought them considerable repute1 and even more pleasure1 since they were in successive generations noted yachtsmen4 ,in #ahjc they launched the #de-a_/b-ton cutter for ,colonel ,campbell1 of the ,yorkshire ,militia1 which was pronounced one of the completest of the kind ever built in ,scotland up to that time4 ,it may be incidentally mentioned1 that the ,scotts also showed thus early their practical sympathy with the auxiliary forces of the ,crown by being at the head of the volunteer ,sea ,fencibles formed on the ,clyde in the stormy years of the ,napoleonic wars4 ,as soon as the monopoly of the ,east ,india ,company was removed in #ahad1 private shipowners entered the lists1 and the ,scotts were early occupied in the construction of ,indo-,china clippers4 ,in #ahah they built the ,christian1 and in #ahbj the ,bellfield1 the latter1 of #dgh tons register1 for the ,london and ,calcutta trade4 ,she was one of the first of a long series4 ,the ,kirkman ,finlay1 of #dcj tons1 built in #ahcd1 suggests the name of a firm long and honourably associated with the development of trade in our great ,eastern dependency4 ,the effect of competition was a reduction in the average rate of freight per ton from ,india to ,britain from #cb #ajs4 about #aggc to #aj in #ahcj4 ,the ,east ,india ,company about the year #ahac paid #dj per ton for their ships1 as against about #be per ton by other traders2 the latter sum was about the same as that paid in ,america4 ,the ,east ,indiaman had a crew in the ratio of one to #aj or #ab tons1 while one to #be tons sufficed for the ,west ,indiaman4 ,the speed of the western ship was greater1 largely by reason of the difference in proportions and lines4 ,the clipper built on the ,clyde and in ,america had a length equal to five or six times the beam1 against four times the beam in the case of the ,east ,india ,company's ships4 ,in the design of these clippers the ,scotts took an important part4 ,charles ,cuningham ,scott was then at the head of the concern4 ,an ingenious method of making model experiments in the graving dock at the works was evolved in the 'forties1 whereby the firm were able to arrive at the most satisfactory form of hull to give the minimum of resistance1 and at the same time a large capacity for cargo per registered ton4 ,in this latter respect they were more successful than the designers of the ,east ,indiamen1 notwithstanding the bluff form of the latter4 ,as rapidity in answering the helm was a most important element in tacking1 and therefore in speed1 the firm about this time prepared full-rigged models1 about #e ft4 long1 for experimental trials as to the ship's form and rudder1 on ,loch ,thom1 on the hill above ,greenock1 in an exposed place where the conditions of wind were analogous to those at sea4 ,the results proved satisfactory4 ,in fact1 in these years1 when the ,minerva1 ,acbar1 and other noted clippers were built1 the care used in design and construction was almost as great as that now devoted in the case of racing yachts4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4 ,,the ,,archibald ,,russell4 7,see page #ad47 ,the ,scotts1 in the first half of the nineteenth century1 continued to produce a long series of successful sailing ships1 while at the same time taking a creditable part in the evolution of the steamship4 ,steam1 however1 was not possible in long-distance voyages until pressures had been increased1 and coal consumption reduced to moderate limits2 and thus it came that1 although the steam engine was used in the early years of the nineteenth century in river1 and later in coasting1 craft1 the sailing ship continued supreme almost until the middle of the century4 ,we do not propose1 however1 to refer to all of the later sailing ships built by the ,scotts1 but it may be interesting to give some details of the construction4 ,american rock elm was largely used4 ,the frames were in three sections with scarfed joints1 bolted together1 the scantlings being reduced towards the top1 so as to lower the centre of gravity4 ,inside the frames there were at various heights longitudinal timbers1 to add to the fore-and-aft strength4 ,the top sides were of greenheart1 the beams of oak or greenheart1 with wrought-iron knees2 the height between the beams was made to admit of two hogsheads of sugar being placed in the hold4 ,there were side-stringers1 sometimes #aj in4 thick1 between the floor and the beams1 which were half-checked into the stringers4 ,on the top of the beams there were deck-stringers4 ,there was a most effective transverse and longitudinal binding1 brass bolts being extended right through the knee1 stringer1 frame1 and skin of the ship4 ,the decks were of yellow or ,dantzig white pine4 ,an #hjj or #ajjj-ton ,west ,indiaman occupied about nine months in construction4 ,the last wooden ship built in ,greenock was the ,canadian1 completed by the ,scotts in #ahei4ad ,the highest conception of the iron sailing ship1 as built by the firm1 was probably embodied in the ,lord of the ,isles1 completed in #ahef4 ,she had a length between perpendiculars of #ahe ft41 a breadth of #bi ft4--the proportion being thus #f4d of length to #a of beam--with a depth of hold of #ah ft4 ,her registered tonnage was #fia tons1 and her builders' measurement #ggj tons4 ,although a fine-ended ship she carried a large cargo on board1 and made her first trip to ,sydney in seventy days1 which had not then been surpassed4#ae ,she made the passage from ,shanghai to ,london in eighty-seven days1 with #ajcj tons of tea on board4 ,in one trip she averaged #cbj nautical miles for five consecutive days4 ,when engaged in the celebrated race for the delivery of the season's teas from ,foo-chow-foo to ,london1 in #ahef1 the ,lord of the ,isles beat two of the fastest ,american clippers1 of almost twice her tonnage4 ,she delivered her cargo without one spot of damage1 and thus ,british ships regained their ascendency in the trade which their ,american rivals had far too long monopolised4#af ,from that time the ,british sailing ships gradually gained a complete superiority over the ,american vessels1 and carried all before them1 until they in turn were supplanted by the ,british steamship4 ,from time to time an occasional sailing ship was constructed of steel2 the latest1 the ,archibald ,russell1 is illustrated4 ,built for ,messrs4 ,john ,hardie and ,company1 this vessel has a length1 between perpendiculars1 of #bgh ft41 a beam of #dc ft41 and a depth1 moulded1 of #bf ft41 and carries #cicj tons of deadweight cargo on a draught of #ba ft4 #g-a_/b in4 ,but less than #a per cent4 of ships now constructed depend upon the unbought but uncertain winds1 and then only for special trades4 ,on regular routes the steamer is now almost paramount1 and it was1 therefore1 appropriate in the highest degree that the first vessels to steam regularly to ,china1 vi the ,cape1 should1 like the ,lord of the ,isles1 be built by the ,scotts2 but that belongs to another story4 ,illustration3 decoration ,,footnotes3 #b ,campbell's ,historical ,sketches of the ,town and ,harbour of ,greenock1 vol4 i41 page #ah4 #c ,sir ,nathaniel ,barnaby's ,naval ,development in the ,century1 page #bc4 #d ,brown's ,early ,annals of ,greenock1 page #acf #e ,williamson's ,memorials of ,james ,watt1 #ahef4 #f ,the ,gazetteer of ,scotland1 #ahdb1 vol4 i41 page #gji4 #g ,journals of the ,house of ,commons1 #agib1 page #ceg4 #h ,holmes' ,ancient and ,modern ,ships1 page #aeb4 #i ,williamson's ,old ,greenock1 page #adh4 #aj ,campbell's ,historical ,sketches of the ,town and ,harbour of ,greenock1 page #fh4 #aa ,the following figures are taken for #agja from ,chambers' ,estimates1 pages #fh1 #fi1 and #ij2 for #agic from ,lindsay's ,history of ,merchant ,shipping2 for #ahjc from ,porter's ,progress of the ,nation1 page #fbf2 and for #aija from the ,statistical ,abstract for the ,united ,kingdom4 #agja4 #agic4 #ahjc4 #aija4 ,number of ships #c1bha #af1jgi #bj1hic #bj1beh ,tonnage #bfa1bbb #a1edj1ade #b1afg1hfc #ae1ceg1jeb ,seamen #bg1aif #aah1bhf -- #bdg1igc ,the ,scottish fleet1 which is not included for #agja and #agic1 was much smaller1 alike in the size of units and aggregate tonnage4 #ab ,holmes's ,ancient and ,modern ,ships1 page #acj4 #ac ,weir's ,history of ,greenock4 #ad ,brown's ,early ,annals of ,greenock1 page #ach4 #ae ,murray's ,shipbuilding in ,iron and ,wood1 page #fj4 #af ,lindsay's ,merchant ,shipping1 vol4 iii1 page #bid4 ,illustration3 decoration ,the ,development of the ,steamship4 ,illustration3 decoration ,a close association existed between the ,scotts and the family of ,james ,watt1 the inventor of the steam engine3 the founder of the ,scotts' shipbuilding firm and the father of ,watt were identified with several schemes for the improvement of ,greenock2 and the signature of ,john ,scott1 of the third generation1 whose portrait is the second reproduced on ,plate ,,ii41 is taken from a document in connection with some intromissions of town's funds1 to which also is adhibited the signature of ,watt's father4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the ,scotts were early close students of ,watt's inventive work1 and among the first to enter upon the building of steamships2 while at the same time1 as we have shown in the preceding pages1 building many of the fine sailing ships which established ,british shipping supremacy in the early half of the nineteenth century1 and raised ,greenock by #ahbi to a port having trade with every part of the world4 ,miller and ,taylor commenced their experiments at ,dalswinton in #aghh1 with a steam engine driving paddle-wheels in boats#ag4 ,symington's steam tug1 ,charlotte ,dundas1 by its success in #ahjb on the ,forth and ,clyde ,canal#ah1 removed any remaining doubt2 but it was not until #ahab that ,henry ,bell1 with his ,comet1 proved the commercial utility of the steam system1 although without profit to the promoter4#ai ,the building of steamships1 evolved by experiments by various workers in ,britain--and in ,america also--was readily adopted on the ,clyde4 ,within four years of the completion of the ,comet1 it was not unusual for five hundred or six hundred passengers to enjoy in the course of one day water excursions on the river4#bj ,the fares were practically five times those prevailing to-day4 ,among the earliest of the ,clyde steamers were the ,active1 of #ei tons1 and ,despatch1 of #eh tons1 built by the ,scotts4 ,in calculating the tonnage in those early days1 an average allowance of one-third was deducted for the machinery4 ,in #ahaf the firm built the ,shannon1 of a length between perpendiculars of #gg ft4 #g in41 of a beam of #ae ft4 #c in41 and of a depth moulded of #i ft4 #a in4 ,she had fore-and-aft cabins4 ,her engines were of #ad horse-power nominal4 ,she plied on the ,shannon between ,limerick and ,kilrush4 ,by #ahah--six years after the completion of the ,comet--thirty-two steamers were running on the ,clyde1 and some of these were sent ultimately for traffic on the coast and on other rivers4#ba ,the largest of these was of #aab tons1 with engines of #dj nominal horse-power4 ,the ,scotts had built many sailing craft for the ,clyde and ,belfast trade1 for the ,glasgow and ,liverpool service1 and for the ,liverpool and ,drogheda1 and other coasting routes2 and it was natural when steam was introduced that the same firm should supply the side-paddle boats4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii4 ,from an ,old ,engraving4 ,,early ,,steamboats ,,at ,,greenock4 ,in three successive years--from #ahai to #ahba--the largest steamer in the kingdom came from ,scotts' ,works4 ,the record was marked in #ahai by the ,waterloo1 of over #bjj tons1 with engines of #fj nominal horse-power2 in #ahbj1 by the ,superb of #bdj tons register1 with engines of #gb nominal horse-power1 which cost about #cg per ton1 and steamed #i miles per hour1 using #afgj lb4 of ,scotch coal per hour2 and in #ahba1 by the ,majestic1 of #cde tons register1 with engines of #ajj horse-power1 which cost over #dj per ton1 and steamed #aj miles per hour for a consumption of #bbdj lb4 of ,scotch coal4 ,although the modern steamer is fifty times the size of these pioneers1 with a cost per ton of less than one-fourth1 and a fuel consumption per unit of work done of not more than a seventh1 the records of these and other early ships are worthy of full reference4 ,the advantage of steam navigation for channel service was at once recognised4 ,a ,parliamentary return issued in #ahae showed that for the space of nine days in the previous year only one mail packet could sail between ,holyhead and ,dublin owing to adverse winds1 and even then the average passage was twenty-four hours4 ,lord ,kelvin1 in his memorable ,address as ,chancellor of the ,university of ,glasgow1 in #aije1 recalled the fact that early in the century his father often took three or four days to cross from ,belfast to ,greenock in a smack1 as she was frequently becalmed4 ,with favourable winds1 rapid passages were made1 a revenue cutter occasionally doing the ,belfast and ,greenock run in ten hours4 ,the ,greenock and ,belfast route was among the first around the coast to come under the influence of the mechanical system of propulsion4 ,the ,rob ,roy1 which was the outcome1 so far as form of hull was concerned1 of probably the first model experiments ever made--undertaken by ,david ,napier in the ,canal at ,camlachie#bb--was in #ahah the pioneer in the ,glasgow and ,belfast steam service1 and later in the ,dover and ,calais steam service4 ,there followed in #ahai three notable vessels from ,scotts' ,works3 the ,waterloo1#bc the ,robert ,bruce1 and the ,sir ,william ,wallace4 ,the particulars and performances of these vessels1 taken from contemporary records1 principally the ,greenock ,advertiser1 which faithfully reported each incident in the development of the steamship1 are especially interesting as illustrative of early work4 ,the ,waterloo1 which1 as we have already said1 was the largest steamer of her year 7#ahai71 had a beam equal to one-fifth of her length1 the measurement between perpendiculars being #ih ft4 #h in4 ,in addition to a large number of passengers1 she carried under ordinary conditions a cargo of #ajj tons1 on a draught of #h ft4 #f in4 against #g ft4 #c in4 without cargo4 ,three months were required1 between the launch of the ship and her trials1 for the fitting on board of engines each of #cj nominal horse-power1 which gave her a speed of between #h and #i miles per hour4 ,sails1 however1 were still carried to assist in driving the ship1 and this vessel was of schooner rig4 ,she inaugurated the steam service between ,belfast and ,liverpool4 ,the ,robert ,bruce was the first steamer to trade between the ,clyde and ,liverpool4#bd ,she was followed by the ,sir ,william ,wallace4 ,both were built by the ,scotts1 and had engines of #fj nominal horse-power4 ,they began service in the summer of #ahai2 and the record of the maiden voyage of the former1 in ,august1 #ahai1 showed that two and a-half hours were occupied in the run from ,glasgow to ,greenock1 about #bb miles2 and within #bf hours thereafter the vessel took on her pilot at the north-west lightship outside the ,mersey ,bar4 ,the return voyage was equally satisfactory4 ,to quote again from contemporary records1 the passengers1 both out and home1 were so highly gratified with the performance of this vessel and their treatment on board that they unanimously expressed their entire satisfaction with ,captain ,paterson's exertions to render them comfortable and happy1 their conviction of the seaworthiness of the vessel1 and their admiration of the powers of the engines1 capable of propelling so large a body at the rate of #g knots per hour1 in the face of a strong north-northwest wind and high sea for at least two-thirds of the way from ,liverpool1 her rate thither being nearly #i knots4#be ,in #ahbj1 the ,superb1 of #bdj tons and #gb horse-power1 followed the ,sir ,william ,wallace1 and marked a still further improvement4 ,she had a copper boiler1 and in the three cabins sleeping accommodation was provided for sixty-two passengers4 ,she was the finest1 largest1 and most powerful steam vessel in ,great ,britain4#bf ,the average duration of the passage from the ,clyde to ,liverpool did not exceed #cj hours4 ,the ,majestic1 also for the ,clyde and ,liverpool service1 was built in #ahba1 and was #acd ft4 #aa in4 long between perpendiculars1 #bb ft4 #h in4 beam1 and #ad ft4 #e in4 depth1 moulded4 ,her draught1 #aj ft4 #f in4 forward and #ab ft4 aft1 was too great for the upper reaches of the ,clyde1 and passengers were brought from ,glasgow to ,greenock in a tender4 ,in her four cabins there was greatly-increased accommodation for the passengers4 ,she was probably the first steamer with a sleeping apartment exclusively for ladies4 ,the copper boiler worked at a pressure of #d lb4 per square inch1 and the engines ran at #ef revolutions4 ,the fares#bg to ,liverpool in those days were #b #aes41 as compared with #aas4 to-day2 of course1 very much better accommodation is now provided4 ,the ,city of ,glasgow was built in #ahbb for the ,liverpool service4 ,this vessel1 which cost #ae1jjj1 had a speed of over #aj knots1 and was reputed the fastest afloat4 ,her length was #aaj ft4 #d in41 beam #bb ft4 #d in41 and depth1 moulded1 #ac ft4 ,she was arranged like the ,majestic1 and the two were long the most important vessels in the ,clyde and ,liverpool trade4 ,she was subsequently bought by ,mc,iver1 and inaugurated the competition with the ,burns line1 commenced in #ahbi4bh ,the ,mc,iver and ,burns lines were subsequently combined4 ,the ,scotts rendered similar service in the development of the mail route between ,holyhead and ,dublin4 ,the first vessel built by them for this service was the ,ivanhoe1 constructed in #ahbj4 ,the steam service had been opened between these two ports in #ahai by the ,talbot1 the first steamer fitted with feathering floats4#bi ,the ,ivanhoe1#cj a larger steamer than the ,talbot1 was of #agj tons burden1 her length between perpendiculars being #ig ft4 #d in41 beam #ai ft41 and depth1 moulded1 #ad ft4 #f in4 ,she had various improvements in her machinery1 which was of #fj nominal horse-power4 ,she left ,scotts' yard in ,may1 #ahbj1 and made the voyage to ,howth 7#bjj miles71 in #bf-a_/b hours4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix4 ,from ,the ,life of ,robert ,napier4 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,glasgow4 ,thus the ,scotts continued to improve on each successive ship1 and to widen the area of their influence4 ,the ,clyde continued to largely monopolise the industry of steam shipbuilding1 and it was not until the summer of #ahbb that a steamer--not built in ,scotland--appeared on the ,clyde4 ,this was the ,saint ,george1 from ,liverpool1 and the ,city of ,glasgow1 already referred to1 her competitor in the ,liverpool trade1 raced her and greatly excelled4 ,one of the first steamers to trade in the ,mediterranean was the ,superb1 sent thither in #ahbd1 and the ,trinacria1 also built by the ,scotts1 followed in #ahbe4 ,these ran between ,naples and ,palermo4 ,the last-named vessel was #ace ft4 long over-all1 and #aac ft4 #f in4 between perpendiculars1 #ci ft4 #f in4 broad over the paddle-box1 and #ba ft4 #aj in4 net beam1 #ad ft4 deep 7moulded71 and of #cjj tons burden4 ,the vessel was especially well-equipped1 and cost #ae1jjj4 ,the engines1 the first manufactured by the ,scotts at their ,greenock foundry1 were of #hj nominal horse-power1 and the boilers1 which were of copper1 weighed #dj tons4 ,the speed was #aj miles per hour4 ,later this steamer became the ,hylton ,joliffe1 and was employed by the ,general ,steam ,navigation ,company on their ,london and ,hamburg service4 ,as to the yard in which these several vessels were built1 suggestion is afforded of the state of efficiency by the following quotation from a history published in #ahbi4ca ,the building yard of ,messrs4 ,scott and ,sons is allowed to be the most complete in ,britain1 excepting those which belong to the ,crown4 ,it has a fine extent of front from the ,west ,quay to the termination of the ,west ,burn1 and has a large dry dock1 which was altered lately to the plan of the new dock4 ,all the stores and lofts are entirely walled in1 and1 independently of the building premises1 they have an extensive manufactory of chain cables4 ,the majority of the engines for these early steamers of the ,scotts were constructed by ,napier or ,cook1 and were of the side-lever or beam type4 ,in #ahbe1 however1 ,john ,scott1 who had done so much for the progress of the firm1 decided to commence building machinery1 and acquired for #ejjj the works which have since been developed into the well-known ,greenock ,foundry4 ,this establishment was begun1 although on a very small scale1 about #agij1cb and in its equipment1 which was considered thoroughly efficient1 there was included a large cupola4 ,some idea is given of the extent of the establishment by reference to ,weir's ,history of ,greenock 7#ahbi71 page #id1 where it is stated that in the few years that had elapsed since the taking over of the works by the ,scotts they have manufactured some splendid engines1 and--what is more to be looked for than the appearance--they have wrought well4 ,they have in hand the largest engine ever made1 which is of a size of #bjj horse-power1 and is intended for a vessel building at ,bristol4 ,the number of men employed amount to about two hundred and twenty1 while the weekly distribution of wages is #ahj4 ,as a contrast1 it may be said here that there are now four thousand men in the works1 earning per week over #eejj in wages1 and that the ,scotts are engaged on the largest set of engines yet constructed by them--for ,h4,m4,s4 ,defence4 ,they are of #bg1jjj indicated horse-power1 to give the immense armoured cruiser named1 of #ad1fjj tons displacement1 a speed of #bc knots4 ,since #ahbe1 the ,scotts have continued to do very satisfactory engine work1 much of it of an original character1 not only for vessels built for themselves1 but for ships constructed on the ,thames and other ,english rivers1 and also for the series of warships built for the ,british ,navy at their works1 and for others constructed at the ,royal ,dockyards4 ,this naval engine work began with ,h4,m4 ships ,hecla and ,hecate1 engined in #ahch-i1 and the first warships built in the dockyards to be sent to ,scottish works to receive machinery4#cc ,and here it may be noted1 too1 that the first warship built by the ,scotts was the ,prince of ,wales1 in #ahjc1 and also that the firm had the credit of building the first steam frigate constructed at ,clyde works for the ,british ,navy1 ,h4,m4,s4 ,greenock1 launched in #ahci4 ,they also built the first compound engines fitted to a ,french warship4 ,with these naval ships and engines we deal in our next ,chapter1 and may therefore continue our narrative regarding merchant steamers4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,side-,,lever ,,engine ,,of #ahca4 ,we reproduce on the preceding page a drawing illustrating an early type of engine built by the firm4 ,this is an engine constructed in #ahca4 ,the steam cylinder is #eb-a_/d in4 in diameter1 and the crank-shaft is actuated1 through connecting-rods1 from the ends of the levers operated by the piston-rod1 while the air-pump is placed at the opposite ends of the levers4 ,a different type of engine1 constructed in the following year 7#ahcb71 is illustrated on the facing page4 ,in this case the cylinder operates the opposite end of the levers to that connected with the crank-shaft4 ,in both engines the lever-gudgeon passes through the jet-condenser4 ,the records we have given are historically interesting1 because they tell of the beginnings of a great epoch in ,british shipping4 ,we do not propose to follow in such detail subsequent steamships1 built for other services1 between ,london and ,aberdeen1 the ,clyde and ,dublin1 etc4 ,the ,city of ,aberdeen1 built in #ahce for the first-named1 marked noteworthy progress4 ,she measured #ahg ft4 over the figure-head1 and was of #ahjj tons1 including the space for the machinery4 ,her poop was #fj ft4 long and #de ft4 broad4 ,according to contemporary testimony1 she was1 in her day1 the strongest steamer built1 having solid frames from gunwale to gunwale4 ,she had additional bracing with ,african oak stringers2 oak and iron trussings alternately bolted to the stringers formed a complete system of diagonal fastenings and bindings from stem to stern4 ,the whole of the cabins1 saloons and state rooms1 were on one deck1 and there was the important innovation of hot and cold baths4 ,the speed was #ab miles per hour4#cd ,the ,jupiter1 of #dci tons and #baj horse-power1 built in #ahcf for the ,clyde and ,dublin trade1 cost #bj1jjj1 and established a record in speed1 making the voyage in sixteen hours six minutes1 at the rate of #ac miles per hour2 formerly the voyage took twenty-four hours4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,engine ,,of #ahcb4 ,in the late 'thirties and the early 'forties there was a great development in oversea trading steamers1 the ,clyde taking1 then as now1 the foremost place4 ,several epoch-marking voyages had been made with the steam engine used intermittently4 ,the ,savannah had thus crossed the ,atlantic from the ,united ,states in #ahai1 and the ,royal ,william from ,quebec in #ahcc4 ,the barque ,falcon1#ce #hd ft4 in length1 and of #age tons1 had1 on the voyage to ,india in #ahce utilised engines which1 however1 were removed on her arrival in our ,eastern dependency4 ,later in the same year the ,enterprise1 of #dgj tons and #abj horse-power1 also rounded the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,india4 ,in all these cases1 however1 sails were utilised whenever possible1 and there was still great hesitancy in accepting the steam engine even as an alternative on occasions to the use of the unbought wind4 ,the advantage1 however1 of a rate of speed which1 while low1 would be constant1 soon asserted itself1 and there followed within a few years regular mail steamship services on the ,north and ,south ,atlantic ,oceans1 in the ,mediterranean ,sea1 in the ,indian ,ocean1 and the ,china ,seas4 ,in the beginning and development of these services the ,scotts took a prominent part4 ,one of the first notable steamship lines to be organised for oversea service was that which ultimately became the ,peninsular and ,oriental ,company4 ,it had its origin#cf in steamship service from ,falmouth to ,oporto1 ,lisbon1 ,cadiz1 and ,gibraltar4 ,four steamers were built in #ahcf-cg3 the ,tagus1 ,don ,juan1 ,braganza1 and ,iberia4 ,the first-named was built by the ,scotts1 and the third was engined by them4 ,these ultimately carried the mails as far as ,alexandria1 whence they were conveyed overland to ,suez1 and from thence by the ,east ,india ,company's vessels to ,bombay4 ,this service developed into the ,peninsular and ,oriental service1 when1 in #ahdj1 the ,company took over the mail service on the ,indian ,ocean2 in #ahdg they extended their operations to ,china4 ,the overland service continued until the ,suez ,canal was opened in #ahfi1 and many of the vessels for the ,mediterranean service1 as well as for the eastern route1 were built by the ,scotts4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4 ,,scotts' ,,first ,p4 ,,and ,o4 ,,liner1 ,,the ,,tagus4 ,the ,tagus1#cg which was thus amongst the first of the ,p4 and ,o4 steamers1 was built in #ahcg4 ,she had a length of #ahb4a ft41 a beam of #bf ft41 and a depth of #ag ft4 #d in41 the burden tonnage being #gji tons4 ,when carrying #bfe tons of coal in her bunkers and #cjj tons of cargo1 the draught was #ad ft4 #f in4 ,the side-lever engines which were fitted to her had a cylinder #fb in4 in diameter1 with a #e-;ft4 #i-;in4 stroke1 developed #bhf horse-power1 and operated paddle-wheels #bc ft4 #f in4 in diameter4 ,two of the other early steamers1 the ,jupiter and the ,montrose1 were also constructed by the ,scotts4 ,the conveyance of cargo and passengers across the ,isthmus of ,suez not only involved inconvenience and expense1 but was a cause of great delay4 ,there was still1 however1 a strong prejudice against steamships being utilised for long sea voyages1 partly because of vested interests in sailing ships4 ,sir ,john ,ross1 ,c4,b41 who1 in #ahah and in #ahbi to #ahcc1 made ,arctic explorations1 was one of the strongest advocates for a service to ,india by way of the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 and1 in order to establish the feasibility of the undertaking1 made experiments with the ,city of ,glasgow1 built by the ,scotts in #ahba4 ,this vessel1 of #bhc tons1 had in the interval been fitted with new boilers1 with special safety appliances1 and they worked at #d-lb4 pressure2 they gave the high evaporation in those days of #i lb4 of water per pound of coal4#ch ,this vessel made the trip from ,london ,bridge to the lightship off ,spithead 7#bdf miles7 in thirty-one hours five minutes1 on a consumption of #f lb4 of fuel per indicated horse-power per hour4 ,these facts were utilised by ,sir ,john ,ross in his advocacy of the route1 and a new company was formed1 under his chairmanship1 in #ahcg4 ,the first vessel of the fleet1 named the ,india1 was built and engined by the ,scotts1 and was a few years later transferred to the ,peninsular and ,oriental ,company4 ,the ,india1 launched in #ahci1 was the largest steamer built on the ,clyde up to that date1 being #bjf ft4 #f in4 long1 #cj ft4 #i in4 beam1 or #dh ft4 wide over the paddle-boxes4 ,the gross tonnage was #abjf tons4 ,accommodation was provided for eighty cabin passengers1 and provision made for #djj tons of cargo4 ,a feature of her construction was the provision of two strong bulkheads of iron across the engine-room1 in order to avoid accidental outbreak of fire1 and also to prevent water from a leak in one part spreading to another4#ci ,this was probably the beginning--nearly seventy years ago--of the system of division by watertight bulkheads1 now universal4 ,its compulsory adoption was advocated by the ,institution of ,naval ,architects in #ahff1 and enforced by ,lloyds in #ahhb1 and by the ,board of ,trade in #ahij4 ,the machinery was of #cbj horse-power1 and had surface-condensers4 ,the ,india was launched on the anniversary of the birth of ,james ,watt1 and a salute of twenty-one guns was fired as the vessel left the ways4 ,five other steamers were built for the service1 and the voyage took from fifty-five to sixty days1 as compared with the one hundred and thirteen days occupied by the ,enterprise4 ,a monthly service was thus rendered possible4 ,at the same time the ,scotts built steam vessels for the coasting trade of ,india and of ,south ,africa4 ,the type of machinery in use at this period is illustrated on the opposite page4 ,this particular engine was constructed in #ahch4 ,the piston was connected to one end of the side-levers1 while the crank was operated from the other4 ,the paddle-wheel of this engine was #be ft4 #j-a_/b in4 in diameter1 with seventeen floats4 ,for about thirty years this was the standard type of marine engine for paddle steamers4 ,the ,gothic architectural design for the main framing was gradually abandoned for something less ornamental and perhaps more mechanical4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,,of ,,side-,,lever ,,engine ,,of #ahdj4 ,the ,royal ,west ,india ,mail ,company's ,service1 still one of the best known of ,british lines1 was commenced in #ahda4 ,some of the steamers were purchased1 but amongst those built originally for the service was the ,dee by the ,scotts4 ,she was #bac ft4 #i in4 long1 #cj ft4 #d in4 beam1 and #cj ft4 in depth1 the burden tonnage being #ahdh tons4 ,on a draught of #ag ft4 #f in4 she carried #gjj tons of cargo2 and1 as with most of the oversea liners of the period1 the average speed was only about #h knots4 ,the voyage of #ac1fej miles occupied then one hundred and nine days1 including stoppages2 and the consumption of fuel was #be-a_/b tons per day4 ,the engines1 which had cylinders #gc in4 in diameter with a stroke of #g ft41 were of #dej horse-power1 driving side paddle-wheels #bh ft4 #f in4 in diameter4#dj ,in the thirty years from the first commercial ,british steamer1 the ,comet1 there had not been much advance in the steam engine1 excepting in size1 power1 and1 perhaps1 reliability4 ,wood had continued to be the constructive material for all but the smallest ships4 ,the size of vessels had grown steadily to the #ahdh tons of the ,west ,indian mail liner1 which started regular steamship service almost contemporaneously with the inauguration of the ,atlantic mail line by the ,cunard ,company in #ahdj4 ,speeds on service1 even on the shortest routes1 were seldom over #ac knots1 and on the long routes under #h knots4 ,but this was in excess of the average attained by all but exceptionally fast clippers4 ,the ,table on the opposite page shows the progress made in thirty years4 ,,table ,i4--,,epoch-,,marking ,,steamers ,,built ,,by ,,the ,,scotts1 #ahai ,,to #ahda4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,year4 ,name4 ,tonnage4 ,horse- ,speed ,remarks4 power4,a7,miles per ,hour74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahai ,waterloo #bjj #fj #i ,largest steamer of #ahai4 #ahbj ,superb #bdj #gb #i ,largest steamer of #ahbj4 #ahba ,majestic #cde #ajj #aj ,largest steamer of #ahba4 #ahce ,city of ,aberdeen 444 #bjj #ab ,strongest steamer of #ahce4 #ahcf ,jupiter #dci #baj #ac ,record speed #ahcg ,tagus #gji #bhf #aj ,largest constructed on ,clyde1 #ahcg1 and an early ,p4 and ,o4 liner4 #ahci ,india #abjf #cbj #aj ,first steamer to ,india vi the ,cape and the first ,indian liner4 #ahda ,dee #ahdh #dej #aj ,first ,royal ,west ,india ,mail liner4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a ,it is difficult to determine in all cases the basis on which horse-power was computed4 ,the figures given represent nominal horse-power1 and in ,sennett and ,oram's ,marine ,steam ,engine 7page #c71 the indicated horse-power is1 for this early period1 recorded as #a4h times the nominal horse-power4 ,we enter now upon the period when iron took the place of timber as a constructional material4 ,it was first used in part in the construction1 on the banks of the ,monkland ,canal as far back as #ahah1 of a canal barge named the ,vulcan1 a vessel which continued at work for over sixty years4#da ,but the first vessel built entirely of iron was a small craft constructed in #ahba in ,england4 ,it was not1 however1 until #ahcb that the first sea-going vessel was built of this metal4 ,progress in the adoption of iron was slow1 largely because timber had proved so serviceable1 and1 with lessened restriction upon its importation1 had become much cheaper4 ,it was not until the higher strength and greater ductility of steel were demonstrated in the 'eighties that timber was finally superseded4 ,the last wooden ship built by the ,scotts was completed in #ahei4 ,the firm built several of the early ,atlantic liners1 and we reproduce on page #cb1 as a further step in the development of the steam engine1 a drawing showing the double-gear engines constructed early in the 'fifties for an iron screw steamer of #aaij tons1 built for the ,glasgow and ,new ,york service4 ,this engine was pronounced at the time the most compact specimen of its type then in existence1#db for although the power developed was #bej horse-power1 and the ship was #bfj ft4 in length1 only #ab ft4 #f in4 of the fore-and-aft length was taken up by the machinery4 ,every weight was well balanced1 the working parts were clear and open1 and the combined whole was stable1 firm1 and well bound together4 ,the cylinders were #eb in4 in diameter1 were arranged diagonally1 and worked at right angles to each other1 with a stroke of #c ft4 #i in4 ,the piston-rods projected through the lower covers1 to allow of long return connecting-rods4 ,each cylinder had two piston-rods1 for greater steadiness1 their outer ends in each case being keyed into a crosshead1 fitted at each end with slide-blocks1 working in a pair of inclined open guide-frames1 bolted to the bottom cylinder cover1 and supported beneath by projecting bracket-pieces1 recessed and bolted down upon pedestal pieces on the engine sole-plate4 ,from each end of this crosshead1 immediately outside the guide-frame1 a plain straight connecting-rod of round section passed up to actuate the main first-motion shaft4 ,the upper ends of the connecting-rods were jointed to side-studs1 or crank-pins1 fixed in two opposite arms of a pair of large spur-wheels1 which gave motion to the screw-shaft by means of a pair of corresponding spur-pinions1 fixed on the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,double-,,geared ,,engine ,,for ,,early ,,atlantic ,,liner4 ,the main spur-wheels were #aa ft4 #e-a_/b in4 in diameter1 and the pinions on the screw-shaft #d ft4 #f in42 so that the screw propeller made #b-a_/b revolutions to each rotation of the engine4 ,the arrangement ensured that each piston was directly coupled to both of the large wheels1 and the increased length of the crossheads1 which the plan involved1 was counterbalanced by the effect of the double piston-rods1 for by this division of the pressure the cross-strain leverage was proportionately diminished4 ,the use of steam expansively in multiple-cylinder engines was1 however1 the most important factor in the development of the steamship during the latter half of the nineteenth century4#dc ,with low steam pressures and simple engines the coal consumption1 even for moderate-sized ships1 was a serious item in a long sea voyage2 and1 early in the 'fifties1 engineers1 recognising the economy which would result from a successful compounding of steam1 tackled the problems of steam-generation plant to enable the necessary high initial pressure to be developed with safety4 ,john ,elder had fitted several ships1 but was1 for a long time1 content with an initial pressure of from #ej lb4 to #fj lb4 per square inch4 ,the late ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b41 was so convinced of the economy of steam at higher pressures in the compound system that he decided to build1 largely at his own expense1 a vessel which would enable him to put the system to a thorough test4 ,this steamer1 constructed of iron in #aheh1 was the ,thetis1 which was1 undoubtedly1 an epoch-marking ship1 as her machinery was operated at an initial pressure of #aae lb4 to the square inch--exceptionally high for those days4 ,for the first time1 surface condensers were used in association with the compound marine engine4 ,there were1 as shown on ,plate ,,xi41 facing page #cf1 six cylinders1 arranged in two groups1 each with one high- and two low-pressure cylinders4 ,the three pistons of each group worked one crosshead1 connecting-rod1 and crank4 ,each group had two slide-valves1 one for the high-pressure and one for the low-pressure cylinders1 and both were attached to one valve spindle and one reversing link4#dd ,the engines worked up to #ea revolutions per minute--equal to a piston speed of #bee ft4 per minute--and the maximum indicated horse-power was #bef4 ,the engines were tried by the late ,professor ,macquorn ,rankine1 ,f4,r4,s41 who certified that the coal consumption on trial was #a4jah lb4 per indicated horse-power per hour3 an extraordinary result1 even in the light of modern improvements4#de ,a large part of this efficiency was due to the boilers1 which were of the ,rowan water-tube type1 and are illustrated on the opposite page4 ,they had square vertical water-tubes1 and through each of these there passed four hot-gas tubes4 ,they evaporated #aa lb4 of water per pound of coal1 which was #cj per cent4 higher than was attained with the best marine boilers of those days4 ,the coal consumption at sea was about #a4hf lb4 per indicated horse-power per hour4 ,unfortunately1 there soon developed small holes in the boiler-tubes1 owing to erosion of the external surface1 probably the consequence of the chemical action set up by the steam for cleaning the tubes mixing with the soot and other deposit4#df ,although for this reason this early water-tube boiler did not succeed1 there is no doubt that the performances suggested improvements which have since brought complete success to this system of boiler4 ,at the same time1 the efficiency of high steam pressures was completely established and resulted in very considerable progress in the size and power of steamships4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,pioneer ,,in ,,water-,,tube ,,boilers4 ,another innovation which suggested future developments was the fitting at the base of the funnel in the ,thetis of a series of water-tubes for the purpose of utilising the waste heat from the boilers to evaporate water for subsequent condensation to make up the boiler feed4 ,the time was not ripe for such a utilisation of the waste gases--the heat was insufficient to generate the required steam--but now various schemes are applied for absorbing the waste heat in the uptake to heat air for furnace draught and to superheat steam4 ,a number of water-tube boilers were made1 and a set was fitted into a corvette built for the ,french ,navy4 ,this vessel1 completed in the early 'sixties1 was the first ship in the ,french fleet to be driven by compound engines1 and will fall to be described with other vessels in our next ,chapter1 dealing with the work of a century for the ,navy4 ,perhaps the most significant indication of the success of the ,scott compound engine is found in the results of its application to the early ,holt steamers4 ,alfred ,holt commenced trading with the ,west ,indies in #ahee1 while his brother1 ,george ,holt1 became associated with ,lamport in the ,river ,plate trade in #ahfe4 ,both lines continue among the most successful in ,british shipping4 ,the ,holt steam line to ,china was commenced in #ahfe1 and was the only one vi the ,cape of ,good ,hope which proved at once successful4 ,built and engined by the ,scotts1 the early ,holt liners1 starting from ,liverpool1 never stopped till they reached ,mauritius1 a distance of #hejj miles1 being under steam the whole way1 a feat until then considered impossible4#dg ,thence the vessels proceeded to ,penang1 ,singapore1 ,hong ,kong1 and ,shanghai4 ,unaided by any ,government grants1 they performed this long voyage with great regularity4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4 ,,high-,,pressure ,,machinery ,,in ,,the ,,thetis4 ,the three vessels which inaugurated the very successful ,holt line were named ,agamemnon1 ,ajax1 and ,achilles1 and were built of iron by the ,scotts in #ahfe-f4 ,they were each #cji ft4 in length between perpendiculars1 #ch ft4 #f in4 beam1 and #bi ft4 #h in4 in depth1 with a gross tonnage of #bcdg tons--dimensions which were then deemed too great for the ,china trade1 but which experience soon proved to be most satisfactory4 ,sails were fitted to the vessels1 as shown in the engraving on the ,plate facing page #dj4 ,alfred ,holt was the first to apply the compound engine to long voyages1 and his vessels were the earliest of the type built for the merchant service by the ,scotts4 ,it is true the ,pacific ,company had compound engines fitted to one or two ships prior to this1 but these were only used in the coasting trade4 ,the engines of these ,holt liners are therefore of historical interest1 and general drawings are reproduced on the next page and on ,plate ,,xii4 ,a feature in these liners was that the propeller was abaft the rudder1 which worked in an aperture in the deadwood corresponding to that for the propeller in single-screw modern ships4 ,a detailed description from the specification of the machinery may be reproduced1 as it indicates the practice of the ,scotts for a considerable time4 ,indeed1 this type of compound engine1 with slight modifications1 was the standard engine for ,holt liners until the advent of the triple-expansion engine4 ,the details follow3-- ,the cylinders were3 high-pressure1 #cj in4 in diameter2 low-pressure1 #fb in4 in diameter1 with #d ft4 #d in4 stroke1 arranged vertically in tandem fashion1 with the low-pressure cylinder on the top4 ,there were two connecting-rods1 but a common crosshead for the tandem cylinders1 and a common crankpin4 ,the crankshaft was #ac-a_/b in4 in diameter1 with a bearing #cj in4 long at the aft end of the bedplate1 which took the propeller thrust4 ,the propeller was three-bladed1 #ag ft4 in diameter1 with #bf ft4 #f in4 pitch2 with #df revolutions per minute the piston speed was #djj ft4 per minute4 ,to ensure smooth working with the single crank1 a heavy flywheel was fitted1 and the pump levers carried a massive weight to help to balance the weight of pistons and rods4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,machinery ,,of ,,the ,,achilles4 ,the condenser had #dbj tubes #a-a_/b in4 in diameter1 giving a cooling surface of #acge square feet4 ,the tubes were arranged in three nests1 the water circulating through the top one first and the bottom one last4 ,the circulating pump1 instead of forcing water through the tubes1 as was usual in such case1 sucked from the condenser and discharged directly overboard4 ,there were3 one air pump1 #bd in4 in diameter2 one circulating pump1 #bd in4 in diameter2 two feed pumps1 #d-c_/d in4 in diameter2 and one bilge pump #g in4 in diameter3 all the pumps were single-acting1 with #ag in4 stroke4 ,the diameters of the principal pipes were3 main steam1 #g-a_/b in42 to low-pressure cylinder1 #ab in42 circulating inlet1 #aj in42 discharge1 #ab in42 air-pump discharge1 #aj in42 main feed1 #c-c_/d in42 and waste steam1 two at #f in4 in diameter4 ,the two boilers were double-ended1 of the locomotive type1 with wet-bottomed furnaces4 ,the centre was cylindrical1 but the ends were rectangular with semi-cylindrical tops1 the total weight1 without water1 being #gh tons4 ,each boiler had a long receiver passing through the uptake to dry the steam4 ,on the receiver was a deadweight safety-valve #f-a_/d in4 in diameter1 to suit a working pressure of #fj lb4 per square inch4 ,the grate surface was #aab square feet1 and the total heating surface #dejf square feet1 there being #cbh iron tubes #d in4 in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii4 ,,general ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,machinery ,,of ,,the ,,achilles4 ,the three pioneer ships of the ,holt line--the ,agamemnon1 ,ajax1 and ,achilles--proved most economical4 ,the ,achilles came home from ,china in fifty-seven days eighteen hours1 net steaming time1 or1 including the stoppages at ports1 sixty-one days three hours4 ,she travelled during this period a distance of #ab1ceb miles1 on a consumption of coal which did not exceed #bj tons per day for all purposes1#dh equal to #b-a_/d lb4 per unit of power per hour1 which for those early days1 with comparatively low steam pressures1 must be regarded as a highly satisfactory result4 ,the non-stop voyage between ,liverpool and ,mauritius was made as early as #ahff in thirty-seven days1 equal to #aj knots1 with a number of passengers and a fair cargo4 ,the higher economy established for the compound engine on long voyages resulted in the ultimate supersession of the sailing ship4#di ,thus the ,scotts1 while still enjoying the credit of the splendid performance of the ,lord of the ,isles in the early 'sixties1 produced at their foundry the ,holt compound engine1 which sounded the death-knell of the clipper4 ,the compound system had at once an influence on the size of ships4 ,up till #ahfb no ship of over #djjj tons had been constructed1 with the exception of the ,great ,eastern2 by #ahgj there were fifteen2 by #ahhj1 thirty-seven4#ej ,the ,scotts1 aided by ,holt1 continued their research towards higher economy1 and a large fleet of steamers was built1 with engines having flywheels which1 it was found by experience1 considerably improved the economy up to a certain stage1 although with increased pressure the proportion of saving was not commensurate with the weight of the wheel1 and the three-cylinder three-crank engine was ultimately adopted4 ,the ,scotts throughout the century continued to have a close association with the ,china trade1 constructing a long series of successful steamers for the ,holt company and for other lines1 with services from ,britain to the ,far ,east1 and carried out very extensive work in the building up of the coasting trade of ,asia and ,oceania4 ,for the ,holt line alone there have been constructed by the ,scotts forty-eight steamers1 aggregating #adh1cec tons2 while the propelling machinery of these represents #ai1ejj nominal horse-power4 ,for the ,india and ,china services there have1 in the past fifty years1 been completed over one hundred and thirty steamers4 ,the ,china ,navigation ,company1 ,limited1 was formed in #ahgc by ,messrs4 ,john ,swire and ,sons1 of ,london1 for trading in ,china1 and the first steamers built for them by the ,scotts were two vessels of #abjj tons gross1 completed in #ahgf4 ,since then the ,scotts' yard has practically never been without a vessel for one or other branch of the ,eastern trade1 and particularly for the ,china ,navigation ,company1 which runs steamers from ,china as far south as ,australia1 as far west as the ,straits1 and as far north as ,vladivostock and the ,amur river4 ,they also have ships trading up the ,yangtsze ,kiang to ,ichang1 #ajjj miles from the sea1 where the rapids prevent navigation farther into the interior4 ,for this service the twin-screw steamer was adopted in #ahgh1 much earlier than in many other trades1 largely owing to the strong advocacy of the late ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b4 ,up to that time most of the ,yangtsze steamers were propelled by paddle-wheels driven by walking-beam engines4 ,the first of the twin-screw steamers was built in #ahgh--;a vessel of #cjea tons gross--and there has been constructed since then a long succession of very serviceable steamers4 ,for this line alone1 sixty-four vessels have been constructed by the ,scotts1 the aggregate tonnage being #aae1fjj tons1 while the nominal horse-power of the propelling machinery fitted to these vessels is #ae1jjj horse-power4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,achilles ,,of #ahfe ,,off ,,gravesend4 ,but having in our brief historical sketch come to times within the recollection of the reader1 it may be more satisfactory to depart from the purely chronological review of the company's operations1 and to offer rather an analysis of the progress made1 deferring a description of typical modern steamers for a separate ,chapter4 ,the direct-acting vertical engine1 with inverted cylinders1 almost as we know it to-day1 and as illustrated in connection with the work of the twentieth century1 was introduced in the late 'fifties4 ,the compound engine1 introduced in #ahed1 was developed into the triple-expansion system in #ahhb1 and later into the quadruple-expansion type2 but this latter has not been much adopted1 only some #c per cent4 of the vessels registered at ,lloyds being so fitted4 ,this is in a large measure due to the satisfactory economy attained with triple-expansion engines4 ,as to the progress made1 ,table ,,ii41 giving average results at different periods1 is instructive4#ea ,,table ,,ii4--,,progress ,,in ,,the ,,economy ,,of ,,the ,,marine ,,engine1 #ahgb ,,to #aija4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahgb4ahha4ahij4 #aija4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,boiler pressure in pounds per square inch #eb4d #gg4d #aeh4e #aig ,coal consumption in pounds per indicated horse-power per hour #b4aa #a4hc #a4eb #a4dh ,consumption on prolonged sea voyages in pounds per indicated horse-power per hour 444 #b #a4ge #a4ee ,piston speed in feet per minute #cgf #dfg #ebi #fed ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the advance of the century may be popularly expressed by stating that1 whereas in the first coasting steamships built by the ,scotts the fuel consumed in carrying #a ton of cargo for #ajj miles was #bbd lb41 the expenditure to-day is from #d lb4 to #e lb4 ,the economy of the steam engine has accounted1 as is shown in the ,table1 for a considerable part of this improvement4 ,but1 at the same time1 the growth in the size of ships has enabled the normal speed of #aj knots to be realised1 with an addition to engine power of much less ratio than the increase in the capacity of the steamer4 ,as to speed1 recent progress has been most marked in the ,navy1 and it is therefore fitting that here we should direct our attention to ,naval work4 ,illustration3 decoration ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,,model ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,prince ,,of ,,wales1 #ahjc4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,woodcroft's ,steam ,navigation1 page #bj1 etc4 #ah ,woodcroft's ,steam ,navigation1 page #ed4 #ai ,deas' ,treatise on the ,improvements and ,progress of ,trade on the ,river ,clyde 7#ahgc71 page #bd4 #bj ,muirhead's ,life of ,watt1 pages #dbh and #dbi4 #ba ,williamson's ,clyde ,passenger ,steamers1 pages #cdh to #cea4 #bb ,james ,napier's ,life of ,robert ,napier1 page #ba4 #bc ,this was the second of the name--a favourite one after the ,duke of ,wellington's great victory1 and gave rise to the following poetic effusion3-- ,and now amid the reign of peace1 ,art's guiding stream we ply2 ,that makes our wheels1 like whirling reels1 ,o'er yielding water fly4 ,as our heroes drove their foes that strove ,against the bonnets blue2 ,on every side the waves divide ,before the ,waterloo4 --,millar's ,clyde from ,source to ,sea1 page #agi4 #bd ,millar in ,lecture on ,naval ,architecture and ,marine ,engineering at ,glasgow ,exhibition1 #ahhj-ha1 page #ach4 #be ,greenock ,advertiser1 ,august #fth1 #ahai4 #bf ,steamboat ,companion for #ahbj4 #bg ,millar1 ,on the ,rise and ,progress of ,steam ,navigation4 ,lectures at the ,glasgow ,exhibition 7#ahhj-ha71 page #ach4 #bh ,hodder's ,life of ,sir ,george ,burns1 ,bart41 page #afa4 #bi ,williamson's ,clyde ,passenger ,steamers1 page #cb4 #cj ,lindsay's ,history of ,merchant ,shipping1 vol4 iii41 pages #gh to #hj4 #ca ,weir's ,history of ,greenock1 page #hi4 #cb ,williamson's ,memorials of ,james ,watt 7#ahef7 page #bbh4 #cc ,greenock ,advertiser1 ,july #eth1 #ahci4 #cd ,greenock ,advertiser1 ,february #eth and ,may #beth1 #ahce4 #ce ,fincham's ,history of ,naval ,architecture1 page #bid4 #cf ,sir ,thomas ,sutherland1 in the ,pocket ,book of the ,p4 and ,o4 ,company 7#ahij71 page #ae4 #cg ,fincham's ,history of ,naval ,architecture1 page #bce4 #ch ,sir ,john ,ross's ,steam ,communication to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope 7#ahch71 page #ca4 #ci ,greenock ,advertiser1 ,january #bbnd1 #ahci4 #dj ,fincham's ,history of ,naval ,architecture1 pages #cbj and #cba4 #da ,lindsay's ,merchant ,shipping1 vol4 iv41 page #hf4 #db ,practical ,mechanic's ,journal1 vol4 i41 #ahec4 #dc ,the number of steam vessels belonging to the ,united ,kingdom in #ahdi was only #aadb1 of #aeh1gbi tons2 ,sweden1 which was second among the nations of the world1 had only about one-tenth of this tonnage4--,porter's ,progress of the ,nation1 page #fbf4 #dd ,holmes' ,marine ,engineering1 page #gd4 #de ,rankine's ,steam ,engine1 page #ejb4 #df ,transactions of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects1 vol4 xxviii41 page #ada2 and vol4 xxx41 page #bgh4 #dg ,lindsay's ,merchant ,shipping1 vol4 iv41 page #dcd4 #dh ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects1 vol4 xi41 page #aeb4 #di ,lindsay's ,merchant ,shipping1 vol4 iv41 page #dce4 #ej ,pollock's ,modern ,shipbuilding1 and the ,men ,engaged in it1 page #aii4 #ea ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers 7#aija71 page #fjh4 ,illustration3 decoration ,a ,century's ,work for the ,navy4 ,illustration3 decoration ,the work for the ,navy by the ,scotts began with the building1 in #ahjc1 of a sloop-of-war named ,the ,prince of ,wales2 a photograph from the model of this vessel is reproduced on ,plate ,,xiv4 ,since the construction of this ship the firm have carried out several important ,admiralty contracts1 including the first machinery manufactured in ,scotland for a dockyard-built ship1 the first steam frigate built in the ,north1 and several later ships1 with their engines2 the most recent order being for the machinery of the armoured cruiser ,defence1 of #ad1fjj tons displacement1 and #bg1jjj indicated horse-power1 to give a speed of #bc knots4 ,the progress demonstrated by a contrast between the small sloop-of-war and this latest powerfully-armed and well-protected high-speed cruiser1 is a record of research and invention1 not only on the part of the naval architect1 but also of the chemist1 the metallurgist1 and the engineer2 the triumph is greater than that reviewed in the case of the ,merchant ,marine4 ,great speed has been achieved1 notwithstanding that the problems to be solved in its attainment have been intensified by the limitations in the size of the ship in order to minimise the target presented to the enemy's fire1 and by the necessity of providing for heavy armour1 armament1 and ammunition in the displacement weight4 ,when a comparison is made of the ,navy ships at the beginning of the nineteenth century with those of a hundred years earlier1 it is found that little progress had been made1 either in design or in gun-power4 ,the largest vessel in #agjj was of #ahji tons burden1 with a hundred guns4 ,a century later1 the size had increased only to #bfjj tons1 with a hundred and twenty guns4#eb ,but even this was an exceptionally large vessel4 ,the ,british ships were1 as a rule1 smaller1 and perhaps slower1 than the ,french ships2 but then--as now and always--skill in strategy1 courage in combat1 and devotion to duty were the most powerful factors in action4 ,no fault in these respects could be found with the work of our ,navy in the various engagements which terminated in the epoch-marking victory in ,trafalgar ,bay4 ,the peace following the ,napoleonic wars was not conducive to advancement1 as there was little incentive to pursue the sciences which contributed to the development of destructive weapons4 ,steam as a motive power and iron as a constructive material were not so readily adopted in the ,navy ship as in the ,merchant ,marine4 ,progress in the utilisation of iron was not continuous4 ,the first application of steam was belated1 and its popularity was not unalloyed4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xv4 ,from an ,old ,engraving4 ,,the ,,launch ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,clyde-,,built ,,steam ,,frigate ,,greenock1 #ahdi4 ,the ,admiralty ordered their first ship of iron in #ahci--;a small1 non-fighting boat for the ,dover station--and there followed other vessels for the exploration of the ,river ,niger4 ,but the first iron fighting ship was not built until #ahdc4 ,in #ahdh-i the ,scotts constructed the iron steam frigate ,greenock1 the largest iron warship of her day1 and the first steam frigate built on the ,clyde4 ,the over-all length of this vessel was #bac ft41 the beam #cg ft4 #d in41 and the depth of hold #bc ft4 ,she was of #adac tons burden1 and carried ten #cb-pounder smooth-bore muzzle-loading guns4 ,the illustration on ,plate ,,xv4 is a reproduction from an old engraving of the launch of the vessel4 ,it is a noteworthy feature that the figure-head was a bust of ,john ,scott1 the second of that name4 ,this compliment by the ,naval authorities of the time was well merited1 as he did much not only for the advance of naval architecture1 but also for the development of ,greenock4 ,as a writer of the day put it1 this vessel was the experimentum crucis of the principle of constructing fighting ships of iron4#ec ,by #ahej there were six large iron vessels1 ranging downwards from the #aihj tons of the eighteen-gun ship ,simoon1 with eleven smaller vessels2 but they were all condemned1 because it was found by experiment#ed that the #cb-pounder gun at short range could perforate the side of the iron ship1 and that the projectile carried its cloud of langrage with great velocity into the interior of the ship1 so that men could not stand against it4 ,tests were also made with sixteen wrought-iron plates superposed1 to give a total thickness of #f in41 but these also were perforated by the #cb-pounder projectiles at #djj yards range2 so that the adoption of iron on the main structure of the ship was practically delayed until armour-plates were first rolled in #ahei4 ,the obstacle to the adoption of steam was the unsuitability of paddle-wheel machinery for fighting ships4 ,the wheel was exposed to gun-fire1 and the whole of the machinery could not be located below the water line4 ,moreover1 the side wheel limited the number of guns which could be utilised for broadside fire4 ,the first steam craft ordered by the ,admiralty was a small vessel of #baj tons and #hj nominal horse-power1 built in ,london in #ahbj4ee ,several other non-fighting steamships followed4 ,by #ahcg1 the largest steam vessel in the fleet was a sloop of #aaaa tons and #cbj horse-power4#ef ,in #ahci five steam vessels were built1 and two of them--the ,hecate and ,hecla--were engined by the ,scotts4 ,these wooden steamers were the first ,naval vessels sent to ,scotland to have their machinery fitted on board4 ,they were of #hag tons and #bej horse-power4 ,the paddle-wheels had a diameter of #be ft4 #a_/b in41 and there were seventeen floats4 ,the main engines1 illustrated on page #bi1 represent the type adopted1 not only in the ,naval1 but in the ,merchant service of this time4 ,the steam pressure was then about #c lb4 per square inch4 ,on ,plate ,,xvi4 we illustrate the general arrangement of the machinery in the ,hecate and ,hecla4 ,there were four boilers of the rectangular type1 each with two wet-bottomed furnaces at one end and large return flues at the other end4 ,the uptakes passed up inside the boilers through the steam space1 uniting in one funnel4 ,smith's screw-propeller was tried experimentally in #ahcg1 and ,ericsson's about the same time4 ,the comparative trials of the ,archimedes fitted with ,smith's screw against existing paddle-steamers did much to prove the efficiency of the new system4#eg ,the screw-ship excelled the performance of paddle-steamers on the service1 and the screw-propeller was adopted by the ,admiralty in #ahde2 twin-screws followed twenty-five years later4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi4 ,,machinery ,,of ,h4,m4,,ss4 ,,hecla ,,and ,,hecate1 #ahci4 ,the ,greenock1 built in #ahdh1 was the first war vessel by the ,scotts fitted with the screw-propeller4 ,we have already referred to her construction in iron1 and to her launch4 ,she had a displacement of #ahce tons1 and her engines were of #gai indicated horse-power4 ,the speed realised on the trial was #i4f knots4 ,the ,greenock's machinery1 which is illustrated on the next page1 is specially interesting1 as it represents one of the earliest attempts to drive the screw-propeller by gearing4 ,two horizontal cylinders were fitted1 each #ga in4 in diameter1 with a stroke of piston of #d ft4 ,the gearing consisted of four sets of massive spur-wheels and pinions1 in the ratio of #b4ce to #a1 so that #db revolutions per minute of the engines give #ih4g revolutions to the propeller-shaft4 ,the propeller was #ad ft4 in diameter1 and was so fitted that it could be detached and raised to the deck4 ,there were four rectangular brass-tube boilers1 each with four wet-bottomed furnaces1 and all the internal uptakes united in one funnel1 which was telescopic1 so that when it was lowered and the propeller raised out of the water1 the vessel had the appearance1 as well as the facility1 of a sailing frigate4 ,as will be seen from the drawings1 both the engines and boilers were arranged very low in the hull1 to be safe from the enemy's fire4 ,the engine and boiler compartment occupied #gb ft4 of the length of the ship--about one-third of the total length--and the seating for the machinery was specially constructed1 with a very close pitch of frames which were only #a ft4 apart4 ,for comparison with the drawings of the machinery in the ,greenock1 we give on page #di a similar drawing of the machinery of the ,canopus1 of #ab1ief tons displacement1 seven times that of the ,greenock4 ,to double the speed1 the power of machinery had to be multiplied twenty times1 and yet the space occupied is only about trebled4 ,illustration3 ,,machinery ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,greenock1 #ahdh4 ,illustration3 ,,machinery ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,canopus1 #aijj4 ,in #ahej the largest of the steam vessels in the ,navy#eh had a displacement of #cjij tons1 but the most noted was the ,dauntless1 of #bcej tons displacement1 with engines of #acdg indicated horse-power to give a speed of #aj knots4 ,it is true that there were three smaller vessels of greater speed1 one of #aif tons steaming #aa4i knots2 but this was the highest rate reached in the ,navy service4 ,by this time some of the fast mail steamers made #ac-a_/b knots4 ,these latter were suited for war service1 but we have already dealt with them4 ,following the adoption of the screw-propeller in warships came the abandonment of gearing for the engines4 ,for many years various forms of horizontal engine were used2 first with return-connecting rods1 and subsequently with direct-acting rods4 ,steam pressures steadily increased1 largely owing to stronger materials being available4 ,it was1 however1 not until the 'seventies that the cylindrical boiler1 the compound engine1 and the surface condenser admitted of an increase to #fj lb4 per square inch#ei--several years after these improvements had been introduced in the ,merchant ,marine4 ,the ,scotts had worked steadily at the solution of the problem from their trials with the ,thetis in #aheh 7see page #cd ante74 ,in #ahfj the late ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b41 laid before the ,admiralty a system of water-tube boilers and compound engines1 but objection was raised to the system4 ,the ,french ,naval authorities1 with whom the ,scotts then had close business connection1 took up the scheme1 largely because of the favour with which it was viewed by ,m4 ,dupuy de ,lme1 the head of the ,department4 ,the first ship fitted was a corvette of #fej tons displacement2 the boilers worked at a pressure of #adj lb41 while the initial pressure at the compound three-cylinder engines was #abj lb4 ,these were the first engines of the compound type in the ,french ,navy4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii4 ,from a ,photograph by ,symonds and ,co41 ,portsmouth4 ,h4,m4,s4 ,,thrush1 #ahhi4 ,the ,scotts were at the time building engines for four corvettes under construction at the ,woolwich and ,deptford yards for the ,british ,navy2 and the ,admiralty agreed to have fitted in one of them water-tube boilers and engines similar to those built for the ,french boats4 ,the boilers may be said to have belonged to the same general type as the ,thornycroft and ,normand water-tube steam generators4 ,it was subsequently found impossible1 however1 to ensure that the top of the boilers should be at least #a ft4 under the load-line--a condition then enforced in steam vessels for the ,navy--and the adoption of the water-tube boiler was deferred1 the ordinary machinery of the period being fitted to work at #be-lb4 pressure instead of #abj-lb4#fj ,this was unfortunate1 as it removed the incentive to continued research needed to make the water-tube boiler a really satisfactory steam generator4 ,the ,scotts1 however1 continued to work for the successful application of high pressures1 and it was this that brought them into contact with the late ,mr4 ,samson ,fox1 with whom they were closely identified for many years in connection with the development of the corrugated flue and the cylindrical steam boiler4 ,opinion being adverse to the water-tube boiler1 notwithstanding its acceptance by many foreign ,navies1 there was a strong agitation fostered by engineers to induce the societies for the registry of shipping1 and also the ,board of ,trade1 to increase the ratio of the working to the test1 pressure in boilers4 ,the ,british ,admiralty allowed the boiler to be worked up to within #ij lb4 of the test pressure1 whereas in the ,merchant ,service the working pressure was limited to one-half of the test pressure4 ,in #ahhh the ,scotts1 being convinced that the ,admiralty system afforded quite a satisfactory factor of safety1 undertook the experiment of submitting a warship boiler1 then being built by them to ,admiralty specification1 to the highest possible pressure1 even up to bursting-point4 ,the boiler ultimately leaked to such an extent1 after the pressure had been maintained for a long period at #fbj lb4 per square inch1 that it was not considered necessary to proceed further4 ,the stresses at this stage worked out to #dh1acj lb4 per square inch2 and the result proved that there was some justification for a reduction in the minimum scantlings of the shells of marine boilers to1 at least1 the scale adopted by the ,admiralty4#fa ,these suggestive experiments were carried out in connection with the boilers constructed in #ahhh-i for two war vessels built by the ,scotts4 ,these vessels were the ,sparrow and the ,thrush4 ,at the same time1 the ,scotts engined two other vessels of the same type1 constructed at the ,royal ,dockyards4 ,a view is given on ,plate ,,xvii4 of the ,thrush1 which was commanded by ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince of ,wales on the ,north ,american and ,west ,indian stations in #ahia4 ,she was a vessel of composite build1 of #hje tons displacement1 with machinery of #abjj horse-power1 to give a speed of #ac knots2 but1 as is shown by the illustration1 she was fitted as a three-masted schooner1 and utilised her sails when the wind was favourable4 ,in this respect1 she marks the transition stage between the days of the sailing craft and the modern ship1 depending entirely on steam for propulsion4 ,indication is afforded of the progress towards this transformation by ,table ,,iii4 on the opposite page1 which shows the improvement in economy in the machinery of warships at various stages in their development4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xviii4 ,,engines ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,thrush1 #ahhi4 ,the figures in the ,table are average results rather than highest attainments during the periods4 ,for #ahij-ie we have taken the ,barfleur1 the engines of which were constructed by the ,scotts in #ahid2 whilst the particulars for #ahie-aijj refer to the ,canopus1 engined by them in #aijj4 ,in #aijb they also supplied the machinery for the battleship ,prince of ,wales1 and commenced the construction of the armoured cruiser ,argyll4 ,but before referring in detail to these latter ships1 we may briefly review the advances in applied mechanics1 metallurgy and chemistry1 which have contributed largely to the perfection of these modern fighting ships in respect of offensive and defensive qualities4 ,,table ,,iii4 ,,progressive ,,types ,,of ,,warship ,,machinery1 ,,and ,,their ,,economy1 #ahdj ,,to #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ahdj to #ahee4ahee to #ahge4ahge to #ahij4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,type of boiler ,rectangular ,rectangular ,single-ended box box cylindrical ,steam pressure per #c lb4 #be lb4 #ij lb4 square inch to #d lb ,coal consumption per #g lb4 #d lb4 #b-a_/b lb4 indicated horse-power to #e lb4 per hour ,type of engine ,geared ,simple ,three- screw horizontal cylinder surface compound condensing ,piston speed in feet #bbj #ejj to #fjj #gej per minute ,weight of machinery per #aj cwt4 #c cwt4 #c cwt4 indicated horse-power to #e cwt4 per minute ,speed of ship #h to #i #ad #af knots knots knots ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ahij to #ahie4 #ahie to #aijj4aijj to #aije4 ,a ,b ,c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,type of boiler ,single-ended ,belleville ,water-tube cylindrical water-tube ,steam pressure per #aee lb4 #cjj lb4 #cjj lb4 square inch ,coal consumption per #b lb4 #a4h lb4 #a4h lb4 indicated horse-power per hour ,type of engine ,three- ,three- ,four- cylinder cylinder cylinder triple- triple- triple- expansion expansion expansion ,piston speed in feet #hdj #iah #ajjj per minute ,weight of machinery per #b-c_/d cwt4 #b cwt4 #a4f cwt4 indicated horse-power per minute ,speed of ship #ah #ah4be #bc knots knots knots ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,a ,battleship1 ,barfleur4 ,b ,battleship1 ,canopus4 ,c ,armoured ,cruiser4 ,the gun most in favour at the close of the eighteenth1 and at the opening of the nineteenth1 centuries was the cast-iron1 smooth-bored1 muzzle-loader3 first the #cb-pounder and later the #fh-pounder4 ,carronades were used for smashing rather than for penetrating the skin or structure of ships4 ,although the #fh-pounders were improved by a lining of wrought iron being inserted in the bore1 whereby the energy at #ajjj-yards range was increased from #bij to #fjj foot-tons1 little progress was made until after the ,crimean ,war1 when chemists undertook the investigation of the action of explosives and metallurgists sought to produce stronger metals4 ,the general idea as regards the powder used as a propellant was that the ignition was instantaneous1 and that the more violent the explosion the greater would be the velocity of the projectile4 ,under such conditions short weapons naturally found favour2 and indeed1 with a light1 spherical1 ill-fitting projectile1 there was very little advantage to be gained by lengthening the bore4 ,but with the introduction of rifled cannon1 much heavier and better-fitting shot became possible1 and a rapid-burning powder gave rise to dangerous pressures in the gun4 ,it was then realised that it was not an explosion that was wanted1 but a continuous pressure acting on the base of a shot for a relatively considerable period4 ,this needed a slow-burning explosive1 and led to the manufacture of powder as pebbles or prisms2 the enlargement in the late 'seventies of the chamber of the gun1 and the provision of air spaces for the expansion of the powder1 greatly added to the velocity with which the shot left the gun1 and therefore augmented its carrying power4#fb ,gun-makers had meanwhile improved the strength of the weapon by a recognition of the fact that wrought iron was twice as strong in the direction of the fibre as across it2 and thus in the 'sixties they began to coil the central tube1 surrounding it by hoops1 welded or shrunk on4 ,the full advantages of fibre were thus secured for resisting circumferential strain4 ,the bore was rifled to give the shot that rotatory motion which prevents irregularity in flight and conduces to accuracy of fire at long range4 ,the smooth-bore gun was effective up to only #ajjj yards range1 as compared with the #fjjj yards and #gjjj yards for the modern weapon4 ,breechloading was first introduced into the ,navy in the 'sixties1 but discarded because the details for closing the breech end proved unsatisfactory4 ,finally1 it was reintroduced in #ahgh1 a satisfactory mechanism having been devised4 ,these various improvements gradually increased the power of the gun4 ,the length and weight had enormously grown1 as is shown by the particulars of successive large ,naval guns1 shown in ,table ,,iv4 on the next page2 but the increase in energy up till the 'eighties was not commensurate with the augmentation of the weights of the projectile and charge4 ,the advance from the #ch-ton gun of #ahgj to the #aaj-a_/b-ton gun in #ahhg involved the multiplying by five of the charge of powder1 which quadrupled the energy of the gun1 but the carrying power of the shot was still deficient4 ,the velocity had increased in twenty years from #afjj to #bjjj ft4 per second1 slower-burning powder having been introduced4 ,,table ,,iv4 ,,particulars ,,of ,,the ,,successive ,,large ,,naval ,,guns1 #ahjj ,,to #aije4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,weight of ,penetra- ,projectile4 tion of ,weight of ,wrought- ,charge4 ,iron at ,muzzle #ajjj ,year4 ,type4 ,weight4 ,length4,calibre4 ,energy4 ,yards ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- tons cwt4 in4 in4 lb4 lb4 ft4-tns4 in4 #ahjj ,cast- #b #ab #aad #f4d #cb #aj #djj -- iron smooth- bore #ahdb ,ditto #d #ae 444 #h4ab #fh #af #gjj -- #ahfe ,woolwich #d #aj 444 #g #aae #bb #adjj #g wrought- iron #ahgj ,built-up #ch #j #bjj #ab4ej #haj #bjj #ac1ijj #ag muzzle- loader #ahhj ,ditto #hj #j #cba #af #agjj #dej #bg1ifj #bb-a_/b #ahhg ,built-up #aaj #aj #ebd #af4be #ahjj #ifj #ed1cij #cb breech- loader #ahie ,wire- #df #j #dde4e #ab #hej 444 #cc1idj #cd4f wound breech- loader #aijj ,ditto #ea #j #dif4e #ab #hej #baj #cf1bij #ce4d #aije ,ditto #eh #j #edj #ab #hej 444 #di1efj #db ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,attention was further directed to the improvement of explosives2 and ultimately1 instead of gunpowder having a potential energy of #dhj foot-tons per pound1 modified gun-cotton was introduced1 with an energy of #gaf foot-tons per pound1 and still later there were evolved explosive compounds of which the potential energy per unit of weight was fourfold greater than in the case of gunpowder1 namely1 #aaci foot-tons per pound4 ,finally1 the explosive has taken the form of cordite1 which ensures slow burning1 great expansion1 and1 consequently1 augmented propelling power behind the projectile1 without material addition to the maximum strain upon the weapon4 ,but in any case the constructional strength of the modern gun is enormously superior to the earlier built-up weapons1 as around the inner tubes there is coiled something like #abj miles of wire1 which itself has a breaking-strain of between #ij and #aaj tons per square inch1 and is put on under a tension of from #ed tons per square inch on the inner wires to #cb tons per square inch on the outer wires1#fc so that the ultimate resistance to strain consequent upon the firing of the gun is enormously increased4 ,velocities of #bfjj ft4 per second are thus realised1 and even more is quite feasible1 so that penetration of wrought iron at #ajjj yards range has now been increased to #db in4 ,if we compare the #ab-;in4 gun to-day with the weapon of the same calibre of twenty years ago1 when there was no widened chamber for the explosive1 when prismatic powder of low expansive power was used1 it is found1 as shown in the ,table opposite1 that the penetration at #ajjj yards has been doubled1 and the possible effective range multiplied fivefold4 ,there has also been an enormous gain in quicker fire by improved breech mechanism and efficient hydraulic and electric mountings1 whereby the gun and all its loading1 elevating1 and training machinery is rotated4 ,the metallurgist has also been successfully occupied1 and it is probable that the armour plate of to-day is still invulnerable4 ,the earlier wrought-iron plates were increased from #d-a_/b in4 in thickness on the ,warrior of #ahfa1 to the #bd in4 on the ,inflexible of #ahha2 the area protected being almost proportionately reduced4 ,the artillerist with improved projectiles ultimately defeated this heavy cleading on the ships2 but compound armour1 first made in #ahgi1 enabled the maximum thickness on the broadside to be reduced to #ah in41 permitting a greater area to be covered for the same weight4 ,at first the #hj-ton gun failed in its attack1 but heavier weapons1 with improved projectiles1 prevailed4 ,the next step was the introduction of all-steel armour in #ahij4 ,two years later there was introduced the super-carburising and subsequent chilling of the face of plates made of an alloy of nickel steel4 ,in #ahig the process of hardening was still further developed1 and now the #i-;in4 plate on the modern battleship is equal in resistance to a #bf-;in4 wrought-iron plate of the 'sixties1 or a #bj-;in4 compound-plate of the 'eighties1 or a #ac-;in4 plate of the early-hardened type4 ,for the present1 therefore1 the armour seems to have secured the victory1 as at #ejjj yards range #i-;in4 armour can scarcely be defeated by even the #ab-;in4 gun4 ,with the increased resistance of armour and the consequent reduction in its thickness1 the naval designer can spread his protecting plates over a much wider area1 so that the whole broadside of ships like the ,prince of ,wales1 or the cruisers ,argyll and ,defence1 is clad with armour of satisfactory resisting power4 ,at the same time the gun-power and speed of ships have been greatly increased without making the displacement inordinately high4 ,on the opposite page a ,table gives the main features of representative ships at different epochs1 which will show this at a glance4 ,the growth in the size of battleships has been steady1 with the exception of the class represented by the ,barfleur and ,canopus1 both of which were engined by the ,scotts4 ,these vessels are embodiments of a desire to check the advance in the size and cost of the battleship4 ,the deficiency in the number and calibre of their guns was partly compensated by the introduction1 for the first time in battleships1 of quick-firing weapons of large calibre4 ,the ,barfleur had four #ab in4 breechloaders and ten #d4g in4 quick-firers2 while the ,canopus had four #aj in4 breechloaders and ten #f in4 quick-firers4 ,but opinion has again strongly grown in favour of having in each ,british ship the best that can be achieved2 and thus the ,prince of ,wales has a displacement greater than any previous ship1 while in the ,king ,edward and the ,lord ,nelson classes there has been a further growth in every element of power4 ,the probabilities1 too1 are that we have not yet by any means seen the end of this advance4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix4 ,from a ,photograph by ,west and ,son1 ,southsea4 ,,his ,,majesty',s ,,battleship ,,prince ,,of ,,wales1 #aijb4 ,,table ,v4 ,,size ,,and ,,fighting ,,qualities ,,of ,,british ,,battleships ,,of ,,different ,,periods4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,date of ,completion4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,displacement4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,total ,collective ,weight ,energy at of ,shot ,muzzle of ,name4 ,side ,armour4 ,speed4 in ,one ,one ,round4 ,round4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ tons in4 knots lb4 foot-tons ,warrior #ahfa #i1baj #d-a_/b-;in4 #ad-a_/b #chjj #fa1dgf wrought iron ,hercules #ahfh #h1fhj #i-;in4 to #f-;in4 #ad #edjj #gj1bjj wrought iron ,alexandra #ahgg #i1dij #ab-;in4 to #ae #edbf #ga1djj #f-;in4 wrought ,inflexible#ahhaaa1hhj #bd-;in4 to #ac #ficf #abc1abj #af-;in4 wrought iron ,benbow #ahhhaj1fjj #ah-;in4 #af4ge #dfjj #ace1efj compound ,royal #ahibad1aej #ah-;in4 and #ag4e #ehjj #aei1faj ,sovereign #e-;in4 compound ,barfleur #ahidaj1ejj #ab-;in4 #ah4e #bdej #fg1fgj compound ,canopus #aijjab1iej #f-;in4 hardened #ah4be #dfjj #agh1gbj steel ,prince of #aijbae1jjj #i-;in4 #ah4be #dfjj #aid1djj ,wales super-hardened steel ,king #aijdaf1cej #i-;in4 #ah4ej #eibj #bgj1jdj ,edward ,,vii4 super-hardened steel ,lord #aijeaf1ejj #aj-;in4 #ah4ej #gifj #dac1ijj ,nelson super-hardened steel ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,as to the machinery made by the ,scotts for these battleships1 the ,barfleur had three-cylinder1 triple-expansion twin-screw engines1 to run at #ajh revolutions1 and to develop #ac1jjj indicated horse-power4 ,on her trials the power was #ac1afc indicated horse-power4 ,there are eight single-ended1 return-tube1 cylindrical boilers1 working at #aee lb4 pressure4 ,other details are given in the ,table on page #ec4 ,the engines of the ,canopus are illustrated on page #di by a drawing taken from a ,paper read at the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 by ,sir ,john ,durston and ,admiral ,h4 ,j4 ,oram4#fd ,this was the first type of ,british battleship fitted with water-tube boilers4 ,she was followed soon after by the ,prince of ,wales4#fe ,the ,argyll1 which was built and engined by the ,scotts1 and the ,defence1 which is being built in one of the ,royal ,dockyards1 and is having its machinery constructed by the ,scotts1 signalise progress in cruiser design4 ,the hardening of armour1 increasing its resistance1 permits of a reduction in weight for a given measure of protection1 so that it has been possible to effectively defend the modern cruiser1 while at the same time giving an enormously increased gun-power and a speed far in excess of that possible ten years ago4 ,the ,argyll is a vessel of #aj1hej tons displacement1 being #dej ft4 long1 #fh ft4 #f in4 beam1 and having a draught of #be ft42 while the ,defence is a vessel of #ad1fjj tons displacement1 having a length of #dij ft41 a beam of #gd ft4 #f in41 and a draught of #bf ft4 ,in both ships the greater part of the broadside1 from #e ft4 below the water-line to the upper deck1 is armoured1 and a very large proportion of the area thus clad has #f-;in4 hardened plates4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4 ,,propelling ,,engines ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,argyll4 ,in the late 'nineties it was assumed that quick-firing artillery was best suited to the work of a cruiser1 and thus the #f-;in4 gun was exclusively adopted4 ,but since then ,naval strategists have developed their ideas as to the function of armoured cruisers1 and now anticipate their use in the line of battle2 so that not only has the defensive quality been improved1 but the offensive power has been materially increased4 ,in the ,defence1 and the other ships of the class1 the #f-;in4 gun has been entirely discarded in favour of an installation of #i4b-;in4 and #g4e-;in4 weapons4 ,owing to the perfection of the hydraulic and electric mountings1 little has been forfeited in respect of rapidity of fire1 while much has been gained in the striking energy at a given range of each projectile4 ,thus1 while the #f-;in4 gun five years ago had an energy equal to penetrating #f in4 of wrought iron at #cjjj yards' range1 the #g4e-;in4 weapon now may perforate #f-c_/d in41 and the #i4b-;in4 gun #i in4 of the hardest armour at corresponding range4 ,the total weight of projectiles fired from the present-day cruiser in a minute is double1 and the muzzle energy quadruple1 the results attained by the cruisers designed at the close of the nineteenth century4#ff ,the modern cruisers steam at #bc knots1 the power of the machinery in the ,argyll being #ba1jjj indicated horse-power1 and in the ,defence #bg1jjj indicated horse-power4 ,the machinery of the ,argyll1 which is typical1 consists of four sets of triple-expansion engines1 arranged in separate watertight compartments4 ,the diameters of the cylinders are3 high-pressure1 #da-a_/b in42 intermediate-pressure1 #fe-a_/b in42 and the two low-pressure1 each #gc-a_/b in41 all having a stroke of #db in4 ,at full power1 developed with #ach revolutions1 the piston speed is #iff ft4 per minute4 ,the cylinders are fitted with liners1 and are steam-jacketed2 forged steel is used for the liners of the high- and intermediate-pressure cylinders1 and cast-iron for those of the low-pressure cylinders4 ,the cylinder covers and pistons are of cast steel1 the latter being of conical form4 ,the high- and intermediate-pressure cylinders have piston valves1 and the low-pressure cylinders flat valves4 ,the cylinders are supported at the front by eight forged-steel columns1 and at the rear by four cast-iron columns formed with guide-faces1 and one forged steel column4 ,the crankshaft is in four pieces1 the high- and intermediate-pressure parts being interchangeable with each other1 and the two low-pressure parts with one another4 ,the shafts are hollow1 and three-bladed propellers of manganese bronze are fitted to each4 ,the condensers are entirely separate1 and independent air pumps are fitted4 ,the ,argyll had a combination of six cylindrical and sixteen water-tube boilers1 but in the later ships1 including the ,defence1 the boilers are entirely of the water-tube type4 ,the working pressure of the boiler is #bge lb41 reduced at the engines to #bej lb4 ,the trials of the ,argyll were carried through most satisfactorily1#fg and the vessel1 under the new ,admiralty conditions1 was completed for commission by the builders4 ,the fact that this armoured cruiser was so completed at the builder's yard is of itself evidence of the capacity and efficiency of the plant4 ,illustration3 decoration ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,erin1 ,,owned ,,by ,,sir ,,thomas ,,lipton1 ,,bart4 7,see page #gj47 ,,footnotes3 #eb ,charnock's ,history of ,marine ,architecture1 vol4 iii41 page #bde4 #ec ,the ,greenock ,telegraph1 ,may #dth1 #ahdi4 #ed ,sir ,nathaniel ,barnaby's ,naval ,development of the ,century1 page #adj4 #ee ,sennett and ,oram's ,marine ,steam ,engine1 page #c4 #ef ,fincham's ,history of ,marine ,construction1 page #ccb4 #eg ,ibid41 page #cdd4 #eh ,sir ,nathaniel ,barnaby's ,naval ,development of the ,nineteenth ,century1 page #aac4 #ei ,sennett and ,oram's ,marine ,steam ,engine1 page #aj4 #fj ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects1 vol4 xxx41 page #bgh4 #fa ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects1 vol4 xxx41 page #bhg4 #fb ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7#ahih edition71 vol4 xi41 page #bhh4 #fc ,engineering1 vol4 lxxix41 page #egg1 ,may #eth1 #aije4 #fd ,see ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers 7#ahii71 vol4 cxxxviii41 part #c4 #fe ,the ,engineer1 vol4 xcviii41 page #ae4 #ff ,engineering1 vol4 lxxx41 page #dae4 #fg ,engineering1 vol4 lxxx41 page #dbj4 ,illustration3 decoration ,yachting and ,yachts4 ,illustration3 decoration ,yacht designers and builders1 when votaries of the sport1 produce much better results1 and in this truism we have some explanation of the success of the ,scotts in the long series of yachts built during the past century4 ,there are a few misty memories and time-worn traditions to the effect that yachting of a kind was indulged in on the ,clyde in the closing years of the eighteenth century2 but there are no authentic records antecedent to the nineteenth century4 ,from #ahjc onwards the ,scotts have been closely identified with the pastime1 and with the production in the early years of sailing yachts2 and1 later1 of steam craft4 ,the first notable ,clyde racing yacht1 of which there is any record1 was launched by the ,scotts in #ahjc1 as already referred to on page #aa ante4 ,she was a #de-a_/b-ton cutter for ,colonel ,campbell1 an ,argyllshire soldier1 and the launching ceremony1 the honours of which were done by ,lady ,charlotte ,campbell1 was attended with military honours4 ,for the twenty years immediately following the launch of this cutter1 yachting made most pleasing progress1 and in #ahbd the ,royal ,northern ,yacht ,club was formed for the better organisation and encouragement of the pastime4 ,the club had its origin in the ,north of ,ireland1 and had jurisdiction over that district1 as well as over the ,west of ,scotland up till #ahch1 when the ,irish section was disbanded4 ,the ,royal ,northern gave regattas throughout the season1 at almost every suitable port1 from ,helensburgh on the ,clyde to ,oban4 ,amongst the leaders of the ,clyde ,division was ,john ,scott1 the second of the name1 and a large number of the racing craft owned by the members were built by him4 ,indeed1 one of the most experienced writers on ,yachting in ,scotland1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,bell1 says that among the old yachting families of the ,west of ,scotland1 the ,scotts and the ,steeles filled the foremost place4 ,among the best remembered of the yachts built by ,john ,scott were the cutters ,hawk and ,hope1 constructed for himself1 and the ,clarence1 built for his son-in-law1 the late ,robert ,sinclair4 ,the ,hawk was a boat of about #cj tons1 the ,hope was rather smaller1 and was used for cruising rather than for racing2 and the ,clarence was about #ah tons4 ,the ,hawk was a successful racer1 and secured many cherished prizes1 but the ,clarence was her superior1 and was the first of a long line of prize-winners which have brought renown to the ,clyde4 ,indeed1 in all she won over thirty challenge trophies1 and in her best season never suffered defeat4 ,robert ,sinclair1 the owner1 was himself a keen and accomplished yachtsman4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii4 ,from a painting at ,halkshill4 ,,the ,,clarence3 ,,an ,,early ,,racing ,,cutter4 ,in the races held in #ahcc-cd--most prominent years--,john ,scott1 with the ,hawk1 won the ,anglesey ,cup at ,dublin1 and the ,oban and ,helensburgh ,cups2 while ,robert ,sinclair1 with the ,clarence1 won the ,ladies' ,cup at ,oban1 the ,kintyre ,cup at ,campbeltown1 the ,dublin1 ,adelaide1 and ,booth ,cups at ,dublin1 the ,stewart ,cup at ,greenock1 the ,largs ,cup and the ,dunoon ,cup4 ,these two yachts were indeed close rivals1 although the principal honours rested with the ,clarence4 ,on one occasion1 however1 the ,hawk unexpectedly defeated the ,clarence in an important race at ,dublin1 and the owners were anxious to have the cup in ,greenock as soon as possible for a special reason4 ,recognising that the ,clarence was really the faster boat1 they handed over the trophy to her crew to take to the ,clyde port2 but the luck which enabled the ,hawk to win the cup stood by her on the passage home1 and she made the port a considerable time before her rival4 ,the ,clarence became a pilot boat1 and was unfortunately run down off ,garroch ,head1 while the ,hawk was transferred to the fishing trade4 ,in later years ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b41 had the laudable desire to secure as a relic the vessel his grandfather had owned1 but the negotiations failed2 and the boat is probably still at work among the islands of ,scotland4 ,the ,royal ,northern ,club's fleet in the 'thirties numbered about fifty1 but there were no steam vessels on the list until #ahee4 ,among the principal boats in the club were the ,duke of ,portland's ketch1 the ,clown1 of #aef tons2 the ,duke of ,buccleuch's cutter1 the ,flower of ,yarrow1 of #ade tons2 ,mr4 ,john ,scott's cutter1 the ,lufra1 of #ha tons2 ,mr4 ,robert ,meiklem's schooner1 ,crusader1 of #abf tons2 and ,mr4 ,lewis ,upton's cutter1 ,briton1 of #ia tons4 ,the membership was about one hundred and fifty1 the aggregate tonnage of the fleet about #bjjj tons1 and its cost1 at a fairly generous estimate1 about #bj1jjj4 ,what a contrast is suggested by a review of the fleet of yachts owned to-day by ,clyde yachtsmen6 ,there are now eight clubs in the ,firth recognised by the ,yacht ,racing ,association1 and one of the largest of these--the ,royal ,clyde--alone has over a thousand members1 with a fleet of over three hundred and seventy yachts1 of a collective tonnage of #bf1jjj tons1 and of a first cost of a million sterling4 ,the club-house at ,hunter's ,quay1 which cost about #bj1jjj1 is representative of the best of its kind4 ,many of the yachts--sailing and steam--are of considerable size1 and have international repute for their excellence1 either as racers1 or as comfortable seaworthy cruisers4 ,the origin of the ,royal ,clyde ,club in itself affords interesting suggestion of the development of the pastime on the ,clyde4 ,owing to a rule enforced by the ,royal ,northern ,club during the earlier period of its existence1 boats smaller than #h tons could not be enrolled2 many enthusiastic owners of small craft were thus debarred from membership1 and in #ahef they decided to form a new club4 ,this1 first named the ,clyde ,model ,yacht ,club1 became1 a year later1 the ,clyde ,yacht ,club2 and1 having grown immensely in influence1 obtained1 in #ahgb1 ,queen ,victoria's sanction to the appellation of ,royal4 ,to-day the ,royal ,clyde ,yacht ,club is one of the most important in the ,kingdom4 ,john ,scott 7#ageb-ahcg7 was long a prominent member of the ,royal ,northern ,club4 ,his son1 ,charles ,cuningham ,scott1 was an original member1 but did not take the same active part in the pastime1 the claims of a quickly-developing industry being probably the reason4 ,but the records of the family were again revived by his sons--,john ,scott1 ,c4,b41 ,robert ,sinclair ,scott1 and ,colin ,william ,scott4 ,they displayed a preference for steam craft1 although the first-named owned several cutters1 beginning with the ,zingara2 later several beautiful yachts1 each successive ship being named the ,greta1 were built for him4 ,the first of these1 of #ahgf1 and the last1 of #ahie1 are illustrated on the ,plate facing this page4 ,he was elected ,commodore of the ,royal ,clyde ,club in #ahie in acknowledgment of his services to the club and to yachting generally1 and he occupied the post until his death in #aijd4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,greta1 ,,of #ahgf4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,greta1 ,,of #ahie4 ,these were exciting times in ,clyde yachting4 ,it was then that ,lord ,dunraven and ,sir ,thomas ,lipton made their gallant but unsuccessful efforts to recover the ,america cup with ,clyde-built boats1 while the performances of the ,britannia1 owned by the then ,prince of ,wales1 now ,his ,majesty the ,king1 and of the ,meteor1 belonging to the ,german ,emperor1 gave a distinction to the sport which it had never enjoyed before4 ,the ,mudhook ,yacht ,club was formed in #ahgc by a few skilled yacht designers and yachtsmen1 and included ,robert ,sinclair ,scott1 ,colin ,william ,scott1 and ,james ,reid4 ,the membership was limited to forty1 and the aim of the founders was to encourage amateur yacht sailing4 ,there were many inspirations connected with the founding of the club2 there is a tradition that when a ,mudhooker was being initiated1 he was usually confronted with a coil of rope1 a small marlinspike1 a chart and dividers1 a forecastle bucket and other implements2 and1 before the hand of fellowship was extended to him1 he was exercised1 with more or less of solemnity1 as to their uses4 ,from the foundation of the ,club until his death in #aije1 ,robert ,sinclair ,scott was ,admiral of the ,club4 ,for twenty-nine years from the same period his brother1 ,colin ,william ,scott1 acted as ,honorary ,secretary1 and his great services were recognised on the club attaining its majority in #ahid1 by the presentation by the members of a set of old candelabra and fruit dishes4 ,the present ,honorary ,secretary is ,r4 ,l4 ,scott1 son of ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b4 ,although1 as we have said1 the ,scotts never owned racing yachts1 they have built for themselves and for others a long succession of beautiful steam yachts1 as recorded in the ,table on page #fi4 ,in all1 seven yachts have been built in succession for the ,scotts themselves4 ,each was named the ,greta1 after a small stream which runs through the ,halkshill ,estate1 excepting the last1 which was called the ,grianaig1 the ,gaelic for ,greenock4 ,the last ,greta is exactly double the length of the first1 while the yacht tonnage is practically eightfold4 ,the successive steps are marked4 ,the ,greta of #ahgf was #gf ft4 long1 and of #ec tons1 and she was at once purchased by a ,kilmarnock lady1 ,miss ,finnie4 ,the vessel built for ,john ,scott1 ,c4,b41 in the following year was slightly larger1 and she also was coveted and secured4 ,in #ahgh a still larger ship was built1 and for many years this craft continued in the possession of its original owner1 but in #ahib was displaced by a vessel of greater size1 of #ace ft4 #f in4 in length1 and of #bcj tons yacht displacement4 ,other vessels followed at periods of three years1 and the ,greta of #ahih was #aed ft4 long1 and of #cic tons4 ,many other notable vessels were constructed in the same period for other owners2 and while it is not possible to refer to all of them1 mention may be made of the ,tuscarora1 built in #ahig1 for ,william ,clark1 ,esq41 of ,paisley4 ,this vessel1 which is illustrated on ,plate ,,xxiv41 is #agj ft4 long1 and of #gge tons4 ,she had a bridge and promenade deck #ajd ft4 long2 and there were ten state-rooms and large saloons for the owner and his guests4 ,built for oversea cruising1 she had a very complete installation of refrigerating machinery4 ,the triple-expansion engines with which she was fitted developed #ajcj horse-power when running at #aej revolutions1 equal to a piston speed of #fge ft4 per minute4 ,steam was supplied by a single-ended boiler4 ,a much larger vessel--indeed1 the largest of the type constructed by the firm--was the ,margarita1 constructed for ,a4 ,j4 ,drexel1 ,esq41 of ,philadelphia1 to the designs of the late ,mr4 ,g4 ,l4 ,watson1 who did so much for the advance of the science of naval architecture as applied to sailing and steam yachts4 ,this vessel is of #bgb ft4 in length1 with a displacement of #bebb tons4 ,for the owner and his guests there are thirteen large state-rooms1 and the general saloons include dining1 drawing1 and smoking rooms1 a boudoir1 and a children's nursery4 ,the yacht is equipped with all the accessories of the modern liner1 including refrigerating appliances4 ,it is propelled at a speed of over #ag knots by twin-screws1 operated by two independent sets of triple-expansion1 four-cylinder engines1 balanced to obviate vibration4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,margarita4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tuscarora4 ,,table ,,vi4--,,general ,,particulars ,,of ,,principal ,,steam ,,yachts ,,built ,,by ,,scotts' ,,shipbuilding ,,and ,,engineering ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,greenock4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,date of ,displace- ,construc- ment in ,name4 tion4 ,length4,breadth4 ,depth4 ,tons4 ,speed4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ft4 in4 ft4 in4ft4 in4 knots4 ,greta #ahgf #gf #j #ab #j #i #c #ec #g4e ,greta #ahgg #hd #j #ab #f #i #f #gc #h4be ,greta #ahgh #ij #j #ad #j #i #f #hf #i4cc ,ulva #ahgi #afb #j #ba #j #ae #f #cej #aa4jh ,griffin #ahgi #abj #j #af #f #aa #j #aeb #i4h ,eagle #ahgi #hd #j #ab #f #i #f #gg #g4g ,retriever #ahhd #abc #j #ag #j #ab #j #add #aa ,alca #ahhg #hj #f #ad #j #aj #j #ic #aj ,santanna #ahhg #ahj #j #bd #j #ae #f #die #ac4f ,foros #ahia #bcf #j #cj #f #bj #f #aagj #ab4e ,greta #ahib #ace #f #ah #f #ab #j #bcj #aa ,kittiwake #ahic #aac #j #ba #j #ac #f #baj #i4ee ,lutra #ahid #aag #j #ah #j #ab #j #bjj #aj4ge ,greta #ahie #ade #j #bb #j #ac #e #cch #aa ,erin #ahif #beb #j #ca #f #bj #f #accj #ae4f ,tuscarora #ahig #agj #j #bf #f #ae #g #gge #ab4e ,greta #ahih #aed #j #bb #i #ac #f #cic #ab4be ,lutra #ahii #adj #j #ba #j #ac #j #cdh #aa4fe ,margarita #aijj #bgb #j #cf #f #bh #j #bebb #ag4a ,waihi #aijj #hb #j #ad #f #aj #j #ajb #aj4c ,saevuna #aija #gf #d #ad #f #i #c #ie #h4d ,grianaig #aijd #afj #j #bc #i #ad #j #dce #ab4f ,beryl #aijd #afj #j #be #j #ad #f #ejj #ac4c ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,indi- cated ,boiler ,horse-,pres- ,name4 ,type of ,engines4 power4sure4 ,owner4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- lb4 ,greta ,compound #eh #gd ,john ,scott1 ,esq41 ,c4,b4 ,greta #gf #gh ,john ,scott1 ,esq41 ,c4,b4 ,greta ,compound tandem #aje #gh ,john ,scott1 ,esq41 ,c4,b4 ,ulva #bgg #gj ,f4 ,a4 ,hankey1 ,esq4 ,griffin #acj #gh ,c4 ,e4 ,dashwood1 ,esq4 ,eagle ,compound #gd #ge ,count ,stackleberg1 ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,retriever #bae #ij ,o4 ,randall1 ,esq4 ,alca ,triple-expansion #aaj #afj ,colonel ,malcolm1 ,poltalloch4 ,santanna #ghj #aej ,m4 ,louis ,prat1 ,marseilles4 ,foros #ifj #afj ,m4 ,kousenzoff1 ,moscow4 ,greta #bhj #afj ,john ,scott1 ,esq41 ,c4,b4 ,kittiwake #ahe #afj ,lord ,carnegie4 ,lutra #bej #afj ,colonel ,malcolm4 ,greta #cdj #agj ,john ,scott1 ,esq41 ,c4,b4 ,erin ,triple-expansion1 #d cyl4 #bejj #ahj ,sir ,thomas ,lipton1 ,bart4 ,tuscarora #ajcj #agj ,wm4 ,clark1 ,esq41 ,paisley4 ,greta #dhj #agj ,john ,scott1 ,esq41 ,c4,b4 ,lutra #dhj #agj ,lord ,malcolm of ,poltalloch4 ,margarita ,twin-screw1 triple #ebjj #bjj ,a4 ,j4 ,drexel1 ,esq41 expansion1 four ,philadelphia1 cylinders in each ,u4,s4,a4 engine ,waihi ,triple-expansion #acj #agj ,j4 ,bulloch1 ,esq4 ,saevuna ,compound #ge #acj ,maurice ,bernard ,byles1 ,esq4 ,grianaig ,triple-expansion #gdj #aij ,r4 ,sinclair ,scott1 ,esq4 ,beryl #iaj #bjj ,baron ,inverclyde4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the ,erin1 now owned by ,sir ,thomas ,lipton1 ,bart41 was designed and built in #ahif for a ,sicilian nobleman and was purchased later by the popular baronet and sporting yachtsman4 ,one of the largest vessels of her time1 she was #bej ft4 long1 and of #accj tons displacement4 ,the four-cylinder1 carefully-balanced engines1 of #bejj horse-power1 gave her a sea speed of #ae-a_/b knots4 ,a view of this well-known yacht is given on ,plate ,,xxi41 facing page #fc4 ,much might be written about the decoration of these yachts2 but it may suffice to give illustrations of the dining- and drawing-rooms in the steam yacht ,beryl1 owned by the ,right ,hon4 ,baron ,inverclyde4 ,the saloons are in the ,old-,english style1 and are treated with decorative freedom1 but with strict simplicity4 ,the walls in both cases are framed in solid figured white ,austrian wainscot oak1 highly finished and polished4 ,the drawing-room has silk tapestry panels1 relieved with chaste carving on the window canopies1 dado rail and mantelpiece1 and divided with bevelled and carved pilasters1 with carved ,corinthian capitals4 ,in the dining-room1 on the other hand1 there is no tapestry1 the whole being of oak1 suitably carved4 ,in the ports there are large plate-glass windows1 fitted with ,greenwood springs4 ,in each room there is a large cupola skylight1 which1 with its rich stained glass1 gives a fine decorative effect4 ,the drawing-room cupola is fitted with a brass mushroom ventilator4 ,the ceiling in each case is of yellow pine1 moulded1 ribbed1 and beamed in the ,tudor style1 and painted flat white1 picked out with gold4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,drawing ,,room4 ,,the ,,dining ,,saloon4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,steam ,,yacht ,,beryl1 ,,owned ,,by ,,lord ,,inverclyde4 ,the drawing-room has a slow-combustion grate having brass mounts1 with richly-carved oak mantelpiece1 marble jambs1 tiled hearth1 and fire-brasses and fender4 ,the dining-room has a steam radiator enclosed in a cabinet with ,numidian marble top and brass-grilled front4 ,the ,beryl is a vessel of #afj ft4 in length1 with a displacement of #ejj tons at slightly less than #ab-;ft4 draught4 ,she steams at #ac4c knots with the engines indicating #iaj horse-power1 steam being supplied from a large single-ended boiler with three furnaces4 ,as typical of the engines adopted in the yachts built by the ,scotts1 we give an illustration on ,plate ,,xxvi41 facing page #gb1 of the engines of the ,grianaig4 ,in the thirty years that have elapsed since the first ,greta was built1 the ratio of horse-power to tonnage has increased from #a to #a to #b to #a1 the steam pressure from #gd lb4 to #bjj lb42 and the piston speed from about #cjj ft4 to #fge ft4 per minute4 ,the aim has been to ensure reliability by a steady- and easy-running engine4 ,an effective appearance has always been aimed at1 and the result has invariably been a highly-finish design4 ,yachts' engines are invariably balanced1 whether so specified or not1 as the gain in comfort to all on board1 owing to the absence of vibration1 is so marked as to more than compensate for the extra cost involved4 ,forced lubrication has also been applied1 although the engines may be of the ordinary open type3 the main bearings1 crank-pins1 cross-heads1 eccentrics1 valve gear1 pump gear1 etc41 are all included in the system1 which has given every satisfaction4 ,the ,grianaig's engines developed on trial #gdj indicated horse-power at #adh revolutions per minute1 with a boiler pressure of #aij lb4 per square foot1 and a condenser vacuum of #bf4e in4 ,some of the details1 being typical of the practice of the firm in respect of yacht machinery1 are quoted from the specification on the next page4 ,the arrangement of cylinders is as follows3 ,h4,p4 #ad in4 in diameter1 ,i4,p4 #bb in4 in diameter1 ,l4,p4 #ce in4 in diameter1 ,stroke #bd in4 ,the piston and connecting-rods are of steel2 the guide-shoes for the crossheads are of cast iron1 the ahead face having white metal1 and the astern face being left plain4 ,the back columns are of the usual cast-iron box type1 the front columns1 being steel1 are turned4 ,the high-pressure cylinder has a piston valve1 and the intermediate- and low-pressure cylinders flat slide-valves4 ,none of the cylinders is provided with liners4 ,a single-stroke reversing engine is situated at the back of the main engine1 but is operated from the starting platform4 ,the condenser is of the surface type with a circular cast-iron shell2 the total cooling surface is #acjj square feet4 ,steam is supplied to the main engine by one single-ended cylindrical boiler #ac ft4 #i in4 in diameter by #aj ft4 long1 working at a pressure of #aij lb4 per square inch4 ,there are three furnaces1 the mean internal diameter being #c ft4 #e-c_/d in4 and the length #f ft4 #aj in4 ,the grates are #f ft4 long1 giving an aggregate area of #fa4e square feet4 ,the boiler tubes are #c-a_/d in4 in diameter and #f ft4 #aj-c_/d in4 long1 the total heating surface being #ahii square feet4 ,illustration3 decoration ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi4 ,,engines ,,of ,,the ,,yacht ,,grianaig4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvii4 ,,dining ,,saloon ,,in ,a ,,mail ,,steamer4 7,see page #ha47 ,,drawing ,,room ,,in ,,the ,,steam ,,yacht ,,foros4 7,see page #ha47 ,illustration3 decoration ,the ,twentieth ,century4 ,illustration3 decoration ,prophecy has its allurements even in the domain of applied mechanics2 and having reviewed progress during the past two centuries in naval architecture1 as embodied in sailing ships1 merchant steamers1 warships1 and yachts1 there is a temptation to speculate on the prospects of the future4 ,the possibilities of the steam turbine1 for manufacturing which the ,scotts are laying down a special plant2 the potentialities of the producer-gas engine as applied to the propulsion of ships2 and even the solution of the problems which stand in the way of the application of the universally-desired oil turbine1 are all topics which would prove interesting1 even although no conclusion could be arrived at4 ,it is enough1 however1 to say here1 that each is having careful consideration by the firm4 ,the historian is not1 however1 concerned with the future1 and the only justification for the title given above is the intention here to briefly review the state of marine construction1 as represented at the beginning of this new century by typical vessels built or being built by the ,scotts4 ,it is difficult1 where so many ships of distinctive design and equipment have been constructed1 to select a few representative types4 ,amongst the countries which have had new ships in recent years are ,france1 ,russia1 ,italy1 ,denmark1 ,holland1 ,portugal1 ,greece1 ,india1 the ,straits ,settlements1 ,china1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,brazil and other ,south ,american ,republics1 and the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,this list of foreign clintele1 however1 is being diminished1 owing to the influence of subsidies paid by foreign ,governments to shipowners or shipbuilders4 ,taking account only of large vessels built during the past fifty years1 there are one hundred and five of ,scotts' steamers now trading in ,china seas1 twenty-six in the ,indian ,ocean1 ten on the ,north ,atlantic1 nine in the ,south ,african seas1 thirty in ,south ,american waters1 eighteen in the ,colonial service1 and ninety-seven on the ,european coast2 while in home waters there are many more4 ,one of the gratifying features in connection with the commercial relationship of the ,scotts1 too1 is the continuance of confidence over a long period of years of several of our large steamship companies4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the best indication of the satisfactory character of the work done4 ,the ,holt ,line have had built for them within forty years1 by the ,scotts1 forty-eight vessels of #adh1cec tons4 ,the ,china ,navigation ,company have had a greater number of ships1 namely1 sixty-four1 but as the size is smaller the total tonnage is less1 namely1 #aae1fjj tons4 ,an important ,continental firm has had twenty-one vessels2 while for a ,portuguese ,company five large vessels were built1 and for the ,french ,trans-,atlantic ,company eleven fast liners4 ,other cases might be mentioned1 but these suffice4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,donaldson ,,liner1 ,,cassandra4 ,as regards fast steamers1 the recent warships built and described in a previous chapter may be accepted as typical in so far as the problems of marine engineering are concerned4 ,in each of these cases the design of the machinery has been prepared by the firm1 and the difficulties were more complicated than in the case of merchant work4 ,moreover1 it must be remembered1 that the maritime predominance of ,britain is due as much to that enormous fleet of moderate-speed intermediate and cargo ships1 which maintain exceptionally long voyages with regularity and economy1 as to the fast ships engaged on comparatively short routes4 ,of the nine thousand odd ,british ships included in ,lloyds' ,register1 less than #b-a_/b per cent4 have a speed of over #af knots3 a fact which in itself proves that economy1 rather than speed1 is the primary consideration4#fh ,the new ,donaldson liner1 now being constructed by the firm1 may be accepted as representative of one of the most useful types of steamer in the ,british fleet4 ,an illustration of this vessel is given on ,plate ,,xxviii41 facing page #gd4 ,while primarily intended for the ,atlantic passenger trade1 she is of such moderate dimensions as to suit almost any service1 having a length of #dee ft4 between perpendiculars1 a breadth of #ec ft41 and a depth1 moulded1 of #cb ft42 the draught will not be more than #bf ft4 with a displacement of #ac1ejj tons4 ,while designed to carry #hjjj tons of deadweight cargo in the four holds1 the vessel has accommodation for a large number of passengers1 who are afforded more room than on the larger and faster liners1 with the same luxury and comfort4 ,this latter fact accounts in large measure for the growing preference of a great proportion of the travelling public for the intermediate ship4 ,the machinery has been designed with the view of attaining the highest economy4 ,for driving the twin screws there are two separate three-cylinder triple-expansion engines1 which are to indicate together #eejj horse-power when running at the moderate piston speed of #fhj ft4 per minute4 ,the cylinders are respectively #bf in41 #db in41 and #gj in4 in diameter1 the stroke being #dh in4 ,there is a very complete installation of auxiliary machinery4 ,in all1 there are fifty-seven steam cylinders in the ship1 each having its special function4 ,steam for all of these is supplied at a pressure of #ahj lb4 per square inch1 by two double-ended boilers #bj ft4 long1 and two single-ended boilers #aa ft4 #f in4 long1 the diameter in all cases being #ae ft4 #i in4 ,the total heating surface is about #ae1jjj square feet1 and the grate area #dce square feet4 ,in the design and construction of the engines and boilers every consideration has been given to strength in order to ensure reliability4 ,in dealing with the development of the steamship we had occasion to refer to the ,holt liners1 which inaugurated the first regular steamship service to the ,far ,east1 vi the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,that was in #ahfe1 and since then a long series of most successful steamships has been constructed by the ,scotts for the ,china trade of the ,ocean ,steamship ,company4 ,as representative of the modern ship for this service we take four vessels just completed1 three of them taking the names of the pioneer ships of the line--the ,achilles1 ,agamemnon1 and ,ajax1 while the fourth is named ,deucalion2 one of these is illustrated on ,plate ,,xxix41 facing this page4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,holt ,,liner ,,achilles1 ,,of #aijj4 ,throughout the forty years that have elapsed since the first vessels were built1 each successive steamer of the forty-eight built by the ,scotts has marked an increase in size1 and an improvement in economy4 ,in the former respect the advance is not perhaps so striking as in some other trades2 but it must always be remembered that a ship which is to steam for #ab1jjj or #ac1jjj miles without many opportunities of coaling cannot be of high speed2 otherwise the bunker capacity would be so great as to seriously reduce the available cargo space2 while the running expenses would be so heavy as to materially decrease the utility of the vessel as an aid to the development of commerce4 ,there is ever the happy mean1 which has here been realised with characteristic prudence and enterprise4 ,the forty years' progress in the case of the ,holt liners has brought about an increase of #ej per cent4 in the dimensions of the ship1 the later ,scotts' vessels being #dda ft4 between perpendiculars1 #eb ft4 #f in4 in breadth1 and #ce ft4 in depth moulded1 with a gross register of #gjdc tons4 ,in respect of deadweight capacity1 however1 there has been considerable development1 due to the adoption of mild steel having permitted a reduction in the weight of boilers and engines1 and in the scantlings of the hull4 ,the new vessels1 with a draught of #bf ft4 #f in41 carry #hgej tons of deadweight cargo--two and a-half times the weight carried by the earliest ,holt liners4 ,in forty years the steam pressure in the ,holt liners has increased from #fj lb4 to #ahj lb42 and the piston speed from #djj ft4 to #gbj ft4 per minute4 ,the heating surface in the boilers has decreased from #f square feet to #c square feet per unit of power2 and the condenser surface from #a4hc square feet to #a4c square feet per unit of power4 ,on the other hand1 each square foot of grate gives now #ad horse-power1 as compared with #f4f horse-power formerly4 ,as a result of increased steam pressures and greater efficiency of propulsion1 it may be taken that1 notwithstanding the increase in dimensions and capacity of the ship1 and the consequent advance in engine power1 the coal required for a voyage half way round the world has been reduced to one half that of #ahfe4 ,another notable feature in the economy of the ship is that twenty-five derricks have been fitted for dealing rapidly with the cargo1 and one of these has a lifting capacity of #ce tons1 to take such heavy units of cargo as locomotive boilers and tenders4 ,in addition1 there are eighteen steam winches4 ,the reduction in the time spent in port1 because of the facilities thus provided1 is another element in the economy of the modern ship4 ,the largest oil steamer yet constructed1 the ,narragansett1 was completed by the ,scotts in #aijc4 ,this vessel1 built for the ,anglo-,american ,oil ,company1 carries in her sixteen separate compartments1 #aj1ejj tons of oil1 at a speed of #aa knots1 for a fuel consumption of #d4i lb4 of coal per #ajj tons of cargo per mile4 ,this result is deduced from steaming1 in ordinary service1 over nearly #bd1jjj miles1 and is consequently as reliable as it is interesting4 ,the ,narragansett1 which is illustrated on ,plate ,,xxx41 facing this page1 has a length between perpendiculars of #eab ft4 and overall of #eca ft42 the beam is #fc ft4 #c in41 and the depth1 moulded1 #db ft4 ,the deadweight carrying capacity on a draught of #bg ft4 is #ab1jjj tons4 ,the engines are of the triple-expansion type4 ,interest in the machinery is associated principally with that fitted for the pumping of the oil cargo4 ,there are two pump-rooms1 one located conveniently for the oil in the eight compartments forward of the machinery space2 the other in a corresponding situation for the same number of tanks abaft the propelling engines4 ,the #aj1ejj tons of cargo can be loaded or discharged in less than twelve hours4 ,while primarily for the ,atlantic trade1 the vessel was designed to undertake1 if required1 the much longer voyage of the ,eastern service4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,largest ,,oil-,,carrying ,,steamer ,,afloat1 ,,the ,,narragansett4 ,because of the uniformly good results with ordinary coal1 we give the details as received from the superintending engineer of the owners3-- ,,table ,,vii4--,,records ,,of ,,coal ,,consumption ,,of ,,steamship ,,narragansett4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,voyage ,no4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,coal1 ,indicated ,horse-,power per ,hour4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,total ,coal on ,voyage4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,coal for ,boilers only4 --------------------------------------- ,sea ,miles on ,voyage4 ------------------------------ ,cargo ,carried4 --------------------- ,average ,speed4 ------------- ,horse-,power ,on ,voyage4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- lb4 tons tons miles tons knots ,i4,h4,p4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ae #a4fj #iah #hbb #c1ddg #aj1bih #aj4he #c1gac #a4eh #c1ijj #af #a4ei #ibc #hcd #c1djc #aj1bhi #aj4hj #c1iea #a4fd #c1gge #a4fc #c1ffh #ag #a4ej #ibd #hcf #c1dfi #aj1dii #aj4dj #c1idi #a4ec #c1gif #ah #a4ej #hdg #gge #c1dda #aj1efc #aa4aj #c1icg #a4ej #c1gbj #ai #a4dd #hcg #gfj #c1dbc #aj1egj #aj4he #c1iji #a4dc #c1hac #bj #a4ej #ghj #gjg #c1cab #aj1fda #aa4ej #d1ajg #a4cb #c1hag #ba #a4ef #hdf #gff #c1ccj #aj1fea #aj4fj #c1iji #a4dd #c1hgj #a4df #c1gdf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,totals #fjge #eejj #bc1hbe #gc1eaa ,averages #a4ea #hfh #ghf #c1djd #aj1eja #aj4hg #c1hdh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the ,china ,navigation ,company of ,london1 for whom the ,scotts began building in #ahge1 have had in the thirty years sixty-four vessels1 which have been an important factor not only in the development of trade in ,china1 but also in the advancement of ,british interests in the ,far ,east4 ,in an earlier ,chapter we referred to the extent of the service conducted by these vessels1 and also to the ,company's continuous progressive spirit1 which1 for instance1 induced them1 on the suggestion of the ,scotts1 to adopt twin-screws4 ,the launch of one of these ships is illustrated on ,plate ,,xxxi41 facing this page1 while the next ,plate1 ,,xxxii41 illustrates the ,fengtien1 which was built in #aije in an exceptionally short period of time4 ,the contract was made in the closing week of #aijd1 the first keel-plate was laid on the #aeth ,january1 #aije1 the vessel was launched on the #bjth ,april1 and arrived in ,shanghai on the #adth ,july--less than twenty-six weeks from the date when the building was commenced4 ,this performance indicates not only the satisfactory character of the organisation1 but also of the equipment of the shipyard and marine engineering works4 ,the ,fengtien has a length between perpendiculars of #bfg ft41 a beam of #dj ft41 and a depth1 moulded1 of #ah ft41 with a deck-house having accommodation for thirty-three ,european first-class passengers2 while on the top of this house there is1 as shown in the engraving1 a promenade for passengers4 ,the accommodation provided for first-class passengers is exceptionally satisfactory1 both in respect of state-rooms and of public saloons4 ,fifty-six first-class ,chinese passengers are also carried1 as well as seventy steerage native passengers4 ,in addition to this considerable source of revenue1 the ship carries #agbj tons of deadweight cargo on a draught of #ad ft4 ,the ,fengtien on her trial1 when developing #badf horse-power1 attained a speed of #ac-a_/d knots1 which was considered highly satisfactory1 in view of the unusual dimensions4 ,the engines are of the triple-expansion1 three-cylinder type1 fitted with every accessory which experience has shown to ensure regularity of working1 with the minimum of expense in respect of upkeep and working cost4 ,steam at #aij-lb4 pressure is supplied by two boilers1 #ae ft4 in diameter and #aa ft4 #f in4 long1 having #eahd square feet of heating surface1 and #aba square feet of grate area4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,launch ,,of ,a ,,china ,,steamer4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,china ,,navigation ,,company',s ,t4-,,ss4 ,,fengtien4 ,we have referred generally to the passenger accommodation in the ships built by the firm1 and it may be interesting to refer here to the character of the work done and illustrated on ,plate ,,xxvii41 facing page #gc4 ,the first view shows the dining-room of one of four ,portuguese steamers4 ,this room is designed in the ,jacobean style4 ,the walls are framed and panelled in solid walnut1 and all the mouldings1 cornices1 architraves1 pilasters1 columns1 pediments1 and also the furniture1 are beautifully carved4 ,the floor is laid in mosaic tiles1 in geometrical patterns1 with ,brussels carpet runners in the passage-ways4 ,the ceiling is of yellow pine1 moulded1 ribbed1 and broken up with carved panels1 painted a flat white and relieved with gold4 ,the dome skylight is in teak1 with richly-carved beams and mouldings2 and glazed with embossed plate glass1 while the side windows are fitted with jalousie blinds1 stout double-line teak shutters1 and glass bull's-eyes in brass frames4 ,the upholstery is in crimson ,utrecht velvet1 and seating accommodation is provided for sixty-eight saloon passengers4 ,the other view on ,plate ,,xxvii4 illustrates the drawing-room of the steam yacht ,foros1 built for ,m4 ,kousenzoff1 of ,moscow4 ,it is in the ,elizabethan style4 ,the walls are framed in solid ,east ,indian satinwood1 highly finished and ,french polished1 with figured silk tapestry panels of a shade that harmonises and blends with the wood-work4 ,neat and delicate carving in low relief is introduced where most effective4 ,the ceiling1 of yellow pine1 has square panels of ,tynecastle tapestry1 relieved with rich carving in cornices and beams4 ,the room is lighted and ventilated by eight large round lights in the ship's side1 each enclosed in a recess with a sliding screen of beautifully-stained and leaded glass4 ,the large circular skylight in the centre of the room1 finished to suit the ceiling1 has large opening sashes1 glazed with stained glass4 ,the floor is laid with oak parquetry1 with a ,parisian mat in the centre4 ,the room is heated by a slow-combustion grate with rich brass mounts1 tiled hearth1 fire-brasses and fender4 ,the mantelpiece and overmantel1 in satinwood1 is a beautiful piece of work--carved and relieved with colonnades and pilasters4 ,this room is fitted with a complete installation of electric bells and lights1 with two graceful electric candelabra1 one on each side of the fireplace4 ,the stained glazing is illumined at nights by electric lights on the outside4 ,the drawing-room is completely and artistically furnished with high mirrors1 fitments1 writing-tables1 card and occasional tables1 and with a variety of beautifully upholstered chairs and sofas4 ,all the metal-work is of ormolu4 ,the ,british ,india ,steam ,navigation ,company is another of the old clients of the ,scotts4 ,this ,company1 originally formed in #ahef1 under the title of the ,calcutta and ,burmah ,steam ,navigation ,company1 which was changed in #ahfb to the title now known in all maritime countries1 had its first steamship built by the ,scotts1 and it is therefore interesting to illustrate the one recently built at the same ,works--the ,bharata4 ,this vessel is of the intermediate type1 carrying a large number of ,british and native passengers1 and nearly #djjj tons of cargo4 ,the length between perpendiculars is #cgc ft41 the beam #de ft41 and the depth1 moulded1 #bi ft4 #f in4 ,the cargo carried on a draught of #bd ft4 is #cidj tons1 and this is handled by eight hydraulic cranes1 some of them of high power4 ,the passenger accommodation1 in the centre part of the ship1 includes state rooms and saloons for forty-two first-class and thirty-six second-class ,european travellers1 while in the 'tween decks a large number of native passengers are accommodated4 ,the machinery of the ,bharata gives a speed of #af knots1 when the displacement is #eefj tons4 ,the engines are of the triple-expansion type1 and develop #fjjj indicated horse-power4 ,five single-ended boilers supply steam at #ahj lb4 pressure4 ,this vessel in service carries her cargo of about #djjj tons and her passengers at a speed of #af knots1 for a consumption of ordinary coal of about #ej tons per day4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,british ,,india ,,company',s ,,steamship ,,bharata4 ,in our historical ,chapters it has been clearly shown that the ,scotts took a prominent part in the evolution of ,channel steamers1 and reference may be made to the latest vessels of this class now being built at the ,company's works--two steamers for the old and successful firm of ,g4 and ,j4 ,burns1 ,limited4 ,these vessels1 the dimensions of which are3--,length #bcc ft41 breadth #cc ft41 depth #bd ft41 are to have a speed of #ac knots4 ,they are to be employed on the service between ,glasgow and ,manchester1 and are fitted for steerage passengers1 and also for conveying cattle1 horses and sheep4 ,the machinery consists of three-cylinder triple-expansion engines of #agej indicated horse-power1 having cylinders #bc in41 #cf in41 and #eh in4 in diameter respectively1 with a stroke of #db in4 ,the boilers1 of which there are two in each ship1 are #ad ft4 in diameter and #ab ft4 #f in4 in length1 with a heating surface of #djjj square feet1 and a grate area of #abj square feet4 ,they work under natural draught at a pressure of #age lb4 per square inch4 ,we might continue almost indefinitely describing different types of ships1 but will content ourselves with a reference to the fleet of ,thames passenger steamers built in #aije for the ,london ,county ,council4 ,of the thirty vessels constructed for the ,council1 twenty had their boilers and engines from the ,scotts' ,works4 ,ten of the steamers1 in which this machinery was fitted1 were built on the ,clyde by ,messrs4 ,napier and ,miller2 six at ,southampton1 by ,messrs4 ,john ,i4 ,thornycroft and ,company2 and four at ,greenwich1 by ,messrs4 ,g4 ,rennie and ,company4 ,these vessels are #acj ft4 long1 and of very light draught--#b ft4 #aj in4 when loaded4 ,an idea of their proportions is given by the engraving on ,plate ,,xxxiv41 facing this page1 showing one of the ,clyde-built vessels ready to steam from ,greenock to ,london4 ,the engines for all of these vessels are of the compound1 diagonal1 surface-condensing type1 the two cylinders being #af in4 and #ca in4 in diameter1 with a stroke of #c ft4 ,one set of engines is illustrated on ,plate ,,xxxv41 adjoining page #he4 ,they have forged steel guide columns1 to bind the cylinders to the three entablature frames4 ,the crank-shaft is a solid steel forging1 #f-e_/h in4 in diameter1 coupled to the steel paddle-shafts by flexible couplings4 ,the surface-condenser1 cylindrical in form and constructed of light brass sheets1 is placed below the guide bars close to the cylinders4 ,the water-ends are of cast brass1 arranged for double circulation of the water4 ,the air-pump1 of the trunk type1 is driven by bell-crank levers off the low-pressure connecting-rod4 ,two independent feed-pumps are driven off the same crosshead4 ,the auxiliary machinery includes a circulating pump with auxiliary air-pump attached1 a direct-acting feed and bilge pump1 a fan and engine for the forced draught1 and an electric engine and dynamo4 ,each steamer has one cylindrical steam boiler1 #i ft4 in diameter by #i ft4 #c in4 long4 ,the working steam pressure is #aaj lb4 ,the boilers are also illustrated on ,plate ,,xxxv4 ,the twenty sets of engines and boilers were completed in a remarkably short space of time4 ,these steamers were designed for a service speed of #ab statute miles per hour1 and a trial speed of #ac miles per hour1 or #aa4bhe knots4 ,the best trial performances were attained by the ,fitz,ailwin and the ,turner1 both built on the ,clyde2 they attained a speed of #ad4a miles per hour1 or #ab-a_/d knots1 with the engines making #fi4h revolutions per minute1 and indicating #cfj horse-power4 ,this is nearly #a sea mile per hour more than was required by the contract4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxiv4 ,,one ,,of ,,twenty ,,thames ,,steamers ,,engined ,,by ,,the ,,scotts4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxv4 ,,engines ,,of ,,london ,,county ,,council ,,steamers4 ,illustration3 ,,boilers ,,for ,,london ,,county ,,council ,,steamers4 ,we illustrate on ,plate ,,xxxvi41 facing page #hf1 a typical set of triple-expansion engines4 ,the practice in respect of the design of engines and boilers is necessarily very varied4 ,from the designs for a small steam launch to those for a first-class cruiser or battleship there is a wide range1 and all classes of work1 with not a few of special interest1 come between those extremes4 ,in connection with the three-crank triple-expansion engine1 now generally adopted for merchant work1 an arrangement well favoured for sizes up to about #ajjj indicated horse-power is that in which the high-pressure cylinder is in the centre with a piston valve1 the intermediate-pressure cylinder being forward1 and the low-pressure cylinder aft1 each with a slide valve at the extreme ends4 ,this has been found to give a handy arrangement of gear1 and to be easily accessible4 ,with twin-screw engines of this power it is customary1 and has been found very convenient1 to lead all the hand-gear for both engines to a pedestal placed midway between the engines and ahead of the forward cylinders4 ,a description of the types of engines built by the ,scotts for the ,china ,navigation ,company during the past thirty years would be practically a history of the progress of marine engineering during that period4 ,the customary sequence of cylinders has in the main been adhered to in the design of these engines--viz41 high-pressure cylinder forward and low-pressure cylinder aft in the case of compound engines3 the intermediate-pressure cylinder1 in the case of triple-expansion machinery1 is placed between the high- and low-pressure cylinders4 ,indeed1 this latter is the arrangement invariably adopted by the firm in the design of all large-size ordinary cargo steamer engines4 ,the valve gear is forward of its cylinder in each case4 ,this has also been the design adopted in the case of recent high-class passenger and mail steamers with three cylinders1 and in the case also of steamers for special trades4 ,twin-screw engines present little deviation from the above1 and such as there is mainly affects pipe connections4 ,all engines of whatever type up to about #ajjj indicated horse-power are usually arranged with forged columns in front4 ,the condenser is ordinarily designed to form part of the engine structure1 having the columns cast on1 and supporting the cylinders2 but not infrequently it is entirely separate from the main engines1 and is carried either on the back of the columns1 or fitted in the wing of the ship4 ,of engines for the ,navy nothing need be said beyond stating that they form quite a class by themselves1 and all present the special features of design so characteristic of ,admiralty work referred to in an earlier ,chapter4 ,the latest types of large-size engines for the ,admiralty are being fitted with a system of forced lubrication to main bearings and crank-pins4 ,the ,scotts' practice with respect to paddle engines has been no less varied than that in the case of screw machinery1 ranging as it does from the ponderous side-lever engine of past years to the stern-wheel engine of the shallow-draught steamers of the present day4 ,oscillating and diagonal engines1 both compound and triple-expansion1 are also within the experience of the ,company1 the three-stage expansion being the type now usually adopted4 ,with respect to auxiliary machinery1 the ,scotts invariably fit a separate centrifugal pump for circulating the water through the condenser for all classes of engines1 excepting only those for the ordinary tramp steamer4 ,the air1 bilge1 and sanitary pumps are usually worked from the main engine by levers4 ,the feed pumps are generally independent4 ,frequently1 especially in yachts1 all the pumps are entirely independent of the main engines4 ,the ,scotts in some cases make all auxiliary machinery for their own engines3 such as centrifugal pumps1 fans1 feed-heaters1 auxiliary condensers1 duplex feed and ballast pumps1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvi4 ,,typical ,,propelling ,,engines4 ,many varieties and types of boilers have been made4 ,the old practice of having two or three rings in the length of the shell in ordinary cylindrical boilers has long since given place to one plate in the length4 ,the boiler ends are seldom made in more than two plates2 up to diameters of #aa ft4 only one plate is used4 ,the number of riveted seams is thereby reduced to a minimum1 and the liability of the boiler to leak is minimised4 ,the ,scotts also have a system of forced draught for supplying either cold or heated air to the furnaces1 which is fitted largely to their ships1 and gives every satisfaction4 ,large installations of ,belleville and ,yarrow water-tube boilers for working under forced draught have also been made and fitted in ,h4,m4 ships1 but they need no description here4 ,a large installation for burning oil fuel has recently been completed and applied by the firm to the ,babcock and ,wilcox water-tube1 and the cylindrical1 boilers of ,h4,m4,s4 ,argyll4 ,,footnotes3 #fh ,from ,lloyds' ,register we classify1 according to speed1 the numbers of ,british and ,foreign1 and of ,oversea and ,channel1 ,steamers1 of over #af knots4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,speed4 ,british4 ,foreign4 ,oversea4 ,channel4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,over #bj knots #db #bf #ag #ea #ai to #bj knots #bc #aa #g #bg #ah #ai #ch #ad #ae #cg #ag #ah #ec #di #fg #ce #af #ag #gj #ef #gg #di ---------------------------------------- #bbf #aef #ahc #aii ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,illustration3 decoration ,efficiency3 ,design3 ,administration4 ,illustration3 decoration ,having reviewed the history of the firm1 and dealt briefly with the results obtained by some of the modern steamers constructed by them1 we propose now to describe the ,works in order to indicate the measures adopted to secure efficiency in design and construction of all types of ships and machinery4 ,organisation and administration are as important factors towards this end as the mechanical methods and appliances adopted1 and it may be well1 therefore1 to deal first with these4 ,the firm have been responsible for the design of almost every merchant ship constructed by them4 ,success has been rendered more certain by the possession of carefully-collated records1 the product of an organised system of working up all data1 of tackling new problems1 of making calculations regarding any scientific question1 and of studying contemporaneous work as described in the technical press and in papers read at technical institutions4 ,this continuous investigation produces a wealth of suggestion1 which enables the chiefs of the respective departments to determine how far practice may be improved2 and thus there is steady progress not only in design but in constructional methods4 ,a well-selected technical library1 from which the staff can borrow books1 also contributes to the same end4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvii4 ,,shipbuilding4 7,see page #ajj47 ,admiralty and merchant work is initiated in separate drawing-offices4 ,the ,printed ,instructions to ,draughtsmen throws light on the general principles which influence design1 and one or two quotations may be made3--,every machine or structure is designed with a certain object in view2 therefore1 in designing1 keep that object always to the front4 ,go straight to the point1 and let the object be attained in as simple a manner as possible4 ,avoid all curves and indirect lines1 except those conceived to give uniform strength or stiffness1 or required for some definite purpose4 ,there should be a reason for the contour and shape of every detail4 ,it should be remembered that designs made in this way1 requiring least material for the work to be done1 usually look best4 ,besides keeping the object clearly to the front1 it is necessary in designing to remember that certain facilities must be attended to for moulding1 machining1 and erecting4 ,it is also necessary to keep in view the circumstances in which the structure or machine is to be used4 ,every little detail should be definitely attended to on the drawings1 and not left to the judgment of the men in the shops2 remember that it is usually the unexpected which happens1 and that even the want of a split pin may cause a breakdown4 ,in making drawings or sketches for ordering material or for the shops1 assume that those who have to interpret the instructions have no knowledge of1 or information concerning1 the work in question1 except what is contained in the drawing or order you are making out4 ,this will ensure that all information issuing from the drawing-office is complete1 and that no work is done in the shops without drawing-office instructions4 ,the draughtsman1 in designing work1 must so arrange details as to fully utilise1 as far as is compatible with progress1 the special machine tools available1 the system of gauges1 templates1 and jigs extensively applied in the shops1 and existing patterns4 ,bonuses are paid for improvements in design whereby economy may be effected in machine operations1 etc4 ,there is a large estimating department1 where records of costs1 rates1 wages1 etc41 are of the most complete description4 ,the card system adopted is admirably suited for enabling references to be made at any time as to the cost of units in any contract4 ,here also it is possible1 by the simple process of comparison1 to effectually check the economy of design and manufacture1 without which a high premium is placed against efficiency4 ,the staff in these departments is largely recruited from the shops1 and thus there is an incentive to the willing apprentice to excel4 ,the great majority of the vacancies in the technical staff are filled by apprentices who have spent three and a-half years in the shops1 and who are chosen as a result of examination and of a satisfactory record in the shops4 ,financial facilities are afforded to boys and to progressive workmen to attend special classes1 not only in ,greenock but in ,glasgow4 ,competitions are instituted at intervals to encourage expertness in some branch of work--for instance1 in the use of the slide-rule1 etc4 ,thus in many ways the growth of an active esprit de corps is encouraged1 apart altogether from the influence which the historical and present-day success of the firm engenders4 ,the same broad policy is pursued in the shops4 ,payment by merit to the tradesman is adopted as far as possible4 ,in the engine works the bonus system--first adopted in #aijb--;is extensively applied4 ,the arrangement is satisfactory from the point of view of tradesman1 employer1 and client4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxviii4 ,,the ,,launch ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,argyll4 7,see page #aja47 ,long experience has enabled the firm to set equitable standard times for many operations1 and there was from the beginning the guarantee that this standard would not be altered unless entirely new machines were introduced to greatly influence the rate of production4 ,now if a workman requires the full time1 or more than the time set as a standard for a job1 he is still paid his full-time wage as under the old conditions3 but should he complete the work in less than the standard time1 his rate of wage per hour is increased in direct proportion to the saving in time2 the shorter the time taken1 the greater the rate of bonus4 ,the bonuses earned range as a rule from #bj to #cj per cent4 over the time-rate wage4 ,to quote actual cases1 a workman who saves #bf hours on a job for which the standard time is #acd hours1 increases his wage for the fortnight by #ads41 while the money saved to the employer is only #bs4 #i;d4 ,he who saves #cj per cent4 on the time adds #bas4 to his fortnight's wage4 ,such reduction in the time taken is not attained at the expense of efficiency2 the premium job is carefully inspected1 and unless it is of the highest standard the bonus is forfeited2 so that the workman is continuously careful to avoid any risk which will result in the loss of the reward for his extra work4 ,the reduction in time taken is1 in a large measure1 due to the exercise of foresight and ingenuity on the part of the workman4 ,he is ever on the alert to ensure that he will not be kept waiting for material to enable work to progress4 ,the machine-man makes certain that before one unit is out of his machine the casting1 forging1 or bar for the next is alongside4 ,this is further facilitated by a man in each shop whose only duty is to see that there is a supply of work for every tool4 ,encouragement is always accorded to those who suggest modifications to increase the output from any machine4 ,again1 in the erecting of engines1 considerable economy has been attained1 owing to similar foresight being exercised to ensure that each unit is machined before it is wanted by the erector4 ,to the employer also there is gain in the increased production1 from a given number of machines and men1 for a constant establishment expenditure--rent1 rates1 taxes1 etc4 ,while the wage paid to the men is increased1 there is a reduction in the cost of production1 which of itself encourages capital expenditure on improved methods and appliances4 ,concurrently with the adoption of the bonus system there has been a great increase in the cutting speed of tools1 which has also augmented the rate of production4 ,this speeding-up is partly due to the fitting of new machines1 to the substitution of forged steel machine-cut gear for cast spur-wheels1 to the strengthening of lathe headstocks1 to wider belts1 to the application of reversible motors to some machines1 and to quicker return speeds4 ,some indication may be given of the increased economy resulting from the bonus system and from the speeding-up of tools1 as compared with the former system1 with slower speeds and piece-work rates4 ,a typical job1 which had formerly occupied eighty hours1 was1 after experience1 given a standard time of sixty hours4 ,when first carried out under the bonus system the time actually taken was forty-five hours1 the labour cost being reduced from #b #acs4 #d;d4 at piece-work rate to #a #ags4 #f;d4 under the bonus system1 while the wage of the worker was increased by #b;d4 per hour4 ,subsequently1 a repeat of this job was machined by the same man1 who1 having confidence that the time allowed would not be reduced1 finished the work in thirty-nine hours1 saving twenty-one hours on the standard time1 reducing the cost to #a #aes4 #j;d41 and increasing his rate of pay by #b4h;d4 per hour4 ,other comparisons might be given to show the advantage over the piece-work4 ,in successive fortnights after the introduction of the system1 the percentage of time saved on the time taken on piece-work in one department steadily advanced from #af per cent4 to #dg per cent41 and ultimately the pay of the men per hour was increased #ge per cent41 while the saving to the employer was #ej per cent4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxix4 ,,engine ,,construction4 7,see page #ajh47 ,the client profits1 as the contract price is reduced without any diminution in the satisfactory character of the work done2 indeed it is probable that this is improved because of the special inspection to ascertain if the bonus has been conscientiously earned4 ,a lower contract price1 therefore1 is possible2 and this places the firm1 both directly and indirectly1 in a better position in competition in shipbuilding4 ,there is more work obtainable1 more constant employment for the workmen1 with the additional inducement of higher wages to capable and diligent men4 ,illustration3 decoration ,illustration3 decoration ,the ,shipbuilding ,yard4 ,illustration3 decoration ,covering an area of #dj acres1 the ,works have ten berths for the construction of ships of all sizes1 with departments for producing all the accessories and machinery--engine and boiler works1 steam-turbine factory1 foundries1 brass1 copper1 and sheet-iron shops1 saw-mill and extensive wood-working department--and these give employment to four thousand workmen4 ,the equipment has been greatly extended and modernised during the past few years4 ,the building of the ,china ,steam ,navigation ,company's steamer ,fengtien in nineteen weeks1 from the laying of the keel to the trials1 is one of several instances of rapid construction which might be enumerated4 ,the plans of ships prepared in the designing department and drawing offices1 to which reference has been made in the previous ,chapter1 are passed to the moulding loft1 where the work of construction is commenced4 ,this loft is situated in a substantial four-storey building1 accommodating practically all the wood-finishing departments4 ,each floor has an area of #ab1ejj square feet2 the ground and first floors are given up to the joiners and cabinet-makers1 with their numerous machine tools1 while the top floor is at present utilised for storing completed joiner work1 etc4 ,the moulding loft monopolises the third floor1 and as the length is #bdj ft4 and the width #eb ft41 there is ample space1 as is shown on the engraving in ,plate ,,xl41 facing page #id1 for laying down full size deck-plating1 stringers1 margin plates1 deck girders1 etc41 so that moulds or templates may be prepared for the iron workers4 ,armour-plates for warship belts1 barbettes1 and casemates are similarly prepared in template1 to assist the makers to form them to the required curvature and size4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xl4 ,,the ,,moulding ,,loft4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xli4 ,,beam ,,shearing ,,machine4 ,,bevelling ,,machine4 ,,hydraulic ,,joggling ,,machine4 ,the ironworkers' department is extensive and important4 ,when the material is delivered into the yard1 it is discharged from the railway wagons by a #e-ton electric overhead travelling high-speed crane1 which stacks the plates and bars in such a way that any piece can be readily removed by the same crane for conveyance to the furnaces4 ,there are six furnaces suitable for heating shell plates of the largest size1 and angles and bars for frames1 etc41 up to #fj ft4 in length4 ,adjacent to the furnaces are the screeve boards and the frame-bending blocks4 ,the channel1 bulb angle1 or ,z bars1 used so extensively now for framing in large ships1 are bevelled as they pass from the furnace to the bending blocks4 ,this is done in a special machine made by ,messrs4 ,davis and ,primrose1 ,leith1 and illustrated on ,plate ,,xli41 adjoining this page4 ,the bars1 as delivered from the rolling mills1 have flanges at an angle of #ij deg41 which is not suitable for taking the skin plating of ships4 ,one angle has therefore to be altered1 so that while the inner flange may lie at right angles to the keel-plate1 that to the outside will fit closely to the shell plating throughout the entire length of the frame from keel to shear stroke1 which may be #ej ft4 or #fj ft4 ,as the bar passes through the machine1 the web is carried on an ordinary flat roller1 while bevelling rolls1 set to the desired angle1 work on each side of one of the flanges to give it the desired set4 ,there are several of these machines in use1 and they run on rails laid across the front of the furnace1 so that the angles1 ,z sections1 or channels may be bevelled while passing out of the furnace on to the bending blocks4 ,the manipulation of the plates from the furnace is by means of steam and electric winches4 ,formerly1 the turning of the frames to the required curvature against the pins on the bending blocks was carried out by hand4 ,to suit the heavier scantlings of the larger ships of the present day1 a portable hydraulic machine is now utilised4 ,it is fixed at its base by pins1 which fit into the ordinary holes in the blocks1 and hydraulic pressure is supplied through a flexible pipe to work the ram-head against the angles1 forcing them to take the desired form4 ,the machine is a great labour economiser1 as it ensures work on the heaviest of bulb angles being carried out in the minimum of time1 and therefore at top heat4 ,the bars are usually cut to length by a guillotine1 but it was considered that this tended to twist the metal1 and perhaps unduly fatigue it2 and as a consequence the firm have fitted ,john's shearing and notching machine1 as constructed by ,messrs4 ,henry ,pels and ,co41 of ,berlin4 ,this new machine is illustrated on ,plate ,,xli41 adjoining page #ie4 ,the tool is shown in the act of cutting through a channel section4 ,the cutting tool is seen immediately in front of the operator1 and is actuated by gearing accommodated within the standards of the machine4 ,when the cutting tool is brought down on the angle or beam to be sheared1 and the shaft at the rear started1 the rotation of an eccentric actuated by the shaft causes the point of the tool to slide idly a short distance to-and-fro on the bar4 ,the hand lever on the right hand side of the machine is depressed1 forcing the tool downwards1 and the continued rotation of the eccentric causes the tool to pierce through the bar with a downward and inward motion4 ,where there is a deep web with flanges1 the beam is reversed on the anvil1 to enable the other flange to be cut4 ,the cutting of any bar in this machine is a matter of only a few seconds4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlii4 ,,in ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,platers' ,,sheds4 ,of the platers' shed1 where the plates1 angles1 bulbs1 bars1 etc41 are machined1 two views are given on ,plates ,,xlii4 and ,,xliii41 facing pages #if and #ih respectively4 ,it may be said generally that the machines are designed to deal with plates up to #ej ft4 in length1 and with angles up to #fj ft4 in length1 and of corresponding sections4 ,it follows that the straightening and bending rolls1 edge-planers1 and punching and shearing machines1 are of great power4 ,it is scarcely necessary to make detailed references to all of the tools for these and other purposes4 ,all the tools are electrically driven4 ,the plate-flattening rolls1 which have #ae and #bj horse-power reversible motors1 take plates #h ft4 wide1 and the rolls are from #ba-a_/b in4 to #ai in4 in diameter4 ,the bending rolls are driven by a #bj horse-power motor4 ,the plate-edge planers1 shown to the left in the view1 ,plate ,,xlii41 facing page #if1 are operated by #af horse-power motors1 and the plate is held on the table by means of hydraulic rams as well as screw-jacks4 ,for drilling and countersinking plates there are several modern tools1 each actuated by an independent electric motor4 ,one of these is a three-standard drill1 to deal with plates of the largest size4 ,the spindles have a rise and fall of #aj in41 and are fitted with self-acting1 as well as hand1 feed1 and with the usual rack arrangement for the traverse of the head4 ,several radial countersinking machines1 with #aa-;ft4 jibs and spindles #b-a_/b in4 in diameter1 are driven by #aj horse-power motors4 ,there are many heavy punching and shearing machines1 nearly all of them having #db-;in4 gaps1 so that they can punch holes at any part of the widest plates4 ,as a rule1 they are arranged to punch #a-a_/b-;in4 holes through #a-a_/b-;in4 plates at the rate of thirty holes per minute4 ,the shears are of corresponding power4 ,for dealing with angles and bars there are several interesting tools1 in addition to shears and punches4 ,some of the shears cut #h-;in4 by #d-;in4 angles1 and are driven by #aj horse-power motors4 ,there are channel-angle shearing machines1 taking work #af in4 by #f in41 and operated by hydraulic pressure4 ,these machines are made with revolving gear to suit almost any angle of flange4 ,there is also an hydraulic stamping press for bending angles and tees to form knee-bars and other stiffening pieces1 the cylinders being #ad in4 in diameter1 working at a pressure of #hjj lb4 per square inch1 with a stroke of #ah in4 ,the machine1 which has been constructed by ,sir ,william ,arrol and ,company1 ,limited1 consists of an hydraulic cylinder mounted horizontally on a massive table4 ,on the ram-head there are former blocks1 while on the table in front there are corresponding dies4 ,the bar is placed on the table between the blocks and dies1 and as these are forced together by hydraulic pressure1 the bar between them is squeezed into the exact shape required4 ,not only is the operation expeditiously executed1 but there is no uncertainty4 ,the whole of the metal within the bar is retained inside the knee1 which becomes thicker and broader1 materially adding to its strength4 ,as the moulds or dies can be made to suit any form1 the machine can be utilised in the preparation of various details of structures1 provided they are designed with a view to their production by aid of dies4 ,the great economy resulting from the use of special machines is only realised when the designing staff remember that they must be kept employed4 ,a specially powerful tool is provided for bending channel irons and beams1 and for drilling horizontal holes in them4 ,hydraulic manhole-punching and flanging machines are employed1 each having a ram of #bg in4 in diameter1 and capable of punching a hole #db in4 by #af in4 through a plate #c_/d in4 thick4 ,there are provided dies for forming flanges #d ft4 #f in4 deep in the widest of plates4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliii4 ,,punching ,,and ,,shearing4 ,the modern practice of joggling and of scarfing the laps and edges of plates is applied in many instances1 and special hydraulic tools are provided to carry out this work4 ,the firm were also early in adopting the practice of joggling frames1 deck beams1 etc4 ,the frames and beams are joggled when cold1 to suit each alternate inner strake of plating1 in a special design of hydraulic press1 of which there are several in the works4 ,this tool1 illustrated on ,plate ,,xli41 adjoining page #ie1 carries dies on the ram-head and on the anvil1 to form between them the obverse and reverse sides of the dent or joggle desired4 ,movable centre-pieces on the ram-head and anvil are traversed in all directions by screw thread to suit the position and width of the joggled part1 and a gauge shows variations of #j4a in4 in the position of the joggled part of the frame4 ,a #b ft4 length of angle can be joggled at each stroke4 ,the machines are by ,messrs4 ,hugh ,smith and ,co41 ,limited1 ,glasgow4 ,the same machine joggles the lap or edge of a shell1 inner bottom1 or deckplate in a similar way4 ,the whole length of the frame or plate can thus be worked in a very short time4 ,a powerful jib crane1 of #af ft4 radius1 assists materially in the rapidity of the work turned out by these tools4 ,the only slips required are at the ends of the vessel1 where the bevel of the frames precludes the use of joggling4 ,a special electrically-driven hammer is used for forming these taper slips4 ,the angles1 etc41 to form the frames are assembled at the head of the building-berth1 and when lying on skids are riveted to form the double bottom1 frames and margin plates4 ,hydraulic riveters are used wherever possible4 ,there are about a score of these at work in the shipbuilding yard1 with cylinders from #h in4 to #aj-a_/b in4 in diameter1 a stroke of #g-a_/b in41 and a gap of #ee in41 so that heavy work can be done4 ,some of them are specially designed for keel work1 for closing rivets in beams1 and for difficult parts4 ,the frames thus riveted are conveyed down the berth by a simple and ingenious cableway1 known in the ,works as the switchback1 from its resemblance to the well-known amusement railway4 ,a derrick-post stands at the head of the berth adjacent to the skids on which the frames are riveted4 ,the cable stretches from a small derrick at the foot of the shipbuilding berth over a pulley at the top of the large derrick-post1 and thence1 through a similar block at its base1 to an electric winch4 ,the frame or unit of the ship's structure is suspended on a running block on the cable1 which is then made taut1 partly by the working of the winch and partly by the large derrick post being inclined backwards4 ,the running block with its load travels down the taut cable by gravity1 under the guidance of the squad of fitters4 ,the gradient of the cableway is only sufficient to enable the load to move slowly to its position in the shipbuilding berth4 ,the double-bottom frames and margin plates are united with the keel-plate1 and subsequently there are successively worked into the structure the tank top plates1 side frames1 the skin plates1 beams1 bulk-heads1 and other units1 portable hydraulic punches and riveters being largely used4 ,pneumatic tools are also extensively employed for boring1 drilling1 riveting1 chipping1 caulking1 etc4 ,there are from #acj to #adj of these tools in use on vessels in course of construction4 ,there are ten building berths ranging in length up to #gjj ft42 but slight alterations would enable the firm to build vessels of still greater size4 ,several of these are shown on the engraving on ,plate ,,xxxvii41 facing page #hh4 ,the launching ground is probably the finest in the river1 the channel being here of great depth and very wide1 as is shown on the engraving opposite4 ,indeed1 ordinary merchant vessels with full lines are launched without any check chains2 the fine-ended ships--mail steamers and cruisers--are1 as a precautionary measure1 checked by drags in the usual way4 ,the engraving on ,plate ,,xxxviii41 facing page #ij1 shows the launch of ,h4,m4,s4 ,argyll4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliv4 ,,the ,,fitting-,,out ,,dock4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlv4 ,,the ,,graving ,,dock4 ,the ships launched are completed in the fitting-out dock1 constructed about two years ago1 and illustrated on ,plate ,,xliv4 ,the engraving shows ,h4,m4,s4 ,argyll under the big jib-crane4 ,this dock has a length of #efj ft4 and a width of #agb ft41 and opens directly into the channel of the ,clyde4 ,the depth of water is never less than #bh ft41 so that warships are afloat at all states of the tide4 ,a prominent feature in the view is the crane1 which was supplied by ,messrs4 ,george ,russell and ,co41 ,limited1 of ,motherwell1 and lifts #abj tons at a radius of #gj ft4 ,it is carried on concrete foundations and piers1 which rise #bj ft4 above the level of the quay4 ,in addition to the pier for carrying the mast of the crane1 there are similar supports for each of the back legs through which the crane is anchored4 ,one advantage of the derrick type is that the crane may be placed close to the edge of the quay2 in this case the centre is only #g ft4 from the front of the wharf1 so that the full load of #abj tons can be dealt with at an effective outreach of #fc ft4 from the quay4 ,the maximum radius of the heavy purchase with a load of over #fj tons is #ij ft41 and of the light purchase gear1 with a load of #aj tons1 #ih ft4 ,the minimum radius of the crane is #be ft4 ,there are four sets of gear3 for lifting heavy loads1 for raising light weights1 for derricking the jib1 and for slewing2 a separate controller of the enclosed tramway type is provided for each4 ,the main hoisting and derricking motors are of #ej horse-power1 and the others of #ce horse-power4 ,the speed of hoisting #abj tons is #e ft4 per minute1 while a #aj-ton load is raised at the rate of #dj ft4 per minute4 ,automatic brakes are fitted for the slewing motion1 and powerful hand-brakes for the hoisting and derricking gears4 ,all motions are controlled by one man in the steelhouse fixed to the mast of the crane #ef ft4 above the quay level4 ,there is on the opposite wharf of the dock a #bj-ton travelling electric crane1 and throughout the ,works there are many portable and hydraulic cranes1 in addition to the hydraulic and other cranes commanding the machine tools4 ,reference may here be made to the ,company's graving dock1 illustrated on ,plate ,,xlv41 adjoining page #aja4 ,the length is #cfj ft41 and it is largely used for docking ships for repair1 as well as for cleaning ships preparatory to trial4 ,our view shows a torpedo-boat destroyer in the dock4 ,the pumps for the emptying of the dock are electrically driven4 ,we may return now to our narrative of the construction of a ship1 and deal with the supplementary departments1 including those of joiners1 smiths1 plumbers1 sheet-iron1 and other workers4 ,wood-work forms a large and important item in most of ,scotts' ships1 as many of them are for passenger service4 ,we illustrate on ,plate ,,xlvi4 one of the saw-mills4 ,it is self-contained1 having its own power plant1 including a compound engine1 having cylinders #ae-a_/d in4 and #bg-a_/b in4 in diameter by #dd-;in4 stroke4 ,there are four vertical saw frames1 the largest having a #cf-;in4 frame1 six rollers1 and two bogies to take in the heaviest logs4 ,in addition1 there are circular saws1 ranging up to #f ft4 in diameter1 a swing cross-cut saw1 special planing1 moulding1 and turning machines to do heavy work1 and saw-sharpeners1 grindstones1 punching machines and anvils to carry out all repairs and fettling of the blades1 etc4 ,there are also large steam-heated drying stoves1 and a timber-drying yard of about three acres in extent4 ,the overhead travelling cranes range up to #e tons capacity1 and the rails on which they run are extended on columns across the yard4 ,the saw-mill is the largest and best-equipped in the district1 and does the sawing and planing of timber for three of the largest shipbuilding yards1 as well as the general work for two other firms4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlvi4 ,,the ,,saw ,,mill4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlvii4 ,,two ,,views ,,in ,,the ,,joiner ,,shops4 ,the joiners' and cabinet-makers' shop1 as we have already indicated1 occupies two floors of a building #bdj ft4 long and #eb ft4 wide2 while the fourth floor is utilised for the ,french polishing work1 as well as for storing the completed wood-work until the vessel is ready to receive it4 ,provision is also made in the same building for the model-making department1 in which replicas of nearly all ships are produced1 and1 being works of art1 because of their completeness1 accuracy1 and beauty1 have earned high awards at many ,exhibitions4 ,in the joiners' shops1 illustrated by two engravings on ,plate ,,xlvii41 adjoining this page1 there is a complete equipment of wood-working machines for sawing1 turning1 planing1 moulding1 sand-papering1 mortising1 boring1 tenoning1 dovetailing1 dowelling and joining4 ,these are electrically driven1 and are grouped at three places in the length of the shop on each floor1 with benches around them1 so that the joiners do not require to carry their jobs any distance in order to have them machined4 ,there is also in use in connection with the department a portable electric circular saw1 which is specially useful for carpenters and joiners1 etc41 on board the ship in the dock4 ,an electric deck-planer1 of the lawnmower form1 has proved serviceable in reducing enormously the most laborious task experienced by carpenters and joiners4 ,there are two large smithies convenient to the shipbuilding berths1 and in both cases the finishing department adjoins4 ,in one case there are fifty-four fires and eight hammers2 in the other1 forty fires1 with five hammers1 ranging up to #ae cwt4 ,the fires are operated by mechanical blowers1 and the smoke and waste gases are carried off by overhead ventilating pipes4 ,extensive work is carried out by the smiths4 ,die-stamping is largely adopted in connection with the making of eye-plates1 cleats1 stanchions1 clips1 etc4 ,in each finishing shop there are band saws1 radial and other drills1 screwing machines1 and grindstones4 ,smiths' stores are arranged above the finishing shops4 ,the plumbers' shop is fitted with a special machine for bending pipes when cold1 as well as screwing and tapping machines1 drills1 saws1 grinders1 and fires4 ,the sheet-iron department is equally well equipped1 having straightening rolls1 shearing1 punching1 chipping1 drilling1 and other tools1 with various hammers2 and here work is done in connection with ventilating and other light ironwork4 ,in view of the warship contracts undertaken1 the mechanics' shop1 for work peculiar to the ship as distinct from the propeller machinery1 etc41 is extensive4 ,the four lathes here range up to #bg ft4 in length over all1 with a #ad-;in4 headstock and a #bb-;ft4 bed4 ,there is a useful shaping machine1 a fair-sized planer1 and several drills1 all adequate for the work required1 which is remarkable more1 perhaps1 for its great variety than for size4 ,all the machinery in the yard1 and in several departments in the engine and boiler works1 is run from one central station1 of which two views are given on ,plate ,,xlviii41 opposite4 ,the electric generators occupy one side of the power station1 and the air compressors and hydraulic pumps the other4 ,steam at #bjj lb4 pressure is supplied by one marine cylindrical1 and four ,babcock and ,wilcox water-tube1 boilers1 with superheater1 coal conveyors1 and mechanical stokers4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlviii4 ,,electric ,,generators ,,in ,,the ,,power ,,station4 ,,hydraulic ,,pumps ,,and ,,air ,,compressors ,,in ,,the ,,power ,,station4 ,there are three electric generating sets1 with a total capacity of #abjj kilowatts1 the voltage being #bdj4 ,they are illustrated on ,plate ,,xlviii41 facing this page4 ,the engines are of the high-speed1 enclosed1 forced lubrication1 condensing type4 ,the current is distributed from a switchboard in the power station by overhead mains1 with three-way distributing panels in the various departments4 ,the motors1 of which there are about #acj in the shipbuilding department alone1 are of the two- and four-pole type1 partly or entirely enclosed1 and mostly of #aj to #bj electric horse-power4 ,arc lamps are used for lighting1 but the shops and offices are also illumined by #af and #cb candle-power incandescent lamps4 ,plugs are arranged at various points throughout the yard for portable lights1 and for connecting mains for lighting the various ships while being completed in the docks4 ,hydraulic power at #hjj lb4 pressure is generated by two high-pressure pumps1 with steam cylinders #ae in4 in diameter1 and rams #d in4 in diameter4 ,there are separate accumulators for each4 ,the pressure pipes are led underground throughout the ,works to the various hydraulic tools already referred to4 ,there are two air compressors for supplying power for the pneumatic tools4 ,the combined capacity is #ahjj cubic feet of free air per minute4 ,each has two steam cylinders #f in4 in diameter1 working respectively high- and low-pressure air cylinders #ae-a_/d in4 and #ba-a_/d in4 in diameter1 the stroke being #ah in4 ,the hydraulic pumps and the air compressors are illustrated on ,plate ,,xlviii41 facing page #ajd4 ,as we have already stated1 part of the power generated in this station is utilised at the engine works1 to which we may now turn our attention4 ,illustration3 decoration ,illustration3 decoration ,the ,engine and ,boiler ,works4 ,illustration3 decoration ,rapidity of construction has been characteristic of the engine and boiler works of the ,scotts to at least as great an extent as in the shipbuilding yard4 ,several instances might be noted1 beginning with six blockade-runners1 built in a very short period1 in #ahfd1 and fitted with engines to give a speed of #ab knots at sea and #ac-a_/b knots on trial4 ,a recent and striking instance is the construction of boilers and engines for twenty of the passenger steamers built for traffic on the ,thames1 to the order of the ,london ,county ,council1 and described on pages #hc and #hd1 ante4 ,the contract for this work was signed towards the end of ,november1 #aijd1 and work was commenced about the beginning of ,december4 ,the various parts of the engines were being machined and finished during the month of ,january and the beginning of ,february1 #aije2 and all of the twenty sets of engines and boilers were completed by the end of ,may4 ,another noteworthy case is the construction of the machinery for the steamship ,fengtien1 described on page #hj1 ante4 ,work was commenced on the machinery in the middle of ,january1 and finished about the end of ,april4 ,the machinery was fitted in the ship and ready for the trials on the #bith ,may4 ,the total time taken from the beginning of work was well under five months4#fi ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlix4 ,,view ,,in ,,main ,,machine ,,shop4 ,the pattern shop1 where all work originates1 is fitted with the usual pattern-making machinery1 including a core-making machine4 ,the iron foundry1 which was begun in #agij1gj and around which the large engineering establishment has since been raised step by step1 continues to do sound work4 ,there are four cupolas1 of a combined capacity of about #bj tons1 and cylinders up to #abj in4 in diameter are cast4 ,these facts suggest the satisfactory character of the equipment4 ,the brass foundry is an equally important department1 where first-class work is done4 ,there are fifty-two crucible pots in use1 varying in size up to #aej lb41 and of a collective capacity of about #b tons2 also an air furnace capable of producing at one heat #ab tons of metal1 for such heavy castings as are required for preparing shaft liners1 large sea chests for naval ships1 etc4 ,the strength of ,admiralty gun metal made in this foundry is up to #ah tons per square inch1 with #cj per cent4 of elongation in a #b-;in4 length4 ,the foundry is served by an electrically-operated jib crane4 ,in the forge and smiths' shops a large amount of detail work is done1 in units ranging up to #c tons in weight4 ,the hammers vary up to #ae cwt4 power4 ,a considerable amount of die-stamping is done in connection with auxiliary engine forgings1 etc4 ,all paddle-wheels are made in this department4 ,the blast for the fires is got from an electrically-driven fan4 ,the machine shop1 which was one of the first constructed with a completely glazed roof1 occupies a site on a steep slope1 one side being formed by a heavy retaining wall1 as shown in the engraving on ,plate ,,xlix41 facing page #ajf4 ,at the level of the top of the wall1 which is #be ft4 high1 there is the light machine shop1 while at the end of the bay and over the annexe situated to the left of the engraving1 is the brass-finishing shop4 ,there is a #b-ton hoist between the erecting-shop floor and the galleries1 so that no inconvenience1 so far as transport is concerned1 is involved by this arrangement4 ,originally a stream ran down the hill and over the site on which the ,works are located1 and its waters have for many years been utilised as a source of power4 ,a special #bd-;in4 inward-flow turbine works in the conduit which conveys the water across the site1 and this turbine develops continuously #hj horse-power4 ,this serves to drive some of the machines in the boiler works4 ,the turbine runs in parallel with a compound vertical engine1 which drives the shafts actuating the groups of small machines in the engine shop4 ,many of the larger tools1 however1 are electrically-driven by separate motors1 the current being transmitted from the central station already described4 ,the engravings on ,plates ,,xxxix4 and ,,xlix41 facing pages #ib and #ajf respectively1 illustrate the main machine shop1 which has a width of #fj ft41 and1 with the adjoining bay1 accommodates some of the finest marine engineering tools made4 ,perhaps the best indication of their efficiency is the fact that three weeks suffice for the machining of the parts of a complete set of engines to develop #bjjj horse-power4 ,the shops are traversed by five overhead electric cranes1 ranging up to #dj tons lifting capacity4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,l4 ,,vertical ,,planing ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,,multiple ,,spindle ,,drilling ,,machine4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,li4 ,,surface ,,and ,,boring ,,lathe4 ,the leading dimensions and the principal work done by the more important tools afford an idea of the extent of the equipment4 ,there are several planing and slotting machines1 one of which is shown in the engraving on ,plate ,l41 facing this page4 ,there are two combined machines1 to plane #ba ft4 and to slot #ah ft41 used in connection with the condensers1 cylinders1 large bearing frames and sole-plates of engines1 while two other smaller tools are devoted to finishing the castings for bed-plates and columns4 ,for machining eccentric-rod ends1 etc41 there is a #bd-;in4 slotter with a circular table4 ,there are two high-speed planers with two tool-boxes on the cross-slide1 which take in pieces #aj ft4 by #e ft4 by #e ft41 and one to take work #ab ft4 by #c ft4 by #c ft4 ,in the driving of some of the heavier tools very good results have been attained by the application of a reversible motor1 which in one case has dispensed with four belts1 a pair of bevel wheels1 and two countershafts1 reducing enormously the frictional waste1 and enabling higher speeds and quicker return strokes to be attained4#ga ,for drilling work there are several large tools4 ,recently there has just been fitted a multiple machine which1 while primarily intended for drilling the tube-holes in drums and water-pockets of ,yarrow water-tube boilers1 is also utilised in connection with ordinary machine work4 ,this tool1 of which an engraving is given on ,plate ,l41 facing page #ajh1 was manufactured by ,messrs4 ,campbells and ,hunter1 ,limited1 ,leeds4 ,it has a massive cross-slide carrying four saddles1 movable by a powerful screw1 driven by spur-gearing and friction-clutch1 controlled from one of the saddles4 ,the steel spindles are balanced1 and have a special self-acting1 variable1 rack-feed motion1 as well as a quick vertical motion by hand for rapidly adjusting the drill through the jig4 ,each spindle can be operated independently4 ,the table has a sliding motion1 directed by two straight screws coupled to the cross shaft and vertical shaft1 and is carried by a straight bed with three bearing surfaces4 ,this machine1 which weighs #bj tons1 is driven by a #cj brake-horse-power electric motor4 ,there are two vertical boring mills used for cylinder work1 one being capable of boring up to #abj in4 in diameter1 and the other to #id in4 in diameter4 ,a combined boring and facing machine1 with a table #d ft4 square1 is usefully employed on propeller bosses1 valve-chests1 small cylinders1 and built-up bed-plates1 machine bearings1 etc4 ,the installation of high-speed lathes is specially noteworthy4 ,in one1 the face-plate can take in #ab ft4 in diameter1 and1 as the length of bed is #cj ft41 it is useful for large surfacing work1 as well as for turning crankshafts of the larger sizes4 ,there are two #ab-;in4 double-geared lathes for surfacing and screw cutting4 ,these are self-acting1 and the lengths of bed are #ai ft4 and #ab ft4 respectively4 ,for turning piston and connecting rods1 two screw-cutting lathes of #af-a_/d-;in4 centres are in use1 the length of the bed being #bb-a_/b ft4 ,these have each a triple-gear headstock1 and a chuck #dh in4 in diameter2 with rack motion and slide-rest feeds4 ,a #bj-;in4 centre lathe1 with a bed #bh ft4 #f in4 long1 is fitted with two saddles and four slide-rests for shaft liners1 etc4 ,amongst others1 there is a #bg-;in4 centre lathe for shafting1 the bed being #cf ft4 long4 ,one of the lathes is illustrated on ,plate ,,li41 adjoining page #aji4 ,this is a #dh-;in4 surfacing and boring lathe1 by ,messrs4 ,john ,lang and ,sons1 ,limited1 ,johnstone4 ,the two new features introduced are the variable speed drive and automatic speed-changing mechanism4 ,the headstocks can be used for single or triple gear1 and are so arranged that1 even when running at the greatest speed1 there is a reduction by gearing4 ,with this arrangement the lathes have greater power when turning small diameters than when the belt is used driving direct to the main spindle4 ,the spindles1 which are hollow1 with hexagonal turrets1 are of crucible cast steel1 and run in gun-metal bearings4 ,by means of the speed-changing mechanism1 the cutting speed of the tool is kept practically constant when surfacing4 ,this means that any surface can be finished off in about one-half of the time taken by a lathe having the ordinary step-cone drive1 where the workman will not change the position of the belt while surfacing4 ,the self-acting feed-motions are positive4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,lii4 ,,brass ,,finishing ,,shop4 ,milling is adopted in many instances in preference to planing or slotting1 and this is especially so in connection with valve quadrants1 columns1 faces1 etc4 ,for the first-named there is a large vertical miller1 and for the latter a horizontal tool with a vertical milling apparatus4 ,for grinding bolts1 etc41 a machine having a separate head for grinding taps is used1 the emery wheel being #ah in4 in diameter and #a-a_/b in4 broad4 ,a shop1 now in course of construction1 is to be specially laid out for the manufacture of turbine machinery of the greatest power4 ,it is to be #bhe ft4 long1 with a span of #fj ft4 ,heavy lifts will be taken by a #ajj-ton overhead crane1 and ordinary work will be handled by a #dj-ton electric crane4 ,the heavy machine tools1 while specially chosen for turbine work1 are also adaptable for use in the manufacture of the heaviest reciprocating machinery4 ,the principal tools are large lathes suitable for turbine rotors and crank-shafts2 vertical boring machines which may be utilised for work on cylinders as well as on turbine casings2 and a heavy planer1 #aj ft4 by #aj ft4 by #be ft4 stroke4 ,the necessary small machine tools for turbine work will be put down in this department1 whence also some of the large tools will be removed from the existing shops1 so that it will be fully equipped for the purpose intended4 ,the brass-finishing shop1 which is illustrated on ,plate ,,lii41 facing page #aaj1 serves both for ship and engine work4 ,it has only recently been laid out anew4 ,the machines1 according to the latest practice1 are arranged down each side of the shop1 and the benches occupy the centre4 ,each alternate bench is utilised for the material to be operated upon1 so that the working bench is not littered in a confused way1 as is too often the case4 ,there are representative types of the best makes of automatic tools1 turret lathes1 brass-finishers' lathes1 and grinding machines with specially large discs4 ,a considerable amount of work is done to limit gauge in all the shops which we have described4 ,this practice has been considerably developed recently1 and a specially equipped department has been organised1 where gauges1 templates1 and cutting tools are made4 ,this department is illustrated on ,plate ,,liii41 facing this page4 ,a word may first be said as to the significance of this new department4 ,where three or four ships have engines of the same type1 a set of jigs and templates for the most important parts are at once made1 so that a unit from an engine in one ship may be fitted to an engine in another4 ,this simplifies the ordering of new parts1 and greatly reduces the number of spare items which have to be kept in store by the owners1 in order that repairs or refits may be effected at short notice4 ,for some time the ,scotts have adopted this system1 so that it was a simple matter to enforce it in connection with the machinery of the twenty ,thames ,steamers1 and in recent naval work1 where the practice is being applied in an extended form4 ,in the recent ,admiralty work every part of an engine is made interchangeable and identical with the corresponding parts of other engines for the same type of ship1 although built in different parts of the country2 and this fact alone will indicate the extent and intricacy as well as the care and degree of accuracy necessary4 ,this standardisation to ensure interchangeability has reached its highest exemplification in the case of the machinery for the armoured cruiser ,defence1 of #bg1jjj indicated horse-power1 to be completed in twenty-one months from the placing of the order by the ,admiralty4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,liii4 ,,tool1 ,,gauge1 ,,template1 ,,and ,,jig ,,department4 ,then1 as regards the tool-making and fettling--the other branch of work carried out in the tool room--it has been recognised that1 to make the cutting tools efficient1 it is necessary to utilise the most suitable steel for the tools working on various metals and alloys2 and the selection of the tool steel for each metal has been systematised by the careful collation of data of actual work4 ,in the manufacture of the tools special appliances are used and will be referred to presently4 ,the workmen are encouraged to use only tools in sound condition4 ,each machine-man in the shops has ten checks1 and may borrow from the store a corresponding number of tools1 but these must be returned as soon as possible for overhaul and re-grinding4 ,the bonus system further induces the men to ensure that their tools are in good condition4 ,the tool department is separate from the main structure1 and in it all jigs1 templates1 and gauges1 as well as tools1 are constructed4 ,standard gauges1 as well as limit gauges1 are used1 and both are marked in metrical and ,english dimensions4 ,the tool room is not only carefully maintained at a regular temperature1 in order to prevent the templates and jigs from varying in the course of their manufacture1 but the appliances adopted have been selected so as to get the most precise results4 ,in connection with the manufacture of large boiler taps1 drill gauges1 milling cutters1 etc41 a specially designed gas furnace has been built1 with a number of compartments which can be used separately or collectively1 according to the size of the tool being made4 ,the toolsmith's forge is on the down-draught principle1 so that1 in addition to carrying off all smoke and dust1 it tends to keep the atmosphere pure4 ,amongst the principal machines used in this tool-manufacturing department is an #h-;in4 ,whitworth self-acting1 sliding-surfacing1 and screw-cutting lathe1 with a backing-off and taper-turning attachment4 ,the milling1 drilling1 and grinding machines are all by the best makers4 ,a #aj-;ft4 machine is used for making the comparative measurements from existing standards4 ,this machine1 also of ,whitworth make1 has a measuring screw in a fast headstock with a large dividing wheel1 one division of the latter representing #j4jjja-;in4 in the end movement of the spindle4 ,all transverse and tensile testing of bars is done in this department4 ,a check system is used in connection with the distribution of templates1 tools1 drawings1 etc41 and a separate store in the centre of the works is arranged for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,hydraulic ,,plate-,,bending ,,machine4 ,as to the boiler works1 the fact that in #aije the production was practically one boiler per week is1 of itself1 testimony to the nature of the plant adopted4 ,the main boiler shop1 together with its yard1 has an area of #gjjj square yards1 and a height of #de ft4 to the crane rail1 and is served by five overhead electric cranes1 ranging in lifting power up to #ajj tons1 with numerous jib and other cranes associated with the various machine tools4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,liv4 ,,in ,,the ,,boiler ,,shop4 ,the machine tools fitted in the boiler works are all of a very powerful character2 but only a few of these need here be referred to4 ,there is a #ac-;ft4 gap hydraulic plate-bending machine1 which is entirely automatic in its action1 and can be set to any radius to bend plates up to #b in4 thick when cold4 ,the flanging for the front and back plates of boilers is done in an hydraulic machine1 exerting a pressure of over #afj tons4 ,this machine has four rams1 two of which act downwards1 one upwards1 and the other horizontally4 ,it is served by a special hydraulic jib-crane1 capable of lifting the heaviest plates4 ,there are also plate-edge planers and triple boring mills of corresponding power1 while the vertical rolls take in plates up to #aj-;ft4 wide4 ,for the riveting of the boilers there is a #ac-;ft4 gap hydraulic riveting machine1 capable of exerting a load on each rivet of #bjj tons4 ,the weight of this riveting machine alone is about #fj tons1 and it is served by an independent hydraulic jib-crane4 ,all the valves in connection with the crane and riveter are led to a common platform1 so that one man is able to manipulate the whole of the work4 ,there is also a large installation of special plant for the manufacture of water-tube boilers1 but it is scarcely necessary to describe this in detail4 ,a large part of the boiler work1 especially for warships1 is galvanised1 and a special department has been organised for this purpose4 ,the tubes1 in the first place1 are thoroughly cleaned1 then placed in a zinc bath1 and coated by electrolysis to the desired extent2 the object being to expose defects1 as well as to protect the tubes from corrosion during manufacture4 ,the amount of work done is1 perhaps1 the best indication of the equipment of this department1 as well as of the water-tube department2 and this will be realised when it is stated that over #bd1jjj tubes are required for the boilers of one cruiser1 and that six months suffices for their construction4 ,it would be possible to give other indications of the splendid equipment of the ,works1 but enough has been said to show that there is directed towards the realisation of the best work in all departments--firstly1 the advantages of accumulated experience1 carefully collated throughout two hundred years2 secondly1 the benefits which the psychologists claim for hereditary influence--applicable here not only through the proprietors1 but also through many of the workmen2 and1 thirdly1 a sound progressive spirit1 which recognises the necessity for continual improvement in administration and design1 and in machine tools and methods of manufacture4 ,illustration3 decoration ,,footnotes3 #fi ,for further references to the rate of construction1 see ,engineering1 vol4 lx41 page #hac1 where it is noted that ten vessels1 aggregating #bf1jjj tons1 were built for the ,china ,navigation ,company in nine months4 #gj ,see page #bb1 ante4 #ga ,see ,engineering1 vol4 lxxx41 page #dah4 ,,printed ,,at ,,the ,,bedford ,,press1 #bj ,,and #ba1 ,,bedfordbury1 ,,strand1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4