,,gunpowder ,,and ,,ammunition ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author ,,stray ,,military ,,papers4 ,with #b ,plates4 #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d ,,lucian1 ,,the ,,syrian ,,satirist4 #hvo1 #es4 net4 ,,the ,,outlines ,,of ,,quaternions4 ,crown #hvo1 #ajs4 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,and ,,bombay ,,gunpowder ,,and ,,ammunition ,,their ,,origin ,,and ,,progress ,,by ,,lieut4-,,colonel ,,henry ,w4 ,l4 ,,hime 7,,late7 ,,royal ,,artillery ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,bombay #aijd ,all rights reserved ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,gunpowder ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,introduction #c ,,ii4 ,,saltpetre #ab ,,iii4 ,,the ,,greeks #bi ,,iv4 ,,marcus ,,gr,,cus #eg ,v4 ,,the ,,arabs #ij ,,vi4 ,,the ,,hindus #aje ,,vii4 ,,the ,,chinese #abd ,,viii4 ,,friar ,,bacon #ada ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,ammunition ,,ix4 ,,analytical ,,table ,,of ,,ammunition #afe ,x4 ,,hand ,,ammunition3-- ,,fire-,,arrows ,,and ,,fire-,,pikes #afh ,,hand ,,grenades #afi ,,xi4 ,,war ,,rockets #agb ,,xii4 ,,gunpowder #agg ,,xiii4 ,,shock ,,projectiles3-- ,,darts1 ,c4 #aii ,,round ,,shot #bjj ,,case #bjg ,,shrapnel #bjh ,,xiv4 ,,igneous ,,projectiles3-- ,,hot ,,shot #bag ,,incendiary ,,fireballs #bag ,,incendiary ,,shell #bbj ,,carcasses #bbd ,,explosive ,,fireballs #bbd ,,explosive ,,shell #bbe ,,xv4 ,,igniters3-- ,,hot ,,wires1 ,,priming ,,powder1 ,,matches1 ,,and ,,portfires #bbh ,,tubes #bcj ,,time ,,fuzes #bca ,,percussion ,,and ,,concussion ,,fuzes #bdd ,,xvi4 ,,signals #bdf ,,tables ,,table ,,page ,i4 ,,methods ,,of ,,refining ,,saltpetre #bg ,,ii4 ,,greek ,,fires #cb ,,iii4 ,,sea ,,fires #da ,,iv4 ,,analytical ,,table ,,of ,,ammunition #afg ,v4 ,,price ,,of ,,english ,,powder ,,at ,,various ,,times #ahd ,,vi4 ,,connection ,,between ,,size ,,of ,,grain1 ,,muzzle ,,velocity1 ,,and ,,pressure #aie ,,vii4 ,,composition ,,of ,,english ,,powder ,,at ,,various ,,times #aig ,,viii4 ,,composition ,,of ,,foreign ,,powder ,,at ,,various ,,times #aih ,,ix4 ,,price ,,of ,,metals ,,in #acge ,,and #ahfe #bjd ,x4 ,,comparative ,,cost ,,of ,,one ,,round ,,fired ,,with ,,shot ,,of ,,different ,,materials1 cir4 #acge #bje ,,xi4 ,,comparative ,,pressure ,,on ,,bore ,,when ,,firing ,,shot ,,of ,,different ,,materials1 cir4 #acge #bjf ,,xii4 ,,composition ,,of ,,matches ,,at ,,various ,,times #bbi ,,xiii4 ,,composition ,,of ,,time ,,fuzes ,,at ,,various ,,times #bdc ,,xiv4 ,,composition ,,of ,,signal ,,rockets ,,at ,,various ,,times #bdf ,,xv4 ,,fixed ,,lights #bdf ,,xvi4 ,,fireworks #bdg ,,index #bdi ,,books ,,often ,,quoted ,the following works are frequently quoted1 and are only designated by the author's name4 ,thus1 8,elliot10 ii4 #ge1 means ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot's 8,hist4 of ,india1 as told1 c4 c410 vol4 ii4 p4 #ge4 ,,bacon1 ,,roger1 ,opera qudam hactenus inedita1 ed4 by ,professor ,brewer2 ,rolls ,series1 #ahei4 ,,berthelot1 ,m4 ,p4 ,e41 ,la ,chimie au ,moyen ,age1 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,,brackenbury1 ,lieut4-,general ,sir ,h41 ,g4,c4,b41 8,ancient ,cannon in ,europe10 in vols4 iv4 and v4 of ,proceed4 ,roy4 ,artillery ,institution1 ,woolwich1 #ahfe-f4 ,,elliot1 ,sir ,h4 ,m41 8,hist4 of ,india1 as told by its own ,historians10 ed4 by ,professor ,j4 ,dowson1 ,m4,r4,a4,s41 ,london1 #ahfg-gg4 ,j,,hns1 ,oberst-,lieut4 ,m41 ,handbuch einer ,geschichte des ,kriegswesens1 ,leipsig1 #ahhj4 ,,napoleon ,,iii41 tudes sur le ,pass et l',avenir de l',artillerie1 ,paris1 #ahdf-ga4 ,,nye1 ,master-,gunner ,n41 8,art of ,gunnery10 to which is added a 8,treatise on ,artificial ,fireworks0 7separately paginated71 ,london1 #afdg4 ,,reinaud 7,professor7 et ,,fav 7,capitaine71 ,du ,feu ,grgeois1 c41 ,paris1 #ahde4 ,,romocki1 ,s4 ,j4 ,,von1 ,geschichte der ,explosivstoffe1 ,hanover1 #ahie4 ,,whitehorne1 ,p41 8,certain ,waies for the ordering of ,souldiers in ,battelray10 ,london1 #aefj4 ,,part ,i ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,gunpowder ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,i ,much discussion has been caused in the past by the vagueness of the word gunpowder4 ,the following are the meanings which this and a few other words bear in these pages3-- ,explosion4--,the sudden and violent generation1 with a loud noise and in a time inappreciable by the unaided senses1 of a very great volume of gas1 by the combustion of a body occupying a comparatively very small volume4 ,progressive ,combustion4--,combustion which takes place in a time appreciable by the unaided senses1 such as that of rocket composition or a bit of paper4 ,gunpowder4--,a mixture of saltpetre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 which explodes4 ,the signs of its explosion are a bright flash1 a loud noise1 and a large volume of smoke4 ,incendiary 7for 8incendiary composition074--,a substance or mixture which burns progressively1 although fiercely1 and is hard to put out4 ,machine always means an apparatus of the ballista type4 ,cannon includes bombards1 mortars1 guns1 c4 ,musket includes all hand firearms charged with gunpowder4 ,,ii ,of the many difficulties that beset the present inquiry1 two deserve special mention4 ,the first is the want of simple exactness in most early writers when recording the facts from which we have to draw our conclusions4 ,at times their descriptions are so meagre that it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to decide whether certain projectiles were incendiary or explosive4 ,at other times they abound in tropes and figures of speech which amount to an unintentional suggestio falsi4 8,the missiles spread themselves abroad like a cloud10 says a ,spanish ,arab2 8they roar like thunder2 they flame like a furnace2 they reduce everything to ashes40#a ,a projectile full of blazing ,greek fire appeared to ,joinville to be of portentous bulk4 ,it flew through the midnight sky with thundering noise like a fiery dragon1 followed by a long trail of flame2 and it illumined the whole camp as with the light of day4#b ,even to approach the truth1 we must prune such figures of rhetoric2 and this is a dangerous operation1 for we may prune too much4 ,the only safeguard against these suggestive metaphors is to keep steadily in view the distinctive peculiarities of incendiary and explosive projectiles4 ,the incendiary shell was simply an envelope intended to convey into the interior of a fort1 ship1 c41 a quantity of combustible matter1 which burned with such violence as to set fire to everything inflammable that was near it4 ,the primary object of the explosive shell1 on the other hand1 was to blow up whatever it fell upon4 ,it might occasionally1 by the intense heat generated by the explosion1#c set fire to its surroundings when inflammable2 but this was a mere incidental consequence of its action4 ,its aim and end was to explode4 ,when a musket or cannon was fired there was a bright flash1 a loud1 momentary report1 and a large volume of smoke4#d ,when an incendiary missile was discharged from a machine there was no flash1 but little smoke1 and the only sounds were the whizzing and sputtering of the burning mixture and the creaking and groaning of bolts1 spars1 ropes1 c43-- 8,with grisly soune out goth the gret gonne40#e ,an explosive missile made its way through the air with little noise#f and less light3#g during its flight the blazing contents of the incendiary shell doubtless gave out much light and made a considerable noise1 as described by many early writers4 ,when an explosive shell reached its object there was1 sooner or later 7if it acted at all71 an explosion1 occasionally followed by a conflagration3 an incendiary shell produced a conflagration only4 ,the second difficulty arises from the change of meaning which many technical words have undergone in the lapse of years4 ,the ,arabic word bard originally meant hail1 was afterwards applied to saltpetre1 and finally came to signify gunpowder4 ,our own word powder1 which at first meant a fine1 floury dust 7pulvis71 is often used in the present day to designate the stringy nitrocelluloid1 cordite--smokeless powder4 ,the ,chinese word yo means gunpowder now1 although its first meaning was a drug or plant4 ,for centuries gunpowder was called kraut in ,germany1 and to this day it is called kruid in ,holland4 ,the ,danish krud has not long become obsolete4 ,the present ,chinese word for firearm1 huo p'u1 originally meant a machine for throwing blazing incendiary matter4 ,the ,arabic word bundq at first meant a hazel-nut1 secondly a clay-pellet the size of a hazel-nut1 thirdly a bullet1 and finally a firearm4#h ,the ,latin nochus1 a hazel-nut1 is used1 strange to say1 to designate a smoke-ball by an old ,german military writer1 ,konrad ,kyeser1 whose 8,bellifortis0 dates from #adje4i ,the word was also applied in ,germany to bullets in general1 and more particularly to projectiles discharged by machines4 ,the word ,artillery1 both in ,france and ,england1 originally meant bows and arrows4 ,in his original account of the battle of ,cressy1 ,froissart calls the apparatus and bolts of the ,genoese crossbowmen leur artillerie2 while a few lines further on he speaks of the kanons of the ,english4#aj ,ascham1 writing in #aega1 says3 8,artillerie nowadays is taken for two things3 gunnes and bowes40#aa ,selden reminds us that gonne1 our present gun1 at first meant a machine of the ballista type4#ab ,it is used in this sense in 8,kyng ,alisaunder10 #cbfh1 written ,a4,d4 #abge-acjj1 and other metrical romances4 ,like the ,arabic bundq1 the word is occasionally applied to the projectile1 as in the 8,avowing of ,arthur10 st4 #fe4 ,it is used in the modern sense1 as cannon1 in the 8,vision of ,piers the ,plowman10 ,passus xxi1 ,c text1 #bic1 a poem begun in #acfb and finally revised by its author in #acij2 and in all three meanings by ,chaucer1 in poems written during the last quarter of the fourteenth century2--as a machine in the 8,romaunt of the ,rose10 #dagf1 as a projectile in the 8,legende of ,good ,women10 #fcg1 and as a cannon in the 8,hous of ,fame10 #ecc4 8,when the thing is perceived1 the idea conceived10 says ,professor ,whitney1 87men7 find in the existing resources of speech the means of its expression--a name which formerly belonged to something else in some way akin to it2 a combination of words10 c4#ac ,for example1 a word1 ,w1 which has always been the name of a thing1 ,m1 is applied to some new thing1 ,n1 which has been devised for the same use as ,m and answers the purpose better4#ad ,w thus represents both ,m and ,n for an indefinite time1#ae until ,m eventually drops into disuse and ,w comes to mean ,n and ,n only4 ,the confusion necessarily arising from the equivocal meaning of ,w during this indefinite period1 is entirely due1 of course1 to neglect of ,horace's advice to coin new names for new things4#af ,had a new name been given to ,n from the first1 no difficulty could possibly have ensued1 and our way would have been straight and clear4 ,but as matters have fallen out1 not only have we to determine whether ,w means ,m or ,n1 whenever it is used during the transition period1#ag but we have to meet the arguments of those1 never far off1 who insist that because ,w meant ,n finally1 it must have meant ,n at some bygone time when history and probability alike show that it meant ,m and ,m only4 ,examples1 enough and to spare1 of such arguments will be met with shortly4 ,in consequence of the change of meaning which many military words have suffered1 no translation of passages in foreign books containing ambiguous words should be relied upon1 if access to the originals1 or faithful copies of them1 can be obtained4 ,as an example of the necessity for this precaution1 let us compare a few sentences relating to the siege of ,jerusalem1 ,a4,d4 #gj1 from the 8,polychronicon0 of ,higden 7d4 cir4 #acfc71 ,rolls ,series1 iv4 #dbi ff41 with the translations of them by ,trevisa1 #ache1 and by the author of ,,ms4 ,harl4 ,no4 #bbfa1 of ,a4,d4 #adcb-ej4 ,a 7#a7 ,inde ,vespasianus ictu arietis murum conturbat 7,higden74 7#b7 ,thanne ,vaspacianus destourbed the wal with the stroke of an engyne 7,trevisa74 7#c7 ,wherefore ,vespasian troublede the walle soore with gunnes and other engynes 7,,ms4 ,harl474 ,b 7#a7 ,josephus tamen ardenti oleo superjecto omnia machinamenta exussit 7,higden74 7#b7 ,but ,joseph threwe out brennynge oyle uppon alle her gynnes and smoot all her gynnes 7,trevisa74 7#c7 ,then ,josephus destroyede alle theire instruments in castenge brennenge oyle on hit 7,,ms4 ,harl474 ,c 7#a7 ,quo viso tanta vis telorum ex parte ,titi proruit1 ut unius de sociis ,josephi occipitium lapide percussum ultra tertium stadium excuteretur 7,higden74 7#b7 ,whan that was i-seie there fil so gret strenthe of castynge and of schot of ,titus his side1 that the noble knyght of oon of ,josephus his felowes was i-smyte of that place with a stoon and flewe over the thrydde forlong 7,trevisa74 7#c7 ,titus perceyvenge that1 sende furthe a sawte and schotte gunnes to the walles in so much that the hynder parte of the hedde of a man stondenge by ,josephus was smyten by the space of thre forlonges 7,,ms4 ,harl474 ,d 7#a7 ,admotis tandem arietibus ad templum 7,higden74 7#b7 ,at the laste the engynes were remeved toward the temple 7,trevisa74 7#c7 ,titus causede his gunners to schote at the ,temple 7,,ms4 ,harl474 ,no suspicion rests upon either of these translators2 yet1 were the original lost1 a covert allusion to cannon might be discovered in ,trevisa's translation of ,b and ,c1 and the ,harleian translation of ,a1 ,c1 and ,d would be put forward as proof positive of their use4 ,,iii ,the claims of the ,greeks to the invention of gunpowder are examined in ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,chap4 ,,iv4 is an inquiry into the nature and authorship of the ,liber ,ignium of ,marcus ,grcus4 ,the claims of the ,arabs1 ,hindus1 ,chinese1 and ,english are considered in ,chaps4 ,v4-,,viii4 ,in ,part ,,ii4 the progress of ,ammunition is very briefly traced from the introduction of cannon to the introduction of breechloading arms4 ,as the book is addressed to the officers of the ,army1 who seldom have a library at command1 the authorities for the statements of important facts are generally given at length4 ,on all controversial points1 when a foreign authority is quoted the original#ah is given as well as the translation4 ,i have endeavoured to acknowledge my obligation in all cases where quotations have been borrowed from others without verification4 ,the invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of saltpetre had become known4 ,we proceed1 therefore1 in the following chapter to determine the approximate date of the discovery of this salt4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,saltpetre ,the attention of the ancients was naturally attracted by the efflorescences which form on certain stones1 on walls1 and in caves and cellars2 and the ,hindus and nomad ,arabs must have noticed the deflagration of at least one of them when a fire was lit on it4 ,these efflorescences consist of various salts1--sulphate and carbonate of soda1 chloride of sodium1 saltpetre1 c4--but they are so similar in appearance and taste1 the only two criteria known in primitive times1#ai that early observers succeeded in discriminating only one of them1 common salt1 from the rest4 ,so close1 in fact1 is the resemblance between potash and soda1 that their radical difference was only finally established by ,du ,hamel in #agcf4 ,common salt received a distinctive name in remote times2 all other salts were grouped together under such vague generic names as nitrum1 natron1 afro-nitron1 c4 ,no trace of saltpetre has hitherto been found anywhere before the thirteenth century4 ,the ,greek alchemists of preceding centuries are silent4 ,there is no saltpetre in the earliest recipe we possess for ,greek fire1 ,no4 #bf of the ,liber ,ignium1#bj ascribed to one ,marcus ,grcus1 either as given in the ,paris ,,mss4 of #acjj1 or in the ,munich ,,ms4 of #adch4 ,it is true that the phrase sal coctus in this recipe has been translated by saltpetre in ,m4 ,hfer's untrustworthy ,histoire de la ,chimie1 but as ,,mm4 ,reinaud and ,fav remark3 8,rien n'autorise traduire ainsi2 le sel ordinaire a t souvent employ dans les artifices40#ba ,there is no instance in ,latin1 ,i believe1 of saltpetre being designated otherwise than by sal petr 7or petrosus71 or by nitrum1 singly or in combination with some other word1 as spuma nitri4 ,the substitution of sal petr for sal coctus1 in later editions of the recipe1 only shows that when the valuable properties of saltpetre became known it was employed instead of common salt4 ,the very fact of the change having been made by most of the later alchemists1 proves that to them sal coctus did not mean sal petr1 but something else4 ,if sal coctus had meant sal petr1 what need was there for the change8 ,this change1 however1 was not universal4 ,in the version of recipe #bf1 given in the ,livre de ,canonnerie et ,artifice de ,feu1 published in ,paris in #aefa1 but written long before by a fire-worker well acquainted with saltpetre1 we find3 8prenez soufre vif1 tarte1 farcocoly 7sarcocolla71 peghel 7pitch71 sarcosti 7sal coctum71 c40#bb ,the word coquo 7to boil or evaporate7 was necessarily connected with the preparation of common salt by evaporation1#bc and coctus would correctly distinguish evaporated or artificial salt from natural or rock salt4 ,in his 8,natural ,history10 xxxi4 #ci 7#g71 ,pliny tells us that salt is found round the edges of certain lakes in ,sicily which are partially dried up in summer by the heat of the sun2 while in ,phrygia1 where much greater evaporation takes place 7ubi largius coquitur71 a lake is dried up 7and salt is deposited7 to its very middle4 ,sal coctus was salt recovered from salt water by natural or artificial heat1 as distinguished from natural1 or rock salt1 which was dug out of the ground4#bd ,the ,arab alchemists before the thirteenth century are as silent as the ,greeks3 nothing that can be identified with saltpetre is to be found in their voluminous works4 ,the evidence of ,geber1 so often cited to prove that saltpetre was known to the ,arabs in the ninth century1 has been stripped of all authority by ,m4 ,berthelot1 who has satisfactorily proved that there were two ,gebers4 ,the real ,arab1 ,jabir1 says nothing of saltpetre1 but he mentions a salve used by naphtha-throwers#be as a safeguard against burns4 ,the other ,geber1 or pseudo-,jabir1 was acquainted with saltpetre1 as well he might be2 for he was a western who lived some time about the year #acjj1bf and wrote a number of ,latin works falsely purporting to be translations from the ,arabic of the real ,jabir4 ,all doubt about the matter has been removed by ,m4 ,berthelot's publication of the real ,jabir's ,arabic writings4#bg ,it has been also suspected that the sal ,indicus of the ,liber ,sacerdotum1 cir4 tenth century1#bh a salt again mentioned in the ,liber ,secretorum of ,bubacar1 cir4 #ajjj1bi means saltpetre4 ,both these works are translations from the ,arabic or ,persian1#cj and sal ,indicus is the literal translation of the ,persian-- 7nimaki ,hindi7 7nimaki siyah7 salt of bitumen2 a substance of the same family as the 8salt of naphtha0 also mentioned by ,bubacar4 ,there is no word for saltpetre in classical ,sanskrit1 sauverchala being a generic term for natural salts1 which corresponded to1 and was as comprehensive as the nitrum1 spuma nitri1 c41 of the ,west4 8,recent ,sanskrit formul for the preparation of mineral acids containing nitre1 mention this salt under the name of soraka4 ,this word1 however1 is not met with in any ,sanskrit dictionary1 and is evidently ,sanskritised from the vernacular sora1 a term of foreign origin40#ca ,both ,professor ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson and ,professor ,m4 ,williams1 in their ,sanskrit dictionaries1 8erroneously render yavakshara as saltpetre1 as also does ,colebrooke in his #8,amara-kosha4'0#cb ,the word means impure carbonate of potash obtained by the incineration of barley straw4#cc ,at length1 however1 notwithstanding coarse scales and clumsy apparatus1 the want of all means of registering time and temperature1 and the absence of any general principle to guide them in their researches1 the alchemists succeeded in differentiating certain natural salts from the rest1 and among them saltpetre4 ,the ,chinese were acquainted with it about the middle of the thirteenth century4#cd ,abd ,allah ibn al-,baythar1 who died at ,damascus in #abdh1 tells us that the flower of the stone of ,assos was called ,chinese snow by the ,egyptian physicians and bard 7i4e4 saltpetre7 by the 7,arab7 people of the ,west4#ce ,friar ,bacon1 whose ,de ,secretis was written before #abdi1 and ,hassan er-,rammah who wrote #abge-ie1 were thoroughly acquainted with the salt4 ,a grand chemical discovery had been made1 and saltpetre became known from ,china to ,spain4 ,the ,egyptians thought fit to call saltpetre 8,chinese snow10 but this does not justify the conclusion that the discovery was made by the ,chinese4 ,consider our own phrases 8,jerusalem0 artichoke1 8,welsh0 onion1 and 8,turkey0 cock4 ,jerusalem is a gardener's corruption of girasole1 the ,turkey came from ,america1 and the home of the ,welsh onion is ,siberia4 ,the ,persians called their native alkaline salt jamadi ,chini1 and no one will suggest that this substance came from ,china4 ,it is evident from the way in which it is mentioned by the alchemists of the thirteenth century1 and from their primitive methods of refining it1 that saltpetre was then in its infancy4 ,roger ,bacon speaks of it as one would speak of a substance recently discovered and still little known--8that salt which is called saltpetre0 7illius salis qui sal petr vocatur74#cf ,marcus ,grcus thought it necessary to explain what the word means1 in his #adth recipe which probably belongs to the latter years of the thirteenth century4#cg ,the methods of refining the salt given by ,marcus and ,hassan leave no possible doubt that in their time it had but just come into use4 ,it is true that ,bacon's method was much superior1 if the solution of his steganogram given in ,chap4 viii4 be accepted4 ,but it would have been past all explanation had the method of the greatest natural philosopher of the age been found to be no better than that of an ,arabic druggist or a ,european fireworker4 ,as the matter is one of the greatest importance1 the methods of all three are given in full1 together with that of ,whitehorne1 #aefj4 ,the ,waltham ,abbey method is added1 as a standard by which to judge them4 ,to admit of easy comparison1 the corresponding operations are marked with the same letter4 ,the five methods are summed up in ,table ,i4 ,,waltham ,,abbey1 #ahfj4 ,a4 ,preparation of grough from natural saltpetre4#ch ,natural saltpetre is dissolved in boiling water1 the insoluble impurities removed1 and the solution evaporated by the sun or artificial heat4 ,the solid residue is grough saltpetre1 and contains #a to #aj per cent4 of impurities1 consisting of the chlorides of potassium and sodium1 sulphates of potash1 soda1 and calcium1 vegetable matter1 sand1 and moisture4 ,b4 ,boiling the solution of grough saltpetre4 ,the grough saltpetre is placed in an open copper with a false bottom2 water is added1 and heat applied until the mixture boils at #aaj ,c4 ,c4 ,removal of the insoluble impurities4 ,the scum which rises to the surface during this operation is removed by ladles2 the sand and heavy impurities fall upon the false bottom1 which is removed just before the mixture boils4 ,the boiling is continued until the scum ceases to rise4 ,d4 ,second boiling of the solution4 ,cold water is added2 the solution is boiled for a few minutes1 and then allowed to cool somewhat4 ,e4 ,filtration4 ,at #ajd4e ,c4 the mother liquid is transferred to a tank with holes in its bottom1 closed by filters4 ,f4 ,use of wood-ash1 charcoal1 c4 ,if the impurities prevent the liquid from passing freely through the filters1 it is treated with glue1 wood-ash1 or1 better1 with a little animal charcoal1 which seizes on the impurities and rises to the top as scum4 ,g4 ,crystallisation4 ,the mother liquid filters into the crystallising trough at #gj4b to #fe4h ,c4 ,h4 ,stirring the depositing solution4 ,the solution is kept in constant agitation by poles whilst cooling1 in order that it may deposit in minute crystals1 called saltpetre flour4 ,large crystals contain more or less of the impure mother liquid4 ,i4 ,washing and drying4 ,the agitation is discontinued at #be4h ,c4 and the mother liquid drawn off4 ,the flour is drained on an inclined plane1 transferred to a washing vat1 where it is washed three times with cold water1 and then finally dried4 ,,whitehorne1 #aefj4 ,a4 ,preparation of grough from natural saltpetre4 ,on the bottom of a vessel pierced with 8three or fower littell holes0 is placed a linen cloth1 8or else the end of a broom1 or some straw40 ,a layer of nitrified earth1 8a spanne thicknesse10 is laid on this1 and on the earth 8three fingers' thicknesse0 of a mixture of 8two parts of unslacked lime and three of oke asshes1 or other asshes4444 ,and so1 putting one rewe0 of saltpetre alternately with one of the mixture1 8you shall fill the tubbe 444 within a spanne of 7its mouth71 and the rest you will fill with water40 ,the water1 on percolating through the mass1 drips into a brass cauldron which1 when two-thirds full1 is boiled 8till it come to one-third part or thereabouts4 ,and after take it off and put it to settell in a great vessell10 when it is to be 8clarified and from earthe and grosse matter diligentlie purged40 ,b4 ,boiling the solution of grough saltpetre4 ,the solution is then 8taken and boyled of new40 ,f4 ,use of wood-ash1 animal charcoal1 c4 ,when the solution boils and throws up scum1 it is treated with a mixture of 8#c parts of oke asshes and #a of lime1 together with #d lbs4 of rock alum to every #ajj lbs4 of the mother liquid40 8,in a little time you shall see it alaie1 both clear and fair and of an azure colour40 ,c4 ,removal of insoluble impurities4 ,the heavy impurities1 which sink to the bottom1 are got rid of by pouring the clarified mother liquid into another vessel4 ,g4 ,crystallisation4 8,take it out and put it in vessels of woode or of earth that are rough within1 with certain sticks of wood1 to congeal40 ,i4 ,washing and drying4 8,this same saltpeter being taken from the sides of the vessel where it congealed1 and in the water thereof washed1 you must lay it upon a table to drie throughly40 ,f4#ci ,use of wood-ash1 animal charcoal1 c4 8,minding to have 7saltpetre7 above the common use1 for some purpose1 more purified1 c4 7which for to make exceeding fine powder1 or aqua fortis1 is most requisite so to be73--take of the aforesaid mixture 7,f7 444 and for every barrel of water you have put in the cauldron 444 you must put into it five potfulls0 of the mixture4 8,in the same quantity of water so prepared1 put so much saltpeter as it will dissolve40 ,d4 ,second boiling of the solution4 ,boil the whole until it 8resolve very well40 ,e4 ,filtration4 ,when the scum rises1 transfer the mother liquid to a tub with holes in the bottom1 on which is laid a linen cloth covered with a layer of sand four finger-breadths deep4 ,d4 ,third boiling of the solution4 ,the filtered liquid is boiled again 8in order to make the greater part of the water seeth away4444 ,make it boil so much until you see it ready to thicken1 pouring in now and then a little of the mixture0 7,f74 ,g4 ,final crystallisation4 ,the mother liquid is then transferred to wooden troughs 8to congeal10 for which three or four days are allowed4 8,after this sort thou shalt make the saltpeter most white and fair1 and much better than at the first setting40 8,,liber ,,ignium10 cir4 #acjj4 ,a4 ,preparation of grough from natural saltpetre4 ,if natural saltpetre is dissolved in boiling water1 cleansed1 and passed through a filter1 and boiled for a day and a night2 the 7grough7 saltpetre will be found deposited in crystals at the bottom of the vessel4 ,the original is as follows3-- 8,nota1 quod sal petrosum est minera terr et reperitur in scrophulis contra lapides4 ,hc terra dissolvitur in aqua bulliente1 postea depurata et distillata per filtrum et permittatur per diem et noctem integram decoqui1 et invenies in fundo laminas salis conielatas cristallinas40#dj ,,hassan ,,er-,,rammah1 #abge-ie4 ,a4 ,preparation of grough from natural saltpetre4 8,take white1 clean1 bright 7natural7 saltpetre ad lib41 and two new 7earthen7 jars4 ,put the saltpetre into one of them1 and add some water4 ,put the jar on a gentle fire until it gets warm0 7and the saltpetre dissolves4 ,skim off7 8the scum that rises0 7and7 8throw it away4 ,stir up the fire until the liquid becomes quite clear4 ,then pour it into the other jar in such a way that no scum remains attached to it4 ,place this jar on a low fire until the contents begin to coagulate4 ,then take it off the fire1 and beat 7the crystals7 gently40 ,f4 ,use of wood-ash1 animal charcoal1 c4 8,take dry willow wood1 burn it1 and plunge it into water according to the recipe for its incineration4 ,take three parts by weight of the saltpetre0 7just obtained71 8and the third of a part of the wood-ash1 which has been carefully pulverised1 and put the mixture into a jar--if made of brass1 so much the better40 ,b4 ,boiling the solution of grough saltpetre4 8,add water and apply heat1 until the ashes and saltpetre no longer adhere together4 ,beware of sparks40 ,the original is as follows3--#da ,,roger ,,bacon1 cir4 #abdh4 ,a4 ,preparation of grough from natural saltpetre4 ,carefully wash the natural saltpetre1 and 7as far as possible7 remove all impurities4 ,dissolve it in water over a gentle fire1 and boil it until the scum ceases to rise1 and it is purified and clarified4 ,let the operation be repeated again and again1 until the solution is clear and bright4 ,let it then deposit its crystals of the stone which is not a stone1#db and dry them in a warm place4 ,b4 ,boiling the solution of grough saltpetre4 ,pulverise the crystals of grough saltpetre thus obtained1 and immerse them in water4 ,make a powder of two purifying substances in the proportion of #c3b4 ,dissolve the crystals over a gentle fire4 ,f4 ,use of wood-ash1 charcoal1 c4 ,to the powder add some animal charcoal1 and thoroughly incorporate the ingredients 7in a vessel74 ,then pour the hot solution upon it1 and your object 7of clarifying the mother liquid7 will be gained4 ,c4 ,removal of the insoluble impurities4 ,if 7by its appearance and taste you judge that7 the solution is good1 pour it out 7into a crystallising vessel1 leaving the heavy impurities behind74 ,g4 ,crystallisation4 7,the mother liquid is now allowed to crystallise47 ,h4 ,stirring the depositing solution4 7,while depositing71 stir the solution with a pestle4 ,collect the crystals as best you can1 and gradually draw off the mother liquid4 ,the original is as follows3-- ,calcem diligenter purifica1 ut fiat terra pura penitus liberata ab aliis elementis4 ,dissolvatur in aqua cum igne levi1 ut decoquatur quatenus separetur pinguedo sua1 donec purgatur et dealbetur4 ,iteretur distillatio donec rectificetur3 rectificationis novissima signa sunt candor et crystallina serenitas4 ,ex hac aqua materia congelatur4 ,lapis vero ,aristotelis1 qui non est lapis1 ponitur in pyramide in loco calido4 ,accipe lapidem et calcina ipsum4 ,in fine parum commisce de aqua dulci2 et medicinam laxativam compone de duabus rebus quarum proportio melior est in sesquialtera proportione4 ,resolve ad ignem et mollius calefac4 ,mixto ex ,phnice adjunge1 et incorpora per fortem motum2 cui si liquor calidus adhibeatur1 habebis propositum ultimum4 ,evacuato quod bonum est4 ,regyra cum pistillo1 et congrega materiam ut potes1 et aquam separa paulatim4#dc ,,table ,i4 ,methods of ,refining ,saltpetre4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,roger ,bacon1 cir4 #abdh ,a ,b ,f ,c ,g ,h 444 444444444 444 ,hassan er-,rammah1 #abge-ie ,a ,f ,b 444444444444 444444444 444 ,liber ,ignium1 cir4 #acjj ,a 444444444444444444 444444444 444 ,whitehorne1 #aefj ,a ,b ,f ,c ,g ,i ,f ,d ,e ,d ,g ,waltham ,abbey1 #ahfj4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,a ,preparation of grough from natural saltpetre4 ,b ,boiling the solution of grough saltpetre4 ,c ,removal of insoluble impurities4 ,d ,second boiling of the solution4 ,e ,filtration4 ,f ,use of wood-ash1 animal charcoal1 c4 ,g ,crystallisation4 ,h ,stirring the depositing solution4 ,i ,washing and drying4 ,the simple and highly probable conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing facts is1 that saltpetre was not discovered until the second quarter of the thirteenth century2 but this conclusion is not universally accepted4 ,it is said by some that although saltpetre was unknown to the rest of the world until then1 it had been secretly used by the ,greeks for five hundred years4 ,this theory will be examined in the following chapter4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,greeks ,homer knew nothing apparently of incendiary compositions4 ,when the ,trojans set fire to the ,greek ships1 he certainly says that they burned with 8unquenchable flame0 7 71 ,iliad1 xvi4 #abc2 but this is a mere figure of speech1 for presently afterwards he tells us that ,patroclus extinguished the fire 7 ' 71 #bic4 ,the ,assyrian bas-reliefs in the ,british ,museum prove that liquid fire was used in warfare in very remote times4 ,whether the ,greeks adopted its use from the ,orientals or originated it themselves1 there is little evidence to show2 but traces of it are found at an early date1 for instance at the siege of ,syracuse1#dd #dac ,b4,c41 and the siege of ,rhodes1#de #cjd ,b4,c4 ,vessels full of burning matter were thrown1 at first by hand1 from walls and the tops of forts upon besiegers2 and when shell of suitable construction had been devised1 these missiles were discharged from machines4 ,the earliest instance of the use of firearms by the ,greeks is found in ,thucydides1 ii4 #ge1 where it is stated that at the siege of ,plata1 #dbi ,b4,c41 the ,platans found it necessary to protect a wooden wall by skins and hides against the fire-arrows 7 7 of their ,peloponnesian besiegers4 ,by the time of the ,roman ,empire1 fire-arrows were so well known as to be mentioned by the ,latin poets1#df and the historians speak of fire-lances which were discharged from machines#dg 7adact tormentis ardentes hast74 ,vegetius1 who lived in the fourth century ,a4,d41 gives the composition of fire-arrows2#dh and ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 who lived about the same time1 points out their defects4 ,first1 the fire-arrow had to be discharged with a low velocity--ictu enim rapidiore extinguitur2 it was extinguished by the cooling effect of the air when discharged with the full force of the bow4 ,secondly1 in addition to its low velocity 7and consequently limited range7 it was extinguished when covered with clay4#di ,however1 the composition was easy to light and hard to put out--even with clay or vinegar2 its viscosity enabled it to stick to the body it struck2 and1 becoming more and more fluid from the heat of combustion1 it 8spread like wild-fire40 ,but the use of incendiaries was not confined to grenades and arrows4 ,at the siege of ,plata1 just referred to1 the ,spartans piled up faggots of brushwood against the walls1 and1 after pouring a mixture of sulphur and pitch on the heap1 set fire to it in order to burn the town4#ej ,they would have gained their object but for a rainstorm which put out the fire4 ,we have here perhaps the earliest historical account of the composition of an incendiary--#dbi ,b4,c4 ,at the siege of ,delium1 #dbd ,b4,c41 a tree was cut down and hollowed out1 so as to form a tube1 and from one end of it1 which was protected by a covering of iron1 was hung a cauldron containing a burning mixture of charcoal1 sulphur1 and pitch4 ,into this cauldron was introduced an iron bellows-pipe1 leading from the end of the tree from which it hung4 ,having transported the machine close to the wall of the town 7the cauldron to the front71 the besiegers inserted the snout of a large bellows into the other end of the hollowed tree1 and blew them4 ,a great flame was thus produced2 the wall1 in which there was much wood1 was set on fire2 the heat of the fire and the vapour of the incendiary drove the defenders from the walls1 and the town fell4#ea ,its simplicity shows that the mixture belongs to the infancy of incendiaries in ,greece4 ,we meet with fire-ships as early as #dac ,b4,c41 when the ,syracusians employed one ineffectually against the ,athenian fleet2#eb and a special incendiary for naval use is recommended by neas1 the tactician1 about #cej ,b4,c4 ,it consisted of sulphur1 pitch1 incense1 pine-wood1 and tow4 ,the mixture was stowed in egg-shaped1 wooden vessels1 admirably adapted for their purpose1 which were thrown lighted upon the enemy's decks4#ec ,,table ,,ii4 ,greek ,fires4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- neas4#ed ,vegetius4#ee ,liber ,ignium4#ef ,kyeser4#eg ,wild ,fire4#fh ,carcass ,composition4#ei cir4 #cej ,b4,c4 cir4 ,a4,d4 #cej4 #abjj-abbe4 #adje4 #aefj4 #aijc4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,sulphur ,sulphur ,sulphur ,sulphur ,sulphur ,sulphur ,pitch ,bitumen ,pitch 444 ,pitch ,tallow ,pine-wood#fj ,rosin ,sarcocolla#fa 444 ,charcoal ,rosin ,incense ,naphtha ,petroleum ,petroleum ,turpentine ,turpentine ,tow 444 ,sal ,coctus#fb ,salfanium8 ,bay ,salt ,crude ,antimony 444 444 ,oil of ,gemma 444 444 444 444 444 ,tartarum#fc ,saltpetre ,saltpetre ,saltpetre ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,in such ways were incendiaries employed by the ,greeks for nearly eleven centuries after the siege of ,plata4 ,during this long period the composition was of course improved1 and the mixture of the seventh century ,a4,d4 burned more fiercely1 and was harder to put out than that of the fourth century ,b4,c42 but nevertheless the two mixtures were of the same species4 ,at length1 in the decade #fgj-hj1 a new species was devised4 ,for the sake of clearness1 the old incendiary mixtures will henceforward be called ,greek fire2 the new one 8sea-fire40 ,we are told by ,theophanes in his 8,chronography10 written #haa-hae1 that in the year #fgc an architect called ,kallinikos#fd fled from ,heliopolis in ,syria to the ,romans 7i4e4 ,constantinople71 and eventually compounded a 8sea-fire0 which enabled them to burn large numbers of the ,moslem vessels engaged in the ,seven ,years' ,war1#fe #fga-fgg4 ,this incendiary was again employed with success against the ,moslems during their second attack against ,constantinople1 #gag1 and at the decisive naval victory over the ,russians under ,igor in #ida4 ,the evidence of ,theophanes about ,kallinikos is corroborated almost verbally by the ,emperor ,constantine ,,vii41 ,porphyrogenitus1 in ,chap4 xlviii4 of his 8,administration of the ,empire03 8,be it known that under the reign of ,constantine ,pogonatus 7#ffh-fhe7 one ,kallinikos1 who fled from ,heliopolis to the ,romans1 prepared a #8wet-fire' to be discharged from siphons1 by means of which the ,romans burned the fleet of the ,saracens at ,cyzicus and gained the victory40#ff ,it is true that when writing to his son 7in ,chap4 xiii4 of the same work7 the ,emperor gives 7or tells his son to give7 a different version of the invention of sea-fire3 8,if any persons venture to inquire of you how this fire is prepared1 withstand them and dismiss them with some such answer as this--that the secret was revealed by an angel to the first ,emperor ,constantine0 7,a4,d4 #cbc-ccg74fg ,but this passage only proves that the ,emperor was mendacious and his people superstitious4 ,there can be little doubt that this great invention was made by a ,greek for the ,greeks in the decade #fgj-fhj2 but what was the nature of the mixture8 ,all we know for certain about it is that it was a ,state secret1 was intended for sea service1 burned with much noise and vapour1 and was projected from siphons4 ,in other words1 the mixture fulfilled the following conditions3-- 7#a7 ,its composition could be kept secret4 7#b7 ,it had some close connection with the sea1 or water4 7#c7 ,it burned with much noise and smoke4 7#d7 ,it had some close connection with siphons1 or tubes4 ,the fact that the sea-fire was made a ,state secret proves that it did not belong to the same family as the ,greek fire of neas and ,vegetius which1 in one form or another1 had been known all over the ,east from time immemorial4 ,it was a new mixture--i4e4 either a mixture containing some substance not hitherto known1 or a mixture of known substances not hitherto combined together for warlike purposes4 ,many hold that an unknown substance was employed1 and1 further1 that it was no other than saltpetre4 ,we might1 of course1 fall back on the conclusion established in ,chap4 ii41 and reply that saltpetre was not discovered until the thirteenth century and could not have been used as an ingredient of an incendiary in the seventh century4 ,but the conclusion drawn in ,chap4 ii4 was not a certain one3 it was there characterised as highly probable4 ,saltpetre might possibly have been employed1 and a belief which is shared in by some good writers deserves respectful consideration4 ,we have1 therefore1 to investigate how far a saltpetre mixture would satisfy the above four conditions4 ,there was absolutely nothing to attract public attention in the purchase from time to time of common1 well-known substances1 such as sulphur1 quicklime1 naphtha1 c4 c41 by the authorities of the ,arsenal2 but the suspicions of the spies and traitors1 always to be found in ,constantinople1#fh would have been instantly roused by the importation of any new or rare substance such as saltpetre4 ,and whence could saltpetre have come8 ,m4 ,berthelot recognises the importance of this question1 although he cannot answer it3 8,comment se procurait-on le salptre8444 ,aucun renseignment n'est venu nous l'apprendre4 ,ce point pourtant est capital40#fi ,saltpetre would naturally have been obtained from the countries where it was most abundant and cheapest--from the ,east2 but the ,greeks could not have relied upon this source of supply1 for whenever political complications arose between the ,emperor and the ,caliph--and they were interminable--the ports of ,egypt and ,syria were closed against ,greek ships4 ,however1 saltpetre did not grow in the streets of ,constantinople3 the natural salt 7if used7 must have been collected somewhere1 and sold to ,government by someone1 and transported somehow to the capital2 and what despot could have tied the tongues of collectors1 merchants1 sailors1 and porters8 ,the mere facts that only one ,state trafficked in saltpetre1 that this ,state only bought it in time of war1 and that this ,state alone employed sea-fire1 would have immediately betrayed the secret of its composition to these men1 and what was known to them was known to the world4 ,it is most improbable that the use of saltpetre could have been concealed for one year1 much less the five hundred years during which the secret of the sea-fire was successfully guarded4 ,i may be reminded of the ,emperor ,constantine ,,vii4's statement 7in ,chap4 xiii4 of his 8,administration1 c4071 that on one occasion a ,roman general1 corrupted by a large bribe1 did reveal the secret and shortly afterwards1 when entering a church1 was consumed by fire which fell from heaven upon him4 ,the story is obviously legendary4 ,the venal general is as unreal as the fire from heaven2 he is merely introduced to us as 8an awful example10 and we cannot endow him with reality by rejecting the fire4 ,the claim of the ,marquess ,carabbas to reality is not established by denying the existence of ,puss-in-,boots4 ,had the secret been divulged the sea-fire would have been used against the ,greeks1 and no mixture that can be identified with it ever was4 ,a saltpetre mixture1 then1 would not1 in all probability1 have fulfilled the first condition1 nor would it have fulfilled the second4 ,there is no conceivable connection between saltpetre and the sea1 or water in general4 ,a saltpetre mixture 7of suitable proportions7 would have proved a much better incendiary than ,greek fire1 but it would have acted as effectively from a fort as from a ship4 ,indeed1 if we consider the ill effect of the moist sea air on the impure saltpetre of early times1 we are justified in saying that the action of such mixtures on land would have been better1 in general1 than at sea4 ,a saltpetre mixture would have fulfilled the third condition by burning with much noise and smoke1 which we may suppose to be the essential meaning of the ,emperor ,leo's phrase1 8thunder and smoke40#gj ,we cannot reasonably attach greater significance to one of the commonest of all metaphors1 thunder1 which has been applied times unnumbered to the human voice1 to the bursting of a child's cracker1#ga and to the whirring of a dart4 8,never burst such peals from the thunder-cloud10 says ,vergil1 as were produced by the javelin thrown by neas4#gb ,as regards the fourth condition1 the above statement of the ,emperor ,constantine about sea-fire and siphons#gc completely justifies us in concluding that there was some necessary connection between the two things4 ,now1 there was no necessary connection between saltpetre mixtures1 even when explosive1 and siphons4 ,small quantities of such mixtures could have been1 and eventually were1 thrown by hand1 in grenades1 like ,greek fire4 ,saltpetre mixtures1 therefore1 would not have fulfilled the fourth condition4 ,the result of the foregoing inquiry is1 that a saltpetre mixture would have only fulfilled one1 the third1 of the four conditions to which the sea-fire was subject2 and we have now to cast about for some mixture of known substances1 not hitherto combined together for warlike purposes1 which would have fulfilled them all4 ,a clue to the composition of the ,kallinikos mixture may perhaps be found in its ,greek name1 8sea-fire0 or 8wet-fire40 ,one substance had long been known with whose combustion water was closely connected--quicklime1 and with its properties ,kallinikos1 as an architect1 must have been perfectly familiar4 ,its temperature rises--to #aej ,c4 7#cjb ,f47 if the quantity be large--when sprinkled with water1 and it can consequently be employed to ignite substances with low points of ignition4 ,for example1 if a mixture of quicklime and naphtha be thrown into water1 the rapid rise in temperature of the lime causes a sudden and strong development of vapour from the naphtha1 which on mixing with the air becomes highly explosive4 ,such a mixture1 it is almost unnecessary to add1 could not be handled with safety after it has been wet4 ,plutarch was aware of the explosive nature of naphtha vapour4 8,naphtha10 he says1 8is like bitumen1 and is so easy to set on fire that1 without touching it with any flame1 it will catch light from the rays which are sent forth from a fire1 burning the air which is between both40#gd ,pliny speaks of the heat developed by quicklime when sprinkled with water4 8,it is strange10 he says1 8that what has already been burnt should be ignited by water0 7mirum aliquid1 postquam arserit1 accendi aquis74#ge ,the same property is implicitly referred to in the 8,kestoi10 attributed to ,sextus ,julius ,africanus of ,emaus1 who lived under ,alexander ,severus1 #bbb-bce4 ,the military portions of this work1 however1 must have been written long afterwards1 in the end of the sixth or the beginning of the seventh century at the earliest2 for ,belisarius1 who was born in #eje1 is mentioned in the sixty-sixth chapter4#gf ,in the forty-fifth chapter there is a recipe for a quicklime-asphalt composition1 which is called 8automatic fire40 ,this mixture was used by jugglers to exhibit 8spontaneous combustion10 a little water being secretly poured on a plate on which a ball of the composition was placed4#gg ,it contained very little quicklime 7 74 ,cameniata tells us that at the storming of ,salonika in #ijd the ,moslems threw 8pitch and torches and quicklime0 over the walls4#gh ,by 8quicklime0 he probably meant the earthenware hand grenades1 filled with wet quicklime1 described by the ,emperor ,leo1 who then sat on the throne 7#hhf-iaa74 8,the vapour of the quicklime10 he says1 8when the pots are broken1 stifles and chokes the enemy and distracts his soldiers40#gi ,the simplest and most probable explanation of the nature of the sea-fire then is1 that it was a sulphur-quicklime-naphtha mixture of the same family as those shown in the following ,table4 ,,table ,,iii4 ,sea-,fires4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,liber ,ignium4#hj ,liber ,ignium4#ha ,de ,mirabilibus4#hb ,kyeser4#hc ,hartlieb4#hd cir4 #acjj4 cir4 #acej cir4 #acej4 #adje4 cir4 #adbe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,sulphur4 ,sulphur4 ,sulphur4 ,sulphur4 ,sulphur7,oil of74 ,quicklime4 ,quicklime4 ,quicklime4 ,quicklime4 ,quicklime4 ,oil ,turpentine4 ,naphtha4 ,petroleum4 ,mastic4 ,gum ,arabic4 444 ,wax4 ,wax4 ,gum ,arabic4 444 444 ,oil of ,balm4 444 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,n4,b4--,none of these mixtures professes to be the official ,greek sea-fire1 the exact composition of which is unknown2 but the 8,de ,mirabilibus0 mixture is probably a close approximation to it4 ,although called sea-fires here1 they were not so called by their western authors1 who were ignorant of the use and even of the name of sea-fire4 ,the first four recipes are described as mixtures which will ignite 8when rain falls upon them40 ,hartlieb alone foresaw that such mixtures would ignite 8if thrown upon water40 ,such a mixture would have completely fulfilled the four conditions already mentioned4 ,first1 the secret of its composition was easy to keep1 since it lay in the choice and proportions of known ingredients2 not in the use of one special and unknown substance 7such as saltpetre71 smuggled privily into the ,arsenal#he with a mystery which was certain to excite the curiosity of a people who 8spent their time in nothing else1 but either to tell or to hear some new thing40 ,secondly1 it was literally a 8sea-fire0 or 8wet-fire10--a fire which was ignited by water and which burned on its surface4 ,thirdly1 its combustion gave rise to a considerable volume of vapour and a series of small explosions in the air4 ,fourthly1 from the mode of its combustion it was unsafe to handle after ignition1 and it was necessarily discharged from siphons4 ,this simple explanation of the sea-fire#hf sweeps away the insurmountable difficulties raised by the saltpetre theory4 ,we have no longer to believe in the patriotic silence of ,byzantine officials1 workmen and sailors1 maintained for five hundred years2 we have no longer to admit reluctantly that saltpetre was known in ,greece1 where it occurs in comparatively scanty quantity1 five hundred years before it was known in the great natural storehouse of this salt1 ,asia2 we have no longer to suspect the whole body of ,greek writers on alchemy and pharmacy1 from the seventh to the thirteenth century1 of having entered into a vast conspiracy of silence to hide their knowledge of saltpetre from the barbarians2 we are no longer left wondering whence the ,greeks got their saltpetre1 and why they gave the name of 8sea-fire0 to a mixture in no way connected with the sea2 and we are no longer perplexed by the fact that the earliest recipes for ,greek fire contain no saltpetre4#hg ,it remains to inquire how the sea-fire was expelled from the siphons4 ,there were two kinds of siphons1 large siphons and hand-siphons4 ,of the hand-siphons there were several patterns4 ,some seem to have been thrown by hand1 like squibs2#hh from others1 mentioned by ,cameniata1 the charge was projected by air#hi--presumably by a bellows or some such contrivance2 while in a third kind1 described by the ,princess ,anna1 a pellet was blown by the breath through a flame placed before the front end of the tube4#ij ,the two latter siphons were of the same species1 and as ,anna's was charged with ,greek fire#ia we may suppose ,cameniata's took a similar charge4 ,the large sea-fire siphon was fixed in the bow of the ship and served by the two foremost rowers1 one of whom laid the siphon and was called the siphonator1 while the other1 we may suppose1 loaded it4 ,the siphon was mounted on a swivel1 as may be gathered from the account given by the ,princess ,anna of the naval battle fought near the island of ,rhodes in #aajc by the ,greeks and the ,pisans4 ,the latter were terrified1 she says1 by an apparatus which directed on them fire of an extraordinary nature4 8,ordinary flame rises upwards1 but this flame shot downwards and sideways as well1 at the will of the gunner40#ib ,unless the siphon was mounted on a swivel1 the phrase which ,i have translated by 8at the will of the gunner0 7' 7 would be meaningless4 ,in his ,recherche sur le ,feu ,grgeois1 p4 #bc1 ,m4 ,chrtien-,lalanne maintains that the incendiary was expelled from the siphon by means of a spring4 ,this theory is inadmissible1 for helical springs are not heard of until long after the time in question4 ,further1 the ancients possessed no means of condensing air to the degree necessary for the projection of a heavy body over even the short ranges of the ,dark ,ages1 and steam power had hardly been recognised at all4#ic ,therefore1 it has been urged1 the incendiary must have been expelled from the siphon by means of an explosive saltpetre mixture1 this being the only way of effecting the object that remained at the disposal of the ancients4 ,as will be seen presently1 there remained a simple and efficacious method1 involving very little expense and no danger whatever2 a fact which in itself would be sufficient to meet the above argument in favour of saltpetre1 even were it unsupported by the evidence already brought forward in ,chap4 ii4 to show that saltpetre had not been yet discovered at the time in question1 and the evidence adduced in the present chapter to prove that in fact it was not used4 ,further1 the supposition that an explosive was employed is excluded by the construction of the siphon1 which was made of wood4 ,such is the only reasonable explanation that can be given of the ,emperor ,leo's order that the siphons should be 8cased with bronze40#id ,had they been of metal1 a casing of bronze would have been a useless complication2 but1 being of wood1 an internal casing of metal was absolutely necessary to protect them from the flame of the burning composition4 ,only one round probably could have been fired from a wooden tube by means of an explosive1 and that round in most cases would have been more fatal to the siphon detachment than to the enemy4 ,again1 as the projectile was simply a lump of oleaginous matter1 it would have been blown by an explosive cartridge into thousands of fragments1 each of them so small as to be worthless for incendiary purposes2 for the efficacy of an incendiary depends to a great extent on its containing a large quantity of matter4 ,since the use of springs1 compressed air1 and steam were impossible1 and the use of an explosive extremely improbable1 it only remains to examine the arguments for and against water as the motive power4 ,the ,emperor ,leo ,,vi4 speaks of the 8artificial fire discharged by means of siphons20#ie the ,emperor ,constantine ,,vii4 speaks similarly of 8the wet-fire projected by means of siphons20#if and if we translate siphon by tube both phrases are intelligible1 but neither gives any hint as to the means by which the mixture was expelled from the tubes4 ,but like so many other military words1 siphon has 7at least7 two meanings1 and signifies not only a tube1 but a fire-engine1 or water-engine1 or squirt4 ,heron of ,alexandria 7cir4 #acj ,b4,c47 begins his description of a fire-engine with the words3 8,the siphons used for the extinction of fire are made as follows40#ig ,pliny the ,younger 7cir4 #ajj ,a4,d471 in a letter to the ,emperor ,trajan about a fire which had taken place in the town of ,nicomedia1 observes that 8there was not a sipho1 nor even a bucket1 at hand to quench it40#ih ,hesychius in his ,greek ,lexicon1 about the end of the fourth century1 gives under 3 8an apparatus for pumping water in conflagrations40#ii ,if we translate siphon by water-engine1 as we are perfectly justified in doing1 we find that the phrases used by the two ,emperors are not only intelligible1 but indicate both the mode of projection and the mode of ignition of the sea-fire4 ,the lump of quicklime-naphtha-sulphur was projected1 and at the same time ignited1 by applying the hose of a water-engine to the breech of the tube1 which thus became an integral part of the apparatus to which it gave its name4 ,two obscure passages in ,byzantine works1 which hitherto have never been satisfactorily explained1 are made clear by this interpretation4 ,the first occurs in the 8,tactics0 of ,constantine ,,viii41 where he directs 8#8flexible' 7apparatus7 with 7artificial7 fire1 siphons1 hand-siphons1 and manjaniks0 to be employed1 if they are at hand1 against any tower that may be advanced against the wall of a besieged town4#ajj ,the 8flexible0 apparatus cannot refer to the helical springs of a later age4 ,neither can it mean crossbows1 for the ,princess ,anna1 who wrote a century after ,constantine1 expressly says3 8,the crossbow 7tzangra7 is a foreign weapon 7hitherto7 unknown in the ,greek service40#aja ,that it cannot mean longbows is quite certain from the second of the obscure passages in question1 which occurs in the 8,alexiad03 8,in the bow of each ship he 7the ,admiral7 put the heads of lions and other land animals1 made of brass and iron1 gilt1 so as to be 7quite7 frightful to look at2 and he arranged that from their mouths1 which were 7wide7 open1 should issue the fire to be delivered by the soldiers by means of 7or through7 the #8flexible' apparatus40#ajb ,the enemy might have exclaimed with the ,jewish king3 8,they gaped upon me with their mouths1 as a ravening and as a roaring lion40 ,but whatever the moral effect of these trumpery scarecrows--if ever actually used--it is certain that archers with longbows could not have shot fire-arrows through them with any success2 and the meaning of ,emperor and ,princess remains hidden until we interpret 8flexible instrument0 as the leathern hose of a pump or water-engine1 than which nothing can be more flexible4 ,the import of both passages then becomes perfectly plain4 ,such a mode of discharging incendiaries is by no means unknown in later military history4 8,dans une exprience faite au ,havre1 #ageh1 avec une pompe huile de naphte1 dont le jet tait enflamm par une mche allume1 on brla mme une chaloupe40#ajc ,at the siege of ,charleston1 #ahfc1 not only was solidified ,greek fire in tin tubes employed1#ajd but coal naphtha placed in shells or pumped through hose4#aje ,finally1 ,m4 ,berthelot speaks of 8les propositions faites1 pendant le sige de ,paris 7#ahgj71 pour repousser les ennemis au moyen de pompes projetant des jets de ptrole enflamm4 ,mais cet agent 444 n'a t mis rellement l'preuve que par la ,commune1 pour brler nos palais40#ajf ,when the ,crusades began in #ajig ,greeks were thus in possession of two species of incendiaries3 the sea-fire which was distinctively and exclusively ,greek1 and the old mixture of the neas family which was known all over the ,east4 ,yet it was to the latter that the name 8,greek fire0 was given by the ,crusaders1 who1 ,i believe1 had neither experience nor knowledge of the sea-fire4 ,the only passage ,i can recall among the old writers in which the two fires are discriminated and correctly named occurs in the metrical romance 8,richard ,coer-de-,lion10 temp4 ,edward ,i4 7#abgb-acjg73-- 8,kyng ,richard1 oute of hys galye1 ,caste wylde-fyr into the skye ,and fyr ,gregeys into the see4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the see brent all off fyr ,gregeys0 7#bfbg74ajg ,historically this passage is probably worthless2 but1 whether deliberately or by accident1 the poet indicates the real distinction between the two fires4 ,it was the sea-fire1 the true ,greek fire1 which was thrown or fell into the sea2 while the wild-fire1 misnamed 8,greek fire0 by the ,crusaders1 was flung 8into the sky0 to descend on the heads of the enemy4 ,in the preceding pages ,i have adopted the ,crusaders' nomenclature1 because it is now too late to rectify their blunder4 ,during the siege of ,stirling ,castle1 #acjd1 ,edward ,i4 8gave orders for the employment of ,greek fire1 with which he had probably become acquainted in the ,east40#ajh ,it was also made use of by the ,flemish engineer1 ,crab1 who took an active part in the defence of ,berwick when besieged by ,edward ,,ii4 in #acai3-- 8,and pyk 7pitch7 and ter 7tar7 als haiff thai tane1 ,and lynt 7fat7 and herdes 7refuse of flax7 and brymstane1 ,and dry treyis 7trees or wood7 that wele wald brin 7burn740#aji ,we again made use of ,greek fire in the defence of the ,castle of ,breteuil1 and in the attack on the ,castle of ,romorentin1 in #acef2aaj but no record remains of its composition or of the way in which it was projected4 ,it was no doubt similar to ,whitehorne's wild-fire of #aefj1 given in ,table ,,ii4 ,as late as #aega ,greek fire was poured down on the heads of the ,turks1 in the primitive fashion1 by the ,venetians in the defence of ,famagusta4#aaa ,the phrase 8,greek fire0 never took root in ,england1 where 8wild-fire0 was early substituted for it4 ,wild-fire is found in ,robert of ,gloucester's 8,chronicle10#aab of the same date as 8,richard ,coer-de-,lion40 ,according to the ,promptorium ,parvulorum1 an ,english-,latin dictionary compiled in #addj by ,galfridus1 a ,dominican of ,lynn ,episcopi in ,norfolk1 the phrases 8,greek fire0 and 8wild-fire0 were then synonymous2 for he gives as the ,latin equivalents of the latter--8ignis ,pelasgus1 vel ignis pelagus1 vel ignis ,grcus40 ,among the ammunition supplied to the troops sent to ,scotland under ,lord ,lennox in #aede1 we find 8xx tronckes charged with wylde fyer40#aac ,whitehorne gives a plate of these tronckes or trombes1 which were hollow wooden cylinders1 8as bigge as a man's thigh and the length of an ell10 filled with the mixture given in ,table ,,ii4 for the sixteenth century4 ,in ,phillips' ,english ,dictionary1 #agjf1 wild-fire is described as 7#a7 8a sort of fire invented by the ,grecians about ,a4,c4 #ggg10 and 7#b7 8gunpowder rolled up wet and set on fire40 ,it is used in the latter sense in 8,robinson ,crusoe10 published in #agai4 ,before an attack on the ,indians1 the sailors 8made some wild-fire 444 by wetting a little powder in the palms of their hands0 7,part ii4 chap4 #ba74 ,the word is only heard now in the phrase 8spreads like wildfire40 ,but though its names have passed away1 the thing remains4 ,greek fire was used at the siege of ,charleston in #ahfc2 in #ahgj ,m4 ,berthelot watched its effects when thrown into ,paris by ,german guns2 we ourselves possess it to this day in our ,carcass composition4#aad ,the sea-fire1 on the other hand1 was comparatively short-lived1 and ,i can find no certain evidence of its employment after the year #abjj4 ,its disappearance is easily accounted for4 ,from about the middle of the eleventh century the ,byzantines began to show signs of an ever-increasing disinclination for war-service either afloat or ashore1#aae a want of national honour and military energy which ,mr4 ,finlay ascribes to 8a general deficiency of common honesty and personal courage20#aaf and this moral degeneracy threw naval duties more and more into the hands of the ,venetians and other foreign mercenaries1 to whom the ,government may have been unwilling to make known the secret of the sea-fire4 ,this state of things did not escape the notice of ,benjamin of ,tudela1 a ,jewish traveller of the twelfth century3 87,les ,grecs7 entretiennent des soldats gages de toutes les ,nations qu'ils appellent ,barbares1 pour faire la guerre au ,roi des ,peuples de ,togarma appellez ,turcs4 ,car les ,grecs eux-mmes n'ont ni cur ni courage pour la guerre4 ,aussi sont-ils reputez comme les femmes qui n'ont aucune force pour combattre40#aag ,matters came to a crisis in #abjj3 in this year ,michael ,struphnos1 the admiral commanding1 sold the naval stores at ,constantinople and appropriated the proceeds of the sale4#aah ,when1 therefore1 the pious warriors of the ,fourth ,crusade turned their arms against their fellow-,christians and beleaguered the city in ,april #abjd1 there was no sea-fire at hand for use against their ships1 and an attempt to burn them by means of sixteen ordinary fire-ships was foiled by the activity of the ,venetian sailors4#aai ,the accession of the ,latin dynasty to the throne of ,constantinople in this year was a serious hindrance to the reemployment of sea-fire4 ,the ,latins were ignorant of its composition1 and they were not likely to gain information upon the subject from the few ,greeks who were acquainted with it2 for these ,christians did not love one another4 ,finally1 saltpetre was discovered not many years afterwards1 and its substitution for customary ingredients in the later editions of existing 8,fire-books0#abj proves that it was utilised without delay for ,greek fire1 which thus became a more formidable incendiary than sea-fire4 ,the ,greeks had no hand in the invention of cannon4 ,one of their historians of the fifteenth century1 when speculating on the subject in his narrative for the year #achi1 says the ,germans were commonly believed to have been the inventors4#aba ,could the ,greeks1 then1 have been in possession of saltpetre-mixtures many centuries before8 ,is it credible that people with intellect as keen as the ,greeks employed an explosive for long ages without hitting upon the idea of metal guns8 ,yet judging from the manner in which ,chalcocondyles speaks of cannon in his narrative for #addf1 they were even then but little known to the ,greeks4 8,cannon10 he tells his countrymen1 8are formidable instruments1 which no armour can resist1 and which penetrates through everything40#abb ,no historian of the ability of ,chalcocondyles would have spoken in this manner about an arm which was well known4 ,the fact that the first recorded use of fire-arrows on ,greek soil was made by ,persian archers1#abc lends some probability to the view that ,greek fire was originally borrowed from the ,east2 but the ,greeks assuredly invented the sea-fire which was the palladium of the ,empire for several centuries4 ,to the discovery of saltpetre they have no legitimate claim4 ,the claim put forward in their name is based partly on a metaphor1#abd partly on the assumption that the effects of sea-fire could have been only produced by a mixture containing saltpetre2 and it cannot be sustained4 ,the hypothesis that ,kallinikos compounded a saltpetre mixture ignores the highly probable conclusion that saltpetre was not discovered until the thirteenth century2#abe fails to explain some statements1 and is irreconcilable with other statements made by the ancients2 and involves many incredible consequences4 ,it may be objected that this conclusion has been arrived at without taking the evidence of the chief witness for the ,greeks1 ,marcus ,grcus4 ,let us examine his ,liber ,ignium4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,marcus ,,gr,,cus 7,du ,theil's text#abf with ,berthelot's numeration7 ,incipit ,liber ,ignium a ,marco ,grco descriptus1 cuius virtus et efficacia ad comburendos hostes tam in mari quam in terra plurimum efficax reperitur2 quorum primus hic est4 #a4 ,recipe sandarac pur libram ,i41 armoniaci liquidi ana4 ,haec simul pista et in vase fictili vitreato et luto sapienti diligenter obturato deinde 7872 donec liquescat ignis subponatur4 ,liquoris vero istius haec sunt signa1 ut ligno intromisso per foramen ad modum butyri videatur4 ,postea vero ,,iv4 libras de alkitran grco infundas4 ,haec autem sub tecto fieri prohibeantur1 quum periculum immineret4 ,cum autem in mari ex ipso operari volueris1 de pelle caprina accipies utrem1 et in ipsum de hoc oleo libras ,,ii4 intromittas4 ,si hostes prope fuerint1 intromittes minus1 si vero remoti fuerint1 plus mittes4 ,postea vero utrem ad veru ferreum ligabis1 lignum adversus veru grossitudinem faciens4 ,ipsum veru inferius sepo perungues1 lignum prdictum in ripa succendes1 et sub utre locabis4 ,tunc vero oleum sub veru et super lignum distillans accensum super aquas discurret1 et quidquid obviam fuerit concremabit4 #b4 ,et sequitur alia species ignis qu comburit domos inimicorum in montibus sitas1 aut in aliis locis1 si libet4 ,recipe balsami sive petrolii libram ,i41 medul cann ferul libras sex1 sulphuris libram ,i41 pinguedinis arietin liquefact libram ,i41 et oleum terebenthin sive de lateribus vel anethorum4 ,omnibus his collectis sagittam quadrifidam faciens de confectione prdicta replebis4 ,igne autem intus reposito1 in arem cum arcu emittes2 ibi enim sepo liquefacto et confectione succensa1 quocumque loco cecidit1 comburit illum2 et si aqua superjecta fuerit1 augmentabitur flamma ignis4 #c4 ,alius modus ignis ad comburendos hostes ubique sitos4 ,recipe balsamum1 oleum thiopi1 alkitran et oleum sulphuris4 ,haec quidem omnia in vase fictili reposita in fimo diebus ,,xiv4 subfodias4 ,quo inde extracto1 corvos eodem perunguens ad hostilia loca sive tentoria destinabis4 ,oriente enim sole1 ubicumque illud liquefactum fuerit1 accendetur4 ,unde semper ante solis ortum aut post occasum ipsius prcipimus esse mittendos4 #d4 ,oleum vero sulphuris sic fit4 ,recipe sulphuris uncias quattuor1 quibus in marmoreo lapide contritis et in pulverum redactis1 oleum iuniperi quattuor uncias admisces et in caldario pone1 ut1 lento igne supposito1 destillare incipiat4 #e4 ,modus autem ad idem4 ,recipe sulphuris splendidi quattuor uncias1 vitella ovorum quinquaginti unum contrita1 et in patella ferrea lento igne coquantur2 et quum ardere inceperit1 in altera parte patellae declinans1 quod liquidius emanabit1 ipsum est quod quris1 oleum scilicet sulphuricum4 #f4 ,sequitur alia species ignis1 cum qua1 si opus1 subeas hostiles domus vicinas4 ,recipe alkitran1 boni1 olei ovorum1 sulphuris quod leviter frangitur ana unciam unam4 ,qu quidem omnia commisceantur4 ,pista et ad prunas appone4 ,quum autem commixta fuerint1 ad collectionem totius confectionis quartem partem cer nov adicies1 ut in modum cataplasmatis convertatur4 ,quum autem operari volueris1 vesicam bovis vento repletam accipias et in foramen in ea faciens cera supposita ipsam obturabis4 ,vesica tali prscripta spissime oleo peruncta cum ligno marubii1 quod ad haec invenietur aptius1 accenso ac simul imposito1 foramen aperies2 ea enim semel accensa et a filtro quo involuta fuerit extracta1 in ventosa nocti sub lecto vel tecto inimici tui supponatur4 ,quocumque enim ventus eam sufflaverit1 quidquid propinquum fuerit1 comburetur2 et si aqua projecta fuerit1 letales procreabit flammas4 #g4,sub pacis namque specie missis nuntiis1 ad loca hostilia bacleos gerentes excavos hac materia repletos et confectione1 qui jam prope hostes fuerint1 quo fungebuntur ignem jam per domos et vias fundentes4 ,dum calor solis supervenerit1 omnia incendio comburentur4#abg ,recipe sandaracae 7libram1 cerae7#abh libram3 in vase vero fictili1 ore concluso1 liquescat4 ,quum autem liquefacta fuerint1 medietatem libr olei lini et sulphuris superadjicies4 ,qu quidem omnia in eodem vase tribus mensibus in fimo ovino reponantur1 verum tamen fimum ter in mense renovando4 #h4 ,ignis quem invenit ,aristoteles quum cum ,alexandro ad obscura loca iter ageret1 volens in eo per mensem fieri id quod sol in anno prparat4 ,ut in spera de auricalco1 recipe seris rubicundi libram ,i41 stanni et plumbi1 limatur ferri1 singulorum medietatem libr4 ,quibus pariter liquefactis1 ad modum astrolabii lamina formetur lata et rotunda4 ,ipsam eodem igne perunctam ,x4 diebus siccabis1 duodecies iterando3 per annum namque integrum ignis idem succensus nullatenus deficiet4 ,qu enim inunctio ultra annum durabit4 ,si vero locum quempiam inunguere libeat1 eo desiccato1 scintilla qulibet diffusa ardebit continue1 nec aqua extingui poterit4 ,et haec est prdicti ignis compositio4 ,recipe alkitran1 colophonii1 sulphuris crocei1 olei ovorum sulphurici4 ,sulphur in marmore teratur4 ,quo facto universum oleum superponas4 ,deinde tectoris limaginem ad omne pondus acceptum insimul pista et inungue4 #i4 ,et sequitur alia species ignis1 quo ,aristoteles domos in montibus sitas destruere incendio ait1 ut et mons ipse subsideret4 ,recipe balsami libram ,i41 alkitran libras ,v41 oleum ovorum et calcis non extinctae libras ,x4 ,calcem teras cum oleo donec una fiat massa2 deinde inunguas lapides ex ipso et herbas ac renascentias quaslibet in diebus canicularibus1 et sub fimo eiusdam regionis sub fossa dimittes2 postea#abi namque autumnalis pluvi dilapsu succenditur4 ,terram et indigenas comburit igne ,aristoteles1 namque hunc ignem annis ,,ix4 durare asserit4 #aj4 ,compositio inextinguibilis et experta4 ,accipe#acj sulphur vivum1 colophonium1 asphaltum classam1 tartarum1 piculam navalem1 fimum ovinum aut columbinum4 ,hc pulverisa subtiliter petroleo2 postea in ampulla reponendo vitrea1 orificio bene clauso1 per dies ,,xv4 in fimo calido equino subhumetur1 ,extracta vero ampulla destillabis oleum in cucurbita lento igne ac cinere mediante1 calidissima ac subtili4 ,in quo si bombax intincta fuerit ac accensa1 omnia super qu arcu vel ballista proiecta fuerit1 incendio concremabit4 #aa4 ,nota quod omnis ignis inextinguibilis ,,iv4 rebus extingui vel suffocari poterit1 videlicet cum aceto acuto aut cum urina antiqua vel arena1 sive filtro ter in aceto imbibito et toties desiccato ignem iam dictum suffocas4 #ab4 ,nota quod ignis volatilis in are duplex est compositio2 quorum primus est3--recipe partem unam colophonii et tantum sulphuris vivi1 ,,ii4 partes vero salis petrosi et in oleo linoso vel lamii#aca quod est melius1 dissolvantur bene pulverisata et oleo liquefacta4 ,postea in canna vel ligno excavo reponatur et accendatur4 ,evolat enim subito ad quemcumque locum volueris1 et omnia incendio concremabit4 #ac4 ,secundus modus ignis volatilis hoc modo conficitur4 ,accipias libram ,i4 sulphuris vivi1 libras duas carbonum vitis vel salicis1 ,,vi4 libras salis petrosi2 quae tria subtilissima terantur in lapide marmoreo4 ,postea pulvis ad libitum in tunica reponatur volatili vel tonitrum faciente4 ,nota1 quod tunica ad volundum debet esse gracilis et longa et cum prdicto pulvere optime conculcato repleta4 ,tunica vero tonitrum faciens debet esse brevis et grossa et prdicto pulvere semiplena et ab utraque parte fortissime filo ferreo bene ligata4 ,nota1 quod in tali tunica parvum foramen faciendum est1 ut tenta imposita accendatur2 qu tenta in extremitatibus sit gracilis1 in medio vero lata et prdicto pulvere repleta4 ,nota1 quod qu ad volandum tunica1 plicaturas ad libitum habere potest2 tonitrum vero faciens1 quam plurimas plicaturas4 ,nota1 quod duplex poteris facere tonitrum atque duplex volatile instrumentum1 videlicet tunicam includendo4 #ad4 ,nota1 quod sal petrosum est minera terr et reperitur in scopulis et lapidibus4#acb ,haec terra dissolvatur in aqua bulliente1 postea depurata et destillata per filtrum1 permittatur per diem et noctem integram decoqui2 et invenies in fundo laminas salis congelatas cristallinas4 #ae4 ,candela qu1 si semel accensa fuerit1 non amplius extinguitur4 ,si vero aqua irrigata fuerit1 maius parabit incendium4 ,formetur sphaera de re ,italico2 deinde accipies calcis viv partem unam1 galbani mediam et cum felle testudinis ad pondus galbani sumpto conficies4 ,postea cantharides quot volueris accipies1 capitibus et alis abscisis1 cum aequali parte olei zambac1 teras et in vase fictili reposita1 ,,xi4 diebus sub fimo equino reponantur1 de quinto in quintum diem fimum renovando4 ,sic olei foetidi et crocei spiritum assument1 de quo sphram illinias2 qua siccata1 sepo inguatur1 post igne accendatur4 #af4 ,alia candela que continuum prstat incendium4 ,vermes noctilucas cum oleo zambac puro teres et in rotunda ponas vitrea1 orificio lutato cera ,grca et sale combusto bene recluso et in fimo1 ut iam dictum est1 equino reponenda4 ,quo soluto1 sphram de ferro ,indico vel auricalco undique cum penna illinias2 qu his iuncta et dessiccata igne succendatur et nunquam deficiet4 ,si vero attingit pluvia1 majus prstat incendii incrementum4 #ag4 ,alia qu semel incensa dat lumen diuturnum4 ,recipe noctilucas quum incipiunt volare1 et cum quali parte olei zambac commixta1 ,,xiv4 diebus sub fimo fodias equino4 ,quo inde extracto1 ad quartam partem istius assumas felles testudinis1 ad sex felles mustel1 ad medietatem fellis furonis4 ,in fimo repone1 ut iam dictum est4 ,deinde exhibe in quolibet vase lichnum1 cujuscumque generis1 pone de ligno aut latone vel ferro vel re4 ,ea tandem hoc oleo peruncta et accensa diuturnum prstat incendium4 ,haec autem opera prodigiosa et admiranda ,hermes et ,tholomeus#acc asserunt4 #ah4 ,hoc autem genus candel neque in domo clausa nec aperta neque in aqua extingui poterit4 ,quod est3 recipe fel testudinis1 fel marini leporis sive lupi aquatici de cuius felle ,tyriaca4 ,quibus insimul collectis quadrupliciter noctilucarum capitibus ac alis prcisis adicies1 totumque in vase plumbeo vel vitreo repositum in fimo subfodias equino1 ut dictum est1 quod extractum oleum recipias4 ,verum tum cum quali parte prdictorum fellium et quali noctilucarum admiscens1 sub fimo ,,xi4 diebus subfodias per singulares hebdomades fimum renovando2 quo iam extracto de radice herb que cyrogaleonis#acd et noctilucis pabulum factum1 ex hoc liquore medium superfundas4 ,quod si volueris1 omnia repone in vase vitreo et eodem ordine fit4 ,quolibet enim loco repositum fuerit1 continuum prstat incendium4 #ai4 ,candela qu in domo relucet ut argentum4 ,recipe lacertam nigram vel viridem1 cuius caudam amputa et desicca2 nam in cauda eius argenti vivi silicem reperies4 ,deinde quodcumque lichnum in illo illinitum ac involutum in lampade locabis vitrea aut ferrea1 qua accensa mox domus argenteum induet colorem1 et quicumque in domo illa erit1 ad modum argenti relucebit4 #bj4 ,ut domus qulibet viridem induat colorem et avicul coloris ejusdem volent4 ,recipe cerebrum avicul in panno involvens tentam et baculum1 inde faciens vel pabulum in lampade viridi novo oleo olivarum accendatur4 #ba4 ,ut ignem manibus gestare possis sine ulla lsione4 ,cum aqua fabarum calida calx dissolvatur1 modicum terr ,messin1 postea parum malv visci adicies4 ,quibus insimul commixtis palmam illinias et desiccari permittas4 #bb4 ,ut aliquis sine lsione comburi videatur4 ,alceam cum albumine ovorum confice1 et corpus perungue et desiccari permitte4 ,deinde coque cum vitellis ovorum iterum1 commiscens terendo super pannum lineum4 ,postea sulphur pulverisatum superaspergens accende4 #bc4 ,candela qu1 quum aliquis in manibus apertis tenuerit1 cito extinguitur2 si vero clausis1 ignis subito renitebitur3 et haec millies1 si vis1 poteris facere4 ,recipe nucem ,indicam vel castaneam1 eam aqua camphor conficias1 et manus cum eo inungue1 et fiet confestim4 #bd4 ,confectio visci est cum si aqua projecta fuerit1 accendetur ex toto4 ,recipe calcem vivam1 eamque cum modico gummi ,arabici et oleo in vase candido cum sulphure confice2 ex quo factum viscum et aqua aspersa accendetur4 ,hac vero confectione domus qulibet adveniente pluvia accendetur4 #be4 ,lapis qui dicitur petra solis in domo locandus1 et appositus lapidi qui dicitur albacarimum 7alba ceraunia874 ,lapis quidem niger est et rotundus1 candidas vero habens notas1 ex quo vero lux solaris serenissimus procedit radius4 ,quem si in domo dimiseris1 non minor quam ex candelis cereis splendor procedit4 ,hic in loco sublimi positus et aqua compositus relucet valde4 #bf4 ,ignem ,grcum tali modo facies4 ,recipe sulphur vivum1 tartarum1 sarcocollam et picem1 sal coctum1 oleum petroleum et oleum gemm4 ,facias bullire invicem omnia ista bene4 ,postea impone stuppam et accende1 quod1 si volueris1 exhibere 7poteris 87 per embotum ut supra diximus4#ace ,stuppa illinita non extinguetur1 nisi urina vel aceto vel arena4 #bg4 ,aquam ardentem sic facies4 ,recipe vinum nigrum spissum et vetus et in una quarta ipsius distemperabuntur unci ,,ii4 sulphuris vivi subtilissime pulverisati1 lib4 ,,ii4 tartari extracti a bono vino albo1 unci ,,ii4 salis communis2 et subdita ponas in cucurbita bene plumbata et alembico supposito destillabis aquam ardentem quam servare debes in vase clauso vitreo4 #bh4 ,experimentum mirabile quod fecit homines ire in igne sini lsione vel etiam portare ignem vel ferrum calidum in manu4 ,recipe succum bisvalv et albumen ovi et semen psillii et calcem et pulverisa2 et confice cum albumine succis 787 raphani et commisce4 ,et ex hac commixtione illinias corpus tuum et manum et desiccare permitte et post iterum illinias2 et tunc poteris audacter sustinere sine nocumento4 #bi4 ,si autem velis ut videatur comburi1 tunc accenditur sulphur1 nec nocebit ei4 #cj4 ,candela accensa qu tantam reddit flammam qu crines vel vestes tenentis eam comburit4 ,recipe terebenthinam et destilla per alembicum aquam ardentem1 quam impones in vino cui applicatur candela et ardebit ipsa4 #ca4 ,recipe colophonium et picem subtilissime tritum et ibi cum tunica proicies in ignem vel in flammam candel4 #cb4 ,ignis volantis in are triplex est compositio4 ,quorum primus fit de sale petroso et sulphure et oleo lini1 quibus tritis1 distemperatis et in canna positis et accensis1 poterit in arem sufflari4 #cc4 ,alius ignis volans in are fit ex sale petroso et sulphure vivo et ex carbonibus vitis vel salicis2 quibus mixtis et in tenta de papiro facta positis et accensis1 mox in arem volat4 ,et nota1 quod respectu sulphuris debes ponere tres partes de carbonibus1 et respectu carbonum tres partes salpetr4 #cd4 ,carbunculum gemm lumen prstantem sic facies4 ,recipe noctilucas quam plurimas2 ipsas conteras in ampulla vitrea et in fimo equino calido sepelias et permorari permittas per ,,xv4 dies4 ,postea ipsas remotas destillabis per alembicum et ipsam aquam in cristallo reponas concavo4 #ce4 ,candela durabilis maxime ingeniosa fit4 ,fiat archa plumbea vel nea omnino plena intus et in fundo locetur canale gracile tendens ad candelabrum1 et prstabit lumen continuum oleo durante4 ,explicit liber ,ignium4 ,,chemical ,,index4 ,rec4 ,acetum1 #aa1 #bf s1 #ag1 #ce 0 ,italicus1 #ae 0 ,rubicundus1 #h thiopi ,oleum1 #c ,alambicum1 #bg1 #cj1 #cd ,albacarimum 7,alba ,ceraunia 871 #be ,alcea 81 #bb ,alkitran1 #a1 #c1 #f1 #h1 #i ,ammoni ,liquor1 #a ,anethorum ,oleum1 #b ,aqua ,ardens1 #bg1 #cj ,arena1 #aa1 #bf ,argentum ,vivum1 #ai ,asphaltum1 #aj ,astrolabium1 #h ,auricalcum1 #h1 #af ,avicul ,cerebrum1 #bj ,balsamum1 #b1 #c1 #i ,bismalv ,succum1 #bh ,bombax1 #aj ,calx1 #ba1 #bh 0 non ,extincta1 #i 0 ,viva1 #ae1 #bd ,camphor ,aqua1 #bc ,cantharides1 #ae ,carbo ,salicis1 #ac1 #cc ,carbo ,vitis1 #ac1 #cc ,carbunculum1 #cd ,cera1 #f1 #g1 #ac ,colophonium1 #h1 #aj1 #ab1 #ca ,cucurbita1 #aj1 #bg ,cyrogaleo 7,cynoglossum 871 #ah ,embotum1 #bf ,fabarum ,aqua1 #ba ,ferri ,limatur1 #h ,ferrum1 #ag 0 ,indicum1 #af ,filtrum1 #f1 #aa ,fimum ,columbinum1 #aj 0 ,ovinum1 #aj ,furonis ,fel1 #ag ,galbanum1 #ae ,gemm ,oleum1 #bf ,gummi ,arabicum1 #bd ,juniperi ,oleum1 #d ,lacertus ,niger1 #ai 0 ,viridis1 #ai ,lamii ,oleum1 #ab ,laterum ,oleum1 #b ,laton1 #ag ,leporis ,marini ,fel1 #ah ,lini ,oleum1 #g1 #ab1 #cb ,lupi ,aquatici ,fel1 #ah ,lutum ,sapienti1 #aacf ,malv ,viscus1 #ba ,marrubii ,lignum1 #f ,medulla ,cann ,ferul1 #b ,mustel ,fel1 #ag ,noctiluc1 #ag1 #ah1 #cd ,nux ,castanea1 #bc 0 ,indica1 #bc ,oleum1 #bd1 #ce 0 ,foetidum1 #ae ,olivarum ,oleum1 #bj ,ovorum ,albumen1 #bb1 #bh 0 ,oleum1 #f1 #h1 #i 0 ,vitella1 #e1 #bb ,petroleum1 #b1 #aj1 #bf ,picula1 #aj ,pinguedo ,arietina1 #b ,pix1 #bf1 #ca ,plumbum1 #h1 #ce ,psillii ,semen1 #bh ,raphani ,succum1 #bh ,sal ,coctus1 #bf 0 ,combustus1 #af 0 ,communis1 #bg ,sal ,petrosus1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #cb1 #cc ,sandraca1 #a1 #g ,sarcocolla1 #bf ,stannum1 #h ,stuppa1 #bf ,sulphur1 #b1 #d1 #f1 #bb1 #bd1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc 0 ,croceum1 #h 0 ,oleum1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #h 0 ,splendidum1 #e 0 ,vivum1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 #bf1 #bg1 #cc ,tartarum1 #aj1 #bf1 #bg ,terebenthina1 #cj 0 ,oleum1 #b ,terra ,messin1 #ba ,testudinis ,fel1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah ,tyriaca1 #ah ,urina1 #aa1 #bf ,vermes ,noctiluc1 #af ,vinum1 #cj 0 ,album1 #bg 0 ,nigram1 #bg ,zembac ,oleum1 #ae1 #af1 #ag ,m4 ,berthelot 7i4 #ajj ff47 gives the best existing text of the foregoing tract1 founded on ,paris ,,mss4 #gaef and #gaeh collated with the ,munich ,,ms4 #bfg4 ,he adds extracts from the ,munich ,,ms4 #aig1 dated #adch4 ,herr von ,romocki gives the text reproduced here and the ,nrnberg ,,ms4 of a somewhat later date than the ,paris ,,mss41 say #acej4acg ,a glance at the text given here shows that1 far from being a formal and connected treatise1 it is a medley of recipes thrown together with very little method and without any literary skill4 ,of the thirty-five recipes 7in ,du ,theil's ,,ms47 fourteen are war mixtures1 six relate to the extinction of incendiaries or the prevention and cure of burns1 eleven are for lamps1 lights1 c41 and four describe the preparation of certain chemicals--one of them1 ,no4 #ad1 giving a mode of refining saltpetre4 ,the war mixtures consist of nine recipes for various fires1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #bd1 and #bf2 one for fire-arrow composition1 ,no4 #aj2 and four for rockets and ,roman candles 7including a 8cracker071 ,nos4 #ab1 #ac1 #cb1 and #cc4 ,nos4 #i1 #ae1 and #bd contain quicklime2 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #cb1 and #cc contain saltpetre4 ,a closer examination leads to the conclusion that the tract is the work of neither one author nor one period4 ,as we read of such ingredients as weasel's gall 7#ag7 and paste of glow-worms 7#af72 of the mercury to be found in black and green lizards' tails 7#ai72 of the mixture which ignites incontinently at sunrise1 wherewith crows are to be anointed and despatched against the enemy 7#c71 we seem to hear the chant of the witches in 8,macbeth03-- 8,eye of newt and toe of frog1 ,wool of bat and tongue of dog1 ,adder's fork and blind-worm's sting1 ,lizard's leg and owlet's wing40 ,these recipes embody the same traditions as the war recipes of the 8,kestoi0 of ,sextus ,julius ,africanus1 which belong to the seventh century4 ,but on turning to ,nos4 #cb and #cc1 we find recipes as precise and formal as those of ,hassan er-,rammah1 who wrote in the last quarter of the thirteenth century4 ,the description of the rocket and its composition 7#ac7 is as definite and intelligible as many a recipe of the seventeenth century3 recipes #h and #ag1 with their allusions to ,hermes1 the mythical ,alexander the ,great1 ,aristotle the wizard and ,ptolemy the magician1 belong to a far earlier period4 ,in short1 the extraordinary contrast in style and matter1 phraseology and diction1 between certain recipes and others1 leads irresistibly to the conclusion that the oldest recipes are separated from the youngest by several centuries1 and that the tract 7as we possess it7 was not the work of one man1 but of several4 ,there is a kernel of old recipes1 to which others were added from time to time4 ,this conclusion receives strong support from the fact that no two of the ,,mss4 are of the same length4 ,the ,munich ,,ms4 contains twenty-two1 ,berthelot's text thirty-five1 and the ,nrnberg ,,ms4 twenty-five recipes4 ,the best judges date the oldest existing ,,mss41 ,paris1 #gaef and #gaeh1 at about #acjj ,a4,d41 and ,abd ,allah tells us that saltpetre was known to the ,spanish ,arabs in the second quarter of the thirteenth century4#ach ,the saltpetre recipes1 therefore1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #cb1 #cc1 lie between the years #abbe and #acjj4 ,we shall call them1 for convenience of reference1 the 8,late ,recipes40 ,no one who carefully studies the remaining recipes can fail to observe that many of them are marked by archaism of style1 form and matter1 and that they hand down to us ancient alchemical traditions1 or traces of them2 while others display no such peculiarities4 ,let us then1 again for mere convenience1 divide them into two series--the 8,early ,recipes10 which possess these peculiarities1 and the 8,middle ,recipes10 which do not4 ,to what periods do these two series belong8 ,no4 #bf1 apparently the most modern of the ,middle ,recipes1 will presently be shown to belong to the early part of the thirteenth century1 and1 as it does not contain saltpetre1 its approximate date is #abjj-abbe4 ,there is no evidence1 so far as ,i am aware1 which would enable us to fix the beginning of the ,middle or the end of the ,early ,recipes4 ,the matter1 happily1 is immaterial2 it is sufficient for us to know that the former series is undoubtedly subsequent to the latter1 and 7as will be shown7 quite independent of it4 ,for a reason which will appear presently1 the date of the oldest of the ,early ,recipes depends upon the period at which ,moslems began to write upon alchemy4 ,according to ,arab authorities1#aci the first ,moslem who wrote on the subject was ,prince ,khalid ibn ,yazeed ibn ,moawyah1 who died in #gjh4 ,after him came the real ,jabir1 of the eighth or ninth century2 but ,masudi1 in the tenth century1 tells us that there were many other writers on alchemy whose names are now lost4#adj ,the very earliest date1 then1 that can be assigned to the oldest of the ,early ,recipes is the eighth century1 say #gej4 ,the three series are as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,early ,recipes1 ,middle ,recipes1 ,late ,recipes1 #gej- 8 8 -#abbe4 #abbe-acjj4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a1 #b1 #c #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #a,o1 #d1 #e1 #aa1 #bb1 #bd1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #cb1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #cc #ba1 #bc1 #be1 #cd #cj1 #ca1 #ce ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,looking from the chemical point of view1 ,m4 ,berthelot divides the recipes into six groups4#ada ,those who are interested in the matter will find on examination that1 chronologically1 his groups harmonise perfectly with the three series given here4 ,the reader will observe on a cursory examination of the ,latin text that most of the recipes contain foreign1 i4e4 non-,latin words2 and this fact suggests the question1 ,is the ,liber ,ignium an original work or a translation8 ,the number of foreign words and allusions is so considerable as to leave little doubt that a large part of the tract was translated from some foreign language1 and no one1 ,i believe1 seriously maintains that the work1 as a whole1 is original4 ,from what language1 then1 has it been translated8 ,we meet with the ,greek proper names ,hermes1 ,ptolemy1 ,alexander and ,aristotle1 and with a number of ,greek words which look like survivals of a ,greek original4 ,among the most prominent are alba ceraunia 7871 asphaltum1#adb bombax1 cynoglossum 7871 orichalcum and sarcocolla1 all of which are latinised ,greek words4 ,but on looking closely into this evidence we find that it has very little weight4 ,the ,greek proper names prove nothing4 ,hermes and ,ptolemy became common property to alchemists of all nationalities in the infancy of alchemy4 ,alexander the ,great's extraordinary career excited universal wonder1 and the many and marvellous legends which grew round his name in the ,west were only surpassed by those of the ,east4 ,he and his ,wazir1 ,aristu 7,aristotle71 were common property long before the ,liber ,ignium saw the light4 ,the ,greek words give no support to the hypothesis of a ,greek original unless it can be shown either that they had not previously been adopted by the ,latins1 or that the tract was written before they were borrowed4 ,a particular instance will make the matter clearer4 ,we took the word harquebus from the ,french at some period1 say p4 ,if harquebus occurs in an ,english book written after p1 its presence raises no presumption that the book was in any way connected with ,france1 or even that its author understood ,french4 ,if the book was written before p1 its author must have had recourse1 directly or indirectly1 to ,french sources4 ,now all the ,greek words given above had been latinised long before the ,liber ,ignium was written1 and might have been used by a ,latin when translating from any language4 ,alba ceraunia1 asphaltum1 bombax1 cynoglossum and sarcocolla are found in ,pliny's 8,natural ,history10 first century ,a4,d41 and orichalcum occurs in the 8,bragging ,soldier0 of ,plautus about the end of the third century ,b4,c4 ,but it is unnecessary to continue the examination of the ,greek words contained in the tract for the following reason4 ,a hypothesis must cover all the facts of a case1 and some facts in the present case are inexplicable on the theory of a ,greek original4 ,the ,greeks had three words for the asphalt family1 pissa1 asphaltos1 and naphtha2 and the translator had at least three ,latin words 7which he has actually used7 wherewith to translate them1 pix 7or picula71 asphaltum1 and petroleum4 ,how1 then1 came he to use the barbarism1 alkitran ,grcum1 in recipe #a8 ,the original of this phrase came from no ,greek source4 ,we could not expect the author of the tract to reveal the secret of the sea-fire1 which was only known to a few officials2 but the medival ,greeks were not an exceptionally modest people1 and we naturally look for some slight allusion to this triumphant incendiary and the siphons in which it was employed4 ,they are never referred to1 although ballist1 bows1 and rockets are mentioned in recipes #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 #cb1 #cc4 ,the title of the tract1 ,liber ,ignium1 a ,marco ,grco descriptus1 assuming it to have been correctly and literally translated1 was not written by a ,byzantine ,greek4 ,no ,byzantine ,greek ever described himself 7or a compatriot7 as a ,greek3 8in the lowest period of degeneracy and decay the name of ,roman adhered to the last fragments of the ,empire of ,constantinople40#adc ,the writer of the title1 therefore1 was either a ,moslem or a western4 ,the author of recipe #bf1 ,ignem ,grcum1 c41 was neither a ,greek nor a ,moslem4 ,no ,greek#add or ,moslem#ade writer ever uses the phrase 8,greek fire10 which sprang up in the ,west during the ,crusades4#adf ,the recipe1 therefore1 cannot have been written before the siege of ,nice1 #ajig1 the first act of the first crusade1 and it was probably not written until long afterwards4 ,the phrase 8,greek fire0 must have taken some time to reach the ,west1 and it spread there very slowly4 ,abb ,guibert de ,nogent1 who died in #aabd1 speaks of 8discharging from machines the fire they call ,greek0 7,grcos1 quos ita vocitant1 ,ignes injicere machinis74#adg ,at the close of the century ,william the ,little1 ,canon of ,st4 ,mary's1 ,newburgh1 ,yorkshire1 mentions 8a certain kind of fire which they call ,greek 8 7quodam ignis genere quem ,grcum dicunt7#adh ,such modes of expression show that ,greek fire was very little known in the ,west during the twelfth century4 ,in the ,liber ,ignium1 on the other hand1 it is spoken of without qualification or explanation1 like sulphur or pitch1 as a substance too well known to require note or comment4 ,the #bfth recipe1 therefore1 belongs very probably to the first quarter of the thirteenth century1 and its author was certainly a western4 ,the hypothesis of a ,greek original1 then1 must be abandoned1 even though old ,greek alchemical traditions are crystallised in the ,early ,recipes4 ,the ,greeks founded alchemy in remote times2 their methods were transmitted through the ,syrians and ,egyptian ,greeks to the ,moslems2 and a large number of their recipes had become common property long before the ,liber ,ignium was written4 ,but ,greek science did not spread equally in all directions1 at least to any appreciable extent4 ,it spread to the south and east only1 and the west owed its knowledge of alchemy to the ,arabs who invaded ,spain in #gaj ,a4,d4 ,this fact may throw some light upon the ,arabic words and allusions to be found in the tract4 ,in a very old recipe1 ,no4 #i1 we meet with the phrase1 8the first fall of the autumnal rain 8 7primo autumnalis pluviae dilapsu71 which indicates the regular1 periodic rains of the ,east1 and is apparently the translation of 7kharif7 the autumnal rains4 ,the beginning of these rains was an event of great importance to the ,arabs4 8,suivant ,masudi10 says ,baron de ,sacy1 8les ,arabes nomment l'automne 7wasmy71 cause des pluies qui tombent en cette saison1 parceque la terre1 tant alors trs-sche1 et n'ayant pas t humecte depuis longtemps1 la premire pluie qui vient tomber imprime sa marque sur la terre4444 ,il ajoute que les ,arabes commencent l'anne l'quinoxe d'automne1 parceque c'est l'poque o commence tomber la pluie laquelle ils doivent leur subsistance40#adi ,alambicum is apparently the latinised form of the ,spanish alambique1 which is simply the ,arabic 7al-ambiq7--whatever the derivation of the ,arabic word may be4 7,asturlab71 although found in ,masudi#aej and the 8,arabian ,nights10#aea is not a genuine ,arab word4 ,it was borrowed from some other language by the ,arabs1 who possessed few or no scientific words of their own4 ,the 8,nihayet al-,adab0 tells us 7in ,lane's 8,arabic ,dictionary10 under asturlab7 that the names of all instruments by which time is known1 whether by means of calculation or water or sand1 are foreign to the ,arabic language4 ,in most ,arabic dictionaries asturlab is derived from the ,greek 1 a word which appears to go back no further than the second century ,b4,c41 when it was employed by the ,egyptian astronomer1 ,ptolemy4 ,but it was long suspected that the instrument was of eastern origin1#aeb and all doubt about the matter was at length set at rest by ,mr4 ,george ,smith's discovery1 in the palace of ,sennacherib at ,nineveh1 of the fragment of an astrolabe1#aec which cannot be dated later than the eighth century ,b4,c4 ,now the earliest recorded astronomical observation made by the ,greeks was the determination of the summer solstice by ,meton1 #dcj ,b4,c4#aed ,for the name of this fragment1 therefore1 we must look to the language of the country of its birth2 and there we find the ,persian asturlab1 which is apparently formed from the primitive verbal root labh taking1#aee and the ,persian astar or sitra ,pehlevi1 trak ,zend1 tare ,sanskrit1 star our own star4 ,the ,arabs most probably took their asturlab1 with so many other words1 from the ,persian4 ,the ,greeks who followed ,alexander the ,great into ,persia found there much that was new to them4 ,they saw for the first time 8the cotton tree and the fine tissues and paper for which it furnished the materials40#aef ,they handled the wool of the great ,bombax tree4 ,they found naphtha1 of whose properties ,alexander was entirely ignorant4#aeg ,they obtained drugs and gums of which they knew nothing4 ,the philosopher ,kallisthenes discovered in ,babylon ,chaldan astronomical observations extending back to #gba ,b4,c42#aeh was shown1 we cannot doubt1 the instrument with which they were made2 and probably heard for the first time the word asturlab or usturlab4 ,for copper 7or some alloy of it#aei7 the cyprium of ,pliny 7which became cuprum about the end of the third century ,a4,d47 is ignored in the tract1 and the metal is called s rubicundus4 ,this phrase may possibly represent the of ,homer 7,il4 ix4 #cfe72 but it is far more probably the literal translation of the ,arabic phrase used to this day for copper 7nuhas ahmar7 red brass4 ,four 7so-called7 sulphurs are mentioned by both ,pliny and the writers of the ,liber ,ignium1 but their names are identical in only one case1 sulphur vivum4 ,two sulphurs are named in the tract from their colour1 after the oriental fashion1 sulphur splendidum and sulphur croceum4 ,masudi speaks in the tenth century of 8white1 yellow1 and other kinds of sulphur10#afj and 8white and red sulphur0 are mentioned in the ,ayin ,acberi1 a ,persian ,,ms4 quoted by the ,baron de ,sacy4#afa ,several sulphurs1 all named from their colour1 are given in the ,liber ,secretorum1 translated from the ,arabic or ,persian1 cir4 #ajjj ,a4,d41#afb and similar sulphurs are found in the ,syriac treatise reproduced by ,m4 ,berthelot1 ii4 #aei-fj4 ,finally1 the ,hindus had four sulphurs1 white1 red1 yellow1 and black4#afc ,the ,arabs had no special word for bitumen3 bitumen is not to be found in the tract4 ,alkitran1 the ,spanish alquitran1 which is used five times1 is pure ,arabic1 7al-qitran74 ,in three successive recipes we meet an ,arabic word in its native form1 without any attempt to translate it-- 7zembaq74 ,its meaning is doubtful1 for a reason given by ,baron de ,sacy3 8,le nom zambak est commun plusieurs plantes4 ,forskl le donne l'iris et au lis blanc40#afd ,we have already met with two ,arabic words which were adopted unchanged1 and are still used1 by the ,spaniards1 alembic and alkitran4 ,there are other traces of ,spain4 ,roger ,bacon observes in his 8,greek ,grammar0 7p4 #ib7 that the alloy auricalcum is in no way connected with aurum1 gold1 but is a corruption of orichalcum4 ,the ,spaniards1 however1 retained in their language the corrupt form auricalco1 and auricalcum occurs twice in the tract4 ,we may gather from ,lebrixa's explanation of 8bitumen ,judaicum0--8est quod grce dicitur asphaltos0#afe--that the ,spaniards had no special word for asphalt2 asphaltum is used only once in the tract1 recipe #aj4 ,but they used petroleo for petroleum2#aff petroleum is found in recipes #b1 #aj1 and #bf4 ,this word1 in the form petra oleum1 is used in the ,anglo-,saxon 8,leechdoms10 published in the ,rolls ,series1 which ,rev4 ,o4 ,cockayne1 the editor1 dates at #ijj2 ii4 #bhi4 ,the ,spaniards did not use the word naphtha1 which is described by ,lebrixa as 8el fuego como de alquitran40 ,naphtha does not occur in the tract1 although it is found in ,latin and ,greek authors of the first and second centuries ,a4,d42 in ,pliny's 8,natural ,history10 ii4 #aji 7#aje72 in ,dioskorides1 i4 #aja2 and in ,plutarch's 8,alexander10 #ce4 ,it appears as naphathe in the 8,speculum0 of ,vincentius ,bellovacensis1 #abbh2 l4 i4 c4 #ib4 ,the commonest ,spanish word for one or other of the asphalt family1 alquitran1 occurs 7as before mentioned7 five times in the tract4 ,on referring to the ,chemical ,index1 p4 #fh1 it will be found that all the foregoing ,arabic and ,spanish words occur in the ,early ,recipes4 ,the ,middle ,recipes contain only one ,arabic word1 alambic1 recipes #bg and #cj1 which is also found in the ,early ,recipes1 ,no4 #cd2 and one ,spanish word1 petroleo1 recipe #bf1 which occurs twice in the earlier series1 ,nos4 #b and #aj4 ,now1 ,spain was the only ,european country in which ,arabic was understood during the ,middle ,ages4 8,in all ,europe1 outside ,spain1 but three isolated ,arabists of that time are known--,william of ,tyre1 ,philip of ,tripoli1 and ,adelard of ,bath40#afg ,pagnino printed an edition of the ,qur'an at ,venice in #aecj1 and it was immediately suppressed by the ,church2 8a precaution hardly required10 says ,hallam1 8while there was no one able to read it40#afh ,furthermore1 we know that a series of ,latin translations of ,hebrew and ,arabic ,,mss4 were made in ,spain between the years #aahb and #acej4afi ,we may therefore conclude with some little probability3-- #a4 ,that the ,early ,recipes were translated from a lost ,arabic original4 #b4 ,that the translator was a ,spaniard4 #c4 ,that the translation was made between the years #aahb and #abbe4 #d4 ,that to this translation were added by other hands1 before #abbe1 the ,middle ,recipes1 which practically contain neither ,hispanicism nor ,arabism1 and which make no mention of saltpetre4 #e4 ,that the ,late ,recipes were inserted towards the close of the thirteenth century4#agj ,on accepting these conclusions1 the difficulties raised by the hypothesis of a ,greek original vanish4 ,the ,spanish translator had no need to translate the alkitran of the ,arabic writer1 for the word was ,spanish as well as ,arabic4 ,like all westerns1 he called the ,byzantines ,greeks1 and a certain incendiary ,greek fire4 ,neither ,moslem nor ,spaniard was likely to speak of the sea-fire4 ,moslems would be loth to recall the disasters at ,cyzicus and elsewhere1 when this incendiary made havoc of their ships2 ,spaniards knew nothing about it4 ,owing to the secrecy maintained by the ,imperial ,government1 westerns knew very little about ,byzantine pyrotechnics4 8,at the end of the eleventh century the ,pisans 444 suffered the effects1 without understanding the cause1 of the ,greek fire40#aga ,the ,princess ,anna ,comnena ascribes the defeat of the ,pisans in a naval battle fought in #aajc1 to an unknown incendiary employed by the ,greeks4#agb ,in both cases the incendiary could only have been the sea-fire1 for the ,latins had been acquainted with ordinary incendiaries for a thousand years4 ,as late as #abjd1 the ,emperor ,baldwin ,i41 in a manifesto to all ,christians1 declares that the ,greeks used 8machines and defences to protect their capital 7in this year7 which no one 7from the ,west7 had ever seen before40#agc ,it is time to inquire who was ,marcus ,grcus4 ,he has been fancifully identified with many of the ,marci of history and fable1 and ,m4 ,dutens discovered him in the second century ,a4,d4 ,the views of ,m4 ,dutens must be noticed here1 because they have been unwarily adopted by some good writers4 ,there exists a ,latin translation of a lost ,arabic treatise on medicine1 ,de ,simplicibus1 supposed by some to have been written by ,masawyah of ,damascus in the eleventh century1#agd while others1 with ,m4 ,dutens1 assign it to ,yahya ibn ,masawyah1 who attended the ,caliph ,mamoun on his deathbed1#age #hcc ,a4,d4 ,the question before us is1 does the ,de ,simplicibus 7whatever its date7 contain any reference to ,marcus8 ,when mentioning the use of syrup of cyclamen1 ,masawyah quotes the opinions of other physicians3 8,the son of ,serapion said 7so and so7 444 and a ,greek 7physician7 says 7so and so70 7dixit filius ,serapionis 444 et dicit ,grcus74#agf ,on the last two words1 dicit ,grcus1 ,m4 ,dutens builds his theory that the ,greek physician was no other than ,marcus3 8,ce qui parot fort probable1 est que 7,marcus ,grcus7 devoit vivre avant le mdicin arabe1 ,mesu1 qui a paru au commencement du neuvime sicle1 puisque celui-ci le cite4#agg ,by this mode of reasoning1 which is generally called 8begging the question10 ,marcus ,grcus may be identified at will with any ,greek who ever lived4 ,m4 ,dutens continues3 8,fabricius croit que 7,marcus ,grcus7 est le mme dont ,galen parle dans un endroit de ses ouvrages1 au quel cas il serait du temps requis pour appuyer mon sentiment40 ,it would be strange indeed to find mention of a ,latin writer or book in a ,bibliotheca ,grca1 and ,i have failed to verify ,m4 ,dutens' reference4 ,in the editions of ,fabricius' work which ,i have consulted he expresses no such belief1 nor does he allude to ,marcus ,grcus4 ,in the list ,fabricius gives of ancient physicians there are several who bear the name of ,marcus1 but no ,marcus ,grcus4 ,the last of these ,marci happens to be simply called 8,marcus10 and of him ,fabricius says3 8,this ,marcus1 who is mentioned by ,galen in his book on compounding medicines1 may possibly have been one of the foregoing0 7,marcus1 simpliciter1 ,galeno in compositionibus medicamentorum 1 l4 iv4 c4 #g1 quem credibile fuisse unum ex illis prioribus74#agh ,the ,liber ,ignium was written from first to last in the period of literary forgeries and pseudographs1 which produced the 8,book of ,hermes10 8,the ,domestic ,chemistry of ,moses10 the alchemical works of ,plato and of ,aristotle and of the ,emperor ,justinian1 and so on2 and we may reasonably conclude that ,marcus ,grcus is as unreal as the imaginary ,greek original of the tract which bears his name4 ,had the last editor of the ,liber ,ignium1 who added the saltpetre receipts1 any knowledge of an explosive8 ,we need not linger over the ,roman candle of ,no4 #ab1 or the rocket of ,no4 #ac3 had their charges been explosive there would have been an end of the candle and rocket1 and of the men who fired them4 ,the cracker of ,no4 #ac was a toy intended to 8go off with a bang10 without hurt to the bystanders4 ,the case was to be as strong as possible and securely fastened at both ends with iron wires4 ,it was to be half filled with rocket composition1 a mixture which burned in a cracker-case precisely as it burned in a rocket-case--with progressive combustion4 ,now ,roger ,bacon had a similar toy1 constructed with the very same object1 i4e4 8to go off with a bang10 the case of which was 8merely a bit of paper40 ,why was there this marked difference1 then1 between the two cases8 ,because the noise was produced in the one by the explosion of the charge and in the other by the rupture of the case4 ,bacon's charge 7as will be shown in ,chap4 viii47 was gunpowder1 and the required 8bang0 was directly produced by its explosion4 ,marcus' toy was charged with an incendiary1 the combustion of which did not produce a 8bang0 directly1 but which produced one indirectly by ultimately bursting open the thick1 stout case4 ,the gases generated by its combustion 8gradually developed until the case burst10#agi just as a bladder bursts 8with a bang0 when over-inflated4 ,had ,bacon's toy been charged with an incendiary1 the case1 which was only a sheet of paper1 would have been set on fire by the heated gases long before their pressure had reached the bursting point1 and there would have been no 8bang40 ,had ,marcus' toy been charged with an explosive1 it would have exploded destructively1 and what was intended for a public diversion would have proved a common danger1 owing to the thickness of the case and the iron wire coiled round it4 ,there is nothing in the tract to show that its authors had any notion of explosives1 and their silence1 without any assignable motive1 is strong evidence that they knew nothing about them4 ,it is incredible that pyrotechnists who seldom omit to call attention to the effects of their incendiaries1#ahj should have failed to make some allusion to explosives if they possessed them4 ,their silence was not owing to fear of the ,church1 for the decree of the ,second ,council of the ,lateran was directed against the very mixtures which form the staple of the ,liber ,ignium1 incendiaries4#aha ,the #abth and #acth recipes contain the ingredients of the future gunpowder2 they form the last link in the long chain of evolution which connects the incendiaries of primitive times with gunpowder2 but they were not gunpowder1 because they did not explode4 ,the chrysalis1 we know1 will become a butterfly if it lives2 nevertheless it would be an abuse of language and a misrepresentation of fact to call it a butterfly4 ,the reader can now appreciate the value of the argument that the ,greeks possessed an explosive between the seventh and thirteenth centuries1 because ,marcus ,grcus describes one2 and he can understand why ,marcus was not summoned in ,chap4 iii4 to give evidence for the ,greeks4 ,a suspicion may be raised by the ,arabic origin of the ,liber ,ignium1 that the people who approached so nearly to the manufacture of gunpowder may have ultimately reached it4 ,we pass1 therefore1 to a consideration of ,arabic incendiaries in the following chapter4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,arabs ,although the ,arabs had had relations with the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,persians for centuries1 and were acquainted with the details of the siege of ,jerusalem1 #gj ,a4,d41 the earliest allusion to their use of machines is the tradition that ,jodhaimah1 ,king of ,heerah1 constructed manjnik in the third century ,a4,d4#ahb ,the scarcity of timber in ,arabia may partially explain the lateness of their introduction1 and the position of ,heerah1 in the north-east province of ,arabian ,irak1 raises a suspicion that the ,arabs learned the use of machines from the ,persians1 who got them from the ,greeks4 ,when the ,prophet besieged ,tayif in #h ,a4,h4 7#fcj ,a4,d471 the defenders had recourse to heated projectiles4#ahc ,we may safely assume that they were the balls of hot clay spoken of in the #aanth ,sura of the ,qur'an1 in describing the destruction of the ,cities of the ,plain3 8we rained upon them stones of baked clay40#ahd ,half a century afterwards1 #fhc1 during the siege of ,mecca1 the ,ka'aba was burned down by incendiary compositions1 discharged1 not by ,arabs1 but by ,syrians1 who doubtless understood the manipulation of naphtha and the other combustibles used4#ahe ,in #gab the howdah in which sat ,dahir1 ,king of ,alor in ,scinde1 was set on fire by a fire-arrow shot by a ,moslem naphtha-thrower#ahf--the same nature of projectile that had been used by the ,persian archers at the taking of ,athens1 #dhj ,b4,c4 ,in speaking of the capture of ,alor1 both ,mir ,ma'sum ,bhakkari1 in his 8,history of ,scinde10 and ,haidar ,razi1 in his 8,general ,history10 mention the employment of atish bazi1 or fire-throwing machines1 8which the ,moslems had seen in use with the ,greeks and ,persians40#ahg ,stones were discharged from machines to so little purpose at the siege of ,heraclea1 #hje1 that ,harun er-,reshid urged his generals to fasten incendiaries to them4 ,this was done with such effect that the resistance of the besieged at once collapsed1 the inhabitants being terror-stricken at the sight of the flaming naphtha4#ahh ,there is no trace of an explosive here1 yet a ,french ,arabist would have us believe that muskets were in use during this ,caliph's reign4 ,al-bunduqani1 the man who carries a bunduq1 which in this connection is a contraction for qaus al-bunduq1 or simply qaus bunduq1#ahi was an epithet bestowed on ,harun by the public1 or assumed by himself2 and in translating one of the 8,arabian ,nights0 with this title1 ,m4 ,gauttier remarks3 8,bondouk signifie en ,arabe harquebuse1 albondoukani signifie l'arquebusier40#aij ,this argument may be illustrated by a more familiar one3 8,jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad0 7#a ,sam4 xx4 #dj72 but artillery signifies cannon2 therefore1 c4 c4 ,it may be remarked that arquebuse is ambiguous4 8,avant d'tre une arme feu l'arquebuse tait une arme jet10 says ,dr4 ,dozy1#aia who is supported by ,m4 ,scheler3 8l'arquebuse tait son origine une sorte d'arbalte40#aib ,assuming1 however1 as ,gauttier evidently did1 that arquebuse meant a firearm1 his argument only establishes the use of firearms in the ninth century1 if we take signifie as equivalent to means now1 in the year #ahbb1 and meant also in the time of ,harun4 ,the question1 therefore1 turns upon the meaning of the words bunduq1 or qaus bunduq1 in the time of the great ,caliph1 and an anecdote told by ,masudi leaves no doubt about what that meaning was4#aic ,he tells us that in the time of ,muhtadi ,billah1 #hfh-i1 a negligent porter was sentenced by his master to be tied up 7apparently in a room or courtyard7 and shot at fifty times by a man armed with a qaus bunduq1 which carried leaden bunduq4 ,there is not the slightest allusion to charge1 cartridge1 gunpowder1 wad1 or match1 nor to the operation of loading4 ,the ammunition consisted solely of leaden balls4 ,although the marksman sent his fifty bunduq home1 the porter was so little the worse for his punishment that1 when all was over1 he made a coarse but cutting remark to his tormentor4 ,there can be no question of firearms here3 one1 or at most two bullets fired by so good a shot from any firearm ever constructed would have silenced the porter for ever4 ,the marksman was al-bunduqani1 the bunduq were leaden balls1 and the qaus bunduq was a pellet-bow stone-bow#aid 7golul keman7 golail1 used to this day by the ,karens of ,burma1 and known to everybody who has been in ,india4 ,such is the explanation of qaus bunduq given by the commentator ,tabrizi in a note on one of ,motanebbi's poems--a bow which discharges a ball as big as a hazel nut4#aie ,the bow itself is a long-bow with two strings joined at their centre by a bit of cloth or soft leather1 which supports a ball generally of baked clay or stone4 ,if ,hansard's plate be correct1 the western stone-bow was a cross-bow with two strings4#aif ,the golail1 as we learn from one of the oldest of the 8,arabian ,nights10 was chiefly used for shooting birds1 squirrels1 c43 8he shooteth birds with a pellet of clay10#aig 4 ,again1 when the first ,kalandar missed his bird and hit the ,wazir in the eye1 he was using a qaus al-bunduq1#aih 4 ,the insult conveyed by the words of the ,sultan ,kai-kubad1 when speaking of the dead leader of the ,mughals1 lay in the fact that the golail was not a soldier's weapon1 but merely a sporting implement3 8,no one would condescend to shoot an arrow at a dead body2 it is only a pellet-ball that is fit for such 7carrion7 as this40#aii ,we need not pursue the matter further3 in the primitive and simple golail is found the musket carried by the ,caliph ,harun er-,reshid4 ,from a passage in the 8,chachnama10 given in ,barnes' 8,travels into ,bokhara10 it is clear that the ,moslems in their invasion of ,india relied upon incendiaries to meet the attacks made upon them with elephants1 which are very much afraid of fire4 ,at the battle of ,alor1 #gab1 already mentioned1 the ,moslems 8filled their pipes0 7hukkaha-e atish bazi grenades or siphons7 8and returned with them to dart fire at the elephants0 7i4 #fg74 ,this fact goes far to explain a difficulty raised by the words toofung 7musket7 and tope 7cannon7 found in some ,,mss41 in place of the khudung 7arrow7 and nuft 7naphtha7 given in other copies of ,ferishta's account of the battle fought near ,peshawur in #ajjh4 ,he says3 8,on a sudden the elephant upon which the prince who commanded the ,hindus rode1 becoming unruly from the effects of the naphtha balls and the flights of arrows1 turned and fled4 ,this circumstance produced a panic among the ,hindus1 who1 seeing themselves deserted by their general1 gave way and fled also40#bjj ,the best critics reject the readings musket and cannon in this passage4 ,these words were unknown to other ,indian historians1 and the circumstances of the case make the use of an incendiary exceedingly probable4 8,i am slow in believing this premature use of artillery10 says ,gibbon2 8,i must desire to scrutinise first the text and then the authority of ,ferishta40 8,these readings must be due to interpolators10 adds ,professor ,bury4#bja 8,it appears likely10 says ,general ,briggs1 the translator of ,ferishta1 8that ,babar was the first invader who introduced great guns into ,upper ,india1 in #aebf1 so that the words tope and toofung have been probably introduced by ignorant transcribers of the modern copies of this work1 which are in general very faulty throughout40#bjb ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot says3 8,the ,tarikh-i ,yamini1 the ,jami'u-t ,tawarikh of ,rashidu-d ,din1 the ,tarikh-i ,guzida1 ,abu'l ,fida1 the ,tabakat-i ,nasiri1 the ,rauzatu'-s ,safa1 the ,tarikh-i ,alfi and the ,tabakat-i ,akbari1 though almost all of them notice this important engagement 444 and mention the capture of thirty elephants1 yet none of them speak of either naft or tope40#bjc ,finally1 we must remember that there is an abundant supply of naphtha in the neighbourhood of ,peshawur1#bjd and that the practice of throwing incendiary missiles was universal in ,asia long before the battle in question4 ,the ,ka'aba1 as we have seen1 was burnt down by incendiaries in #fhc1 and this tremendous event of course became instantly known all over ,islam4 ,at the battle of ,alor1 #gab1 the ,moslems specially prepared incendiaries to repulse the attacks of the elephants4 ,igneous projectiles were employed by ,harun er-,reshid in #hje at the siege of ,heraclea4 ,the last day of the siege of ,baghdad1 #hac1 is described by the poet ,ali as 8a day of fire03 8the machines played from the hostile camps 444 and fire and ruin filled ,baghdad40#bje ,so well known were incendiary shell in ,persia at the close of the tenth century that ,firdusi mentions them in the episode of ,nushirvan and ,porphyry3 8,the ,romans began the fight from the gates and discharged arrows and pots 7of fire740#bjf ,in #ajfg ,shems al-,mulk ,nasr1 when besieging ,bokhara1 ordered incendiaries to be discharged against some archers posted in the minaret of the ,grand ,mosque4 ,the wooden roof of the minaret took fire1 the sparks fell upon the main building1 and in the end the whole mosque was burned down4#bjg ,we may rest assured1 then1 that the words ,ferishta wrote in his account of the battle near ,peshawur1 #ajjh1 were naphtha and arrow1 not musket and cannon4 ,far from possessing muskets in the ninth century1 there is no evidence to show that the ,arabs had firearms1 that is1 arms charged with an explosive1 during the whole of the ,crusade period1 #ajig-abia4 ,so strange and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not possibly have been employed in the field without the full knowledge of both parties2 yet no historian1 ,christian or ,moslem1 alludes to an explosive of any kind1 while all of them carefully record the use of incendiaries4 ,the ,arab accounts of these campaigns will be found collected together in ,m4 ,reinaud's ,extraits des ,historiens ,arabes relatifs aux guerres des ,croisades1 ,paris1 #ahbi2 the ,christian accounts are scattered in various volumes2 but they teach us no more than we have learnt already in the two preceding chapters about incendiaries and ,greek fire3 8les projectiles incendiaires ont pu rester peu prs les mmes pendant toutes ces ,croisades40#bjh ,at the siege of ,nice1 first ,crusade1 we read of the ,saracens throwing balls of pitch1 oil and fat against the machines of the ,christians4#bji ,fire-arrows bearing pitch1 wax1 sulphur1 and tow were discharged from the walls of ,jerusalem during the siege in the same ,crusade4#baj ,during the second ,crusade we find the ,arabs making use of similar incendiaries1#baa mixtures practically identical with that of neas ,tacticus1 cir4 #cej ,b4,c41 given in ,table ,,ii4 ,shell full of burning naphtha were used at the siege of ,acre1 #aahi-ia1 in the third ,crusade2#bab and ,richard of ,england1 on his voyage thither1 sank a ship which an eye-witness had seen laded at ,beyrut with ballista1 bows1 arrows1 and lances1 and a large supply of ,greek fire secured in bottles 7ignem ,grcum abundanter in phialis71#bac a phrase which reminds us of the #ahth recipe of the ,liber ,ignium of ,marcus ,grcus3 8put the mixture in a glass bottle0 7hoc in vase vitreo ponatur74 ,for the sixth ,crusade1 we have the invaluable ,histoire du ,roy ,saint ,loys of ,joinville1 who describes the terror excited by the incendiaries of the ,moslems1 believed by all to be the work of the ,powers of ,darkness4 8,quant le bon chevalier ,messire ,gaultier mon compagnon vit ce feu1 il s'escrie et nous dist3 ,seigneurs1 nous sommes perduz jamais sans nul remde4 ,car s'ilz bruslent nos chaz chateilz1 nous sommes ars et bruslez2 et si nous laissons nos gardes1 nous sommes ahontez4444 ,et toutes les fois que nostre bon ,roy saint ,loys oyoit qu'ils nous gettoient ainsi ce feu1 il se jettoit terre1 et tendoit ses mains la face leve au ciel1 et crioit haulte voix nostre ,seigneur1 et disoit en pleurant grans larmes3 ,beausire ,dieu ,jesuchrist1 garde moy et tout magent10 c4#bad ,yet the incendiaries which created all this panic appear to have wounded but few and to have killed nobody6 ,although no evidence is forthcoming to show that explosives were used in ,palestine during the ,crusade period1 there is good evidence1 it has been said1 to prove that gunpowder was used by the ,arabs in ,spain during the thirteenth century4 ,the first1 ,i believe1 to start the theory that the ,spanish ,arabs possessed gunpowder at this early period was ,michael ,casiri1 a ,maronite1 who was librarian of the ,escorial and published his ,bibliotheca ,arabico ,hispana ,escurialensis in #agfj-gj2 and his method of supporting his theory when translating the ,,ms4 of ,shehab ben ,fadhl1 which he dates at #abdi1 was the simple one of translating barud by pulvis nitratus1 the recognised ,latin phrase for gunpowder4#bae ,had he translated barud by saltpetre no difficulty could have arisen1 since an ,arab alchemist1 ,abd ,allah1 states that saltpetre was so called in the ,west during the second quarter of the thirteenth century4#baf ,there would be nothing surprising1 therefore1 in finding saltpetre mixtures employed in ,spain at this period2 but saltpetre mixtures1 such as the last three given in ,table ,,ii41 are not necessarily explosive4 ,not only is ,casiri's translation of barud unwarrantable1 but he probably dates his ,,ms4 a century too early4 ,m4 ,reinaud1 a safe guide1 believes that the ,,ms4 is ,al-,omari's1 and dates #acdi1bag eighteen years after the siege of ,cividale where the ,germans used cannon1#bah and three years after ,cressy where we certainly had guns4#bai ,casiri's methods are well illustrated by his translation of an ,arabic passage relating to the siege of ,baza1 #acbe1 by ,ismael ben ,nasr1 ,king of ,granada4 ,the literal translation of the passage is as follows3 8,he 7the ,king7 marched through the enemy's country to the town of ,baza1 which he invested and attacked4 ,by means of a great machine provided with naphtha 7made up in7 hot 7burning7 balls1 he struck the arch of an inaccessible tower40#bbj ,according to ,casiri the passage reads3 8,shifting his camp1 he besieged with a large army the town of ,baza1 where1 by applying fire1 he discharged 7explosit7 with much noise a great machine1 provided with naphtha and a ball1 into a fortified tower40#bba ,he introduces1 it will be observed1 an explosion 7explosit7 into a passage which neither mentions nor suggests one4 ,the application of fire has no place in the original1 and suggests the ignition of an explosive charge4 ,he changes the meaning of the original by gratuitously inserting an and between naphtha and ball1 which were one and the same thing4 ,he leaves us to infer that the charge was naphtha1 though it was not explosive and could not project a ball4 ,he speaks of the explosion being accompanied by a loud noise1 of which there is nothing in the original4 ,the incendiary balls are mentioned in another ,arabic account of this siege1 translated by ,conde in his ,historia de la ,dominacion de los ,arabes en ,espagna1 p4 #eic3 8,the ,arabs attacked the city night and day with machines and engines which threw balls of fire with a loud noise0 7combatio la ciudad de dia y noche con maquinas ingenios que lanzaban globos de fuego con grandes truenos74 ,in this passage the discharge of the incendiary balls is said to have been accompanied by 8thunderings10 and at the siege of ,nibla1 #abeg1 we are again told that the ,moors 8launched stones and darts from machines1 and missiles of thunder with fire0 7lanzaban piedras y dardos con maguinas1 y tiros de trueno con fuego74#bbb ,from this innocent metaphor1 trueno con fuego1 the ,emperor ,leo's 8thunder with smoke10 has been wrenched the meaning that the ,arabs possessed a train of artillery4 8,il n'y a rien cela que de vraisemblable10 says the ,emperor ,napoleon ,,iii4#bbc ,nothing1 ,i venture to think1 can be more unlikely4 ,the ,arab writer is dealing with machines which1 he says in his own way1 discharged stones and darts1 and also igneous missiles which burned with much noise4 ,another ,arab1 already quoted 7p4 #d71 gives a freer rein to his fancy3 the projectiles 8roar like thunder2 they flame like a furnace2 they reduce everything to ashes40 ,in plain words1 they are incendiaries4 ,the writer makes no allusion to the effect of their momentum or shock2 he impresses on us the effect of their essential quality--their incendiary power1 exaggerating the noise made by their combustion4 ,joinville writes in a similar style of ,greek fire3 8,la manire du feu grgeois estoit telle 444 ,il faisoit tel bruit venir qu'il sembloit que ce fust fouldre qui cheust du ciel 444 et gettoit si grant clart qu'il faisoit aussi cler dedans nostre ost comme le jour1 tant y avoit grant flamme de feu40#bbd ,unless we make due allowance for the luxuriant ,oriental imagination1 we may despair of ever being able to reach the meaning of the ,eastern writers4 ,one of them wants to explain that the ditch of a fort was deep and wide1 and he tells us it was 8broad as the ocean and fathomless40#bbe ,wishing to state that on the arrival of the army on its banks1 the ,nerbudda1 which happened to be in flood1 subsided quickly1 another writer says3 8,you might say that it 7the river7 was a remnant of the universal deluge4 ,as the miraculous power of the saintly ,sultan accompanied the ,army1 all the whirlpools and depths became of themselves immediately dry on the arrival of the ,army1 and the ,musulmans passed over with ease40#bbf ,a similar indulgence in metaphor1 although not so unbridled1 is found in ,european writers4 ,for instance1 ,vegetius likens the projectile hurled by an onager to a thunderbolt2#bbg and the ,princess ,anna ,comnena compares the fiery particles blown by the breath through a popgun1 or spitfire1 to lightning4#bbh ,it is hardly necessary to examine the accounts given by ,conde of the siege of ,tarifa1 #acdj1 and by ,casiri of the siege of ,algesiras1 #acdb1 since both sieges took place some years after that of ,cividale1 #acca4 ,the reader will find the two accounts ably analysed in ,reinaud and ,fav1 pp4 #gj-gd4 ,if the ,arabs had possessed an explosive in the thirteenth century1 the fact must have been known to their alchemists1 and they show no such knowledge4 ,there is not an allusion to saltpetre in the ,leyden ,arabic ,,ms4 of #abbe4bbi ,hassan er-,rammah1 who died in #abie1 knew nothing of explosives4 ,in speaking of saltpetre in the year #acaa1 ,yusuf ibn ,ismal al-,juni says3 8,the people of ,irak use it to make a fire which tends to rise and move4 ,saltpetre increases the ease and rapidity of ignition40#bcj ,this sentence contains the sum total of ,yusuf's knowledge of saltpetre mixtures4 ,he was aware of the effects of their progressive combustion1 but he knew nothing about their explosive combustion4 ,by whomsoever gunpowder was invented1 it was not by the ,arabs4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,hindus ,in the third quarter of the eighteenth century1 by order of ,warren ,hastings1 a committee of ,brahmins collected a body of ,gentoo 7or ,hindu7 laws from a number of ancient ,sanskrit books4 ,these laws were translated into ,persian under the superintendence of one of the ,brahmins1 and the ,persian version was translated into ,english in #aggf by ,mr4 ,n4 ,b4 ,halhed1 ,bengal ,civil ,service4 ,in his preface he states that gunpowder had been known in ,india 8far beyond all periods of investigation10 a conclusion arrived at by a method now familiar to the reader3 8the word #8firearms' is literally in ,sanskrit agni astra 444 ,cannon in the ,sanskrit idiom is shataghni40 ,agni is found in the ,latin ignis fire2 astra1 ,romocki explains1 is connected with the ,slav ostr point 7of an arrow1 c472 and the compound agniastra is simply a fire-arrow or rocket4 ,in the shataghni1 or 8hundred killer10 we have some weapon described in the exaggerated style usual in early times and by no means confined to ,india4 ,when ,sigurd struck an anvil with his sword ,gram1 8he cleft it down to the stock thereof20#bca and 8if one smote a mountain0 with al-,mahik 7the annihilator7 the sword of ,gharib1 8#8twould overthrow it40#bcb ,there is nothing to connect the shataghni with fire3 indeed it seems to have been a mace1 for in the 8,raghuvansa0 the demon is said to have laid his iron-headed shataghni upon ,rama1 just as ,kuvera laid his club on ,jamraj4#bcc ,no mention of any projectile discharged by an explosive is to be found in ,manu's 8,code of ,laws10 and to ,manu belongs a passage in the 8,code of ,gentoo ,laws0 7p4 #ec7 which either ,halhed has mistranslated from the ,persian1 or the ,persian translators have mistranslated from the ,sanskrit4 ,professor ,ry has unearthed the original text of ,manu 7vii4 #ij71 and gives the correct translation3 8,the king shall not slay his enemies in battle with deceitful or barbed or poisoned weapons1 nor with any having a blade made red hot by fire1#bcd or tipped with burning materials40#bce ,halhed's translation is3 8,the magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful machine1 or with poisoned weapons1 or with cannon and guns1 or with any other kind of firearms40 ,mephistopheles was right3-- 8,mit ,worten lsst sich trefflich streiten1 ,mit ,worten ein ,system bereiten40 ,halhed's mistakes might have been forgotten had they not been revived and elaborated by ,professor ,g4 ,oppert in an essay 8,on the ,weapons1 c41 of the ,ancient ,hindus10 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,his argument is briefly this3 firearms are clearly mentioned in the 8,laws of ,manu0 and two very ancient ,sanskrit poems2 therefore at some very remote period the ,hindus possessed an explosive which1 for whatever reason1 fell into disuse eventually4 8,does the passage in ,manu refer to firearms or not80 asks ,dr4 ,oppert4 8,in our opinion it certainly alludes to them0 7p4 #gj74 ,we need not recur to the mistranslation of ,manu already noticed4 ,the two poems on which ,dr4 ,oppert relies for further evidence are the ,nitipraksika of ,vaisampayana1 and the ,sukraniti of ,sukra4 ,according to the former1 the ,hindu deities1 ,sita1 ,indra1 ,krishna1 c41 were authors of 8books on polity40 ,brahma's contribution to literature consisted of #aj1jjj1jjj double verses 7p4 #cf74 ,the constitution of an army was as follows 7p4 #e73-- ,foot #b1ahg1jjj1jjj ,horse #ba1hgj1jjj ,elephants #bah1gjj ,chariots #ba1hgj ,the 8arms in use0 of one species were forty-four in number2 of another species1 fifty-five4 ,rabelais has only succeeded in cataloguing forty-six arms in the introduction to the third book of 8,pantagruel40 ,lest the ninety-nine arms in use might fail to ensure success1 a spell 7of thirty-two syllables7 is given 7p4 #aj7 which would bring certain victory to him who repeated it #cb1jjj times4 ,both of these veracious works1 however1 undoubtedly mention cannon and muskets1 and a recipe for gunpowder is given in the ,sukraniti4#bcf ,dr4 ,oppert makes no critical examination of the texts of these poems to ascertain whether they contain the interpolations to be found in most ,oriental works4 ,of their age he only says that 8no ,chinese work 444 can1 with respect to antiquity1 be compared with the ,sukraniti0 7p4 #de74 ,as the reader will find in the following chapter1 this implies a considerable age4 ,it is hard to believe that gunpowder was known to a people whose language contained no word for saltpetre2#bcg that cannon were used by men whose books make no allusion to gunpowder1 with the exception just mentioned4 8,it is peculiar10 says ,dr4 ,oppert1 8that powder should not have been mentioned in ,sanskrit works0 7p4 #fc74 ,the same peculiarity is observable in ,anglo-,saxon works1 and is probably due to the same cause4 ,but the fatal objection to the existence of this very early explosive is the admitted fact that after a time it was discarded and forgotten4 ,writers who lightly tell us so are apparently unconscious of the greatness of the demand they make upon our credulity4 ,they ask us1 in effect1 to accept the astonishing proposition1 that a nation voluntarily surrendered1 without any assignable cause1 an incalculable 8advantage0 in the 8struggle for existence0--the eager1 continuous1 and unending preparation for self-defence which is1 in ,mr4 ,bagehot's words1 8the most showy fact0 in human history4 ,it is infinitely more probable that the passages in the two poems which mention gunpowder and cannon were interpolated by the scribes of after-ages than that the ,hindus wantonly broke the first and strongest law of human nature1 the law of self-defence4 ,there can be no reasonable doubt that the recipe for gunpowder in the ,sukraniti is an interpolation4 ,the proportions are given in the first place as #e3a3a1 and then it is added1 8if the powder is to be used for a gun10 let them be #d3a3a1 or #f3a3a4bch ,and why not #e3a3a also8 ,this recipe was not written by a gunner3 it is the handiwork of some charlatan of the sixteenth or seventeenth century1 who imagined that1 by making a certain mystery about the proportions #e3a3a1 he should give a semblance of great antiquity to the recipe4 ,but he blundered badly about the proportions4 ,the proportions #d3a3a were only reached by the ,swedes about the middle of the sixteenth#bci century1 and approached by the ,english about the middle of the seventeenth1#bdj and powder of such strength would have blown weak1 early bombards to pieces4 ,other sound reasons are given by competent critics for rejecting from first to last the allusions to firearms contained in the two poems4 ,a critic in ,nature points out that a work which mentions the ,hunas 7,huns or ,europeans7 cannot be of the age apparently assigned by ,dr4 ,oppert to the ,nitipraksika4#bda 8,oppert10 says ,sir ,r4 ,burton1 8shows no reason why the allusions to1 and descriptions of1 gunpowder and firearms should not be held modern interpolations into these absurd compositions40#bdb ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,sinclair concludes from the strong resemblance between the firearms described and those which we know were imported into ,india during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 either that the ,,mss4 date no further back than the sixteenth century1 or that the allusions to firearms were interpolated at that period4#bdc 8,one is naturally led to suspect10 says ,professor ,ray1 8that the lines 7of the ,sukraniti7 relating to gunpowder 444 are interpolations40 ,the suspicion is further enhanced when it is borne in mind that in the 8,polity of ,kamandaki10 an ancient work of undoubted authenticity1 8there occurs no reference whatever to firearms1 nor is there any in the ,agnipurana1 in which the subject of training in the use of arms and armour takes up four chapters4444 ,the more rational conclusion would be that the ,sukraniti is a patchwork1 in which portions of chap4 iv4 were added some time after the introduction of gunpowder in ,indian warfare during the ,moslem period40#bdd 8,the last chapter is apparently spurious10 says ,rajendralala ,mitra1 8as it describes guns as they existed a hundred years ago40#bde ,finally1 ,herr von ,romocki utterly rejects ,dr4 ,oppert's theory4#bdf ,the military history of ,india confirms the conclusions of the writers who have been quoted3 not a fact is to be found there which lends any support to the theory of early gunpowder in ,india4 ,the employment of gunpowder in ,europe revolutionised the art of war and affected1 more or less1 almost every human institution4 8,the military art10 says ,gibbon1 8has been changed by the invention of gunpowder4444 ,mathematics1 chymistry1 mechanics1 architecture1 have been applied to the science of war40#bdg ,gunpowder1 says ,a4 ,comte1 8en emprimant l'art de la guerre un caractre de plus en plus scientifique1 a directement tendu intresser tous les pouvoirs l'actif dvellopement continu de la philosophie naturelle40#bdh ,we may reasonably assume that the discovery of so tremendous an agent as gunpowder would have produced in ,india some few effects1 at least1 similar in their general features to the effects it produced in ,europe4 ,to mention one or two details3 ,sanskrit would have coined a word for saltpetre1 which it did not possess2 the use of the bow would have been curtailed2 a lasting mark would have been put on fortifications2 and some few specimens of the early firearms might have survived4 ,not a trace of these or similar changes is to be found2 not a vestige of early firearms has remained4 ,general ,cunningham thought that the state of the ruins of certain ancient ,kashmir temples proves the use of an explosive in their destruction1#bdi but more prolonged observation shows that their condition is chiefly the effect of natural agencies4 8,the fingers of ,time1 and moderate movements of the earth1 have been making openings in some of the other old ,hindu buildings in ,kashmir10 such as the little temple of ,payach and the splendid temple of ,martand2 8and from their appearance it may be believed that these same agencies1 together with undermining work applied for wilful destruction1 could do what has been done40#bej ,the plentiful supply of saltpetre to be found in the valley of the ,ganges has been brought forward as a proof that the ancient ,hindus must have had gunpowder1 but the fact proves nothing4 ,how many centuries did coal lie within reach of man's hand1 in ,england and elsewhere1 before it was discovered and made use of8 ,the attractive property of the magnet was known to ,plato in the fifth century ,b4,c41 and ,lucretius in the first century ,b4,c4 devotes a long passage of his poem to it 7vi4 #iji-ajhi72 yet its property of pointing north and south when free to move horizontally is first distinctly mentioned 7in ,europe7 in the twelfth century ,a4,d4#bea ,early ,indian gunpowder is a fiction4 ,the first gunpowder and firearms used in ,india were neither invented nor manufactured by the ,hindus3 they were imported during the ,middle ,ages from the ,west4 ,the guns of ,upper ,india entered through ,afghanistan2 those of ,western ,india were brought by ships4 ,let us consider the latter first4 8,if any reliance is to be placed on ,moulla ,daud ,bidury1 the author of ,tohfutu-s ,salutin10 says ,general ,briggs1 8guns were used 7in #acfh7 by the ,hindus 7of ,bijanagar71 and in a subsequent passage 7,ferishta remarks7 that the ,muhammadans used them for the first time during the next campaign4 ,but ,i am disposed to doubt the validity of both these statements4444 ,ferishta 444 also observes that ,turks and ,europeans skilled in gunnery worked the artillery4 ,that guns were in common use before the arrival of the ,portuguese in ,india in #adih1 seems certain from the mention of ,faria y ,sousa40#beb ,the first observation suggested by this passage is1 that ,ferishta does not say the ,hindus had guns on this occasion2 he says they had 7'arbah71#bec a word which originally meant a cart4 ,in the early days of field artillery the guns were carried in carts1#bed from which they were taken and laid on trestles when required for use4 ,wheeled gun-carriages only came into general use in ,europe during the reign of ,louis ,,xi4 of ,france 7#adfa-hc74bee ,things followed the same course in ,india1 and the word 'arba thus came in time to have two meanings2 most arba being simply carts1 some being 7so to speak7 gun-carriages4 ,then later writers arose who insisted that all 'arba were gun-carriages at the early date of #acfh1 because some 'arba were gun-carriages in and after #aebf4 ,ferishta 7who died about #afaa7 fell into the trap1 and after him fell several modern historians4 ,secondly1 ,general ,briggs' conclusion about guns in ,india before #adih seems somewhat unguarded4 ,it is beyond dispute that firearms were used on the west coast of ,india during the last quarter of the fifteenth century1 but the evidence we possess points to the conclusion that they belonged almost exclusively to ,arab and ,portuguese ships4 ,the fact that ,captain ,cook cruised on the coast of ,otaheite in #agfi in a ship equipped with firearms1 does not warrant the conclusion that the natives possessed firearms4 ,ferishta was writing about events which took place two hundred years before he was born1 and there is a particular reason for doubting the existence of firearms in ,bijanagar at this early period4 ,in #adda ',abd ur-,razzak1 who had been sent to ,india by ,shah ,rukh on an embassy to ,calicut1 visited ,bijanagar1 whose ruins may still be seen on the banks of the ,tumbhadra4 ,he has given us a full and amusing account of what he saw1 bursting forth into poetry on the ugliness of the natives3-- 8,i have loved a moon-faced beauty1 ,but ,i cannot fall in love with every black woman40#bef ,he was present at the great review held during the festival of ,mahanawi1 when 8the number of people and the huge elephants resembled the green sea and the myriads which will appear on the ,plains of the ,resurrection40 ,not an allusion is made to firearms1 although he notices the naphtha-throwers mounted on elephants4#beg ,ferishta tells us that in the year #hhg ,a4,h4 7,a4,d4 #adhb71 ,mahmoud ,shah ,begurra of ,gujarat1 hearing that ,cambay was likely to be raided by the pirates of ,bulsar1 collected a fleet containing 8a force of gunners1 musketeers1 and archers10 and defeated them4 ,on this passage ,general ,briggs remarks3 8,this is the first mention of artillery and musketry in the ,gujarat history4 ,they were probably introduced by the ,arabs and ,turks from the ,red ,sea and ,persian ,gulf40#beh ,the firearms that came from the ,persian ,gulf must have been few and far between4 ,writing in #aedi1 a ,jesuit says3 8,the ,persians use no bombards or arms of this kind40#bei ,there is no mention of the ,bulsar expedition in the 8,history of ,gujarat10 by ,ali ,muhammad ,khan1 translated by ,mr4 ,j4 ,bird4 ,the ,mirat-i ,sikandari1 a history of ,gujarat translated by ,sir ,e4 ,c4 ,bayley1 speaks of an attack made by ,mahmoud on certain pirates as early as #hgh ,a4,h4 7,a4,d4 #adgc71 but neither ,bulsar nor firearms are mentioned4 ,we are told1 however1 that during a previous expedition in the same year against the island of ,sankhodhar1 the infidels 7,hindus7 8resisted bravely and kept up a sustained discharge of arrows and muskets0 7pp4 #aih-i74 ,ferishta relates that during the siege of ,champanir1 #adhd1 a shell 7hookah7 fell on the ,rajah's palace2 but he does not state how it was discharged1 nor whether it was explosive or incendiary4#bfj ,on landing at ,calicut in #adih1 ,vasco da ,gama and his followers were led through the streets with tomtoms beating1 and from time to time an espingarda1 or musket1 was fired off4#bfa ,the town seems to have possessed only one of these weapons4 ,at least1 the soldiers of the guard who mounted over ,gama after he had been arrested were not armed with espingardas1 but with swords1 daggers1 and bows1#bfb and no mention is made of there being any cannon in the town4 ,in #aejb a sea-fight took place in these waters between a ,portuguese man-of-war and a ,moorish 7,arab7 ship1 during which the ,arab bore down on the ,portuguese1 8pouring in her shot1 and then made away40#bfc ,the original says3 8,una nube de flechas sobre nuestra gente y algunas balas20 i4e4 a cloud of arrows and some balls4#bfd ,these balls were undoubtedly cannon balls4 ,it is stated in ,,mss4 #hbf-h1 ,bib4 ,nat41 ,paris1 that in #iag ,a4,h4 7,a4,d4 #aeaa-ab7 ,modhaffer ,shah of ,gujarat sent to ,kansuh1 ,king of ,egypt1 asking him for arms and cannon to enable the ,gujaratis to defend themselves against the ,europeans2 8the people of ,india not having hitherto possessed ,artillery of any kind40#bfe ,in answer to this request1 ,hossain was sent to sea in command of a considerable fleet4 ,if ,mahmoud possessed ships with guns in #adhb1 how came it that in #aeaa the ,gujaratis were sending round the world begging for firearms8 ,had ,mahmoud merely hired for the occasion from the ,arabs the ships and guns with which he crushed the ,bulsar pirates8 ,it is impossible to say categorically2 but two facts may be extracted from the foregoing conflicting statements--first1 that firearms were used by ,arab and ,portuguese ships on the west coast of ,india before the ,hindus possessed them1 and secondly1 that there was an espingarda in the town of ,calicut in #adih4 ,whatever doubt there may be about the exact date at which the natives of ,western ,india first procured firearms from the foreign ships which visited their shores1 there can be none about the first employment of artillery in ,upper ,india4 ,as has been already stated1 the machines of the ,greeks were adopted at an early period by the ,persians1 from whom they were eventually borrowed by the ,arabs1 ,mughals1 c4 ,the ,hindus in turn adopted the machines they saw employed by their invaders and named them1 according to their custom1 after the part of the world they came from--maghribha western 7machines or manjank74 ,at the abortive attack on ,rantambhor1 #abij1 ,sultan ,jalalu-d ,din ordered ,westerns to be erected4#bff ,the ,hindus had collected materials for making incendiaries before being besieged in the same fortress by ,sultan ,alau-d ,din in #acjj4 8,every day the fire of those infernals fell on the light of the ,moslems1 and1 as there were no means of extinguishing it1 they filled bags with clay and prepared entrenchments4444 ,the ,royal ,westerns shot large earthen balls against that infidel fort4444 ,the stones from the ballistas and catapults within and without the fort encountered each other half-way and emitted lightening40#bfg ,during the attack on ,arangal1 #acji1 the ,westerns 8were played on both sides and many were wounded40#bfh ,the mud walls were so strong and elastic that the balls of the ,westerns rebounded off them 8like nuts which children play with40#bfi ,eventually the 8western stone-balls0 formed a breach and the fort fell4 ,such is the account given by ,amir ,khusru who died in #acae1 of whom ,sir ,h4 ,m4 ,elliot says 7vi4 #dfe73--8;,he is full of illustrations and leaves no manner of doubt that nothing like gunpowder was known to him40 ,near the close of the century1 #acih-i1 the ,hindus besieged by ,timur in ,bhatnir 8cast down in showers arrows and stones and fireworks upon the heads of the assailants40#bgj ,at the attack on ,chanderi1 #aebg-h1 8the ,pagans exerted themselves to the utmost1 hurling down stones and throwing flaming substances on the heads0 of ,babar's troops4#bga ,in #aebh-i1 the ,hindus succeeded in igniting with 8fireworks1 turpentine1 and other combustibles0 some hay which the ,mughals had collected in the fort of ,lucknow4 ,the heat became so intolerable that the ,mughals retired and the fort was taken4#bgb ,it is needless to enlarge the list of quotations3 incendiaries pursued much the same course in ,upper ,india as in ,greece and ,arabia4 ,no reliable evidence of an explosive is to be found until the #bast ,april #aebf1 the date of the decisive battle of ,panipat1 in which ,ibrahim1 ,sultan of ,delhi1 was killed and his army routed by ,babar1 the ,mughal1 who possessed firearms great and small4#bgc ,on the introduction of ,artillery the word maghribiha was gradually replaced by the more definite word feringiha ,european4 ,at ,panipat the ,artillery of the left centre was commanded by ,mustapha ,rumi1 whose name is sufficient proof of his western origin4 ,but traces of ,european artisans are to be found long before this4 ,when the ,king of ,gor crossed the ,attok in the twelfth century1 he had with him 8skilful ,franks1 learned in all the arts40#bgd ,the success of the attack on ,chitor in #aeia1 by ,buhadur1 ,sultan of ,gujarat1 was chiefly due to his engineer1 ,labri ,khan of ,frengan ,frangistan1 the country of the ,franks4#bge ,speaking of the ,mughal ,artillery in #afie1 ,dr4 ,careri tells us that it was 8all1 especially the heavy ,artillery1 under the direction of ,franks1 or ,christian gunners1 who had extraordinary pay40#bgf ,haidar ,mirza gives us one or two details about ,babar's guns which deserve a passing notice4#bgg ,there was a zarb-zan1 or swivel gun1 carrying a ball of #ejj miskals1 and a heavier gun throwing a 8brass0 ball which weighed #ejjj miskals1 and cost #bjj miskals of silver4 ,the former was drawn by four1 the latter by eight pairs of bullocks4 ,let us adopt the weight of the miskal given in ,steingass' 8,persian ,dictionary10--#a-c_/g drachms #ci4jde grs4 troy1 which makes the weight of ,babar's large ball #cd lbs4 nearly4#bgh ,its price1 #bjj miskals1 would then be #ghji grs4 troy of pure 7silver71 or 7since our standard shilling is #hg4bg grs4 troy and its fineness #cg_/dj7 #if4g shillings of our present money4 ,the price of a #aj4ah lbs4 ball of the same material would consequently be #bis41 including the cost of manufacture4 ,the price of the ,english #d0 bronze ball of #aj4ah lbs4 given here in ,table ,x41 is #bf4dfh;d41 or about #bbs4 of our present money1 exclusive of the cost of manufacture4 ,adding #gs4 to cover the cost of manufacture1#bgi its price would be about #bis4 ,the value of the alloy in our shilling has been neglected here1 and ,queen ,elizabeth's money may not have been worth exactly seven times our money2 but making full allowance for both these errors1 the prices of the two balls approximate as closely as can be reasonably expected4 ,gunpowder was not invented by the ,hindus3 its discovery by them would have fallen little short of a miracle4 ,the extinction of ,buddhism about the ninth century ,a4,d41 and the consequent establishment of a dominant priestly class1 were a deathblow to the cultivation of physical science4 ,by the seemingly innocent institution of caste1 the ,brahmins succeeded in trampling science in the dust4 ,one caste was not permitted to touch this1 another caste could not touch that substance2 and the higher the caste1 the greater the number of forbidden objects4 ,the study of experimental science was consequently thrown back upon the lowest and poorest classes1 who had neither the means1 the leisure1 nor the inclination to pursue it4 ,thus 8the spirit of inquiry gradually died out10 says a ,hindu ,professor of ,chemistry1 8and the name of ,india was all but expunged from the map of the scientific world40#bhj ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,chinese ,china1 like ,india1 affords an example of 8arrested civilisation30 the ,chinese intellect and language became petrified while still in a primitive stage of development4 ,but1 unlike the ,hindus1 the ,chinese betook themselves at an early period to historical pursuits4 8,debarred both by the nature of the material at their command and by a lack of original genius from indulging in the higher branches of imaginative writing1 ,chinese authors devoted themselves with untiring energy and with very considerable ability to the compilation of information concerning their own and neighbouring countries40#bha ,among the results of their labours are the 8,twenty-,one ,histories10 from the third century ,b4,c4 to the middle of the seventeenth century1 sixty-six folio volumes1 and a number of vast ,encyclopdias1 of which the ,koo-kin-too-shoo1 c41 occupies #faji volumes4 ,from such immense compilations and other sources ,chinese scholars have supplied us with much information about the present subject4 ,although the invention of gunpowder is disclaimed for his countrymen 8by every 7,chinese7 writer who treats seriously0 on the subject1#bhb the people cherish the legend that the invention was made by a ,chinaman in some forgotten past4 ,the existence of this legend among a people possessed of a deep veneration for antiquity is in no way surprising4 ,every ,chinese custom1 art1 and institution is supposed to be very ancient1 and what is not really old is readily invested with fictitious antiquity4 ,the world as we know it1 they tell us1 came into being #b1fgj1jjj years before ,confucius1 who was a contemporary of the prophet ,daniel4 8,the more sober historians1 however1 are content to begin with a sufficiently mythical ,emperor1 who reigned only #bhjj years before the ,christian era40#bhc ,this insatiable craving for antiquity is shown in all their works4 8,as with all other arts 7the ,chinese7 have claimed for the manufacture of porcelain an antiquity far beyond the actual facts of the case4 ,this exaggerated estimate of the antiquity of ,chinese porcelain was for a long time supported by the supposed discovery in ,egypt of certain small bottles made of real porcelain and inscribed with ,chinese characters1 which were said to have been found in tombs at ,thebes1 dating as early as #ahjj ,b4,c4 ,the fact1 however1 that they are inscribed with quotations from ,chinese poets of the eighth century ,a4,d41 and have characters of a comparatively modern form1 shows that the whole story of their discovery is a fraud4444 ,during all periods ,chinese potters were constantly in the habit of copying earlier styles and of forging their marks1 so that very little reliance can be placed on internal evidence4 ,indeed1 the forgeries often deceive the ,chinese collectors of old porcelain40#bhd ,according to the ,jesuits1 ,chinese history is free from this defect4 ,father ,moyria de ,maillac 7commonly called ,mailla71 in the long introductions to his ,histoire gnrale de la ,chine1 begs us to put our full trust in the ,chinese historians1 and pleads that1 however mendacious the lower orders of the nation1 the better classes love the truth1 and the historians are honest and accurate4 ,but such pleas in bar of investigation and verification are of little weight unless it can be shown that ,chinese historians never drew 7in good faith7 erroneous conclusions1 never mistook the meaning of a document1 were never misinformed1 and never made a slip in writing4 ,as ,gibbon clearly saw1#bhe the ,jesuits were blinded by admiration of the ,celestials2 their sharp1 critical sagacity was blunted by the air of sincerity displayed in ,chinese books4#bhf ,but this 8accent de sincrit0 is ruthlessly treated by ,,mm4 ,langlois and ,seignobos3 8,c'est une impression presque irrsistible1 mais elle n'en est pas moins une illusion4 ,il n'y a aucun critrium extrieur ni de la sincrit ni de l'exactitude4 #8,l'accent de sincrit1' c'est l'apparence de la conviction2 un orateur1 un acteur1 un menteur d'habitude l'auront plus facilement en mentant qu'un homme indcis en disant ce qu'il croit4 ,la vigeur de l'affirmation ne prouve pas toujours la vigeur de la conviction1 mais seulement l'habilet ou l'effronterie4 ,de mme l'abondance et la prcision des dtails1 bien quelles fassent une vive impression sur les lecteurs inexpriments1 ne garantissent pas l'exactitude des faits2#bhg elles ne renseignent que sur l'imagination de l'auteur quand il est sincre ou sur son impudence quand il ne l'est pas4 ,on est port de dire d'un rcit circonstanci3 #8,des choses de ce genre ne s'inventent pas4' ,elles ne s'inventent pas1 mais elles se transportent trs facilement d'un personage1 d'un pays ou d'un temps un autre4--,aucun caractre extrieur d'un document ne dispense donc d'en faire la critique40#bhh ,in spite of their zeal for the truth1 ,chinese historians are no more infallible than others1 and it is certain that they were unconsciously led into error at times by the change in meaning which military words underwent in ,china as well as elsewhere4 ,thus ,mao-yiian-i erroneously believed that huo-p'u meant cannon in old times1 as it did in his own4 ,but from a sketch he has fortunately given of one 7reproduced by ,romocki1 i4 #da7 it is clear that it originally meant a machine for scattering blazing incendiary matter4 ,the first two questions that present themselves are3 7#a7 ,did the ,chinese make use of gunpowder in a very distant past8 and 7#b7 did they possess an explosive shell in #abcb8 ,the ,chinese annals give no support to the hypothesis that gunpowder was known in ,china in very early times4 ,currency was given to the popular legends about it by such writers as ,father ,gaubil1 who declares that gunpowder had been in use for #afjj years when he wrote1 and ,father ,amiot1 who fully accepts a much earlier date4 ,with reference to ,koung-ming1 who is said to have employed earth-thunder 7ty-lei7 about #bjj ,a4,d41 ,amiot says3 7a7 8,les auteurs qui parlent de ,koung-ming ne le font pas l'inventeur de cette manire de nuire l'ennemi4 ,ils disent1 au contraire1 qu'il l'avait puise dans les ouvrages des anciens guerriers2 ce qui est une preuve sans rplique que les ,chinois connaissaient la poudre tirer 444 bien longtemps avant que cette connaissance ft parvenue en ,europe4444 7b7 ,les anciens ,chinois employaient la poudre 7chen-ho-yen71 soit dans les combats1 soit pour mettre le feu au camp des ennemis4444 7c7 ,cette poudre 7ny-foung-yo7 a une vertue qui1 ce me semble1 pourrait tre d'une trs grande utilet dans nos armes2 c'est que la fume va galement contre le vent40#bhi ,in 7a7 and 7c7 of these extracts the true note of legend is audibly sounded1 and the tacit assumption that ty-lei was an explosive is to be noted4 ,as to 7b71 ,amiot was unwittingly describing some early incendiary similar to that of ,marcus ,grcus1 ,no4 #b3 8,ignis qu comburit domos inimicorum40 ,such is ,father ,amiot's 8preuve sans rplique0 that the ,chinese possessed gunpowder in the times of the pre-adamite ,sultans4 ,it must be put aside2 and with it must be laid the evidence of ,fathers ,maillac and ,gaubil4 ,first1 their critical faculty became paralysed when dealing with ,chinese history4 ,secondly1 they evidently did not understand the difference between an explosive and an incendiary4 ,thirdly1 without questioning their good faith1 they are open to the charges brought against them by ,,mm4 ,reinaud and ,fav1 when speaking of ,m4 ,quatremre's dating ,artillery in ,china at the thirteenth century3 87,il7 ne s'est pas aperu que ,,pp4 ,mailla et ,gaubil avaient traduits diffrement certains passages des ,annales chinoises1 et qu'ils y avaient mme ajout tantt des expressions de leur cru1 et tantt des interpolations de la version tartare-mandchou1 version qui date seulement d'un peu plus d'un sicle1 et qui1 par consequent1 n'a aucune autorit40#bij ,had the ,chinese an explosive shell in #abcb8 ,the following is a translation by ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien of a passage in the ,encyclopdia entitled ,tung-,chien-,kang-,mu1 relating to the siege of ,pien-king 7now ,kai-fung-fu7 in #abcb1 given by ,reinaud and ,fav in the ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi3 8,a cette poque on faisait usage de ho-pao ou pao feu1 appele ,tchin-tien-lou1 ou #8tonnerre qui branle le ciel1' ,on se servait pour cela d'un pot en fer que l'on remplissait de yo4 ,a peine y avait-on mis le feu que le pao s'levait1 et que le feu clatait de toute part4 ,son bruit ressemblait celui du tonnerre1 et s'tendait plus de cent lis 7i4e4 thirty-three ,english miles72 il pouvait rpandre l'incendie sur une surface de plus d'un demi-arpent 7i4e4 about one-third of an acre74444 ,les ,mongols construisirent avec les peaux de buf un couloir qui leur permit d'arriver jusqu'an pied des remparts4 ,ils se mirent saper les murs1 et y pratiqurent des cavits1 o l'on pouvait se loger sans avoir rien craindre des hommes placs en haut4 ,un des assigs proposa de suspendre des chanes de fer des pao feu1 et de les descendre le long du mur4 ,arrivs aux endroits qui taient mins1 les pao clataient et mettaient en pices les ennemis et les peaux de buf1 au point mme de ne pas en laisser de vestige40 ,there is another account of the shell in the ,wu-pei-chi1 published in #afba1 but 7as one gathers from ,mr4 ,mayers#bia7 it is so similar in the details that the two accounts cannot be taken as independent4 ,they merely quote some common document or repeat some common tradition4 ,like the ,liber ,ignium of ,marcus ,grcus1 the ,tung-,chien-,kang-,mu is not the work of one man or of one period4 ,the original portions 7the 8,old ,recipes0 of ,marcus7 were written by ,ssu-ma-kuang1 #ajai-hf1 and were named ,t'ung-,chien1 or the 8,mirror of ,history10 by the reigning ,emperor4 ,the book was brought up to date by ,chu-hsi1 #aacj-abjj1 and was afterwards continued1 with commentaries1 by various writers1 up to the seventeenth century4 ,the above-quoted passage belongs to the commentators1#bib and was written by some one whose date1 name1 and authority for his statement are alike unknown to us2 but it was presumably written long after the event it records4 ,we have seen in ,julien's translation what the encyclopdist actually says1 but what meaning did he intend to convey by his words8 ,did he mean to say the shell exploded8 ,the passage may be divided into two clauses3 in the first he explains generally the action of the ho-pao1 and in the second he gives a particular example of its use4 ,in the first clause he says that 8no sooner was a light applied to it than the fire burst forth on all sides0 7le feu clatait de toute part73 in the second clause he says1 8the pao burst forth0 7les pao clataient74 ,but the effect produced by the shell shows that this latter phrase is simply an elliptical way of saying1 8the fire of the mixture contained in the pao burst forth40 ,on this point ,reinaud and ,fav are clear3 8,les pao feu clataient s'applique aux clats de la flamme qui sortait par les ouvertures10#bic--;holes in the shell which were probably numerous4 ,mayers agrees3 the pao were lowered into the excavations1 8when the fire burst out from them1 utterly destroying every fragment of the hides10 c4#bid ,the ,chinese writer was describing an incendiary1 not an explosive4 ,gunpowder would have left in the hiding-place of the ,mongols a tangled mass of charred human remains and scorched cowhide3 only an incendiary could have destroyed its contents so that 8not a vestige remained40 ,father ,gaubil and ,m4 ,berthelot acquiesce in this conclusion3#bie ,herr von ,eomocki dissents from it4#bif ,there is nothing in the military history of ,china in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to lead us to suppose that the ,chinese possessed an explosive during that period4 ,in #abee ,prince ,hulgu had #ajjj ,chinese arbalisters in his pay to work his incendiaries1#big and it may be presumed that he would have learnt the secret of gunpowder from them if they had known it2 but he possessed no explosive4 ,father ,carpini1 cir4 #abej1 states that when hard-pressed the ,tartars had recourse to incendiaries1 and ,rashid ed-,din1 in his history of ,hulagu's campaign of #abfj1 makes no allusion to explosives4#bih ,the ,chinese had only reached the same stage as ,marcus ,grcus in #abeg3 in this year they had ,roman candles4#bii ,during the siege of ,siang-yang-fu1 #abfh-gc1 8,khubelai sent to his nephew ,abaka1 in ,persia1 for engineers skilled in making catapults1 called mangonals#cjj by ,marco ,polo4 ,two such engineers were sent40#cja ,we have three different notices of this siege1 ,chinese1 ,persian1 and ,venetian1 and 8they all concur as to the employment of foreign engineers from the ,west10#cjb but none of them mentions the use of explosives by either side4 8,the ,chinese at that period10 says ,sir ,john ,davis1 8were as little acquainted with firearms as ,europeans40#cjc ,when ,chang-chi-ki's fleet on the ,kiang ,river was destroyed a few years afterwards by ,atchu1 it was by means of fire-arrows4#cjd ,in a word1 during the thirteenth century1 the ,chinese made a free use of various incendiaries already noticed in the chapters on the ,greeks and ,arabs2 and they seem to have made no progress in the manufacture of their missiles during the course of the fourteenth4#cje ,not until we reach the fifteenth century do we meet with gunpowder and cannon4 ,the ,prince of ,yen 7afterwards the ,emperor ,yung ,loh7 is said to have been 8defeated by firearms0 at the battle of ,tung ,chang1 #adja2cjf but whether these arms were furnished with incendiaries or explosives is doubtful4 ,the first trustworthy account of the use of artillery in ,china is given in the ,kai-yii-tsung-kao1 published in #agij1 by ,chao ,i1 a man of considerable ability1 and an accomplished antiquarian4 ,he states that in the beginning of ,yung ,loh's reign1 #adjg1 cannon were acquired by the ,emperor and employed during his campaigns in ,cochin ,china4#cjg ,whence came these cannon and their ammunition8 ,it is antecedently improbable that the ,chinese either invented or manufactured them2 for although the ,chinese exhibited considerable intellectual power in some fields of investigation1 they possessed little genius for mechanical or chemical inventions1 and what mechanical ability they had was absorbed in other pursuits4 ,when actually possessed of powder1 they seem to have been incapable of making any improvement in its manufacture4 8,si la poudre de ,chine vaut mieux que la ntre10 says ,father ,incarville1 the ablest of the ,jesuits ,i have consulted1 8cela vien plutt de la bont des matires que du soin que les ,chinois prennent de la faire bonne2 ils la grainent trs mal et ne savent pas la lisser40#cjh 8,whatever their claims as inventors10 says another writer1 8it is certain that the ,chinese have made no progress in the art0 7of making gunpowder74#cji ,even their fireworks were no better than ,european fireworks4 ,they did not employ stars1 and their largest rockets had a length of only five inches1 with an internal diameter of eight lines4#caj ,there is no trustworthy evidence1 so far as ,i am aware1 to prove that the ,chinese invented gunpowder4 ,the statements of the ,jesuits on this particular matter are worthless for reasons already given1#caa and the popular ,chinese tradition is deprived of any little weight it might otherwise have had by the disavowal of the invention by sober ,chinese historians4 ,on the other hand1 we possess a number of facts which point to the conclusion that the ,chinese obtained their first gunpowder and firearms from the ,west4 7a7 ,it has been already pointed out that the mangonals used at the siege of ,siang-yang-fu1 #abfh-gc1 were of western origin1 and were worked by western engineers4 7b7 ,the residence of the ,polos in ,china1 #abge-ib1 was by no means an isolated fact4 ,they were but the pioneers of a considerable body of mechanics1 missionaries1 and merchants who continued their relations with the country for at least half a century4#cab ,it may be doubted whether the merchants ever lost touch with ,china4 7c7 ,yung ,loh1 the first ,chinese ,emperor who possessed ts'iang1 or cannon1 had agents in ,malay1 ,delhi1 ,herat1 and ,mecca1#cac and his agent in the latter city could hardly have failed to hear of1 and report on the use of firearms in the ,west4 ,if such were the case1 there was nothing to prevent the ,emperor from obtaining small guns by land1 or guns of any size by sea4 ,there had been communication by land between ,china and ,europe from the time of the early ,roman emperors of the ,west4#cad ,it was seriously interrupted1 no doubt1 by the disorders which broke out in ,china at the close of the ninth century1 but it was re-established when they came to an end in the middle of the thirteenth4#cae ,mr4 ,f4 ,hirth proves in his 8,china and the ,roman ,orient0 that there was communication by sea between ,china and ,europe at a very early date4 ,masudi speaks of the communication in his own time1 the tenth century4 ,the ,arab and ,chinese ships met1 he says1 at a port called ,killat1 half-way between ,arabia and ,china1 where they transhipped their cargoes4#caf ,there was constant communication between ,china and the west coast of ,india in the first half of the fifteenth century4 ,abd ur-,razzak says the men of ,calicut were bold navigators1 and adds that they were called 7in compliment7 8the sons of ,china40 ,when ,john ,deza destroyed the ,zamorin's fleet there1 it was commanded by a ,chinaman1 ,cutiale4#cag 7d7 ,the ,chinese made their charcoal from young shoots of the willow in the eighteenth century1#cah and 8as they seldom change anything10#cai they probably did so from the beginning4 ,twigs of willow are recommended for this purpose by ,roger ,bacon and ,hassan er-,rammah 7pp4 #adi1 #bd47 7e7 ,the ,chinese strained the mother-liquor of their saltpetre through straw2#cbj so also did ,whitehorne 7,a41 p4 #bj74 7f7 ,they employed animal glue1 or charcoal1 to remove the insoluble impurities of the mother-liquor1#cba just as ,bacon did1 if the explanation of the word 8,phnix0 given in ,chap4 ,,viii4 be accepted 7p4 #aed74 7g7 ,they incorporated the ingredients of gunpowder on a marble slab1#cbb as directed by ,marcus ,grcus1 recipes #d and #ac1 for incendiaries1 and by ,arderne for gunpowder 7p4 #agg74 7h7 ,they passed their rocket composition through a sieve of fine silk1#cbc the counterpart of ,arderne's 8sotille couerchief0 7,ib474 7i7 ,they occasionally added camphor and mercury to their powder1#cbd like ,kyeser and many other westerns 7,romocki1 i4 #aeg74 7j7 ,they called their powder yo1 8the drug10 as did the ,germans1 ,danes1 and ,dutch 7p4 #f74 7k7 ,they used varnishes1#cbe of the same family as the lutum sapienti1 ,marcus ,grcus1 recipe #a4 7l7 ,an ,encyclopdia1 quoted in the ,pai-pien1 #aeha1 states that 8on the walls of ,si-ngan there was long preserved an iron chen-tien-lui heaven-shaking thunderer1 which in shape was like two cups0#cbf--the shell of ,valturio 7p4 #bba74 7m7 ,bits of metal1 mitraille1 were added to the charge of ,chinese shells1#cbg after the manner prescribed in a ,german ,firebook 7,romocki1 i4 #ahi74 7n7 ,the shell were loaded with the maximum charge that could be rammed into them1#cbh as directed in the same ,firebook 7ib474 7o7 ,for repairing and closing the interstices of their built-up bombards1 the ,chinese appear to have used the same materials the ,scotch used for ,mons ,meg2 and it is noticeable that the ,chinese preferred 8western iron0 for this purpose3 8,ils emploient pour les confectionner du cuivre rouge4 ,dans les interstices apparents1 ceux qui emploient du fer se servent de fer doux et mallable pour consolider 7ces machines74 ,le fer de l',occident est le meilleur qui puisse tre employ cet usage40#cbi ,in the 8,chronicles and ,memorials of ,scotland10 vol4 vi41 for ,july #adei1 we find3 8,for the repair of the great bombard at ,edinburgh1 brass1 copper and iron1 so much0 pro expensis factis circa eandem emendacionem 7magni bumbardi ante castellum de ,edinburgh7 in ere1 cupro et ferro4 7p7 ,in #aebj the heavy guns of the ,portuguese ships at ,canton 8attracted considerable attention1 and soon acquired the name of #8,franks4'444 ,the ,chinese seem to have subsequently availed themselves of the assistance of the ,portuguese1 and of their wonderful guns1 to punish their own pirates02#ccj a circumstance which recalls the expedition of ,mahmoud of ,gujarat against the ,bulsar pirates in #adhb 7p4 #aaf74 ,these 8,franks10 we learn from the ,wu-pei-che1 8were of iron1 #e or #f ch'ih 7#f or #g ft47 long4444 ,five small barrels 7chambers7 were used1 which were placed 7successively7 inside the body of the piece from which they were fired off40#cca 7q7 ,the ,chinese guns manufactured in #afah were cast under the superintendence of the ,jesuits at ,peking4#ccb ,the general conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing inquiry is virtually ,gibbon's1 which may be expressed in somewhat firmer language than he has used1 since we possess many facts which were unknown to him4 ,it is highly probable that the invention of gunpowder was carried from the ,west to ,china1 by land or water1 at the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century1 and 8was falsely adopted as an old national discovery before the arrival of the ,portuguese and the ,jesuits in the sixteenth40#ccc ,,chapter ,,viii ,,friar ,,bacon ,roger ,bacon was born at ,ilchester1 in ,somersetshire1 in #abad1 and died about #abid4 ,if the dedication be authentic1 his ,epistola de ,secretis ,operibus ,artis et ,natur et de ,nullitate ,magi1 the work with which we are chiefly concerned here1 was written before #abdi4ccd ,bacon attacks ,magic in this book on the ground that science and art can exhibit far greater wonders than the alleged wonders of the ,black ,art1 and to prove his point he enumerates1 in the first eight chapters1 a number of wonders which 7he believed7 art could produce and magic could not4 ,everything is sufficiently clear until we reach the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh chapters1 and they are unintelligible as they stand4 ,now1 it is past belief that a man of commanding genius should have deliberately stooped to write page after page of nonsense4 ,the three chapters1 therefore1 must have some meaning1 hidden from us though it be4#cce ,it is unquestionable that ,bacon believed he possessed secrets of vast importance4 ,at the close of ,chapter ,,viii4 he tells us by way of warning that he may resort 7in the following chapters7 to certain cryptic methods1 8on account of the magnitude of his secrets0 7propter secretorum magnitudinem72 and1 fearing that ordinary cryptic methods might be too transparent1 he wraps up his secrets in an anagram in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,if ,bacon were in possession of such secrets1 why1 it may be asked1 did he not publish them openly8 ,the reason was1 as he explains repeatedly and at length1 that he firmly believed scientific knowledge to be hurtful to the people4 ,he protests in his works again and again against the diffusion of scientific information4 8,the crowd10 he says1 8is unable to digest scientific facts1 which it scorns and misuses to its own detriment and that of the wise4 ,let not pearls1 then1 be thrown to swine40#ccf ,elsewhere he says3 8,the mob scoff at philosophers and despise scientific truth4 ,if by chance they lay hold upon some great principle1 they are sure to misinterpret and misapply it1 so that what would have been gain to every one causes loss to all40#ccg 8,it is madness10 he goes on to say1 8to commit a secret to writing1 unless it be so done as to be unintelligible to the ignorant1 and only just intelligible to the best educated02#cch and so much in earnest was he upon this point that he enumerates seven methods of baffling public curiosity4 ,a secret may be concealed by making use of3-- 7#a7 ,symbols and incantations 7characteres et carmina72 7#b7 ,enigmatic and figurative words2 7#c7 ,consonants only1 without vowels2 7#d7 ,letters from different alphabets2 7#e7 ,specially devised letters2 7#f7 ,prearranged geometric figures2 7#g7 ,shorthand 7ars notatoria74 ,these are among the means of veiling secrets1 he tells us1 and 8ill will it betide him who reveals them40#cci ,bacon was not singular in holding the doctrine of secrecy in matters of science1 nor was it peculiar to the age he lived in3 it arose ages before his birth1 and was held for ages after his death4 ,to any objections that might have been raised against the doctrine1 philosophers would probably have replied with ,subtle and ,mammon3-- 8444 was not all the knowledge ,of the ,egyptians writ in mystic symbols8 ,speak not the ,scriptures oft in parables8 ,are not the choicest fables of the poets1 ,that were the fountains and first springs of wisdom1 ,wrapp'd in perpetual allegories8 99 99 99 99 99 444 ,sisyphus was damned ,to roll the ceaseless stone1 only because ,he would have made ,ours common40#cdj ,a man who boldly1 even fiercely1 avowed such opinions as ,bacon's1 was bound in consistency to employ some cryptic method in recording his own secrets2 and when we closely examine the course ,bacon actually followed1 we find that his practice was rigidly in accordance with his theory--in fact1 too rigidly4 ,those steeped in the ,cabbala of ,alchemy in his own age may have grasped his meaning1 but to those who came afterwards it was obscure1 if not hidden4 ,even to the early copyists of his ,,mss4 it was unintelligible4 ,in one of the ,,mss4 consulted by ,professor ,brewer1 the scribe has written on the margin of ,chap4 ,,ix4 of the ,de ,secretis3--,hc sunt nigmata2 8these things are enigmas10 and enigmas they have remained for seven centuries4 ,the presence of two anagrams in ,chap4 ,,xi4 is sufficient of itself to arouse a suspicion that some cryptic method 7of a different kind7 has been employed in ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x41 and this suspicion is strengthened by their whole manner and diction4 ,their style is involved1 and their meaning 7as they stand7 unintelligible4 ,bacon passes from one subject to another in bewildering haste2 from the unfinished description of one process to instructions about a second1 which he leaves half told in order to plunge into a third4 ,among directions of seemingly primitive simplicity he interpolates such phrases as 8catch my meaning if you can0 7intellige si potes72 8you will see whether ,i am speaking riddles or the plain truth0 7videas utrum loquor nigmata aut secundum veritatem72 and he warns us that the purport of ,chap4 ,,ix4 may wholly escape us1 unless we distinguish the 7real from the apparent7 meaning of his statements 7in hoc capitulo decipieris1 nisi dictionum significata1 distinguas74 ,these special peculiarities of ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4 can be only explained by the use of some cryptic method1 to which ,bacon points plainly in ,chap4 ,,viii4 ,he there names two cryptographers1 ,ethicus and ,artephius1 in connection with the seven cryptic methods already given1 and he broadly hints that he may make use of some of these methods 7forsan1 propter secretorum magnitudinem1 aliquibus his utar modis74 ,it is needless to pursue the matter further3 ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4 are not1 as they appear to be1 nonsense1 but the cryptic exposition of some secret which ,bacon believed to be of great value4 ,few of the difficulties we experience in investigating the meaning of these three chapters were felt by the correspondent to whom the ,friar addressed them as letters4 ,he and ,bacon had long been in communication with each other1 and as both knew the substance which formed the real subject of these letters1 ,bacon was at liberty to call it chalk or cheese or what he willed4 ,they appear to have had some system of numerical signs1 the meaning of which is lost to us4 ,the tenth chapter begins with a reference to a letter received by ,bacon from his correspondent in the year #fjb ,a4,h41 and as the date is given in words1 not figures1 it can hardly have been mistaken by the scribes4 ,now the year #fjb ,a4,h4 began on #ahth ,aug41 #abje ,a4,d41 nine years before ,bacon was born4 ,the number #fjb1 therefore1 is either a blind1 or a conventional sign or key4 ,the same may be said of the number #fcj in the first line of ,chap4 ,,xi41 and of the totally unnecessary #cj which occurs just before the anagram in the same chapter--87sit7 pondus totum #cj10 i4e4 let the total weight be #cj4 ,no one can have ever wanted to know the total weight of the mixture in question3 every one wanted to know the proportions of the ingredients4 ,our ignorance of these signs creates difficulties for us which did not exist for the initiated in ,bacon's time4 ,as will be shown hereafter1 ,bacon has occasionally availed himself in ,chaps4 ,,ix41 ,x41 and ,,xi4 of ,nos4 #b and #d of the cryptic methods he has given us2 but these methods apply only to words and phrases1 and the wily ,franciscan did not think it necessary to allude to the more general method by which he set forth so much of his statement as is contained in ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4 ,we cannot discuss cryptograms here3 suffice it to say that some of the early methods were too tedious and some too complicated to be employed throughout the whole length of ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4 ,the method he appears to have adopted 7as the result will show7 was that known long afterwards as the 8,argyle cipher10 of which the following letter from ,thackeray's 8,esmond0 is an example4 ,the real contents of this letter are the phrases within brackets3-- 8,the ,king will take medicine on ,thursday4 ,his ,majesty is better than he hath been of late1 though incommoded by indigestion from his too great appetite4 ,madame ,maintenon continues well4 ,they have performed a play of ,mons4 ,racine at ,st4 ,cyr4444 ,the ,viscount ,castlewood's passports were refused to him1 'twas said2 his lordship being sued by a goldsmith for ,vaisselle plate and a pearl necklace supplied to ,mademoiselle ,meruel of the ,french ,comedy4 ',tis a pity such news should get abroad and travel to ,england about our young nobility here4 ,mademoiselle ,meruel has been sent to ,fort l',evesque2 they say she ordered not only plate1 but furniture1 and a carriage and horses under that lords name1 of which extravagance his unfortunate ,viscountess knows nothing4 8,his ,majesty will be eighty-two years of age on his next birthday4444 ,all here admired my ,lord ,viscount's portrait1 and said it was a masterpiece of ,rigaud4 ,have you seen it8 ,it is at the ,lady ,castlewood's house in ,kensington ,square4 ,i think no ,english painter could produce such a piece4 8,our poor friend the ,abb hath been to the ,conciergerie where his friends may visit him4 ,they are to ask for a remission of his sentence soon4 8,the ,lord ,castlewood has had the affair of the plate made up and departs for ,england4 8,is not this a dull letter84440--,bk4 ,,iii4 ,chap4 #h4 ,this letter shows very clearly that the ,argyle steganogram is one which it is almost impossible to solve without the key1 unless the matter to which it relates is known beforehand#cda--;a difficulty to which ,bacon's correspondent was not exposed1 for he knew well what the subject of ,bacon's communication would be4 ,here1 then1 we should have found ourselves left in utter darkness were it not for a ray of light afforded by ,chap4 ,,xi4 ,there we are told that something1 in connection with saltpetre and sulphur1 produces an explosion1#cdb and we know that this something is charcoal4 ,since ,chap4 ,,xi4 is concerned with the composition and effects of this mixture1 what more probable than that ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4 should deal with its ingredients separately--or at least with saltpetre and charcoal1 for sulphur was so simple and common a drug that ,bacon was not likely to dwell upon it8 ,now1 towards the end of ,chap4 ,x4 ,bacon speaks without disguise of charcoal under the name of the wood from which it is made1#cdc and mentions the two trees1 hazel and willow1 which give the best4 ,he significantly adds that when charcoal is added to proper proportions of certain other substances1 something noteworthy happens 7si vero partes virgulti coryli aut salicis multarum just rerum serie apte ordinaveris1 unionem naturalem servabunt3 et hoc non tradas oblivioni1 quia valet ad multa74 ,since1 then1 charcoal is one of the subjects of these two chapters1 it becomes all the more probable that saltpetre forms another4 ,bacon was writing but a few years after its discovery1 and nothing could be more natural than that the great alchemist should bestow his attention upon the preparation of the new salt4 ,this hypothesis explains simply and completely the most remarkable feature of ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4--the series of common and well-known alchemical terms and phrases1 referring undoubtedly to the preparation of either saltpetre or gold1 which are scattered and hidden among incoherent maunderings about chalk and cheese1 philosophic eggs and ,tagus sand1 ,adam's bones and aperient medicine4 ,but how could the preparation of gold lead up to the recipe for an explosive with which ,chap4 ,,xi4 ends8 ,there is no connection whatever between gold and gunpowder1 while the connection between saltpetre and gunpowder is of the closest possible kind4 ,before giving a recipe for gunpowder it was absolutely necessary for ,bacon to describe the method of refining the lately discovered saltpetre1 without which his recipe would have been worthless2 and he took advantage of the close similarity between the alchemical preparation of gold and the refining of saltpetre to conceal the real import of his tract4 ,by the title of the last three chapters--8,on the ,method of ,making the ,philosopher's ,stone0--and by constantly harping on gold1 he endeavoured to distract and deceive his ordinary readers1 leading them to believe that he was writing about gold when he was really treating on saltpetre4 ,the unnamed substance saltpetre1 then1 is the principal subject of ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x41 and our course is clear4 ,we must treat these chapters as we should treat ,col4 ,esmond's letter were the brackets omitted#cdd-we must make shift to insert them4 ,we must bracket together the phrases and sentences relating to the real subject of these chapters1 the familiar alchemical expressions relating to saltpetre4 ,on doing so we shall find a connected and rational method of refining the salt4 ,in the following reproduction of ,chaps4 ,,ix4 and ,x4 ,i have used the ,esmond brackets1 but ,i have not thought it necessary to reprint all the padding which connects them4 ,all omissions1 however1 are shown by dots4 ,no word of the bracketed phrases has been changed1 altered1 added1 or suppressed1 nor has the order of the words been altered4 ,nothing has been done but to indicate by brackets the misleading interpolations4 ,,cap4 ,,ix4 ,de modo faciendi ovum philosophorum4 ,dico igitur tibi quod volo ordinari qu superius narravi exponere1 et ideo volo ovum philosophorum et partes philosophici ovi investigare1 nam hoc est initium ad alia4 ,calcem#cde igitur diligenter aquis alkali et aliis aquis acutis purifica1 et variis contritionibus cum salibus confrica#cdf et pluribus assationibus concrema1 ut fiat terra pura penitus liberata ab aliis elementis#cdg1 quam tibi pro me longitudinis statura dignam duco4 ,intellige si potes1 quia proculdubio erit compostum ex elementis1 et ideo est pars lapidis qui non est lapis1#cdh et est in quolibet homine et in quolibet loco hominis4444 ,deinde oleum ad modum crocei casei et viscosi accipias1#cdi primo ictu insecabile1 cujus tota virtus ignea dividatur et separetur per distillationem2 dissolvatur#cej autem in aqua acuta temporat acuitatis cum igne levi1#cea ut decoquatur quatenus separetur pinguedo sua#ceb1 sicut pinguedo in carnibus4444 ,melius est tamen ut decoquatur in aquis temporatis in acuitate donec purgatur et dealbetur4 ,aqua vero salutaris exaltatio fit ex igne secco vel humido2 et iteretur distillatio ut effectum bonitatis recipiat sufficienter donec rectificetur3 rectificationis novissima signa sunt candor et crystallina serenitas#cec2 et cum ctera#ced nigrescunt ab igne hoc albescit1 mundatur1 serenitate nitescit et splendore mirabili4 ,ex hac aqua et terra sua argentum vivum generatur1 quod est sicut argentum vivum in mineralibus1 et quando incandidit hoc modo materia congelatur4 ,lapis vero ,aristotelis1 qui non est lapis1 ponitur in pyramide in loco calido#cee4 ,,cap4 ,x4 ,de eodem1 sed alio modo4#cef ,transactis annis ,arabum sexcentis et duobus1 rogasti me de quibusdam secretis4 ,accipe igitur lapidem#ceg et calcina ipsum assatione leni et contritione forti sive cum rebus acutis4 ,sed in fine parum commisce de aqua dulci2 et medicinam laxativam#ceh compone de septem rebus 444 vel de quot vis2 sed quiescit animus meus in duabus rebus quarum proportio melior est in sesquialtera proportione#cei vel circiter1 sicut te potest docere experientia4 ,resolve#cfj tamen aurum#cfa ad ignem et mollius calefac4 ,sed si mihi credas1 accipias unam rem1 hoc est secretum secretorum1 et natur potens miraculum4 ,mixto#cfb igitur ex duobus1 aut ex pluribus1 aut ,phnice#cfc1 quod est animal singulare1 adjunge1 et incorpora per fortem motum2 cui si liquor calidus adhibeatur1#cfd habebis propositum ultimum#cfe4 ,sed postea clestis natura debilitatur si aquam infundis ter vel quater4 ,divide igitur1 debile a forti in vasis diversis1#cff si mihi credas4 ,evacuato#cfg igitur quod bonum est4 ,iterum adhibe pulverem1 et aquam qu remansit diligentur exprime1 nam pro certo partes pulveris deducet non incorporatas4 ,et ideo illam aquam per se collige1 quia pulvis exsiccatus ab ea habet incorporari medicin laxitiv4444 ,regyra cum pistillo1#cfh et congrega materiam ut potes1 et aquam sepera paulatim et redibit at statum4 ,quam aquam exsiccabis1 nam continet pulverem#cfi et aquam medicin1 qu sunt incorporanda sicut pulvis principalis4 ,the phrases within brackets1 which constitute the recipe1 will be found collected together and translated in their proper place in ,chap4 ,,ii4 ,it would be presumptuous to suggest that the foregoing solution of ,bacon's ,argyle steganogram is free from error2 but ,i may express a hope that the errors are few and inconsiderable--a hope founded upon the completeness of the method disclosed4 ,whatever errors may be found1 there can at least be little doubt that the occult meaning of the two chapters is the refining of saltpetre4 ,one sentence1 two sentences1 or even more1 might be selected from the description of almost any long chemical process which would apply with equal propriety to some other process2 but it is incredible that a long1 varied1 and connected process1 such as the refining of saltpetre1 could be extracted by any method from documents professedly devoted to the philosopher's stone1 unless this process had been designedly inserted there1 piecemeal or whole1 by the author himself4 ,for the figurative interpretation given of two or three words and phrases1 we have ,bacon's own warrant4 ,he threatened to employ verba nigmatica and verba figurativa1 and he has been taken at his word2 with the result that a rational chemical process has been extracted from what was previously unintelligible4 ,having said all he had to say about the ingredients1 ,bacon proceeds to deal with their mixture in ,chap4 ,,xi41 in which he employs a cryptic method without disguise3-- ,,cap4 ,,xi4 ,de eodem1 tamen alio modo4 ,annis ,arabum #fcj transactis1 petitioni tu respondeo in hunc modum4444 ,item pondus totum #cj4 ,sed tamen salis petr#cgj ,,luru ,,vopo ,,vir ,,can ,,utriet sulphuris2 et sic facies tonitruum et coriscationem1 si scias artificium4 ,videas tamen utrum loquor nigmatate aut secundum veritatem4 ,omitting the anagram1 the translation is3--8,in this #fcjth year of the ,higira ,i comply with your request as follows4444 ,let the total weight 7of the ingredients7 be #cj4 ,however1 of saltpetre 444 of sulphur2 and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a thundering noise1 if you know #8the trick4' ,you may find 7by actual experiment7 whether ,i am writing riddles to you or the plain truth40 ,the mention of the flash and the noise indicates at once that we have here to do with an explosive4 ,but saltpetre and sulphur when mixed together do not form an explosive4 ,we may feel sure1 therefore1 that the name of the one substance necessary to convert the incendiary mixture of saltpetre and sulphur into an explosive1 namely charcoal1 is included under some form in the anagram--either as carbo1 or the name of the wood from which it is made4 ,the et sic facies of the second clause shows that there must necessarily be in the first clause1 and consequently in the anagram1 some verb in the imperative mood1 such as mix or take4 ,we may expect a word for a weight 7libr1 unci1 c471 or the word partes4 ,as regards the proportions1 the earliest we are acquainted with approximate more or less closely to #b3a3a1 ,arderne's recipe being merely a laboratory recipe4 ,the proportions of the ingredients1 therefore1 if included in the anagram1 will probably not differ much from #b3a3a4 ,rearranging the letters of the anagram1 we get-- ,,rviipartvnoucorulvet1 or since ,u and ,v are interchangeable1 ,r4 ,,vii ,,part4 ,v ,,nov4 ,,corul4 ,v ,,et2 i4e4 r7ecipe7 vii part7es71 v nov7ell7#cga corul 7i71 v et4 ,the whole passage in the original therefore reads3-- 8sed tamen salis petr recipe vii partes1 v novell coruli1 v et sulphuris10 c42 that is-- 8but take #g parts of saltpetre1 #e of young hazel-wood1 and #e of sulphur10 c42 i4e4 #a-b_/e sp41 #a char4 and #a sulph4 ,r4 was the common contraction for recipe1 and may be seen in ,marcus ,grcus' first recipe 7,berthelot's text74 ,nov4 ,corul4 could have presented no difficulty to ,bacon's correspondent1 seeing that in the previous letter1 ,cap4 ,x41 ,bacon had spoken of virgulti coryli4 ,there he writes coryli3 in his ,opus ,majus he wrote coruli 7ii4 #bai1 ,bridges ed474 ,the second anagram 7in ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,anglo-,saxon letters7 seems to be a note to the first and need not detain us1 since we have already got the names and proportions of the ingredients4 ,in deference to those readers who may reject the preceding attempts to read ,bacon's riddles1 we now proceed to show1 on grounds independent of the steganogram and anagram1 that ,bacon was in possession of an explosive4 ,the igneous bodies of which ,bacon speaks fall into two classes4 ,the first class are incendiaries4 8,incendiaries10 he tells us1 8may be made from saltpetre1 or petroleum1 or maltha1#cgb or naphtha1 mixed with other substances4444 ,to these are allied ,greek fire and many other incendiaries#cgc4444 7,burning7 maltha1 if thrown upon an armed soldier1 will cause his death4444 ,it is difficult to extinguish1 water being useless for this purpose40#cgd ,but side by side with these passages we find descriptions of igneous compositions of a totally different kind4 8,there are other natural wonders4 ,we can produce in the air sounds loud as thunder and flashes bright as lightning--nay1 even surpassing the powers of nature4 ,a small quantity of 7a certain7 composition1 no bigger than one's thumb1 will give forth 7on ignition7 a deafening noise and a vivid flash40#cge ,we have1 too1 the passage1 already quoted1 in the eleventh chapter1 where he says that saltpetre and sulphur and something else give forth 7on ignition7 8a thundering noise and a vivid flash40#cgf ,again3 8,some compositions 7when ignited7 make an unbearable noise4444 ,no other sound can be compared with it4 ,others produce flashes more fearful to behold than real lightning4444 ,we may exemplify these effects with a child's toy which contains within it a quantity of saltpetre 7mixture7 the size of one's thumb4 ,in the bursting of this bauble1 made only of parchment1 there are given forth a noise louder than the mutterings of thunder and a flash brighter than the brightest lightning40#cgg ,it will be evident on a moment's consideration that the charge of this toy must have been an explosive4 ,had it been an incendiary1 the paper would have taken fire long before the pressure of the gases generated by the combustion had increased sufficiently to burst the case1 and there would have been no loud report4 ,the consequences of igniting these two classes of composition are described so clearly as to preclude all possible misunderstanding3--the incendiary burns fiercely1 while the other mixture gives forth a bright flash and a loud noise4 ,in the latter case1 ,bacon was describing an explosion1 and1 as he has elsewhere spoken of saltpetre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 the reasonable conclusion is that the explosive was gunpowder4 ,it has been said that the first of the foregoing passages--8there are other natural wonders10 c4--describes a rocket4 ,as everybody knows1 a rocket in its flight makes a whizzing noise and is followed by a trail of heated gas and sparks4 ,the whizzing noise can only be compared to thunder by a total disregard of fact1 for no sound resembles thunder less4 ,does thunder whizz8 ,the fiery trail can only be called a flash by an equal disregard of fact3 it gives a continuous light4 ,but if the rocket carries a bursting charge which explodes in mid-air1 the explosion may1 with venial exaggeration1 be said to produce a flash like lightning and a noise like thunder4 ,bacon was alluding to a bursting charge consisting of an explosive1 and that explosive was gunpowder4 ,was ,bacon aware of the projective force of gunpowder8 ,there is nothing in his works 7so far as ,i am acquainted with them7 which suggests that he was4 ,he knew that gunpowder exploded1 and he believed that an army might be either actually blown up by it1 or put to flight by the terror inspired by its explosion2#cgh but he seems to have gone no further4 ,he experimented1 probably1 with very small quantities of it2 and the behaviour of gunpowder when fired in large quantities under pressure is so unlike its behaviour when fired in small quantities in the open air1 that its projective force could neither have been predicted by abstract reasoning nor realised by even his powerful imagination4 ,if a surmise be permissible1 ,bacon did not invent1 he discovered gunpowder4 ,experimenting with some incendiary composition1 prepared with pure instead of impure saltpetre1 the mixture exploded unexpectedly and shattered all the chemical apparatus near it1 thereby laying the foundation of the medival legend about the destruction of the ,brazen ,head4 ,this suggestion1 if correct1 only adds one more item to the long list of accidental discoveries4 ,the laws of the structure of crystals were discovered by ,hay's accidentally letting fall a piece of calc-spar1 which broke into fragments4 ,malus1 chancing to look through a double refracting prism at the light of the setting sun1 reflected from the windows of the ,luxembourg ,palace1 discovered the polarisation of light4 ,galvani discovered galvanism by mere accident4 ,the decomposition of water by voltaic electricity was accidentally discovered by ,nicholson in #ahja4 ,however1 whether as discoverer or inventor1 ,roger ,bacon made and fired the first gunpowder4 ,it fell to the lot of a persecuted ,english monk to fulfil the prophecy of ,prometheus1 that in the latter day there should appear 8a wondrous being1 who should call forth flashes brighter than lightning and sounds louder than thunder40#cgi ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,ammunition ,,chapter ,,ix ,,analytical ,,table ,,of ,,ammunition ,to those who are not professional gunners1 ,artillery ammunition may seem at the first glance to be a hopeless and chaotic jumble of endless stores4 ,this is no doubt partly owing to the necessary multiplicity of the stores1 but far more to the absence 7in most books and lists7 of any synoptic digest1 or plan1 showing at one view the classification of the whole and the pedigree of each article4 ,to remedy this want the following table has been drawn out1 showing the stems to which belong the various kinds of ammunition we are concerned with here4 ,many trees of a somewhat similar nature might of course be constructed1 fuller and more scientific than ,table ,,iv42 but it has the advantage of being very simple and sufficiently comprehensive for the present purpose4 ,strictly speaking1 the table ought to have included all the ammunition in use between the introduction of cannon and the introduction of rifled arms in the middle of the last century2 but the principle has not been pushed to its limit1 nor was it necessary to do so in order to enable the reader to form a clear notion of the broad divisions of ammunition4 ,machines lingered on for some time after the invention of cannon3 in fact they were used at the siege of ,constantinople in #adec4 ,their stone balls and pots of ,greek fire are not formally included1 because what is said of stone shot for guns in ,chap4 ,,xiii4 applies equally to stone balls for machines1 and all that it was considered necessary to say about ,greek fire has been said in ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,electric fuzes1 and some few species of ammunition of little interest or value1 have been also omitted1 because their inclusion would have increased the size and complexity of the table without any counterbalancing advantage4 ,ammunition for rifled guns has not been included1 because it is for the most part an adaptation and development of smooth-bore ammunition4 ,,table ,,iv ,fire ,arrows1 c4 ,hand ,grenades1 ,incend4 and ,explos4 ,automatic ,rockets1 ,war ,charge ,gunpowder ,darts1 tc4 ,stone ,round ,iron ,cannon ,shock ,shot ,bronze ,lead ,case ,sharapnel ,projectiles ,hot ,shot ,,ammunition ,incendiary ,fireballs ,shell ,carcasses ,explosive ,fireballs ,shell ,hot ,wires ,priming ,powder ,matches1 ,slow and ,quick ,igniters ,portfires ,tubes ,fuzes ,time ,percussion ,concussion ,signals ,rockets ,fixed ,lights ,,chapter ,x ,,hand ,,ammunition ,fire-,arrows and ,fire-,pikes ,the system of attaching incendiaries to arrows1 lances1 c41 survived the introduction of gunpowder and died a lingering death4 ,in ,november #aehh the ,government ordered the purchase of 8#bj ,slurr ,bows at #bes4 each1 and #bj doz4 of firework arrows for the said slurr bows at #es4 the doz40#chj ,from a list of naval stores for the year #aeii1 it would appear that fire-arrows were discharged from long-bows as well as slur-bows3-- 8,slurbowe arrowes with firewoorkes1 #ahd2 inde #ai without firewoorkes4 ,longbowe arrowes with firewoorkes1 #d shef4 #a arr40#cha ,hansard gives a plate of an ,english archer1 #abej1 with spicula ignita1 or arrow tipped with wildfire4#chb ,sir ,r4 ,w4 ,payne-,gallwey gives a sketch of a slur-bow4 ,it is a cross-bow1 with a barrel and a single string which works in two slits cut in the sides of the barrel4#chc ,fire-lances were used1 perhaps for the last time1 at the first siege of ,bristol1 #afdc4 ,there1 ,prince ,rupert tells us1 8,captain ,clerk1 ,ancient ,hodgkinson1 and some others running in upon 7the ,royalists7 with fire-pikes1 neither men nor horses were able to endure it4 ,the fire-pikes did the feat40#chd ,fire-arrows had a longer spell of existence1 and were used by the ,chinese against the ,french in #ahfj4che ,hand ,grenades ,incendiary hand grenades are of great antiquity4 ,we have seen that earthenware grenades were used at the siege of ,salonika1#chf #ijd4 ,towards the end of the thirteenth century ,hassan er-,rammah describes grenades made of bark1 papyrus1 or glass--materials well adapted to break up on impact and scatter about their burning contents4#chg ,they were used at the passage of the ,lys in #achb3--8;,adonc vinrent arbaltriers et gens de pied avant2 et si en y avait aucuns qui jetait de bombardes portatives et qui traioient grands quarriaulx empenns de fer10 c4#chh ,by a common figure of speech ,froissart calls the grenade a bombard1 just as the author of the 8,avowing of ,arthur0 calls a shot a gun3-- 8444 there came fliand a gunne ,and lemet as the leuyn44440#chi 7,a gun came flying by and gleamed like lightning47 ,the plate from the ,,ms4 of ,kyeser's ,bellifortis1 #adje1 given by ,herr von ,romocki 7i4 #afi71 shows three projectiles which were unquestionably hand grenades4 ,figs4 #be and #cj are provided with spikes1 like crow's-feet4#cij ,fig4 #bg is a flask or bottle of the same family as ,hassan's grenades1 and was probably made of earthenware4 ,it was by an explosive earthenware grenade that ,del ,vasto was severely wounded in #aebh1 during the sea-fight between the ,french and ,spaniards off ,cape ,campanella4#cia ,the ,comte de ,rendan was killed by a grenade of unknown construction at the siege of ,rouen1 #aefb1cib and grenades were freely used at the siege of ,famagusta1 #aegb4 ,du ,bellay tells us that grenades were made in large quantities at ,arles in #aecf4cic ,as it is improbable that iron grenades could have been turned out in large quantities in the first half of the sixteenth century1 we may conclude that they were either earthenware or some form of brittle brass4 ,this is rendered probable by ,whitehorne's remarks on the subject4 ,he says that 8earthen bottles or pottes10 filled with incendiary or explosive matter1 had been formerly used2 but he recommends 8hollow balles of metal1 as bigge as smal boules and in4 thick1 cast in mouldes and made of #c partes of brasse and #a of tinne40 ,their charge consisted of 8#c partes serpentine1 #c partes fine corne pouder1 and #a part rosen40 ,a little fine corned powder was used as priming2 and he directs the grenades to be 8quickly thrown10 as they will almost immediately 8breake and flye into a thousand pieces40 ,the want of a proper fuze rendered their use so dangerous that he advises trials to be made with them1 8to see how long they will tarry before they breake40#cid ,major ,ralph ,adye mentions that grenades were supposed to be capable of being thrown #ac fathoms1 or #bf yards4#cie ,evelyn says in his 8,diary0 that on #bith ,june #afgh1 he saw at the ,hounslow ,camp certain soldiers 8called granadiers1 who were dexterous in flinging hand-granades40 ,in the ,archological ,journal1 xxiii41 #bb1 will be found a plate 8,blow your ,match10 after a sketch by ,lens1 8limner to ,his ,majesty0 ,george ,,ii41 which represents a grenadier of the #ast ,regiment of the ,guards in #agce1 grenade in hand4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,war ,,rockets ,incendiary rockets were known in the ,east from an early time1 and they are frequently mentioned at later periods2 but we are told so little about the loss they inflicted upon an enemy that one is inclined to suspect their effect was confined to wounding a few men and frightening elephants and horses4 ,they are said to have been used by the ,chinese against the ,tatars in #abcb4cif ,the ,malzufat-i ,timuri and the ,zafarnama leave us in doubt whether ,timur's rockets were used or not at the great battle of ,delhi1 #acii4cig ,the effect produced by a single rocket led to the fall of the strong fort of ,bitar in #afeg1 but this result was purely accidental4 ,the commander of the fort1 foreseeing that an assault would be made upon one of the bastions which had been much damaged by artillery fire1 ordered a hole to be dug in it and filled with gunpowder1 grenades1 c41 intending to blow up the besiegers when they entered4 ,just before the assault was made1 one of the besiegers' rockets fell by accident into this pit and fired its contents1 creating thereby so much loss and confusion among the garrison that the place was carried after a short struggle by ,aurangzeb's troops4#cih ,in the ,west1 rockets were employed as early as #achj1cii if not earlier2 but they were never looked on with favour1 and they appear to have been seldom1 if ever1 used between the earlier part of the fifteenth century and our bombardment of ,boulogne with ,congreve rockets in #ahjf4 ,dunois' capture of ,pont ,audemer in #addi was a consequence of a fire that broke out in the town2 but the fire appears to have been caused by a hand-grenade or fire-arrow1 not by a rocket4 ,however1 the exact meaning of the word fusus is so doubtful that the matter is not worth pursuing4#djj ,towards the close of the eighteenth century rockets were almost forgotten in the one ,european city where they were most likely to have been remembered--,constantinople4 ,in #aghc-hd ,tipu ,sultan sent a mission to the ,sultan of ,turkey1 and of the presents which they offered 8none were so much admired as the ,rockets1 of which there were none in that country40#dja ,we find traces of the employment of rockets1 both incendiary and explosive1 in ,india in this very year1 when some 8rocketeers 444 threw confusion and dispersion into the masses of the ,mahrattas40#djb ,nothing can be more probable3 the army of the ,mahrattas was an army of cavalry1 and horses are terrified by fire in any form4 ,the ,indian rocket at this time had a tube of #h0 length and #a4e0 diameter1#djc and it does not appear to have been a very effective missile4 ,speaking of our loss during the attack on ,seringapatam1 #agib1 ,colonel ,dirom says3 87,we had7 a good many wounded1 though in general but slightly1 chiefly by rockets40#djd ,within the next few years1 however1 rockets were much improved1 and an eye-witness speaks of the use of 8rockets of an uncommon weight0 at the siege of ,seringapatam1 #agii4dje ,these were undoubtedly explosive rockets1 for ,col4 ,gerrard saw one of them kill three and wound four of our men4#djf ,shortly after the taking of ,seringapatam the ,ordnance ,office applied to the ,laboratory1 ,woolwich ,arsenal1 for the services of some one who understood the manufacture of war rockets4 ,the ,laboratory referred the ,ordnance to the ,east ,india ,company1 who replied that they knew of no one who possessed such knowledge4#djg ,this state of things led ,colonel ,congreve to turn his attention to the subject4 ,it is not correct to say that he brought rockets from ,india1#djh for he never was there4 ,he knew of course--the whole world knew--that war rockets were employed there3 8,i knew that rockets were used for military purposes in ,india1 but that their magnitude was inconsiderable and their range not exceeding #ajjj yards40#dji ,his object was to make large incendiary and explosive rockets with a range of #ajjj-cejj yards1 and he succeeded1 perhaps1 as well as the materials at his disposal permitted4 ,he never laid claim to the invention of war rockets3 8,what ,i have done10 he says1 8towards the perfection of this weapon is as much my own as if the original invention of rockets in general were mine40#daj ,oberst-,lieutenant ,jhns tells us that1 from a certain point of view1 the ,emperor ,caligula's rockets were on a level with those of ,congreve4#daa ,it may be doubted1 however1 whether ,caligula's rockets would have produced the same effect as the ,congreve rockets at ,copenhagen in #ahjg1dab or at ,walcheren in the same year1 when the ,french ,commandant1 ,general ,monnet1 protested against their use4 ,they did good service at the passage of the ,adour in #ahac1 and at the battle of ,leipsig1 where ,captain ,bogue1 who commanded the ,rocket ,brigade1 was killed4 ,a ,french infantry brigade in the village of ,paunsdorf1 8unable to withstand the well-directed fire 7of rockets71 fell into confusion1 began to retreat10 and ultimately surrendered to the ,rocket ,brigade4#dac ,two years afterwards1 at ,waterloo1 the rockets1 under ,sergeant ,daniel ,dunnett1 proved very effective4 ,of late years rockets have fallen into disrepute everywhere1 owing to radical defects explained by ,captain ,c4 ,o4 ,browne1 ,r4,a42#dad and their use is unlikely to be revived until the chemists make some unforeseen and astonishing discovery4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,gunpowder ,,the oldest recipe for gunpowder is ,roger ,bacon's4 ,if the solution of his anagram which ,i have ventured to propose be accepted1 the proportions of the ingredients in #ajj parts were3-- ,saltpetre4 ,charcoal4 ,sulphur4 #da4b #bi4d #bi4d ,the ,french recipe of #acch being incomplete 7,table ,,viii471 the next complete recipe for gunpowder is that given in the ,,mss4 of ,dr4 ,john ,arderne of ,newark1 who began to practise as a surgeon before #acej3dae-- 8,pernez j4 li4 de souffre vif2 de charbones de saulx 7i4 weloghe7 ij4 li42 de saltpetre vj4 li4 ,si les fetez bien et sotelment moudre sur un pierre de marbre1 puis bultez le poudre parmy vn sotille couer-chief2 cest poudre vault gettere pelottes de fer1 ou de plom1 ou d'areyne1#daf one vn instrument qe l'em appelle gonne40 ,this gives in #ajj parts3- ,saltpetre4 ,charcoal4 ,sulphur4 #ff4f #bb4b #aa4a ,the word gonne1 in the sense of cannon1 must have been commonly known during the last quarter of the fourteenth century2 for ,chaucer uses it with this meaning in the 8,hous of ,fame10 iii4 #eec1 cir4 #achj-- 8,as swift as pelet out of gonne1 ,whan fyr is in the poudr ronne20 and ,langley uses it with the same meaning in the ,c text of his 8,vision of ,piers ,plowman10 xxi4 #bic1 cir4 #acic3-- 8,set bows of brake and brasene gonnes1 ,and shoot out shot enough his sheltrums to blend40 ,now the explanatory phrase1 8qe l'em appelle gonne10 shows that gonne was but little known when the above recipe was written4 ,we may therefore date it at #acej4 ,it will be observed that down to the word marbre1 the recipe is a literal translation of a receipt for rocket composition given by ,marcus ,grcus4#dag ,yet the two powders1 although made of nominally the same ingredients in the same proportions1 did not produce the same effects when fired2 for gunpowder will not propel a rocket1 and rocket composition will not project a cannon-ball4 ,the difference in their effects was probably due to the researches of ,roger ,bacon1 who had discovered the importance of using pure saltpetre and of thoroughly incorporating the ingredients4 ,it is improbable that ,arderne's recipe represents the powder used in the cannon of his time4 ,its proportions are so entirely out of keeping with those of the ,french powder of #acch 7,table ,,viii47 and those of ,whitehorne's powder of #aefj 7,table ,,vii471 that we may regard it as no more than a laboratory receipt4 ,it needed but little experience to show how far short of perfection serpentine powder fell4 ,while the fouling of dry1 well-incorporated powder is comparatively trifling1 a damp or slow-burning powder1 such as serpentine1 leaves a much larger residue4 ,the consequence was that1 after a few rounds1 it was exceedingly difficult to reload small arms1 a considerable part of the loose1 floury charge sticking to the fouling4#dah ,the remedy for this evil was the use of cartridges4 ,whitehorne mentions 8bagges of linnen or paper0 for the charges of cannon in #aefj1dai and in #aeij ,sir ,john ,smythe speaks not only of cartridges1 but of composite cartridges for small arms--8cartages with which 7musketeers7 charge their peeces both with powder and ball at one time40#dbj ,there are payments for talwood 7faggots7 8for drying powder0 in the ,english store accounts #acgb-gd1dba and in #adei the ,scotch ,government were endeavouring to keep their powder dry by storing it in waxed canvas bags4#dbb ,an official recommends the ,english ,privy ,council in #aehi to sell certain 8bad powder0 at ,dorchester1 adding1 8the longer it is kept the worse yt wilbe40#dbc ,the ,navy were of course1 then and always1 the chief sufferers from damp powder4 ,serpentine powder1 ,sir ,henry ,manwayring tells us in #affd1 was never taken to sea 7after big guns had become strong enough to stand corned powder7 8both because it is of small force1 and also for that it will1 with the aire of the sea1 quickly drie and lose its force40#dbd ,but corned powder was by no means proof against damp4 ,in the action fought off ,grenada in ,july #aggi1 ,bishop ,watson says 8the ,english shot would not reach0 the ,french4 ,the powder1 it was found1 8had concreted into large lumps1 in the middle of which the saltpetre was visible to the naked eye40#dbe ,between the years #agij and #ahaa1 #ahi1jjj whole barrels of powder1 8which had formed into lumps from the damp of ,h4,m4's ships of war10 and had consequently been returned into store as useless1 were rendered serviceable in the ,government powder factory4#dbf ,being merely a loose mechanical mixture of three substances with different specific gravities1 serpentine powder had a tendency1 when shaken in transport1 to resolve itself into three strata1 the heaviest substance 7the sulphur7 settling down to the bottom1 and the lightest 7the charcoal7 remaining at the top4 ,this meant1 practically1 that on coming into the enemy's presence the ingredients had to be incorporated afresh4 ,to save trouble1 and to avoid the danger of a second mixing1 it was for a long time customary to carry the ingredients separately1#dbg or1 at least1 to carry the charcoal apart from the saltpetre and sulphur4 ,there was another argument1 however1 in favour of this course4 ,while serpentine powder1 however tightly secured1 gave out a large quantity of impalpable dust which might cause an explosion at any moment1 no explosion was possible so long as the ingredients were kept asunder4 ,but whatever was the reason for resorting to such an expedient1 it is evident that the remedy was nearly as bad as the disease4 ,serpentine powder had another drawback1--it required very careful ramming home4 8,thrust the pouder home fair and softly10 says ,whitehorne4#dbh 8,the powder rammed in too hard and the wad also10 says ,bourne in #aehg1 8it will be long before the peece goeth off4444 ,the powder too loose 444 will make the shotte to come short of the mark4444 ,put up the powder with the rammer head somewhat close1 but beat it not too hard40#dbi ,by beating it too hard the interstices between the particles through which the flame permeated the charge were diminished in size1 and if beaten sufficiently hard the mixture tended to become a solid which burned away without exploding4 ,finally1 the combustion of serpentine1 at the best1 was so slow that a large volume of its gas escaped wastefully through the vent4 ,these evils were in some cases much lessened1 and in others quite got rid of by the gradual introduction of corned powder1 which is mentioned in #adbi in the ,firebook of ,conrad von ,schongau1#dcj and was in use for hand-guns in ,england long before #aefj4 ,corned powder 7#a7 deposited less fouling than serpentine2 7#b7 it was less susceptible to damp1 especially after the introduction of glazing2#dca 7#c7 it did not resolve into strata in transport2 7#d7 it gave out less dust2 7#e7 it was much less affected by hard ramming2 7#f7 owing to the larger interstices between the grains1#dcb it burned so quickly that there was little or no waste of gas through the vent1 and it was consequently so strong that #b lbs4 of corned did the same work as #c lbs4 of serpentine powder4#dcc ,it was1 in fact1 too strong for cannon for a long period3 ,chemistry had outrun ,metallurgy4 8,if serpentine pouder should be occupied 7used7 in handguns10 says ,whitehorne1 8it would scant be able to drive their pellets#dcd a quoit's cast from their mouths2 and if handgunne 7i4e4 corned7 pouder should be used in pieces of ordnance1 without great discretion1 it would quickly break or marre them40#dce ,here we have the cause which necessitated the general retention of serpentine powder for cannon until the first half 7or middle7 of the sixteenth century1 after which it is heard of no more except for secondary purposes1 such as priming1 c4 ,we must not overlook the importance of ,whitehorne's remark4 ,he was an educated man of sound1 practical sense1 who had been a student of ,gray's ,inn1 and whose experience was not confined to the ,english ,artillery1 for he had seen service in the ,low ,countries4 ,what he says is a sufficient safeguard against inferring too much from ,schongau's mention of corned powder in #adbi4 ,it came slowly into use for hand-grenades and small arms in the fifteenth century2 but no country then possessed cannon strong enough to stand its explosion1 and it did not come into general use for another century4 ,in addition to its being at first too strong for big guns1 corned powder had the disadvantage of being dearer than serpentine4 ,the latter was sold in #aefi at #hj the last 7#bdjj lbs472 the former in #aegj at #ij4dcf ,the following ,table gives the price of ,english powder at various times3-- ,,table ,v4 ,price of ,english ,gunpowder per lb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,nature4 #acdg #acgh #adfb #adhb #aefi #aegh #aehh #aeie #afie #ahfe #dcg #dch #dci #ddj #dda #ddb #ddc #ddd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ d4 d4 d4 d4 d4 d4 d4 d4 d4 d4 ,serpentine#ac-c_/dac-b_/c #ab #aj #h -- -- -- -- -- ,corned -- -- -- -- #i #aj #ab #ac #aj-c_/d #g ,fine -- -- -- -- -- #aa -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,the remarkable uniformity in the prices of ,english powder has been noticed by ,prof4 ,rogers in his 8,history of ,agriculture and ,prices10 iv4 #fca4 ,he thinks that 8fine0 powder meant priming powder1 because infantry soldiers were usually served out with #a lb4 8common0 7corned7 powder and -lb4 8fine0 powder4 ,it doubtless did at one time2 but the term was applied to all small-arm powder eventually4#dde ,the prices of the first two powders have necessarily been calculated4 ,the price of charcoal in #acdg was 4#jac;d4 per lb42 in #acgh it was 4#jb;d4#ddf ,the prices of sulphur and saltpetre in #acdg were #h;d4 and #ah;d4 per lb4 respectively2#ddg in #acgh they were 7for large quantities7 #d;d4 and #bj;d4 respectively4#ddh ,from an ,english ,,ms41 quoted by the ,emperor ,napoleon ,,iii41 it appears that the cost of manufacturing powder at ,southampton in #adgd was 4#hfd;d4 per lb42#ddi and1 as it is the only fact available1 ,i have been obliged to assume that this was the cost of making powder in #acdg and #acgh4 ,but it is probably not far from the truth4 ,the proportions taken for the #acdg powder are ,arderne's1 #f-b-a2 those for #acgh1 #c-a-a4 ,from these data we have3-- #acdg4 #acgh4 d4 d4 #f lbs4 saltpetre #ajh4 #c lbs4 saltpetre #fj4 #b 8 charcoal 4#jbf #a lb4 charcoal 4#jb #a lb4 sulphur #h4 #a 0 sulphur #d4 -------------- -------------- ,price of #i lbs4 of materials #aaf4jbf ,price of #e lbs4 of materials #fd4jb 0 0 #a lb4 0 0 #ab4hib 0 0 #a lb4 0 0 #ab4hj ,cost of making1 per lb4 4#hfd ,cost of making1 per lb4 4#hfd -------------- ------------ ,price of #a lb4 #ac4gef ,price of #a lb4 #ac4ffd ,the price of ,french powder in #acge was #abj;d4 per lb42#dej but in order to be able to compare it with the price of ,english powder in #acgh1 we must know the ratio of ,french to ,english money at that period4 ,the ,french ,troyes livre then contained #egfj gs42 the ,english ,tower pound #edjj gs4 ,therefore-- #a livre 7pure silver7 #af_/ae pound 7pure silver74 ,under ,philip of ,valois 7#acbh-ej7 the livre was debased to #a_/ab its original value1#dea and almost simultaneously the pound was debased by ,edward ,,iii4 to #d_/e its primitive value4#deb ,or #a good livre was worth #ab bad livres1 and #a good pound was worth #e_/d of a bad pound4 ,therefore-- #ab livres #af_/ae 7#e_/d pound7 #d_/c pound2 or #i livres #a pound4 ,dividing the price of #a lb4 ,french powder1 #acge1 by the price of #a lb4 ,english powder1 #acgh1 we get #abj_/ac4ffd #h4g2 so that the ,french powder at this period was somewhat cheaper than the ,english4 ,as the purchasing power of fourteenth-century money was about ten times that of ours1 the ,french powder of #acge cost about #aas41 and the ,english powder of #acgh1 #aas4 #d;d4 per lb4 ,the high price of early gunpowder resulted from high freights and 7in the case of saltpetre7 the rapacity of ,eastern merchants4 ,we may form some notion of the price they exacted for their saltpetre which cost them little1#dec from the price they put upon their naphtha which cost them next to nothing4 8,another fountayne there is towarde the ,oryent whereof is made fyre grekysshe1 with other myxtyons 7mixtures7 that is put thereto2 the which fyre when it is taken and lyght is so hote that it can not be quenched with water1 but with aysel 7vinegar71 urine or sande only4 ,the ,sarasynes sell this water dere1 and derer than they do good wyne40#ded ,the manufacture of gunpowder soon became a trade4 ,we find a powder-mill in ,ausburg in #acdj1 in ,spandau in #acdd1 and in ,liegnitz in #acdh4dee ,there was a gunmaker in ,stockholm in #adcj1 who was very probably a powder-maker too2#def and it is certain that there was a powder-maker there in #adfd--,mster ,berend4#deg ,nor were ,governments blind to the importance and the profit of the trade4 ,beckmann states that the ,archbishop of ,magdeburg in #adai only permitted the collection of saltpetre on payment of a license1#deh and ,clarke informs us that the ,pope and the ,archduke of ,bavaria engaged themselves in powder-making at an early date4#dei ,louis ,,xi4 appointed commissioners in #adgg to collect all the saltpetre they could find1 with power to force an entry wherever they suspected it was stored4#dfj ,during the ,ancient ,period1 say #abej-adej1 when serpentine was exclusively used1 one powder could only differ from another in composition1 that is1 in the proportions of the ingredients used1 supposing them to be equally pure2 during the ,modern ,period1 say #agjj-ahhf1 the powders used 7in each individual ,state7 differed only1 as a general rule1 in the size of the grain2#dfa during the ,transition ,period1 #adej-agjj1 they generally differed both in composition and grain4 ,the proportions of the ingredients were quite arbitrary during the ,ancient ,period1 and not only ,governments1 but private manufacturers1 had their special recipes4 ,as late as #afbh ,norton says there were 8infinite recipes for making of powder1 but most states have enjoyned a certain proportion40#dfb ,the introduction of corning1 far from curbing the lawlessness of the ,ancient ,period1 made confusion worse confounded4 ,then there was but one variable--the proportions of the ingredients2 now a second independent variable was introduced--the size of the grain4 ,but a reaction was at hand1 which set in first in ,france1 where corned powder had been adopted in #aebe4dfc ,it appears to have been noticed during the second half of the fifteenth century that large-grained powder was the fittest for big guns1 and this fact the ,french utilised in #aedj by officially restricting the service powders to three1 of uniform composition but different-sized grains4#dfd ,the largest-grained powder was used for the largest guns1 and the composition was #hj4g salp41 #aa4e char41 and #g4h sulph41 which closely corresponded to ,whitehorne's 7corned7 hand-gun powder--#gh4c salp41 #ac char41 and #h4g sulph4#dfe ,it may be questioned1 however1 whether the ,french1 official injunctions notwithstanding1 confined themselves very religiously to powders of uniform composition4 ,boillot1 whose work was published at ,chaumont in #aeih1 says the grain for big guns was as large as a pea1 that for medium guns the size of hempseed1 and that for serpents1 c41 still smaller4 ,but from a remark he makes on reaching the manufacture of powder--8vous viendrez la composition 7de la pouldre71 mais par poix et mesure1 selon que vous voudrez faire les pouldres0#dff--;it is clear that powders for all purposes were not of the same composition4 ,during the first half of the seventeenth century the ,french official powder was weaker than the above--#ge4f salp41 #ac4f char41 and #aj4h sulph4--and for big guns had grains as large as hazel-nuts4#dfg ,at ,pont--,mousson1 just across the ,german border1 powders of different compositions were in use in #afbj2dfh and east of the ,rhine powder for different guns probably varied in grain1 and certainly varied in composition4 8,of the various powders now made10 says ,furtenbach in #afbg1 8the following are generally employed3#dfi-- ,saltpetre4 ,charcoal4 ,sulphur4 #fi4j #af4e #ad4e for big guns2 #gb4d #ad4e #ac4a for small guns2 #ge4g #ac4j #aa4c for small arms40 ,the information given to us about granulation by the early ,english gunners is neither clear nor full4 ,when ,whitehorne tells us that the method of corning 8all sorts of powder0 was the same1 namely1 by means of a sieve and a few heavy metal balls1#dgj what meaning did he intend to convey by the phrase 8all sorts of powder08 ,there can be little doubt that he meant 8powders of whatever composition1 and whatever the size of the grain to be produced20 first1 because it would be preposterous to assume that all the sieves of his time had meshes of equal size2 and secondly1 because there is abundant evidence to show that1 long after ,whitehorne's time1 the powders for different guns in ,england 7and elsewhere7 varied both in composition and grain4 ,in #afbj ,thybovril and ,hanzelet tell us that powder to be granulated is to be passed through a sieve with holes 8de la grosseur que vous desirez votre poudre02#dga and eight years afterwards ,norton uses the very same ambiguous phrase1 8a syve 444 made full of holes of the bignesse you desire your cornes40#dgb ,did they mean that the size of the grain in their time was purely arbitrary and might be of any magnitude whatever8 ,a passage in ,boillot's 7earlier7 work explains their meaning much better than they have done it themselves4 ,he first tells us that the sieve is to have holes 8de telle grosseur que vous voudrez10 and he then goes on to explain the proper size of grain for use in the different classes of ordnance1 as given here on a previous page4 ,in a word1 three or four kinds of sieves 7differing in the size of their meshes7 were procurable--some for graining powder for big guns1 others for graining powder for medium guns1 c4 c4--and having fixed upon the gun from which your powder 7when grained7 was to be fired 7and consequently upon the size of the grain71 you were to select those sieves which had meshes 8of the bignesse you desired your cornes40 ,from the phrase used above by ,norton1 it is certain that several powders1 differing in grain1 were in use when he wrote2 from the evidence of ,norton1#dgc ,nye1#dgd and others1 it is equally certain that several different receipts for making powder were in use during their time4 ,the conclusion is that during the first half of the seventeenth century powders made in ,england for different guns varied both in composition and size of grain4 ,the lawlessness in composition and grain during the greater part of the ,transition ,period was the natural consequence of the absence of any instrument to measure the comparative strength of different powders1 and enable gunners to establish some standard for the proportions of the ingredients and the size of the grain4 ,the earliest instrument proposed for testing the strength of powder was1 ,i believe1 ,bourne's 8engine or little boxe10 which1 he says1 was 8very necessarie to be used40#dge ,whether he invented it himself or not1 it is impossible to say3 he tells us1 8some of 7the inventions7 ,i have gathered by one meane and some by another1 but the most part of them hath been mine own40#dgf ,the engine was a wretched one4 ,the powder to be tested was ignited in a small metal cylinder with a heavy lid 7working on a hinge7 which when raised could not shut of itself4 ,the angle through which the lid was raised by the explosion indicated the strength of the powder4 ,a better instrument was that described by ,furtenbach in #afbg4dgg ,it differed from ,bourne's 8little boxe0 in that the lid was only laid upon the cylinder4 ,when the powder exploded the lid was blown upwards along two vertical wires which passed through it2 but it could not descend again of itself1 being held in the place it reached by iron teeth 7like those which supported the lid of ,bourne's box74 ,nye describes this instrument1 and suggests that the comparative strength of powders should be further tested by measuring the penetration of pistol balls into clay1 and the ranges of projectiles fired from a small mortar4#dgh ,this is1 ,i believe1 the first proposal of the mortar prouvette1 #afdg4 ,the ,french certainly adopted them before #afhf1 often though it has been said that they then introduced them4 ,on the #ahth ,september of this year ,louis ,,xiv4 published an ordonnance complaining of 8the variety of eprouvettes0 in use for testing powder1 and directing that for the future no powder should be accepted unless #c oz4 of it could throw a ball of #fj lbs4 #ej toises 7#cbj ft47 from the ,government pattern mortar4#dgi ,in a previous ordonnance 7,april #af1 #afhf7 the ,king had protested against the bad charcoal 7de mchante qualit7 constantly employed2 against impure saltpetre 7rempli de graisse et de sel71 insisting upon the exclusive use of saltpetre 8de trois cuites02 and against insufficient incorporation 7dix ou douze heures 444 au lieu de 444 vingt quatre heures74#dhj ,but he marred the reforms he made by taking the unaccountable step of introducing one powder1 of the same composition and size of grain1 for all arms4#dha ,for this blunder the ,french afterwards paid in blood1 especially during the ,peninsular war4#dhb ,about the beginning of the eighteenth century most countries had reduced their powders to two or three1 which were of the same composition1 and differed only in grain4 ,in #agdb ,benjamin ,robins1 by his 8,new ,principles of ,gunnery10 placed gunnery upon a strictly scientific basis1 and by his epoch-making invention of the ballistic pendulums#dhc enabled gunners for the first time to measure the muzzle-velocity of projectiles with considerable accuracy4 ,it may have been owing to the lessons taught by this instrument that1 between #agdb and #agha1 we changed the proportions of the ingredients of our powder from #ge--ab--ab to #ge--ae--aj4 ,profiting by the rapid progress of electricity during the first half of the nineteenth century1 ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone proposed in #ahdj his electro-magnetic chronoscope1#dhd which registered to the #a_/gcj part of a second1 to replace ,robins' ponderous pendulum4 ,wheatstone's instrument was not adopted by our ,government1 but his idea was followed up and improved upon by ,captain ,navez1 of the ,belgian ,artillery1 who in #ahdg brought forward his electro-ballistic pendulum4#dhe ,only one instrument was now wanting to enable the mechanical effect of the explosion to be directly and completely observed--an instrument to measure the pressure upon the bore of the gun2 and this want was supplied in #ahfa when ,captain ,t4 ,j4 ,rodman1 ,ordnance ,department1 ,united ,states ,army1 produced his ,indenting ,apparatus and his ,internal ,pressure ,gauge4#dhf ,the following ,table gives the results of some experiments with the new instruments3-- ,,table ,,vi4 ,showing the connection between the ,size of the ,grain1 ,muzzle ,velocity1 and ,pressure on ,bore4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,diameter of ,charge4 ,weight of ,muzzle ,pressure on ,grains4 ,lbs4 ,shot4 ,velocity4 ,bottom of ,bore4 ,ins4 ,lbs4 ,f4s4 ,tons per ,sq4 ,in4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- 4#a #h #dc #abfa #ba4e 4#ae 0 0 #abce #ba4j 4#b 0 0 #aaii #ah4h 4#be 0 0 #aaea #ag4a 4#c 0 0 #aadf #ae4c 4#d 0 0 #aahg #ad4b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,this ,table shows that as the size of the grain slowly increases1 the muzzle velocity decreases very slowly1 and the pressure on the bore decreases very quickly4 ,the consequence of this discovery was the manufacture of various very large grained powders such as pebble powder1 c41 for heavy guns4 ,but the thorough knowledge of the mechanical effect of the explosion of gunpowder gained by the use of the ,navez and ,rodman instruments1 was of little avail to anybody1 for gunpowder had nearly run its course4 ,just twenty-five years after the introduction of the pressure gauge ,m4 ,vieille put the ,french ,government in possession of a nitrocellulose explosive1#dhg and gunpowder was added to the list of things that were4 ,throughout the whole gunpowder period enthusiasts seem never to have been wanting who believed in the possibility of making smokeless powder and noiseless powder4 ,castner's powder1 which contained only #c per cent1 sulphur1 seems to have been the nearest approach to the former1 but no powder containing sulphur could be absolutely smokeless4 ,whether early gunners suspected this or not ,i do not know2 certain it is1 however1 that sulphurless powder was under discussion centuries ago4 ,rabelais 7who may have heard soldiers talking about the matter7 alludes jokingly to 8pouldre de canon curieusement compose1 degresse de son soulfre40#dhh ,in #agef the ,french actually experimented with sulphurless mixtures1 one of which 7#hj per cent4 sulph4 and #bj per cent4 ch47 gave good results in range1 with very little smoke4 ,it proved to be worthless for military purposes from the difficulty of corning it1 and from its crumbling to dust during ordinary transport4#dhi ,the belief in a noiseless powder was scoffed at by ,whitehorne3 8,there be many who bring up lies1 saying that they can tell how to make pouder that shooting in gunnes shall make no noise1 the which is impossible40 ,a century afterwards ,sir ,thomas ,browne believed means might be adopted1 if not to stifle the sound altogether1 at least 8to abate the vigour thereof1 or silence its bombulation40#dij ,tables ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 give the composition of gunpowder at various times4 ,,table ,,vii4 ,english ,gunpowder4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- #abejdia #adhbdib #aefidic #aeghdid #aehhdie #aeiedif #afiedig cir4 cir4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,saltpetre #da4b #ff4f #ej4j #ff4f #ga4d #ge4j #ge ,charcoal #bi4d #bb4b #cc4c #af4f #ad4c #ab4e #ae ,sulphur #bi4d #aa4a #af4f #af4f #ad4c #ab4e #aj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,n4,b4--,all these writers give the proportions of gunpowder in their own times4 ,,table ,,viii4 ,foreign ,gunpowder4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,france#dih,sweden#dii ,germany#ejj;,denmark#eja;,france#ejb,sw eden#ejc;,germany#ejd #acch #aefj #aeie #afjh #afej #afig #ahhb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,saltpetre #ej #ff4f #eb4b #fh4c #ge4f #gc #gh ,charcoal 8 #af4f #bf4a #bc4b #ac4f #ag #ai ,sulphur #be #af4f #ba4g #h4e #aj4h #aj #c ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,shock ,,projectiles ,the nature of the first ,artillery projectiles was determined by the nature of the small-arm missiles in use when cannon were introduced by the ,germans4 ,to use the bulky and ponderous projectiles of the machines in these small and feeble pieces was out of the question2 nothing remained1 therefore1 but to adopt the darts1 bolts1 or quarrels which produced such deadly effect when shot from cross-bows3-- ,of ,arblasters grete plent were1 ,noon armure myght her stroke withstonde4#eje ,darts4 ,the iron darts feathered with brass--garros ferrs et empans en deux cassez--which are mentioned in the earliest document relating to ,artillery that has been found in ,france1#ejf dated #acch1 belonged unmistakably to the same family as those used for cross-bows4 ,the brazen feathers were nailed to the shaft1 and the missile1 which weighed about #g oz41#ejg was wrapped in a leather covering1 so as to fit the bore tightly4 ,experience quickly proved these darts to be quite unsuited for firearms2 yet they dragged on a lingering and precarious existence for quite #bej years4 ,in the anonymous ,livre de ,canonnerie et ,artifice de feu1 ,paris1 #aefa1 the title of the seventy-fourth chapter is3 8,pour tirer lances ferres d'une bombarde1 canon ou autre baston feu de cannonerie40#ejh ,to a return of the powder on board his squadron1 dated ,march #cj1 #aehh1 addressed to ,government1 ,sir ,francis ,drake added a ,p4,s43 8,forgett not the #ejj musketts1 and at least #ajjj arrows02#eji and on the #hth ,april following the ,privy ,council ordered him to be supplied with 8muskittes1 #bjj2 arrowes for the said muskittes with tamkines for eche1 #ajjj40eaj ,round ,shot4 ,on the failure of the darts1 informal trials were begun everywhere with balls of stone1 iron1 bronze1 and lead1 to discover which material was best suited for ordnance4 ,stone shot1 which had been used in machines for countless centuries1 were on trial for cannon in ,france in #acdf2eaa and1 unless a ballad written about this time refers to machines and not to guns1 we employed them at the siege of ,calais the same year3-- 8,gonners to schew their art ,into the town in many a parte ,schot many a fulle great stone4 ,thanked be ,god and ,mary mild1 ,they hurt neyther man1 woman1 nor child2 ,to the houses1 though1 they did harm40#eab ,stone shot were in use in ,italy in #acfd1eac and in #acgh ,richard ,,ii4 ordered #fjj stones to be bought for the cannon in the castle of ,brest4#ead ,they were employed more or less in ,england and elsewhere until the ,great ,rebellion1 and possibly even later4 ,the earliest mention of iron shot1 perhaps1 is that in the ,arderne ,,mss41 say #acej2eae although we should not be justified in inferring from it that they were then in actual use4 ,there were #ibh iron shot in the arsenal of ,bologna in #acha1eaf but iron seems to have been sparingly employed until the time of ,charles ,,viii4 of ,france1 #adhc-ih4eag ,the only iron projectiles mentioned by 7or1 we may infer1 known to7 the authors of the ,berlin ,firebook1 #adjj-ej1eah and of the ,tractatus de ,pugnaculis of the same period preserved in the ,hof-,bibliothek at ,vienna1#eai are iron bullets for handguns4 ,when used against troops in wooden buildings1 c41 they both recommend that the balls should be heated red-hot ,hot 7cannon7 balls were introduced much later1 in #aegi1 by ,stephen ,bathory1 ,king of ,poland4#ebj ,it was a simple matter to discharge hot projectiles from a machine1 but a delicate operation to load a gun with them without exploding the charge4 ,in fact1 it was impracticable until the thick wet wad had been devised4 ,it appears from ,petrarch's ,de ,remediis ,utriusque ,fortun1#eba which must have been written in or before #acdd1 that bronze shot--glandes neas--were then in use among the ,italians2 and ,valturio mentions bronze shells--pil ne--in his work1 which1 although not published until #adgb1 was already written in #adfc4ebb ,a document1 dated #bith ,april #acde1 proves that the ,french were employing lead shot at this time2#ebc and the accounts of ,robert de ,mildenhale1 ,keeper of ,edward ,,iii4's ,wardrobe1 show that we sent to ,calais on the #ast and #bnd ,september #acdf1 #gc large leaden shot1 #ca small shot1 and #f pieces of lead4#ebd ,finally1 the accounts of ,john de ,sleaford1 ,clerk of the ,king's ,privy ,wardrobe1 prove that in #acgb-gd workmen were employed in the ,tower in making leaden 8pelottes0 for guns4#ebe ,in a battle at ,taro1 #adia1 the ,venetians are said to have fired upon the ,french with shot of all three metals--iron1 bronze1 and lead4#ebf ,these trials naturally resulted in the general1 but by no means exclusive1 adoption of stone as the best material for round shot2 because it was found that not only the use of metal balls was considerably more costly than that of stone1 but that the heavier charges of powder necessitated by metal shot exerted a destructive effect upon the feeble cannon4 ,the respective prices per lb4 of iron1#ebg gun-metal1#ebh and lead#ebi in the second half of the fourteenth century were 4#hef1 #b4dd1 and 4#fbg pennies1 fourteenth century money4 ,multiplying by #aj1 to get their approximate prices in our money1 we obtain3-- ,,table ,,ix4 ,comparative ,prices of ,metals1 #acge and #ahfe4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,price per lb41 ,price #acge1 per lb41 ,metal4 multiplied ,ratio4 #ahfe4 by #aj4 d4 d4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,iron #h4ef #h4e to #e4g #a to #a4e ,bar iron of ,gun-metal #bd4d #b4jc #ab average ,lead #f4bg #c4ac #b quality ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,it will be noticed that the price of bronze1 which had been brought to perfection by the ancients1 and whose manufacture was independent of modern appliances1 only fell to half its old price in five centuries2 that the price of lead1 which had some dependence on these appliances1 fell to a little over one-third2 while the price of iron1 whose progress depended essentially upon the use of coal1 scientific furnaces1 c41 fell to between one-fifth to one-ninth4 ,the weights of 7wrought7 iron1#ecj bronze1#eca and lead balls of #d0 diameter are respectively #i4c1 #aj4ah1 and #ac4h lbs41 and ,master ,gunner ,nye informs us that the weight of a stone ball of this diameter was #c4cge lbs4#ecb ,therefore the respective prices of the iron1 bronze1 and lead balls were #g4if1 #bf4dfh1 and #h4fe pence1 exclusive of the cost of manufacture2 while the price of the material of the stone ball was much less than a farthing4#ecc ,again1 for powder at #ac4ffd;d4 per lb41#ecd and charges one-ninth the weight of the shot1 the prices of the charges for the stone1 iron1 bronze1 and lead balls are respectively #e4ab1 #ad4jg1 #ae4dd1 and #bj4dif pence4 ,we can therefore form an estimate of the relative cost of one round with balls of the four materials4 ,,table ,x4 ,comparative ,cost of ,one ,round1 #d4be gun2 stone1 iron1 bronze1 and lead balls4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,stone4 ,iron4 ,bronze4 ,lead4 d4 d4 d4 d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,price of #d0 ball #j4be #g4if #bf4dfh #h4feb ,price of powder #e4ab #ad4jg #ae4dd #bj4dif ,cost of one ,round #e4cg #bb4jc #da4ijh #bi4adh or in our money #ds4 #e-c_/d;d4#ahs4 #d-a_/d;d4 #cds4 #aa;d4#bds4 #c-a_/b;d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,these figures do not profess to give the absolute price of one round1 but they represent pretty accurately the relative cost of a round with the different projectiles4 ,the pressures per square inch exerted upon the bore of a gun are directly proportional to the weight of the charges used1 and these charges were directly proportional to the weights of the projectiles used4 ,we have therefore the following comparative pressures3-- ,,table ,,xi ,numbers proportional to the pressures per square inch on the bore of a #d4be gun when fired with shot of different materials4 -------------------------------- ,stone4 ,iron4 ,bronze4 ,lead4 #c4f #aj #aj4i #ad4e -------------------------------- ,table ,x4 shows that the cost per round with stone was much less than with metal shot1 while ,table ,,xi4 shows how great was the disparity between the pressures on the bore in the two cases1 which1 as the calibre 7and therefore the absolute pressure7 increased1 became a serious matter4 ,with the very small1 early guns1 the greater cost and heavier strain may not have been sensibly felt4 ,the extra cost in their case was not very considerable1 and the increased pressure may not have been even suspected until guns began to burst4#ece ,but that these disadvantages made themselves unmistakably felt when the guns grew larger is proved beyond a doubt by the fact that 8great stone shot and great cannon were introduced together40#ecf ,leaden bullets were retained for hand-guns1 because it was comparatively easy to strengthen them1 and the metal1 although dearer per bullet than iron1 was much easier to manipulate4 ,iron shot were doubtless used as a general rule for breaching purposes1 for which stone shot were ill adapted1 owing to their lightness and liability to break up4 ,we even hear from time to time of the use of bronze and lead cannon balls4 ,case4 ,there were two ways1 in early times1 of firing a volley of small shot at troops4 ,the first consisted in mounting a number of small bombards on one carriage and firing them all1 or a certain number of them1 together4 ,gattaro speaks of #add bombards mounted on the same bed1 and so arranged as to fire thirty-six at a time4#ecg ,the whole apparatus was called a ribaudequin1 barricade1 orgue1 orgelgeschtz1 c42 the two latter names being given to it because it resembled 8organ-pipes placed upon a broad carriage40#ech ,by the second method the bullets required for the volley were put for convenience in a cartridge case or canister1 and fired from a large bombard4 ,the bullets1 according to ,general ,khler1 were simply pebbles of flint4#eci ,during the ,indian ,mutiny1 ,i forget where1 a volley of 8,pyramid0 or 8,pool0 balls was fired by the mutineers from a clubhouse upon our storming party with deadly effect4 ,essenwein gives plates of an orgue1 dated #acij-adjj1 and of a gun firing case dated #adaj4edj ,case was used at the siege of ,belgrade1 #adci1eda and at the siege of ,scutari1 #adgh4edb ,orgues were used as late as the ,great ,rebellion4 ,at the battle of ,copredy ,bridge1 #afdd1 the ,cavaliers took 8two baricadoes of wood1 which were drawn upon wheels1 and in each seven small brass and leather cannon1 charged with case40#edc ,shrapnel4 ,isolated attempts to fire shell from guns 7as distinguished from howitzers and mortars7 had been made from time to time in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 but they proved1 one and all of them1 abortive4 ,the first methodical and successful shell-fire from guns was carried on during the siege of ,gibraltar1 #aggi-hc1 at the suggestion of an ,english ,infantry officer4 ,the distance from our nearest batteries to the ,spanish lines when the siege began was #agjj to #bjjj yards1#edd and at this range our fire was ineffective4 ,many of the mortar shell burst at the muzzle from the heavy charges required for these long ranges1 a gunner losing his life on one occasion from this cause4#ede ,the shell that withstood the shock flew wildly2 the fuzes were 8in general faulty02#edf many good shell were smothered in the sand of which the ,spanish works were constructed2 those that burst produced but little effect2#edg and round shot were of no avail against sandbanks twenty-two feet high4 ,as fire against the ,spanish works was useless1 it only remained to direct it on the working parties4 ,against them our mortar fire was as ineffective as against the works1 and what was to be looked for from guns provided only with round shot and case8 ,case would not carry one-sixth of the range1 and round shot against handfuls of men1 scattered here and there1 were as worthless as shell4 ,the difficulty was still unsolved when ,captain ,mercier1 #cith ,regiment1 suggested firing the #e4e-;inch shell of the royal mortars1 with short fuzes1 from the #bd-pounder guns which had the same calibre as the mortars1 #e4h-;inch4 ,a trial was made on the #beth ,september #aggi with 7,i believe7 the 8,rock gun10 which was a #bd-pounder2 the 8calculated fuzes10#edh it was found1 8often burst 7the shell7 over the heads of the working parties10#edi and ,merciers brilliant proposal was officially adopted4 ,when the siege was over1 and men had time to think1 it became clear enough that excellent as was ,captain ,mercier's plan as a makeshift during the stress and strain of a siege1 it had its weak points4 ,the strong charge necessary to burst the common shell tended to scatter the fragments here and there in all directions1 and the fragments were few in number4 ,experiments were carried on in ,prussia in #agfa to determine the bursting charges which broke 7mortar and howitzer7 shell into the greatest number of pieces4 ,it was found that royal mortar shell 7maximum bursting charge1 #a lb4 #b oz47 broke into eight pieces1 with a bursting charge of #a lb41 and into nineteen pieces with a bursting charge of #ad oz41 these figures being the means of six trials4#eej ,in any case1 the siege of ,gibraltar proved beyond denial that we possessed no recognised and effective projectile against troops in open order beyond the range of case4 ,to fill the void thus disclosed in our ammunition1 ,lieutenant ,henry ,shrapnel1 ,r4,a41 conceived the idea in #aghdeea of a gun-projectile1 which he called 8spherical case40 ,as he was quartered in ,newfoundland during the siege1 it is improbable that he was aware at this time of ,capt4 ,mercier's plan4 ,at all events he did not follow it1 the principle of his invention being radically different from that of common shell4 ,the bursting charge of the latter was a maximum1 the bursting charge of the former was a minimum2 the fuze of the latter was bored long1 the fuze of the former was bored short2 the fragments of common shell were projected by the bursting charge of the shell1 the fragments of the shrapnel by the charge of the gun from which it was fired4 ,this absolutely new and original invention at first met the fate of many other new inventions--it was long disregarded4#eeb ,not until #ahjc1 when ,england was in grave danger1 did the authorities bestir themselves about it3 a trial of ,shrapnel's shell was then ordered1 and the ,ordnance ,committee reported in their favour4#eec ,how great an invention these shell were may be measured by their inextinguishable vitality3 they outlived official apathy2 they overcame endless objections2 they survived countless modifications2 they adapted themselves to rifled guns2 and at the present moment they are the best projectiles available against troops in open order beyond the range of case4 ,the originality of the ,shrapnel shell did not1 of course1 remain unchallenged4 ,certain officers in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,belgium discovered that the invention was an old one1 and that ,master ,gunner ,samuel ,zimmermann had employed ,shrapnel no later than #aegc4 ,his ,,ms41 it may be observed1 had been removed from ,heidelberg to ,rome during the ,thirty ,years' ,war2 was sent back to ,heidelberg in #ahaf2 and was not discovered by ,hauptmann ,toll until #aheb1 just ten years after ,shrapnel's death4#eed ,zimmermann's projectile was not constructed on ,shrapnel's principles4 ,it consisted of a leaden cylinder1 with a time fuze fixed in the end placed next to the charge of the gun4 ,the back half of the cylinder was filled with strong 7rschem7 powder2 the front half with bullets2 and the missile was intended to act a few hundred paces 7etlich hundert schrytt7 beyond the ordinary range of case1 say1 at #ejj-fjj yards4 ,a very small bursting charge would have sufficed to burst open a leaden case3 why1 then1 did the ,master ,gunner use the maximum charge which was possible without unduly diminishing the number of bullets--a charge1 too1 of specially strong powder8 ,because he intended the bursting charge not only to open the case1 but to accelerate the velocity of the bullets--he could have had no other conceivable reason4 ,whatever may have been the merits of this missile1 it was certainly not a ,shrapnel1 as will be seen clearly by placing the details of construction of the two projectiles side by side4 ,zimmermann's ,case1 #aegc4 ,shrapnel's ,spherical ,case1 #ahje4 7a7 ,a hollow leaden cylinder4 7a'7 ,a hollow iron sphere4 7b7 ,thickness of cylinder unknown4 7b'7 ,thickness of sphere a minimum4#eee 7c7 ,contained a number of bullets4#eef7;c'7 ,contained a number of bullets4 7d7 ,bursting charge a maximum4 7d'7 ,bursting charge a minimum4 7e7 ,bullets accelerated by explosion 7e'7 ,bullets 7as far as practicable7 of bursting charge4 unaffected by explosion of bursting charge4 7f7 ,a very bad fuze4 7f'7 ,a tolerably fair fuze4#eeg 7g7 ,range up to #ejj-fjj yds4 7g'7 ,range up to #cjjj yds4 ,the annals of ,artillery will be ransacked in vain for ,shrapnel shell before the nineteenth century1 because the successful application of ,shrapnel's principle was impossible until an extremely accurate time fuze had been constructed1 and no nation possessed a really good fuze before that epoch#eeh--nor in truth until long afterwards4 ,the results of the ,shrapnel practice in #ahai1eei after ,shrapnel and many others had devoted their best energies to the improvement of time fuzes for sixteen years1 show how defective they still were4 ,but although the want of a sufficiently accurate fuze made the ,shrapnel system a practical impossibility before the nineteenth century1 a man above his fellows might have dreamt dreams of distant case fire ages before4 ,that ,zimmermann was groping about blindly in search of the projectile ,shrapnel found in #aghd1 is proved beyond a doubt by the question which the ,feuerwerker puts to the ,bchsenmeister3 8,cannot a case shot be made which will leave the bore whole and burst at a few hundred paces' distance80#efj ,but ,zimmermann failed in his search3 what he sought did not lie on the road that he took4 ,like ,fronsperger1#efa he placed his fuze next the charge1 in consequence of which 7as the old man frankly confesses7 most of his cylinders burst in the bore3 8,gemainlich im ,stckh angegangen und zersprungen40 ,boillot1 a quarter of a century later1 had a better knowledge of gunnery3 8adviserez que le trou d'icelle 7the fuze-hole7 soit du cost de la bouche dudit mortier40#efb ,zimmermann filled the front half of his cylinder with bullets and the rear half with strong powder1 obviously assuming the stability of the missile in its flight4 ,now ,prof4 ,greenhill has given us a table showing the minimum twist at the muzzle requisite to give stability of rotation to elongated projectiles4 ,if a common shell's length be #c calibres1 it requires a twist of #a turn in #ch4de calibres2 if its length be #d calibres it requires a twist of #a turn in #bg4f calibres2 and so on4#efc ,how far1 then1 would ,zimmermann's ill-balanced1 smooth-bore cylinder have travelled before it toppled over1 with the certain result that1 when it did1 the large bursting charge would blow the bullets any way but the right way8 ,zimmermann's projectile failed1 and his sole merit consists in vaguely foreshadowing the ,shrapnel1 just as ,roger ,bacon dimly foresaw balloons and ships driven by machinery--8,marine engines can be constructed and worked by one man which will propel the largest vessels quicker than a ship's crew of oarsmen4444 ,flying machines can also be made40#efd ,his cylinder no more establishes ,zimmermann's claim to be the inventor1 or even the suggester1 of ,shrapnel shell1 than ,bourne's method of shooting 8three times in a peece at one lading of her0#efe entitles him to be regarded as the inventor of quick-firing guns4 ,we should have been spared much unprofitable controversy had foreign critics thought fit to make themselves acquainted with the nature and properties of ,shrapnel's ,spherical ,case before discussing its history4 ,its history is simple4 ,it was made in ,england1 the invention of an ,english ,artillery officer who owed nothing to earlier gunners in ,germany or anywhere else4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,igneous ,,projectiles ,hot ,shot4 ,the ,britons set fire to the ,roman ,camp during ,csar's second invasion1 #ed ,b4,c41 by discharging hot balls of clay among the tents4#eff ,at the attack on ,placentia1 ,a4,d4 #fi1 igneous missiles were employed 7glandes et missilem ignem71 and probably destroyed the amphitheatre4#efg ,as before mentioned1 hot shot 7for cannon7 were invented by the ,polish king1 ,stephen ,bathory1 in #aegi4efh ,their greatest triumph was the destruction of d',aron's floating batteries and a great part of the ,spanish fleet at ,gibraltar1 #acth ,september #aghb4 ,incendiary ,fireballs4 ,the gunners of old encountered great difficulties in their endeavours to introduce igneous projectiles4 ,their use in the early guns was not absolutely impossible1 but it would have been fruitless2 for to prove effective an igneous projectile1 whether incendiary or explosive1 must contain a considerable mass of combustible matter1 and this condition could not be fulfilled with guns of very small calibre4 ,when the calibre had greatly increased1 during the last quarter of the fourteenth century1 any attempt to employ such igneous projectiles as were in use with the machines must have ended in failure4 ,the action of the machines was similar to that of a sling1 and the shells 7or envelopes7 of their incendiary missiles were made just strong enough to resist the pressure to which they were subjected on discharge1 although not strong enough to bear the shock of impact with the object they struck4 ,this broke them up and scattered their blazing contents about4 ,such projectiles were evidently unfit for use in cannon2 for the explosion of the charge would inevitably break them up in the bore1 and their viscous contents would travel but a very short way4 ,owing to these difficulties the machines held their ground to the middle of the fifteenth century1 if not longer1 and the igneous projectiles ultimately constructed for cannon were developments of the hand-grenade4 ,in ,fig4 #ca of the plate from the ,,ms4 of ,kyeser's 8,bellifortis10 #adje1 given by ,herr von ,romocki 7i4 #afi71 we are shown a projectile which unquestionably belongs to the same family as the tonneau which terrified ,joinville and his companions2#efi but this barrel could have only been discharged from a machine4 ,whether ,figs4 #bf and #bh of the same plate were thrown by hand or machine depended on their size1 which we do not know4 ,from their construction1 with a mere covering of cloth or cordage1 we may safely conclude that they were not gun-projectiles4 ,we are given a detailed account of fireballs in the ,german ,firebook1 #adjj-ej1 belonging to the ,royal ,library1 ,berlin1 ,,ms4 ,germ4 qu4 #ajah4 ,missiles are there described which consisted of an interior ball of gunpowder kneaded with spirits of wine1 smeared over with thick incendiary matter1 rolled tightly in a cover of cotton steeped in the same mixture1 and secured by two metal bands at right angles to each other4 ,they could be either thrown by hand or fired from a bombard4 ,in the latter case a hole was bored through the ball and the plug which was used in bombards to close the end of the powder-chamber next the projectile1 in order to admit the flame into the interior of the ball4 ,the success of the missile1 it was thought1 depended on the hole through the ball being exactly opposite the hole through the plug1 a condition which could be only fulfilled in a breechloading bombard4 ,the inventor believed that the ball would explode1 for he warns the gunner to throw it before the flame reaches the composition1 lest it 8blow his head off40#egj ,it is obvious1 however1 that the gunner's head was quite safe1 although he might burn his fingers1 when using these incendiary toys which are unknown to military history4 ,the incendiary projectiles actually used in the fifteenth century were comparatively simple and of a different nature4 ,take1 for instance1 the incendiary cannon-projectile used at the siege of ,weissenburg in #adfi1 just six years after ,valturio had presented his book to the ,sultan ,mahomed ,,ii4#ega ,it consisted of a stone ball1 considerably smaller than the bore of the gun1 which was smeared over with thick incendiary matter and wrapped in a cloth soaked in the same mixture4 ,this process was continued until the ball was the proper size for the bore4#egb ,other incendiary missiles were tried1#egc but none of them1 so far as ,i am aware1 had anything in common with the unpractical projectile proposed in the ,berlin ,firebook4 ,incendiary ,shell4 ,a further step is taken in a later edition of the ,firebook just quoted1 but of the same period1#egd #adjj-ej4 ,a quill full of incendiary matter is directed to be inserted in the hole through the ball above described1 and the whole was enclosed in an envelope or shell of earthenware or iron4 ,an earthenware ball could of course only be thrown by hand3 an iron ball would be fired in general from a bombard4 ,the metal shell was formed of two hemispheres of iron fastened together by bands1 with a small hole to admit the flame to the quill4 ,a similar envelope1 of bronze1 is suggested by ,valturio in his ,de ,re ,militari1 #adfc1 p4 #bfg2ege but in this case the shell is filled with powder1 which in all probability was driven in and compressed as tightly as possible with a mallet and drift4#egf ,the ,german writer undoubtedly believed that his shell would burst1 for he uses such phrases as 8chugel dye da springt0 and 8zerspringt und zerslecht alls umb40 ,neither his shell or ,valturio's would have exploded except under the most exceptional circumstances4 ,the weakness of the shell leads ,herr von ,romocki to suppose that ,valturio's plate is wrong or grievously exaggerated4 ,i see no grounds for this suspicion3 the shell was purposely made weak1 so that it might break into two pieces on impact and leave the incendiary charge free to do its work4 ,the missile belonged to the same family as the incendiary projectiles thrown into ,roveredo by the ,swiss in #adhg4egg ,there the shell was filled with pitch and rosin3 ,valturio's shell was charged with powder1 but it was probably compressed tightly into the interior of the shell1 and powder1 especially serpentine powder1 will not explode under such circumstances4 ,when experimenting with gunpowder at ,new ,york1 ,doremus and ,budd subjected good modern powder to such hydraulic pressure as to compress it into a solid block without interstices1 and on ignition the mass burned quietly away4#egh ,valturio's charge was probably reduced to a state approximating more or less closely to that of the ,new ,york powder1 and it would have exploded but rarely and occasionally4 ,but the mere fact that the shell was made of bronze is a sufficient proof that it was an incendiary missile4 ,even had the charge been explosive1 a bronze envelope would have been only ripped open by it1 not broken into many pieces as iron would have been2 a fact which ,valturio must have known4 ,finally1 the gunners of the fifteenth century were not in possession of a fuze that would have enabled them to carry on fire with explosive shell4 ,the construction of such a fuze 7as will be seen in the section on 8,time ,fuzes07 was the work of the following century4 ,the ,berlin ,firebook does not profess to give us an account of ammunition actually used in the field2 it merely describes certain ammunition proposed for use by a fireworker1 or inventor1 and it adds his honest convictions of the way in which it would act if manufactured4 ,the excerpts given by ,herr von ,romocki from the ,firebook1 in so far as they concern the projectile in question1 are simply the specification and opinions of an inventor1 and there are no grounds for supposing that his missile was ever made or ever tried4 ,if these projectiles had been used with effect in the field1 their inventor would surely have been the first to tell us of their success4 ,there is nothing remarkable in the above conclusion3 the inventor followed the custom of his age4 ,the value of experiment generally1 the absolute necessity for experiment in gunnery1 was unknown or altogether underrated in the ,middle ,ages1 and those fireworkers who may have suspected its importance had neither the money nor the opportunity to put their theory into practice4 ,would ,sextus ,julius ,africanus and ,marcus ,grcus have bequeathed to us certain preposterous recipes1 had they been at the pains and expense of making them and trying them8 ,it was ,roger ,bacon who wrote3 8,experimental science ignores abstract arguments2 because1 strong though they may be1 their conclusions are not perfectly certain until verified by experiment4444 ,in these studies experiment alone1 not abstract reasoning1 leads to certain conclusions40#egi ,yet even he1 with his 8everlasting lamps10 has not quite escaped the infection of the prevailing fashion3 he never tried these lamps4 ,bourne has left us a whole book of 8,inventions and ,devices10 and at least one half of ,boillot's book is occupied by similar inventions2 but neither of them makes the slightest suggestion that any one of his contrivances was ever made or ever tried4 ,we may1 then1 discard the wholly unpractical proposal of the ,berlin ,firebook1 and accept ,valturio's as the earliest incendiary cannon-shell of which we have any detailed account4 ,carcasses4 ,carcasses were invented in #afgb by a gunner in the service of ,christopher van ,galen1 the fighting ,prince ,bishop of ,munster4#ehj ,they are mentioned in the ,london ,gazette1 #aihj_/a1 #afhd4 ,they were originally oblong1 in order to contain a large quantity of incendiary matter2 but their flight was so erratic that it became necessary to make them spherical4 ,their thickness was at the same time so much reduced1 in order to increase their internal capacity1 that a large proportion broke up in the bore4 ,to remedy this defect during the siege of ,quebec1 #agei1 8the interval between the powder and the carcass was filled with turf10 an arrangement which 8produced every desired effect40#eha ,explosive ,fireballs4 ,explosive fireballs were simply hand-grenades1 which1 according to the classification of ammunition adopted here1 have been already noticed1 p4 #afi4 ,explosive ,shell4 ,the step from ,valturio's shell to common shell may seem to us now to have been a short and an easy one1 yet it took nearly a century to make it2 the obstacle that barred the way being neither the envelope nor the bursting charge1 but the fuze4 ,it is impossible to say exactly when1 where1 or by whom explosive shell were first employed4 ,the want of them had been long felt everywhere1 and numberless attempts to manufacture them were made4 ,they may1 therefore1 have come into being independently in several countries about the same period2 a supposition which receives considerable support from the conflicting claims which have been set up1 quite honestly no doubt1 to their first employment4 ,we have sound evidence of the manufacture of large mortars and shell in ,england as early as #aedc4 ,in this year ,bawd and ,collet constructed mortars of #aa to #ai in calibre1 with cast-iron shell 8to be stuffed with fireworks or wildfire10 and a match 7i4e4 fuze7 8that the firework might be set on fire for to breake in smal pieces1 whereof the smallest piece hitting any man would kill or spoile him40#ehb ,stow1 to whom we owe these facts1 began life as a tailor1 and was not familiar with the intricacies of ,artillery matriel2 but it is sufficiently clear that he speaks here of two kinds of projectiles--incendiary shell filled with wildfire1 and explosive shell filled with firework4 ,whether these shell were ever used and1 if so1 whether their action was successful1 there is no evidence to show2 but in #aehh took place the sieges of ,bergen-op-,zoom and ,wachtendonck at which explosive shell were used with much effect1 for the first time according to the evidence we at present possess4 ,reyd1 whose ,belgarum aliarumque ,gentium ,annales was published in #afjj1 tells us 7lib4 viii41 p4 #ahb7 that during the siege of ,bergen-op-,zoom 8an ,italian deserter to the ,dutch devoted himself to the art1 hitherto unknown1 of making hollow balls of iron or stone1 which1 when filled with a certain composition and ignited1 burst into innumerable fragments like grape stones40#ehc ,father ,strada1 ,s4,j41 in his ,hist4 de la ,guerre des ,pays ,bas1 ,brussels1 #agci1 speaks as follows 7iv4 #dae73-- ,sidenote3 ,on bat la ,ville avec une nouvelle espce de balles qu'on nomme ,bombes4 8,il n'y avoit rien qui pouvantait davantage les assigs 7in ,wachtendonck7 que de certaines grosses boules de fonte creuses1 et remplies de poudre et d'autres matires inextinguibles1 qui tant pousses en l'air avec de gros mortiers1 accabloient par leur psanteur tous les lieux sur qui ils tombaient1 et en mme tems1 comme le feu s'y prenoit par des buses qui y toient attaches1 ils rompoient en se crvant et embrasoient tout ce qui toit l'entour1 sans que l'eau le put teindre4 ,sidenote3 ,l'inventeur de ces sortes de boulets4 8,cette sorte de boulet1 que nous avons v ajoter aux grenades1 aux pots feu1 c4 444 fut1 dit on1 invente un peu devant le sige de ,wachtendonck par un artisan de ,venloo4444 ,je sais que quelqu'un 7i4e4 ,reyd7 a ecrit qu'une pareille exprience avait t faite a ,berg-op-,zoom 444 avec un pareil succs par un ,italien deserteur des troupes d',espagne4 ,au reste1 le ,comte ,mansfeld se servit de cette machine qui fut invente ,venloo et faisoit dans ,wachtendonck une dstruction des maisons et des hommes aussi invitable qu'elle toit inopine40 ,these passages possess at least one quality of good evidence--they differ about details and agree on the main points2 and it is difficult to see how they can be gainsaid or overlooked4 ,we may take it1 then1 until further evidence 7which may possibly exist7 is produced1 that explosive shell were first used in large numbers and with good effect in #aehh4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,igniters ,charges of incendiaries and explosives confined in guns1 shells1 mines1 c41 are not fired directly3 for convenience and safety they are ignited by means of some intermediate agent1 or agents1 such as priming powder1 fuzes1 c41 which are themselves in turn ignited by some other agents4 ,these collective agents are here called ,igniters4 ,hot ,wires1 ,priming ,powder1 ,matches1 and ,portfires4 ,the small early guns1 whose recoil was insignificant1 seem to have been fired directly by thrusting a hot wire into the powder through the vent4#ehd ,when guns grew bigger1 this method had to be abandoned and priming powder came into use4#ehe ,for centuries priming powder consisted of serpentine1 or some slow-burning mixture1 which was at first laid in a train from some convenient spot to the vent1 and was afterwards simply poured on the vent4 ,the advantage of the former proceeding1 in securing the safety of the gunners1 is pointed out in a very old ,french book3--8vous pourrez retirer affin que vostre baston 7gun7 ne vous face dommage40#ehf ,in the latter case1 the priming was ignited in various ways3--by a hot wire2 by a match fixed in a lint-stock1 which was 8a staffe of a yard or two yards long20#ehg and later by a portfire attached to a portfire-stick4#ehh ,the objection to priming powder was its liability to be wetted by rain1 or blown away by wind4#ehi ,,table ,,xii4 ,matches4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,chinese4 ,arab4 ,english4 ,english4 #acth ,century4 #acth ,century4 #agth ,century4 #bjth ,century4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,cord soaked ,cord of cotton 8,cottonweeke 8,cottonwick in a mixture and palm dipped boiled in of sulphur and leaves soaked in gunpowder a solution of water 7and well in naphtha and wet with water0 mealed powder dried74#eij dried4#eia and dried4#eib and gum1 and afterwards dusted over with mealed powder before it is dry4#eic ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,tubes4 ,priming powder was ultimately replaced by small tubes1 full of combustible matter1 which fitted into the vents of guns4 ,of the multitude of these tubes only a few can be mentioned here4 ,tubes filled with quickmatch1 and primed with mealed powder and spirits of wine1 are said to have been in use in the first half of the eighteenth century4#eid ,in #aggh ,captain ,sir ,charles ,douglas1 ,r4,n41 invented the gun-flint-lock4 ,it was simply a flint-and-steel apparatus1 fastened to the ventplate of the gun and worked by a lanyard1 which ignited a tube placed in the vent4 ,captain ,douglas introduced this lock into his ship1 the ,duke1 at his own expense1 and it worked so well that it was officially adopted for the ,navy in #agij4eie ,it was owing1 apparently1 to the personal intervention of ,general ,sir ,alexander ,dickson that this lock was at length adopted for the ,artillery in #ahbj4eif ,in a letter to ,sir ,howard ,douglas 7son of ,sir ,charles71 #ahth ,april #ahah1 ,sir ,alexander gives his reasons for advocating the change3--8,by the employment of slow match only1 the fire is frequently retarded1 and nothing can be more dangerous than lighted portfires in a battery 444 ,i have ever prevented1 as much as in my power1 the use of portfires40#eig ,a percussion tube1 invented by ,mr4 ,marsh1 of the ,royal ,arsenal ,surgery1 was approved for the ,navy in #ahca3 the ,artillery was not supplied with a similar tube until #ahdf4 ,in #ahda ,lieutenant ,siemens1 of the ,hanoverian ,army1 laid a friction tube before the officials of ,woolwich ,arsenal1 which was tried and1 owing to whatever defects1 was rejected4 ,just ten years later ,mr4 ,tozer1 of the ,royal ,laboratory1 made the copper friction tube now in use4 ,it was officially adopted in #ahec4eih ,in #ahfj there were no less than six tubes in the service3--7#a7 the ,common ,quill ,tube2 7#b7 the ,dutch ,paper ,tube2 7#c7 the ,common ,metal ,tube2 7#d7 the ,percussion ,tube2 7#e7 the ,friction ,tube2 and 7#f7 the ,galvanic ,tube4#eii ,time ,fuzes4 ,nothing can be less satisfactory than ,hassan er-,rammah's allusions to igniters1 of which he possessed two--the rose and the ikreekh 774 ,the latter word strictly means a duct1 channel1 or tube2 but just as we frequently use fuze for fuze composition1 so the ,arabs often use ikreekh for the composition it contained4 ,hassan1 for instance1 speaks of 8the sulphur with which one makes ikreekhs40#fjj ,it is quite clear1 however1 from ,reinaud and ,fav's ,plate ,,ii41 fig4 #bd1 that the ikreekh was of the nature of a fuze-case4 ,whether the composition given here in column #a of ,table ,,xiii4 was used in the ikreekh or the rose1 ,i do not know4 ,in fact our knowledge of these two igniters may be summed up in the statement that they were used together in the same 7incendiary7 shell1 and that it was the rose which was lighted4#fja ,the ikreekh possibly contained the fuze composition proper1 and the rose corresponded to our priming matter4 ,judging from the plates of ,kyeser's ,bellifortis reproduced by ,herr von ,romocki 7i4 #afi71 the igneous projectiles of #adje were ignited by some slow-burning composition1 which was put on the top of the charge1 and filled up the loading hole flush with the exterior of the missile4 ,the breech-loading quill fuze of the second ,berlin ,firebook1 mentioned in the section on 8,explosive ,shell10 seems to have been only the abortive proposal of an inventor4 ,the foregoing ,arab and ,german igniters were for use in machine and hand projectiles1 and we now reach cannon fuzes4 ,the first igneous gun-missiles were incendiary1 at once hand-grenades and cannon-balls1 and were ignited by means of some slow-burning mixture1 without a case1 which was put into the shell on the top of its charge4 ,when the missile is 8neere full 7of good come pouder710 says ,bourne1 8take some receite of soft fire worke that will not burne too hastily and fill up the rest of the ball40#fjb ,that the fuze-hole was originally placed next the cartridge is shown by ,boillot's repeated directions to turn it towards the muzzle#fjc--;directions which would have been superfluous had it not been previously customary to place it next the cartridge2 and by many other indications4 ,by this mode of loading the ignition of the fuze composition was ensured before the projectile left the piece4 ,there was perhaps no absolute necessity for the use of this soft1 slow-burning mixture1 with incendiary shell so placed2 but it was probably found very useful in confining the charge within the missile during flight4 ,the need of an explosive projectile to blow up earthworks1 c41 was more and more felt as time rolled on1 and the use of such missiles was clearly impossible with such igniters so placed4 ,but the best way of mending matters was by no means so clear4 ,if an explosive shell was placed in the bore with an igniter of soft1 caseless composition next the cartridge1 there was in the great majority of rounds a burst in the bore4 ,if the shell was reversed1 with the igniter towards the face of the piece1 either the composition did not ignite and the shell was blind1 or the soft composition set back into the shell from the shock of the explosion#fjd and again there was a burst in the bore4 ,furthermore1 in firing against works it was before all things necessary that the shell should enter the revetment1 c41 before it exploded1 and it was extremely difficult in practice to put into the shell the exact amount of composition that would burn just longer than the time of flight4 ,to prevent the gases of the explosion from forcing their way into the interior of the shell1 it was necessary to have the fuze-hole towards the muzzle when the shell was home4 ,to prevent the soft composition from setting back1 and to ensure that it was sufficient in quantity to burn longer than the time of flight1 a fuze-case was necessary4 ,to ensure the ignition of the fuze 7in its new position7 it was necessary to light it from the muzzle just before the piece was fired1 and this condition restricted the use of explosive shell for centuries to mortars and 7afterwards7 howitzers4 ,no one would have dared to thrust a lit match down the bore of a gun which had been loaded with loose powder by means of a ladle1 and cartridges were not in general use when the question of explosive shell arose4 ,bourne says in #aehg3 8,it is a great deal better for to charge a peace in time of service with a cartredge than with a ladell10#fje and he presently proceeds to give his reasons for thinking so at great length4#fjf ,in the beginning of the following century1 ,diego ,ufano only allows the use of cartridges when a ladle is not at hand4 ,such were the steps of the evolution of the fuze1 as partially explained by ,hanzelet and ,thybovrel in their ,receuil de plusieurs ,machines ,militaires1 published in #afbj3 8,le souspirail de l'amorce 7the funnel of the priming the fuze-case7 est long 444 et creux4444 ,ainsi ce canal stant emply de composition lente1 il ne permet que le feu se prenne qu'il nait 7n'ait7 lentement consum la matire mise audit canal1 et par ce moyen le feu ne peut toucher la poudre graine 7the bursting charge7 qu'il ne soit arriv jusques au fond de la ditte grenade4 ,cela sert pour avoir loisir de la jetter la main1 ou de l'allumer et la mettre dans le mortier ou canon0 7l4 iv4 c4 #f74 ,one of the first indications of a fuze with a case is afforded by a passage in ,stow's 8,annals0 for the year #aedc1 where he speaks of 8hollow shot of cast-yron1 to be stuffed with fireworks or wild fire2 whereof the bigger sort had screwes of yron to receive a match0 7p4 #ehd74 ,stow was evidently describing something which he did not understand1 but his meaning is made clear by ,boillot4 ,the fuze-case was a hollow1 cylindrical male screw which fitted a female screw in the fuze-hole1 and when fixed extended across the cavity of the shell3 8,en laquelle 7the shell7 laisserez un trou 444 auquelle fers faire une viz pour le bien boucher1 laquelle sera de la longeur de la grenade0 7p4 #afc74 ,further on he speaks of the case as 8un tuyau de fer blanc ou cuivre 444 bien adjoust au dit trou10 and directs it to be filled 8bien massif de pouldre sans graine40 ,it was lighted from the muzzle of the mortar by a quick-match or hand-fuze1#fjg as ,nye directs half a century afterwards--light the fuze first1 8and then with great speed give fire to the touch-hole0 7chap4 v474 ,diego ,ufano describes experiments carried on during the latter years of the sixteenth1 or the early years of the seventeenth century1 with cased fuzes of a new patterns#fjh proposed by the 7then7 ,governor of ,genappe4 ,the fuze1 which was filled with moist powder or one of several mixtures given by ,ufano1 was placed next the cartridge4#fji ,the first shell fired burst at the muzzle1 the second burst short4 ,two rounds were then fired from an ,english #fj-pr4 7carthaunen71 both of which burst in the air and damaged houses and walls in their neighbourhood4 ,a third shell lodged in the ground at a distance of #bej yards1#faj and on bursting sent its fragments back towards the gun1 damaging a guard-room#faa which stood #aej yards in rear of it4 ,the experiments then ceased1 on the urgent representations of an ,artillery officer about the risk they were all running4 ,the earlier fuzes implicitly referred to by ,ufano were doubtless the 8buses0 which1 ,father ,strada tells us1 were employed at ,wachtendonck in #aehh4 ,their name1 buses tubes or pipes1 is sufficient proof that they were fuzes with cases4 ,in his 8,gunner10 #afbh1 p4 #aef1 ,norton speaks of a 8pype primed with slow receipt0 for exploding shell4 ,we find the very same word applied to fuzes in ,danish official documents in #afdd3 8piber til ,granater10 pipes for shell4#fab ,writing three years afterwards1 ,nye1 ,master-,gunner of ,worcester1 speaks familiarly of fuzes which were conical in shape1 for he compares them to 8faucets for a spigot40#fac ,he says3 8,the match doth ofttimes fail1 but fuzes are very certain to give fire40 ,there were no means of regulating the time of burning of these pipes1 which were generally metallic4 ,the composition had a constant 7and unalterable7 length1 corresponding roughly to that required for the maximum range at which shell could be fired4 ,whatever the range1 the oblong bombs were fired with a fuze that burned some fourteen seconds1 answering to about #ajjj yards range2 the spherical grenados with a fuze that burned some twenty seconds1 answering to about #bajj yards range4#fad ,in firing against works1 c41 it was essential that mortar shell--and until the siege of ,gibraltar1 #aggi1 all shell were mortar or howitzer shell#fae--should not burst before impact4 ,a shell which burst in flight was a shell wasted1 but it mattered little whether it burst on impact or a few seconds afterwards4#faf ,but it was occasionally necessary to use shell against troops1 and it was then that the radical defect of the tube became fully manifest4 ,in this case it was desirable that the fuze should fire the bursting charge the instant the shell touched the ground1#fag and this was impracticable with the primitive pipe4 ,while the long fuze was burning down to its end1 the explosion might be prevented1 or its effects might be neutralised in many ways4 ,the shell might be thrown bodily into a pond or the sea2#fah the fuze might be extracted2#fai or it might be extinguished with water4#fbj ,but in the vast majority of cases the explosion of the shell was neutralised in a much homelier and less heroic way2 those near whom it fell waited for no command to quit its neighbourhood in all haste4 ,it was long before any real progress was made in the adjustment of fuzes to burn a certain time1 chiefly because the early gunners had no timekeeper4 ,a striking illustration of this fact is found in the ,artis ,magn ,artilleri1 c41 of ,siemienowicz1 published in #afej4 ,wishing to give his readers an idea of the action of a certain fireball1 he explains that it burned in the time one takes to recite deliberately the ,apostles' ,creed4#fba ,the first1 so far as is known1 who urged the adjustment of fuzes was ,sebastian ,hlle1#fbb in #aeif1 and he fared as fare most of those who see further than their fellows4 ,the many failed to see the object which he saw clearly2 therefore 7they said7 the object did not exist1 and he was a dreamer4 ,a century after his death1 however1 gunners began to discover that his dreams were substantial enough2 and in #afhb ,zeug-,lieut4 ,buchner dilates upon the advantages of a fuze that will burn ein gewiss ,tempo#fbc--;a certain time4 ,the mere fact that there were at least three different kinds of fuze in use towards the close of the seventeenth century--paper1 wood1 and iron#fbd--proves that the search for a serviceable fuze was going actively forward4 ,the excellent plates given by ,buchner and ,mieth show clearly that their fuzes were bored4 ,in both cases the rate of burning was tested with difficulty1 owing to the want of a practical timekeeper4 ,buchner recommends the use of a pendulum1 or very careful beating time 7or counting72#fbe ,mieth alludes to the pendulum1 but evidently put little trust in it1 for he adds1 8,the correct time can be only found by trial shell40#fbf ,by the middle of the eighteenth century we had beechwood fuzes1 which were cut4 ,the rate of burning was determined 8by burning two or three1 and making use of a watch or string by way of pendulum40#fbg ,it was observed about this period that when fuzes were cut very short1 either the flame failed to reach the bursting charge and the shell went blind1 or the thin disc of fuze composition set back into the shell from the shock of the discharge and the shell burst in the bore4 ,to obviate this ,muller proposed to provide special fuzes1 with a quicker-burning composition than usual1 for use at short ranges4#fbh ,this plan was temporarily adopted1 for we find that there were three different fuzes in our service in #aggi1 one that burned an inch in #e seconds1 a second that burned an inch in #d4e seconds1 and a third that burned an inch in #d seconds4 ,it is evident1 however1 from a remark made by the ,inspector of the ,royal ,military ,academy1 ,captain ,george ,smith1 ,r4,a41 in his 8,universal ,military ,dictionary0 7from which these details have been taken7 that the standard of shell fire in the year #aggi was a low one4 8,when the distance of the battery from the object is known1 the time of the shell's flight may be computed to a second or two40 ,extreme regularity of burning1 then1 was not expected3 an error of 8a second or two0 in the time of flight was of trivial importance4 ,but an event happened in ,gibraltar in this very year which suddenly raised the standard to a height that no one could have foreseen--the adoption of ,captain ,mercier's method of shell-fire from guns1 with short fuzes4 ,this system ended with the siege2 it was never resorted to1 probably1 outside the gates of ,gibraltar2 and1 more probably still1 when the siege was over things fell gradually back into the unruffled quiet of routine4 ,but the calm was only momentary1 for in #ahjc appeared ,shrapnel shell1 and with them reappeared ,captain ,mercier's forgotten system of 8calculated fuzes40 ,from the first moment it was beyond all doubt that the ultimate success of ,shrapnel could be only assured by the use of what no ,artillery then possessed--a thoroughly good time-fuze4 ,writing to ,major 7afterwards ,general ,sir ,thomas7 ,downman1 ,r4,a41 on the #bith ,feb4 #ahjd1 ,shrapnel remarks that in firing at short ranges the fuze composition 8gives way into the shell once in ten times10#fbi thus producing a burst in the bore2 and as a remedy he suggests cutting all fuzes #a long and then sawing a cut through the bottom of the fuze1 in a plane passing through its longer axis1 up to the desired length4 ,however1 notwithstanding all precautions1 of the #ajij shell fired during the ,woolwich experiments with ,shrapnel in #ahai1 #gd burst in the bore1 #ga burst in the butt1 and #aaa were blind1 i4e4 #bc4d per cent4 were failures4#fcj ,no efforts were spared to improve these fuzes or replace them by better ones1 and a large number were proposed1 or constructed1 during the second quarter of the last century4 ,in #ahej there were no less than nineteen time-fuzes in our service3 three of metal and sixteen of wood4 ,of the latter1 ten were ,shrapnel fuzes1 viz4 an #h1 a #e and a #a fuze1 which were uncut2 and seven fuzes which were cut ready for use1 and lettered ,a for 4#a1 ,b for 4#b1--;,g for 4#g4fca ,this medley of fuzes was gradually superseded by a wooden time-fuze proposed in #ahdi by an officer who had a genius for ammunition1 ,captain 7afterwards ,general7 ,e4 ,m4 ,boxer1 ,r4,a41 and adopted in #ahej4 ,in the final pattern of this fuze1 adopted early in #ahed1 ,england possessed probably the best fuze in ,europe4 ,,table ,,xiii4 ,time-,fuze ,composition4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,arab4#fcb;,german4#fcc;,english4#fcd,sw edish4#fce;,english4#fcf;,german4#fcg;,e nglish4#fch ,late ,late ,early ,late ,middle ,early #bjth #acth #afth #agth #agth #ahth #aith ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,saltpetre #ga4dc #eb4a #fi4h #fi4he #ge4j #gb4a #gf4d ,charcoal #ba4dc #be4f #ab4g 4#e #f4be #aj4g #ad4a ,sulphur #g4ad #bb4c #ag4e #ba4fe #ah4ge #ag4b #i4e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,percussion and ,concussion ,fuzes4 ,the earliest proposal for igniting the bursting charges of shell by percussion appears to have been made in #aeif by ,sebastian ,hlle4#fci ,a similar proposal was made in #afaj by ,graf ,johann von ,nassau in a ,,ms4 now in possession of the ,royal ,library1 ,berlin 7,,ms4 ,germ4 fol4 #d71 where two hand-grenades are described which explode on being let fall on the ground4 ,the second differs from the first in having a safety apparatus to prevent premature explosions1 but both are based on the same principle as ,hlle's3 flints and steel so arranged as to strike together on impact with the ground4#fdj ,in #afej ,siemienowicz gives a description 7with plates7 of similar grenades1 without a safety arrangement1#fda which ,mieth regarded as 8curiosities0 specially adapted to hurry those who meddled with them into the next world4#fdb ,yet ,buchner mentions them in #afhb1fdc and ,anderson in #afia1fdd without any 7expressed7 misgivings of their danger4 ,we may rest assured that these man-traps were never used on actual service4 ,the use of percussion powder to ignite the bursting charges of shells was first definitely proposed1 ,i believe1 by ,johann ,jrgenson von ,trachenfels in #afee2fde just seven years after ,glauber had drawn attention to such mixtures in his ,philosophischen fen4#fdf ,trachenfels' proposals were never put into practice1 and no attempt was made to apply percussion powders to military purposes for more than a century4 ,fulminating silver1 discovered by ,berthollet towards the close of the eighteenth century1 could not be utilised owing to the violence of its detonation4 ,after ,howard's discovery of fulminating mercury in #ahjj1 a number of percussion mixtures were made2 but seven years passed before ,rev4 ,alexander ,forsyth proposed to use them for the priming of firearms1#fdg and eleven years more elapsed before it occurred to ,colonel ,peter ,hawker to enclose percussion priming in a copper cap4#fdh ,the percussion musket did not make its appearance until #ahdb4 ,the first ,english concussion fuze#fdi was invented by ,quartermaster ,freeburn1 ,r4,a41 in #ahdf2 the first percussion fuze by ,commander ,moorsom1 ,r4,n41 in #ahej4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,signals ,the following tables tell their own tale3-- ,,table ,,xiv4 ,signal ,rockets4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,chinese4#fej;,greek4#fea;,arab4#feb;,en glish4#fec;,english4#fed #acth #acth #acth #agth #bjth ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ,century4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,saltpetre #fa4j #fi4b #fi4e #fj4j #fa4f ,charcoal #ah4c #bc #ae4g #be4e' #bc ,sulphur #ah4c #g4h #ad4h #ad4d' #ae4d ,mi-to-sing8 #b4d -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,,table ,,xv4 ,fixed ,lights4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,arab4#fee ,english4#fef 8,light of the 8,light1 ,illuminating ,moon10 ,wrecks1 ,mark ,,iv410 #acth ,century4 #bjth ,century4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,saltpetre #ga4d #gb ,charcoal #ae4b #ba ,orpiment #ac4d #f4g ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,table ,,xvi ,fireworks4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,arab4#feg ,english4#feh ,golden ,garlands1,tourbillions1 #acth ,century4 #bjth ,century4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,saltpetre #fb4e #eh ,charcoal #be #ab ,sulphur #f4be #ac ,steel filings #c4abe #d4h ,cast iron borings -- #ab4b ,bronze filings #c4abe -- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,footnotes3 #a ,escorial ,,ms41 ,no4 #abdi1 given in ,casiri's ,bibliotheca ,arabico-,hispana ,escur41 ii4 #g4 #b ,hist4 du ,roy ,saint ,loys1 ,paris1 #affh1 p4 #ci4 ,he calls the projectile 8ung tonneau10 which it probably was4 ,see the section on 8,incendiary ,fireballs40 #c ,estimated for gunpowder at #ccgc ,c4 #d 8444 to be the mark ,of smoky muskets40 --,all's ,well that ,ends ,well1 iii4 #b4 #e ,chaucer's 8,legend of ,good ,women10 #fcg4 ,professor ,skeat points out that the word 8gonne0 applies to the projectile in this line4 #f ,only the whirring of the shot4 #g ,only the faint light of the time fuze4 #h ,sacy's ,chrestomathie ,arabe1 ,paris1 #ahbg1 iii4 #fh4 #i ,cod4 ,,ms4 phil4 #fc1 in the library of the ,university of ,gttingen1 quoted by ,romocki1 i4 #acd4 #aj ,froissart's original account of the battle of ,cressy in the ,amiens ,,ms4 will be found in ,kervyn de ,lettenhove's ed4 of the 8,chronicles10 ,brussels1 #ahgj1 and in the ,appendix to ,polain's ed4 of the ,vrayes ,chroniques de ,messire ,jehan le ,bel1 ,brussels1 #ahfc4 ,see also 8,cannon at ,cressy10 by the present writer1 in ,proc4 ,r4 ,a4 ,inst41 vol4 xxvi4 #aa 8,toxophilus10 p4 #fg4 #ab 8,sometimes we put a new signification to an old word1 as when we call a ,piece a ,gun4 ,the word ,gun was in use in ,england for an ,engine to cast a thing from a ,man1 long before there was any ,gunpowder found out40--8,table ,talk10 p4 #ajg4 #ac 8,language and the ,study of ,language10 #ahfg1 p4 #abf4 #ad ,cordite1 for instance1 is frequently miscalled 8smokeless powder40 #ae ,as ,artillery for ages represented both bows and cannon4 #af 8,si forte necesse est ,indiciis monstrare recentibus abdita rerum1 ,fingere cinctutis non exaudita ,cethegis ,continget1 dabiturque licentia sumpta pudenter40--,a4 ,p4 #dh4 #ag e4g41 whether ,artillery means bows and arrows or cannon in #a ,sam4 xx4 #dj2 but this is an exceedingly simple case4 #ah ,except one disputed ,sanskrit text which will be found in ,ry's 8,hindu ,chemistry10 pp4 #ig-h4 #ai 8,les terres d'o l'on tire le kien1 ou la couperose de ,chine1 fermentent comme celles du salptre2 on y est souvent tromp1 ce n'est qu'au got qu'on peut distinguer les unes des autres40--,pre ,incarville1 a ,chinese missionary1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bea4 #bj ,supposed to be of ,greek origin4 #ba ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 p4 #bhc4 #bb ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #adb4 ,on the next page1 #adc1 sarcosti is spelled 7by the same writer7 salcosti4 #bc 8,tunc aquam illam 7salt water7 coque in vase vitreo40--,albert ,groot in ,zetzner's ,theatrum ,chemicum1 #afac1 ii4 #dcc4 #bd ,the ,greeks had a corresponding distinction between natural and artificial salt4 ,herodotus calls the salt crystallised by the sun at the mouth of the ,borysthenes 1 automatic1 or spontaneous salt1 as distinguished from 1 dug-out1 or rock salt2 iv4 #ec and #ahe4 #be ,berthelot1 iii4 #aec4 #bf ,ib41 i4 #bci4 ,the forgeries in question may have been the work of several writers1 but this does not affect the date given above4 #bg ,the ,arabic works of the real ,jabir are given by ,berthelot in iii4 #abf ff42 the ,latin works of the false ,jabir 7or ,geber7 in i4 #ccf ff4 #bh ,ib41 i4 #aii1 recipe #fj4 #bi ,ib41 i4 #cjh4 #cj ,owing to the great number of ,arabic words borrowed by the ,persians it is extremely difficult to judge from a translation whether a lost original was ,arabic or ,persian1 the more so as the ,arabs borrowed largely from the ,persian4 ,far more honour for scientific work has been paid to the ,arabs1 far less to the ,persians1 ,syrians1 and ,hindus1 than was their proper due4 ,renan says that ,al-,kindi was the only ,moslem philosopher of pure ,arab blood4--,discours et ,confrences1 p4 #cia4 #ca ,udoy ,chand ,dutt1 8,materia ,medica of the ,hindus10 pp4 #hi-ij4 ,i presume that sora 7being of foreign origin7 was a corruption of the ,persian 7shora7 saltpetre4 #cb 8,hindu ,chemistry10 by ,praphulla ,chandra ,ry1 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,presidency ,college1 ,calcutta1 #aijb1 pp4 #ii-ajj4 #cc ,yavakshara was apparently the 8barley0 used in a saltpetre mixture of the ,arabic treatise 7in ,syriac characters7 given by ,berthelot1 ii4 #aih4 #cd ,romocki1 i4 #ea4 #ce 444 ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #ad4 ,the phrase1 8flower of the stone of ,assos10 was a thousand years old when ,abd ,allah used it1 for we find it in ,lucian's ,tragodopodagra 7 1 l4 #afb71 a work written ,a4,d4 #ahj-bjj4 ,but1 like so many other words1 it completely changed its meaning in the lapse of years4 ,abd ,allah used it to designate saltpetre3 ,pliny the elder 78,nat4 ,hist410 xxxvi4 #ag7 tells us it had the property of utterly consuming dead bodies1 except the teeth1 in forty days--a property saltpetre does not possess4 #cf ,majus ,opus1 ,london1 #agcc1 p4 #dgd4 #cg ,see chapter iv4 #ch ,this process was carried out in the ,east1 or wherever the natural saltpetre was collected2 not at ,waltham ,abbey4 ,the facts are taken from the 8,handbook of the ,manufacture of ,gunpowder10 by ,capt4 ,f4 ,m4 ,smith1 ,r4,a41 ,london1 #ahga4 #ci ,f1 c41 means a repetition of ,f1 c4 #dj ,see chapter iv41 recipe #ad4 #da ,taken from ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bcg4 #db i4e4 the lapis assius saltpetre4 #dc ,the way in which this process has been obtained will be explained in chapter viii4 ,the phrases within brackets there are simply written consecutively here1 word for word1 except a few conjunctions rendered unnecessary by the punctuation4 #dd ,thucydides1 vii4 #dc4 #de ,diodorus ,siculus1 xx4 #hh4 #df ,vergil1 n41 ix4 #gje2 ,lucan1 ,phars41 vi4 #aii4 #dg ,tacitus1 ,hist41 iv4 #bc4 #dh ,de ,re ,militari1 chap4 viii4 ,see ,table ,,ii4 #di xxiii4 #d4 #ej ,thucydides1 ii4 #gg4 8,e lor porge di zolfo e di bitumi ,due palle1 e'n cavo rame ascosi lumi40 --,,tasso1 ,ger4 ,lib41 xii4 #db4 #ea ,ib41 iv4 #ajj4 #eb ,ib41 vii4 #ec4 #ec ,in ,bibliotheca ,script4 ,grc4 et ,rom4 ,teubneriana4 ,leipsig1 #ahgd4 ,chap4 xxxv4 p4 #gi4 ,see ,table ,,ii4 #ed ,poliorketikon1 xxxv4 #gi4 #ee ,de ,re ,militari1 iv4 #h4 #ef ,recipe #bf 7see ,chap4 iv474 #eg 8,bellifortis10 in ,romocki1 i4 #aed4 #eh ,whitehorne1 ,chap4 xxix4 fol4 #dj4 #ei ,official 8,treatise on ,ammunition40 #fj i4e4 ,pine-wood charcoal4 #fa ,a gum4 #fb ,salt recovered from salt-water by natural or artificial heat4 #fc ,cream of tartar bitartrate of potash4 #fd ,kallinikos was probably a ,syrian-,greek2 ,hertzberg1 ,gesch4 der ,byzantiner1 c41 p4 #eh4 #fe 1 1 1 4 4 ,corp4 ,script4 ,hist4 ,byzant41 ed4 ,niebuhr3 8,theophanes10 ,a4,m4 #fafe1 ,a4,c4 #ffe2 i4 #edb4 #ff 444 1 1 1 ' 4 #fg ,k4 ,k4 ,mller1 in his ,eine griechische ,schrift ber ,seekrieg1 #ahhb1 p4 #dd1 pertinently remarks that ,jhns1 who accepts this early date1 can give no example of the use of sea-fire before the seventh century4 #fh 8,traitors are often to be suspected even about your person0 7 74 ,leo's 8,tactics10 xxi4 #ce4 #fi ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #aeth ,aug4 #ahia1 p4 #hje4 #gj 8,tactics10 xix4 #ea4 #ga ,by ,friar ,bacon4 ,see ,chapter viii4 #gb 8444 nec fulmine tanti ,dissultant crepitus 4440--n41 xii4 #ibb4 #gc ,siphons1 of whatever kind1 were known before sea-fire4 ,on hearing of the ,moslem preparations to attack him in #fga1 ,constantine ,pogonatus ordered the siphon-bearing warships 7 7 to be put in commission4--,theophanes' 8,chronography10 i4 #edb4 #gd 8,alexander10 c4 #ce2 tr4 by ,stewart and ,long4 #ge 8,natural ,history10 xxxvi4 #ec4 #gf ,see ,boivin's notes on the 8,kestoi0 in ,vet4 ,mathematicorum 444 ,op41 ed4 ,thvenot1 #afic1 p4 #ceg2 and ,gelzer's ,s4 ,j4 ,africanus1 #ahhj1 i4 #ac4 #gg ,in the ,deipnosophists of ,athenus a juggler is represented as producing automatic fire1 c4 #af1 e4 #gh ,corp4 ,script4 ,hist4 ,byzant41 ,pt4 xxii4 p4 #ecg4 #gi ' 444 8,tactics10 xix41 #ed1 in ,meursii ,op41 vi4 #hj ,recipe #bd 7see ,chapter iv474 #ha ,nrnberg ,,ms41 in ,romocki1 i4 #abe1 recipe1 8ignis qui in pluvia40 #hb ,generally ascribed to ,albert ,groot1 but much more probably by one of his pupils4 ,berthelot1 i4 #ia4 #hc ,romocki1 i4 #aed4 #hd ,ib41 #acj4 #he ,cedrenus seems to convey that the manufacture of incendiaries was the privilege of the ,lampros family1 but it was presumably carried on in some ,government establishment 7 1 72 ed4 ,bekker1 ,bonn1 #ahch1 i4 #gfe4 #hf ,herr von ,romocki was1 ,i believe1 the first to offer this explanation4 #hg ,see p4 #ac1 and ,table ,,ii41 col4 ,liber ,ignium4 #hh ,dr4 ,bury in ,gibbon's 8,decline and ,fall10 c41 vii4 #edj4 #hi 1 p4 #ecf4 #ij 444 ' 4 8,alex410 xiii4 #c4 #ia 8,from the fir and such like evergreen trees may be prepared a fiercely-burning mixture0 7 74 ,ib4 ,see neas' mixture in ,table ,,ii4 ,anna's recipe is intentionally incomplete4 #ib 1 1 ' ' ' 4 8,alex410 l4 xi41 c4 #aj4 #ic ,the earliest notice of steam1 as a motive power1 is found in the ,pneumatica of ,heron of ,alexandria1 cir4 #acj ,b4,c4 ,no further progress seems to have been made until the publication of the ,pneumatica of ,giambattista della ,porta in #afja4 ,perkins' steam-gun was exhibited in #ahbd4 #id 4 8,tactics10 xix4 #f4 ,there is no ambiguity about the word 1 which is commonly applied to clothing1 e4g4 8a man clothed in soft raiment10 ,luke vii4 #be4 ,i mention this because it has been stated and restated that the siphons were made of bronze1 instead of being 8clothed0 or 8cased0 with bronze4 #ie 444 4 ,ib41 #ea4 #if ,see p4 #cd n4 #ig 4 8,spiritalia10 in ,vet4 ,mathemat4 ,op41 ed4 ,thvenot1 p4 #ahj4 #ih 8,nullus usquam in publico sipho1 nulla hama1 nullum denique instrumentum ad incendia20 l4 x41 c4 #dh1 ed4 ,titze1 p4 #beb4 #ii 4 #ajj 1 4 ,in ,meursii1 ,op4 ,,vi41 #acdi4 ,in his 8,lex4 of ,byzantine ,greek0 ,sophocles gives 1 4 #aja 4 8,alex410 ii4 c4 #h4 #ajb 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 8,alex410 xi4 #aj4 ,the obscurity in style of both the ,royal writers was no doubt intentional4 #ajc ,berthelot1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,aug4 #ae1 #ahia1 p4 #hjj4 #ajd ,american official 8,hist4 of the ,war of ,rebellion10 ser4 #a1 vol4 xxviii4 pt4 #a1 p4 #cc4 #aje 8,greek ,fire10 in 8,ency4 ,brit410 ninth ed4 #ajf ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,aug4 #ae1 #ahia1 p4 #gib4 #ajg ,webber's 8,metrical ,romances40 #ajh ,liber ,gardrob of ,ed4 ,i41 in ,tytler's 8,hist4 of ,scotland10 i4 #aha4 #aji ,barbour's 8,the ,bruce10 bk4 xvii41 quoted by ,general ,r4 ,maclagan in ,journal of ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 xlv4 #cj ff4 #aaj ,froissart1 vol4 i4 pt4 #b1 c4 #ba1 p4 #ccb2 c4 #bf1 p4 #ccg4 #aaa ,diedo1 8,hist4 of the ,republic of ,venise10 ii4 #bbh ff42 ,paruta1 ,storia della ,guerra di ,cipro1 #hh ff4 #aab ,in ,coleridge's 8,dict4 of the ,oldest ,words in the ,english ,language40 #aac ,state ,papers1 ,dom4 ,series1 iii4 #cec4 #aad ,see ,table ,,ii4 #aae ,e4 ,pears1 8,fall of ,constantinople10 #ahhe1 p4 #baa4 #aaf 8,hist of ,greece10 iii4 #dib4 #aag 8,voyages10 c4 ,trans4 par ,baratier1 #agcd1 c4 #f1 p4 #ej4 #aah 8,struphnos 444 turned into money not only the bolts and anchors of the ships but their sails and rigging1 and left the navy without a single large ship0 7 444 1 74 ,nicet ,hist41 8,de ,alex4 ,isaac4 ,ang4 ,fr410 l4 iii4 p4 #gaf4 ,sea-fire is not actually mentioned1 but the man who made away with the fittings of the ships was not likely to spare the ammunition1 if saleable4 #aai ,ville-,hardouin1 ,la ,conqute de ,constantinople1 ed4 ,bouchon1 #ahia1 p4 #aaa4 #abj ,see p4 #ad4 #aba 444 ,chalcocondyles1 ,corp4 ,script4 ,hist4 ,byzant41 ed4 ,niehbuhr1 ,bonn1 #ahdc1 l4 ii4 p4 #gb4 ,the tradition was widespread4 ,ariosto 7#adgd-aecc7 says3-- 8,la macchina infernal 444 ,prima portata fu tra gli ,alamanni40 --,orlando ,furioso1 xi4 #bc4 #abb 4 ,ib41 l4 vii4 p4 #cdf4 #abc ,herodotus1 viii4 #eb1 in his description of the taking of ,athens during the invasion of ,xerxes1 #dhj ,b4,c4 #abd 4 ,leo's 8,tactics10 xix4 #ea4 ,see p4 #ch1 and ,jhns1 #eae4 #abe 8,dans notre opinion1 les diverses compositions incendiares employes par les ,arabes et par les ,grecs1 antrieurement l'anne #abbe1 ne contiennent pas de salptre40--,reinaud and ,fav1 ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 p4 #bhb4 #abf ,paris ,,mss4 #gaef and #gaeh1 which may be dated #acjj4 #abg ,these lines are attached by ,berthelot to ,no4 #f4 #abh ,i have inserted these two words from the ,nrnberg ,,ms4 7,romocki1 i4 #abd71 instead of the unmeaning 8horatactin40 #abi ,berthelot reads 8primo40 #acj 8,take0 is here 8accipe0 instead of the 8recipe0 used in the nine preceding recipes4 #aca ,berthelot reads1 8lauri40 #acb ,better1 8in scrophulis contra lapides10 ,berthelot's reading4 #acc ,this is the reading of the ,paris ,,ms4 #gaef4 ,ptolemy is here spelt as ,chaucer spells it1 ,tholome2 8,boece10 ii4 #g4 #acd ,probably a scribe's blunder for cynoglossi4 #ace ,there seems to have been some lacuna in a previous recipe4 #acf ,there is no ,index to the original4 ,the above has been made for the convenience of the reader4 #acg i4 c4 #d4 ,there is a marked similarity between certain numerals to be found in ,kyeser's 8,bellifortis10 #adje1 and those used in the ,nrnberg ,,ms4 ,romocki1 i4 #abd1 #aej4 #ach ,see p4 #af4 ,he was born near ,malaga4 #aci ,berthelot1 iii4 #b4 #adj 8,golden ,prairies10 ,paris ed41 viii4 #agg4 #ada i4 #abh-acb4 #adb ,not a genuine ,greek word1 although used by ,herodotus4 #adc ,gibbon1 vi4 #ajc1 ,bury's ed4 #add ,romocki1 i4 #g n4 #ade ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #di4 #adf ,jhns1 #eab n4 #adg 8,hist4 ,hierosol410 l4 vii4 c4 #cc4 #adh ,hist4 ,rerum ,anglicarum1 l4 iv4 c4 #ai4 ,a work carried up to the year #aaih4 #adi ,in his summary of ,masudi's 8,book of ,indication and ,admonition10 appended to the 8,golden ,prairies10 ,paris ed41 ix4 #caa4 #aej ,ib41 i #aih4 #aea 8,tale of the ,tailor10 i4 #bhj1 #bhe1 ,burton's ed41 #ahid4 #aeb 8,archologia10 xxxiv4 #bfa4 #aec 8,assyrian ,discoveries10 p4 #djg4 #aed ,r4 ,grant1 8,hist4 of ,physical ,astronomy10 p4 #dce4 #aee ,prof4 ,whitney1 8,language and the ,study of ,language10 #ahfg1 p4 #bei4 #aef ,humboldt's 8,cosmos10 ii41 pt4 ii4 p4 #ebc1 ,bohn's ed4 #aeg ,plutarch1 8,alexander10 #ce4 #aeh ,humboldt1 ib4 #aei 8,le mot et le mot s en latin comprennaient la fois le cuivre et ses alliages colors en rouge ou en jaune40--,berthelot1 ii4 #abb n4 #afj 8,golden ,prairies10 ,paris ed41 iii4 #di4 #afa ,chrestomathie ,arabe1 iii4 #def4 #afb ,berthelot1 i4 #cjf4 #afc ,ry's 8,hindu ,chemistry10 p4 #ej4 #afd ,chrestomathie ,arabe1 ii4 #dhb4 #afe ,dict4 ,lat4-,hispanico1 #aegj1 but written half a century before4 #aff ,minsheu1 8,span4-,english ,dict410 #afbc4 #afg ,mr4 ,fitzmaurice-,kelly1 8,hist4 of ,spanish ,literature10 p4 #ai4 ,he is speaking of the ,crusade period4 #afh 8,literature of ,europe10 c41 c4 ix4 #d4 #afi ,berthelot1 i4 #bcb4 #agj ,ib41 i4 #acj1 #ace4 #aga ,gibbon1 vi #aa1 ,bury's ed4 #agb ,alexiad1 xi4 #aj4 #agc 8,urbem machinis et propugnaculis munit 7,alexius71 quorum similia nemo viderit unquam40--,duchesne1 ,hist4 ,franc4 ,script41 v4 #bgi4 #agd 8,ency4 ,brit410 xv4 #hje4 #age 8,the ,golden ,prairies0 of ,masudi1 ,paris1 #ahgc1 vii4 #ajj4 #agf 8,j4 ,mesu 444 ,opera10 ,venice1 #aeha1 p4 #he4 ,fabricius thought this ,greek physician might have been ,gereon 7qui forte est ,gereon71 ,bibliotheca ,grca1 ,hamburg1 #agah-eb1 xiii4 #agb4 ,i cannot follow ,,mm4 ,reinaud and ,fav and ,herr von ,romocki in identifying him with ,dioskorides4 ,the evidence 7from the description of the cyclamen and the preparation of the syrup7 seems to point the other way4 ,the past tense1 dixit1 in the passage in the text1 would seem to show that ,ibn ,serapion was dead when it was written4 ,the present tense1 dicit1 indicates similarly that 8,grcus0 was then living1 a contemporary of ,masawyah's4 ,yet ,dutens speaks of his having lived 8avant le mdicin arabe40 #agg ,l',origine des ,dcouvertes1 #agif1 p4 #aih4 #agh ,bibliot4 ,grc41 xiii4 #cbj4 ,his ,bibliot4 ,latina contains no allusion to ,marcus ,grcus4 ,galen died in #bjj ,a4,d4 #agi ,guttmann1 8,manufac4 of ,explosives10 #ahie1 i4 #h-i4 #ahj ,recipes #a1 #b1 #aj1 c4 #aha 8,artem illam mortiferam et ,deo odibilem balistariorum et sagittariorum adversus ,christianos et ,catholicos exerceri de cetero sub anathemate prohibemus40--,concil4 ,rom41 ann4 #aaci1 c4 #cj4 #ahb ,caussin de ,perceval1 ,essai sur l'hist4 des ,arabes1 ii4 #ag4 #ahc ,muir's 8,life of ,mahomet10 p4 #dcb2 ,caussin de ,perceval1 iii4 #beg4 #ahd ,devout ,moslem commentators explain 8baked0 to mean 8baked in hell40 ,see ,sale's trans4 ad loc4 #ahe ,masudi's 8,golden ,prairies10 ,paris ed41 v4 #aff4 #ahf 8,chachnama10 in ,elliot1 i4 #agj4 #ahg ,ib41 vi4 #dfb4 #ahh ,masudi1 ii4 #cej4 #ahi ,see ,burton's note1 8,arab4 ,nights10 xii4 #ch4 #aij ,i have been unable to find a copy of ,gauttier's 8,arab4 ,nights10 ,paris1 #ahbb1 and quote him as given in ,burton1 xii #ch4 #aia ,supplement aux ,dictionaires ,arabes1 ,leyden1 #ahgg1 under 4 #aib ,dict4 d',etymologie ,franaise1 ,brussels1 #ahhh4 #aic viii4 #ag-ah4 #aid 8,hailstones full of wrath shall be cast as out of a stone bow40--8,wisdom of ,solomon10 v4 #bb4 8,oh for a stone bow1 to hit him in the eye60--8,twelfth ,night10 ii4 #e4 #aie ,sacy1 ,chrestomathie ,arabe1 iii4 #fh4 #aif 8,the ,book of ,archery10 ,london1 #ahdj1 p4 #bcf4 #aig ,burton's ed41 #ahid1 ii4 #cch4 #aih ,burton's ed41 #ahid1 i4 #ih4 #aii ,elliot1 iii4 #ebf4 #bjj ,elliot1 vi4 #bai4 #bja 8,decline and ,fall10 c41 vi4 #bbf n4 #bjb ,in ,elliot1 vi4 #dee4 #bjc ,ib4 #bjd ,ib41 #def4 #bje ,in ,masudi's 8 ,golden ,prairies10 c4 #ic3-- ,a large number of instances of the actual use of incendiaries in ,asia will be found in ,general ,maclagan's 8,early ,asiatic ,fire ,weapons10 ,jour4 ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1 xlv4 p4 #cj ff4 #bjf ,shahnama1 ,mohl's ed41 vol4 vi4 p4 #bab1 l4 #fbh3-- #bjg ,schefer1 ,chrestomathie ,persane1 i4 #dh-di4 #bjh ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #fe4 #bji ,william of ,tyre1 ,hist41 c41 ,paris1 #ahdd1 p4 #abc4 #baj ,bongars1 ,gesta ,dei per ,francos1 p4 #agh4 #baa ,albert d',aix1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #fb4 #bab ,boha ed-,din1 ib4 #bac ,t4 ,gale1 ,hist4 ,anglicani ,scriptores1 ,oxford1 #afhg1 ii4 #cbg4 #bad ,paris ed41 #affh1 p4 #ci ff4 #bae ii4 #g4 ,milton uses the phrase1 nitrati pulveris igne1 in his juvenile ,latin poem1 8,in ,quintum ,novembris10 l4 #abj4 #baf ,see p4 #ag4 ,he was a ,spanish ,arab1 born near ,malaga4 #bag ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #ff n4 ,if this ,arab is identical with ,shaykhun al-,omari1 the ,egyptian grand amir1 he died in #geh ,a4,h4 7#acef ,a4,d474 ,sacy's ,chrest4 ,arabe1 i4 #bgb4 #bah ,jhns1 p4 #gge4 #bai ,see 8,cannon at ,cressy10 by the present writer1 ,proceed4 ,r4 ,a4 ,inst41 vol4 xxvi4 #bbj --,bib4 ,arab4 ,hispan41 ii4 #g4 #bba 8,ille castra movens1 multo milite1 hostium urbem ,baza obsedit1 ubi machinam illam maximam naphta et globo instructam1 admoto igne1 in munitam arcem cum strepitu explosit40--,ib4 #bbb ,conde1 p4 #eei4 #bbc iii4 #hc-d4 #bbd ,hist4 du ,roy ,saint ,loys1 ,paris1 #affh1 p4 #fi ff4 #bbe ,elliot1 ii4 #bai4 #bbf ,elliot1 iii4 #gi4 #bbg ,saxa fulminis more contorquet1 ,de ,re ,militari1 iv4 #bb4 #bbh 1 ,alex41 xiii4 #c4 #bbi ,reinaud and ,fav1 in ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 p4 #bha4 #bcj 4 ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #gh4 ,the fire which 8rises and moves0 is of course rocket composition4 #bca ,vlsunga ,saga1 translated from the ,icelandic by ,magnusson and ,william ,morris1 p4 #ea4 #bcb ,burton's 8,arab4 ,nights10 #ahid1 v4 #bdb4 #bcc ,elliot1 vi4 #dga n4 #bcd e4g4 the red-hot ploughshare wielded with much effect by ,bailie ,nicol ,jarvie at the ,clachan of ,aberfoyle4 #bce 8,hindu ,chemistry10 pp4 #ig-h4 #bcf ,given by ,ry1 8,hindu ,chemistry10 p4 #if4 #bcg ,see p4 #ae4 #bch ,ry's 8,hindu ,chemistry10 p4 #if4 #bci ,see ,table ,,viii4 #bdj ,see ,table ,,vii4 #bda ,oct4 #ba1 #ahhj4 #bdb 8,camoens10 c41 ii4 #fcb n4 #bdc 8,indian ,antiquary10 #ahgh4 #bdd 8,hindu ,chemistry10 pp4 #if-g4 #bde 8,notices of ,sanskrit ,,mss410 v4 #ace4 #bdf i4 #cf4 #bdg 8,decline and ,fall10 c41 iv4 #aff1 ,bury's ed4 #bdh 8,philosophie ,positive10 vi4 #aad4 #bdi ,journal of ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 xvii4 #bdd4 #bej ,general ,maclagan on 8,early ,asiatic ,fire ,weapons10 ib41 xlv4 #fd4 #bea ,among other books1 the ,de ,naturis ,rerum of ,nekham1 #aaeg-abag1 ,rolls ,series1 p4 #ahc4 ,the editor1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,wright1 remarks in his preface1 xxxv43--8,the mariner's compass1 in a rude form1 was in use among the sailors in ,western ,europe at an early period1 and 444 instead of being borrowed from the ,east1 as is generally supposed1 it seems to have been invented in this part of the world4 ,of course ,i do not mean to say that it was not invented in other parts also40 ,it is explicitly noticed in a ,chinese ,encyclopdia finished in ,a4,d4 #aba 7,sir ,j4 ,davis1 8,the ,chinese10 c41 ii #ahe74 ,but ,chinese chronology is always suspicious1 and1 even if this date be correct1 there is no evidence to show that the invention ever reached the ,west4 ,the ,chinese seem to have guarded their discoveries and inventions with a jealous eye4 ,their valuable and accurate astronomical observations were only laid open to ,europe by the ,jesuits1 more than two thousand years after they were made4 ,the printing press was not invented in ,europe until the fifteenth century1 yet ,feng ,tao had invented block-printing in ,china in the tenth 7,giles' 8,chinese ,literature10 p4 #baj74 ,according to their own account1 the ,chinese have used tea since the year #bgcg ,b4,c4 ,it was not heard of in ,europe until after ,a4,d4 #aeag1 and did not become generally known until the seventeenth century4 ,brunetto ,latini 7#abcj-id71 quoted by ,davis1 gives a curious1 but only too probable a reason for the slow progress of the compass in ,christendom3 8,no master mariner dares to use 7it71 lest he should fall under the suspicion of being a magician40 #beb ,ferishta1 8,hist4 of the ,rise of ,mahomedan ,power10 c41 trans4 by ,general ,j4 ,briggs1 #ahbi1 ii4 #cab4 #bec ,see ,prof4 ,dowson's note in ,elliot1 iv4 #bfh4 #bed ,grose gives two plates of these 8,ancient ,gun ,carts0 in his 8,military ,antiquities10 i4 #djg4 ,they are mentioned in the ,acts of the ,scotch ,parliament1 #eb of ,james ,,ii4 and #ee of ,james ,,iii4 #bee ,fav1 ,hist4 et ,tact4 des ,troit ,armes1 p4 #ab4 ,grewenitz1 ,trait de l',organ41 c41 de l',artillerie1 p4 #bh4 ,wheeled gun-carriages were so little known to the general public as late as #aedh1 that ,rabelais specially mentions some 8pieces d',artillerie sus roue0 in his account of a sham fight at ,rome in this year4 8,la ,sciomachie10 in his works1 ed4 by ,burgaud des ,marets and ,rathery1 ii4 #efh4 #bef ,elliot1 iv4 #ajj4 #beg ,elliot1 iv4 #aag4 #beh iv4 #fe4 #bei 8,nullis bombardis nec aliis hujus generis tormentis utuntur40 ,epist4 ,indic1 ,m4 ,gaapari ,belg1 p4 #ch4 #bfj iv4 #fi4 #bfa 8,ha espingarda a quai hia tirando amte nos40 ,roteiro da ,viagem1 c41 #ahch1 p4 #eg4 ,trans4 in ,charton1 ,voyageurs ,anciens1 c41 iii4 #bdg4 #bfb 8,tous arms d'pes1 de guisarmes1 d'cus1 d'arcs et de flches40 ,charton1 ib41 #beb4 ,guisarmes1 which ,i have translated by 8daggers10 is a word of obscure origin1 but it means some small arme de main4 ,we find in ,ducange1 under gisarma1 8cultellos et alia arma minuta40 ,diez1 ,etymologisches ,wrterbuch1 ii4 #bag1 giusarma4 #bfc ,faria y ,sousa1 trans4 by ,capt ,j4 ,stephens1 #afie1 i4 #eh4 #bfd ,faria y ,sousa1 ,asia ,portuguesa1 i4 #dh4 #bfe 8,car les peuples de l',inde n'avaient en jusque l ni canons ni autres pice d',artillerie-- 40 ,la ,foudre du ,yemen1 trans4 by ,s4 de ,sacy in ,notices el ,extraits des ,,mss4 de l',acad4 des ,inscriptions1 c41 iv4 #dbj4 ,for mukhal1 see ,hyde's ,syntagma ,dissertationum1 #agfg1 ii4 #abh4 ,prof4 ,s4 ,lane-,poole gives the date as #aejh2 8,medival ,india10 p4 #agf4 #bff ,ziau-d ,din ,barni1 in ,elliot1 iii4 #adf4 #bfg ,amir ,khusru1 ib41 #ge4 #bfh ,barni1 ib41 #bjb4 #bfi ,khusru1 ib41 #hj4 #bgj 8,malfuzat-i ,timuri10 ib41 #dbd4 #bga 8,tuzak-i ,babari10 ib41 iv4 #bgf4 #bgb ,ib41 #bhf4 #bgc ,ib41 #bea ff4 #bgd ,suraj ,prakas1 in ,col4 ,tod's 8,annals of ,rajast'han10 ii4 #h4 #bge ,ib41 i4 #caj4 #bgf ,dr4 ,careri in ,churchill's 8,collection of ,voyages10 #agdd1 iv4 #bcg4 #bgg ,elliot1 v4 #aca-b4 ,babar's ironical description of the ,bengalis as gunners is taken quite seriously by some writers3 8,the ,bengalis are famous for their skill in ,artillery4444 ,they do not direct their fire against a particular point1 but discharge at random10 ,elliot1 iv4 #bhe4 ,such a procedure is not altogether unknown in ,europe4 ,when shooting1 ,mr4 ,tracy ,tupman was wont to shut his eyes firmly and fire in the air4 ,were these gunners friendly ,bengalis employed by ,babar1 or hostile ,bengalis working their own guns8 ,if the latter1 their guns were probably made by ,portuguese deserters4 ,we know that two artisans deserted in #aejc to the ,zamorin of ,calicut1 for whom they offered to make guns of the same nature as the ,portuguese1 8which they afterwards did40 ,castenheda in ,kerr's 8,collection of ,voyages10 ii4 #ded1 quoted in ,elliot1 vi4 #dfg4 #bgh ,the #ga grs4 avoir4 given to the miskal by ,burton and ,clarke 78,persian ,handbook07 would make ,babar's large shot weigh #ej lbs4--an impossible weight1 as every officer will admit who remembers our #ah ,pr4 ,s4,b4 bullock batteries in ,india4 ,babar could not have dragged #ej ,prs4 from ,caubul to ,panipat4 ,burton admits that the miskal 8varies everywhere40 8,arab4 ,nights10 #ahid1 vii4 #cbd4 #bgi i4e4 two men's wages for one day4 ,see p4 #bje4 #bhj 8,hindu ,chemistry10 pp4 #ajg-h4 #bha ,prof4 ,r4 ,k4 ,douglas1 8,china10 in ,ency4 ,brit41 v4 #ffc4 #bhb 8,gunpowder 444 among the ,chinese10 in ,journal of ,north ,china ,branch of ,roy4 ,asiatic ,soc41 ,n4,s4 vi41 #ahfi-gj1 p4 #gd1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,mayers1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 ,chinese ,consular ,service4 8,gunpowder came from the outer barbarians10 says the ,wuh-li-siao1 published in #afcj4 #bhc ,prof4 ,h4 ,a4 ,giles1 8,hist4 of ,chinese ,literature10 #aija1 p4 #d4 #bhd ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,middleton1 8,pottery10 in ,ency4 ,brit41 xix4 #fcc4 #bhe 8,decline and ,fall10 c41 iv4 #bca n 7,bury's ed474 #bhf ,the ,jesuits1 8either seduced by some appearance of truth1 or thinking it prudent to conciliate the people whom they were attempting to convert1 adopted their marvellous relations regarding the antiquity of their science1 and spread them over ,europe40--,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor1 8,astronomy10 ,ency4 ,brit41 ii4 #gdf4 #bhg 8,un bon exemple de la fascination exerce par un rcit circonstanci est la lgende des origines de la ,ligue des trois cantons suisses primitifs 7,gessler et les conjurs du ,grtli7 fabrique au ,,xvie4 sicle par ,tschudi1 devenue classique depuis le #8,guillaume ,tell' de ,schiller1 et qu'on a eu tant de peine extirper40 #bhh ,introd4 aux tudes ,historiques1 pp4 #acf-g4 #bhi ,mmoires concernant l',hist41 c41 des ,chinois1 viii4 #ccf4 #bij ,in ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 p4 #beh4 #bia ,in ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 ,p4 #ia4 #bib ,reinaud and ,fav1 in ,journal ,asitique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 p4 #bhd n4 #bic ,reinaud and ,fav1 in ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 p4 #bia4 #bid ,as before1 p4 #ia4 #bie ,sur la ,force des ,matires ,explosives1 ii4 #ced4 #bif i4 #dh4 #big ,howorth's 8,hist4 of the ,mongols10 iii4 #ig4 #bih ,reinaud and ,fav1 in ,journal ,asiatique1 ,oct4 #ahdi1 pp4 #bif1 #cjh4 #bii ,romocki1 i4 #ea4 #cjj ,this word1 which ,diez 7,etymolog4 ,wrterbuch7 derives from 1 betrays the western origin of the machine4 ,it was well known in ,england3-- 8,set ,mahound at the mangonel1 and millstones throw40 --8,piers ,plowman10 ,c text1 cir4 #acic1 passus xxi4 #cja ,howorth1 i4 #abe4 #cjb ,yule1 in 8,marco ,polo10 ii4 #aeb4 #cjc 8,the ,chinese10 c41 ii4 #aha4 #cjd ,howorth1 i4 #abi4 #cje ,mayers1 p4 #ic4 #cjf ,mayers1 p4 #ic4 #cjg ,ib41 #id-e4 #cjh ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bed4 #cji ,ency4 ,metropol41 art4 8,china10 p4 #eic4 #caj ,incarville1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bei4 #caa ,these ,fathers were strangers to the 8doute mthodique0 of ,,mm4 ,langlois and ,seignobos1 and they certainly did not scan the pages of their vast ,chinese ,encyclopdias with the doubting eye of ,heine3-- 8,augen gab uns ,gott ein ,paar1 ,dans wir schauen rein und klar2 ,um zu glauben was wir lesen1 ,wr' ein ,auge gnug gewesen40 #cab ,sir ,henry ,yule1 in ,ency4 ,brit41 v4 #fbh4 #cac ,mayers1 p4 #ie4 #cad ,gibbon1 iv4 #bcj1 and ,appendix #ab1 by ,dr4 ,bury4 #cae ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bja n4 #caf 8,golden ,prairies10 ,paris ed41 i4 #cjh4 #cag ,elliot1 iv4 #ajc4 #cah ,incarville1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bed4 #cai ,sir ,j4 ,davis1 8,the ,chinese10 c41 ii4 #ahb4 8,ils ne sont point envieux de rien faire de nouveau10 ,incarville1 as above1 p4 #bei4 #cbj ,incarville1 as above1 p4 #beb4 #cba ,ib4 #cbb ,father ,amiot1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #aha4 #cbc ,incarville1 as above1 p4 #bdg4 #cbd ,amiot as above4 #cbe ,ib4 #cbf ,mayers1 as before1 p4 #ia4 #cbg ,amiot1 as before1 p4 #ahc4 #cbh ,ib4 #cbi ,hoang-chao-li-ki-thou-chi1 trans4 by ,pauthier in his edition of 8,marco ,polo10 p4 #dge n4 #ccj ,e4 ,h4 ,parker1 8,china10 c41 #aija1 p4 #hc4 #cca ,mayers1 p4 #if4 #ccb ,professor ,r4 ,k4 ,douglas1 8,china0 78,story of the ,nations0 series71 p4 #gd4 #ccc 8,decline and ,fall10 c41 vii4 #aa n 7,bury's ed474 #ccd 8,roger ,bacon10 in ,ency4 ,brit41 by ,professor ,adamson4 #cce 8,quand le sens littral est absurde1 incohrent ou obscur 444 on doit prsumer un sens dtourn40--,langlois et ,seignobos1 ,introd4 aux tudes ,historiques1 p4 #abg4 #ccf 8,vulgus 7arcana sapienti7 capere non potest1 sed deridet et 7abutitur7 in sui et sapientum dispendium et gravamen4 ,quia non sunt margarit sapienti spargend inter porcos40--,compendium ,studii1 p4 #daf4 #ccg 8,vulgus deridet sapientes1 et negligit secreta sapienti1 et nescit uti rebus dignissimis2 atque si aliquid magnificum in ejus notitiam cadat a fortuna1 illud pervertit et eo abutitur in damnum multiplex personarum et communitatis40--,de ,secretis1 cap4 viii4 #cch 8,insanus est qui aliquid secretum scribit nisi ut a vulgo celetur1 et ut vix a studiosissimis et sapientibus possit intilligi40--,ib4 #cci 8,multa mala sequuntur eum qui revelat secreta40--,de ,secretis1 cap4 viii4 #cdj ,jonson's 8,alchemist10 ,act ,,ii4 #cda 8,cipher0 in ,rees' 8,cyclopdia0 and ,klber's ,kryptographik ,lehrbuch1 ,tbingen1 #ahji4 ,in a note to these chapters in the ,theatricum ,chemicum1 ,zetzner says3 8,hic tamen jacta esse ,steganographi fundamenta certissimum est40 #cdb 8,tonitruum et coriscationem40 #cdc neas ,tacticus adopts the same mode of expression1 ,table ,,ii4 #cdd ,that is1 supposing we knew the subject of his letter1 or had evidence which made it probable that it was so and so4 #cde ,to lull suspicion he calls natural saltpetre chalk1 a verbum figurativum4 ,other ,,mss4 read 8sal40 #cdf 8,tere ipsum fortiter cum aqua salis communis4444 ,ablue in aceto acerrimo40 ,the section 8,nitri ,separatio0 of 8,aristoteles1 de ,perfecto ,magisterio10 in the ,theatrum ,chemicum1 ed4 by ,zetzner2 a collection of alchemical tracts of the ,middle ,ages1 iii4 #fh4 #cdg ,almost literally translated by ,whiteborne3 8clarified and from earthe and grosse matter diligently purged40 ,see ,a1 p4 #ba4 #cdh i4e4 the lapis ,assius saltpetre4 ,we have here unmistakably a verbum nigmaticum4 ,the efflorescence of the stone of ,assos1 which was unknown to the crowd1 was of course 8not a stone10 although called so4 ,the philosopher's stone1 which was well known by name to the crowd1 was likewise 8not a stone10 although called so3-- 8444 'tis a stone ,and not a stone2 a spirit1 a soul1 and a body40 --,jonson's 8,alchemist40 ,bacon avails himself of the ambiguity of the phrase1 8stone which is not a stone10 to support the delusion created by the title of the chapter1 and confirm the unwary in the belief that the philosopher's stone is under discussion1 instead of saltpetre4 #cdi ,he passes suddenly from chalk to cheese--yellow cheese1 laughing openly in his reader's face4 #cej i4e4 the cleansed natural saltpetre4 #cea 8,put the jar on a gentle fire40--,hassan1 ,a1 p4 #bd4 #ceb 8,the mother liquid is boiled until the scum ceases to rise40--,waltham ,abbey process1 ,c1 p4 #ai4 #cec 8,clear and fair and of an azure colour40--,whitehorne1 ,f1 p4 #ba4 #ced i4e4 the scum and impurities4 #cee i4e4 8to drie throughly40--,whitehorne1 ,i1 p4 #bb4 #cef ,this repetition corresponds with ,whitehorne's second process2 beginning at ,f1 p4 #bb4 #ceg i4e4 the crystals just obtained4 #ceh ,a powder to purge1 or to purify and clarify4 8,prenez de la chaulx vive et de l'eau de pluye 444 et les broullez bien ensemble1 et puis le laissez reposer 444 et se fera forte lexive4444 ,prenez de la lexive dessus dicte1 et mettez vostre salpetre dedans10 c4 8,livre de ,canonnerie10 c41 which although not published until #aefa1 appears to belong to the end of the fifteenth century4--,in ,reinaud and ,fav1 pp4 #adf-g4 #cei ,bacon does not name the two substances he alludes to1 but ,whitehome names two and prescribes the same proportions3 8,two parts of unslacked lime and three of oke asshes40--,see ,a1 p4 #ba4 ,did ,whitehorne have access to ,bacon's ,,mss48 #cfj ,treating ostensibly on gold1 ,bacon is obliged to use resolve for dissolve4 #cfa ,the alchemical preparation of gold had much in common with the refining of saltpetre4 ,in the 8,nitri ,preparatio0 of ,bernard's and ,penoti's ,theatrum ,chemicum1 iii4 #gh1 we read3 8,fac postmodum de eo per omnia ut dicam in preparatione auri1 id est1 destilla per alambicum et congela10 c4 #cfb i4e4 to the laxative4 #cfc ,a verbum nigmaticum4 ,the ,phnix is a singular animal1 as ,bacon justly observes1 inasmuch as it springs from its own ashes4 ,its name1 therefore1 may be figuratively used with perfect propriety to denote animal charcoal1 an efficacious agent in clarifying solutions of impure saltpetre4--,bloxam's 8,chemistry10 #hth ed41 p4 #dhh4 #cfd ,bacon appears to have poured the hot solution upon the laxative1 precisely as ,clarke directs in his 8,natural ,history of ,nitre10 ,london1 #afgj1 p4 #db3 8,pour the hot liquid on ashes 444 'tis no matter how soon you let it run off the ashes again40 #cfe i4e4 the removal of the insoluble impurities4 #cff 8,then pour it into the other jar40--,hassan1 ,a1 p4 #bd4 #cfg i4e4 into a crystallising jar4 #cfh 8,the solution is kept in constant agitation by poles while cooling40--,waltham ,abbey ,regs41 ,h1 p4 #bj4 #cfi 8,the mother liquid1 from which the saltpetre flour has been deposited1 is boiled down and crystallised40--,bloxam's 8,chemistry10 #hth ed41 p4 #dhh4 #cgj ,salit petr is the reading of ,zetzner's ,theatrum ,chemicum1 #afac1 v4 #ifb1 which is adopted by ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #abc2 of ,manget's ,bibliotheca ,chemica1 #agjb1 i4 #fbd2 of the ,verosimilia ,sacra et ,profana of ,hoven and ,molfenger1 #agcb1 ii4 #ic2 and of the copy used by ,romocki1 i4 #ic4 ,prof4 ,brewer's ,,ms4 reads sal petr4 #cga 8,atque mala vites incidere falce novellas40--,vergil1 8,bucol410 iii4 #aa4 ,the word1 however1 may be simply nov4 #cgb 8,maltha1 qu est genus bitumenis40--,opus ,majus1 ,london1 #agcc1 p4 #dgd4 #cgc 8,possumus artificialiter componere ignem comburentem1 scilicet1 ex sale petr 444 ex oleo petroleo 444 ex maltha et naphta et consimilibus4444 ,his vicinus est ignis grcus et multa comburentia40--,de ,secretis1 cap4 vi4 #cgd 8,maltha 444 projecta super hominem armatum comburit eum4444 ,ignis comburens fit ex eo qui cum difficultate potest extingui1 nam aqua non extinguit40--,op4 ,maj41 as above4 #cge 8,sunt alia stupenda natur4 ,nam soni velut tonitrua et coruscationes fieri possunt in aere2 imo majori horrore quam illa qu fiunt per naturam4 ,nam modica materia adaptata1 scilicet ad quantitatem unius pollicis1 sonum facit horribilem et coruscationem ostendit vehementem40--,de ,secretis1 cap4 vi4 #cgf ,see p4 #aef4 #cgg 8,quaedam vero auditum perturbant4444 ,nullus tonitrui fragor posset talibus comparari4 ,qudam tantum terrorem visui incutiunt1 quod coruscationes nubium longe minus et sine comparatione perturbant4444 ,experimentum hujus rei capimus ex hoc ludicro puerili1 quod fit in multis mundi partibus1 scilicet ut instrumento facto ad quantitatem pollicis humani ex violentia illius salis qui sal petrae vocatur1 tam horribilis sonus nascitur in ruptura tam modic rei1 scilicet modici pergameni1 quod fortis tonitrui sentiatur excedere rugitum1 et coruscationem maximam sui luminis jubar excedit40--,opus ,majus1 ,london1 #agcc1 p4 #dgd4 8,offenbar ist hier das ,schiesspulver verstanden40--,l4 ,schneider1 8,roger ,bacon10 #ahgc1 p4 #aaj4 ,two centuries before1 when referring to ,bacon's remarks on the destruction of the ,midianites by ,gideon1 ,borrichius had said3 8,hic apertissime loquitur ,bacon de nitrato illo sclopetorum pulvere40--,de ,ortu c41 ,chemi1 #affh1 p4 #abf4 #cgh ,this is ,m4 ,berthelot's view2 ,sur la ,force des ,matires ,explosives1 ,paris1 #ahhc1 ii4 #ceh2 and it is probably the right one4 #cgi 444 ' 1 ' 4 --,,schylus1 ,prometheus ,vinctus1 #iba4 #chj 8,state ,papers10 ,domestic ,series1 #aeha-ij4 #cha 8,archologia10 xiii4 #bg1 #cig-djj4 ,the term slur-bow is1 ,i presume1 akin to the ,german schleuderbogen4 #chb 8,the ,book of ,archery10 ,london1 #ahdj1 ,pl4 xvii41 ,no4 #e4 #chc 8,the ,cross-bow10 #aijc1 fig4 #hd1 p4 #abi4 #chd ,rupert's ,diary1 in ,warburton1 8,prince ,rupert10 iii4 #afc4 #che ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #bfa4 #chf --earthenware vessels4 ,j4 ,cameniata1 p4 #ebg4 #chg ,reinaud and ,fav1 in ,jour4 ,asiatique1 #ahdi4 #chh ,froissart's 8,chronicles10 ed4 ,bouchon2 ii41 ch4 #aha1 p4 #bce4 #chi ,st4 #fe1 ed4 ,robson4 #cij ,according to ,sir ,walter ,scott1 the ,scotch in the beginning of the last century still called crow's-feet calthrops1 a word which goes back to 8,piers ,plowman10 cir4 #acic3--8,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,heavysterne from the ,low ,countries sustained much injury by sitting down suddenly and incautiously on three ancient calthrops0 78,antiquary10 ch4 iii474 #cia 8,fictili globo incendiarii pulveris40--,p4 ,jovii1 ,hist4 sui ,temp41 i41 c4 #ah4 #cib ,mm4 de ,castelnau1 ed4 ,bouchon2 xiii41 p4 #aed4 #cic ,mm4 de ,messire du ,bellay1 ed4 ,bouchon1 vii41 p4 #fcb4 #cid ,fol4 #da4 ,these brazen grenades of ,whitehorne's correspond to the 8,kobber-,granater0 shown in the books of the ,copenhagen ,arsenal at the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,blom's ,kristian d4 ,,iv4's ,artilleri1 pp4 #bfh-fi4 #cie 8,the ,bombardier10 #ahjb1 p4 #adg4 #cif ,danduli ,chronicon1 ,muratori1 xii4 #ddh1 in ,elliot1 vi4 #dfi4 #cig ,in ,elliot1 vol4 iii4 #cih ,in ,elliot1 vii4 #abe4 #cii ,in the war of ,chiozza4 ,during the attack on the ,torre della ,bebbe1 8furono tirate molte rochette40--,muratori1 xv4 #gfi4 #djj 8,ecce quidam adolescens 444 quid ,grcus ignis potest experiri vellet 444 fusum sulphure ignitum 444 ad quamdam domum1 stipula et stramine coopertam1 maximo impetu traxit4 ,iterum1 alium et alium transjecit4 ,acriori incendio edes accense concremantur40--uvres de ,r4 ,blondel1 pub4 by 8,soc4 de l',hist4 de ,normandie10 ii4 #gd4 ,little is known of ,blondel's life1 but he was alive in the year #adfj4 ,i believe fusus to be the fuse de feu of the ,livre de ,canonerie1 ,paris1 #aefa 7,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #adj71 and this incendiary was not a rocket4 #dja 8,hist4 of ,tipu ,sultan10 by ,husain ,kirmani1 trans4 by ,col4 ,miles1 p4 #ade4 #djb 8,hist1 of ,tipu ,sultan10 by ,husain ,kirmani1 p4 #aji4 #djc 8,narrative of the ,conquest of ,mysore10 ,hull1 #ahjd1 p4 #ej4 #djd 8,narrative of the ,campaign with ,tippoo ,sultan10 ,london1 #agic1 p4 #bji4 #dje 8,narrative of the ,conquest of ,mysore10 p4 #eb4 ,their charge was #a lb4 of powder1 and their range about #ajjj yards4 8,description of ,indian and ,oriental ,armour10 by ,lord ,egerton of ,tatton1 #ahif1 p4 #cb4 #djf 8,ammunition10 pt4 ii4 p4 #agd1 by ,capt4 ,c4 ,o4 ,browne1 ,r4,a4 #djg ,sir ,w4 ,congreve's 8,concise ,account of the ,rocket ,system10 ,london1 #ahjg1 p4 #db4 ,he held his commission in the ,hanoverian army4 #djh ,jhns1 p4 #ebc2 ,romocki1 i4 #fi n4 #dji ,congreve1 as above1 p4 #a4 #daj ,ib41 p4 #db4 #daa 8,in dieser ,hinsicht standen also die ,feuerwerker der ,zeit des ,caligula wol schon auf derselben ,hhe wie ,congreve1 dessen #8,geheimnis' zu ,anfang des #ai ,jahrhunderts so angestaunt wurde60 7p4 #eaf47 #dab 8,furchtbare ,wirkung40 ,decker's ,gesch4 des ,geschtzwesens1 c41 #ahbb1 p4 #gi4 #dac 8,capt ,bogue and the ,rocket ,brigade10 by ,col4 ,f4 ,a4 ,whinyates1 late ,r4,h4,a41 in 8,proceed4 ,r4,a4 ,institution10 vol4 xxiv4 #dad 8,ammunition10 as above1 pp4 #age-gf4 #dae ,sloane ,,mss41 #cce1 #gie2 and ,freind's 8,hist4 of ,physick10 #ageh1 ii4 #cbe4 #daf 8,bombardes1 basilics1 jettans boullets de fer1 de plomb1 de bronze40--,rabelais 7d4 #aeec71 iv41 c4 #fa4 #dag ,recipe #ac4 ,extracts from ,arderne's ,,mss4 given by ,hewitt1 8,ancient ,armour10 ii4 #bhd1 leave little doubt that ,arderne was acquainted with the ,liber ,ignium of ,marcus ,grcus4 #dah ,in the ,peninsular ,war1 our men could fire over #ajj rounds1 the ,french only #ej1 without washing out the barrels of their muskets4 ,marquis de ,chambray1 uvres1 v4 #bic-d4 #dai ,fol4 #cc4 #dbj 8,certain ,discourses 444 concerning ,divers ,weapons10 p4 #bj4 #dba ,sir ,h4 ,nicolas1 8,hist4 of ,royal ,navy10 ii4 #dgi4 #dbb 8,pro tribus petris cere 444 ad cerandum canubium ad arificiendum pulveris bumbardorum in castro de ,edinburgh10 c4 8,chronicles of ,scotland10 published by the ,deputy ,clerk-,register1 vi4 #die-ig4 ,in these documents a cross-bow is called1 8arcus cum circulo40 #dbc 8,acts of 7,english7 ,privy ,council10 ,n4,s41 xvii4 #cib4 #dbd 8,seaman's ,dictionary10 under 8,powder40 #dbe 8,chemical ,essays10 #agha1 ii4 #aj4 ,this led to a ,parliamentary inquiry4 #dbf 8,a ,statement of ,facts10 c41 by ,general ,sir ,w4 ,congreve1 #ahaa1 pp4 #ah-ai4 #dbg ,brackenbury1 iv4 #bib4 #dbh ,fol4 #cc4 #dbi 8,art of ,shooting in ,great ,ordnance10 p4 #b4 #dcj ,jhns1 p4 #hjd4 #dca ,mieth mentions glazing in #afhd2 ,artilleri ,recentior ,praxis1 ,franckfurt1 pt4 ii4 c4 #ee4 #dcb ,this is the only reason given by ,clarke for the introduction of corned powder4 8,natural ,history of ,nitre10 #afgj1 p4 #hh4 #dcc 8,das knollen bullfer ij pfund mer tud denn gereden bullfer iij pfund40 ,firebook1 #adjj-ej1 in ,romocki1 i4 #ahb4 #dcd 8#8,of a verity the shooting of the foemen doth begin to increase1' exclaimed the ,rev4 ,gabriel ,kettledrummle2 #8peradventure some pellet may attain unto us even here4 ,lo6 ,i will ensconce me behind the cairn1 as behind a strong wall of defence4' #8,he's but a coward body after a'1' said ,cuddy2 #8he's but a daidling coward body4'0 8,old ,mortality10 chap4 xvii4 #dce ,chap4 xxiv4 #dcf ,prof4 ,j4 ,e4 ,thorold ,rogers1 8,history of ,agriculture and ,prices10 #ahff1 iii4 #egh-gi4 #dcg ,rogers1 8,history of ,agriculture and ,prices10 iii4 #eef4 #dch ,ib41 #eeh4 #dci ,ib41 #egh4 #ddj ,ib41 #eha4 #dda 8,acts of ,privy ,council10 #aehh1 ,n4,s41 xvi4 #adf4 #ddb ,ib41 #bhth ,december #aeie1 xxv4 #acg4 #ddc ,rogers1 v4 #geb4 #ddd ,waltham ,abbey4 #dde 8,fyne corne powder for small shot40 8,acts of ,privy ,council10 #h ,ap41 #aehh2 xvi4 #be4 #ddf ,rogers1 i4 #ded4 #ddg ,rev4 ,j4 ,hunter in ,archologia1 xxxii4 #chb1 who quotes the payments made by ,wm4 de ,stanes in the ,wardrobe ,accounts of ,edward ,,iii4 #ddh ,rogers1 ii4 #ged4 #ddi ,ib41 iii4 #bje4 #dej ,ib41 iv41 ,pices ,justificatives1 ,no4 #f1 p4 xliv4 #dea ,hallam's 8,middle ,ages10 i4 #baa4 ,on the accession of ,louis ,,xi4 7#adfa7 8the livre was only about #a_/ae of its original value 444 and in #aghi the livre had come to be only #a_/gh of its weight in the time of ,charlemagne4 8,money10 by ,prof4 ,bastable1 in ,ency4 ,brit41 #ith ed41 xvi4 #gbg4 #deb 8,treatise on the ,coins of the ,realm10 by 7the first7 ,lord ,liverpool1 reprinted ,london1 #ahhj1 p4 #dj4 #dec ,in #aehj saltpetre was selling in the north-west of ,india at a half-penny a pound4 8,manufacture of ,gunpowder10 ,col4 ,w4 ,anderson1 #ahfb1 p4 #af4 #ded ,caxton's 8,myrrour and ,description of the ,worlde10 #adhj1 ,part ,,ii41 c4 #ba4 #dee ,m4 ,berthelot in ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #aeth ,august #ahia1 p4 #hag4 #def ,k4 ,vitterhets ,hist4 och ,antiq4 ,acads4 ,handr41 ,stockholm1 iv4 #ccg4 #deg ,kapten ,f4 ,a4 ,spak's fversigt fver ,artilleriets ,uppkomst och ,utveckling i ,europa1 p4 #ab4 #deh 8,history of ,inventions10 ,bohn's ed41 ii4 #eji4 #dei 8,natural ,history of ,nitre10 ,london1 #afgj1 p4 #ba4 #dfj ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #bje4 #dfa ,there were exceptions1 such as blasting powder4 #dfb 8,the ,gunner10 p4 #ade4 #dfc ,jhns1 #hjd n4 #dfd ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #bcb4 #dfe ,chap4 #bd4 #dff ,modelles1 ,artifices de feu1 c41 pp4 #ie1 #ig4 #dfg ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #cbi4 #dfh 8,receuil de ,plusieurs ,machines ,militaires et ,feux d',artifices pour la guerre40 ,de la diligence ,thybovril et ,j4 ,appier dit ,hanzelet2 ,pont--,mousson1 #afbj1 liv4 iv4 p4 #ab4 #dfi 8,nun werden unterechiedliche ,pulver gemacht1 jedoch aber allein drey ,sorten zum meistens gebraucht40 ,halinitro ,pyrbolia1 ,ulm1 p4 #f4 #dgj ,chap4 xxiii4 fol4 #bh4 #dga 8,receuil de ,plusieurs ,machines ,militaires et ,feux d',artifices10 c41 ,pont--,mousson1 #afbj1 p4 #ad4 #dgb 8,the ,gunner10 p4 #ade4 #dgc 8,the ,gunner0 p4 #ade4 #dgd pp4 #d1 #e4 #dge 8,inventions and ,devices10 #aegh2 ,no4 #ed1 8,art of ,shooting10 c41 p4 #bh4 #dgf ,ib41 ,preface4 #dgg ,halinitro ,pyrbolia1 ,ulm1 #afbg1 p4 #i4 #dgh ,chap4 xvi4 p4 #bi4 #dgi ,napoleon ,,iii41 iv4 #ed4 #dhj ,ib41 #ec4 #dha 8,trait 444 de fabriquer la ,poudre10 c4 ,botte and ,riffault1 #ahaa1 p4 lij4 #dhb ,marquis de ,chambray1 uvres1 v4 #bic-d4 #dhc 8,dieses ,pendel wurde mit ,recht als ein epochmachende ,erfindung bezeichnet40 ,gen4 ,h4 ,mller1 ,entwickelung der ,feldartillerie1 ,berlin1 #ahic1 i4 #bc4 ,to save the time of any of my readers who wish to read ,gen4 ,mller's remarks on our ,artillery1 ,i may mention that they will not be found under the heading 8,england10 but under the comprehensive heading ,die kleineren ,staaten1 grouped with ,greece1 ,switzerland1 c41 ii #bgb4 #dhd ,see ,wheatstone's own account of his instrument in the ,comptes ,rendus de l',acad4 des ,sciences1 #ahde1 tom4 xx4 pp4 #aeed-fa4 #dhe 8,nous reconnaissons1 avec l'abb ,moigno1 que ,m4 ,wheatstone a eu le premier l'ide de la belle application dont il est ici question4444 ,il a fallu du temps et du travail pour rendre fconde1 dans les expriences d',artillerie1 la belle ide de ,m4 ,wheatstone40 ,cap4 ,navez1 ,l',application de l',electricit la mesure de la ,vitesse des ,projectiles1 ,paris1 #ahec4 ,,pp #d1 #e4 #dhf 8,report on ,experiments on the ,properties 444 of ,cannon ,powder10 ,boston1 ,mass41 #ahfa1 pp4 #agd1 #bii4 ,table ,,vi4 is taken from this ,report4 #dhg #ahhf4 #dhh ,bk4 ,,iv41 c4 #fb4 #dhi ,romocki1 ii4 #g-aj4 #dij 8,vulgar ,errors10 #afdh1 ,bk4 ,,ii41 c4 #e4 #dia ,roger ,bacon's powder1 see chap4 viii4 #dib ,doctor ,arderne's powder1 a laboratory receipt4 #dic ,whitehorne's 8ordinary0 common powder1 chap4 xxiii41 fol4 #bh4 #did ,nye1 pp4 #d1 #e4 #die ,sir ,james ,turner's ,pallas ,armata1 #afgj1 p4 #ahh4 #dif ,robins' 8,new ,principles of ,gunnery10 #agdb1 p4 #abj4 #dig ,bishop ,watson's 8,chemical ,essays10 #agha1 ii4 #af4 #dih ,,ms4 in ,bib4 ,nat41 ,paris1 given in ,lacabane's ,bib4 de l'cole des ,chartes1 #b ser41 i4 #ea4 ,the quantity of charcoal is not given4 #dii ,spak's fversigt fver ,artilleriets ,uppkomst1 c41 ,stockholm1 #ahgh-ha1 p4 #ff4 #ejj ,ib41 p4 #fb4 ,spak gathers from ,fronsperger that the manufacture of powder in ,germany was in a very backward state during the second half of the sixteenth century3 8att kruttillverkning i ,tyskland fven under senare hlften af #aejj-talet befann sig p en srdeles primitiv stndpunkt1 framgr af ,fronspergers beskrifning fver krutets korning40 ,a ,brandenburg ,,ms4 of #aeig gives a powder of #gc4e 3 #ac4g 3 #aj4h1 but this must have been for small arms4 ,c4 von ,decker's ,geschichte des ,geschtzwesens1 c41 #ahbb1 p4 #hg1 powder ,no4 #ca4 #eja ,blom's ,kristian d4 ,,iv4's ,artilleri1 ,copenhagen1 #ahgg1 p4 #di4 #ejb ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #cbi4 ,the grains of this powder were as large as hazel nuts4 #ejc ,spak1 p4 #aff4 #ejd ,castner's cocoa powder1 ballistically the best powder ever made4 ,romocki1 ii4 #ca4 #eje ,romaunt of the ,rose1 #daif1 attributed to ,chaucer4 #ejf ,original ,parchemin parmi les titres scells de ,clairambault1 xxv4 fol4 #ahbe2 ,bib4 ,nat41 ,paris 7in ,brackenbury1 iv4 #bia74 #ejg ,estimated by ,sir ,h4 ,brackenbury4 #ejh ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #afh4 #eji 8,calendar1 ,state ,papers10 ,dom4 ,ser41 #aeha-ij1 ,march #cj1 #aehh4 #eaj 8,acts of the ,privy ,council10 ,new ,ser41 xvi4 #be4 #eaa ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #if4 #eab ,wright and ,halliwell's ,reliqui ,antiqu1 ,london1 #ahda4 #eac ,muratori1 ,rer4 ,ital4 ,script41 xv41 col4 #ahb4 #ead ,rymer's ,fdera1 vii4 #ahg4 #eae ,no reliance can be placed on the document given in ,libri's ,hist4 des ,sciences ,mathm4 en ,italie1 iv4 #dhg1 which states that there were cannon and iron shot in ,florence on the #aath ,february #acbf4 ,libri was expelled from the ,french ,academy1 and sentenced to ten years' imprisonment in #ahej for falsifying and selling public documents which he had stolen from various institutions4 #eaf ,napoleon ,,iii41 i4 #ceh4 #eag ,beringuccio calls iron shot 8cosa nova all' uso della guerra2 perch non prima 7che io sappi7 furono vedute palle di ferro in ,italia per tirarle con artiglierie1 che quelle che ci condusse ,carlo ,re di ,franchia contra ,re ,ferdinando l'anno #adie40--,pyrotechnia1 ,venice1 #aeei1 p4 #bdg4 #eah ,,mss4 germ1 qu41 #ajah4 #eai ,meynert's ,gesch4 des ,kriegswesens1 c41 ,vienna1 #ahfh1 i4 #cgh4 #ebj ,a ,rege ipso institutum2 ,heidenstein1 ,de ,bell4 ,moscovito1 #aehh1 p4 #dj4 ,they were in use in ,denmark in #aeib4 ,blom's ,kristian d4 ,,iv4's ,artilleri1 p4 #bff4 #eba ,geneva1 #afde1 p4 #cjc4 #ebb ,de ,re ,militari1 ,verona1 #adgb1 lib4 #aj1 c4 iv4 p4 #bfg4 #ebc ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #hj4 #ebd ,mr4 ,j4 ,burtt1 in ,archol4 ,journal1 xix4 #fh4 #ebe ,w4 ,l4 ,clowes1 8,the ,royal ,navy10 #ahig1 i4 #adi4 #ebf ,benedict4 ,veron41 ,de ,rebus ,carol4 ,,viii41 in ,eccardi1 ,script4 ,rer4 ,germ41 ii 7,jhns74 ,at the siege of ,bilqan in ,persia by the ,moguls under ,prince ,hulgu in #abef1 stones not being procurable for the machines1 wooden shell filled with lead were employed with good effect4--,heft ,iqlim1 ,persian ,,ms4 in ,bib4 ,nat41 ,paris1 ,no4 #cef1 fol4 #ejj4 #ebg ,average price1 #acga-hj4 ,rogers' 8,hist4 of ,agriculture and ,prices10 i4 #dhd4 #ebh #ij4e per cent4 copper and #i4e per cent4 tin2 copper at #bs4 #cd;d4 per lb4 7average1 #acjc-ec72 tin at #c4da;d4 per lb4 7average1 #acga-hj74 ,mr4 ,rogers notices the rareness of copper1 #acej-adjj4 ,ib41 i4 #dhd2 ii4 #eca4 ,the bronze of an ,egyptian mirror1 cir4 #agej ,b4,c41 was found by ,m4 ,berthelot to consist of #ia per cent4 copper and #i per cent4 tin4--,introd4 ,alchimistes ,grecs1 p4 #bba4 #ebi ,ib41 i4 #fje 7average1 #acga-hj74 ,there is some little uncertainty about the exact price of lead owing to the 8fother0 having three meanings4 8,in the ,book of ,rates it is said to be two thousand pound-weight2 at the mines it is twenty-two hundred and a half2 and among the ,plummers at ,london1 nineteen hundred and a half40 8,the ,new ,world of ,words10 #fth ed41 by ,e4 ,phillips1 ,london1 #agjf4 ,i have taken the #bjjj lbs4 of the ,book of ,rates4 #ecj ,there was no cast-iron in the fourteenth century4 #eca ,i have taken the proportions for bronze as given for shell by ,g4 della ,valle in his ,vallo1 ,venice1 #aeba3 #ge per cent4 copper and #be per cent4 tin1 which had a sp4 gr4 of #h4d and cost #b4f;d4 per lb4 #ecb ,this gives a sp4 gr4 of #c4a1 and shows that the stone was probably limestone1 although ,nye objects to 8freestone0 for shot and recommends 8marble1 pibble stones1 and hard blew stones10 p4 #eh4 8,pibbilston0 is found in ,wiclifs ,bible1 ,prov4 xx4 #ag1 cir4 #achc4 #ecc ,limestone sold in #affd at #cs4 #f;d4 a ton2 ,rogers1 v4 #ejh4 ,but the wages of a gunstone-maker in ,queen ,elizabeth's reign were #f;d4 a day1 or about #cs4 #f;d4 of our money4 ,brackenbury1 v4 #b n44 #ecd ,see p4 #ahe4 #ece ,the early gunners suffered terribly from the bursting of their guns4 ,james ,,ii4 of ,scotland was killed in #adfj by the bursting of a gun1 and a bombard burst near ,paris in #adgi1 killing fourteen men1 and wounding fifteen or sixteen4 ,libre de ,faits1 ,jean de ,troyes1 ed4 ,bouchon1 p4 #cdj4 ,the ,emperor ,babar tells us of a gun that burst in ,india in #aebg-h1 killing eight men4 ,elliott's 8,hist4 of ,india10 iv4 #bgb4 ,and so on4 #ecf ,brackenbury1 v4 #cj4 #ecg ,muratori1 ,rer4 ,ital4 ,script41 xvii41 col4 #eeh4 #ech ,r4 ,norton1 8,the ,gunner10 c41 ,london1 #afbh1 p4 #aeh4 #eci ,entwickelung des ,kriegswesens1 ,breslau1 #ahhf1 iii4 #bff4 #edj ,quellen zur ,geschichte des ,feuerwaffen1 #ahgb1 ,a1 viii41 xix4 #eda ,ducas1 ,hist4 ,byzant41 ,bonn1 #ahca1 p4 #baa4 #edb ,sabellicus1 ,hist4 ,venet41 ,dec4 iii41 lib4 #aj 7,jhns74 #edc ,clarendon's 8,hist4 of the ,great ,rebellion10 p4 #ebb4 ,boillot calls orgues 8barriquades10 ,modelles ,artifices de feu1 c41 ,chaumont1 #aeih1 p4 #ahi4 #edd ,see ,admiralty survey of ,gibraltar1 by ,capt4 ,aldrich1 ,r4,n4 #ede 8,die ,granate vor dem ,stck crepirt 444 wodurch ein ,artillerist das ,leben verloren habe40 ,neues militrisches ,hannovranisches ,journal1 ,stck iv41 p4 #bbe1 kindly communicated to me by ,major ,w4 ,balck1 ,german ,general ,staff4 ,apparently by an eye-witness4 #edf ,drinkwater's 8,siege of ,gibraltar10 #aghf1 p4 #hg4 #edg 8,die ,bomben fielen so tief in den ,sand1 dass die ,stcke niemand schaden konnten40 ,hannovranisches ,journal1 as above4 #edh ,capt4 ,sayer's 8,hist4 of ,gibraltar10 #ahfb1 p4 #bia4 #edi ,drinkwater1 p4 #hi4 ,the ,hanoverian officer1 speaking of the trial1 says3 8,versuch1 welcher der ,erwartung vollkommen entsprach40 ,of the effect of the fire on the enemy he says3 8 ,die ,brandrhren 7waren7 so genau bestimmt1 dass die ,bombe oft den ,feind ber den ,kpfen crepirte 444 und incommodirte den ,feind unaufhrlich40 ,journal1 as before4 #eej 8,universal ,military ,dictionary10 by ,capt4 ,g4 ,smith1 ,r4,a41 #aggi1 art4 8,shell40 #eea ,writing on #eth ,april #ahac1 ,shrapnel said it was 8nearly thirty years0 since he began his experiments4 8,synopsis of ,reports and ,experiments by the ,ordnance ,select ,committee3 ,shrapnel ,shell10 #aheh4 #eeb 8,ammunition10 by ,capt4 7afterwards ,col4 ,sir ,v4 ,d47 ,majendie1 ,r4,a41 #ahfg1 i4 #cej ff42 8,memoirs of ,sir ,j4 ,sinclair10 ii4 #bdd4 #eec ,shrapnel's shell failed at the first trial1 #crd ,june #ahjc--they were too thin4 ,after the second trial1 #bith ,june #ahjc1 8about a dozen0 were recommended to be supplied to ships for each carronade4--,ord4 ,sel4 ,committee1 8,shrapnel ,shell10 p4 #b4 #eed ,die ,shrapnels3 eine ,erfindung des #af-ten ,jahrhunderts1 in 8,archiv fr die ,officiere der ,k4 ,preuss4 ,artillerie1 c410 ,berlin1 #aheb1 ,band #cb1 p4 #afj4 ,toll does not allude to ,shrapnel personally4 ,he gives the text of ,zimmerman's ,,ms41 which ,i quote above4 #eee ,one of ,boillot's mortar shell1 which nobody has yet claimed to have been a ,shrapnel1 was of minimum thickness1 8afin qu'elle rompe plus facilement0--,modelles1 ,artifices de feu1 c41 ,chaumont1 #aeih1 p4 #afc4 #eef ,some of ,boillot's mortar shell contained bullets1 not only inside but outside1 where they were stuck into some glutinous substance with which the shell was covered4 ,ib41 p4 #afg4 #eeg ,capt4 ,may1 ,r4,a41 reported that before reaching the ,great ,belt1 #ahjg 7on the voyage to the siege of ,copenhagen71 ,shrapnel's own fuzes were found to be so affected by the damp as to be unserviceable1 and that others had to be improvised4--,ord4 ,sel4 ,com41 8,shrapnel ,shell10 for #aith ,june #ahji4 #eeh 8,ehe die ,znder nicht zu der ,vollkommenheit gekommen waren1 genau tempirt werden zu konnen1 was erst gegen das ,ende des vorigen 7#ah-ten7 ,jahrhunderts eintrat1 konnte uberhaupt von der ,erreichung einer ,wirkung1 wie sie ,shrapnel vor ,augen hatte1 gar nicht die ,rede sein2 und es ist das unstreitbare ,verdienst ,shrapnels1 dass er die ,vervollkommung der ,znder zur ,erreichung bis dahin nicht gekannter ,karttschwirkung benuzte40--8,notiz ber die ,geschichte der ,shrapnells10 by ,hauptmann ,meyer1 in ,archiv fr d4 ,offic4 d4 ,k4 ,preuss4 ,art41 c41 #e ,band1 zwieter ,heft1 p4 #aeg4 #eei ,given further on4 #efj 8,mag auch nicht ain ,hagel gemacht werden der ganntz vom ,rohr fert und sich erst uber etlich hundert ,schrytt nachet oder feer wie man will von einander thut und sich austhaylet80 #efa ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #bfd4 #efb ,modelles1 c41 p4 #afc4 #efc 8,hydrodynamics10 in ,ency4 ,brit41 p4 #deg4 #efd 8,instrumenta naviganda possunt fieri sine hominibus remigantibus1 ut naves maxim1 fluviales et marin1 ferantur unico homine regente1 majori velocitate quam si plen essent hominibus4444 ,item possunt fieri instrumenta volandi40--,de ,secretis1 c4 iv4 #efe 8,inventions and ,devices10 ,no4 #db1 fol4 #ca-b4 #eff ,csar1 ,de ,bell4 ,gall41 v4 #dc4 ,see also p4 #ij here4 #efg ,tacitus1 8,hist410 ii4 #ba4 #efh ,see p4 #bjb4 #efi ,see p4 #d4 #egj 8,das es dir den hals nit abstoss40 ,romocki1 i4 #ahi4 #ega ,romocki1 i4 #aib n4 #egb ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #aef4 ,whitehorne describes a similar fireball1 in which tow is used instead of cloth4 #egc ,jhns1 #haj4 #egd 8,ungefhr aus derselben ,zeit40 ,romocki1 i4 #ahi4 #ege ,valturio's plate is reproduced1 ib41 p4 #aic4 #egf 8,ye vester darynn gestozzen1 ye pesser40 ,berlin ,firebook1 in ib41 p4 #aib4 #egg 8,es waren eiserne ,kugeln von geringer ,cohrenz1 die1 mit1 ,pech und ,harz gefllt1 angezndet1 aus den ,mauerbrechern geschossen wurden4 ,beim ,aufschlagen zerschellten diese ,kugeln und die ,stcke1 von deren jedem eine heftige ,flamme emporloderte1 wurden umhergeschleudert4 ,das kleineste von ihnen konnte schwer verletzen1 weil das ,pech hinderte1 es abzuschtteln4 ,niemand vermochte vor diesem ,feuer auf den ,mauern zu bleiben40 ,bembo1 ,opera1 #aeef1 i4 #ae1 in ,jhns1 #haj4 #egh ,romocki1 ii4 #ba4 #egi 8,haec vocatur scientia experimentalis qu negligit argumenta1 quoniam non certificant1 quantumcunque sint fortia1 nisi simul adsit experientia conclusionis4444 ,sola experientia certificat hic1 et non argumentum40 ,opus ,tertium1 c4 #ac4 #ehj ,daniel's ,hist4 de la ,milice ,franaise1 #agbd1 i4 #bdj4 #eha ,major ,ralph ,adye1 ,r4,a41 8,the ,bombardier10 c41 #ahjb4 #ehb 8,annals10 c41 p4 #ehd1 for the year #aedc4 ,stow died in #afje4 ,the #ae mortar1 under ,firemaster ,thomas ,wright1 which accompanied a small force sent by ,cromwell in #afea to reduce the ,royalist castle of ,elizabeth in ,jersey1 may have been one of ,bawd and ,collet's4 ,between five and ten rounds were fired daily for several days without any damage to the piece1 although the carriage broke down completely on two occasions4 ,the range was #aedj yards1 and the shooting accurate4 ,the first round1 we may feel certain1 was laid with extreme care4 8,i proffered to lay a wager of ten pounds with ,captain ,dover10 says the ,firemaster1 8that my first shot should strike the ,castle1 444 and by ,god's providence it did strike one side of the great ,tower1 where the ,granado brake0 7i4e4 exploded74 ,the second shell 8brake verie kindly10 and for the third he 8altered 7the7 degrees of elevation40 ,captain ,dover may have paid his bet1 but the ,ordnance ,office forgot to remit ,wright's pay2 hence the 8,perfect ,narrative of the ,particular ,service performed by ,firemaster ,thomas ,wright10 c4 c41 #afea4 ,the word explode is not found before the seventeenth century--see ,dr4 ,murray's 8,new ,english ,dictionary0--and was sparingly used in ,wright's time4 #ehc 8,italus a ,parmensi ad ,foederatos perfugiens1 inauditam artem jactabat parandi vasa1 cavatosque e ferro aut lapide globos1 qui in obsessas urbes adigerentur1 impleti ejus natur materi1 ut simul ignem concepissent1 in innumeros quasi acinos dissilirent40 #ehd ,see the accounts of the bailiffs of ,st4 ,omer in #acdb1 in ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #gg4 #ehe ,ib41 p4 #adi4 #ehf ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #aeh4 #ehg ,whitehorne1 c4 #be4 #ehh ,portfires go back to about #agjj4 ,muller's 8,treatise on ,artillery10 p4 #bjb4 #ehi ,the battle of ,uddevalla in ,sweden1 #afgg1 was decided by armes blanches1 a prolonged storm of rain having put a stop to all firing4 ,crichton and ,wheaton's 8,scandinavia10 p4 #aji4 #eij ,pre ,amiot1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #ahc4 #eia ,hassan1 ib41 #cg4 #eib ,nye1 p4 #fh bis1 where it is called 8priming40 #eic 8,quickmatch10 in official 8,treat4 on ,ammunition10 p4 #dcj4 #eid ,muller's 8,treatise on ,artillery10 #agfh1 p4 #bjc4 #eie ,general ,sir ,howard ,douglas1 8,naval ,gunnery10 #ahfj1 p4 #deh4 ,sir ,charles ,douglas also introduced into his ship 7at his own expense7 the quill tubes he had invented for naval use1 and flannel cartridge cases which at that time were used 8for artillery cartridges of all sorts40 ,captain ,g4 ,smith1 8,univer4 ,mil4 ,dict410 #aggi2 8,laboratory40 #eif 8,artillery ,equipment10 ,colonel ,f4 ,miller1 ,v4,c41 ,r4,a1 ,pt4 ,,ii41 p4 #hd4 ,it is uncertain to what extent flint-locks were adopted for the ,artillery4 8,ammunition10 by ,sir ,v4 ,d4 ,majendie1 i4 #aib4 #eig 8,naval ,gunnery10 as before4 #eih ,the above facts are chiefly taken from the 8,treatise on ,ammunition10 by the late ,colonel ,sir ,v4 ,d4 ,majendie1 ,r4,a41 #ahfg2 and the work on 8,artillery ,equipment10 by the late ,colonel ,f4 ,miller1 ,v4,c41 ,r4,a4 #eii 8,elementary ,lectures on ,artillery10 by ,major ,c4 ,h4 ,owen and ,captain ,t4 ,l4 ,dames1 ,woolwich1 #ahfa4 #fjj ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #dd4 #fja 8,quand tu voudras attaquer ton adversaire1 mets le feu la rose10 ib41 #ch4 8,tu mets le feu aux roses et tu lances la marmite10 ib41 #dc4 #fjb 8,inventions and ,devices10 #aegh1 p4 #ci4 #fjc ,for instance3 8,adviserez que le trou d'icelle 7the shell7 soit du cost de la bouche dudit mortier40 ,modelles1 ,artifices du ,feu1 c41 #aeih1 p4 #afc4 #fjd ,as happened centuries afterwards with ,shrapnel's fuzes when cut 8short40 #fje 8,art of ,shooting in ,great ,ordnance10 p4 #ac4 #fjf ,ib41 pp4 #cj1 #ca4 #fjg ,among the stores detailed by ,firemaster ,t4 ,wright in his 8,perfect ,narrative10 c41 of his expedition to ,jersey1 #afea1 are found 8#ajjj ,fuzes for shels1 #fjj hand ,fuzes40 #fjh 8,invention die bishero noch nit ist gebraucht worden40 ,archeley1 #afba1 p4 #aai4 ,the ,spanish ,tratado de ,artillria1 #afac1 ,i have not seen and rely upon the ,french and ,german translations1 both by ,j4 ,t4 ,brey1 the former entitled ,artillerie1 c41 the latter ,archeley1 c4 ,either of them has been carelessly executed--perhaps both of them4 #fji 8,la bouche du tuyeau sur la poudre de la charge de la ditte pices40 ,artillerie1 p4 #aai4 #faj 8#aej schritt0--geometrical paces1 ,i presume3 #a geom4 pace #e ft4 #faa ,wachthaus4 ,the ,french translation has corps de garde4 #fab ,blom's ,kristian d4 ,,iv4's ,artilleri1 p4 #bgg4 #fac ,p4 #fc bis4 #fad ,pr4 ,lieut4 ,w4 ,ritter von ,breithaupt1 ,der ,entwicklungsgang und die darauf gegrndete ,systematik der ,znderwesens1 c41 #ahfh1 p4 #ah4 #fae 8,gegen das ,ende des #af ten ,jahrhunderts fiel man darauf1 ,granaten aus ,kanonen zu schiessen4 ,da aber die ersten ,versuche nicht mit gehriger ,vorsicht1 und berhaupt mit zu starker ,pulverladung angestellt wurden1 so misslangen sie1 und man behielt die sicherere ,art1 sie aus ,haubitzen zu werfen1 bei40 ,major ,c4 von ,decker1 ,geschichte des ,geschtzwesens1 c41 #ahbb1 p4 #gd4 #faf ,in firing against buildings1 8ist es nicht eben von nthen auf das ,tempo genau ,achtung zu geben40 ,mieth1 ,artill4 ,recent4 ,praxis1 ,leipsig1 #afhc1 lib4 iii4 c4 #cd4 #fag ,in firing against troops1 8the fuze must have such a length as 444 to set fire to the powder as soon as the shell touches the ground40 8,universal ,mil4 ,dict410 ,captain ,g4 ,smith1 ,r4,a41 #aggi2 8,laboratory40 #fah ,a ,chinese shell was thrown from the deck of one of our vessels into the sea1 ,i forget by whom1 in the attack on the ,peiho ,forts1 #ahfj4 #fai ,as was done more than once during the dynamite outrages in ,london some years ago4 #fbj ,at the siege of ,gloucester1 during the ,great ,rebellion1 a grenado fell near ,southgate2 8but a woman coming by with a pail of water1 threw the water thereon and extinguished the phuse thereof1 so that it brake not40 ,vicars' 8,jehovah ,jireh10 #afdf1 i4 #djb4 #fba 8,per tempus quo quispiam non festinanter ,symbolum ,apostolorum recitare possit10 p4 #agd4 ,watches were invented by ,huygens in #afgd1 and independently by ,hooke in #afge4 ,ball's 8,mathematical ,recreations10 #ahib1 p4 #baf4 #fbb ,zur ,geschichte der ,artillerie1 by ,hauptmann ,c4 ,schneider1 in ,oesterreichische ,mil4 ,zeitung1 ,wien1 #ahfc1 ,no4 #gi4 #fbc ,theoria et ,praxis ,artill41 ,nrnberg1 #afhb1 ,part ,,ii41 p4 #fb4 #fbd 8,brnde von ,holtz1 ,papier oder ,eisen10 ib4 #fbe 8,man das ,tempo entweder durch einen perpendicul oder nach einem perfecten und gewissen ,tacte erkundigen muss10 ib4 #fbf 8,das rechte ,tempo nun zu finden1 kan auf keine audere ,weise1 als aus den ersten ,wrffen erlernet werden40 ,artill4 ,recent4 ,praxis1 l4 iii41 c4 #cd1 p4 #de4 #fbg 8,treatise on ,artillery10 #agfh1 p4 #bjd4 #fbh ,ib41 p4 #bjc4 #fbi ,,ms4 letter kindly lent to me by ,col4 ,f4 ,whinyates1 late ,r4,h4,a4 #fcj ,gen4 ,piobert's notes1 communicated to ,prof4 ,turquem and ,capt4 ,fav1 the translators of ,gen4 ,c4 von ,decker's ,expriences sur les ,shrapnel1 ,paris1 #ahdg1 p4 #cbj4 #fca 8,ammunition10 by ,col4 ,sir ,v4 ,d4 ,majendie1 i4 #bce4 ,the ,prussians had a similar series of fuzes about the same time2 ,breithaupt1 ,der ,entwicklungsgang 444 der ,znderwesens1 p4 #ba4 ,on the #bast ,nov4 #ahjh1 ,shrapnel proposed to carry the bored fuzes in canvas bags painted different colours4 ,ord4 ,sel4 ,com41 8,shrapnel ,shell40 #fcb ,hasans er-,rammah in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #be4 ,this composition was called 8priming10 and belonged to the 8slow receipt0 family4 #fcc ,napoleon ,,iii41 iii4 #bge4 #fcd ,nye1 p4 #fc1 bis4 #fce ,spak's fversigt fver ,artilleriets ,uppkomst1 c41 p4 #aeg4 #fcf ,muller's 8,treatise on ,artillery10 #agfh1 p4 #bjc4 #fcg ,j4 ,g4 von ,hoyer's ,allgemeines ,wrterbuch1 ,tbingen1 #ahjd4 #fch #e fuze1 official 8,treatise on ,ammunition40 #fci ,beitrag zur ,gesch4 d4 ,artillerie1 ,haupt4 ,c4 ,schneider1 ,wien1 #ahfd4 #fdj ,see plate in ,romocki1 i4 #cdc4 #fda ,art4 ,mag4 ,artilleri1 c41 pt4 i4 bk4 #d1 c4 #c4 ,they were called 8blind shell0 because they gave out no light in their flight4 #fdb 8,wer ein wenig ,vernunft hat und nicht gar tumm ist1 wird klar sehen dass dieselbe ,invention einen sehr bald in die andere ,welt schicken kan40 ,artill4 ,recent4 ,prax41 c4 xi4 p4 #ac4 #fdc ,theor4 et ,praxis ,artill41 pt4 i4 p4 #fh4 #fdd 8,cutting the ,rigging10 ,proposition iii4 #fde ,,ms4 in ,royal ,library1 ,berlin1 q4 in ,romocki1 i4 #cdg4 #fdf ,cap4 #dh4 #fdg ,see his ,patent1 ,no4 #cjcb1 #aath ,april #ahjg4 #fdh ,we are told by ,mr4 ,greener that 8all the gunsmiths in ,england0 laid claim to the invention of the cap3 8,the ,gun and its ,development10 #crd ed41 #ahei1 p4 #aaj4 ,how many of them1 if any1 established their claim ,i do not know2 but it is absolutely certain that the notion of a copper cap struck ,colonel ,hawker in #ahah4 ,he gave a sketch of what he wanted to the celebrated ,joe ,manton1 who made him some caps and adapted a gun for their use4 8,instructions to ,young ,sportsmen10 by ,col4 ,peter ,hawker1 #aath ed41 #ahei1 p4 #gf4 #fdi ,the concussion fuze was set in action by the shock of discharge2 the percussion fuze by the shock of impact with the target4 #fej ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #ahj4 #fea ,marcus ,grcus1 recipe #cc4 #feb ,hassan er-,rammah in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bd4 #fec #a1 #b1 and #c oz4 rockets in ,nye1 p4 #hb4 #fed ,signal rocket1 official 8,treat4 on ,ammunition40 #fee ,hassan1 as above4 #fef ,official 8,treat4 on ,ammunition40 #feg ,hassan1 in ,reinaud and ,fav1 p4 #bg4 #feh ,kentish's 8,pyrotechnist's ,treasury10 #ahgh1 p4 #ahg1 ,no4 #ac4 ,,index ,abd ,allah ibn al-,baythar 7d4 #abdh71 #af ,abd ur-,razzak on ,bijanagar 7#adda71 #aae ,accent de ,sincrit1 #abf ,africanus1 ,sextus ,julius1 #dj ,agniastra1 #aje ,al-,bunduqani1 meaning of1 #ia ,alor1 taking of 7,a4,d4 #gab71 #ia ,amiot1 ,father1 on ,chinese powder1 #abh ,ammianus ,marcellinus on fire-arrows1 #cj ,anagram1 ,friar ,bacon's1 suggested solution of1 #aeg ,anna ,comnena1 ,princess1 on crossbows1 #dh ---- on sea-fire1 #dd ---- on siphons1 #dc ,antiquity1 ,chinese veneration for1 #abe ',arba 7,persian71 its double meaning1 #aad 8,arabian ,nights10 mention of astrolabe in1 #gh ---- mention of qaus bunduq in1 #ic-d ,arabic language1 general ignorance of1 in ,middle ,ages1 #hb ---- words in ,liber ,ignium1 #gg ,arangal1 siege of 7#acji71 #aai ,arderne's recipe for powder 7cir4 #acej71 #agg ,arquebuse1 original meaning of the word1 #ib ,arrows for muskets 7#aehh71 #bjj ,artillery1 original meaning of the word1 #g ,assos1 flower of the stone of1 #ag1 #aea ,assyrians1 early use of incendiaries by the1 #bi ,astrolabe ,asturlab ,usturlab1 origin of1 #gh ,astronomy1 ,chinese1 #aac1 #abf ,babar's projectiles1 size and price of1 #abb ,bacon's 7,friar7 charcoal1 #adi ---- mode of refining saltpetre1 #be1 #aea ---- recipe for gunpowder1 #aeg ,baghdad1 siege of 7,a4,d4 #hac71 #if ,baldwin ,i4 on ,byzantine defences1 #hd ,balls1 hot clay1 ,british and ,arabic1 #ij1 #bag ,barbour's 8,bruce10 mention of incendiaries in1 #ej ,bard 7,arabic71 successive meanings of1 #f ,baza1 siege of 7#acbe71 #ajj ,bengali gunners1 ,babar on1 #aba ,benjamin of ,tudela on ,byzantines1 twelfth century1 #ec ,bergen op ,zoom1 siege of 7#aehh71 #bbf ,beringuccio on iron round shot1 #bja ,berwick1 ,greek fire at 7#acai71 #ej ,bijanagur1 alleged use of cannon at 7#acfh71 #aac ,bilqan1 siege of 7#abef71 #bjc ,bitar taken by a single rocket 7#afeg71 #agb ,bokhara1 siege of 7#ajfg71 #if ,bombshells originally oblong1 #bch ,bourne's 8box0 for testing powder 7#aegh71 #aib ,bows1 cross-1 #dh ---- slur-1 #afh ---- stone-1 #ic ,boxer's 7,general ,e4 ,m47 wooden time-fuze 7#ahdi71 #bdc 8,brazen ,head10 legend of ,bacon's1 #afa ,breteuil1 ,greek fire at 7#acef71 #ea ,bristol1 fire-pikes at siege of1 7#afdc71 #afi ,bronze1 ,egyptian1 #agej ,b4,c41 analysis of1 #bjc ---- price of1 at various times1 #bjd ,bullets1 hot1 for small arms1 #bjb ,bunduq 7,arabic71successive meanings of1 #f ,calthrops crowsfeet1 #agj ,cannon1 invention of1 ascribed to the ,germans1 #ed ,cap1 percussion1 invention of 7#ahah71 #bde ,carcasses1 invention of 7#afgb71 #bbd ,carriages1 gun-1 field-1 introduction of 7#adfa-hc71 #aad ,cartridge-cases1 ,artillery1 flannel 7#aggj-hj71 #bcj ,cartridges1 ,infantry1 early composite 7#aeij71 #agi ,case1 early use of1 #bjh ---- ,zimmermann's1 #bab-ac ,casiri's translations1 #ii ,caxton on price of naphtha 7#adhj71 #ahg ,chalcocondyles on early cannon1 #ed ,charcoal1 hazel and willow wood for1 #fb1 #acg1 #adi ,charleston1 siege of1 #ahfc1 incendiaries at1 #di ,chen-tien-lui1 ,chinese projectile1 #acj1 #ach ,china1 early communication of1 with the west1 #acf ,chinese historical works1 #abd1 #abf ---- snow1 #ag ,chronoscope1 ,wheatstone's electro-magnetic 7#ahdj71 #aid ,combustion1 progressive1 #c ,compass1 ,mariner's1 #aab ,comte1 ,a41 on the invention of powder1 #aaa ,concussion fuze1 invention of ,english 7#ahej71 #bde ,conde's metaphor1 trueno con fuego1 #aja ,congreve1 on his rockets1 #age ,constantine ,,vii41 on sea-fire1 #cd1 #df ,copredy ,bridge1 action at 7#afdd71 #bjh ,corning 7graining7 powder1 first mention of 7#adbi71 #ahb ,cracker of ,marcus ,grcus1 #hg ---- of ,friar ,bacon1 #hg1 #aei ,creed1 ,apostles'1 used to measure time1 #bci ,cressy1 ,english guns at1 #g ,crusades1 no explosive used during the1 #ig ,crusoe's 7,robinson7 wildfire1 #eb ,cunningham1 ,general1 on decay of ,indian temples1 #aaa ,cuprum 7copper71 origin of word1 #hj ,dahir1 ,king of ,alor 7#gab71 #ia ,darts for cannon1 #aii ,delium1 siege of 7#dbd ,b4,c471 #ca ,dickson1 ,general ,sir ,a41 on port-fires1 #bcj ,discoveries1 accidental1 #afb ,douglas1 ,captain ,sir ,c41 ,r4,n41 inventions of1 #bcj ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 demands arrows for muskets 7#aehh71 #bjj ,dunnett1 ,sergeant ,d41 rockets at ,waterloo under1 #agf ,dunois' capture of ,pont ,audemer 7#addi71 #agc ,dutens on ,marcus ,grcus1 #hd ,encyclopdias1 ,chinese1 #abd ,espingarda1 meaning of1 #aag ,europeans in ,china in early times1 #ace ---- in ,india in early times1 #aad1 #aba ,existence1 the struggle for1 #ajh ,explosion1 meaning of1 #c ,famagusta1 ,greek fire at 7#aega71 #ea ,feringiha1 meaning of1 #aba ,firdusi1 mention of incendiaries by1 #if ,fire-arrows1 defects of1 #cj ---- early use of1 by ,greeks 7#dbi ,b4,c471 #bi ---- early use of1 in ,greece 7#dhj ,b4,c471 #ee ,fire-ships1 early use of 7#dac ,b4,c471 #ca ,firework1 an ,arabic and ,english1 #bdg ---- soft or slow1 as time-fuze1 #bcc ,flexible instruments1 ,byzantine1 meaning of1 #dh ,flint and steel as percussion fuze 7#aeif71 #bdd ,forsyth1 ,rev4 ,a41 applies fulminates to priming 7#ahjg71 #bde ,fother1 an ancient ,english weight1 #bjc ,fouling of serpentine powder1 #agi ,franks1 ,portuguese guns called1 by ,chinese 7#aebj71 #aci ,freeburn1 ,quartermaster1 ,r4,a41 invents concussion fuze 7#ahdf71 #bde ,friction tube invented by ,mr4 ,tozer 7#ahea71 #bca ,fulminates1 first use of1 in priming 7#ahjg71 #bde ,furtenbach's instrument for testing powder 7#afbg71 #aic ,fuze1 concussion1 first ,english 7#ahdf71 #bde ---- hand 7#afea71 #bcf ---- percussion1 earliest proposal of 7#aeif71 #bdd ---- ---- first ,english 7#ahej71 #bde ---- time1 ,boxer's wooden 7#ahdi71 #bdc ---- ---- calculated1 the phrase 7#aggi71 #baj ---- ---- early ,arabic1 #bca ---- ---- early ,danish1 #bcg ---- ---- early ,english 7#aedc71 #bce ---- ---- proposed adjustment of 7#aeif71 #bci ---- ---- length of early1 constant1 #bcg ---- ---- nineteen in ,english service 7#ahej71 #bdb ---- ---- short1 difficulties with1 #bda ---- ---- short1 ,shrapnel's mode of cutting1 #bdb ---- ---- ,shrapnel's1 rendered useless by damp 7#ahjg71 #bac ---- ---- ,ufano's experiments with 7cir4 #afjj-ac71 #bcf ,gama1 ,vasco da1 in ,calicut 7#adih71 #aag ,gauttier on al-,bunduqani1 #ib ,geber4 ,see ,jabir ,gentoo ,laws1 code of1 #aje ,gibbon on firearms in ,china1 #adj ---- on gunpowder1 #aaa ---- on ,jesuits in ,china1 #abf ,gibraltar1 hot shot at siege of 7#aggi-hc71 #bag ---- shell-fire from guns at1 #bji ,glazing gunpowder1 mentioned in #afhd1 #ahb ,golail1 a two-stringed long-bow1 #ic ,gold1 alchemical preparation of1 resembled that of saltpetre1 #aec 8,golden ,garlands10 an ,arabic firework1 #bdg ,grain1 influence of size of1 of gunpowder1 #aie ,gram1 the sword of ,sigurd1 #aje ,greek fire1 a ,crusader's term1 #di1 #gf ---- ---- composition of1 #ca ,greenhill1 ,professor1 on stability of projectiles1 #bae ,grenados1 spherical shell1 #bch ,guisarme1 meaning of1 #aag ,gun1 or gonne1 triple use of1 #g ---- pressure on bore of1 with different projectiles1 #bjf ---- nature of earliest missiles for1 #aii ---- flint-lock for1 invention of 7#aggh71 #bcj ,gun-carriages1 field1 introduced 7#adfa-hc71 #aad ,gun-metal1 composition of1 #bjc-d ---- price of1 #bjd ,gunpowder1 ,arderne's recipe for 7cir4 #acej71 #agg ---- ,friar ,bacon's recipe for 7cir4 #abdh71 #aeg1 #agg ---- ,chinese1 badly made1 #acd ---- composition of1 at various times1 #aig-ih ---- compressed1 #bbb ---- corned 7grained71 advantages of1 #ahb ---- ---- too strong for guns at first1 #ahc ---- damage to1 by damp1 #ahj ---- definition of1 adopted here1 #c ---- effects of invention of1 #aaa ---- fouling of serpentine 7ungrained71 #agi ---- ,french adopt one kind for all arms1 #aid ---- ingredients of1 carried separately at first1 #aha ---- invention of 7cir4 #abdh71 #afb ---- ,louis ,,xiv4's ,ordonnances about1 #aic ---- price of ,english1 at various times1 #ahd ---- ramming-home serpentine1 #aha ---- silent1 #aig ---- smokeless1 #aif ---- sulphurless1 #aif ---- tests of1 #aib-id ,gunstone-maker's wages in the sixteenth century1 #bje ,halhed on early ,indian firearms1 #aje ,hlle on time-fuzes and percussion shell 7#aeif71 #bci1 #bdd ,harquebuss1 see ,arquebuse ,hassan er-,rammah 7d4 #abie71 #ag ,havre1 experiments with naphtha at 7#ageh71 #di ,hawker1 ,colonel ,p41 invents percussion cap 7#ahah71 #bde ,heraclea1 siege of 7#hje71 #ia ,history1 ,chinese1 the ,jesuits on1 #abf ,homer1 no mention of incendiaries in1 #bi ,hookah 7,persian7 grenade or fire-pot1 #id1 #aag ,huo-p'u 7,chinese71 meanings of1 #f ,igor1 ,russian ,admiral1 defeated by ,greeks 7#ida71 #cd ,ikreekh 7,arabic71 for igniting shell1 #bca ,incendiary1 earliest1 consisted of sulphur and pitch1 #cj ---- meaning of word1 here1 #c ,index1 chemical1 to ,marcus' ,liber ,ignium1 #fh ,iron1 price of1 at various times1 #bjd ,jabir1 the true and the false1 #ad ,jesuits superintend gun-casting at ,peking 7#afah71 #adj ,jodhaimah possesses first ,arabic machines1 #ij ,joinville on ,arabic incendiaries1 #d1 #ih1 #ajb ,ka'aba1 burning of the 7#fhc71 #ij ,kallinikos1 the inventor of sea-fire 7#fgj-hj71 #cc ,kallisthenes in ,babylon 7#cca ,b4,c471 #hj ,khalid1 ,prince1 the first ,arab writer on incendiaries 7d4 #gjh71 #gb ,khubelai ,khan sends for western gunners 7#abgj71 #acc ,lateran ,council1 decree of1 against incendiaries 7#aaci71 #hh ,lead1 price of1 at various times1 #bjd ,leipsig1 battle of 7#ahac71 ,english rockets at1 #agf ,leo ,,vi4 on sea-fire1 #df ,leo's metaphor1 thunder and smoke1 #ch ,liber ,ignium of ,marcus ,grcus1 a composite work1 #hc 8,light of the ,moon10 ,arabic fixed light1 #bdf ,louis ,,xiv41 ,ordonnances of1 about powder1 #aic ,lys1 ,passage of 7#achb71 hand-grenades at1 #afi ,machine1 meaning of1 here1 #c ,maghribiha1 meaning of1 #aai ,mahmoud ,shah ,begurra of ,gujarat 7#adhb71 #aaf ,mangonals in ,china1 #acc ,manjnik 7,arabic7 machines1 #ij ,manu's 8,code of ,laws10 #ajf ,marcus ,grcus1 a mere name1 #hf ,marsh's percussion tube 7#ahca71 #bca ,masawyah 7,mesu71 ,arab physician1 #hd ,masudi on autumnal rains1 #gg ----- on qaus al-bunduq1 #ib ,match1 time-fuze called so by ,stow1 #bce ,mecca1 siege of 7,a4,d4 #fch71 #ij ,mercier1 ,captain1 #cith ,regiment1 proposes shell-fire from guns 7#aggi71 #bji ,mercury1 fulminate of1 first used in priming 7#ahjg71 #bde ,metaphors1 difficulties created by1 #d1 #aja ,meyer1 ,hauptmann1 on ,shrapnel shell1 #bad ,mieth on early percussion shell1 #bdd ,mills1 powder1 #ahg ,mithkal 7or ,miskal71 a ,persian weight1 #abb ,modhaffer ,shah of ,gujarat 7#aeaa71 #aah ,money1 ,english and ,french1 in fourteenth century1 #ahf ,mons ,meg1 materials for repairing1 #aci ,moorsom's 7,commander1 ,r4,n47 percussion fuze 7#ahej71 #bde ,mortar prouvette1 #aic ,moyria de ,maillac1 ,father1 on ,chinese historians1 #abf ,naphtha1 ,plutarch on1 #ci ,nassau1 ,graf4 ,johann von1 proposes a percussion shell 7#afaj71 #bdd ,navez's 7,captain7 electro-ballistic pendulum1 #aie ,nibla1 siege of 7#abeg71 #aja 8,nitipraksika0 on arms and armies1 #ajg ,norton1 time-fuzes called 8pypes0 by 7#afbh71 #bcg ,nye proposes mortar prouvette 7#afdg71 #aic ,oppert1 ,professor1 on early ,hindu gunpowder1 c41 #ajg ,orgue1 meaning of1 #bjg ,paris1 use of incendiaries in 7#ahgj71 #di ,pellet1 for bullet1 #ahc ,pendulum1 ballistic1 of ,robins1 #aid ---- electro--ballistic1 of ,navez1 #aie ---- for timing fuzes1 #bdj ,percussion powder1 earliest1 #bde ,persia1 late in adopting firearms1 #aaf ,peshawur1 battle near 7#ajjh71 #id ,petroleum mentioned in ,anglo-,saxon work 7cir4 ,a4,d4 #ijj71 #hb 8,piber til ,granater10 early ,danish time-fuzes1 #bcg ,pien-king1 siege of 7#abcb71 #acj ,pikes1 fire1 at the siege of ,bristol 7#afdc71 #afi ,placentia1 attack on 7,a4,d4 #fi71 #bag ,plata1 siege of 7#dbi ,b4,c471 #bi ,pont ,audemer1 taking of 7#addi71 #agc ,porcelain1 dates of1 forged by ,chinese1 #abe ,portfires 7cir4 #agjj71 #bbi ,pressure on bore1 comparative1 with different projectiles1 #bjf ---- gauge1 ,rodman's1 #aie ,printing press1 invention of1 #aac ,projectiles for cannon1 nature of earliest1 #aii ,pype1 early time-fuze called a1 #bcg ,quicklime1 ,pliny on1 #ci ,rain1 autumnal1 in ,liber ,ignium1 #gg ,ramming home serpentine powder1 on1 #aha ,rantambhor1 attacks on 7#abij and #acjj71 #aai ,ry1 ,professor1 on the ,sukraniti1 #aaj ,ribaudequin1 #bjg 8,richard ,cr-de-,lion10 metrical romance 7#abgb-acjg71 #ej ,robins' ballistic pendulum1 #aid ,rockets at ,leipsig 7#ahac71 #agf ---- ,chinese1 #ace ---- ,marcus ,grcus' 7rec4 #ac1 #cb1 #cc71 #fb1 #fg ---- ,tipu ,sultan's1 #agd ,rodman's pressure gauge1 #aie ,roman candles1 ,chinese1 #acb ---- ,marcus ,grcus' 7rec4 #ab71 #fa ,romerentin1 ,greek fire at 7#acef71 #ea ,rose 7,arabic71 for igniting shell1 #bca ,round1 one1 comparative cost of1 with different balls 7cir4 #acge71 #bje ,sal coctus1 #ac ---- ,indicus1 #ae ,salonika1 siege of 7#ijd71 #dj ,saltpetre1 approximate date of discovery of1 #bh ---- ,indian1 price of 7#aehj71 #ahg ---- modes of refining3-- ,hassan er-,rammah's1 #bd ,marcus ,grcus'1 #bc ,friar ,bacon's1 #be ,waltham ,abbey's1 #ah ,whitehorne's1 #bj ,sauverchala 7,sanskrit71 meaning of1 #af ,sea-fire1 composition of1 #da ---- unknown to ,westerns1 #da1 #hd ,seringapatam1 rockets at 7#agib1 #agii71 #agd ,shahnama1 mention of incendiaries in1 #if ,shatagni 7,sanskrit71 meaning of1 #aje ,shell1 common1 first use of1 #bbg ---- ---- number of pieces into which it broke1 #baj ,shell-fire from guns 7#aggi71 #bjh ,shot 7cannon71 hot 7#aegi71 #bag ,shrapnel's fuzes indifferent1 #bac-ad1 #bdb ---- mode of cutting short fuzes1 #bdb ,shrapnel shell1 experiments with 7#ahai71 #bdb ---- principles of1 #baa1 #bac ,siang-yang-fu1 siege of 7#abfi-gc71 #acc ,sieves for coming powder1 #aij ,silver1 fulminate of1 #bde ,sincrit1 ,accent de1 #abf ,siphon 7,greek71 meaning of1 #df ---- two kinds of1 #dc ,slur-bow1 #afh ,smith1 ,captain ,g41 ,r4,a41 on shell fire1 #bda ,sora 7,indian colloquial71 meaning of1 #af ,spanish words1 c41 in ,liber ,ignium1 #ha ,spell1 ,indian1 to ensure victory1 #ajg ,steganogram1 ,friar ,bacon's1 suggested solution of1 #aea ,stirling1 siege of 7#acjd71 ,greek fire at1 #ej ,stone1 best1 for round shot1 #bje ,stone-bow1 a golail1 #ic 8,stone which is not a stone10 #aea ,stow on shell 7#aedc71 #bbe ,strada1 ,father1 on bombshells1 #bbf ,struphnos1 ,admiral1 sale of naval stores by 7#abjj71 #ec 8,sukraniti10 recipe for powder in the1 #aji ,sulphurs1 several 7so-called71 in early times1 #hj ,talwood1 #agi ,tampions for musket-arrows 7#aehh71 #bjj ,tayif1 siege of 7,a4,d4 #fcj71 #ij ,tea in ,china and ,europe1 #aac ,tell1 ,william1 legend of1 #abg ,temples1 ,indian1 causes of decay of1 #aab ,testing powder4 ,see ,gunpowder ,theophanes on invention of sea-fire1 #cc ,toll1 ,hauptmann1 on ,shrapnel shell1 #bab ,tourbillion1 a firework1 #bdg ,tozer's friction-tube 7#ahec71 #bca ,train of powder to fire early guns1 #bbh ,translations1 specimens of1 #i ,trombes1 or tronckes1 #ea ,tubes1 friction 7#ahec71 #bca ---- percussion 7#ahca71 #bca ---- quill1 for navy 7cir4 #aggh71 #bcj ,tung-kian-kang-mu1 ,chinese ,encyclopdia1 #acj-ca ,uddevalla1 battle of 7#afgg71 #bbi ,ufano's experiments with fuzes 7cir4 #afjj71 #bcf ,valturios bronze shell 7#adfc71 #ach1 #bba ,wachtendonck1 siege of 7#aehh71 #bbg ,watches invented 7#afgd71 #bci ,weissenburg1 siege of 7#adfi71 #bbj ,wheatstone's electro-magnetic chronoscope1 #aid ,whitehorne on silent powder1 #aig ---- on serpentine and corned powder1 #ahc ,wildfire1 history of the word1 #ea ,words1 changes in the meaning of1 #f ,wright1 ,mr4 ,thomas1 on mariner's compass1 #aab ,xerxes' fire-archers1 #ee ,yavakshara 7,sanskrit71 meaning of1 #af ,yo 7,chinese71 successive meanings of1 #f ,yung ,loh1 ,chinese ,emperor 7#adjc71 #acc-cd ,yusuf ibn ,ismal al-,juni on saltpetre 7#acaa71 #ajc ,zarb-zan swivel gun1 ,babar's1 #aba ,zembaq 7,arabic71 doubtful meaning of1 #ha ,zimmermann's projectile 7#aegc71 #bab-ac ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 ,edinburgh ,london