,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,some minor changes are noted at the end of the book4 ,,dirty ,,dustbins ,,and ,,sloppy ,,streets4 ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,scavenging ,,and ,,cleansing ,,of ,,cities ,,and ,,towns4 ,,by ,h4 ,,percy ,,boulnois1 ,m4 ,,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 ,member 7by ,exam47 of the ,sanitary ,institute of ,great ,britain1 ,,city ,,surveyor ,,of ,,exeter4 ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 #af1 ,,charing ,,cross4 ,,new ,,york1 #ddf1 ,,broome ,,street4 #ahha4 ,,james ,,townsend1 ,,printer1 ,,exeter4 ,,preface4 ,some portions of the following pages have already appeared in the monthly numbers of the ,sanitary ,engineer1 and the complete work is now published with a view to assist ,surveyors of ,towns and others who are directly engaged in providing that house dustbins shall be regularly cleared1 and streets kept clean2 and also in the hope that it may be the means of drawing some public attention to the question1 thus showing the householder something of what is being done for his welfare by ,sanitary ,authorities1 and how each individual may assist in the good work1 instead of1 as is now frequently the case1 inadvertently or purposely retarding the execution of some very necessary though unostentatious sanitary measures4 ,i am not aware that any book1 or even pamphlet1 has yet been written on this subject1 and ,i venture to believe that in these pages there may be found something to interest all readers4 ,h4 ,p4 ,b4 ,,exeter1 ,may1 #ahha4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,scavenging4 ,page ,town ,scavenging or ,scavengering--,subject divided into #ac heads--,public ,health ,act1 #ahge1 and its bearings upon the question #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,house ,,refuse4 ,definition of house refuse--,the law on the subject--,whether trade and garden refuse must be removed by the scavenger--,statistics on this point--,disputes as to what is trade1 garden refuse1 or house refuse--,suggestions to settle the question--,other waste materials #e ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dustbin4 ,the ,public ,health ,act1 #ahge1 on the subject of ashpits--,the model bye-laws and six clauses on the same subject--,position of the dustbin in respect of the adjacent dwelling-houses--,suggestions to burn some of the waste products of a house--,objections to the fixed ashpit recommended by the ,public ,health ,act--,suggestions for improvements in this direction--,movable dust boxes recommended #aj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,collection ,,of ,,house ,,refuse4 ,three methods by which this is effected--,the law on the subject--,statistics on the subject--,lay stall accommodation1 objections1 and advantages--,dirty habits of the lower classes--,a house to house visitation by the scavengers the best system--,if universal1 great expense incurred--,the bell or signal system--,objectionable character of temporary receptacles under this system--,state of streets in consequence--,suggestions for improvements-- ,specially constructed conveyance and receptacles--,advantages of this system both on sanitary and economical grounds--,delaying the scavenger--,the ,d signal--,convenient hours for the scavengers' visits #ag ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,scavengers' ,,cart4 ,its form and construction--,description of the tip cart--,splashing and dust therefrom--,other objections to this form of cart on sanitary and economical grounds--,introduction of many new forms of carts and waggons--,general description of improvements in their construction--,some names of makers of sanitary carts and waggons #bg ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,disposal ,,of ,,house ,,refuse4 ,position of a town with respect to the surrounding district-- ,sale of refuse to farmers and others the most ready and economical means of disposal--,site of the refuse dept--,loss of bulk in the refuse at the dept--,difficulty in disposing of old tins1 crockery1 c4--,replies from #ij towns on the question of disposal of house refuse--,condemnation of practice of building over tipped house refuse--,destruction by fire--,fryer's patent carboniser--,dealing with house refuse on a gigantic scale at ,manchester #ca ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,street ,,cleansing4 ,prosperous appearance of a town--,danger of inhaling dust--,the law on the subject--,who ought to cleanse private courts and alleys8--,statistics with reference to this point--,number of times streets ought to be cleansed--,hand labour or machinery--,durability of machines and hand brooms--,materials of brooms--,construction of streets and traffic affect the question of cleansing materially--,returns prepared by the ,superintendent of ,scavenging1 ,liverpool--,his further remarks on the subject--,disposal of road scrapings--,street cleansing in ,paris--,the use of disinfectants in ,paris #df ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,snow4 ,the density of snow--,the amount of snow to be removed in an ordinary street in ,england--,the removal of snow in ,milan--,the removal of snow in ,paris--,suggestions for its removal in ,england--,clearing footways--,the effect of salt upon snow--,removal of snow in ,liverpool #fa ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,street ,,watering4 ,watering necessary on sanitary grounds as well as to prevent damage from dust--,watering in ,london--,watering by horse and cart--,the points of importance to be considered in connection with this service--,the diary of a water cart--,bayley's hydrostatic van--,a description of this machine--,its great advantages over the old-fashioned water cart--,mr4 ,scott on the subject--,a trial in ,edinburgh-- ,mr4 ,tomkins and ,bayley's van--,a comparative table of effective work by one of these vans--,watering streets by ponding water in channel gutters--,brown's system of watering--,its advantages and objections--,watering by hose and reels or by portable iron pipes--,watering at ,reading--,watering at ,paris--,use of salt water and other chemicals--,watering with disinfectants #gc ,,chapter ,x4 ,,contracts ,v4 ,,administration ,,by ,,local ,,authority4 ,opinions on this subject by surveyors of towns--,the dust contractor--,a model specification of a contract for removal of house refuse--,the system of contracts for such work condemned--,sanitation first1 economy afterwards #hf ,,chapter ,,xi4 s4 d4 ,the cost of scavenging--,difficulty in fixing any standard of cost--,physical character of a town and other causes must be taken into consideration--,statistics show very various results--,average cost per head of population per annum about one shilling--,is hiring horses cheaper than keeping a stud8--,reasons in favour of the latter plan--,cost of carts1 horses1 stables1 land1 c4--,wages of scavengers and carters--,depreciation of horse flesh and of plant--,a specimen estimate where a stud is kept--,another estimate where teams are hired--,mr4 ,williams' returns as to cost-- ,list of questions on the subject of scavenging--,conclusion #ij ,,chapter ,i4 ,,scavenging4 ,the word ,scavenging1 or ,scavengering1 as it is frequently styled1 is a very comprehensive term1 as it includes that of house scavenging or the removal of house refuse1 and also that of street scavenging1 or the sweeping and cleansing of streets1 and the carting away of all such materials removed from their surface4 ,in dealing with this subject it will be necessary to consider the following heads1 viz43--7#a7 ,what is house refuse1 7#b7 ,how and in what manner shall it be temporarily stored pending the visit of the ,scavenger1 7#c7 ,what are the best methods for its collection1 7#d7 ,in what manner shall it be eventually disposed of1 and 7#e7 the cost of the whole work2 7#f7 ,which are the best methods for sweeping and cleansing streets1 7#g7 ,whether machinery is more economical than hand labour1 7#h7 ,the extra work involved by the ill construction of streets and the materials of which they are formed1 7#i7 ,whether private courts and alleys not repairable by the ,sanitary ,authority should be swept and cleansed by them1 7#aj7 ,the ultimate disposal of excessive accumulations of mud1 7#aa7 ,the removal and disposal of snow1 7#ab7 ,the watering of streets1 and 7#ac7 ,the cost of all such work4 ,the ,public ,health ,act of #ahge contains several clauses bearing on the subject of scavenging and the cleansing of streets1 and sec4 #db1 part ,,iii41 enacts as follows3-- ,every local authority may1 and when required by order of the ,local ,government ,board shall1 themselves undertake or contract for-- ,the removal of house refuse from premises2 ,the cleansing of earth closets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools2 either for the whole or any part of their district4 ,moreover1 every urban authority and rural authority invested by the ,local ,government ,board with the requisite powers may1 and when required by order of the said ,board shall1 themselves undertake or contract for the proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district4 ,all matters collected by the local authority or contractor in pursuance of this section may be sold or otherwise disposed of1 and any profits thus made by an urban authority shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate applicable by them for the general purposes of this ,act2 and any profits thus made by a rural authority in respect of any contributory place shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate out of which expenses incurred under this section by that authority in such contributory place are defrayed4 ,if any person removes or obstructs the local authority or contractor in removing any matters by this section authorised to be removed by the local authority he shall for each offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds3 provided that the occupier of a house within the district shall not be liable to such penalty in respect of any such matters which are produced on his own premises and are intended to be removed for sale or for his own use and are in the meantime kept so as not to be a nuisance4 ,section #de also enacts that any urban authority may1 if they see fit1 provide in proper and convenient situations receptacles for the temporary deposit and collection of dust1 ashes1 and rubbish2 they may also provide fit buildings and places for the deposit of any matters collected by them in pursuance of this part of this ,act4 ,the ,act also gives the power to local authorities to make bye-laws with respect to the cleansing of footpaths and pavements1 the removal of house refuse and the cleansing of earth closets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools1 and the prevention of nuisances arising from snow1 filth1 dust1 ashes1 and refuse4 ,it will thus be seen that the ,legislature find it necessary to frame laws for the proper execution of scavenging by every local authority1 and we shall see in the following chapters how further clauses in the ,public ,health ,act1 as well as in many private ,improvement ,acts and also in ,bye-laws1 detail the manner in which this work ought to be properly carried out4 ,i shall further endeavour to show where errors in the working now exist1 and give some suggestions that would1 in my opinion1 be1 if carried out1 improvements upon the present systems4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,house ,,refuse4 ,now the first question that presents itself to us is3 what is house refuse8 and how is it to be defined8 for unless this point is satisfactorily settled1 great onus and expense will be put on the local authority if they are to be compelled to remove all trade1 garden1 and other refuse in addition to what may be legally entitled house refuse4 ,section #d1 part ,i41 ,public ,health ,act1 #ahge1 contains the following definition of the word house3 ,house includes schools1 also factories and other buildings in which more than twenty persons are employed at one time4 ,but all that is apparently said in reference to the definition of refuse is to be found in ,glenn's ,public ,health ,act1 #ahge1 where in a foot note to section #dd1 part ,,iii4 of the before named ,act1 is the negative argument what is not refuse3 and describes one or two cases in which it was held that certain ashes from furnaces1 etc41 were to be designated as trade refuse1 and further says that the intention of the ,act was that only the rubbish arising from the domestic use of houses should be removed4 ,on reference1 however1 to some local ,improvement ,acts1 it appears that the definition is given more in detail1 for we find that house refuse is there described as all dirt1 dust1 dung1 offal1 cinders1 ashes1 rubbish1 filth1 and soil4 ,we may thus1 we imagine1 be fairly content with these definitions1 and may assume that all house refuse legally so designated1 and which it is the duty of the scavenger to remove1 is really so removed by the direction of the local authority without dispute1 but that the following articles1 which frequently find their way into a domestic dustbin1 are not in the strict terms of the ,act expected to be removed by the scavenger1 viz41 7#a7 plaster from walls and brick bats1 7#b7 large quantities of broken bottles and flower pots1 7#c7 clinkers and ashes from foundries and greenhouses1 7#d7 wall papers torn from the rooms of a house1 7#e7 scrap tin 7but not old tins which have contained tinned meats and which1 although very objectionable and bulky1 may be fairly assumed to be house refuse71 and 7#f7 all garden refuse such as grass cuttings1 dead leaves1 and the loppings from trees and shrubs4 ,the ,bromley ,local ,board issue a card on which is printed1 amongst other information with reference to the contract for the removal of house refuse1 the following3--,it is hoped that householders will as far as possible facilitate the systematic removal of refuse by providing suitable dustbins1 and directing their servants that ordinary house refuse only shall be deposited in such receptacles4 ,the following are some of the items of refuse which the contractors are bound to remove1 viz43--cinder ashes1 potatoe peelings1 cabbage leaves1 and kitchen refuse generally4 ,but the contractors are not required to remove the refuse of any trade1 manufacture1 or business1 or of any building materials or any garden cuttings or sweepings4 ,some valuable statistics have recently been prepared by me from answers obtained from upwards of ninety of the principal cities1 and towns in ,england1 in reply to a series of questions which ,i addressed to the local surveyors on the subject of scavenging1 and on referring to these statistics it is found that out of these ninety towns1 the authorities of only thirteen of them direct the removal of both trade and garden refuse without any special extra payment being made by the householder1 but that this is only done when these materials are placed in the ordinary dustbin or ashpit attached to a house4 ,several towns1 however1 it appears remove such materials on special payments being made of sums varying from #as4 #f;d4 to #cs4 per load4 ,disputes frequently arise between the men employed in scavenging and the householder on these vexed questions as to the difference between house1 trade1 or garden refuse1 a dispute often raised by the scavengers themselves1 in the hope of obtaining a gratuity or reward for the clearance of a dustbin which no doubt1 legally1 they are perfectly justified in refusing to empty1 and in order to lessen the chance of such disputes and to attempt to settle this question the following suggestions may be of value4 ,it would no doubt be vexatious if any sanitary authority were to absolutely refuse to remove the garden refuse from those houses to which a small flower garden was attached1 whilst it would on the contrary be an unfair tax upon the general community if the refuse of large gardens was removed without payment4 ,a good rule would therefore be to remove only such garden refuse as was contained in the ordinary dustbin or ashpit attached to a house1 and that as the removal of any kind of trade refuse would no doubt lead to abuses if done gratuitously by the sanitary authority1 that this material should only be removed on payment of some sum1 which should be previously fixed by the ,local ,authority1 and each case should be reported to the officer superintending the work before it was removed4 ,there are1 of course1 in addition to the ordinary house refuse the waste materials from the surface of the streets1 and from markets and slaughter-houses1 which have to be collected and disposed of by the ,local ,authority1 but these materials should be collected in a special manner1 independently of the ordinary removal of the house refuse4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dustbin4 ,the next question that we have to consider1 having thus far discussed the subject of what is house refuse1 is the important one of the manner and place in which it shall be temporarily stored pending the visit of the scavenger4 ,i will begin as ,i did in the former case by turning to the law on the subject1 and find out if it can help us4 ,section #dj1 part ,,iii41 of the ,public ,health ,act of #ahge enacts that3 ,every local authority shall provide that all drains1 water-closets1 earth-closets1 privies1 ashpits1 and cesspools within their district be constructed and kept so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health4 ,and section #ce of the above ,act states1 ,it shall not be lawful newly to erect any house or to rebuild any house pulled down to or below the ground floor without a sufficient water-closet1 earth-closet1 or privy1 and an ashpit furnished with proper doors and coverings4 ,any person who causes any house to be erected or rebuilt in contravention of this enactment shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds4 ,the ,act also gives power to local authorities to enforce provision of ashpit accommodation for houses where such accommodation does not already exist1 and to frame bye-laws with respect to ashpits4 ,in the year #ahgg the ,local ,government ,board issued a series of model bye-laws for the use of sanitary authorities1 and ,no4 ,,iv4 of this series1 which is upon ,new ,streets and ,buildings1 contains the following six lengthy clauses1 regulating the position of an ashpit with reference to a dwelling-house or public-building1 or to any water supply1 and for the purpose of removing its contents without carrying them through any dwelling-house1 c43-- #hj4 ,every person who shall construct an ashpit in connection with a building shall construct such ashpit at a distance of six feet at the least from a dwelling-house or public building1 or any building in which any person may be1 or may be intended to be employed in any manufacture1 trade1 or business4 #ha4 ,a person who shall construct an ashpit in connexion with a building shall not construct such ashpit within the distance of feet from any water supplied for use1 or used or likely to be used by man for drinking or domestic purposes1 or for manufacturing drinks for the use of man1 or otherwise in such a position as to endanger the pollution of any such water4 #hb4 ,every person who shall construct an ashpit in connexion with a building shall construct such ashpit in such a manner and in such a position as to afford ready means of access to such ashpit for the purpose of cleansing such ashpit1 and of removing the contents thereof1 and1 so far as may be practicable1 in such a manner and in such a position as to admit of the contents of such ashpit being removed therefrom1 and from the premises to which such ashpit may belong1 without being carried through any dwelling-house or public building1 or any building in which any person may be1 or may be intended to be employed in any manufacture1 trade1 or business4 #hc4 ,every person who shall construct an ashpit in connection with a building shall construct such ashpit of a capacity not exceeding in any case six cubic feet1 or of such less capacity as may be sufficient to contain all dust1 ashes1 rubbish1 and dry refuse which may accumulate during a period not exceeding one week upon the premises to which such ashpit may belong4 #hd4 ,every person who shall construct an ashpit in connection with a building shall construct such ashpit of flagging1 or of slate1 or of good brickwork1 at least nine inches thick1 and rendered inside with good cement or properly asphalted4 ,he shall construct such ashpit so that the floor thereof shall be at a height of not less than three inches above the surface of the ground adjoining such ashpit1 and he shall cause such floor to be properly flagged or asphalted4 ,he shall cause such ashpit to be properly roofed over and ventilated1 and to be furnished with a suitable door in such a position and so constructed and fitted as to admit of the convenient removal of the contents of such ashpit1 and to admit of being securely closed and fastened for the effectual prevention of the escape of any of the contents of such ashpit4 #he4 ,a person who shall construct an ashpit in connexion with a building shall not cause or suffer any part of such ashpit to communicate with any drain4 ,there can be no doubt that the position of the dustbin or ashpit1 as regards its site with reference to the main dwelling-house1 is of primary sanitary importance1 for if the garbage and domestic accumulations therein are allowed to remain for a few days1 especially when the weather is close1 damp1 and warm1 they become very offensive1 and the emanations therefrom may even be highly deleterious and dangerous to health2 this effect is aggravated by persons emptying vegetable refuse and other matters which are wet into the dustbin1 as decomposition of these matters is greatly assisted by this addition1 and it would be well that all such matters should be burnt on the kitchen or scullery fire along with a large percentage of the ashes which could be sifted and saved from those which too readily find their way into the dustbin1 and are thus wasted4 ,care would of course have to be taken in this process that no smell or nuisance was caused by burning this refuse1 but the greatest difficulty would arise in overcoming the time-honoured prejudices of the domestic servant who usually finds the dustbin or ashpit the most convenient and least troublesome place to dispose of nearly everything that to her may be entitled rubbish4 ,now with all due respect to those who framed ,section #ce of the ,public ,health ,act of #ahge1 it is open to considerable doubt whether the fixed dustbin or ashpit1 as it is there styled1 is the best and most sanitary receptacle for the house refuse4 ,they may be necessary and suitable for ,public ,institutions1 or for large isolated private dwellings1 or for schools or any places where excessive quantities of refuse may accumulate1 but where this refuse is systematically and properly removed by the order of the local authority1 at such times and in such manner as will be hereafter pointed out1 a movable or portable dustbin1 box1 or basket1 is far preferable to the large immoveable inconvenient fixed ashpit1 recommended and enforced under the ,act4 ,this portable dustbox should be of such dimensions that the men employed in removing the refuse could easily carry it out and empty its contents into the cart1 and there is nothing to prevent more than one being provided1 if it is found insufficient for the requirements of the household4 ,the box should be made of iron1 or wood or basket lined with tin1 or some equally impervious material1 so that it can easily be washed out and thoroughly cleansed and disinfected when found necessary to do so1 a matter very difficult to accomplish with the fixed ashpit4 ,the whole of its contents could be quickly emptied1 which is more than can be easily effected with the fixed ashpit1 and then only when very special arrangements are made for its drainage4 ,the movable dustbox can1 in addition to these advantages1 be placed in any part of the premises1 and may be covered or not as may be deemed desirable1 and need not1 like many of the existing ashpits1 be fixed in such a position as to appear to have been thus placed for the express purpose of poisoning with its foul smell the whole of the inhabitants in its vicinity4 ,the movable box can also be readily taken out to the scavenging cart by the householder himself1 a very essential requisite1 as will be shown in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,collection ,,of ,,house ,,refuse4 ,the collection of house refuse should be done satisfactorily1 expeditiously1 and economically4 ,at the present time there seem to be only three methods by which this is attempted to be effected2 they are as follows3-- 7#a47 ,by a house to house call at intermittent periods4 7#b47 ,by the scavengers giving notice of their approach by ringing a bell or by other signal1 and requiring the householder to bring out the refuse to the cart1 and 7#c47 ,by placing public dustbins in different localities1 and expecting householders in their vicinity to place the house refuse in these dustbins1 which would then be cleared from time to time by the local authority4 ,the law is silent on the subject of what may be considered as an efficient collection and removal of house refuse1 and experience only can teach us the best manner of thoroughly effecting this work without losing sight of the economical side of the question2 but it appears1 on again referring to the table of statistics which have been previously mentioned1 that nearly all the towns adopt the two first methods mentioned above for the removal of the house refuse1 but that very few of them are able to adopt any public dustbins or lay stall accommodation for the temporary reception of the refuse1 not only on account of their first cost1 but also from the difficulty of finding suitable positions for them4 ,this latter objection to the adoption of public dustbins arises in great measure from the fact that they are usually constructed of galvanised iron in the form of open boxes or troughs1 which are readily accessible to young children and poultry1 who often scatter their contents in every direction1 and they are also generally open to the view of the inhabitants of the courts1 and to passers by1 whose morale it is found is certainly not improved by constant familiarity with the sight of filth4 ,if these dustbins were constructed with properly balanced self-closing lids1 these objections would be overcome1 and their first cost would be but trifling when compared with the benefit to be derived by placing them in some of the thickly populated courts and alleys which are unfortunately to be found in nearly every town4 ,where there are no public dustbins the inhabitants of these courts throw their waste products upon the surface of the streets or courts1 from time to time throughout the day1 as it cannot be expected nor desired that such materials should remain1 even for twenty-four hours1 in their one living room1 which is frequently over crowded1 and has but little spare space even for the common necessities of life2 but that these waste products should be thus strewn over the surface of the street or court is almost equally objectionable1 and points to the enormous advantage to be gained by placing in convenient situations the covered dustbins that are described above1 the contents of which could be easily emptied once a day4 ,the greatest difficulty would be found to be that of inducing the inhabitants to take the trouble to carry their house refuse to the dustbin1 but they might be gradually educated up to this standard of cleanliness1 and a few persons judiciously summoned and punished pour encourager les autres1 when detected in throwing any of their waste products on to the surface of the street or court1 would no doubt have a very beneficial effect in assisting their education4 ,with reference to the question of a house to house call or visitation by the scavengers for the purpose of removing the refuse4 ,this is no doubt the method par excellence of all the systems for its effectual removal without much trouble to the householder1 but except in suburban districts and for the collection of refuse from the better class of dwelling-houses and public institutions1 the expense1 delay1 and difficulty which would be incurred in calling at every house throughout a town1 would make it almost impracticable1 and consequently this system is universally combined with that which is known as the bell or signal system1 which simply means that the scavenging cart in going its rounds has a bell attached to it1 or the horse1 which bell rings automatically as the cart proceeds on its way2 or the man in charge blows a trumpet1 or calls in stentorian tones1 ,dust oh6 ,on hearing this signal1 but not before1 the householder is expected to bring out the refuse in some convenient receptacle1 which is then emptied into the cart by the scavenger4 ,as a matter of fact1 the receptacles containing all the waste products of these householders are brought out and are placed in the gutter of the street close to the kerb1 long before the cart makes its appearance or can be reasonably expected to do so4 ,these temporary receptacles are1 as may be easily imagined of various sizes and shapes1 and are composed of various materials4 ,on one side you may see a well and suitably constructed galvanized iron box1 with handles and cover complete1 on the other an old band box1 cigar box1 or tin saucepan4 ,the result of these inappropriate receptacles filled with heterogeneous collections of house refuse being left unprotected in the public streets1 is that their contents are quickly strewn about the surface of the street1 either by their being upset accidentally1 or purposely1 by persons who gain a precarious livelihood by abstracting therefrom1 and selling rags1 bones1 and similar articles1 or by the dogs1 ever on the alert for a hasty and disgusting meal1 and the appearance of the street which has probably been carefully swept and garnished during the night or early in the morning1 quickly assumes1 especially in a high wind1 a very offensive character1 and probably has to be entirely re-swept and cleansed before the ordinary traffic of the day commences4 ,to obviate these evils arising from this practice almost universally adopted1 ,i suggest the following plan3-- ,a specially designed frame or carriage must be constructed somewhat similar in appearance to a timber waggon2 this must be furnished with a number of strong iron hooks1 with or without simple lifting gear1 according to the strength and sizes of the receptacles hereafter described4 ,upon these hooks are to be hung cylindrical shaped galvanized iron boxes with balanced covers1 and hopper-shaped mouths1 and of such cubical capacity as may be found to meet the requirements of any district choosing to adopt my system4 ,the modus operandi would be as follows3--,the waggon should be drawn through certain selected streets at about #f4cj a4m42 the boxes or cylinders unhung from it1 and placed in such suitable and convenient positions as may be found necessary2 their distance apart may be about that of the ordinary street lamp posts1 and their position may be in the street channel gutter close to the kerb of the footpath2 they should be allowed to remain about a couple of hours1 during which time the householders in the vicinity of the boxes would be expected to empty into them all the sweepings1 garbage1 and house refuse from their premises2 at the end of this time the waggon would again appear1 and the boxes or cylinders would be attached to the hooks1 and be taken to the nearest refuse dept4 ,there are many advantages to be gained by adopting my proposed system1 the principal one being that of preventing the disgusting practice of allowing the foul refuse from houses1 to be openly displayed in the public streets1 in the manner previously described1 and in preventing the possibility of such refuse being allowed to stay for a single instant upon the surface of the street1 where even if it is afterwards carefully removed1 an ugly stain is almost sure to remain for many hours afterwards4 ,another advantage would be the great convenience to householders of that of having a ready receptacle for their refuse1 only a few yards at the most from their doors4 ,the saving of time also in the collection would be considerable1 as the scavengers need not wait one single moment beyond the time required to attach the cylinder to the waggon1 and there is in addition the cleanliness with which this operation could be performed1 thus conferring a great boon on the foot passengers in the streets1 who1 under the present system1 are often half smothered by the dust when the scavengers are engaged in emptying the contents of the usual inappropriate receptacles into the ordinary dust cart4 ,the facilities also for cleansing or disinfecting the cylinders would be undoubted1 and the economy1 not only in time but in actual expense over the existing system1 would be considerable1 for the cylinders would last a long time without repairs being needed2 not so the ordinary dust cart1 which speedily wears out1 principally from the fact that the tipping necessary to empty it of its contents1 is highly detrimental to its stability4 ,having thus shown a method by which the collection of house refuse in crowded streets1 where a house-to-house visit is impracticable1 can be materially improved1 ,i will pass on to the present system of the collection of refuse in the suburban and rural districts of a town by a house-to-house call4 ,a great improvement in this system would no doubt be effected by adopting the movable dust boxes ,i suggest in the chapter on ,the ,dustbin1 as great delay and consequent expense would be saved thereby1 and the work would be altogether more effectually and properly performed1 but it is also found that very frequently the scavengers on calling at a house for the purpose of removing the accumulated refuse1 are told by the servant that they cannot be admitted1 either because it is an inconvenient hour1 or that it is washing day1 or that being a wet day the scavengers' boots are too dirty to walk over their clean passages or floor1 or that the dustbin is not full1 and that they must call another day1 or some other equally plausible excuse1 so that the visit is a useless one1 and time is lost4 ,another evil arising out of this is also the fact that as the scavenger's cart has usually a regular round1 a fruitless visit as described1 results in the dustbin remaining uncleared for perhaps another week1 or even more1 a state of things not at all to be desired4 ,in order to assist in obviating the chances of such useless visits by the scavengers1 ,i would suggest a very simple remedy1 which has already been tried in some towns with considerable success4 ,it consists in the householder placing a card bearing the letter ,d1 or some other distinguishing mark1 in a conspicuous place in a window1 when the services of the scavengers are required2 these cards should be printed and circulated by the ,sanitary ,authority of the district1 who should state on the back of the card the days on which the scavengers would visit each neighbourhood1 with the approximate hour of the day in which they would appear1 in each road or street if practicable1 in order that the householder may not be unnecessarily inconvenienced by being obliged to keep the card for any length of time in his window4 ,the scavengers in passing1 observe the signal1 and call at the house1 otherwise they pass on1 unless specially called in by the occupants1 thus avoiding any unnecessary delay in their rounds4 ,a visit from the scavengers either before seven or after ten in the morning is generally very inconvenient for households of a superior class1 and should be1 if possible1 carefully avoided by the ,sanitary ,authority4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,scavenger',s ,,cart4 ,the next question that presents itself to our notice is that of the form1 style1 and construction of the cart usually employed in this work of house refuse collection1 and whether it is well suited for the requirements of the work or otherwise4 ,the cart usually employed is that known as the ordinary tip cart1 strongly1 if not clumsily1 constructed of an oak frame1 with elm or deal sides of considerable height2 it holds about a couple of cubic yards of materials1 and generally costs from sixteen to twenty pounds4 ,these carts are not only clumsy and heavy1 but they give an overweighted diminutive appearance to the horse between the shafts1 especially as the quality of horse employed for work of this character is frequently none of the best1 and as a matter of fact the cart is so ill-balanced that the bulk of its weight is thrown upon the back of the horse4 ,the height1 too1 of the cart is often so great as to necessitate the use of a short ladder1 up which the scavenger has to climb1 before he can discharge the contents of his basket into the cart1 sending in the process a shower of offensive dust in every direction1 far from pleasant for those unfortunate persons who happen to be passing near the spot at the time4 ,when used as slop carts the same objections arise1 as in this case the liquid mud is splashed in every direction1 owing to the height to which it has to be thrown by the shovel of the scavenger4 ,some difficulty is also experienced in thoroughly covering over the contents of the cart1 so that not only shall it be hidden from the eye1 but that it shall prevent either the liquid mud from being spilled on the ground1 or if the cart is being used to convey either dust or house refuse1 to prevent the contents being blown about1 or dropped upon the surface of the street4 ,the imperfect mode at present adopted is to cover the cart with a tarpaulin1 which is tied down as tightly as the circumstances of the case will admit1 but which as a rule does not effectually answer the purpose for which it is intended4 ,in towns where the house refuse is not collected separately from the road scrapings1 a judicious mixture of the two in the cart considerably assists in preventing any mud slopping or dust blowing4 ,the material being wood of which these carts are constructed1 it becomes a difficult matter either to effectually cleanse them after use1 or to properly disinfect them1 which in times of any serious outbreak of an epidemic is essential to the sanitary well-being of a community4 ,the employment also of wooden carts for this work is bad economy1 their rough usage1 and the mode adopted for emptying them by tipping1 rendering their life but a short one1 a cart in constant work frequently costing from four to five pounds per annum in repairs1 and having but very little of the original material of which it was constructed left in it at the end of six years4 ,with a view to obviate these and other objections1 several improved carts and waggons have been introduced by different makers1 who have styled them by a variety of names1 in order to recommend them to the notice of the public4 ,amongst other names they are called dust carts1 general purpose carts1 sanitary carts1 slush carts1 tumbler carts1 mud waggons1 tip waggons1 slop waggons1 c4 ,they are generally constructed with iron bodies fixed upon wooden frames on wheels2 they are of various forms and designs1 the principal objects aimed at being lightness of construction combined with strength1 so balanced as to bear with a minimum of weight upon the horse2 economy in their cost has not been lost sight of1 and they are usually provided with some special means for emptying1 either by being completely inverted by a chain and windlass1 or by some mechanical arrangement of the tailboard2 they are built very low upon their axles1 so as to be easily filled1 are either completely covered over with a moveable lid1 or are fitted with hinged side boards1 so as to prevent any splashing over of their contents1 and as they are nearly all constructed with iron1 they are easily cleansed and disinfected whenever it is thought necessary to do so4 ,amongst others ,i may mention the following firms who have made the construction of these sanitary carts and waggons a speciality3--,messrs4 ,bayley ,co41 ,newington ,causeway1 ,london2 ,messrs4 ,cocksedge ,co41 of ,stowmarket2 the ,bristol ,waggon ,works ,company2 and ,messrs4 ,smith ,son1 of ,barnard ,castle1 ,yorkshire4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,disposal ,,of ,,house ,,refuse4 ,having proceeded thus far with my subject1 the very important question next arises as to the manner of the disposal of the house refuse after it has been collected by the ,local ,authority1 both with regard to its sanitary aspect and also to that of economy4 ,so much depends upon the position of every town and the character of the district in which it is situated1 that no hard and fast lines can be laid down in reply to this question1 if1 however1 the town is fortunate enough to be the centre of an agricultural district1 or there are ready and economical means of conveying the refuse there1 no difficulty should be experienced in disposing of it1 if not altogether at a profit1 at least at a small loss upon the cost of collection1 as farmers and market gardeners will readily buy house refuse at prices varying from sixpence to three shillings a load to use as a top dressing or manure upon their land1 and a very rich and fertilizing manure it makes1 notwithstanding the outcry that is sometimes raised against it that it produces rank weeds1 owing to the seeds of such vegetation being found in every domestic dustbin1 the fact really being that all manures will foster and help the growth of weeds1 as well as cereals or roots1 and the appearance of a prolific crop of weeds points rather to bad and careless farming than to the use of inferior manure4 ,in order to suit the convenience of the customers for refuse1 and in order to prevent any delay in its collection from the houses1 it is necessary for every town to provide one or more depts in which the refuse may be so deposited from day to day as it is collected4 ,the site of each dept should be very carefully selected1 bearing the following requisitions in mind3-- ,they should not be at greater distances from the town than would allow the carts to make from three to four journeys a day1 and it is evident that their position should1 so much as possible1 avoid the necessity for the carts to pass through the town when full2 they must also be placed so as to be readily accessible to the carts and waggons of the farmers1 the customers1 and above all1 they must be so situated with regard to any dwelling-houses or public roads as not to cause any nuisance1 or be injurious to health in any possible manner1 and for this purpose a knowledge of the prevailing wind in that neighbourhood would be useful1 and care must also be taken that no stream or water-course from which the supply of any drinking water is obtained is likely to become polluted by having such an unpleasant neighbour as a refuse dept4 ,the dept need only be an open field securely railed off against trespassers or pilferers1 but as it generally swarms with countless numbers of rats1 it is just as well that no stacks or barns should be erected in its vicinity1 if their owner has any wish to preserve his corn4 ,in this dept1 the site of which has been selected with all due care1 the refuse should be made up into measured heaps1 a convenient size for them being found to be twelve feet square by six feet high2 these heaps are then sold as they stand to farmers and others who send their carts and waggons to remove them1 thus preventing any possibility of mistake or dispute arising as to the number of loads each customer pays for and receives4 ,the refuse1 when first brought into the dept1 is far more bulky than it afterwards becomes1 and it shrinks nearly twelve per cent4 after a few months' exposure to wind and rain2 it is therefore necessary to unload each cart as it arrives from the town on to an enormous heap or mound1 from the other end of which the measured heaps are made up after the material has become stale and sunken4 ,another cause for the shrinkage and reduction of bulk of house refuse after reception at the dept is the necessary removal of all the old tins1 broken crockery1 broken flower pots1 c41 before it can be sold to the farmer1 and a very difficult matter it is to know how to deal with this heterogeneous mass of absolutely useless articles thus left behind1 unless they can be used for bottoming roads1 or for agricultural or for deep land drainage1 or for filling up hollows of land not afterwards intended to be built upon1 when these materials would be very useful and acceptable for such purposes1 otherwise they must be kept and allowed to cumber the ground until some such use can be assigned to them4 ,all towns are not so conveniently situated with regard to their surrounding neighbourhood1 as will permit their authorities to sell the collected house refuse to farmers1 market-gardeners1 or others1 for use as manure1 and in such cases1 where they cannot do so1 other measures must be resorted to1 in order to dispose of it in the most economical and sanitary manner4 ,among the numerous questions that ,i addressed to the various towns of ,england when engaged in preparing the returns to which reference has already been made1 was one to the following effect3--,how is the refuse disposed of after collection8 ,many and various were the replies to this4 ,amongst them were the following3-- ,in many towns it is stated that the whole of the refuse is used by brick makers1 in others it is simply tipped to waste4 ,in one case the answer is1 ,sold by auction twice a year1 but to whom it is sold1 and for what purpose1 does not transpire4 ,in some towns it appears to be mixed with lime and used as manure upon the fields1 and in others it is mixed with the sludge of the sewage farms1 and is then ploughed or dug into the soil of the farm4 ,this seems a better plan than that of another town1 where it is given or thrown away1 although the difficulty of disposing of the old iron1 tins1 c41 is not touched upon in any of the foregoing answers4 ,the next reply states that it is riddled1 and the cinders and vegetable refuse are burnt to generate steam1 the fine dust is used with the manure manufactory 7tub system71 the old iron is sold1 and the pots1 c41 used for the foundations of roads4 ,in one case the whole of the refuse is taken out to sea in hopper barges1 and sunk in deep water4 ,in a great number of towns it is sold by tender for the year1 but what eventually becomes of it does not transpire4 ,but the most favoured methods1 where it cannot be sold as manure to farmers1 seem to be either that of carting it away to some spot outside the town1 and there using it for the purpose of filling up hollows and depressions1 or that of giving or selling it to brick-makers4 ,the practice of filling up hollow places with either house refuse or street sweepings cannot be too strongly deprecated1 as it stands to reason that some object is in view when these hollows are thus filled up1 and we may be sure that the object is that of transforming inconvenient and impracticable pieces of ground into convenient building sites1 whereon1 sooner or later1 eligible villas make their sudden appearance1 almost with the rapidity of ,aladdin's ,palace1 under the magic hand of a jerry builder1 and woe betide the unfortunate being who1 struck with the pretentious appearance and low rent of one of these eligible family residences1 takes up his abode therein1 for so surely will disease1 and perhaps death1 be his visitor4 ,i will not here enter into the details1 or describe the medical reasons why such sites are unhealthy for dwelling-houses1 as the fact is almost self-evident1 and the practise of using either house refuse or street sweepings for such a purpose has been condemned by sanitary experts over and over again4 ,but ,i will pass on to describe a method of disposal of town refuse which is now gaining some popularity in localities where difficulties are experienced in getting rid of the refuse by any of the means to which reference has been made1 and which up to the present time seems to be the best solution of the difficulty4 ,i allude to the process of the destruction of the refuse by fire4 ,with this object in view a ,mr4 ,fryer has invented an apparatus which he styles a ,patent ,carboniser1 for the conversion of garbage1 street1 and market sweepings1 also other vegetable refuse into charcoal4 ,this apparatus consists of a structure somewhat resembling1 externally1 a brick kiln4 ,it is divided into hopper-shaped compartments1 which at the bottom are furnished with a furnace1 fitted with a reverbatory arch4 ,a fire is lighted in this furnace1 the necessary combustion being obtained1 and the heat maintained1 by burning the cinders1 which are sifted out of the house refuse for this purpose4 ,all the street sweepings1 refuse1 garbage1 c41 is then thrown in at the top of the kiln1 and it is there and then completely destroyed by the action of the fire1 and converted into charcoal1 which is withdrawn through a sliding door fixed at the bottom of the kiln4 ,the inventor further contends that his ,carboniser not only burns everything within it so thoroughly and completely as to produce effectual deodorisation1 but also that in the process all noxious gases which may be driven off the burning organic matters contained in the refuse are themselves burnt and destroyed4 ,mr4 ,fryer has also patented another apparatus which he calls a ,destructor for reducing the bulk for purifying and fusing mineral refuse of towns1 the residue to be converted into concrete or mortar4 ,this apparatus is somewhat similar in construction and mode of action to the ,carboniser1 except that it has no tall kiln containing the hopper-shaped compartments4 ,great heat is1 however1 necessary in order to fuse the mass of heterogeneous articles that are thrown into it1 and its success is greatly dependant upon such heat being constantly and efficiently maintained4 ,it is said that the cost of an establishment to dispose of the refuse by this means1 consisting of one six celled ,destructor and an eight-celled ,carboniser1 boiler1 steam engine1 mortar pans1 cooler1 chimney1 shaft1 and buildings1 is about #d1ejj4 ,each cell is stated to deal with about #ej cwt4 of refuse in every twenty-four hours1 and that no nuisance is experienced in the vicinity of the depts4 ,this apparatus has1 ,i understand1 been adopted in ,kralingen1 ,leeds1 ,blackburn1 ,bradford1 ,warrington1 and ,derby1 and is about to be adopted in other important places4 ,it is not my intention here to describe or to discuss the question of the collection and disposal of night soil1 which in many towns is intimately connected and amalgamated with the collection of house refuse and the cleansing of streets4 ,it is a subject of sufficient importance to be dealt with separately4 ,the following particulars1 however1 with reference to the collection of house refuse in connection with the pail system at ,manchester will not be out of place1 especially with regard to the reference which is made to ,fryer's ,carbonisers and ,destructors1 and it must be borne in mind that the refuse here spoken of is wet1 which makes the difficulties connected with its destruction by fire greater than it would be if only dry1 or comparatively dry1 house refuse had to be destroyed4 ,these particulars are gleaned from a report contained in a copy of the ,british ,architect1 of #ahgf1 of a visit by the members of the ,manchester ,scientific and ,mechanical ,society to the works of the ,manchester ,corporation ,health ,committee1 the figures being altered so as to conform more closely with the growth of the work since that year4 ,there are about #ef1jjj closets in ,manchester1 #dd1jjj of which have been constructed on the cinder sifter principle1 and are emptied during the day1 the remainder are emptied during the night4 ,the contents of the new closets are brought away by vans specially constructed for the purpose1 having five compartments1 one of which is open and uncovered1 and this receives the dry refuse2 the other four compartments are covered and enclosed with tightly fitting doors4 ,each of these compartments holds six galvanised iron pails1 which are also covered with closely fitting lids4 ,the van bottoms are panelled1 and the inside of each panel is filled with a layer of carbolic acid powder1 one inch thick1 and they are thoroughly cleansed after each journey4 ,the ,health ,committee employ #ajj of these vehicles1 each one making four journeys per day4 ,the contents of the closets which are emptied during the night are taken away in open carts1 two-thirds to the tips and the remainder along with the refuse brought into the yard by the vans1 is sent each night into the country4 ,the amount of material dealt with each week by the ,health ,committee is about #c1jjj tons1 and may be described as follows3--,paper1 #a ton2 rags1 #c tons2 dead animals1 dogs1 cats1 rats1 mice1 guinea pigs1 c41 #b tons2 stable manure1 #ag tons2 meat tins1 old tin and iron1 #cc tons2 refuse from slaughter-houses and fish shops1 c41 #fj tons2 broken pots1 bottles1 and glasses1 #hj tons2 vegetable refuse1 door mats1 table covers1 floorcloths1 old straw mattresses1 #ajj tons2 fine ashes1 #a1bcj tons2 cinders1 #a1djj tons4 ,the ,committee employ in this department over #ejj men1 including clerks1 inspectors1 wheelwrights1 smiths1 saddlers1 tinmen1 engineers1 mechanics1 manure and mortar makers1 stablemen1 and labourers4 ,they have #aef horses1 and about the same number of vehicles of various descriptions4 ,when the loaded vans reach the yard1 they are first weighed1 afterwards they are taken on to the first floor of a two-storey building1 where the dry refuse from the open part of each van is unloaded and shovelled on to sieves worked by steam power4 ,by this arrangement the fine dust widely diffusing itself in its descent1 falls on to the floor below1 covering the contents of the pails1 which are1 at the same time1 being emptied on to grids fixed in the floor4 ,at one end of these grids the bars are set much more closely together than at the other1 and serve to convey the liquid portion of the contents of the pails by means of troughs to a tank where it is further dealt with4 ,the solid portion of the excreta falls through the wide-barred portion of the grid into suitable receptacles4 ,the rough portion of the dry refuse1 after being separated from the fine1 is carried along a movable and endless table to the mortar mills1 the boiler1 or to one of the various furnaces1 of which there are several in the yard4 ,this dry refuse is of such a heterogeneous character as to require various modes of treatment4 ,it is made up of paper1 rats1 meat tins1 straw1 cabbage leaves1 onions1 apples1 turnips1 fish bones1 dead cats1 rabbits1 guinea pigs1 fowls1 brush heads1 old boots1 old books1 knives1 forks1 spoons1 children's toys1 old hats1 old bonnets1 crinoline wires1 umbrella frames1 broken pots1 broken bottles1 preserve jars1 medicine bottles1 old mattresses1 cinders1 bits of coal1 firewood1 bass1 broken bricks1 and a host of other articles too numerous to mention4 ,when this mass of rubbish is somewhat assorted1 the cinders are separated and used for fuel for the boilers and furnaces 7no coal whatever is allowed in the yard71 the remaining portion of the rubbish along with some most vile and abominable matter which occasionally comes to the yard in the pails1 is taken to the ,carbonisers 7of which there is a nest of eight in the yard71 and the obnoxious material is therein carbonised and is resolved into a perfectly harmless material4 ,in another part of the yard is a second set of furnaces which are called destructors1 and are used for the purpose of destroying rubbish1 which before-time1 for many years past1 has been deposited in large heaps in every suburb of the city1 to the great annoyance of the inhabitants whose fate it was to live in the vicinities of these deposits4 ,these destructors not only consume this objectionable material1 but they furnish heat to a concretor which is placed in close contiguity4 ,the spent fuel is carted to the mills1 and is there converted into mortar--a mortar1 too1 of the best description--as the samples of brickwork built with it and exhibited abundantly testify4 ,this concretor1 which is driven by steam power1 is a large cylinder of a peculiar internal construction1 which exposes an extensive evaporating surface to the heat from the destructor1 which passes through the cylinder from end to end4 ,the work of this concretor is to subject the urine or liquid portion of the contents of the pails fed by means of the troughs already spoken of in connection with the tank4 ,the urine is pumped from this tank into the concretor at the rate of about #aej gallons per hour4 ,the concentrated urine1 which contains a large quantity of ammonia1 is mixed with two-thirds its weight of charcoal1 and the composition forms a most valuable manure4 ,the carboniser1 the destructor1 and the concretor have all been invented and patented by ,mr4 ,alfred ,fryer1 of the firm of ,manlove1 ,alliot ,co41 engineers1 ,nottingham4 ,the process of carbonising is patented by the ,universal ,charcoal ,company1 ,limited1 who are to receive a royalty1 we understand1 from the ,health ,committee for the use of their patent4 ,there is a tall and noble-looking chimney in the centre of the yard surrounded by many new buildings and sheds1 and this has been built with the concrete mortar manufactured by the ,health ,committee4 ,such is the gigantic scale upon which these matters are dealt with in the ,city of ,manchester4 ,the other methods1 to which reference has been made1 for the disposal of town refuse require no further comment1 as it is evident that unless a ready sale for the refuse can be effected1 by far the best method of disposing of it seems to be that by which it is completely annihilated by fire in the manner that has been described1 or in some other similar manner4 ,having thus far followed the house refuse from its first appearance in its cradle1 the dustbin1 through its chequered career after collection down to its decease1 either by burial1 or by cremation1 the question of the cost of the whole of this work must be deferred until the final chapter1 after ,i have dealt with the subject of street sweeping and cleansing1 the removal of snow1 and a short chapter upon street watering1 which is somewhat analagous to scavenging1 and is frequently included in the accounts of that work in the estimates which are prepared by a ,local ,authority4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,street ,,cleansing4 ,clean well-swept streets not only add materially to the prosperous appearance of a town1 but they also have a very marked influence upon its health and upon the morale of its inhabitants2 wet1 and muddy1 badly formed1 ill-drained streets1 cause dampness in the subsoil of the dwelling-houses in the vicinity1 and a humidity in the atmosphere1 both of which tend to produce a low standard of health in their neighbourhood1 irrespective of the wet surface through which pedestrians have to wade whenever they are obliged to cross such streets4 ,dusty streets1 too1 are very injurious from the fact of persons inhaling the gritty silicate loaded air arising from them2 such an atmosphere is known to produce disease of the lungs1 even when it is free from the dust arising from horse droppings or other organic impurities4 ,professor ,tyndall1 in his beautiful experiments1 has proved that dusty air is alive with the germs of the bacteria of putrefaction1 whilst the pure fresh air which he gathered on a mountain peak in the ,alps is innocent of such germs1 and is absolutely powerless to produce any organisms4 ,persons living in streets that are improperly swept or watered are unable to open the doors or windows of their houses with impunity by reason of the dust4 ,the definition of the word street1 as given in the ,public ,health ,act1 #ahge1 is as follows3--,street includes any highway 7not being a turnpike road71 and any public bridge 7not being a county bridge71 and any road1 lane1 footway1 square1 court1 alley1 or passage1 whether a thoroughfare or not4 ,with reference to turnpike roads the ,act further states that any ,urban ,authority may by agreement with the ,trustees of any turnpike road1 or with the ,surveyor of any county bridge1 take on themselves the maintenance1 repair1 cleansing1 or watering of such street or road4 ,it is very questionable1 however1 whether the onus of cleansing private courts and alleys which are not repairable by the ,urban ,authority should be borne by them1 although for the sake of the public health it is highly desirable that such work should be so undertaken4 ,the great difficulty attached to this duty arises from the fact that as a rule these private courts and alleys are very badly paved1 if paved at all1 full of pits1 where pools of stagnant mud and water collect1 and even in the best cases1 the interstices between the pebbles1 or other paving1 are filled with filth arising in great measure from the dirty habits of the people1 and this filth it is found exceedingly difficult to dislodge4 ,the remedy for this is to compel the owners of the abutting properties to have the courts and alleys properly paved with asphalte1 or other equally impervious material1 after which it would be easy for the ,urban ,authority to cause them to be swept at least once a day1 and flushed with water in the hot weather once a week1 but in order to compel the owners to execute this very desirable work it would be necessary to put the complicated machinery of section #aej of the ,public ,health ,act1 #ahge1 in force1 and the expense to the landlords would be in many cases very disproportionate to the value of their property4 ,out of the ninety towns to which reference has before been made1 the authorities of only nineteen of them cleanse the private courts and alleys in their jurisdiction4 ,the sweeping and cleansing of streets should be effected either at night or very early in the morning2 if1 however1 the bad practice of bringing the house refuse out into the streets in inappropriate receptacles is in vogue1 it becomes necessary to sweep the street later in the day1 after the contents of these receptacles has been removed4 ,in most cases it is necessary to cleanse the principal streets of a town at least once a day1 and this appears to be the practice of nearly all the ninety towns referred to1 but only seven of them appear to have this operation repeated more frequently2 in several cases1 however1 the horse droppings1 c41 are removed at once1 under what is called the orderly system1 and this is especially necessary in streets that are paved with such materials as wood paving1 asphalte1 or granite setts4 ,the suburban streets of a town need only be cleansed once or twice a week1 except in special cases of extremes of mud or snow4 ,it is important1 however1 that the gully pits in all parts of the town should be cleared out constantly1 and men should be employed for this purpose1 as well as to cleanse and disinfect all the cabstands and public urinals at least once every day4 ,street cleansing is effected either by hand-sweeping and hand-scraping1 or by machinery4 ,as to which is the most economical much depends upon the value of labour1 and also upon the condition of the roads to be dealt with1 but in point of time and as a general rule the value of a horse rotary brush-sweeping machine is undoubted1 the only time at which such a machine fails to do effective work is on the occasions when the mud to be removed 7owing to a peculiar condition of the atmosphere71 has attained a semi-solidity1 and is of a stiff and sticky consistency1 when it either adheres to and clogs the brushes of the machine1 or is flattened by them on to the road instead of being removed4 ,the simplest and best of these machines1 in my opinion1 is that manufactured by ,messrs4 ,smith ,sons1 of ,barnard ,castle4 ,it sweeps a clear width of six feet1 the rotary brush1 which is divided into four or more parts1 works diagonally1 it is drawn easily by one horse1 clearing itself of mud or dust in its progress1 and the makers say that it can sweep #ae1jjj square yards of road surface in one hour1 this being equivalent to the ordinary work of about #ej men in the same time6 ,the price of this machine is #cj1 and being of very simple construction it costs little or nothing in repairs1 except for the brushes1 which last for about #ahj hours when in constant work4 ,these can1 however1 be replaced at a cost of #b #aes4 per set1 or the old stocks can be refilled with bass1 at a more moderate figure4 ,it is1 of course1 necessary to sweep the ridge of dust or mud which is left by the machine at the side of the street into heaps by hand labour1 and to remove it by carts2 other machines have been invented for cleansing streets1 which by means of elevators1 or other gear1 profess to raise the mud or dust direct into the carts1 which are to be attached at the back of the machine1 but hitherto these machines have been found to be too cumbersome1 costly1 and complicated for the purpose1 and they have not consequently found much favour with ,sanitary ,authorities4 ,messrs4 ,smith ,sons also construct a patent road scraping machine1 which is drawn by one horse1 and which will1 they say1 scrape upwards of #aj1jjj square yards of road surface in an hour4 ,the strength and durability of the hand brooms purchased by an ,urban ,authority for the work of sweeping the streets is of some importance1 as affecting the ultimate cost of the work1 and some care and skill is required in their selection4 ,bass brooms are better than birch brooms for this purpose1 and the bass of which the brooms are made should be sufficiently stout and of regular thickness2 it should be tough and elastic1 not old1 dry1 and brittle1 each knot should be of uniform size and be firmly set1 and the number of knots in each broom head is also a matter of choice4 ,a convenient and fair test of the soundness of a broom is to soak it for a few days in water before issuing it to the sweeper1 and then note the time it will last4 ,the handles of the brooms should be made of alder wood4 ,the mode of construction of streets1 and the materials of which they are formed1 makes a considerable difference in the amount of cleansing necessary1 and upon the quantity of mud or dust that has to be removed from their surface4 ,in making any investigations for the purpose of deciding what difference exists in the question of cleansing various forms and descriptions of pavements1 climatic influence introduces a rather disturbing element1 which may seriously affect any conclusions that may be drawn2 it may1 however1 be taken for granted that a street1 the surface of which is metalled on the macadam principle with stones of a soft or gritty character1 will require more cleansing and be more costly to scavenge 7under the same conditions of climate and traffic71 than a street paved with the hardest granite setts or with blocks of wood1 or with asphalte1 and at the same time much care will have to be taken not to over sweep or over scrape a road with a macadamised surface1 or much injury will be done to it4 ,amongst the influences that disturb the results of any investigations made with respect to street cleansing1 that of the amount and character of the traffic over it must not be lost sight of1 and the state of repair and gradient of the street are both of considerable importance in affecting the results1 the practice too1 of bringing out the house refuse into the streets in improper receptacles pending the arrival of the scavengers' cart1 must also cause a varying amount of refuse to be swept from its surface1 depending upon the habits of the persons living in the street4 ,the ,superintendent of the ,scavenging ,department at ,liverpool has made some observations and obtained some valuable information on these points1 which he has detailed in a report he presented to the ,health ,committee of that borough in the year #ahgg1 an abstract of which is as follows3-- ,,gross ,,cost ,,for ,,each ,,time ,,of ,,cleansing #aj1jjj ,,yards ,,superficial ,,of ,,different ,,descriptions ,,of ,,roadway ,,in ,,the ,,borough ,,of ,,liverpool4 ,part #a of #b ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,condition of repair ,street4 ,description of ,when paved4 of pavement4 roadway4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,lord ,st4 ,granite setts1 #ahgg ,very good asphalte joints ,north ,john ,st4 ,ditto #ahgb ,good ,tithebarn ,st4 ,granite setts1 #ahgb and #ahgd ,bad ordinary joints ,west ,derby ,rd4 ,ditto1 asphalte #ahgf ,very good joints ,great ,howard ,st4 ,ditto #ahgg ,good ,great ,homer ,st4 ,ditto1 ordinary ,not ascertainable,moderate joints ,kensington ,st4 ,macadam breasted ,ditto ,good with setts ,stanley ,rd4 ,ditto ,ditto ,bad ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,part #b of #b ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,gross cost ,area ,loads ,times per #aj1jjj of removed swept yards ,street4 carriage- in one in one superficial way4 month4 month4 for each cleansing4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,yds4 supr4 s4 d4 ,lord ,st4 #d1ejc #ae #bf #j #f #e ,north ,john ,st4 #c1bhg #ag #bf #j #h #aj ,tithebarn ,st4 #e1aej #ch #bf #j #aa #b ,west ,derby ,rd4 #aa1ihj #ce #ac #j #i #d ,great ,howard ,st4 #af1hfj #he #ac #j #ad #d ,great ,homer ,st4 #ae1ijj #he #ac #j #ad #a ,kensington ,st4 #ad1edj #gf #ac #j #ad #c ,stanley ,rd4 #af1ecd #ahf #ac #a #h #i ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,he adds that the full benefit of the impervious pavements as regards the cost of scavenging has not yet been felt1 for almost all the lines of streets so paved are intersected at short distances by streets of ordinary jointed granite setts or macadam1 whence a quantity of mud and refuse is dragged by the traffic on to the asphalted jointed roadways1 which are consequently debited with the cost of removal of some effete material not intrinsically belonging to them4 ,he further adds that the credit reductions to be made in respect of the value of manure obtained from each description of carriageway is not readily ascertainable4 ,in dry weather the value of manure collected from granite setts1 with or without impervious joints1 is about equal1 but when the sweepings are wet1 and consequently of little value for sale1 the quantity yielded by the ordinary pervious jointed pavement is greater than from the impervious1 and therefore the total value is relatively favourable to the latter class1 whilst to get rid of the sweepings from macadamised streets is a source of additional expense4 ,he concludes this portion of his valuable report by observing that the advantages of the new impervious pavements over the old kinds are especially shown after frost and snowfall1 the results of which cause the setts of ordinarily jointed roadways to become loose1 and allow a vast amount of mud to ooze up between the softened joints4 ,the comparison is still more apparent in regard to macadam1 which1 unless a heavy rainfall succeeds the thaw1 cannot be swept for some days without great destruction being caused to the metalling of the roadway4 ,the ultimate disposal of the material removed from the surface of a macadamised roadway1 being principally composed of silicate1 and consequently valueless as a manure1 is a difficult matter4 ,in small towns1 except during abnormally muddy weather1 it may be mixed with the house refuse and sold to farmers1 or the road scrapings themselves may be used as an excellent sand1 if thoroughly washed1 to mix with lime or cement to form mortar for public works2 excessive accumulations of mud1 however1 must be got rid of in the most economical and speedy manner1 and this is effected either by filling up old disused quarries with it1 or depositing it upon waste lands1 or forming embankments for new roads1 but in no case should it be used1 as ,i have before stated1 upon building sites2 it is difficult and expensive to destroy it or partially convert it into other matters by fire1 so that if these methods which ,i have enumerated are impracticable1 the only other method left for the disposal of the sweepings or scrapings from the streets is to take them out to sea in hopper barges and sink them in deep water4 ,in the ,city of ,paris an area of about #ac1jjj1jjj square yards of streets are cleansed between three and six a4m4 in the summer months and four and seven in the winter4 ,this work in connection with the collection of the house refuse employs #b1bjj men1 #iej women1 and #cj boys1 besides #aij mechanical sweepers4 ,the ,paris mud is said to no longer possess the manurial strength of former times1 and in consequence the receipts derived by the municipality from this source have greatly diminished4 ,at the present time it is disposed of by public tender to responsible contractors1 who manage to take between them some #b1ejj cubic yards daily4 ,the following additional particulars of the manner in which this work is carried out in ,paris will1 ,i think1 prove of interest1 especially with regard to the use of disinfectants1 which are largely used in that city in connection with the cleansing of the streets1 a practice which might be followed with advantage by the ,sanitary ,authorities of this country4 ,the cleansing of the public thoroughfares in ,paris1 which was formerly undertaken by the ,prefect of ,police1 is now a function of the ,prefect of the ,seine4 ,the staff consists of two chief engineers1 one for each group of arrondissements1 one group being sub-divided into three sections1 each under the charge of an executive engineer1 and the other into five sections similarly supervised4 ,these sectional engineers have under them #ea superintendents and #fa overseers1 whose employment costs annually #aj1djj4 ,the scavenging plant is kept in a central dept1 where materials of every description are stored and classified for ordinary and extraordinary service1 when snow and ice render additional assistants necessary4 ,the depts contain supplies of chloride of lime1 sulphate of zinc1 sulphate of iron1 and carbolic acid1 as disinfectants2 and hydrochloric acid and nitrobenzide1 as cleansing agents4 ,the chloride of lime1 of a strength of #ajj to #aje1 is successfully employed for the disinfecting of places tainted with urine or faecal matter1 also for cleansing gutters carrying any sewage water4 ,sulphate of iron and sulphate of zinc are both used under the same conditions4 ,sulphate of iron has the disadvantage of rusting objects to which it is applied1 sulphate of zinc is stronger in its action1 but it costs a little more2 it produces no smell1 nor does it leave any stain2 it is much employed in summer for washing and watering the basements of the ,halles ,centrales1 which are used for fish1 poultry1 and offal4 ,at a strength of one-eighth1 and mixed with three per cent4 of sulphate of copper1 sulphate of zinc makes a good disinfecting liquor1 which preserves its qualities a long time1 and is of great use in private houses4 ,carbolic acid is not1 strictly speaking1 a disinfectant2 it does not act like chloride on putrid matter1 but it arrests and prevents fermentation1 doubtless by destroying the spores1 it is1 therefore1 always employed when it is desired to destroy the germs of putrid fermentation4 ,it is used at a strength of about one-fortieth1 say a gallon of acid to #dj gallons of water4 ,at strengths of one-one hundredth and one-two hundredth it gives good results for watering once or twice a week in summer those parts of the ,halles ,centrales liable to infection2 it is even used as low as one-one thousandth for watering streets and gutters4 ,hydrochloric acid is applied to urinals and slaughter-houses1 in places much encrusted with tartar2 it is used at a strength of one-sixth1 lowered to one-tenth1 it cleans smooth walls and flags efficiently1 in ordinary rinsings a strength of one-fifteenth suffices2 it leaves a disagreeable odour behind1 which is1 however1 quickly dissipated4 ,nitrobenzide is more energetic than the foregoing1 but it produces a disagreeable smell of bitter almonds and leaves a white film1 which has to be washed off2 it is used at the same strengths as hydrochloric acid4 ,the annual cost for plant and disinfecting materials of all descriptions is #h1hjj4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,snow4 ,the unthinking ratepayer frequently exclaims1 ,why cannot the authorities order this abominable snow to be immediately carted away8 when the footpath and roadway in front of his domicile lie hidden under a thick coating of snow crystals4 ,signor ,e4 ,bignami ,sormani1 assisted by ,professor ,clericetti1 have made several most interesting investigations and observations upon the density of fresh fallen snow in ,milan by means of a simple balance and compressing box4 ,the range of weight of the snow was found to vary as much as eleven times the minimum4 ,a cubic yard from one snowstorm1 weighing as much as #had pounds1 while an equal bulk from another fall only weighed #ga pounds4 ,the weight consequently of a cubic foot of the densest snow is #cj4ad pounds1 whilst a cubic foot of water weighs #fb4e pounds1 or only about double the weight of this dense snow1 but which was in all probability little different from ice4 ,for my purposes1 however1 ,i will take a mean between these extreme weights1 and assume that the weight of a cubic foot of snow is #af4ch pounds1 and that a fall of three inches of snow during the night has caused the ejaculation with which ,i commenced this chapter to proceed from the aforesaid ratepayer4 ,the ordinary width of an ,english street may be taken at thirty-six feet1 including the footpaths1 so that on every one hundred yards in length of every street of that width #b1gjj cubic feet of snow have fallen1 the total weight of which amounts to #dd1bbf pounds1 or very nearly #bj tons1 which in actual bulk would represent #ajj cubic yards4 ,but as the snow would soon become compressed after falling1 ,i assume that this bulk would be diminished by one-half1 and that consequently 7without reckoning the snow which has fallen upon roofs and into courts1 passages1 and alleys1 and which has been quickly shovelled therefrom to the street by the occupiers7 about #dj ordinary cartloads1 weighing half a ton each1 would have to be removed from this length of street4 ,assuming that there are #cj miles of street in a town from which the snow must be immediately removed1 #ba1add loads must be carted somewhere1 at a cost of at least #a1ejj1 assuming that each cart could make ten trips a day1 and even then it would take #ceb carts a whole week to effect it4 ,it may be contended that ,i have taken an extreme case1 and that1 of course1 the snow does not lie for very long upon the ground in the condition in which it fell1 and that hourly it is reducing in bulk and weight by being ground up by the traffic1 and finding its way in the form of water into the sewers1 but ,i have simply advanced the few facts which ,i have stated in order to give some idea of the labour and cost of snow clearing in a city or town1 and ,i think ,i cannot do better than at once describe how this important work is carried out in the city of ,milan1 where the organization and arrangements by which it is accomplished with marvellous despatch1 and efficiency1 could with advantage be copied by the authorities of any of our towns which are occasionally visited by excessive falls of snow4 ,in ,milan the snow carts are emptied into the navigable canals and numerous watercourses by which the city is intersected2 and latterly also into the new sewers in the central portion of the city1 which are promptly flushed whenever it snows4 ,during the winter of #ahgi-hj the cost of clearing the #a1fef1bjj square yards total area of squares1 streets1 and lanes within the city walls1 averaged #bjj per inch depth of snow fallen1 and for the #ejb1hjj square yards outside the walls the average cost was #fb per inch depth1 equivalent in each case to about #a4je;d4 per cubic yard4 ,ordinarily the clearing of the more frequented streets is completed within eight or ten hours after it has stopped snowing2 and of the rest within #bd hours1 not reckoning night4 ,the city is parcelled out into small districts1 numbering #aab for last winter1 of varying extent according to the importance of the work in each4 ,an average rate of pay per inch depth of snow fallen is settled for the whole area of each separate district1 according to its extent and the particular conditions affecting the several streets and squares comprised within it4 ,each district is allotted to a contractor1 who usually associates with himself six to ten partners1 besides the labourers whom he employs4 ,he has to find carts1 horses1 and carters2 the necessary implements--spades1 shovels1 brooms1 scrapers1 mattocks1 barrows1 c4--are furnished by the city1 under suitable stipulations for ensuring proper care in their use4 ,the contracts are made annually1 and the same persons almost always apply for them again year after year4 ,the contractors come principally from the trades that are interrupted by winter1 viz43--,paviors1 bricklayers and masons1 and gravel quarrymen4 ,for the direction and supervision of the work the whole city is divided into four sections1 over each of which is appointed an engineer1 with an assistant1 who are aided in the general arrangements by the police surveillance4 ,payment is made only for work effectually done4 ,in each snowstorm the depth of snow falling1 which is the basis of pay1 is ascertained by means of a number of stone posts1 fixed in suitable open spaces1 clear of shelter from buildings1 and each capped with a flat horizontal slab of stone4 ,as soon as it stops snowing1 or two or three times during a storm of several hours1 the depth of snow caught on the slabs is measured by the engineer in the presence of two of the contractors in his section4 ,the number of men ordinarily engaged in snow clearing on a winter's day is not less than two thousand1 and has sometimes risen to three thousand4 ,the stock of implements found by the city1 representing a capital of about #a1fjj1 is housed in two stores in opposite quarters of the city4 ,in the winter of #ahgd-ge the total fall of snow amounted to #dj inches1 and the whole expenditure for clearing it within the city walls exceeded #h1djj2 while in #ahgg-gh the fall was only #e inches1 involving an expenditure of less than #a1jdj for a slightly larger area4 ,the small cost at which this work is carried out in ,milan is accounted for by the low rate of wages and cart hire1 and the perfect organization of the system4 ,when a fall of snow occurs in ,paris1 attention is first directed to clearing the footpaths and crossings1 so as to ensure uninterrupted foot passenger traffic4 ,the town scavengers sand the roads whenever it is necessary for the carriage traffic1 at the same time numerous auxiliaries are organised to remove the snow from the principal thoroughfares in the order of their relative importance4 ,to assist in removing the snow the ,general ,omnibus ,company are bound by their concession to furnish #ej waggons1 and carts are specially arranged for with the providers of sand and gravel at the beginning of winter1 the contractors for maintaining the public roads being also bound to hold their carts at the disposition of the sectional engineers4 ,in certain cases the half-melted snow is swept into the sewers1 especially into those carrying warm water4 ,melting by steam has been tried1 when a continuous jet was turned on to a mass of banked snow1 but it melted very slowly at first1 and the melting ceased after the cavity had increased to a certain size4 ,two descriptions of snow ploughs are kept in store1 one for manual1 the other for horse power1 but they have never been used1 as the coating of snow seldom attains sufficient thickness1 and it is too quickly compressed and hardened by the traffic4 ,as a rule1 the sum allowed in the budget1 about #g1jjj1 suffices for the extra labour incurred1 but occasionally severe winters cause this to be greatly exceeded1 as in #ahge-gf1 when the increase amounted to #h1jjj1 and no doubt in the winter that has just passed1 #ahhj-ha1 the estimate must also have been largely exceeded4 ,in ,england one of the greatest difficulties we have to contend against is the disposal of the snow after it has been placed in the cart4 ,if there is a river close by1 it can be taken there and tipped1 but this is objectionable if it is a navigable river where dredging has to be done1 as it is surprising what a quantity of road scrapings and other matters are always removed with the snow1 and these materials naturally sink to the bottom1 and add considerably to the cost of dredging4 ,if there are public parks the snow may be heaped in them1 provided no damage is done to the grass or paths1 as the snow thus heaped takes a considerable time to melt1 the first effect of a thaw being to consolidate it1 but a better plan is to deposit it upon any waste spots1 if these are not too far from the streets which have to be cleared4 ,tipping the snow down the manholes into the sewers has been tried in ,london and other cities1 but has failed through the snow consolidating1 and although lighted gas jets have been turned on to the snow1 it has still melted too slowly to be of any practical utility4 ,it has been suggested that a steam jet should be turned on the snow as it lies in the streets1 or after it has been heaped1 but ,i very much doubt the efficacy of this plan1 although ,messrs4 ,merryweather ,co41 of ,london1 have1 ,i understand1 melted a cartload of snow in seven minutes4 ,it might1 however1 be possible to melt the snow by the heat generated in the furnaces that are destroying the house refuse by fire1 and this could be effected without any large expense beyond the cost of cartage of the snow to the depts1 which would1 of course1 be necessary4 ,failing an organization such as that of ,milan1 the following suggestions may be of use to those who have sometimes to grapple with this unproductive work3-- ,do not attempt to cart away the snow while it is yet falling1 but try to make clear crossings for the foot passengers and to keep the traffic open4 ,if there should be a high wind at the time1 and the snow drifts in consequence1 cut through the drifts so as to allow the vehicular traffic to continue4 ,directly the snow ceases to fall put on all available hands to clear the channel gutters and street gratings1 in preparation for a sudden thaw1 when1 if these precautions were not taken1 serious flooding and great damage to property might ensue2 for the same reason cart away all the snow you can at the bottom of gradients and in the valleys1 and also from very narrow streets and passages1 c4 ,in the wider streets use the snow plough1 or with gangs of men 7in the snow season there is generally plenty of labour obtainable71 shovel the snow into a long narrow heap on each side of the street1 taking care to leave the channel gutters and gratings quite clear1 and a sufficient space between the heaps for at least two lines of traffic4 ,passages must also be cut at frequent intervals through the heaps1 in order to allow foot passengers to cross the street1 and also to let the water reach the channel gutters as soon as the snow begins to melt4 ,with regard to the question of clearing the snow from the footpaths irrespective of the larger duty of clearing it from the streets1 it is often a disputed point in a town as to whether this should be done by the ,urban ,authority at the expense of the rates1 or by the householders themselves1 and this can only be settled where the town has a private improvement act1 in which a clause or clauses may be inserted throwing the onus of such cleansing and sweeping of the footpaths upon the several and respective occupiers of houses and buildings4 ,but on whoever the duty rests there is no doubt that the easiest and quickest method of effecting a thorough cleansing of a footpath from snow is by an application of salt1 and then to sweep off the slush that is engendered with a broom4 ,medical men and others1 however1 assert that the practice of putting salt with the snow is to make a freezing mixture1 which is detrimental to the health of persons walking on such a mixture1 and there can be no doubt that excessive cold is caused by this practice1 often sufficiently severe to crack the flagstones of the foot pavement4 ,in the ,city of ,london the footways are swept once daily by men in the employment of the ,commissioners of ,sewers1 and in wet weather those in the main streets are cleansed repeatedly during the day1 and this has been done1 ,i believe1 since the year #ahgb1 although the occupiers are legally liable for the execution of this work4 ,in ,liverpool1 also1 this is done after a fall of snow1 as will appear from the following interesting remarks on the subject1 contained in a report by the ,superintendent of the ,scavenging ,department in that borough3-- ,the only way to compass the removal of snow from the footwalks of the principal thoroughfares within a comparatively short time is by sprinkling them with salt such as is commonly used for agricultural purposes4 ,it is certain that1 unaided by the salt1 a sufficient number of men cannot be procured for the emergency of clearing snow from the footways of the most important thoroughfares4 ,it has been stated by medical authorities that the application of salt to snow is detrimental to the health of people who have to walk through the 'slush' produced by the mixture1 and that the excessive cooling of the air surrounding the places where the application has been made is injurious to delicate persons4 ,it1 therefore1 seems that the application of salt to snow should not be undertaken during the day time1 but should be commenced not before #aa p4m41 nor continued after #f a4m41 and that only such an area of footwalks should be so treated on any one night as the available staff of men can clear by an early hour the following morning4 ,to sweep snow from the footwalks whilst the fall of snow continues1 and especially during business hours1 appears to be wasteful and futile1 and to apply salt during the same periods may be held to be injurious to health4 ,that the snow of an ordinary fall can be removed from the footwalks by an application of salt an hour or so before they are scraped is an ascertained fact1 except at least when a moderately severe frost has preceded1 accompanied1 or followed the snow fall1 or when the snow has drifted into extensive accumulations4 ,were it not for the danger to health by excessive cooling of the air1 and for the expense attending the operation1 all the impervious pavements could be cleared of snow 7unless the fall was a heavy one7 in a comparatively short time by a liberal application of salt and the employment of the horse sweeping machines as soon as the snow had become sufficiently softened to admit of their use4 ,to these remarks ,i have nothing to add1 except to suggest that in addition to clearing the snow from the footpaths care should also be taken to scrape out and thoroughly clear the roof water trunks1 which are frequently found crossing the footpavements2 if these remain choked damage may ensue to the adjoining property when a thaw commences4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,street ,,watering4 ,the effective watering of streets and roads in any town during the summer months is an important matter1 not only on sanitary grounds1 but also from the fact that considerable damage may be caused in the neighbouring shops1 warehouses1 and dwellings1 if something is not done to prevent the clouds of detritus and decaying refuse1 of which the dust is composed1 from being blown about4 ,in the metropolis of ,london alone1 the watering of the streets and roads employs1 in addition to a staff of surveyors1 inspectors1 and foremen1 about #a1ejj men1 and an equal number of horses and carts2 and in order to lay the dust effectually1 about #cj1jjj tons of water must be spread upon the streets every dry day1 the cost of this gigantic work being nearly #bjj1jjj per annum upon an average of #abj days1 when watering becomes necessary4 ,the most commonly known method in this country for watering the streets and roads of our towns is that of carrying the water in wheeled barrels1 carts1 or vans1 and distributing it therefrom through a perforated pipe upon the surface of the road as the vehicle is drawn along by a horse attached to the shafts4 ,the points of importance to be considered under this system are as follows3-- 7#a47 ,the number and position of the stand posts or hydrants1 from which the water carts are to be filled1 and whether they shall be swan neck stand posts or valve hydrants4 7#b47 ,the size and form of the body of the water carts1 as regards its cubical capacity1 its weight1 strength1 lightness of draught1 durability1 width of spread1 and shape of jet1 so as to ensure evenness of supply without leaving pools of water or dry patches after it has passed1 or causing that unpleasant cloud of dust which so often follows the cart4 ,a wonderful improvement in all these respects has been lately effected by the introduction of ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,bayley's ,patent ,hydrostatic ,van1 of which ,i shall speak more in detail hereafter4 7#c47 ,another point of some importance is the material of which the hose shall be constructed1 if valve hydrants and not swan necks are existing4 ,my opinion is that it should be of leather1 as being roughly handled and little cared for2 canvass hose1 although the cheapest1 is not sufficiently durable1 and is consequently the dearest in the end2 and 7#d71 lastly1 the driver and horse should both be of some intelligence4 ,a check should also1 if possible1 be kept upon the former to see that he performs his allotted task1 and does his proper number of rounds4 ,mr4 ,bayley has also introduced for this purpose a ,tell ,tale ,indicator1 which records automatically the quantity of water used2 it cannot be tampered with1 and registers on a dial outside the van each load of water delivered1 so that the surveyor or other officer can see at a glance whether the driver is attending to his work1 or whether the hot weather has made him find his throat drier than the roads1 and he has been spending some of his time in moistening it4 ,in the year #ahef1 ,mr4 ,scott1 ,c4,e41 the chief surveyor of the parish of ,st4 ,pancras1 kept an account of the daily round of an ordinary water cart1 when he found that through an average working day of #aj hours1 exclusive of the breakfast and dinner hours1 the cart took one hour and twenty minutes filling1 fifty minutes only in distributing the water on the roads1 and eight hours and seven minutes in travelling to spread the water and back to the stand posts4 ,it was obvious that these were placed too far apart1 and by the subsequent introduction of additional standposts ,mr4 ,scott found1 in the year #ahfg1 that the filling occupied two hours1 the distribution one hour and thirty minutes1 and the travelling to and fro six hours and thirty minutes1 so that it may be assumed1 with an ordinary two-wheeled water cart1 that two-thirds of the day is spent in travelling1 one-fifth in filling1 and about one-seventh in the actual spreading4 ,to many of my readers ,bayley's ,van is probably as familiar as it is to me1 but it may notwithstanding be well to describe it4 ,it is a handsome vehicle in appearance1 the body being made of wrought iron plates1 and measures #h ft4 in length by #d ft4 #h in4 in breadth1 and #b ft4 in depth1 holding #dej gallons4 ,it is mounted on springs upon four wheels hung upon ,bayley's patent axles1 and has a pair of light shafts2 it can easily be fitted with a break for hilly roads1 and there being no weight at any time upon the horse's back1 he is relieved from any severe strains4 ,by means of an adjustable valve the flow of water can be regulated according to the state of the roads1 and1 if necessary1 a double valve can be inserted1 so that either side of the distributor can be at work when only half the width is required1 or when passing a carriage or narrow spaces4 ,the branch pipe is of uniform size1 except close to the spreader1 where it enlarges in order to avoid friction1 and this is assisted by the branch pipe being shaped into a cycloidal curve on each side4 ,in order to obtain as great a pressure as possible upon the jets of the distributing pipe1 and thus to give the side jets a greater trajectory than they otherwise would have1 the tank is elevated as high as is consistent with the conditions of draught4 ,at the same time1 the distributing pipes are placed as near to the ground as convenient1 so that the maximum extent of distribution is obtained1 and that with less dust and splashing than in the ordinary system4 ,the holes in the distributing pipe instead of being drilled in straight lines1 are on a curved line1 which rises along the length of the pipe from the centre towards the ends4 ,this has been found necessary1 in order that the distributing pipe may be placed low1 and at the same time advantage be taken of the width of the trajectory of the jets4 ,comparing the work of one of these vans with that reported upon by ,mr4 ,scott1 it is found that the van occupies nine minutes in filling1 six minutes in spreading the water1 and only three hours and fifteen minutes in travelling to and fro1 so that in seven hours it accomplishes as much work as the ordinary water cart effects in ten hours4 ,in ,edinburgh1 where a trial of one of these vans took place against one of the old carts1 it was found that the van spread the water a width of #bj feet1 while the old cart only covered #ad feet2 the van conveyed the water #a1gca feet1 and the cart only #iea feet4 ,the superficial area watered by one load of the van was #cd1fbj feet1 and by the old system only #ac1cad feet4 ,when we consider the time that is lost in travelling to and from the stand pipe1 what a large saving this represents in the cost of this work4 ,mr4 ,tomkins1 ,c4,e41 the surveyor of the important ,metropolitan parish of ,st4 ,george1 ,hanover ,square1 has made the following comparative experiments with one of ,bayley's vans as against an ordinary cart3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,contents ,no4 of ,total ,gain in ,loads toquantity ,time4 ,difference4 per ,gallons4 cover of ,water4 ,cent4 beat4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,hrs4 ,mnts4 ,hrs4 ,mnts4 ,van #dej #e #bdge #a #bc -- -- ,no4 #d ,cart #bbe #aa #bdge #a #ej #j #bg #bd ,van #dej #e #bdge #a #ch -- -- ,no4 #i ,cart #bcg #aa #bfjg #b #aj #j #cb #be ,van #dej #f #bgjj #a #de -- -- ,no4 #ae ,cart #bij #aa #caij #b #aj #j #be #ai ,van #dej #h #cfjj #b #ae -- -- ,no4 #ai ,cart #bfj #ag #ddbj #c #cj #a #ae #cf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,this shows a mean gain of #bf per cent4 in favour of the van1 and the following tables made by an inspector in #ahgc1 showing the actual occupation of the ordinary carts and ,bayley's vans during a day's work1 are extremely interesting1 as showing that while the van is engaged in spreading the water the time of the cart is wasted in travelling to and from the stand posts1 and when it is borne in mind also that the van spreads water more widely than the cart1 there can be no doubt that a saving of at least #cj per cent4 can be effected by the substitution of these vans for the old-fashioned cart4 ,,carts4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,travelling,travelling ,filling4 ,full4 ,empty4 ,waiting1 c4,,spreading4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m4 ,paddington #a #de #b #i #a #eh #j #bj #a #cj ,st4 ,saviour's #a #bi #b #af #b #d #j #bf #a #bi ,strand #a #aa #b #cj #b #ah #j #ag #a #c ,kensington #d #dj #b #b #a #eg #j #j #a #ed ,chelsea #b #dd #a #ae #b #ad #j #ce #a #f ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,vans4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,paddington #c #cc #a #i #a #c #j #j #c #j ,st4 ,saviour's #b #bj #a #d #a #ba #j #bc #b #eh ,strand #b #cj #a #be #a #ad #j #bj #b #bc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,one of the earliest methods for watering streets1 but one which has1 ,i think1 almost entirely died out on account principally of the large quantity of water used in the process1 was that of allowing the water to run down the channel gutters1 ponding it back by means of canvass or leather aprons placed across the gutter1 and then spreading the water on to the surface of the street by throwing it with wooden shovels4 ,this method1 although at first sight may appear clumsy1 is an exceedingly good one upon sanitary grounds4 ,it not only lays the dust1 but it washes the surface of the streets1 and it most effectually scours out the gutters and at the same time flushes the sewers1 which at the season that watering is necessary is also of great importance to any town4 ,by this process a delightful freshness is given to the air1 and the appearance of the cool and limpid water rushing along on each side of the street acts favorably upon the inhabitants4 ,the great objections to this system are the enormous quantity of water that is used in the process1 and the difficulty of doing the work after the traffic of the day has commenced4 ,somewhat of a modification of this process is what is known as ,brown's ,system of ,street ,watering1 which may be described as follows3--,a lead pipe is laid in the footpath at the back of the kerb on each side of the street to be watered1 small gratings or shields being fixed in the pipe at intervals of twelve inches1 and the remaining space filled with asphalte2 small holes are then bored in the pipe through the openings in the shields4 ,the pipe is connected with the water main in the street1 and is provided with the necessary stopcocks1 c4 ,on the water being turned on1 fine jets are thrown in different directions upon the surface of the street4 ,the width of roadway that can be watered by this process depends upon the pressure of the water1 but it may be fairly assumed that in most towns streets of fifty feet width could be effectually watered in a few minutes by a pipe on each side of the street4 ,this process has not gained much favour hitherto1 principally on account of the large first cost involved1 which would amount to upwards of #hjj per mile of street1 but the expense afterwards should not much exceed the wages of one man at about #cs4 #f;d4 per day to manipulate the necessary work1 and the interest on the outlay and depreciation of the pipes1 c4 ,the other objections to this system are3-- 7#a47 ,the liability of the pipes and perforations to get out of order1 especially when allowed to lie idle for so many months in each year4 7#b47 ,the unpleasantness to pedestrians which must be caused whilst the watering is proceeding4 7#c47 ,the inconvenience to the traffic during the process4 7#d47 ,the effect upon the water by high winds1 when in all probability it would be blown back across the foot pavements4 7#e47 ,in very broad streets it would be inoperative4 ,in ,paris and other continental cities1 and also in several towns in this country1 the watering is effected by hose and reels1 or by portable iron tubes4 ,mr4 ,parry1 ,c4,e41 the borough surveyor of ,reading1 has given the following particulars of the system of hand watering adopted in that borough1 in which he gives the cost1 and describes the utility of that method as compared with the use of water carts3-- ,a water cart 7he states7 will water twice a day a superficial area of #bc1hdi yards1 and for a length watered one width that means #e1ifb lineal yards1 or for a double width #b1iha yards1 the cost per day of laying on being as follows3--,horse1 cart1 and man1 #hs42 cost of maintenance of cart1 harness1 shoeing1 c41 #as4 #e;d41 making #is4 #e;d4 per day4 ,with respect to the hand machines he states that he has one of ,headley's drum machines1 and three of special make1 somewhat similar to those used in ,paris4 ,they are equal in point of work2 and one machine will water #bc1gdj square yards twice a day1 which1 it will be observed1 is very close to the amount of work performed by a cart4 ,headley's machine cost us 7he continues71 five years ago when new1 #ca #gs4 #c;d41 and the repairs and maintenance since that date have been #bb1 or an average of #d #hs4 per annum1 and is just now almost past repair4 ,the other description of hand machine cost each when new #bj1 and the repairs and maintenance have amounted to an average of #c #ahs4 each year4 ,they were in use sometime before ,headley's was obtained1 and they will be of use for a long time yet4 ,the cost of labour per day by the hand machines is for two men at #bs4 #aj;d4 each--#es4 #h;d4--as it requires two men to work the machine properly1 one to distribute the water1 and the other to move the machine and to attach and detach the apparatus to and from the hydrants2 add to this #g;d4 per day for maintenance and repairs1 will make #fs4 #c;d4 per day4 ,the quantity of water delivered by the water carts is #j4ea gallon per square yard1 and by the hand machine #a4cj gallons4 ,it will thus be seen that in the case of the cart #bd1cbd gallons of water are used per diem1 and #fa1gbd gallons by the hand machines1 the surface watered being very nearly the same in both cases4 ,assuming that the water has a commercial value of #f;d4 per #a1jjj gallons1 and adding this to the cost per diem in each case1 the total cost stands thus3-- ,hand machines #a #ajs4 #aj;d4 ,carts #a #as4 #g;d4 the advantage in point of cost being in favour of the carts1 but the hand machine may water better1 especially in broad streets1 although in narrow streets or where there is much traffic1 this method would be impracticable4 ,in ,paris both hose and carts are used for watering the thoroughfares1 the former for the boulevards1 the avenues1 and a certain number of first-class streets4 ,the watering plant belongs to the municipality1 and they have various forms of carts1 containing #bbj1 #bdb and #bhf gallons respectively1 and will water from #b1djj to #c1cej square yards4 ,the watering by hose is attended to by the ordinary street cleaners1 who can easily water #bd1jjj square yards in about thirty-five minutes1 deducting the time necessary to connect the apparatus with the mains1 but this requires a gymnastic performance1 which1 if once seen1 is not easily forgotten4 ,watering the streets with sea water should be adopted whenever it is feasible1 as it not only gives a delightful freshness to the air and dispels iodine1 but it also causes the surface of the street to maintain its humidity for a longer period than when fresh water is used1 as it impregnates the soil with hygrometric matter4 ,this has been often attempted artificially1 not only by adding common salt to the water used for watering1 but also by adding chloride of calcium1 notably in ,rouen1 where this material is obtained from the manufactories of pyroligenous acid in the neighbourhood4 ,it is stated that on a mile of road1 #af feet in width1 #e1fcj gallons of water were necessary daily1 but that the same result was attained with #a1dhj gallons of chloride solution1 marking #cj ,beaum1 and costing about d4 per gallon1 the humectation remaining good for five or six days with the solution of chloride4 ,with water only in #a1jic yards1 in four rounds daily1 #c1ebj gallons were used1 the cost being #dhs42 with chloride of calcium the cost was #cbs4 per day4 ,watering the roads with a largely diluted disinfectant1 such as ,sanitas in the liquid form1 is frequently of great benefit1 and where it can be afforded1 it should be occasionally done1 especially in the narrower streets and more crowded districts of a city or town4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,contracts ,v4 ,,administration ,,by ,,local ,,authority4 ,amongst the questions which ,i addressed to the surveyors of the principal towns of ,england was the following3--,is the house refuse collected by the ,sanitary ,authority or by a ,contractor8 and out of the ninety towns from which ,i received replies1 only thirty were found to employ contractors for this purpose1 and of these the authorities of two of them proposed to dispense with the services of the contractor1 and to administrate the work with their own staff1 as they found the existing state of things was thoroughly unsatisfactory4 ,this is hardly to be wondered at when the nature of such contracts comes to be considered4 ,the dust or slopping contractor1 or whatever he may be designated1 can hardly be expected to be a philanthropist1 whose principal object in carrying out his contract is that of benefiting his fellow creatures and not himself2 on the contrary1 it may fairly be assumed that the contractor's object is to serve his own interests1 and to make his contract pay4 ,it is but natural1 although the result may not be eminently satisfactory either to the ratepayers1 who require a careful and systematic cleansing of their dustbins and streets1 or to the ,sanitary ,authority and their officers who have to look after him4 ,the officers1 if they do their strict duty1 will probably be engaged in constant disputes and litigation with the contractor as to the due and proper observance of the terms of his contract1 and the consequence of their time being thus occupied instead of in other more important matters1 is naturally detrimental to the interests of the ratepayers4 ,if we turn to the articles of agreement or contract usually drawn up between a ,sanitary ,authority and a contractor for scavenging1 we find that they are generally very binding in their phraseology1 and enter fully into the details of the work2 they should state very clearly the number of times in every week that the contractor shall cause all the ashpits in the districts enumerated to be emptied and cleansed1 the manner in which this work shall be performed1 and how the materials thus removed shall be disposed of and the place of their ultimate destination4 ,the conditions should further specify what amount of manual1 team labour1 and carts1 are necessary for the work1 and also what plant the contractor must keep in the way of ladders1 baskets1 shovels1 and brooms1 c4 ,the conditions should also contain a carefully prepared list of the streets to be swept1 and the manner and number of times this work must be executed1 and arrange for the disposal of the materials thus removed4 ,in many such contracts it is found necessary to insert clauses binding the contractor under all sorts of fearful penalties1 to be always at the disposal and under the commands of the inspector of nuisances1 or such other officer or officers as the ,sanitary ,authority may appoint4 ,the contractor's men also are forbidden to refuse gratuities 7an order which they no doubt fully carry out87 and are directed on no account to remove either trade or garden refuse1 and they are also enjoined to be careful to consult the convenience of the householders in their visits1 and to thoroughly clean up all dirt and litter that they may cause in the discharge of their duties4 ,if they fail in any or either of these injunctions and commands1 or for any other dereliction of duty1 the inspector of nuisances1 or such other officer as the ,sanitary ,authority shall appoint1 may summarily dismiss them1 without any reference being made on the subject to their employer the contractor1 and in fact the conditions have necessarily to be made so stringent and binding as to be either totally inoperative or open to grave abuses1 or1 on the other hand1 the work can be carelessly and improperly executed by the contractor4 ,i am1 therefore1 strongly of opinion that the work of the collection of house refuse and cleansing the streets should be carried out by the ,local ,authority with their own officers and staff1 and that executing this work by contract is a mistake and a false economy4 ,it is1 perhaps1 true that it may be done in the latter manner at less actual cost to the ratepayers1 but all public work should be done in the best manner possible1 irrespective of cost1 thoroughly1 but without extravagance1 and the result of such work1 especially where it affects the cleanliness and the appearance of a town1 soon fully repays any moderate extra cost that may thus have been incurred1 irrespective of the enormous benefit that is conferred upon any community by the reduction of disease and the death-rate by a proper attention to such necessary sanitary work4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 s4 d4 ,a question of the greatest importance to the ratepayers1 and one in which they often take the most lively interest1 is that of the cost of maintaining the necessary staff for the purpose of carrying out the scavenging of the town1 or for paying the contracts for a similar work4 ,it is1 of course1 not possible to lay down any hard and fast line as to the cost of scavenging in any city or town1 as it must necessarily vary considerably according to circumstances2 much depends upon whether the district to be scavenged is an urban one1 consisting of houses closely packed together1 or whether it is suburban1 with scattered villas and mansions standing in their own grounds2 the question1 also1 of the distance of the depts to which the material has to be carted1 considerably affects the result of any estimate1 as also does the cost of horse hire1 the rate of wages1 and whether the district is of a hilly or flat nature1 and1 as ,i have before shown1 the manner in which the streets are formed and paved1 the habits of the people1 and last1 but not least1 the manner of the eventual disposal of the rubbish after removal2 all these points must bear with great weight upon any question of cost1 and make the results widely different4 ,on referring to the returns to which ,i have more than once alluded1 it is found that the cost of removing the house refuse and cleansing and sweeping the streets combined1 varies considerably in different localities1 in one case the sum amounts only to the rate of one half-penny per annum per head of the population of the town1 whereas in another case the amount is at the rate of three shillings and sixpence per head4 ,on calculating the average cost per head of population per annum of the ninety towns from which ,i received replies on this point1 ,i find that it amounts to about tenpence half-penny1 after giving credit for any sum of money realised by the sale of the refuse to farmers and others2 so that if this work is costing the ratepayers of a town or city anything under a shilling per head of the whole population every year they have no cause to grumble1 as they are so frequently found to do that their rates are higher1 and what they have to show for them less than any other town in ,england4 ,i have discussed the question of contracts or administration in a former chapter1 but there is still another question which is also closely connected and intermingled with the question of cost1 and that is when the ,sanitary ,authority carry out the collection and removal of the house refuse and cleanse the streets with their own staff1 whether it is better and more economical for them to keep their own stud of horses or to hire them4 ,to do thorough justice to the work ,i am of opinion that both the horses and carts should be the property of the ,sanitary ,authority for the following reasons3-- 7#a47 ,the horses and their drivers should be under the control of the town surveyor or superintendent1 in the same manner as the scavengers who accompany the cart4 ,this is not the case if the horses are hired4 7#b47 ,the carts can be started on their rounds and leave work at such time as may be found most convenient1 and all the horses being kept in one stable greatly facilitates this arrangement4 7#c47 ,the horses hired for this kind of service are frequently quite unfit to draw the bulky loads in the lofty carts behind them1 and opprobrium is thrown upon the ,sanitary ,authority and the officials in consequence4 7#d47 ,economy in working is secured1 for not only will good horses properly kept do a much better day's work than bad ones ill kept1 but there is no one making a profit out of them as is the case when the horses are hired4 ,with regard to the question as to the comparative cost of scavenging where a stud of horses is kept and where they are hired1 the figures that ,i am about to give can only be speculative1 as the conditions of each town are so widely different1 but the figures may serve as a guide for forming an estimate of the kind1 and they may be altered to suit the requirements of any city or town4 ,i will1 therefore1 assume that a town with a population of about #ce1jjj inhabitants will require at least seven scavengers' carts constantly at work1 without reckoning those which will be required after a fall of snow or in exceptionally muddy weather1 and for which purposes auxiliary horses and carts must be hired1 as also those which are engaged in hauling stones and other materials used for roads or public works4 ,i have already stated that the value of an ordinary dust cart is about #ah1 so ,i will retain that figure for my estimate4 ,the value of a new set of cart harness1 including a loin cloth1 should not exceed #g4 ,to work seven carts properly1 eight horses will be required1 which may be estimated to cost about #ej each4 ,the first cost of the necessary stabling for eight horses1 including purchase of land1 erection of buildings with a foreman's house1 corn and hay lofts and machinery and tools1 may be reckoned at about #a1ejj4 ,with regard to the wages to be paid to the scavengers and the carters1 it may be reasonably assumed that their rate of wages may be much lower than that paid to navvies1 or what are known as pick and shovel men1 for the following reasons3-- ,in all house refuse there is always present a quantity of such materials as rags1 bones1 pieces of iron1 and other articles1 which have a commercial value1 and behind each scavenger's cart hangs a sack1 into which all such articles are placed by the men engaged in the removal of the house refuse1 and are subsequently sold1 and the spoil divided between them as perquisites4 ,i have been credibly informed that in some localities the amount thus realised averages more than four shillings a week throughout the year4 ,it is also a notable fact that although the householders are most particularly requested not to give gratuities to the men employed by the ,sanitary ,authority in this work1 yet a considerable number of them constantly give the men a gratuity or bribe to ensure the dustbin being regularly and properly cleared1 although the less generous1 or poorer members of the community probably suffer in consequence2 again at ,christmas the scavenger feels himself entitled to demand and receive a handsome present in the form of a ,christmas-box1 which1 in a rich neighbourhood1 amounts in the aggregate to no inconsiderable sum4 ,for these reasons ,i put the wages both of the scavenger and the carter at #afs4 each per week1 and adding a guinea a week for the foreman1 who has in addition to this a house to live in rent free1 and a stableman at #ahs4 a week1 the total expenses are accounted for except those of the keep of the horses1 shoeing1 veterinary attendance1 lighting the stable1 c4 ,this also is a sum very difficult to estimate1 as fodder1 bedding1 c41 varies so widely in different districts1 but for the purposes of this calculation it may be estimated that #ags4 per horse per week should be sufficient to cover all expenses under these heads4 ,for the purposes of this calculation it will be necessary to assume that the #a1ejj has been borrowed at #d per cent4 in perpetuity1 although as a matter of fact any monies borrowed for such a purpose as this would probably carry a sinking fund1 so as to liberate the debt at the end of thirty or perhaps fifty years1 but if ,i were to reckon the interest in this way in my estimate1 it would complicate it unnecessarily4 ,i have assumed that to meet the depreciation of horse flesh it will be necessary to put aside the value of one horse each year1 without reckoning anything per contra for the sale of those worn out or injured in the work1 as ,i think this will be found to be what would be necessary4 ,i have allowed #ej per annum for repairs and depreciation of the buildings and machinery1 as ,i consider this should be quite sufficient for a well-managed and cared-for property4 ,i have allowed #ae per cent4 per annum for repairs and depreciation of the harness1 and #ab per cent4 for the carts4 ,the estimate will consequently stand thus3-- ,,specimen ,,estimate of the cost per annum involved by any ,urban ,sanitary ,authority of a town of #ce1jjj inhabitants1 in executing the work of collection of house refuse and the cleansing of streets1 with their own staff of men and horses and carts4 ,annual ,cost4 s4 d4 ,capital borrowed #a1ejj1 yearly interest at #d per cent #fg #aj #j ,do4 do4 for #h horses at #ej #djj ,do4 do4 for #g carts at #ah #abf ,do4 do4 for #g sets of harness at #g #di ---- #ege at #d per cent4 #be #ag #f ,repairs to buildings1 machinery1 c4 #ej #j #j ,depreciation of horse flesh1 say #ej #j #j ,do4 of #g carts1 costing #abf1 at #ab per cent4 #ae #b #b ,do4 of #g sets of harness1 costing #di1 at #ae per cent4 #g #g #j ,wages of #g carters at #afs4 each per week #bia #d #j ,do4 of #g scavengers at do4 do4 #bia #d #j ,do4 of #g sweepers of roads at do4 do4 #bia #d #j ,do4 of #a foreman at #bas4 per week #ed #ab #j ,do4 of #a stablekeeper at #ahs4 do4 #df #af #j ,keep1 c41 of #h horses at #ags4 per week each #cec #ab #j -------------- ,total estimated cost #a1edd #h #aa ,if the foregoing estimate is compared with the standard of one shilling per head of the population per annum1 which ,i have fixed as a fair average cost of such work1 it is found to be less by #bje than that of a town of #ce1jjj inhabitants1 for this latter case amounts to #a1gej1 and nothing has been allowed for the possible sale of the house refuse thus collected1 but1 on the other hand1 ,i have allowed nothing for any emergency1 such as a very rainy season or a deep fall of snow4 ,if the horses and drivers had been hired the estimate might stand thus3-- ,annual ,cost4 s4 d4 ,hire of #g horses and drivers at #hs4 per diem for six days a week #hgc #ab #j ,hire of #d horses and drivers on ,sunday1 half-a-day each #da #ab #j ,foreman to superintend 7no free house rent as in former case7 #fe #j #j ,wages of scavengers as before #bia #d #j ,do4 of sweepers do4 #bia #d #j -------------- #a1efb #ab #j ,this shows that the cost of hiring would be slightly in excess of that of keeping a stud of horses1 and when we consider the unquestionable benefit to be derived by adopting this method1 ,i think most ,urban ,authorities who are now hiring their team labour would do well to consider the question of purchasing and keeping their own stud4 ,great care1 however1 would have to be exercised in the supervision1 or the expenditure would speedily increase1 as in all stable establishments without such supervision1 grave abuses1 and even fraud1 may go undetected for a considerable period4 ,the figures that ,i have given in my estimates must not be criticised1 for they are not intended to fix the value of such work1 but simply to act as a guide to anyone interested in making an estimate of the kind1 in which case prices more in accordance with the district could be inserted4 ,the following table1 however1 gives the actual cost of collecting house refuse and cleansing and watering streets in fourteen large ,english towns3-- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,annual cost of col- ,this amounts to the lecting house refuse following3-- ,name of ,town4 and cleansing and --------------------------- watering streets and ,per #a1jjj of ,per mile of courts4 population4 streets4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bedford #ijj #de4j #de4i ,bristol #ac1jje #fc4a #ajh4c ,cambridge #b1cej #fg4a #hc4i ,cardiff #e1ede #fe4b #ie4f ,carlisle #b1bfa #fd4f #aac4j ,exeter #b1ajj #eb4e #fj4j ,gloucester #a1dgh #cf4i #di4c ,liverpool #hb1bhd #aea4b #caf4b ,northampton #b1hbj #ea4c #ajd4d ,oxford #b1gej #fc4i #he4i ,portsmouth #e1bgf #ci4j #aja4d ,southampton #a1iii #cc4c #de4d ,southport #d1jgg #aai4i #ig4j ,swansea #d1bjj #fj4j #gf4c ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,these figures are taken from a return prepared by ,mr4 ,williams1 ,c4,e41 ,engineer to the ,borough of ,cardiff4 ,i have frequently referred to some returns which ,i have obtained on the subject of the collection of house refuse and cleansing of streets1 and it may be interesting and of use to others who wish to obtain information on these subjects if before closing this book ,i give a list of the questions that were asked4 ,they were as follows3-- 7#a47 ,name of city or town4 7#b47 ,number of inhabitants4 7#c47 ,area of district scavenged4 7#d47 ,is the house refuse collected by the ,urban ,authority4 7#e47 ,or by a contractor4 7#f47 ,how often is the house refuse removed4 7#g47 ,do the scavengers make a house to house call4 7#h47 ,or do they give notice of their approach by ringing a bell or otherwise1 and require the householder to bring out the refuse to the cart4 7#i47 ,do the scavengers remove garden or trade refuse1 and1 if so1 under what conditions4 7#aj47 ,are the house dustbins1 as a rule1 fixed or movable4 7#aa47 ,have you any public dustbins1 and1 if so1 are they merely isolated instances1 or have you a regular system4 7#ab47 ,number of depts for the refuse collected1 and the distance they are from the town4 7#ac47 ,how is the refuse disposed of4 7#ad47 ,approximate mileage of streets cleansed4 7#ae47 ,are all the streets swept daily1 or only the principal ones4 7#af47 ,have you any provision for sweeping streets oftener than once a day1 or for the frequent removal of horse dung1 c4 7#ag47 ,are private courts and alleys swept and cleansed by the ,urban ,authority1 and1 if so1 how frequently4 7#ah47 ,what number of men1 horses1 and carts respectively1 do you employ4 7#ai47 ,net cost of your system after giving credit for any money realised by sale of refuse4 ,in concluding this little book on ,dirty ,dustbins and ,sloppy ,streets1 ,i hope that what has been said may be of some use to my readers1 and that they will themselves supply any omissions that they have found1 and kindly correct all the errors1 which are only too ready to creep into a work of this description4 ,,finis4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,the ,table on page #ed entitled ',,gross ,,cost ,,for 444' was large in width1 and has been split into two parts4 ,the first column 7,street47 is repeated in the second part4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,for example1 brick makers1 brick-makers2 pervious2 potatoe2 unhung2 rinsings4 ,pg #g1 'ash pit attached' replaced by 'ashpit attached'4 ,pg #aa1 'distance of ' replaced by 'distance of 4 ,pg #cj1 'a specialite' replaced by 'a speciality'4 ,pg #ef1 'of sillicate' replaced by 'of silicate'4 ,pg #ff1 'clearing the foothpaths' replaced by 'clearing the footpaths'4