,illu/ration3 ,m>9] spacecraft ,,m>9] ,,mission ,,to ,,v5us ,prep>$ = ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration ,,by ,,! ,,/aff1 ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology ,,compil$ ,,by ,,h>old ,j4 ,,:eelock ,,=eword ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,pick]+1 ,director1 ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology ,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,new ,york1 ,san ,francisco1 ,toronto1 ,london ,,m>9] ,,mission ,,to ,,v5us ,copyright #aifc by ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology4 ,all ,rights ,res]v$4 ,pr9t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,libr>y ( ,congress ,catalog ,c>d ,numb] #fc-agdhi4 ,?is book describes "o phase ( ! ,u4 ,s4 civilian space program--! j\rney ( ! ,m>9] spacecraft to ! vic9ity ( ,v5us & beyond4 ,x reports ^u ! measurem5ts tak5 dur+ ! 8flyby0 on ,decemb] #ad1 #aifb1 :5 ,m>9] rea*$ a po9t #ba1eih miles f ! planet1 & #cf1jjj1jjj miles f ,e>? 7communication ) ! spacecraft 0 cont9u$ up to a di/ance ( approximately #ed1jjj1jjj miles f ,e>?74 ,! ,m>9] mission 0 a project ( ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration1 c>ri$ out "u ,contract ,no4 ,,nas #g-ajj by ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology4 ,,=eword ,= _m c5turies sci5tific in=mation ab\t ! planets & ! va/ void t sep>ates !m has be5 collect$ by a/ronom]s obs]v+ f ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,n[1 ) ! flight ( ,m>9] ,,ii1 we sudd5ly h 9 our h&s "s #ij million bits ( exp]im5tal data measur$ 9 ! region betwe5 ,e>? & ! planet ,v5us4 ,?us1 man = ! fir/ "t has succe$$ 9 s5d+ 8 in/rum5ts f> into ! dep?s ( space1 & inde$1 9 plac+ !m ne> ano!r planet4 ,a :ole new area ( exp]im5tal a/ronomy has be5 op5$ up4 ,?is book is a brief record ( ! ,m>9] ,project to date & is design$ to expla9 9 g5]al t]ms ! prelim9>y conclusions4 ,actually1 x w be mon?s or ye>s be=e all ( ! data f ,m>9] ,,ii h be5 completely analyz$4 ,! mo/ important data 7 ! measurem5ts made 9 ! vic9ity ( ! planet ,v5us1 b x %\ld also be not$ t _m weeks ( int]planet>y environm5tal measurem5ts h giv5 u new insight into "s ( ! basic physical ph5om5a ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,! trajectory data h provid$ new1 m accurate measurem5ts ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,! eng9e]+ measurem5ts ( ! p]=mance ( ! spacecraft w be ( ine/imable value 9 ! design ( future spacecraft4 ,?us1 ! ,m>9] ,,ii spacecraft to ,v5us n only looks at ,v5us b gives space sci5ti/s & eng9e]s in=mation helpful 9 a wide v>iety ( space v5tures4 ,a project su* z ,m>9] ,,ii is fir/ a va/ eng9e]+ task4 ,_m ?\s&s ( man-h\rs are requir$ to design ! complex automatic equipm5t :i* mu/ op]ate p]fectly 9 ! h>% environm5t ( space4 ,e detail ( ! sy/em mu/ be /udi$ & analyz$4 ,! op]ations requir$ to c>ry out ! mission mu/ be und]/ood & p]=m$ ) precision4 ,a successful mission requires e memb] ( ! entire project team to d 8 task p]fectly4 ,:e!r x be ! error ( a design]1 me*anic1 ma!matician1 te*nician1 op]ator1 or te/ eng9e]--a s+le mi/ake1 or a faulty piece ( workman%ip1 may cause ! failure ( ! mission4 ,space projects ab\nd ) examples ( ! old say+1 8,= want ( a nail1 ! %oe 0 lo/ 44410 & s on1 until ! k+dom is lo/4 ,only :5 e memb] ( ! project team is consci\s ( 8 responsibility w space projects consi/5tly succe$4 ,! ,m>9] ,,ii ,project />t$ ) ! ,lun> & ,planet>y ,projects ,(fice ( ! ,(fice ( ,space ,sci5ces at ,,nasa 9 ,wa%+ton4 ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 p]sonnel provid$ ! ma9 body ( ! team ef=t4 ,!y 7 heavily support$ by indu/rial contractors build+ _m ( ! subassemblies ( ! spacecraft1 by sci5ti/s plann+ & design+ ! sci5tific exp]im5ts1 & by ! ,air ,=ce :i* suppli$ ! laun*+ rockets4 ,sev]al ?\s& m5 & wom5 _h "s direct "p 9 ! ,m>9] ,project4 ,x w\ld be impossible to li/ all ( ^? :o made "s special contribution1 b ea* & e memb] ( ! project p]=m$ 8 job accurately1 on "t1 & to ! highe/ /&>ds4 ,m>9] ,,ii is only a prelude to ,,nasa's program ( unmann$ missions to ! planets4 ,missions to ,m>s z well z ,v5us w be c>ri$ out4 ,spacecraft w n only fly by ! planets z did ,m>9] ,,ii1 b capsules w be l&$1 & spacecraft w be put into orbit ab\t ! planets4 ,! next mission 9 ! ,m>9] s]ies w be a flyby ( ! planet ,m>s 9 #aife4 ,by ! end ( ! decade1 :]e w we be explor+1 :at w new ,m>9]s h f\nd8 ,w !re be life on ,m>s1 or on any o!r planet ( ! sol> sy/em8 ,:at causes ! r$ spot on ,jupit]8 ,:at is at ! he>t ( a comet8 ,^! & _m o!r que/ions await answ]s obta9$ by our future spacecraft4 ,m>9] ,,ii is j a beg9n+4 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ ,director ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology ,april1 #aifc ,,cont5ts ,,=eword ,,ackn[l$gm5ts ,,*apt] #a ,,v5us ,! ,d\ble ,/> ( ! ,anci5t ,_w ,! ,cons5sus prior to ,m>9] ,,ii ,! ,cy!rean ,riddle3 ,liv+ ,_w or ,inc9]at$ ,planet ,,*apt] #b ,,prep>+ ,,= ,,space ,a ,problem 9 ,cele/ial ,dynamics ,! ,organization ,,nasa3 ,= ,sci5ce ,,jpl3 ,,jato to ,m>9] ,g5]al ,dynamics3 ,! ,atlas ,lockhe$3 ,ag5a ,b ,,*apt] #c ,,! ,,spacecraft ,! ,spaceframe ,! ,p[] ,sy/em ,,cc,s3 ,! ,bra9 & ! ,/opwat* ,telecommunications3 ,relay+ ! ,data ,attitude ,control3 ,balanc+ 9 ,space ,propulsion ,sy/em ,temp]ature ,control ,! ,sci5tific ,in/rum5ts ,,*apt] #d ,,! ,,laun* ,,vehicle ,! ,atlas ,boo/]3 ,p[] ( ,six #gjg's ,! ,ag5a ,b3 ,/>t & ,re/>t ,,*apt] #e ,,flight ,,into ,,space ,m>9] ,i3 ,an ,abortive ,laun* ,m>9] ,,ii3 ,a ,roll be=e ,p>k+ ,! ,p>k+ ,orbit ,ori5tation & ,midc\rse ,maneuv] ,! ,long ,cruise ,enc\nt] & ,beyond ,! ,record ( ,m>9] ,,*apt] #f ,,! ,,track+ ,,network ,deep ,space ,in/rum5tation ,facility ,! ,gold/one ,complex ,! ,woom]a ,/ation ,! ,johannesburg ,/ation ,mobile ,track+ ,/ation ,,*apt] #g ,,?irte5 ,,million ,,words ,communication ,control ,! ,op]ations ,c5t] ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility ,,*apt] #h ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,exp]im5ts ,data ,condition+ ,sy/em ,cosmic ,du/ ,detector ,sol> ,plasma ,exp]im5t ,high-en]gy ,radiation ,exp]im5t ,! ,magnetomet] ,micr[ave ,radiomet] ,infr>$ ,radiomet] ,m>9]'s ,sci5tific ,objectives ,,*apt] #i ,,! ,,legacy ,,( ,,m>9] ,space )\t ,du/8 ,! ,ubiquit\s ,sol> ,w9d ,high-en]gy ,p>ticles3 ,fatal ,dosage8 ,a ,magnetic ,field8 ,! ,surface3 ,h[ ,hot8 ,cl\d ,temp]atures3 ,! ,infr>$ ,read+s ,! ,rad> ,pr(ile3 ,measurem5ts f ,e>? ,,*apt] #aj ,,! ,,new ,,look ,,( ,,v5us ,,app5dix ,,index ,,ackn[l$gm5ts ,rese>*+ ! mat]ial1 ga!r+ & comp>+ data1 prep>ation ( review drafts & att5d+ to ! hundr$s ( details requir$ to produce a docum5t on ! results ( su* a program z ! ,m>9] mission to ,v5us is a trem5d\s task4 ,special ackn[l$gm5t is made to ,mr4 ,h>old ,j4 ,:eelock :o1 on an extremely %ort "t scale1 c>ri$ ! major portion ( ?is "w to completion4 ,al?\gh ! prime s\rces = ! in=mation 7 ! ,planet>y ,program (fice & ! ,te*nical ,divisions ( ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 o!r organizations 7 extremely helpful 9 provid+ necess>y data1 notably ! ,george ,c4 ,m>%all ,space ,flight ,c5t]1 ! ,lockhe$ ,missiles & ,space ,company1 ! ,a/ronautics ,division ( ! ,g5]al ,dynamics ,corporation1 &1 ( c\rse1 ! _m elem5ts ( ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration4 ,,jpl te*nical in=mation /aff memb]s :o assi/$ ,mr4 ,:eelock 9 production ( ! manuscript & its illu/rations 7 ,mr4 ,james ,h4 ,wilson1 ,mr4 ,ar?ur ,d4 ,beeman & ,mr4 ,alb]t ,e4 ,tyl]4 ,,jpl is also grateful to ,mr4 ,*e/] ,h4 ,johnson = 8 help & sugge/ions 9 prep>+ ! f9al manuscript4 ,,*apt] #a ,,v5us ,halfway betwe5 ,los ,angeles & ,las ,vegas1 ! ,cali=nia c\ntry climbs s\?w>d out ( ! sunk5 bas9 ( ,dea? ,valley onto ! #cejj-;foot-high floor ( ! ,mojave des]t4 ,on ?is imm5se plateau 9 an area ne> ,gold/one ,dry ,lake1 ab\t #de miles nor? ( ! t[n ( ,b>/[1 a gr\p ( #he-;foot ant5nas =ms ! nucleus ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates' _w-wide1 deep-space track+ network4 ,"h1 on ! morn+ ( ,decemb] #ad1 #aifb1 sev]al m5 7 ga!r$ 9 ! control build+ b5ea? "o ( ! ant5nas1 li/5+ int5tly to ! /atic com+ f a l\dspeak]4 ,!y 7 surr\nd$ by ! exotic equipm5t ( ! space age4 ,?r\gh ! w9d[ loom$ ! gleam+ metal framework ( an ant5na4 ,sudd5ly a voice boom$ f ! l\dspeak]3 8,! numb]s are *ang+4 ,we're gett+ data60 ,! m5 broke into a *e]1 foll[$ by an expectant sil5ce4 ,aga9 ! voice came f ! speak]3 8,! spacecraft's cross+ ! t]m9ator 444 x's /ill scann+40 ,at t mom5t1 "s #cf million miles f ! ,e>?1 ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration's ,m>9]#a spacecraft 0 pass+ )9 #ba1fjj miles ( ! planet ,v5us & 0 radio+ back in=mation to ! ,gold/one ,/ation--! fir/ sci5tific data ev] receiv$ by man f ! ne>-vic9ity ( ano!r planet4 ,at ! same "t1 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 a press conf]5ce 0 9 progress4 ,mr4 ,james ,e4 ,webb1 ,adm9i/rator ( ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration1 & ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,pick]+1 ,director ( ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 /ood be=e a bank ( microphones4 ,9 a few mom5ts1 ,dr4 ,pick]+ said1 ! audi5ce w\ld he> ! s\nd ( ,m>9] ,,ii z x transmitt$ its f9d+s back to ! ,e>?4 ,!n1 a musical w>ble1 ! voice ( ,m>9] ,,ii1 res\nd$ 9 ! hall & 9 millions ( radios & television sets ar\nd ! nation4 ,allud+ to ! ,greek belief t h>moni\s s\nds accompani$ ! movem5t ( ! planets1 ,dr4 ,pick]+ rem>k$ t ?is1 9 tru?1 0 ! music ( ! sph]es4 ,m>9] ,,ii _h be5 laun*$ f ,cape ,canav]al1 ,florida1 on ,augu/ #bg1 #aifb4 ,its arrival at ,v5us 0 ! culm9ation ( a #aji-;day j\rney ?r\gh ! /range environm5t ( int]planet>y space4 ,! project _h gone f ! draw+ bo>d to ! laun*+ pad 9 less ?an #aa mon?s4 ,m>9] _h tax$ ! res\rces & ! manp[] ( ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology2 ! ,atlantic ,missile ,range c5t]+ at ,cape ,canav]al2 !oretical & exp]im5tal laboratories at sev]al univ]sities & ,,nasa c5t]s2 num]\s elem5ts ( ! a]ospace indu/ry2 &1 ( c\rse1 ,,nasa managem5t itself4 ,to ! consid]able body ( eng9e]s scatt]$ ar\nd ! _w f ,pasad5a to ,gold/one to ,s\? ,africa to ,au/ralia1 ! w>ble ( ,m>9] 0 some?+ m ?an 8! music ( ! sph]es40 ,int]cept ) ,v5us 0 ! climax ( #aji days ( hope & anxiety4 ,to ! _w at l>ge1 ?is w>bl+ tone 0 a signal t ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h mov$ ahead--rea*$ out to ! planets4 ,m>9] 0 explor+ ! future1 seek+ answ]s to "s ( ! unsolv$ que/ions ab\t ! sol> sy/em4 ,,! ,,d\ble ,,/> ,,( ,,! ,,anci5t ,,_w ,v5us1 ! glitt]+ beacon ( our sol> sy/em1 has intrigu$ man = at lea/ #d1jjj ye>s4 ,! ,babylonians fir/ m5tion$ ! brilliant planet on clay tablets z e>ly z #b1jjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,! ,egyptians1 ! ,greeks1 & ! ,*9ese _h ?\ght ( ,v5us z two />s because x 0 visible fir/ 9 ! morn+ & !n 9 ! ev5+ sky4 ,! ,greeks _h call$ ! morn+ /> ,phosphorus & ! ev5+ /> ,hesp]os4 ,by #ejj ,b4,c4 ,py?agoras1 ! ,greek philosoph]1 _h realiz$ t ! two 7 id5tical4 ,galileo discov]$ ! phases ( ,v5us 9 #afaj4 ,because ( ! planet's high reflectivity1 ,cop]nicus falsely conclud$ t ,v5us 0 ei!r self-lum9\s or else transp>5t to ! rays ( ! ,sun4 ,v5us 0 track$ across ! face ( ! ,sun 9 #agfa1 f :i* ev5t ! pres5ce ( an atmosph]e ab\t ! planet 0 d$uc$ because ( ! fuzzy edges ( ! image visible 9 ! telescope4 ,?r\gh\t ! eighte5? & n9ete5? c5turies1 ,v5us cont9u$ to excite gr[+ sci5tific curiosity 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,v5us' orbit is almo/ circul>4 ,at inf]ior conjunction1 ! planet is betwe5 ! ,e>? & ! ,sun1 approximately #bf1jjj1jjj miles away2 at sup]ior conjunction1 ,v5us is on ! o!r side ( ! ,sun4 ,! elongations are ! f>!/ po9ts to ! ea/ & ! we/ ( ! ,e>?4 ,ev5 ! developm5t ( giant telescopes & ! ref9em5t ( spectroscopic & rad> a/ronomy te*niques 9 rec5t times _h yield$ few indisputable facts ab\t ,v5us4 ,until rad> /udies1 made f ,gold/one1 ,cali=nia1 9 #aifb1 nei!r ! rate nor ! angle ( axial sp9 c\ld be det]m9$ ) any degree ( accuracy4 ,! ev]-%ift+ atmosph]e cont9u$ to %ield ! ,v5usian surface f visual obs]vation on ,e>?1 & ! nature ( its atmosph]e became an especially controv]sial my/]y4 ,,! ,,cons5sus ,,prior ,,to ,,m>9] ,,ii ,v5us is a virtual tw9 ( ! ,e>?2 x approa*es our planet clos] ?an any cele/ial body except ! ,moon1 a few vagrant comets1 & o!r su* galactic w&]]s4 ,long fabl$ 9 song & leg5d z ! mo/ beautiful object 9 ! sky1 ,v5us has an alb$o1 or reflectivity factor1 ( #ei 7! ,moon has "o ( #g74 ,9 its brighte/ or cresc5t phase1 ,v5us gl[s l a tor*1 ev5 ca/+ a di/9ct %ad[--! only body o!r ?an ! ,sun & ! ,moon yield+ su* light4 ,v5us' diamet] is approximately #g1gjj miles1 comp>$ ) ,e>?'s #g1ijj4 ,also z comp>$ ) #a4j = ! ,e>?1 ,v5us' mean d5sity is #j4ia1 ! mass #j4ha1 & ! volume #j4ib4 ,! ,cy!rean orbit 7! adjective comes f ,cy!rea1 "o ( ! anci5t ,greek names = ,aphrodite--or 9 ,roman times1 ,v5us--! goddess ( love7 is almo/ a p]fect circle1 ) an ecc5tricity 7or out-(-r\ndness7 ( only #j4jjfh1 l[e/ ( all ! planets4 ,v5us rides ?is orbital pa? at a mean di/ance f ! ,sun ( #fg4b million miles 7,e>? is #ic million miles71 & at a mean orbital spe$ ( #gh1cjj miles p] h\r1 z comp>$ ) ,e>?'s #ff1fjj miles p] h\r4 ,x also has a %ort] sid]eal p]iod 7revolution ar\nd ! ,sun or ye>73 #bbd ,e>? days1 #af h\rs1 #dh m9utes4 ,e/imates ( ! ,v5us rotational p]iod1 or ! l5g? ( ! ,v5us day1 h rang$ f approximately #bc ,e>? h\rs to j ov] #bbd ,e>? days4 ,! latt] rotation rate w\ld be almo/ equival5t to ! ,v5usian ye> &1 9 su* case1 ! planet w\ld always h ! same face to ! ,sun4 ,v5us approa*es )9 #bf million miles ( ! ,e>? at inf]ior conjunction1 & is z f> away z #afj million miles at sup]ior conjunction1 :5 x is on ! opposite side ( ! ,sun4 ,! escape velocity 7t velocity requir$ to free an object f ! gravitational pull ( a planet7 on ,v5us is #f4c miles p] second1 comp>$ ) ,e>?'s escape velocity ( #g miles p] second4 ,! gravity ( ! ,e>? is suffici5t to trap an oxyg5-be>+ atmosph]e ne> ! t]re/rial surface4 ,because ! escape velocity ( ,v5us is ab\t ! same z t ( ,e>?1 m5 h long believ$ 7or hop$7 t ! ,cy!rean _w might hold a simil> atmosph]e & ?us be favorable to ! exi/5ce ( liv+ organisms z we "k !m on ! ,e>?4 ,f ?is speculation1 num]\s !ories h evolv$4 ,,! ,,cy!rean ,,riddle3 ,,liv+ ,,_w ,,or ,,inc9]at$ ,,planet ,be=e ,m>9] ,,ii1 ,v5us probably caus$ m controv]sy ?an any o!r planet 9 our sol> sy/em except ,m>s4 ,obs]v]s h visualiz$ ,v5us z any?+ f a /eam+ abode ( ,mesozoic-l creatures su* z 7 f\nd on ! ,e>? millions ( ye>s ago1 to a dead1 noxi\s1 & sunless _w con/antly ravag$ by w9ds ( incr$ible =ce4 ,conjectures ab\t ! ,v5usian atmosph]e h be5 inescapably ti$ to !ories ab\t ! ,v5usian topography4 ,because ! cl\ds =m+ ! ,v5usian atmosph]e1 z view$ f ! ,e>? ?r\gh ! /ronge/ telescopes1 are almo/ featureless1 ?is relation%ip betwe5 atmosph]e & topography has pos$ _m problems4 ,imp]man5t light spots & c]ta9 dusky areas 7 believ$ by "s obs]v]s to be associat$ ) ,v5usian oceans4 ,"o sci5ti/ believ$ he id5tifi$ a m\nta9 peak :i* he calculat$ z ris+ m ?an #bg miles above ! g5]al level ( ! planet4 ,ano!r feature ( ! ,v5usian topography is ! lack ( 7detectable7 pol> flatt5+4 ,! ,e>? does h su* a flatt5+ at ! poles & x 0 reason$ t1 because ,v5us did n1 its rate ( rotation mu/ be mu* sl[] ?an t ( ! ,e>?1 p]haps z little z only once dur+ a ,v5usian ye>1 ?us keep+ "o face p]petually t[>d ! ,sun4 ,ano!r s*ool ( ?\ght speculat$ t ,v5us 0 cov]$ entirely by va/ oceans2 o!r obs]v]s conclud$ t ^! great bodies ( wat] h long s9ce evaporat$ & t ! w9ds1 ?r\gh ! ,cy!rean ages1 h scoop$ up ! rema9+ *loride salts & bla/$ !m into ! ,v5usian skies1 ?us =m+ ! cl\ds4 ,relat$ to ! topographic speculations 7 equally t5u\s !ories ab\t its atmosph]e4 ,x 0 reason$ t if ! oceans ( ,v5us /ill exi/1 !n ! ,v5usian cl\ds may be compos$ ( wat] droplets2 if ,v5us 7 cov]$ by wat]1 x 0 sugge/$ t x might be inhabit$ by ,v5usian equival5ts ( ,e>?'s ,cambrian p]iod ( #ejj million ye>s ago1 & ! same /eamy atmosph]e c\ld be a possibility4 ,o!r !ories respect+ ! nature ( ! ,v5usian atmosph]e1 dep5d+ on h[ _! au?ors view$ ! ,v5usian t]ra91 includ$ cl\ds ( hydroc>bons 7p]haps droplets ( oil71 or vapors ( =maldehyde & wat]4 ,f9ally1 ! seem+ly high temp]ature ( ! planet's surface1 z measur$ by ,e>?-b\nd in/rum5ts1 0 cr$it$ by "s to ! false indications t c\ld be giv5 by a ,cy!rean ionosph]e heavily *>g$ ) free electrons4 ,illu/ration3 ,z se5 f ,e>?1 ,v5us is brighte/ at its cresc5t phases z %[n 9 ^! six photographs made by ! #ajj-;in* telescope at ,mt4 ,wilson1 ,cali=nia4 ,h[ev]1 ! cons5sus ( pre-,m>9] sci5tific ?9k+ seem$ g5]ally to indicate no detectable free oxyg5 9 ! atmosph]e2 ?is fact inveigh$ aga9/ ! probability ( surface vegetation1 because ,e>?-b\nd vegetation1 at lea/1 uses c>bon dioxide & gives (f oxyg5 into ! atmosph]e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a prepond]ance ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! ,v5usian atmosph]e 0 measur$ :i* w\ld create a gre5h\se effect4 ,! heat ( ! ,sun w\ld be trapp$ ne> ! surface ( ! planet1 rais+ ! temp]ature to z high z #fae degrees ,f4 ,if ! topography 7 9 tru? relatively flat & ! rate ( rotation sl[1 ! heat+ effect might produce w9ds ( #djj miles p] h\r or m1 & s& & du/ /orms beyond ,e>?ly exp]i5ce4 ,& s ! controv]sy cont9u$4 ,b at #a3ec4ac4i a4m41 ,,e/1 on ,augu/ #bg1 #aifb1 ! !ories ( ! pa/ few c5turies 7 be+ *all5g$4 ,at t mom5t1 ! night along ! ea/ ,florida coa/ 0 %att]$ by ! ro> ( rocket eng9es & ! fla% ( inc&esc5t exhau/ /reams4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 laun*+ ,m>9] ,,ii1 ! fir/ spacecraft t w\ld successfully p5etrate int]planet>y space & probe "s ( ! age-old my/]ies ( our neighbor planet4 ,,*apt] #b ,,prep>+ ,,= ,,space ,9 ! summ] ( #aifa1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 0 pu%+ h>d to /r5g!n its position 9 ! exploration ( space & ! ne> planets4 ,! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration 0 plann+ two projects1 bo? to be laun*$ by an ,atlas boo/] & a ,c5taur high-en]gy second /age capable ( mu* bett] p]=mance ?an t available f e>li] vehicles4 ,! ,m>9] program _h two goals3 ,m>9] ,a 0 ticket$ = ,v5us & ,m>9] ,b 0 s*$ul$ to g to ,m>s4 ,calte*'s ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory _h managem5t responsibility "u ,,nasa = bo? projects4 ,^! spacecraft 7 bo? to be 9 ! #a1jjj- to #a1bej-p\nd class4 ,laun* opportunities = ! two planets 7 to be be/ dur+ ! #aifb-aifd p]iod & ! new second-/age boo/] kn[n z ,c5taur 0 expect$ to be ready = ^! op]ations4 ,b tr\ble 0 develop+ = ,,nasa's plann]s4 ,by ,augu/1 #aifa1 x _h become app>5t t ! ,c5taur w\ld n be fly+ 9 "t to take advantage ( ! #aifb ?ird-qu>t] fir+ p]iod1 :5 ,v5us w\ld approa* inf]ior conjunction ) ! ,e>?4 ,,jpl /udi$ ! problem & advis$ ,,nasa t a propos$ lightweight1 hybrid spacecraft comb9+ c]ta9 design features ( ,rang] ,,iii 7a lun> spacecraft7 & ,m>9] ,a c\ld be laun*$ to ,v5us 9 #aifb abo>d a l[]-p[]$ ,atlas-,ag5a ,b laun* vehicle4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,m>9] ,,ii spacecraft 0 laun*$ by an ,atlas fir/-/age boo/] vehicle & an ,ag5a ,b second /age ) re/>t capability4 ,,atlas-,,ag5a ,,adapt] ,,ag5a ,b ,,m>9] ,,spacecraft ,,%r\d ,! propos$ spacecraft w\ld be call$ ,m>9] ,r & 0 to weigh ab\t #dfj p\nds & c>ry #be p\nds ( sci5tific in/rum5ts 7lat] increas$ to #dj p\nds74 ,! re/>t capability ( ,ag5a 0 to be us$ 9 a #ih-/atute-mile p>k+ orbit4 7,! orbit 0 lat] rais$ to #aae /atute miles & ! spacecraft weight 0 r$uc$ to ab\t #ddg p\nds47 ,two spacecraft w\ld be laun*$ "o aft] ! o!r f ! same pad )9 a maximum laun* p]iod ext5d+ ov] #ef days f ,july to ,septemb]1 #aifb4 ,! m9imum laun* sep>ation betwe5 ! two spacecraft w\ld be #ba days4 ,z a result ( ! ,,jpl recomm5dations1 ,,nasa cancell$ ,m>9] ,a 9 ,septemb]1 #aifa1 & assign$ ,,jpl to manage a ,m>9] ,r ,project to fly two spacecraft 7,m>9] ,i & ,,ii7 to ! vic9ity ( ,v5us 9 #aifb4 ,sci5tific measurem5ts 7 to be made 9 int]planet>y space & 9 ! imm$iate environs ( ! planet1 :i* w\ld also be survey$ 9 an attempt to det]m9e ! *>act]i/ics ( its atmosph]e & surface4 ,sci5tific & eng9e]+ data w\ld also be transmitt$ f ! spacecraft to ! ,e>? :ile x 0 9 transit & dur+ ! enc\nt] ) ,v5us4 ,sci5ti/s & eng9e]s 7 n[ fac$ ) an ardu\s task4 ,)9 an #aa-mon? p]iod1 on a s*$ule t c\ld tol]ate no delays1 two spacecraft _h to be design$1 develop$1 assembl$1 te/$1 & laun*$4 ,9 ord] to meet ! s*$ule1 te/$ flight assemblies & in/rum5ts w\ld h to be 9 ! ,pasad5a assembly facility by mid-,janu>y1 #aifb1 j f\r mon?s aft] ! />t ( ! project4 ,probably no o!r major space project ( simil> scope _h ev] be5 plann$ on su* a dem&+ s*$ule4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] ,,ii travell$ across #ahj million miles ( space )9 our sol> sy/em z x spann$ ! gap betwe5 ,e>? & ,v5us 7%[n "h z ! ?ird & second planets1 respectively1 f ! ,sun74 ,) ! %ipm5t ( equipm5t to ,atlantic ,missile ,range 7,,amr7 s*$ul$ = #i mon?s aft] inception ( ! project1 managem5t & design teams w5t all-out on a true 8cra%0 ef=t4 ,quick decisions _h to be made1 a workable design _h to be agre$ ^u v e>ly1 &1 once e/abli%$1 ! major s*$ule objectives c\ld n be *ang$4 ,c]ta9 design modifications & manufactur+ *anges 9 ! ,atlas-,ag5a laun* vehicle 7 also necess>y4 ,:]ev] possible1 ,rang] design te*nology _h to be us$ 9 ! new spacecraft & adapt$ to ! requirem5ts ( a planet>y probe4 ,o!r necess>y tasks includ$ trajectory calculation2 arrangem5ts = laun*1 space flight1 & track+ op]ations2 & coord9ation ( ,,amr ,range support4 ,foll[+ ,,nasa's ,septemb]1 #aifa decision to g ahead ) ! ,m>9] ,r ,project1 ,,jpl's ,director1 ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,pick]+1 call$ on 8 season$ team ( sci5ti/s & eng9e]s4 ,"u ,rob]t ,j4 ,p>ks1 ,planet>y ,program ,director1 ,jack ,n4 ,james 0 appo9t$ z ,project ,manag] = ,m>9] ,r1 assi/$ by ,w4 ,a4 ,colli]4 ,dan ,s*neid]man 0 appo9t$ ,spacecraft ,sy/em ,manag]1 & ,dr4 ,eb]h>dt ,re*t9 head$ ! space track+ program1 ) sup]vision ( ! ,deep ,space ,in/rum5tation ,facility 7,,dsif7 op]ations "u ,dr4 ,ni*olas ,r5zetti4 ,! ,m>9] space flight op]ations 7 direct$ by ,m>%all ,s4 ,johnson4 ,a ,,problem ,,9 ,,cele/ial ,,dynamics ,9 ord] to s5d ,m>9] close en\gh to ,v5us = its in/rum5ts to ga!r significant data1 sci5ti/s _h to solve aim+ & guidance problems ( unprec$5t$ magnitude & complexity4 ,! #ddg-p\nd spacecraft _h to be catapult$ f a laun*+ plat=m mov+ ar\nd ! ,sun at #ff1fjj miles p] h\r1 & aim$ s precisely t x w\ld int]cept a planet mov+ #gh1cjj miles p] h\r 7or #aa1gjj miles p] h\r fa/] ?an ! ,e>?7 at a po9t 9 space & "t "s #ahj4b million miles away & #aji days lat]1 ) only "o *ance to correct ! trajectory by a plann$ midc\rse maneuv]4 ,& ! int]ception _h to be s accurate t ! spacecraft w\ld pass ,v5us )9 #h1jjj to #dj1jjj miles4 ,! *ances ( impact+ ! planet c\ld n exce$ #a 9 #a1jjj because ,m>9] 0 n /]iliz$ & might contam9ate ,v5us4 ,also1 mu* m data c\ld be ga!r$ on a ne>-miss flight pa? ?an on impact4 ,fur!rmore1 at enc\nt] 79 ! t>get area7 ! spacecraft _h to be s position$ t x c\ld communicate ) ,e>?1 see ! ,sun ) its sol> panels1 & scan ,v5us at ! prop] angles4 ,along ! way1 ,m>9] _h to be able to ori5t itself s t its sol> panels 7 fac+ or 8lock$ onto0 ! ,sun 9 ord] to g5]ate its own p[]2 acquire & ma9ta9 ant5na ori5tation to ! ,e>?2 correct its attitude con/antly to hold ,e>? & ,sun lock2 receive1 /ore1 & execute comm&s to alt] its c\rse = a clos] approa* to ,v5us2 & communicate its f9d+s to ,e>? ) only #c watts ( radiat$ p[] & ov] di/ances nev] be=e spann$4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 laun*$ 9 a direction opposite to ! orbital travel ( ! ,e>?4 ,! ,sun's gravity !n pull$ x 9 t[>d ! planet ,v5us4 ,e>ly 9 ! program x _h be5 decid$ t two spacecraft w\ld be laun*$ t[>d ,v5us4 ,only #ef days 7 available = bo? laun*+s & ! planet w\ld n be close en\gh aga9 = #ai mon?s--! p]iod betwe5 inf]ior conjunctions or ! planet's close/ approa* to ! ,e>?4 ,on any "o ( ^! days1 a maximum ( #b h\rs c\ld be us$ = gett+ ! vehicles (f ! laun* pad4 ,9 addition1 ! ,m>9]s w\ld h to leave ! ,e>? 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! ,e>?'s direction ( orbital revolution ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,?is flight pa? 0 necess>y s ! spacecraft c\ld !n fall 9 t[>d ! ,sun & int]cept ,v5us1 cat*+ & pass+ ! ,e>? along ! way1 ab\t #fe days & #aa4e million miles out4 ,?is feat ( cele/ial navigation _h to be p]=m$ :ile pass+ ?r\gh ! ho/ile environm5t ( int]planet>y space1 :]e ! probe might be subject$ to sol> w9ds 7*>g$ p>ticles7 travell+ at velocities up to #ejj miles p] second2 int5se bomb>dm5t f cosmic radiation1 *>g$ protons1 & alpha p>ticles mov+ p]haps #a4e million miles p] h\r2 radiat$ heat t might raise ! spacecraft temp]atures to unkn[n values2 & ! unkn[n dang]s f cosmic du/1 meteorites1 & o!r miscellane\s space debris4 ,9 flight1 ea* spacecraft w\ld h to p]=m m ?an #ij1jjj measurem5ts p] day1 report+ back to ! ,e>? on #eb eng9e]+ read+s1 ! *anges 9 int]planet>y magnetic fields1 ! d5sity & di/ribution ( *>g$ p>ticles & cosmic du/1 & ! int5sity & velocity ( l[-en]gy protons /ream+ out f ! ,sun4 ,at its close/ approa* to ,v5us1 ! spacecraft in/rum5ts w\ld be requir$ to scan ! planet dur+ a brief #ce-m9ute enc\nt]1 to ga!r data t w\ld enable ,e>? sci5ti/s to det]m9e ! temp]ature & /ructure ( ! atmosph]e & ! surface1 & to process & transmit t data back to ! ,e>?4 ,,! ,,organization ,fly+ ,m>9] to ,v5us 0 a team ef=t made possible ?r\gh ! comb9$ res\rces ( sev]al ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5tal organizations & _! contractors1 sci5ce1 & indu/ry4 ,! success ( ! ,m>9] ,project result$ prim>ily f ! ov]-all direction & managem5t ( ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration & ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 & ! production & laun* capabilities ( ! vehicle build]s & ! ,air ,=ce4 ,sev]al organizations bore ! major responsibility3 ,,nasa ,headqu>t]s1 ,,jpl1 ,,nasa's ,m>%all ,space ,flight ,c5t] & ,laun* ,op]ations ,c5t]1 ,a/ronautics ,division ( ,g5]al ,dynamics1 & ,lockhe$ ,missiles & ,space ,company4 ,,nasa3 ,,= ,,sci5ce ,! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration 0 an outgr[? ( ! p>ticipation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ,int]national ,geophysical ,ye> program & ( ! nation's space ef=t1 revitaliz$ foll[+ ,russia's successful orbit+ ( ,sputnik ,i 9 #aieg4 ,illu/ration3 ,f9al ,,naca meet+1 ,augu/ #ba1 #aieh4 ,illu/ration3 ,model ( ,x-#a rese>* plane4 ,illu/ration3 ,headqu>t]s ( ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,jpl develop$ fir/ ,,jato units 9 #aida4 ,illu/ration3 ,o!r ,laboratory ,projects 7 ! ,corporal missile 7left7 & ,explor] ,i 7"r71 ! fir/ ,u4,s4 satellite4 ,"u ! t]ms ( ! law :i* creat$ ,,nasa1 x is a ,f$]al ,ag5cy d$icat$ to c>ry+ out 8activities 9 space 444 devot$ to peaceful purposes = ! b5efit ( all mank9d40 ,,nasa is *>g$ to pres]ve ! role ( our nation z a lead] 9 ! a]onautical & space sci5ces & te*nology & to utilize effectively ! sci5ce & eng9e]+ res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 accompli%+ ^! goals4 ,activities associat$ ) milit>y op]ations 9 space & ! developm5t ( weapons sy/ems are specifically assign$ to ! ,def5se ,dep>tm5t4 ,9 ,novemb]1 #aieg1 be=e ! creation ( ,,nasa1 ,presid5t ,eis5h[] _h e/abli%$ a ,sci5tific ,advisory ,committee to det]m9e ! national objectives & requirem5ts 9 space & to e/abli% ! basic framework )9 :i* sci5ce1 indu/ry1 & ! academic community c\ld be/ support ^! objectives4 ,! ,committee submitt$ a report to ! ,presid5t 9 ,m>*1 #aieh1 recomm5d+ creation ( a civilian ag5cy to conduct ! national space programs4 ,! recomm5dation1 endors$ by ! ,presid5t1 0 submitt$ to ! ,congress on ,april #b1 #aieh4 ,! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,act ( #aieh 0 pass$ & became law 9 ,july1 #aieh4 ,,nasa 0 (ficially e/abli%$ on ,octob] #a1 #aieh1 & ,dr4 ,t4 ,kei? ,gl5nan1 ,presid5t ( ,case ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 0 appo9t$ z ! fir/ ,adm9i/rator4 ,! facilities & p]sonnel ( ! ,national ,advisory ,committee = ,a]onautics 7,,naca7 7 transf]r$ to =m ! nucleus ( ! new ,,nasa ag5cy4 ,,naca _h p]=m$ important & significant rese>* 9 a]onautics1 w9d tunnel te*nology1 & a]odynamics s9ce #aiae1 includ+ a s]ies ( exp]im5tal rocket rese>* aircraft t culm9at$ 9 ! ,x-#ae4 ,x 0 natural t x be exp&$ to include space op]ations4 ,among ! ,,naca ,c5t]s transf]r$ to ,,nasa 7 ! ,langley ,rese>* ,c5t] at ,hampton1 ,virg9ia2 ,lewis ,rese>* ,c5t]1 ,clevel&1 ,ohio2 ,ames ,rese>* ,c5t]1 ,m(fett ,field1 ,cali=nia2 ,flight ,rese>* ,c5t]1 ,edw>ds1 ,cali=nia2 & ! rocket laun* facility at ,wallops ,isl&1 ,virg9ia4 ,^? p]sonnel ( ! ,naval ,rese>* ,laboratory :o _h be5 work+ on ,project ,vangu>d 7 also transf]r$ to ,,nasa1 z 0 ! project4 ,^! p]sonnel are n[ "p ( ! new ,godd>d ,space ,flight ,c5t] at ,gre5belt1 ,m>yl&4 ,! ,octob]1 #aieh1 transf]s also includ$ a numb] ( ! space projects ( ! ,advanc$ ,rese>* ,projects ,ag5cy ( ! ,def5se ,dep>tm5t4 ,9 a ,decemb]1 #aieh1 ,executive ,ord]1 ! ,presid5t assign$ ! =m] ,army facilities ( ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory at ,pasad5a1 ,cali=nia1 to ,,nasa4 ,at ! same "t1 ! gr\p work+ "u ,dr4 ,w]nh] von ,braun at ! ,army ,balli/ic ,missile ,ag5cy 7comm&$ by ,major ,g5]al ,john ,b4 ,m$>is7 0 made responsive to ,,nasa requirem5ts4 ,on ,july #a1 #aifj1 ! ,george ,c4 ,m>%all ,space ,flight ,c5t] 7,,msfc7 0 organiz$ at ,huntsville "u von ,braun's direction4 ,! =m] ,developm5t ,op]ations ,division ( ,,abma =m$ ! nucleus ( ! new ,c5t]4 ,! ,,msfc mission 0 to procure & to sup]vise ! adaptation ( laun* vehicles = ,,nasa space missions1 includ+ ,atlas1 ,?or1 & ,ag5a4 ,m>%all is directly responsible = ! design & developm5t ( advanc$1 high-?ru/ boo/] vehicles su* z ! ,saturn ,c-#a & ,c-#e & ! ,nova4 ,an ag5cy to conduct ,,nasa affairs at ,cape ,canav]al 0 =m$ )9 ,,msfc on ,july #a1 #aifj4 ,kn[n !n z ! ,laun* ,op]ations ,directorate 7,,lod71 x 0 direct$ by ,dr4 ,kurt ,h4 ,debus4 ,,lod became indep5d5t ( ,m>%all 9 ,m>*1 #aifb1 :5 x 0 r$esignat$ ! ,laun* ,op]ations ,c5t] 7,,loc71 report+ directly to ! ,(fice ( ,mann$ ,space ,flight4 ,?is sep>ation result$ l>gely because ! activities at ,,amr 7 becom+ m op]ational 9 "* & less ori5t$ t[>d rese>* & developm5t4 ,,loc h&les su* functions = ,,nasa z ! s*$ul+ ( laun* dates & liaison ) ! ,atlantic ,missile ,range = support activities4 ,! ,c5t] w h ! responsibility 9 ! field = assembly1 *eck\t1 & laun* ( ! ,saturn & ,nova boo/]s4 ,foll[+ ! election ( ,presid5t ,k5n$y 9 #aifa1 ,james ,e4 ,webb replac$ ,dr4 ,gl5nan z ,adm9i/rator ( ,,nasa4 ,%ortly aft]1 a new national goal 0 ann\nc$--plac+ a man on ! ,moon & return+ him safely to ! ,e>? 9 ?is decade4 ,mean:ile1 ,,jpl _h be5 assign$ responsibility = unmann$ exploration ( ! ,moon1 ! planets1 & int]planet>y space1 & ?us 0 *>g$ ) support+ ! ,,nasa mann$ flight program ?r\gh ^! activities4 ,9 less ?an five ye>s1 ,,nasa grew to include eight flight & rese>* c5t]s & ab\t #ba1jjj te*nical & managem5t p]sonnel4 ,)9 ,,nasa1 ,dr4 ,abe ,silv]/e9's ,(fice ( ,space ,flight ,programs 0 responsible = ! ,m>9] ,r ,project :i* 0 directly assign$ to ,ed ,cortright1 ,director ( ,lun> ,planet>y ,programs1 & ,fr$ ,ko*5dorf]1 :o is ,,nasa's ,program ,*ief = ,m>9]4 ,a subsequ5t reorganization plac$ responsibility "u ,dr4 ,hom] ,newell's ,(fice ( ,space ,sci5ces1 & ,oran ,nicks became ,director ( ,lun> ,planet>y ,programs4 ,,jpl3 ,,jato ,,to ,,m>9] ,! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 /aff$ & op]at$ = ,,nasa by ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 _h long be5 active 9 rese>* & developm5t 9 ! fields ( missiles1 rockets1 & ! space-associat$ sci5ces4 ,! fir/ gov]nm5t-sponsor$ rocket rese>* gr\p 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,,jpl _h orig9at$ on ! ,calte* campus 9 #aici1 an outgr[? ( ! ,gugg5heim ,a]onautical ,laboratories1 !n head$ by celebrat$ a]odynamici/ ,dr4 ,!odore von ,k>man4 ,von ,k>man & 8 associates mov$ _! op]ation to a remote spot at ! foot ( ! ,san ,gabriel m\nta9s &1 work+ f ?is base1 9 #aida ! pione]+ gr\p develop$ ! fir/ successful jet-assi/$ aircraft take(f 7,,jato7 units = ! ,army ,air ,=ce4 ,! ,laboratory began a long association ) ! ,army ,ordnance ,corps 9 #aidd1 :5 ! ,private ,a te/ rocket 0 develop$4 ,9 retrospect1 x is n[ recogniz$ t ! ,private ,a 0 ! fir/ ,u4 ,s4 surface-to-surface1 solid-propellant rocket4 ,its range 0 #aj miles6 ,,jpl's ,,wac ,corporal rocket set a ,u4 ,s4 high-altitude record ( #dc4e miles 9 #aide4 ,m\nt$ on a ,g]man ,v-#b z ! ,bump]-,,wac1 x a*iev$ an altitude record ( #bej miles 9 #aidg4 ,m important1 ?is ev5t 0 ! fir/ successful 9-flight sep>ation ( a two-/age rocket--! feasibility ( space exploration _h be5 prov$4 ,aft] ! end ( ,_w ,w> ,,ii1 ,,jpl rese>* set ! /age = high-en]gy solid-propellant rockets4 ,= ! fir/ "t ! solid propellants1 :i* conta9$ bo? fuel & oxidiz]s1 7 ca/ 9 ?9-wall$ cases4 ,te*niques 7 !n develop$ = bond+ ! propellants to ! case1 & burn+ radially outw>d f ! c5tral axis 0 a*iev$4 ,att5tion 0 !n turn$ to increas+ ! en]gy ( ! propellants4 ,by #aidg1 ! ,corporal ,e1 a new liquid-propellant rese>* rocket1 0 be+ fir$4 ,,jpl 0 ask$ to conv]t x into a tactical weapon 9 #aidi4 ,! ,corporal ,e !n became ! fir/ liquid-propellant surface-to-surface guid$ missile develop$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ! ,we/]n bloc ( nations4 ,because ( ! ne$ = high] mobility & increas$ fir+ rate1 ,,jpl lat] design$ & develop$ ! solid-propellant ,s]geant--! nation's fir/ 8second-g5]ation0 weapon sy/em4 ,?is in]tially guid$ missile 0 immune to electronic c\nt]measures by an enemy4 ,mean:ile1 ,,jpl sci5ti/s _h pione]$ 9 ! developm5t ( electronic telemet]+ te*niques1 :i* p]mit an accurate monitor+ ( sy/em p]=mance :ile missiles are 9 flight4 ,by #aidd1 ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,pick]+1 a ,new ,zeal& born & ,calte*-tra9$ physici/ :o _h work$ ) ,dr4 ,rob]t ,millikan 9 cosmic ray rese>*1 _h be5 plac$ 9 *>ge ( ! telemet]+ ef=t at ,,jpl4 ,pick]+ became ,director ( ! ,laboratory 9 #aied4 ,foll[+ ! laun*+ ( ,sputnik ,i1 ! ,army-,,jpl team :i* _h work$ on ! ,jupit] ,c missile to te/ nose cones1 0 assign$ ! responsibility = putt+ ! fir/ ,unit$ ,/ates satellite into orbit z soon z possible4 ,9 j #hc days1 a modifi$ ,jupit] ,c laun* vehicle 0 prep>$1 an in/rum5t$ payload 0 assembl$1 a network ( space communications /ations 0 e/abli%$1 & ,explor] ,i 0 orbit$ on ,janu>y #ca1 #aieh4 ,explor] 0 an in/rum5t$ assembly develop$ by ,,jpl & ! ,/ate ,univ]sity ( ,i[a4 ,x discov]$ ! inn] ,van ,all5 radiation belt4 ,subsequ5tly1 ,,jpl work$ ) ! ,army on o!r projects to explore space & to orbit satellites4 ,among ^! 7 ,pione] ,,iii1 :i* locat$ ! out] ,van ,all5 ,belt1 & ,pione] ,,iv1 ! fir/ ,u4 ,s4 space probe to rea* ,e>?-escape velocity & to p]=m a lun> fly-by mission4 ,,g5]al ,,dynamics3 ,,! ,,atlas ,! laun* vehicle = ,m>9] 0 an ,atlas ,d boo/] ) an ,ag5a ,b second /age4 ,hi/orically1 ,atlas c be trac$ to ,octob]1 #aied1 :5 ! =m] ,convair ,corporation 7lat] acquir$ by ,g5]al ,dynamics7 0 invit$ to submit proposals = rese>* & developm5t ( f\r missile sy/ems1 includ+ a #e1jjj-mile int]cont95tal weapon4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #aidf1 ,convair assign$ ,k4 ,j4 ,boss>t to beg9 a /udy ( two propos$ types ( #e1jjj-mile missiles3 "o jet p[]$ at subsonic spe$s1 ) w+s = a]odynamic control2 ! o!r a sup]sonic1 balli/ic 7w+less & bullet-l71 rocket-p[]$ missile capable ( op]at+ outside ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo c\rtesy ( ,g5]al ,dynamics_/,a/ro ,atlas missiles 9 assembly facility at ,g5]al ,dynamics_/,a/ronautics plant4 ,?is 0 ! beg9n+ ( ,project ,,mx-#ggd1 l9eal ance/or ( ,atlas4 ,aft] captive te/+ at ,san ,diego 9 #aidg1 ?ree ( ! exp]im5tal missiles 7 te/-laun*$ at ,:ite ,s&s ,prov+ ,gr\nd 9 ,new ,mexico4 ,! fir/ flight fail$ at #f1bjj feet aft] a premature eng9e burn\t4 ,9 #aidg1 ! ,air ,=ce %elv$ ! ,,mx-#ggd project4 ,h[ev]1 ?is brief program _h prov$ ! feasibility ( ?ree concepts lat] us$ 9 ,atlas3 swivel+ eng9es = directional control2 lightweight1 pressuriz$ airframe /ructures2 & sep>able nose cones4 ,! ,korean ,w> /imulat$ ! ,,icbm concept &1 9 #aiea1 a new ,,mx-#aeic contract 0 aw>d$ to ,convair to /udy balli/ic & glide rockets4 ,by ,septemb]1 #aiea1 ,convair 0 propos+ a balli/ic missile t w\ld incorporate "s ( ! features ( ! ,,mx-#ggd design4 ,a plan = an accel]at$ program 0 pres5t$ to ! ,air ,=ce 9 #aiec4 ,aft] a ye> ( /udy1 a full g-ahead = ! project1 n[ call$ ,atlas1 0 giv5 9 ,janu>y1 #aiee4 ,! unit h&l+ ! ,atlas program 0 set up z ,convair ,a/ronautics1 ) ,j4 ,r4 ,dempsey z presid5t1 on ,m>* #a1 #aieg4 ,! fir/ ,atlas te/ flight1 9 ,june ( #aieg1 end$ 9 de/ruction ( ! missile :5 x w5t out ( control4 ,foll[+ ano!r abortive attempt1 ! fir/ fully successful flight ( an ,atlas missile 0 made f ,cape ,canav]al on ,decemb] #ag1 #aieg4 ,! ,atlas program 0 9 full sw+ by #aieh1 :5 #ad te/ missions 7 fl[n4 ,! entire missile 0 orbit$ 9 ,decemb]1 #aieh1 z ,project ,score4 ,x c>ri$ ! voice ( ,presid5t ,eis5h[] z a ,*ri/mas message to ! _w4 ,! ,atlas missile sy/em 0 accept$ = field op]ations by ! ,air ,=ce 9 #aieh4 ,also 9 #aieh1 an ,atlas a*iev$ a new di/ance record1 fly+ m ?an #i1jjj miles d[n ! ,atlantic ,missile ,range1 :]e x l&$ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 (f ! ,s\? ,african coa/4 ,atlas has be5 modifi$ = use by ,,nasa z a space vehicle boo/]4 ,kn[n z ! ,atlas ,d1 x has laun*$ lun> probes1 communications & sci5tific ,e>? satellites1 & mann$ space vehicles4 ,,lockhe$3 ,,ag5a ,b ,! ,lockhe$ ,ag5a ,b second-/age vehicle 0 m\nt$ on top ( ! ,atlas boo/] 9 ! laun* ( ! ,m>9] spacecraft4 ,! ,u4 ,s4 ,air ,=ce _h fir/ ask$ ,lockhe$ ,missiles & ,space ,division1 head$ by ,l4 ,e4 ,root1 to "w on an advanc$ orbital vehicle = bo? milit>y & sci5tific applications 9 #aief4 ,on ,octob] #bi ( t ye>1 ,lockhe$ 0 appo9t$ prime weapon sy/em contractor on ! new ,ag5a ,project1 "u ! ,air ,=ce ,balli/ic ,missile ,division4 ,9 ord] to spe$ ! program1 ! ,?or missile 0 us$ z ! boo/] /age = ! e>ly ,ag5a flights4 ,! ,atlas 0 also utiliz$ 9 lat] op]ations4 ,9 ,augu/1 #aieg1 ! ,air ,=ce recomm5d$ t ! program be accel]at$ z mu* z possible4 ,aft] ,russia orbit$ ,sputnik ,i 9 ,octob] ( #aieg1 a fur!r spe$-up 0 ord]$4 ,! fir/ ( ! ,ag5a-,discov]] s]ies 0 laun*$ into orbit on ,febru>y #bh1 #aiei1 ) ! ,?or missile z ! boo/]4 ,! fir/ re/>t 9 orbit occurr$ on ,febru>y #ah1 #aifa1 :5 ! new ,ag5a ,b configuration 0 us$ to put ,discov]] ,,xxi into orbit4 ,all ( ! ,,nasa missions us+ ,ag5a1 beg9n+ ) ,rang] ,i 9 ,augu/1 #aifa1 h be5 fl[n ) ! ,b model4 ,ag5a holds sev]al orbit+ records = ,u4 ,s4 vehicles4 ,! fir/ wat] recov]y foll[$ ! #ag orbits ( ,discov]] ,,xiii on ,augu/ #aa1 #aifj4 ,! fir/ air recov]y ( a capsule f orbit occurr$ ) ,discov]] ,,xiv on ,augu/ #ah1 #aifj4 ,9 all1 a total ( #aa capsules 7 recov]$ f orbit1 #g 9 ! air1 #d f ! sea4 ,,*apt] #c ,,! ,,spacecraft ,9 ! #aa brief mon?s :i* ,,jpl _h to produce ! ,m>9] spacecraft sy/em1 !re 0 no possibility ( design+ an entirely new spacecraft4 ,,jpl's solution to ! problem 0 d]iv$ l>gely f ! ,laboratory's e>li] space exploration vehicles1 su* z ! ,vega1 ! ,rang] lun> s]ies1 & ! cancell$ ,m>9] ,a4 ,:]ev] possible1 compon5ts & subsy/ems design$ = ^! projects 7 ei!r utiliz$ or r$esign$4 ,:]e equipm5t 0 pur*as$ f indu/rial contractors1 exi/+ h>dw>e 0 adapt$1 if practicable4 ,only a m9imum ( te/+ c\ld be p]=m$ on newly design$ equipm5t & l5g?y evaluation ( 8breadbo>d0 mock-ups 0 out ( ! "q4 ,ready = laun*1 ! spacecraft measur$ #e feet 9 diamet] & #i feet #aa in*es 9 height4 ,) ! sol> panels & ! directional ant5na unfold$ 9 ! cruise position1 ,m>9] 0 #af feet #f in*es wide & #aa feet #aa in*es high4 ,,! ,,spaceframe ,! design eng9e]s 7 =c$ to "w )9 ! framework ( ! e>li] spacecraft te*nology because ( ! "t re/rictions1 b ,m>9] ,i & ,,ii c\ld weigh only ab\t half z mu* z ! ,rang] spacecraft & j ov] "o-?ird z mu* z ! plann$ ,m>9] ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] spacecraft ) sol> panels1 micr[ave radiomet]1 & directional ant5na ext5d$ 9 flight position4 ,pr9cipal compon5ts are %[n4 ,,roll ,,axis ,,omniant5na ,,magnetomet] ,,s5sor ,,p>ticle ,,flux ,,detectors 7,,geig] ,,tubes7 ,,radiomet] ,,ref]5ce ,,horns ,,micr[ave ,,radiomet] ,,infr>$ ,,radiomet] ,,ion-,,*amb] ,,cosmic ,,du/ ,,detector ,,e>? ,,s5sor ,,sol> ,,panel ,,comm& ,,ant5na ,,sol> ,,sail ,,attitude ,,control ,,gas ,,bottles ,,sol> ,,plasma ,,detector ,,directional ,,ant5na ,! basic /ructural unit ( ,m>9] 0 a hexagonal frame made ( magnesium & alum9um1 to :i* 0 atta*$ an alum9um sup]/ructure1 a liquid-propell$ rocket eng9e = midc\rse trajectory correction1 six rectangul> *assis m\nt$ "o on ea* face ( ! hexagonal /ructure1 a high-ga9 directional ant5na1 ! ,sun s5sors1 & gas jets = control ( ! spacecraft's attitude4 ,! tubul>1 truss-type sup]/ructure ext5d$ upw>d f ! base hexagon4 ,x provid$ support = ! sol> panels :ile lat*$ "u ! %r\d dur+ ! laun* phase1 & = ! radiomet]s1 ! magnetomet]1 & ! nondirectional ant5na1 :i* 0 m\nt$ at ! top ( ! /ructure4 ,! sup]/ructure 0 design$ to be z light z possible1 yet be capable ( )/&+ ! pr$ict$ load /resses4 ,! six magnesium *assis m\nt$ to ! base hexagon h\s$ ! foll[+ equipm5t3 ! electronics circuits = ! six sci5tific exp]im5ts1 ! communications sy/em electronics2 ! data encod] 7= process+ data be=e telemet]+ x to ! ,e>?7 & ! comm& electronics2 ! attitude control1 digital comput]1 & tim+ sequ5c] circuits2 a p[] control & batt]y *>g] assembly2 & ! batt]y assembly4 ,! allotm5t ( weights = ,m>9] ,,ii =c$ rigid limitation 9 ! /ructural design ( ! spacecraft4 ,z laun*$1 ! weights ( ! major spacecraft subsy/ems 7 z foll[s3 ,/ructure #gg p\nds ,sol> panels #dh p\nds ,electronics #adf p\nds ,propulsion #cb p\nds ,batt]y #cc p\nds ,sci5tific exp]im5ts #da p\nds ,miscellane\s equipm5t #gj p\nds ,gross weight #ddg p\nds ,,! ,,p[] ,,sy/em ,m>9] ,,ii 0 self-suffici5t 9 p[]4 ,x conv]t$ en]gy f sunlight into electrical curr5t ?r\gh ! use ( sol> panels compos$ ( photoelectric cells :i* *>g$ a batt]y in/all$ 9 "o ( ! six *assis on ! hexagonal base4 ,! control1 swit*+1 & regulat+ circuits 7 h\s$ 9 ano!r ( ! *assis cases4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is hexagonal frame1 con/ruct$ ( magnesium & alum9um1 is ! basic support+ /ructure ar\nd :i* ! ,m>9] spacecraft is assembl$4 ,illu/ration3 ,plan view f top %[+ six magnesium *assis h+$ 9 op5 position4 ,,view ,,look+ ,,aft ,,assemblies ,,h+$ ,,9 ,,op5 ,,position ,,sci5tific ,,equipm5t ,,assembly ,i ,,communications ,,assembly ,,ii ,,data ,,encod] ,,& ,,comm& ,,assembly ,,iii ,,attitude ,,control ,,& ,,cc ,,& ,s ,,assembly ,,iv ,,p[] ,,assembly ,v ,,batt]y ,,assembly ,,vi ,! batt]y op]at$ ! spacecraft sy/ems dur+ ! p]iod f laun* until ! sol> panels 7 fac$ onto ! ,sun4 ,9 addition1 ! batt]y suppli$ p[] dur+ trajectory maneuv]s :5 ! panels 7 tempor>ily out ( sight ( ! ,sun4 ,x %>$ ! dem& = p[] :5 ! panels 7 ov]load$4 ,! batt]y furni%$ p[] directly = swit*+ v>i\s equipm5t 9 flight & = c]ta9 o!r heavy loads ( brief duration1 su* z ! detonation ( explosive devices = releas+ ! sol> panels4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] spacecraft ) sol> panels 9 op5 position4 ,note ext5sion to left panel to balance sol> pressures 9 flight4 ,! ,m>9] batt]y us$ seal$ silv]-z9c cells & _h a capacity ( #ajjj watt-h\rs4 ,x weigh$ #cc p\nds & 0 re*>g$ 9 flight by ! sol> panels4 ,! sol> panels1 z orig9ally design$1 7 #fj in*es long by #cj in*es wide & conta9$ approximately #ihjj sol> cells 9 a total area ( #bg squ>e feet4 ,ea* sol> cell produc$ only ab\t #bcj "o-?\s&?s ( a volt4 ,! entire array 0 design$ to conv]t ! ,sun's en]gy to electrical p[] 9 ! range betwe5 #adh & #bbb watts4 ,:5 a lat] design *ange requir$ ! ext5sion ( "o panel 9 ord] to add m sol> cells1 x 0 necess>y to add a blank ext5sion to ! o!r panel 9 ord] to balance ! sol> pressure on ! spacecraft4 ,9 ord] to protect ! sol> cells f ! infr>$ & ultraviolet radiation ( ! ,sun1 :i* w\ld produce heat b no electrical en]gy1 ea* cell 0 %ield$ f ^! rays by a glass filt] :i* 0 nev]!less transp>5t to ! light :i* ! cells conv]t$ into p[]4 ,! p[] subsy/em electronics circuits 7 h\s$ 9 ano!r ( ! hexagon *assis cases4 ,?is equipm5t 0 design$ to receive & swit* p[] ei!r f ! sol> panels1 ! batt]y1 or a comb9ation ( ! two1 to a boo/]-regulator4 ,,cc,s3 ,,! ,,bra9 ,,& ,,! ,,/opwat* ,once ! ,atlas boo/] lift$ ,m>9] (f ! laun* pad1 ! digital ,c5tral ,comput] & ,sequ5c] 7,,cc,s7 p]=m$ c]ta9 computations & provid$ ! basic tim+ control = ^? spacecraft subsy/ems :i* requir$ a sequ5c$ programm+ control4 ,! ,,cc,s 0 design$ to initiate ! op]ations ( ! spacecraft 9 ?ree di/9ct sequ5ces or 8modes03 7#a7 ! laun* mode1 f laun* ?r\gh ! cruise configuration2 7#b7 ! midc\rse propulsion mode1 :5 ,m>9] readju/$ its sights on ,v5us2 & 7#c7 ! enc\nt] mode1 involv+ comm&s = data collection 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! planet4 ,! ,,cc,s tim$ ,m>9]'s actions z x travell$ m ?an #ahj million miles 9 pursuit ( ,v5us4 ,a highly accurate electronic clock 7cry/al-controll$ oscillator7 s*$ul$ ! op]ations ( ! spacecraft subsy/ems4 ,! oscillator frequ5cy ( #cjg4b kilocycles 0 r$uc$ to ! #b1djj- & #djj-;cycle-p]-second output requir$ = ! p[] subsy/em4 ,! control oscillator also tim$ ! issuance ( comm&s by ! ,,cc,s 9 ea* ( ! ?ree op]at+ modes ( ! spacecraft4 ,a #a-pulse-p]-m9ute signal 0 provid$ = su* laun* sequ5ce ev5ts z ! ext5sion ( ! sol> panels #dd m9utes aft] laun*1 turn+ on p[] = ! attitude control subsy/em "o h\r aft] laun*1 & = c]ta9 velocity correction comm&s dur+ ! midc\rse maneuv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! spacecraft us$ two ant5nas = communication4 ,! omni-ant5na 7top7 0 utiliz$ :5 ! directional ant5na 7bottom7 c\ld n be po9t$ at ! ,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is comm& ant5na 7on sol> panel7 0 us$ to receive maneuv] comm&s4 ,a #a-pulse-p]-second signal 0 g5]at$ z a ref]5ce dur+ ! roll & pit* maneuv]s 9 ! midc\rse trajectory correction phase4 ,"o pulse 0 g5]at$ e #c4c h\rs 9 ord] to initiate ! comm& to ori5t ! directional ant5na on ! ,e>? at #afg h\rs aft] laun*4 ,f9ally1 "o pulse e #af4g h\rs 0 us$ to readju/ ! ,e>?-ori5t$ direction ( ! ant5na ?r\gh\t ! flight4 ,,telecommunications3 ,,relay+ ,,! ,,data ,! telecommunications subsy/em enabl$ ,m>9] to receive & to decode comm&s f ! ,e>?1 to encode & to transmit in=mation conc]n+ space & ,m>9]'s own function+1 & to provide a means = precise measurem5t ( ! spacecraft's velocity & position relative to ! ,e>?4 ,! spacecraft accompli%$ all ^! functions us+ only #c watts ( transmitt$ p[] up to a maximum range ( #ec4i million miles4 ,a data encod] unit1 ) ,,cc,s sequ5c+1 tim$ ! ?ree phases ( ,m>9]'s j\rney3 7#a7 ,9 ! laun* mode1 only eng9e]+ data on spacecraft p]=mance 7 transmitt$2 7#b7 dur+ ! cruise mode1 in=mation conc]n+ space & ,m>9]'s own function+ 0 transmitt$2 & 7#c7 :ile ! spacecraft 0 9 ! vic9ity ( ,v5us1 only sci5tific in=mation conc]n+ ! planet 0 to be transmitt$4 7,! ,,cc,s fail$ to />t ! ?ird mode automatically & x 0 initiat$ by radio comm& f ! ,e>?47 ,aft] ! enc\nt] ) ,v5us1 ,m>9] 0 programm$ to swit* back to ! cruise mode = h&l+ bo? eng9e]+ & sci5ce data 7?is sequ5ce 0 also comm&$ by ,e>? radio74 ,m>9] ,,ii us$ a te*nique = modulat+ 7sup]impos+ intellig5t in=mation7 its radio c>ri] ) telemetry data kn[n z phase-%ift key+4 ,9 ?is sy/em1 ! cod$ signals f ! telemetry measurem5ts displace ano!r signal ( ! same frequ5cy b ( a diff]5t phase4 ,^! displacem5ts 9 phase are receiv$ on ! ,e>? & !n translat$ back into ! codes :i* indicate ! voltage1 temp]ature1 int5sity1 or o!r values measur$ by ! spacecraft telemetry s5sors or sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,a cont9ually repeat+ code1 almo/ noise-l bo? 9 s\nd & appe>ance on an oscilloscope1 0 us$ = syn*roniz+ ! gr\nd receiv] decod] ) ! spacecraft4 ,?is decod] !n deciph]$ ! data c>ri$ on ! in=mation *annel4 ,?is te*nique 0 call$ a two-*annel1 b9>y-cod$1 pseudo-noise communication sy/em & x 0 us$ to modulate a radio signal = transmission1 j z 9 any o!r radio sy/em4 ,radio comm& signals transmitt$ to ,m>9] 7 decod$ 9 a comm& subassembly1 process$1 & r\t$ to ! prop] us+ devices4 ,a transpond] 0 us$ to receive ! comm&s1 s5d back confirmation ( receipt to ! ,e>?1 & di/ribute !m to ! spacecraft subsy/ems4 ,m>9] ,,ii us$ f\r ant5nas 9 its communication sy/em4 ,a cone-l nondirectional 7omni7 ant5na 0 m\nt$ at ! top ( ! spacecraft sup]/ructure1 & 0 us$ f injection into ! ,v5us flight trajectory ?r\gh ! midc\rse maneuv] 7! directional ant5na c\ld n be us$ until x _h be5 ori5t$ on ! ,e>?74 ,a di%-type1 high-ga91 directional ant5na 0 us$ at ,e>? ori5tation & aft] ! trajectory correction maneuv] 0 complet$4 ,x c\ld receive radio signals at great] di/ances ?an ! nondirectional ant5na4 ,! directional ant5na 0 ne/$ b5ea? ! hexagonal frame ( ! spacecraft :ile x 0 9 ! nose-cone %r\d4 ,foll[+ ! unfold+ ( ! sol> panels1 x 0 swung into op]at+ position1 al?\gh x 0 n us$ until aft] ! spacecraft lock$ onto ! ,sun4 ,! directional ant5na 0 equipp$ ) flexible coaxial cables & a rot>y jo9t4 ,x c\ld move 9 two directions2 "o motion 0 suppli$ by roll+ ! spacecraft ar\nd its long axis4 ,9 addition1 two comm& ant5nas1 "o on ei!r side ( "o ( ! sol> panels1 receiv$ radio comm&s f ! ,e>? = ! midc\rse maneuv] & o!r functions4 ,,attitude ,,control3 ,,balanc+ ,,9 ,,space ,m>9] ,,ii _h to ma9ta9 a delicate balance 9 its flight position dur+ ! trip to ,v5us 7l a tight-wire walk] balanc+ ) a pole7 9 ord] to keep its sol> panels lock$ onto ! ,sun & ! directional ant5na po9t$ at ! ,e>?4 ,o!rwise1 bo? p[] & communications w\ld h be5 lo/4 ,a sy/em ( gas jets & valves 0 us$ p]iodically to adju/ ! attitude or position ( ! spacecraft4 ,expulsion ( nitrog5 gas suppli$ ! =ce = ^! adju/m5ts dur+ ! cruise mode4 ,:ile ! spacecraft 0 subject$ to ! heavi] di/urbances caus$ by ! rocket eng9e dur+ ! midc\rse maneuv]1 ! gas jets c\ld n provide en\gh p[] to control ! attitude ( ! spacecraft & x 0 necess>y to use deflect+ vanes z rudd]s 9 ! rocket eng9e exhau/ /ream = /abiliz+ purposes4 ,! attitude control sy/em 0 activat$ by ,,cc,s comm& #fj m9utes aft] laun*+4 ,x op]at$ fir/ to align ! long axis ( ! spacecraft ) ! ,sun2 ?us its sol> panels w\ld face ! ,sun4 ,ei!r ! ,sun s5sors or ! ?ree gyroscopes m\nt$ 9 ! pit* 7rock+ back & =?71 yaw 7side to side71 & roll axes1 c\ld activate ! gas jet valves dur+ ! maneuv]1 :i* normally requir$ ab\t #cj m9utes to complete4 ,! spacecraft 0 all[$ a po9t+ error ( #a degree 9 ord] to cons]ve gas4 ,! sy/em kept ! spacecraft sw++ ?r\gh ?is #a degree ( arc approximately once ea* #fj m9utes4 ,z x ne>$ ! limit on ei!r side1 ! jets fir$ = approximately _/ ( a second to />t ! sw+ sl[ly 9 ! o!r direction4 ,?us1 ,m>9] rock$ leisurely back & =? ?r\gh\t its #d-mon? trip4 ,s5sitive photomultipli] tubes or electric eyes 9 ! ,e>? s5sor1 m\nt$ on ! directional ant5na1 activat$ ! gas jets to roll ! spacecraft ab\t ! already fix$ long axis 9 ord] to face ! ant5na t[>d ! ,e>?4 ,:5 ! ,e>? 0 8acquir$10 ! ant5na w\ld !n necess>ily be ori5t$ 9 ! prop] direction4 ,if telemetry reveal$ t ,m>9] _h accid5tally fix$ on ! ,moon1 ov]-ride radio comm&s f ! ,e>? c\ld re/>t ! ori5tation sequ5ce4 ,,propulsion ,,sy/em ,! ,m>9] propulsion sy/em = midc\rse trajectory correction employ$ a rocket eng9e t weigh$ #cg p\nds ) fuel & a nitrog5 pressure sy/em1 & develop$ #ej p\nds ( ?ru/ = a maximum ( #eg seconds4 ,! sy/em 0 susp5d$ )9 ! c5tral portion ( ! basic hexagonal /ructure ( ! spacecraft4 ,?is retro-rocket eng9e us$ a type ( liquid propellant kn[n z anhydr\s hydraz9e & x 0 s delicately controll$ t x c\ld burn = z little z _/ ( a second & increase ! velocity ( ! spacecraft f z little z _/ ( a foot p] second to z mu* z #bjj feet p] second4 ,! hydraz9e fuel 0 /or$ 9 a rubb] bladd] inside a doorknob-%ap$ conta9]4 ,at ! ignition comm&1 nitrog5 gas "u #c1jjj-p\nd-p]-squ>e-in* pressure 0 =c$ into ! propellant tank ?r\gh explosively activat$ valves4 ,! nitrog5 !n squeez$ ! rubb] bladd]1 =c+ ! hydraz9e into ! combu/ion *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! midc\rse propulsion sy/em provides trajectory correction = close approa* to ,v5us4 ,,fuel ,,tank ,,nitrog5 ,,tank ,,jet ,,vane ,,actuator 7,,"o ,,( ,,f\r7 ,,?ru/ ,,*amb] ,hydraz9e1 a monopropellant1 requires a />t+ ignition = prop] combu/ion4 ,9 ! ,m>9] sy/em1 nitrog5 tetroxide />t+ or 8k9dl+0 fluid 0 inject$ into ! propellant tank by a pressuriz$ c>tridge4 ,alum9um oxide pellets 9 ! tank act$ z cataly/s to control ! spe$ ( combu/ion ( ! hydraz9e4 ,! burn+ ( ! hydraz9e 0 /opp$ :5 ! fl[ ( nitrog5 gas 0 halt$1 also by explosively activat$ valves4 ,,temp]ature ,,control ,m>9]'s #abi days 9 space pres5t$ "s unique problems 9 temp]ature control4 ,eng9e]s 7 fac$ ) ! necessity ( a*iev+ "s =m ( !rmal balance s t ,m>9] w\ld become nei!r too hot nor too cold 9 ! ho/ile environm5t ( space4 ,! spacecraft's temp]ature control sy/em 0 made z !rmally self-suffici5t z possible4 ,pa9t patt]ns1 alum9um %eet1 ?9 gold plat+1 & poli%$ alum9um surfaces reflect$ & absorb$ ! prop] am\nt ( heat necess>y to keep ! spacecraft & its subsy/ems at ! prop] op]at+ temp]atures4 ,!rmal %ields 7 us$ to protect ! basic hexagon compon5ts4 ,! upp] %ield1 con/ruct$ ( alum9iz$ pla/ic on a fib]glass panel1 protect$ ! top ( ! basic /ructure & 0 design$ = maximum immunity to ultraviolet radiation4 ,! l[] %ield 0 in/all$ bel[ ! hexagon2 x 0 made ( alum9um pla/ic fac$ ) alum9um foil :]e x 0 expos$ to ! bla/ ( ! midc\rse rocket eng9e exhau/4 ,illu/ration3 ,me?ods us$ to control ! temp]ature ( ! ,m>9] spacecraft 9 flight4 ,,*romate ,,conv]sion ,,coat+ ,,upp] ,,!rmal ,,%ield ,,poli%$ ,,alum9um ,,l\v]s ,,gold ,,plate ,,black ,,pa9t ,,l[] ,,!rmal ,,%ield ,,:ite ,,pa9t ,! six electronics cases on ! hexagon /ructure 7 v>i\sly treat$1 dep5d+ ^u ! p[] ( ! compon5ts conta9$ 9 ea*4 ,^? ( high p[] 7 coat$ ) a good radiat+ surface ( :ite pa9t2 assemblies ( l[ p[] 7 provid$ ) poli%$ alum9um %ields to m9imize ! heat loss4 ,! case h\s+ ! attitude control & ,,cc,s electronics circuits 0 p>ticul>ly s5sitive because ! critical units might fail above #acj degrees ,f4 ,a special assembly 0 m\nt$ on ! face ( ?is case2 x consi/$ ( eight movable1 poli%$ alum9um l\v]s1 ea* actuat$ by a coil$1 temp]ature-s5sitive1 bimetallic elem5t4 ,:5 ! temp]ature rose1 ! elem5ts act$ z spr+s & op5$ ! l\v]s4 ,a drop 9 temp]ature w\ld close !m4 ,/ructures & bracket assemblies ext]nal to ! basic hexagon 7 gold plat$ if made ( magnesium1 or poli%$ if alum9um4 ,?us protect$1 ^! items became poor !rmal radiators z well z poor sol> absorb]s1 mak+ !m relatively immune to sol> radiation4 ,ext]nal cabl+ 0 wrapp$ 9 alum9iz$ pla/ic to produce a simil> effect4 ,! sol> panels 7 pa9t$ on ! %ad$ side = maximum radiation control prop]ties4 ,o!r items 7 design$ s t ! int]nal surfaces 7 z effici5t radiators z possible1 ?us cons]v+ ! spacecraft's heat balance4 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,in/rum5ts ,f\r in/rum5ts 7 op]at$ ?r\gh\t ! cruise & enc\nt] modes ( ,m>9]3 a magnetomet]1 a sol> plasma detector1 a cosmic du/ detector1 & a comb9$ *>g$-p>ticle detector & radiation c\nt]4 ,two radiomet]s 7 us$ only 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ,v5us4 ,^! in/rum5ts are describ$ 9 detail 9 ,*apt] #h4 ,,*apt] #d ,,! ,,laun* ,,vehicle ,! motive p[] ( ,m>9] itself 0 limit$ to a trajectory correction rocket eng9e & an ability1 by means ( gas jets1 to keep its two critical faces po9t+ at ! ,sun & ! ,e>?4 ,!re=e1 ! spacecraft _h to be boo/$ out ( ! ,e>?'s gravitational field & inject$ into a flight pa? accurate en\gh to all[ ! trajectory correction sy/em to alt] ! c\rse to deliv] ! spacecraft close en\gh to ,v5us to be )9 op]at+ range ( ! sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,! comb9$ ,atlas-,ag5a ,b boo/] sy/em :i* 0 select$ to d ! job _h a total ?ru/ ( ab\t #cgf1jjj p\nds4 ,) ?is p[]1 ,atlas-,ag5a c\ld put #e1jjj p\nds ( payload into a #cde-mile orbit1 propel #gej p\nds on a lun> trajectory1 or laun* approximately #djj p\nds on a planet>y mission4 ,?is la/ capability w\ld be tax$ to ! limit by ! #ddg p\nds ( ! ,m>9] spacecraft4 ,,! ,,atlas ,,boo/]3 ,,p[] ,,( ,,six #gjg',s ,! #cfj1jjj p\nds ( ?ru/ develop$ by ! ,atlas ,d missile is equival5t to ! ?ru/ g5]at$ by ! eng9es ( six ,boe+ #gjg jet airplanes4 ,all ( ?is awesome p[] requires a g>gantuan am\nt ( fuel3 9 less ?an #bj seconds1 ,atlas consumes m ?an a propell]-driv51 f\r-eng9e airplane burns 9 fly+ coa/-to-coa/ non/op4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo c\rtesy ( ,g5]al ,dynamics_/,a/ronautics ,?is milit>y v]sion ( ! ,atlas missile is modifi$ = ,,nasa space flights4 ,! ,atlas missile1 z develop$ by ,convair = ! ,air ,=ce1 has a range ( #f1cjj miles & rea*es a top spe$ ( #af1jjj miles p] h\r4 ,! missile has be5 some:at modifi$ = use by ,,nasa z a space boo/] vehicle4 ,its mission 0 to lift ! second-/age ,ag5a ,b & ! ,m>9] spacecraft into ! prop] position & altitude at ! "r spe$ s t ! ,ag5a c\ld g into ,e>? orbit1 prelim9>y to ! take(f = int]planet>y space4 ,! ,atlas ,d has two ma9 sections3 a body or su/a9] section1 & a jettisonable aft1 or boo/] eng9e section4 ,! vehicle measures ab\t #ajj feet 9 l5g? 7) milit>y nose cone7 & has a diamet] ( #aj feet at ! base4 ,! weight is approximately #bge1jjj p\nds4 ,no a]odynamic control surfaces su* z f9s or rudd]s are us$4 ,! ,atlas is /abiliz$ & controll$ by 8gimbal+0 or swivel+ ! eng9e ?ru/ *amb]s by means ( a hydraulic sy/em4 ,! direction ( ?ru/ c ?us be alt]$ to control ! movem5ts ( ! missile4 ,! aft section m\nts two #aed1ejj-p\nd-?ru/ boo/] eng9es & ! entire section is jettison$ or sep>at$ f ! su/a9] section aft] ! boo/] eng9es burn out4 ,! #fj1jjj-p\nd-?ru/ su/a9] eng9e is atta*$ at ! c5t] l9e ( ! su/a9] section4 ,two #a1jjj-p\nd-?ru/ v]ni] 7f9e /e]+7 eng9es are in/all$ on opposite sides ( ! tank section 9 ! yaw or side-turn plane4 ,all ?ree gr\ps ( eng9es op]ate dur+ ! boo/] phase4 ,only ! su/a9] & ! v]ni] eng9es burn aft] /ag+ 7:5 ! boo/] eng9e section is sep>at$ f ! su/a9] section ( ! missile74 ,all ( ! eng9es use liquid oxyg5 & a liquid hydroc>bon fuel 7,,rp-#a7 :i* is mu* l k]os5e4 ,dual turbopumps & valves control ! fl[ ( ^! propellants4 ,! boo/] eng9e propellants are deliv]$ "u pressure to ! propellant or combu/ion *amb]1 :]e !y are ignit$ by electroexplosive devices4 ,ea* boo/] ?ru/ *amb] c be swivel$ a maximum ( #e degrees 9 pit* 7up & d[n7 & yaw 7f side to side7 ab\t ! missile c5t]l9e4 ,! su/a9] eng9e is deflect$ #c degrees 9 pit* & yaw4 ,! outbo>d v]ni] eng9es gimbal to p]mit pit* & roll movem5t ?r\gh #adj degrees ( arc1 & yaw movem5t ?r\gh #bj degrees t[>d ! missile body & #cj degrees outw>d4 ,all ?ree gr\ps ( eng9es are />t$ & develop _! full rat$ ?ru/ :ile ! missile is held on ! laun* pad4 ,aft] take(f1 ! boo/] eng9es burn out & are jettison$4 ,! su/a9] eng9e cont9ues to burn until its ?ru/ is t]m9at$4 ,! swivel$ v]ni] eng9es provide ! f9al correction 9 velocity & missile attitude be=e !y are also %ut d[n4 ,! propellant tank is ! basic /ructure ( ! =w>d or su/a9] section ( ! ,atlas4 ,x is made ( ?9 /a9less /eel & is approximately #ej feet long4 ,int]nal pressure ( helium gas is us$ to support ! tank /ructure1 ?us elim9at+ ! ne$ = int]nal brac+ /ructures1 sav+ consid]able weight1 & increas+ ov]-all p]=mance ( ! missile4 ,! helium gas us$ = ?is purpose is exp&$ to ! prop] pressure by heat f ! eng9es4 ,equipm5t pods on ! outside ( ! su/a9] section h\se ! electrical & electronic units & o!r compon5ts ( ! missile sy/ems4 ,! ,atlas uses a flight programm]1 an autopilot1 & ! gimbal$ eng9e ?ru/ *amb] actuators = flight control4 ,! attitude ( ! vehicle is controll$ by ! autopilot1 :i* is set = ?is automatic function be=e ! flight4 ,guidance comm&s are furni%$ by a gr\nd radio guidance sy/em & comput]4 ,! airborne radio in]tial guidance sy/em employs two radio beacons :i* respond to ! gr\nd rad>4 ,a decod] on bo>d ! missile processes ! guidance comm&s4 ,,! ,,ag5a ,b3 ,,/>t ,,& ,,re/>t ,laun*+ ,m>9] to ,v5us requir$ a second-/age vehicle capable ( driv+ ! spacecraft out ( ,e>? orbit & into a prop] flight pa? to ! planet4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo c\rtesy ( ,lockhe$ ,missiles & ,space ,company ,! ,ag5a ,b second /age is hoi/$ to ! top ( ! gantry at ,,amr4 ,! ,ag5a ,b us$ = ?is purpose weighs #a1gjj p\nds1 is #fj in*es 9 diamet]1 & has an ov]-all l5g? ( #be feet1 v>y+ some:at ) ! payload4 ,! ,ag5a ,b fuel tanks are made ( #j4jhj-;in* alum9um alloy4 ,! liquid-burn+ eng9e develops m ?an #af1jjj p\nds ( ?ru/4 ,! propellants are a =m ( hydraz9e & r$ fum+ nitric acid4 ,! ,ag5a c be /e]$ to a desir$ trajectory by swivel+ ! gimbal-m\nt$ eng9e on comm& ( ! guidance sy/em4 ,! attitude ( ! vehicle is controll$ ei!r by gimbal+ ! eng9e or by eject+ gas f pneumatic ?ru/]s4 ,! ,ag5a has ! ability to re/>t its eng9e aft] x has already fir$ once to rea* an ,e>? orbital spe$4 ,?is feature makes possible a significant increase 9 payload & a *ange ( orbital altitude4 ,a velocity met] ends ! fir/ & second burns :5 pr$et]m9$ velocities h be5 rea*$4 ,aft] eng9e cut(f1 ! major reori5tation ( ! vehicle is a*iev$ ?r\gh gas jets controll$ f an electronic programm+ device4 ,?is sy/em c turn ! ,ag5a completely ar\nd 9 orbit1 or pit* x d[n = re5try into ! atmosph]e4 ,! attitude is controll$ by an infr>$1 heat-s5sitive horizon scann] & gyroscopes4 ,! pr9cipal modification to ! ,ag5a vehicle = ! ,m>9] ,,ii mission 0 an alt]ation to ! spacecraft-,ag5a adapt] 9 ord] to r$uce weight4 ,,*apt] #e ,,flight ,,into ,,space ,) ! ,m>9] ,r ,project (ficially activat$ 9 ! fall ( #aifa & ! laun* vehicles select$1 eng9e]s proce$$ at full spe$ to meet ! difficult laun* s*$ule4 ,a prelim9>y design 0 adopt$ 9 late ,septemb]1 :5 ! sci5tific exp]im5ts to be c>ri$ on bo>d 7 also select$4 ,by ,octob] #b1 a s*$ule _h be5 e/abli%$ t w\ld deliv] two spacecraft to ! assembly build+ 9 ,pasad5a by ,janu>y #ae & #bi1 #aifb1 respectively1 ) ! sp>es to foll[ 9 two weeks4 ,dur+ ! week ( ,novemb] #f1 te/s 7 und]way to det]m9e problems involv$ 9 mat+ a mock-up ( ! spacecraft ) ! ,ag5a %r\d & adapt] assembly4 ,a !rmal control model ( ! spacecraft _h already gone into ! small space simulator at ,,jpl = prelim9>y temp]ature te/s4 ,,mr-#a1 ! fir/ ,m>9] s*$ul$ = flight1 0 9 assembly imm$iately aft] ,janu>y #h1 #aifb1 & ! process 0 complete by ! end ( ! mon?1 :5 electrical & magnetic field te/s _h be5 />t$4 ,at ! same "t1 assembly ( ,,mr-#b 0 und]way4 ,"w on ,,mr-#a 0 a week ahead ( s*$ule by ! end ( ! mon?4 ,a full-scale temp]ature control model ( ! spacecraft w5t into ! l>ge space simulator on ,febru>y #bf4 ,9 mid-,m>*1 sy/em te/s began on bo? spacecraft & x 0 decid$ t ! flight h>dw>e w\ld be te/$ only 9 ! small simulator1 ) ! temp]ature control model cont9u+ 9 ! l>ge *amb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,te*nician we>s hood & protective goggles :ile work+ on ,m>9] spacecraft 9 ,space simulator *amb] at ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ,pasad5a4 ,on ,m>* #bf1 ,,mr-#a 0 subject$ to full-scale mat+ te/s ) ! %r\d 7cov]7 & ! adapt] = m\nt+ ! spacecraft on top ( ! ,ag5a4 ,,mr-#b 0 und]go+ vibration te/s dur+ ! week ( ,april #af4 ,by ,april #cj1 ,,mr-#a _h complet$ vibration te/s & _h be5 mapp$ = magnetic fields s t1 once comp5sat$ =1 !y w\ld n int]f]e ) ! magnetomet] exp]im5t 9 space4 ,a dummy run ( ,,mr-#a 0 conduct$ on ,may #g & ! spacecraft1 space flight c5t]1 & comput+ equipm5t 7 put ?r\gh a simulat$ op]ations te/ run dur+ ! same week4 ,by ,may #ad1 clean-up & f9al inspection by microscope _h begun on ,,mr-#a1 ,,mr-#b1 & ,,mr-#c 7! latt] spacecraft _h be5 assembl$ f ! sp>es74 ,soon aft]1 ! fir/ two van loads ( equipm5t 7 %ipp$ to ,cape ,canav]al4 ,! f9al sy/em te/ ( ,,mr-#a 0 complet$ on ,may #ba & ! te/ ( ,,mr-#b foll[$ dur+ ! same week4 ,dur+ ! week ( ,may #bh1 all ?ree spacecraft & _! associat$ gr\nd support equipm5t 7 pack$1 load$1 & %ipp$ to ! ,atlantic ,missile ,range 7,,amr74 ,at ! same "t1 ! ,atlas designat$ to laun* ,,mr-#a w5t abo>d a ,c-#acc freight aircraft at ,san ,diego4 ,on ! same day1 an ,air ,=ce ord] gr\nd$ all ,c-#acc's = inspection & ! plane did n dep>t until ,june #i4 ,by ,june #aa1 #aifb1 ! fir+ dates _h be5 e/abli%$ & bo? spacecraft 7 ready = laun*+4 ,! ,atlas boo/] _h already be5 erect$ on ! laun* pad4 ,! dummy run & a jo9t flight acceptance te/ 7 complet$ on ,,mr-#a dur+ ! week ( ,july #b4 ,f9al flight prep>ations & sy/em te/ ( ,,mr-#a & ! sy/em te/ ( ,,mr-#b 7 conclud$ a week lat]4 ,?us1 9 #cbd days1 a new spacecraft project _h be5 activat$2 ! design1 assembly1 & te/+ _h be5 complet$2 & ! inf9ite numb] ( decisions p]ta9+ to laun*1 ,,amr ,range ,op]ations1 deep-space track+1 & data process+ activities _h be5 made & implem5t$4 ,v5us 0 approa*+ ! ,e>? at ! end ( its #ai-mon? excursion ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,! laun* vehicles & ,m>9]s ,i & ,,ii /ood ready to g f ,canav]al's ,laun* ,complex #ab4 ,! ev5ts lead+ to ! fir/ close-up look at ,v5us & int]v5+ space 7 ab\t to rea* _! fir/ crisis3 a fi]y explosion ov] ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,,m>9] ,i3 ,,an ,,abortive ,,laun* ,aft] #egj h\rs ( te/+1 ,m>9] ,i 0 pois$ on top ( ! ,atlas-,ag5a laun* vehicle dur+ ! night ( ,july #bj1 #aifb4 ,! "t 0 "r1 ! ,range & ! track+ net 7 /&+ by1 ! laun* vehicles 7 ready to ca/ (f ! spacecraft = ,v5us4 ,illu/ration3 ,atlas = laun*+ ,m>9] ,,ii arrives at ,cape ,canav]al 9 ,c-#acc aircraft4 ,! c\ntd[n 0 begun at #aa3cc p4m41 ,,e/1 ,july #bj1 aft] sev]al delays because ( tr\ble 9 ! ,range ,safety ,comm& sy/em4 ,at ! "t1 ! laun* c\nt /ood at ,t m9us #agf m9utes--if all w5t well1 #agf m9utes until ! boo/] eng9es 7 ignit$4 ,ano!r hold aga9 delay$ ! c\nt until #ab3cg a4m41 ,july #ba1 :5 c\nt+ 0 resum$ at ,t m9us #afe m9utes4 ,! c\nt !n proce$$ )\t incid5t to ,t m9us #gi m9utes at #b3bj a4m41 :5 unc]ta9ty ov] ! cause ( a bl[n fuse 9 ! ,range ,safety circuits caus$ ! op]ations to be 8scrubb$0 or cancell$ = ! night4 ,! next laun* attempt 0 s*$ul$ = ,july #ba-bb4 ,! second laun* c\ntd[n = ,m>9] ,i began %ortly be=e midnight1 ,july #ba4 ,spacecraft p[] _h be5 turn$ on at #aa3jh p4m41 ) ! laun* c\nt at ,t m9us #bjj m9utes4 ,at ,t m9us #ace m9utes1 ! wea!r look$ good4 ,a #da-m9ute hold 0 requir$ at m9us #acj m9utes 7#ab3ag a4m41 ,july #bb7 9 ord] to *ange a noisy compon5t 9 ! gr\nd track+ sy/em4 ,:5 c\nt+ 0 resum$ at ,t m9us #acj m9utes1 ! clock read #ab3dh a4m4 ,a previ\sly s*$ul$ hold 0 call$ at ,t m9us #fj m9utes1 la/+ f #a3eh to #b3ch a4m4 ,! good wea!r /ill held4 ,at ,t m9us #hj seconds1 p[] fluctuations 9 ! radio guidance sy/em =c$ a #cd-m9ute hold4 ,"t 0 resum$ at #d3af a4m41 :5 ! c\ntd[n 0 set back to ,t m9us #e m9utes4 ,at exactly #d3ba4bc a4m41 ,,e/1 ! ,atlas ?und]$ to life & lift$ (f ! pad1 be>+ its ,v5us-b\nd load4 ,! boo/ phase look$ good until ! ,range ,safety (fic] began to notice an uns*$ul$ yaw-left 7nor!a/7 maneuv]4 ,by #d3be a4m41 x 0 evid5t t1 if all[$ to cont9ue1 ! vehicle might cra% 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic %ipp+ lanes or 9 "s inhabit$ area4 ,/e]+ comm&s 7 be+ suppli$ b faulty application ( ! guidance equations 0 tak+ ! vehicle f> (f c\rse4 ,f9ally1 at #d3bf4af a4m41 aft] #bic seconds ( flight & ) j #f seconds left be=e sep>ation ( ! ,atlas & ,ag5a--aft] :i* ! laun* vehicle c\ld n be de/roy$--a ,range ,safety (fic] hit ! 8de/ruct0 button4 ,a fla% ( light illum9at$ ! sky & ! *oppy ,atlantic wat]s 7 awa% ) ! gl[+ dea? ( a space probe4 ,ev5 z x flutt]$ d[n to ! sea1 h[ev]1 ! radio transpond] ( ! %att]$ ,m>9] ,i cont9u$ to transmit = #a m9ute & #d seconds aft] ! de/roy comm& _h be5 s5t4 ,m>9] ,i did n succumb easily4 ,,m>9] ,,ii3 ,a ,,roll ,,be=e ,,p>k+ ,ev] s9ce ,m>9] ,,ii _h arriv$ at ! ,cape on ,june #d1 te/ teams ( all organizations _h labor$ day & night to prep>e ! spacecraft = laun*4 ,! end ( _! ef=ts culm9at$ aft] "s #fij h\rs ( te/ "t1 bo? 9 ,cali=nia & 9 ,florida4 ,?irty-five days aft] ,m>9] ,i met its explosive end1 ! fir/ c\ntd[n on ,m>9] ,,ii 0 und]way4 ,at #f3dc p4m41 ,,e/1 ,augu/ #be1 #aifb1 "t 0 pick$ up4 ,! c\ntd[n did n proce$ f>1 h[ev]4 ,! ,atlas crew ask$ = a hold at ,t m9us #bje m9utes 7#h3ci p4m47 because ( /ray voltages 9 ! comm& de/ruct sy/em caus$ by a defective ,ag5a batt]y4 ,aft] consid]able delay1 ! laun* ef=t 0 scrubb$ at #aj3jf p4m4 ,illu/ration3 ,two assembly op]ations & sy/em *eck\ts are p]=m$ sep>at$ by a trip to ! pad to v]ify compatibility ) ! laun* vehicle ,illu/ration3 ,a complete electronic *eck\t /ation 9 ! hang> supports ! spacecraft to ensure op]ability ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] takes =m z ! sol> panels are atta*$ & ! f9al hang> *eck\t op]ations are p]=m$ be=e ! laun*4 ,illu/ration3 ,wrapp$ 9 a du/ cov]1 ! spacecraft is transf]r$ f ,hang> ,,ae at ,,amr to ! explosive safe area = fur!r te/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,inside ! bunk]-l explosive safe area1 ! p[]ful midc\rse maneuv] rocket eng9e is in/all$ 9 ! c5t] ( ! spacecraft4 ,illu/ration3 ,f9al assembly & inspection complete1 ,m>9] is 8cann$0 9 ! nose %r\d t w protect x ?r\gh ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e & into space4 ,illu/ration3 ,at ! pad1 ! %r\d$ spacecraft is lift$ pa/ ! ,atlas 444 ,illu/ration3 444 & ! ,ag5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,twelf? floor3 ,m>9] rea*es its mat+ level4 ,illu/ration3 ,! spacecraft is eas$ ov] to ! top ( ! ,ag5a 444 ,illu/ration3 444 & c>efully mat$ to x4 ,! second laun* attempt />t$ at #f3cg p4m41 ,augu/ #bf1 ) ! ,atlas-,ag5a ,b & ,m>9] ,,ii ready on ! pad4 ,at #i3eb p4m41 ,t m9us #ajj m9utes1 a #dj-m9ute hold 0 call$ to replace ! ,atlas ma9 batt]y4 ,by #aj3cg1 ) #ie m9utes to laun*1 all spacecraft sy/ems 7 ready to g4 ,a r\t9e hold at ,t m9us #fj m9utes 0 ext5d$ beyond #cj m9utes 9 ord] to v]ify ! spacecraft batt]y life expectation4 ,at #aa3dh p4m41 ) ! c\nt /&+ at ,t m9us #ee m9utes1 ! spacecraft1 ! vehicles1 ! ,range1 & ! ,,dsif 7 all giv5 ! gre5 light4 ,:5 good laun*+ wea!r 0 report$ at #ab3ah a4m41 ,augu/ #bg1 j #be m9utes f lift(f1 a cauti\s optimism began to m\nt 9 ! blockh\se & among ! tir$ crews4 ,b ! t5sion began to build aga94 ,! second pres*$ul$ hold at ,t m9us #e m9utes 0 ext5d$ beyond a half-h\r :5 ! radio guidance sy/em _h difficulty ) gr\nd /ation p[]4 ,c\nt+ 0 8pick$ up0 & ! clock cont9u$ to move d[n to #fj seconds be=e lift(f4 ,sudd5ly1 ! radio guidance sy/em 0 9 tr\ble aga94 ,fluctuations %[$ 9 its rate beacon signals1 & ano!r hold 0 call$4 ,/ill ano!r hold = ! same reason foll[$ at ,t m9us #ej seconds4 ,?is "t1 at #a3cj a4m41 ! c\nt 0 set back to ,t m9us #e m9utes4 ,"o fur!r crisis develop$ dur+ ?is hold--only #c m9utes ( pre-laun* life rema9$ 9 ,atlas' ma9 batt]y4 ,a quick decision 0 made to hold ! swit*ov] to missile p[] until ,t m9us #fj seconds to help cons]ve ! life ( ! batt]y4 ,at #a3dh a4m41 ! c\nt 0 resum$ aga9 at ,t m9us #e m9utes4 ,! long seconds began to drag4 ,f9ally1 ! ,convair te/ director press$ ! fire button4 ,out on ! laun* pad1 ! ,atlas eng9es ignit$ ) a :ite puff & began to /ra9 aga9/ ! reta9+ bolts z #cfj1jjj p\nds ( ?ru/ began to build up4 ,9 a holocau/ ( noise & flame1 ! ,atlas 0 releas$ & lift$ (f ! laun* pad on a be>+ ( #ajf4h degrees at exactly #a h\r1 #ec m9utes1 #ac4ibg seconds 9 ! morn+ ( ,augu/ #bg1 #aifb4 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 on its way to li/5 to ! music ( ! sph]es4 ,z ! laun* vehicle ro>$ up into ! night sky1 ! ,,jpl ,laun* ,*eck\t ,/ation 7,,dsif ,o7 track$ ! spacecraft until ,m>9] disappe>$ ov] ! horizon4 ,a quick1 prelim9>y evaluation ( spacecraft data %[$ normal read+s & ,atlas seem$ to be fly+ a true c\rse4 ,! ,,amr 9-flight data transmission & computational op]ations 7 be+ p]=m$ z expect$4 ,) lift(f out ( ! way1 ! laun* began to look good4 ,aft] ! radio signal f ! gr\nd guidance sy/em cut (f ! eng9es & ! boo/] section 0 jettison$1 ! rema9+ ,atlas =w>d section1 plus ! ,ag5a & ! spacecraft began to roll4 ,h[ev]1 x /abiliz$ itself 9 a normal attitude4 ,al?\gh ! ,atlas _h n gone out ( ! ,range ,safety re/rictions1 x 0 )9 j #c degrees ( exce$+ ! ,ag5a horizon s5sor limits1 :i* w\ld h =c$ ano!r abort$ mission4 ,aft] ! boo/] sep>ation1 ! ,atlas su/a9] & v]ni] eng9es cont9u$ to burn until !y 7 %ut (f by radio guidance comm&4 ,%ortly !reaft]1 spr+-load$ bolts eject$ ! nose-cone %r\d :i* _h protect$ ! spacecraft aga9/ frictional heat+ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,simultane\sly1 ! gyroscopes 9 ! ,ag5a 7 />t$ &1 at ab\t #a3eh a4m41 ! ,ag5a & ! spacecraft sep>at$ f ! n[-sp5t ,atlas1 :i* 0 ret>d$ by small retro-rockets & drift$ back into ! atmosph]e1 :]e x 0 de/roy$ by friction on re5try4 ,,! ,,p>k+ ,,orbit ,z ! ,ag5a sep>at$ f ! ,atlas boo/] vehicle1 x 0 programm$ to pit* d[n almo/ #ae degrees1 putt+ x r\ghly p>allel ) ! local horizon4 ,!n1 foll[+ a brief coa/+ p]iod1 ! ,ag5a eng9e ignit$ at #a3eh4ec a4m4 & fir$ until #b3ja4ab a4m4 ,cut-(f occurr$ at a pr$et]m9$ value ( velocity4 ,bo? ! ,ag5a & ! spacecraft _h n[ rea*$ a spe$ ( approximately #ah1jjj miles p] h\r & _h gone into an ,e>? orbit at an altitude ( #aaf4ai /atute miles4 ,! second /age & ! spacecraft 7 n[ 9 a 8p>k+ orbit10 :i* w\ld all[ ! vehicle to coa/ out to a po9t m favorable ?an ,cape ,canav]al = bla/+ (f ,m>9] = ,v5us4 ,dur+ ! laun*1 ,cape rad> _h track$ ! rad> beacon on ! ,ag5a1 los+ x on ! horizon at #b3jj4ec a4m4 ,rad> /ations at ,gr& ,bahama ,isl&1 ,san ,salvador1 ,asc5sion1 ! ,tw9 ,falls ,victory %ip1 & ,pretoria 79 ,s\? ,africa7 cont9u$ to track d[n range4 ,mean:ile1 ,antigua _h 8lock$ on0 & track$ ! spacecraft's radio transpond] & telemetry f #a3eh to #b3jh a4m4 :5 x w5t ov] ! ,antigua horizon4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] ,,ii is accel]at$ to ,e>?-escape velocity & out ( orbit ne> ,/4 ,hel5a4 ,rotation ( e>? causes flight pa? to appe> to d\ble back to we/ ov] ,africa4 ,illu/ration3 ,! sequ5ce ( ev5ts 9 ! laun* phase ( ! ,m>9] flight to ,v5us4 ,,ev5t #a4 ,,lift(f #b4 ,,atlas ,,boo/] ,,eng9e ,,cut(f #c4 ,,atlas ,,su/a9] ,,eng9e ,,cut(f #d4 ,,atlas ,,v]ni] ,,eng9e ,,cut(f #e4 ,,spacecraft ,,%r\d ,,ejection #f4 ,,atlas-,,ag5a ,b ,,sep>ation #g4 ,,ag5a ,b ,,fir/ ,,ignition #h4 ,,ag5a ,b ,,fir/ ,,cut(f #i4 ,,ag5a ,b ,,second ,,ignition #aj4 ,,ag5a ,b ,,second ,,cut(f #aa4 ,,spacecraft ,,sep>ation #ab4 ,,initiate ,,ag5a ,,yaw ,,maneuv] #ac4 ,,complete ,,ag5a ,,yaw ,,maneuv] #ad4 ,,expel ,,unus$ ,,ag5a ,,propellant ,! second coa/+ p]iod la/$ #af4c m9utes1 a "t det]m9$ by ! gr\nd guidance comput] & transmitt$ to ! ,ag5a dur+ ! v]ni] burn+ p]iod ( ,atlas4 ,!n1 ,ag5a re/>t$ its eng9e & fir$ = a second "t4 ,at ! end ( ?is fir+ p]iod1 bo? ! ,ag5a & ,m>9]1 /ill atta*$1 _h be5 inject$ into a transf] trajectory to ,v5us at a velocity exce$+ t requir$ to escape f ! ,e>?'s gravity4 ,! actual injection into space occurr$ at #bf m9utes #c4jh seconds aft] lift(f f ! ,cape 7#b3ai4ai a4m41 ,,e/7 at a po9t above #ad4hgc degrees s\? latitude & #b4jjg degrees we/ longitude4 ,?us1 ,m>9] made ! break = ,v5us ab\t #cfj miles nor!a/ ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 #b1ejj miles ea/ ( ! ,brazilian coa/1 & ab\t #ijj miles we/ ( ,angola on ! we/ ,african %ore4 ,dur+ injection1 ! vehicle 0 be+ track$ by ,asc5sion1 telemetry %ip ,tw9 ,falls ,victory1 & ,pretoria4 ,telemetry %ip ,:iskey secur$ ! spacecraft signal j aft] injection & track$ until #b3bf a4m4 ,pretoria began its telemetry track at #b3ba & cont9u$ to track = almo/ two h\rs1 until #d3ai a4m4 ,injection velocity 0 #g4jg miles p] second or #be1dbj miles p] h\r1 j beyond ,e>?-escape spe$4 ,! di/ance at ! "t ( injection f ,canav]al's ,laun* ,complex #ab 0 #d1jha4c miles4 ,! ,ag5a & ,m>9] flew ! escape pa? toge!r = ano!r two m9utes aft] injection be=e !y 7 sep>at$ at #b3ba a4m4 ,ag5a !n p]=m$ a #adj-;degree yaw or retro-turn maneuv] by expell+ unus$ propellants4 ,! purpose 0 to prev5t ! un/]iliz$ ,ag5a f possibly hitt+ ! planet1 & f foll[+ ,m>9] too closely & p]haps di/urb+ its in/rum5ts4 ,n[1 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 fly+ alone & cle>4 ,ahead lay a j\rney ( #aji days & m ?an #ahj million miles4 ,,ori5tation ,,& ,,midc\rse ,,maneuv] ,z ,m>9] ,,ii head$ into space1 ! ,deep ,space ,in/rum5tation ,facility 7,,dsif7 network began to track ! spacecraft4 ,at #b3bc4ei a4m41 ,,dsif #e at ,johannesburg1 aid$ by ! ,mobile ,track+ ,/ation1 in/all$ 9 vans 9 ! vic9ity1 0 8look+0 at ! spacecraft1 j f\r m9utes aft] injection4 ,johannesburg 0 able to track ,m>9] until #d3jd p4m4 because1 z ! trajectory took ,m>9] almo/ radially away f ! ,e>?1 our planet began 9 effect to turn away f "u ! spacecraft4 ,on an ,e>? map1 because ( its c\rse & ! rotation ( ! ,e>?1 ,m>9] ,,ii appe>$ to describe a great arc ov] ! ,indian ,ocean f> to ! we/ ( ,au/ralia1 !n to turn nor? & we/ & to proce$ /raight we/ ov] s\?-c5tral ,africa1 across ! ,atlantic1 & ov] ! ,amazon ,bas9 ( nor!rn ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,johannesburg f9ally lo/ track at a po9t ov] ! middle ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,:ile sw++ ov] ! ,indian ,ocean on its fir/ pass1 ! spacecraft 0 acquir$ by ,woom]a's ,,dsif #d at #b3db4cj a4m41 & track$ until #h3jh a4m41 :5 ,m>9] 0 pass+ j to ! nor? ( ,madagasc> on a we/]ly c\rse4 ,gold/one did n acquire ! spacecraft until x 0 approa*+ ! ea/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica at #c3ab p4m41 ,augu/ #bg4 ,) ,m>9] sl[ly tumbl+ 9 free space1 x 0 n[ necess>y to initiate a s]ies ( ev5ts to place ! spacecraft 9 ! prop] flight position4 ,at #b3bg a4m41 #dd m9utes aft] laun*1 ! ,m>9] ,c5tral ,comput] & ,sequ5c] 7,,cc,s7 on bo>d ! spacecraft issu$ a comm& = explosively activat$ p9 pull]s to release ! sol> panels & ! radiomet] di% f _! laun*-secur$ positions4 ,at #b3ec1 #fj m9utes aft] lift(f1 ! attitude control sy/em 0 turn$ on & ! ,sun ori5tation sequ5ce began ) ! ext5sion ( ! directional ant5na to a preset angle ( #gb degrees4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 laun*$ :ile ,v5us 0 f> beh9d ! ,e>?4 ,dur+ ! #aji-;day flight1 ,v5us ov]took & pass$ ! ,e>?4 ,x r5dezv\s$ ) ! spacecraft at a po9t ab\t #cf1jjj1jjj miles f ! ,e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,dur+ ! midc\rse maneuv]1 ! trajectory ( ,m>9] ,,ii 0 correct$ s t ! spacecraft w\ld approa* )9 #ba1eih miles ( ,v5us4 ,,roll ,,maneuv] ,,ant5na ,,up ,,pit* ,,maneuv] ,,motor ,,burn ,,sun ,,reaquisition ,,ant5na ,,reposition ,,e>? ,,reaquisition ,! ,sun s5sors !n activat$ ! gas jets & mov$ ! spacecraft ab\t until ! roll or long axis 0 po9t$ at ! ,sun4 ,?is maneuv] requir$ only #b m9utes aft] ! ,,cc,s issu$ ! comm&4 ,! sol> panel p[] output ( #aie watts 0 some:at high] ?an anticipat$1 z 7 ! spacecraft temp]atures1 :i* decreas$ & /abiliz$ six h\rs aft] ! spacecraft ori5t$ itself on ! ,sun4 ,on ,augu/ #bi1 a comm& f ,johannesburg turn$ on ! cruise sci5tific exp]im5ts1 includ+ all ! in/rum5ts except ! two radiomet]s4 ,! rate ( data transmission 0 !n obs]v$ to decrease z plann$ & ! data condition+ sy/em 0 function+ normally4 ,= sev5 days1 no attempt 0 made to ori5t ! spacecraft ) respect to ! ,e>? because ! ,e>? s5sors 7 too s5sitive to op]ate prop]ly at su* a close range4 ,on ,septemb] #c1 ! ,,cc,s initiat$ ! ,e>? acquisition sequ5ce4 ,! gyroscopes 7 turn$ on1 ! cruise sci5tific in/rum5ts 7 tempor>ily swit*$ (f1 & a se>* = ! ,e>? began ab\t ! roll axis ( ! spacecraft4 ,dur+ ?is maneuv]1 ! long axis ( ! spacecraft 0 held /eady 9 a position po9t+ at ! ,sun & ! gas jets roll$ ! spacecraft ar\nd ?is axis until ! s5sors1 m\nt$ 9 ! directional ant5na1 c\ld 8see0 ! ,e>?4 ,app>5tly1 ! ,e>? s5sor 0 already view+ ! ,e>? because ! transmitt] output imm$iately swit*$ f ! omni- to ! directional ant5na1 indicat+ t no se>* 0 necess>y4 ,h[ev]1 ! initial brightness read+ f ! ,e>? s5sor 0 #ch1 an int5sity t might be expect$ if ! spacecraft 7 lock$ onto ! ,moon in/ead ( ! ,e>?4 ,z a result1 ! midc\rse maneuv] 0 delay$ until v]ification ( ,e>? lock 0 obta9$4 ,m>9]'s injection into ! ,v5us trajectory yield$ a pr$ict$ miss ( #bcc1jjj miles 9 front ( ! planet1 well )9 ! normal miss patt]n expect$ z a result ( ! laun*4 ,because ! spacecraft 0 design$ to cross ! orbit ( ,v5us beh9d ! planet & pass betwe5 x & ! ,sun1 x 0 necess>y to correct ! trajectory to an approximate #h1jjj- to #dj1jjj-mile 8fly-by0 s ! sci5tific in/rum5ts c\ld op]ate )9 _! design ranges4 ,aft] comp>ison ( ! actual flight pa? ) t requir$ = a prop] ne>-miss1 ! necess>y roll1 pit*1 & motor-burn comm&s 7 g5]at$ by ! ,,jpl comput]s4 ,:51 on ,septemb] #d1 x _h be5 e/abli%$ t ! spacecraft 0 inde$ ori5t$ on ! ,e>? & n ! ,moon1 a set ( ?ree comm&s 0 transmitt$ to ! spacecraft f ,gold/one1 to be /or$ 9 ! electronic 8memory unit0 until ! />t comm& 0 s5t4 ,at #a3cj p4m41 ,,p/1 ! fir/ comm&s 7 transmitt$3 a #i4cc-;degree roll turn1 a #aci4hc-;degree pit* turn1 & a motor-burn comm& to produce a #fi4e-mile-p]-h\r velocity *ange4 ,at #b3ci p4m41 a f\r? comm& 0 s5t to swit* f ! directional ant5na to ! omni-ant5na4 ,f9ally1 a comm& w5t out in/ruct+ ! spacecraft to proce$ ) ! n[ 8memoriz$0 maneuv] program4 ,m>9] !n turn$ (f ! ,e>? & ,sun s5sors1 mov$ ! directional ant5na out ( ! pa? ( ! rocket exhau/ /ream1 & execut$ a #i4cc-;degree roll turn 9 #ea seconds4 ,next1 ! pit* turn 0 complet$ 9 #ac m9utes1 turn+ ! spacecraft almo/ completely ar\nd s ! motor nozzle w\ld po9t 9 ! correct direction :5 fir$4 ,! spacecraft 0 /abiliz$ & ! roll & pit* turns controll$ by gyroscopes1 :i* signall$ ! attitude control sy/em ! rate ( correction = comp>ison ) ! already comput$ values4 ,) ! sol> panels no long] directly ori5t$ on ! ,sun1 ! batt]y began to %>e ! p[] dem& & f9ally c>ri$ ! entire load until ! spacecraft _h aga9 be5 ori5t$ on ! ,sun4 ,at ! prop] "t1 ! motor--controll$ by ! ,,cc,s--ignit$ & burn$ = #bg4h seconds1 :ile ! spacecraft's accel]ation 0 comp>$ ) ! pr$et]m9$ values by ! accel]omet]4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 :5 ! gas jets c\ld n op]ate prop]ly1 ! spacecraft 0 /abiliz$ by movable vanes or rudd]s 9 ! exhau/ ( ! midc\rse motor4 ,! velocity add$ by ! midc\rse motor result$ 9 a decrease ( ! relative spe$ ( ! spacecraft ) respect to ! ,e>? by #ei miles p] h\r 7f #f1gdh to #f1fhi miles p] h\r71 :ile ! spe$ relative to ! ,sun increas$ by #de miles p] h\r 7f #fj1aag to #fj1afb miles p] h\r74 ,?is app>5tly p>adoxical condition occurr$ because1 9 ord] to int]cept ,v5us1 ,m>9] _h be5 laun*$ 9 a direction opposite to ! ,e>?'s c\rse ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,! midc\rse maneuv] turn$ ! spacecraft ar\nd & sl[$ its travel away f ! ,e>? :ile all[+ x to increase its spe$ ar\nd ! ,sun 9 ! direction ( ! ,e>?'s orbit4 ,gradually1 !n1 ! spacecraft w\ld beg9 to fall 9 t[>d ! ,sun :ile mov+ 9 ! same direction z ! ,e>?1 cat*+ & pass+ ! ,e>? on ! #fe? day & int]sect+ ,v5us' orbit on ! #aji? day4 ,at ! "t ( ! midc\rse maneuv]1 ! spacecraft 0 travell+ slightly inside ! ,e>?'s orbit by #gj1jjj miles1 & 0 beh9d ! ,e>? by #a1dib1ejj miles4 ,,! ,,long ,,cruise ,aft] its completion ( ! midc\rse maneuv]1 ,m>9] reori5t$ itself on ! ,sun 9 #g m9utes & on ! ,e>? 9 ab\t #cj m9utes4 ,dur+ ! midc\rse maneuv]1 ! omnidirectional ant5na 0 us$2 n[1 ) ! maneuv] complet$1 ! directional ant5na 0 swit*$ back 9 = ! duration ( ! mission4 ,ev] s9ce ! spacecraft _h left ! p>k+ orbit ne> ! ,e>? & be5 inject$ into ! ,v5us trajectory1 ! ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,c5t] back 9 ,pasad5a _h be5 ! n]ve c5t] ( ! mission4 ,telemet]$ data _h be5 com+ 9 f ! ,,dsif /ations on a #bd-;h\r s*$ule4 ,dur+ ! cruise phase1 f ,septemb] #e to ,decemb] #g1 a total ( #af orbit computations 7 made to p]fect ! planet enc\nt] pr$iction4 ,on ,decemb] #g1 ! fir/ noticeable ,v5us-caus$ effects on ,m>9]'s trajectory 7 obs]v$1 caus+ a def9ite deviation ( ! spacecraft's flight pa?4 ,on ,septemb] #h1 at #ab3ej p4m41 ,,e/1 ! spacecraft lo/ its attitude control1 :i* caus$ ! p[] s]v+ ! sci5tific in/rum5ts to swit* (f & ! gyroscopes to swit* on automatically = approximately ?ree m9utes1 aft] :i* normal op]ation 0 resum$4 ,! cause 0 n app>5t b ! *ances ( a /rike by "s small space object seem$ good4 ,z a result ( ?is ev5t1 a significant diff]5ce 9 ! app>5t brightness read+ ( ! ,e>? s5sor 0 not$4 ,?is s5sor _h be5 caus+ conc]n = "s "t because its read+s _h decreas$ to almo/ z]o4 ,fur!r decrease1 if actually caus$ by ! in/rum5t & n by ! telemetry s5s+ elem5ts1 c\ld result 9 loss ( ,e>? lock & ! failure ( radio contact4 ,aft] ! incid5t ( ,septemb] #h1 ! ,e>? s5sor brightness read+ increas$ f #f to #fc1 a normal indication = t day4 ,!reaft]1 ?is measurem5t decreas$ 9 an expect$ mann] z ! spacecraft increas$ its di/ance f ! ,e>?4 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 n[ emb>k$ on ! long cruise4 ,on ,septemb] #ab1 ! di/ance f ! ,e>? 0 #b1fgh1ifj miles & ! spacecraft spe$ relative to ! ,e>? 0 #f1dig miles p] h\r4 ,m>9] 0 accel]at+ its spe$ z ! ,sun's gravity began to ex]t a /rong] pull ?an ! ,e>?'s4 ,on ,octob] #c1 ,m>9] 0 ne>ly #f million miles out & mov+ at #f1hbc miles p] h\r relative to ! ,e>?4 ,a total ( #ee1fjj1jjj miles _h be5 cov]$ to t po9t4 ,consid]able anxiety _h develop$ at ,,jpl :5 ,m>9]'s ,e>? s5sor read+ _h fall5 (f s m>k$ly4 ,?is situation 0 reliev$ by ! unexpla9$ return to normal on ,septemb] #h1 al?\gh ! day-to-day *ange 9 ! brightness numb] 0 wat*$ closely4 ,! app>5t ability ( ! spacecraft to recov] its =m] p]=mance aft] ! loss ( attitude control on ,septemb] #h & aga9 on ,septemb] #bi 0 an enc\rag+ sign4 ,ano!r di/urb+ ev5t occurr$ on ,octob] #ca1 :5 ! output f "o sol> panel det]iorat$ abruptly4 ,! entire p[] load 0 ?r[n on ! o!r panel1 :i* 0 !n dang]\sly ne> its maximum rat$ output4 ,to alleviate ?is situation1 ! cruise sci5tific in/rum5ts 7 turn$ (f4 ,a week lat]1 ! malfunction+ panel return$ to normal op]ation & ! sci5ce in/rum5ts 7 aga9 turn$ on4 ,al?\gh ! tr\ble _h cle>$ tempor>ily1 x develop$ aga9 on ,novemb] #ae & nev] aga9 correct$ itself4 ,! diagnosis 0 a p>tial %ort circuit betwe5 "o /r+ ( sol> cells & ! panel frame1 b by n[ ! spacecraft 0 close en\gh to ! ,sun s t "o panel suppli$ en\gh p[]4 ,by ,octob] #bd1 ! spacecraft 0 #aj1jcj1jjj miles f ! ,e>? & 0 mov+ at #aj1edg miles p] h\r relative to ! ,e>?4 ,! di/ance f ,v5us 0 n[ #ba1bff1jjj miles4 ,octob] #cj 0 ! #fe? day ( ! mission & at #e a4m41 ,,p/1 ,m>9] ov]took & pass$ ! ,e>? at a di/ance ( #aa1ejj1jjj miles4 ,s9ce ! spacecraft's direction ( travel _h1 9 effect1 be5 rev]s$ by ! midc\rse maneuv]1 x _h be5 ga9+ on ! ,e>? 9 ! direction ( its orbit1 al?\gh con/antly fall+ away f ! ,e>? 9 ! direction ( ! ,sun4 ,! po9t ( equal di/ance betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,v5us 0 pass$ on ,novemb] #f1 :5 ,m>9] 0 #ac1ijj1jjj miles f bo? planets & travell+ at #ac1hdc miles p] h\r relative to ! ,e>?4 ,z ,novemb] wore on1 hope = a successful mission began to m\nt4 ,us+ track+ data r ?an assumptions ( /&>d midc\rse p]=mance1 ! ,v5us miss di/ance _h n[ be5 revis$ to ab\t #ba1jjj miles & enc\nt] 0 pr$ict$ = ,decemb] #ad4 ,b ! ,,dsif track+ crews1 ! space flight & comput] op]ators1 & ! managem5t /aff c\ld n yet relax4 ,! elation foll[+ ! successful trajectory correction maneuv] on ,septemb] #d _h giv5 way alt]nately to disc\ragem5t & gu>d$ optimism4 ,f\r telemetry measurem5ts 7 lo/ on ,decemb] #i & nev] return$ to normal4 ,!y measur$ ! angle ( ! ant5na h+e1 ! fuel tank pressure1 & ! nitrog5 pressure 9 ! midc\rse & attitude control sy/ems4 ,a bl[n fuse1 design$ to protect ! data encod] f %ort circuits 9 ! s5sors1 0 suspect$4 ,h[ev]1 ^! *annels c\ld n affect spacecraft op]ation & ,m>9] cont9u$ to p]=m normally4 ,! ris+ temp]atures record$ on ! spacecraft 7 m s]i\s4 ,only ! sol> panels 7 display+ expect$ temp]ature read+s2 "s ( ! o!rs 7 z mu* z #ge degrees above ! values pr$ict$ = ,v5us enc\nt]4 ,! heat increase became m rapid aft] ,novemb] #bj4 ,by ,decemb] #ab1 six ( ! temp]ature s5sors _h rea*$ _! upp] limits4 ,x 0 fe>$ t ! failure po9t ( ! equipm5t might be exce$$4 ,! ,,cc,s p]=m$ )\t incid5t until j be=e enc\nt]1 :51 = ! fir/ "t1 x fail$ to yield c]ta9 pulses4 ,,jpl eng9e]s 7 worri$ ab\t ! />t+ ( ! enc\nt] sequ5ce1 due ! next day1 al?\gh !y knew t ,e>?-bas$ radio c\ld s5d ^! comm&s1 if necess>y4 ,on ,decemb] #ab1 ) ! climax ( ! mission ne>1 ! spacecraft 0 #cd1bah1jjj miles f ! ,e>?1 ) a spe$ away f ! ,e>? ( #ce1gij miles p] h\r1 a ,sun-relative spe$ ( #hc1ijj miles p] h\r4 ,only #fce1ebe miles f ,v5us at ?is po9t1 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 clos+ fa/ on ! cl\d-%r\d$ planet4 ,b x 0 a hot spacecraft t 0 c>ry+ its load ( inquisitive in/rum5ts to ! hi/oric enc\nt]4 ,,enc\nt] ,,& ,,beyond ,on its #aji? day ( travel1 ,m>9] _h approa*$ ,v5us 9 a prec>i\s condition4 ,sev5 ( ! ov]-heat$ temp]ature s5sors _h rea*$ _! upp] telemetry limits4 ,! ,e>?-s5sor brightness read+ /ood at #c 7#j 0 ! nom9al ?re%old7 & 0 dropp+4 ,"s #adi watts ( p[] 7 be+ consum$ out ( ! #afe watts /ill available f ! crippl$ sol> panels4 ,at ,,jpl's ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,c5t]1 !re 0 reason to believe t ! ail+ ,,cc,s might n comm& ! spacecraft into its enc\nt] sequ5ce at ! prop] "t4 ,twelve h\rs be=e enc\nt]1 ^! fe>s 7 v]ifi$4 ,quickly1 ! em]g5cy ,e>?-orig9at$ comm& 0 prep>$ = transmission4 ,at #e3ce a4m41 ,,p/1 a radio signal w5t out f ,gold/one's ,e*o ,/ation4 ,?irty-six million miles away1 ,m>9] ,,ii respond$ to ! t9y pulse ( en]gy f ! ,e>? & began its enc\nt] sequ5ce4 ,aft] ,m>9] _h 8ackn[l$g$0 receipt ( ! comm& f ! ,e>?1 ! spacecraft swit*$ into ! enc\nt] sequ5ce z eng9e]+ data 7 turn$ (f & ! radiomet]s began _! scann+ motion1 tak+ up-&-d[n read+s across ! face ( ! planet4 ,z ?r\gh\t ! long cruise1 ! f\r exp]im5ts monitor+ ! magnetic fields1 cosmic du/1 *>g$ p>ticles1 & sol> plasma exp]im5ts cont9u$ to op]ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,m>9] ,,ii approa*$ ,v5us f ! d>k side1 cross$ betwe5 ! planet & ! ,sun :ile mak+ ?ree radiomet] scans ( ! disk4 ,z ,m>9] approa*$ ,v5us on its night side1 x 0 travell+ ab\t #hh1djj miles p] h\r ) respect to ! ,sun4 ,at ! po9t ( close/ approa*1 at #aa3ei4bh a4m41 ,,p/1 ! di/ance f ! planet 0 #ba1eih miles4 ,dur+ enc\nt] ) ,v5us1 ?ree scans 7 made3 "o on ! d>k side1 "o across ! t]m9ator divid+ d>k & sunlit sides1 & "o on ! sunlit side4 ,al?\gh ! scan w5t slightly beyond ! edge ( ! planet1 ! op]ation proce$$ smoo?ly & good data 7 receiv$ on ! ,e>?4 ,) enc\nt] complet$1 ! cruise condition 0 ree/abli%$ by radio comm& f ! ,e>? & ! spacecraft return$ to transmitt+ eng9e]+ data1 toge!r ) ! cont9u+ read+s ( ! f\r cruise sci5tific exp]im5ts4 ,aft] approa*+ clos] to a planet & mak+ m mean+ful sci5tific measurem5ts ?an any man-made space probe1 ,m>9] ,,ii cont9u$ on into an orbit ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,decemb] #bg1 #ac days aft] ,v5us enc\nt]1 m>k$ ! p]ihelion1 or po9t ( ,m>9]'s close/ approa* to ! ,sun3 #fe1eje1ice miles4 ,! ,sun-relat$ spe$ 0 #hi1ddb miles p] h\r4 ,z ,m>9] began to pull away f ! ,sun 9 ! foll[+ mon?s1 its ,sun-ref]5c$ spe$ w\ld decrease4 ,data 7 /ill be+ receiv$ dur+ ^! f9al days & ! ,e>? & ,sun lock 7 /ill be+ ma9ta9$4 ,al?\gh ! ant5na h+e angle 0 no long] be+ automatically readju/$ by ! spacecraft1 comm&s 7 s5t f ! ,e>? 9 an attempt to keep ! ant5na po9t$ at ! ,e>?1 ev5 if ! ,e>? s5sor 7 no long] op]at+ prop]ly4 ,at #b a4m41 ,,e/1 ,janu>y #c1 #aifc1 #bj days aft] pass+ ,v5us1 ,m>9] f9i%$ transmitt+ #cj m9utes ( telemetry data to ,johannesburg & ! /ation %ut d[n its op]ation4 ,:5 ,woom]a's ,,dsif #d lat] made a normal se>* = ! spacecraft signal1 x c\ld n be f\nd4 ,gold/one also se>*$ 9 va9 = ! spacecraft transmissions1 b app>5tly ,m>9]'s voice _h at la/ di$1 al?\gh ! spacecraft w\ld g into an et]nal orbit ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,x 0 e/imat$ t ,m>9]'s aphelion 7f>!/ po9t out7 9 its orbit ar\nd ! ,sun w\ld occur on ,june #ah1 #aifc1 at a di/ance ( #aac1hac1jhg miles4 ,maximum di/ance f ! ,e>? w\ld be #ih1jfc1eii miles on ,m>* #cj1 #aifc2 close/ approa* to ! ,e>?3 #be1gfe1gag miles on ,septemb] #bg1 #aifc4 ,,! ,,record ,,( ,,m>9] ,! p]=mance record ( ,m>9] ,,ii exce$$ t ( any spacecraft previ\sly laun*$ f ,e>?3 --,x p]=m$ ! fir/ & mo/ di/ant trajectory-correct+ maneuv] 9 deep space1 fir+ a rocket motor at ! greate/ di/ance f ! ,e>?3 #a1dib1jjj miles 7,septemb] #d1 #aifb74 --,! spacecraft transmitt$ cont9u\sly = f\r mon?s1 s5d+ back to ! ,e>? "s #ij million bits ( in=mation :ile us+ only #c watts ( transmitt$ p[]4 --,useful telemetry measurem5ts 7 made at ano!r record di/ance f ! ,e>?3 #ec4i million miles 7,janu>y #c1 #aifc74 --,m>9] ,,ii 0 ! fir/ spacecraft to op]ate 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ano!r planet & return useful sci5tific in=mation to ! ,e>?3 approximately #ba1eih miles f ,v5us 7,decemb] #ad1 #aifb74 --,measurem5ts 7 made close/ to ! ,sun3 #fe4c million miles away 7,decemb] #bg1 #aifb74 --,m>9]'s communication sy/em op]at$ = ! longe/ cont9u\s p]iod 9 int]planet>y space3 #abi days 7,augu/ #bg1 #aifb1 to ,janu>y #c1 #aifc74 --,m>9] a*iev$ ! longe/ cont9u\s op]ation ( a spacecraft attitude-/abilization sy/em 9 space1 & at a great] di/ance f ! ,e>? ?an any previ\s spacecraft3 #abi days 7,augu/ #bg1 #aifb1 to ,janu>y #c1 #aifc71 at #ec4i million miles f ! ,e>?4 ,,*apt] #f ,,! ,,track+ ,,network ,?irty-six million miles sep>at$ ! ,e>? f ,v5us at enc\nt]4 ,communicat+ ) ,m>9] ,,ii & track+ x out to ?is di/ance1 & beyond1 repres5t$ a trem5d\s ext5sion ( man's ability to probe int]planet>y space4 ,! problem involv$3 #a4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! spacecraft's velocity & position relative to ! ,e>?1 ,v5us1 & ! ,sun ) high precision4 #b4 ,! transmission ( comm&s to activate spacecraft maneuv]s4 #c4 ,! reception ( readable spacecraft eng9e]+ & sci5tific data f ! f>-rang+ ,m>9]4 ,! track+ network _h to cont5d ) _m radio noise s\rces3 ! noise f ! sol> sy/em & f extragalactic orig9s2 noise orig9at+ f ! ,e>? & its atmosph]e2 & ! inh]5t int]f]5ce orig9at+ 9 ! receiv+ equipm5t4 ,^! problems 7 solv$ by us+ advanc$ high-ga9 ant5nas & ultra-/able1 extremely s5sitive receiv+ equipm5t4 ,,deep ,,space ,,in/rum5tation ,,facility ,! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration has con/ruct$ a network ( deep-space track+ /ations = lun> & planet>y exploration missions4 ,9 ord] to provide cont9u\s1 #bd-;h\r cov]age1 ?ree /ations 7 built1 approximately #abj degrees ( longitude ap>t1 ar\nd ! _w3 at ,gold/one 9 ! ,cali=nia des]t1 ne> ,johannesburg 9 ,s\? ,africa1 & at ,woom]a 9 ! s\?-c5tral ,au/ralian des]t4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ?ree track+ /ations ( ! ,deep ,space ,in/rum5tation ,facility are locat$ ar\nd ! _w s z to provide cont9u\s flight cov]age4 ,^! /ations are ! basic elem5ts ( ! ,deep ,space ,in/rum5tation ,facility 7,,dsif74 ,9 addition1 a mobile track+ /ation in/all$ 9 vans is us$ ne> ! po9t ( injection ( a spacecraft into an ,e>?-escape trajectory to assi/ ! p]man5t /ations 9 f9d+ ! spacecraft & to acquire track+ data4 ,! control po9t = ! ,,dsif net is locat$ at ,,jpl 9 ,pasad5a1 ,cali=nia 7see ,table #a74 ,! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory has ! responsibility = ! te*nical direction ( ! entire ,,dsif net & op]ates ! ,gold/one facilities ) assi/ance f ! ,b5dix ,corporation z a subcontractor4 ,! ov]seas /ations are /aff$ & op]at$ by ag5cies ( ! ,republic ( ,s\? ,africa & ! ,commonweal? ( ,au/ralia4 ,! ,,dsif net tracks ! position & velocity ( ,u4,s4 deep-space probes1 issues comm&s to direct ! spacecraft 9 flight1 receives eng9e]+ & sci5tific data f ! probes1 & automatically relays ! data to ,,jpl 9 ,pasad5a1 :]e x is process$ by comput]s & int]pret$4 7,9 ! track+ op]ation1 a signal is transmitt$ to ! spacecraft1 :]e x is receiv$ & process$ 9 a transpond]1 :i* !n s5ds ! signal back to ! ,e>?4 ,! *ange 9 frequ5cy1 kn[n z ! doppl] effect1 involv$ 9 ?is op]ation enables eng9e]s to det]m9e ! velocity at :i* ! spacecraft is mov+47 ,table #a4 ,deep ,space ,in/rum5tation ,facility ,/ations ,/ation ,location ,equipm5t ,functions ,,dsif #a 7,mobile ,ne> po9t ( #aj-;ft ant5na ,fa/ track+ ,track+ injection ( #be-w1 #hij-mc = acquisition ,/ation7 spacecraft into transmitt] ( spacecraft ,e>?-escape trajectory ,gold/one3 ,cali=nia ,pione] ,site #he-;ft ,reception ( 7,,dsif #b7 pol>-m\nt telemetry ant5na2 ,track+ ,cassegra9 spacecraft fe$2 mas] & p>ametric amplifi] ,e*o ,site #he-;ft ,transmission ( 7,,dsif #c7 pol>-m\nt comm&s ant5na2 ,track+ p>ametric spacecraft amplifi] ,/&-by #aj-kw1 #hij-mc reception transmitt] ,v5us ,site #he-;ft ,advanc$ rad> rad>-type a/ronomy ant5na ,communications rese>* ,,dsif #d ,woom]a1 #he-;ft ,reception ( ,au/ralia pol>-m\nt telemetry ant5na2 ,track+ p>ametric spacecraft amplifi] ,,dsif #e ,johannesburg1 #he-;ft ,reception ( ,s\? ,africa pol>-m\nt telemetry ant5na2 ,track+ p>ametric spacecraft amplifi] ,transmission ( #aj-kw1 #hij-mc comm&s transmitt] ,! /ations are equipp$ ) receiv+ & track+ in/rum5ts s s5sitive t eng9e]s e/imate t !y c detect radio-frequ5cy en]gy equival5t to t radiat$ by a #a-watt light bulb at a di/ance ( approximately #ge to #hj million miles4 ,su* en]gy receiv$ at ! ant5na w\ld measure ab\t #j4jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjb watt 7#b #aj74 ,! am\nt ( p[] receiv$ at ! ant5na dur+ ,m>9]'s enc\nt] ) ,v5us has be5 calculat$ at ab\t #j4jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjja ( a watt 7#a #aj74 ,if a #ajj p]c5t effici5t /orage batt]y 7 *>g$ ) ?is am\nt ( en]gy = "s #cj billion ye>s1 ! batt]y w\ld !n h /or$ en\gh en]gy to light an ord9>y #a-watt fla%light bulb = ab\t #a second only4 ,fur!rmore1 ,gold/one eng9e]s e/imate t1 if ,m>9] ,,ii _h cont9u$ to function 9 all its sy/ems & to po9t its directional ant5na at ! ,e>?1 useful telemetry data c\ld h be5 obta9$ by ! ,,dsif /ations out to ab\t #aej to #bjj million miles1 & track+ data c\ld h be5 secur$ f z f> z #cjj to #djj million miles4 ,con/ruction ( ! ,,dsif net 0 begun 9 #aieh4 ,! ,gold/one /ation 0 ready = ! ,pione] ,,iii mission 9 ,decemb] ( t ye>4 ,9 ,m>*1 #aiei1 ,pione] ,,iv 0 successfully track$ beyond ! ,moon4 ,lat] 9 #aiei1 ,pione] ,v 0 track$ out to ov] #c million miles4 ,gold/one p>ticipat$ 9 ! #aifj ,project ,e*o communication satellite exp]im5ts & ! entire net 0 us$ 9 ! ,rang] lun> missions ( #aifa-aifb4 ,! ,gold/one /ation p]=m$ ,v5us rad> exp]im5ts 9 #aifa & #aifb to det]m9e ! a/ronomical unit m precisely & to /udy ! rotation rate & surface *>act]i/ics ( ! planet4 ,foll[+ ! laun* ( ,m>9] ,,ii on ,augu/ #bg1 #aifb1 ! full ,,dsif net provid$ #bd-;h\r-p]-day track+ cov]age ?r\gh\t ! mission except = a few days dur+ ! cruise phase4 ,! net rema9$ on ! full-cov]age s*$ule ?r\gh ! p]iod ( ,v5us enc\nt] on ,decemb] #ad4 ,,! ,,gold/one ,,complex ,! track+ ant5nas clu/]$ 9 a #g-mile radius ne> ,gold/one ,dry ,lake1 ,cali=nia1 are ! c5tral complex ( ! ,,dsif net4 ,?ree track+ sites are includ$ 9 ! ,gold/one ,/ation3 ,pione] ,site 7,,dsif #b71 ,e*o ,site 7,,dsif #c71 & ,v5us ,site4 ,! ,v5us ,site is us$ = advanc$ rad> a/ronomy1 communication rese>* exp]im5ts1 & radio developm5t2 x took no direct "p 9 ! ,m>9] spacecraft track+ op]ations1 b 0 us$ = ! ,v5us rad> exp]im5ts4 ,pione] ,site has an #he-;foot-diamet] p>abolic reflector ant5na & ! necess>y radio track+1 receiv+1 & data record+ equipm5t4 ,! ant5na c be po9t$ to )9 bett] ?an #j4jb ( a degree4 ,! ant5na has "o 7h\r-angle7 axis p>allel to ! pol> axis ( ! ,e>?1 & ! o!r 7decl9ation7 axis p]p5dicul> to ! pol> axis & p>allel to ! equatorial plane ( ! ,e>?4 ,?is 8pol>-m\nt0 feature p]mits track+ on only "o axis )\t mov+ ! o!r4 ,! ant5na weighs ab\t #bdj tons b c be rotat$ easily at a maximum rate ( #a degree p] second4 ,! m9imum track+ rate or ant5na sw+ 7#j4bejfhfdhf degree p] m9ute7 is equal to ! rotation rate ( ! ,e>?4 ,two drive motors work+ simultane\sly b at diff]5t spe$s provide an antibackla% safety factor4 ,! ant5na c op]ate safely 9 high w9ds4 ,! ,pione] ant5na has a type ( fe$ sy/em 7,cassegra97 t is ess5tially simil> to t us$ 9 _m l>ge reflector telescopes4 ,a convex cone is m\nt$ at ! c5t] ( ! ma9 di%4 ,a receiv$ signal is ga!r$ by ! ma9 di% & ! cone1 reflect$ to a subreflector on a quadripod1 :]e ! en]gy is conc5trat$ 9 a n>r[ beam & reflect$ back to ! fe$ collector po9t on ! ma9 di%4 ,! ,cassegra9 fe$ sy/em l[]s ! noise pick$ up by ! ant5na by r$uc+ int]f]5ce f ! back ( ! ant5na1 & p]mits m conv5i5t location ( compon5ts4 ,! receiv+ sy/em at ,pione] ,site is also equipp$ ) a l[-noise1 extremely s5sitive in/allation comb9+ a p>ametric amplifi] & a mas]4 ,! p>ametric amplifi] is a device t is 8pump$0 or excit$ by micr[ave en]gy 9 su* a way t1 :5 an incom+ signal is at its maximum1 ! effect is su* t ! 8pump$-90 en]gy augm5ts ! orig9al /r5g? ( ! incom+ signal4 ,at ! same "t1 ! p>ametric amplifi] r$uces ! receiv+ sy/em's own electronic noise to su* a po9t t ! spacecraft c be track$ twice z f> z be=e4 ,! mas] uses a syn!tic ruby mix$ ) *romium & is ma9ta9$ at ! temp]ature ( liquid helium--ab\t #d4g degrees ,k or -#dej degrees ,f 7j above absolute z]o7--& :5 8pump$0 ) a micr[ave field1 ! molecul> en]gy levels ( ! mas] mat]ial are r$i/ribut$ s z to aga9 improve ! signal amplification :ile l[]+ ! sy/em noise4 ,! mas] d\bles ! track+ capability ( ! sy/em ) a p>ametric amplifi]1 & quadruples ! capability ( ! receiv] alone4 ,! ant5na output at ,pione] is a wide-b& telemet]+ *annel4 ,9 addition1 ! ant5na c be aim$ automatically1 us+ its own 8error signals40 ,at bo? ! ,pione] & ,e*o sites at ,gold/one1 h[ev]1 ! ant5na is po9t$ by a pun*$ tape prep>$ by a special-purpose comput] at ,,jpl & transmitt$ to ,gold/one by teletype4 ,pione] ,site has a highly s5sitive receiv] design$ to receive a cont9u\s wave signal 9 a n>r[ frequ5cy b& 9 ! #ifj-megacycle range4 ,! site has equipm5t = record+ track+ data = use by comput]s 9 det]m9+ accurate spacecraft position & velocity4 ,! in/rum5tation equipm5t also includes electronic signal process+ devices1 magnetic-tape record]s1 oscillographs1 & o!r supplem5t>y receiv+ equipm5t4 ,! telemet]$ data c be decommutat$ 7recov]$ f a signal %>$ by sev]al measurem5ts on a "t basis71 encod$1 & transmitt$ by teletype 9 real "t 7z receiv$ f ! spacecraft7 to ,,jpl4 ,e*o ,site is ! prim>y in/allation 9 ! ,gold/one complex & has ant5na & in/rum5tation facilities id5tical to ^? at ,pione]1 except t !re is no mas] amplifi] & a simpl] fe$ sy/em is us$ in/ead ( ! ,cassegra94 ,h[ev]1 ,e*o 0 us$ z a transmitt+ facility & only z a /&-by receiv+ /ation dur+ ! ,m>9] mission4 ,e*o has a #aj-kil[att1 #hij-megacycle transmitt] :i* 0 utiliz$ = s5d+ comm&s to ! ,m>9] spacecraft4 ,9 addition1 ! site has an 8atomic clock0 frequ5cy /&>d1 bas$ on ! atomic vibrations ( rhubidium1 :i* p]mits high-precision measurem5ts ( ! radial velocity ( ! spacecraft4 ,a unit 9 ! ,e*o sy/em provides = 8readback0 & 8confirmation0 by ! spacecraft ( comm&s transmitt$ to x4 ,9 a s5se1 ! spacecraft ackn[l$ges receipt ( ! comm&s be=e execut+ !m4 ,walt] ,e4 ,l>k9 manages ! ,gold/one ,/ation = ,,jpl4 ,,! ,,woom]a ,,/ation ,! ,woom]a1 ,au/ralia1 ,/ation 7,,dsif #d71 manag$ by ,william ,mettye> = ! ,au/ralian ,dep>tm5t ( ,supply1 has ess5tially ! same ant5na & track+ capabilities z ,gold/one ,e*o ,site1 b x has no provisions = comm&+ ! spacecraft4 ,a small transmitt] is us$ = track+ purposes only4 ,! /ation is /aff$ & op]at$ by ! ,au/ralian ,dep>tm5t ( ,supply4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,mobile ,track+ ,/ation 7,,dsif #a7 foll[s ! fa/-mov+ spacecraft dur+ its fir/ l[-altitude pass ov] ,s\? ,africa4 ,illu/ration3 ,/ation #e ( ! ,,dsif is locat$ ne> ,johannesburg 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dsif #d1 at ,woom]a1 dom9ates ! l&scape 9 ,au/ralia's 8outback40 ,woom]a1 l ,johannesburg1 is capable ( receiv+ track+ 7position & velocity7 data & telemet]$ in=mation = real-"t transmission by radio teletype to ,,jpl4 ,,! ,,johannesburg ,,/ation ,,dsif #e is locat$ j outside ,johannesburg 9 ! ,republic ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,?is /ation is /aff$ by ! ,national ,in/itute ( ,telecommunications ,rese>* 7,,nitr7 ( ! ,s\? ,african ,c\ncil = ,sci5tific & ,indu/rial ,rese>* & manag$ by ,d\glas ,hogg4 ,! ant5na & receiv+ equipm5t are id5tical to ! ,gold/one ,e*o ,site in/allation except = m9or details4 ,! /ation has bo? transmitt+ & receiv+ capability & c s5d comm&s to ! spacecraft4 ,record$ track+ & telemet]$ data are transmitt$ 9 real "t to ,,jpl by radio teletype4 ,,mobile ,,track+ ,,/ation ,! ,mobile ,track+ ,/ation 7,,dsif #a7 is a movable in/allation design$ = emplacem5t ne> ! po9t ( injection ( a space probe to assi/ ! p]man5t /ations 9 e>ly acquisition ( ! spacecraft4 ,?is /ation is necess>y because at ?is po9t ! spacecraft is relatively l[ 9 altitude & consequ5tly appe>s to move v fa/ across ! sky4 ,! ,mobile ,track+ ,/ation has a fa/-track+ ant5na = use "u ^! conditions4 ,,dsif #a 0 locat$ ne> ! ,s\? ,african /ation = ,m>9] ,,ii4 ,x has a #aj-;foot p>abolic ant5na capable ( track+ at a #aj-;degree-p]-second rate4 ,a #be-watt1 #hij-megacycle transmitt] is us$ = obta9+ track+ in=mation4 ,a diplex] p]mits simultane\s transmission & reception on ! same ant5na )\t int]f]5ce4 ,! equipm5t is in/all$ 9 mobile vans s t ! /ation c be op]at$ 9 remote areas4 ,! ant5na is enclos$ 9 a pla/ic dome & is m\nt$ on a modifi$ rad> p$e/al4 ,! radome is inflatable ) air & protects ! ant5na f w9d & wea!r conditions4 ,^! /ations ( ! ,,dsif track$ ,m>9] ,,ii 9 flight & s5t comm&s to ! spacecraft = ! execution ( maneuv]s4 ,! telemetry data receiv$ f ! spacecraft dur+ ! #abi days ( its mission 7 record$ & transmitt$ to ,,jpl1 :]e ! in=mation 0 process$ & r$uc$ by ! comput]s ( ! space flight op]ations complex4 ,,*apt] #g ,,?irte5 ,,million ,,words ,! task ( receiv+1 relay+1 process+1 & int]pret+ ! data com+ 9 simultane\sly on a tw5ty-f\r-h\r basis = sev]al mon?s f ! sev]al sci5tific & _m eng9e]+ s\rces ( ! ,m>9] spacecraft 0 ( truly monum5tal proportions4 ,?is activity involv$ five ,,dsif track+ /ations scatt]$ ar\nd ! _w1 a communication network1 two comput+ /ations & auxili>y facilities1 & "s #djj p]sonnel ov] a f\r-mon? p]iod4 ,al?\gh ! ,m>9] sci5tific in=mation c\ld be /or$ & subsequ5tly process$ at a lat] 7non-real7 "t1 x 0 necess>y to make track+ & position data available almo/ z soon z x 0 receiv$ 79 real "t7 s t ! midc\rse maneuv] might be comput$ & transmitt$ to ! spacecraft1 & to fur!r p]fect ! pr$ict$ trajectory & arrival "t at ,v5us4 ,! eng9e]+ p]=mance ( ! _m spacecraft subsy/ems 0 also ( vital conc]n4 ,inaccurate op]ation 9 any ( sev]al areas c\ld endang] ! success ( ! entire mission4 ,! p]=mance ( ! attitude control sy/em1 ! ,e>? & ,sun s5sors1 ! p[] sy/em1 & communications 7 all ( critical importance4 ,corrective action 0 possible 9 c]ta9 subsy/ems :]e tr\ble c\ld be pr$ict$ f ! data or :]e limit$ breakd[n _h occurr$4 ,to integrate all ! v>i$ activities necess>y to accompli% ! mission objectives1 an organization 0 =m$ )9 ,,jpl to coord9ate ! ,,dsif1 ! communication network1 ! "w ( eng9e]+ & sci5tific advisory panels1 & ! comput] facilities requir$ to evaluate ! data4 ,?is organization 0 kn[n z ! ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,complex4 ,= op]ational purposes only1 x includ$ ! ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,c5t]1 a ,communication ,c5t]1 & a ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility 7,,ccf74 ,! ,,dsif 0 responsive to ! requirem5ts ( ! organization1 b 0 n an integral "p ( x4 ,a space flight op]ations director 0 responsible = integrat+ ^! _m functions into a _w-wide ,m>9] space-flight organization4 ,x 0 an exhau/+ #aji-;day task1 "o t w\ld sev]ely tax all ! res\rces ( ,,jpl 9 t]ms ( "k-h[1 qualifi$ p]sonnel1 "t1 & equipm5t be=e ,m>9] complet$ its enc\nt] ) ,v5us4 ,,communication ,,control ,! ,communication ,c5t] at ,,jpl 9 ,pasad5a 0 "o ( ! mo/ active areas dur+ ! _m days & nights ( ! ,m>9] ,,ii mission4 ,all ( ! teletype & radio l9es f ! ,cape1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & ,gold/one t]m9at$ 9 ?is ,c5t]4 ,a high-spe$ data l9e bypass$ ! ,communication ,c5t]1 l9k+ ,gold/one directly ) ! ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility = quick1 real-"t comput] process+ ( vital flight in=mation4 ,f ! ,communication ,c5t]1 ! teletype data & voice circuits 7 connect$ to ! sev]al areas )9 ,,jpl :]e ! mission-control activities 7 c5t]$1 & :]e ! data output 0 be+ /udi$4 ,! ,communication ,c5t] 0 equipp$ ) teletype pap]-page pr9t]s & pap]-tape hole rep]=ators1 :i* receiv$ & transmitt$ data-^w & numb] gr\ps4 ,! teletype l9es t]m9at+ at ! ,c5t] includ$ circuits f ,gold/one1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & ,cape ,canav]al4 ,!re 7 ?ree l9es to ,gold/one = full-"t1 "o-way data transmission4 ,duplex 7simultane\s two-way7 transmission 0 available to ,woom]a & ,s\? ,africa on a full-"t basis4 ,9 ea* case1 a second>y circuit 0 provid$ to ! ov]seas sites = use dur+ critical p]iods & 9 case ! prim>y radio-teletype circuits _h transmission difficulties4 ,^! second>y circuits us$ diff]5t radio transmission pa?s 9 ord] to r$uce ! *ance ( complete loss ( contact = any ext5d$ p]iod ( "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,radio signals f ,m>9] are receiv$ on #he-;ft4 ant5na4 ,illu/ration3 ,! highly s5sitive receiv] 7%[n "u te/7 is locat$ 9 ! control room ( ! /ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,9 ,gold/one control room1 ,,dsif p]sonnel await confirmation t spacecraft has begun to scan ! planet ,v5us4 ,illu/ration3 ,f ,,dsif /ations1 ! data are teletyp$ 9 cod$ =mat to ,pasad5a4 ,z ,,zsqsgsgkgkxrgoqos ,,dnq ,,xz>zxavaqqva ,,xxdrdz ,,qsgigkgkxrgoqox ,,dxq ,,xzaizxavqqkdz ,,xxdrdddrz ,,dxq ,,xzaizazvaqqzdzxxdlkkdra ,z ,,dsqsgigggqxrdn ,g ,,xxdrzsdra ,z ,,dsqsgigggqxrglzox ,,dxq ,,xzaizazv ,,qsgigggqxrglzox ,,dxq ,,xzaizgavaqqsxzxxdrdzdra ,,dxq ,,xqaizgavqqkva ,,xxdrdzdrangdssqsgigggqxrdi ,z ,,xxdrdddrzlq ,,zsqsgiggggxrgvzoa ,,dnq ,,xz>zgav ,,qsgiggggxrgvqoa ,,dnq ,,xz>zgavqkzzazxxdrzddra ,,dnq ,,xz>zazvakddgzxxdrdadizla ,,dsqsgiggggxrgz ,,szxxdrdddrxos ,,dsqsqiggggxrddzoa ,,dnq ,,xz>zxav ,,qsgsggggxrdsqog ,,dxq ,,xz>zxavakdzdzxxdrdldra ,,dxq ,,xz>zxazzkzzdzxxdlkadra ,z ,,dsqsgiggggxrgx ,,gzxxdrzxdrz ,z ,,dsqsaqggggxrdazog ,,dxq ,,xzaizazv ,,drdxdra ,z ,,dsqsgiggggxrdgsog ,,dxq ,,xzaizazvqkzs ,,ogggxrdgaog ,,dxq ,,xzaizazvqkzva ,,xxdrdzdrangdss ,,xzaizxazzkzzd ,,xxdrdlzdzha ,,dsqsgiggggxrdqaoq ,,dlkadrkhq ,,zsqsgiggggxrdkzoq ,,dxq ,,xzavzaavqkzz ,,ggggxrs ,,zoq ,,dxq ,,xzaizazvqkzdg ,,xxdrdsdiz ,a ,,zs ,,xzaizazvqqksx ,,xxdrdddrzns ,,zsqsgiggggxrsoaoq ,,drdzdrangdssqsaqggggxrsoaok ,,dnq ,,xzavzaavqqkz ,,ggggxrsnzok ,,dnq ,,xzaizazzsqqzszxxdlkadra ,z ,,ds ,,xzaizgavqqkzg ,,xxdrzxdrz ,z ,,dsqsaqggggxrslaok ,,drdsdrz ,z ,,dsqsaqggggxrslaok ,,dnq ,,xzaizazzzqks ,,ggggxrslaok ,,dnq ,,xzaizazzzqkva ,,xxdrdzdrangdss ,,xrsizhz ,,dxq ,,xzaizazzzqkqqzxxdrdndrznq ,,dsqsgs ,,zxazsqqzxzxxdlkqdrsqs ,,zsqsgigggqxrsvahz ,,dxq ,illu/ration3 ,messages are receiv$ & r\t$ at ! ,,jpl ,communications ,c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,data are r\t$ to ! digital comput] at ,,jpl4 ,illu/ration3 ,pr9t\t data are made available to exp]im5t]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,spacecraft /atus is po/$ 9 ,op]ations ,c5t]4 ,! ,mobile ,track+ ,/ation 9 ,s\? ,africa us$ ! ,johannesburg communication facilities4 ,two "o-way circuits = te/+ & control purposes 7 op5 to ,cape ,canav]al f a mon? be=e until aft] ! spacecraft 0 laun*$4 ,l9es f ! ,communication ,c5t] to ! ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,c5t] at ,,jpl t]m9at$ 9 page pr9t]s & rep]=ators 9 sev]al locations4 ,voice circuits connect$ all ( ! /ations ) ,op]ations ,c5t] ?r\gh ! ,communication ,c5t]4 ,long-di/ance radio telephone calls 7 plac$ to ,s\? ,africa to e/abli% contact be=e ! laun* sequ5ce 0 />t$4 ,woom]a us$ ! ,project ,m]cury voice circuits to ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ laun* & = ?ree days aft]4 ,,! ,,op]ations ,,c5t] ,! actual n]ve c5t] ( ! ,m>9] op]ation 0 ! ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,c5t] 7,,sfoc7 at ,pasad5a4 ,"h1 te*nical & sci5tific advisory panels report$ to ! ,project ,manag] & ! ,m>9] ,te/ ,director on ! p]=mance ( ! spacecraft 9 flight1 analyz$ trajectories1 calculat$ ! comm&s = ! midc\rse trajectory correction1 & /udi$ ! sci5tific aspects ( ! mission4 ,^! panels 7 a ,spacecraft ,data ,analysis ,team1 a ,sci5tific ,data ,gr\p1 an ,orbit ,det]m9ation ,gr\p1 a ,track+ ,data ,analysis ,gr\p1 & a ,midc\rse ,comm& ,gr\p4 ,! ,spacecraft ,data ,analysis ,team analyz$ ! eng9e]+ data transmitt$ f ! spacecraft to evaluate ! p]=mance ( ! subsy/ems 9 flight4 ,! ,team 0 compos$ ( "o or m ( ! eng9e]s responsible = ea* ( ! spacecraft subsy/ems1 & a *airman4 ,! ,sci5ce ,data ,gr\p 0 compos$ ( ! project sci5ti/ & c]ta9 o!r sci5ti/s associat$ ) ! exp]im5ts on bo>d ! spacecraft4 ,?is ,gr\p evaluat$ ! data f ! sci5tific exp]im5ts :ile ,m>9] 0 9 flight & advis$ ! ,te/ ,director on ! sci5tific /atus ( ! mission4 ,! ,sci5ce ,data ,gr\p 0 on cont9u\s duty until #dh h\rs aft] laun*1 & at o!r times dur+ ! mission4 ,dur+ enc\nt] ) ,v5us1 ! ,gr\p 0 also 9 contact ) ! sci5tific exp]im5t]s f o!r p>ticipat+ organizations :o 7 work+ ) ,,jpl4 ,illu/ration3 ,clos$ circuit television monitors are us$ = in/ant surveillance ( ! int]nal activities ( ! ,op]ations ,c5t]4 ,a ,track+ ,data ,analysis ,gr\p analyz$ ! track+ data to be us$ 9 orbit det]m9ation4 ,!y also assess$ ! p]=mance ( ! ,,dsif facilities & equipm5t us$ to obta9 ! data4 ,! ,orbit ,det]m9ation ,gr\p us$ ! track+ data to produce e/imates ( ! actual spacecraft trajectory1 & to compute ! spacecraft pa? ) respect to ! ,e>?1 ,v5us1 & ! ,sun4 ,^! calculations 7 made once ea* day be=e ! midc\rse maneuv]1 once a week dur+ ! cruise phase1 & daily dur+ & imm$iately aft] ! planet enc\nt]4 ,! ,op]ations ,c5t] 0 equipp$ ) light$ bo>ds on :i* ! progress ( ! mission 0 display$4 ,?is in=mation includ$ trajectory data1 spacecraft p]=mance1 temp]ature & pressure read+s1 & o!r data telemet]$ f ! spacecraft subsy/ems4 ,clos$-circuit television 0 us$ = coord9at+ ! activities ( ! ,,sfoc4 ,op]at+ p]sonnel c\ld use television monitors 9 f\r consoles :i* 7 l9k$ to six fix$ cam]as view+ teletype page pr9t]s4 ,! entire ,op]ations ,room c\ld be kept "u surveillance by ! ,project ,manag]1 ! ,te/ ,director1 or ! ,,dsif ,op]ations ,manag]1 us+ cam]as controll$ 9 8pan10 8tilt10 & 8zoom40 ,,c5tral ,,comput+ ,,facility ,dur+ ! ,m>9] ,,ii mission1 ! ,,jpl ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility 7,,ccf7 process$ approximately #ac4a million data words1 or ov] #ij million b9>y bits ( comput] data4 7,b9>y bit a discrete unit ( in=mation intelligible to a digital comput]4 ,"o data ^w #g b9>y bits47 ,9 ! f\r-mon? op]ation1 ab\t #ajj1jjj track+ & telemet]+ data c>ds 7 receiv$ & process$1 yield+ ov] #a4b million comput] pages ( tabulat$1 process$1 & analyz$ data = evaluation by ! eng9e]s & sci5ti/s4 ,approximately #a1jjj miles ( magnetic tape 7 us$ 9 ! #a1jef rolls record$ by ! ,,dsif4 ,! ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility process$ & r$uc$ track+ & telemetry data f ! spacecraft1 z record$ & relay$ by ! /ations ( ! ,,dsif4 ,! track+ in=mation 0 ! basis = orbital calculations & comm& decisions4 ,aft] deliv]y ( telemetry data on magnetic tapes by ! ,,dsif1 ! ,,ccf /or$ ! data = lat] r$uction & analysis4 ,:]e telemetry data 7 be+ process$ 9 real or ne>-real "t1 c]ta9 critical eng9e]+ & sci5tific functions 7 programm$ to pr9t-out an 8al>m0 read+ :5 select$ measurem5ts 9 ! data 7 outside specifi$ limits4 ,! ,,ccf consi/s ( ?ree /ations at ,,jpl3 ,/ation ,c1 ! prim>y comput+ facility2 ,/ation ,d1 ! second>y in/allation2 & ! ,telemetry ,process+ ,/ation 7,,tps74 ,/ation ,c 0 ! pr9cipal in/allation = process+ bo? track+ & telemetry data receiv$ f ! ,,dsif track+ /ations1 bo? 9 real & non-real "t4 ,! ,/ation 0 equipp$ ) a high-spe$1 g5]al-purpose digital comput] ) a #cb1afh-^w memory & two input-output *annels1 ea* able to h&le #f tape units4 ,! associat$ c>d-h&l+ equipm5t 0 also available4 ,tape translators or conv]t]s 7 provid$ = conv]t+ teletype data & o!r digital in=mation into magnetic tape =mat = comput] input4 ,! teletype-to-tape unit op]at$ at a rate ( #cjj *>act]s p] second4 ,a small] comput] act$ z a satellite ( ! l>g] unit1 p]=m+ bookkeep+ & su* relat$ functions z c>d pun*+1 c>d read+1 & li/+4 ,a high-spe$ unit micr(ilm$ magnetic-tape pr9t\t 0 receiv$ f ! l>ge comput]4 ,x provid$ 8quick-look0 copy )9 #cj m9utes ( process+ ! raw data4 ,v>i\s pap]-tape-to-c>d & c>d-to-pap]-tape conv]t]s 7 us$ to elim9ate human error 9 conv]t+ teletype data tape to comput] c>ds4 ,/ation ,c also utiliz$ ano!r comput] z a real-"t monitor & to prep>e a magnetic tape file ( all telemet]$ measurem5ts = input to ! l>ge comput]4 ,/ation ,d 0 ! second>y or backup computational facility1 prim>ily int5d$ = use 9 case ( equipm5t failure 9 ,/ation ,c4 ,dur+ c]ta9 critical phases ( ! ,m>9] mission--laun*1 orbit det]m9ation1 midc\rse maneuv]--?is facility p>allel$ ! op]ations 9 ,/ation ,c4 ,/ation ,d is equipp$ ) ?ree comput]s & v>i\s c>d-to-tape conv]t]s & teletype equipm5t4 ,! ,telemetry ,process+ ,/ation receiv$ & process$ all demodulat$ data 7t recov]$ f ! radio c>ri]7 on magnetic tapes record$ at ! ,,dsif /ations4 ,! ,,tps output 0 digital magnetic tapes suitable = comput] entry4 ,! ,,tps equipm5t includ$ ,,fm discrim9ators1 a code translator1 a device = conv]t+ data f analog to digital =m1 & magnetic-tape record]s4 ,basically1 ! equipm5t accept$ ! digital outputs f ! tape units1 ! analog-to-digital conv]t]1 & ! code translator & put !m 9 digital tape =mat = ! comput] input4 ,z ! laun* op]ation />t$ on ,augu/ #bg1 ! p[]$-flight portion ( ! space trajectories program 0 run at laun* m9us #e m9utes 7,l m9us #e7 & 0 repeat$ sev]al times because ( holds at ,,amr4 ,! orbit det]m9ation program 0 run at lift-(f to calculate ! fir/ orbit pr$ictions us$ = aid+ ! ,,dsif 9 f9d+ ! spacecraft 9 flight4 ,dur+ ! #ab h\rs foll[+ laun*1 bo? ,c & ,d ,/ations p]=m$ p>allel computations on track+ data4 ,/ation ,d discont9u$ space flight op]ations at ,l plus #ab h\rs & resum$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! midc\rse maneuv] phase4 ,track+ data process+ & midc\rse maneuv] /udies 7 conduct$ daily until ! midc\rse maneuv] 0 p]=m$ at ,l plus eight days4 ,= ! foll[+ #ig days1 track+ data 7 process$ once ea* week = orbit det]m9ation4 ,/>t+ ?ree days be=e ! enc\nt]1 track+ data 7 process$ daily until ! beg9n+ ( ! enc\nt] phase4 ,track+ data process+ 0 conduct$ 9 ne>-real "t ?r\gh\t enc\nt] day1 & daily = two days !reaft]4 ,= ^! ?ree days1 track+ data 7 h&l$ 9 ,/ation ,d 9 ord] to p]mit exclusive use ( ,/ation ,c = telemetry data process+ & analysis4 ,aft] ?is ?ree-day p]iod1 includ+ ! enc\nt]1 ,/ation ,c process$ ! track+ data e six? day until ! mission t]m9at$ on ,l plus #abi days4 ,telemetry data 7 process$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,foll[+ ! laun*1 ,,dsif ,/ation #e at ,s\? ,africa receiv$ ! telemetry signal fir/1 demodulat$ x1 & put x 9 ! prop] =mat = teletype transmission to ,,jpl4 ,! o!r ,,dsif /ations foll[$ 9 sequ5ce z ! spacecraft 0 he>d 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,= two days aft] laun*1 ! comput]s process$ telemetry data z requir$ by ! ,spacecraft ,data ,analysis ,team4 ,dur+ ^? p]iods :5 ! l>ge comput] 0 process+ track+ data1 a second>y unit suppli$ quick-look data 9 ne>-real "t4 ,:5 ,gold/one 0 li/5+ to ! spacecraft1 quick-look data 7 process$ 9 real "t1 us+ ! high-spe$ data l9e direct to ! ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility4 ,= ! #ajf days t ,m>9] 0 actually 9 ,mode ,,ii 7cruise71 ! telemetry data 7 process$ tw5ty-f\r h\rs a day1 sev5 days a week4 ,data 7 pres5t$ to ! eng9e]+ & sci5ce analysis teams 9 quick-look =mat e ?ree h\rs1 except = %ort ma9t5ance int]ruptions1 "o comput] failure1 & a major modification requir+ ?ree days1 :5 a back-up data process mode ( op]ation 0 us$4 ,! l>ge comput] p]=m$ full process+ & analysis ( eng9e]+ & sci5ce data sev5 days a week f laun* until ! ,v5us enc\nt]4 ,on enc\nt] day1 ! second>y ,/ation ,c comput] process$ telemetry data f ! high-spe$ ,gold/one l9e4 ,data on magnetic tapes produc$ by ! comput] 7 process$ & analyz$ by ! l>ge unit 9 ne>-real "t e #cj m9utes4 ,! comput] process+ & deliv]y "t dur+ ?is op]ation v>i$ f #d to #g m9utes4 ,,*apt] #h ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,exp]im5ts ,aft] a ye> ( conc5trat$ ef=t1 9 :i* ! res\rces ( ,,nasa1 ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 & ,am]ican sci5ce & indu/ry _h be5 m>%all$1 ,m>9] ,,ii _h prob$ secrets ( ! sol> sy/em "s billions ( ye>s old4 ,sci5ti/s & eng9e]s _h /udi$ ! miles ( data process$ 9 ,cali=nia f ! tapes record$ at ! five ,,dsif track+ /ations ar\nd ! _w4 ,two & a half mon?s ( c>eful analysis & evaluation yield$ a revis$ e/imate ( ,v5us & ( ! ph5om5a ( space4 ,z a result1 ! dynamics ( ! sol> sy/em 7 reveal$ 9 bett] p]spective & ! %r\d$ planet /ood p>tially unmask$4 ,:5 ! ,m>9] data 7 correlat$ ) ! data ga!r$ by ,,jpl rad> exp]im5ts at ,gold/one 9 #aifa & #aifb1 ! relation%ips betwe5 ! ,e>?1 ,v5us1 & ! ,sun became f> cle>] ?an ev] be=e4 ,two exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ on ! spacecraft = a close-up inve/igation ( ,v5us' atmosph]e & temp]ature *>act]i/ics--a micr[ave radiomet] & an infr>$ radiomet]4 ,!y 7 design$ to op]ate dur+ ! approximate #ce-m9ute enc\nt] p]iod & at a di/ance v>y+ f ab\t #aj1bjj miles to #di1bjj miles f ! c5t] ( ! planet4#b ,illu/ration3 ,cosmic du/ detector4 ,illu/ration3 ,sol> plasma spectromet]4 ,,collector ,,cup ,,programm] ,,electromet] ,,deflection ,,plates ,illu/ration3 ,magnetomet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,high-en]gy p>ticle detector4 ,,collector ,,%ield ,,c ,,qu>tz ,,fib] ,illu/ration3 ,micr[ave & infr>$ radiomet]s4 ,,ref]5ce ,,horns ,,micr[ave ,,radiomet] ,,infr>$ ,,radiomet] ,table #b4 ,m>9] ,exp]im5ts ,exp]im5t ,description ,exp]im5t]s ,micr[ave radiomet] ,det]m9e ! ,dr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,b>rett1 temp]ature ( ! ,massa*usetts planet surface & ,in/itute ( details conc]n+ ,te*nology2 ,d4 ,e4 its atmosph]e ,jones1 ,,jpl2 ,dr4 ,j4 ,copel&1 ,army ,ordnance ,missile ,comm& & ,ew5-,knight ,corp42 ,dr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,lilley1 ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory ,infr>$ radiomet] ,det]m9e ! ,dr4 ,l4 ,d4 ,kaplan1 ,,jpl /ructure ( ! & ,univ]sity ( cl\d lay] & ,nevada2 ,dr4 ,g4 temp]ature ,neugebau]1 ,,jpl2 ,dr4 di/ributions at ,c4 ,sagan1 ,univ]sity cl\d altitudes ( ,cali=nia1 ,b]keley1 & ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory ,magnetomet] ,measure planet>y & ,p4 ,j4 ,coleman1 ,,nasa2 int]planet>y ,dr4 ,l4 ,davis1 magnetic fields ,calte*2 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,smi?1 ,,jpl2 ,dr4 ,c4 ,p4 ,sonett1 ,,nasa ,ion *amb] & ,measure high-en]gy ,dr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,&]son1 mat*$ cosmic radiation ,,jpl2 ,dr4 ,h4 ,v4 ,neh]1 ,geig]-,muell] tubes ,calte* ,anton special-purpose ,measure l[] ,dr4 ,j4 ,van ,all5 & tube radiation 7especially ,l4 ,frank1 ,/ate ne> ,v5us7 ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,cosmic du/ detector ,measure ! flux ( ,w4 ,m4 ,alex&]1 cosmic du/ ,godd>d ,space ,flight ,c5t]1 ,,nasa ,sol> plasma ,measure ! int5sity ,m4 ,neugebau] & ,dr4 spectromet] ( l[-en]gy ,c4 ,w4 ,snyd]1 ,,jpl positively *>g$ p>ticles f ! ,sun ,f\r exp]im5ts = inve/igation ( int]planet>y space & ! regions ne> ,v5us employ$3 a magnetomet]2 high-en]gy *>g$ p>ticle detectors1 includ+ an ionization *amb] & ,geig]-,muell] radiation c\nt]s2 a cosmic du/ detector2 & a sol> plasma detector4 ,^! six sci5tific exp]im5ts repres5t$ ! coop]ative ef=ts ( sci5ti/s at n9e in/itutions3 ,! ,army ,ordnance ,missile ,comm&1 ! ,ew5-,knight ,corp41 ! ,cali=nia ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 ! ,godd>d ,space ,flight ,c5t] ( ,,nasa1 ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory1 ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 ! ,/ate ,univ]sities ( ,i[a & ,nevada1 & ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley4 ,table #b li/s ! exp]im5ts1 ! exp]im5t]s1 & _! affiliations4 ,at ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory1 ! integration ( ! sci5tific exp]im5ts & ! g5]ation ( a numb] ( !m 7 c>ri$ out "u ! direction ( ,dr4 ,manfr$ ,eim]4 ,r4 ,c4 ,wyck(f 0 ! project sci5ti/ & ,j4 ,s4 ,m>t9 0 responsible = ! eng9e]+ ( ! sci5tific exp]im5ts4 ,,data ,,condition+ ,,sy/em ,m>9]'s sci5tific exp]im5ts 7 controll$ & _! outputs process$ by a data condition+ sy/em :i* ga!r$ ! in=mation f ! in/rum5ts & prep>$ x = transmission to ! ,e>? by telemetry4 ,9 ?is function1 ! data sy/em act$ z a buff] betwe5 ! sci5ce sy/ems & ! spacecraft data encod]4 ,! pulse output ( c]ta9 ( ! sci5ce in/rum5ts 0 c\nt$ & ! voltage amplitude repres5tations ( o!r in/rum5ts 7 conv]t$ f analog =m to a b9>y digital equival5t ( ! in=mation signals4 ,! data condition+ sy/em also includ$ circuits to p]mit "t-%>+ ( ! telemetry *annels ) ! spacecraft eng9e]+ data1 g5]ation ( p]iodic calibration signals = ! radiomet] & magnetomet]1 & control ( ! direction & spe$ ( ! radiomet] scann+ cycle4 ,dur+ ,m>9]'s cruise mode1 ! data condition+ sy/em 0 us$ = process+ bo? eng9e]+ & sci5ce data4 ,if ! spacecraft lo/ lock on ! ,sun or ! ,e>? dur+ ! cruise mode1 no sci5tific data w\ld be telemet]$ dur+ ! reori5tation p]iod4 ,eng9e]+ data 7 sampl$ & transmitt$ = ab\t #ag seconds dur+ e #cg-second int]val4 ,! planet>y enc\nt] mode involv$ only sci5ce & no eng9e]+ data transmission4 ,9 ?is mode1 ! sci5ce data 7 sampl$ dur+ #bj-second int]vals4 ,,cosmic ,,du/ ,,detector ,! cosmic du/ detector on ,m>9] ,,ii 0 design$ to measure ! flux d5sity1 direction1 & mom5tum ( int]planet>y du/ p>ticles betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,v5us4 ,^! measurem5ts 7 conc]n$ ) ! p>ticles' direction & di/ance f ! ,sun1 ! mom5tum ) respect to ! spacecraft1 ! nature ( any conc5trations ( ! du/ 9 /reams1 v>iations 9 cosmic du/ flux ) di/ance f ! ,e>? & ,v5us1 & ! possible effects on mann$ flight4 ,m>9]'s cosmic du/ in/rum5t c\ld detect a p>ticle z small z some?+ l a billion? ( a gram1 or ab\t five-trillion?s ( a p\nd4 ,?is type ( s5sor _h be5 us$ on rockets ev5 be=e ,explor] ,i4 ,x _h yield$ good results on ,pione] ,i 9 ! region betwe5 ! ,e>? & ! ,moon4 ,! in/rum5t 0 a #ee-squ>e-in* ac\/ical detector plate1 or s\nd+ bo>d1 made ( magnesium4 ,a cry/al microphone 0 atta*$ to ! c5t] ( ! plate4 ,! in/rum5t c\ld detect bo? l[- & high-mom5tum p>ticles & also provide a r\gh idea ( _! direction ( travel4 ,! du/ p>ticle c\nt]s 7 read once ea* #cg seconds dur+ ! cruise mode4 ,?is rate 0 increas$ to once ea* #bj seconds dur+ ! enc\nt] ) ,v5us4 ,! in/rum5t 0 atta*$ to ! top ( ! basic hexagonal /ructure2 x weigh$ #a4he p\nds1 & consum$ only #j4h watt ( p[]4 ,,sol> ,,plasma ,,exp]im5t ,9 ord] to inve/igate ! ph5om5a associat$ ) ! movem5t ( plasma 7*>g$ p>ticles ( l[ en]gy & d5sity /ream+ out f ! ,sun to =m ! s-call$ 8sol> w9d07 9 int]planet>y space1 ,m>9] c>ri$ a sol> plasma spectromet] t measur$ ! flux & en]gy spectrum ( positively *>g$ plasma compon5ts ) en]gies 9 ! range #bdj to #hdjj volts4 ,! extremely s5sitive plasma detector unit 0 op5 to space1 consum$ #a watt ( p[]1 & consi/$ ( f\r basic elem5ts3 curv$ electro/atic deflection plates & collector cup1 electromet]1 a sweep amplifi]1 & a programm]4 ,! curv$ deflector plates =m$ a tunnel t project$ f ! *assis on ! spacecraft hexagon 9 :i* ! in/rum5t 0 h\s$4 ,po9t$ t[>d ! ,sun1 ! gold-plat$ magnesium deflector plates ga!r$ p>ticles f space4 ,s9ce ! walls ( ! tunnel ea* c>ri$ diff]5t electrical *>ges1 only p>ticles ) j ! correct en]gy & spe$ c\ld pass ?r\gh & be detect$ by ! collector cup )\t /rik+ ! *>g$ walls4 ,a s5sitive electromet] circuit !n measur$ ! curr5t g5]at$ by ! fl[ ( ! *>g$ p>ticles rea*+ ! cup4 ,! deflection plates 7 suppli$ by amplifi]-g5]at$ voltages :i* 7 v>i$ 9 #aj /eps1 ea* la/+ ab\t #ah seconds1 all[+ ! in/rum5t to measure protons ) en]gies 9 ! #bdj to #h1djj electron volt range4 ,! programm] swit*$ 9 ! prop] voltage & resi/ances4 ,,high-,,en]gy ,,radiation ,,exp]im5t ,m>9] c>ri$ an exp]im5t to measure high-en]gy radiation 9 space & ne> ,v5us4 ,! *>g$ p>ticles measur$ by ,m>9] 7 prim>ily cosmic rays 7protons or ! nuclei ( hydrog5 atoms71 alpha p>ticles 7nuclei ( helium atoms71 ! nuclei ( o!r heavi] atoms1 & electrons4 ,! /udy ( ^! p>ticles 9 space & ^? :i* might be trapp$ ne> ,v5us 0 und]tak5 9 ! hope ( a bett] und]/&+ ( ! dynamics ( ! sol> sy/em & ! pot5tial haz>ds to mann$ flight4 ,! high-en]gy radiation exp]im5t consi/$ ( an ionization *amb] & detectors measur+ p>ticle flux 7velocity times d5sity71 all m\nt$ 9 a box measur+ #f #f #b in*es & weigh+ j "u #c p\nds4 ,! box 0 atta*$ halfway up ! spacecraft sup]/ructure 9 ord] to isolate ! in/rum5ts z mu* z possible f second>y emission p>ticles produc$ :5 ! spacecraft 0 /ruck by cosmic rays1 & to prev5t ! spacecraft f block+ high-en]gy radiation f space4 ,! ionization *amb] _h a /a9less /eel %ell #e in*es 9 diamet]1 ) walls only #a_/ajj-;in* ?ick4 ,! *amb] 0 fill$ ) argon gas into :i* 0 project$ a qu>tz fibre next to a qu>tz rod4 ,a *>g$ p>ticle ent]+ ! *amb] w\ld leave a wake ( ions 9 ! argon gas4 ,negative ions accumulat$ on ! rod1 r$uc+ ! pot5tial betwe5 ! rod & ! sph]ical %ell1 ev5tually caus+ ! qu>tz fibre to t\* ! rod4 ,?is action dis*>g$ ! rod1 produc+ an electrical pulse :i* 0 amplifi$ & transmitt$ to ! ,e>?4 ,! rod 0 !n re*>g$ & ! fibre return$ to its orig9al position4 ,9 ord] to p5etrate ! walls ( ! *amb]1 protons requir$ an en]gy ( #aj million electron volts 7,mev71 electrons ne$$ #j4e ,mev1 & alpha p>ticles #dj ,mev4 ,! p>ticle flux detector incorporat$ ?ree ,geig]-,muell] tubes1 two ( :i* =m$ a companion exp]im5t to ! ionization *amb]2 ea* g5]at$ a curr5t pulse :5ev] a *>g$ p>ticle 0 detect$4 ,"o tube 0 %ield$ by an #h_/a1jjj-;in*-?ick /a9less /eel sleeve1 ! o!r by a #bd_/a1jjj-;in*-?ick electron-/opp+ b]yllium %ield4 ,?us1 ! proportion ( p>ticles c\ld be det]m9$4 ,! ?ird ,geig]-,muell] tube 0 an end-w9d[ ,anton-type s5sor ) a mica w9d[ t admitt$ protons ) en]gies great] ?an #j4e ,mev & electrons1 #dj1jjj electron volts4 ,a magnesium %ield ar\nd ! re/ ( ! tube enabl$ ! in/rum5t to det]m9e ! direction ( p>ticles p5etrat+ only ! w9d[4 ,! ?ree ,geig]-,muell] tubes protrud$ f ! box on ! sup]/ructure ( ! spacecraft4 ,! end-w9d[ tube 0 incl9$ #bj degrees f ! o!rs & #gj degrees f ! spacecraft-,sun l9e s9ce x _h to be %ield$ f direct sol> exposure4 ,,! ,,magnetomet] ,m>9] c>ri$ a magnetomet] to measure ! magnetic field 9 int]planet>y space & 9 ! vic9ity ( ,v5us4 ,l[] s5sitivity limit ( ! in/rum5t 0 ab\t #e gamma4 ,a gamma is a unit ( magnetic measurem5t & is equal to #aj or #a_/ajj1jjj o]/$1 or #a_/cj1jjj ( ! ,e>?'s magnetic field at ! equator4 ,! nails 9 "o ( y\r %oes w\ld probably produce a field ( ab\t #a gamma at a di/ance ( approximately #d feet4 ,h\s$ 9 a #f- #c-;in* metal cyl9d]1 ! in/rum5t consi/$ ( ?ree magnetic core s5sors1 ea* align$ on a diff]5t axis to read ! ?ree magnetic field compon5ts & hav+ prim>y & second>y w9d+s4 ,! pres5ce ( a magnetic field alt]$ ! curr5t 9 ! second>y w9d+ 9 proportion to ! /r5g? ( ! field enc\nt]$4 ,! magnetomet] 0 atta*$ ne> ! top ( ! sup]/ructure1 j bel[ ! omni-ant5na1 9 ord] to remove x z f> z possible f any spacecraft compon5ts hav+ magnetic fields ( _! own4 ,an auxili>y coil 0 w\nd ar\nd ea* ( ! in/rum5t's magnetic s5sor cores to comp5sate = p]man5t magnetic fields exi/+ 9 ! spacecraft itself4 ,^! spacecraft fields 7 measur$ at ! magnetomet] be=e laun* &1 9 flight1 ! auxili>y coils c>ri$ curr5ts ( suffici5t /r5g? to cancel out ! spacecraft's magnetic fields4 ,! magnetomet] report$ almo/ cont9u\sly on its j\rney & = #bj days aft] enc\nt]4 ,dur+ ! enc\nt]1 obs]vations 7 made ea* #bj seconds on ea* ( ! ?ree compon5ts ( ! magnetic field4 ,,micr[ave ,,radiomet] ,a micr[ave radiomet] on bo>d ,m>9] ,,ii 0 design$ to scan ,v5us dur+ enc\nt] at two wavel5g?s3 #ac4e & #ai millimet]s4 ,! radiomet] 0 int5d$ to help settle "s ( ! controv]sies ab\t ! orig9 ( ! app>5tly high surface temp]ature emanat+ f ,v5us1 & ! value ( ! surface temp]ature4 ,! equipm5t includ$ a #ai-;in*-diamet] p>abolic ant5na m\nt$ above ! basic hexagonal /ructure on a swivel driv5 9 a #abj-;degree scann+ motion by a motor4 ,! radiomet] electronics circuits 7 h\s$ beh9d ! ant5na di%4 ,! ant5na 0 equipp$ ) a diplex]1 :i* all[$ x to receive bo? wavel5g?s at once )\t int]f]5ce1 & to comp>e ! signals emanat+ f ! two ref]5ce horns ) ^? f ! planet4 ,! ref]5ce horns 7 po9t$ away f ! ma9 ant5na beam s !y w\ld look into deep space z ,m>9] pass$ ,v5us4 ,?is feature all[$ ! ant5na to 8br+ 90 a ref]5ce temp]ature ( approximately absolute z]o dur+ enc\nt]4 ,! micr[ave radiomet] 0 to be turn$ on #aj h\rs be=e ! enc\nt] began4 ,an electric motor 0 !n to />t a scann+ or 8nodd+0 motion ( #abj degrees at ! rate ( #a degree p] second4 ,^u radiomet] contact ) ! planet1 ?is scann+ rate w\ld be r$uc$ to #a_/aj degree p] second z long z ! planet>y disk 0 scann$4 ,a special comm& sy/em 9 ! data condition+ sy/em w\ld rev]se or normalize ! direction ( scan z ! radiomet] rea*$ ! edge or limb ( ! planet4 ,! signals f ! ant5na & ! ref]5ce horns 7 to be process$ & ! data h&l$ 9 a receiv]1 locat$ beh9d ! ant5na1 :i* measur$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! signals f ,v5us & ! ref]5ce signals f space4 ,! in=mation 0 !n to be telemet]$ to ! ,e>?4 ,! micr[ave radiomet] 0 automatically calibrat$ tw5ty-?ree times dur+ ! mission by a sequ5ce orig9at+ 9 ! data condition+ sy/em1 s t ! correct function+ ( ! in/rum5t c\ld be det]m9$ be=e ! enc\nt] ) ,v5us4 ,,infr>$ ,,radiomet] ,! infr>$ radiomet] 0 a companion exp]im5t to ! micr[ave in/rum5t & 0 rigidly m\nt$ to ! micr[ave ant5na s t bo? radiomet]s w\ld look at ! same area ( ,v5us ) ! same scann+ rate4 ,! in/rum5t detect$ radiation 9 ! #h to #i & #aj to #aj4h micron regions ( ! infr>$ spectrum4 ,! infr>$ radiomet] _h two optical s5sors4 ,z ! en]gy ent]$ ! sy/em1 x 0 8*opp$0 by a rotat+ disk1 alt]nately pass+ or comp>+ emissions f ,v5us & f empty space4 ,! beam 0 !n split by a filt] into ! two wavel5g? regions4 ,! output 0 !n detect$1 process$1 & transmitt$ to ! ,e>?4 ,! infr>$ radiomet] measur$ #f in*es by #b in*es1 weigh$ #b4g p\nds1 & consum$ #b watts ( p[]4 ,! in/rum5t 0 equipp$ ) a calibration plate :i* 0 m\nt$ on a sup]/ructure truss adjac5t to ! radiomet]4 ,,m>9]',s ,,sci5tific ,,objectives ,equipp$ ) ^! in/rum5ts & ) ! me*anism = gett+ ! measurem5ts back to ,e>?1 ,m>9] ,,ii 0 prep>$ to look = ! answ]s to "s ( ! que/ions inh]5t 9 its ov]-all mission objectives3 #a4 ,! inve/igation ( int]planet>y space betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,v5us1 measur+ su* ph5om5a z ! cosmic du/1 ! my/]i\s plasma or sol> w9ds1 high-en]gy cosmic rays f space outside our sol> sy/em1 *>g$ p>ticles f ! ,sun1 & ! magnetic fields ( space4 #b4 ,! exp]im5ts to be p]=m$ ne> ,v5us 7at ab\t #ba1aej miles out f ! surface7 9 an ef=t to und]/& its magnetic fields1 radiation belts1 ! temp]ature & composition ( its cl\ds1 & ! temp]ature & conditions on ! surface ( ! planet4 ,,*apt] #i ,,! ,,legacy ,,( ,,m>9] ,if intellig5t life _h exi/$ on ,v5us on ! aft]noon ( ! ,e>?'s ,decemb] #ad1 #aifb1 & if x c\ld h se5 ?r\gh ! cl\ds1 x might h obs]v$ ,m>9] ,,ii approa* f ! night side1 drift d[n clos]1 cross ov] to ! daylight face1 & move away t[>d ! ,sun to ! "r4 ,! "t 0 ! equival5t ( #ab3cd p4m4 along ! ,pacific ,coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e ! spacecraft 0 be+ track$4 ,m>9] ,,ii _h rea*$ ! climax ( its #ahj-million-mile1 #aji-;day trip ?r\gh space4 ,! #ce-m9ute enc\nt] ) ,v5us w\ld tell ,e>? sci5ti/s m ab\t our si/] planet ?an !y _h be5 able to le>n dur+ all ! prec$+ c5turies4 ,,space ,,)\t ,,du/8 ,be=e ,m>9]1 sci5ti/s !oriz$ ab\t ! exi/5ce ( cl\ds ( cosmic du/ ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,a k ( ! composition1 orig91 & ! dynamics ( ^! m9ute p>ticles is necess>y = /udy ( ! orig9s & evolution ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,t9y p>ticles ( cosmic du/ 7"s ) masses z l[ z #a4c #aj gram or ab\t "o-trillion? ( a p\nd7 7 ?\ght to be pres5t 9 ! sol> sy/em & h be5 record$ by satellites 9 ! ne>-,e>? regions4 ,^! microcosmic p>ticles c\ld be ei!r ! residue left ov] aft] our sol> sy/em 0 =m$ "s #e billion ye>s ago1 possibly by cond5sation ( huge masses ( gas & du/ cl\ds2 or1 ! debris deposit$ )9 our sy/em by ! f>-flung & decay+ tails ( pass+ comets2 or1 ! du/ trapp$ f galactic space by ! magnetic fields ( ! ,sun & ! planets4 ,analysis ( ! m ?an #a1gjj h\rs ( cosmic du/ detector data recov]$ f ! flight ( ,m>9] ,,ii seems to indicate t 9 ! region betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,v5us ! conc5tration ( t9y cosmic du/ p>ticles is "s t5-?\s& times less ?an t obs]v$ ne> ! ,e>?4 ,dur+ ! #abi days 7includ+ ! po/-enc\nt] p]iod7 ( ,m>9]'s mission1 ! data %[$ only "o du/ p>ticle impact :i* occurr$ 9 deep space & n ne> ,v5us4 ,equival5t exp]im5ts ne> ,e>? 7on bo>d ,e>? satellites7 h yield$ ov] #c1gjj su* impacts )9 p]iods ( approximately #ejj h\rs4 ,! cause ( ?is heavy ne>-,e>? conc5tration1 ! exact types ( p>ticles1 & _! s\rce are /ill unkn[n4 ,! cosmic du/ exp]im5t p]=m$ well dur+ ! ,m>9] mission4 ,al?\gh "s calibration difficulty 0 obs]v$ ab\t two weeks be=e ! ,v5us enc\nt]1 possibly caus$ by ov]heat+ ( ! s5sor cry/al1 !re 0 no app>5t effect 9 ! electronic circuits4 ,,! ,,ubiquit\s ,,sol> ,,w9d ,= "s "t prior to ,m>9]1 sci5ti/s po/ulat$ ! exi/5ce ( a s-call$ plasma fl[ or 8sol> w9d0 /ream+ out f ! ,sun1 to expla9 ! motion ( comet tails 7:i* always po9t away f ! ,sun1 p]haps repell$ by ! plasma71 geomagnetic /orms1 aurorae1 & o!r su* di/urbances4 7,plasma is def9$ z a gas 9 :i* ! atoms are dissociat$ into atomic nuclei & electrons1 b :i*1 z a :ole1 is electrically neutral47 ,! sol> w9d 0 ?\ght to dra/ically alt] ! configuration ( ! ,sun's ext]nal magnetic field4 ,plasma mov+ at extreme velocities is able to c>ry ) x ! l9es ( magnetic =ce orig9at+ 9 ! ,sun's corona & to di/ort any fields x enc\nt]s z x moves out f ! ,sun4 ,x 0 believ$ t ^! mov+ plasma curr5ts are also capable ( alt]+ ! size ( a planet's field ( magnetic flux4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 ! field on ! sunlit face ( ! planet is compress$ & ! d>k side has an elongat$ expansion ( ! field4 ,= example1 ! out] b\nd>y ( ! ,e>?'s magnetic field is pu%$ 9 by ! sol> w9d to ab\t #dj1jjj miles f ! ,e>? on ! sunw>d side4 ,on ! d>k side1 ! field ext5ds out mu* f>!r4 ,! sol> w9d 0 also kn[n to h an app>5t effect on ! movem5t ( cosmic rays4 ,z ! ,sun spots increase 9 ! regul> #aa-ye> cycle1 ! numb] ( cosmic rays rea*+ ! ,e>? f outside our sol> sy/em w decrease4 ,m>9] ,,ii f\nd t /reams ( plasma are con/antly fl[+ out f ! ,sun4 ,?is fluctuat+1 extremely t5u\s sol> w9d seems to dom9ate int]planet>y space 9 our region ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,! w9d moves at velocities v>y+ f ab\t #bjj to #ejj miles p] second 7ab\t #gbj1jjj to #a1hjj1jjj miles p] h\r71 & measures up to p]haps a million degrees ,fahr5heit 7)9 ! subatomic /ructure74 ,) ! sol> plasma spectromet] work+ at t5 diff]5t en]gy levels1 ,m>9] requir$ #c4g m9utes to run ?r\gh a complete en]gy spectrum4 ,dur+ ! #abc days1 :5 read+s 7 made1 a total ( #dj1jjj su* spectra 7 record$4 ,plasma 0 monitor$ on #ajd ( ^? #abc days1 & on e "o ( ! spectra1 ! plasma 0 always pres5t4 ,m>9] %[$ t ! en]gies ( ! p>ticles 9 ! sol> w9ds are v l[1 on ! ord] ( a few hundr$ or few ?\s& electron volts1 z comp>$ ) ! billions & trillions ( electron volts measur$ 9 cosmic radiation4 ,! extreme t5u\sity or l[ d5sity ( ! sol> w9d is difficult to compreh5d3 ab\t #aj to #bj protons 7hydrog5 nuclei7 & electrons p] cubic in*4 ,b despite ! l[ en]gy & d5sity1 sol> w9d p>ticles 9 our region ( ! sol> sy/em are billions ( times m num]\s ?an cosmic rays &1 !re=e1 ! total en]gy cont5t ( ! w9ds is mu* great] ?an t ( ! cosmic rays4 ,m>9] f\nd t :5 ! surface ( ! ,sun 0 relatively inactive1 ! velocity ( ! w9d 0 a little less ?an #bej miles p] second & ! temp]ature a few hundr$ ?\s& degrees4 ,! plasma 0 always pres5t1 b ! d5sity & ! velocity v>i$4 ,fl>e activity on ! ,sun seem$ to eject cl\ds ( plasma1 greatly increas+ ! velocity & d5sity ( ! w9ds4 ,:]e ! p>ticles 7 protons1 _! en]gies rang$ f #gej to #b1ejj electron volts4 ,! exp]im5t also %[$ t ! velocity ( ! plasma app>5tly und]goes frequ5t fluctuations ( ?is type4 ,on approximately tw5ty occasions1 ! velocity increas$ )9 a day or two by #bj to #ajj4 ,^! di/urbances seem$ to correlate well ) magnetic /orms obs]v$ on ! ,e>?4 ,9 sev]al cases1 ! sudd5 increase 9 ! sol> plasma flux prec$$ v>i\s geomagnetic effects obs]v$ on ! ,e>? by only a %ort "t4 ,! ,m>9] sol> plasma exp]im5t 0 ! fir/ ext5sive measurem5t ( ! int5sity & velocity spectrum ( sol> plasma tak5 f> en\gh f ! ,e>?'s field s t ! ,e>? w\ld h no effect on ! results4 ,,high-,,en]gy ,,p>ticles3 ,,fatal ,,dosage8 ,speculation has long exi/$ z to ! am\nt ( high-en]gy radiation 7f cosmic rays & p>ticles f ! ,sun ) en]gies 9 ! millions ( electron volts7 pres5t )9 our sol> sy/em & z to :e!r exposure w\ld be fatal to a human space travel]4 ,?is high-en]gy type ( ioniz+ radiation is ?\ght to consi/ ( ! nuclei ( su* atoms z hydrog5 & helium1 & ( electrons1 all mov+ v rapidly4 ,! individual p>ticles are en]getic en\gh to p5etrate consid]able am\nts ( matt]4 ,! conc5tration ( ^! p>ticles is app>5tly mu* l[] ?an t ( l[-en]gy plasma4 ,! exp]im5ts 7 design$ to detect ?ree types ( high-en]gy radiation p>ticles3 ! cosmic rays com+ f outside ! sol> sy/em1 sol> fl>e p>ticles1 & radiation trapp$ ar\nd ,v5us 7z t :i* is f\nd 9 ! ,e>?'s ,van ,all5 ,belt74 ,^! high-en]gy radiation p>ticles 7also ?\ght to affect aurorae & radio black\ts on ! ,e>?7 measure f ab\t "o hundr$ ?\s& electron volts up to billions ( volts4 ,! di/ribution ( ?is en]gy is ?\ght to be uni=m outside ! sol> sy/em & is assum$ to move 9 all directions 9 a patt]n rema9+ ess5tially con/ant ov] ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,inside ! sol> sy/em1 ! am\nt ( su* radiation rea*+ ! ,e>? is app>5tly controll$ by ! magnetic fields f\nd 9 int]planet>y space & ne> ! ,e>?4 ,! numb] ( cosmic rays *anges by a l>ge am\nt ov] ! c\rse ( an #aa-ye> ,sun-spot cycle1 & bel[ a c]ta9 en]gy level 7#e1jjj ,mev7 few cosmic rays are pres5t 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,!y are probably deflect$ by plasma curr5ts or magnetic fields4 ,m>9]'s *>g$ p>ticles exp]im5t indicat$ t cosmic radiation 7bomb>dm5t by cosmic rays71 bo? f galactic space & ^? p>ticles orig9at+ 9 ! ,sun1 w\ld n h be5 fatal to an a/ronaut1 at lea/ dur+ ! f\r-mon? p]iod ( ,m>9]'s mission4 ,! accumulat$ radiation inside ! c\nt]s 0 only #c ro5tg5s1 & dur+ ! "o sol> /orm record$ on ,octob] #bc & #bd1 ! dosage measur$ only ab\t ro5tg54 ,9 o!r words1 ! dosage am\nts to ab\t "o-?\s&? ( ! usually accept$ 8half-le?al0 dosage1 or t level at :i* half ( ! p]sons expos$ w\ld die4 ,an a/ronaut might accept _m times ! dosage detect$ by ,m>9] ,,ii )\t s]i\s effects4 ,! exp]im5t also %[$ little v>iation 9 d5sity ( *>g$ p>ticles dur+ ! trip1 ev5 ) a #cj decrease 9 di/ance f ! ,sun1 & no app>5t increase due to magnetically trapp$ p>ticles or radiation belts ne> ,v5us z comp>$ ) int]planet>y space4 ,h[ev]1 ^! measurem5ts 7 made dur+ a p]iod :5 ! ,sun 0 sl[ly decreas+ 9 activity at ! end ( an #aa-ye> cycle4 ,! ,sun spots w be at a m9imum 9 #aifd-aife1 :5 galactic cosmic rays w %>ply increase4 ,fur!r exp]im5ts are ne$$ to sample ! *>g$ p>ticles 9 space "u all conditions4 ,! lack ( *ange measur$ by ! ionization *amb] dur+ ! mission 0 significant2 ! cosmic-ray flux ( approximately #c p>ticles p] squ>e c5timet] p] second ?r\gh\t ! flight 0 an unusually con/ant value4 ,a cle> increase 9 high-en]gy p>ticles 7#aj ,mev to ab\t #hjj ,mev7 emitt$ by ! ,sun 0 not$ only once3 a fl>e-up betwe5 #g3db & #h3de a4m41 ,,p/1 ,octob] #bc4 ,! ionization *amb] read+ began to increase be=e ! fl>e disappe>$4 ,f a backgr\nd read+ ( #fgj ion pairs p] cubic c5timet] p] second p] /&>d atmosph]e1 x w5t to a peak value ( #ah1jjj1 v>i$ a bit1 & rema9$ above #aj1jjj = #f h\rs be=e gradually decreas+ ov] a p]iod ( sev]al days4 ,mean:ile1 ! flux ( ! p>ticles detect$ by ! ,geig] c\nt] rose f ! backgr\nd c\nt ( #c to a peak ( #af p] squ>e c5timet] p] second4 ,ionization ?us increas$ mu* m ?an ! numb] ( p>ticles1 indicat+ to ! sci5ti/s t ! high-en]gy p>ticles com+ f ! ,sun might h _h mu* l[] av]age en]gies ?an ! galactic cosmic rays4 ,illu/ration3 ,data obta9$ by micr[ave radiomet] are illu/rat$ at left2 results ( infr>$ radiomet] exp]im5t are %[n at "r4 ,note h[ mov+ spacecraft sees m ( atmosph]e along limb or edge ( planet1 less 9 c5t]4 ,9 contra/1 ! l[-en]gy exp]im5t detect$ ! ,octob] #bc ev5t1 & eight or t5 o!rs n se5 by ! high-en]gy detectors4 ,^! mu/ h be5 l[-p5etrat+ p>ticles exclud$ by ! ?ick] walls ( ! high-en]gy in/rum5t4 ,^! p>ticles 7 p]haps protons betwe5 #j4e & #aj ,mev or electrons betwe5 #j4jd & #j4e ,mev4 ,at #bj1jjj miles f ! ,e>?1 ! rate at :i* high-en]gy p>ticles h be5 obs]v$ has be5 record$ at sev]al ?\s& p] second4 ,) ,m>9] at approximately ! same di/ance f ,v5us1 ! av]age 0 only "o p>ticle p] second1 z x _h be5 dur+ mo/ ( ! mon? ( ,novemb] 9 space4 ,su* a rate w\ld indicate a l[ planet>y magnetic field1 or "o t did n ext5d out z f> z ,m>9]'s #ba1eih-mile close/ approa* to ! surface4 ,m>9] ,,ii measur$ & transmitt$ data 9 unprec$5t$ quantity & quality dur+ ! long trip4 ,9 summ>y1 ,m>9] %[$ t1 dur+ ! measur+ p]iod1 p>ticles 7 num]\s 9 ! en]gy ranges f a few hundr$ to #a1jjj electron volts4 ,protons 9 ! range #j4e to #aj ,mev 7 n num]\s1 b at times ! flux 7d5sity7 0 sev]al times t ( cosmic rays4 ,almo/ no protons 7 %[n 9 ! #aj to #hjj ,mev range1 except dur+ sol> fl>es :5 ! p>ticles 9 ?is range 7 num]\s4 ,above #hjj ,mev 7prim>ily ^? cosmic rays ent]+ int]planet>y space f outside ! sol> sy/em7 ! numb] decreas$ rapidly z ! en]gy increas$1 ! av]age total be+ ab\t #c p] c5timet] p] second4 ,dur+ "o #cj-;day p]iod 9 ,novemb] & ,decemb]1 ! l[-en]gy c\nt] saw only two small increases 9 radiation int5sity4 ,at ?is "t1 ! mean velocity ( ! sol> w9d 0 consid]ably l[] ?an dur+ ,septemb] & ,octob]4 ,?is might sugge/ t high-velocity plasma & l[-en]gy cosmic rays might bo? orig9ate f ! same sol> s\rce4 ,a ,,magnetic ,,field8 ,prior to ! ,m>9] ,,ii mission1 no conclusive evid5ce _h ev] be5 pres5t$ conc]n+ a ,v5usian magnetic field & no?+ 0 kn[n ab\t possible fluid motions 9 a molt5 core or o!r hypo!ses conc]n+ ! int]ior ( ! planet4 ,sci5ti/s assum$ t ,v5us _h a field some:at simil> to ! ,e>?'s1 al?\gh possibly r$uc$ 9 magnitude because ( ! app>5tly sl[ rate ( rotation & ! pressure ( sol> plasma4 ,_m que/ions _h also be5 rais$ conc]n+ ! nature ( ! atmosph]e1 *>g$ p>ticles 9 ! vic9ity ( ! planet1 magnetic /orms1 & aurorae4 ,good magnetomet] data f ,m>9] ,,ii w\ld help solve "s ( ^! problems4 ,m>9]'s magnetomet] exp]im5t also s\ght v]ification ( ! exi/5ce & nature ( a /eady magnetic field 9 int]planet>y space4 ,?is w\ld be important 9 und]/&+ ! *>g$ p>ticle balance ( ! inn] sol> sy/em4 ,o!r objectives ( ! exp]im5t 7 to e/abli% bo? ! direction & ! magnitude ( long-p]iod fluctuations 9 ! int]planet>y magnetic field & to /udy sol> di/urbances & su* problems 9 magnetohydrodynamics 7! /udy ( ! motion ( *>g$ p>ticles & _! surr\nd+ magnetic fields7 z ! exi/5ce & effect ( magnetiz$ & *>g$ plasmas 9 space4 ,! /r5g? ( a planet's field is ?\ght to be closely relat$ to its rate ( rotation--! sl[] ! rotation1 ! weak] ! field4 ,z a consequ5ce1 if ,v5us' field is simple 9 /ructure l ! ,e>?'s1 ! surface field %\ld be #e to #aj t ( ! ,e>?4 ,if ! /ructure ( ! field is complex1 ! surface field 9 places might exce$ ! ,e>?'s )\t increas+ ! field along ,m>9]'s trajectory to obs]vable values4 ,mo/ ( ! ph5om5a associat$ ) ! ,e>?'s magnetic field are likely to be significantly modifi$ or completely abs5t 9 & ar\nd ,v5us4 ,auroral displays & ! trapp+ ( *>g$ p>ticles 9 radiation belts su* z our ,van ,all5 w\ld be miss+4 ,! field ( ! ,e>? keeps l[- & mod]ate-en]gy cosmic rays away f ! top ( ! atmosph]e1 except 9 ! pol> regions4 ,! cosmic ray flux at ! top ( ,v5us' atmosph]e is likely to correspond ev]y:]e to ! high level f\nd at ! ,e>?'s poles4 ,illu/ration3 ,z x enc\nt]$ ,v5us1 ,m>9] ,,ii made ?ree scans ( ! planet4 ,,sun ,,direction ,,( ,,scan ,,data ,,read+s 7#ah ,,total7 ,9 contra/ to ,v5us1 ,jupit]1 :i* is t5 times l>g] 9 mass & volume & rotates twice z fa/ z ! ,e>?1 has a field consid]ably /rong] ?an ! ,e>?'s4 ,! ,moon has a field on ! sunlit side 7accord+ to ,russian measurem5ts7 :i*1 because ( ! ,moon's sl[ rotation rate1 is less ?an ( #a ( ! ,e>?'s at ! ,equator4 ,?us1 a planet's rotation1 if at a less rapid rate ?an ! ,e>?'s1 seems to produce small] magnetic fields4 ,?is !ory is consi/5t ) ! idea ( a planet>y magnetic field result+ f ! dynamo action inside ! molt5 core ( a rotat+ planet4 ,! ,sun1 on ! :ole1 has a fairly regul> dipole field4 ,sup]impos$ on ?is are "s v l>ge fields associat$ ) di/urb$ regions su* z spots or fl>es1 :i* produce fields ( v great int5sities4 ,^! sol> fields are drawn out into space by plasma fl[4 ,al?\gh relatively small 9 magnitude1 ^! fields are an important influ5ce on ! propagation ( p>ticles4 ,& ! areas 9 "q are v l>ge--some?+ on ! ord] ( an a/ronomical unit4 ,m>9] ,,ii seem$ to %[ t1 9 space1 a g5]ally quiet magnetic-field condition 0 f\nd to exi/1 measur+ some?+ less ?an #aj gamma & fluctuat+ ov] p]iods ( #a second to #a m9ute4 ,z ,m>9] made its close/ approa* to ,v5us1 ! magnetomet] saw no significant *ange1 a condition also not$ by ! radiation & sol> plasma detectors4 ,! magnetic field data look$ ess5tially z !y _h 9 int]planet>y space1 )\t ei!r fluctuations or smoo? *anges4 ,! enc\nt] produc$ no sl[ *anges1 nor 0 !re a cont9u\s fluctuation z 9 ! int]planet>y regions4 ,!re 0 no indication ( trapp$ p>ticles or ne>-,v5us modification 9 ! fl[ ( sol> plasma4 ,on ! ,e>?'s sunny side1 a def9ite magnetic field exi/s out to #dj1jjj miles1 & on ! side away f ! ,sun consid]ably f>!r4 ,if ,v5us' field _h be5 simil> to ! ,e>?'s1 a read+ ( #ajj to #bjj gamma1 a l>ge cosmic-ray c\nt1 & an abs5ce ( sol> plasma %\ld h be5 %[n1 b none ( ^! ph5om5a 7 not$ by ,m>9]4 ,^! results d n prove t ,v5us def9itely has no magnetic field1 b only t x 0 n measurable at ,m>9]'s #ba1eih-mile po9t ( close/ approa*4 ,! sl[ rotation rate & ! pressure ( ! sol> w9ds probably comb9e to limit ! field to a value "o t5? ( ! ,e>?'s4 ,s9ce ,m>9] pass$ ,v5us on ! sunlit side1 read+s are requir$ on ! d>k side 9 ord] to confirm ! condition ( ! magnetic field on t side ( ! planet1 :i* normally %\ld be consid]ably ext5d$4 ,,! ,,surface3 ,,h[ ,,hot8 ,be=e ,m>9]1 sci5ti/s _h (f]$ two ma9 !ories ab\t ! surface ( ,v5us3 ,x _h ei!r an electrically *>g$ ionosph]e caus+ false high-temp]ature read+s on ,e>? in/rum5ts despite a cool surface1 or a hot surface ) cl\ds becom+ increas+ly cold] ) altitude4 ,! cool-surface !ory suppos$ an ionosph]e ) a lay] ( electrons hav+ a d5sity ?\s&s ( times t ( ! ,e>?'s upp] atmosph]e4 ,micr[ave radiations f ?is electrical lay] w\ld cause mislead+ read+s on ,e>? in/rum5ts4 ,z a space probe scann$ across su* an atmosph]e1 x w\ld see ! lea/ am\nt ( *>g$ ionosph]e :5 look+ /raight d[n1 & ! mo/ conc5trat$ am\nt :ile scann+ ! limb or edge4 ,9 ! latt] case1 x w\ld be at an angle & w\ld %[ ess5tially a ?ick5+ effect ( ! atmosph]e because ( ! curvature ( ! planet4 ,z ! probe approa*$ ! edge1 ! ph5om5on kn[n z 8limb bright5+0 w\ld occur1 s9ce ! in/rum5ts w\ld see m ( ! electron-*>g$ ionosph]e & little if any ( ! cool] surface4 ,! temp]ature read+s w\ld1 !re=e1 be correspond+ly high] at ! limbs4 ,! o!r !ory1 held by mo/ sci5ti/s1 visualiz$ a hot surface on ,v5us1 ) no heavy conc5tration ( electrons 9 ! atmosph]e1 b ) cool] cl\ds at high] altitudes4 ,?us1 ! spacecraft w\ld look at a v hot planet f space1 cov]$ by cold]1 ?ick cl\ds4 ,/raight d[n1 ! micr[ave radiomet] w\ld see ! hot surface ?r\gh ! cl\ds4 ,:5 approa*+ ! limb1 ! radiations w\ld enc\nt] a ?ick] conc5tration ( atmosph]e & might n see any ( ! hot surface4 ,?is condition1 8limb d>k5+10 w\ld be *>act]iz$ by temp]atures decreas+ z ! edges ( ! planet 7 approa*$4 ,an in/rum5t capability or resolution mu* high] ?an t available f ! ,e>? 0 requir$ to resolve ! limb-bright5+ or limb-d>k5+ controv]sy4 ,m>9]'s radiomet] w\ld be able to provide some?+ l "o hundr$ times bett] resolution ?an ! ,e>?-bas$ measurem5ts4 ,at #aa3ei a4m41 ,,p/1 on ,decemb] #ad1 #aifb1 ,m>9]'s radiomet]s began to scan ! planet ,v5us 9 a nodd+ motion at a rate ( #j4a degree p] second & rea*+ an angul> sweep ( nom9ally #abj degrees4 ,! radiomet]s _h be5 swit*$ on #f h\rs be=e ! enc\nt] ) ,v5us & !y cont9u$ to op]ate = ano!r h\r aft]w>d4 ,! micr[ave radiomet] look$ at ,v5us at a wavel5g? ( #ac4e millimet]s & #ai millimet]s4 ,! #ac4e-millimet] region 0 ! location ( a micr[ave wat] absorption b& )9 ! electromagnetic spectrum1 b x 0 n anticipat$ t x w\ld detect any wat] vapor on ,v5us4 ,^! measurem5ts w\ld all[ det]m9ation ( atmosph]ic radiation1 av]ag+ ! hot temp]atures ne> ! surface1 ! w>m] cl\ds at l[] levels1 & ! l[] temp]atures f\nd 9 ! high atmosph]e4 ,if ! atmosph]e 7 a /rong absorb] ( micr[ave en]gy at #ac4e millimet]s1 only ! temp]ature ( ! upp] lay]s w\ld be report$4 ,unaffect$ by wat] vapor1 #ai-millimet] radiations c\ld be detect$ f deep] d[n into ! cl\d cov]1 p]haps f ne> or at ! planet's surface4 ,l>ge temp]ature diff]5ces betwe5 ! #ai- & #ac4e millimet] read+s w\ld indicate ! relative am\nt ( wat] vapor pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! #ai-millimet] radiations w\ld also te/ ! limb-bright5+ !ory4 ,dur+ its scann+ op]ation1 ,m>9] telemet]$ back to ,e>? ab\t #ah digital data po9ts1 repres5t$ z voltage fluctuations 9 relation to "t4 ,! fir/ scan 0 on ! d>k side1 go+ up on ! planet3 ! di/ance f ! surface 0 #af1dgi miles at midscan1 & ! brightness temp]ature 0 #cfi degrees ,f4 ,! second scan ne>ly p>allel$ ! t]m9ator 7junction ( light & d>k sides7 b cross$ x go+ d[n2 x 0 made f #ad1ieg miles at midscan & %[$ a temp]ature ( #eff degrees ,f4 ,! f9al scan1 #ac1ggf miles at midpo9t1 %[$ #bfa degrees ,f z x swept across ! sunlit side ( ,v5us 9 an upw>d direction4 ,! brightness temp]ature record$ by ,m>9]'s radiomet] is n ! true temp]ature ( ! surface4 ,x is d]iv$ f ! am\nt ( light or radio en]gy reflect$ or emitt$ by an object4 ,if ! object is n a p]fect light emitt]1 z mo/ are n1 !n ! light & radio en]gy w be "s fraction ( t return$ f a #ajj effici5t body1 & ! object is really hott] ?an ! brightness measurem5t %[s4 ,?us1 ! brightness temp]ature is a m9imum read+ & 9 ?is case1 0 l[] ?an ! actual surface temp]ature4 ,m>9]'s micr[ave radiomet] %[$ no significant diff]5ce betwe5 ! light & d>k sides ( ,v5us &1 importantly1 high] temp]atures along ! t]m9ator or night-&-day l9e ( ! planet4 ,^! results w\ld indicate no ionosph]e sup]*>g$ ) electrons1 b a def9ite limb-d>k5+ effect1 s9ce ! edges 7 cool] ?an ! c5t] ( ! planet4 ,!re=e1 consid]+ ! absorption *>act]i/ics ( ! atmosph]e & ! emissivity factor d]iv$ f e>li] ,,jpl rad> exp]im5ts1 a fairly uni=m #hjj degrees ,f 0 e/imat$ z a prelim9>y temp]ature figure = ! entire surface4 ,v5us is1 inde$1 a v hot planet4 ,,cl\d ,,temp]atures3 ,,! ,,infr>$ ,,read+s ,m>9] ,,ii took a close look at ,v5us' cl\ds ) its infr>$ radiomet] dur+ its #ce-m9ute enc\nt] ) ! planet4 ,?is in/rum5t 0 firmly atta*$ to ! micr[ave radiomet] s ! two devices w\ld scan ! same areas ( ,v5us at ! same rate & ! data w\ld be closely correlat$4 ,?is arrangem5t 0 necess>y to produce 9 effect a /]eoscopic view ( ! planet f two diff]5t regions ( ! spectrum4 ,because a/ronom]s h long conjectur$ ab\t ! irregul> d>k spots disc]nible on ! surface ( ,v5us' atmosph]e1 data to resolve ^! que/ions w\ld be ( great sci5tific int]e/4 ,if ! spots 7 inde$ breaks 9 ! cl\ds1 !y w\ld /& out ) mu* bett] def9ition 9 ! infr>$ spectrum4 ,if ! radiation came f ! cl\d tops1 !re w\ld be no breaks & ! temp]atures at bo? frequ5cies measur$ by ! infr>$ radiomet] w\ld foll[ ess5tially ! same patt]n4 ,! ,v5usian atmosph]e is transp>5t to ! #h-micron region ( ! spectrum except = cl\ds4 ,9 ! #aj-micron range1 ! l[] atmosph]e w\ld be hidd5 by c>bon dioxide4 ,if cl\d breaks exi/$1 ! #h-micron emissions w\ld come f a mu* l[] po9t1 s9ce ! l[] atmosph]e is fairly transp>5t at ?is wavel5g?4 ,if increas+ temp]atures 7 %[n 9 ?is region1 x might mean t "s radiation 0 com+ up f ! surface4 ,z a result ( ! ,m>9] ,,ii mission1 sci5ti/s h hypo!cat$ t ! cold cl\d cov] c\ld be ab\t #ae miles ?ick1 ) ! l[] base beg9n+ ab\t #de miles above ! surface1 & ! top occurr+ at #fj miles4 ,9 ?is case1 ! bottom ( ! cl\d lay] c\ld be approximately #bjj degrees ,f2 at ! top1 ! read+s v>y f ab\t m9us #cj degrees ,f 9 ! c5t] ( ! planet to temp]atures ( p]haps m9us #fj degrees to m9us #gj degrees ,f along ! edges4 ,?is temp]ature gradi5t w\ld v]ify ! limb-d>k5+ effect se5 by ! micr[ave radiomet]4 ,at ! c5t] ( ,v5us1 ! radiomet] saw a ?ick]1 bright]1 hott] "p ( ! cl\d lay]2 at ! limbs1 x c\ld n see s deeply & ! cold] upp] lay]s 7 visible4 ,fur!rmore1 ! temp]atures along ! cl\d tops 7 approximately equally di/ribut$1 indicat+ t bo? #h- & #aj-micron 8*annels0 p5etrat$ to ! same dep? & t bo? 7 look+ at ?ick1 d5se cl\ds q opaque to infr>$ radiation4 ,bo? *annels detect$ a curi\s feature along ! l[] portion ( ! t]m9ator1 or ! c5t] l9e betwe5 ! night & day sides ( ! planet4 ,9 t region1 a spot 0 %[n t 0 app>5tly ab\t #bj degrees ,f cold] ?an ! re/ ( ! cl\d lay]4 ,su* an anomaly c\ld result f high] or m opaque cl\ds1 or f su* an irregul>ity z a hidd5 surface feature4 ,a m\nta9 c\ld =ce ! cl\ds upw>d1 ?us cool+ !m fur!r1 b x w\ld h to be extremely high4 ,! data all[ sci5ti/s to d$uce t n en\gh c>bon dioxide 0 pres5t above ! cl\ds = appreciable absorption 9 ! #aj-micron region4 ,?is effect w\ld seem to indicate t ! cl\ds are ?ick & t !re is little radiation com+ up f ! surface4 ,&1 if pres5t1 wat] vapor cont5t might be #a_/a1jjj ( t 9 ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,s9ce ! cl\d base is app>5tly at a v high temp]ature1 nei!r c>bon dioxide nor wat] is likely to be pres5t 9 quantity4 ,r1 ! base ( ! cl\ds mu/ conta9 "s compon5t t w cond5se 9 small quantities & n be spectroscopically detect$4 ,z a result ( ! two radiomet] exp]im5ts1 ! region bel[ ! cl\ds & ! surface itself take on bett] def9ition4 ,c]ta9ly1 heat-trapp+ ( infr>$ radiation1 or a 8gre5h\se0 effect1 mu/ be expect$ to support ! #hjj degree ,f surface temp]ature e/imat$ f ! micr[ave radiomet] data4 ,?us1 a consid]able am\nt ( en]gy-blanket+ c>bon dioxide mu/ be pres5t bel[ ! cl\d base4 ,x is ?\ght t "s ( ! ne>-infr>$ sunlight might filt] ?r\gh ! cl\ds 9 small am\nts1 s t ! sky w\ld n be entirely black1 at lea/ to human eyes1 on ! sunlit side ( ,v5us4 ,!re also may be "s v small cont5t ( oxyg5 bel[ ! cl\ds1 & p]haps consid]able am\nts ( nitrog54 ,! atmosph]ic pressure on ! surface might be v high1 ab\t #bj times ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e or m 7equival5t to ab\t #fjj in*es ( m]cury1 comp>$ ) our #cj in*es74 ,! surface1 despite ! high temp]ature1 is n likely to be molt5 because ( ! r\ghness index se5 9 ! e>li] rad> exp]im5ts1 & o!r indicators4 ,h[ev]1 ! possibility ( small molt5 metal lakes _c be totally ignor$4 ,! d5se1 high-pressure atmosph]e & ! heat-captur+ gre5h\se effect c\ld comb9e ov] long p]iods ( "t to c>ry ! extremely high temp]ature ar\nd to ! d>k side ( ,v5us1 despite ! sl[ rate ( rotation1 possibly acc\nt+ = ! relatively uni=m surface temp]atures app>5tly f\nd by ,m>9] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,rad> ,,pr(ile3 ,,measurem5ts ,,f ,,e>? ,9 #aifa1 ! ,jet ,propulsion ,laboratory conduct$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts f its ,gold/one1 ,cali=nia1 ,,dsif ,/ation1 successfully b\nc+ rad> signals (f ! planet ,v5us & receiv+ ! return signal aft] x _h travell$ #gj million miles 9 #f m9utes4 ,9 ord] to complem5t ! ,m>9] mission to ,v5us1 ! rad> exp]im5ts 7 repeat$ f ,octob] to ,decemb]1 #aifb 7dur+ ! ,m>9] mission71 us+ improv$ equipm5t & ref9$ te*niques4 ,z 9 #aifa1 ! exp]im5ts 7 direct$ by ,w4 ,k4 ,victor & ,r4 ,/ev5s4 ,! #aifa exp]im5ts us$ two #he-;foot ant5nas1 "o transmitt+ #ac kil[atts ( p[] at #b1chh megacycles1 ! o!r receiv+ ! return signal aft] ! r\nd trip to & f ,v5us4 ,! mo/ important result 0 ! ref9em5t ( ! a/ronomical unit--! mean di/ance f ! ,e>? to ! ,sun--to a value ( #ib1ief1bjj #cjj miles4 ,ar\nd #aiaj1 ! a/ronomical unit1 plott$ by classical optical me?ods1 0 unc]ta9 to #bej1jjj miles4 ,be=e ! introduction ( rad> a/ronomy te*niques su* z ^? us$ at ,gold/one1 sci5ti/s believ$ t ! a/ronomical unit 0 kn[n to )9 #fj1jjj miles1 b ev5 ?is factor ( unc]ta9ty w\ld be intol]able = planet>y exploration4 ,9 rad> a/ronomy1 ! transit "t ( a radio signal mov+ at ! spe$ ( light 7#ahf1jjj miles p] second7 is measur$ z x travels to a planet & back4 ,9 conjunction ) ! angul> measurem5t te*niques us$ by e>li] inve/igators1 ?is me?od p]mits a m precise calculation ( ! a/ronomical unit4 ,optical & rad> measurem5ts ( ! a/ronomical unit diff] by #ej1jjj miles4 ,fur!r ref9em5t ( bo? te*niques %\ld less5 ! discrepancy betwe5 ! two values4 ,! #aifa te/s also e/abli%$ t ,v5us rotates at a v sl[ rate1 possibly keep+ ! same face t[>d ! ,sun at all times4 ,! reflection coeffici5t ( ! planet 0 e/imat$ at #ab1 a bright value simil> to t ( ! ,e>? & contra/$ ) ! ,moon's #b4 ,! av]age dielectric con/ant 7conductivity factor7 ( ! surface mat]ial seem$ to be close to t ( s& or du/1 & ! surface 0 report$ to be r\gh at a wavel5g? ( #f in*es4 ,! surface r\ghness 0 confirm$ 9 #aifb4 ,s9ce x is kn[n t a r\gh surface w scatt] a signal1 ! rad> te/s 7 obs]v$ = su* indications4 ,v5us _h a scatt]+ effect on ! rad> waves simil> to ! ,moon's1 probably e/abli%+ ! r\ghness ( ! ,v5usian surface z m or less simil> to ! lun> t]ra94 ,"s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ "w 0 done 9 ref]5ce to ! rotation rate ( ,v5us4 ,a rad> signal w spread 9 frequ5cy on return f a t>get planet t is rotat+ & r\gh en\gh to reflect f a consid]able area ( its surface4 ,! spread ( #e to #aj cycles p] second not$ on ! ,v5us e*o w\ld sugge/ a v sl[ rotation rate1 p]haps keep+ ! same face t[>d ! ,sun1 or possibly ev5 9 a retrograde direction1 opposite to ! ,e>?'s4 ,9 ! ,gold/one #aifb exp]im5ts1 ,v5us 0 9 effect divid$ into obs]vation zones & ! doppl] effect or *ange 9 ! return$ signal f ^! zones 0 /udi$4 ,! rate ( rotation 0 d]iv$ f ?ree mon?s ( sampl+ ) ?is rad> mapp+ te*nique4 ,also1 ! cle>1 %>p tone *>act]i/ic ( ! transmitt$ rad> signal 0 alt]$ on return f ,v5us into a fuzzy1 indi/9ct s\nd4 ,?is effect seem$ to confirm ! sl[ retrograde rotation 7z comp>$ ) ! ,e>?7 indicat$ by ! rad> mapp+ & frequ5cy *ange me?od4 ,9 addition to ^! me?ods ( d$uc+ ! sl[ rotation rate1 two o!r ph5om5a seem$ to v]ify x3 a sl[ly fluctuat+ signal /r5g?1 & ! app>5t progression ( a bright rad> spot across f ! c5t] ( ,v5us t[>d ! outside edge4 ,z a result1 ,,jpl sci5ti/s revis$ _! #aifa e/imate ( an equal ,v5usian day & ye> consi/+ ( #bbe ,e>? days4 ,! new value = ,v5us' rotation rate ar\nd its axis is #bcj ,e>? days plus or m9us #dj to #ej days1 & 9 a retrograde direction 7opposite to syn*ron\s or ,sun-fac+71 assum+ t ,v5us rotates on an axis p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( its orbit4 ,?us1 on ,v5us ! ,sun w\ld appe> to rise 9 ! we/ & cross to ! ea/ ab\t once ea* ,v5usian ye>4 ,if ! p]iod 7 exactly #bbe days retrograde1 ! />s w\ld rema9 /ation>y 9 ! sky & ,v5us w\ld always face a giv5 /> r ?an ! ,sun4 ,a space travell] hov]+ sev]al million miles directly above ! ,sun w\ld ?us see ,v5us z almo/ /opp$ 9 its rotation & possibly turn+ v sl[ly clockwise4 ,all ! o!r planets ( our sy/em includ+ ! ,e>?1 rotate c\nt]clockwise1 except ,uranus1 ^: axis is almo/ p>allel to ! plane ( its orbit1 mak+ x seem to roll ar\nd ! ,sun on its side4 ,! rotation direction ( di/ant ,pluto is unkn[n4 ,! ,gold/one exp]im5ts also /udi$ :at is kn[n z ! ,f>aday rotation ( ! plane ( pol>ization ( a radio wave4 ,! results indicat$ t ! ionization & magnetic field ar\nd ,v5us are v l[4 ,^! data t5d to confirm ^? ga!r$ by ,m>9]'s exp]im5ts close to ! planet4 ,! mass ( ,v5us 0 ano!r value t _h nev] be5 precisely e/abli%$4 ,! mass ( planet>y bodies is det]m9$ by _! gravitational effect on o!r bodies1 su* z satellites4 ,s9ce ,v5us has no kn[n natural satellite or moon1 ,m>9]1 approa*+ closely en\gh to 8feel0 its gravity1 w\ld provide ! fir/ opportunity = close measurem5t4 ,! di/ortion caus$ by ,v5us on ,m>9]'s trajectory z ! spacecraft pass$ ! planet enabl$ sci5ti/s to calculate ! mass ) an error probability ( #j4jae4 ,! value arriv$ at is #j4hadhe ( ! mass ( ! ,e>?1 :i* is kn[n to be approximately #ac4agc septillion 7#ac1agc1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj7 p\nds4 ,?us1 ! mass ( ,v5us is approximately #aj4gbi septillion 7#aj1gbi1djh1ejj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj7 p\nds4 ,9 addition to ^! measurem5ts1 ! extremely precise track+ sy/em us$ on ,m>9] prov$ ! feasibility ( long-range track+ 9 space1 p>ticul>ly 9 radial velocity1 :i* 0 measur$ to )9 #a_/aj ( an in* p] second at a di/ance ( ab\t #ed million miles4 ,z ! mission progress$1 ! trajectory 0 correct$ ) respect to ,v5us to )9 #aj miles at enc\nt]4 ,an int]e/+ result 0 ! v precise location ( ! ,gold/one & ov]seas track+ /ations ( ! ,,dsif4 ,be=e ,m>9] ,,ii1 ^! locations 7 kn[n to )9 #ajj y>ds4 ,aft] all ! data h be5 analyz$1 ^! locations w be r$ef9$ or 8relocat$0 to )9 an error ( only #bj y>ds4 ,m>9] n only made ! fir/ successful j\rney to ,v5us--x also help$ p9po9t spots 9 ! ,cali=nian & ,au/ralian des]ts & ! ,s\? ,african veldt ) an accuracy nev] be=e a*iev$4 ,,*apt] #aj ,,! ,,new ,,look ,,( ,,v5us ,! hi/oric mission ( ,m>9] ,,ii to ! ne>-vic9ity ( ,v5us & beyond has enabl$ sci5ti/s to revise _m ( _! concepts ( int]planet>y space & ! planet ,v5us4 ,! composite picture1 tak5 f ! six exp]im5ts abo>d ! spacecraft & ! data f ! ,,dsif rad> exp]im5ts ( #aifa & #aifb reveal$ ! foll[+3 --,int]planet>y space betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,v5us1 at lea/ z x 0 dur+ ! f\r mon?s ( ,m>9]'s mission1 _h a cosmic du/ d5sity "s t5-?\s& times l[] ?an ! region imm$iately surr\nd+ ! ,e>?4 --,dur+ ?is p]iod1 ! extremely t5u\s1 widely fluctuat+ sol> w9ds /ream$ cont9ually out f ! ,sun1 at velocities rang+ f #bjj to #ejj miles p] second4 --,an a/ronaut travell+ ?r\gh ^! regions 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( #aifb w\ld n h be5 s]i\sly affect$ by ! cosmic & high-en]gy radiation f space & ! ,sun4 ,he c\ld easily h surviv$ _m times ! am\nt ( radiation detect$ by ,m>9]'s in/rum5ts4 --#aaa --,! a/ronomical unit1 z det]m9$ by rad>1 ! y>d/ick ( our sol> sy/em1 /&s at #ib1ief1bjj1 plus or m9us #cjj miles4 --,! mass ( ,v5us 9 relation to ! ,e>?'s is #j4hadhe1 ) an error probability ( #j4jae4 --,! rotation rate ( ,v5us is q sl[ & is n[ e/imat$ z equal to #bcj ,e>? days1 plus or m9us #dj to #ej days4 ,! rotation might be retrograde1 clockwise ) respect to a ,sun-fac+ ref]5ce1 ) ! ,sun ris+ 9 ! we/ & sett+ 9 ! ea/ approximately "o ,v5usian ye> lat]4 ,! planet seems to rema9 ne>ly />-fix$ r ?an p]man5tly ori5t$ ) "o face to ! ,sun4 --,v5us has no magnetic field disc]nible at ! #ba1eih-mile approa* ( ,m>9] ,,ii & at t altitude !re 7 no regions ( trapp$ high-en]gy p>ticles or radiation belts1 z !re are ne> ! ,e>?4 --,! cl\ds ( ,v5us are ab\t #ae miles ?ick1 ext5d+ f a base #de miles above ! surface to a top altitude ( ab\t #fj miles4 --,at ! resolution ( ! ,m>9] ,,ii infr>$ radiomet]1 !re 7 no app>5t breaks 9 ! cl\d cov]4 ,cl\d-top temp]ature read+s are ab\t m9us #cj degrees ,f ne> ! c5t] 7along ! t]m9ator71 & rang+ d[n to m9us #fj degrees to m9us #gj degrees ,f at ! limbs1 %[+ an app>5t limb-d>k5+ effect1 :i* w\ld indicate a hot surface & ! abs5ce ( a sup]*>g$ ionosph]e4 --,a spot #bj degrees ,f cold] ?an ! surr\nd+ area exi/s along ! t]m9ator 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e3 a high m\nta9 c\ld exi/ 9 ?is region1 b su* an hypo!sis is purely conjectural4 ,a bright rad> reflection is also f\nd on ! ,equator 9 ! same g5]al region4 ,causes ( ^! ph5om5a are n e/abli%$4 --,at _! base1 ! cl\ds are ab\t #bjj degrees ,f & probably are compris$ ( cond5s$ hydroc>bons held 9 oily susp5sion4 ,bel[ ! cl\ds1 ! atmosph]e mu/ be heavily *>g$ ) c>bon dioxide1 may conta9 slight traces ( oxyg51 & probably has a /rong conc5tration ( nitrog54 --#aab --,z det]m9$ by ! micr[ave radiomet]1 ,v5us' surface temp]ature av]ages approximately #hjj degrees ,f on bo? light & d>k sides ( ! planet4 ,"s r\ghness is indicat$ & ! surface reflectivity is equival5t to t ( du/ & s&4 ,no wat] c\ld be pres5t at ! surface b !re is "s possibility ( small lakes ( molt5 metal ( "o type or ano!r4 --,"s r$di% sunlight1 9 ! filt]able infr>$ spectrum1 may f9d its way ?r\gh ! #ae-mile-?ick cl\d cov]1 b ! surface is probably v bleak4 --,! heavy1 d5se atmosph]e creates a surface pressure ( "s tw5ty times t f\nd on ! ,e>?1 or equal to ab\t #fjj in*es ( m]cury4 ,! mission 0 complet$ & ! spacecraft _h gone into an endless orbit ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,b be=e ,m>9] ,,ii lo/ its s+-song voice1 x produc$ #ac million data words ( comput] space lyrics to accompany ! music ( ! sph]es4 ,,app5dix ,,subcontractors ,?irty-f\r subcontractors to ,,jpl provid$ in/rum5ts & o!r h>dw>e = ,m>9]s ,i & ,,ii4 ,! subcontractors 73 ,a](lex ,corporation ,jet vane actuators ,long ,isl& ,city1 ,new ,york ,am]ican ,electronics1 ,inc4 ,trans=m]-rectifi]s = flight ,full]ton1 ,cali=nia telecommunications ,ampex ,corporation ,tape record]s = gr\nd telemetry ,in/rum5tation ,division & data h&l+ equipm5t ,r$wood ,city1 ,cali=nia ,appli$ ,developm5t ,corporation ,decommutators & teletype encod]s ,mont]ey ,p>k1 ,cali=nia = gr\nd telemetry equipm5t ,a/rodata1 ,inc4 ,"t code translators1 "t code ,anaheim1 ,cali=nia g5]ators1 & spacecraft signal simulators = gr\nd telemetry equipm5t ,b>nes ,eng9e]+ ,company ,infr>$ radiomet]s ,/am=d1 ,connecticut ,planet simulator ,bell ,a]ospace ,corporation ,accel]omet]s & associat$ ,bell ,a]osy/ems ,division electronic modules ,clevel&1 ,ohio ,comput] ,control ,company1 ,inc4 ,data condition+ sy/ems ,fram+ham1 ,massa*usetts ,conax ,corporation ,midc\rse propulsion explosive ,buffalo1 ,new ,york valves ,squibs ,consolidat$ ,electrodynamics ,corp4 ,oscillographs = data r$uction ,pasad5a1 ,cali=nia ,consolidat$ ,sy/ems ,corporation ,sci5tific in/rum5ts ,monrovia1 ,cali=nia ,op]ational support equipm5t ,dynamics ,in/rum5tation ,company ,isolation amplifi]s = telemetry ,mont]ey ,p>k1 ,cali=nia ,op]ational support equipm5t ,electric ,/orage ,batt]y ,company ,spacecraft batt]ies ,missile ,batt]y ,division ,raleigh1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a ,electro-,optical ,sy/ems1 ,inc4 ,spacecraft p[] conv]sion ,pasad5a1 ,cali=nia equipm5t ,f>go ,rubb] ,corporation ,midc\rse propulsion fuel tank ,los ,angeles1 ,cali=nia bladd]s ,gl5tronics1 ,inc4 ,p[] supplies = data ,gl5dora1 ,cali=nia condition+ sy/em ,gro5 ,associates ,actuators = sol> panels ,sun ,valley1 ,cali=nia ,h\/on ,fe>less ,corporation ,p9 pull]s ,torrance1 ,cali=nia ,ke>fott ,division ,gyroscopes ,g5]al ,precision1 ,inc4 ,los ,angeles1 ,cali=nia ,m>%all ,laboratories ,magnetomet]s & associat$ ,torrance1 ,cali=nia op]ational support equipm5t ,matrix ,rese>* & ,developm5t ,p[] supplies = p>ticle flux ,corporation detectors ,na%ua1 ,new ,hamp%ire ,m5asco ,manufactur+ ,company ,midc\rse propulsion fuel tanks & ,burbank1 ,cali=nia nitrog5 tanks ,midwe/]n ,in/rum5ts ,oscillographs = data r$uction ,tulsa1 ,oklahoma ,m9com ,division ,tape record]s = gr\nd telemetry ,m9nesota ,m9+ ,manufactur+ & data h&l+ equipm5t ,los ,angeles1 ,cali=nia ,motorola1 ,inc4 ,spacecraft comm& subsy/ems1 ,milit>y ,electronics ,division transpond]s1 & associat$ ,scottsdale1 ,arizona op]ational support equipm5t ,nortronics ,attitude control gyro electronic1 ,division ( ,nor?rop ,corporation autopilot electronic1 & ant5na ,palos ,v]des ,e/ates1 ,cali=nia s]vo electronic modules1 long-range ,e>? s5sors & ,sun s5sors ,ransom ,rese>* ,v]ification & gr\nd comm& ,division ( ,wyle ,laboratories modulation equipm5t ,san ,p$ro1 ,cali=nia ,rantec ,corporation ,transpond] circulators & monitors ,calabasas1 ,cali=nia ,ryan ,a]onautical ,company ,sol> panel /ructures ,a]ospace ,division ,san ,diego1 ,cali=nia ,spectrolab ,sol> cells & _! in/allation ,division ( ,textron ,electronics1 & electrical connection on ,inc4 sol> panels ,nor? ,hollywood1 ,cali=nia ,/ate ,univ]sity ( ,i[a ,calibrat$ ,geig] c\nt]s ,i[a ,city1 ,i[a ,/]] ,eng9e]+ ,manufactur+ ,valves & regulators = midc\rse ,company propulsion & attitude control ,nor? ,hollywood1 ,cali=nia sy/ems ,texas ,in/rum5ts1 ,inc4 ,spacecraft data encod]s & ,app>atus ,division associat$ op]ational support ,dallas1 ,texas equipm5t1 gr\nd telemetry demodulators ,trans-,sonic1 ,inc4 ,transduc]s ,burl+ton1 ,massa*usetts ,9 addition to ^! subcontractors1 ov] #a1jjj o!r indu/rial firms contribut$ to ! ,m>9] ,project4 ,,footnotes #a,?r\gh\t ?is book 8,m>9]0 ref]s to ! successful ,m>9] ,,ii ,v5us mission4 ,m>9] ,i 0 laun*$ e>li] b 0 de/roy$ :5 ! laun* vehicle flew (f c\rse4 #b;,= sci5tific reasons1 di/ances f ,v5us are calculat$ f ! c5t] ( ! planet4 ,h]eaft] 9 ?is *apt]1 ^! di/ances w be reckon$ f ! surface4 ,,index ,a ,,abma1 #ag ,ag5a ,b1 #ba1 #bb1 #dj ,ant5nas1 #ff ,gold/one1 description1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc onbo>d1 description1 #cj1 #ca directional control1 #cj ,pione] track+ site1 #gj1 #ga ,,arpa1 #ag ,a/ronomical unit1 #aaa ref9em5t1 #ajg ,atlantic ,missile ,range1 #b1 #aj1 #dc1 #hc ,atlas-,ag5a ,b1 #fc1 #eb ,atlas ,d1 #ai1 #ba1 #cf-ci1 #hi ,attitude control ,atlas ,d1 #ch ,e>? acquisition1 #eh loss ( control & reori5tation1 #ef1 #fj ,attitude control sy/em1 #ca1 #cb ,b ,batt]y1 #be1 #bg ,bump]-,,wac1 #ah ,c ,c-#acc aircraft1 #dc ,c5taur1 #h ,c5tral ,comput] & ,sequ5c]1 #bh comm&s1 #ef1 #eh failure at enc\nt]1 #fb midc\rse maneuv] control1 #ei ,c5tral ,comput+ ,facility1 #ha1 #hb ,*>g$ p>ticles1 #ac1 #ij ,*>g$ p>ticle detector1 #ce1 #hh ,comput]s1 data process+1 #hd ,corporal ,e1 #ah ,cosmic du/1 #ac d5sity1 #aaj di/ribution & mass1 #id1 #ie measurem5t1 #hi ,cosmic du/ detector1 #ce1 #fh1 #hg1 #hi ,cosmic radiation1 #ac1 #if ,cosmic ray flux1 #ih ,d ,data condition+ sy/em1 #hh ,data process+1 #cj1 #gd1 #he ,,ccf1 equipm5t & op]ation1 #hb1 #hc laun* & track+ op]ations1 #hc telemetry data1 #hd transmission "t1 #hh ,detectors *>g$ p>ticle1 #ce cosmic du/1 #ce sol> plasma1 #ce ,,dsif1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd functions1 #fh ,gold/one1 #a1 #fd1 #fg-gi1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #ge1 #hd1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji ,johannesburg1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #gc ,mobile1 #fh1 #gc1 #hj track+ dur+ midc\rse maneuv]1 #ef ori5tation1 #ef ,woom]a1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga1 #gc1 #ge ,e ,e>? s5sor f9al ori5tation comm&s1 #fd ,septemb] #h1 crises & recov]y1 #fj ,e*o ,project1 #fi ,e*o site functions1 #ga ,electronics equipm5t weight1 #be ,explor] ,i1 #ai ,exp]im5ts1 #ce ,anton special purpose tube1 #hg atmosph]ic inve/igation1 #he *>g$ p>ticle detector1 #hh1 #if-ajj d5sity v>iation data1 #ih radiation haz>d f9d+s1 #ih cosmic du/ detector data1 #hg-hi1 #id1 #ie high en]gy radiation1 #ij infr>$ radiomet]1 #hg1 #ic ion *amb] & ,geig]-,muell] tubes1 #hg magnetomet]s1 #hg1 #hh micr[ave radiomet]1 #hg1 #ia-ic objectives1 #ac1 #ic process+ ( data1 #he radiomet]s1 #he1 #aje1 #ajf responsible organizations1 #hh results1 #aaj-aab sol> plasma detector1 #hg-ij temp]ature inve/igation1 #he transmission ( data1 #hh weight1 #be ,g ,geig] c\nt]1 #ih ,geig]-,muell] tubes1 #hg1 #ia ,george ,c4 ,m>%all ,space ,flight ,c5t]1 #ac1 #ag ,gold/one ,track+ ,/ation1 #fd1 #fg1 #fi1 #ge1 #hd1 #ajg ,e*o site1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #gc ,pione] site1 #ef1 #fh1 #gj ,v5us site1 #fi1 #gj1 #ajh1 #aji ,guidance1 #ac ,h ,high-en]gy radiation exp]im5ts1 #ij1 #ia ,i ,infr>$ radiomet] exp]im5t cl\d obs]vations1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajf description1 #ic dim5sions1 #ic op]at+ *>act]i/ics1 #he1 #ic ,int]planet>y magnetic field1 #ac1 #ii ,int]planet>y space cosmic du/ d5sity1 #aaj di/ribution1 #ie haz>ds to spacecraft1 #ac ,ion *amb]1 #ih ,j ,johannesburg track+ /ation1 #fg1 #fh equipm5t1 #fh1 #gc functions1 #fh1 #gc ,,jpl1 #b1 #h1 #ac1 #ge1 #gf1 #hj1 #hb1 #hd accompli%m5ts1 #ah1 #ai backgr\nd1 #ah ,,dsif control po9t1 #fg1 #fh pre-,m>9] spacecraft1 #bc ,jupit]1 contra/ to ,v5us1 #aja ,jupit] ,c1 #ai ,l ,laun* ,op]ations ,c5t]1 #ab1 #ag ,laun*+1 #ef ,atlas p]=mance1 #eb1 #ec ,atlas-,ag5a ,b1 #eb batt]y1 #eb gyroscopes1 #ec radio guidance sy/em1 #eb "t limitations1 #ab ,m ,magnetomet] exp]im5t1 #ce1 #hh data1 #aja1 #ajb description1 #ia function1 #ia objectives1 #ajj onbo>d location1 #ia ,m>9] ,i1 #dc-de ,m>9] ,r1 #da ,mas]s1 #gj ,mat]ials1 !rmal %ield+1 #cc ,micr[ave radiomet] exp]im5t description1 #ia function1 #ia measurem5ts1 #ajc1 #aje op]at+ *>act]i/ics1 #he1 #ib-ic ,midc\rse maneuv]1 #cb1 #eh-ei1 #fj1 #fe ,mission a*ievem5ts1 records1 #fe ,mobile track+ /ation1 #fh1 #hj location1 equipm5t & function1 #gc ,,mx-#ggd ,project1 #ba ,n ,,naca1 precursor ( ,,nasa1 #af ,,nasa1 #h1 #af1 #ag ,p ,p>k+ orbit1 #ee ,pione] ,,iii1 #ai ,pione] ,,iv1 #ai ,pione] project1 #fi ,pione] track+ site1 #gj1 #ga ,p[] sy/em1 #be ,private ,a1 #ah ,propellants ,atlas ,d1 #ch attitude control sy/em1 #cb spacecraft1 controll$ burn+1 #cb rocket ?ru/ sy/em1 #cb ,propulsion sy/em1 ,m>9] spacecraft1 hydraz9e propellant1 #cc propellant /orage1 #cb1 #ch weight1 #be ,r ,radiation1 #ih-ajj ,rang] ,,iii1 #h ,receiv]s1 #ff ,records1 ,m>9] attitude control sy/em1 #fe measurem5ts ne> ,sun1 #fe op]ation ne> ,v5us telemetry measurem5ts1 di/ance1 #fe trajectory correction maneuv]1 #fe transmission1 cont9u\s p]=mance1 #fe ,s ,s5sors ,e>?1 = attitude control1 #cb ,sun1 = attitude control1 #cb ,s]geant missile1 #ai ,%ield+1 #cc1 #cd ,sol> cells1 #bg1 #bh ,sol> fl>es1 #ih1 #ii ,sol> panels description1 #be design1 #bg output det]ioration1 #fa release1 #aa support1 #be weight1 #bg ,sol> plasma detector1 #ce1 #hh1 #if1 #ig description1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij function1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij record+s1 #if1 #ig ,sol> plasma flux correlation ) geomagnetic effects1 #ig ,sol> w9d effects on cosmic-ray movem5ts1 #if magnetic fields1 #ie1 #if l[ d5sity & en]gy1 #if measurem5t1 #hi p>ticle conc5tration ne> ,e>?1 #if p>ticle en]gies1 #if temp]ature1 #if !ories1 #ie velocities1 #ac1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #aaj ,space ,flight ,op]ations ,c5t]1 #fj organization & op]ation1 #ge1 #hj1 #ha ,space simulator1 temp]ature control1 #da ,spacecraft1 #ca attitude control sy/em1 #ca ,c5tral ,comput] & ,sequ5c]1 #bh compon5ts & subsy/ems1 #bg configuration1 #bc electronic equipm5t1 #be frame mat]ials1 #bc1 #be laun*+1 #ab p[] sy/em1 #be prelim9>y design1 #da propulsion sy/em1 #cb %r\d & adapt]1 #dc sy/em te/s1 #da telecommunications subsy/em1 #cj temp]ature1 #cc te/ models1 #da te/+1 #bc trajectory1 #aa weight1 #be ,sun s5sor1 #cb ,t ,telemetry cont9u\s transmission1 #fe data process+1 #hd description1 #cj loss ( monitor+ data1 #fb phase-%ift modulation1 #cj transmission cut(f1 #fd ,telemetry process+ /ation1 #hb1 #hc ,telemetry sy/em data process+1 #cj onbo>d1 description1 #cj ,temp]ature control coat+s1 #cd heat+ problems1 #fb h\s+ /ructures1 #ce mat]ials1 #cc problems1 #cc sol> panels1 #ce sol> radiation %ield+1 #ce !rmal %ield+1 #cc ,track+ ,antigua1 #ec ,asc5sion1 #ec1 #ee ,,dsif1 #eb1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi ,e>? noise1 #ff ,gr& ,bahama ,isl&1 #ec ,johannesburg1 #ef ,pretoria1 #ec1 #ee problems1 #ff radio noise1 #ff ,san ,salvador1 #ec sol> noise1 #ff ,tw9 ,falls ,victory1 #ec1 #ee ,:iskey1 #ee ,woom]a1 #ef ,trajectory1 #aa1 #fc1 #fd1 #hc ,v ,v-#b rocket1 #ah ,van ,all5 radiation belt1 #ai1 #ig ,v5us atmosph]e1 #c1 #e1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aab atmosph]ic temp]ature1 #he atmosph]ic w9ds1 #e ,,co cont5t above cl\ds1 #ajf cl\d cov]1 #aje1 #ajf cl\d obs]vations1 #ajd1 #aje cl\ds1 data1 #aaa comp>$ ) ,e>?1 #e description1 #d dielectric con/ant1 surface mat]ial1 #ajg enc\nt]1 #ic1 #id hi/orical data1 #b inf]ior & sup]ior conjunctions1 #d magnetic field1 #ih1 #ajj1 #aaa comp>ison ) geomagnetic1 #ajj1 #aja data1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb /r5g?1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ajb mass1 #aji1 #aaa orbit1 #d rad> exp]im5ts1 #aifa1 #ajf1 #ajg rad> exp]im5ts dur+ mission1 #ajg reflection coeffici5t1 #ajg revolution1 #d rotation1 #d1 #aja1 #ajh1 #aaa surface1 #ajf brightness temp]ature1 #ajc1 #ajd *>act]i/ics1 !ories1 #ajb1 #ajc 8gre5h\se0 effect1 #ajf measurem5ts1 #ajc1 #ajd pressure1 #aab reflectivity1 #aaa r\ghness1 #ajg1 #ajh temp]ature1 #ajf1 #aaa temp]ature1 #he1 #aaa topography1 #e wat] vapor 9 atmosph]e1 #ajf ,v5us enc\nt]1 #fc ,w ,,wac ,corporal1 #ah ,woom]a ,track+ ,/ation1 #fg1 #fh1 #ge equipm5t1 #fh1 #ga1 #gc ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,reta9$ publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3 ?is e,book is public-doma9 9 ! c\ntry ( publication4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 text 9 italics is delimit$ by und]scores4 --,sil5tly correct$ a few typos4 --,9 ! index1 entry 8propellant /orage01 replac$ "o nons5sical page numb] 7#bjj7 ) a plausible conjecture 7#ch74