file which includes the original        
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or #edecg-;h4zip3                       
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b_/#edecg_/pg#edecg-;images4html7       
or                                      
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#ed
ecg_/edecg-;h4zip7         ,images of   
the original pages are available through
       ,internet ,archive4 ,see         
https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/musicali
nstrumen#jj;engeiala      ,,musical     
,,instruments         99      99      99
      99      99      99    ,,south     
,,kensington ,,museum ,,art ,,handbooks4
    ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,maskell4  
,,no4 #e4--,,musical ,,instruments4     
,these ,handbooks are reprints of the   
dissertations prefixed to the large     
catalogues of the chief divisions of    
works of art in the ,museum at ,south   
,kensington2 arranged and so far        
abridged as to bring each into a        
portable shape4 ,the ,lords of the      
,committee of ,council on ,education    

having determined on the publication of 
them1 the editor trusts that they will  
meet the purpose intended2 namely1 to be
 useful1 not alone for the collections  
at ,south ,kensington but for other     
collections1 by enabling the public at a
 trifling cost to understand something  
of the history and character of the     
subjects treated of4  ,the authorities  
referred to in each book are given in   
the large catalogues2 where will also be
 found detailed descriptions of the very
 numerous examples in the ,south        
,kensington ,museum4    ,w4 ,m4         
,august1 #ahge4        99      99       
99      99      99      99   ,,musical  
,,instruments  by  ,,carl ,,engel  ,with
 ,numerous ,woodcuts       ,illustration
  ,published for the ,committee of      
,council on ,education by ,chapman and  
,hall1 ,ltd41 ,london4     ,,list ,,of  
,,woodcuts4                             
,,page    ,prehistoric whistle          
#i    ,ancient ,egyptian flute concert  
#ac    ,the supposed ,hebrew lyre at    

,beni ,hassan                           
#bb    ,ancient bagpipe from ,tarsus    
#bd    ,hebrew trumpets1 from the arch  
of ,titus                               
#be    ,grecian harp and lyre           
#bh    ,greek lyres                     
#bi    ,greek flutes                    
#ca    ,the diaulos                     
#cb    ,etruscan cornu                  
#cc    ,hydraulic organ                 
#cd    ,roman girl and tibia            
#cf    ,roman trumpets                  
#cf    ,chinese king                    
#ci          pien-tchung                
#da          hiuen-tchung               
#db          ou                         
#dc          tchou                      
#dc          kin-kou                    
#dd          hiuen                      
#de          cheng                      
#df    ,hindustan1 vina                 
#di    ,persian1 chang                  
#ea            bagpipe                  
#eb    ,turkish harp                    
#ec    ,persian dulcimer                

#ee    ,the rebab                       
#ef    ,aztec whistles                  
#fj    ,antique pipe from central       
,america                                
#fa    ,pipes of the ,aztecs            
#fb    ,peruvian bone pipe              
#fd            huayra-puhura            
#fe                                     
#ff    ,orinoco ,indian trumpet         
#fg    ,south ,american ,juruparis      
#fh    ,indian trumpets                 
#gj    ,aztec drums                     
#gb    ,san ,domingo drum               
#gc    ,peruvian bell                   
#ge    ,aztec cluster of bells          
#gf    ,cithara1 ninth century          
#hf    ,psalterium                      
#hg    ,nablum                          
#hg    ,citole                          
#hh    ,anglo-saxon harp                
#hi    ,harp1 ninth century             
#ij    ,ancient ,irish harp             
#ia    ,german rotte                    
#ia    ,rotta                           
#ib    ,irish rotta                     

#ic    ,the crwth                       
#id    ,the old ,english crowd          
#ie    ,the ,french crout               
#if    ,anglo-saxon fiddle              
#ig    ,german fiddle1 ninth century    
#ig    ,organistrum                     
#ii    ,monochord                       
#ajj    ,single chorus                  
#aja    ,double chorus                  
#aja    ,sackbut                        
#aja    ,syrinx                         
#ajb    ,pneumatic organ1 fourth century
                                    #ajc
    ,organ1 twelfth century             
#ajd    ,regal                          
#ajd    ,cymbalum1 ninth century        
#aje    ,bunibulum                      
#ajf    ,orchestra on bas-relief        
#ajh    ,vielle                         
#aji    ,orchestra1 twelfth century1 at 
,santiago                               
#aaj    ,the minstrels' gallery1 at     
,exeter cathedral                       
#aab    ,virginal                       
#aad    ,lute1 ,elizabethan             

#aaf    ,viola da gamba                 
#aah    ,recorder                       
#aai    ,scotch bagpipe1 eighteenth     
century                                 
#abj    ,irish bagpipe1 sixteenth       
century                                 
#aba    ,carillon1 ,netherlands         
#abb     ,,musical ,,instruments4       
,,chapter ,i4   ,music1 in however      
primitive a stage of development it may 
be with some nations1 is universally    
appreciated as one of the ,fine ,arts4  
,the origin of vocal music may have been
 coeval with that of language2 and the  
construction of musical instruments     
evidently dates with the earliest       
inventions which suggested themselves to
 human ingenuity4 ,there exist even at  
the present day some savage tribes in   
,australia and ,south ,america who1     
although they have no more than the five
 first numerals in their language and   
are thereby unable to count the fingers 
of both hands together1 nevertheless    
possess musical instruments of their own

 contrivance1 with which they accompany 
their songs and dances4  ,wood1 metal1  
and the hide of animals1 are the most   
common substances used in the           
construction of musical instruments4 ,in
 tropical countries bamboo or some      
similar kind of cane and gourds are     
especially made use of for this purpose4
 ,the ingenuity of man has contrived to 
employ in producing music1 horn1 bone1  
glass1 pottery1 slabs of sonorous       
stone1--in fact1 almost all vibrating   
matter4 ,the strings of instruments have
 been made of the hair of animals1 of   
silk1 the runners of creeping plants1   
the fibrous roots of certain trees1 of  
cane1 catgut 7which absurdly referred to
 the cat1 is from the sheep1 goat1 lamb1
 camel1 and some other animals71 metal1 
c4  ,the mode in which individual       
nations or tribes are in the habit of   
embellishing their musical instruments  
is sometimes as characteristic as it is 
singular4 ,the negroes in several       
districts of western ,africa affix to   

their drums human skulls4 ,a war-trumpet
 of the king of ,ashantee which was     
brought to ,england is surrounded by    
human jawbones4 ,the ,maories in ,new   
,zealand carve around the mouth-hole of 
their trumpets a figure intended1 it is 
said1 to represent female lips4 ,the    
materials for ornamentation chiefly     
employed by savages are bright colours1 
beads1 shells1 grasses1 the bark of     
trees1 feathers1 stones1 gilding1 pieces
 of looking-glass inlaid like mosaic1 c4
 ,uncivilized nations are sure to       
consider anything which is bright and   
glittering ornamental1 especially if it 
is also scarce4 ,captain ,tuckey saw in 
,congo a negro instrument which was     
ornamented with part of the broken frame
 of a looking-glass1 to which were      
affixed in a semicircle a number of     
brass buttons with the head of ,louis   
,,xvi4 on them1--perhaps a relic of some
 ,french sailor drowned near the coast  
years ago4  ,again1 musical instruments 
are not unfrequently formed in the shape

 of certain animals4 ,thus1 a kind of   
harmonicon of the ,chinese represents   
the figure of a crouching tiger4 ,the   
,burmese possess a stringed instrument  
in the shape of an alligator4 ,even more
 grotesque are the imitations of various
 beasts adopted by the ,javanese4 ,the  
natives of ,new ,guinea have a          
singularly shaped drum1 terminating in  
the head of a reptile4 ,a wooden rattle 
like a bird is a favourite instrument of
 the ,indians of ,nootka ,sound4 ,in    
short1 not only the inner construction  
of the instruments and their peculiar   
quality of sound exhibit in most nations
 certain distinctive characteristics1   
but it is also in great measure true as 
to their outward appearance4  ,an       
arrangement of the various kinds of     
musical instruments in a regular order1 
beginning with that kind which is the   
most universally known and progressing  
gradually to the least usual1 gives the 
following results4 ,instruments of      
percussion of indefinite sonorousness   

or1 in other words1 pulsatile           
instruments which have not a sound of a 
fixed pitch1 as the drum1 rattle1       
castanets1 c41 are most universal4 ,wind
 instruments of the flute               
kind1--including pipes1 whistles1       
flutes1 ,pandean pipes1 c4--are also to 
be found almost everywhere4  ,much the  
same is the case with wind instruments  
of the trumpet kind4 ,these are often   
made of the horns1 bones1 and tusks of  
animals2 frequently of vegetable        
substances and of metal4 ,instruments of
 percussion of definite sonorousness are
 chiefly met with in ,china1 ,japan1    
,burmah1 ,siam1 and ,java4 ,they not    
unfrequently contain a series of tones  
produced by slabs of wood or metal1     
which are beaten with a sort of hammer1 
as our harmonicon is played4  ,stringed 
instruments without a finger board1 or  
any similar contrivance which enables   
the performer to produce a number of    
different tones on one string1 are      
generally found among nations whose     

musical accomplishments have emerged    
from the earliest state of infancy4 ,the
 strings are twanged with the fingers or
 with a piece of wood1 horn1 metal1 or  
any other suitable substance serving as 
a plectrum2 or are made to vibrate by   
being beaten with a hammer1 as our      
dulcimer4 ,stringed instruments provided
 with a finger-board on which different 
tones are producible on one string by   
the performer shortening it more or     
less1--as on the guitar and violin1--are
 met with almost exclusively among      
nations in a somewhat advanced stage of 
musical progress4 ,such as are played   
with a bow are the least common2 they   
are1 however1 known to the ,chinese1    
,japanese1 ,hindus1 ,persians1 ,arabs1  
and a few other nations1 besides those  
of ,europe and their descendants in     
other countries4  ,wind instruments of  
the organ kind1--i4e41 such as are      
constructed of a number of tubes which  
can be sounded together by means of a   
common mouthpiece or some similar       

contrivance1 and upon which therefore   
chords and combinations of chords1 or   
harmony1 can be produced1--are          
comparatively of rare occurrence4 ,some 
interesting specimens of them exist in  
,china1 ,japan1 ,laos1 and ,siam4       
,besides these various kinds of         
sound-producing means employed in       
musical performances1 a few others less 
widely diffused could be pointed out1   
which are of a construction not         
represented in any of our well-known    
,european specimens4 ,for instance1 some
 nations have peculiar instruments of   
friction1 which can hardly be classed   
with our instruments of percussion4     
,again1 there are contrivances in which 
a number of strings are caused to       
vibrate by a current of air1 much as is 
the case with the olian harp2 which     
might with equal propriety be considered
 either as stringed instruments or as   
wind instruments4 ,in short1 our usual  
classification of all the various       
species into three distinct divisions1  

viz4 ,stringed ,instruments1 ,wind      
,instruments1 and ,instruments of       
,percussion1 is not tenable if we extend
 our researches over the whole globe4   
,the collection at ,south ,kensington   
contains several foreign instruments    
which cannot fail to prove interesting  
to the musician4 ,recent investigations 
have more and more elicited the fact    
that the music of every nation exhibits 
some distinctive characteristics which  
may afford valuable hints to a composer 
or performer4 ,a familiarity with the   
popular songs of different countries is 
advisable on account of the remarkable  
originality of the airs3 these mostly   
spring from the heart4 ,hence the       
natural and true expression1 the        
delightful health and vigour by which   
they are generally distinguished4 ,our  
more artificial compositions are1 on the
 other hand1 not unfrequently deficient 
in these charms1 because they often     
emanate from the fingers or the pen     
rather than from the heart4 ,howbeit1   

the predominance of expressive melody   
and effective rhythm over harmonious    
combinations1 so usual in the popular   
compositions of various nations1 would  
alone suffice to recommend them to the  
careful attention of our modern         
musicians4 ,the same may be said with   
regard to the surprising variety in     
construction and in manner of expression
 prevailing in the popular songs and    
dance-tunes of different countries4     
,indeed1 every nation's musical         
effusions exhibit a character peculiarly
 their own1 with which the musician     
would find it advantageous to           
familiarize himself4  ,now1 it will     
easily be understood that an            
acquaintance with the musical           
instruments of a nation conveys a more  
correct idea than could otherwise be    
obtained of the characteristic features 
of the nation's musical compositions4   
,furthermore1 in many instances the     
construction of the instruments reveals 
to us the nature of the musical         

intervals1 scales1 modulations1 and     
suchlike noteworthy facts4 ,true1       
inquiries like these have hitherto not  
received from musicians the attention   
which they deserve4 ,the adepts in most 
other arts are in this respect in       
advance4 ,they are convinced that useful
 information may be gathered by         
investigating the productions even of   
uncivilized nations1 and by thus tracing
 the gradual progress of an art from its
 primitive infancy to its highest degree
 of development4  ,again1 from an       
examination of the musical instruments  
of foreign nations we may derive        
valuable hints for the improvement of   
our own2 or even for the invention of   
new4 ,several principles of construction
 have thus been adopted by us from      
eastern nations4 ,for instance1 the free
 reed used in the harmonium is an       
importation from ,china4 ,the organ     
builder ,kratzenstein1 who lived in ,st4
 ,petersburg during the reign of        
,catharine ,,ii41 happened to see the   

,chinese instrument cheng1 which is of  
this construction1 and it suggested to  
him1 about the end of the last century1 
to apply the free reed to certain organ 
stops4 ,at the present day instruments  
of the harmonium class have become such 
universal favourites in western ,europe 
as almost to compete with the           
pianoforte4  ,several other             
well-authenticated instances could be   
cited in which one instrument has       
suggested the construction of another of
 a superior kind4 ,the prototype of our 
pianoforte was evidently the dulcimer1  
known at an early time to the ,arabs and
 ,persians who call it santir4 ,one of  
the old names given to the dulcimer by  
,european nations is cimbal4 ,the ,poles
 at the present day call it cymbaly1 and
 the ,magyars in ,hungary cimbalom4 ,the
 clavicembalo1 the predecessor of the   
pianoforte1 was in fact nothing but a   
cembalo with a key-board attached to it2
 and some of the old clavicembali1 still
 preserved1 exhibit the trapezium shape1

 the round hole in the middle of the    
sound-board1 and other peculiarities of 
the first dulcimer4 ,again1 the gradual 
development of the dulcimer from a rude 
contrivance1 consisting merely of a     
wooden board across which a few strings 
are stretched1 is distinctly traceable  
by a reference to the musical           
instruments of nations in different     
stages of civilization4 ,the same is the
 case with our highly perfected harp1 of
 which curious specimens1 representing  
the instrument in its most primitive    
condition1 are still to be found among  
several barbarous tribes4 ,we might     
perhaps infer from its shape that it    
originally consisted of nothing more    
than an elastic stick bent by a string4 
,the ,damaras1 a native tribe of        
,south-western ,africa1 actually use    
their bow occasionally as a musical     
instrument1 when they are not engaged in
 war or in the chase4 ,they tighten the 
string nearly in the middle by means of 
a leathern thong1 whereby they obtain   

two distinct sounds1 which1 for want of 
a sound-board1 are of course very weak  
and scarcely audible to anyone but the  
performer4 ,some neighbouring tribes1   
however1 possess a musical instrument   
very similar in appearance to the bow1  
to which they attach a gourd1 hollowed  
and open at the top1 which serves as a  
sound-board4 ,again1 other ,african     
tribes have a similar instrument1       
superior in construction only inasmuch  
as it contains more than one string1 and
 is provided with a sound-board         
consisting of a suitable piece of       
sonorous wood4 ,in short1 the more      
improved we find these contrivances the 
closer they approach our harp4 ,and it  
could be shown if this were requisite   
for our present purpose that much the   
same gradual progress towards           
perfection1 which we observe in the     
,african harp1 is traceable in the harps
 of several nations in different parts  
of the world4  ,moreover1 a collection  
of musical instruments deserves the     

attention of the ethnologist as much as 
of the musician4 ,indeed1 this may be   
asserted of national music in general2  
for it gives us an insight into the     
heart of man1 reveals to us the feelings
 and predilections of different races on
 the globe1 and affords us a clue to the
 natural affinity which exists between  
different families of men4 ,again1 a    
collection must prove interesting in a  
historical point of view4 ,scholars will
 find among old instruments specimens   
which were in common use in ,england at 
the time of queen ,elizabeth1 and which 
are not unfrequently mentioned in the   
literature of that period4 ,in many     
instances the passages in which allusion
 is made to them can hardly be          
understood1 if we are unacquainted with 
the shape and construction of the       
instruments4 ,furthermore1 these relics 
of bygone times bring before our eyes   
the manners and customs of our          
forefathers1 and assist us in           
understanding them correctly4  ,it will 

be seen that the modification which our 
orchestra has undergone1 in the course  
of scarcely more than a century1 is     
great indeed4 ,most of the instruments  
which were highly popular about a       
hundred years ago have either fallen    
into disuse or are now so much altered  
that they may almost be considered as   
new inventions4 ,among ,asiatic nations1
 on the other hand1 we meet with several
 instruments which have retained        
unchanged through many centuries their  
old construction and outward appearance4
 ,at ,south ,kensington may be seen     
instruments still in use in ,egypt and  
western ,asia1 precisely like specimens 
represented on monuments dating from a  
period of three thousand years ago4 ,by 
a reference to the eastern instruments  
of the present time we obtain therefore 
a key for investigating the earlier     
,egyptian and ,assyrian representations 
of musical performances2 and1 likewise1 
for appreciating more exactly the       
biblical records respecting the music of

 the ,hebrews4 ,perhaps these evidences 
will convey to some inquirers a less    
high opinion than they have hitherto    
entertained1 regarding the musical      
accomplishments of the ,hebrew bands in 
the solemn processions of king ,david or
 in ,solomon's temple2 but the opinion  
will be all the nearer to the truth4    
,there is another point of interest     
about such collections1 and especially  
that at ,south ,kensington1 which must  
not be left unnoticed4 ,several         
instruments are remarkable on account of
 their elegant shape and tasteful       
ornamentation4 ,this is particularly the
 case with some specimens from ,asiatic 
countries4 ,the beautiful designs with  
which they are embellished may afford   
valuable patterns for study and for     
adoption in works of art4     ,,chapter 
,,ii4   ,a really complete account of   
all the musical instruments from the    
earliest time known to us would require 
much more space than can here be        
afforded4 ,we can attempt only a concise

 historical survey4 ,we venture to hope 
that the illustrations interspersed     
throughout the text will to the         
intelligent reader elucidate many facts 
which1 for the reason stated1 are       
touched upon but cursorily4             
,,pre-,,historic ,,relics4              
,illustration  ,a musical relic has     
recently been exhumed in the department 
of ,dordogne in ,france1 which was      
constructed in an age when the fauna of 
,france included the reindeer1 the      
rhinoceros1 and the mammoth1 the hyna1  
the bear1 and the cave-lion4 ,it is a   
small bone somewhat less than two inches
 in length1 in which is a hole1         
evidently bored by means of one of the  
little flint knives which men used      
before acquaintance with the employment 
of metal for tools and weapons4 ,many of
 these flints were found in the same    
place with the bones4 ,only about half a
 dozen of the bones1 of which a         
considerable number have been exhumed1  
possess the artificial hole4 ,we give a 

woodcut of one of them4  ,m4 ,lartet    
surmises the perforated bone to have    
been used as a whistle in hunting       
animals4 ,it is the first digital       
phalanx of a ruminant1 drilled to a     
certain depth by a smooth cylindrical   
bore on its lower surface near the      
expanded upper articulation4 ,on        
applying it to the lower lip and blowing
 into it a shrill sound is yielded4     
,three of these phalanges are of        
reindeer1 one is of ,chamois4 ,again1   
among the relics which have been brought
 to light from the cave of ,lombrive1 in
 the department of ,arige1 occur several
 eye-teeth of the dog which have a hole 
drilled into them near the root4        
,probably they also yield sounds like   
those reindeer bones1 or like the tube  
of a key4 ,another whistle--or rather a 
pipe1 for it has three finger-holes by  
means of which different tones could be 
produced--was found in a burying-place1 
dating from the stone period1 in the    
vicinity of ,poitiers in ,france3 it is 

rudely constructed from a fragment of   
stag's-horn4 ,it is blown at the end1   
like a flte  bec and the three          
finger-holes are placed equidistantly4  
,four distinct tones must have been     
easily obtainable on it3 the lowest1    
when all the finger-holes were covered2 
the other three1 by opening the         
finger-holes successively4 ,from the    
character of the stone utensils and     
weapons discovered with this pipe it is 
conjectured that the burying-place from 
which it was exhumed dates from the     
latest time of the stone age4           
,therefore1 however old it may be1 it is
 a more recent contrivance than the     
reindeer-bone whistle from the cavern of
 the ,dordogne4   ,,the ,,ancient       
,,egyptians4  ,the most ancient nations 
historically known possessed musical    
instruments which1 though in acoustic   
construction greatly inferior to our    
own1 exhibit a degree of perfection     
which could have been attained only     
after a long period of cultivation4     

,many tribes of the present day have not
 yet reached this stage of musical      
progress4  ,as regards the instruments  
of the ancient ,egyptians we now possess
 perhaps more detailed information than 
of those appertaining to any other      
nation of antiquity4 ,this information  
we owe especially to the exactness with 
which the instruments are depicted in   
sculptures and paintings4 ,whoever has  
examined these interesting monuments    
with even ordinary care cannot but be   
convinced that the representations which
 they exhibit are faithful transcripts  
from life4 ,moreover1 if there remained 
any doubt respecting the accuracy of the
 representations of the musical         
instruments it might be dispelled by    
existing evidence4 ,several specimens   
have been discovered in tombs preserved 
in a more or less perfect condition4    
,the ,egyptians possessed various kinds 
of harps1 some of which were elegantly  
shaped and tastefully ornamented4 ,the  
largest were about six and a half feet  

high2 and the small ones frequently had 
some sort of stand which enabled the    
performer to play upon the instrument   
while standing4 ,the name of the harp   
was buni4 ,its frame had no front       
pillar2 the tension of the strings      
therefore cannot have been anything like
 so strong as on our present harp4  ,the
 ,egyptian harps most remarkable for    
elegance of form and elaborate          
decoration are the two which were first 
noticed by ,bruce1 who found them       
painted in fresco on the wall of a      
sepulchre at ,thebes1 supposed to be the
 tomb of ,rameses ,,iii4 who reigned    
about #abej ,b4,c4 ,bruce's discovery   
created sensation among the musicians4  
,the fact that at so remote an age the  
,egyptians should have possessed harps  
which vie with our own in elegance and  
beauty of form appeared to some so      
incredible that the correctness of      
,bruce's representations1 as engraved in
 his 8,travels10 was greatly doubted4   
,sketches of the same harps1 taken      

subsequently and at different times from
 the frescoes1 have since been          
published1 but they differ more or less 
from each other in appearance and in the
 number of strings4 ,a kind of          
triangular harp of the ,egyptians was   
discovered in a well-preserved condition
 and is now deposited in the ,louvre4   
,it has twenty-one strings2 a greater   
number than is generally represented on 
the monuments4 ,all these instruments1  
however much they differed from each    
other in form1 had one peculiarity in   
common1 namely the absence of the fore  
pillar4  ,the nofre1 a kind of guitar1  
was almost identical in construction    
with the ,tamboura at the present day in
 use among several eastern nations4 ,it 
was evidently a great favourite with the
 ancient ,egyptians4 ,a figure of it is 
found among their hieroglyphs1          
signifying 8good40 ,it occurs in        
representations of concerts dating      
earlier than from ,b4,c4 #aejj4 ,the    
nofre affords the best proof that the   

,egyptians had made considerable        
progress in music at a very early age2  
since it shows that they understood how 
to produce on a few strings1 by means of
 the finger-board1 a greater number of  
notes than were obtainable even on their
 harps4 ,the instrument had two or four 
strings1 was played with a plectrum and 
appears to have been sometimes1 if not  
always1 provided with frets4 ,in the    
,british museum is a fragment of a      
fresco obtained from a tomb at ,thebes1 
on which two female performers on the   
nofre are represented4 ,the painter has 
distinctly indicated the frets4  ,small 
pipes of the ,egyptians have been       
discovered1 made of reed1 with three1   
four1 five1 or more finger-holes4 ,there
 are some interesting examples in the   
,british museum2 one of which has seven 
holes burnt in at the side4 ,two straws 
were found with it of nearly the same   
length as the pipe1 which is about one  
foot long4 ,in some other pipes pieces  
of a kind of thick straw have also been 

found inserted into the tube1 obviously 
serving for a similar purpose as the    
reed in our oboe or clarionet4  ,the    
sbi1 a single flute1 was of considerable
 length1 and the performer appears to   
have been obliged to extend his arms    
almost at full length in order to reach 
the furthest finger-hole4 ,as sbi is    
also the name of the leg-bone 7like the 
,latin tibia7 it may be supposed that   
the ,egyptian flute was originally made 
of bone4 ,those1 however1 which have    
been found are of wood or reed4  ,a     
flute-concert is painted on one of the  
tombs in the pyramids of ,gizeh and     
dates1 according to ,lepsius1 from an   
age earlier than ,b4,c4 #bjjj4 ,eight   
musicians 7as seen in the woodcut7 are  
performing on flutes4 ,three of them1   
one behind the other1 are kneeling and  
holding their flutes in exactly the same
 manner4 ,facing these are three others1
 in a precisely similar position4 ,a    
seventh is sitting on the ground to the 
left of the six1 with his back turned   

towards them1 but also in the act of    
blowing his flute1 like the others4 ,an 
eighth is standing at the right side of 
the group with his face turned towards  
them1 holding his flute before him with 
both hands1 as if he were going to put  
it to his mouth1 or had just left off   
playing4 ,he is clothed1 while the      
others have only a narrow girdle round  
their loins4 ,perhaps he is the director
 of this singular band1 or the solo     
performer who is waiting for the        
termination of the tutti before renewing
 his part of the performance4 ,the      
division of the players into two sets1  
facing each other1 suggests the         
possibility that the instruments were   
classed somewhat like the first and     
second violins1 or the flauto primo and 
flauto secondo of our orchestras4 ,the  
occasional employment of the interval of
 the third1 or the fifth1 as            
accompaniment to the melody1 is not     
unusual even with nations less advanced 
in music than were the ancient          

,egyptians4  ,illustration  ,the        
,double-,pipe1 called mam1 appears to   
have been a very popular instrument1 if 
we judge from the frequency of its      
occurrence in the representations of    
musical performances4 ,furthermore1 the 
,egyptians had1 as far as is known to   
us1 two kinds of trumpets2 three kinds  
of tambourines1 or little hand drums2   
three kinds of drums1 chiefly           
barrel-shaped2 and various kinds of     
gongs1 bells1 cymbals1 and castanets4   
,the trumpet appears to have been       
usually of brass4 ,a peculiar           
wind-instrument1 somewhat the shape of a
 champagne bottle and perhaps made of   
pottery or wood1 occurs only once in the
 representations transmitted to us4     
,the ,egyptian drum was from two to     
three feet in length1 covered with      
parchment at both ends and braced by    
cords4 ,the performer carried it before 
him1 generally by means of a band over  
his shoulder1 while he was beating it   
with his hands on both ends4 ,of another

 kind of drum an actual specimen has    
been found in the excavations made in   
the year #ahbc at ,thebes4 ,it was #a   
feet high and #b feet broad1 and had    
cords for bracing it4 ,a piece of catgut
 encircled each end of the drum1 being  
wound round each cord1 by means of which
 the cords could be tightened or        
slackened at pleasure by pushing the two
 bands of catgut towards or from each   
other4 ,it was beaten with two          
drumsticks slightly bent4 ,the          
,egyptians had also straight drumsticks 
with a handle1 and a knob at the end4   
,the ,berlin museum possesses some of   
these4 ,the third kind of drum was      
almost identical with the darabouka 7or 
darabukkeh7 of the modern ,egyptians4   
,the ,tambourine was either round1 like 
that which is at the present time in use
 in ,europe as well as in the east2 or  
it was of an oblong square shape1       
slightly incurved on the four sides4    
,the ,sistrum consisted of a frame of   
bronze or brass into which three or four

 metal bars were loosely inserted1 so as
 to produce a jingling noise when the   
instrument was shaken4 ,the bars were   
often made in the form of snakes1 or    
they terminated in the head of a goose4 
,not unfrequently a few metal rings were
 strung on the bars1 to increase the    
noise4 ,the frame was sometimes         
ornamented with the figure of a cat4    
,the largest sistra which have been     
found are about eighteen inches in      
length1 and the smallest about nine     
inches4 ,the sistrum was principally    
used by females in religious            
performances4 ,its ,egyptian name was   
seshesh4  ,the ,egyptian cymbals closely
 resembled our own in shape4 ,there are 
two pairs of them in the ,british       
museum4 ,one pair was found in a coffin 
enclosing the mummy of a sacred         
musician1 and is deposited in the same  
case with the mummy and coffin4 ,among  
the ,egyptian antiquities in the        
,british museum are also several small  
bells of bronze4 ,the largest is #b     

inches in height1 and the smallest      
three-quarters of an inch4 ,some of them
 have a hole at the side near the top   
wherein the clapper was fastened4       
,,chapter ,,iii4   ,,the ,,assyrians4   
,our acquaintance with the ,assyrian    
instruments has been derived almost     
entirely from the famous bas-reliefs    
which have been excavated from the      
mounds of ,nimroud1 ,khorsabad1 and     
,kouyunjik1 situated near the river     
,tigris in the vicinity of the town of  
,mosul in ,asiatic ,turkey4  ,the       
,assyrian harp was about four feet high1
 and appears of larger size than it     
actually was on account of the          
ornamental appendages which were affixed
 to the lower part of its frame4 ,it    
must have been but light in weight1     
since we find it not unfrequently       
represented in the hands of persons who 
are playing upon it while they are      
dancing4 ,like all the ,oriental harps1 
modern as well as ancient1 it was not   
provided with a front pillar4 ,the upper

 portion of the frame contained the     
sound-holes1 somewhat in the shape of an
 hour-glass4 ,below them were the       
screws1 or tuning-pegs1 arranged in     
regular order4 ,the strings were perhaps
 made of silk1 like those which the     
,burmese use at the present time on     
their harps2 or they may have been of   
catgut1 which was used by the ancient   
,egyptians4  ,the largest assemblage of 
,assyrian musicians which has been      
discovered on any monument consists of  
eleven performers upon instruments1     
besides a chorus of singers4 ,the first 
musician--probably the leader of the    
band1 as he marches alone at the head of
 the procession--is playing upon a harp4
 ,behind him are two men2 one with a    
dulcimer and the other with a           
double-pipe3 then follow two men with   
harps4 ,next come six female musicians1 
four of whom are playing upon harps1    
while one is blowing a double-pipe and  
another is beating a small hand-drum    
covered only at the top4 ,close behind  

the instrumental performers are the     
singers1 consisting of a chorus of      
females and children4 ,they are clapping
 their hands in time with the music1 and
 some of the musicians are dancing to   
the measure4 ,one of the female singers 
is holding her hand to her throat in the
 same manner as the women in ,syria1    
,arabia1 and ,persia are in the habit of
 doing at the present day when          
producing1 on festive occasions1 those  
peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing   
which have been repeatedly noticed by   
travellers4  ,the dulcimer is in too    
imperfect a state on the bas-relief to  
familiarize us with its construction4   
,the slab representing the procession in
 which it occurs has been injured2 the  
defect which extended over a portion of 
the dulcimer has been repaired1 and it  
cannot be said that in repairing it much
 musical knowledge has been evinced4    
,the instrument of the ,trigonon species
 was held horizontally1 and was twanged 
with a rather long plectrum slightly    

bent at the end at which it was held by 
the performer4 ,it is of frequent       
occurrence on the bas-reliefs4 ,a number
 of them appear to have been generally  
played together4 ,at any rate1 we find  
almost invariably on the monuments two  
together1 evidently implying 8more than 
one10 8a number40 ,the left hand of the 
performer seems to have been occupied in
 checking the vibration of the strings  
when its discontinuance was required4   
,from the position of the strings the   
performer could not have struck them as 
those of the dulcimer are struck4 ,if he
 did not twang them1 he may have drawn  
the plectrum across them4 ,indeed1 for  
twanging1 a short plectrum would have   
been more practical1 considering that   
the strings are placed horizontally one 
above the other at regular distances4   
,it is therefore by no means improbable 
that we have here a rude prototype of   
the violin bow4  ,the ,lyre occurs in   
three different forms1 and is held      
horizontally in playing1 or at least    

nearly so4 ,its front bar was generally 
either oblique or slightly curved4 ,the 
strings were tied round the bar so as to
 allow of their being pushed upwards or 
downwards4 ,in the former case the      
tension of the strings increases1 and   
the notes become therefore higher2 on   
the other hand1 if the strings are      
pushed lower down the pitch of the notes
 must become deeper4 ,the lyre was      
played with a small plectrum as well as 
with the fingers4  ,the ,assyrian       
trumpet was very similar to the         
,egyptian4 ,furthermore1 we meet with   
three kinds of drums1 of which one is   
especially noteworthy on account of its 
odd shape1 somewhat resembling a        
sugar-loaf2 with the tambourine2 with   
two kinds of cymbals2 and with bells1 of
 which a considerable number have been  
found in the mound of ,nimroud4 ,these  
bells1 which have greatly withstood the 
devastation of time1 are but small in   
size1 the largest of them being only #c 
inches in height and #b inches in       

diameter4 ,most of them have a hole at  
the top1 in which probably the clapper  
was fastened4 ,they are made of copper  
mixed with #ad per cent4 of tin4        
,instrumental music was used by the     
,assyrians and ,babylonians in their    
religious observances4 ,this is obvious 
from the sculptures1 and is to some     
extent confirmed by the mode of worship 
paid by command of king ,nebuchadnezzar 
to the golden image3 8,then an herald   
cried aloud1 ,to you it is commanded1 ,o
 people1 nations1 and languages1 that at
 what time ye hear the sound of the     
cornet1 flute1 harp1 sackbut1 psaltery1 
dulcimer1 and all kinds of musick1 ye   
fall down and worship the golden image  
that ,nebuchadnezzar the king hath set  
up40 ,the kings appear to have          
maintained at their courts musical      
bands1 whose office it was to perform   
secular music at certain times of the   
day or on fixed occasions4 ,of king     
,darius we are told that1 when he had   
cast ,daniel into the den of lions1 he  

8went to his palace1 and passed the     
night fasting1 neither were instruments 
of musick brought before him20 from     
which we may conclude that his band was 
in the habit of playing before him in   
the evening4 ,a similar custom prevailed
 also at the court of ,jerusalem1 at    
least in the time of ,david and         
,solomon2 both of whom appear to have   
had their royal private bands1 besides a
 large number of singers and            
instrumental performers of sacred music 
who were engaged in the ,temple4   ,,the
 ,,hebrews4  ,as regards the musical    
instruments of the ,hebrews1 we are from
 biblical records acquainted with the   
names of many of them2 but              
representations to be trusted are still 
wanting1 and it is chiefly from an      
examination of the ancient ,egyptian and
 ,assyrian instruments that we can      
conjecture almost to a certainty their  
construction and capabilities4 ,from    
various indications1 which it would be  
too circumstantial here to point out1 we

 believe the ,hebrews to have possessed 
the following instruments3  ,,the       
,,harp4 ,there cannot be a doubt that   
the ,hebrews possessed the harp1 seeing 
that it was a common instrument among   
the ,egyptians and ,assyrians4 ,but it  
is uncertain which of the ,hebrew names 
of the stringed instruments occurring in
 the ,bible really designates the harp4 
,,the ,,dulcimer4 ,some writers on      
,hebrew music consider the nebel to have
 been a kind of dulcimer2 others        
conjecture the same of the psanterin    
mentioned in the book of ,daniel1--a    
name which appears to be synonymous with
 the psalterion of the ,greeks1 and from
 which also the present oriental        
dulcimer1 santir1 may have been derived4
 ,some of the instruments mentioned in  
the book of ,daniel may have been       
synonymous with some which occur in     
other parts of the ,bible under ,hebrew 
names2 the names given in ,daniel being 
,chaldan4 ,the asor was a ten-stringed  
instrument played with a plectrum1 and  

is supposed to have borne some          
resemblance to the nebel4  ,,the ,,lyre4
 ,this instrument is represented on some
 ,hebrew coins generally ascribed to    
,judas ,maccabus1 who lived in the      
second century before the ,christian    
era4 ,there are several of them in the  
,british museum2 some are of silver1 and
 the others of copper4 ,on three of them
 are lyres with three strings1 another  
has one with five1 and another one with 
six strings4 ,the two sides of the frame
 appear to have been made of the horns  
of animals1 or they may have been of    
wood formed in imitation of two horns   
which originally were used4 ,lyres thus 
constructed are still found in          
,abyssinia4 ,the ,hebrew square-shaped  
lyre of the time of ,simon ,maccabus is 
probably identical with the psalterion4 
,the kinnor1 the favourite instrument of
 king ,david1 was most likely a lyre if 
not a small triangular harp4 ,the lyre  
was evidently an universally known and  
favoured instrument among ancient       

eastern nations4 ,being more simple in  
construction than most other stringed   
instruments it undoubtedly preceded them
 in antiquity4 ,the kinnor is mentioned 
in the ,bible as the oldest stringed    
instrument1 and as the invention of     
,jubal4 ,even if the name of one        
particular stringed instrument is here  
used for stringed instruments in        
general1 which may possibly be the case1
 it is only reasonable to suppose that  
the oldest and most universally known   
stringed instrument would be mentioned  
as a representative of the whole class  
rather than any other4 ,besides1 the    
kinnor was a light and easily portable  
instrument2 king ,david1 according to   
the ,rabbinic records1 used to suspend  
it during the night over his pillow4    
,all its uses mentioned in the ,bible   
are especially applicable to the lyre4  
,and the resemblance of the word kinnor 
to kithara1 kissar1 and similar names   
known to denote the lyre1 also tends to 
confirm the supposition that it refers  

to this instrument4 ,it is1 however1 not
 likely that the instruments of the     
,hebrews--indeed their music            
altogether--should have remained        
entirely unchanged during a period of   
many centuries4 ,some modifications were
 likely to occur even from accidental   
causes2 such1 for instance1 as the      
influence of neighbouring nations when  
the ,hebrews came into closer contact   
with them4 ,thus may be explained why   
the accounts of the ,hebrew instruments 
given by ,josephus1 who lived in the    
first century of the ,christian era1 are
 not in exact accordance with those in  
the ,bible4 ,the lyres at the time of   
,simon ,maccabus may probably be        
different from those which were in use  
about a thousand years earlier1 or at   
the time of ,david and ,solomon when the
 art of music with the ,hebrews was at  
its zenith4  ,there appears to be a     
probability that a ,hebrew lyre of the  
time of ,joseph 7about #agjj ,b4,c47 is 
represented on an ancient ,egyptian     

painting discovered in a tomb at ,beni  
,hassan1--which is the name of certain  
grottoes on the eastern bank of the     
,nile4 ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson1 in his 
8,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient  
,egyptians10 observes3 8,if1 when we    
become better acquainted with the       
interpretation of hieroglyphics1 the    
#8,strangers' at ,beni ,hassan should   
prove to be the arrival of ,jacob's     
family in ,egypt1 we may examine the    
,jewish lyre drawn by an ,egyptian      
artist4 ,that this event took place     
about the period when the inmate of the 
tomb lived is highly probable--at least1
 if ,i am correct in considering        
,osirtasen ,i4 to be the ,pharaoh the   
patron of ,joseph2 and it remains for us
 to decide whether the disagreement in  
the number of persons here              
introduced--thirty-seven being written  
over them in hieroglyphics--is a        
sufficient objection to their identity4 
,it will not be foreign to the present  
subject to introduce those figures which

 are curious1 if only considered as     
illustrative of ancient customs at that 
early period1 and which will be looked  
upon with unbounded interest should they
 ever be found to refer to the ,jews4   
,the first figure is an ,egyptian       
scribe1 who presents an account of their
 arrival to a person seated1 the owner  
of the tomb1 and one of the principal   
officers of the reigning ,pharaoh4 ,the 
next1 also an ,egyptian1 ushers them    
into his presence2 and two advance      
bringing presents1 the wild goat or ibex
 and the gazelle1 the productions of    
their country4 ,four men1 carrying bows 
and clubs1 follow1 leading an ass on    
which two children are placed in        
panniers1 accompanied by a boy and four 
women2 and1 last of all1 another ass    
laden1 and two men--one holding a bow   
and club1 the other a lyre1 which he    
plays with a plectrum4 ,all the men have
 beards1 contrary to the custom of the  
,egyptians1 but very general in the     
,east at that period1 and noticed as a  

peculiarity of foreign uncivilized      
nations throughout their sculptures4    
,the men have sandals1 the women a sort 
of boot reaching to the ankle--both     
which were worn by many ,asiatic people4
 ,the lyre is rude1 and differs in form 
from those generally used in ,egypt40   
,in the engraving the lyre-player1      
another man1 and some strange animals   
from this group1 are represented4       
,illustration  ,,the ,,tamboura4        
,minnim1 machalath1 and nebel are       
usually supposed to be the names of     
instruments of the lute or guitar kind4 
,minnim1 however1 appears more likely to
 imply stringed instruments in general  
than any particular instrument4  ,,the  
,,single ,,pipe4 ,chalil and nekeb were 
the names of the ,hebrew pipes or       
flutes4  ,,the ,,double ,,pipe4         
,probably the mishrokitha mentioned in  
,daniel4 ,the mishrokitha is represented
 in the drawings of our histories of    
music as a small organ1 consisting of   
seven pipes placed in a box with a      

mouthpiece for blowing4 ,but the shape  
of the pipes and of the box as well as  
the row of keys for the fingers         
exhibited in the representation of the  
mishrokitha have too much of the        
,european type not to suggest that they 
are probably a product of the           
imagination4 ,respecting the            
illustrations of ,hebrew instruments    
which usually accompany historical      
treatises on music and commentaries on  
the ,bible1 it ought to be borne in mind
 that most of them are merely the       
offspring of conjectures founded on some
 obscure hints in the ,bible1 or vague  
accounts by the ,rabbins4  ,,the        
,,syrinx ,,or ,,pandean ,,pipe4         
,probably the ugab1 which in the        
,english authorized version of the      
,bible is rendered 8organ40  ,,the      
,,bagpipe4 ,the word sumphonia1 which   
occurs in the book of ,daniel1 is1 by   
,forkel and others1 supposed to denote a
 bagpipe4 ,it is remarkable that at the 
present day the bagpipe is called by the

 ,italian peasantry ,zampogna4 ,another 
,hebrew instrument1 the magrepha1       
generally described as an organ1 was    
more likely only a kind of bagpipe4 ,the
 magrepha is not mentioned in the ,bible
 but is described in the ,talmud4 ,in   
tract ,erachin it is recorded to have   
been a powerful organ which stood in the
 temple at ,jerusalem1 and consisted of 
a case or wind-chest1 with ten holes1   
containing ten pipes4 ,each pipe was    
capable of emitting ten different       
sounds1 by means of finger-holes or some
 similar contrivance3 thus one hundred  
different sounds could be produced on   
this instrument4 ,further1 the magrepha 
is said to have been provided with two  
pairs of bellows and with ten keys1 by  
means of which it was played with the   
fingers4 ,its tone was1 according to the
 ,rabbinic accounts1 so loud that it    
could be heard at an incredibly long    
distance from the temple4 ,authorities  
so widely differ that we must leave it  
uncertain whether the much-lauded       

magrepha was a bagpipe1 an organ1 or a  
kettle-drum4 ,of the real nature of the 
,hebrew bagpipe perhaps some idea may be
 formed from a syrinx with bellows1     
which has been found represented on one 
of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in
 ,tarsus1 ,asia-minor1 some years since1
 and here engraved4 ,these remains are  
believed to be about #bjjj years old1   
judging from the figures upon them1 and 
from some coins struck about #bjj years 
,b4,c4 having been found embedded with  
them4 ,we have therefore before us1     
probably1 the oldest representation of a
 bagpipe hitherto discovered4           
,illustration  ,,the ,,trumpet4 ,three  
kinds are mentioned in the ,bible1 viz4 
the keren1 the shophar1 and the         
chatzozerah4 ,the first two were more or
 less curved and might properly be      
considered as horns4 ,most commentators 
are of opinion that the keren--made of  
ram's horn--was almost identical with   
the shophar1 the only difference being  
that the latter was more curved than the

 former4 ,the shophar is especially     
remarkable as being the only ,hebrew    
musical instrument which has been       
preserved to the present day in the     
religious services of the ,jews4 ,it is 
still blown in the synagogue1 as in time
 of old1 at the ,jewish new-year's      
festival1 according to the command of   
,moses 7,numb4 ,,xxix4 ,i74 ,the        
chatzozerah was a straight trumpet1     
about two feet in length1 and was       
sometimes made of silver4 ,two of these 
straight trumpets are shown in the      
famous triumphal procession after the   
fall of ,jerusalem on the arch of       
,titus1 engraved on the next page4      
,,the ,,drum4 ,there can be no doubt    
that the ,hebrews had several kinds of  
drums4 ,we know1 however1 only of the   
toph1 which appears to have been a      
tambourine or a small hand-drum like the
 ,egyptian darabouka4 ,in the ,english  
version of the ,bible the word is       
rendered timbrel or tabret4 ,this       
instrument was especially used in       

processions on occasions of rejoicing1  
and also frequently by females4 ,we find
 it in the hands of ,miriam1 when she   
was celebrating with the ,israelitish   
women in songs of joy the destruction of
 ,pharaoh's host2 and in the hands of   
,jephtha's daughter1 when she went out  
to welcome her father4 ,there exists at 
the present day in the ,east a small    
hand-drum called doff1 diff1 or adufe--a
 name which appears to be synonymous    
with the ,hebrew toph4  ,illustration   
,,the ,,sistrum4 ,winer1 ,saalfchtz1 and
 several other commentators are of      
opinion that the menaaneim1 mentioned in
 #b ,sam4 vi4 #e1 denotes the sistrum4  
,in the ,english ,bible the original is 
translated cymbals4  ,,cymbals4 ,the    
tzeltzclim1 metzilloth1 and metzilthaim1
 appear to have been cymbals or similar 
metallic instruments of percussion1     
differing in shape and sound4  ,,bells4 
,the little bells on the vestments of   
the high-priest were called phaamon4    
,small golden bells were attached to the

 lower part of the robes of the         
high-priest in his sacred ministrations4
 ,the ,jews have1 at the present day1 in
 their synagogues small bells fastened  
to the rolls of the ,law containing the 
,pentateuch3 a kind of ornamentation    
which is supposed to have been in use   
from time immemorial4  ,besides the     
names of ,hebrew instruments already    
given there occur several others in the 
,old ,testament1 upon the real meaning  
of which much diversity of opinion      
prevails4 ,jobel is by some commentators
 classed with the trumpets1 but it is by
 others believed to designate a loud and
 cheerful blast of the trumpet1 used on 
particular occasions4 ,if ,jobel 7from  
which jubilare is supposed to be        
derived7 is identical with the name     
,jubal1 the inventor of musical         
instruments1 it would appear that the   
,hebrews appreciated pre-eminently the  
exhilarating power of music4 ,shalisbim 
is supposed to denote a triangle4       
,nechiloth1 gittith1 and machalath1     

which occur in the headings of some     
psalms1 are also by commentators        
supposed to be musical instruments4     
,nechiloth is said to have been a flute1
 and gittith and machalath to have been 
stringed instruments1 and machol a kind 
of flute4 ,again1 others maintain that  
the words denote peculiar modes of      
performance or certain favourite        
melodies to which the psalms were       
directed to be sung1 or chanted4        
,according to the records of the        
,rabbins1 the ,hebrews in the time of   
,david and ,solomon possessed thirty-six
 different musical instruments4 ,in the 
,bible only about half that number are  
mentioned4  ,most nations of antiquity  
ascribed the invention of their musical 
instruments to their gods1 or to certain
 superhuman beings4 ,the ,hebrews       
attributed it to man2 ,jubal is         
mentioned in ,genesis as 8the father of 
all such as handle the harp and organ0  
7i4e41 performers on stringed           
instruments and wind instruments74 ,as  

instruments of percussion are almost    
invariably in use long before people are
 led to construct stringed and wind     
instruments it might perhaps be surmised
 that ,jubal was not regarded as the    
inventor of all the ,hebrew instruments1
 but rather as the first professional   
cultivator of instrumental music4       
,,chapter ,,iv4   ,,the ,,greeks4  ,many
 musical instruments of the ancient     
,greeks are known to us by name2 but    
respecting their exact construction and 
capabilities there still prevails almost
 as much diversity of opinion as is the 
case with those of the ,hebrews4  ,it is
 generally believed that the ,greeks    
derived their musical system from the   
,egyptians4 ,pythagoras and other       
philosophers are said to have studied   
music in ,egypt4 ,it would1 however1    
appear that the ,egyptian influence upon
 ,greece1 as far as regards this art1   
has been overrated4 ,not only have the  
more perfect ,egyptian instruments--such
 as the larger harps1 the               

tamboura--never been much in favour with
 the ,greeks1 but almost all the        
stringed instruments which the ,greeks  
possessed are stated to have been       
originally derived from ,asia4 ,strabo  
says3 8,those who regard the whole of   
,asia1 as far as ,india1 as consecrated 
to ,bacchus1 point to that country as   
the origin of a great portion of the    
present music4 ,one author speaks of    
#8striking forcibly the ,asiatic        
kithara1' another calls the pipes       
,berecynthian and ,phrygian4 ,some of   
the instruments also have foreign names1
 as ,nabla1 ,sambuka1 ,barbiton1        
,magadis1 and many others40  ,we know at
 present little more of these           
instruments than that they were in use  
in ,greece4 ,of the ,magadis it is even 
not satisfactorily ascertained whether  
it was a stringed or a wind instrument4 
,the other three are known to have been 
stringed instruments4 ,but they cannot  
have been anything like such universal  
favourites as the lyre1 because this    

instrument and perhaps the trigonon are 
almost the only stringed instruments    
represented in the ,greek paintings on  
pottery and other monumental records4   
,if1 as might perhaps be suggested1     
their taste for beauty of form induced  
the ,greeks to represent the elegant    
lyre in preference to other stringed    
instruments1 we might at least expect to
 meet with the harp2 an instrument which
 equals if it does not surpass the lyre 
in elegance of form4  ,illustration     
,the representation of ,polyhymnia with 
a harp1 depicted on a splendid ,greek   
vase now in the ,munich museum1 may be  
noted as an exceptional instance4 ,this 
valuable relic dates from the time of   
,alexander the great4 ,the instrument   
resembles in construction as well as in 
shape the ,assyrian harp1 and has       
thirteen strings4 ,polyhymnia is        
touching them with both hands1 using the
 right hand for the treble and the left 
for the bass4 ,she is seated1 holding   
the instrument in her lap4 ,even the    

little tuning-pegs1 which in number are 
not in accordance with the strings1 are 
placed on the sound-board at the upper  
part of the frame1 exactly as on the    
,assyrian harp4 ,if then we have here   
the ,greek harp1 it was more likely an  
importation from ,asia than from ,egypt4
 ,in short1 as far as can be            
ascertained1 the most complete of the   
,greek instruments appear to be of      
,asiatic origin4 ,especially from the   
nations who inhabited ,asia-minor the   
,greeks are stated to have adopted      
several of the most popular4 ,thus we   
may read of the short and               
shrill-sounding pipes of the ,carians2  
of the ,phrygian pastoral flute1        
consisting of several tubes united2 of  
the three-stringed kithara of the       
,lydians2 and so on4  ,the ,greeks      
called the harp kinyra1 and this may be 
the reason why in the ,english          
translation of the ,bible the kinnor of 
the ,hebrews1 the favourite instrument  
of king ,david1 is rendered harp4       

,illustration  ,the ,greeks had lyres of
 various kinds1 shown in the            
accompanying woodcuts1 more or less     
differing in construction1 form1 and    
size1 and distinguished by different    
names2 such as lyra1 ithara1 chelys1    
phorminx1 etc4 ,lyra appears to have    
implied instruments of this class in    
general1 and also the lyre with a body  
oval at the base and held upon the lap  
or in the arms of the performer2 while  
the kithara had a square base and was   
held against the breast4 ,these         
distinctions have1 however1 not been    
satisfactorily ascertained4 ,the chelys 
was a small lyre with the body made of  
the shell of a tortoise1 or of wood in  
imitation of the tortoise4 ,the phorminx
 was a large lyre2 and1 like the        
kithara1 was used at an early period    
singly1 for accompanying recitations4   
,it is recorded that the kithara was    
employed for solo performances as early 
as ,b4,c4 #gjj4  ,the design on the     
,grecian vase at ,munich 7already       

alluded to7 represents the nine muses1  
of whom three are given in the          
engraving1 viz41 ,polyhymnia with the   
harp1 and ,kalliope and ,erato with     
lyres4 ,it will be observed that some of
 the lyres engraved in the woodcuts on  
page #bi are provided with a bridge1    
while others are without it4 ,the       
largest were held probably on or between
 the knees1 or were attached to the left
 arm by means of a band1 to enable the  
performer to use his hands without      
impediment4 ,the strings1 made of catgut
 or sinew1 were more usually twanged    
with a plektron than merely with the    
fingers4 ,the plektron was a short stem 
of ivory or metal pointed at both ends4 
,a fragment of a ,greek lyre which was  
found in a tomb near ,athens is         
deposited in the ,british museum4 ,the  
two pieces constituting its frame are of
 wood4 ,their length is about eighteen  
inches1 and the length of the cross-bar 
at the top is about nine inches4 ,the   
instrument is unhappily in a condition  

too dilapidated and imperfect to be of  
any essential use to the musical        
inquirer4  ,the trigonon consisted      
originally of an angular frame1 to which
 the strings were affixed4 ,in the      
course of time a third bar was added to 
resist the tension of the strings1 and  
its triangular frame resembled in shape 
the ,greek delta4 ,subsequently it was  
still further improved1 the upper bar of
 the frame being made slightly curved1  
whereby the instrument obtained greater 
strength and more elegance of form4     
,the magadis1 also called pektis1 had   
twenty strings which were tuned in      
octaves1 and therefore produced only ten
 tones4 ,it appears to have been some   
sort of dulcimer1 but information       
respecting its construction is still    
wanting4 ,there appears to have been    
also a kind of bagpipe in use called    
magadis1 of which nothing certain is    
known4 ,possibly1 the same name may have
 been applied to two different          
instruments4  ,illustration  ,the       

barbiton was likewise a stringed        
instrument of this kind4 ,the sambyke is
 traditionally said to have been        
invented by ,ibykos1 ,b4,c4 #edj4 ,the  
simmikon had thirty-five strings1 and   
derived its name from its inventor1     
,simos1 who lived about ,b4,c4 #fjj4 ,it
 was perhaps a kind of dulcimer4 ,the   
nabla had only two strings1 and probably
 resembled the nebel of the ,hebrews1 of
 which but little is known with         
certainty4 ,the pandoura is supposed to 
have been a kind of lute with three     
strings4 ,several of the instruments    
just noticed were used in ,greece1      
chiefly by musicians who had immigrated 
from ,asia2 they can therefore hardly be
 considered as national musical         
instruments of the ,greeks4 ,the        
monochord had 7as its name implies7 only
 a single string1 and was used in       
teaching singing and the laws of        
acoustics4  ,illustration  ,the flute1  
aulos1 of which there were many         
varieties1 as shown in the woodcut p4   

#ca1 was a highly popular instrument1   
and differed in construction from the   
flutes and pipes of the ancient         
,egyptians4 ,instead of being blown     
through a hole at the side near the top 
it was held like a flageolet1 and a     
vibrating reed was inserted into the    
mouth-piece1 so that it might be more   
properly described as a kind of oboe or 
clarionet4 ,the ,greeks were accustomed 
to designate by the name of aulos all   
wind instruments of the flute and oboe  
kind1 some of which were constructed    
like the flageolet or like our          
antiquated flte  bec4 ,the single flute 
was called monaulos1 and the double one 
diaulos4 ,a diaulos1 which was found in 
a tomb at ,athens1 is in the ,british   
museum4 ,the wood of which it is made   
seems to be cedar1 and the tubes are    
fifteen inches in length4 ,each tube has
 a separate mouth-piece and six         
finger-holes1 five of which are at the  
upper side and one is underneath4  ,the 
syrinx1 or ,pandean pipe1 had from three

 to nine tubes1 but seven was the usual 
number4 ,the straight trumpet1 salpinx1 
and the curved horn1 keras1 made of     
brass1 were used exclusively in war4    
,the small hand-drum1 called tympanon1  
resembled in shape our tambourine1 but  
was covered with parchment at the back  
as well as at the front4 ,the kymbala   
were made of metal1 and resembled our   
small cymbals4 ,the krotala were almost 
identical with our castanets1 and were  
made of wood or metal4   ,,the          
,,etruscans ,,and ,,romans4  ,the       
,romans are recorded to have derived    
some of their most popular instruments  
originally from the ,etruscans2 a people
 which at an early period excelled all  
other ,italian nations in the           
cultivation of the arts as well as in   
social refinement1 and which possessed  
musical instruments similar to those of 
the ,greeks4 ,it must1 however1 be      
remembered that many of the vases and   
other specimens of art which have been  
found in ,etruscan tombs1 and on which  

delineations of lyres and other         
instruments occur1 are supposed to be   
productions of ,greek artists whose     
works were obtained from ,greece by the 
,etruscans1 or who were induced to      
settle in ,etruria4  ,the flutes of the 
,etruscans were not unfrequently made of
 ivory2 those used in religious         
sacrifices were of box-wood1 of a       
species of the lotus1 of ass' bone1     
bronze and silver4 ,a bronze flute1     
somewhat resembling our flageolet1 has  
been found in a tomb2 likewise a huge   
trumpet of bronze4 ,an ,etruscan cornu  
7engraved7 is deposited in the ,british 
museum1 and measures about four feet in 
length4  ,illustration  ,to the         
,etruscans is also attributed by some   
the invention of the hydraulic organ4   
,the ,greeks possessed a somewhat       
similar contrivance which they called   
hydraulos1 i4e4 water-flute1 and which  
probably was identical with the organum 
hydraulicum of the ,romans4 ,the        
instrument ought more properly to be    

regarded as a pneumatic organ1 for the  
sound was produced by the current of air
 through the pipes2 the water applied   
serving merely to give the necessary    
pressure to the bellows and to regulate 
their action4 ,the pipes were probably  
caused to sound by means of stops1      
perhaps resembling those on our organ1  
which were drawn out or pushed in4 ,the 
construction was evidently but a        
primitive contrivance1 contained in a   
case which could be carried by one or   
two persons and which was placed on a   
table4 ,the highest degree of perfection
 which the hydraulic organ obtained with
 the ancients is perhaps shown in a     
representation on a coin of the emperor 
,nero1 in the ,british museum4 ,only ten
 pipes are given to it and there is no  
indication of any key board1 which would
 probably have been shown had it        
existed4 ,the man standing at the side  
and holding a laurel leaf in his hand is
 surmised to represent a victor in the  
exhibitions of the circus or the        

amphitheatre4 ,the hydraulic organ      
probably was played on such occasions2  
and the medal containing an impression  
of it may have been bestowed upon the   
victor4  ,illustration  ,during the time
 of the republic1 and especially        
subsequently under the reign of the     
emperors1 the ,romans adopted many new  
instruments from ,greece1 ,egypt1 and   
even from western ,asia2 without        
essentially improving any of their      
importations4  ,their most favourite    
stringed instrument was the lyre1 of    
which they had various kinds1 called1   
according to their form and arrangement 
of strings1 lyra1 cithara1 chelys1      
testudo1 fidis 7or fides71 and cornu4   
,the name cornu was given to the lyre   
when the sides of the frame terminated  
at the top in the shape of two horns4   
,the barbitos was a kind of lyre with a 
large body1 which gave the instrument   
somewhat the shape of the ,welsh crwth4 
,the psalterium was a kind of lyre of an
 oblong square shape4 ,like most of the 

,roman lyres1 it was played with a      
rather large plectrum4 ,the trigonum was
 the same as the ,greek trigonon1 and   
was probably originally derived from    
,egypt4 ,it is recorded that a certain  
musician of the name of ,alexander      
,alexandrinus was so admirable a        
performer upon it that when exhibiting  
his skill in ,rome he created the       
greatest furore4 ,less common1 and      
derived from ,asia1 were the sambuca and
 nablia1 the exact construction of which
 is unknown4  ,the flute1 tibia1 was    
originally made of the shin bone1 and   
had a mouth-hole and four finger-holes4 
,its shape was retained even when1 at a 
later period1 it was constructed of     
other substances than bone4 ,the tibia  
gingrina consisted of a long and thin   
tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the   
side of one end4 ,the tibia obliqua and 
tibia vasca were provided with          
mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to
 the tube2 a contrivance somewhat       
similar to that on our bassoon4 ,the    

tibia longa was especially used in      
religious worship4 ,the tibia curva was 
curved at its broadest end4 ,the tibia  
ligula appears to have resembled our    
flageolet4 ,the calamus was nothing more
 than a simple pipe cut off the kind of 
reed which the ancients used as a pen   
for writing4  ,the ,romans had double   
flutes as well as single flutes4 ,the   
double flute consisted of two tubes     
united1 either so as to have a          
mouth-piece in common or to have each a 
separate mouth-piece4 ,if the tubes were
 exactly alike the double flute was     
called ,tibi pares2 if they were        
different from each other1 ,tibi        
impares4 ,little plugs1 or stoppers1    
were inserted into the finger-holes to  
regulate the order of intervals4 ,the   
tibia was made in various shapes4 ,the  
tibia dextra was usually constructed of 
the upper and thinner part of a reed2   
and the tibia sinistra1 of the lower and
 broader part4 ,the performers used also
 the capistrum1--a bandage round the    

cheeks identical with the phorbeia of   
the ,greeks4  ,the ,british museum      
contains a mosaic figure of a ,roman    
girl playing the tibia1 which is stated 
to have been disinterred in the year    
#ahbc on the ,via ,appia4 ,here the     
holmos or mouth-piece1 somewhat         
resembling the reed of our oboe1 is     
distinctly shown4 ,the finger-holes1    
probably four1 are not indicated1       
although they undoubtedly existed on the
 instrument4  ,illustration             
,furthermore1 the ,romans had two kinds 
of ,pandean pipes1 viz4 the syrinx and  
the fistula4 ,the bagpipe1 tibia        
utricularis1 is said to have been a     
favourite instrument of the emperor     
,nero4  ,illustration  ,the cornu was a 
large horn of bronze1 curved4 ,the      
performer held it under his arm with the
 broad end upwards over his shoulder4   
,it is represented in the engraving1    
with the tuba and the lituus4  ,the tuba
 was a straight trumpet4 ,both the cornu
 and the tuba were employed in war to   

convey signals4 ,the same was the case  
with the buccina1--originally perhaps a 
conch shell1 and afterwards a simple    
horn of an animal1--and the lituus1     
which was bent at the broad end but     
otherwise straight4 ,the tympanum       
resembled the tambourine and was beaten 
like the latter with the hands4 ,among  
the ,roman instruments of percussion the
 scabillum1 which consisted of two      
plates combined by means of a sort of   
hinge1 deserves to be noticed2 it was   
fastened under the foot and trodden in  
time1 to produce certain rhythmical     
effects in musical performances4 ,the   
cymbalum consisted of two metal plates  
similar to our cymbals4 ,the crotala and
 the crusmata were kinds of castanets1  
the former being oblong and of a larger 
size than the latter4 ,the ,romans had  
also a triangulum1 which resembled the  
triangle occasionally used in our       
orchestra4 ,the sistrum they derived    
from ,egypt with the introduction of the
 worship of ,isis4 ,metal bells1        

arranged according to a regular order of
 intervals and placed in a frame1 were  
called tintinnabula4 ,the crepitaculum  
appears to have been a somewhat similar 
contrivance on a hoop with a handle4    
,through the ,greeks and ,romans we have
 the first well-authenticated proof of  
musical instruments having been         
introduced into ,europe from ,asia4 ,the
 ,romans in their conquests undoubtedly 
made their musical instruments known1 to
 some extent1 also in western ,europe4  
,but the ,greeks and ,romans are not the
 only nations which introduced eastern  
instruments into ,europe4 ,the          
,phnicians at an early period colonized 
,sardinia1 and traces of them are still 
to be found on that island4 ,among these
 is a peculiarly constructed            
double-pipe1 called lionedda or         
launedda4 ,again1 at a much later period
 the ,arabs introduced several of their 
instruments into ,spain1 from which     
country they became known in ,france1   
,germany1 and ,england4 ,also the       

crusaders1 during the eleventh and      
twelfth centuries1 may have helped to   
familiarize the western ,european       
nations with instruments of the east4   
,,chapter ,v4   ,,the ,,chinese4        
,allowing for any exaggeration as to    
chronology1 natural to the lively       
imagination of ,asiatics1 there is no   
reason to doubt that the ,chinese       
possessed long before our ,christian era
 musical instruments to which they      
attribute a fabulously high antiquity4  
,there is an ancient tradition1         
according to which they obtained their  
musical scale from a miraculous bird1   
called foung-hoang1 which appears to    
have been a sort of phnix4 ,when        
,confucius1 who lived about ,b4,c4 #ejj1
 happened to hear on a certain occasion 
some ,chinese music1 he became so       
greatly enraptured that he could not    
take any food for three months          
afterwards4 ,the sounds which produced  
this effect were those of ,kouei1 the   
,orpheus of the ,chinese1 whose         

performance on the king--a kind of      
harmonicon constructed of slabs of      
sonorous stone--would draw wild animals 
around him and make them subservient to 
his will4 ,as regards the invention of  
musical instruments the ,chinese have   
other traditions4 ,in one of these we   
are told that the origin of some of     
their most popular instruments dates    
from the period when ,china was under   
the dominion of heavenly spirits1 called
 ,ki4 ,another assigns the invention of 
several stringed instruments to the     
great ,fohi who was the founder of the  
empire and who lived about ,b4,c4 #cjjj1
 which was long after the dominion of   
the ,ki1 or spirits4 ,again1 another    
tradition holds that the most important 
instruments and systematic arrangements 
of sounds are an invention of ,niuva1 a 
supernatural female1 who lived at the   
time of ,fohi4  ,illustration           
,according to their records1 the        
,chinese possessed their much-esteemed  
king #bbjj years before our ,christian  

era1 and employed it for accompanying   
songs of praise4 ,it was regarded as a  
sacred instrument4 ,during religious    
observances at the solemn moment when   
the king was sounded sticks of incense  
were burnt4 ,it was likewise played     
before the emperor early in the morning 
when he awoke4 ,the ,chinese have long  
since constructed various kinds of the  
king1 one of which is here engraved1 by 
using different species of stones4      
,their most famous stone selected for   
this purpose is called yu4 ,it is not   
only very sonorous but also beautiful in
 appearance4 ,the yu is found in        
mountain streams and crevices of rocks4 
,the largest specimens found measure    
from two to three feet in diameter1 but 
of this size examples rarely occur4 ,the
 yu is very hard and heavy4 ,some       
,european mineralogists1 to whom the    
missionaries transmitted specimens for  
examination1 pronounce it to be a       
species of agate4 ,it is found of       
different colours1 and the ,chinese     

appear to have preferred in different   
centuries particular colours for the    
king4  ,the ,chinese consider the yu    
especially valuable for musical         
purposes1 because it always retains     
exactly the same pitch4 ,all other      
musical instruments1 they say1 are in   
this respect doubtful2 but the tone of  
the yu is neither influenced by cold nor
 heat1 nor by humidity1 nor dryness4    
,the stones used for the king have been 
cut from time to time in various        
grotesque shapes4 ,some represent       
animals3 as1 for instance1 a bat with   
outstretched wings2 or two fishes placed
 side by side3 others are in the shape  
of an ancient ,chinese bell4 ,the       
angular shape shown in the engraving    
appears to be the oldest and is still   
retained in the ornamented stones of the
 pien-king1 which is a more modern      
instrument than the king4 ,the tones of 
the pien-king are attuned according to  
the ,chinese intervals called lu1 of    
which there are twelve in the compass of

 an octave4 ,the same is the case with  
the other ,chinese instruments of this  
class4 ,they vary1 however1 in pitch4   
,the pitch of the soung-king1 for       
instance1 is four intervals lower than  
that of the pien-king4  ,sonorous stones
 have always been used by the ,chinese  
also singly1 as rhythmical instruments4 
,such a single stone is called tse-king4
 ,probably certain curious relics       
belonging to a temple in ,peking1       
erected for the worship of ,confucius1  
serve a similar purpose4 ,in one of the 
outbuildings or the temple are ten      
sonorous stones1 shaped like drums1     
which are asserted to have been cut     
about three thousand years ago4 ,the    
primitive ,chinese characters engraven  
upon them are nearly obliterated4  ,the 
ancient ,chinese had several kinds of   
bells1 frequently arranged in sets so as
 to constitute a musical scale4 ,the    
,chinese name for the bell is tchung4   
,at an early period they had a somewhat 
square-shaped bell called t-tchung4     

,like other ancient ,chinese bells it   
was made of copper alloyed with tin1 the
 proportion being one pound of tin to   
six of copper4 ,the t-tchung1 which is  
also known by the name of piao1 was     
principally used to indicate the time   
and divisions in musical performances4  
,it had a fixed pitch of sound1 and     
several of these bells attuned to a     
certain order of intervals were not     
unfrequently ranged in a regular        
succession1 thus forming a musical      
instrument which was called pien-tchung4
 ,the musical scale of the sixteen bells
 which the pien-tchung contained was the
 same as that of the king before        
mentioned4  ,illustration  ,the         
hiuen-tchung was1 according to popular  
tradition1 included with the antique    
instruments at the time of ,confucius1  
and came into popular use during the    
,han dynasty 7from ,b4,c4 #bjj until    
,a4,d4 #bjj74 ,it was of a peculiar oval
 shape and had nearly the same quaint   
ornamentation as the t-tchung2 this     

consisted of symbolical figures1 in four
 divisions1 each containing nine        
mammals4 ,the mouth was crescent-shaped4
 ,every figure had a deep meaning       
referring to the seasons and to the     
mysteries of the ,buddhist religion4    
,the largest hiuen-tchung was about     
twenty inches in length2 and1 like the  
t-tchung1 was sounded by means of a     
small wooden mallet with an oval knob4  
,none of the bells of this description  
had a clapper4 ,it would1 however1      
appear that the ,chinese had at an early
 period some kind of bell provided with 
a wooden tongue3 this was used for      
military purposes as well as for calling
 the people together when an imperial   
messenger promulgated his sovereign's   
commands4 ,an expression of ,confucius  
is recorded to the effect that he wished
 to be 8,a wooden-tongued bell of       
,heaven10 i4e4 a herald of heaven to    
proclaim the divine purposes to the     
multitude4  ,illustration  ,the         
fang-hiang was a kind of                

wood-harmonicon4 ,it contained sixteen  
wooden slabs of an oblong square shape1 
suspended in a wooden frame elegantly   
decorated4 ,the slabs were arranged in  
two tiers1 one above the other1 and were
 all of equal length and breadth but    
differed in thickness4 ,the tchoung-tou 
consisted of twelve slips of bamboo1 and
 was used for beating time and for      
rhythmical purposes4 ,the slips being   
banded together at one end could be     
expanded somewhat like a fan4 ,the      
,chinese state that they used the       
tchoung-tou for writing upon before they
 invented paper4  ,the ou1 of which we  
give a woodcut1 likewise an ancient     
,chinese instrument of percussion and   
still in use1 is made of wood in the    
shape of a crouching tiger4 ,it is      
hollow1 and along its back are about    
twenty small pieces of metal1 pointed1  
and in appearance not unlike the teeth  
of a saw4 ,the performer strikes them   
with a sort of plectrum resembling a    
brush1 or with a small stick called     

tchen4 ,occasionally the ou is made with
 pieces of metal shaped like reeds4     
,illustration  ,the ancient ou was      
constructed with only six tones which   
were attuned thus--f1 g1 a1 c1 d1 f4    
,the instrument appears to have become  
deteriorated in the course of time2 for1
 although it has gradually acquired as  
many as twenty-seven pieces of metal1 it
 evidently serves at the present day    
more for the production of rhythmical   
noise than for the execution of any     
melody4 ,the modern ou is made of a     
species of wood called kieou or tsieou3 
and the tiger rests generally on a      
hollow wooden pedestal about three feet 
six inches long1 which serves as a      
sound-board4  ,illustration  ,the tchou1
 likewise an instrument of percussion1  
was made of the wood of a tree called   
kieou-mou1 the stem of which resembles  
that of the pine and whose foliage is   
much like that of the cypress4 ,it was  
constructed of boards about             
three-quarters of an inch in thickness4 

,in the middle of one of the sides was  
an aperture into which the hand was     
passed for the purpose of holding the   
handle of a wooden hammer1 the end of   
which entered into a hole situated in   
the bottom of the tchou4 ,the handle was
 kept in its place by means of a wooden 
pin1 on which it moved right and left   
when the instrument was struck with a   
hammer4 ,the ,chinese ascribe to the    
tchou a very high antiquity1 as they    
almost invariably do with any of their  
inventions when the date of its origin  
is unknown to them4  ,the po-fou was a  
drum1 about one foot four inches in     
length1 and seven inches in diameter4   
,it had a parchment at each end1 which  
was prepared in a peculiar way by being 
boiled in water4 ,the po-fou used to be 
partly filled with a preparation made   
from the husk of rice1 in order to      
mellow the sound4 ,the ,chinese name for
 the drum is kou4  ,illustration  ,the  
kin-kou 7engraved71 a large drum fixed  
on a pedestal which raises it above six 

feet from the ground1 is embellished    
with symbolical designs4 ,a similar drum
 on which natural phenomena are depicted
 is called lei-kou2 and another of the  
kind1 with figures of certain birds and 
beasts which are regarded as symbols of 
long life1 is called ling-kou1 and also 
lou-kou4  ,the flutes1 ty1 yo1 and tch  
were generally made of bamboo4 ,the     
koan-tsee was a ,pandean pipe containing
 twelve tubes of bamboo4 ,the siao1     
likewise a ,pandean pipe1 contained     
sixteen tubes4 ,the pai-siao differed   
from the siao inasmuch as the tubes were
 inserted into an oddly-shaped case     
highly ornamented with grotesque designs
 and silken appendages4  ,illustration  
,the ,chinese are known to have         
constructed at an early period a curious
 wind-instrument1 called hiuen4 ,it was 
made of baked clay and had five         
finger-holes1 three of which were placed
 on one side and two on the opposite    
side1 as in the cut4 ,its tones were in 
conformity with the pentatonic scale4   

,the reader unacquainted with the       
pentatonic scale may ascertain its      
character by playing on the pianoforte  
the scale of ,c major with the omission 
of f and b 7the fourth and seventh72 or 
by striking the black keys in regular   
succession from f-sharp to the next     
f-sharp above or below4  ,another       
curious wind-instrument of high         
antiquity1 the cheng1 7engraved1 p4 #df7
 is still in use4 ,formerly it had      
either #ac1 #ai1 or #bd tubes1 placed in
 a calabash2 and a long curved tube     
served as a mouth-piece4 ,in olden time 
it was called yu4  ,the ancient stringed
 instruments1 the kin and ch1 were of   
the dulcimer kind3 they are still in    
use1 and specimens of them are in the   
,south ,kensington museum4  ,the        
,buddhists introduced from ,thibet into 
,china their god of music1 who is       
represented as a rather jovial-looking  
man with a moustache and an imperial1   
playing the pepa1 a kind of lute with   
four silken strings4 ,perhaps some      

interesting information respecting the  
ancient ,chinese musical instruments may
 be gathered from the famous ruins of   
the ,buddhist temples ,ongcor-,wat and  
,ongcor-,thm1 in ,cambodia4 ,these      
splendid ruins are supposed to be above 
two thousand years old3 and1 at any     
rate1 the circumstance of their age not 
being known to the ,cambodians suggests 
a high antiquity4 ,on the bas-reliefs   
with which the temples were enriched are
 figured musical instruments1 which     
,european travellers describe as        
8flutes1 organs1 trumpets1 and drums1   
resembling those of the ,chinese40      
,faithful sketches of these             
representations might1 very likely1     
afford valuable hints to the student of 
musical history4   ,,the ,,hindus4      
,illustration  ,in the ,brahmin         
mythology of the ,hindus the god ,nareda
 is the inventor of the vina1 the       
principal national instrument of        
,hindustan4 ,saraswati1 the consort of  
,brahma1 may be regarded as the ,minerva

 of the ,hindus4 ,she is the goddess of 
music as well as of speech2 to her is   
attributed the invention of the         
systematic arrangement of the sounds    
into a musical scale4 ,she is           
represented seated on a peacock and     
playing on a stringed instrument of the 
lute kind4 ,brahma himself we find      
depicted as a vigorous man with four    
handsome heads1 beating with his hands  
upon a small drum2 and ,vishnu1 in his  
incarnation as ,krishna1 is represented 
as a beautiful youth playing upon a     
flute4 ,the ,hindus construct a peculiar
 kind of flute1 which they consider as  
the favourite instrument of ,krishna4   
,they have also the divinity ,ganesa1   
the god of ,wisdom1 who is represented  
as a man with the head of an elephant1  
holding a tamboura in his hands4  ,it is
 a suggestive fact that we find among   
several nations in different parts of   
the world an ancient tradition1         
according to which their most popular   
stringed instrument was originally      

derived from the water4  ,in ,hindu     
mythology the god ,nareda invented the  
vina--the principal national instrument 
of ,hindustan--which has also the name  
cach'-hapi1 signifying a tortoise       
7testudo74 ,moreover1 nara denotes in   
,sanskrit water1 and narada1 or nareda1 
the giver of water4 ,like ,nareda1      
,nereus and his fifty daughters1 the    
,nereides1 were much renowned for their 
musical accomplishments2 and ,hermes 7it
 will be remembered7 made his lyre1 the 
chelys1 of a tortoise-shell4 ,the       
,scandinavian god ,odin1 the originator 
of magic songs1 is mentioned as the     
ruler of the sea1 and as such he had the
 name of ,nikarr4 ,in the depth of the  
sea he played the harp with his         
subordinate spirits1 who occasionally   
came up to the surface of the water to  
teach some favoured human being their   
wonderful instrument4 ,winminen1 the    
divine player on the ,finnish kantele   
7according to the ,kalewala1 the old    
national epic of the ,finns7 constructed

 his instrument of fish-bones4 ,the     
frame he made out of the bones of the   
pike2 and the teeth of the pike he used 
for the tuning-pegs4  ,jacob ,grimm in  
his work on ,german mythology points out
 an old tradition1 preserved in ,swedish
 and ,scotch national ballads1 of a     
skilful harper who constructs his       
instrument out of the bones of a young  
girl drowned by a wicked woman4 ,her    
fingers he uses for the tuning screws1  
and her golden hair for the strings4    
,the harper plays1 and his music kills  
the murderess4 ,a similar story is told 
in the old ,icelandic national songs2   
and the same tradition has been         
preserved in the ,faroe islands1 as well
 as in ,norway and ,denmark4  ,may not  
the agreeable impression produced by the
 rhythmical flow of the waves and the   
soothing murmur of running water have   
led various nations1 independently of   
each other1 to the widespread conception
 that they obtained their favourite     
instrument of music from the water8 ,or 

is the notion traceable to a common     
source dating from a pre-historic age1  
perhaps from the early period when the  
,aryan race is surmised to have diffused
 its lore through various countries8 ,or
 did it originate in the old belief that
 the world1 with all its charms and     
delights1 arose from a chaos in which   
water constituted the predominant       
element8  ,howbeit1 ,nareda1 the giver  
of water1 was evidently also the ruler  
of the clouds2 and ,odin had his throne 
in the skies4 ,indeed1 many of the      
musical water-spirits appear to have    
been originally considered as rain      
deities4 ,their music may therefore be  
regarded as derived from the clouds     
rather than from the sea4 ,in short1 the
 traditions respecting spirits and water
 are not in contradiction to the opinion
 of the ancient ,hindus that music is of
 heavenly origin1 but rather tend to    
support it4  ,the earliest musical      
instruments of the ,hindus on record    
have1 almost all of them1 remained in   

popular use until the present day       
scarcely altered4 ,besides these1 the   
,hindus possess several ,arabic and     
,persian instruments which are of       
comparatively modern date in ,hindustan3
 evidently having been introduced into  
that country scarcely a thousand years  
ago1 at the time of the ,mahomedan      
irruption4 ,there is a treatise on music
 extant1 written in ,sanskrit1 which    
contains a description of the ancient   
instruments4 ,its title is ,sngita      
rthnakara4 ,if1 as may be hoped1 it be  
translated by a ,sanskrit scholar who is
 at the same time a good musician1 we   
shall probably be enabled to ascertain  
more exactly which of the ,hindu        
instruments of the present day are of   
comparatively modern origin4  ,the vina 
is undoubtedly of high antiquity4 ,it   
has seven wire strings1 and movable     
frets which are generally fastened with 
wax4 ,two hollowed gourds1 often        
tastefully ornamented1 are affixed to it
 for the purpose of increasing the      

sonorousness4 ,there are several kinds  
of the vina in different districts2 but 
that represented in the illustration is 
regarded as the oldest4 ,the performer  
shown is ,jeewan ,shah1 a celebrated    
virtuoso on the vina1 who lived about a 
hundred years ago4 ,the ,hindus divided 
their musical scale into several        
intervals smaller than our modern       
semitones4 ,they adopted twenty-two     
intervals called sruti in the compass of
 an octave1 which may therefore be      
compared to our chromatic intervals4 ,as
 the frets of the vina are movable the  
performer can easily regulate them      
according to the scale1 or mode1 which  
he requires for his music4              
,illustration  ,the harp1 chang1 has    
become almost obsolete4 ,if some ,hindu 
drawings of it can be relied upon1 it   
had at an early time a triangular frame 
and was in construction as well as in   
shape and size almost identical with the
 ,assyrian harp4  ,the ,hindus claim to 
have invented the violin bow4 ,they     

maintain that the ravanastron1 one of   
their old instruments played with the   
bow1 was invented about five thousand   
years ago by ,ravanon1 a mighty king of 
,ceylon4 ,however this may be there is a
 great probability that the fiddle-bow  
originated in ,hindustan2 because       
,sanskrit scholars inform us that there 
are names for it in works which cannot  
be less than from #aejj to #bjjj years  
old4 ,the non-occurrence of any         
instrument played with a bow on the     
monuments of the nations of antiquity is
 by no means so sure a proof as has     
generally been supposed1 that the bow   
was unknown4 ,the fiddle in its         
primitive condition must have been a    
poor contrivance4 ,it probably was      
despised by players who could produce   
better tones with greater facility by   
twanging the strings with their fingers1
 or with a plectrum4 ,thus it may have  
remained through many centuries without 
experiencing any material improvement4  
,it must also be borne in mind that the 

monuments transmitted to us chiefly     
represent historical events1 religious  
ceremonies1 and royal entertainments4   
,on such occasions instruments of a     
certain kind only were used1 and these  
we find represented2 while others1 which
 may have been even more common1 never  
occur4 ,in two thousand years' time     
people will possibly maintain that some 
highly perfected instrument popular with
 them was entirely unknown to us1       
because it is at present in so primitive
 a condition that no one hardly notices 
it4 ,if the ravanastron was an          
importation of the ,mahomedans it would 
most likely bear some resemblance to the
 ,arabian and ,persian instruments1 and 
it would be found rather in the hands of
 the higher classes in the towns2       
whereas it is principally met with among
 the lower order of people1 in isolated 
and mountainous districts4 ,it is       
further remarkable that the most simple 
kind of ravanastron is almost identical 
with the ,chinese fiddle called ur-heen4

 ,this species has only two strings1 and
 its body consists of a small block of  
wood1 hollowed out and covered with the 
skin of a serpent4 ,the ur-heen has not 
been mentioned among the most ancient   
instruments of the ,chinese1 since there
 is no evidence of its having been known
 in ,china before the introduction of   
the ,buddhist religion into that        
country4 ,from indications1 which to    
point out would lead too far here1 it   
would appear that several instruments   
found in ,china originated in           
,hindustan4 ,they seem to have been     
gradually diffused from ,hindustan and  
,thibet1 more or less altered in the    
course of time1 through the east as far 
as ,japan4  ,another curious ,hindu     
instrument1 probably of very high       
antiquity1 is the poongi1 also called   
toumrie and magoudi4 ,it consists of a  
gourd or of the ,cuddos nut1 hollowed1  
into which two pipes are inserted4 ,the 
poongi therefore somewhat resembles in  
appearance a bagpipe4 ,it is generally  

used by the ,sampuris or snake charmers1
 who play upon it when they exhibit the 
antics of the cobra4 ,the name magoudi1 
given in certain districts to this      
instrument1 rather tends to corroborate 
the opinion of some musical historians  
that the magadis of the ancient ,greeks 
was a sort of double-pipe1 or bagpipe4  
,many instruments of ,hindustan are     
known by different names in different   
districts2 and1 besides1 there are      
varieties of them4 ,on the whole1 the   
,hindus possess about fifty instruments4
 ,to describe them properly would fill a
 volume4 ,some1 which are in the        
,kensington museum1 will be found       
noticed in the large catalogue of that  
collection4   ,,the ,,persians ,,and    
,,arabs4  ,of the musical instruments of
 the ancient ,persians1 before the      
,christian era1 scarcely anything is    
known4 ,it may be surmised that they    
closely resembled those of the          
,assyrians1 and probably also those of  
the ,hebrews4  ,illustration  ,the harp1

 chang1 in olden time a favourite       
instrument of the ,persians1 has        
gradually fallen into desuetude4 ,the   
illustration of a small harp given in   
the woodcut has been sketched from the  
celebrated sculptures1 perhaps of the   
sixth century1 which exist on a         
stupendous rock1 called                 
,tackt-i-,bostan1 in the vicinity of the
 town of ,kermanshah4 ,these sculptures 
are said to have been executed during   
the lifetime of the ,persian monarch    
,khosroo ,purviz4 ,they form the        
ornaments of two lofty arches1 and      
consist of representations of field     
sports and aquatic amusements4 ,in one  
of the boats is seated a man in an      
ornamental dress1 with a halo round his 
head1 who is receiving an arrow from one
 of his attendants2 while a female1 who 
is sitting near him1 plays on a         
,trigonon4 ,towards the top of the      
bas-relief is represented a stage1 on   
which are performers on small straight  
trumpets and little hand drums2 six     

harpers2 and four other musicians1      
apparently females1--the first of whom  
plays a flute2 the second1 a sort of    
pandean pipe2 the third1 an instrument  
which is too much defaced to be         
recognizable2 and the fourth1 a bagpipe4
 ,two harps of a peculiar shape were    
copied by ,sir ,gore ,ousely from       
,persian manuscripts about four hundred 
years old resembling1 in the principle  
on which they are constructed1 all other
 oriental harps4 ,there existed         
evidently various kinds of the chang4   
,it may be remarked here that the       
instrument tschenk 7or chang7 in use at 
the present day in ,persia1 is more like
 a dulcimer than a harp4 ,the ,arabs    
adopted the harp from the ,persians1 and
 called it junk4 ,an interesting        
representation of a ,turkish woman      
playing the harp 7p4 #ec7 sketched from 
life by ,melchior ,lorich in the        
seventeenth century1 probably exhibits  
an old ,persian chang2 for the ,turks   
derived their music principally from    

,persia4 ,here we have an introduction  
into ,europe of the oriental frame      
without a front pillar4  ,illustration  
,the ,persians appear to have adopted1  
at an early period1 smaller musical     
intervals than semitones4 ,when the     
,arabs conquered ,persia 7,a4,d4 #fda7  
the ,persians had already attained a    
higher degree of civilisation than their
 conquerors4 ,the latter found in       
,persia the cultivation of music        
considerably in advance of their own1   
and the musical instruments superior    
also4 ,they soon adopted the ,persian   
instruments1 and there can be no doubt  
that the musical system exhibited by the
 earliest ,arab writers whose works on  
the theory of music have been preserved 
was based upon an older system of the   
,persians4 ,in these works the octave is
 divided in seventeen                   
one-third-tones--intervals which are    
still made use of in the east4 ,some of 
the ,arabian instruments are constructed
 so as to enable the performer to       

produce the intervals with exactness4   
,the frets on the lute and tamboura1 for
 instance1 are regulated with a view to 
this object4  ,illustration  ,the ,arabs
 had to some extent become acquainted   
with many of the ,persian instruments   
before the time of their conquest of    
,persia4 ,an ,arab musician of the name 
of ,nadr ,ben el-,hares ,ben ,kelde is  
recorded as having been sent to the     
,persian king ,khosroo ,purviz1 in the  
sixth century1 for the purpose of       
learning ,persian singing and performing
 on the lute4 ,through him1 it is said1 
the lute was brought to ,mekka4 ,saib   
,chatir1 the son of a ,persian1 is      
spoken of as the first performer on the 
lute in ,medina1 ,a4,d4 #fhb2 and of an 
,arab lutist1 ,ebn ,soreidsch from      
,mekka1 ,a4,d4 #fhc1 it is especially   
mentioned that he played in the ,persian
 style2 evidently the superior one4 ,the
 lute1 el-oud1 had before the tenth     
century only four strings1 or four pairs
 producing four tones1 each tone having 

two strings tuned in unison4 ,about the 
tenth century a string for a fifth tone 
was added4 ,the strings were made of    
silk neatly twisted4 ,the neck of the   
instrument was provided with frets of   
string1 which were carefully regulated  
according to the system of seventeen    
intervals in the compass of an octave   
before mentioned4 ,other favourite      
stringed instruments were the tamboura1 
a kind of lute with a long neck1 and the
 kanoon1 a kind of dulcimer strung with 
lamb's gut strings 7generally three in  
unison for each tone7 and played upon   
with two little plectra which the       
performer had fastened to his fingers4  
,the kanoon is likewise still in use in 
countries inhabited by ,mahomedans4 ,the
 engraving1 taken from a ,persian       
painting at ,teheran1 represents an old 
,persian santir1 the prototype of our   
dulcimer1 mounted with wire strings and 
played upon with two slightly curved    
sticks4  ,illustration  ,al-,farabi1 one
 of the earliest ,arabian musical       

theorists known1 who lived in the       
beginning of the tenth century1 does not
 allude to the fiddle-bow4 ,this is     
noteworthy inasmuch as it seems in some 
measure to support the opinion          
maintained by some historians that the  
bow originated in ,england or ,wales4   
,unfortunately we possess no exact      
descriptions of the ,persian and        
,arabian instruments between the tenth  
and fourteenth centuries1 otherwise we  
should probably have earlier accounts of
 some instrument of the violin kind in  
,persia4 ,ash-shakandi1 who lived in    
,spain about ,a4,d4 #abjj1 mentions the 
rebab1 which may have been in use for   
centuries without having been thought   
worthy of notice on account of its      
rudeness4 ,persian writers of the       
fourteenth century speak of two         
instruments of the violin class1 viz41  
the rebab and the kemangeh4 ,as regards 
the kemangeh1 the ,arabs themselves     
assert that they obtained it from       
,persia1 and their statement appears all

 the more worthy of belief from the fact
 that both names1 rebab and kemangeh1   
are originally ,persian4 ,we engrave the
 rebab from an example at ,south        
,kensington4  ,illustration  ,the nay1 a
 flute1 and the surnay1 a species of    
oboe1 are still popular in the east4    
,the ,arabs must have been indefatigable
 constructors of musical instruments4   
,kiesewetter gives a list of above two  
hundred names of ,arabian instruments1  
and this does not include many known to 
us through ,spanish historians4 ,a      
careful investigation of the musical    
instruments of the ,arabs during their  
sojourn in ,spain is particularly       
interesting to the student of medival   
music1 inasmuch as it reveals the       
eastern origin of many instruments which
 are generally regarded as ,european    
inventions4 ,introduced into ,spain by  
the ,saracens and the ,moors they were  
gradually diffused towards northern     
,europe4 ,the ,english1 for instance1   
adopted not only the ,moorish dance     

7morrice dance7 but also the kuitra     
7gittern71 the el-oud 7lute71 the rebab 
7rebec71 the nakkarah 7naker71 and      
several others4 ,in an old ,cornish     
sacred drama1 supposed to date from the 
fourteenth century1 we have in an       
enumeration of musical instruments the  
nakrys1 designating 8kettle-drums40 ,it 
must be remembered that the ,cornish    
language1 which has now become obsolete1
 was nearly akin to the ,welsh4 ,indeed1
 names of musical instruments derived   
from the ,moors in ,spain occur in      
almost every ,european language4  ,not a
 few fanciful stories are traditionally 
preserved among the ,arabs testifying to
 the wonderful effects they ascribed to 
the power of their instrumental         
performances4 ,one example will suffice4
 ,al-,farabi had acquired his           
proficiency in ,spain1 in one of the    
schools at ,cordova which flourished as 
early as towards the end of the ninth   
century3 and his reputation became so   
great that ultimately it extended to    

,asia4 ,the mighty caliph of ,bagdad    
himself desired to hear the celebrated  
musician1 and sent messengers to ,spain 
with instructions to offer rich presents
 to him and to convey him to the court4 
,but ,al-,farabi feared that if he went 
he should be retained in ,asia1 and     
should never again see the home to which
 he felt deeply attached4 ,at last he   
resolved to disguise himself1 and       
ventured to undertake the journey which 
promised him a rich harvest4 ,dressed in
 a mean costume1 he made his appearance 
at the court just at the time when the  
caliph was being entertained with his   
daily concert4 ,al-,farabi1 unknown to  
everyone1 was permitted to exhibit his  
skill on the lute4 ,scarcer had he      
commenced his performance in a certain  
musical mode when he set all his        
audience laughing aloud1 notwithstanding
 the efforts of the courtiers to        
suppress so unbecoming an exhibition of 
mirth in the royal presence4 ,in truth1 
even the caliph himself was compelled to

 burst out into a fit of laughter4      
,presently the performer changed to     
another mode1 and the effect was that   
immediately all his hearers began to    
sigh1 and soon tears of sadness replaced
 the previous tears of mirth4 ,again he 
played in another mode1 which excited   
his audience to such a rage that they   
would have fought each other if he1     
seeing the danger1 had not directly gone
 over to an appeasing mode4 ,after this 
wonderful exhibition of his skill       
,al-,farabi concluded in a mode which   
had the effect of making his listeners  
fall into a profound sleep1 during which
 he took his departure4  ,it will be    
seen that this incident is almost       
identical with one recorded as having   
happened about twelve hundred years     
earlier at the court of ,alexander the  
great1 and which forms the subject of   
,dryden's 8,alexander's ,feast40 ,the   
distinguished flutist ,timotheus        
successively aroused and subdued        
different passions by changing the      

musical modes during his performance1   
exactly in the same way as did          
,al-,farabi4     ,,chapter ,,vi4   ,,the
 ,,american ,,indians4  ,if the         
preserved antiquities of the ,american  
,indians1 dating from a period anterior 
to our discovery of the western         
hemisphere1 possess an extraordinary    
interest because they afford trustworthy
 evidence of the degree of progress     
which the aborigines had attained in the
 cultivation of the arts and in their   
social condition before they came in    
contact with ,europeans1 it must be     
admitted that the ancient musical       
instruments of the ,american ,indians   
are also worthy of examination4 ,several
 of them are constructed in a manner    
which1 in some degree1 reveals the      
characteristics of the musical system   
prevalent among the people who used the 
instruments4 ,and although most of these
 interesting relics1 which have been    
obtained from tombs and other           
hiding-places1 may not be of great      

antiquity1 it has been satisfactorily   
ascertained that they are genuine       
contrivances of the ,indians before they
 were influenced by ,european           
civilization4  ,some account of these   
relics is therefore likely to prove of  
interest also to the ethnologist1       
especially as several facts may perhaps 
be found of assistance in elucidating   
the still unsolved problem as to the    
probable original connection of the     
,american with ,asiatic races4  ,among  
the instruments of the ,aztecs in       
,mexico and of the ,peruvians none have 
been found so frequently1 and have been 
preserved in their former condition so  
unaltered1 as pipes and flutes4 ,they   
are generally made of pottery or of     
bone1 substances which are unsuitable   
for the construction of most other      
instruments1 but which are remarkably   
well qualified to withstand the decaying
 influence of time4 ,there is1          
therefore1 no reason to conclude from   
the frequent occurrence of such         

instruments that they were more common  
than other kinds of which specimens have
 rarely been discovered4  ,illustration 
,the ,mexicans possessed a small whistle
 formed of baked clay1 a considerable   
number of which have been found4 ,some  
specimens 7of which we give engravings7 
are singularly grotesque in shape1      
representing caricatures of the human   
face and figure1 birds1 beasts1 and     
flowers4 ,some were provided at the top 
with a finger-hole which1 when closed1  
altered the pitch of the sound1 so that 
two different tones were producible on  
the instrument4 ,others had a little    
ball of baked clay lying loose inside   
the air-chamber4 ,when the instrument   
was blown the current of air set the    
ball in a vibrating motion1 thereby     
causing a shrill and whirring sound4 ,a 
similar contrivance is sometimes made   
use of by ,englishmen for conveying     
signals4 ,the ,mexican whistle most     
likely served principally the same      
purpose1 but it may possibly have been  

used also in musical entertainments4 ,in
 the ,russian horn band each musician is
 restricted to a single tone2 and       
similar combinations of                 
performers--only1 of course1 much more  
rude--have been witnessed by travellers 
among some tribes in ,africa and        
,america4  ,illustration  ,rather more  
complete than the above specimens are   
some of the whistles and small pipes    
which have been found in graves of the  
,indians of ,chiriqui in central        
,america4 ,the pipe or whistle which is 
represented in the accompanying         
engraving appears1 to judge from the    
somewhat obscure description transmitted
 to us1 to possess about half a dozen   
tones4 ,it is of pottery1 painted in red
 and black on a cream-coloured ground1  
and in length about five inches4 ,among 
the instruments of this kind from       
central ,america the most complete have 
four finger-holes4 ,by means of three   
the following four sounds 7including the
 sound which is produced when none of   

the holes are closed7 can be emitted3   
,illustration the fourth finger-hole1   
when closed1 has the effect of lowering 
the pitch a semitone4 ,by a particular  
process two or three lower notes are    
obtainable4  ,illustration              
,illustration  ,the pipe of the ,aztecs1
 which is called by the ,mexican        
,spaniards pito1 somewhat resembled our 
flageolet3 the material was a reddish   
pottery1 and it was provided with four  
finger-holes4 ,although among about half
 a dozen specimens which the writer has 
examined some are considerably larger   
than others they all have1 singularly   
enough1 the same pitch of sound4 ,the   
smallest is about six inches in length1 
and the largest about nine inches4      
,several pitos have been found in a     
remarkably well-preserved condition4    
,they are easy to blow1 and their order 
of intervals is in conformity with the  
pentatonic scale1 thus3 ,illustration   
,the usual shape of the pito is that    
here represented2 showing the upper side

 of one pipe1 and a side view of        
another4 ,a specimen of a less common   
shape1 also engraved1 is in the ,british
 museum4 ,indications suggestive of the 
popular estimation in which the flute   
7or perhaps1 more strictly speaking1 the
 pipe7 was held by the ,aztecs are not  
wanting4 ,it was played in religious    
observances and we find it referred to  
allegorically in orations delivered on  
solemn occasions4 ,for instance1 at the 
religious festival which was held in    
honour of ,tezcatlepoca--a divinity     
depicted as a handsome youth1 and       
considered second only to the supreme   
being--a young man was sacrificed who1  
in preparation for the ceremony1 had    
been instructed in the art of playing   
the flute4 ,twenty days before his death
 four young girls1 named after the      
principal goddesses1 were given to him  
as companions2 and when the hour arrived
 in which he was to be sacrificed he    
observed the established symbolical rite
 of breaking a flute on each of the     

steps1 as he ascended the temple4       
,again1 at the public ceremonies which  
took place on the accession of a prince 
to the throne the new monarch addressed 
a prayer to the god1 in which occurred  
the following allegorical               
expression3--8,i am thy flute2 reveal to
 me thy will2 breathe into me thy breath
 like into a flute1 as thou hast done to
 my predecessors on the throne4 ,as thou
 hast opened their eyes1 their ears1 and
 their mouth to utter what is good1 so  
likewise do to me4 ,i resign myself     
entirely to thy guidance40 ,similar     
sentences occur in the orations         
addressed to the monarch4 ,in reading   
them one can hardly fail to be reminded 
of ,hamlet's reflections addressed to   
,guildenstern1 when the servile courtier
 expresses his inability to 8govern the 
ventages0 of the pipe and to make the   
instrument 8discourse most eloquent     
music10 which the prince bids him to do4
  ,m4 de ,castelnau in his 8,expdition  
dans l',amrique0 gives among the        

illustrations of objects discovered in  
ancient ,peruvian tombs a flute made of 
a human bone4 ,it has four finger-holes 
at its upper surface and appears to have
 been blown into at one end4 ,two       
bone-flutes1 in appearance similar to   
the engraving given by ,m4 de           
,castelnau1 which have been disinterred 
at ,truxillo are deposited in the       
,british museum4 ,they are about six    
inches in length1 and each is provided  
with five finger-holes4 ,one of these   
has all the holes at its upper side1 and
 one of the holes is considerably       
smaller than the rest4 ,the specimen    
which we engrave 7p4 #fd7 is ornamented 
with some simple designs in black4  ,the
 other has four holes at its upper side 
and one underneath1 the latter being    
placed near to the end at which the     
instrument evidently was blown4 ,in the 
aperture of this end some remains of a  
hardened paste1 or resinous substance1  
are still preserved4 ,this substance    
probably was inserted for the purpose of

 narrowing the end of the tube1 in order
 to facilitate the producing of the     
sounds4 ,the same contrivance is still  
resorted to in the construction of the  
bone-flutes by some ,indian tribes in   
,guiana4 ,the bones of slain enemies    
appear to have been considered          
especially appropriate for such flutes4 
,the ,araucanians1 having killed a      
prisoner1 made flutes of his bones1 and 
danced and 8thundered out their dreadful
 war-songs1 accompanied by the mournful 
sounds of these horrid instruments40    
,alonso de ,ovalle says of the ,indians 
in ,chili3 8,their flutes1 which they   
play upon in their dances1 are made of  
the bones of the ,spaniards and other   
enemies whom they have overcome in war4 
,this they do by way of triumph and     
glory for their victory4 ,they make them
 likewise of bones of animals2 but the  
warriors dance only to the flutes made  
of their enemies40 ,the ,mexicans and   
,peruvians obviously possessed a great  
variety of pipes and flutes1 some of    

which are still in use among certain    
,indian tribes4 ,those which were found 
in the famous ruins at ,palenque are    
deposited in the museum in ,mexico4     
,they are3--,the cuyvi1 a pipe on which 
only five tones were producible2 the    
huayllaca1 a sort of flageolet2 the     
pincullu1 a flute2 and the chayna1 which
 is described as 8a flute whose         
lugubrious and melancholy tones filled  
the heart with indescribable sadness1   
and brought involuntary tears into the  
eyes40 ,it was perhaps a kind of oboe4  
,illustration  ,the ,peruvians had the  
syrinx1 which they called huayra-puhura4
 ,some clue to the proper meaning of    
this name may perhaps be gathered from  
the word huayra1 which signifies 8air40 
,the huayra-puhura was made of cane1 and
 also of stone4 ,sometimes an embroidery
 of needle-work was attached to it as an
 ornament4 ,one specimen which has been 
disinterred is adorned with twelve      
figures precisely resembling ,maltese   
crosses4 ,the cross is a figure which   

may readily be supposed to suggest      
itself very naturally2 and it is        
therefore not so surprising1 as it may  
appear at a first glance1 that the      
,american ,indians used it not          
unfrequently in designs and sculptures  
before they came in contact with        
,christians4  ,illustration  ,the       
,british museum possesses a             
huayra-puhura consisting of fourteen    
reed pipes of a brownish colour1 tied   
together in two rows by means of thread1
 so as to form a double set of seven    
reeds4 ,both sets are almost exactly of 
the same dimensions and are placed side 
by side4 ,the shortest of these reeds   
measure three inches1 and the longest   
six and a half4 ,in one set they are    
open at the bottom1 and in the other    
they are closed4 ,consequently1 octaves 
are produced4 ,the reader is probably   
aware that the closing of a pipe at the 
end raises its pitch an octave4 ,thus1  
in our organ1 the so-called stopped     
diapason1 a set of closed pipes1        

requires tubes of only half the length  
of those which constitute the open      
diapason1 although both these stops     
produce tones in the same pitch2 the    
only difference between them being the  
quality of sound1 which in the former is
 less bright than in the latter4  ,the  
tones yielded by the huayra-puhura in   
question are as follows3 ,illustration  
,the highest octave is indistinct1 owing
 to some injury done to the shortest    
tubes2 but sufficient evidence remains  
to show that the intervals were         
purposely arranged according to the     
pentatonic scale4 ,this interesting     
relic was brought to light from a tomb  
at ,arica4  ,illustration  ,another     
huayra-puhura1 likewise still yielding  
sounds1 was discovered placed over a    
corpse in a ,peruvian tomb1 and was     
procured by the ,french general1        
,paroissien4 ,this instrument is made of
 a greenish stone which is a species of 
talc1 and contains eight pipes4 ,in the 
,berlin museum may be seen a good       

plaster cast taken from this curious    
relic4 ,the height is #e inches1 and its
 width #f inches4 ,four of the tubes    
have small lateral finger-holes which1  
when closed1 lower the pitch a semitone4
 ,these holes are on the second1 fourth1
 sixth1 and seventh pipe1 as shown in   
the engraving4 ,when the holes are open1
 the tones are3 ,illustration and when  
they are closed3 ,illustration ,the     
other tubes have unalterable tones4 ,the
 following notation exhibits all the    
tones producible on the instrument3     
,illustration  ,the musician is likely  
to speculate what could have induced the
 ,peruvians to adopt so strange a series
 of intervals3 it seems rather arbitrary
 than premeditated4  ,illustration  ,if 
7and this seems not to be improbable7   
the ,peruvians considered those tones   
which are produced by closing the       
lateral holes as additional intervals   
only1 a variety of scales or kinds of   
modes may have been contrived by the    
admission of one or other of these tones

 among the essential ones4 ,if we may   
conjecture from some remarks of         
,garcilasso de la ,vega1 and other      
historians1 the ,peruvians appear to    
have used different orders of intervals 
for different kinds of tunes1 in a way  
similar to what we find to be the case  
with certain ,asiatic nations4 ,we are  
told for instance 8,each poem1 or song1 
had its appropriate tune1 and they could
 not put two different songs to one     
tune2 and this was why the enamoured    
gallant1 making music at night on his   
flute1 with the tune which belonged to  
it1 told the lady and all the world the 
joy or sorrow of his soul1 the favour or
 ill-will which he possessed2 so that it
 might be said that he spoke by the     
flute40 ,thus also the ,hindus have     
certain tunes for certain seasons and   
fixed occasions1 and likewise a number  
of different modes or scales used for   
particular kinds of songs4  ,trumpets   
are often mentioned by writers who have 
recorded the manners and customs of the 

,indians at the time of the discovery of
 ,america4 ,there are1 however1 scarcely
 any illustrations to be relied on of   
these instruments transmitted to us4    
,the ,conch was frequently used as a    
trumpet for conveying signals in war4   
,illustration  ,the engraving represents
 a kind of trumpet made of wood1 and    
nearly seven feet in length1 which      
,gumilla found among the ,indians in the
 vicinity of the ,orinoco4 ,it somewhat 
resembles the juruparis1 a mysterious   
instrument of the ,indians on the ,rio  
,haups1 a tributary of the ,rio ,negro1 
south ,america4 ,the juruparis is       
regarded as an object of great          
veneration4 ,women are never permitted  
to see it4 ,so stringent is this law    
that any woman obtaining a sight of it  
is put to death--usually by poison4 ,no 
youths are allowed to see it until they 
have been subjected to a series of      
initiatory fastings and scourgings4 ,the
 juruparis is usually kept hidden in the
 bed of some stream1 deep in the forest2

 and no one dares to drink out of that  
sanctified stream1 or to bathe in its   
water4 ,at feasts the juruparis is      
brought out during the night1 and is    
blown outside the houses of             
entertainment4 ,the inner portion of the
 instrument consists of a tube made of  
slips of the ,paxiaba palm 7,triartea   
exorrhiza74 ,when the ,indians are about
 to use the instrument they nearly close
 the upper end of the tube with clay1   
and also tie above the oblong square    
hole 7shown in the engraving7 a portion 
of the leaf of the ,uaruma1 one of the  
arrow-root family4 ,round the tube are  
wrapped long strips of the tough bark of
 the ,jbaru 7,parivoa grandiflora74     
,this covering descends in folds below  
the tube4 ,the length of the instrument 
is from four to five feet4 ,the         
illustration1 which exhibits the        
juruparis with its cover and without it1
 has been taken from a specimen in the  
museum at ,kew gardens4 ,the mysteries  
connected with this trumpet are         

evidently founded on an old tradition   
from prehistoric ,indian ancestors4     
,jurupari means 8demon02 and with       
several ,indian tribes on the ,amazon   
customs and ceremonies still prevail in 
honour of ,jurupari4  ,the ,caroados1 an
 ,indian tribe in ,brazil1 have a war   
trumpet which closely resembles the     
juruparis4 ,with this people it is the  
custom for the chief to give on his war 
trumpet the signal for battle1 and to   
continue blowing as long as he wishes   
the battle to last4 ,the trumpet is made
 of wood1 and its sound is described by 
travellers as very deep but rather      
pleasant4 ,the sound is easily produced1
 and its continuance does not require   
much exertion2 but a peculiar vibration 
of the lips is necessary which requires 
practice4 ,another trumpet1 the tur1 is 
common with many ,indian tribes on the  
,amazon who use it chiefly in war4 ,it  
is made of a long and thick bamboo1 and 
there is a split reed in the mouthpiece4
 ,it therefore partakes rather of the   

character of an oboe or clarinet4 ,its  
tone is described as loud and harsh4    
,the tur is especially used by the      
sentinels of predatory hordes1 who1     
mounted on a lofty tree1 give the signal
 of attack to their comrades4  ,again1  
the aborigines in ,mexico had a curious 
contrivance of this kind1 the acocotl1  
now more usually called clarin4 ,the    
former word is its old ,indian name1 and
 the latter appears to have been first  
given to the instrument by the          
,spaniards4 ,the acocotl consists of a  
very thin tube from eight to ten feet in
 length1 and generally not quite        
straight but with some irregular curves4
 ,this tube1 which is often not thicker 
than a couple of inches in diameter1    
terminates at one end in a sort of bell1
 and has at the other end a small       
mouthpiece resembling in shape that of a
 clarinet4 ,the tube is made of the dry 
stalk of a plant which is common in     
,mexico1 and which likewise the ,indians
 call acocotl4 ,the most singular       

characteristic of the instrument is that
 the performer does not blow into it1   
but inhales the air through it2 or      
rather1 he produces the sound by sucking
 the mouthpiece4 ,it is said to require 
strong lungs to perform on the acocotl  
effectively according to ,indian notions
 of taste4  ,illustration  ,the botuto1 
which ,gumilla saw used by some tribes  
near the river ,orinoco 7of which we    
engrave two examples71 was evidently an 
ancient ,indian contrivance1 but appears
 to have fallen almost into oblivion    
during the last two centuries4 ,it was  
made of baked clay and was commonly from
 three to four feet long3 but some      
trumpets of this kind were of enormous  
size4 ,the botuto with two bellies was  
usually made thicker than that with     
three bellies and emitted a deeper      
sound1 which is described as having been
 really terrific4 ,these trumpets were  
used on occasions of mourning and       
funeral dances4 ,alexander von ,humboldt
 saw the botuto among some ,indian      

tribes near the river ,orinoco4         
,besides those which have been noticed1 
other antique wind instruments of the   
,indians are mentioned by historians2   
but the descriptions given of them are  
too superficial to convey a distinct    
notion as to their form and purport4    
,several of these barbarous contrivances
 scarcely deserve to be classed with    
musical instruments4 ,this may1 for     
instance1 be said of certain musical    
jars or earthen vessels producing       
sounds1 which the ,peruvians constructed
 for their amusement4 ,these vessels    
were made double2 and the sounds        
imitated the cries of animals or birds4 
,a similar contrivance of the ,indians  
in ,chili1 preserved in the museum at   
,santiago1 is described by the traveller
 ,s4 ,s4 ,hill as follows3--8,it        
consists of two earthen vessels in the  
form of our india-rubber bottles1 but   
somewhat larger1 with a flat tube from  
four to six inches in length1 uniting   
their necks near the top and slightly   

curved upwards1 and with a small hole on
 the upper side one third of the length 
of the tube from one side of the necks4 
,to produce the sounds the bottles were 
filled with water and suspended to the  
bough of a tree1 or to a beam1 by a     
string attached to the middle of the    
curved tube1 and then swung backwards   
and forwards in such a manner as to     
cause each end to be alternately the    
highest and lowest1 so that the water   
might pass backwards and forwards from  
one bottle to the other through the tube
 between them4 ,by this means soothing  
sounds were produced which1 it is said1 
were employed to lull to repose the     
drowsy chiefs who usually slept away the
 hottest hours of the day4 ,in the      
meantime1 as the bottles were porous1   
the water within them diminished by     
evaporation1 and the sound died         
gradually away40  ,illustration  ,as    
regards instruments of percussion1 a    
kind of drum deserves special notice on 
account of the ingenuity evinced in its 

construction4 ,the ,mexicans called it  
teponaztli4 ,they generally made it of a
 single block of very hard wood1        
somewhat oblong square in shape1 which  
they hollowed1 leaving at each end a    
solid piece about three or four inches  
in thickness1 and at its upper side a   
kind of sound-board about a quarter of  
an inch in thickness4 ,in this          
sound-board1 if it may be called so1    
they made three incisions2 namely1 two  
running parallel some distance          
lengthwise of the drum1 and a third     
running across from one of these to the 
other just in the centre4 ,by this means
 they obtained two vibrating tongues of 
wood which1 when beaten with a stick1   
produced sounds as clearly defined as   
are those of our kettle drums4 ,by      
making one of the tongues thinner than  
the other they ensured two different    
sounds1 the pitch of which they were    
enabled to regulate by shaving off more 
or less of the wood4 ,the bottom of the 
drum they cut almost entirely open4 ,the

 traveller1 ,m4 ,nebel1 was told by     
archologists in ,mexico that these      
instruments always contained the        
interval of a third1 but on examining   
several specimens which he saw in       
museums he found some in which the two  
sounds stood towards each other in the  
relation of a fourth2 while in others   
they constituted a fifth1 in others a   
sixth1 and in some even an octave4 ,this
 is noteworthy in so far as it points to
 a conformity with our diatonic series  
of intervals1 excepting the seventh4    
,the teponaztli 7engraved above7 was    
generally carved with various fanciful  
and ingenious designs4 ,it was beaten   
with two drumsticks covered at the end  
with an elastic gum1 called ule1 which  
was obtained from the milky juice       
extracted from the ule-tree4 ,some of   
these drums were small enough to be     
carried on a string or strap suspended  
round the neck of the player2 others1   
again1 measured upwards of five feet in 
length1 and their sound was so powerful 

that it could be heard at a distance of 
three miles4 ,in some rare instances a  
specimen of the teponaztli is still     
preserved by the ,indians in ,mexico1   
especially among tribes who have been   
comparatively but little affected by    
intercourse with their ,european        
aggressors4 ,herr ,heller saw such an   
instrument in the hands of the ,indians 
of ,huatusco--a village near ,mirador in
 the ,tierra templada1 or temperate     
region1 occupying the slopes of the     
,cordilleras4 ,its sound is described as
 so very loud as to be distinctly       
audible at an incredibly great distance4
 ,this circumstance1 which has been     
noticed by several travellers1 may      
perhaps be owing in some measure to the 
condition of the atmosphere in ,mexico4 
,illustration  ,instruments of          
percussion constructed on a principle   
more or less similar to the teponaztli  
were in use in several other parts of   
,america1 as well as in ,mexico4 ,oviedo
 gives a drawing of a drum from ,san    

,domingo which1 as it shows distinctly  
both the upper and under side of the    
instrument1 is here inserted4  ,the     
largest kind of ,mexican teponaztli     
appears to have been generally of a     
cylindrical shape4 ,clavigero gives a   
drawing of such an instrument4 ,drums1  
also1 constructed of skin or parchment  
in combination with wood were not       
unknown to the ,indians4 ,of this       
description was1 for instance1 the      
huehuetl of the ,aztecs in ,mexico1     
which consisted1 according to           
,clavigero1 of a wooden cylinder        
somewhat above three feet in height1    
curiously carved and painted and covered
 at the top with carefully prepared     
deer-skin4 ,and1 what appears the most  
remarkable1 the parchment 7we are told7 
could be tightened or slackened by means
 of cords in nearly the same way as with
 our own drum4 ,the huehuetl was not    
beaten with drumsticks but merely struck
 with the fingers1 and much dexterity   
was required to strike it in the proper 

manner4 ,oviedo states that the ,indians
 in ,cuba had drums which were stretched
 with human skin4 ,and ,bernal ,diaz    
relates that when he was with ,corts in 
,mexico they ascended together the      
,teocalli 78,house of ,god071 a large   
temple in which human sacrifices were   
offered by the aborigines2 and there the
 ,spanish visitors saw a large drum     
which was made1 ,diaz tells us1 with    
skins of great serpents4 ,this 8hellish 
instrument10 as he calls it1 produced1  
when struck1 a doleful sound which was  
so loud that it could be heard at a     
distance of two leagues4  ,the name of  
the ,peruvian drum was huanca3 they had 
also an instrument of percussion1 called
 chhilchiles1 which appears to have been
 a sort of tambourine4  ,the rattle was 
likewise popular with the ,indians      
before the discovery of ,america4 ,the  
,mexicans called it ajacaxtli4 ,in      
construction it was similar to the      
rattle at the present day commonly used 
by the ,indians4 ,it was oval or round  

in shape1 and appears to have been      
usually made of a gourd into which holes
 were pierced1 and to which a wooden    
handle was affixed4 ,a number of little 
pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed   
gourd4 ,they were also made of pottery4 
,the little balls in the ajacaxtli of   
pottery1 enclosed as they are1 may at a 
first glance appear a puzzle4 ,probably1
 when the rattle was being formed they  
were attached to the inside as slightly 
as possible2 and after the clay had been
 baked they were detached by means of an
 implement passed through the holes4    
,illustration  ,the ,tezcucans 7or      
,acolhuans7 belonged to the same race as
 the ,aztecs1 whom they greatly         
surpassed in knowledge and social       
refinement4 ,nezahualcoyotl1 a wise     
monarch of the ,tezcucans1 abhorred     
human sacrifices1 and erected a large   
temple which he dedicated to 8,the      
unknown god1 the cause of causes40 ,this
 edifice had a tower nine stories high1 
on the top of which were placed a number

 of musical instruments of various kinds
 which were used to summon the          
worshippers to prayer4 ,respecting these
 instruments especial mention is made of
 a sonorous metal which was struck with 
a mallet4 ,this is stated in a          
historical essay written by             
,ixtlilxochitl1 a native of ,mexico and 
of royal descent1 who lived in the      
beginning of the seventeenth century1   
and who may be supposed to have been    
familiar with the musical practices of  
his countrymen4 ,but whether the        
sonorous metal alluded to was a gong or 
a bell is not clear from the vague      
record transmitted to us4 ,that the bell
 was known to the ,peruvians appears to 
be no longer doubtful1 since a small    
copper specimen has been found in one of
 the old ,peruvian tombs4 ,this         
interesting relic is now deposited in   
the museum at ,lima4 ,m4 de ,castelnau  
has published a drawing of it1 which is 
here reproduced4 ,the ,peruvians called 
their bells chanrares2 it remains       

questionable whether this name did not  
designate rather the so-called horse    
bells1 which were certainly known to the
 ,mexicans who called them yotl4 ,it is 
noteworthy that these yotl are found    
figured in the picture-writings         
representing the various objects which  
the ,aztecs used to pay as tribute to   
their sovereigns4 ,the collection of    
,mexican antiquities in the ,british    
museum contains a cluster of yotl-bells4
 ,being nearly round1 they closely      
resemble the ,schellen which the        
,germans are in the habit of affixing to
 their horses1 particularly in the      
winter when they are driving their      
noiseless sledges4  ,illustration       
,again1 in south ,america sonorous      
stones are not unknown1 and were used in
 olden time for musical purposes4 ,the  
traveller ,g4 ,t4 ,vigne saw among the  
,indian antiquities preserved in the    
town of ,cuzco1 in ,peru1 8a musical    
instrument of green sonorous stone1     
about a foot long1 and an inch and a    

half wide1 flat-sided1 pointed at both  
ends1 and arched at the back1 where it  
was about a quarter of an inch thick1   
whence it diminished to an edge1 like   
the blade of a knife4444 ,in the middle 
of the back was a small hole1 through   
which a piece of string was passed2 and 
when suspended and struck by any hard   
substance a singularly musical note was 
produced40 ,humboldt mentions the       
,amazon-stone1 which on being struck by 
any hard substance yields a metallic    
sound4 ,it was formerly cut by the      
,american ,indians into very thin       
plates1 perforated in the centre and    
suspended by a string4 ,these plates    
were remarkably sonorous4 ,this kind of 
stone is not1 as might be conjectured   
from its name1 found exclusively near   
the ,amazon4 ,the name was given to it  
as well as to the river by the first    
,european visitors to ,america1 in      
allusion to the female warriors         
respecting whom strange stories are     
told4 ,the natives pretending1 according

 to an ancient tradition1 that the stone
 came from the country of 8,women       
without husbands10 or 8,women living    
alone40  ,as regards the ancient        
stringed instruments of the ,american   
,indians our information is indeed but  
scanty4 ,clavigero says that the        
,mexicans were entirely unacquainted    
with stringed instruments3 a statement  
the correctness of which is             
questionable1 considering the stage of  
civilization to which these people had  
attained4 ,at any rate1 we generally    
find one or other kind of such          
instruments with nations whose          
intellectual progress and social        
condition are decidedly inferior4 ,the  
,aztecs had many claims to the character
 of a civilized community and 7as before
 said7 the ,tezcucans were even more    
advanced in the cultivation of the arts 
and sciences than the ,aztecs4 8,the    
best histories10 ,prescott observes1    
8the best poems1 the best code of laws1 
the purest dialect1 were all allowed to 

be ,tezcucan4 ,the ,aztecs rivalled     
their neighbours in splendour of living1
 and even in the magnificence of their  
structures4 ,they displayed a pomp and  
ostentatious pageantry1 truly ,asiatic40
 ,unfortunately historians are sometimes
 not sufficiently discerning in their   
communications respecting musical       
questions4 ,j4 ,ranking1 in describing  
the grandeur of the establishment       
maintained by ,montezuma1 says that     
during the repasts of this monarch      
8there was music of fiddle1 flute1      
snail-shell1 a kettle-drum1 and other   
strange instruments40 ,but as this      
writer does not indicate the source     
whence he drew his information          
respecting ,montezuma's orchestra       
including the fiddle1 the assertion     
deserves scarcely a passing notice4     
,the ,peruvians possessed a stringed    
instrument1 called tinya1 which was     
provided with five or seven strings4 ,to
 conjecture from the unsatisfactory     
account of it transmitted to us1 the    

tinya appears to have been a kind of    
guitar4 ,considering the fragility of   
the materials of which such instruments 
are generally constructed1 it is perhaps
 not surprising that we do not meet with
 any specimens of them in the museums of
 ,american antiquities4  ,a few remarks 
will not be out of place here referring 
to the musical performances of the      
ancient ,indians2 since an acquaintance 
with the nature of the performances is  
likely to afford additional assistance  
in appreciating the characteristics of  
the instruments4 ,in ,peru1 where the   
military system was carefully organised1
 each division of the army had its      
trumpeters1 called cqueppacamayo1 and   
its drummers1 called huancarcamayo4     
,when the ,inca returned with his troops
 victorious from battle his first act   
was to repair to the temple of the ,sun 
in order to offer up thanksgiving2 and  
after the conclusion of this ceremony   
the people celebrated the event with    
festivities1 of which music and dancing 

constituted a principal part4 ,musical  
performances appear to have been        
considered indispensable on occasions of
 public celebrations2 and frequent      
mention is made of them by historians   
who have described the festivals        
annually observed by the ,peruvians4    
,about the month of ,october the        
,peruvians celebrated a solemn feast in 
honour of the dead1 at which ceremony   
they executed lugubrious songs and      
plaintive instrumental music4           
,compositions of a similar character    
were performed on occasion of the       
decease of a monarch4 ,as soon as it was
 made known to the people that their    
,inca had been 8called home to the      
mansions of his father the sun0 they    
prepared to celebrate his obsequies with
 becoming solemnity4 ,prescott1 in his  
graphic description of these            
observances1 says3 8,at stated          
intervals1 for a year1 the people       
assembled to renew the expressions of   
their sorrow2 processions were made     

displaying the banner of the departed   
monarch2 bards and minstrels were       
appointed to chronicle his achievements1
 and their songs continued to be        
rehearsed at high festivals in the      
presence of the reigning monarch1--thus 
stimulating the living by the glorious  
example of the dead40 ,the ,peruvians   
had also particular agricultural songs1 
which they were in the habit of singing 
while engaged in tilling the lands of   
the ,inca2 a duty which devolved upon   
the whole nation4 ,the subject of these 
songs1 or rather hymns1 referred        
especially to the noble deeds and       
glorious achievements of the ,inca and  
his dynasty4 ,while thus singing1 the   
labourers regulated their work to the   
rhythm of the music1 thereby ensuring a 
pleasant excitement and a stimulant in  
their occupation1 like soldiers         
regulating their steps to the music of  
the military band4 ,these hymns pleased 
the ,spanish invaders so greatly that   
they not only adopted several of them   

but also composed some in a similar form
 and style4 ,this appears1 however1 to  
have been the case rather with the      
poetry than with the music4  ,the name  
of the ,peruvian elegiac songs was      
haravi4 ,some tunes of these songs1     
pronounced to be genuine specimens1 have
 been published in recent works2 but    
their genuineness is questionable4 ,at  
all events they must have been much     
tampered with1 as they exhibit exactly  
the form of the ,spanish bolero4 ,even  
allowing that the melodies of these     
compositions have been derived from     
,peruvian harivaris1 it is impossible to
 determine with any degree of certainty 
how much in them has been retained of   
the original tunes1 and how much has    
been supplied besides the harmony1 which
 is entirely an addition of the         
,european arranger4 ,the ,peruvians had 
minstrels1 called haravecs 7i4e41       
8inventors071 whose occupation it was to
 compose and to recite the haravis4     
,the ,mexicans possessed a class of     

songs which served as a record of       
historical events4 ,furthermore they had
 war-songs1 love-songs1 and other       
secular vocal compositions1 as well as  
sacred chants1 in the practice of which 
boys were instructed by the priests in  
order that they might assist in the     
musical performances of the temple4 ,it 
appertained to the office of the priests
 to burn incense1 and to perform music  
in the temple at stated times of the    
day4 ,the commencement of the religious 
observances which took place regularly  
at sunrise1 at mid-day1 at sunset1 and  
at midnight1 was announced by signals   
blown on trumpets and pipes4 ,persons of
 high position retained in their service
 professional musicians whose duty it   
was to compose ballads1 and to perform  
vocal music with instrumental           
accompaniment4 ,the nobles themselves1  
and occasionally even the monarch1 not  
unfrequently delighted in composing     
ballads and odes4  ,especially to be    
noticed is the institution termed       

8,council of music10 which the wise     
monarch ,nezahualcoyotl founded in      
,tezcuco4 ,this institution was not     
intended exclusively for promoting the  
cultivation of music2 its aim comprised 
the advancement of various arts1 and of 
sciences such as history1 astronomy1 c4 
,in fact1 it was an academy for general 
education4 ,probably no better evidence 
could be cited testifying to the        
remarkable intellectual attainments of  
the ,mexican ,indians before the        
discovery of ,america than this council 
of music4 ,although in some respects it 
appears to have resembled the board of  
music of the ,chinese1 it was planned on
 a more enlightened and more            
comprehensive principle4 ,the ,chinese  
8board of music10 called ,yo ,poo1 is an
 office connected with the ,l ,poo or   
8board of rites10 established by the    
imperial government at ,peking4 ,the    
principal object of the board of rites  
is to regulate the ceremonies on        
occasions of sacrifices offered to the  

gods2 of festivals and certain court    
solemnities2 of military reviews2 of    
presentations1 congratulations1         
marriages1 deaths1 burials1--in short1  
concerning almost every possible event  
in social and public life4  ,the reader 
is probably aware that in one of the    
various hypotheses which have been      
advanced respecting the ,asiatic origin 
of the ,american ,indians ,china is     
assigned to them as their ancient home4 
,some historians suppose them to be     
emigrants from ,mongolia1 ,thibet1 or   
,hindustan2 others maintain that they   
are the offspring of ,phnician colonists
 who settled in central ,america4 ,even 
more curious are the arguments of       
certain inquirers who have no doubt     
whatever that the ancestors of the      
,american ,indians were the lost ten    
tribes of ,israel1 of whom since about  
the time of the ,babylonian captivity   
history is silent4 ,whatever may be     
thought as to which particular one of   
these speculations hits the truth1 they 

certainly have all proved useful in so  
far as they have made ethnologists more 
exactly acquainted with the habits and  
predilections of the ,american          
aborigines than would otherwise have    
been the case4 ,for1 as the advocates of
 each hypothesis have carefully         
collected and adduced every evidence    
they were able to obtain tending to     
support their views1 the result is that 
7so to say7 no stone has been left      
unturned4 ,nevertheless1 any such hints 
as suggest themselves from an           
examination of musical instruments have 
hitherto remained unheeded4 ,it may     
therefore perhaps interest the reader to
 have his attention drawn to a few      
suggestive similarities occurring       
between instruments of the ,american    
,indians and of certain nations         
inhabiting the eastern hemisphere4  ,we 
have seen that the ,mexican pipe and the
 ,peruvian syrinx were purposely        
constructed so as to produce the        
intervals of the pentatonic scale only4 

,there are some additional indications  
of this scale having been at one time in
 use with the ,american ,indians4 ,for  
instance1 the music of the ,peruvian    
dance cachua is described as having been
 very similar to some ,scotch national  
dances2 and the most conspicuous        
characteristics of the ,scotch tunes are
 occasioned by the frequently exclusive 
employment of intervals appertaining to 
the pentatonic scale4 ,we find precisely
 the same series of intervals adopted on
 certain ,chinese instruments1 and      
evidences are not wanting of the        
pentatonic scale having been popular    
among various races in ,asia at a remote
 period4 ,the series of intervals       
appertaining to the ,chiriqui pipe1     
mentioned page #fa1 consisted of a      
semitone and two whole tones1 like the  
tetrachord of the ancient ,greeks4  ,in 
the ,peruvian huayra-puhura made of talc
 some of the pipes possess lateral      
holes4 ,this contrivance1 which is      
rather unusual1 occurs on the ,chinese  

cheng4 ,the chayna1 mentioned page #fd1 
seems to have been provided with a reed1
 like the oboe3 and in ,hindustan we    
find a species of oboe called shehna4   
,the tur of the ,indian tribes on the   
,amazon1 mentioned page #fi1 reminds us 
of the trumpets tooree1 or tootooree1 of
 the ,hindus4 ,the name appears to have 
been known also to the ,arabs2 but there
 is no indication whatever of its having
 been transmitted to the peninsula by   
the ,moors1 and afterwards to south     
,america by the ,portuguese and         
,spaniards4  ,the wooden tongues in the 
drum teponaztli may be considered as a  
contrivance exclusively of the ancient  
,american ,indians4 ,nevertheless a     
construction nearly akin to it may be   
observed in certain drums of the ,tonga 
and ,feejee islanders1 and of the       
natives of some islands in ,torres      
strait4 ,likewise some negro tribes in  
western and central ,africa have certain
 instruments of percussion which are    
constructed on a principle somewhat     

reminding us of the teponaztli4 ,the    
method of bracing the drum by means of  
cords1 as exhibited in the huehueil of  
the ,mexican ,indians1 is evidently of  
very high antiquity in the east4 ,it was
 known to the ancient ,egyptians4       
,rattles1 pandean pipes made of reed1   
and conch trumpets1 are found almost all
 over the world1 wherever the materials 
of which they are constructed are easily
 obtainable4 ,still1 it may be          
noteworthy that the ,mexicans employed  
the conch trumpet in their religious    
observances apparently in much the same 
way as it is used in the ,buddhist      
worship of the ,thibetans and ,kalmuks4 
,as regards the sonorous metal in the   
great temple at ,tezcuco some inquirers 
are sure that it was a gong3 but it must
 be borne in mind that these inquirers  
detect everywhere traces proving an     
invasion of the ,mongols1 which they    
maintain to have happened about six     
hundred years ago4 ,had they been       
acquainted with the little ,peruvian    

bell 7engraved on page #ge7 they would  
have had more tangible musical evidence 
in support of their theory than the     
supposed gong2 for this bell certainly  
bears a suggestive resemblance to the   
little hand-bell which the ,buddhists   
use in their religious ceremonies4  ,the
 ,peruvians interpolated certain songs1 
especially those which they were in the 
habit of singing while cultivating the  
fields1 with the word hailli which      
signified 8,triumph40 ,as the subject of
 these compositions was principally the 
glorification of the ,inca1 the burden  
hailli is perhaps all the more likely to
 remind ,europeans of the ,hebrew       
hallelujah4 ,moreover1 ,adair1 who lived
 among the ,indians of north ,america   
during a period of about forty years1   
speaks of some other words which he     
found used as burdens in hymns sung on  
solemn occasions1 and which appeared to 
him to correspond with certain ,hebrew  
words of a sacred import4  ,as regards  
the musical accomplishments of the      

,indian tribes at the present day they  
are far below the standard which we have
 found among their ancestors4 ,a period 
of three hundred years of oppression has
 evidently had the effect of subduing   
the melodious expressions of happiness  
and contentedness which in former times 
appear to have been quite as prevalent  
with the ,indians as they generally are 
with independent and flourishing        
nations4 ,the innate talent for music   
evinced by those of the ,north ,american
 ,indians who were converted to         
,christianity soon after the emigration 
of the puritans to ,new ,england is very
 favourably commented on by some old    
writers4 ,in the year #affa ,john       
,elliot published a translation of the  
psalms into ,indian verse4 ,the singing 
of these metrical psalms by the ,indian 
converts in their places of worship     
appears to have been actually superior  
to the sacred vocal performances of     
their ,christian brethren from ,europe2 
for we find it described by several     

witnesses as 8excellent0 and 8most      
ravishing40  ,in other parts of ,america
 the catholic priests from ,spain did   
not neglect to turn to account the      
susceptibility of the ,indians for      
music4 ,thus1 in central ,america the   
,dominicans composed as early as in the 
middle of the sixteenth century a sacred
 poem in the ,guatemalian dialect       
containing a narrative of the most      
important events recorded in the ,bible4
 ,this production they sang to the      
natives1 and to enhance the effect they 
accompanied the singing with musical    
instruments4 ,the alluring music soon   
captivated the heart of a powerful      
cazique1 who was thus induced to adopt  
the doctrines embodied in the           
composition1 and to diffuse them among  
his subjects who likewise delighted in  
the performances4 ,in ,peru a similar   
experiment1 resorted to by the priests  
who accompanied ,pizarro's expedition1  
proved equally successful4 ,they        
dramatized certain scenes in the life of

 ,christ and represented them with      
music1 which so greatly fascinated the  
,indians that many of them readily      
embraced the new faith4 ,nor are these  
entertainments dispensed with even at   
the present day by the ,indian          
,christians1 especially in the village  
churches of the ,sierra in ,peru2 and as
 several religious ceremonies have been 
retained by these people from their     
heathen forefathers1 it may be          
conjectured that their sacred musical   
performances also retain much of their  
ancient heathen character4  ,most of the
 musical instruments found among the    
,american ,indians at the present day   
are evidently genuine old ,indian       
contrivances as they existed long before
 the discovery of ,america4 ,take1 for  
example1 the peculiarly shaped rattles1 
drums1 flutes1 and whistles of the      
,north ,american ,indians1 of which some
 specimens in the ,kensington museum are
 described in the large catalogue4 ,a   
few ,african instruments1 introduced by 

the negro slaves1 are now occasionally  
found in the hands of the ,indians1 and 
have been by some travellers erroneously
 described as genuine ,indian           
inventions4 ,this is the case with the  
,african marimba1 which has become      
rather popular with the natives of      
,guatemala in central ,america3 but such
 adaptations are very easily            
discernible4     ,,chapter ,,vii4       
,,european ,,nations ,,during ,,the     
,,middle ,,ages4  ,many representations 
of musical instruments of the middle    
ages have been preserved in manuscripts1
 as well as in sculptures and paintings 
forming ornamental portions of churches 
and other buildings4 ,valuable facts and
 hints are obtainable from these        
evidences1 provided they are judiciously
 selected and carefully examined4 ,the  
subject is1 however1 so large that only 
a few observations on the most          
interesting instruments can be offered  
here4 ,unfortunately there still        
prevails much uncertainty respecting    

several of the earliest representations 
as to the precise century from which    
they date1 and there is reason to       
believe that in some instances the      
archological zeal of musical            
investigators has assigned a higher     
antiquity to such discoveries than can  
be satisfactorily proved4  ,it appears  
certain that the most ancient ,european 
instruments known to us were in form and
 construction more like the ,asiatic    
than was the case with later ones4      
,before a nation has attained to a      
rather high degree of civilisation its  
progress in the cultivation of music1 as
 an art1 is very slow indeed4 ,the      
instruments found at the present day in 
,asia are scarcely superior to those    
which were in use among oriental nations
 about three thousand years ago4 ,it is1
 therefore1 perhaps not surprising that 
no material improvement is perceptible  
in the construction of the instruments  
of ,european countries during the lapse 
of nearly a thousand years4 ,true1      

evidences to be relied on referring to  
the first five or six centuries of the  
,christian era are but scanty2 although 
indications are not wanting which may   
help the reflecting musician4           
,illustration  ,illustration  ,there are
 some early monuments of ,christian art 
dating from the fourth century in which 
the lyre is represented4 ,in one of them
 ,christ is depicted as ,apollo touching
 the lyre4 ,this instrument occurs at an
 early period in western ,europe as used
 in popular pastimes4 ,in an            
,anglo-saxon manuscript of the ninth    
century in the ,british museum          
7,cleopatra ,c4 ,,viii47 are the figures
 of two gleemen1 one playing the lyre   
and the other a double-pipe4 ,m4 de     
,coussemaker has published in the       
8,annales ,archologiques0 the figure of 
a crowned personage playing the lyre1   
which he found in a manuscript of the   
ninth or tenth century in the library at
 ,angers4 ,the player twangs the strings
 with his fingers1 while the            

,anglo-saxon gleeman before mentioned   
uses a plectrum4  ,cithara was a name   
applied to several stringed instruments 
greatly varying in form1 power of sound1
 and compass4 ,the illustration         
represents a cithara from a manuscript  
of the ninth century1 formerly in the   
library of the great monastery of ,st4  
,blasius in the ,black ,forest4 ,when in
 the year #agfh the monastery was       
destroyed by fire1 this valuable book   
perished in the flames2 fortunately the 
celebrated abbot ,gerbert possessed     
tracings of the illustrations1 which    
were saved from destruction4 ,he        
published them1 in the year #aggd1 in   
his work 8,de cantu et musica sacra40   
,several illustrations in the following 
pages1 it will be seen1 have been       
derived from this interesting source4   
,as the older works on music were       
generally written in ,latin we do not   
learn from them the popular names of the
 instruments2 the writers merely adopted
 such ,latin names as they thought the  

most appropriate4 ,thus1 for instance1 a
 very simple stringed instrument of a   
triangular shape1 and a somewhat similar
 one of a square shape were designated  
by the name of psalterium2 and we       
further give a woodcut of the square    
kind 7p4 #hf71 and of a cithara 7above7 
from the same manuscript4  ,illustration
  ,illustration  ,this last instrument  
is evidently an improvement upon the    
triangular psalterium1 because it has a 
sort of small sound-board at the top4   
,scarcely better1 with regard to        
acoustics1 appears to have been the     
instrument designated as nablum1 which  
we engrave 7p4 #hg7 from a manuscript of
 the ninth century at ,angers4          
,illustration  ,a small psalterium with 
strings placed over a sound-board was   
apparently the prototype of the citole2 
a kind of dulcimer which was played with
 the fingers4 ,the names were not only  
often vaguely applied by the medival    
writers but they changed also in almost 
every century4 ,the psalterium1 or      

psalterion 7,italian salterio1 ,english 
psaltery71 of the fourteenth century and
 later had the trapezium shape of the   
dulcimer4  ,illustration  ,the          
,anglo-saxons frequently accompanied    
their vocal effusions with a harp1 more 
or less triangular in shape1--an        
instrument which may be considered      
rather as constituting the transition of
 the lyre into the harp4 ,the           
representation of king ,david playing   
the harp is from an ,anglo-saxon        
manuscript of the beginning of the      
eleventh century1 in the ,british       
museum4 ,the harp was especially popular
 in central and northern ,europe1 and   
was the favourite instrument of the     
,german and ,celtic bards and of the    
,scandinavian skalds4 ,in the next      
illustration from the manuscript of the 
monastery of ,st4 ,blasius twelve       
strings and two sound holes are given to
 it4 ,a harp similar in form and size1  
but without the front pillar1 was known 
to the ancient ,egyptians4 ,perhaps the 

addition was also non-existent in the   
earliest specimens appertaining to      
,european nations2 and a sculptured     
figure of a small harp constructed like 
the ancient eastern harp has been       
discovered in the old church of ,ullard 
in the county of ,kilkenny4 ,of this    
curious relic1 which is said to date    
from a period anterior to the year #hjj1
 a fac-simile taken from ,bunting's     
8,ancient ,music of ,ireland0 is given  
7p4 #ia74 ,as ,bunting was the first who
 drew attention to this sculpture his   
account of it may interest the reader4  
8,the drawing0 he says 8is taken from   
one of the ornamental compartments of a 
sculptured cross1 at the old church of  
,ullard4 ,from the style of the         
workmanship1 as well as from the worn   
condition of the cross1 it seems older  
than the similar monument at            
,monasterboice which is known to have   
been set up before the year #hcj4 ,the  
sculpture is rude2 the circular rim     
which binds the arms of the cross       

together is not pierced in the          
quadrants1 and many of the figures      
originally in relievo are now wholly    
abraded4 ,it is difficult to determine  
whether the number of strings           
represented is six or seven2 but1 as has
 been already remarked1 accuracy in this
 respect cannot be expected either in   
sculptures or in many picturesque       
drawings40 ,the ,finns had a harp       
7harpu1 kantele7 with a similar frame1  
devoid of a front pillar1 still in use  
until the commencement of the present   
century4  ,illustration  ,illustration  
,illustration  ,one of the most         
interesting stringed instruments of the 
middle ages is the rotta 7,german1      
rotte2 ,english1 rote74 ,it was sounded 
by twanging the strings1 and also by the
 application of the bow4 ,the first     
method was1 of course1 the elder one4   
,there can hardly be a doubt that when  
the bow came into use it was applied to 
certain popular instruments which       
previously had been treated like the    

cithara or the psalterium4 ,the ,hindus 
at the present day use their suroda     
sometimes as a lute and sometimes as a  
fiddle4 ,in some measure we do the same 
with the violin by playing occasionally 
pizzicato4 ,the rotta 7shown p4 #ia7    
from the manuscript of ,st4 ,blasius is 
called in ,gerbert's work cithara       
teutonica1 while the harp is called     
cithara anglica2 from which it would    
appear that the former was regarded as  
pre-eminently a ,german instrument4     
,possibly its name may have been        
originally chrotta and the continental  
nations may have adopted it from the    
,celtic races of the ,british isles1    
dropping the guttural sound4 ,this      
hypothesis is1 however1 one of those    
which have been advanced by some musical
 historians without any satisfactory    
evidence4  ,illustration  ,illustration 
,we engrave also another representation 
of ,david playing on the rotta1 from a  
psalter of the seventh century in the   
,british museum 7,cott4 ,vesp4 ,a4 ,i74 

,according to tradition1 this psalter is
 one of the manuscripts which were sent 
by pope ,gregory to ,st4 ,augustine4    
,the instrument much resembles the lyre 
in the hand of the musician 7see p4 #bb7
 who is supposed to be a ,hebrew of the 
time of ,joseph4 ,in the rotta the      
ancient ,asiatic lyre is easily to be   
recognized4 ,an illumination of king    
,david playing the rotta forms the      
frontispiece of a manuscript of the     
eighth century preserved in the         
cathedral library of ,durham2 and which 
is musically interesting inasmuch as it 
represents a rotta of an oblong square  
shape like that just noticed and        
resembling the ,welsh crwth4 ,it has    
only five strings which the performer   
twangs with his fingers4 ,again1 a very 
interesting representation 7which we    
engrave7 of the ,psalmist with a kind of
 rotta occurs in a manuscript of the    
tenth century1 in the ,british museum   
7,vitellius ,f4 ,,xi474 ,the manuscript 
has been much injured by a fire in the  

year #agca1 but ,professor ,westwood has
 succeeded1 with great care1 and with   
the aid of a magnifying glass1 in making
 out the lines of the figure4 ,as it has
 been ascertained that the psalter is   
written in the ,irish semi-uncial       
character it is highly probable that the
 kind of rotta represents the ,irish    
cionar cruit1 which was played by       
twanging the strings and also by the    
application of a bow4 ,unfortunately we 
possess no well-authenticated           
representation of the ,welsh crwth of an
 early period2 otherwise we should in   
all probability find it played with the 
fingers1 or with a plectrum4 ,venantius 
,fortunatus1 an ,italian who lived in   
the second half of the sixth century1   
mentions in a poem the 8,chrotta        
,britanna40 ,he does not1 however1      
allude to the bow1 and there is no      
reason to suppose that it existed in    
,england4 ,howbeit1 the ,welsh crwth    
7,anglo-saxon1 crudh2 ,english1 crowd7  
is only known as a species of fiddle    

closely resembling the rotta1 but having
 a finger-board in the middle of the    
open frame and being strung with only a 
few strings2 while the rotta had        
sometimes above twenty strings4 ,as it  
may interest the reader to examine the  
form of the modern crwth we give a      
woodcut of it4 ,edward ,jones1 in his   
8,musical and poetical relicks of the   
,welsh bards10 records that the ,welsh  
had before this kind of crwth a         
three-stringed one called 8,crwth       
,trithant10 which was1 he says1 8a sort 
of violin1 or more properly a rebeck40  
,the three-stringed crwth was chiefly   
used by the inferior class of bards2 and
 was probably the ,moorish fiddle which 
is still the favourite instrument of the
 itinerant bards of the ,bretons in     
,france1 who call it rbek4 ,the         
,bretons1 it will be remembered1 are    
close kinsmen of the ,welsh4            
,illustration  ,a player on the crwth or
 crowd 7a crowder7 from a bas-relief on 
the under part of the seats of the choir

 in ,worcester cathedral 7engraved p4   
#ie7 dates from the twelfth or          
thirteenth century2 and we give 7p4 #if7
 a copy of an illumination from a       
manuscript in the ,bibliothque royale at
 ,paris of the eleventh century4 ,the   
player wears a crown on his head2 and in
 the original some musicians placed at  
his side are performing on the          
psalterium and other instruments4 ,these
 last are figured with uncovered heads2 
whence ,m4 de ,coussemaker concludes    
that the crout was considered by the    
artist who drew the figures as the      
noblest instrument4 ,it was probably    
identical with the rotta of the same    
century on the continent4  ,illustration
  ,an interesting drawing of an         
,anglo-saxon fiddle--or fithele1 as it  
was called--is given in a manuscript of 
the eleventh century in the ,british    
museum 7,cotton1 ,tiberius1 c4 #f74 ,the
 instrument is of a pear shape1 with    
four strings1 and the bridge is not     
indicated4 ,a ,german fiddle of the     

ninth century1 called lyra1 copied by   
,gerbert from the manuscript of ,st4    
,blasius1 has only one string4 ,these   
are shown in the woodcuts 7p4 #ig74     
,other records of the employment of the 
fiddle-bow in ,germany in the twelfth   
and thirteenth centuries are not        
wanting4 ,for instance1 in the famous   
#8,nibelungenlied' ,volker is described 
as wielding the fiddle-bow not less     
dexterously than the sword4 ,and in     
#8,chronicon picturatum ,brunswicense'  
of the year #abjc1 the following        
miraculous sign is recorded as having   
occurred in the village of ,ossemer3    
8,on ,wednesday in ,whitsun-week1 while 
the parson was fiddling to his peasants 
who were dancing1 there came a flash of 
lightning and struck the parson's arm   
which held the fiddle-bow1 and killed   
twenty-four people on the spot40        
,illustration  ,among the oldest        
representations of performers on        
instruments of the violin kind found in 
,england those deserve to be noticed    

which are painted on the interior of the
 roof of ,peterborough cathedral4 ,they 
are said to date from the twelfth       
century4 ,one of these figures is       
particularly interesting on account of  
the surprising resemblance which his    
instrument bears to our present violin4 
,not only the incurvations on the sides 
of the body but also the two sound-holes
 are nearly identical in shape with     
those made at the present day4          
,respecting the reliance to be placed on
 such evidence1 it is necessary to state
 that the roof1 originally constructed  
between the years #aagg and #aaid1 was  
thoroughly repaired in the year #ahce4  
,although we find it asserted that 8the 
greatest care was taken to retain every 
part1 or to restore it to its original  
state1 so that the figures1 even where  
retouched1 are in effect the same as    
when first painted10 it nevertheless    
remains a debatable question whether the
 restorers have not admitted some slight
 alterations1 and have thereby somewhat 

modernised the appearance of the        
instruments4 ,a slight touch with the   
brush at the sound-holes1 the screws1 or
 the curvatures1 would suffice to       
produce modifications which might to the
 artist appear as being only a          
renovation of the original              
representation1 but which to the musical
 investigator greatly impair the value  
of the evidence4 ,sculptures are1       
therefore1 more to be relied upon in    
evidence than frescoes4  ,illustration  
,illustration     ,,chapter ,,viii4     
,the construction of the organistrum    
requires but little explanation4 ,a     
glance at the finger-board reveals at   
once that the different tones were      
obtained by raising the keys placed on  
the neck under the strings1 and that the
 keys were raised by means of the       
handles at the side of the neck4 ,of the
 two bridges shown on the body1 the one 
situated nearest the middle was formed  
by a wheel in the inside1 which         
projected through the sound-board4 ,the 

wheel which slightly touched the strings
 vibrated them by friction when turned  
by the handle at the end4 ,the order of 
intervals was c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a1 b-flat1 
b-natural1 c1 and were obtainable on the
 highest string4 ,there is reason to    
suppose that the other two strings were 
generally tuned a fifth and an octave   
below the highest4 ,the organistrum may 
be regarded as the predecessor of the   
hurdy-gurdy1 and was a rather cumbrous  
contrivance4 ,two persons seem to have  
been required to sound it1 one to turn  
the handle and the other to manage the  
keys4 ,thus it is generally represented 
in medival concerts4  ,illustration     
,illustration  ,the monochord 7p4 #ajj7 
was mounted with a single string        
stretched over two bridges which were   
fixed on an oblong box4 ,the string     
could be tightened or slackened by means
 of a turning screw inserted into one   
end of the box4 ,the intervals of the   
scale were marked on the side1 and were 
regulated by a sort of movable bridge   

placed beneath the string when required4
 ,as might be expected1 the monochord   
was chiefly used by theorists2 for any  
musical performance it was but little   
suitable4 ,about a thousand years ago   
when this monochord was in use the      
musical scale was diatonic1 with the    
exception of the interval of the        
seventh1 which was chromatic inasmuch as
 both b-flat and b-natural formed part  
of the scale4 ,the notation on the      
preceding page exhibits the compass as  
well as the order of intervals adhered  
to about the tenth century4  ,this ought
 to be borne in mind in examining the   
representations of musical instruments  
transmitted to us from that period4  ,as
 regards the wind instruments popular   
during the middle ages1 some were of    
quaint form as well as of rude          
construction4  ,the chorus1 or choron1  
had either one or two tubes1 as in the  
woodcut page #aja4 ,there were several  
varieties of this instrument2 sometimes 
it was constructed with a bladder into  

which the tube is inserted2 this kind of
 chorus resembled the bagpipe2 another  
kind resembled the poongi of the        
,hindus1 mentioned page #ea4 ,the name  
chorus was also applied to certain      
stringed instruments4 ,one of these had 
much the form of the cithara1 page #hf4 
,it appears however1 probable that      
chorus or choron originally designated a
 horn 7,hebrew1 ,keren2 ,greek1 ,keras2 
,latin1 cornu74  ,illustration  ,the    
flutes of the middle ages were blown at 
the end1 like the flageolet4 ,of the    
syrinx there are extant some            
illustrations of the ninth and tenth    
centuries1 which exhibit the instrument 
with a number of tubes tied together1   
just like the ,pandean pipe still in    
use4 ,in one specimen engraved 7page    
#ajb7 from a manuscript of the eleventh 
century the tubes were inserted into a  
bowl-shaped box4 ,this is probably the  
frestele1 fretel1 or fretiau1 which in  
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was
 in favour with the ,french mntriers4   

,some large ,anglo-saxon trumpets may be
 seen in a manuscript of the eighth     
century in the ,british museum4 ,the    
largest kind of trumpet was placed on a 
stand when blown4 ,of the oliphant1 or  
hunting horn1 some fine specimens are in
 the ,south ,kensington collection4 ,the
 sackbut 7of which we give a woodcut7   
probably made of metal1 could be drawn  
out to alter the pitch of sound4 ,the   
sackbut of the ninth century had1       
however1 a very different shape to that 
in use about three centuries ago1 and   
much more resembled the present         
trombone4 ,the name sackbut is supposed 
to be a corruption of sambuca4 ,the     
,french1 about the fifteenth century1   
called it sacqueboute and saquebutte4   
,illustration  ,illustration  ,the most 
important wind instrument--in fact1 the 
king of all the musical instruments--is 
the organ4  ,illustration  ,illustration
  ,the pneumatic organ is sculptured on 
an obelisk which was erected in         
,constantinople under ,theodosius the   

great1 towards the end of the fourth    
century4 ,the bellows were pressed by   
men standing on them3 see page #ajc4    
,this interesting monument also exhibits
 performers on the double flute4 ,the   
hydraulic organ1 which is recorded to   
have been already known about two       
hundred years before the ,christian era1
 was according to some statements       
occasionally employed in churches during
 the earlier centuries of the middle    
ages4 ,probably it was more frequently  
heard in secular entertainments for     
which it was more suitable2 and at the  
beginning of the fourteenth century     
appears to have been entirely supplanted
 by the pneumatic organ4 ,the earliest  
organs had only about a dozen pipes4    
,the largest1 which were made about nine
 hundred years ago1 had only three      
octaves1 in which the chromatic         
intervals did not occur4 ,some progress 
in the construction of the organ is     
exhibited in an illustration 7engraved  
p4 #ajd7 dating from the twelfth        

century1 in a psalter of ,eadwine1 in   
the library of ,trinity college1        
,cambridge4 ,the instrument has ten     
pipes1 or perhaps fourteen1 as four of  
them appear to be double pipes4 ,it     
required four men exerting all their    
power to produce the necessary wind1 and
 two men to play the instrument4        
,moreover1 both players seem also to be 
busily engaged in directing the blowers 
about the proper supply of wind4 ,six   
men and only fourteen pipes6 ,it must be
 admitted that since the twelfth century
 some progress has been made1 at all    
events1 in the construction of the      
organ4  ,illustration  ,the pedal is    
generally believed to have been invented
 by ,bernhard1 a ,german1 who lived in  
,venice about the year #adgj4 ,there    
are1 however1 indications extant        
pointing to an earlier date of its      
invention4 ,perhaps ,bernhard was the   
first who1 by adopting a more           
practicable construction1 made the pedal
 more generally known4 ,on the earliest 

organs the keys of the finger-board were
 of enormous size1 compared with those  
of the present day2 so that a           
finger-board with only nine keys had a  
breadth of from four to five feet4 ,the 
organist struck the keys down with his  
fist1 as is done in playing the carillon
 still in use on the continent1 of which
 presently some account will be given4  
,illustration  ,illustration  ,of the   
little portable organ1 known as the     
regal or regals1 often tastefully shaped
 and embellished1 some interesting      
sculptured representations are still    
extant in the old ecclesiastical        
edifices of ,england and ,scotland4     
,there is1 for instance1 in ,beverley   
minster a figure of a man playing on a  
single regal1 or a regal provided with  
only one set of pipes2 and in ,melrose  
abbey the figure of an angel holding in 
his arms a double regal1 the pipes of   
which are in two sets4 ,the regal       
generally had keys like those of the    
organ but smaller4 ,a painting in the   

national ,gallery1 by ,melozzo da ,forli
 who lived in the fifteenth century1    
contains a regal which has keys of a    
peculiar shape1 rather resembling the   
pistons of certain brass instruments4   
,the illustration has been drawn from   
that painting4 ,to avoid                
misapprehension1 it is necessary to     
mention that the name regal 7or regals1 
rigols7 was also applied to an          
instrument of percussion with sonorous  
slabs of wood4 ,this contrivance was1 in
 short1 a kind of harmonica1 resembling 
in shape as well as in the principle of 
its construction the little glass       
harmonica1 a mere toy1 in which slips of
 glass are arranged according to our    
musical scale4 ,in ,england it appears  
to have been still known in the         
beginning of the eighteenth century4    
,grassineau describes the 8,rigols0 as  
8a kind of musical instrument consisting
 of several sticks bound together1 only 
separated by beads4 ,it makes a         
tolerable harmony1 being well struck    

with a ball at the end of a stick40 ,in 
the earlier centuries of the middle ages
 there appear to have been some         
instruments of percussion in favour1 to 
which ,grassineau's expression 8a       
tolerable harmony0 would scarcely have  
been applicable4 ,drums1 of course1 were
 known2 and their rhythmical noise must 
have been soft music1 compared with the 
shrill sounds of the cymbalum2 a        
contrivance consisting of a number of   
metal plates suspended on cords1 so that
 they could be clashed together         
simultaneously2 or with the clangour of 
the cymbalum constructed with bells     
instead of plates2 or with the piercing 
noise of the bunibulum1 or bombulom2 an 
instrument which consisted of an angular
 frame to which were loosely attached   
metal plates of various shapes and      
sizes4 ,the lower part of the frame     
constituted the handle3 and to produce  
the noise it evidently was shaken       
somewhat like the sistrum of the ancient
 ,egyptians4 ,we give woodcuts of the   

three instruments4  ,illustration  ,the 
triangle nearly resembled the instrument
 of this name in use at the present day2
 it was more elegant in shape and had   
some metal ornamentation in the middle4 
,the tintinnabulum consisted of a number
 of bells arranged in regular order and 
suspended in a frame4  ,illustration    
,,chapter ,,ix4   ,respecting the       
orchestras1 or musical bands1           
represented on monuments of the middle  
ages1 there can hardly be a doubt that  
the artists who sculptured them were not
 unfrequently led by their imagination  
rather than by an adherence to actual   
fact4 ,it is1 however1 not likely that  
they introduced into such               
representations instruments that were   
never admitted in the orchestras1 and   
which would have appeared inappropriate 
to the contemporaries of the artists4   
,an examination of one or two of the    
orchestras may therefore find a place   
here1 especially as they throw some     
additional light upon the               

characteristics of the instrumental     
music of medival time4  ,a very         
interesting group of music performers   
dating1 it is said1 from the end of the 
eleventh century is preserved in a      
bas-relief which formerly ornamented the
 abbey of ,st4 ,georges de ,boscherville
 and which is now removed to the museum 
of ,rouen4 ,the orchestra comprises     
twelve performers1 most of whom wear a  
crown4 ,the first of them plays upon a  
viol1 which he holds between his knees  
as the violoncello is held4 ,his        
instrument is scarcely as large as the  
smallest viola da gamba4 ,by his side   
are a royal lady and her attendant1 the 
former playing on an organistrum of     
which the latter is turning the wheel4  
,next to these is represented a         
performer on a syrinx of the kind shown 
in the engraving p4 #aab2 and next to   
him a performer on a stringed instrument
 resembling a lute1 which1 however1 is  
too much dilapidated to be recognisable4
 ,then we have a musician with a small  

stringed instrument resembling the      
nablum1 p4 #hg4 ,the next musician1 also
 represented as a royal personage1 plays
 on a small species of harp4 ,then      
follows a crowned musician playing the  
viol which he holds in almost precisely 
the same manner as the violin is held4  
,again1 another1 likewise crowned1 plays
 upon a harp1 using with the right hand 
a plectrum and with the left hand merely
 his fingers4 ,the last two performers1 
apparently a gentleman and a            
gentlewoman1 are engaged in striking the
 tintinnabulum1--a set of bells in a    
frame4  ,illustration  ,in this group of
 crowned minstrels the sculptor has     
introduced a tumbler standing on his    
head1 perhaps the vocalist of the       
company1 as he has no instrument to play
 upon4 ,possibly the sculptor desired to
 symbolise the hilarious effects which  
music is capable of producing1 as well  
as its elevating influence upon the     
devotional feelings4  ,illustration     
,the two positions in which we find the 

viol held is worthy of notice1 inasmuch 
as it refers the inquirer further back  
than might be expected for the origin of
 our peculiar method of holding the     
violin1 and the violoncello1 in playing4
 ,there were several kinds of the viol  
in use differing in size and in compass 
of sound4 ,the most common number of    
strings was five1 and it was tuned in   
various ways4 ,one kind had a string    
tuned to the note ,illustration running 
at the side of the finger-board instead 
of over it2 this string was1 therefore1 
only capable of producing a single tone4
 ,the four other strings were tuned     
thus3 ,illustration ,two other species1 
on which all the strings were placed    
over the finger-board1 were tuned3      
,illustration and3 ,illustration ,the   
woodcut above represents a very         
beautiful vielle2 ,french1 of about     
#aeej1 with monograms of ,henry ,,ii4   
,this is at ,south ,kensington4  ,the   
contrivance of placing a string or two  
at the side of the finger-board is      

evidently very old1 and was also        
gradually adopted on other instruments  
of the violin class of a somewhat later 
period than that of the vielle2 for     
instance1 on the lira di braccio of the 
,italians4 ,it was likewise adopted on  
the lute1 to obtain a fuller power in   
the bass2 and hence arose the theorbo1  
the archlute1 and other varieties of the
 old lute4  ,illustration3    ,a4       
,,reid4 ,,del4  ,,orchestra1 ,,twelfth  
,,century1 ,,at ,,santiago4  ,a grand   
assemblage of musical performers is     
represented on the ,portico della gloria
 of the famous pilgrimage church of     
,santiago da ,compostella1 in ,spain4   
,this triple portal1 which is stated by 
an inscription on the lintel to have    
been executed in the year #aahh1        
consists of a large semicircular arch   
with a smaller arch on either side4 ,the
 central arch is filled by a tympanum1  
round which are twenty-four life-sized  
seated figures1 in high relief1         
representing the twenty-four elders seen

 by ,st4 ,john in the ,apocalypse1 each 
with an instrument of music4 ,these     
instruments are carefully represented   
and are of great interest as showing    
those in use in ,spain at about the     
twelfth century4 ,a cast of this        
sculpture is in the ,kensington museum4 
,in examining the group of musicians on 
this sculpture the reader will probably 
recognise several instruments in their  
hands1 which are identical with those   
already described in the preceding      
pages4 ,the organistrum1 played by two  
persons1 is placed in the centre of the 
group1 perhaps owing to its being the   
largest of the instruments rather than  
that it was distinguished by any        
superiority in sound or musical effect4 
,besides the small harp seen in the     
hands of the eighth and nineteenth      
musicians 7in form nearly identical with
 the ,anglo-saxon harp7 we find a small 
triangular harp1 without a front-pillar1
 held on the lap by the fifth and       
eighteenth musicians4 ,the salterio on  

the lap of the tenth and seventeenth    
musicians resembles the dulcimer1 but   
seems to be played with the fingers     
instead of with hammers4 ,the most      
interesting instrument in this orchestra
 is the vihuela1 or ,spanish viol1 of   
the twelfth century4 ,the first1 second1
 third1 sixth1 seventh1 ninth1          
twentieth1 twenty-second1 twenty-third1 
and twenty-fourth musicians are depicted
 with a vihuela which bears a close     
resemblance to the rebec4 ,the          
instrument is represented with three    
strings1 although in one or two         
instances five tuning-pegs are          
indicated4 ,a large species of vihuela  
is given to the eleventh1 fourteenth1   
fifteenth1 and sixteenth musicians4     
,this instrument differs from the rebec 
in as far as its body is broader and has
 incurvations at the sides4 ,also the   
sound-holes are different in form and   
position4 ,the bow does not occur with  
any of these viols4 ,but1 as will be    
observed1 the musicians are not         

represented in the act of playing2 they 
are tuning and preparing for the        
performance1 and the second of them is  
adjusting the bridge of his instrument4 
,illustration3 ,,front ,,of ,,the       
,,minstrels' ,,gallery1 ,,exeter        
,,cathedral4 ,x,i,vth century4  ,the    
minstrels' gallery of ,exeter cathedral 
dates from the fourteenth century4 ,the 
front is divided into twelve niches1    
each of which contains a winged figure  
or an angel playing on an instrument of 
music4 ,there is a cast also of this    
famous sculpture at ,south ,kensington4 
,the instruments are so much dilapidated
 that some of them cannot be clearly    
recognized2 but1 as far as may be       
ascertained1 they appear to be as       
follows3--#a4 ,the cittern4 #b4 ,the    
bagpipe4 #c4 ,the clarion1 a small      
trumpet having a shrill sound4 #d4 ,the 
rebec4 #e4 ,the psaltery4 #f4 ,the      
syrinx4 #g4 ,the sackbut4 #h4 ,the      
regals4 #i4 ,the gittern1 a small guitar
 strung with catgut4 #aj4 ,the shalm4   

#aa4 ,the timbrel2 resembling our       
present tambourine1 with a double row of
 gingles4 #ab4 ,cymbals4 ,most of these 
instruments have been already noticed in
 the preceding pages4 ,the shalm1 or    
shawm1 was a pipe with a reed in the    
mouth-hole4 ,the wait was an ,english   
wind instrument of the same             
construction4 ,if it differed in any    
respect from the shalm1 the difference  
consisted probably in the size only4    
,the wait obtained its name from being  
used principally by watchmen1 or        
waights1 to proclaim the time of night4 
,such were the poor ancestors of our    
fine oboe and clarinet4     ,,chapter   
,x4   ,,post-,,medi,,val ,,musical      
,,instruments4  ,attention must now be  
drawn to some instruments which         
originated during the middle ages1 but  
which attained their highest popularity 
at a somewhat later period4             
,illustration  ,among the best known of 
these was the virginal1 of which we give
 an engraving from a specimen of the    

time of ,elizabeth at ,south            
,kensington4 ,another was the lute1     
which about three hundred years ago was 
almost as popular as is at the present  
day the pianoforte4 ,originally it had  
eight thin catgut strings arranged in   
four pairs1 each pair being tuned in    
unison2 so that its open strings        
produced four tones2 but in the course  
of time more strings were added4 ,until 
the sixteenth century twelve was the    
largest number or1 rather1 six pairs4   
,eleven appear for some centuries to    
have been the most usual number of      
strings3 these produced six tones1 since
 they were arranged in five pairs and a 
single string4 ,the latter1 called the  
chanterelle1 was the highest4 ,according
 to ,thomas ,mace1 the ,english lute in 
common use during the seventeenth       
century had twenty-four strings1        
arranged in twelve pairs1 of which six  
pairs ran over the finger-board and the 
other six by the side of it4 ,this lute 
was therefore1 more properly speaking1 a

 theorbo4 ,the neck of the lute1 and    
also of the theorbo1 had frets          
consisting of catgut strings tightly    
fastened round it at the proper         
distances required for ensuring a       
chromatic succession of intervals4 ,the 
illustration on the next page represents
 a lute-player of the sixteenth century4
 ,the frets are not indicated in the old
 engraving from which the illustration  
has been taken4 ,the order of tones     
adopted for the open strings varied in  
different centuries and countries3 and  
this was also the case with the notation
 of lute music4 ,the most common        
practice was to write the music on six  
lines1 the upper line representing the  
first string2 the second line1 the      
second string1 c41 and to mark with     
letters on the lines the frets at which 
the fingers ought to be placed--a       
indicating the open string1 b the first 
fret1 c the second fret1 and so on4     
,the lute was made of various sizes     
according to the purpose for which it   

was intended in performance4 ,the       
treble-lute was of the smallest         
dimensions1 and the bass-lute of the    
largest4 ,the theorbo1 or double-necked 
lute which appears to have come into use
 during the sixteenth century1 had in   
addition to the strings situated over   
the finger-board a number of others     
running at the left side of the         
finger-board which could not be         
shortened by the fingers1 and which     
produced the bass tones4 ,the largest   
kinds of theorbo were the archlute and  
the chitarrone4  ,it is unnecessary to  
enter here into a detailed description  
of some other instruments which have    
been popular during the last three      
centuries1 for the museum at ,kensington
 contains specimens of many of them of  
which an account is given in the large  
catalogue of that collection4 ,it must  
suffice to refer the reader to the      
illustrations there of the cither1      
virginal1 spinet1 clavichord1           
harpsichord1 and other antiquated       

instruments much esteemed by our        
forefathers4  ,students who examine     
these old relics will probably wish to  
know something about their quality of   
tone4 8,how do they sound8 ,might they  
still be made effective in our present  
state of the art80 are questions which  
naturally occur to the musical inquirer 
having such instruments brought before  
him4 ,a few words bearing on these      
questions may therefore not be out of   
place here4  ,illustration  ,it is      
generally and justly admitted that in no
 other branch of the art of music has   
greater progress been made since the    
last century than in the construction of
 musical instruments4 ,nevertheless1    
there are people who think that we have 
also lost something here which might    
with advantage be restored4 ,our various
 instruments by being more and more     
perfected are becoming too much alike in
 quality of sound1 or in that character 
of tone which the ,french call timbre1  
and the ,germans ,klangfarbe1 and which 

professor ,tyndall in his lectures on   
sound has translated clang-tint4 ,every 
musical composer knows how much more    
suitable one clang-tint is for the      
expression of a certain emotion than    
another4 ,our old instruments1 imperfect
 though they were in many respects1     
possessed this variety of clang-tint to 
a high degree4 ,neither were they on    
this account less capable of expression 
than the modern ones4 ,that no          
improvement has been made during the    
last two centuries in instruments of the
 violin class is a well-known fact4 ,as 
to lutes and cithers the collection at  
,kensington contains specimens so rich  
and mellow in tone as to cause musicians
 to regret that these instruments have  
entirely fallen into oblivion4  ,as     
regards beauty of appearance our earlier
 instruments were certainly superior to 
the modern4 ,indeed1 we have now        
scarcely a musical instrument which can 
be called beautiful4 ,the old lutes1    
spinets1 viols1 dulcimers1 c41 are not  

only elegant in shape but are also often
 tastefully ornamented with carvings1   
designs in marquetry1 and painting4     
,illustration  ,the player on the viola 
da gamba1 shown in the next engraving1  
is a reduced copy of an illustration in 
8,the ,division ,violist10 ,london1     
#afei4 ,it shows exactly how the frets  
were regulated1 and how the bow was     
held4 ,the most popular instruments     
played with a bow1 at that time1 were   
the treble-viol1 the tenor-viol1 and the
 bass-viol4 ,it was usual for viol      
players to have 8a chest of viols10 a   
case containing four or more viols1 of  
different sizes4 ,thus1 ,thomas ,mace in
 his directions for the use of the viol1
 8,musick's ,monument0 #afgf1 remarks1  
8,your best provision1 and most         
complete1 will be a good chest of viols1
 six in number1 viz41 two basses1 two   
tenors1 and two trebles1 all truly and  
proportionably suited40 ,the violist1 to
 be properly furnished with his         
requirements1 had therefore to supply   

himself with a larger stock of          
instruments than the violinist of the   
present day4  ,illustration  ,that there
 was1 in the time of ,shakespeare1 a    
musical instrument called recorder is   
undoubtedly known to most readers from  
the stage direction in ,hamlet3         
,re-enter players with recorders4 ,but  
not many are likely to have ever seen a 
recorder1 as it has now become very     
scarce3 we therefore give an            
illustration of this old instrument1    
which is copied from 8,the ,genteel     
,companion2 ,being exact ,directions for
 the ,recorder3 etc40 ,london1 #afhc4   
,the bagpipe appears to have been from  
time immemorial a special favourite     
instrument with the ,celtic races2 but  
it was perhaps quite as much admired by 
the ,slavonic nations4 ,in ,poland1 and 
in the ,ukraine1 it used to be made of  
the whole skin of the goat in which the 
shape of the animal1 whenever the       
bagpipe was expanded with air1 appeared 
fully retained1 exhibiting even the head

 with the horns2 hence the bagpipe was  
called kosa1 which signifies a goat4    
,the woodcut p4 #abj represents a       
,scotch bagpipe of the last century4    
,the bagpipe is of high antiquity in    
,ireland1 and is alluded to in ,irish   
poetry and prose said to date from the  
tenth century4 ,a pig gravely engaged in
 playing the bagpipe is represented in  
an illuminated ,irish manuscript1 of the
 year #acjj3 and we give p4 #aba a copy 
of a woodcut from 8,the ,image of       
,ireland10 a book printed in ,london in 
#aeha4  ,illustration  ,the bell has    
always been so much in popular favour in
 ,england that some account of it must  
not be omitted4 ,paul ,hentzner a       
,german1 who visited ,england in the    
year #aeih1 records in his journal3     
8,the people are vastly fond of great   
noises that fill the ear1 such as the   
firing of cannon1 drums1 and the ringing
 of bells2 so that in ,london it is     
common for a number of them that have   
got a glass in their heads to go up into

 some belfry1 and ring the bells for    
hours together for the sake of          
exercise40 ,this may be                 
exaggeration1--not unusual with         
travellers4 ,it is1 however1 a fact that
 bell-ringing has been a favourite      
amusement with ,englishmen for          
centuries4  ,the way in which church    
bells are suspended and fastened1 so as 
to permit of their being made to vibrate
 in the most effective manner without   
damaging by their vibration the building
 in which they are placed1 is in some   
countries very peculiar4 ,the ,italian  
campanile1 or tower of bells1 is not    
unfrequently separated from the church  
itself4 ,in ,servia the church bells are
 often hung in a frame-work of timber   
built near the west end of the church4  
,in ,zante and other islands of ,greece 
the belfry is usually separate from the 
church4 ,the reason assigned by the     
,greeks for having adopted this plan is 
that in case of an earthquake the bells 
are likely to fall and1 were they placed

 in a tower1 would destroy the roof of  
the church and might cause the          
destruction of the whole building4 ,also
 in ,russia a special edifice for the   
bells is generally separate from the    
church4 ,in the ,russian villages the   
bells are not unfrequently hung in the  
branches of an oak-tree near the church4
 ,in ,iceland the bell is usually placed
 in the lych-gate leading to the        
graveyard4  ,illustration  ,illustration
  ,the idea of forming of a number of   
bells a musical instrument such as the  
carillon is said by some to have        
suggested itself first to the ,english  
and ,dutch2 but what we have seen in    
,asiatic countries sufficiently refutes 
this4 ,moreover1 not only the ,romans   
employed variously arranged and attuned 
bells1 but also among the ,etruscan     
antiquities an instrument has been      
discovered which is constructed of a    
number of bronze vessels placed in a row
 on a metal rod4 ,numerous bells1       
varying in size and tone1 have also been

 found in ,etruscan tombs4 ,among the   
later contrivances of this kind in      
,european countries the sets of bells   
suspended in a wooden frame1 which we   
find in medival illuminations1 deserve  
notice4 ,in the ,british museum is a    
manuscript of the fourteenth century in 
which king ,david is depicted holding in
 each hand a hammer with which he       
strikes upon bells of different         
dimensions1 suspended on a wooden stand4
  ,it may be supposed that the device of
 playing tunes by means of bells merely 
swung by the hand is also of ancient    
date4 ,in ,lancashire each of the       
ringers manages two bells1 holding one  
in either hand4 ,thus1 an assemblage of 
seven ringers insures fourteen different
 tones2 and as each ringer may change   
his two notes by substituting two other 
bells if required1 even compositions    
with various modulations1 and of a      
somewhat intricate character1 may be    
executed1--provided the ringers are good
 timeists2 for each has1 of course1 to  

take care to fall in with his note1 just
 as a member of the ,russian horn band  
contributes his single note whenever it 
occurs4  ,peal-ringing is another       
pastime of the kind which may be        
regarded as pre-eminently national to   
,england4 ,the bells constituting a peal
 are frequently of the number of eight1 
attuned to the diatonic scale4 ,also    
peals of ten bells1 and even of twelve1 
are occasionally formed4 ,a peculiar    
feature of peal-ringing is that the     
bells1 which are provided with clappers1
 are generally swung so forcibly as to  
raise the mouth completely upwards4 ,the
 largest peal1 and one of the finest1 is
 at ,exeter cathedral3 another          
celebrated one is that of ,st4          
,margaret's1 ,leicester1 which consists 
of ten bells4 ,peal-ringing is of an    
early date in ,england2 ,egelric1 abbot 
of ,croyland1 is recorded to have cast  
about the year #ifj a set of six bells4 
,the carillon 7engraved on the opposite 
page7 is especially popular in the      

,netherlands and ,belgium1 but is also  
found in ,germany1 ,italy1 and some     
other ,european countries4 ,it is       
generally placed in the church tower and
 also sometimes in other public         
edifices4 ,the statement repeated by    
several writers that the first carillon 
was invented in the year #adha in the   
town of ,alost is not to be trusted1 for
 the town of ,bruges claims to have     
possessed similar chimes in the year    
#acjj4 ,there are two kinds of carillons
 in use on the continent1 viz43 clock   
chimes1 which are moved by machinery1   
like a self-acting barrel-organ2 and    
such as are provided with a set of keys1
 by means of which the tunes are played 
by a musician4 ,the carillon in the     
#8,parochial-,kirche' at ,berlin1 which 
is one of the finest in ,germany1       
contains thirty-seven bells2 and is     
provided with a key-board for the hands 
and with a pedal1 which together place  
at the disposal of the performer a      
compass of rather more than three       

octaves4 ,the keys of the manual are    
metal rods somewhat above a foot in     
length2 and are pressed down with the   
palms of the hand4 ,the keys of the     
pedal are of wood2 the instrument       
requires not only great dexterity but   
also a considerable physical power4 ,it 
is astonishing how rapidly passages can 
be executed upon it by the player1 who  
is generally the organist of the church 
in which he acts as carilloneur4 ,when  
engaged in the last-named capacity he   
usually wears leathern gloves to protect
 his fingers1 as they are otherwise apt 
to become ill fit for the more delicate 
treatment of the organ4  ,the want of a 
contrivance in the carillon for stopping
 the vibration has the effect of making 
rapid passages1 if heard near1 sound as 
a confused noise2 only at some distance 
are they tolerable4 ,it must be         
remembered that the carillon is intended
 especially to be heard from a distance4
 ,successions of tones which form a     
consonant chord1 and which have some    

duration1 are evidently the most        
suitable for this instrument4  ,indeed1 
every musical instrument possesses      
certain characteristics which render it 
especially suitable for the production  
of some particular effects4 ,the        
invention of a new instrument of music  
has1 therefore1 not unfrequently led to 
the adoption of new effects in          
compositions4 ,take the pianoforte1     
which was invented in the beginning of  
the eighteenth century1 and which has   
now obtained so great a popularity3 its 
characteristics inspired our great      
composers to the invention of effects1  
or expressions1 which cannot be properly
 rendered on any other instrument1      
however superior in some respects it may
 be to the pianoforte4 ,thus also the   
improvements which have been made during
 the present century in the construction
 of our brass instruments1 and the      
invention of several new brass          
instruments1 have evidently been not    
without influence upon the conceptions  

displayed in our modern orchestral      
works4  ,imperfect though this essay may
 be it will probably have convinced the 
reader that a reference to the history  
of the music of different nations       
elucidates many facts illustrative of   
our own musical instruments1 which to   
the unprepared observer must appear     
misty and impenetrable4 ,in truth1 it is
 with this study as with any other      
scientific pursuit4 ,the unassisted eye 
sees only faint nebul where with the aid
 of the telescope bright stars are      
revealed4     ,,index4     ,al-,farabi1 
a great performer on the lute1 #eg      
,american ,indian instruments1 #ei1 #gg 
value of inquiry1 #ei                   
trumpets1 #fg            theories as to 
origin from musical instruments1 #hj    
,arab instruments very numerous1 #ef    
,archlute1 #aji1 #aae    ,ashantee      
trumpet1 #b    ,asor explained1 #ai     
,assyrian instruments1 #af    8,aulos10 
#cb     ,bagpipe1 ,hebrew1 #bc          
,greek1 #ca            ,celtic1 #aai    

,barbiton1 #ca1 #cd    ,bells1 ,hebrew1 
#be          ,peruvian1 #ge          and
 ringing1 #aba-abc    ,blasius1 ,saint1 
the manuscript1 #hf    ,bones1          
traditions about them1 #dg          made
 into flutes1 #fd    ,bottles1 as       
musical instruments1 #ga    ,bow1 see   
,violin    ,bruce1 his discovery of     
harps on frescoes1 #aa     ,capistrum1  
#ce    ,carillon1 #aba1 #abd    ,catgut1
 how made1 #a    ,chanterelle1 #aad     
,chelys1 #cj    ,chinese instruments1   
#ch           bells1 #dj           drum1
 #dd           flutes1 #de              
board of music1 #hj    ,chorus1 #ii     
,cimbal1 or dulcimer1 #e    ,cithara1   
#hf         ,anglican1 #ib    ,cittern1 
#aac    ,clarion1 #aac    ,cornu1 #cf   
,crowd1 #id    ,crwth1 #cd1 #ic         
,cymbals1 ,hebrew1 #be         or       
cymbalum1 #aje         #aac     ,david's
 7,king7 private band1 #ai         his  
favourite instrument1 #bj    ,diaulos1  
#cb    ,drum1 ,hebrew1 #bd              
,greek1 #cb         ,chinese1 #dd       

,mexican1 #ga1 #gc    ,dulcimer1 #e     
,assyrian1 #ag         ,hebrew1 #ai     
,persian prototype1 #ed     ,egyptian   
7ancient7 musical instruments1 #aj      
,egyptian harps1 #aa         flutes1 #ab
    ,etruscan instruments1 #cc          
flutes1 #cc         trumpet1 #cc        
,fiddle1 originally a poor contrivance1 
#ej    ,fiddle1 ,anglo-saxon1 #ie       
early ,german1 #ie    ,fistula1 #cf     
,flute1 ,greek1 #cb         ,persian1   
#ef         ,mexican1 #fc               
,peruvian1 #fc         medival1 #ajj    
8,free reed10 whence imported1 #e       
,gerbert1 abbot1 #hf    ,greek          
instruments1 #bg         music1 whence  
derived1 #bg     ,hallelujah1 compared  
with ,peruvian song1 #hb    ,harmonicon1
 ,chinese1 #db    ,harp1 ,egyptian1 #aa 
,assyrian1 #af         ,hebrew1 #ai     
,greek1 #bh         ,anglo-saxon1 #hi   
,irish1 #ij    ,hebrew instruments1 #ai1
 #bf         pipe1 #bb         drum1 #bd
         cymbals1 #be         words     
among ,indians1 #hc    ,hindu           

instruments1 #df-dh    ,hurdy-gurdy1    
#ajg    ,hydraulos1 hydraulic organ1 #cc
     ,instruments1 curious shapes1 #b   
value and use of collections1 #d1 #e1 #g
    ,instruments1 ,assyrian and         
,babylonian1 #ah     ,jubal1 #bf        
,juruparis1 its sacred character1 #fh   
,kinnor1 #bj    ,king1 ,chinese1 #ci    
various shapes1 #dj     ,lute1 ,chinese1
 #df         ,persian1 #ed              
,moorish1 #eg         ,elizabethan1 #aad
    ,lyre1 ,assyrian1 #ag               
,hebrew1 #ai               of the time  
of ,joseph1 #ba    ,lyre1 ,greek1 #bi1  
#cj         ,roman1 #cd                 
various kinds1 #cd         early        
,christian1 #hf         early ,german   
8lyra10 #ie     ,magadis1 #bg1 #ca      
,magrepha1 #bc    ,maori trumpet1 #b    
,materials1 commonly1 of instruments1 #a
    ,medival musical instruments1 #he   
derived from ,asia1 #he    ,mexican     
instruments1 #fj         whistle1 #fj   
pipe1 #fa1 #ha         flute1 #fc       
trumpet1 #fi1 #hb         drum1 #ga     

songs1 #gi         council of music1 #hj
    ,minnim1 #bb    ,monochord1 #ih     
,moorish instruments adopted in         
,england1 #ef    ,muses on a vase at    
,munich1 #cj    ,music one of the fine  
arts1 #a     ,nablia1 #ce1 #hh    ,nadr 
ben el-,hares1 #ed    ,nareda1 inventor 
of ,hindu instruments1 #df    ,nero coin
 with an organ1 #cd    ,nofre1 a guitar1
 #aa     ,oboe1 ,persian1 #ef           
,oliphant1 #aja    ,orchestra1 #ajg     
modifications1 #g    ,organistrum1 #ih1 
#aaa    ,organ1 #aja         pneumatic  
and hydraulic1 #aja         in ,,ms4 of 
,eadwine1 #ajc     ,pandoura1 #ca       
,pedal1 invented1 #ajc    ,persian      
instruments1 #ea          harp1 #ea     
,peruvian pipes1 #fe         drum1 #gd  
bells1 #ge         stringed instruments1
 #gg         songs1 #gh1 #gi            
,peterborough paintings of violins1 #ie 
,pipe1 single and double1 #bb           
,mexican1 #fa         ,peruvian1 #fe    
,plektron1 #cj    ,poongi1 ,hindu1 #ea  
,pre-historic instruments1 #i           

,psalterium1 #ce1 #hg1 #hi1 #aaa1 #aac  
,rattle of ,nootka ,sound1 #b           
,american ,indian1 #gd    ,rebeck1 #id1 
#aac    ,recorder1 #aai    ,regal1 #ajc 
,roman musical instruments1 #cd         
lyre1 #cd    ,rotta1 or rote1 #ia1 #ib  
,sackbut1 #aja1 #aac    ,sambuca1 #ce   
,santir1 #e1 #ed    ,sbi1 the1 #ab      
,shalm1 #aac    ,shophar1 still used by 
the ,jews1 #bd    ,sistrum1 ,hebrew1 #be
         ,roman1 #cg    ,songs1         
,peruvian and ,mexican1 #gi    ,stringed
 instruments1 #c    ,syrinx1 #bc1 #aac  
,greek1 #cb         ,roman1 #cf         
,peruvian1 #fd1 #ha     ,tamboura1 #bb1 
#dg    ,temples in ,china1 #df          
,theorbo1 #aji1 #aae    ,tibia1 #ce     
,timbrel1 #aac    ,tintinnabulum1 #ajf  
,triangle1 #ajf    ,trigonon1 #bg1 #cj1 
#ce    ,trumpet1 ,assyrian1 #ah         
,hebrew1 #bd         ,greek1 #cb        
,roman1 #cf         ,american ,indian1  
#fg         of the ,caroados1 #fi       
,mexican1 #fi1 #hb    ,tympanon1 #cb    
,universality of musical instruments1 #a

     ,vielle1 #ajg1 #ajh    ,vihuela1   
#aaa    ,vina1 ,hindu1 #dg              
performer1 #dh    ,viol1 ,spanish1 #aaa1
 #aag         da gamba1 #aag    ,violin 
bow invented by ,hindus8 #di            
,persian1 #ej          medival1 #ie     
,virginal1 #aad     ,wait1 the          
instrument1 #aac    ,water1 supposed    
origin of musical instruments1 #dg      
,whistle1 prehistoric1 #i               
,mexican1 #fj    ,wind instruments1 #c  
,yu1 ,chinese stone1 #ci                
wind instrument1 #de   ,,dalziel ,,and  
,,co41 ,,camden ,,press1 ,n4,w4         
99      99      99      99      99      
99     ,transcriber's note3             
,inconsistent punctuation and           
capitalization are as in the original4  
,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation  
are as in the original4